V

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

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SOUTH CAROLINA.

RESOURCES AND POPULATION.

INSTITUTIONS AND INDUSTRIES.

PrBTJSHKD RY THE

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Governor HUGH S. THOMPSON, Chairman.

A. P. BUTLER, Coniniissioner.

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/ .OK, S.C.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PA^RT I.

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Location. Area : Maps. General Feati
Rivers. Regions. Agriculture : Small Grain, Rice, Indigo, Indian Corn, Cot
Sea Island Cotton, Remarks. Diagram op Crops, 1(j70 to 1880 pp. 1

CHAPTER II. COAST REGION. Location ; Area, CharacterLsties. Geolo
Subsidence, Erosion, Sedimentation, Formation of Islands, Topography. Physi
Features, Tides. Soils : Uplands. Bays, Salt-^NIarshes. Analyses : terror, Occurr-
of Marls, &c. Climate : Health. Statistics. Productions. Cotton : Three Kind
Seeds, Hyl^rids, Origin, Improvement, and Characteristics of Sea Isiand. Far:
Number, Value of Land. Labor : Tenures, Credits, Diagram, Enclosur«,>s, Draina'
Plows, Hoes, Fallows. Culture: Of Sea Island Cotton. Enemies: Of\ the Pla
Handling. Seed: Santees and ]Mains. Limits: Of Culture. Cosr' of Prodnctii
Yield, Itemized Statement of Expenditures pp. 14-

CHAPTER III. LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. Locatk
Physical— Features, Rivers, Lakelets, Elevation, Drainage, Irrigration, Freshet,.
Geology: Cretaceous, Buhrstone, Santee Marls, Ashley and Cooper Marls. Phos-
phates : Occurrence, Characters, Fossils, Changes, Origin, Extent. Mining. Soils :
Ui)lands, Analyses, Swamps. Growth. Climate : Health. Statistics. Productions :
Rice Culture, Oats, Grasses. Area: In Cotton. Farms: Labor, Wages, Rents. Value
of Land, Credits. Tillage: Fallowing, Rotation of Crops, ^Manures. C'otton : Culture,
Hai-^'5ng. Cost : Of Production. Disasters to the Plant. Abstract of Township Cor-
v -me pp. 4-I-7(>.

^TP:R IV. T'PPER PINE BELT. Location. Elevation: Water Courses-
r : Cretaceous, Miocene, and Eocene Marls, Buhrstone. Soils : Analyses. Pee
jc Lands, River Lands, Swamp Lands. Climate: Frost Diagram. Growth: Indian
Fires, Productions Statistics. Advances: To Farmers. Size of Farms. Laijor:
Wages, Rent, Value of Land. Table : Exhibiting Production in Relation to Credits,
Size of Farms, those Rented and those Worked by Owners. Enclosures: Drainage,
Fallows, Rotation, Tillage, Growth on Lands Lying Out, Manures. C'otton : Culture,
Handling. Ratio : Of Lint to Seed Cotton. Shipping. Grass, Lice, Rust. Cost : Of
Production. Ditto in 1848. Ab.stract ; Of Township Correspondence pp. 71-io;».

CHAPTER V. RED HILL REGION. Location. Geology: Sienna Colored
Clay, Gravel Bed, Buhrstone, Siliceous Rock. Soils: Analyses. Climate. Growth.
Statistics PP. llO-lKi.

\ CHAPTER VI. SAND HILL REGION. Position and Area: Elevation, Contour,
Diagram, Streams, Lakelets, Blowing Wells. Geology : Granite, Sandstone, Loose
Sand, Kaolin Clay. Soils : Analyses. Growth and Productions. Clbmate. Sta-

asTics I-PP. 117-120.

1

TAHLK OF CO .TKNTS. \

K VII. I'IKDMONT RKGION. Location, Name, Kluvatioiis. Fiill\
'atershods, Rivers, Table, Navigation, (teology : Triple Oeciirrence \
leiss, Hornblende, Mica Slate, Ores and Minerals, Talc Slate, Diauiondh
, Trap. GoD) Mines: Occurrence, Diagram, Golden Age, Silver, l.ead. Zinc,
'.ismntli, Iron, IJarytes, Manganese, (ilrai)hite, Felsi)ar. Asbestos, Soapstone,
'Urmaline, CVjriniduni, Zircons. Soils: Disintegration of Rocks. Soils: (iray
nalyses. Red Loams, Analyses, llornblendic, Analyses, Mica Slate, Clay Slate,
•i, Trappean, Analyses, Bottom Lands. Climatk: Temi>eratiire, Rainfall,
Malarial Line. (Jkowtii : Cane, Pines, Chestnut. PaonrcTioNs : Cattle, Hemp,
), Grapes, Bermuda (irass, Lucerne. St.atistics : Farm Values and Prodiu-tions
tion to Sy.steni of Agriculture, Table, Deductions Land Holdings, Provisions,
nces, Banks. Labor, Wages, Value of Lands, Rents. Tilla(;e : Rotation, Fallovv-
J)ld Fields, Manuring. Cotton Culture, Enemies Crab Grass. Ginning, Shipping,
of Production. Abstract of Townsliii) Correspondence pp. 12(1-182.

IAPTKR VIII. ALPINE RECilON. Location: Features, Great Fault, Water-
s, Mountain Knobs, Elevations, Aspect. Geology : Rocks, Ores, Minerals. Soils,
istics. Labor. Tillage. Cotton Culture. Ginning. Abstract of Township Corres-

ience pp. 183-195.

HAPTER IX. WATER POWERS. Sources of Information. Three Regions,
ysical Conditions, Climate, Rainfall. W.vter Courses, Table, Power Utilized, Table.
sTHon of Estimating Water Power. Summary of Powers, Notes. Affluents of the
vannah, Aggregate of Power, Employment of Water Power, Cost pp. liHi-208.

CHAPTER X. LIST (JF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOITH CAROLINA.
Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Bibliography pp. 209-264.

CHAPTER XL LIST OF THE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CARO-
LINA. Introductory: Insects, Bibliography, Spiders, Hundred-legs, Crabs. Worms,
Parasites, Cuttle-fish, Sn.vils, Mussels, Star-fish, Jelly-fish, Corals, Sponges,
Infusoria, Bibliography pp. 205-:5]l.

CHAPTER NIL LIST OF THE PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Flowering
Plants, with two seed leaves, with one seed leaf. Flowerless Plants, Horsetails,
Ferns, f'lub-mosses. Water-ferns. ]\Iosses. Lichens. Seaweed. ^lushrooms. Sum-
mary. Bibliography pp. 312 — 3:")9.

TABLES.

TABLE I. Meteorological Records from 17o2 to 188U.
TABLE II. Statistics of the Agricultural Regions of South Carolina, 1880.
TABLE III. Statistics of the Agricultural Regions of South Carolina, 1870.
TABLE IV. General Statistics of Agriculture in South Carolina, and in the United
States, from ISoO to 18(i0.

TABLE V. Agricultural Statistics of eacli Township of South Carolina, in ISMO.

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N. B. The data of Tables II., III., and V. may be localiz";d by reference to the Map

accompanying this Volume.

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t^A^LE OF CONTEJ^TS. Yli

PA^RT II.

CHAPTER I. POPULATION. Indians, Origin, Numbers, Synopsis of Nations and
Tribes, Survivors. Negroes, Introduction of. Numbers of Imported, Rate of Increase
from 1714 to 1790, from 1790 to 186.}, Increase of Free Negroes, Inctrease in Soutii Caro-
lina, 1810 to 1880, Compared with Other Populations, Intermixture, Females, Centres of
Population, Divergence of African and P^uropean. Distribution of Negro, Foreign, and
Aggregate Population according to Elevation, to Mean Annual Temperature, to Summer
Temperature, to AV'inter Temperature, to Highest Temperature, to Lowest Temperature,
to Rainfall. Distribution within the State, Chronologically. Diffusion. Eukopeans,
Chronology 1497 to 1783, Numbers, 1790 to 1880, Increase, 1790 to 1S80, Tables, Diagratn,
No Antagonism of Races, Prospect. Movement of Population, Population ^laps, 1790 to
1880, Tables. Foreigners. Sexes. Ages, Aggregate Years Lived, Ratio of Different Ages,
Tables, Military Age, Citizenship Age, Table. Dwellings and Families, Tables.

pp. 363-399.

CHAPTER II. VITAL STATISTICS. Mortuary Records, Comparison of Deaths
in South Carolina and in the United States, Diagram, Death Rate of Foreigners. Mar-
Ri.vGES : Table, Season. Births: Number, Table, Season, Plurality Births, Still Births.
Deaths: Table, 18.33-59, Months, Ages, Longevity, Causes of Death, Malarial Dis-
eases : Census of 1880, Mortality in the Different Regions of the State, Age, Sex,
Principal Diseases pp. 400-421.

CHAPTER III. INSTITUTIONS. Government and Laws of Soutli Carolina. Origin
of the name Carolina. Character and Nationalities of the Colonists, Government
under the Lords Proprietors. Locke's Constitution, the Royal Governors, Cont-titutions ol
1776 and 1790, Progress between the Revolutionary War and Secession. Leadinc; Prin
ciples of the Constitution, Declaration of Rights and Form of Government, Legislative
Department, Executive De]iartment, Judicial Department ; The Suffrage, Taxation,
Education ; The Militia, Marriage and Divorce, Amendments and Revision of the
Constitution. The .Statute Law, Crimes and Punishments, Murder, Rape and Arson,
Manslaughter, other Crimes and Misdemeanors. Law of Proi-erty, Public Instruc-
tion, Department op A(;kicultuue, Immigrants and Seamen, Gener,\l Re.marks,
Authorities consulted pp. 421-444.

(JHAPTER IV. A SKErCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

pp. 44.">-'549.

CHAPTER V. CHURCHES. Church of England, other Churches, Negro Churches,
Tables PP. oo0-5o6.

CHAPTER VI. OCCUPATIONS. Population Accounted for. Percentage of Wor'f-
ers, Increase. Sex, and Nativity, Changes of Occupation, Agriculture, Professional and
Personal Services, Trade and Transportation, Manufactures and Mining. The Insane :
Idiots, Blind, Deaf Mutes, Paupers, Prisoners Pp. •Vi7-.i72.

CHAPTER VII. MANUFACTURES. Compared with Agriculture, Retrospect,
Growth. Present Condition. Cotton Goods, Cotton Ginning. Fertilizers, Flour and
Grist Mills. Sawing Lumber, Turpentine, and other Manufactures. Mining : Phos-
phates, Kaolin, Granite, Fisheries PP- •'^7.3-610.

CHAPTER VIII. THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF TRANS-
PORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA PP- <ill-fi40.

vm

'J'AJJLK ()!<' ("ONTKN'l^fc!.

CHAPTER IX. DEBT AND TAXATION. Fiscal History, Jiunk of tlie State.
l.vTERNAi, Imi'kovkmkxts: Fixan'cial (Jonditiox, ]S')9-1S6H, 1871-2, 1882. Tahlk of
Deht axi) Taxation: 1S01-18S1. Fkdkual Taxation : Internal Revenue Customs:
Sunniuiry, three Plates PI>- ('>41-(5.5S.

CHAPTER X. TOWNS OF SOUTH (lAROLlNA. Retrospect, Table of Towns
and Trading Points; Bank Statement, 1841) to 1881. Coast Rkgiox : Port Royal, Beau-
fort, INIount Pleasant, (,'liarleston, Georgetown. Lower Pixe Belt : Hampton, Colleton,
Berkeley, Williamsburg:', Clarendon, Horry. Ui'per Pixe Belt: Barnwell, Orange-
burg, Sumter, Darlington, Marlboro, Marion. Red Hill and Sand Hills : Aiken,
Lexington, Richland, Columbia, Kershaw, Chesterfield. Piedmont Region : Abbeville,
Anderson, Chester, Fairfield, Greenville, Lancaster, Laurens, Newberr}^ Spartanburg,
Union, York. Alpine Recuon : Oconee, Pickens pp. 6o*.»-7]ii.

E R R A T A .

lOth page, last line, for ISOU read iSol).
11th page, 5tli line, for IS.'iO read 1860.
12th page, 4th line, for State read United States.
15th page, 3(ith line, for erosive read eroded.
22d page, 87th line, for being read was.
S2d page, 4th line, for 11.4 read 1.14.
lllm page, ;j7th line, for by read but.
112th page, 4th line, for literal read littoral.
lir)th page, 10th line, for included read unculti-
vated,
llilth page, 2i>;th line, for in read it.
122d page, 80th line, for said read sand.
124th page 18th line, for Piedmont read Alpine.
124th page, 2()th line, for truly read to rely.
124th page, 8ilth line, for herd read head.
lS2d page, 10th line, omit "and their gradual

.slopes on their northeastern face."
208th page, oth line, for 187(i read 1870.
214ih page, 14tli line, f(^r uctivagans read nocti-
, vagans.

Y^Sth page, ISth lino, for spring read spiny.
'L>4:!d page, 27th line, after Prof. Goodc insert
1 annually.

•i'Oth i)age, i:?th line, for Polaris read Polaris.
•-10th page, loth line, for ratarius read aratrarius.
240th page, 27th line, for Bollosoma read Koleo-

soma.
251st page, :id line, for Klcthari read Klephario.
2i')lst page, 15th line, for colsos read Colias.
25:M page, 4th line, for basis road bases.
'2.').8d page, ;{Olh line, for Himrhamphus road
Hemirhamphus.

2>lth page, 14th line, for of fishes read of otlier
fishes.

2.54th page, 22d line, for eyloid read cycloid.

254th page. 24ih line, for kell read well.

2»th page 24th line, for vertebrate read verte-
brae.

250th page, 12th line, for Sepidosteusread Lepid-
osteus.

318th page, 24t.h line, for copillina read copallina.

325th page, loth lino, for masculata read macu-
lata.

350th page, 3()th line, for Hooka's read Hooker's,

oft)th page, 5th line, for natives read nations.

;WOth page, 20th line, for counties read States.

oSlst page, 13th line, for ;i77 read 402.

380th page, (ith line, for eighty road seventy-
eight.

308th page, 2tith line, for Belquiver read Belgium.

406th page, 18th line, for 428 read 417.

40()th page, 24th line, for 277 read 2()0.

40()th page, 24th lino, for 0 read ,9.

413th page,'20th line, after mortality read from
this cause.

5(i8th page, 38th line, for B read P.

574th page, 2Ist line, for possesses read pos-
sessed.

578th page, 17lh line, for rcnumcration read re-
enumeration.

(Wist page. Kith line, for changes read charges.

()48t,h page, 1st line, read "years subsequently
was, in the hands," &c.

PART I.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE COUNTRY.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

LOCATION.

The State of South Carolina lies between North latitude 32° 4' 30^' and
35° 12' and longitude West from Washington 1° 30' and 6° 54\

AREA.

William Gerald De Brahm gave to the public, in 1757, the first Map of
South Carolina, estimating the area of the State at 33,760 square miles.
James Cook, in 1771, and Henry Mouzon, in 1775, published in London
excellent maps of the State, from which Drayton and Ramsay make the
area 24,080 square miles. Between 1816 and 1820 the State expended
$52,760 on a map of the State, under the direction of John Wilson ; this
map was published in 1822. The State spent $12,000 more for this pur-
pose in 1825, and obtained Robert Mills' large Atlas of South Carolina,
probabl}'^ the most accurate map of the State even to this day. Mills
estimates the area of the State at 30,213 square miles, The United States
Census of 1870 places it at 34,000 square miles, while the census of 1880
makes it 30,170. Thus, although geography may be held as one of the
exact sciences, it seems that these geographers, with no material changes
in the boundaries, vary in their estimates from twenty-six to thirty-
seven per cent. •

BOUNDARIES.

The State approaches in shape the form of an isosceles-triangle. The
equal sides being on the North, the boundary line of North Carolina, and
on the South and West, the Savannah river separating it from Creorgia.
The apex of the triangle rests upon the summits of the Blue Ridge moun-
tains. The base sweeping with a gentle s shaped curve from the south-
west to the northeast, forms part of the Atlantic shore line of North
America. This line is parallel, or nearly so, with about one-half the

4 INTRODUCTORY.

coast lines of the continents of the earth, as witness the northwest coast
lines of America, Europe and Africa, and the southeast coast lines of
South America, Africa and Asia.

GENERAL FEATURES.

Parallel also with this coast line trend the divisions between the various
geolo<>ical formations of the State. First, extending not more than ten miles
inland, we have the strata of the post pleiocene resting on the formations
of the eocene. These, with here and there a patch of the. meiocene and
cretaceous formations, stretch back into the interior about one hundred
miles, until they reach the crystalline rocks, whose well marked line has,
during the entire past history of the State, divided it socially, politically
and industrially, as well as physically, into M^hat has always been known
as the up-country and the low-country of Carolina. This division of the
State into up-country and low-country by the line bounding the .southern
margin of the crystalline rocks, and trending northeast and southwest
across its central portion, is strongly marked in everything, in the hills
and highlands of the up-countr}', with their heavy red clay soils, and in
the gentle slopes or Avide flats of lighter colored sandy loam of the low-
country, in the rapid, turbid water courses of the one, and the slow, clear
currents of the other; in the vegetable growth, the chestnut, the deciduous
oaks and the short leaf pine, occupying the up-country, and the long leaf
pine, the magnolia and the evergreen oaks, with the long gray moss,
marking the. low-country ; and lastly, in the manners, character, ancestry,
and even in the very tones of voice of the inhabitants. Passing beyond
the lower margin of the crystalline rocks and proceeding towards the
mountains, we find in all the various strata — in the order of their super-
position— one above the other, the limestones, the itacolumite, the clay
talc and mica slates, the gneiss and the granite — that the same parallel-
ism is maintained throughout, the prevailing strike in all being N. 20° to
30° E. if we regard tlie movements of the atmosphere, we find here also
that the predominating currents of the air move in a northeasterly and
southwesterly direction.

RIVERS.

Perpendicular to this direction — that is to say, in a southeasterly
course — the four great rivers, with their numerous tributaries that drain
and irrigate South Carolina, make their way from the mountains to the
.sea. Before leaving the crystalline rocks — the point that marks their
lower falls and the head of steam navigation — the rivers have received
the rapid currents of nearly all their aftluents. Thereafter their stately

INTKODUCTORY. O

flow proceeds more slowly, passing the great inland swamps of the low
country, as if the waters still remembered when they found issuances
through these ancient deltas. In the great freshet of 179(5, the waters
of the Santee river broke through at Hell-Hole swamp, and made their
way to the sea through Cooper river. During the same freshet, the
Savannah river made its way through the swamps of Hampton county,
and emptied its waters through Broad river into the sea at Port Royal.
As each river leaves the region of rocks to enter the borders of the low-
country, it makes a sudden and well-marked detour eastward, except the
Savannah, which seems to have had its bed shifted westward at this line
of demarcation. Thus, had the grooves cut through the ancient strata of
tlio crystalline rocks by these streams been prolonged among the sands
and clays of the low-country, their estuaries would have been quite
difierent from what they are at present. Had the line of the Savannah,
as it channeled its way ages ago through the mica, slate and gneiss rock
of Oconee, Anderson and Abbeville counties, not been thrown westward
by the granites of Horse creek and the high sand and clay hills of Aiken
county, it would have continued its course to Broad river, at present
that magnificent arm of the sea forming the head of Port Royal harbor.
Here it would have been joined, too, by the waters of the North and
South Edisto, had they not been deflected eastward by the granite rocks
and sand hills of Aiken and Orangeburg counties. Here, also, the
waters of the Santee, containing those of the Wateree and Congaree,
Avould have joined them, had they followed the line of the ancient
channel of the Catawba, their most easterly affluent, as it grooved its
way through talc slates and granites of Lancaster, York and Chester
counties. It would seem more appropriate that some great Father of
Waters, having these proportions, should have built up such a grand
delta as the islands, rivers, sounds and bays of Beaufort present, rather
than it were the sole and undisputed estuary of such insignificant
claimants as the rivers Tillifinny, Pocotaligo and Coosawhatchie,
preserving in their long names alone the memory of the noble river
that once must have found its way to the ocean here. Noting the
remarkable parallelism in this eastward deflection of nearly all the water
courses of Carolina, it would seem that one and the same cause must
have produced these changes. Such a cause would have been an
upheaving force — or forces, rather — operating from the southwest to the
northeast, in the line of the eruptive rocks that cross the State from
Edgefield to York counties. We may readily imagine how these
successive elevations running from the southwest, after turning the
Savannah into its present delta, pushed the other streams eastward,
dropping the different affluents as it passed along, leaving the Combahee

G INTRODUCTORY.

and Edisto at St. Helena sound, as the Tillifinny, Pocotaligo and
Coosawhatchie were left at Port Royal to mark the delta there, and losing
the Ashle}' and Cooper rivers at Charleston harbor, while the Santee,
moved further westward, still marks out its channel to the sea near
AVinyaw bay.

Again, on the near approach of the rivers to the sea, some of them
show a deflection westward. But the previously noticed parallelism does
not obtain in this case. In some, as in the Pee Dee, the westward bend
is well marked. In others, as in the Edisto, the river is merely turned
from an eastward to a south course, while the Santee seems scarcely at
all diverted from its eastwardly course. It would not seem, therefore,
that this change had resulted from the action of any single cause, but,
rather, that it was the resultant of opposing forces, operating with
varying intensities. Such forces would be found in the southeasterly
currents of the streams themselves, opposed by that southwesterly ocean
current — a recurrent of the Gulf Stream — that sweeps along the Carolina
coast. Where the river currents were strong, and loaded with a wealth
of detritus from the drainage of an extensive back country, it would hold
its own against the ocean current, dam it out and establish for itself the
direction of its outlet. Hence the Santee piles up its banks and carries
the shore line out beyond Cape St. Romain, and all the coast southwest
of it, the site of ancient and actual deltas, is lined with islands. Short
or sluggish streams, however, supported by the detritus of no great
water-shed — as the Waccamaw river — would yield readily to the action
of the ocean currents, conform to their direction, establish no nests of
islands at their deltas, but leave the sea to make a smooth, bare sand
beach. Such we find the curving shore from Georgetown entrance to the
North Carolina line to be, where, for twenty miles on a stretch, a carriage
may roll along the beach at low water, leaving in the hard sands not
the slightest impress of its wheels.

Crossing the crystalline rocks nearly at right angles, the waters, in
their course through the up-country, encounter a series of natural dams,
which, while it renders them easily available as water-powers, seriously
oljstructs navigation. The passage of boats, say of two hundred tons
burthen, as a rule, reaches inland but very little farther than the
remarkable belt of high and healthy sand hills which lie along the lower
borders of these rocks.

The tortuous course into which the streams have been forced by the
causes already stated, after entering the low country, while it has
increased the navigable waters of the State, giving, " apart from creeks
and inlets of the sea, an inland navigation of twenty-four hundred miles,"
has seriously impeded the drainage of the low country, creating there

INTRODUCTORY. 7

some fifty-five hundred square miles of swamp lands, which, though
naturally, when reclaimed, of almost inexhaustible fertility, remain to
this day for the most part waste, the prolific source of the miasms so
deleterious to the health of this region. Numerous suggestions to remedy
this evil have been made, but as yet nothing has been attempted on a
scale commensurate with the importance of the undertaking. The
Legislature even refused, in 1846, to grant a charter to a company
proposing to prolong the channel of the Edisto in a direct line through
Wassamassaw swamp to the Ashley river ; and a suggestion of a similar
character, for straightening the Santee through to the Cooper river, and
draining, thereby. Biggin, Fair Forest, Walleye, and the numerous
adjacent swamps, made by Governor Seabrook, in 1848, met with no
response. Such works would have reclaimed for the plow large bodies
of soil, consisting of fine mud and decomposing vegetable matter, resting,
"^t a depth of five to ten feet, on marl or gravel ; restored the adjoining
uplands to remunerative culture; and would have established on a
secure foundation the healthfulness of the entire region.

PHYSICAL AND AGRICULTURAL REGIONS.

In addition to the two grand divisions of South Carolina already dwelt
upon into the " up-country " and " low-country," it will facilitate the con-
sideration of the agricultural characteristics of the State to treat of them
under certain minor natural and parallel sub-divisions, which are quite
well marked. These are as follows :

I. 77(6 Coast Region, It coincides very nearly with the post pleiocene
formation, rareh' extending inland more than ten miles from the shore
line. It consists —

1st. Of the Sea Islands lying south of Santee river, and containing
about eight hundred square miles.

2d. The salt marshes, uncovered at low tide, bordering and intercalating
with the Sea Islands, capable of being reclaimed, and embracing six
hundred square miles.

3d. The continuous shore line. north of Santee river and Georgetown
entrance, three hundred square miles in extent.

II. The Lower Pine Belt or Savannah Region, lying inland and j)arallel ivith
the Coast Region. It has a width of about fifty miles, attains a maximum
elevation above the sea of one hundred and thirty feet. It may be
divided,

1st. Into the region below the influence of the tides, the rice fields of
South Carolina.

8 INTKODUCTORY.

2d. The rofj^ion above tide water, notable for its turpentine farms and
its cattle ranges.

III. The Upper Pine Belt or the Central Cotton Belt, having a width of twenty
to forty milefi. It is covered ivith a yronih of love/ leaf jrine, mixed, with oak and
hickory. The soil consists of a light sandy loam underlaid by red and
yellow clays. It has an elevation above the sea of from one hundred and
thirty to two hundred and fifty feet. Large inland swamps, bays and
river bottoms of unsurpassed fertility, covering five thousand five hundred
square miles, are interspersed among the two regions last named.

IV. The Bed Hills are immediately north of the last region. Tliey
have an elevation of three hundred to six hundred feet above the sea.
The soil is red clay and sand, and there is a heavy growth of oak and
hickory. They embrace the range of-hills extending from Aiken county'
through Orangeburg to Sumter, where they are known as the High Hills
of Santee, and also the ridge lands of Edgefield, famous for their fertility.

V. The iSand Hill Begion. A remarkable chain of sand hills, attaining
an elevation above the sea of six hundred to seven hundred feet, and
extending across the State from Aiken to Chesterfield counties.

VI. The Piedmont Begion includes that portion of the State known as
the upper country. It has a mean elevation above the sea level of four
hundred to eight hundred feet. Its soils are —

1st. The cold gray lands overlying for the most part the clay slates.
2d. The gray sandy soils from the decomposition of granite and gneiss.
3d. The red hornblende lands.

4th. The trappean soils, known as flat woods meadow or black-jack
lands in various sections.

VII. The Alpine Begion is the extreme northwestern extension of the
rocks and soils of the region just mentioned, differing from the former by
its more broken and mountainous character, and by its greater elevation,
ranging from nine hundred feet to three thousand four hundred and
thirty feet at Mount Pinnacle, near Pickens C. H., the highest point in
the State.

AGRICrULTURAL RETROSPECT.

The first permanent settlers established themselves on the sea-coast of
South Carolina in 1()70. Bringing with them the traditions of a hus-
bandry that must have been very rude at a i)eriod so long ante-dating the

INTRODUCTORY. 9

Tullian era of culture, and adapted solely to the requirements of
colder latitudes, they met with such poor success in the cultivation of
Euroi)ean cereals that they soon found it would be more profitable to em-
})loy themselves in collecting and exporting the products of the great for-
ests that surrounded them. In return for the necessaries of life, they ex-
ported to the mother country and her colonies, oranges, tar, turpentine,
rosin, masts, potashes, cedar, cypress and pine lumber, walnut timber,
staves, shingles, canes, deer and beaver skins, etc. It is interesting to re-
mark in tlie accomjDanying diagram, that after being more or less in
abeyajice during a period of two hundred years, amid the. fluctuations of
other great staple crops, these forest industries seemed, in 1870, about to
assume their ancient supremacy once more. With the settlement of the
up-country the culture of small grain became more successful ; and when
Joseph Kershaw established his large flouring mills near Camden, in 1760,
flour of excellent quality was produced in such abundance as to become
an article of export of considerable consequence. In 1802, flouring mills
had proven so profitable that quite a number were established in the
counties of Laurens, Greenville and elsewhere. About that time, how-
ever, the attractions of the cotton crop became so great as to divert atten-
tion from every other, and the cereals lost ground, until the low j)rices of
cotton prevailing between 1840 and 1850 prej^ared the way for a greater
diversity of agricultural industries, and the small grain crop of 1850 ex-
ceeded four million bushels. Since then cereal crops have declined, and
seem likely to do so, unless the promise held out by the recent introduc-
tion of the red rust proof oat should be fulfilled and restore them to
prominence.

In 1 093, Landgrave Thomas Smith — of whose d'escendants more than five
hundred were living in the State in 1808 (a number doubtless largely in-
creased since), moved perchance by a prophetic sense of the fitness that
the father of such a numerous progeny should provide for the support of
an extensive population — introduced the culture of rice into South Caro-
lina. The seed came from the island of Madagascar, in a vessel that put
into Charleston harbor in distress. This proved a great success, and as
early as 1754, the colony, besides supplying an abundance of rice for its
own use, exported one hundred and four thousand six hundred and
'eighty two barrels. Great improvements were made in the grain by a
careful selection of the seed. Water culture was introduced in 1784, by
Gideon Dupont and General Pinckney, rendering its production less de-
pendent on the labor of man or beast than any cultivated crop. In 1778,
Mr. Lucas established on the Santee river the first water power mill ever
adapted to cleaning and preparing rice for market — the model to which
all subsequent improvements were due — diminishing the cost of this pro-

10 INTRODUCTORY.

cess'to a degree incalculable without some standard of reference as to the
value of human labor, on which the drudgery of this toil had rested for
ages. In 1828, one hundred and seventy-five thousand and nineteen
tierces were exported, and the crop of 1850 exceeded two hundred and
fifty thousand tierces, that of 18()0 was something less, and in 1870 the
product tumbled headlong to fifty-four thousand tierces.

INDIGO.

In 1742, George Lucas, governor of Antigua, sent the first seeds of the
indigo plant to Carolina, to his daughter, Miss Eliza Lucas (afterwards the
mother of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney). With much perseverance,
after several disappointments, she succeeded in growing the plant and ex-
tracting the indigo from it. Parliament shortly after placed a bounty on
the production of indigo in British |)Ossessions and this crop attained a
rapid development in Carolina. In 1754, two hundred and sixteen thou-
sand nine hundred and twenty-four pounds and in 1775, one million
one hundred and seven thousand six hundred and sixty pounds were
produced. But the war with the mother country, the competition of in-
digo culture in the East Indies, the unpleasant odor emitted and the
swarms of flies attracted by the fermentation of the weeds in the vats, but
above all the absorbing interest in tlie cotton crop, caused the rapid de-
cline of its culture, and in the early part of this century it had ceased to
be a staple product, although it was cultivated in remote places as late as
1848.

* INDIAN CORN.

Indian corn, the grain which, " next to rice, supplies food to the largest
number of the human race, * * the most valuable gift of the new
world to the old," as a plant unknown to European culture, and in ill
repute as the food of the ever hostile red man, received little attention
from the early settlers. Nevertheless, with the steadiness that marks true
merit, it worked its way to the front rank among the crops grown in the
State. As early as 1739 it had become an important article of export and
continued such until after 1792, in which year ninety-nine thousand
nine hundred and eighty-five bushels were exported. About this time,
in consequence of the absor})tion by cotton of all surplus energy, it fell
from the list of exports and shortly after entered tliat of imports, on
which to-day — taken in all its forms — it stands the largest. But its cul-
ture was )>y no means abandoned ; on the contrary, the crop grew in size
with the increase of the population. In 18^0, more than sixteen millions

• INTRODUCTORY. 11

of bushels were produced. In 1857, Dr. Parker made, near Columbia, the
largest crop per acre ever obtained anywhere ; from two acres he gath-
ered three hundred and fifty-nine bushels, and one acre gave two hun-
dred bushels and twelve quarts. In consequence of the higher prices of
cotton the corn crop was reduced in l&fio by one million of bushels ; in
1870 it had gone down one half, having fallen to seven and a half
million bushels.

-i r r-

COTTON. r ^''-t-

Cotton is mentioned in the records of the colony as early as 1664, and
in 1747, seven bags appear on the list of exports from Charleston. In
1787, Samuel Maverick, and one Jeffrey, shipped three bags of one hun-
dred pounds each of seed cotton from Charleston to England as an ex-
periment, and were informed for their pains by the consignee, that it was
not worth producing, as it could not be separated from the seed. In 1790
a manufactory of cotton homespuns was established by some Irish, in
Williamsburg county, the lint used being picked from the seed by hand,
a task of four pounds of lint per week being required of the field laborers
in addition to their ordinary work. All this speedily changed with the
invention of the saw gin by Eli Whitney, in 1794. The first gin moved
by water power was erected on Mill Creek, near Monticello, in Fairfield,
by Capt. James Kincaid, in 1795. Gen. Wade Hampton erected another
near Columbia, in 1797, and the following year gathered from six hundred
acres, six hundred bales of cotton, and cotton planting became soon after the
leading industry in nearly every county in the State. The crop steadily
increased in size until 1860, when the three hundred and fifty thousand
bales produced in the State were worth something over fourteen millions
of dollars. From this date to 1870 there was a great decline, the crop of
that year being more than one-third less than the crop of ten years pre-
vious, and reaching only two hundred and twenty-four thousand five
hundred bales.

TABLE,

Showing the Production of Cotton in South Carolina froni 1830 to 1880:

Years. ^fJ^^H^ Ve%1ft! Lbs. Lint Cotton.

1830
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880

185,166 X 341 = 63,446,606

156,600 X 394 = 61,710,274

300,301 X 429 = 128,829,129

353,412 X 477 = 168,577,524

224,500 X 442 = 90,229,600

516,490 X 475 =-245,486,305

1 2 INTRODUCTORY. •

SEA ISLAND COTTON.

The first crop of sea island cotton was raised on Hilton Head,, in 1790,
by William Elliott. This crop reached its year of maximum production
in 1827, when 15,140,798 pounds of long staple cotton was exported from
the State ; in 1841 it had fallen to 6,400,000 pounds. Since 1850 this crop
has fluctuated from a minimum in 1867 of 4,577 bales to a maximum in
1872 of 13,150 bales.

Even in so brief a summary as this, the attention of the reader must be
called to the remarkable influence exerted on the three great crops of
corn, cotton and rice, by their culture on the South Carolina coast.

The finest, as food for man, of all the known varieties of corn is the
white flint corn, peculiar to the sea islands.

The finest cotton ever produced is the long staple cotton of Edisto
island, which has sold for $2 per pound, when other cottons were bring-
ing only nine cents.

Carolina rice heads the list in the quotations of that article in all the
markets of the world. Not only has its yield and culture been brought
to the highest perfection here, but mankind are indebted to the planters
of this coast for the mechanical inventions by which the preparation of
this great food stuff, instead of being the most costly and laborious, is
made one of the easiest and cheapest.

DIAGRAM

13

Slioiinng the relative importance and fluctuations of the staple crops cultivated
in South Carolina from 1670 to 1880. The money value
of each crop is estimated for the year of its maximum pro-
duction anterior to 1880, and a point assigned it above tlie
line A B. From this point the distance of the line of each
crop above the line A' B is dctei-mined by the amount jyro-
duced tnthout regard to prices.

1 -H — M — X — K — K — K — X Upland Cotton.

2 Corn

3 Sea Island Cotton

5 Indigo.

6 r-H-t-H-i— i-t-H-i— i-HH-hH-H Forest Products.

7 ^-J — I — I I I I > ' Small Grain.

I

}

CH^F»TER II.

THE COAST REGION.

LOCATION AND AREA.

The coast of Carolina, from the mouth of the Savannah river to that of
Little river, on the North Carolina line, is about one hundred and ninety
miles in length. East of the outlet of the rivers, that is northeast of
Winyaw Bay, the coast line curves inland, there are no islands, and the
smooth hard beach (noted for its delightful seaside residences during the
summer months) that forms the continuous shore line, is of little interest
agriculturally. South of Winyaw Bay, whence issue the waters of Black
and Lynch's rivers, and of the Great and Little Pee Dee, with the Wac-
camaw, the Santee river, with its great watershed in North and South
Carolina, draining an extensive region stretching to the highest eleva-
tions of the Apalachian range, dikes its delta out into the ocean, and the
shore line swelling seaward becomes lined with numerous islands. From
this point to Charleston Harbor the islands, though numerous, are small
and low, and in this distance of more than fifty miles not more than seven
hundred acres are planted in cotton, yielding about two hundred and
seventy-five bales of long staple. South of Charleston Harbor the islands
increase rapidly in size and number to the waters of Port Royal, where
they line the shore in tiers three and four deep. They attain their maxi-
mum development around Broad river, and diminish again in size and
.number more rapidly even than they had increased, as they approach
the Georgia line at the mouth of Savannah river. The Sea Islands are
; separated from the mainland by numerous salt water rivers, creeks and
inlets of the sea.

GEOLOGY.

The coast region corresponds almost exactly with the post-pleiocene for-
■mation. Its strata of sand, clay and mud, have an estimated thickness of
about sixty feet, stretching inland some ten miles and thinning out at a
slight elevation above tide water. They rest in Horry and Georgetown
on the pleiocene, and for the remainder of the coast, on the eocene, in
which occur the phosphate deposits of the Ashley, the Cooper and the
Coosaw rivers.

THE COAST REGION. • 15

The origin and formation of the sea islands may be accounted for by
one of four possible suppositions.

1st. By a subsidence of the coast resulting in the submergence of the
lower lands. This explanation was offered by Sir Charles Lyell, and
recently by Professor G. H. Cook, wjho believes that the whole Atlantic
seaboard is sinking.

2d. By the elevation of the sea bottom. This theory has not been
maintained by any one and need not be considered.

3d. By the erosive action of the tides and currents of the sea, cutting
into the shore line and detaching, as it w^ere, portions of the mainland. A
theory of Professor Shaler.

4th. By an outgrow^th of the land into the sea, resulting from the dei)0-
sition at the mouths of the rivers of the detritus- brought down by their
currents from the interior.

Mr. Tuomey shows in detail that the instances of the submergence of
oak, pine and cypress trees, and other landmarks, adduced as evidence
of subsidence of the coast, occur in localities of restricted area. That the
lands immediately adjacent show no signs of participation in this move-
ment, which they would do if the cause were so general a one as the sub-
sidence of the coast. That encroachments of the sea of a purely local
character after storms explain the phenomena. And lastly, that if it were
admitted that the submerged live oak and pine stumps near Little River,
or the dead cedars and cypress of the " Church Flats," on Wadmalaw
island, were evidence of a subsidence of the coast, the rate at which it is
progressing, according to this datti, is so rapid that on this low lying
shore, sea w^ater would long since have been admitted to the rice planta-
tions, totally destroying them, and that St. ;Michaers Church, the orna-
ment of Charleston, would now be a geological ;nonument of the greatest
interest, with its tall spire only protruding above the waves.

If the sea islands resulted from the erosive action of ocean currents, we
should expect to find them most numerous in localities where the erosive
action is most manifest. Such a locality is the recess of Long bay, hol-
lowed out by the action of the sea, between Winyaw bay, the outlet of the
great rivers of South Carolina and the outlet of the rivers of North Caro-
lina at Cape Fear. So far is this from being the case, however, that there
is not a single island on this incurving line of erosive coast. On the con-
trary, it is only when the land bellies out into the sea near where the
great rivers deliver their detritus to its waves that the seii islands make
their appearance.

At this point, namely, at Georgetown entrance, we look in vain for
evidence of erosion. The records all point the other way, to a gradual
encroachment of the land upon the sea. Thus, in the year 17U0, the

IG THE COAST REGION.

" Rising Sun," a large vessel, with three hundred and forty -six passengers,
that could not cross the Charleston bar, made its way without a pilot to
the present site of Georgetown, a thing utterly impossible during the last
one hundred years. Moreover, a comparison of the soundings on Chart
No. 428, of U. S. Coast Survey of 1877, with a Chart of the same locality,
published in Drayton's View of Soutli Carolina, in 1802, shows that, instead
of any scouring out or erosion, there has been a great filling up in the
interval. Seaward from Georgetown Light House, Drayton gives depths
of 9 feet to 30 feet, where Captain Boutelle only found 0| feet to 19 feet
of water. Inside the entrance, where the water once was 30 to 36 feet, the
mean level of low tide now only gives a depth of 9 to 31 feet. Ten sound-
ings taken off South Island average now 7| feet, while ten soundings in
the same locality on Drayton's Chart average 18 feet.

It would seem, then, according to the fourth and remaining hypothesis,
that the Sea Islands were an outgrowth of the mainland into the sea.
And that this is but a continuation of tlie process by which the tertiary
plain, stretching back to the feet of the ancient and lofty Apalachian
chain, was itself formed. The broadest portion of this plain lies under'
the loftiest and broadest vestiges of this mountain chain, whose denuda-
tion furnished the most abundant material. Northward, under lesser
elevations, which could only furnish less material, the tertiary plain
gradually wedges out and the sea approaches the mountains. The slow
uniformity of this long process of growth is further shown by the gentle
and uniform slope with which this plain approaches the sea. Nor does
it end abruptly there. For one hundred miles or more the sea scarcely
exceeds one hundred fathoms, until it suddenly deepens to two thousand
fathoms under the gulf stream. The sea islands are not isolated phe-
nomena peculiar to this period. In the interior the intricate network of
swamps and bays corresponding with the present inlets, creeks and rivers
of the coast, represent the old channels and deltas through which the
waters flowed, when the pine fiats and ridges, still resting in the meshes
of this network, were themselves veritable sea islands.

Prof Toumey refers to Murphy's island, south of South Santee inlet, as
furnishing a typical illustration of the manner in Avhich this occurs. A
bar is formed at the mouth of the river by the action of the ocean.
" Breakers make their appearance seaward, and gradually push forward
the sand as they approach the shore. When the sand rises above the
surface, the water becomes too shallow to produce breakers ; they disap-
pear, and commence again off the shore, and further south. An eddy is
formed between the sandbar and the shore, in which the river deposits
its sediment. From an eddy it is changed, first into a lagoon, and then
into a mudflat, which increases until the level of high water is reached.

THE COAST REGION. 17

It tlien becomes a marsh and is taken possession of by the marsli reed, to
be succeeded, when the debris collected by their growth has raised the
locality above high water, by tufts of rushes. Meanwhile seaward, the
sands, first pushed up against the outflowing current of the river by the
ocean, are dried by the sun, and then blown forward and heaped into
hills and ridges, forming a protection against the encroachments of the
waters whence they came. Every breeze blowing landward carries along
with it particles of fine sand, till they meet with a log or bush, or other
obstacle, when they begin to accumulate in proportion to the velocity of
the wind, sometimes with extraordinary rapidity — piling up and running
over the top, rising in ridges and hills to the height of thirty or even of
forty feet. The prevailing winds of this region, the southwest and north-
east, are indicated by valleys running in this direction through these
hills."

In the manner thus described, the salt water of the ocean being ex-
cluded, the surgent island is prepared for the growth of fresli water
plants, such as the cypress and other swamp trees, while pines and pal-
mettoes, the advance guard of the vegetable kingdom, establish outposts
wherever a few inches of intervening sand renders them safe from im-
mediate contact with sea water.

This theory will also account for certain topographical features observed
on these islands and in their vicinity. The highest land is usually found
on the margin of the island. A fact which, viewed in connection with
the general observation that the banks of streams are higher than the
adjacent alluvial lands, strongly sustains the vieAV of their deposition from
river currents. The prevailing shape of the islands is triangular. The
apex is directed southwest, often terminating in marshes, while the higher
and dryer base faces northeast. From Mr. Tuomey's observations, it
appears that it is the sandbar on the northeast that first rises above the
waves, remaining the most elevated, while the growth proceeds in a south-
westerly direction. This southwardly growth results from a deflection of
the river current that is transporting the material of which the island is
to be formed. Whether this deflection toward the right (or the southwest)
be due, as Prof. Kerr thinks, to a force arising from the earth's rotation,
which deflects all moving bodies to the right in the northern hemisphere,
or to the prevailing south westwardly current along these shores, or to
both, it is certain that such a deflection clearly exists. Seaward it may
be clearly noted in the charts of the coast survey in the depositions now
taking place at the mouths of the rivers. The ship channels are always
found to the south of the harbors. Inland, the south and southwest bend
of the rivers has been already mentioned ; and coupled with it is the
observation made long since by Mr. Ruffin, that the blufts are on the west
2

18 THE COAST REGION.

and the swamps are on the east banks of these streams, or as it would be
stated from observations on the sea islands, the short slopes face north
and cast, and the long slopes south and west. The contours of the slopes
throughout the tertiary plain conform generally to tliis rule, and may
be accounted for in this way.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

In approaching the coast from the sea about the time the white caps of
the first breakers are seen, a long, low line of smooth, hard, sandy beach,
for the most part of a snowy whiteness, makes its appearance. Immedi-
ately inland from the beach swell the undulating ridges of blowing sand,
ripple-marked by the action of the wind, in striking similarity to the
wave marks of water.

Here the palmetto meets you, standing often solitary and alone, a con-
sjDicuous landmark in the picture. Beyond rise the dark green turrets of
the pine, beneath which a tangled growth of myrtles and vines is found.
Sometimes more than one ridge of sand hills, with an average elevation of
ten or fifteen feet, must be traversed before the borders of the salt marsh are
reached. The salt marshes, their stiff, green reeds rising out of the black
ooze visible at low tide, and at the flow apparently floating on the water,
with here and there a stray palmetto or a group of under-sized live oaks,
their limbs covered with the long, gray moss, form the scarcely varying
framework of all landscapes among the sea islands. Everywhere these
marshes are penetrated by salt rivers and creeks of greater or less width
and depth, and surround islands varying from a few acres to many square
miles in area. These islands attain a height of ten to fifteen feet — rarely
of twenty-five or thirty — above high tide. The mean rise and fall of the
tides is 6.9 ft. at the mouth of the Savannah river ; 6.7 ft. at Port Royal ;
5.1 ft. at Charleston harbor, and 3.5 ft. at Georgetown entrance, showing
a marked diminution as you advance northeast algng the coast. The
influence of the tide extends to a distance of thirty miles in a direct line
from the sea, up the Savannah river, and about fifteen miles up the San-
tee. Salt water, however, usually ascends the Santee river only about
two miles, and even when the current of the river is diminished in seasons
of great drought, not more than four miles. Up Georgetown bay it
reaches farther, and is sometimes injurious to the crops at a distance of
fourteen miles. What has been said of the Santee in regard to fresh and
salt water, is true to nearly the same extent of the Savannah river.

SOIL

The soil of the sea island consists, for the most part, of a fine, sandy
loam. This soil rests on a subsoil of yellow sand or yellow clay, of fine

THE COAST REGION. 19

texture and deepening in color, sometimes to red. These clays give a yel-
low hue to the otherwise gray surface, which is noticed by Mr. Seabrook
as indicating lands peculiarly adapted for the production of the silky
fibre of long staple cotton. Besides these soils there are numerous flats, or
fresh water swamps, known as bays ; here and there a few of these have
been reclaimed by drainage ; the soil is a black vegetable mould of great
fertility, resting on fine blue clay and marl. To a very limited extent
the salt marsh has also been reclaimed, but as yet agriculture has availed
itself so little of the vast possibilities in this line, that the chief value of
the salt marsh attaches to its use in furnishing forage and litter for stock
and inexhaustible material for the compost heap. Low as these lands lie,
they are susceptible of drainage. The following analyses will indicate
more in detail the character of the soils :

(1)

Insoluble matter 89.368

Soluble silica 2.062

Potash 0.131

Soda 0.077

Lime 0.077

Magnesia 0.038

Br. ox. manganese 0.154

Per oxide iron 0.598

Alumina 3.051

Phosphoric acid 0.163

Sulphuric acid 0.154

Water and organic matter 4.789

Carbonic acid.

(1) Is soil from northeast end of James island, furnished by Elias Riv-
ers, Esq., for analysis, to Dr. Eugene A. Smith, of Tuscaloosa, Ala., and
may be taken as a specimen of the less sandy soils of the sea islands.
Such land will yield three hundred pounds of long staple lint one year
Math another.

(2) Is by Prof. C. U. Shepard, of Charleston, of soil from Mr. J. J. Mi-
kell's place on Edisto island, famous for having long and profitably pro-
duced the finest grade of sea island cotton, and may be considered as a
representative soil.

(3) Is also by Prof. C. U. Shepard, being an analysis of an air-dry speci-
men of salt marsh.

These analyses will serve to correct serious errors in statements as to
the poverty of sea islands, made by J. B. Lyman and J. R. Sypher, in a

m

(3)

92.480

58.110

0.425

0.328

i

0.200

0.190
1.476

0.892

0.420

trace

0.317

}

2.490

1.860
1.131

0.095

0.062

0.070

0.422

2.928

44.865

0.420

0.840

20 THE COAST REGION.

work on cotton culture, publislicd by Orange Judd & Co., New York. It
is stated tliere (page 129) tliat a chemical analysis discloses the fact that
the soil on an acre of sea island cotton land, taken to the depth of one
foot, contains only fifteen pounds of phosphoric acid and twenty pounds
of potash. By the above analyses, however, we find an average of more
than one-tenth of one per'ccnt. of phosphoric acid, and one-sixteenth of
one per cent, of potash'. Allowing a cubic foot of earth to weigh one liun-
dred pounds, we w'ould have on an acre to the depth of one foot four mil-
lion, three hundred and fifty-six thousand pounds, of which one-tenth pf
one per cent, would be four thousand, three hundred and fifty-six pounds,
showing nearly two long tons of phosphoric acid instead of fifteen pounds
to the acre. The potash, by the same calculation, would amount to five
thousand and fifty pounds instead of twenty pounds to the acre. Thus, in
the place of being barren for lack of these ingredients, each acre of the sea
islands possess an amount which, if rendered available to plant growth,
w^ould suffice for the production of over eight million, six hundred and
eighty thousand pounds of lint cotton, as they do not, by Jackson's and Shep-
ard's analyses, constitute the one-twentieth of one per cent, of cotton fibre.
Basides, the salt marsh materials for maintaining and developing the fer-
tility of the soil abound throughout the coast region. There are numer-
ous deposits of post pleiocene marl on the islands, as at Daton's swamp,
Johnson's island, Stono creek, Edisto island, James Seabrook's island,
Distant island, near Beaufort, and elsewhere. The banks of " raccoon
oyster " .shells, peculiar to this latitude, are found in abundance on
this coast and furnish excellent and easily accessible stores of lime.
These shells are also used for concrete for walls, known as tabby
work. The walls of forts several centuries old attesting its dura-
bility. Roads and streets are also made smooth and hard by their use.
Here, also, in the Stono, Edisto, Coosaw, Bull, Morgan, Johnson's, Beau-
fort and Broad rivers, and in other creeks and marshes, is found, and
largely exported as a fertilizer to foreign lands, the phosphate rock. Ex-
periments have also demonstrated that the fish, so numerous in these
waters, may be caught and used for manures.

CLIMATE.

Notwithstanding their proximity to the mainland, the sea islands
enjoy in a high degree the equable climate peculiar to islands generally.
The extremes of temperature are, as might be expected, greatest in the
direction of low temperature, and the cold, which is sometimes injurious
to the orange and olive trees, destroys, also, the germs of many insects, as
of the cotton caterpillar, inimical to vegetation; and of more importance

THE COAST REGION. 21

still, it destroys the germs of disease, as of yellow fever and of numerous
skin diseases that flourish in similar regions elsewhere, preventing them
from becoming indigenous, and keeping them exotics forever, recjuiring
3'^early renewal from without.

Table I, at the end of Part I, presents the leading features of tlie coast
climate, as preserved in the records of meteorological oljscrvations made
at Charleston, S. C.

Notwithstanding the amount of rainfall and proximity to the sea, the
climate is not excessively moist, as might be inferred. This is owing to
the large number of clear days, averaging about two hundred and tliirty-
five during the year, against an average of eighty-six days in which rain
fell, and forty-four cloudy and rainless days. Fogs are of very infrequent
occurrence. Vegetation is usually checked by cold for not more than six
weeks in the year, from the middle of December to the first of February.
Nature, that does not allow the inhabitants of higher latitudes to become
purely agricultural in their pursuits, forcing them, during the snows and
ice of winter, to seek occupation in other arts and industries, here bares
her bosom the year round to furnish food and work for man, and seed
time and harvest occur in every month.

HEALTH.

By the U. S. Census for 1870, it appears that the minimum number of
deaths in South Carolina occur during the month of October. After that
month the number steadily increases during winter and spring, until the
month of May, when the maximum number of deaths take place. From
this date the mortality diminishes, more rapidly than it has increased,
until the minimum in October is reached. By the same authority it
is also shown that the groups of diseases most fatal during the month of
May are such as hydrocephalous, apoplexy, accidents and injuries, none
which can in any way be considered as due to climatic or local influences.
From this it follows that death, and, consequently, ill health, in South
Carolina cannot be attributed to the preponderance of any climatic or
local causes, but supervene from such causes as may and must exist
everywhere. The correctness of this negative conclusion may be safely
accepted as descriptive of the sanitary condition of the State at large.
There has been, however, and not Avithout some foundation, an idea
prevalent regarding the unhealthfulness of the coast region from malarial
causes, which requires mention, especially as occurrences of recent date
have greatly modified it. While the sand ridges between the rivers have
always been esteemed healthy ; while the w^ll-kept vital statistics of the
city of Charleston show that its health record will compare favorably

99

THE COAST REGION.

with tliat of other cities; and while inimerous locahtics alon<2^ the coast,
as Mount Plcapant, Sullivan's island, and Beaufort, and many other
places were much frequented as health resorts during the summer
months, even by people from the up-couiltry, it was confidently predicted,
at tlie commencement of the late war, that no picket line along the coast
betAvecn the armies could be maintained during the sunmier months.
To the surjjrise of nearly every one, however, such did not prove to be
the case. Climatic influences interfered in no way Avitli the vigorous
prosecution of hostilities. And it was demonstrated that large Ixxlies of
white men, under proper hygienic regulations, with the use of quinine as
a preventive, might be safely counted on to endure unusual exposure and
toil on these shores during the heat of summer. Since the war numerous
white families, who formerly removed to the North or to the up-country
during summer, have remained upon their farms the year round in the
enjoj-ment of their usual health. By the census enumeration of June,
1880, the death rate among the rural population of the entire sea island
district was fourteen per one thousand for the preceding year. Of the
twenty-three, white men who were enumerators of the tenth cen&us on
the sea islands, during the months of June and July, 1880, there was no
day lost from work on account of sickness, though many of them Avere
unaccustomed to the exposures which the work necessitated. Doubtless
the prophylactic use of cpiinine has had something to do with the
apparently increased healthfulness of this section, but it is also true thai
the danger to health was formerly greatly overestimated. With thorough
drainage and careful attention to the rules of health, and especially to
securing pure drinking water, there is no question that fevers might be
expelled here as completely as they were from the fens of Cambridgeshire,
in England, where they once prevailed, but have since yielded to
the above methods. During the excessively hot and dry summer of
1728, "yellow fever" made its first appearance in Charleston. At greater
or less intervals of time it has since visited the city during the summer
months. After 1748 it did not make its appearance during a period of
forty-four years. John Drayton writes, in 1801, "to the natives and long
inha])itants of the city it has not yet been injurious." The germs of this
disease have never been naturalized on this coast, and reipiire a fresh
importation every year. An epidemic occurring in Charleston during the
war being clearly traced to a vessel from Havana, that had run the block-
ade, and, as Mr. Drayton describes it, this disease still remains restricted
to certain localities, within a few miles of which perfect immunity from
it may be enjoyed. This was clearly shown in the very fatal epidemic
imported into Port Royal in 1877, causing a number of deaths there,
while no case originated in the town of Beaufort, four miles distant, to

THE COAST REGION.

23

which place, however, patients suffering from the disease in Port Royal
were carried for treatment.

The following table is from the reports of the Board of Health, and
shows the number of deaths occurring in each one thousand of tlie
population of the city of Charleston :

1881

1880

1870

1878

1877

AVERAGE.

Whites

21)
47

22
41

23
40

23
41

25
50

9S

Negroes

4(3

Total

40

33

32

38

37

34

The figures for 1880 show fifty per cent, more deatlis than were
reported by the enumerators of the tenth U. S. Census. Of 1,621 deaths
in 1881, Gl, or nearly 4 per cent, were of persons over 80 years of age.

STATISTICS. .

The population of the coast region, exclusive of the towns of Beaufort,
Charleston and Georgetown, is 67,132. Of this number, 83 per cent, are
colored, being the largest percentage in any region of the State, the
proportion of the colored to the white population decreasing in each
successive region as 3'ou go inland, until it is only 27 per cent, in the
mountain region. This percentage has decreased on the coast since 1870,
appearing in the census of that year as 00 per cent., a difference of 7 per
cent. The population per square mile is 30.4, which, in spite of the
large amount of marsh land, is the largest of any region in the State, the
ratio varying elsewhere from 11.7 in the sand hills, to 37.8 in the upper
country or region of the metamorphic rocks.

The farms are 5,847 in number, and average 3.4 per square mile, which
is the largest average of any of the regions of the State except that of the
upper country, which is 3.7 per square mile ; but excluding the six
hundred *|uare miles of m^rsli on the coast, no similar tract of waste land
being found in the upper country, the ratio of farms to area is much greater
on the coast than elsewhere. This is not the case with the ratio of farms to
population, which here reaches a minimum of eight-hundredths of a
farm per capita, or twelve and one-half people to the farm, while in the
sand hills it reaches fourteen-hundredths of a farm per capita, or seven
people to the farm. This shows that here the population is in excess
even of the small farms ; and there being no other occupation, except,

24 THE COAST REGION.

perhaps, p)hosphatc mining, in wliicli they may be employed, it follows
that a large number must earn a living as farm laborers or live without
employment, both of which conclusions are correct.

The work stock numbers 7,692 animals, being eleven-hundredths of an
animal per capita, which is more than the ratio in the lower pine belt,
but less than that of the other regions. The work stock per square
mile is 4.5, being greater than in any other i-egion, except in the upper
pine belt and Piedmont regions.

The product of r/rain, including corn, small grain and rice, is 793,669
bushels, being 11 bushels per capita, the minimum found in any region
of the State. Per square mile, the average is 466 bushels, which
compares favorably with an average of 501 bushels for the whole State,
especially when the salt marshes are allowed for. This is an increase on
the crop of 1870, which was only stated at 389,720 bushels, or 229 bushels
per square mile, and 18 bushels per capita, the latter figure being much
diminished by the larger population returns of 1880.

The total of all stock, including work stock, is 43,946, averaging 25.8 per
square mile against an average of 57.1 for the whole State, and 0.65 per
capita, being a little less than half the average of the whole State, which
is 1.27. This is an increase since 1870, the average then being 9.4 per
square mile, and 0.70 per capita.

The acreage of improved land is 106,772, being 62 acres per square mile,
not quite one-tenth of the total area, and 1.5 acres per capita, as against an
average of 3.8 acres per capita for the whole State. The bulk of this
land is planted in corn, cotton, small grain and rice, there being only
9,552 acres in other crops and fallow ; a large part of the latter being,
doubtless, the cotton lands left fallow by the best jjlanters each alternate
year.

PRODUCTIONS.

The olive and orange tree bring their fruit to full perfection on the
South Carolina coast. Once only during a period of sixteen years pre-
vious to 1880 were the orange trees injured by frost, when the tops of
about one-fourth were killed, while the roots put out fresh shoots ; the
fruit from single trees in the neighborhood of Beaufort has for a series of
years sold for $150 to $250. The oranges of this region bring a higher
price in the market and are thought superior to those grown further
south. Even tlK^ l>anaiui, with a not expensive winter protection, has
hecn made to ripen its fruit. Fig trees of every variety, with little or no
attention, grow everywhere and produce several abuntlant crops yearly ;
so that could some process similar to the Alden process for drying fruit

THE COAST REGION. 25

be adapted to them, they might become an important staple of export.
Every variety of garden produce does well, as witness the extensive truck
gardens on Charleston Neck, which furnish large supplies of fruits and
vegetables of the finest quality to distant markets. The wild grapes,
which attracted the notice of the first French colonists in 1562, still
abound, and perhaps the largest grape vine in the world is one eighteen
inches in diameter, near Sheldon Church, Beaufort County. Hay made
of Bermuda grasses, ranking in the market with the best imported hay, has
been profitably grown. Five acres at the Atlantic farm have, for a series
of years, yielded nine thousand pounds per acre yearly, and on the Stono
farm two tons one year, and four and a half another, has been made to
the acre. Winter vetches grow wild, and the vine of the cow pea fur-
nishes an abundant forage, besides increasing the fertility of the soil. The
red rust proof oat, recently introduced, is peculiarly adapted to the mild
winters of this region, yielding readily, and with great certainty, thirty to
fifty bushels per acre. Should an increase of the population call for a
larger food supply, the sweet potato would furnish it to an extent prac-
tically unlimited. Indigo, rice, hemp, beans, peanuts, the castor oil bean,
the sugar cane, and many other sub-tropical fruits and vegetables, too nu-
merous to catalogue here, have been successfully cultivated as field crops.
Indian corn, of the white flint variety, yields in the coast counties a little
more per acre than the average yield of the same crop throughout the
State. Nevertheless, only a very limited attention is bestowed on the
culture of any of these articles, the leading crop, to the exclusion or
dwarfing of all others, being

LONG STAPLE COTTON.

In every handful of ordinary cotton seed, three varieties, presenting
well marked differences, may be recognized at a glance. The largest of
these is covered with a green down ; another, smaller and much more
numerous seed, is covered, with a white or grayish down ; the third variety
is naked, smooth and black. Whether these three sorts of seed corres-
pond to three classes under which the numerous varieties of cotton are
arranged, that is, the green seed with gossypium hirsutum or shrub
cotton, attaining a height of ten or twelve feet, a native of Mexico, and
varying as an annual, biennial or perennial, according to the climate in
which it is grown ; the white seed, with gossypium herbaceum, or
herbaceous cotton, an annual, attaining a height of two feet, native of the
Coromandeb coast and the Nilgeherries ; the black seed, with gossypium
arboreum, or tree cotton, a native of the Indian Peninsular, but attaining
a height of one hundred feet on the Guinea coast, and producing a silky

26 THE COAST REGION.

cotton, it may not be possible to say. The black seed, however, is not
(listin<i;uislKMl from the seed of the long staple or sea island cotton. If
selected from among the other varieties of iii)land cotton seed, it will in a
series of years produce a finer, silkier and stronger fibre than ordinary
uplands. If the best and purest sea island cotton seed be planted in the
neighborhood of the upland or short staple cotton they will readily
hybridize. Among the numerous varieties of hybrids thus produced,
there will prominently appear a vigorous plant, with a very large green
seed. The staple of these green seed plants varies greatly, in some in-
stances being very short and coarse, in others longer and finer even than
the best sea island. The most marked characteristic, however, of these
hybrids will be the size and vigor of the plants, the size of the seed
and the very small amount of lint they 3'ield. A noticeable feature,
too, is the large number of vigorous, growing, but unfruitful, plants that
these green seed hybrids produce, their large, glossy leaves showing above
the other plants, but bearing the season through neither bud or blossom.
Possibly such plants merely resume the biennial character of the tree or
the shrub cotton and would be fruitful the second season.

Were it in place here to offer a theory, these characteristics of this
green seed hybrid might be adduced as evidc^ice of a reversion to the
original type of the allied species which Darwin refers to, as a frequent
occurrence among hybrids produced between remoter and more dissimilar
varieties.

ORIGIN OF LONG STAPLE COTTON.

It would be a matter of much interest to determine the origin and his-
tory of the varieties of cotton now in cultivation. The difficulties of doing
this are much increased by the very wide geographical range occupied by
the plant. The earliest explorers, Columbus, Magellan, Drake, Capt.
Cook, and others, seem to have found it almost everywhere in the broad
belt extending from the equator to 30° S. and to 40° and 45° N. latitude,
where it now grows. Although it is not found among those oldest of vest-
ments, the wrappings of Egyptian mummies, its use was known to man in
Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the outlying islands of the sea, in
the remote past, far beyond the historic age. Its very name itself bears
evidence to this, occurring as it does in many, and in the mo.st ancient
languages. Thus through the Dutch ketoen, Italian cotone, Spanish al-
godon, we pass to the Greek kiton, turned wrong side out in the Latin tunic,
to the Arabic katan, the Syriac kethene, the Samaritan kitana, the Sanscrit
katan, the Hebrew kuttoneth (Gen. xxxvii : 23, 31), the Ethiopic kethan,
the Chaldee kethan ; and Gesenius conducts us to a most ancient and
obsolete Semetic root, kathan, signifying to cover. Nevertheless nothing

THE COAST REGION. 27

can show more clearly the importance of tracino- and nnderstanding the
histcrv of plants under cultivation than the variations and improvements
in black seed cotton since its introduction on the Carolina coast. It is
known that the first bale of long- staple cotton exported from America, in
1788, was grown on St. Simon's island, Georgia. That this bale was
grown by a Mr. Bissell, from seed that came from either the Bahama or
the Barba^loes islands. Singularly enough the authorities leave this mat-
ter in doubt — the Hon. Wm. Elliott saving it came from Anguilla, one of
the Bahamas, and Signor Filippo Partatori (Florence, 18G6) saying it
came from Cat island, one of the Barbadoes. But as Anguilla is one of
the Barbadoes, and Cat island one of the Bahamas, it would seem diflicult
to decide to which group of islands Ave are indebted for these seed. How-
ever, as Mr. Thomas Spalding, of Sapelo island, says in a letter to Gov-
ernor Seabrook, in 1844, that three parcels of long staple cotton seed were
brought to a gentleman in Georgia, from the Bahamas, in 1785 and 178G,
it would seem that the seed reached our coast from those islands. In the
Bahamas it was called gossypium barbadense, in consequence doubtless of
being brought from Barbadoes. In the latter island it was known as
Persian cotton (Edward's West Indies, vol. iv.,p. 363) and was thought to
have come from that country where it was originally derived from the
gossypyum arboreum of India. Be this as it may, Mrs. Kinsey Burden, of
Burden's island, Colleton county, S. C, obtained some of these seeds from
Georgia and planted them. This crop failed to mature, and the first suc-
cessful crop of long staple cotton grown in South Carolina was planted in
1790, by William Elliott, on the northwest corner of Hilton Head, on the
exactspot where Jean Ribault landed the finst colonists and erected a column
of stone, claiming the territory for France a century before the English
settled on the coast. Mr. Elliott's crop sold for lOid. per pound. Other
planters made use of this seed, but it was not until Kinsey Burden, Sr.,of
Colleton county, began his selections of seed, about the year 1805, that at-
tention was strongly called to the long staple. Mr. Burden sold his crop
of that year for twenty-five cents per pound more than did any of his
neighbors. He continued to make selections of seed and to improve his
staple, and in 1825 he sold a crop of sixty bales at $1.16 per pound. The
year subsequent his crop sold for $1.25, and in 1828, he sold two
bales of extra fine cotton at $2.00 per pound, a price not often exceeded
since. The legislature was on the point of offering Mr. Burden $200,000
for his method of improving the staple of cotton, and Mr. Wm. Seabrook,
of Edisto, was prepared to pay him $50,000 for his secret, when it was
discovered that the fine cotton was due wholly to improvements made in
the seed by careful and skillful selections. Since then the greatest care
has been bestowed upon the selection of the seed, and to sucli perfection

28 THE COAST REGION.

was the staple brought by this means, that the crops of some planters
were sold, not by sample, but by the brand on the bale, as the finest
wines are. During the war the cultivation of the finest varieties being
abandoned on the islands, the seed removed to the interior greatly dete-
riorated in quality. So scarce, on this account, was good seed directly
after the war, that J. T. Dill, a cotton merchant in Charleston, at one
time had in an ordinary letter envelope the seed from which all the bet-
ter qualities of long, staple cultivated now was derived. Nor have the
improvements made by careful selection of the seed ceased in later years.
The staple has kept fully up to the best grades of former days, and the
proportion of lint to seed cotton has been increased. Formerly one pound
of lint cotton from five pounds of seed cotton of the fine varieties was con-
sidered satisfactory. Thanks to the efforts of Mr. E. M. Clark, a fine va-
riety of cotton has been recently found, which yields one pound of lint to
three and one-half pounds of seed cotton, preserving at the same time the
strength, length and evenness of fibre characteristic of the best varieties.

APPEARANCE OF THE PLANT.

The sea island cotton plant is a larger and more vigorous grower than
the upland plant. It withstands the vicissitudes of the heat and cold
better, and it is less subject to disease ; blight and rust do not afi'ect it as
readily as they do the upland cotton, nor does it shed its forms and bolls
to anything like the same extent. These remarks as co rust apply also
to those varieties of uplands in which the length of the staple has been
improA'ed b}-^ selection of the seed, and rows of this are often seen healthy
and vigorous, while the short staple uplands around are withered with
the rust. The early growth of the sea island is so vigorous, that it main-
tains itself in fields infested with Bermuda and nut grass, as the uplands
could not do. The leaves are larger, smoother, and of a brighter green
than uplands, and the flowers are larger, handsomer, and of a more
golden yellow. But the bolls are smaller, and instead of being five-lobed
are only three-lobed — these lobes being so sharp pointed as to prick the
fingers, to the Serious inconvenience of pickers not accustomed to gather
it. Of course the small size of the bolls requiring so many to make a
pound, adds much to the tediousness and expense of harvesting the crop.
The fibre of tJie lint is much finer, stronger, smoother and silkier than
uplands; and while tlie latter is only ^ to f inches in length, the sea
island will measure 1^ to 2^ inches; the color, too, has a cast of creamy
yellowness not observed in uplands.

THE COAST REGION. 29

LABOR AND SYSTEM OF PLANTING.

On the sea islands of Carolina, field labor is performed almost exclu-
sively by negroes. Nearh^ all of them are engaged in farming on their
OM^n account ; a large number own farms; a still larger number rent lands
for cultivation, and even the laborers are paid most generally by granting
them the use of so many acres of land for certain stipulated services.
The total number of farms on the islands is stated to be fifty-four hundred
and fifty-three, but the number probably exceeds six thousand, the enu-
merators having had the lands and crops cultivated by renters returned
by the landowner, and consolidating them as being in some sort under
one management, when they were, in reality, entirely independent — an
error ever likely to occur, and sometimes quite difficult to avoid, and
which has no doubt caused the number of farms to be underestimated
and their size overestimated in manv sections of the South. The largest
number of acres of sea island cotton planted under one management
nowhere exceeds one hundred acres. • The white planters do not proba-
bly average more than thirty acres, and this necessitates that they
should be landlords of considerable estate. For as the laborers are fre-
(juently given five to seven acres for tw^o days' work in the week, and as
this two days' work per week does not suffice for the cultivation of more
than four acres, to cultivate thirty acres of cotton under this system
requires seventy-five acres of land; add to this the amount usually
planted in corn and other crops, and we will have one hundred and
twenty acres. As under the best system the land lies fallow every other
year, the planter of thirty acres of cotton will require two hundred and
forty acres of open land ; and as scarcely one-fifth of the land is under
cultivation, such a planter will probably own some twelve hundred acres.
Thus there is no proportion between the size of the farm actually culti-
vated and the land holdings — the first being quite small and the last
large. This state of things is owing to absence of capital and the low
price of land and labor. Lands which were worth $50 to $60 an acre
more than half a century ago (Mill's Statistics S. C, pp. 372 and 472), and
which had increased in value down to 1860, being until recently either
w^holh^ unsaleable or selling at $10 per acre or less.

WAGES.

On .James island, which at this time is perhaps under a more progres-
sive system of culture than the other sea islands, laborers are paid cash for
their work, at the rate of fifty cents per diem and $10 per month, with

30 THE COAST REGION.

Ijoard— tlio latter boin,": a ration of tlirce pounds of bacon and one peck
of o-rist a week, with shelter and fuel. The soil and the condition of the
laborers is reported as improving, and cash -wages are considered prefer-
able to the share, or the land system of payment. Arable land rents
here at $2 an acre per annum. The i)rice of land is from $15 to $80 an
acre. A few laborers own their houses, but very few own any farming
land.

On John's island, cash wages are from $8 to $10 a month, with board.
Most of the laborers, however, are engaged for two days' work a week by
allowing them a house, fuel, and six to seven acres of land free of rent.
The report is that the system is not satisfactory. The lands worked by
the landlords are improving; that worked by the laborers on their own
account is deteriorating rapidly. The labor is not so easily controlled as
when cash wages are paid. The lands vary greatly in- price — prices
ranging from $2.50 to $20 per acre, with some lands valued recently still
higher. Kent is higher tlian on James' Island, in consequence of a sys-
tem tliat increases the demand by multiplying small farmers, and it is
^about $3 per acre per annum.

On Edisto island, the two days' system prevails. The laborer gives
the landlord two days' work in every week during ten months of the year,
and receives in return a house, fuel, and six acres of arable land, which,
together with such other land as he may rent, he cultivates on his own
accovmt during the remainder of the wcQk. When extra work is required
on the farm, these laboring tenants are employed at fifty cents by the day.
The system is reported as being quite unsatisfactory, these two days
hands not cultivating more than two acres as an average for the pro-
prietor, and burdening his estate with the support of a much larger
po})ulation than necessary to its cultivation. By means of this, however,
a large amount of resident labor is secured on the place, which is of prime
importance during the cotton-picking season. The laborers themselves
prefer this system, having four days out of the week for themselves, they
are more independent, and can make any day they choose a holiday. As
a rule, they are comfortably off, and about seven per cent, are reported as
owning homes of their own and some land. The land for which they
pay rent .service generally deteriorates in value. The lands worked by
the proprietors are among the very best on the sea-coast, and are improv-
ing. The average yield' of cotton on the whole island is a bale to 2.6
acres ; for the six largest planters it is a bale to 1.7 acres. Considering
the (piality of the staple produced, it may be safely said that the larger
farms yielded between two and three times as much as the small ones.
Lands here are worth from $10 to $25 per acre — formerly they were
worth from $50 to $70 per acre. Small tracts rent for about $4 per acre

THE COAST REGION. 31

per annum, larger tracts for less. And there is a state of things which
tends to reduce the saleable value of lands, while it increases the rental
value of it.

West of St. Helena sound, land is almost without exception in the
hands of small negro farmers, either as tenants or ^proprietors. Much of
this land, valued formerly at $40 to $60 an acre, was confiscated, as a
war measure, by the U. S. government. A good deal of it was purchased
hy negroes at the government sales, at $1.25 an acre, on credit, and is still
owned by them. The size of the land-holdings is from one to twenty
acres, and nowhere is more than fifteen acres of cotton cultivated under
one management. Much of the land is uncultivated, and the remainder,
in small patches, varying from one-eighth of an acre and less to three
acres in size, is planted in corn, cotton and sweet potatoes, curiously
intermingled. Nowhere in the State, not even among the gardens on
Charleston Neck, is the system of small culture so strikingly illustrated.
The farmers usually own a cow, a mule or horse, and the work stock is
sufficiently numerous, though of a very inferior quality. Farm fixtures
are of the simplest and cheapest description. There is seldom any shelter
for the stock, the cabin of the proprietor being generally the only house
on the premises. The stock is fed on marsh* grass, with a little corn, and
is, in a large measure, subsisted by being picketed out, when not at work,
to graze on such weeds as the fallow spontaneously furnishes. Plows
are numerous enough, but the chief reliance is upon the hoe, which, for
several generations, was the only implement known to agriculturists on
this coast. These small negro farmers have enjoyed many advantages.
They bought their lands on easy terms, at one-thirtieth to one-fiftieth of
their value. They had the benefit of the famine prices of cotton during
the war for their staple product. Since the war, the industries connected
with the working of the phosphate rock in the rivers, and on the main
lands adjacent to them, have furnished the men with employment at
higher wages than could be obtained elsewhere in the State. The
opening of the railway to Port Royal harbor has, also, made a demand
for labor in loading and unloading vessels, at a better per diem than was
elsewhere obtainable. Graded schools were early established here, and
have been maintained on a large scale, uninterruptedly, for many 3'ears.
Fish, oysters and game abound, and poultry, as chickens, ducks and
turkeys, do particularly well. This adds largely to the ease with which
these people subsist. They live comfortably, happily and peacefully.
All the larger houses and buildings about the old farmsteads have rotted
down or been burned down, and have been replaced by small cabins and
a few country stores, where the traders, invariably white men, who take no
part in the cultivation of the soil, collect and dispose of the crop and supply

32 THE COAST RKGION.

the cominuiiity Avith .such articles of food and dress as arc required. Most
of the men are engaged at the pliosphate works, or on the wharves at Port
Royal, and the heft of tlie farm work is performed by the women and
children. Land is worth $10 to |15 an acre. (See opposite table, showing-
relation of size of farms, number of work stock and production.)

CREDITS AND ADVANCES.

Purchasing supplies on a credit prevails to a considerable extent,,
especially among the small farmers. The exact rate at which these
advances are made cannot be given, as it is not charged as interest, but
is included in an increased price asked for supplies purchased on credit.
It varies from twenty to one hundred per cent, above the market value
of the goods, according to the amount of competition among the
store-keepers, who here, as elsewhere in the State, are b}'' far the most
prosperous class of the community, in proportion to the skill and capital
employed. The better class of farmers do not approve of this credit
system. It furnishes facilities to small farmers, and encourages them to
undertake operations they cannot make remunerative to themselves ; it
reduces the number of laborers, and precludes high culture. The rental
value of land is thus increased, and land which could not be sold for $10
may be rented for $5. The thriftless culture resulting from the small
farms, unduly multiplied by this unhealthy stimulus of credit, causes
many acres to be thrown yearly out of cultivation. Thus the increasing
demand to rent land, in consequence of the increasing facilities for credit
to small farmers, and the constantly diminishing area of arable land,
resulting from the very imperfect system of culture their lack of means-
forces them to adopt, create high rents, injurious to the small former,
and impoverishes the landlord by deteriorating the quality of his land,
as well as by abstracting the labor he could employ iu remunerative
culture.

TILLAGE AND IMPROVEMENT.

The sea islands have, since 1866, enjoyed a law special to them, requir-
ing the owners of live stock to enclose them. Owing to this and to the
numerous creeks and marshes that intersect these islands, and which
serve as natural divisions, when required, between the different fields^
fences are not a burden on the agriculture of the coast lands, and there
is comparatively little fencing.

Drainage, although said by Gov. Seabrook to be so little attended to on
the sea islands as to be scarcely worthy of being considered a regular ag-
ricultural operation, has of necessity always been practised to some extent.

V —

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I

^

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Co

Si
•2

g

(J

0)

< f^

<w

.C

O

c;

OS

<U

^

"I
o

THE COAST REGION. 33

The remarkably high beds on which cotton is planted here, being from
eighteen inches to two feet high, subserves this purpose. The best jilant-
ers have long had open drains through their fields. These were gener-
ally made by running two furrows with a plow, and afterwards hauling
out the loose dirt with a hoe, thus leaving an open ditch, if it may be so
termed, a foot or more in depth. In recent years the enterprising farm-
ers on James' island have made deeper ditches and placed plank drains
in them. Seeing the great benefit resulting from this, they subsequently
replaced the plank with regular drainage tile. In this way they have
reclaimed a good deal of land, besides adding largely to the value of that
already under cultivation. The outlets open to the sea at low-water
mark and the pressure of the water in the pipes preserves a constant out-
flow even at high tide. So that land only a foot or two above high-water
mark, is susceptible of thorough drainage to the depth of four or even
five feet. The borders of these islands being usually their highest parts,
and the interior often quite low, a wide field for improvement is offered
in this direction.

In the early part of the century, when agriculture had so far devel-
oped the value of these lands as to make $60 an acre for planting land
not an unusual price, the use of the plow was entirely unknown here, and
all the operations of tillage were performed by hand with the hoe alone.
This continued to be the usual practice until the war. Since then plows
have come more and more into use, until their employment is now quite
general.

Fallowing is practiced to the extent that land planted in cotton one
year is pastured by cattle and sheep, not hogs. It is claimed that great
benefit is derived by having the loose soil of the islands trodden by stock
during the year they lie fallow. The rapid growth of bushes, briars and
weeds is kept down by the stock, and the dried stems of the cotton stalks
of the previous year are broken up and trampled down. If care be taken
" that the grass is not eaten so close as to expose the soil on the tops of
the beds to the summer sun," it is found when the stock are turned off in
November, to range through the fields, that the pasture " is in exactly the
right condition for the coming season's cotton fields, with no cotton
stalks, or troublesome growth to be got off, or under the land and make
it too husky."

About one-half of the land formerly cultivated is reported as " turned
out " on John's island, and the same or a larger proportion on Wadma-
law. On the other islands less land has passed out of cultivation, but no-
where has the acreage under cultivation increased.

34 THE COAST REGION.

CULTRMTION.

A mule can do tlic plowing nHjuired in the cultivation of thirty acres
in sea island cotton, and can, in addition, cultivate a sufiicicncy of land to
supply corn for its own feed, perhaps something over. The first step in
the preparation of the land is to hoe off the weeds (" hurricane "), cut up
the cotton stalks, and pile and burn this litter. This costs forty cents per
acre. Bushes are grubbed up at a cost of seven cents per acre. The land
is not broken up broadcast with the plow, but early in February two fur-
rows of a single-horse turning plow are run in the old alleys, making a
trench seven or eight inches deep. In this furrow a subsoil plow may or
may not be run, according to the character of the subsoil. Wherever un-
der drainage is practised, as on James island, the furrow is generally used.
Before plows came into use this trench was never made, and even now it
is omitted by some of the most successful planters. Into this trench, or
into the middle of the alley, where there is no trench, the manure is
placed. This consists usually of about twenty cart loads of marsh mud
and one thousand to one thousand four hundred pounds of cotton seed.
Stable and lot manure, together with composts of marsh mud and rushes,
are also applied in the furrow at the rate of forty cart loads per acre on
such a portion of the land as the limited number of stock enables the
farmer to treat in this method. On the lines of manure thus laid doAvn,
a certain quantity of commercial fertilizer is drilled. This practice,
wholly unknown former!}', is very common now, even the smallest negro
farmers often going heavily in debt to obtain these fertilizers from the
store-keepers. They are handy, obviate the labor and care of stock and
the forethought and toil of collecting and manipulating composts. On
James island and John's island a mixture consisting of two hundred and
fifty pounds acid phosphate, two hundred pounds kainit (German potash
salt) and two hundred pounds calcined marl is applied per acre. On
Edisto island they use two hundred poun<ls fish scrap (half dry in bar-
rels), two hundred pounds kainit and two hundred pounds acid phosphate
per acre. On St. Helena island little fertilizer is used. Cotton seed is
worth $15 to $20 per ton, and the commercial fertilizers from $15 to $30,
which would make $15 an acre the cost of the manure among the best
farmers.

The land is now ready for listing, which is done by hauling on to the
manure with a hoc the soil from the tops and sides of the old bed. A
more recent practice is to lap in with two furrows of a turning plow on
the manure. This costs oidy seventeen and one-half cents per acre,

THE COAST REGION. . 35

while the listing with the hoe costs eighty cents, although the latter has
the great advantage of bringing all the vegetable mould and humus di-
rectly to the spot where the roots of the plant are to grow. Over the
mass of dirt, weeds, manure, etc., thus collected in the old alley, a double
roller, five feet from centre to centre, and weighing about eight hundred
pounds, is passed to press together and compact the whole, completing
two rows at a time. All this should be completed by the first to the mid-
dle of March, and the bed is then built up by lapping in two more fur-
rows on a side, with a single or double horse turning plow.

The land is now ready for planting, which may begin any time after
the 20th of March ; but the 1st to the 10th of April is the time preferred.
Cotton planters are not used. Three hands do this work ; the one ahead
chops a hole with a hoe on the top of the bed at intervals of twelve to
eighteen inches ; another hand drops eight or ten seed in each hole, and
the third follows and covers carefully with the hoe. Three to four pecks
of seed are used to the acre. The seed makes its appearance above ground
in eight to twelve days after being planted, and the stand is perfected
from the second week in April to the first week in May. Hoeing begins
about the first of Ma}'. The second hoeing takes place the last of May.
The plows then break out the middles (the spaces between the new beds
where the old beds stood). The hoe hands follow, and pull up the loose
dirt left by the plow to the foot of the cotton. This is called hauling ;
by it the new bed is completed, the cotton is kept from " flagging " (falling
down), and the grass is kept under. It costs eighty cents per acre. At
the second hoeing some stalks are thinned from the bunch in which the
seed breaks the ground, and at each succeeding hoeing and hauling other
stalks are removed, until in July only one stalk of each bunch is left.
There are four hocings and four haulings by the last week in July, one
or more furrows with a sweep plow being run through the middles pre-
vious to each hauling. By the last of July the culture is completed,
except to run a furrow with the sweep between the rows in August, to
destroy grass and keep the cotton growing.

The first blossoms appear about the middle of June, when the cotton
is fifteen inches Righ, and the bolls open towards the end of August, when
the plants have attained a growth of four to five feet. Cotton picking
commences from the last week in August to the second week in Septem-
ber. For the first picking, while the cotton is thin, one and a half cents
per pound seed cotton is paid. Subsequently the price is one cent per
pound, never less, until the last of November, when it rises again to one
and a half to two cents. By the 15th December the crop is gathered.

Mr. W. E. Fripp, a progressive planter on John's island, remarks in
concluding his report : " No improved implements are used or needed

3(i THE COAST REGION.

in son island cotton culture." " Any one hand, with ordinary implements
and management, can make four times as much cotton as he can gather."
Naturally this suggests the reflection, wliat is to be done, in a region
devoted almost exclusively to cotton culture, with tlie three hands not
needed during the cultivation of the crop, ])ut of paramount importance
during the picking season. What industries can be introduced to give
them employment? It would seem, whatever they are, they must be of
such a character as is suited not only to cheap labor, but to cheapen labor.
Already the cotton picker pockets one-sixth of the gross value of the crop,
and is a heavy burden on the producer. At $7.50 per bale, which is
below the actual cost of picking, it requires an expenditure of $40,000,000
to $45,000,000 to gather the crops now made. This large sum is paid out
in the space of two montlis for work in which the most unskilled and
least robust laborers excel. Just here there is a gorge in the industry of
the cotton belt, piling up a vast reserve of stagnant energies to surmount
the obstacle of cotton picking. Should it ever be removed, and ma-
chinery be invented to reduce the cost of this Avork, improvements in
culture would follow so rapidly, and the product of cotton could be so
greatly increased, that, besides being used for clothing, it might become
one of the cheapest materials for building purposes. Everywhere, in the
production of this staple, improvements are possible to an indefinite
extent; but when cotton picking is reached, there, as in gold digging,
the only resource is a human being, an unskilled drudge, at low wages.
This absolute dependence of cotton production on purely human labor
has not been without its humanizing influences, and king cotton has been
more powerful to preserve friendly relations between the stronger and
the weaker race than military governors and reconstruction acts. The
comparatively small amount of manual labor necessary for crops of grain
or hay might, had such crops replaced the culture of cotton, have left the
negro with as little support on American soil as the Chinaman, and their
hegira to the West, or to Africa, might have been possible ; as it is, the
home of the cotton pickers has been made too soft and easy a place to
them to render any such occurrence at all probable.

4

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

As has been already stated, the long staple cotton is a more vigorous
grower and less subject to diseases than upland cotton. Neither sore
shin, blight, rust, or the shedding of fruit in unfavorable seasons, seems
to affect it to the same extent. Its enemies are in the vegetable kingdom,
weeds and grass, especially tlie nut grass and the Bermuda, and against
these the constant and skillful use of the hoe and plow are the only safe-

THE COAST REGION. 37

guards. The most dreaded enemy of the crop is the cotton caterpillar,
which makes its appearance in warm wet spells in the latter part of
summer, and speedily consumes the foliage. At one time so great and
constant were the depredations of these worms, that it was feared that
they would, as they did for some years, put a stop to the profitable cul-
ture of this crop. Now, however, by the use of paris green the planter
counts securely on contending successfully with them, and no .crop has
been lost in late years where it has been used in season. A mixture of
one pound of paris green, one of rosin, and forty pounds of flour, is dustc^l
by hand over the leaves on the first appearance of the worm, and this
inexpensive process secures exemption from their ravages, even when
they come in such numbers and work with such rapidity, that the por-
tion of a field not treated to the mixture in consequence of the interven-
tion of Sunday, is consumed beyond remedy.

BREPARATION OF THE COTTON FOR MARKET.

When the cotton has been picked, weighed and housed, it is next
spread out in the sun, on what is called " an arbor." This is a platform,
usuall}'' made of inch boards, raised a few feet above the ground and
some tw^enty-five feet or more square. Here the sun and air dries the
cotton, preventing it from heating, which it is liable to do when stored
in bulk, and it is also thought to cause the lint to absorb some of the oil
in the seed, which adds to the silky lustre of the fibre. After being thus
dried, it may be either stored or passed at once to the " whipper," a
machine that knocks out the dust and sand, and leaves the cotton whiter
and more open. Formerly, when the price was higher than it is at
present, it was all assorted. A hand was given one hundred and fifty
pounds of seed cotton as a day's task, which he thoroughly overhauled,
picked out all specks, stained cotton, fragments of leaf, etc. At present,
however, this is usually done by two hands, who examine the cotton as it
passes into the gin, and two others behind the gin, who pick out cracked
seed, motes, etc., as the lint issues from the gin. The roller gin in
some form has always been used for detaching the lint from black
seed cotton. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great, reports its
use among the Hindoos in his time. The first roller gin used in this
country was one constructed in 1788, by Mr. Bissell, of Georgia, the gen-
tleman already mentioned as having introduced this variet}'^ of cotton.
It consisted of two short wooden rollers moving in opposite directions,
each turned by a boy or girl, and giving, as the result of a day's work,
five pounds of lint cotton. To this succeeded the foot or treadle gin, im-
ported from the West Indies, where they had been in use, having reached

172613

38 THE COAST REGION.

there Avitli tliis varieiy of cotton seed, descendants, doubtless, of the Hin-
doo jiins, mentioned by Kearchus. h\ 1790, Dr. Joseph Eve, a distin-
<iuished })hysician and poet, tlien of tlie Bahama islands, but subsequently
a resident in Georgia, near Augusta, made great improvements in this
gin, and adapted it to be run )>y horse or water power. It was claimed
that his gin would detach the seed from short staple cotton ; but it ap-
pears not to have succeeded in doing this. Other improvements took place
in the roller gin, from time to time ; and about 1840, F. McCarthy, of
Alabama, devised a machine Avhich bears his name, and has been in use
ever since on the sea islands. Shortly after this, small steam engines
were used with the McCarthy gin, and now oxen and horses have been
discarded and all the gins on the sea islands are run by steam power.
A two horse power is required for each gin, which turns out on an average
a bale weighing three hundred and fift}^ pounds as a day's work.
There is a recent English improvement of the ^IcCarthy gin, known on
the sea islands as the double McCarthy. This gin gives two bales in a
day's work ; but as it requires greater skill to attend it, they are not in
general use; two, however, are in successful operation in the large gin-
house of Mr. John G. Nichols, on St. Helena island.

The great subdivision of the land into small farms under independent
management, renders it impracticable for each cotton planter, as formerly,
to have a gin and ginhouse of his own. To meet this state of things,
" toll" gins have been established. They are usually in the hands of
store-keepers at the various boat landings. The largest establishment of
this sort is the one above mentioned on St. Helena island. Here ten gins
under one shelter are run by one steam engine. Bagging is kept on hand
for the convenience of customers, and the cotton is either purchased by
the proprietor of the gin, or shipped by him directly from the ginhouse
to any American or European port the planter may prefer. There being
a large store on the premises, where the wants of the planters are sup-
plied throughout the year, and a skilled machinist being in constant
attendance on the gins, to keep everything running in the best order, it
is much patronized. Almost the entire crop is prepared and marketed
here, and planters, even as remote as Edisto island, bring their cotton to
be ginned and disposed of at this gin, saving thereby, as they say, the
heavy charges of wharfage, storage, insurance and commission, which are
incurred when sent to city factors to be sold. This establishment is
worked, in connection with others of a similar character along the coast
of Georgia, and in Florida, which together handle and dispose of eight
thousand or nine thousand bales of long staple cotton annually.

The usual charge at these gins is three and a half to four cents per
pound, lint, and they are said to pay well. The cotton is packed in

THE COAST REGION. 39

Dundee bagging, in round bales. No press is used, as it is thought it
would injure the fibre. The work is done by hand, the cotton being
beaten into the bag with a pestle. At the large ginhouse on St. Helena,
however, even this work is accomplished by machinery. The bag is con-
veniently suspended from an iron hoop, and a disc of two inch plank,
exactly fitting the bag, and moved b}^ steam, pushes the cotton in, secur-
ing greater dispatch and accuracy in the packing.

The seed is used for manure, and when sold for this purpose, brings
twenty-five to thirty-five cents per bushel of forty pounds. In 1880., only
about fifty tons were exported from Charleston, chiefly to Egypt, to be
used as planting seed. In this connection an incident related by Governor
Seabrook illustrates the difficulties •attending the handling of newly in-
troduced products. In 1796, on Mr. Brisbane's White Point plantation, in
St. Paul's Parish, the disposition to be made of the cotton seed, which
" the gins bfegan to furnish freely, became a perplexing question. Being
carelessly thrown on the ground, the hogs ate it and they died. It was
then put into pens, but the pigs found their way between the interstices
of the rails and shared the fate of their elders. As a last resort, and with
a view to be rid of the nuisance, it was deposited in a small creek con-
tiguous to the Mansion House. There, at low tide, it soon generated a
miasmatic odor, which, when the wind was favorable, was so offensive
as to create a strong feeling against the future culture of the crop."

AVhat has been written refers distinctly to the sea islands. A conside r-
able quantity of long staple cotton in addition is grown on the mainlands
and is known as Santees and as mains. The general economy of the cul-
ture is the same as on the sea islands. The seed is obtained annually or
biennially from the islands, as it is thought to deteriorate very rapidly on
the mainland. In the absence of determinate experiments for a series of
years it is not easy to say what the cause of this deterioration is, or even
if it is due to causes of a permanent character. That the seed does deteri-
orate is a fact beyond question. But whether it would do so if not ex-
posed to hybridization with uplands, and if the selections were made with
the same skill and patience that is shown by the sea island planters, can-
not be said to have been demonstrated. To be perfectly secure from the
influence of uplands it should be planted at least three miles distant from
it, that being determined as the range of the bee whose search for honey
and pollen is the fruitful source of this miscegenation. New factors too
might have to be taken into consideration in the selection of the seed on
new soils and in a new climate. Crops of sea island cotton have been
made as high up as Orangeburg and Aiken counties. The yield was as
good as on the coast, and the staple, while ranking well in the market,
did not command the higher prices. Were a serious effort made for a

40 THE COAST REGION.

iiunibcr of years, it is not improbable tliat tlic culture of this high-priced
cotton might Ijc much extended.

It is difficult to find a satisfactory answer to the question why is long
staple cotton planted exclusively on the coast. Uplands have been tried
there, and it has been found that they yield no more than long staple,
which of course caused their abandonment as less profitable. The only
explanation offered is to refer this case to that general law of cultivated
plants, that their culture is most profitable at the northern limit at which
they can be grown, inasmuch as their yield at that point is greater, their
cultivation cheaper, the period of growth being shorter, and their product
of better quality. This certainly is true to a large extent of cotton.
Latitude is the only reason that can»be given why the Carolina long sta-
ples are superior to those of Florida and Georgia. Cotton samplers say
that the same is true of uplands, and the staple grown near the moun-
tains are finer, stronger, and more even than the crops raised south of
them. The rapid advance that cotton culture is making in the Piedmont
country would seem to show that its culture there was being found more

profitable than further south.

*

THE COST OF COTTON PRODUCTION.

Th<3 eost of production may be considered from two points of view.
First, the actual cost to certain producers, of whom inquiry has been
made. Second, what may be termed the rational cost, that is, the labor,
material and capital necessarily expended in production, directly or
indirectly, by the producer himself, or by some one else. The first is
real, but by no means expresses everything involved. For instance, on
unsaleable land, a landholder, with little or no expenditure of caj)ital,
may produce a certain amount of cotton with labor given in return for debts'
that could not be otherwise collected. Such cotton would cost almost
nothing to the producer. Between this and the opposite extreme, where
the land had been bought above its real value, and a large expenditure
made in the culture, theje is every variation of individual experience —
from one of immense profits, to one ending directly in bankruptcy. The
rational cost, on the other hand, is purely theoretical ; in estimating the
cost of each item of expenditure, it must be generalized and reduced to an
average that does not, perhaps, conform exactly to the experience of any
individual. It summarizes these items, and leaves them recorded for
consideration. Both methods are given. Messrs. Hinson & Rivers, on
James' island, say $80 a bale of 400 pounds, or 20 cents per pound. Dr.
A. B. Ro.se, of Charleston, puts the cost at $70 per acre, which should yield a
bale of 350 pounds, which gives, likewise, 20 cents per pound. One of

THE COAST REGION. ' 41

the most, if not the most, successful among sea island planters, Mr.
J. J Mikell, of Edisto, says the cost is 15 cents per pound there.

Before considering the rational cost, a word should be said as to the
amount of production. The liighest yield on record to one acre is oGG
pounds of lint, on a single acre on Mr. Schaffer's place, on Wadmalaw
island. A planter on John's island made an average of 290 pounds of lint
per acre, on a tract of 20 acres, while small- farmers in the same locality
produced only 50 pounds to 75 pounds lint per acre. The members of
the Farmers' Club on James' island recorded, for 1870, an average yield
on their fields of 280 pounds of lint. On Edisto island, there is a tract
of 100 acres, producing, in that year, 210 pounds of lint per acre, and
conservative farmers there consider 200 pounds of lint an average on the
larger- iarms, year in and 3'ear out, a fair yield of fine staple. In Mills'
Statistics of South Carolina, published in 1825, it is stated that a
farmer on Edisto island produced, on an extensive scale, an average of
270 pounds of clean cotton to the acre. He also states that there were
lots of land that had produced 435 pounds of lint to the acre. From
which it would appear that the soil, climate, and old methods of culture
had a capacity not very far inferior to that with which the invention of
fertilizers, and of improved implements and methods, at the present time,
endows this locality.

The following table presents the rational cost, giving an itemized
account of all expenditures, as reported by intelligent sea island planters.
The first three columns are from Edisto, the yield being placed at 200
pounds of lint cotton to the acre. Number four is from James' island,
the yield taken at 280 pounds of lint per acre. Number five represents
the average expenditures of the better class of small farmers on John's
island :

45f

THE COAST REGION.

Cost of each Item of Labor and Material expended in the Culture of an Acre

of Cotton.

ITEMS.

ONE.

TWO. ; THREE. FOUR. FIVE.

Rent or interest on money invested
in lands

Wear and tear of implements . . .

Cleaninoj and burning weeds and
stalks^

Other cleaning up

Digging and carting salt mud . . .

Spreading salt mud

Cotton seed for manure, 20 bushels,
at 85 cents

La|)ping mud and seed in with two
furrows, or rolling ditto ....

Fish scrap, 200 lbs., and spreading,
15 cents

Kainit, 200 lbs

Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs

Spreading last two, 15 cents each. .

Commercial manures

Home-made manures

Applying manures

Bedding up with plow

Splitting middles

Breaking out ridge of old bed . . .

Planting

Replanting

Seed

Eight to ten hoeings and haulings.

Blowings with sweep plow ....

Thinning and regulating stand . .

Cleaning ditches

Picking cotton

Sunning and drying cotton . .

Ginning, cleaning and packing . .

Bagging and twine, per bale. . . .

Hauling to gin

Hauling to steamboat and freight to
city

Storage, insurance, weighing, dray-
age and selling

Foreman's wages and rations. . .

$ c.

5 00
1 00

40

07

1 00

80

6 40

12*

G5
50

2 00
30

"Zo

121

45

20

30

60

25

121

10

00

15

00

55

50

2 50

2 75

5 00
1 00

40
07

121

?? c.

5 00
1 00

40
07

f c.
3 00

25

15

6 50

25

45

40

25

121

50

25

30

60 I

25

12i|

10"

00

15

00

55

40

50

2 50

1 50

50

25

45

40

25

121

50 "

25

30

60

25

121

10

00

10 00

2 00

55

50

50

7 00
55
40

50

2 50

50

25|

1 50
6 00

2 50
50

11 20

8 80
55
50

50

2 50

Total 45 69» 51 2914^ 52 I 52 25 27 32

THE COAST REGION.

43

It would be a still more difficult problem to arrive at a satisfactory
estimate of the profit per acre to the farmer. This would vary, in the
first place, according to the grade of cotton produced, the prices fluctuat-
ing, with the fineness of the staple, from 30 cents all the way up to $1.10
I)er lb. The value of the cotton, too, would depend greatly on the hand-
ling of the crop, whether it was picked in time, properly stored, sunned,
dried, ginned, and moted — in all of which operations the skill, care, and
forethought of the farmer would count for a great deal. But if we place
the price of the cotton at 40 cents per pound, we may offer the following
estimates as coming somewhere near the correct deductions to be made
from the data furnished by the foregoing figures.

Cost of Cotton Per Pound, and Profit Per Acre.

ONE.

TWO. THREE.

FOUR.

FIVE.

Cost per pound . . .

22 8-lOc.

251c. 241c. jlS 3-oc. 27 3-lOc.

Do. plus value of seed "j
produced and less in- V
terest on investment, j

17 9-lOc.

20 7-lOc. 19 3-lOc. 15 1-lOc.

21|c.

Profit per cultivated acre' |45 20 $38 20 1 $41 40 i $69 72

$78 25

These figures can, of course, onl}' be approximately correct, but the
Avide difference that prevails between large farms and high culture, and
the small farms and insufficient culture, is a hopeful indication that the
efforts at improvement have met with success, a success that would be
much enhanced if we estimate the improved value of soil itself, where
high culture has been practiced.

CHAT^TER III.

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA

REGION.

LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES.

Contiguous to and immediately inland from the coast region lies the
Lower Pine Belt, or Savanna region, of South Carolina. Northward it
may be bounded by a line dividing Hampton county nearly in half,
leaving the Savannah river in Lawton township, running east across the
county and through Broxton and Warren townships, in the northwest
corner of Colleton county, to Orangeburg county, including the town-
ships of Branchville and Cow Castle. Thence along the northern bound-
ary of Charleston county to the Santee river. Leaving the Santee river
about Wright's Bluff, this line traverses Clarendon county to its north-
east corner, crosses Lynches river, descends that river to a point opposite
where Catfish creek empties into the Great Pee Dee ; follows that stream to
Barker's creek, passes up it to Reedy creek^ down it to the Little Pee Dee,
and up that river to the North Carolina line. The section thus bounded
includes the half of Hampton county, nearly all of Colleton, two town-
ships in Orangeburg, all but the northwest corner of Clarendon, the
southwest portion of Marion, the whole of Williamsburg, and all Charles-
ton, Georgetown and Horry counties not lying on the coast, and com-
prises nearly one-third of the entire State.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES

of the Lower Pine Belt bear a striking analogy to those of the coast
region. The uplands, the so-called " pine barrens," represent the sea
islands. Numerous large fresh water rivers replace the great salt water
rivers and arms of the sea along the coast, and the interminable net-work

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 45

of extensive swamps and bays recall the salt marshes of the coast. Eight
large rivers receiving all the M-ater that falls in South Carolina, and a
large proportion from the watershed of North Carolina, besides several
smaller rivers and innumerable lesser streams, traverse this -region and
furnish more than 1,000 miles of navigable waters. The general ap-
pearance of the country is low and flat. The uniform level of the sur-
face is scarcely broken anywhere, except here and there on the banks of
the streams ])y the occurrence of slightly rolling lands. Lime sinks are
found and there is a notable chain of them south of Eutawville, between
the great bend of the >Santee river and the head waters of Cooper river.
In a depression of the sjbirface a miniature lake, never exceeding fifty
yards in length by a dozen in width, and sometimes only a few feet in
diameter, is found. The water is oi crystalline clearness, with a visible
depth of twelve to fifteen feet, and is contained in a funnel-shaped hollow
of the blue limestone rock, that underlies the soil at the depth of a few
inches. These lakelets or springs have no outlet, but at their bottom
Assures in the limestone rock, leading to unknown depths, are observed.
Through these fissures numbers of all the varieties of fresh water fish
common to this locality, including eels and alewives, some of them of
considerable size are seen to pass. So numerous are these »fish that if all
these open basins were put together into one, it would not afford food or
breeding space for one-hundredth part of the fish found in any one of them.
The inference seems warranted that there is here, in the caverns of
the limestone rock, a subterranean stream or lake many miles in extent.
The maximum elevation of this region above tide-water is reached at
the village of Branchville on the South Carolina railway, and is 134
feet. From the data furnished by the surveys of the railroads traversing
this region, the Port Royal, South Carolina and Wilmington roads (the
Charleston and Savannah road runs near to and parallel with the coast,
and the surveys of the Northeastern road have been destroyed), it ap-
pears that the average slope is about 3| feet per mile. This slope, how-
ever, seems to be much more rapid in the western and narroAver part than
it is in the eastern and broader portion of the belt. Altmans, on the
Port Royal railroad, is 105 feet above mean high tide at the head of
Broad river, 18 miles distant in a direct line, giving a fall of 5.8 ft. per
mile. Branchville is 134 ft. above the sea, which at North Edisto inlet,
near Jehossee island, is 48 miles distant, making the fall 2.8 feet per mile.
In the east the railroad bridge of the Great Pee Dee is 52 miles from the
sea and has an elevation above it of only about 59 feet, or but little more
than one foot to the mile. This fall Avould, with skillful engineering, be
sufficient for thorough drainage. Left as it is, however, wholly to the
operations of nature, this desirable object is far from being accomplished,

4Ct THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

and the broad Ijut slow currents of the tortuous streams never free the
swamps and lowlands of their superfluous water. So level is the country
and so abundant the supply of water, that the engineering skill and out-
lay required .to perfect its drainage would, at comparatively small addi-
tional outlay, render the larger part of the surface susceptible to cultiva-
tion l)y irrigation. In connection with drainage and the embankment
of the rivers, the assertion is frequently made, that such works are less
])racticable now than formerly, when they were attempted in conse-
([uence ot the increased size and frequency of freshets, resulting from
cutting down the forests, the chief obstructions to the rapid passage of
rain water into the streams. In the absence of records giving exact data
on this point, this assertion rests more on the apparent nature of the
case than on ascertained facts. On the contrary, nothing can be more
certain than that no subsequent freshet has attained the height and ex-
tent of the great flood of 1796, known as the Yazoo freshet, and that none
has exceeded the May freshet of 1840.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

Out-crops of the cretaceous rocks of the secondary formation occur
east of the Santee river, in numerous localities in the Lower Pine Belt of
South Carolina. Commencing at Little river, in the southeastern corner
of Horry county, Prof Tuomey followed these rocks to Mars Bluff on the
Great Pee Dee and to points as far north as Darlington C. H. They make
their appearance on Lynches river in about the same latitude, and were
traced by Mr. Ruffin as far west as Kingstree, the countj^ seat of Williams-
burg. They consist of a soft marl of a dark gray color, containing (as at
Mars Bluff) the remains of belemnites in great number. This marl av-
erages about 34 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and rests on a stratum of
hard lime or marl stone, which yields 75 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
The marl stone in turn rests on a black shale of laminated clay, which
rests on beds of sand. The buhr-stone reaches down into the Lower Pine
Belt in several localities along its northwestern edge. Prof. Tuomey
thought he had traced it as far as the Ashepoo river in Colleton and to
Huspa creek in Beaufort county. But as tlie rocks he referred to are now
recognized as belonging to th^ phosphate rock formation, the bulir-stone
does not extend .so far south as he supposed.

The body of the Lower Pine Belt is underlaid by marl belonging to
that portion of the eocene formation of the tertiary, designated by Mr.
Ruffin the Great Carolina Bed. These marl beds are divided into two
well-marked groups, known as the Santee marls and as the Ashley and
Cooper river marls. The Santee marls are the older, lower and more ex-

THE LOWER PIXE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 47

tensive formation. Reaching from Mazyck's ferry on the San tee in
Charleston county to Vance's ferry on that river in Orangeburg county,
and underlying nearly the whole of Clarendon county, they have been
traced along Potato creek as far north as Sumter county. Westward they
extend through Colleton, Orangeburg, Hampton and Barnwell counties,
to the Savannah river ; reaching as high up on that stream as Shell blutl",
a noted locality in Burke county, Ga. Their northern margin rests on
the buhr-stone, and to the west and south they pass under the Ashley and
Cooper marls. The Santee marls form the lowest member of the cal-
careous strata of the Charleston basin, and was designated by Prof.
Tuomey the Coralline bed of the Charleston basin, being composed of
the remains of corals and gigantic oyster shells. It consists of strata of
soft marl, marl-stone and green sand, and is very rich in carbonate of
lime, averaging 90 per cent, of that valuable ingredient of the soil.

Resting on the Santee marls, and passing out with them beneath the
pleiocene and post-pleiocene of the coast under the sea to a great depth, are
the Ashley and Cooper marls. Unlike the Santee marls, they contain
neither corals or oyster shells, but are composed of minute many cham-
bered shells (Polythalamia and Foraminfera). These marls are of a
dark gray color and granular texture, sometimes so compact as to render
the material suitable for building purposes. Prof. Tuomey mentions a
ruined house, erected long ago, by Sir John Colleton, of this material,
which reminded him of Portland stone. The marks of the tools upon
the walls exposed to the weather were as well defined as if they had been
impressed yesterday, and the angles of a tasteful mantelpiece, handsomely
moulded and decorated, were as sharp, despite its long neglect, as when
first executed. These marls are not so rich as the Santee marls and av-
erage only about GO per cent, of carbonate of lime. They have long
been known, however, to contain a notable quantity of phosphate of
lime, and a great interest attaches to them, as it is the fragments broken
from their irregular surface, and rounded by the waves, which have been
converted into the nodules rich in phosphate of lime and known as

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

The deposits of phosphate rock occur over a wide range of country,
reaching from North Carolina to Florida, and extending in some instances
as much as 60 miles inland. Vertically, so far as their occurrence in
quantities of value economically is concerned, their distribution is con-
fined within narrow limits. They are found at the bottom of rivers, 20 to
30 feet in depth, and on land they occur at an elevation but slightly
above mean high tide, so that the tides of the existing sea, supplemented

48 THE LOWKR PINK BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

in a few instances perhaps by tlie action of storms, is sufficient to account
for any movements that these water-worn nodules have undergone. The
rock of commerce occurs always above the marl, and is known as the land
or water rock, according as it is found in the one element or the other.
The water rock is darker in color and harder than the land rock, and is
frequently found in a layer or sheet of cemented or tightly compacted
nodules, overlying the marl at the bottom of the rivers and creeks, where
it either forms the bottom itself or is overlaid by a deposit of mud of
greater or less depth. It has been seldom dredged for at a depth exceed-
ing 20 feet. The land rock is found at a depth of 2 feet to 10 feet (and
more under elevations) below the surface of the soil, but is not mined at a
depth exceeding 5 to 7 feet. It is found' in masses or nodules, varying
from the size of a potato to several feet in diameter. These nodules are
rounded, rough, indented, and frequently perforated with irregular cav-
ities. They vary in color from olive or bluish black to a yellowish or
grayi.sh white. Their specific gravity is 2.2 to 2.5. Their hardness from
0.5 to 4." The fragments of a nodule give pff a peculiar foetid odor on
friction. By analysis it is found to contain phospliate of lime 55 to 61
per cent., carbonate of lime 5 to 10 and organic matter and water 2 to
10 per cent., "with small quantities of fluorine, iron, magnesia, alumina
and sulphuric acid, besides sand. The land rock is found in a loose
layer, varying from a few inches to 30 in depth, averaging about 8
inches. It occurs in sand, mud, cla}^ or peat, and is often intermingled
with numerous remains of land and marine animals. Among the former
are the remains of the mastodon, elephant, tapir, deer, and of our do-
mestic animals, the horse, the cow and the hog. Thus showing that these
very animals whicli were imported by the first white settlers had once
iuhaljited this region, from which they had disappeared, so far as tradi-
tion informs us, before the advent of man, furnishing Prof. Agassiz with
one of his strongest arguments in favor of '' independent centres of crea-
tion." The remains of these land animals are found intermingled with,
but never imbedded in, the phosphate rocks, giving no evidence that there
was any community of origin between them. So abundant are the re-
mains of marine animals that Mr. Toumey named this formation the
" Ashley Fish Bed." Most striking among these remains are the beauti-
fully preserved t^eth of sharks, from 2 inches to 4 inches in length ; if the
proportions between the teeth and the bodt found among existing sharks
obtained Avith these monsters, they must have been (]0 feet to 80 feet in
length. The sharks teeth, on the other hand, found in the Santee marls
do not differ nuich as regards si^e from tho.se of the sharks now living on
the coast, and artesian wells in the phosphate region yield, at a depth of
700 feet below, these colossal teeth — teeth similar in size to the ancient

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 49

fossil teeth found far inland, imbedded in the Santee marls, and to those
of the fish now living in the vicinity. As to the origin of the phosphate
rock, the identity of the fossil shells it contains with those of the under-
lying marl make this much certain, that it consists of fragments broken
from the irregular surface of the marl, and that its rounded and nodular
form was imparted to it by the action of the waves and currents to whicli
it was subsequently subjected. The important question of how a marl
containing originally 60 per cent, of carbonate of lime and 2 to 4 per
cent, of phosphate of lime has been changed into one containing 50 to 60
per cent, of phosphate of lime and 5 to 10 per cent, of carbonate of lime
remains for consideration. * It is a noteworthy circumstance, that, while
the great body of the eocene marls in South Carolina have preserved their
constitution almost unchanged, a remarkable change is manifest at the
beginning and at the close of the series ; in the buhr-stone on the north-
ern border, and in the widely removed phosphate rock on the southern ;
in the buhr-stone the original carbonate of lime composing the shells has
been replaced b}^ silica, reiulering great masses of rock, that once might
have imparted valuable properties to the soils, valueless agriculturally ;
in the phosphate region masses of carbonate of lime have been converted
into the phosphate, rendering them still more valuable to the tiller of the
soil. Two theories have been offered to account for this substitution of
the phosphate for the carbonate of lime.

One theory assumes that the fragments of marl were charged with the
sweepings from guano beds formed above them by the congregation there,
at some indefinite time in the past, of vast flocks of birds ; in this case,
bones of the birds should be among the fossils preserved in these beds.
No such remains having been found, but instead the remains of numerous
animals, such as the mastodon and elephant above mentioned, and it was
thought that immense herds of these animals had collected at one time
about the shallow salt lakes in which the nodules were left upon the re-
cession of the sea, just as animals now do about the salt licks of Kentucky,
and that the phosphoric acid derived from their excrements and remains
wrought the change in the marl. To this it is objected that the spots
where the most of these bones are found are not the richest in phos-
phates ; and while it is by no means probable that the nodules were in
all, or even in most instances, formed where they are at present found, it
is difficult to suppose that agencies of such local and restricted character
as salt licks could account for the conversion of so great a mass of material,
over an area so extensive, as that presented by the phosphate formation.

The other explanation of the formation of these rocks is, that certain
mollusks possess the power of separating the phosphate of lime from sea
water, and that through their instrumentality the marl, and especially
4

50 THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

tlio upper strata, became charged with a certain amount of phospluite of
lime. That the proportion of the phosphate of lime thus obtained to the
whole body of the.superficial layers of the marl was afterwards increased;
1st, by the removal of a considerable amount of the carbonate of lime,
rendered soluble Iw the percolatic^n through it of rain water containing
carbonic acid, derived from the decomposing vegetable matters in the soil
overlaying the marl. 2d, by a well known proneness of phosphoric
acid, when diffusely distributed, to concentrate and to give rise to concre-
tionary processes similar to those observed in the flint nodules and peb-
bles of the English chalk. This theory agrees with the diffused occur-
rence of phosphate of lime in the superficial layers of the marl, as well as
with the fact that the upper la^^ers of the deposits and the outside of the
nodules are the richest in phosphate. It substitutes for a local cause a^
general one, commensurate at once with the wide area occupied by the
phosphate rocks and by the phosphatic marls of the South Atlantic sea-
board. Such a cause also might have been in operation ages ago, when
the layers of phosphate rock, found at a depth of 300 feet in artesian
borings, were forming ; and it may be in operation now, as the dredging
work of the United States Coast Survey shows that the marls accumulat-
ing, at the depth of 200 fathoms on the floor of the Gulf Stream, between
Florida and Cuba, contain a considerable percentage of phosi)hate of
lime.

No systematic survey, determining the extent of these deposits, has
yet been attempted. The only information on this bead comes from
prospectors, seeking easily accessible rock in localities convenient for
shipment. Widely varying estimates as to the quantity of the rock have
been ventured. Some have placed it as high as five hundred millions of
tons, and others as low as five millions. The latter is the estimate of
Prof Shepard, who has prepared a map of the region. He traced the
deposit over 240,000 acres, and roughly estimates the accessible rock as
covering only about 10,000 acres. Even this estimated area at 800 tons
per acre, Avhich he gives as an average, should yield 8,000,000 tons. But
if we examine a single mining region, as that for instance occupied by
the Ccoaw company, we must conclude that he has very greatly under-
estimated the amount. This company has the exclusive right to a terri-
tory of about 6,000 acres in Coosaw river, besides the adjacent marshes,
yet unexi)lored. Everywhere the river bottom is covered with rock,
which for the most part forms a solid sheet, varying from 8 inches to 1^
feet in thickness. Taking the lesser thickness, we have, with a specific
gravity of 2.5, after subtracting 25 per cent, for loss in washing and dry-
ing, something over 1,700 tons to the acre, which would give for the
river territory alone belonging to this one company something more than

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 51

ten millions of tons. And in effect this company (which is the only
thoroughly equipped river mining company now at work, 1881) con-
.«ider. in spite of their large plant, consisting of extensive drying sheds
and wharves, three heavy dredges, four large steam tugs, sixty large flats
and a numerous fleet of smaller ones, besides washers, workshops, &c..
by which they daily raise and prepare for market hundreds of tons of
rock, that their supply of material is practically unlimited. From the
works of this company fleets of dredging boats belonging to other parties
may be seen at work, and in the neighborhood there are several well
known localities where rock as rich, as abundant, and, with suitable ma-
chinery as accessible, is found, but which remain unworked. It seems re-
markable that while coal mining at great depths is found profitable,
when the product sells at $3.00 per ton, that capital has not more eagerly
sought employment in these superficial deposits, worth never less than
$5.00, and now $0.00 per ton.

There are ten (1881) companies engaged in land mining. The land
either belongs to them or is leased by them for a term of years. Parallel
ditches, two yards wide, are sunk through the soft soil to a depth of 4 feet
to 7 feet, to the stratum of sand or mud in which the loose layer of phos-
phate nodules is found. The rock is shoveled out, thrown into heaps
and transported by rail to the washers situated on the wharves, whence it
is shipped. A common laborer will raise a ton a day, for which he is
paid $1.75. The product of the land rock is about 100,000 tons a year,
and the most of it is ground and manufactured into acid phosphates and
other fertilizers, by the eight manufacturing companies within the State.

The river miners work under charters from the State, which grant
them a general right to Avork a specified territory with any other comers,
or under an exclusive right to such territory. In either case they pay a
royalty .to the State of $1.00 for every ton of rock raised. The river
works yield about 10(1,000 tons of rock per annum ; being harder, and
therefore more difficult to grind, it has been mostly shipped to foreign or
northern ports to be manufactured. Labor receives good wages at this
work. Divers raising the rock from a depth of 10 feet or 12 feet, paid by
the amount raised, working IJ hours on the ebb and IJ on the flood tide,
earn as much as $18 a week. This work is neither dangerous or un-
healthy, and those engaged in it seem to enjoy their aquatic exercise. It
is thought that large quantities of rock underlie the salt marshes between
the high and low water mark, which would be the property of the State.
So far very little work, and no extensive exploration, has been made in
this direction. In fact, vast cpantities of the best rock yet unworked
cover the bcttom of many of these rivers.

The total amount of phosphate rock mined from the 1st of June, 1874,

r)2 THE LOWER PINE liELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

to the 31 ?t of January, 1882, is estimated at 1,505,550 tons ; of tliis about
44 per cent, was shipped to foreign ports. The royalty of ^1.00 per ton
paid to the State for rock raised from navigable waters amounted, in 1881,
to 1124,541 ; a single company, the Coosaw, paying $99,135. In this
year 71,316 tons of river rock were shipped to foreign, and 52,225 tons
to domestic ports. The State can safely count on a much larger revenue
from this source for years to come, for at this rate of production the
Coosaw company itself would not exhaust the rock in sight, without
further exploration in its own territory, in 120 years, and the demands of
agriculturists for this valuable material, while they can scarcely be less
than at present, are likely to increase very much.

SOIL.

The 7,000 square miles, of uplands in the Lower Pine Belt comprises
three leading varieties of soil : 1st. A sandy loam, with a white sandy
subsoil. 2d. A sandy loam, with a yellow subsoil. 3d. A sandy loam,
witli a clay subsoil ; the clay is generally yellow, but sometimes it is red.
The surface soil is lighter or darker, in proportion to the varying quan-
tities of vegetable matter it contains, and where the clay subsoil occurs,
it assumes, on cultivation, a mulatto color. These soils bear a strong re-
semblance to the sea island soil, having this advantage, however, over
them that are very generally underlaid by easily accessible beds of
marl, richer in lime than those of sea islands. In drainage, however,
they compare unfavorably with the sea islands. For the scouring effect
of the rise and fall of the tide, which keeps the water ways around the
islands open, is not only not experienced in this belt, but, on the contrary,
the luxuriant water growth that flourishes here has filled up the chan-
nels, converting them into swamps, through which scarcely any current
passes. This, in connection with the level character of the country,
renders the body of these lands wet. But for this, the good mechanical
constitution of the soil, being light and easily tilled, and at the same
time (except in the case of white sandy subsoil) sufficiently compact to
be retentive of manures and moisture, together with the abundance of
marl and of peat and muck at hand as amendments to the virgin soil,
would have made them most desirable lands for tillage. As it is, not
more than one acre in 22 is under cultivation, and the jiricesof lands, are
from $5.00 down to 50 cents.

The following analyses by C. U. Shepard, Sr., from Toumey's report,
give an idea of the constitution of some of the poorer soils of this re-
gion, classed as pine barren. 1. Loose sandy soil. 2. Dark gray soil.
3. Very light sandy soil. 4. Loose yellow sandy soil :

THE LOWER PIXE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

53

Silica

Alumina . ...

Peroxide iron, and carbonate and phosphate

lime

AA'ater of absorption and organic matter. . .

92.57

91.641 94.00
.94

1.70 1.70

0.71
5.03

93.00

.81

0.50 0.50 1.20
6.16' 4.56 4.09

100.00 100.00 100.00100.00

Dr. J. L. Smith furnishes, in the report cited, the following analyses of
cotton lands in this section. In 1,000 parts of surface soil :

Sand

Clay

Moisture . , . .
A'^eoetable matter

2

760

140

30

70

900 i 800 680 800

62 ! 165 270 170

8 j 12 20 10

30 I 22 I 30 20

P-ortions of these soils, soluble in warm muriatic acid, were found to
contain })hosphoric acid.

The 4,500 scj^uare miles of overflowed lands in the savanna region
present quite a variety of swamp lands. The most elevated of these are
cypress ponds — shallow flats, with an impervious clay bottom, thickly
grown with small cypress. Some of them contain a thick deposit of
vegetable matter, and, when drained, have proved very productive. Next
in order come the almost impenetrable bays, thickly set with a growth of
bay, gum and tulip trees, and a dense undergrowth of vines and bushes.
The soil is peat or muck, resting on blue mud, and underlaid by marl
and sand. Then come the open savannas and the river bottoms, a rich,
tough, loamy soil, having at times a depth of sixty feet, derived from the
denudation of the upper country, whose " richest possessions are found
in well-sifted purity in these vast swamps." These are the rice lands of
Carolina. Taken all in all, whether we consider the physical character
of the soil, the amount of organic matter it contains, the variety of its
mineral constituents, or the subtropical climate of the locality, with the
facilities for irrigation, either for culture or to renew the surface fertility,
they are, perhaps, excelled in productiveness by no lands in the
world.

GROWTH.

The characteristic growth of the uplands is the long-leaved pine, ex-
tending in open pine woods over the wide plain, with scarcely any
undergrowth except here and there the scrub oak and grasses of the

54 TJIIC LOWKR I'IXE V.VA.T, OR SAVANXA RKGIOX.

<^eiuis nris{a(l(( and sjiardolns, llic wire and dro}) seed grass. The j)almetto
reaches only a lew miles inhind from salt water, but the live oak is found
as much as sixty miles from the shore line. The magnolia, tulip tree,
sweet and l)lack gum, the whifee and red bays, the white oak, the black
walnut, the elm, hickory and cypress are among the largest and most
conspicuous trees of the sAvamps; the undergrowth, commencing with a
fringe of gall berry {jiruioH (/laber) on the margin of the swam])s, and
consisting of a great variety of gra})e, briar and other vines, myrtles, &c.,
is very dense.

CLIMATE.

In the absence of weather records, it is difficult tg express the difference
between the climate of lower pine belt and that of sea coast, already
descriljcd, more definitely than to say that it is such difference as is to
be found between the conditions favorable for the growth of the cabbage
palmetto, which barely touches the southern border of the belt, and of the
live oak, that just extends to its northern or inland margin. A low, flat
country, intersected by numerous swamps, might naturally be thought
very sickly. This region, however, has one advantage. Almost every-
where there are found small tracts, islands, as it were, of dry, sandy soil,
heavily timbered with the long leaf pine, which is a barrier to the in-
vasion of malaria. These retreats furnish places of residence as healthy
as are to be found anywhere; such a place is the village of Summerville,
on the 8. C. li. R., a liealth resort that divides with Sullivan's island the
patronage of the citizens of Charleston during the warm weather.
McPhersonville, in Hampton, and Pineville, in Georgetown, are villages
of tlie same character, and there is scarcely a neighborhood that has not
some such healthy spot as a place of residence during summer. The
dread of malaria is mucli less than it was when the opinion that the
colored race was exempt from such influences was adduced as an argu-
ment to show the providential nature of their location here to develop
these fertile lands. The reverses of fortune, sustained as a result of the
war, have forced many wliite families to reside the summer long W' here it
was once thought fatal to do so, and the experiment has been successful,
thus exploding the idea that white people cxjuld not enjoy health here
during the summer months. Rei)lies from twenty-three townships state
without excei)tion, that the inhabitants enjoy good health, and that a
considerable i)ortion of the field work is j)erformed by whites — a great
change since the war. Tln' census returns give hfteen deaths per one
thousand i)Oi)ulation in the i)Oi'tions of Charleston and Colleton counties
lying in this reiiitni, for the vear 1880.

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 55

STATISTICS.

The lower pine belt contains 10,226 square miles, of which 4,500 are allu-
vial or swamp lands, either covered with water or subject to overflow. The
tilled land is 358,533 acres, by the census returns of 1880, which is 30 per
cent., or 171,306 acres, less than the number given by the census of 1870.
There are 1.6 farms and 35 acres of tilled land per square mile, or 20
acres of tilled and 400 acres of untilled land to the farm. Something
less than 1 per cent, of the total area, or 6.4 acres per square mile, is
})lanted in cotton ; there is in grain of all kinds 15.8 acres, and in other
crops and fallow, 13 acres per square mile, with 1.8 head of work stock
and 23 head of all live stock. These figures represent the minimum
(the area in other crops and fallow alone excepted) to be found anywhere
in the State. Notwithstanding the small proportion of stock to the area,
the people here are the staunchest adherents of the fence law, and claim
entire freedom of range for their cattle. This, too, while the entire num-
ber of stock of all sorts is only 1.15 per capita of the population, being-
less than in any part of this State, except upon the coast.

The population numbers 203,748 (including 49,999 in the city of
Charleston), or 18.9 per square mile, which is less than in any part of
the State, the sand hills excepted, where the numl>er is 11.7. The ratio
of colored to white is greater tlian elsewhere except upon the coast, and
is sixty-nine percent., the same that it was given at in 1870.

Tlie tilled land is 1.7 acres per capita; .2 acres more than on the coast.
This is not quite one-lialf the average for the whole State, and is owing,
1st, to the large area of unreclaimed swamps; 2nd, to the number of the
population engaged in the turpentine and lumber business. The large
l>odies of land held solely for the forest products they yield, as turpentine,
lumber, shingles, staves, &c.^ accounts for the fact that while the number
of farms to the square mile is few, the number in proportion to the pop-
ulation is as great, even as among the small farms on the coast, being one
to every twelve and a half of the population. Nevertheless the amount
of land tilled per capita has decreased thirty-eight per cent, since 1870.
Showing that the forest industries are gaining on agriculture.

In point of production we have 2.7 bales of cotton per square mile
against 1.9 in 1870, an increase of forty-one per cent., but still less than
half the minimum produced elsewhere, except on the coast. Per capita
the yield is only sixty-eight pounds of lint, but per acre planted in cotton
it is 219 pounds, showing that in tliis little cultivated region the yield of
the land planted is not only above the average of the State, but is abso-
lutely the maximum any where reached. So, too, of the grain crop, while

5G THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

it was only seven bushels in 1870, and in 1880 only eleven bushels per
capita, and only 236 bushels to the square mile, it averages over fifteen
bushels to every acre planted, which is nearly Hfty per cent, above the
average of the State. The increase in the amount of grain produced has
been eighty -two per cent, on the crop of 1870. Tlie work stock during
the same period have increased fifty per cent., and the live stock seventy-
six per cent.

The explanation of these seemingly paradoxical facts is found in the
consideration, that this fertile but thinly peopled region is scarcely re-
claimed at all from the dominion of the waters for man's uses. That there
being neither capital or organized labor commensurate with this under-
taking, what of either of these forces is to be found, employs itself in cul---
tivating the poorer, but more easily tilled land, or in the more tempting
occupation still of gathering the products of the forest, whioli nature with
lavish hand offers in abundance.

PRODUCTIONS.

The most characteristic, if not the most important, crop of this region
is the rice crop. The various methods of its culture fall under two classes,
the dry and the wet culture.

The dry culture is pursued on uplands and on low grounds not suscep-
tible of irrigation. It is cultivated very much like cotton, planted in
drills two and a third to three and a half feet, and in hills eighteen to
twenty-four inches apart, twenty to thirty seed being dropped in the hills.
The ground is afterwards kept clean and stirred by the use of the plow
and hqe, with one hand picking of the grass in the hills, when the rice
is about six inches high. The yield varies with the soil and culture, from
fifteen bushels to fifty bushels to the acre. Tliis rice sometimes fetches a
fancy price, as seed rice, being free from the seed of the red rice that
springs up as a volunteer in the fields under water culture.

The water culture of rice is conducted on three sorts of low grounds.
1st. Flats, which may be irrigated from ponds or water " reserves " lying at
a higher level. 2nd. River swamps, into which water may be conducted
by canals running from the river above, and returned to it again at a lower
level ; such lands may be found anywhere in the State. 3rd. The tide
water lands, which are only found near the coast. These lands lie in such
a position on the lower course of the rivers, that while they are subject to
a sufficient " pitch of the tide" to irrigate them on the flood and to drain
them on the ebb, they may be dammed against the invasion of salt water
below and from the freshets above. By taking in the fresh water from
the rivers above and letting it out below at low tide, these lands have been

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 57

reclaimed as low down as the salt marshes. They are of limited quantity
and of inexhaustible fertility, the waste of cultivation being constantly
restored by the ricli deposits from the turbid streams that irrigate tliem.
Formerly their value was estimated in hundreds of dollars per acre. Since
the war the difficulty of obtaining labor has changed this, many of the
finest plantations remain uncultivated, or are only partially cultivated, and
lands once worth from |200 to $300 per acre may now be bought at from
$20 to $30, or less. There are more than two million of acres of land,
consisting of inland and river swamps, and of fresh water and of salt
marshes, admirably adapted to rice culture, now lying unused, in this
section of the State, most of it in its original wilderness. There are nu-
merous methods employed in the water culture of rice, from that known
as dry culture, when water is sparingly used, to that known as the "all
water culture," where the crop is only dried cnce or twice during the
season for the purpose of weeding it. Usually it is flowed four times.
Known as the " sjjrout flow," to perfect germination, the " point flow," to
stretch up the young plant, the " long flow," when the plant is six to eight
inches high, after* the first and second hoeings, and the " lay by flow,"
after the third hoeing and until harvest. The fine mud and decomposed
vegetable matter that compose this soil is so soft that a horse will readily
bog in it, and therefore horse power has been little used in their cultiva-
tion, an objection that, with the solid cross dams at short distances, would
not apply to the plow moved by steam power. Horse power has, how-
ever, been used so far as to show that seed drills for planting and the
mowing machine for harvesting may be successfully employed in rice
culture. Under these circumstances, taking into consideration the amount
and certainty of the yield, from forty to eighty bushels i)er acre, and the
improved machinery for threshing and hulling, there is perhai)S no food
crop so entirely under the control of mechanical inventions, and so little
subject either to the vicissitudes of season, or the uncertainties of human
labor as the rice crop. The straw is much superior as forage to that of
any of the small grains, and except the hulls of the grain, there is no
waste in the crop, the very dust from the pounding, known as rice flour,
being most nutritious food for stock.

Although eighty bushels per acre is generally given as a, large field
crop, the possibilities of the product are much greater, and Mr. Kinsey
Burden reports a yield from selected seed at the rate of 1,486 bushels per
acre. The rice crop for the whole State averages 20 bushels to the acre.
This means 600 pounds of merchantable rice, worth say $30 ; 400 pounds
of straw, worth $2.80 ; and 100 pounds of flour, $1.50— in all, $35.30.
Cotton gives an average of 182 pounds per acre, which, at ten cents,
would be only $18.20, or a little over half the gross yield of rice. Why

58 THE LOWKR PINK BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

is it, tlien, that rice culture is in so depressed a condition, and cotton
culture so flourisliing ? It may be briefly stated as that condition of in-
dustry which favors small enterprises, and discourages accumulation of
capital in large investments and tlic organization of laljor into large
masses, which the embankment, drainage and irrigation of a rice field
requires.

It has also been asserted that tlie i)r()tective duty of 2J cents per
pound on rice operates adversely to its culture. This culture recjuires a
large outlay of vested capital in dams, ditches and waterways. But as
an act of Congress may ain^ day remove the protective tariff, and thus
lower the market value of the product by one-third or more, capital is
unwilling to encounter such a risk, refuses to enter into permanent in-
vestments in improving and restoring these lands, or in mortgages given
for this puri)Ose, and prefers to restrict itself to hand to mouth advances
on the growing crop at exorbitant rates. Thus throwing largely into the
hands of mere speculators what was once tlie most solid and certain in-
dustry of the State. One thing is certain : while the cotton croj) has
largely increased, even while burdened with a tax of two cents per i)0und
on it, the rice crop, with the protection of a duty of two cents per pound,
has not recuperated, and amounts to scarcely one-third of the production
it attained formerly without protection.

The allurement of the read}^ money realized by collecting the products
of the forest, and by rice and cotton culture, has diverted attention from
other cro[)s in this section. The culture of corn as a market cro}) would
be profitable. The red rust proof oat is admirably adapted to this
climate, and is one of the most certain crops, yielding readily thirty
bushels to fifty bushels to the acre. Although Xew England, and even
European, hay has for many years been i)urchased to subsist, in i)art, the
work stock in this section, Mr. Ruffin, who came from the clover fields of
Virginia, says in his official report on the agriculture of the lower and
middle parts of South Carolina : " Few countries possess greater natural
fiicilities, or which are more improvable by industry, for producing in
abundance, grasses, hay and live stock, and their products of nieat, butter
and milk, all of which are now so deplorably deficient."

COTTON.

Although the lower pine belt comprises nearly one-third of the State,
it produces only a fraction over five per cent, of the cotton crop. The
per centage of the total area planted in cotton is less than one-tenth of
one per cent, in the southeastern third of Charleston county, in the whole
of Georgetown county, and in the greater portion of llorry county.

THE LOWER TIXE CELT, OK SAVANNA REGION. 59

From one-tenth to one per cent, of the area is planted in cotton in the
lower half of Hampton county, in Colleton county, in the northeastern
portion of Charleston county, in the southern third of AVilliamshurg, and
in portions of Horry. From one to five per cent, of the area is planted
in cotton in the northeastern corner of Colleton, in the northeastern part
of Charleston, in the upper two-thirds of Williamsburg, in the lower one-
fourth of JMarion, and in Clarendon county.

LABOR AND SYSTEM OF FARMIXG.

In Colleton county, the farms on which cotton is planted vary in size
from fifty to two hundred acres, and are in some instances as much as
four hundred acres. A system of mixed farming is pursued ; food sup-
plies mostly, and in an increasing degree, are raised at home. Bacon,
however, for the laborers is usually bought in Charleston. There are a
few white laborers, and the labor is chietly performed by negroes. Wages
vary from $6 a month to $120 and to ^150 a year. Very few farms are
worked on shares; when it is done, the landholder usually furnishes all
sup})lies, and takes one-third of the cotton and one-half of the provision
crop. The share system is not entirely satisfactory ; the quality of the
staple is not affected by it, but the cj^uantity produced is small, and the
land deteriorates. ]\toney wages are preferred, because it places the man-
agement under intelligent control, enables the laborer to meet his current
expenses and preserves his independence from debt. The condition of
the laborer is good, and about two per cent, of the negro laborers own
some land, or the houses in which they live. The market value of land
is two to five dollars. The rent is from one dollar and fifty cents to three
dollars an acre. The system of receiving advances on the growing cotton
crop is. diminishing.

In Williamsburg county, the farms on which cotton is planted vary
from one hundred to six hundred acres in size. Mixed farming is prac-
ticed ; the family supplies of the landlord being usually raised at home,
those of the laborer purchased in Charleston ; the tendency to raise sup-
plies is increasing. There are some white laborers, but generally negroes
arc employed ; wages averaging eight dollars a month, are paid monthly
or oftener. A few cotton farms are worked on shares — the terms being
one-quarter of all crops for the landlord, he for the most part advancing
all supplies, for which he is repaid. Land deteriorates under the share;
and improves under the wages system, which latter is better for the
laborer, his energies being more intelligibly directed his labor is more
productive and worth more, besides it induces economy, enables him to
understand fully his financial condition, and he is more satislicd at the

60 THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

end of the year, than when there is a settlement of accounts, the run of
wliich he cannot keep. There is little demand for land ; the price ranges
from two to fifteen dollars an acre. It rents for one to two dollars an
acre; more generally for one-quarter or one-third of the crop. The
system of credits and advances on the growing cotton croj) j)revails largely
from one-half to three-quarters of the farmers, both black and white,
receiving such assistance.

In Clarendon, the usual size of a cotton farm is eighty acres. Mixed
farming is practiced, but much of the supplies consumed is purchased in
Charleston, though the tendency to raise them at home is increasing.
The field labor is performed by native whites and negroes. Laborers are
usually contracted with by the year, and the settlement takes place at its
close. One-third of the crop to the landlord is the usual rate, where
cotton farms are worked on shares, he advancing all sup})lies, for which
he is repaid. The share system is preferred to wages. The condition of
the laborers is good, and about five per cent, of them own houses and
lands. Land is worth from three to five dollars an acre, and rents for
one dollar per acre. The lions for advances on the gro"\ving crops, re-
corded in the Clerk of Court's office for the year ISSO, numbered 2,716,
or one to every farm save nine, and aggregate $283,317.18.

In Horry, the farms average fifty acres, and run from ten acres to two
hundred acres in size. All supplies are made at home. The laborers are
largely white natives, but there are some negroes. Wages five to sixteen
dollars by the month, fifty dollars to $125 by the year. No cotton farms
are worked on shares. The soil improves under culture. Wages system
preferred'. The condition of the laborers is good, and about twelve per
cent, of the negroes own houses and land. Unimproved land sells for one
to two dollars an acre ; very few advances on the crop, and those wholly
for fertilizers. The liens on the growing crop recorded in the Clerk's .
office, 1880, numbered twenty-seven, and aggregate $1,179.80.

TILLAGE AND IMPROVEMENT.

In Colleton county, one-quarter to one-half of the swamp lands are re-
ported as thrown out of cultivation, but none of the lighter uplands. In
Williamsburg, ten to thirty per cent, of the cultivated lands have been
abandoned. In Clarendon, at least one-third of the cultivated lands have
been turned out since the war ; in Horr}'-, very little. These lands all
produce as well as virgin soil when reclaimed and again brought under
cultivation. The depth of plowing is usually four inches with a single
horse plow; sometimes a doid)le horse plow is used, and a de])th of six to
seven inches attained. Subsoiling is little practiced ; fall plowing is es-

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 61

pecially adapted to these light soils that are not run together and packed
by winter rains, but it is not generally practiced, because the weak force
on the farms are scarcely ever sufficiently up with the work to afford the
time. Fallowing is only practiced to the extent of letting fields lie idle
during summer, which it is found greatly benefits them. A rotation of
crops is attempted so far as the exigencies of the cotton crop allow ; by
following cotton with corn, and that in the same year with oat§, sowing
peas on the stubble, and following with cotton again next si)ring. Home
made manures are used, so far as they go, with excellent results. Composts
of muck and stable manures are coming more into use, and the field pea,
either turned under green or allowed to wither on the surface, adds largely
to the fertility ; by these means almost any of the uplands are made to
produce a bale of cotton to the acre. The limited means at the disposal of
the farmers in these regards, in a section where little attention is paid to
corn and cattle, is largely supplemented by the purchase of commercial
fertilizers, especially the Charleston phosphates. In Clarendon, these are
used almost exclusively, but in Colleton they are coming somewhat into
disfavor, and the preference is given to the potash salts. Cotton seed,
which were once thought to be only valuable as a manure for corn, are
now applied with great benefit to cotton, and with the exception of a very
small amount fed to stock, it is all employ etl in this manner; selling at from
ten to fifteen cents a bushel.

PLANTING AND CULTIVATION.

Under the best system the land is broken up broadcast, with single or
double plows, in the winter or early spring, but the prevailing practice is
simply to turn the old beds into the alleys by running the bar of a single-
horse plow to them, making two to four furrows to the bed, the usual
width of the rows being three and a half feet. This leaves an open furrow
in the centre of the old bed, in which the manure is deposited as early as
practicable in February and March. The furrows are then re-covered,
and the dirt thrown on the manure, the bed built up again, and the
land is ready for planting. The seed used belongs to the more prolific
and improved varieties of short staple, and passes under the names of
Dickson's or Herlong's improved, select, or cluster cotton. From one to
three bushels are sown to the acre. Cotton-planters are much used, a
cheap machine, drawn by a mule, rolling on a wheel similar to that of a
wheelbarrow, by the rotation of which motion is imparted to fingers that
keep the seed moving in a hopper containing them, and from which they
fall into the furrow ; a plow in front of the hopper opens a trench to receive
the seed, and a board follows and covers. There is an arrangement to

G2 THE LOWER I'INE liKI/r, OR SAVANNA REGION.

reojulatc the amount of seed sown, and a good hand and nuile will easily
]»lant six acres a day and do it in tlie 1>est manner. The only oljjection to
the use of the macliilie is the difliculty of oljtaining n careful hand to
work it; simple and easy as it is, practically it is found tlioy allow the
seed to give out, plant them too deep, of neglect to cover them — such care-
lessness, which may escape notice at the time, resulting as irreparable loss
in injury to the stand. On this account much seed is sown in a trench
opened on the top of the bed, made with a plow or some implement de-
vised for the purpose, or in holes chopped at proper intervals with a hoe.
The latter method has the advantage of spacing the plants more accu-
rately than can be done after they come up, by chopping them out with a
hoe. Planting takes place about the 10th of April. The seed appear above
ground in five to ten days, altliough when late planted, in dry time,
they may remain in the ground for four weeks, and when the rain
comes, still give a good stand. The work of chopping out the plants
in the drill, to a stand twelve to fifteen inches apart, is commenced
as soon as they are firmly set, that is when they have a height of
five inches, and the third, or first true leaf makes its appearance.
It is desirable to complete the thinning early in June, in order
that the plants may spread when the forms or squares are making
their appearance. The after cultivation consists usually of four hoeings
and four plowings, to keep the plant' free from grass and the surface
soil light and porous. These are completed from the last of July to
the 1st of August. The plant attains a height of ten to fiJteen inches
before blooming, and the first blooms make their appearance from the
1st to 20th of June. The first open bplls are seen from the last of
July to the middle of August. Picking commences from the middle
of xVugust to the 1st of September. By the 10th of November the
cotton is generally all picked. Black frost occurs sometimes as early
as the 20tli of October, but is not counted on until the middle of No-
vember, and it is sometimes deferred as late as the middle or end of
December.

Cotton attains a height of two to four feet, and is most productive at
three feet. Fresh upland, unmanured, yields from 300 to 1,000 pounds
of seed cotton, the average being safely set at 600 pounds. Under good
cultivation, even without manure, five crops may be taken without
diminishing the yield ; 1,200 pounds of seed cotton is thought, on an
average, to yield a bale of 400 pounds of lint, and the estin\ates of the
amount required for this purpose range from 1,000 to 1,300 pounds.
It is thought by some that the staple on old is shorter than on fresh land,
but so nice a point is difficult to decide, and there is no general opinion
upon the subject.

THE LOWER PINE CELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 03

PREPARATION OF THE CROP FOR MARKET.

The cotton is housed or carried to' the gin as fost as picked, and the
object is to prepare it for market with tlie greatest (hspatch. The ginning
season closes about tlie Cliristmas hoUduys. A variety of saw gins — the
Henry, the Brown, and the Winship — are employed. Mr. Grace, of
Colleton, uses the needle gin. They vary in size, from forty to fifty saws,
require, when run by liorse-power, one mule to fifteen saws. About half
the gins are run by steam engines of from six to ten horse-power ; the
balance by horses. The average of lint turned out per hour is '217 pounds,
but it varies from 120 pounds per hour on a forty-saw Winship gin, run
by horse-power, to 400 pounds on the needle gin, run by steam. There
is, also, a variety of presses. The old-fashioned screw is gradually being
replaced by lever presses of cheap construction. Man and horse power
alone are used, four men and one to two horses packing from six to
eight bales a day. Rope has been entirely replaced by iron ties for baling,
and the arrow tie is generally used. Gunny bagging is used, the object
being to get the heaviest in the market. IMuch of it is furnished from a
bagging factory established in Charleston, which produces annually
about the amount consumed in the State. The bales range from 450 to
550 pounds, and the average is 500 pounds. The crop is shipped by
sailing vessel direct to New York from Horry county, at a cost of $1.75
per bale, and all charges, including insurance, commission, &c. &c.,
amount to |3 to $3.50 per bale. Elsewhere, the crop is mostly shipped to
Charleston — if by river, the Santee and Pee Dee, at a cost of $1 per bale;
if by rail, on the Northeastern or Charleston and Savannah railway, at
$1.25 per bale The total cost of marketing, including freight and all
charges, when sent to Charleston, is reported at from $3 to $5 per bale.

The total cost of production is stated at seven cents per pound, at six
cents to seven cents, at five cents to ten cents, varying with the season,
and at eight cents.

From the following table, taken from the statements of planters as to
the cost of the labor and material expended in cultivating an acre of
cotton, it would appear that this averages $31.32 in the lower pine belt.
Such cultivation should produce a 500 pound bale, but allowing for the
vicissitudes of season, and taking 450 pounds of lint as a fair yield under
this plan of operations, putting this at ten cents at the gin house, we have
a net profit of $13.68 per acre, making the cost of lint cotton per pound,
6 1-10 Qents, or a little less than the above estimates. This profit per
acre i.^ not credited with the value of the 1,000 pounds of cotton seed
produced, amounting to about $10 more.

64

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

Cost of each Item of Labor and Material expended in the Cultivation of

an Acre of Cotton :

Rent

Fencing, Repairs and Interest
Knocking stalks ......

Pulling and burning stalks .

Other clearing uj)

Listing . .

Bedding with hoes

Breaking up

Harrowing

Barring old beds

Splitting middles

Reversing

Laying off

Commercial manures ....
Home-made manures ....

Ap[)lying manures

Bedding up

Splitting middles

Knocking off beds

Planting — opening

dropping. . , .

covering. . . . "

Replanting

Seed .....

00$ 3
00 1
20

00$ 2
OOi 1
25 . .

1 00

25

50
25

Thinning

Plowing ! 1

Hoeing j 2

Picking ] 5

Hauling to gin

Ginning j 3

Management i 1

Wear of implements \

Bagging and ties j 1

16

ool

00
65^
30|
30:
15|

20!
20'

40j

B

OOi

60 5
lOi
OOi

00 . .
40! . .
()(

25
00'
OOi
501

50;

25
25

25:
25;

40
50
25
00
60
10
37

00
00

25
50

20
40

20

2 50
1 25

25
30
32
10
40
20
10
10
45
10
1 00

3 00

00
00
50
00

1 00 1 00

Total ■ . . . . |$31 851$35 97|$26 1^

DISEASES, INSECTS, ENEMIES, &C.

It may be safely said that more injury is done to cotton in this section
by grass than by anything else, and the only remedy that can be devised
against this is hoeing and plowing. Crab grass is the chief intruder. In

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 65

warm and wet seasons the cotton sometimes grows too much to weed, when
heavily manured. Topping is tried as a remedy, but it is thought that un-
der-drainage would be more eflfective. " Sore shin " is supposed to result
from bruising the plant from careless hoeing, and is not a trouble of
much consequence here. Shedding occurs in extremes of heat and cold.
Rust and blight make their appearance late in Jul}^ and August ; they
are attributed to the exhaustion of some elements of the soil, and potash
is very popular as a remedy ; they are likely to occur on coarse, sandy,
ill-drained soil. Caterpillar is seldom hurtful, and Paris green has been
used successfully for its destruction.

ABSTRACT OF THE REPORTS OF TOWNSHIP CORRESPOND-
ENTS IN THE LOWER PINE BELT.

HAMPTON COUNTY.

Coosawhatchie Township: Pine uplands — light, porous, gray, sandy
loam, with yellow sand, sometimes with yellow and red clay subsoil.
Swamp lands — vegetable mould or fine alluvial deposits, resting on blue
mud. About one per cent, under cultivation. Land for sale at from two
to ten dollars per acre ; improved land rents at from one dollar to three
dollars per acre. Phosphate rocks found, but not developed. Clay of
good quality for brick making. Summer pasturage of native grasses
good ; fine growth of cane in swamps for winter pasturage. Little at-
tention paid to stock. Very little white labor in the lower, but a good
deal in the upper portion of the township. — H. D. Burnett, Grahamville,
S. C.

Peeples Township: Uplands — light, sandy loam, with clay in some
sections ; subsoil generally a coarse, 3'ellow sand, under which is found
red clay, with strata of coarse, white gravel and quicksand. Price of
land, one dollar to five dollars. Rents, one dollar per acre. Wages of
labor, fifty cents to one dollar per day. One-half of field labor performed
by whites. — J. H. Steimage, Jr., Early Branch, S. C.

COLLETON COUNTY.

AdarrCs Run : Level, light, sandy loam, on dark sandy subsoil. Depth
to water in wells, five to ten feet. Price of land, three dollars to five
dollars per acre. Wages of day labor, seventy-five cents for men, fifty
cents for women. One twentieth of field work is done by whites. Marl
in abundance.
5

66 THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

Cam : Lands level, flat, nio.^tly elay loam, sometimes sandy, yellow
clay subsoil. Corn yields ten to thirty bushels per acre ; rice, ten to forty
bushels per acre. Much land is rented, little for sale, price two dollars to
four dollars per acre. Much ash, poplar and cypress timber in Four-Hole
swamp. Little attention paid to stock. Day wages, forty cents.

George's : Lands level ; two-thirds fine sandy loam, light gray color, four
to six inches to sandy subsoil, resting on clay. Corn yields ten bushels,
rice fifteen bushels, and sugar cane 300 gallons syrup per acre. One-third
in swamps and bays unreclaimed. Price of land $2 to $5 per acre. Clay
for brick. Three water-powers, one working, the other two abandoned.
Wages forty to fifty cents a day. One-third of field work done by whites.

Gloven' : Fifteen per cent, pine uplands, barely rolling enough for good
drainage. Soil coarse sandy loam, resting on red clay, with a white coarse
sand below it. Ten per cent, abandoned rice fields. Soil, vegetable mould
two to four feet deep, resting on stiff blue clay ; easily reclaimable by
cleaning out the old canals and ditches, which, while serving to drain
and irrigate the land, would also give water transportation for the pro-
duce. Seventy-five per cent, swamps and hammocks unreclaimed, but
very fertile, yielding, when fresh, fifty bushels corn per acre, and yield-
ing now twenty-five bushels to thirty bushels corn, after being worked
every year without manure since 1852. Nearly all the land owned by
non-residents, and for sale ; rents when improved for two dollars per acre.
Sells for cash at from fifty cents to two dollars per acre. Lower portion
underlaid by phosphate rock, but not developed. Stock do well, but little
attention is paid to it. Wages fifty cents a day. One-tenth of the farms
worked by white men. — H. C. Glover, Walterboro, S. C.

CHARLESTON COUNTY.

St. Thomas and St. Denis : Once one of the wealthiest and most popu-
lous parishes of the Colony and State, now scarcely one per cent, of the
land under cultivation. Uplands level, light, sandy loam, resting on
clay. Natural growth — pine, live oak, palmetto. Swamp lands unre-
claimed, except the rice plantations on Cooper river. Industries — three
brick -yards, five turpentine stills, and wood for fuel boated to Charleston.
Phosphate rock abounds in AVando river and the adjacent swamps, not
developed.

St. John's Berkeley : Much of the land unreclaimed swamp ; there is a
belt of open prairie near the Santee, running from Orangeburg to the
St. Stephen's line. Soil, light, fine sandy loam, resting on yellow clay ; at
six inches to twelve inches depth below chalk and marl are found. Lime
rock crops out on Santee river, that hardens on exposure and might be

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 67

utilized for building material ; water, near the river, limestone ; inland,
free stone. Price of land, $1 to $5 an acre. One place sold for $8. Very
little field work by whites ; negroes hire at from twenty cents to forty
cents per day, or $50 to $75 by 'the year, or work two days in the week
for a house and as much land as they can cultivate, or on shares, the land-
owner furnishing all except manures, and taking half Timber abundant
for lumber, staves, shingles, hoops, &c.

St. Stephen's : Lands along the river rolling, for • the rest level and
swampy ; soil, a sandy loam, resting, at depth of six inches to twenty
inches, on subsoil of stiff red clay. Much unreclaimed swamp, composed of
alluvial deposits and rich vegetable mould. Some marl stone found on the
river, with some green sand. Price of land, $1 to $5; per diem wages,
average forty cents ; the long staple cotton, known as Santees, formerly
grown here, neglected now; woods grass, swamp cane and marsh
furnish a good range for stock, to which little attention is paid.

St. Andrew's : Fine, dark, gray, sandy loam, resting, at six to ten inches
depth, on blue clay, underlaid by phosphate rock and marl. No land for
sale ; rents at from $1 to $3 per acre ; eighty per cent, not under cultiva-
tion ; cane, woods grass, and swamp marsh furnish a good range for stock.

CLARENDON COUNTY.

Mott's Township : Three-fourths level, fine, gray, sand}'' loam, six inches
to twelve inches to yellow sand (sometimes clay) subsoil, clay found one
to two feet beneath surface ; one-fourth white, sandy soil, and stiff clay
land, or black flat land. Yields 700 pounds of seed cotton, five to twenty-
five bushels of corn, ten to twenty-five bushels of rice. Land sells from
$2 to $10 an acre, and rents for from $1 to $5 ; unimproved water-powers
on Lynch's river and Douglass swamp. Two-thirds of field work done
by whites ; wages average sixty-two and a half cents by the day.

^S*^. PauVs : 1st. Light sandy soil ; near the river swamp, not subject to
overflow ; contains lime, and is very productive. 2d. Inland from last, a
belt of stiff clay land, called " bay land," produces a bale of cotton to the
acre, without manure. 3d. The highlands, comprising the body of
the township, known under the name of " clay lands," low and somewhat
rolling, a sandy loam with small gravel in it, subsoil, yellow clay. Marl
is found four to eight feet below low water mark ; yields 700 pounds of
seed cotton, ten to twenty bushels corn, and the same of rice. Sugar-cane
two to three hundred gallons of syrup per acre ; potatoes two to four hun-
dred bushels. Half the landholders reside outside the township ; land
mostly rented to negro farmers for four hundred pounds of lint for one
mule farm ; two hundred pounds for one ox farm. White farmers do their

68 THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

own field work ; labor only to be had by tlie job or by the day, at forty
cents to one dollar. Land sells cheap for cash ; on time at from $4 to $6
per acre.

Manning : Surface level ; two-tliirds uplands, fine dark sandy loam, rest-
ing on subsoil of yellow sand with yellow clay at one to twelve feet, beneath
which a blue clay is found ; alluvial bottoms. Virgin upland soil yields
fifteen bushels corn, or six hundred pounds seed cotton, or two hundred and
fifty bushels potatoes per acre. Price of land, one dollar to twenty dollars
per acre. Besides clays, kaolin, etc., there are peats of good quality, marl
and lime rock. Wages of day labor, fifty cents to one dollar. One-third
of farm work done by whites.

Sammy Swamp: 1st. Light, dark gray, sandy loam. 2d. Reddish
clay and sand loam, with clay subsoil. 3d. Low, flat, sandy loam, with
a gray clay subsoil ; wet, but produces well when drained. No. 2, the
most productive, yielding, with manure, two thousand pounds of seed
cotton. Price of land, one dollar to ten dollars per acre. Day wages,
forty cents to one dollar ; one-half the field labor performed by whites.
Marl, as a shell rock, underla3^s this township at a depth of five feet.

WILLIAMSBURG COUNTY.

Hips Township : Lands low, flat, level ; uplands fine, dark gray, sandy
loam, with yellow sand subsoil ; clay found at a depth of eighteen inches ;
swamp lands unreclaimed ; yield of cotton, two hundred to four hundred
pounds per acre ; corn, eight bushels ; rice, fifteen bushels ; rent for one
dollar and fifty cents per acre ; can be bought for cash at three dollars to
four dollars per acre ; two water-powers unimproved ; amount of white
labor increasing ; day wages fifty cents ; abundance of yellow pine, oak,
cypress, etc., for lumber, staves and shingles.

Scranton : Low, level lands, with fine, gray, sandy soil ; subsoil of
yellow sand, beneath which is fine, stiff clay, overlying quicksand ; four
per cent, under cultivation ; yield — corn ten bushels ; rice, twenty bushels ;
potiitoes, one to four hundred bushels ; cotton, eight hundred to twelve
hundred pounds in the seed ; price, from one dollar and fifty cents to
tJiree dollars per acre ; rents for one dollar, or one-fourth of the crop.
Strata of marl occur ; some valuable water-powers ; turpentine, shingles
and staves are gotten ; abundant timber, including black walnut ; wages,
a day, fifty cents for men, thirty cents for women ; five-sixths of the work
done by whites.

Camp Ridge: Lands low, level ; large swanps unreclaimed; upland
fine, sandy loam, gray and dark, with yellow sand subsoil, under which
occurs clay and sometimes strata of marl ; about one per cent, cultivated.

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 69

Forests yield staves, shingles, yellow pine lumber and turpentine. Yield
of corn, two to twenty-five bushels ; rice, five to fifty bushels ; seed cotton,
two hundred to eighteen hundred pounds. Land sells from one dollar
and fifty cents to three dollars per acre ; improved land rents from one
dollar to three dollars per acre ; lands rented mostly to negro tenants, a
house and six to twelve acres given for two days' work in the week for
ten months of the year ; day wages, from twenty cents to seventy -five
cents ; half of the field work done by whites.

Suttin's : Near the river, lands rolling, fine, dark sand ; six inches to
clay subsoil ; wells twenty -five to fifty feet deep. Further off, low, flat,
light sandy soil, one foot to clay subsoil ; wells, four to ten feet deep ;
strata of marl rock occur ; white oak staves, shingles, ton timber, &c.,
abound in the forests, besides turpentine. Yield, without fertilizers, six
to twenty bushels corn, one-half to one bale cotton. Turpentine lands
sell for one dollar and fifty cents to two dollars per acre ; other lands,
three dollars to ten dollars per acre. Day wages, fifty cents to one
dollar ; nine-tenths of the field labor white, though the negroes are one
and one-half to one of the Avhites.

Mingo : The uplands level, fine sandy loam, gray to darkish and black,
with clay subsoil. Swamps yield fifty to eighty bushels corn per acre ;
rice, twenty to fifty bushels ; uplands, ten bushels corn, one-half bale
cotton, without manure ; sweet potatoes, one hundred to three hundred
bushels per acre. Naval stores, white oak staves, cypress shingles, and
other forest products abound. Day wages, fifty cents on farms, one
dollar in turpentine business ; land rents from one dollar to two dollars
per acre, sells for two dollars to three dollars. Three-fourths of field work
by whites. Yellow calcareous sands and marl occur.

MARION COUNTY.

Britton^s Neck : Most of the land river swamps or inland swamps,
known as bays or back swamps ; not reclaimed, but might be. The up-
lands are pine ridges and flats, a gray, sandy loam ; four to twelve inches
to subsoil of yellow clay ; produce well. Cypress timber and other swamp
woods in abundance ; cattle raising much followed formerly. Day wages,
fifty cents ; much, if not most, of the field work done by white men.

HORRY COUNTY.

Gallivant'' s Ferry : Three-fourths of the land is a fine, dark gray, sandy
loam, six inches to twelve inches to subsoil of red, less frequently of
yellow clay, below which pipe clays of various colors occur. One-fourth

70 THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION.

swamp land of great fertility, but unimproved. Yield, three hundred
to fifteen hundred pounds seed cotton per acre, five to thirt}^ bushels corn,
fifteen to thirty bushels rice. Nine-tenths of the labor performed by
whites, and directed principally to collecting forest products, timber,
staves, shingles, naval stores, &c.

GEORGETOWN COUNTY.

Planiet'sville. Large inland swamps, not cleared ; pine upland, white
to gray colored sandy soil, Avith a subsoil of sand, sometimes of red clay ;
tide water rice lands, alluvial deposits, four to fifty feet thick. Price of
uplands, one dollar to fifteen dollars per acre ; of rice lands, three dollars
to fifty dollars per acre. Wages fifty cents per day.

CHAPTER IV.

THE UPPER PINE BELT.

LOCATION, PHYSICAL FEATURES AND GEOLOGY.

The upper pine belt of South Carolina is sometimes called the middle
country, as distinguished from the upper country and the low country,
between which it lies. It has also been known as the central cotton
region of Carolina, having formerly led, as it still does, in some regards,
in the culture of that staple. It may be defined as that portion of the
State lying between an elevation above the sea of 130 and 250 feet. It
crosses the State, in a northeasterly direction, from the Savannah river to
the North Carolina line. To the south it is bounded by the lower pine
belt, where the fiat, open piney woods, with an undergrowth of coarse
grasses, gradually gives place to the higher and more rolling pine lands,
with an undergrowth of oak and hickory. To the north, the upper pine
belt sweeps round the feet of the interrupted range of high red hills
traversing the State, or rises, in the intervals of this range, to the still more
elevated sand hills. It comprises, generally, the counties of Barnwell,
Orangeburg, Sumter, Darlington, Marlboro and Marion. The northern half
of Hampton and the northwest corner of Colleton are included in it. Along
the rivers, it penetrates northward beyond the limits of the counties named.
As uplands, on the first level above the swamps, it extends, in Aiken
county, as high up the Savannah as Old Fort Moore, at Sand Bar ferry ;
in Richland, it reaches along the Congaree nearly to Columbia, em-
bracing«the wide, level area of Lower Township, lying between that river
and the sand hills ; along the Wateree, between the swamps and the High
Hills of Santee, it passes into Kershaw county, and along the Great Pee
Dee it passes up among the sand hills of Chesterfield.

72 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

The land is level, without being flat, and is sufficiently rolling to insure
good drainage for the most part. While the general slope follows the
southeasterly course of the rivers, the land rises more rapidly in the Avest,
which gives the region a marked easterly slope in addition to its south-
easterly inclination. Thus, in the west, Appleton, on the Port Royal
railroad, 46 miles distant from tide water, has an elevation of 259 feet,
while Orangeburg, on the South Carolina railway, 65 miles from tide
water, has only the same elevation, and Wedgefield, on the Manchester
and Wilmington road, 74 miks from tide water, has an elevation of only
236 feet ; these being the highest points on the respective roads. The

WATER COURSES

rising in this region, or in the sand hill region above, are clear and rapid,
while the larger rivers passing through it, that come from the mountains,
are turbid. The latter iurnii^h this region with A'aluable facilities for the
transportation of produce. On the western side, the Savannah is navi-
gable to Augusta for steamboats of two hundred to three hundred tons
burden. The Salkehatchie river, rising in Barnwell county, might be
rendered navigable to the county seat, b}^ ■ removing logs. The two
Edistos might be rendered navigable for small steamboats, and if the
contemplated canal, connecting these streams with the Ashley river, were
opened, it would become an important avenue for the cheap transporta-
tion of produce. Steamboats carrying eight hundred to one thousand
bales of cotton have passed up the Santee and its confluents, the Con-
garee and Wateree, as far as Granby (two miles below Columbia),
and to Camden. In the east, the Great Pee Dee is navigated to Cheraw,
one hundred and twenty miles in an air line from the sea, by steamers ;
for smaller craft, Lynch's river (the Kaddipah) and Black Creek were
navigable, the one eighty, and the other thirty miles from where they
join the Great Pee Dee. The Little Pee Dee is also navigable for vessels
of considerable burden. Besides the large streams mentioned, tliere are
numerous smaller ones in this region, flowing with a rapid current,
through healthy localities heavily timbered with pine, and capable of
furnishing water-powers sufficient for the largest factories. Such are the
Three Runs creeks and the Little Salkehatchie river, in Barnwell, with
many smaller mill creeks ; in Orangeburg, such are Four Hole, Caw Caw,
Halfway, Bull, and Dean swamps, with many lesser mill streams (on the
ridge between the North and South Edisto, springs of tine drinking water

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 73

furnish a water-power sufficient for grinding and ginning, a few hundred
feet from the spot where they issue from the earth). In Sumter, such
are Black river, Scape, and Big and Little Rafting creeks ; in Darlington,
Cedar (where a cotton factory was erected in 1812 by General Williams),
Sparrow, High Hill, Swift, Dake, Jeffry's, Middle, and Brickhold creeks,
with others ; in Marlboro, Crooked, Beaver Dam, Three Runs, Naked,
Muddy, White's, Phill's, Husband's, and Hick's creeks ; in Marion, Cat-
fish, Ashpole, Buck, Sweet, Big, Smith, and Pope creeks. There are
numerous small lakes, chiefly in the swamps, but sometimes on the up-
lands ; in Barnwell, there is one, a beautiful sheet of clear water, two
miles in circumference, with a beach-like shore, affording a fine drive,
and surrounded on all sides by high and healthy pine uplands. The
sweep wells, the bucket being attached to a pole, fastened to a long lever
balanced near its middle, are characteristic of this region ; generally they
are from ten to twenty feet in depth, with only a short wooden curb on
top, for the rest uncurbed, being dug through a fine, compact, yellow or
red clay, to a stratum of quicksand, in which an abundant supply of
pure and cool water is found.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

West of the Black river, in Sumter county, the line where the buhr-stone
formation passes under the Santee marls, traverses the centre of the upper
pine belt. North of it occur the silicified shells of the buhr-stone ; south
of it, the coralline marls, both belonging to the eocene. East of the
stream named, and in the direction of Darlington courthouse, occur
numerous outcroppings of the miocene marls, in Sumter and Darlington
counties. Lower down, in Darlington and Marion counties, on the
waters of Lynch 's river and of the Great and Little Pee Dee, extensive
beds of marl of the cretaceous formation of the secondary make their ap-
pearance.

Commencing on the Savannah river, a few miles above the mouth of
the lower Three Runs, Mr. Tuomey traces the upper limit of the Santee
marls to Tinker's creek, the dividing line of Aiken and Barnwell counties ;
thence, southeasterly, to Binnaker's bridge, on the South Edisto river ;
thence to Caw Caw swamp, north of Orangeburg, and across to Halfway
swamp, where, below the site of Stuart's old mill, the most satisfactory
locality is found for observing the passage of the buhr-stone formation
under the green sand, overlaid by thick strata of Santee marls ; thence
to the Santee river, and across that stream into Clarendon and Sumter
counties. As an average, the Santee marls are found to contain 88t^j per
cent, of carbonate of lime, and were formerly in considerable use as an

74 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

amendment to the soil. Quantities of excellent lime were also obtained
from them by burning, especially by Dr. Jamison, on Caw Caw swamp.
The green sand marls intercalated with them contain 30 per cent, of car-
bonate of lime, and 22 per cent, of green sand.

The marls of Sumter and Darlington, examined by Mr. Tuomey, were
found to contain 60 to 70 per cent, of carbonate of lime, with traces of
phosphate of lime. Larger quantities of the latter are said to have been
found here since attention has been directed to the value of phosphates.

SOILS.

The upper pine belt contains something over 6,000 square miles, about
one-sixth of which is swamp and the remainder uplands.

The uplands consist of a fine, light, gray, sand}^ loam, resting on a sub-
soil of red or yellow clay. In the east, in Marlboro and Marion, it is
usually found at only three inches to four inches. In the west it is often
deeper, and a subsoil of yellow or red sand intervenes between it and the
surface soil ; even here the depth to clay is seldom as much as two feet.

The following are the anal3'ses of these soils, made by Eugene A. Smith,
of Alabama, for the Tenth United States Censi?is :

Insoluble matter .... 93.695

Soluble Silica 1.483

Potash 0.076

Soda 0.060

Lime 0.114

Magnesia 0.202

Bn. Oxide of Manganese . 0.020

Peroxide of Iron .... 0.737

Alumina 1.846

Phosphoric acid 0.036

Sulphuric acid 0.106

Water and organic matter 1.771

(2)

(3)

(4)

91.230

96.000

84.754

2.489

0.950

4.435

0.092

0.040

0.192

0.046

0.027

0.069

0.092

0.052

0.068

0.046

0.062

0.294

0.105

0.023

0.036

0.760

0.564

1.997

2.389

0.456

4.854

0.125

0.049

0.022

0.160

0.063

0.236

•3.091

1.561

3.312

100.625

99.843

100.269

2.245

1.441

4.518

Total 100.146

Hydroscopic moisture @

75° F 2.512

No. 1 is from the Johnson field, on the Cathwood plantation of P. F.
Hammond, in Aiken county, near the Savannah river, the soil being taken
uniformly, as all the samples were, to the depth of twelve inches. The

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 75

original growth was long leaf pine, with undergrowth of post oak and
black jack runners. The land was cleared in 1835 and has been planted
continuously in cotton for the last thirteen years, yielding from 1,000 to
1,200 pounds seed cotton average on two hundred acres last year. The
cotton being a long staple variety of uplands, selling for two to five cents
a pound above ordinary uplands and not very prolific.

No. 2, from Gov. Hagood's plantation, near Barnwell C. H. ; mulatto
soil ; original growth, long leaf pine ; oak and hickory undergrowth ;
yield 764 pounds seed cotton, average for ten years on one hundred and
forty acres.

No. 3, field of Hon. C. S. McCall, near Bennettsville ; original growth
long leaf pine, with undergrowth of oak and dogwood ; has been planted
for two or three generations ; yield for several years past, one bale per
acre.

No. 4, virgin forest soil, from red clay ridge, near Marion and Marlboro
line, on Donohoe, plantation of W. D. Johnson ; growth, large hickory,
oak and pine ; similar land under present culture averages for large fields
a bale of cotton to the acre one year with another, when planted for a
succession of years in the same crop.

The following analyses are by Prof Shepard, and were published in
Tuomey's Agricultural Survey of South Carolina, in the year 1848. No.

1 is from the cotton lands below Columbia, in Richland county ; and No.

2 is from near Bennettsville, Marlboro county :

(1) (2)

Organic matter 9.00 5.40

Silica 76.50 77.30

Alumina 6.60 4f80

Oxide of iron 2.40 5.00

Lime 1.00 0.80

Magnesia 0.50 1.00

Potash and soda trace 0.00

Phosphates 0.00 0.00

Water and loss 4.00 4.70

100.00 100.00

The Pee Dee lands were little esteemed formerly, and seventy-five years
ago many of them were considered so impoverished by cultivation as to
have been abandoned by their owners for the fresh lands of Alabama.
Under the present system of culture they are the most productive and
certain in the State. As the above analyses show no superiority of the

76 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

chemical constituents of these soils, it must be stated that their greater
productiveness can only be attributed mainly to their excellent and ju-
dicious management, by which lands, naturally yielding only three to
four hundred pounds of seed cotton, are made to give a bale of cotton one
year witli another. A good, though not a thorough, drainage, by open
ditches, has lowered the water level in those lands at least four feet. The
physical properties of the soil lend themselves readily to improvement.
The sandy surface soil, although thin, is very fine, and the clay is of so
fine a texture as to be usually described as floury. It is noteworthy, also,
that fresh land of a grayish color, or where the plow turns up the subsoil
of a yellowish or reddish cast, blackens on exposure, and becomes darker
year by year as they are cultivated. The exemption from drought, which
these lands in large measure enjoy, while greatly due to their drainage
and good tilth, may depend somewhat on the body of live water in the
quicksand which underlies them at a depth of fifteen to twent3'-five feet,
whose inhaustion, in hot dry seasons, through the fine texture of the in-
tervening clays, is not unlikely. At any rate this locality rarely sutlers
from drought.

The swamps, covering 1,000 square miles of this region, are of two
descriptions :

1st. The river swamps. The soil is of a mulatto or mahogany color,
and is a heavy alluvial loam, rendered lighter sometimes by an admix-
ture of fine sand and mica, whence they are called isinglass lands. Such
swamps are found on the banks of the Savannah, the Santee, the Con-
garee, Wateree and Pee Dee rivers, varying from narrow strips to broad
bottoms six and eight miles in breadth. The following is an analysis made
for the patent office, by C. T. Jackson, M. D., of Boston, in 1857, of the
alluvial soil of the Savannah river :

Silica 78.000

Alumina 10.040

Lime 0.260

Magnesia 0.200

Potash 1.000

Soda 0.730

Peroxide of iron and oxide of manganese 4.850

Phosphoric acid 0.310

Sulphuric acid trace.

Chlorine 0.050

Crenic, apocrenic and humic acids 0.400

Insoluble vegetable matter 4.300

100.140

THE UPPER PINE BELT.

77

The body of these swamps lie below the point where the above sample
was obtained, and are of course more fertile. Such soil, well cultivated,
yields, without manure, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds of seed cotton, and from
forty to seventy-five bushels of corn. These lands were being rapidly
cleared and cultivated anterior to the war. Since then they have been to
a great extent abandoned for the higher and more easily tilled uplands.
The freshet of 1865 broke the dams on the Great Pee Dee, which excluded
the freshets, and they have never been repaired. These lands are subject
to overflow, and the erection of levees for protection has been only prac-
ticed here and there by large planters. In the absence of records show-
ing the risk from freshets to these lands, the following extract from a
plantation record, kept by James H. Hammond, is taken. The island
field is at Silver Bluff, on Savannah river, and lies rather lower than the
average of the Savannah river swamps. It received no manure, and be-
ing small and of little moment in the larger operations of the plantation,
it had hardly average care bestowed upon it. It was planted continuously
in corn and pumpkins (no record kept of the latter crop, which was always
abundant). The years not entered are due to the absence of the proprie-
tor, the land being planted as usual :

Year. Acres Planted.

1838 25

1839 25

1840 15

1841 20

1842 25

1843 20

1844 25

1845 25

1847 10

1848 25

1849 . . 25

1850 25

1851 25

1852 25

1854 30

1855 30

1859 30

1860 25

Crop.

925

bushels,

950

a

450

u

675

(t

2,075

li

895

it

850

<(

500

a

832

a

974

((

1,000

(I

250

((

587

((

800

a

600

<(

240

a

900

((

600

((

Giving an average yield of thirty-five bushels corn per acre. During
these twenty -two years only one crop was seriously damaged by freshets.

78 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

The great August freshet of 1852 injured one-third of the crop so that it
could only be fed to hogs. Tlie fluctuations of yield from eight to eighty-
five was due to the seasons to a very small extent, and resulted chiefly
from neglect of this field for larger interests.

2d. The other descriptions of swamps arc known as bays, or upland
swamps, and creek bottoms. They occur on the smaller streams, and
rarely exceed two miles in width. They are also found in bodies of seve-
ral thousand acres in the pine lands, on the second levels from the rivers —
probably ancient lakes, choked up with water-growth. The soil is black,
consisting largely of decomposed vegetable matter, with a depth of three
to fifteen feet, resting usually on white sand. The following analysis was
made by Professor Shepard, of a sample taken from the swamp of South
Edisto river :

Organic matter 28.00

Silica 60.00

Alumina 4.00

Oxide of iron 3.40

Lime 0.50

Potash and soda trace

Water and loss 5.10

100.00

From 1845 to 1860, a good deal in the way of clearing these lands was
done. Since then they have been much neglected, of necessity, and are
relapsing into their original state. They are not suitable for cotton, but
produce large crops of corn. The Cowden plantation gave for twelve
years, without manure of any sort, an average yield of thirty-five bushels
of corn per acre, on 600 to 900 acres in one field. One year 600 acres gave
an average of sixty-two and one-third bushels of corn per acre. Now it
does not produce even enough to feed the stock of the negro renters, who are
cultivating patches of cotton on its margin, owing to the abandonment of
all drainage.

Under the system of agriculture, at present pursued, the chief atten-
tion is paid to the more easily tilled, but less fertile uplands.^ Neverthe-
less, there is in the upper pine belt a body of 600,000 acres of productive
corn land, now almost wholly neglected, but once cultivated with great
profit, when corn was worth only fifty to sixty cents a bushel, capable now
of yielding fifty per cent, more than the present entire corn crop of the
State.

The latest Sthe earliest Fros
by James H

ExPLANATiON OF Tabi>e. — Take the 1st column, the Year 1832, am
there was frost on March 7th, and lower down, in same column, on Xo
first on November 11th, and so on through each year.

The latest a the earliest Frost in each year j'rom a plantation book of record kept
by James H.Hammond near Silver Bluff S.C.

Explanation- op Table— Take the 1st column, the Year 1832, and il will be seen bv the heavy lines (which denote the clay on whirh Ihe frost felDtliat
there was frost on March 7th, anJ lower down, in same column, on Xovcmberlltb.showins: thai the hist frost that fcll in 1S32 was on March 7tli, and the
first on November Utli. and so on through each year.

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 79

CLIMATE.

The upper pine belt is a peculiarly healthy region, and throughout its
extent Mills and Simms, in their statistics, have enumerated a remarkable
number of instances of longevity. There are no prevailing diseases
unless it be a mild type of malarial fever during autumn, along the
river swamps. The upland swamps not being subject to overflow, and
resting on sand, are nat troubled with these complaints when drained and
cultivated. The seasons most favorable for cotton are those in which
there is a dry, cold winter to facilitate the preparation of the land. Light
showers in April to insure germination. A dry and warm May and June,
not only to render the destruction of the grass easy, but, as the cotton-
planters term it, to " cook the cotton plant" ; hot weather, and even
drought, at this stage of growth, increasing its productiveness. In July
and August, hot weather, and seasonable showers, to keep up the strength
of the plant and promote fructification. A dry fall for picking. The
length of time between the latest frost in the spring and the earliest frost
in autumn has an important bearing on the crop, and, in the absence of
other records, the preceding table is given.

Although the cotton planting during these years was sometimes com-
pleted as early as the 30th of March, irreparable injury to the stand was
only inflicted once, in 1849, when snow fell on the loth of April, and was
succeeded by cold weather. Nor do the autumn frosts always destroy the
plant completely ; blossoms at Christmas and New Year are not unfre-
quently seen, and there are occasionally winters of such mildness that
the old cotton roots throw out fresh shoots in the spring, and there are rare
instances where fields lying out have thus borne a crop the second year, that
was worth gathering.

GROWTH.

The early settlers in this region were stock raisers. They kept up
the Indian practice of burning off the woods during the winter. The
destruction of the undergrowth by this means favored the growth of
grasses, and numerous herds of almost Avild cattle and horses found abun-
dant pasturage, chiefly upon what was known as the wild oat, and the
wild pea-vine. The cattle were sometimes slaughtered for their hides and
tallow. The names of many townships and neighborhoods still testify to
this primitive industry, as Steer Pen, Steerpoint, Horse Pen, and Pen Cor-
ner. The uplands were covered, as they still are, with a large growth of
yellow pine, but a deer might then have been seen, in the vistas made by
their smooth stems, a distance of half a mile, where now, since the dis-
continuance of the spring and autumn fires, it could not be seen fifteen

80 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

paces for the thick growth of oak and hickory that has taken the land.
Among the many varieties of oaks, the live oak does not appear, except
as a planted tree ; the water oak, however, attains perfection, covering with
its evergreen foliage, not unfrequently, an area of half an acre, and meas-
uring eight to ten feet through at the root. This is the northern limit of
the magnolia in its wild state, and of the gray moss. The swamp woods
are cypress, white oak, gum, ash, liickory, beech, elm, and black walnut.
Besides the pine, there is on the upland, dogwood, liickory and eight or
ten varieties of oak, among which are tlie forked leaf blackjack, indica-
tive here of a dry and thirsty soil ; and the round leaf blackjack, showing
a moister and more fruitful soil. The olive, the Italian chestnut, and
pine, varieties of mulberry, the fig, peaches, apples, pears, pomegran-
ites, plums, pecan nuts, English walnuts, grapes, &c., are successfully
grown.

PRODUCTIONS.

The staple crops are cotton, corn, oats, ry6 (the southern variety), and
wheat, to a limited extent ; peanuts, yielding an average of forty bushels per
acre, sweet potatoes and rice. The culture of indigo and tobacco has been
abandoned, though once found profitable. Considerable attention is paid
in some localities to forest products — turpentine, pine timber, cypress
shingles, and white oak staves. Little attention is paid to stock raising.
Ninety to ninety-five per cent, of the work stock, oxen excepted, are im-
ported. Cattle, hogs and sheep depend almost entirely for their support
upon such food as the range furnishes, with as little (or less) looking after
as the first settlers bestowed on their wild herds. Mills gives the stock
in Orangeburg county, in 1825, as follows : cattle, 25,000 ; sheep, 10,000 ;
swine, 50,000. In the census of 1880 it stands : cattle, 16,573 ; sheep,
5,700 ; swine, 37,742 — a decline in the total of 20,000, notwithstanding
the population has increased from 15,563, at that time, to 40,995 in 1880,
agriculture remaining still their chief pursuit. Besides clay for bricks
and marl (except a deposit of iron ore near High Hill creek, Orangeburg),
no minerals of value have been discovered in this region. The Fee Dee
is the last river to the south where herring is caught in large numbers.
Shad in the spring, and sturgeon.and rockfish in the summer and autumn,
ascend all the rivers in this region, except that shad never enter the
waters of the Little Pee Dee, notwithstanding they are clear and deep like
those of the Edisto.

STATISTICS.

The upper pine belt covers about 6,230 square miles, and has a popu-
lation of 221,409, or 35.5 to the square mile, bearing in this regard about
the same proportion to the other regions of the State that it did in the

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 81

enumeration of 1870. Tlie percentage of colored population is sixty
against sixty-three in 1870.

The area of tilled land is 948,521 acres, being 152 acres to the square
mile, or nearly one-fourth of the entire surface. It is 4.2 acres per capita,
and twenty-one acres to ' the head of work stock. These lands being of
easy tillage, not unfrequently forty-five acres, exclusive of small grain, is
well cultivated to the mule. This is an increase of 167,497 acres over
the enumeration of 1870, by no means proportionate to the increase
in the population since that date. More than one-third, or 358,505 acres,
is in cotton, which is nine and a third per cent, of the entire surface, and
twenty-six per cent, of the cotton acreage of the State. It is ten acres to
the work animal, and one and a half acres per capita of the population ;
418,417 acres are in grain crops of all kinds, including corn, small grain
and rice ; 169,79(3 acres are in fallow and in other crops ; as fallow is not
regularly practiced in the husbandry here pursued, and as the other crops
include only sugar cane, potatoes, orchards and gardens; almost exclu-
sively for local use, and consequently small, this figure includes some of
the corn lands whose culture has been so largely abandoned, but which
are not yet entirely grown up.

The farms number 19,649, averaging nearly fifty acres of tilled land to
the farm, which is the largest average in the State. Their relation, how-
ever, to the population remains about the same as in the regions south of
this, viz : one farm to twelve and a half of the population ; nortli of this
the number of farms in proportion to the population increases.

The crops are :

Cotton, 148,050 bales, against 83,210 in 1870, an increase of seventy
per cent. It is tw^enty-eight per cent, of the crop of the State. The yield
is 327 pounds lint per capita, the largest, except in the comparatively
small Red Hill region, where it is 348 pounds of lint. The average yield
per acre is 202 pounds of lint, which is also larger than elsewhere, except
for the small crop of the lower pine belt. In Marlboro county, the yield
per acre averages 267 pounds of lint, and the yield per capita, 536 pounds
of lint. This is the maximum product in the State, and entitles the region
to its designation as the central cotton belt of Carolina.

The grain crop is 3,631,302 bushels, an increase of one and a half mil-
lions of bushels on the returns of 1870. This includes corn, small grain
and rice, and constitutes twenty-one per cent, of the grain crop of the
State. It is sixteen bushels per capita of the population, and 8.6 bushels
per acre. Allowing eighty bushels a year to the head of work stock, the
35,469 head in this region would leave less than 600,000 bushels for the
population, two and three-quarter bushels per capita, with nothing for the
other live stock. The maximum average product is attained in Marlboro,
6

82 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

ten and a quarter bushels j)er acre, twenty and a half bushels per capita
of population.

The live stock number 313,811, wliich is one to every thirteen acres;
sixteen to each farm ; 11.4 head to each one of the population; two to
the bale of cotton, and one to every eleven bushels grain jjroduced.

SYSTEM OF FARMING AND LABOR.

A mixed system of farming is pursued in the upper pine belt, and the
attempt is made to raise at least a portion of the necessary farm supplies.
They are not raised, however, to the extent they were formerly, and al-
though the reports all state that the tendency to raise them is increasing,
the deficiency still remains very great, as the number of liens given for
provisions and recorded against the growing crop show. In Barnwell there
were 2,026 liens, averaging one hundred and twentj^-five dollars, being
eight dollars and eighty cents per bale of cotton produced ; in Orangeburg
there were 2,470 liens, averaging ninety dollars, being nine dollars and
eighty-seven cents per bale; in Darlington there were 3,925 liens, averaging
one hundred dollars, being sixteen dollars and forty cents per bale ; in Marl-
boro there were 1,183 liens, averaging one hundred and ten dollars, being
five dollars and forty cents per bale ; in Marion there were twelve hundred
liens, averaging one hundred dollars, being five dollars and a half per
bale. The number of liens for 1880 show an increase on those given
above for 1879. This does not indicate a diminution in the amount of
supplies raised by farmers, but only shows an increase in the number of
laborers who are seeking a credit, to enable them to do business on their
own account as tenant farmers. It is by this class chiefly that the liens
are given, mostly for provisions, next for fertilizers, and to some extent
for mules and farm implements. It is the general experience that these
small tenant farmers, mostly negroes, meet their obligations to the best
of their ability ; nevertheless, a mortgage given in January or February,
on a crop not to be planted until April, is not taken as a first-class com-
mercial security, and consequently the charges on the advances are
heavy ; for instance, when the cash price of corn is seventy five cents,
the credit price is not unfrequently one dollar and twenty cents and up-
ward.

West of the Santee and "Wateree rivers in this region, the average acre-
age in cotton to the farm is fourteen acres; on onl}^ one farm is there over
four hundred acres in cotton ; in seventeen townships the maximum acre-
age is under one hundred acres ; in twenty it is one hundred to two hun-
dred ; in five it is two hundred to three hundred ; in two it is three
hundred to four hundred.

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 83

East of the rivers named there are farms having over six hundred
acres in cotton, the average acreage in cotton to the farm is sixteen acres.
Here forty-six per cent, of the farms are rented, and fifty-four per cent,
worked by the owners. Of the rented farms, thirteen per cent, are over
fifty acres, while of those worked by the owners eighty per cent, are
above that figure.

The laborers are chiefly negroes, but the number of whites engaged in
field labor is largely increasing, in some localities, especially east of the
Pee Dee, where one-third to one-half the field labor is performed by
whites. The general price of day labor is fifty cents and food, though it
fluctuates from forty cents to seventy-five cents. The class of day laborers
is also largely increasing, being recruited from the increasing class of
tenant farmers, who supplement their earnings by hiring out when not
busy with their own crops, or when pressed for ready cash. Contract labor-
ers are becoming much fewer ; the general wages is ten dollars a month
and rations, but in some localities it is as low as six dollars to eight dol-
lars, and in others as high as twelve dollars to fifteen dollars, the higher
prices prevailing in the northeast, the lower to the southwest, being less
where the percentage of negroes is greatest, and vice versa. Hands
hired by the year receive from ninety dollars to one hundred and twenty
dollars, with rations, shelter firewood and truck patches. Hands, how-
ever, have always preferred, when contracting for a year's work, to have
some interest in the crop, and this desire has steadily increased so as to
have become by far the most general practice. This has been arranged in
so many, and in such complicated ways, as to preclude any general de-
scription. For instance, a widely adopted system is one proposed as early
as 1866, by a negro laborer in Silverton township. The laborer works
five days in the week for the land owner and has a house, rations, three
acres of land, and a mule and plow every other Saturday to w^ork it when
necessary, with sixteen dollars in money at the end of the year. Had he
worked four days and a half per week for the land owner, and one and a
half days for himself, this would have been equivalent to one-fourth of
the crop and his food. The sixteen dollars was intended to cover the fifty-
two half days more than this, which he worked.* This system proved

* This freedinan was impressed with the belief that the share of tlie laboier should
be his food and shelter, and one-fourth of the produce. AVhile he was sure that
his proportion covered this, he could neither state the rationale as above given, or ap-
parently understand it, when stated. It inaj'' serve as an illustration of the instinctive
processes by which these people seemed to grasp intuitively the most complicated j)rob-
lems, and the most advanced doctrines in the great questions as to the remuneration of
labor. Only just emancipated, they at once take ground, to which the laborers of the
old world seem to have been struggling up through all the centuries since the abolition
of serfdom.

84 THE UPrER PINE BELT.

very successful, and the second year a number of laborers proposed to
work only four days, feed themselves and take double the land and mule
work, without the money. The third year three-day hands came in, fur-
nishing in part their own work stock ; and as some hands paid the rent
for a house and an acre of land by giving two days work a week, there
were found various classes of hands on the same places, working from two
to six days in the week. The share system is practiced more largely in
Barnwell than in Hampton, and still more in Darlington and Marlboro.
The terms are generally the same, the employer furnishing land, teams
and implements, the laborer feeding himself and getting one-third to one-
half, after paying for his pro rata of bagging, ties, and fertilizers. Chan-
cellor Johnson says (Marlboro county) : " I have a good many tenants,
white and black. I furnish the stock, food for it, pay one-half the black-
smith, fertilizer, bagging and ties account, and furnish ginning facilities ;
the tenant (has his garden and potato patch free) does all the work, from
repairing fences and ditches to preparing the crop for market, my ad-
vances are repaid and the crop is equally divided. The tenants generally
get at the rate of eight to ten bales for each mule they work, grain for their
family supplies and enough to make their meat. I get the same amount of
cotton and more than grain enough for the next year's crop. I have had
some tenants over ten years." He prefers hired labor where the planta-
tion is not too large, that is about eight plows. The advantage of
either system depends upon the character of the individual, good tenants
being sometimes poor laborers, and vice versa. Each locality reports
favorably of the system pursued there.

In Hampton, the wages system is preferred, the laborers run no risks,
the soil is improving, the condition of the laborers good, very few of them
own house or land. Lands sell from one dollar to twenty-five dollars per
acre, and rent for one dollar to three dollars in small patches ; little land
is rented.

In Barnwell, the laborer decides under which system he will work.
Share hands and renters pick cleaner cotton than wage hands. The
wages system is preferred, by the planters, the laborer runs no risks, his
pay is net money, he spends it and lives and works better, and land im-
proves. The condition of the laborer is good and improving, cjuite a
number own houses and lands. The market value of land is three dollars
to ten dollars an acre, including imi)roved and unimproved. The rent
is from one dollar to three dollars in money ; in kind it is seventy-
five pounds of lint cotton per acre, or one thousand pounds of lint
for a forty acre farm, or a five hundred pound bale for fifteen to twenty
acres.

In the lower part of Orangeburg, year hands receive monthly six dol-

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 85

lars ; the share system is also practiced here ; no preference expressed be-
tween the two. The condition of the laborers is reported as good. The
market valne of land is from two dollars to ten dollars ; and a good deal
is rented from two to four dollars.

In Darlington, wages b}^ the 3'^ear are one hundred and twenty dollars
for men, ninety dollars for women, with house, rations, fuel and truck
patches. The share system and tenant system are largely practiced ;
the laborers do not work so well, nor do they realize so much, but
they prefer less and to be independent of control ; their condition is
good, two per cent, own houses and land. The market value of land
is ten dollars, and the rental yields about seven j)cr cent, on the invest-
ment.

In Marlboro and Marion, a considerable part of the field labor is per-
formed by whites ; day wages are from thirty to sixty cents, by the month
six dollars to twelve dollars, and the same when engaged for the year, in
all cases with board. The share and tenant system are largely practiced
(see above for terms, &c.). Condition of the laborers good, they are
contented and happy ; three to five per cent, of the negroes own
land or a house. The market value of land is ten dollars to fifty dollars
per acre, and rents are from three dollars to fifteen dollars per acre.
(For further particulars see abstract of reports of township corres-
pondents.)

From the southwest of Aiken county it is reported that the tendency to
raise supplies fluctuates with the price of cotton, being increased by low
and diminished by high prices. The share system is largely practiced,
the laborer having one-third where he feeds himself, one-fourth where he
is fed, the land owner advances everything, and the laborer's proportion
of the expenses is taken out of the crop. The share system is not gene-
rally satisfactory ; it is difficult to get cotton cleanly handled ; land worked
under the supervision of the proprietor generally improves ; when rented,
especially to negro tenants, it rapidly deteriorates ; five per cent, of the
negro laborers own land or their house ; those who work steadily are
prosperous, the proportion that do this is not, however, large. The
market value of land is four dollars to fifteen dollars per acre, in-
cluding wood land ; tilled land rents for from one dollar to five dollars
per acre.

The following comparison in some of the regards above treated of be-
tween Darlington and ]\Iarlboro counties is off"ered, because in 1870 Dar-
lington led all the counties in the State in the production of cotton, nearly
doubling the crop of the next highest ; now it stands eighth in total pro-
duction, and Marlboro stands highest in the yield per capita and per acre;
the counties lie side by side :

8G

THE UPPER PINE BELT.

Yield in
lbs. lint
Cotton.

Amount

of liens

for each

Bale of

Cotton

produced

in

1879.

FARMS.

COUNTIES.

5

O

Ph

'f-t
o

o
PM

Percentage.

Percentage

worked by

owners.

Percentage
worked by

IB

1

43
55

O ;-,

^^

57

45

renters.

Under

fifty

Acres.

Over

fifty
Acres.

Under

fifty

Acres.

Over

fifty
Acres

Darlington...
Marlboro

339
536

197

267

$16.40

$5.40

17
12

83
88

85

80

15
20

TILLAGE AND IMPPvOVEMENT.

Enclosures, under the colonial laws, that have not been changed, are
required to be cattle proof. The fences are built of pine rails ten feet
in length, running about one hundred to the cord, Avorth usually fifty
cents a cord, and are split for fifty cents per hundred, making the cost
one dollar per hundred in the woods. Fourteen rails make eight feet in
length of worm fence, or 9,240 rails per mile, lasting, on an average, five
years. A recent act of the legislature allows each township to determine
by vote, whether the crops or the stock shall be enclosed, if the latter, the
township to tax itself for the fences necessary to protect it from the stock
of the adjoining townships. To this date few townshi^^s in this belt have
availed themselves of this laAv.*

Drainage is little practiced in this region ; the culture of the swamps
being generally abandoned, and the uplands being thought not to require
it. In Marlboro and Marion, however, great benefit results from a system
of open ditclies very generally adopted (see above soils). Little or noth-
ing is required in the way of hillside ditches on these comparatively level
lands, Avhere little injury is experienced from washing.

The former practice of allowing fields to lie fallow, for the benefit of
the growth of weeds, Avhich increased the vegetable matter in the soil, and

*Since the above was written the State legislature has passed a general law for
the whole State, making it incumbent on the owners of live stock to see that they
do not trespass on others. Thetillerof thesoil is no longer com{)elled to build fences to
protect thefruitsof his labor from the inroads of his neighbors' cattle, thus saving all cost
in building and repairing fences, estimated in 187U at $917,000 by the 10th U. S. Census.

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 87

which killed by their shade the grasses that were especially troublesome
on cultivated lands, has been almost wholly abancloned. Nor is there
any regular or general system of rotation of crops. Cotton lands espe-
cially are planted year after year in the same crop, and if properly man-
ured, are thought to improve. Rotation, when practiced, is two years
cotton, one year corn ; small grain is planted in the ftiU, after the corn is
gathered, and the next summer a crop of corn or cow-peas is grown on
the stubble, to be followed the next spring by cotton. In Marlboro county,
land planted in cotton for fourteen successive years, without additional
manure, except the increased cotton seed from the larger croi)s, })roduce
double what they did at first.

The fall plowing of cotton and corn lands, once much practiced, has
been very generally abandoned ; some still think it pays to break the
land eight or ten inches deep in the fell about every fourth year, other-
wise it is only done to turn under weeds on land that has been resting.

The depth of tillage varies from two and a half to six inches, measured
on the land side of the furrow, and it is very rare to see more than one
animal used in plowing. It is only the larger farmers, who are becoming
scarcer, who use two-horse plows occasionally.

The amount of land once cultivated, that has been abandoned, is stated
as very little in Hampton county ; at from ten to twenty per cent, in Barn-
well ; at ten to fifteen per cent, in Orangeburg ; at twenty-five per cent, in
Darlington, and, excluding swamps, at nothing in Marion and Marlboro.
When the uplands are turned out in this region, they grow up first in
broomsedge, which is succeeded by short leaf pine, beneath which in time
all grass and undergrowth disappears. When again taken in, they yield
well with manuring, but without good treatment they deteriorate more
rapidly than virgin soil. It is a cj[uestion — on which there is a diversity
of opinion — whether the second growth of pines is a benefit or an injury
to land ; in the lower country it is thought to be injurious, supporting
the view that narrow leaved growths do not improve the soil. In the upper
country the opinion is, however, decided that the soil improves under the
old-field pine. With some other growths there is no question, in this
regard ; for instance the persimmon always improves lands, and seems to
exert no bad influence even on the growing crops in cultivated fields, it
being often remarked that the tallest cotton is found under such trees,
where it is dwarfed by the proximity of a pine or a post-oak. Certain
other forest trees seem to favor particular growths here, as the sugarberry,
under which verdant patches of blue grass are often seen, when found no
where else. There seem to be friendly and unfriendly relations among
plants. Bermuda grass will not grow under pines or cedars, but thrives
most under the Euonymus. Polk is said to give the rust to cotton,
and Jamestown weed will, it is believed, eradicate nut grass.

88 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

Grecii manuring, especiall}^ with the cow-pea, is regarded favorably, al-
though it is not practiced as a system. Sown broadcast^, manured with the
" Ash element " (a cheap fertilizer composed chiefly of lime and potash)
and turned under after the Amines are wilted by frost, remarkable results
have been attained. Col. Thomas Taylor says that lands subject to rust,
and never yielding more than seven bushels of wheat, have given twenty-
six bushels under this treatment. After the cotton is laid by a furrow is
sometimes run in the alley, and cow-peas drilled in, forming the basis on
which the next year's cotton bed is to be constructed. Peas grown among
corn are esteemed highly for the beneficial influence they exert on the
soil, as Avell as for the crop they yield.

The limited amount of stable and lot manure, furnished chiefly by the
work stock, other cattle being rarely fed or penned systematically, is much
valued. Cotton seed is wholly used for manure, and its use has much in-
creased, either alone, or composted with woods mould and litter, or the
superphosphates. These means of maintaining the fertility of the land
are largely supplemented by the use of guajios and other fertilizers. In
Marlboro county the general rule is, to return to the land all the cotton
seed produced on it, and in addition one sack of Guanape guano, or
half a sack of it, with one hundred pounds of superphosphates, and if
rust is apprehended, one hundred pounds of kainit. Lands so treated
are counted on with much certainty to give a bale of cotton to the acre
one year with another. This may be taken as the best established and
most successful practice regarding manures. There are wide variations
from it. A very few, but not the least successful farmers, purchase no
commercial fertilizers and rely wholly on cotton seed, composts of woods
moulds and leaves, and stable manure. The use of fertilizer is very gen-
erally deprecated as mithrifty and extravagant, but the facility with
which they may be obtained and used, makes their employment the
general practice.

The first step in preparation for planting cotton is to dispose of the old
stalks. If small, the}' are not attended to. Ordinarily they are knocked
to pieces by hand with a club. Machines have been devised for this pur-
pose, but have not proved successful, thus leaving a field open to inventors.
When the stalks are very large, say four to five feet high, they have to be
pulled up, and sometimes to be burned. Some planters pull up the stalks
and lay them in the furrow on which the bed is to be made ; it is objected
to this practice that the plow in cultivation strikes the buried stalks and
destroys the young cotton.

The furrow for the bed is either run in the alley between the rows, or
the old bed is barred off" and the furrow run through its centre. The
first practice alternates the cotton rows every year, the second plants on

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 89

the same spot. The rows are rarely under three feet three inches, they
average three and a half, and are sometimes four feet, and even five feet,
on land making a large growth. The manure is placed in the furrow, and
the bed is built up in February and March, the object being to get cotton
•seed in and covered as early as possible to prevent its sprouting and heat-
ing after planting, which is injurious to the stand. In ]\hirlboro the fer-
tilizers are not applied with the cotton seed, but a furrow is run through
the bed just before planting and the fertilizer put into it then. The usual
practice has been to put the manure in as deeply as possible ; a practical
difficulty in accomplishing this arises from the settling of the finely pul-
verized and lightly thrown up beds ; and finer and specifically heavier
particles of the soil pass through and under the coarser and lighter cotton
seed, compost, or stable manure. So that even after the greatest care to
cover them deeply has been taken, they disappoint the planter by appear-
ing at or near the surface during planting or the subsequent* cultivation
of the crop. A very successful practice in Aik^ and Barnwell counties
has been to put the manure in a shallow furrow, but to finish the bed by
splitting the middle out with a double horse shovel plough running to
the depth of fourteen inches. This leaves the sides of the beds and the
alley light and loose, and it is kept so by after cultivation. The sweep
runs shallow in the harder soil near the plants, and deeper in the looser
soil of the alley, and can thus skim the surface and destroy weeds near
the plant witliout cutting the roots ; the drainage of the bed is increased,
and loose earth is provided, where it alone can be maintained during cul-
tivation, in the alley, to absorb atmosj^heric moisture, and to dirt the
plant or manure.

Planting occurs during the month of April, from the 1st to the 30th.
Early planting runs the risk of frost, late planting runs the risk of a dry
spell, which not unfrequently prevents cotton planted the last of April
from coming up before the first of June. These risks are nearly equal,
and the early planting has the additional advantage of a longer season
for its growth and maturity. Bancroft's or Dicksons's improved cluster
cotton seed are generally used ; a prolific cotton, making a good yield of
lint, being sought after, without regard to the qualit}' of the staple. Im-
proved staples have been produced, and are profitably cultivated by the
larger planters who ship it themselves to the North, or Europe. Smaller

*It appears that particles of the solid earth are not at rest, but are t-ontinually in
movement, caving in and settling after rains, &c. So that here the law of specific
gravities also operates, and in tlie lapse of time, the diverse components are assorted,
finding their true level ascertainly as acork rises or lead sinks in water. In illustration
of this law, large quantities of bones, buried two feet deep, in land formerly prepared
for vineyards in this region, have, in the course of ten years, worked their way to the
surface.

90 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

farmers, confined to the home markets, cannot sell such staple to advan-
tage, and therefore neglect it. The quantity of seed used depends on the
method of planting ; in drilling by hand, the most common practice, three
bushels is required ; with tlie planter, which is coming more into use,
one to one and a half bushels answers; with the dibble, a two-wheeled
implement, drawn by a horse, the wheels running on the beds and mak-
ing holes for the seed by blocks fastened on to the tire, a half-bushel will
do. The seed comes up according to the greater or less favorableness of
the season, in from four to ten days after planting. The young plants
are thinned out to hills eight inches to twelve inches apart, sometimes to
eighteen inches ; usually only one stalk is left, some prefer to have two.
Thinning occurs four to six weeks after planting, from the time the third
to the sixth leaf makes its appearance, and is completed early in June.
Blossoms first appear when the plant is six inches to twelve inches high,
from the 10th to the 20th of June. Bolls open forty-two to forty-five
days after the blossom ir^ the latter part of July and first of August. In
favorable seasons,, picking has commenced before the 12th of August ; or-
dinarily not until the 20th. The cotton is picked and ginned as fast as
it opens, and the work can be done, the best planters estimating the loss
of leaving it in the field, even during good weather, for a few weeks, as
very heavy. All the crop is picked by the 1st to the 15th of December,
and by far the most of it in the market before Christmas. The after cul-
tivation of the crop consists of four to five ploughings with the sweep and
three to four hand hoeings, and is completed from the first of July to the
last of August.

GINNING, BALING AND SHIPPING.

No decided preference for any of the numerous gins used in this region
can be ascertained ; those most commonly in use are the Brown, Winn-
ship, Gullett, Carver, Findley and Massey, Elliott, Winn, Taylor and Ex-
celsior. Thirteen correspondents report that four employ steam engines,
seven employ horse power, and two employ water power in ginning. The
steam gins turn out two hundred and twenty-five to four hundred pounds
lint per hour, the horse-powers one hundred pounds to two hundred
pounds in the same time, the water-powers two hundred and fifty to four
hundred. The estimate of seed cotton required to make four hundred
pounds of lint, varies from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, and averages 1,225
pounds. On this point a correspondent says: " The proportion of lint
varies largely with the season, with the variety of cotton, with the stage
at which the cotton is picked, and even with different bolls of the same
variety picked at the same stage. I plant a large part of my crop with
a fancy long staple upland variety. I have known it to require 1,800

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 91

pounds seed cotton average through the season to make a bale of five
hundred pounds, while the past season the entire crop gave at the rate
of a five hundred pound bale to 1,540 pounds of seed cotton. A few
years ago my crop of Rio Grande, a very short staple variety, gave a five
hundred pound bale to 1,365 pounds of seed cotton. Cotton picked
damp, and that suffered to remain sometime without picking, gives the
smallest proportion of lint, while that picked as soon after opening as the
bolls dry off gives the best. I once picked a large number of bolls from
a patch, itself grown from selected seed, weighed them separately on a
druggist's scales and separated the lint from the seed by hand. The
poorest boll gave nineteen per cent, of lint, the best thirty-six per cent.
The weight of the heaviest boll, seed and lint, was one hundred and
thirty-six gross, and of the lightest, forty-two gross. Even such wide va-
riations as these could not have been detected by the eye or without the
use of the scales."

Owing to the unsatisfactory character of the mechanical arrangements
for using horse power, the use of horses for ginning is being superseded
by steam engines. It was thought that traction engines would supply
this want, and, like steam grain threshers, would move from farm to farm
and gin the cotton. They were tried to a considerable extent, but it was
found that the exigencies of the farmer did not allow him to keep his
cotton, as he might his grain, until the gin came to him, and that it did
not pay to move the gin once or twice a day, to gin the crops, bale at a
time as it was gathered, so that they have been mostly abandoned.

There is a similar diversity as to the press in use. In twelve gin houses
there were six hand presses, the Brooks, Schofield, McBride, Finley, Board-
man, and Smith, packing about eight bales with four hands per day.
There was one water press, and one run by steam, four old wooden-pin
screw presses run by mules. Four hands on the Smith or the Bogirdman
press will average a bale every fifty minutes : eight men and three mules
on the old screw will average a bale every thirty minutes ; by pushing,
more can be done. The delay and cost in packing occurs in treading the
light, loose cotton into the box, at which only one, or at most two men
can work, the other hands being meanwhile idle. Formerly the lint-
rooms were built very large, and twenty or thirty bales were ginned be-
fore any was packed. Now with smaller lint-rooms, and with condensers
coming into use as a preventive of fire, the cotton is packed as fast as it
is ginned. Feeders to gins have been tried, but owing to the difficulty of
keeping them in order, they are not much used.

Rope for baling has been entirely replaced by the iron " Arrow " tie
and the heaviest gunny bagging is used. The bales vary in weight, from
four hundred and fifty pounds to five hundred and fifty pounds, and

92 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

average four hundred and eighty-nine pounds. Shipments to market
arc made during the fall months, from September to .Januar\'. By steam-
boat there are no extra charges for extra weight ; the cTiarge is seventy-
five cents per bale on the Savannah river to Savannah, and one dollar on
the Pee Dee to Charleston. On the Port Royal railroad to Charleston or
Savannah the charge is two dollars per bale of four hundred and fifty pounds
or less, and twenty cents for each hundred pounds over that weight. On
the South Carolina railway the charge from Augusta is one dollar for
way stations on this route, one dollar and fifty cents and thirty-five cents
per hundred weight over five hundred pounds. From Darlington to
Charleston by rail the charge is one dollar and twenty-five cents. From
Marlboro and Marion it is three dollars and twenty-five cents to Xew
York, and one dollar and fifty cents to Charleston or Wilmington by rail ;
in the latter there is an extra charge (amount not stated) for bales weigh-
ing over four hundred and fifty pounds.

DISEASES, ENEMIES, &c.

There are few crops grown anywhere more certain than the cotton crop
in the upper pine belt. A complete failure never occurs, and a reduction
of twenty per cent, in the yield is an unusual occurrence. The greatest
variations have been in an increase of product under better cultivation,
and it is believed that a wide field for development lies in this direction.
The principal obstruction to the growth of the plant is the crab grass,*
necessitating constant labor and vigilance, or resulting in fatal injury to
the crop. Usually the task is one acre in hoeing, which is completed by
dinner time ; but most frequently it is far from being thoroughly done.
In Marlboro, where the work is well done, and perhaps on this account,
two acres is the task and it is completed by 4 P. M., usually.

Drought is very seldom injurious, except during the fruiting season in
July and August. Sore shin, except as resulting from bad hoeing, is not
known.

Lice, a minutt aphid, appears on the underside of the leaves in May
and later, and gives them a curled, but at the same time a deeper green
appearance. Dry weather is favorable to them, and in good seasons they
are not thought to injure the plant. Some say they promote fruitfulness.
In bad seasons, /. e., excessive drought, during fruiting, rust appears ear-
liest and is most injurious where these aphids have been most numerous.

Rust and blight affect the crop, especially during the fruiting season ;
it is most injurious to the prolific short-limbed cluster cotton. Under fa-

*Corruption for crop grass, being found only on c-ultivated lands, and often furnished
excellent crojjs.

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 93

vorable conditions the plant will take on a heavy crop of fruit in four to
six weeks, any time from the middle of June to the middle of September.
At such a period it will cease to grow, the leaves will pale and turn red,
all the energies of the plant being devoted to reproductive efforts. Com-
mercial fertilizers promote this crisis, by contributing more to the fruit-
fulness than to the growth of the plant. Any vicissitude of the weather,
heat or cold, wet or drought, will seriously enfeeble or even kill the plant
in tliis its term of labor, especially on poor, sandy, or ill-drained soils.
A crop will have been made, the utmost that the soil, the variety of seed,
and the seasons admit of, but the future growth and fruitfulness of the
plant is checked or destroyed. This is what is usually termed rust or
blight. The remedies are, varieties of the plant that are more vigorous
growers, those of longer limb, and less given to excessive fruiting ; stable
manure in the place of fertilizers ; the potash salts are used with marked
benefit ; and thorough drainage.

Cotton sheds by far the largest portion of the forms which come on it,
and the closest observers state that in the great mass of our cotton lands,
the cotton plant will not, in the best of seasons, mature into open bolls
one in five of the blossoms that appear, generally not one in ten. Reme-
dies for this are being sought in the selection of seed, and in various
methods of culture, but nothing decided has been thus far obtained.

When the early season is wet and warm, the plant may run too much
to weed. Some attribute this in part to late thinning and deep cultiva-
tion ; others think it may be checked by running a deep, narrow furrow,
closing after the plow, close to the cotton. Short-limbed varieties of cot-
ton, cotton seed and phosphates as fertilizers, are recommended as remedies.

Although the cotton caterpillar moth is frequently met with, even dur-
ing the severest winters, the worm rarely makes its appearance before
September, and hardly ever does any damage.

CHARGES ON SELLING.

In addition to freight, these consist of the following items, at the rates
stated : commissions on sales, two and a half per cent. ; storage, twenty-five
to fifty cents per bale per month ; drayage, wharfage, mending, forty cents ;
insurance, twenty-five cents. These charges vary slightly, and Avith freight,
amount to from three-quarters to one cent per pound of lint, or a little
over seven per cent, on the net sales.

COST OF PRODUCTION.

Eight correspondents state the cost of production at six to eight cents
per pound lint; one at eight and a half cents; one at twelve and a half

94

THE UPPER PINE BELT.

cents; one at four cents. Paul F. Hammond, of Beech island, furnishes
the following : " The cost of production varies greatly with the character
of the land cultivated, and the skill of the planter. The complement of
hands and mules is two of the former and one of the latter. The items
of expense are, w^ages of hands, meat for hands, cost per annum of mule,
exclusive of feed ; extra picking, guano, gear, implements, bagging and
ties. One mule and tw^o hands will cultivate, on an average, twenty acres
in cotton, fourteen acres in corn and fovir acres in oats, making grain
enough to furnish bread to the hands, and feed for the mule. I am in-
clined to think that 4,000 pounds of lint, including weight of bagging
and ties, to the mule, is rather above than below the average. In some
instances planters may reach a production of 8,000 or even 10,000 pounds
of lint to the mule, while more frequently those who fall below 2,000
pounds may be met with. In the following estimates no allowance for
taxes, rents, interest on capital invested, nor for the services of the pro-
prietor or manager, nor for transportation or charges for selling, is made.

Twelve bales Eight bales | Four bales
to the mule, to the mule, to the mule.

Wages for two hands per annum.
Meat for hands, 300 lbs., @ 8 cents
Cost of mule per annum . . .

Extra picking

Guano

Gear and implements

Bagging and ties

Cost per pound lint . . . ,

$180 00
24 00
30 00
48 50
60 00
10 00
13 50

$366 00
6.10c.

$180 00
24 00
30 00
20 00
60 00
10 00
9 00

$333 00
8.321c.

$180 00
24 00
30 00

00

00

10

00

4

50

$308 50
15.221c.

THE UPPER PINE BELT.

95

Table showing the cost of each item of Labor and Material expended in the cul-
tivation of an acre of Cotton in the Upper Pine Belt Region of South
Carolina :

ITEMS.

1.

Rem

Fencinsr, repairs and Interest on

Knocking stalks

Pulling and burning stalks

Other cleaning up

Listing

Beddinsi with hoes

Breaking up

Damming

Barring old beds

Splitting middles

Reversing

Laying off

Manures, Commercial

Manures, home-made

Applying manures

Bedding up

Splitting middles

Knocking off beds

Planting, opening.

Planting, dropping

Planting, covering

Replanting

Seed

Thinning

Number of plo wings, 5, 5, 5 and 6

Number of hoeings, 4, 4. 1, 4

Picking

Hauling to gin

Ginning

Management

Wear and tear of implements...

Bagging and ties

Total

Cost per pound lint

2 00 $ 2 00

1 00 40

20 12

Profit, per acre, at ten cents per
pound

Profit, deducting charges for
rent and management

50

1 50

50

25

3 00

2 00

25

50

20
2.5
20
50
30
25

1 85
80

6 75
15

2 25
5 00

05

1 50

3.

4.

9.

$ 3 00 I 2 50

10.

1 35
831 5.5

3 50

4 00
38
37
18
15
20
20
10
28
50
28-

2 00

1 00
6 00

50

2 00
1 00

07

«23 45
826 45

1 35

S2S 98

07

811 02
814 02

15

2 00

3 00
15

a5

10
35
50

1 65
60

5 00

300
5 00

« 2 .50 $ 2 50 8 4 00 8 40O83CO83 00

3 .50
2 25
08
50
25
25
25

25
05
50
15
2 25

1 40
4 70

60

2 60
2 50

1 10 1 20
«26 90 827 IS
08 1-6 06 9-10

86 40 811 92

814 40 816 92

05

S3

'i

33
' 2.5

3 00

4 2-5
57
33
20

10

30

30

133

1 00

6 00

25

2

1 15

52.5 12

067-40

«11

814 30

1 00

10
4 50
3 00
1 00

75

16

10

30

20

2 50

1 75

5 50

50

1 &5

2 00

1 2.5

1 25

4 50

3 00

2 50

1 00

50

20

30

3 00
2 00
5 00

1 00

2 00
2 00

1 00
10
20

13
6 25
5 CO
35
50
25

60

2 25
2 00
6 00
50
2 50

1 10 1 30 1 &5 1 08

50

•Jo

fiOO
2 50
50
25
10
10
25
25
20

50

40

2 25

2 00

5 00

2 00

3 00

10

2.5

11.

00

12
1 50

30
50
2 00
1 50
5 00
luO

1 20

2 00

3 75

1 00

15

18

4 .50

5 00
75

1 50

25

25
50
200
2 00
6 00
75
2 00

827 35 835 75 f32 S6 831 43

08

25

810 75

107-10,082-10

82 45 87 14

83 55 811 14

094-10

81 87

87 87

4 25
1 10 1 10

826 77 8S6 78

08 09 4-5

53 83 22

811 53 $11 22

96 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

1. E. H. Pceples, Lawton Township, Hampton county: Makes a bale of 4.10 pounds lint cotton
per acre under this culture— seed cotton 1,350 pounds, cotton seed thirty bushels.

2. Hotner H. Peoples, Peeples' Township, Hampton county: Average l,iWO pounds seed cotton,
400 pounds lint, twenty-seven bushels seed.

3. G. Varn, Esq., Folk's Store, Colleton county: Crop 1,000 pounds seed cotton, lint .3;J.3 pounds,
seed twentj'-two bushels.

4. W. B. Kice, Bamberg, Barnwell county : Crop 850 to 1,500 pounds per acre, say 1,175 seed cotton,
average .SOI pounds lint, twenty-six bushels seed, at twelve and a half cents.

5. John S. Stoiiey, Allendale, Barnwell county: Yield 1,200 pounds seed cotton, 370 pounds lint,
seed twenty-two bushels

6. O.N. Bowman, Rowesville. Orangeburg county: 1,100 pounds seed cotton, 370 pounds lint,
twenty-six bushels seed.

7. E. T. atackhouse, Little Rock, Marion county : He says, " I worked last year twenty acres in
cotton on contract with Esau Page, which actually cost as follows: All work repairing fencing,
picking, ginning, Ac, 8314.00; Commercial manures, Slll.OO ; feed and rent of mule, SlOd.OO; wear
aud tear to machinery, S3o.00; hauling straw, &c.. to stable, S13.00; bagging and ties lor twenty-
nine bales, 310.00; for my direcliou, 3.50.00. Total, S702.0U, or S85.00 per acre. Crop. 13,277 pounds
lint cotton. Contract satisfactory; has run for several year.s. Rents 230 of the 290 acres of his
home larm for forty- four pounds lint cotton. Renters engage to make all repairs and keep up
fertility ol land. Estimate on 1,000 pounds seed cotton, 333 pounds lint, twenty-three bushels seed."

8. W. D. Johnson, Marion C.H.: Yield 1.200 pounds, 400 pounds lint, thirty bushels seed. In a
good year 1,400 to 1,500 pounds seed cotton. N. B. The rent and home made manure, i. e., cotton
seed, constitute one-half or more of profits.

9. C. S. McCall, Kennettsville, Marlboro county: Average yield 1,000 pounds, 333 pounds lint,
twenty-three bushels seed.

10. Edward E, Evans,Society Hill, Darlington county: Yield 1,000 pounds, 333 pounds lint, twenty-
eight bushels seed.

11. Henry P. Duvall, Cheraw, Chesterfield county : Y'ield 1,200 pounds, 400 pounds lint, thirty
bushels seed.

The mean of the above estimates makes the cost of cotton 8 3-10 cents; not calculating the im-
provement of the land by culture or any of the numerous perquisites attending such eraplo.v-
ment. The average profit per acre is 17.80, deducting charges for rent and management it isS15.75.
Thrift and management will aiso reduce and even wipe out many of the items charged as ex-
penses. Home-made manures, consisting largely of cotton seed which is reproduced each suc-
cessive year in constantly increasing quantity, is such an item.

It is interesting to compare these estimates of the cost of prodiic-
insT cotton with those made in former times. A writer in the
Carolinian, in 1848, declares that five cents a pound for cotton will not
pay a profit, and gives this statement as the experience on a plantation
wdth twenty field hands, total investment, $20,000.

Expenses for 1848.

Wages of overseer , $ 300 00

Blacksmith and medical accounts 65 00

Clothing 88 00

Bagging and rope for 120 bales cotton 150 00

Taxes 30 00

Salt $12, nails $5.00, hoes $4.50 21 50

Hospital supplies • 7 50

Wear and tear of land 330 00

Wear and tear of mules, wagons, &c . . 200 00

Transporting cotton to market at seventy-five cents per bale . . 90 00

$1,282 00

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 97

Crop 120 bales of 350 pounds, 42,500 pounds lint, cost three cents per
pound, not counting interest on investment. That, at seven per cent.,
would have made the cost six and a third cents, omitting to credit the
account with all perquisites to the planter, as a home and home supplies,
with increase of negro property, &c.

Mr. Solon Robinson, of New York, in an extensive tour through the
South, gave, in 1848, the following carefully prepared statement regard-
ing the plantation of Col. Williams, of Society Hill, Darlington county,
South Carolina :

CAPITAL INVESTED.

4,200 acres land (2,700 cultivated) at $15 per acre $ 63,000 00

254 sli^ves at §350 average, old and young 89,900 00

60 mules and mares, one jack, one stud 3,720 00

2,000 head of cattle . ' 2,000 00

23 carts, six wagons 520 00

500 head of hogs 1,000 00

60 bull-tongue plows, 60 shaving plows, 25 turning plows, 18

drill plows, 15 harrows 262 00

All other plantation tools, estimated . 1,000 00

Total investment • . . . $161,402 00

EXPENSES.

Seven per cent, interest on first five items $11,103 00

3,980 yards Dundee bagging at 16 cents 536 80

3,184 pounds rope at six cents 191 04

Taxes 263 04

Three overseers, wages $900, medical attendance $317.50 . . . 1,217 50

Iron and tools purchased 200 00

Clothing account 1,579 50

Fifty sacks of salt $80.00, lime and plaster $194.00 274 00

Carpenters and blacksmith work extra 100 00

Outlay for gin belts, &c 80 00

Molasses, tobacco and flour 170 00

Three-eighths cent per pound freight and charges for market-
ing cotton 2,069 00

$17,894 48

98 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

CROP.

13,509 pounds bacon for home place and factory §075 00

Beef and butter for ditto and sales 500 00

1,100 bushels corn for ditto and sales j . . . . 550 00

Eighty cords of tan bark for tan yard 480 GO

Charges to others for blacksmith work 100 00

Mutton and wool for home use and sales 125 00

$2^30^
This sum, that is products other than cotton, deducted from

expenses above stated leaves then $15,404 00

This was the cost of a cotton crop of 351,000 pounds lint cotton, mak-
ing the cost per pound 4 7-10 cents. The cotton was sold at seven cents
per pound. Omitting charges for interest and taking no account of the
increasing value of the property, this gives 11 6-10 per cent, profits on
the total investment. Mr. J. J. Lucas, also from Society Hill, Darlington
county, reports, for 1879, that the cost of making cotton is twelve and a
half cents per pound, that the value of land is ten dollars and not fifteen
dollars per acre, as Mr. Williams states it, and that rents pay seven per
cent, on tlie investment in place of the above.

It Avill be noticed that the cost of transportation to market and charges
for selling, &c.,were about one-half in 1848 what they are now.

Abstract of the replies of Township correspondents, arranged accord-
ing to the Counties, Supervisor's Districts (Sup. Dist.) and Enumeration
Districts (E. D.) of the 10th United States Census, in which they resided :-

Hampton County, (2d Sup. Dist. 10th United States Census.)

Lawton Toimiship, [E. D. 118 and 119) : Northern part rolling, remainder
level. Swamps on the Savannah river and other water courses, lor the
most part unreclaimed ; one-third, a stiff mulatto upland, with clay sub-
soil borders the swamp ; two-thirds, upland, a dark gray sandy loam,
underlaid by clay at the depth of eighteen to twenty inches. Crops under
good cultivation yield four hundred pounds lint cotton, twelve to twenty
bushels corn, thirt}^ bushels oats, fifteen to fifty bushels rice ; peanuts,
twenty-five to fifty busliels ; sugar cane sj^rup, two hundred gallons per
acre. Timber, best 3'ellow pine, cypress, white oak, ash and poplar.
Stock raising has been profitable, and might be greatly enlarged, there
being abundance of Bermuda grass, cane and swamp mast. Wages of
field labor, forty to fifty cents a day ; one-tenth performed by whites. A
large portion of the laborers rent lands, obtain supplies by giving a lien

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 99

on the growing crops to the country merchants, and Avork most of the
time on their own account. Land sells from two dollars to ten dollars
per acre ; rents for one-fourth of the crop, or one dollar to two dollars in
money. Health good, except mild type of malarial fever in low places.
Pecples' Township, {E. D. 120): One-fourth of the land in swamps. The
uplands slightly rolling ; soil coarse and fine sandy loam, gray to brown and
black in color. Subsoil yellowish red, blue and brown clay, containing brown
pebbles, underlaid by gravel and quicksand at twelve to twenty feet, in
which water is found. Considerable business in collecting turpentine,
getting timber and shingles and sawing lumber. Little attention paid to
stock. Wages for field work, eight dollars per month ; one-half field
labor performed by whites. At Pondtown there is a large number of
white farmers owning small tracts of lands, doing all their own work and
working out for wages, Avho are prosperous and excellent laborers, free
from debt. Land rents for two dollars an acre. Malarial fever in the
swamps, otherwise healthy.

Barnwell County, (2d Sup. Dist. 10th United States Census.)

Bull Pond, (E. D. 20) : Gray pine lands, generally level, a fine sandy
loam with clay subsoil. Growth, pine, oak and hickory. Little attention
paid to stock. Wages, forty cents per day. Five per cent, of field labor
performed by whites. No land in the market; one-half is rented for
eighty pounds of seed cotton per acre. Yield, about one bale to the three
acres, rented land badly cultivated, reduces the general average.

Allendale, (E. D. 25) : " Light clay lands," rather elevated and rolling.
Soil, a light clay loam, gray and yellow in color, underlaid by clays of
various hue, from red to purple, also sandy subsoil. Growth, pine, oak,
hickory, dogwood, maple, poplar, ash, black walnut, cypress. Marl occurs
and is available. Two streams, twenty and forty feet wide, respectively,
with velocity of three to four miles an hour, furnish water powers. Little
attention paid to stock. It might be profitably raised. Wages, forty to
fifty cents a da3^ One-tenth of field labor performed by whites. No
lands in the market. No fevers except in the river bottoms.

Bennett Springs, {E. D. 26) : Land level. Soil, sandy subsoil, sometimes
red clay and sometimes red sand. Growth, pine, oak and hickory on the
uplands ; usual growth of the Savannah river swamps on that stream.
Crops, seven hundred and fifty pounds of seed cotton, ten bushels corn,
twenty-five bushels rice, seventy-five bushels peanuts per acre. Some
business done in shingles, staves and turpentine. Stock raising might be
made profitable. Six gins and grist mills driven by water power, not
more than one-fifth of which is utilized. No prevailing diseases. No

100 THE UPPER PINE BELT,

field work performecl by whites. Mueli of the land is rented for five
hundred pounds lint cotton for twenty-five acres.

Willistcm, {E. D. 37): The level lands are a sandy loam, with clay sub-
soil within two feet. The rolling lands are a clay soil. Clay extends
beneath the soil and subsoil to depth of twenty to sixty feet, as shown in
wells. Growth, yellow pine, oak, hickory. Crops, ten to twelve bushels
corn, eight hundred to one thousand pounds seed cotton; oats, twenty-
five to thirty bushels per acre. Little attention paid to stock. Edisto
river is a clear stream, one hundred feet wide, six feet deep, velocity, tw^o
to three mites an hour. Two mill streams empty into the Edisto. Wages
of field labor, six dollars to ten dollars, and rations, per month. One-
third ol field work performed by whites. Very little improved land for
sale. It rents from two dollars to three' dollars per acre, supplies and
rents secured by a lien on the crop.

Orangeburg County, (2d Sup. Dist.)

Hebron, {E. D. 143) : Some valuable swamp lands on the North Edisto
river and its tributaries. Uplands rolling sometimes, but generally level,
without being flat. Soil, mostly a fine sandy loam, subsoil sandy, in some
places clay. Growth, pine, with large red oak in places. Crops, ten to
thirty bushels corn per acre, four hundred and fifty pounds lint cotton to two
acres, thirty to thirty-five bushels rice per acre. Some business in tur-
pentine, shingles, staves and timber is done. Stock is not, but might be
raised profitably. Wages of field labor, forty to fifty cents a day. One-
fourth of it performed by whites. North Edisto affords a large water-
power, and there are two flour and four saw mills on its tributaries. Land
rents for two dollars an acre, or one-fourth of the crop. There are some
tracts for sale at five dollars an acre.

Liberty, {E. D. 144) : Large bodies of swamp lands on the North Edisto,
consisting of deep, black vegetable mould, resting on clay. Little of it
improved. The uplands are elevated, fine, dark, gray, saridy loam, six to
eight inches to subsoil of yellow clay, underlaid by chalk and clay.
Growth on uplands, pine, oak, hickory and dogwood. As much as 2,000
pounds of seed cotton, thirty bushels corn, and sixty bushels oats per
acre has been made on these lands, but the usual average is much less.
Wages of farm labor, forty cents a day. One-half to two-thirds of it per-
formed by whites. Very little land for sale; prices, three dollars' to ten
dollars an acre. The poorer lands are rented at from one dollar to two
dollars an acre. The locality is very healthy.

Willoiv, {E. D. 154): Some very fertile, but mostly unreclaimed, swamps
on the South Edisto and its tributaries. Uplands level, line, gray, sandy

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 101

loam, six to eighteen inches to subsoil of sticky clay, beneath which sands,
gravel and chalk are found. Marl occurs on South Edisto river. Growth,
pine, oak and hickory. Crops, fifteen bushels corn, one-half bale cotton,
twenty bushels oats per acre. There is a large turpentine factory. The
tributaries of the Edisto furnish water powers for ginning and grinding.
Stock does well, and might be profitabl}'' raised. Wages for field work,
fifty, cents a day. One-third of the field work performed by whites.
Land for sale at four dollars to ten dollars an acre ; rents from two dollars
to three dollars. Generally healthy ; mild form of chills and fever
sometimes.

Union, [E. D. 153) : Land level. Soil, fine, gray, sandy loam, three
inches to yellow sand subsoil, and eighteen to twenty inches to yellow
clay, containing sometimes numerous brown pebbles, which become mixed
with surface soil and give it a darker color. Growth of uplands, pine,
ash, hickor}^ and dogwood ; of the swamps, elm, poplar, ash, white oak,
gum. Crops, six hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, fifteen
bushels rice, one hundred and fifty bushels sweet potatoes, three hundred
gallons sj^rup per acre. Besides the South Edisto river, there are Cooper
creek, ten feet wide, two feet deep, velocity two miles an hour ; Snake
creek, fifteen feet wide, four feet deep, velocity two miles an hour. Some
industry in shingles, hoops and turpentine. No attention paid to stock ;
it might be profitably raised. Wages for work, forty cents per day. One-
fourth of field work performed by whites. Mild form of chills and fever
in swamps, otherwise healthy. Lands sell at five dollars to six dollars an
acre, and rents for two dollars and fifty cents.

Goodbye's, {E. D. 141) : Lands level. Soil, light sandy loam, with oc-
casionally a stiff strip. Subsoil, at six inches depth, light yellow clay.
Growth, pine, oak, hickory. One-third of the field labor performed by
whites. Lands sell from one dollar to five dollars, and rents from one
dollar to two dollars an acre. Some chills and fever.

Van.ces, {E. D. 155) : Lands level, except along Santee river, where they
are rolling. Soil, fine sandy loam, beneath which is a yellow sand sub-
soil resting on red clay, that extends to a depth of twenty to thirty feet
on the river, and twelve to fourteen feet elsewhere, to the depth of the
wells in both instances. Growth, pitch pine. Crops, five to twenty-five
bushels corn, five hundred to fifteen hundred pounds seed cotton, ten to
forty bushels oats per acre. Marl occurs in abundance. Little attention
given to stock ; it might be profitably raised. Some lands for sale at
eight dollars to ten dollars an acre. Some chills and fever.

Sumter County, (3d Sup. Dist. 1 0th United States Census.)

Privateer, {E. D. 120) : Lands level ; light gray sandy loam, with sub-

102 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

soil of yellow sand and clay. Growth, pine, oak and hickory. Crops,
five hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn per acre. A
black rock found that is used for building to some extent. Forest
products are turpentine and shingles. Several mill sites. Wages for
field work, fifty cents a day. All kinds of stock do well. Land sells at
from three dollars to twelve dollars ; rents from one dollar to five dollars
per acre.

Concord, {E. D. 114) : Lands low and level, much of it swamp ; up-
lands dark gray calcareous sands, with clay subsoil at depth of eight
inches to ten inches that extends to the depth of the wells, fifteen
feet to twenty feet. Marl occurs. Wages, fifty cents a day for field labor,
one-fourth of which is performed by whites. Little land for sale ; rents
for one dollar and fifty cents to two dollars per acre. Some chills and
fever.

Mt. Clio, {E. D. 110): Lands level; dark sandy loam, four inches to
six inches to subsoil of red clay, beneath which layers of white clay and
fine sand are found to the depth wells- are dug, fifteen to thirty feet.
Growth, pine, with occasional ridges of oak and hickory. Average crop,
four hundred pounds seed cotton. Marl occurs. Scape creek affords
fine water power. Wages for farm work, forty cents to fifty cents a
day ; one-eighth of field work performed by whites. Lands sell from
five dollars to ten dollars, and rent from one dollar to three dollars an
acre.

SJiiloh, {E. D. 123) : Land level. Soil, light, loose sandy loam, four
inches to six inches to subsoil of yellow clays underlaid by stiffer clays,
containing gravel to the depth of the wells, sixteen feet to twenty feet-
Growth, pine, oak and hickory. Crops average eight hundred pounds
seed cotton, eight bushels corn ; as high as one and a half bales of cotton
per acre has been made. Marl is found under all the swamp lands.
Stock raising might be made profitable. Farm labor receives fifty
cents a day ; in some portions nearly all the work is done by whites.
Land sells from five dollars to eight dollars an acre, rents for one-
fourth to one-third of the crop. Sometimes chills and fever, otherwise
healthy.

Bishopvillc, (E. D. 112) : Western or upper part sand hills, the middle
undulating, known as " ridge lands ;" tlie lower part level. Soil, light
sandy loam, six inches to two feet to red clay subsoil, extending to the
depth of the wells, ten to twenty feet. Growth, pine, with occasional
spots covered by large red oaks and hickory. Crops, eight hundred
pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, but the tenant system has so dimin-
ished the yield that an average can not be stated. Wages, fifty cents for
field labor, more than one-half of which is performed by whites. Land

THE UPPER PINE BELT. ^ 103

sells at eight dollars to ten dollars, and rents at from two dollars to four
dollars an acre.

Darlington County, (3d Sup. Dist. South Carolina.)

Fair's Bay, (E. D. 48) : Lands low, level, interspersed with bays that
are very productive when reclaimed ; uplands, a fine light sandy loam of
a dark gray color. Subsoil, light sandy clay, underlaid by white clay-
Heavily timbered with pine and oak ; swamp growth, oak, poplar, walnut
and cypress. Crops, cotton, five hundred pounds to fifteen hundred pounds
seed cotton, eight bushels to fifteen bushels corn, fifteen bushels to thirty
bushels rice. Little attention paid to stock. Much of the land uncleared.
No demand to purchase land ; rents for from one dollar and fifty cents
to two dollars per acre. No prevailing disease; fifteen deaths in 1880 —
no three from same cause. Farm labor, thirty to fifty cents a day. Nearly
all the whites do field work.

Hartsville, (E. D. 36) : One-half lands elevated, level. Soil, coarse gray
sandy loam. One foot to subsoil of yellow clay, underlaid by alternating
strata of sand and clay. The other half hilly, broken and sandy ; not
very productive. Growth, pine, oak and hickory. Crops, six to eight
hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, five to forty bushels small
grain per acre. Large beds of chalk occur. Black creek affords good
water power. Wages, fifty cents. Onedialf the field work done by
whites. Land sells for six dollars to twenty dollars an acre ; rents for
two dollars to four dollars. A^ery healthy.

Tlmmonsvillc, {E. D. 49) : Soil, a stiff" mixture of sand and clay, with a
red clay or pipe clay subsoil at four inches to six inches depth, underlaid
by very stiff clay and gravel to the depth of the wells, ten feet to twenty
feet. Growth, pine, oak and dogwood. Crops, eight hundred to two
thousand pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, ten to one hundred bush-
els oats, ten to fifty bushels rice per acre. Grapes do especially well and
a good deal of wine is made. Gee3e are raised in great numbers. Lake
Swamp creek, twenty feet wide, four feet deep, velocity three to four miles
an hour. One-half of the field work done by whites. No land for sale
price ten dollars to fifty dollars; rents for three dollars to six dollars an
acre. Very healthy.

Florence, {E. D. 35) : Lands level, flat. Soil, dark sandy loam, four
inches to five inches to subsoil of red clay. Growth, pine and small oaks.
Crops, seven hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, twenty bushels
to thirty bushels oats per acre. Wages, fifty cents a day. No field work
done by whites. Improved lands sell at from ten dollars to twelve dollars
an acre. About half the lands are rented at two dollars and fifty cents
per acre.

104 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

High Hill, {E. D. 37) : Land flat. Soil, a dark clay loam, with clay sub-
soil to the depth of the wells, fifteen feet to twenty-five feet, when a yellow
sand is found. Growth, pine, oak and hickory. Improved lands sell at
eight dollars to twelve dollars, and unimproved at three dollars to six
dollars an acre. One-fourth field work performed by whites.

Antioch, [E. D. 29) : Lands level. Soil, mostly sandy, though clay lands
cover a considerable portion of the township; subsoil, red clay and red
sand, the latter is best adapted to corn, the former to cotton. Growth,
pitch and yellow pine, oak, hickory and dogwood. ISIuch fine shingle
and stave timber, and a considerable amount of turpentine produced.
Little attention is paid to stock. Several water powers. Farm labor, forty
cents to fifty cents ; one-half or more performed by whites. Lands rent
at from five hundred pounds to one thousand pounds lint cotton for a
one-horse farm (thirty acres). Very healthy. Much uncertainty in se-
curing laborers.

Society Hill, {E. D. 45) : There are clay lands, mostly swamp along the
Pee Dee river. The central portion is rolling ; the soil is a fine sandy
loam, four inches to subsoil of a yellowish color, turning white on ex-
posure ; underlying this is red clay, in the west the gum flats, consisting
of fine black sand, have a similar subsoil. Grow^th of uplands, pine, oak,
and dogwood ; of the swamps, white oak, ash, and poplar. Crops, aver-
age three hundred pounds seed cotton, eight bushels corn, thirty bushels
oats per acre ; under good culture 1,500 pounds to 2,000 pounds seed
cotton, and twenty bushels to twenty-five bushels corn per acre is made.
A sand stone is used for building chimneys. Cedar creek is twenty feet
wide, three feet deep, velocity three miles an hour. Wages, fifty cents a
da3^ Locality very healthy. Improved lands sell at ten dollars to twelve
dollars an acre, unimproved at three dollars to five dollars.

Palmetto, {E. D. 43) : Lands rather rolling. Soil, of coarse and of fine
sand, mixed with clay ; subsoil, red clay ; growth, pine and oak. Crops,
five Iiundred pounds seed cotton, eight bushels corn, twenty bushels oats
per acre. High Hill creek is twenty feet wide, with good fall ; Black
creek is forty feet wide, eight feet deep, velocity four to five miles an hour.
Wages, fifty cents a day. No land offered for sale ; rents for about two
dollars an acre.

Marion County, (3d Sup. Dist., 10th United States Census.)

Cain, {E. D. 87) : Lands level ; soil, fine dark gray sandy loam, six
inches to eighteen inches to clay subsoil, beneath which occur strata of
marl and clay. Growth, pine, oak, dogwood, cypress, &c. Crops, seven
hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn per acre. Wages of field

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 105

labor, twenty-five cents to fifty cents a day ; one-third field work done by
whites ; land sells from three dollars to ten dollars an acre.

Rowell, {E. D. 101) : Lands level ; soils, on the bottoms, heavy ; on
the uplands, a light "fluffy" sandy loam, on a red clay subsoil.
Growtli, pine, oak, poplar, dogwood, hickory, cypress, &c. Some business
done in shingles, hoops, staves and turpentine. Fine pasturage for
stock. Wages for field work, forty cents to fifty cents a day for men,
and thirty cents to forty cents for women. The locality has been very
healthy for fifty years. Land sells for ten dollars, and rents for two dol-
lars an acre.

Jeffries, {E. D. 91) : Prevailing soil a sandy loam, mixed witli clay,
varying in color from yellowish to dark gray, and resting on subsoil of
red and yellow sand, containing a good deal of clay. The higher lands
have more clay, the bottoms are more sandy. Much very fertile land
unreclaimed on the Great Pee Dee and other water courses. Most of the
land needs drainage. Growth of lowlands, oak, hickory and dogwood ;
on ridge lands, pitch and yellow pine, with oak, &c. Grapes are unfail-
ing, and grow with little care. Stock raising has been profitable. Wages
for field work, thirty cents to forty cents a day ; one-third of it performed
by whites. Some fever in the swamps, otherwise healthy. Some lands for
sale at five dollars to ten dollars an acre.

Marlon, {E. D. 95) : Lands level or slightly rolling, one-half known as
"fluffy soil," is a dark gray clay loam, four inches to twelve inches to a
subsoil of red or yellow clay. The other half is fine dark sandy loam,
with subsoil of yellow sand ; below the subsoil occur clays of various
colors, which extend to the depth of the wells, ten feet to twenty-five feet,
where excellent water is found in a stratum of quicksand and gravel.
Very fertile bodies of unreclaimed swamps may be purchased at fifty
cents to one dollar an acre, admitting of thorough drainage and easy til-
lage. Growth, pine, oak, hickory on uplands, Avith the usual swamp
growth. Crops, eight hundred pounds seed cotton, fifteen bushels corn,
twenty bushels rice, two hundred bushels sweet potatoes, under good cul-
ture much more is made. Much attention is paid to fruits, which do well ;
the finer varieties of grapes succeed admirably ; the scuppernong is native
to the locality. Timber for shingles, staves and hoops abundant, and
some turpentine. Marl occurs. Field work, paid forty cents to fifty
cents a day ; one-half of it performed by whites. A little land for sale
at five dollars to eight dollars an acre, more for rent at two dollars to six
dollars an acre, or one-fourth or one-third the crop, rent for a portion of
the crop preferred. No malarial disease ; very healthy.

Kirhy, {E. D. 72) : Land level. To the north, coarse, sandy soil, three
feet to ten feet to light colored clay, mixed with gravel. In the centre,

106 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

the land is darker and finer. To the south, there is a gray loamy soil,
resting at one foot to three feet on bright red clay. The ridges on what
is known as the " slashes," is a mulatto soil on dark red clay, beneath the
clay, white sand, mixed with gravel, is found. Growth, long and short
leaf pine, with the usual swamp growths on the water courses. Crops,
eight hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, twenty bushels oats,
twenty bushels rice per acre. The sandy lands were formerly considered
worthless, a bale to three acres was unusual ; now with manures and ju-
dicious culture, an average of 1,500 pounds to 2,000 pounds seed cotton
is not uncommon. Farmers now who do not make their supplies and a
bale to the acre are not considered as doing well, e. //., a farm of three
hundred and thirty acres in cotton made, last year, three hundred and
forty-six bales ; on smaller fields more has been made ; last year a farm
of twenty acres made 44,600 pounds seed cotton. Besides thorough til-
lage, twenty or thirty loads of straw or litter, one hundred pounds to tw^o
hundred pounds Kainit, with one hundred and fifty pounds or two hun-
dred pounds of superphosphate or of Peruvian guano, is appUed to the
acre. The " Thomas grape," a fine variety scuppernong, was first culti-
vated here, and is still found wild. Farm wages, for men. fifty cents a
day ; for w^omen, thirty cents; one-eighth of the field w^ork is performed
by whites ; some fever near the river, otherwise remarkably healthy.
Improved lands rent for five dollars an acre, unimproved for a four hun-
dred pound bale for a one-horse crop. Lands sell from three dollars to
one hundred dollars an acre.

Lef/eWs, {E. D. 93) : Rolling clay lands, sometimes flat and low. The
sandy soils are level and dry. The subsoil mostly a yellow clay, some of
red, or yellow sand. Sand is found again four feet to ten feet beneath
the clay, and in some places marl occurs. Wages of field labor, forty
cents to fifty cents a day, four dollars to eight dollars a month. One-
half of the field w^ork done by whites. Knows of no land for sale, may
be bought for four dollars to ten dollars an acre. Rents for one-third or
one-fourth of the crop, or worked on shares for one-half to two-thirds of
the cotton, and two-thirds of the corn ; rents often yield five dollars to
ten dollars an acre.

Hillsboro, {E. D. 90) : Soil a darkish gray clay loam, six inches to eight
inches to a yellow clay subsoil, overlying a very compact red clay that
reaches twelve feet to twenty-five feet, the depth of wells, where water is
found in c|uicksand. In the eastern part thousands of acres of most
fertile sw^amp lands might be reclaimed by drainage. There are also
some sandy soils, with yellow sand subsoil. Crops, ten bushels to twenty-
five bushels corn, five hundred pounds to fifteen hundred pounds seed
cotton, one hundred bushels to two hundred and fifty bushels sweet po-

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 107

tatoes per acre. Field work paid thirty cents to forty cents a day ; one-
third done by whites. Health good.

Carmichael, (E. D. 88) : Lands elevated and level. Soil, a fine sand or
red clay loam, containing much vegetable mould, underlaid at two feet
or more by a very dark clay. Growth, pine, oak, hickory and dogwood, with
juniper and cypress in the swamps. Average crops, one thousand pounds
seed cotton, twelve bushels to fifteen bushels corn, fifteen bushels wheat,
thirty-five bushels oats, twenty-five bushels rice per acre. Grapes do un-
usually well. Field labor paid, thirty-five cents to fifty cents a day ; one-
third of it done by whites, a sturdy wide awake population of Scotch
descent. Locality very health}^ Some land for sale at two dollars to
thirty-five dollars an acre. Most of it rented to laborers at two dollars to
eight dollars an acre, or for one-third of the crop.

Harlteesville, {E. D. 89) : ]\Iost of the land is elevated and level, some of
it, however, is low enough to require drainage. Three-fourths of the
soils are fine clay, with little vegetable matter, except in the bottoms ;
one-fourth are sandy soils, with a subsoil of yellow^ clay, mixed with
sand; it is the best 'adapted to corn and small grain; beneath the subsoils
clay is found to the depth of the wells, fifteen feet to twenty feet, where
water is found in quicksand. Growth, on uplands, pine and oak ; in the
swamps, poplar and cypress ; much timber is rafted down the Little Pee
Dee. Provision crops are neglected for cotton, and high prices for the
advancement of suplpies are paid. No fever, the locality is very healthy.
Price of lands, six dollars to forty dollars an acre. Farm labor paid,
thirty cents to fift}'^ cents a day ; one-half the field work done by whites.

Marlboro County, (3d Sup. Dist., 10th United States Census.)

Red Hill, {E. D. 110): Lands generally level or slightly rolling; rarely
hilly or broken. The cultivation of large bodies of rich river lands on
the Great Pee Dee has been abandoned, or they are rented to negro ox-
farmers. Some bay lands have been reclaimed. To the north, the up-
lands are a sandy loam, resting on dark clay. Growth, oak and hickory.
Crops, six to twelve hundred pounds seed cotton, ten to fifteen bushek.
corn, eight to forty bushels oats, fifteen to twenty-five bushels wheat.
Fruit very fine. Wages of farm labor, fifty cents to seventy-five cents a
day. One-eighth of field labor done by whites. The best land will com-
mand twenty-five dollars to thirty dollars ; average lands fifteen dollars,
and river bottoms two dollars and fifty cents per acre. Ordinary land
rents for one hundred pounds seed cotton an acre, or two four hundred
pound bales for a one-horse farm. Some fever on the river, elsewhere
remarkably healthy.

108 THE UPPER PINE BELT.

Benndt^ville, {E. D. 105) : Lar^e bodies of bottom land on the Pee Dee;
once ver}' productive, are now abandoned. Culture is chiefl}- confined to
the uplands, which are level or gently undulating. Soil, a fine sandy
loam, resting at four inches on red clay underlaid by a chalky clay.
Growth, pine, oak and dogwood, with the usual swamp growths. Crops,
one thousand pounds to fifteen hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels
to thirty bushels corn, twenty bushels to sixty bushels oats, fifteen bushels
wheat per acre. Grapes, fruits and vegetables do well. Wages for farm
work, fifty cents to seventy-five cents a day ; one-third of it done by
whites. Two large mill creeks traverse the township. Little land for
sale, price ten dollars to twenty-five dollars. Rent, three dollars to five
dollars per acre. Very healthy.

Hebron, {E. D. 108) : Level to flat lands. Soil, a sandy loam, mixed
with clay on clay subsoil. Growth, pine, oak and dogwood. Crops, eight
hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels to thirty bushels corn, ten bush-
els to forty bushels oats, five bushels to thirty bushels wheat per acre.
All fruits do well. Wages, fifty cents to seventy-five cents a day ; one-
fourth of field work done by whites. No prevailing disease. Land sells
from ten dollars to fifty dollars an acre ; rents for three dollars to five
dollars an acre.

BrightsviUe, {E. D. 106) : Lands elevated. Two-thirds of the soils fine
gray sandy loam, with j^ellow sand subsoil resting on red clay ; the other
one-third the same, without the clay. Growth, pine, oak and dogwood.
Crops, eight hundred pounds seed cotton, eight bushels corn per acre.
Wages, fifty cents a day ; two-thirds of the labor performed by whites.
No prevailing disease. No land ofi'ered for sale or to rent.

AdamsviUe, (E. D. 104) : Lands level or a little broken. Soil of fine
and coarse whitish or yellowish sand, ten inches to fifteen inches to sub-
soil of red clay, under which a chalky clay occurs. Growth, pine, oak,
hickory and dogwood. Crops, one thousand pounds seed cotton, fifteen
bushels corn, seventy-five bushels oats, twenty bushels wheat per acre.
Crooked creek is twenty feet wide, eight feet deep, fall eight feet per mile.
Wages, fifty cents a day. One-half of field work done by whites. Very
little sickness of any sort. No land offered for sale ; price would be
twenty-five dollars an acre ; it rents for one hundred and twenty-five
pounds seed cotton, or two bales of five hundred pounds for one-horse
farm (twenty-five acres).

Red Bluff, {E. D. 109) : Prevailing soil a gray or brown sandy loam,
with subsoil the same, less the vegetable matter, resting at one foot to two
feet on clay that extends eighteen feet to the bottom of the wells, where
excellent and abundant water is found in quicksand. Growth, pine, oak,
hickory, dogwood and gum. Great resources in timber, hooj)s, shingles,

THE UPPER PINE BELT. 109

turpentine, &c., untouched, except a little rafted down the Little Pee Dee.
There is a mill at Red Bluff, on the Little Pee Dee ; the river here has a
width of fifty-five feet, a depth of six feet, and a current of three miles
an hour. Crops, one thousand pounds seed cotton (many farms yield a
bale per acre), and fifteen bushels corn. Farm wages, forty cents to sixty
cents a day ; one-half of the field work done by whites. Little land
offered for sale ; prices range from five dollars to forty dollars an acre.
Rent, in money, is six dollars an acre, or one-third of the crop.

CH^I^TER V.

THE RED HILL REGION

LOCATION.

The very gradual slope of the upper pine belt having attained an ele-
vation of two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet above the sea level,
an irregular and somewhat interrupted line of high hills is encountered.
These hills rise two to three hundred feet above the plane of the upper
pine belt in the distance of a few miles, and not unfrequently this eleva-
tion is attained in traversing a few hundred yards. To the south and
east extensive views over the gentle and irregular slope of the lower
country are exposed from the summit of these declivities. To the
north and west a sort of table land stretches back and gradually merges
into the higher and more extensive sand hill region of the 8tate.

The general trend of these hills correspond pretty nearly with that of
the other regions of the State. Starting on the Savannah river near
Hamburg, they extend across the southern and western portion of Aiken
and the northern townships of Barnwell counties. Following the north-
ern boundary of Orangeburg, they acquire their greatest width in that
county around Fort Motte, near the confluence of the Congaree and the
Wateree rivers. West of the Santee river their course is more to the
north, and they constitute that remarkable line of hills traversing Sumter
county, long known as the " High Hills of Santee." Included in this re-
gion is also a body of lands in Edgefield county, known as the " Ridge,"
which lie along the Augusta and Charlotte railroad. Although the latter
are above the outcrop of the granite rocks, being continuous with the
red hills, and resembling them closely in physical features and soil,
they are described with them.

While these red hills form a well marked bolt across the State below
the sand hills, from the southwestern part of Aiken county to the north-

THE RED HILL REGION. Ill

eastern corner of Snmter, they are not continuous, but are interrupted at
greater or less intervals by the protrusion of the sand hills. Mills' descrip-
tion of them east of the Santee river will give an idea of how this occurs.
He says, " they take their rise about nine miles north of Nelson's ferry on
the Santee, and form that fine body of brick mould land (3d Sup. Dist.,
E. D. 14 and 15) in tlie Richardson settlement. After continuing eight
miles, they become suddenly sand hills a little above Manchester. At
the end of eleven miles they again become red land, which continues to
Buck creek, nine miles above Statesburg. These hills up to this point
appear to hang over the Wateree swamps, but now they diverge and turn
to the northeast, with one ridge in the middle forming a backl)one ;
breaking off into hills towards the Wateree, and sloping off gradually
towards Black river. At Buck creek the hills again become sandy, which
gradually increases for fifteen or sixteen miles, to Bradford Springs ; a
little above this place they join tile sand hills of the middle country."
If these alternations were carefully traced it is probable they would be
found to be due to removal by denudation of the red clay loam from the
slopes of sand and gravel that rise in the sand hills. For the sienna-
colored clay loam, characteristic of this region, seldom has a depth greater
than twenty feet, and is underlaid by beds of sand and gravel.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

The red hill recjion belong-s to the buhr-stone formation of the eocene.
It presents a series of four quite dissimilar and well marked strata.
Commencing with the superior, or more recent, these are :

1st. Beds of red sienna-colored siliceous clay, having a thickness of
fifteen to thirty feet, and containing fragments of buhr-stone. It was the
observation by Mr. Tuomey of the passage of these clays under the marl
and green sand formations of the Charleston basin, at the Belle Brough-
ton place, on Halfway swamp, in Orangeburg county (E. D. 150), which
satisfied him that Mr. Lyell had erred in supposing that the buhr-stone
overlaid the calcareous beds in South Carolina. This observation settles
a point of considerable practical importance. For as the buhr-stone under-
lies and forms the floor of the lime formations of the eocene, no marl beds
need be looked for above the line of its occurrence.

2d. Beds of coarse red and yellow sands, having a thickness of thirty
to sixty feet. In these beds are sometimes found, at a depth of fifty feet,
crystals of rutile, either lying loose among the sands or imbedded in
rounded masses of quartz or felspar, water-worn by still quite perfect
pyramidal crystals of quartz an inch in length, are also found among these
sands.

112 THE RED HILL KEOIOX.

3d. Masses of buhr-stone, composed of silicified shells and other organic
remains of the eocene. Among these shells gasteropoda predominate,
which, together with the presence of land shells, and shells of mollusks
which live in marshes(Auriculae), indicate the literal character of the for-
mation. The leaves of oak, beech and willow trees, silicified or converted
into lignite, were found here by Mr. Tourney. On Cedar creek, in Aiken
county, there arc beds of buhr-stone thirty feet in thickness, and at several
points between this locality and the Savannah river on the west, and the
San tee and Congaree on the east, there are extensive outcrops of this mate
rial, from which mill-stones of excellent quality, equal to the best French
buhr, have been quarried. In the southwestern corner of Aiken county, on
Hollow creek (E. D. 16), beds of lignite .occur, underlaid by clay that was
used by the ordinance department during the late war for the manufac-
ture of fire-proof crucibles, and pronounced equal to the best Stourbridge
clay for that purpose. Similar beds of lignite are found in Chesterfield
county, on Whortleberry branch, and at Mr. Croghan, underlaid by clay of
the same character.

4th. Beds of a white siliceous rock, varying from a laminated siliceous
clay to a hard rock, having a jointed structure, breaking with a conchoidal
fracture, and resembling menilite. This curious rock has been traced from
near Aiken C. H. to the northern f)art of Clarendon county. In the latter
county there is a remarkable occurrence of it on the public road just
north of Gov. Manning's residence (3d Sup. Dist. E. D. 15). On the head
waters of Congaree creek this rock is sawed into blocks, fashioned with
an axe, and used for building chimneys. It resists disintegration Avell,
and its extreme lightness facilitates its carriage and handling.

Below the series of strata thus described are the great beds of loose
sand, intermingled with kaolin and variousl}' colored clays, which rise
into the extensive sand hill region, lying north of the red hills.

SOILS.

The reddish loam of this region presents an appearance somewhat sim-
ilar to that of the soils derived from the hornblende rocks in the upper
country, but it is not so tenacious and waxy. Although when not culti-
vated it becomes very hard in dry weather, in wet weather, owing to the
large amount of sand it contains, the intervals when it can not be worked
are short. Vegetable matter rots rapidly in it, and for this reason long
manures (as composts) are better adapted to it than commercial fertilizers.
The former are rapidly incorporated and well retained, and there is no
soil that responds so well or is so capable of great improvement under
treatment with stable and lot manures as these. Worked without ma-
nure they rapidly consume themselves and become unproductive.

THE RED HILL REGION. 11

Q

The following analyses of typical soils in this region were made by
Dr. Eugene A. Smith, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, for the 10th United States
Census :

1. 2.

Insoluble matter 88.960 89.340

Soluble silica . . • 3.055 2.847

Potash 115 .138

Soda 050 ^ .063

Lime 062 .077

^lagnesia 028 .061

Br. oxide of Manganese 098 .096

Peroxide of Iron 1.250 1.559

Alumina 4.000 3.686

Phosphoric acid 075 .067

Sulphuric acid 047 .038

Water and organic matter 2.621 1.668

Total 100.361 99.650

Ilygoseopic moisture absorbed at 80° Fah. . . 1.982 1.444

These samples were taken uniformly to the depth of twelve inches on
the table land in Amelia township, Orangeburg county, about three miles
below the junction of the Wateree and Congaree rivers, from the place
of J. Peterkin, Esq. The three hundred and seventy-five acres in cotton
on this place made, in 1879, two hundred and fifty bales of cotton. No.
1 is from woodlands never cleared ; the growth, large red oak and hick-
ory, with a sprinkling of very large short leaf pine. No. 2 is from a field
that has been planted for more than one hundred years ; having on it a
crop of about twelve hundred pounds of seed cotton to the acre when the
sample was taken. The field had received only cotton seed and com-
mercial fertilizers as manures for a number of years. Prof. Toumey, in
his survey of South Carolina, published in 1848, gives the following
analvses of these soils ;

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

Organic matter. 5.60 7.00 4.40

Silica 66.90 71.00 80.30

Alumina 9.60 8.50 6.60

Oxide of Iron 6.00 4.00 3.70

Lime 2.00 1.56 0.90

Magnesia 50 1.00 trace.

Potash and soda trace. .50 . . .

Water and loss 9.40 6.44 4.10

8 100.00 100.00 100.00

114 THE RED HILL REGION.

No. 1 was from near Orangeburg village, the southern limit of the
region under consideration, and near the line where the buhr-stone passes
under the Santee marls.

No. 2 was from Lang Syne, the same plantation from which the sam-
ples analyzed by Dr. Smith, were taken.

No. 3 was from the " High Hills of Santee," near Statesburg, in Sumter
county.

CLIMATE.

Having an elevation of four hundred to five hundred feet and upwards
above the sea level, the red hills enjoy a dryer and more bracing atmos-
phere than the regions to the south. While it is a notable fact that they
are not so subject to the severer influences of storm winds as the lower
lying lands, the ordinary movements of the air are more perceptible there
than in the lower grounds. Thus, during the extremest heats of summer,
there is rarely a night when the refreshing influence of a gentle south
wind is not felt, blowing with a uniformity as though it had directly
traversed the seventy miles intervening between these slopes and the
ocean. Owing to this movement of the air and to its greater dryness,
late spring frosts are of less frequent occurrence here than they are fur-
ther south. Nor is vegetation destroyed by cold so early in the fall. In
ascending these hills in the autumn and early winter at a certain eleva-
tion a stratum of warm air is encountered, which seems to cling about
the hill-tops, while a much chillier night air fills the bottoms. These ad-
vantages at one time made this region famous for its fruits. During the
severest winter of the last half century the banana and the sago palm
in the open ground, protected only by a few handsful of cotton seed on
their roots, though cut by the frost, retained sufficient vitality to throw
up vigorous shoots the ensuing spring. This greater length of growing
season has also made attempts at growing sea island cotton and sugar
cane more successful here than lower down. The whole region is remark-
ably healthy, no taint of malaria approaches it and it is in an unusual
degree free from epidemics of every description. For these reasons many
localities here, especially the " High Hills of Santee," were formerly much
frequented as summer and health resorts by planters from all parts of the
State, as well as from other Southern States.

GROWTH.

The long leaf pine thins out on these hills and is sometimes replaced
by short leaf pine of large growth. Their southern aspect is the upper
limit of the long gray moss. The characteristic growth, however, is oak

^ THE RED HILL REGION. 115

and hickory of large size. All the oaks common to the section attain
here an unusual size, including even the blackjack and the post oak, not
conspicuous elsewhere for their growth; the red oak, however, sur-
passes them all in size, measuring sometimes as much as seven feet in
diameter, while trees four feet and five feet through are not uncommon.
The live oak when planted does w^ell, the chinquapin is found wild in
the w^oods; the Roman chestnut, the pecan nut, the English walnut,
and the almond, bear abundant crops. So that the region is to a large
extent suitable for the growth of plants natural to higher and to lower
latitudes.

STATISTICS.

The red hill region contains about 1,620 square miles, and has a popu-
lation of 44,866, being 27.6 to the square mile. Fifty-six per cent, are
colored.

The area of tilled land is 234,682 acres; being 144 acres per square mile,
or 22 per cent, of the entire surface ; and five acres per capita of the pop-
ulation.

The number of farms is 4,568, being 2.8 per sc[uare mile, or a farm to
nearly every ten persons ; averaging for the w^hole, 228 acres to the farm,
of which fifty is under culture ; the remaining 178 being included and
for the most part yielding no return wdiatever.

The crops are cotton, in which 84,939 acres are planted, yielding 34,249
bales of cotton in 1879. Averaging a yield per acre of 183 pounds of
lint, or 348 pounds per capita for the whole population ; which is the
largest' yield per capita of any region of the State, This is a little more
than six per cent, of the area planted in cotton in the whole State, and
yields six and six-tenths per cent, of the entire crop of the State. In
grain of all sorts 114,425 acres are planted, yielding 804,443 bushels, a
little over seven bushels to the acre, and seventeen bushels per capita of
the population, a yield wholly disproportionate to the capabilities of the
soil, which is particularly adapted to small grain. This area is a little
over six per cent, of the total area planted in grain in the State, and the
yield is four and seven-tenths per cent, of the total crop of the State. Of
course very little rice is planted here, which in part accounts for the fall-
ing off, that being the most productive grain crop in the State ; but lands
which in 1825 made an average of eight to twelve bushels (see Mills, p.
660), and wdien well manured, thirty-four bushels of wheat per acre, and
from ten to twenty-five bushels of rice to the acre, and still more when
planted in rye and oats, are far below their normal production Avhen
yielding as above indicated. In fallow and other crops there is 35,318
acres, nearly fifteen per cent, of the land once under cultivation. The

110 THE RED HILL REGION.

culture of much of this land is abandoned as a consequence of the disas-
ters that have overtaken the rich planters, who formerly lived here, inci-
dent to the results of the war.

The work stock numbers 7,663, not quite five to the square mile, one
to every thirty acres of tilled land, and to every six of the population.

The live stock is 61,569, chiefly hogs; thirty-eight to the square mile,
and nearly one to every four acres of cultivated land.

At Wedgefield, on the Columbia and Wilmington Railroad, these lands
are well cultivated and sell as high as twenty-five dollars an acre. At
Fort Motte, on the Columbia and Charleston railroad, the prices are fifteen
dollars to twenty dollars an acre, and in Millbrook, Aiken, by the South
Carolina railroad, they sell for fifteen dollars to twenty dollars,
and in Beech island, in the same county, near Augusta, Georgia,
the}^ have recently brought over forty dollars an acre. The great
body of these lands, however, lying off the railroads, are to be had
at much lower prices. Large tracts, by no means inferior to those
already mentioned, except as regards accessibilit}- , are offered at from
three dollars to ten dollars an acre. It is remarkable that mere accessi-
bility should affect prices to this degree. For, while the lands themselves
produce every variety of crop, they are well adapted to cotton, of which
a two-horse wagon can transport as much as two hundred dollars worth
at one load ; the roads are excellent and there is scarcely a point that is
a day's journey removed from a market. That not one-fourth of these
lands, capable of supporting, in health and abundance, as large a popula-
tion as land anywhere, are under cultivation, illustrates how much is
wanting in capital and population to develope the resources of this section.

CHAPTER VI.

THE SAND HILL REGION.

The sand hill region of South Carolina stretches across the State from
the Savannah river, opposite to Augusta, to the intersection of the North
Carolina line by the Great Pee Dee river. The average distance of its
lower border, among the Red Hills, from the sea, is about ninety-five
miles. Its length is one hundred and fifty-five miles. Its width is
variable; the maximum, which is reached in Lexington county, is about
thirty miles, and the average width will hardly reach twenty miles. It
occupies the larger portion of five counties, viz : Aiken, Lexington, Rich-
land, Kershaw and Chesterfield. The upper j^ine belt, ascending the
eastern bank of the Congaree river, in Richland county, until it touches
the granite rocks of the Piedmont region at Columbia, divides the sand
hill region into two portions, an eastern and a western portion.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES. .

The physical features of this region are of a monotony aptly charac-
terized by the term " pine barren," applied to it. The hills slope up
from the Savannah river to a plateau, having an elevation at Aiken C. H.
of about six hundred feet above the sea level. Beyond the North Edisto
river the gradual ascent is resumed, until an elevation exceeding seven
hundred feet is reached in Piatt Springs township, in eastern Lexington,
whence there is a rapid descent of more than five hundred feet in a short
distance to the Congaree river. East of this stream the rise is again
gradual, and the maximum elevation is reached on the northeast border of
Richland county, where the hills again descend abruptly to the Wateree
river. Beyond this river there is no data as to levels, except that on the
water shed of the Great Pee Dee there is evidence as to extensive denudation
of the surface to a depth of at least one hundred and fifty feet. The evidence
is furnished by a conical hill rising in central Chesterfield one hundred
and fifty feet above the surrounding country, and known as Sugar Loaf

118

THE SAND HILL REGION.

mountain. This hill consists of horizontal layers of sand and kaolin
cla3's, similar to the prevailing formations of the sand hills, aud lias been
preserved from denudation by blocks of ferruginous sandstone covering
its top and sides, identical in character with the same sandstone, known
as ironstone, found on the summit of these hills in many otlier localities.
The following diagram presents a view of the relative elevations of this
region :

Se.\. Level. Aiken. Lexington. Richland. Kershaw. Chesterfikld. Sea Level.

A Savannah River ; B South Edisto River ; C North Edisto River ; D Congaree River ; E Wateree
River; i^Lyneh's River ; G Pee Dee River ; i/ Ailcen Court House; /Sugar Loaf Mountain.

Scale— 35 miles per inch. Elevation 100 feet per xV inch.

This longitudinal section of the sand hills illustrates once more the
law already noticed as prevailing elsewhere — that the long slopes face
west and south, and the short slopes face east and north ; and, also, that
the western portion of the State is more elevated than the eastern. It
will also be noticed that, notwithstanding their just reputation for great
dryness, these pine barrens are well watered. They are crossed by seven
rivers of considerable size, having an aggregate length among these
hills of more than two hundred miles. Of creeks, not counting lesser
streams and branches, there is an aggregate length in this region of
eleven hundred and seventy miles, capable of furnishing a large amount
of water power. For instance, one average creek out of the seventy-eight
found here, Horse creek furnishes in the single township of Gregg, in
Aiken county, power for a large paper mill and three cotton mills, being
1300 horse power utilized, and estimating the power not employed,
the stream can furnish 2500 horse power. Showing that the streams
of medium size in this region have a capacity for work, now scarcely
utilized, greater than that of all the work stock of the State. On the
margins of these streams there are more than 100,000 acres of bottom
lands, for the most part uncleared, but capable of being rendered, by
drainage and irrigation, in the highest degree productive. The water of
these streams, which are little subject to freshet, but maintain a flow of
great uniformity throughout all the seasons of the year, is as clear as that
of the purest springs. Spring branches, and even streams of considerable
size, sink sometimes into the loose sands of this region and disappear, to
appear at distant points as " boiling " springs, that is, springs bubbling

THE SAND HILL REGION. 119

up with some force, and throwing out considerable quantities of fine,
white sand. The action of these underground streams in removing and
transporting these fine sands, accounts for a number of circular depres-
sions not very different in appearance from lime-sinks, found scattered
here over the elevated flats and plateaus, and when, by an accumulation
of vegetable growth or a caving in of the earth, the channels of these
streams are obstructed, rains sometimes fill these depressions, giving rise
to clear sheets of water or lakelets. Another phenomenon occurring here,
and not well understood, are blowing wells, of which there are several.
For example, on a high sand hill in Hammond township, Aiken county, a
number of unsuccessful attempts were made during many years to dig a
well. At length an auger, eight inch diameter, penetrating the loose,
coarse, white sand, and nothing else, to a depth of one hundred and
twenty feet, encountered a bold stream of excellent water. When the
well was curbed and completed, it was found that a current of air issued
from it all the time, which, in threatening and stormy weather, acquired
such force as to make itself heard at some distance, and to blow several
feet into the air a hat or cloth laid over the orifice.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

These hills form a dividing ridge between the more recent formations
of the low country and the very ancient formations of the upper country.
Their southern aspect overlooks the tertiary plane descending to the sea
shore of the Atlantic. On the north they reach the clay slates (dipping
north) of Edgefield, Lexington, Richland and Chesterfield counties, and
the granite and gneiss rocks of Kershaw county. Outcrops of these most
ancient rocks occur among the sand hills themselves, as follows :

In Aiken county, granite occurs on Horse creek, and granite overlaid
by gneiss rock and hornblende slate on the South Edisto, where the
Columbia road crosses in.

In Lexington county, granite is found at Quattlebaum's mill, on
Lightwood creek.

In Kershaw county, masses of steatite occur on Spears, Twenty-five
Mile, and Pine Tree creeks, and at Liberty Hill and at other places
rounded blocks of coarse granite are seen, " as though they were pushed
up through the sand."

Next to the granite is found a stratum of sandstone, consisting of the
ruins of the granite consolidated into a pretty hard rock. It occurs on
Horse creek, on the ridges at the head of Lightwood creek, on Congaree
creek, where Mr. Tuomey observed in it comminuted fossils of the eocene
type ; at the Rock House, in Lexington count}', ^^•here it has been quarried
for architectural purposes, and on Second creek, in the same neighbor-

120 THE SAND HILL REGION.

hood, where silicified shells and fragments of lime were found embedded
in the stone.

Lying on this sandstone are extensive beds of loose white sand, inter-
mingled with strata of clay of various colors, the whole having an
estimated vertical thickness of one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet.
Large beds of kaolin clay, free from grit or other impurity, and of great
whiteness, are found intercalated among these sands. Several quarries
to the west of Aiken C. H. having been worked with much profit, the
material being used as porcelain clay, and also by paper manufacturers.
Some of the clays of Lexington county, beautifully mottled with various
colors, harden, on exposure, to such a degree that it is thought they
might be utilized for ornamental building purposes.

The last member of this series of strata is the " ironstone," already
alluded to as covering the summit of Sugar Loaf mountain. Next in
order comes the porous, siliceous rock, resembling menilite, and the buhr-
stone series.

SOILS.

The characteristic of the soils of this region is the loose rounded sands
wdiich form their chief constituent. The organic matter which it con-
tains consists largely of charcoal, resulting from burning off the woods,
principally the pine straw (leaves of the pine). Occasionally there are
rounded hills of very fine sand of a dazzling whiteness, of such purity
that they seem just to have emerged from the waters, or to have been
blown together by the winds on the seashore. There are, however, many
elevated flats, which, under good culture and manuring, give excellent
crops, and in the vales, the soil is often very productive ; it is cultivated
with care, and continues to jDroduce so long as there is an atom left of
anything that can sustain a plant.

The following analyses of the sand hill soils were made by Prof. C. JJ.
Shepard, Sr., in 18-46 :

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

Water of Absorption 5.500 8.00 . .

Organic Matter 8.500 . . 6.50

Silica 77.000 81.00 80.00

Protoxide of Iron 4.005 * • I •-> aa

Peroxide of Iron 3.50 j

Alumina ' 5.00 5.50 5.60

Lime trace 0.40 0.60

Magnesia trace trace . .

Phosphates trace . . trace'

Water and Loss 1.60 4.30

100.05 100.00 100.00

THE SAND HILL REGION. 121

No. 1 is surface soil near Aiken ; No. 2 is subsoil of the same ; No. 3 is
from Piatt Springs, Lexington.

In recent years, under high culture, " on a lot in Aiken, adjacent to the
one where tlie above analysis was made, the product was forty bushels of
corn, and thirty bushels of wheat per acre." Since the introduction of fer-
tilizers, level lands in the neighborhood of the South Carolina railway,
which sold in 1860 for three dollars an acre, have sold for thirty dollars
and even as high as forty dollars an acre. Throughout this region
thousands of acres, equal and superior to these, though not immediately
upon a railroad, are for sale at one dollar to five dollars an acre.

GROWTH AND PRODUCTIONS.

The growth is almost exclusively long leaf pine, and on the more
barren ridges, even this tree becomes stunted, and sometimes, on the
higher and finer sand crests, yields its place to the New Jersey tea plant,
which alone covers the dazzling whiteness of the sands. Usually, how-
ever, there is a heavy growth of long leaf pine, and this tree here — almost
on its northern limit in the State — attains its highest perfection, not only
as regards size, trees of three feet and four feet in diameter being not un-
common, but also as to the quality of its wood, which has more heart
and is more resinous than elsewhere, a fact duly recorded in the names
of localities, as Lightwood creek, and Lightwood Knot springs, the in-
habitants of even this mild climate being not unmindful of the light and
warmth furnished by this excellent fuel. There is often an undergrowth
of the forked leaf blackjack, and where there is a suspi^^ion of moisture
in the soil, this is replaced by the round leaf blackjack, a sure indication
here of better soil. On the hillsides, there are not unfrequently out-
croppings of kaolin, and here a growth of kalmia adds a pleasing variety
to the monotony of the pine forest.

Besides the staple products of cotton, corn, the small grains, peas and
potatoes, common to this latitude, these soils have been thought specially
adapted to certain other crops. One locality has been known for more
than one hundred years as " Pinder Town," from the number of pea-nuts
formerly produced there. ]\Iany years ago the lands of Lexington and
Kershaw were thought especially adapted to the growth of Palma Christi,
and even with the rude appliances for its extraction in those early days, a
yield of one hundred and fifty gallons of excellent oil per acre was ob-
tained. These sandy soils produce sorghum, which, while it is of smaller
growth than that on more fertile lands, yields more abundantly a syrup
that is much superior in quality. No where are Avatermelons produced
with such ease and certainty, in so great quantities, of so large a size, and

122 THE SAND HILL REGION.

SO fine a flavor as on the poorest of these lands. There was no finer veg-
etable or flower garden in the State than that of the late William Gregg,
situated on a high and sandy liill between Aiken and Graniteville ; one
scuppernong vine covered the fourth of an acre with its luxuriant and
productive growth. On the apparently barren hills of this vicinity there
also flourished formerly a most remunerative culture of the peach. The
late James Purvis cultivated, with three hands, sixty acres in this fruit,
and in six years he made five crops, realizing on each from §5,000 to
^10,000. Neighboring orchardists engaged in this culture have more
than once made five hundred dollars to the acre. The

CLIMATE

of the sand hills is dry, tonic, sunny and stimulating, and entirely free
from malarial influences. They have long been a resort during winter
for consumptives from northern latitudes, and during the summer months
for persons from the lower country of the State. The inhabitants them-
selves enjoy an unusual degree of health. Cases of great longevity are
common, and the death rate is unusually low. For example, in Piatt
Springs township, Lexington, in a population of eight hundred and fifty-
three by actual count, there were only two deaths in 1879, and only four
deaths in 1880. Of the latter three were of persons over eighty years of
age ; nor can this be considered an exceptional case.

The period without frost has an average duration of two hundred to
two hundred and twenty -five days, nor are they of very frequent occur-
rence, even during midwinter.

The mean annual temperature is 62°, 50^ Fah. The winter mean is
48°, 53^ Fah. The spring mean is 55° Fah. The summer mean is 75°
Fah., and the autumn mean is 71°. Excluding August, the warmest month
of the year, the mean for autumn, i. e., September and October, would be
68° Fah. The average diurnal range of temperatures is 12°, 65\ a frac-
tion less than at the important health resort of Santa Barbara, California.
The elevation and the porous subsoil of said, in which water is found only
at a depth of eighty feet to one hundred and twenty-five feet, make this
a remarkably dry climate. Steel instruments may be exposed for months
without rusting ; matches left open never miss fire ; moth and mould are
rarely seen, and the cryptogameous plants are feebly represented. Ob-
servations at Aiken show that the relative humidity of tlie air is 64.0-4,
being less than at an}' of the fiimous health resorts of Europe, except
Cannes and Hyeres, wliich are somewhat less, due, perhaps, to the preva-
lence of the mistral. Heavy dues never occur. Fogs are also rare. The
number of rainy days varies from twenty-nine to forty-five, and of the

THE SAND HILL REGION. 123

remainder, two hundred and sixteen to two hundred and thirty-nine are
clear, leaving only eighty-four to one Jmndred and seven cloud}'- days.
During sixteen years the rain fall at Aiken varied from 33.87 inches to
56.49 inches, with an average of 46.70. During five years six falls of
snow were recorded, but as a rule there were only a few flakes, which
melted as soon as they reached the ground. Sleet is more frequent than
snow, but disappears on a few hours exposure to the sun. The prevailing
winds are from the south and southwest. The water of wells and springs
is of a superior character, being transparently clear, with a temperature
varying from 62° to 64° Fah. (Climate and topography of Aiken, by
E. S. Gaillard, M. D., Richmond, Va. ; Aiken as a Health Station, by W.
H. Geddings, M. D.). It must be remembered that this description applies
to no restricted locality, but refers to an area of more than 2,000 square
miles, where the sanitary conditions above alluded to are present with the
terebinthinate and healing odors of a great pine forest.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.

The area of the sand hill region is estimated at 2,441 square miles.
The population is 28,612 ; being 11.7 per square mile, nearly one-third
less than the average of the State, and less than in any other region.
Fifty-nine per cent, of the population is colored.

The area of tilled land is 151,359 acres, which is sixty-two acres to the
square mile, or a fraction under one-tenth of the entire surface. This is
twelve acres below the average of the State, and less than in any other
region except the lower pine belt, where it is thirty-five acres per square
mile. It is five and a third acres per capita of the population, the largest
proportion in the State, and is due to the few towns and railroads in the
region, leaving the rural population more exclusively to agricultural
pursuits.

The tilled land is divided among 4,238 farms ; giving thirty-five acres
of tilled land to the farm ; five acres less than the average for the State.
The number of farms in proportion to the j^opulation is greater than
anywhere else, being one farm to every seven of the population. More
farms are worked by their owners, and fewer by renters than elsewhere.
Thus in Kershaw and Chesterfield counties, sixty per cent, of the farms
in the sand hills are worked by the owners, and forty by renters ; in the
portion of the same districts embraced in the upper pine belt, the Red
Hill and the Piedmont regions, fifty-six per cent, of the farms are rented.
This independent small proprietary has exercised its influence on the ag-
ricultural policy of the State, and the long opposition to a change of the
fence law is largely due to them. They have also, in times past, been a

124 THE SAND HILL REGION.

third party, as it were, stretching across the middle country of the State,
between the larger farmers of the upper country on the one hand, and
the planters of the lower country on the other. This, together with the
sparsely settled country. Where heavy sand hills were not favorable to
transportation, before the days of railroads, has made this section in some
sort a barrier between these two sections, socially and industrially, as it
is geologically.

The crops are : cotton, 35,433 acres, two per cent, of the entire surface ;
yield, 15,055 bales, 6.1 bales per square mile, or about one hundred and
ninety-three pounds of lint cotton per acre, a little above the average of
the State, owing doubtless to the large area from which the small number
of acres planted is selected. The yield per capita is only two hundred
and thirty-nine pounds, less than in any portion of the State north of
the lower pine belt and south of the Piedmont country.

Corn and other grain, 93,283 acres, yielding 920,444 bushels, a fraction
less than ten bushels per acre, but thirty -two bushels per capita of the
population, nearly double the average for the State, and twelve bushels
per caj^ita more than the next highest (the Piedmont) region. Another
result of an independent small proprietary and of a rural population re-
moved from the thoroughfares of travel and of trade, and forced truly on
their own resources for subsistence.

In all other crops and fallow there is 22,043 acres, most of which is in
orchards and gardens.

The work stock numbers 8,518, being 3.8 per square mile, which is less
than in any region of the State, except among the extensive unimproved
forests of the lower pine belt, where the proportion is only a little more
than half the above. The ratio of work stock to population is 29-100 to
one, being nearly double the average of the State. This is owing to the
larger proj^ortion of rural population, and consequently of farmers em-
ploying stock ; to the small independent farm-holdings, separated by wide
tracts of unimproved land ; the small proportion of crops worked by
hand, such as cotton and rice and the larger proportion of land in grain,
tilled chiefly by horse power ; and to the great facility and cheapness of
keeping stock on home-raised supplies, in place of doing so with corn and
hay brought from the north and west. These same reasons will account
for there being only seventeen acres of tilled land to the head of work
stock, seven acres less than the average of the State, although the lands
are light and of easy culture.

There is 70,901 herd of all kinds, being only twenty-nine to the square
mile, which is eight less than the average for the State, and less than any
where in the State, except upon the sea coast, and in the lower pine belt.
This statement will doubtless seem very strange to the farmers in these

THE SAND HILL REGION. 125

regions, affording the widest ranges of forest pasturage for stock, and who
consider stock-raising as one of their most important concerns. This
opinion among the sand hills arises from the fact, that there is 2.47
head of stock to each one of population, nearly double the average for
the State, which confirms the importance of their stock to them, while it
fails to show that lands in woods-pasture, with freedom of range for stock,
give as much return in stock as lands under cultivation. On the con-
trary, tables here appended, show that the amount of live stock per
square mile increases, with the increase in the number of acres of tilled
land per square mile. Whence it follows that stock raising in this State
has passed out of that early condition of things, w^hen wild stock roaming
at large yielded the largest return.

CHAPTER VII.

THE PIEDMONT REGION.

LOCATION, PHYSICAL FEATURES.

The Piedmont region of South Carolina coincides very nearly with
what is known as the upper country of the State. It includes the whole
of eight counties, to wit : Abbeville, Anderson, Newberry, Laurens, Union,
Fairfield, Chester and Lancaster. It also embraces the northern portion
of Edgefield and Lexington, and the northwestern portions of Pichland,
Kershaw and Chesterfield. The southern parts of Oconee and Pickens,
and the southern and larger portions of Greenville, Spartanburg and York
are within its limits. A line drawn from a point on the Savannah river
three miles above Hamburg to Columbia, and running thence northeast to
where the Great Pee Dee river crosses from North into South Carolina,
defines, in a general way, its southern border. Its northern boundary
follows, in the main, the direction of the Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line
railroad, which lies on the edge of the Alpine region, just north of the one
under consideration.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

The physical features of this portion of the State entitle it to the name
of the Piedmont Region. Its rocks are so similar to those of the Blue
Ridge mountains that, though they have been broken down, levelled off,
and worn away by exposure, during the countless ages, to the vicissitudes
of the seasons, they are, and always have been, the foot hills of the
Apalachian range, while the broken and mountainous region to the
north, usually spoken of as the Piedmont country, might be better called
the Alpine or Sub- Alpine region of the State.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 127

The elevation of thirty-one points in the Piedmont region, varying
from a minimum of 179.5 feet on the granite rocks at the Congaree bridge,
below Columbia, to a maximum of 880 feet at Belton, on the Greenville
railroad, give a mean elevation above the sea of 590 feet. The mean
elevation of the Columbia and Augusta railroad, where it passes along
the southern border of the region, is 575 feet. That of the Air Line rail-
road in South Carolina, lying to the north of it and almost wholly within
the Alpine region, is 910 feet. Between these two lines, therefore, a dis-
tance of some ninety miles, there is a general rise of the surface of three
hundred and thirty-five feet, or less than four feet to the mile. This is a
gentler slope than that of the tertiary plain or low country. The distance
from the sea to its northern border being about one hundred miles, and
the difference in elevation something more than five hundred feet, or over
five feet to the mile.

The face of the countr}' presents a gently undulating plain, which be-
comes more rolling as it approaches the rivers and larger streams, and is
finally hilly and broken above the bottoms and narrow, low grounds,
through which the numerous water courses find their passage.

While the general rise in the surface is less than that in the low country,
the rise in the beds of the streams, owing to the resistance of the under-
lying rocks, which prevent the water from deepening their channels, is
much greater. Thus, the elevation above the sea of the lower falls of
these rivers is, for the Savannah, 133 feet ; for the Congaree, 135.3 feet;
for the Wateree, 133 feet; but where they enter this region from the
north, the surface of the water has an elevation above the sea level of
403 feet for the Savannah, of 552 feet for the Broad river, and of 514 feet
for the Catawba. This gives an average difference of 3G0 feet in about
83 miles, or a fall per mile in the Piedmont region of 4| feet, against an
average fall in the lower course of these rivers of about 1.2 feet per mile.
While this renders the navigation of the upper portions of these rivers
difficult, it adds largely to their availability as water powers for moving
stationar}^ machinery.

The Savannah river, on the western boundary of the State, passes
through the metamorphic rocks for more than one hundred miles, and
although it receives many affluents, and some of them quite large, on its
eastern bank, they join at such an acute angle as to make its eastern
water shed very narrow — scarcely anywhere exceeding twenty miles
in width. To the east, Lynch's river passes through this region for about
twelve miles, its western water shed not exceeding five miles. Between
these two narrow water sheds in the east and west there is an interval of
about one hundred miles. The numerous streams traversing this inter-
val belong to one river system, and unite shortly after entering the ter-

128 THE riEDMONT REGION.

tiary plain to form the Santce river, which lias been called the river of
South Carolina. The swift Catawba, with a fall of nearly six feet to the
mile, merges into the Wateree and forms the eastern and main channel
of this river system. Its larger affluents all reach it from the west, those
from the east being, in comparison, small. Tlie Saluda, on the other
hand, the most westerly river of the group, receives all its larger affluents
from the east ; a high ridge on its western water shed, for the most part
barely five miles wide, separates its waters from those flowing into the
Savannah. The triangular space enclosed between these two streams and
washed by their numerous tributaries, viz : Reedy, Little, Bush, Broad,
Ennoree, Tyger, Pacolet and Fair Forest rivers, besides many large creeks
and branches, bears ample, evidence to the erosion it has suffered. The
softer rocks, such as talc and mica slates, found beyond these streams on
the eastern and western ridges of the triangle, are wanting within, it
having been washed away, leaving behind them only the hard gneiss or
the still harder granite to dispute the passage of the waters.

RIVERS.

The following gives the leading characteristics of some of these streams
so far as they have been ascertained, numerically :

THE PIEDMONT REGION.

129

TABLE.

NAME OP

AFFLUENT OR

RAPID.

1

LOCAL FEATURES.

N.\MB OF

DISTANCE.

Length in
Miles or
Yards.

FKET.

RIVER.

Place
Whence
Measured.

"5

■o

ft
Q

So

- i>

■5 CO

>'z

ft

REMARKS.

iStevens Creek

8

ir-

29
401^
64
71

Augusta..

55 miles.

OOOfeetl"
5 miles...
60 miles.
7 miles...
45 miles.

10." '
35.

74.8"

12!""

20.
18.

so!' ■

20.

39."'
80.

17.

13.50
600

1200
150

2400
90

2100
30
120

5
3
5
2
2
2

1
30

0.8

10.
0.7

10.

Reach

.1

Bluejacket Shoal

Long 8hoal

:: ••••

Little River..

Trotter's 8hoal

Rocky River

>>

Lee's Shoal

Rocky Rivfei
isiivaiuiah .. .

Gregg's Shoal

'Middleton Shoal

85

88

89

95
107
1071^
110

nvA

IWA

144

2

10

22

32

43

76

84

91

94

15

27
&5
41
40

15

39

47

44
6
12

14

61
67
69
75
23
26
40

81
93
97
98
114

9

9
20

,.

1 mile

1 mile

12 miles.
5 miles...
14 miles..
70 miles..
1'/$ miles
3U0 y'ds...

1 mile

1 Little Generosiee

McDaniel Shoal

11

Little Beaver Dam Cr.
Senaca River

Fall in creek.

••

240

500

45

120
90

100
60
60
60
60
1200
75

2
5

6

15
1^

2.5
6.6

1.

Hatton's Shoals

Big Beaver Dam Cr'k.
Guests Shoals

Fall 2 miles above
mouth

a

A. &C. A.L. R. R

Saluda Canal

Di'eher's Canal

.'Pallida

Columbia. .

34.
21.
45.

70.
25.
30.

26.5

„

Calk's Ferry

Bush River

'.'.'.'.'.'.

3 miles...
35 miles
40 miles:.
55 miles..

"

Little River

'I

Reedy River

•t

Great Falls

Narrow Shoals

i>

Columbia

2.9 miles
14 miles..

'I

Cedar Shoals

Broad River.

Bull Sluice

Cedar Creek

1. It

Little River

<t IC

Summer Shoal

1666 yd's.

11.6

.1 >>

Buck Shoal

11 11

Lyle Shoal..

From mouth.

Columbia

From mouth.

1640 y'ds.
92 miles..

"■11.36

15.

36.

70.

„„...

41.

>l ti

Ennoree River

Navig'ble 110 railes

'I »

Pennington's Fort.

.1 11

11 11

303 y'ds...
528 y'ds...
75 miles..

Musgrave's Fort.

.1 14

U 11

Mountain Shoal.

11 11

Tyger River

180

2

Navigable 30 miles

11 11

Hawkins Shoals.

• 1 11

11 11

Calk's Bridge.

11 11

11 1

•
Columbia

40 miles..

750
15

150
10

30
30
75

450

6
5

2
15
19

5

Fair Forest Creek

Wood's Ferry

has 6 miles above
a fall of 25 feet.

11

Turkey Creek

11

Lockhart Creek

From mou til.
Columbia

1.4 miles.
bO miles..
]4 mile...
86 y'ds,...
880 y'ds ..

2.5 miles..
18 miles..

47.6

20!'"

10.

16.

11 11

Pacolet River

11 II

Trough Shoals.

" •• :::

11 11
Thickettv Creek

Hurricane Shoals.

11 11

King's Creek

11 11

Roaring Bull Sluice...
Cherokee Shoal

11 11

Wateree Riv.

5 J.^miles

'Smiles...
72 miles..
2 miles...

103.9
178V
29.

1' 11

Quinn's Ferry

N. Carolina Line.

Catawba i

Cireat Falls

Fishing Creek

1. 11

Landsford

130 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

The Savannah river is now navigable for pole boats carrying fifty bales
of cotton for one hundred and and fifty -four miles above Augusta. The
report of the Chief Engineer U. S. A., 1879, states that, for an outlay of
$188,000, a permanent channel, three feet deep and sixty feet wide, of
safe and easy navigation for such boats, could be made. For $97,000, in
addition to the above, one hundred and fourteen miles could be made
into a steamboat channel, ninety feet wide and three feet deep.

The Saluda river is navigable for eighty-four miles above Columbia,
where it unites with the Broad to form the Congaree river, for the same
kind of boat.

The Broad river is navigable for one hundred and thirteen miles in
South Carolina, above Columbia, and for twenty-eight miles more in
North Carolina, for this class of boats. It has a total length of one
hundred and seventy-five miles.

The Catawba river has a fall of three hundred and twenty -five feet in the
fifty-five miles of its course in South Carolina. Its banks are three hun-
dred to three thousand feet apart, and from ten to one hundred feet high.
Above Rocky Mount, in Chester, there is a fall at one point of fifty feet
in four hundred yards. It has a total length of two hundred and seventy-
two miles, and its source is two thousand five hundred feet above the
level of the sea.

The data above given w^ere obtained by surveys made in the dryest
season of a very dry year, and, therefore, represents these streams at ex-
treme low water. This low stage of the water prevails during October
and November. At other seasons, the volume of water would be, on the
average, two or three times as great. The rivers are subject to freshets,
rising twenty to thirty feet above low water mark, this rise being greatest
where they issue from the Piedmont region. No local falls under ten feet
have been entered in the table, although such falls not unfrequently
afford the most available powers. Together, these streams furnish a
navigable highway of four hundred and five miles, which might be greatly
and permanently improved and much increased for a moiety of what the
same length of railroad would cost.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

The rocks of the upper country of South Carolina are a continuation
of and similar to the rocks of middle North Carolina, identified by the
Geologist of that State, Prof. W. C. Kerr, as belonging to the Laurentian
and Huronian formations. They are held to be the most ancient of rocks,
and antedate the unnumbered ages during which the varied forms of
plant and animal life have succeeded each other on this planet. Disclos-

THE PIEDMONT REGIOX. 131

ing themselves no evidence free from question that any living things
existed at the period when they were formed, it is upon their flanks, and
largely from material furnished by their disintegration, that the whole
series of formations composing the surface of the earth and marking the
different geological eras of its history has been built up. In South Carolina
these oldest rocks appear among the sands of the tertiary — the most
recent geological age. The records of the intervening ages have dis-
appeared, and the stone pages upon which the introductory and conclud-
ing chapters of the earth's history are written, here lie side by side.
Among the oldest of these rocks are the

GRANITES,

which have their outcrops in Carolina along three nearh'- parallel lines,
as follows :

1st. On the most southern of these lines the granite shows itself among
the sand hills at Graniteville, on Horse creek, Aiken count}^, and thence
at various points in a northeasterly direction to Columbia. Notable quar-
ries for building materials are worked at Graniteville and at Granby,
below Columbia.

2d. The second line of outcrop extends from the neighborhood of
Horn's creek, Edgefield county, across Newberr}^ Fairfield and Kershaw
counties, to the northwestern corner of Chesterfield. In Edgefield, New-
berry and Fairfield, the granite is associated with beds of hornblende rock
and forms the substratum of a heavy, dark, red clay loam, which is one
of the best and strongest soils in the State. Here, also, quarries of excel-
lent granite, fine-grained and easily splitting, have been found, especially
in Newberry and Fairfield counties, where inexhaustible quantities of
the best building granite are found. There is a beautiful flesh-colored
porphyritic granite found in Kershaw. In Edgefield and Lancaster it
becomes coarser and syenitic in character.

3d. The third line of outcrop stretches through Laurens, Union and
York counties. In the vicinity of Union C. H., the granite is of exceed-
ingly fine grain, and well adapted for architectural purposes, but the most
of it on this line is characterized by a coarse porphyried structure, and it
shows itself in an undecomposed state at only a few points.

GNEISS,

or laminated granite, forms by far the larger portion oi the rock under-
lying this region. No strict line of demarcation between it and the gran-
ite has been established. In mineral constituents, color and grain, they

132 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

are alike and seem to shade off insensibly into each other. This explains
why, in nearly every township, the occurrence of rock, well adapted for
building, and called granite, is reported in greater or less quantities.
The most marked difference is, that where the stratiform character of the
gneiss is most marked the hornblende beds, associated with the granite,
and of such high value as a soil yielder, disappear. Although traversed
by numerous veins, this rock has so far furnished nothing of importance
to the miner in this State. Its general dip is slight and to the southeast.
On its southern border, however, the gneiss rock is found with a vertical
dip, as at Edgefield C. H. South of the Saluda river, in Lexington, it is
found between the granite and the clay slates, dipping X. E. 80°. In
Xewberry, near the thirt}- mile post on the Columbia road, a coarse feld-
spathic gneiss, alternating with hornblende slate, forms an anticlinal ridge,
dipping southeast on its southern, and northwest on its northern slope.

Immediately overlying the gneiss, belts of hornblende slate, of no great
breadth, and having nowhere an ascertained thickness exceeding twenty-
five feet, are exposed.

MICA SLATE.

These belts of hornblende generally surround isolated areas of mica
slate, which overlie them. The}^ are found chiefly towards the north,
along the base of the triangle formed by the affluents of the Santee, or to
the west of this river system in Abbeville, Anderson, Greenville and Pick-
ens. They occupy the summit of ridges, as of King s Mountain, in York.
On the water courses they give place, first to the hornblende slate, and
then to the gneiss, which forms almost everywhere the beds of the streams.
They have an ascertained thickness, exceeding in no single locality one
hundred feet. ]\Iines sunk in them have, in several instances penetrated
to the underlying gneiss. Mica slate thus occurs as large islands, the
remnants, perhaps, of what may once have been a succession of wave-like
parallel folds, dipping gently with the Atlantic slope to the southeast and
covering the entire surface, but disappearing long ago under the erosive
action of the present river system of the State. Numerous gold mines
and veins bearing copper, lead and silver, have been found in these rocks,
and, to a limited extent, worked. The iron furnaces of Cowpens and
Hurricane Shoals are also located in this formation. Mica of excellent
quality has been mined in Dark Corner township, Anderson, and in Ab-
beville. In the former locality beryl and copper are also found ; corun-
dum and zircons are found in Hall township, Abbeville, and in other
localities. Asbestos occurs near Glenn Springs, Spartanburg, a noted
health resort, the curative virtues of whose waters, with those of many

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 133

other similar springs in this region, is clue to the minerals dissolved from
these mica slates during their j^assage through them.

TALC SLATES.

Next in the order of superposition above the.-mica slates occur extensive
areas of talc slate. These rocks seem to have yielded more completelj^ to
the erosive action of the rivers even than the mica slates. They scarcely
appear at all in the angle enclosed between the Catawba and the Saluda.
Their largest outcrops are east of the Catawba, in Lancaster and Chester-
field, and separated from these by the whole width of the river system of
the State, eighty miles, to the southwest they occur on the further side of
the Saluda, in Edgefield and Abbeville. These two localities are the great
gold-bearing regions of the State.

ITACOLUMITE.

On Broad river, near the northern boundary of the State, where Union,
York and Spartanburg corner, an interesting series of rocks occur, the
most peculiar of which is a flexible* sandstone, the itacolumite or diamond
bearing rock, which gives its name to the group under the designation of
the itacolumitic series. Thus far only one diamond has been found in
South Carolina, though several have been obtained from the continuation
of these rocks, both in Georgia and in North Carolina.

CLAY SLATE.

South of the rocks above mentioned, and extending along the edge of
the tertiary from Edgefield to Chesterfild, a broad belt of clay slates
occur. On their southern border, among the sands of Lexington and
Chesterfield, or just north of the granite in Kershaw, Richland and
Edgefield, these clay slates dip northwest 14° to 18°. This angle increases
further north, until the slates stand vertically ; still further on the dip is
reversed to the southeast. In Edgefield and Lexington, where they occupy
the widest areas, these rocks seem to have had their positions much dis-
turbed, and Avhile the edges of the strata preserve their northeasterly
strike, their faces are turned alternately northwest and southeast — now
towards the mountains, and again towards the sea. These clay slates are
contiguous to the Jurassic strata of North Carolina. Mr. Tuomey found
in Chesterfield fossils which he credited to the new red sandstone, and in-
timated that these slates themselves might possibly be identified with the
paleozoic series. It seems at least certain that they overlie, and are, there-

134 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

fore, younger than the other rocks of this region, excepting, possibly, the
itacohimitic scries alone.

TRAP.

The Trappean rocks remain to be mentioned. They are found chiefly
on two lines. The principal one is the most southerly and extends from
Edgefield across to where the Catawba enters the State. Their trend is a
little more to the north of east than that of the other strata, which they
therefore cross at an angle. Their greatest development is in Chester and
York, where they form the substratum of a large body of very peculiar
lands, known as the blackjack lands. These Trappean rocks show them-
selves along another line parallel with this one and to the north of it,
stretching from Calhoun's Mills, in Abbeville, to the Lockhart shoals on
Broad river, in Union. Here they also give rise to a peculiar and inter-
esting body of lands known as the " flat woods " of Abbeville, and the
" meadow lands " of Union. In Chester and York the prevailing dykes
are of melaphyre and of aphanitic and dioritic porphyry ; in Abbeville
of felsitic and dioritic porphyries.

This brief sketch of the geological features of the region requires a
reference to the ores and minerals found there :

GOLD.

" Gold," writes Governor Drayton, in 1802, " is said to have been found
in sufficient c[uantity to be made into a ring, but this is only a report of
what is said to have taken place many years ago." In 1826, the occur-
rence of gold in Abbeville and Spartanburg is merely mentioned by j\Iills
in his " Statistics of South Carolina." The United States Census of 1840
states, that " fifty-one hands were engaged (chiefly in iron mines) in min-
ing in South Carolina." In 1848, Mr. Tuomey found over two hundred
hands at work in the Brewer gold mine in Chesterfield, from which more
than $1,000,000 in gold has since been taken. In 1859, Lieber writes on
a line on the map of the State crossing it at the lower border of the meta-
morphic rocks : " Above this line most streams contain some gold in their
sands." At that date twenty-one gold mines had been opened in the talc
slates of Chesterfield and Lancaster, and ten in the same slates in Abbe-
ville and Edgefield ; among the latter, the Dorn mine, that has yielded
$1,100,000 and upwards in gold. In Spartanburg, in Union and York
there were nineteen gold mines, mostly in the mica slates, and in Green-
ville and Pickens, eight others, chiefly gravel deposits — in all fifty-
seven. Work has been abandoned since the war in all or in nearly

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 135

all of these mines. With rare exceptions, if any, it was never
systematically conducted, as may be inferred from Mr. Tuomey's
description of the Brewer mine, which was leased to twenty or thirty in-
dependent companies, numbering three to six persons each, and having
each a portion equal to about twelve feet square of the surface.

From the returns of the 10th U. S. Census it appears that besides
minor minerals, to the value of $27,709, South Carolina produced in 1879
of gold $13,040 ; ranking in the order of production of this metal
fifteenth among all the States, and third among the States east of
Dakota

Gold occurs in South Carolina :

I. In numerous gravel deposits. Of these, one class occur in beds of
rounded and water-worn pebbles and gravel, showing that the material
has been transported from a distance. Other deposits are found among
angular fragments of rocks, and these, in some instances, have been
traced back to the neighboring rocks, from which they were derived.

II. In silicious veins of three leading types, viz. :

1st. The " Carolina group " of crystaline quartz veins. The upper part
of the vein abounds with iron pyrites. The gold is in coarser grains and
more abundant above. In descending, the vein contracts and the gold
lessens in quantity. At the same time copper makes its appearance and
increases steadily in quantity so far as followed, and with the copper is
frequently associated ores of manganese, lead and silver. These veins
extend from the itacolumite above, down through the clay, talc and mica
slates into the underlying gneiss. They are most productive of gold in
traversing the talc slates. Of this type was the neighboring Reid mine,
of North Carolina, famous for having yielded a nugget of twenty-eight
pounds, and another of eighty pounds, and of which Lieber writes ; " I
question if any one spot in California or Australia ever produced as much
gold."

2d. The saccharoid veins of a fine granular quartz, resembling powdered
sugar. Only traces of these veins are found in the itacolumitic rocks,
and none in the clay slate. They have their greatest productiveness in
the talc slates, becoming less so as they descend through the mica slates
to the underlying gneiss.

3d. The hornstene lenticular veins, irregular, wedge-shaped, detached
quartz veins, having sometimes very rich pockets. They are found only
in the talc slates.

III. In gold-bearing beds of the slate rock itself. These auriferous
beds are found only in ihe talc slate, save in one instance in the overly-
ing clay slate. The following diagram, after Lieber, showing the relative

136

THE PIEDMONT REGION.

position of the different rocks and the degree of development of the gold
veins of the various types in each by the size of the dark blocks opposite
its name, may make this clearer :

Geological
Eras.

Rocks in the
Order of

THEIR

Superposition

VEINS.

<

o ^
^ 2

o

Pi

o
o

<

O
H

o

i-i

-pv , A •!■ f Super If acolumitic

Post Auriferous I Limestone.

II.

Auriferous.

III.

Sub-Auriferous.

IV.

'' Itacolumitie
Rocks.

{ Clay Slate.
Talc Slate.
Mica Slate.

(^ Gneiss.

Anti-Auriferous— Granite.

These facts support the views of Sir Roderick Murchison and Lieber,
that there has been a golden age among the geological periods. Here it
seems clearly marked as the period when the talc slates were forming.
As to whether the gold came up from the bowels of the earth, through
the agency of eruptive forces peculiar to that or a subsequent period, or
had a meteoric origin, falling upon what was then the surface, from the
interplanetary spaces, just as iron dust is now falling on the perpetual
snows of the east coast of Greenland, may be matter for discussion. Gold
certainly gives out at certain depths ; whether it exists at all at still lower
depths is unknown. That it exists outside of the earth the metalic
vapors of the sun and stars revealed by the spectroscope renders prob-
able.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 137

ORES AND MINERALS.

Silver in argentiferous galena is found in Spartanburg and Laurens,
and more recently in Edgefield and Abbeville. Across the Savannah
river, from the last named localities, the mining of this ore for silver, as
well as for lead and the zinc blende associated with it, is attracting much
attention at this time.

Copper is found everywhere in the gold veins of the " Carolina group."
As it increases regularly with the depth to which tlie veins have been
worked, experts h%^e been satisfied that it will be found in remunerative
quantities. "With this view, work was being vigorously pushed in the
Mary and in the Wilson mines, in York, just previous to the war. Since
then attention has not been directed to the matter.

Bismuth, in quantity, was found by Mr. Tuomey at the Brewer gold
mine in Chesterfield.

Iron in magnetic and specular ores is found in inexhaustible quantities
on the western slope of King's mountain, in York, Spartanburg and
Union, one also in Chester and Abbeville. Brown htematite occurs in
the mica slates of Pickens and Spartanburg, and has been used at the
Pacolet and Cowpens Iron Works. Bog iron ore occurs in nearly every
county of the State.

Limestone appears in York, Spartanburg, Laurens and Pickens.

Barytes, in great quantities, occurs near the Air-Line railroad in York.

Manganese, in great purity and abundance, is found at the Dorn mine
in Edgefield, and also in Abbeville, York, Laurens and Anderson.

Graphite, in considerable quantities, is found in Williamston township,
and elsewhere in Anderson, also in Spartanburg, Greenville and Laurens.

Feldspar* of excellent quality, in extensive veins, occurs in Easley
township, Pickens ; in Lowndesville, Abbeville, and also in Anderson
and Laurens.

Asbestos occurs in Spartanburg, Laurens, York, Anderson and Pickens.

Steatite or soapstone is found in Chester, Spartanburg, L^nion, Pickens,
Oconee, Anderson, Abbeville, Kershaw, Fairfield and Richland ; whet-
stones and flagging stones are found in Edgefield, Abbeville, Chester,
Lexington, Fairfield, and the Pee Dee country.

Sphiel rubies, in Pickens ; tourmaline, in York, Edgefield, Laurens,
Anderson and Oconee ; beryl, in Edgefield and Laurens ; corundum, in
Laurens, Anderson and Oconee ; zircons, in Abbeville and Anderson.

SOILS.

The area of land in the Piedmont region whose culture is impeded by
the rocks prevalent there, is comparatively insignificant. This is due to

138 THE PIEDMONT REGION,

the rather remarkable extent and depth of the disintegration of these
rocks. It is not an uncommon occurrence that wells sunk through
granite to a depth of thirty or forty feet, require for their excavation no
other implement than a spade. Frequently so thorough is the decom-
position, that the sides of railroad cuts and of mines might be mistaken
for a heap of transplanted materials, did not the existence of seams and
quartz veins, which may be always traced on the fresh surfaces, make it
certain that the rock had rotted where it stood. The chief impediments
to culture are the masses of quartz rock, once forming these veins, but
now scattered broadcast over the surface, in consequence of the rotting
and denudation of the strata that contained them. This is especially the
case among the clay slates, and often the first indication which a traveller
has that he has entered the Piedmont region is the sight of fields and
woods covered with angular fragments of these white quartz rock. The
inclination of the rocks of this region allows drainage along their edges,
and even where the rock is near the surface, water seldom collects above
them to an injurious extent.

Owing to the transportation and intermixture (often by the wind) of
the debris from the different rocks, the areas of the soils derived from
each can be characterized with much less distinctness than the areas
occupied by the underlying rocks themselves. Nevertheless three lead-
ing varieties of soil may be traced, with much clearness, viz. : the gran-
itic, the clay slate and the Trappean soils.

I. The granitic soils occupy by far the largest area, as under this head
is comprised the soils whose substratum is granite and gneiss, and also
those resting on the hornblende, talc and mica slates. These soils are
characterized b}^ two distinct names : 1st. the gray sandy soils ; 2d. the
red cla}'^ soils.

1st. The gray sandy soils occupy the ridges and levels, and have been
formed by the gradual separation of the silicious and argillaceous materials
found in the debris ol the decomposing rocks that underlie them. This
has been etfected by a process of lixiviation, during which the rain water
not running off", owing to the level nature of the land, sank directly into
the earth, carrying down with it the heavier and finer particles of the
clay through the interstices of the lighter and larger particles of sand.
This gives a light, loose, warm sandy loam, varying in depth from three
to eighteen inches, and fine or coarse, according to the grain of the rock,
from which they are derived. The subsoil is red or yellow clay. Such
soils are of easy culture, respond readily to the use of commercial ferti-
lizers, and are well adapted for cotton. For these reasons they are much
more highly esteemed now than formerly. The following analii^^ses of
them are taken from Tuomey's report ;

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 139

(1)

Organic matter 3.G2

Silica 84.30

Alumina 5.80

Iron oxide 2.00

Lime 0.50

Magnesia 0.40

Potash and soda 0.50

Water and loss 2.88

C2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

2.G0

1.20

3.00

0.00

00.00

83.00

80.00

80.00

7.40

5.40

7.00

9.80

3.00

2.00

4.00

2.00

0.00

0.60

0.02

0.30

1.00

0.75

0.00

0.40

O.GO

0.00

0.50

0.70

5.40

7.05

5.48

G.80

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

No. 1 is from Pinckney township, Union ; No. 2 is from Waterloo
township, Laurens ; No. 3 is from Donaldsville township, Abbeville ; No.
4 is from Sullivan township, Laurens ; No. 5 is from Central township,
Pickens.

2d. The red clay loams are the prevailing soils of the hilly and broken
country. Occupying slopes of greater or less declivity, the loose sand
has been washed away as fast as it has been released from the tenacious
clay, b}^ the process of lixiviation, or settling, above alluded to. The
washing of these hills is not so destructive of their fertility as it would
have been if the soil were not formed from rocks rotting in situ, and thus
including at every depth, all the numerous and varied elements of the
parent rocks. Thus it happens here that the earth from the bottom of
deep wells, usually barren elsewhere, has been found, when spread over
the surface, to increase notabl}^ the fertility of fields. Galled spots,
deprived of all humus and every trace of organic matter, are, of course,
iDarren for a time, but even their nakedness is soon covered by the old-
field pine, and their thriftiness restored. As might be expected, with the
clearing of the lands, and the washing down of the ridges, the amount of
gray lands is diminishing, and the amount of red lands is increasing.

Mr. Tuomev gives the following analyses of these soils :

(6) (7) (8)

Organic matter 2.18 4.50 G.OO

SiHca 74.00 71.60 66.60

Alumina 10.00 9.40 11.60

Iron oxide 3.50 3.70 4.00

Lime 1.00 1.40 1.00

Magnesia 40 0.50 0.06

Potash and soda trace. 0.06 0.40

Water and loss 8.92 8.84 10.34

100.00 100.00 100.00

No. 6 is from Liberty Hill, Kershaw ; No. 7 near York village ; No. 8
north of Pendleton village.

140 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

The following analyses of soil of the same character, from near Spartan-
burg, collected by Prof. W. C. Kerr, of North Carolina, was made by Dr.
Eugene A. Smith, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, for the 10th United States
Census. No. 9 is a yellowish red soil, taken to the depth of three inches ;
No. 10 is its red subsoil, taken to the depth of twenty inches :

(9) (10)

Insoluble matter 77.860 43.740

Soluble Silica 1.790 5.870

Potash 0.092 0.214

Soda 0.041 0.087

Lime 0.036 0.003

Magnesia 0.070 0.212

Br. Oxide of Manganese 0.056 0.010

Peroxide of Iron 5.646 11.700

Alumina 7.557 26.567

Phosphoric acid 0.063 0.103

Sulphuric acid 0.058 0.009

Water and organic matter 6.167 11.660

Total 99.436 99.675

Hydroscopic moisture 4.685 11.210

Absorbed at 23° C. 22° C.

The hornblendic soils are a variety of these red clay soils, derived from
granite and gneiss rock, traversed by seams of hornblende. They are
dark in color, and of a more brilliant red. They occur in Edgefield,
about Horn's creek, and most extensively in Newberry, especially between
the Court House and Asheford's ferry, extending thence into Fairfield.
They form excellent cotton lands^ and are well suited to the culture of
all the grains. The following analyses of them are from Tuomey :

(11) (12)

Organic matter 0.20 7.00

Silica . . ' 79.30 80.00

Alumina 5.20 6.30

Oxide of iron 1.75 2.20

Lime ' 0.04 1.00

Magnesia 0.00 0.50

Soda and potash 0.06 0.30

Phosphoric acid 0.00 trace

Water and loss 7.40 2.70

100.00 100.00

No. 11 is from Newberry; and No. 12 is from Monticello, Fairfield.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 141

Where the mica slates are underlaid by or alternate with gneiss, as in
Abbeville, they give rise to good soils. In most places, however, the slate
contains lenticuler quartz grains, coated with mica, which, being inde-
structi1)le, occupy the surface as the rock disintegrates and gives rise to
poor soils. The sand of the talcose slate is exceedingly fine, and pack
very closely. Says Leiber, in speaking of clearing out a spring : " At a
depth of six inches below the bed of the stream, the sand was as dry as
ashes, showing that the water had never penetrated to that depth." This
affords an explanation of the serious effects produced by droughts on such
soils.

II. The clay slates underlie a soil that is characterized as a cold gray
soil. In color they vary from gray to yellow and brown. The subsoil is
for tlie most part, of yellow clay; but, sometimes it is reddish. These
soils are better adapted for small grain, and especially for oats, than for
cotton. They cover an extensive area in Edgefield, and reach along the
northern border of the tertiary, thence to Chesterfield. The clay slate
soils in the last named county contain less silica than those of Edgefield.
Instead of being gray, they are reddish, and are altogether better soils.

The following analyses are given by Tuomey :

(13)

Organic matter 2.40

Silica 80.72

Alumina 12.00

Oxide of iron l.GO

Lime trace.

Magnesia 0.50

Potash and soda trace.

Water and loss 3.33

(14)

(15)

6.70

5.60

76.30

• 80.30

10.40

9.00

2.00

2.40

1.00

0.50

0.50

trace.

0.40

0.30

2.70

1.90

100.00 100.00 100.00

Xo. 13 is from Stevens creek, Edgefield; No. 14 from Richland ; Xo. 15
from Lexington.

III. The Trappean soils overlie the extensive dykes of melaphyre and
aphanitic porphyry, traversing York and Chester counties in a north-
easterly direction, coinciding very nearly wdth that of the Charlotte and
Columbia railroad. They give rise to a distinctly marked body of lands,
known as the " rolling blackjack lands " and as " blackjack flats." The
latter are the most extensive, and better defined in their characters. The
lands are level, the streams slow and tortuous, with low banks, notwith-
standing that the general elevation is little less than that of the surround-

142 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

ing country. The soil is of a rich, dark brown chocolate color. Some-
times jet black. The subsoil is a yellow, waxy clay, exceedingly tena-
cious, and, where the rocks are not thoroughly decomposed, it assumes
an olive green color. Beneath it the decomposed, and lower down the
undecomposed, rock is found, called here " iron rock " or " negro head."
The level configuration of the surface, and the impervious nature of the
subsoil, interfere naturally with drainage ; an interference, however, not
at all beyond the remedy of art, as the fall for properly conducted drains
and outlets is ample. But because they require drainage, these lands,
which, from their general appearance, and from their chemical analysis,
should be ranked as among the very best in the State, have received little
attention. Corn and cotton planted on them turns yellow, " frenches," as
it is termed. When, however, thorough drainage has been effected, and
stable manure used, they have j)roved very productive and enduring.
Such treatment is exceedingly circumscribed, the demand of the present
system of agriculture being for light lands of easy tillage, whose defects
of constitution may be at once supplied by the purchase of chemical fer-
tilizers for the exigencies of the growing crop, and with no view to per-
manent improvement. The " rolling blackjack lands," as might be in-
ferred from their name, have a better natural drainage, and have long
been highly prized for their productiveness. The following analyses of
these soils were made by Dr. Eugene A. Smith, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama,
for the 10th United States Census :

(IG) (17)

Insoluble matter 80.340 83.145

Soluble Silica 9.114 3.585

Potash 0.135 0.126

Soda 0.070 0.060

Lime 0.329 0.389

Magnesia 0.329 0.251

Peroxide Manganese 0.210 0.185

Peroxide of Iron 1.895 3.774

Alumina 4.701 4.051

Phosphoric acid 0.060 0.100

Sulphuric acid 0.150 0.170

Carbonic acid ...

Water and organic matter 2.068 4.185

99.401 100.021

Hydroscopic moisture . 3.967 8.392

Absorbed at 82° F. 82° F.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 143

No. 16 is from an uncleared blackjack flat, a short distance east of Ches-
ter Court House, considered worthless. No. 17 is from a field of J. B.
Stokes, southeast of Chester Court House ; the land roHing blackjack,
having on it a crop of about 1,200 pounds of seed cotton to the acre.
The soil and subsoil taken uniformly, to the depth of twelve inches in
both instances. , The dioritic and felsitic porphyries of Abbeville, pro-
duce a soil known there as the " flat woods." They are found in Cal-
houn's Mills, Magnolia, Abbeville, Smithville, and Ninety-Six townships,
of Abbeville county. Formerly, when more capital and skill was em-
ployed in agriculture, these lands were very highly esteemed. Since a
cheap and easy, not to sa}'- thriftless, culture has superseded other hus-
bandry, they are neglected. (For more particular description see Cal-
houn's Mills township. Abstract of Correspondents.) Mr. Tuomey gives
the following analyses of these soils.

(18) (19) (20)

Organic matter 9.20 10.05 3.40

Silica 52.00 48.30 53.00

Alumina 22.10 19.36 19.30

Oxide of Iron 9.00 8.40 14.10

Lime 2.50 4.00 1.80

Magnesia trace. 0.00 0.50

Potash and soda 0.40 0.90 trace.

Phosphate of lime 0.00 0.10 0.00

Water and loss 4.80 8.89 7.90

100.00 100.00 100.00

No. 18 is from a well cultivated place north of Calhoun's Mills ; No.
19, ditto, near Ninety-Six ; No. 20 is from abandoned lands in the meadow
woods of Union.

These analyses are indicative of the chemical changes that affect the
productiveness of these soils. The abandoned field in Union showing a
great falling off in organic matter, lime and potash, due to insufficient
drainage and a thriftless culture, at the same time there is a large increase
of iron, arising doubtless from the absence of those acids resulting from
the decomposition of organic matter, wdiose office it is to dissolve and
carry off the injurious excess of the salts of this metal. The large amount
of lime in all these Trappean soils will be noted, it has induced some
writers to classify them as calcareous soils, and adapts them peculiarly
for the growth of pea-vines and clover, which thrive almost spontane-
ously uj)on them.

144 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

In addition to the soils above mentioned, there is a large amount of
bottom lands scattered along the nnnierous rivers, creeks and branches
that everywliere traverse this well-watered region. Though rarely of
any great width, they are for the most part of great fertility, and are
highly valued. In some sections these lands have brought as high as one
hundred dollars an acre ; the adjacent ridge lands being thrown in at a
nominal price, just as the pine barrens are, in the sales of the low country
rice lands.

CLIMATE.

The shorter seasons and lower temjDeratures of the Piedmont region, as
compared with those lying immediately south of it, are but slightly at-
tributable to differences of elevation or of latitude, these differences being
themselves slight. In so far as it obtains, it results, perhaps, from greater
nearness to the mountains, and, as affecting agriculture, still more to the
heavier clay soils and subsoils, more retentive of moisture, and, therefore,
colder and later in spring than the lighter sandy loams of the lower
country. Cotton planting is about ten days later than in the upper pine
belt. Cotton blooms are also later, but by a lesser period, and the same
is true of the opening and picking season of the plant ; showing that,
with a later start, it grows faster, passing more rapidly through its various
stages to maturity. This region, however, does not seem to be much
affected b}^ that variableness of temperature common to localities in
23roximity to mountain ridges. This is shown by the singular exemption
of certain localities here from the injurious effects of late spring frosts.
Thus, on Rich Hill, in Pacolet township, Spartanburg, a ridge six miles
broad, between the Pacolet and Fair Forest rivers, fruit has been injured
by late frosts but once in forty 3'ears. Localities in L^nion also enjoy this
immunity in nearl}' the same degree. In the absence of other records,
some idea of the temperature may be formed by observations on the tem-
peratures of sjDrings, assuming that this temperature approximates the
annual mean. Lieber states, as the result of a number of observations,
that the springs of the Alpine region have a temperature of 55° to 58°
Fahrenheit ; those on a line passing through the centre of the Piedmont
region, one of 58° to 61.5° Fahr., and below this line, one of 61.5° to 6Q°
Fahr. The only accessible records of rainfall are those published by the
Smithsonian Institution, May, 1881. They give an average annual rain-
fall in this region of 52.34 inches, varying from 44.05 inches to 60.12
inches. This gives a greater annual rainfall for this region than for
those south of it, and places it, in this regard, next to the areas of greatest
annual precipitation in the United States. The spring rains vary from

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 145

twelve inches to fifteen inches, and in this regard it holds the same rela^
tions as in the former to the regions south of it and to the United States.
The summer rains are ten inches to fourteen inches less than in the
regions south of it, and third or midway between the areas of greatest
and of least summer precipitation in the United States. The autumn
rains are eight inches to ten inches, and in the counties east of Broad
river, they are ten inches to twelve inches, being about the same as in the
region to the south, and midway between the areas of greatest and least
autumn precipitation in the United States. The winter rains are ten
inches to fourteen inches, something more than in the lower country, and
a little above midway between the areas of greatest and of least winter
precipitation in the United States. In the whole j^ear, and in each
season of tlie year, the rainfall is less than in the Alpine region north of
it. As suggesting a possible connection between meteorological condi-
tions and the interior of the earth's crust, it may be mentioned that it
has been thought that the synclinal axis running northeast, near Allston,
on the Greenville railroad, has been, during some years past, a line of
demarkation between areas suffering from drought to the south of it, and
areas having seasonable rains to the north of it. The first occupying
surface under which the rocks dip northwest, and the latter one under
which they they dip southeast. Along this same line, during the months
of drought, tremors were observed and ascribed to slight shocks of earth-
quake.

In point of healthfulness, this region leaves little to be desired. When
first settled, the country was entirely free from all malarial influences.
Subsequently, during the period when the first clearing of the forest was
in'active progress, the hitherto clean-bordered channels of the streams
became obstructed, in part with fallen timber and brush from the clear-
ings, and in part by the washings of the hill sides, under the injudicious
use of the plow. These washings occurred to such an extent as to alter
the original level of the surface, and to pile the dirt up around the trees
in the bottoms until they were killed. Such operations were attended
with the prevalence of malarial fevers. Later, the uplands having been
cleared and partly exhausted, attention was directed to the drainage and
reclaiming of the low grounds for agricultural purposes, and the health-
fulness of the locality was restored. It has thus happened that, with the
extension of the settlements, a belt of malarial influences has moved for-
ward with them, vanishing below and advancing above, until it reached
the wooded slopes of the mountains before dis'appearing.

10

1-lG THE PIEDMONT REGION.

GROWTH.

Remarkable changes have occurred in the growth of tlie upper country
since its settlement, during the middle and earlier part of the ISth cen-
tury. The " long-drawn, beautiful valleys and glorious highlands,"
spoken of by Lord Cornwallis, were then interspersed with " forests,
prairies, and vast brakes of cane, the latter often stretching in unbroken
lines of evergreen for hundreds of miles " (Logan). On the highlands,
the oak, hickory and chestnut were of large growth, standing so wide
apart that a buffalo or a deer could be seen by the pioneer hunters for a
long distance. There was no underbrush, and the woodlands were car-
peted W'ith grass and the wild pea vine, the latter growing as high as a
horse's back. The cane growth was the standard by which the early
settlers estimated the value of the land. If it grew only to the height of
a man's head, the land was esteemed ordinary ; but a growih of twenty
or thirty feet indicated the highest fertility. This cane growth not only
filled the bottoms, but extended up the slopes to the tops of the highest
hills. Thus it was designed to place the first house built on the present
site of the town of Abbeville, on the summit of the hill ; but afterwards,
when the tall cane that covered the whole place was cleared away, an
error of more than fifty yards was discovered. The Trappean soils around
Ninety-Six, the " flat woods " of Abbeville, the " meadow woods," LTnion,
and the blackjack lands of York and Chester were prairies, with no growth
of trees, but covered, for the most part, with maiden cane. Lipper Caro-
lina was then not inferior to any portion of the great West as a grazing
country. Buffalo and deer in great numbers roamed through these
luxuriant pastures. Henry Foster, a pioneer settler on the Saluda, in
Edgefield, counted one hundred buffalo grazing at one time on a single
acre of ground in Abbeville. The original forest has disappeared almost
altogether, and has been replaced by younger oaks of small growth, by
underbrush, and by the loblolly pines of the abandoned fields. The cane
has gone likewise. The wild pea vine is no longer known, though since
the stock has been penned, under the new fence law, a plant supposed to
be it has appeared in the open woodlands, with several other grasses not
observed before. The prairies have become covered with a growth of
heavy bodied post oak and blackjack ; the latter, in turn, has now given
place to the cedar in Chester. The chestnut has been dying out for fifty
years. In some localities where it once flourished, it has entirely gone,
and in others, the large dead stems and stumps are the only vestige of
this valuable and stately tree. The chinquapin is also sickening and
dying, and the chestnut oak likewise. During some yeai-s past, somewhat

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 147

similar symptoms of disease have appeared in the red and black oak, and
fears on this account have been entertained. The distinctive growth of
the region is the short leaf pine, with a large variety of oaks and hickories.
On the water courses, willow, beech, birch, black walnut, ash, poplar and
gum abound. In sections, of Laurens the long leaf, formerly unknown in
this section, has, within the last ten years, appeared among the old field
pines. The sycamore sometimes attains a great size, one in York being
twenty-eight feet in girth. The tulip tree, also, is often very large.
The sugar maple is found, and another maple of larger growth and yield-
ing a superior sugar, both as to quantity and cjuality, is known in Lan-
caster, under the name of the sugar tree (Mills).

PRODUCTIONS.

The skins and furs of wild animals were the earliest products which
the upper country gave to commerce. About the middle of the 18th
century "the cowj)en keepers" and the "cow drivers," led thither by'
the representations of the trappers, hunters and Indian traders, built their
cabins among these pastures, and made large enclosures, into which their
niimerous herds were driven for marking, handling, &c. The business
was a large one, and numl^ers of neat cattle were driven annually to the
markets of Charleston, Philadelphia and New York. Horse raising, also,
was largely engaged in, and so highly were the qualities of the Carolina
horse of that early day esteemed, that a statute of the provincial Legis-
latures forbids the introduction of the inferior horses of Virginia
and other northern plantations. Around the " cowpens " of the stock
drivers the agricultural settlers appeared. Their crops of wheat and
Indian corn formed, for many years, a considerable item of export from
the province. Hemp, particularly between the Broad and Saluda rivers,
was largely cultivated, and Dr. Brahm says it was the finest and most
durable grown anywhere in the world for the cordage of vessels. The
cultivation of tobacco was engaged in, but was restricted by the difficulty
of bringing so bulky an article to market in the then condition of the
country roads. It was packed in casks, trunnions fastened to each head,
shafts attached, and drawn by a horse several days journey to market, as
a large roller. Silk was grown, and the vine successfully cultivated by
the early settlers of New Bordeaux, in Abbeville. It is noteworthy that,
within the last few years, since the French vineyards have suffered from
the phyloxera, besides the scuppernong roots, hundreds of thousands of
cuttings of the Warren grape, natives here, have been ordered from France,
and being planted there they have yielded a wine of excellent quality.
In 1801, Col. Hill, of York, made forty-eight tons of red clover on eighteen

148 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

acres of land, although Governor Drayton saj's the season was a very
dry one. For several years past Governor Hagood has obtained two cut-
tings a year of excellent hay from fifty acres, and more, that he set out in
Bermuda grass, on the Saluda river bottoms. The yield is two to four
tons per acre. Mr. Doty, a" Kentuckian, who owns a blue-grass farm in
that State, but who is now living at Winnsboro, says, that taking the value
of the land into account, he makes his forage cheaper on the worn out
hills of Fairfield than he does on the famous blue-grass lands of his na-
tive State. His crops are oats and German millet. The latter he esti-
mates that he houses at a cost of six dollars per ton. Lucerne has long
been established in this town, and there are stools of this valuable forage
plant, still vigorous, known. to be fifty years old. In the same town, Col.
James H. Rion sowed, in 1874, a half acre of red land, a worn out old
field, infested with nut grass, in lucerne. In 1875 he got one cutting, and
from that date to 1880, from four to ten cuttings each year. The ten cut-
tings were obtained in 1878. The lucerne averaged two and a half feet
in height at every cutting, making a total growth for the season, of twenty-
five feet. By actual weighing, each cutting averaged 4,189 pounds from
this half acre, which was also carefully measured, giving a total of twenty
and a half tons, or at the rate of fort3''-one tons per acre. The mention of
such facts are not out of place, inasmuch as since the invention of the
cotton-gin the culture of cotton has so superseded all other agricultural
pursuits, that it might well be thought that nothing" else could be grown
here. Cotton planting has become so easy and simple, it requires so little
individual thought and effort, the money returns are so certain and direct,
or the crop may be so cheaply stored and preserved from injury for such
an indefinite time, every business, trade and industry accessory to the
work of the farmers, from bankers and railroads to imj^lement and fertili-
zer manufacturers, have become so thoroughly systematized and organized
in unison with this pursuit, that any change is difficult, and as a conse-
quence, the manifold resources o^ the country are neglected and un-
developed.

STATISTICS.

The metamorphic region embraces about 10,425 square miles, or nearly
one-third of the entire State. The population numbers 395,043, the in-
crease since the census of 1870 being thirt}^ per cent. The density of
population per square mile varies from twenty-six to twenty-seven in
Laurens and Lancaster, to forty.six and forty-eight in Newberry and
Greenville ; the average being 37.8 per square mile, which makes it the
most thickly peopled portion of the State, except the sea islands, which
have 39.4 to the square mile. The percentage of colored population

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 140

varies greatly in the different counties, being as high as seventy in Fair-
field, and as low as thirty-four in Spartanburg. The average is fifty-eight.

Of the 6,672,000 acres of land in this region fifty per cent, is in wood
lands ; twenty-two per cent, is in old fields, and twenty-eight per cent, is
tilled. There are 38,591 farms. This is an increase of at least eighty
per cent, since 1870, and of one hundred and eighty per cent, since 1860,
while the increase in the decade preceding that, a time of much pros-
perity, did not much exceed one per cent. ; fifty-six per cent, of the farms
are worked by renters, and forty-four per cent, by owners. This is nearly
six per cent, more of farms rented than in the State at large, or ten per
cent, more than in the other parts of the State. The maximum of the
farms rented is sixty-seven per cent, in Fairfield, and the minimum is
forty-two per cent, in Laurens ; forty-five per cent, of the farms are under
fifty acres, but seventy-one per cent, of the rented farms are under fifty
acres, while only thirteen per cent, of those worked by owners are under
fifty acres. The farms under fifty acres worked by owners constitute only
six per cent, of the total number of farms in this region ; thus, notwith-
standing the great subdivision of farm holding that has been, and still is
taking place, it cannot be said that land is here, as it is on some of tlie
sea islands, in the hands of a small proprietary.

The tilled land is 1,861,922 acres, an increase of fiftj^-six per cent,
since 1870. This gives an average of 4.7 acres per capita, or nearly one
acre above the average for the State, and one-half more than in 1870. Of
it forty-eight per cent, is in grain of all kinds, forty per cent, is in cotton,
and twelve per cent, is in gardens, orchards, fallows and all other crops.
The proj)ortion in cotton varies from a maximum of forty-six per cent, in
Laurens and Union, to a minimum of twenty per cent, in Lancaster.

The crops are cotton, 274,318 bales, against 94,494 in 1870 ; an increase
of one hundred and seventy-two per cent., or nearly six times as great as
that of the population within tlie same period. It constitutes fifty-three
per cent, of the crop of the State, on less than one-third of its area. The
average number of bales per square mile is twenty-six, and varies from
twenty and one-third bales, in Lancaster, to thirty-six and three-quarters
bales in Newberry. In many of the townships the number of bales
grown per square mile is much greater. In Fairfield, township No. 3 (E.
D., 69) produces forty-six bales per square mile ; in Newberry, Floyds
township (E. D., 114) produces forty-seven ; in Chester, Chester township
(E. D., 36) produces fifty-nine ; in York, Fort Mill township (E. D., 169)
produces eighty-four. These facts indicate that the establishment of en-
larged and improved gin-houses for the better preparation of the staple is
practicable in many places now, as they show that the main obstacle in
the way of such establishment, viz. : the distance over which a sufficient

150 THE pip:dmont region.

quantity of seed cotton would have to be liauled is greatly lessened. The
yield of lint cotton per acre varies from one hundred and eighty-eight
pounds, in Newberry and Lancaster, to one hundred and forty -four in
Abbeville. The average for the region being one hundred and sixty-six
pounds of lint per acre, which gives it rank as fifth in the State in point
of production per acre. The yield of lint cotton per capita of population
varies from four hundred and three pounds, in Fairfield, to two hundred
and three pounds in Greenville ; the average is three hundred and sixteen
pounds, being less than in the red hill region, but more than it. is else-
where in the State. The grain crop is 7,731,528 bushels, an increase of
one hundred and thirty-nine per cent, on the crop of 1870. The average
yield for the whole region is nine bushels per acre, and it varies from a
maximum average of eighteen bushels per acre in York, to a minimum of
eight bushels in Laurens ; these variations depending more on the amount
of attention bestowed on this class of crops than on differences in the
productive capacity of the soil. Per capita of the population the yield is
nineteen bushels, which is four bushels more than in 1870. If this were
all corn, or its equivalent, and were fed to the population at a rate of ten
bushels per capita yearly, and the work stock at the rate of seventy bush-
els a head, it would leave, counting nothing for the supply of other live
stock, a deficiency of 1,091,000 bushels, or about fourteen per cent. Es-
timated in the same manner, this deficiency was thirty-one per cent, in
1 870. Compared with the other regions of the State the yield per capita
is below that of the sand hills, which is thirty -two bushels, and that of
the Alpine region, which is twenty bushels, but above the four others.

The work stock is one to every twenty-seven acres of tilled land, the
average for the whole State being one to eighteen. More land is tilled
here to the head of work stock than anywhere in the State, except in the
red hill region. As the lands themselves are not lighter or of easier til-
lage, this is chiefly due to a more economical use of this power.

The live stock number 473,180. This gives forty-five to the square
mile, against an average for the State of thirty-seven. Although this
region ranks third in its proportion of live stock to area, it was here that
the first movements in favor of the law requiring the enclosing of stock
took place. It is also noteworthy that the counties here, in which the
enclosure of stock has been enforced by law, for some years support fifty
head of live stock to the square mile, while the four counties in which
the stock have enjoyed the freedom of ranging wherever they could, sup-
port only thirty-six head to the square mile.

THE PIEDMONT RECxIOX. 151

FARM A^ALUES AND PRODUCTIONS.

The total of values invested in farms in this region, obtained as the
sum of the values entered in the 10th United States Census for lands and
improvments, for farm implements and machinery, and for live stock,
amounts to thirty-nine millions of dollars, \vhich does not differ very
widely from the valuation of the same property on the tax returns of
these counties. The value of farm productions annually, is nineteen and
a quarter millions of dollars, or forty-nine per cent, on the above invest-
ment. This percentage varies in the different counties from thirty-nine
per cent, in Greenville to seventy-one per cent, in Laurens. It may not
be possible to ascertain, even approximately, how the profits of this pro-
duction is distributed ; how much of it rests with the farmer and laborer,
or how much goes to merchants, bankers, and railroads. Nevertheless,
whoever gets the net profits, it is safe to assume that the value represents
in a general way the productiveness of agriculture in this region. Here
are twelve adjacent counties, between whose soil, climate, population,
social, political and industrial system, there is very great similarity. On
the other hand, there are very wide variations, among these same counties,
on four points, frequently and earnestly discussed as affecting fundamen-
tally, southern agriculture. These are :

1st. The ratio between the area planted in cotton and that planted in
other crops.

2d. The ratio of large and small farm holdings.

3rd. The proportion of farms rented to those worked by their owners.

4th. The proportion of the white to the colored population.

152

THE PIEDMONT REGION.

Tlie following table will show the relations of these counties in these
four respects to the percentage of farm production on farm values in each.

TABLE.

Percentage

Percentage

Percentage

Percentage

Percentage

Names of

of
tilled land

of
Farms

of

of

of value
of

Counties.

in

over fifty

Farms

Colored

Farm pro-
ductions on

Cotton.

Acres.

rented.

Population.

farm values

Newberry . .

45

57

56

68

49

Lancaster . .

20

49

56

52

60

York ....

34

66 •

45

54

46

Laurens . . .

46

82

42

60

71

Spartanburg .

38

54

52

34

41

Edgefield . .

38

47

57

64

51

Chester . . .

43

57

60

64

54

Greenville . .

34

48

53

38

39^

Union . . .

46

47

m

56

50

Fairfield . .

39

45

67

70

00

Anderson . .

38

60

57

43

46

Abbeville . .

39

52

60

66

41

Considered wholly within the limits of the above data, and bearing in
mind that they can give only an approximation to the truth, Prof. B.
Sloan, of the University of South Carolina, states the arithmetical con-
clusions to be obtained from this table as follows :

An increase of ten per cent, of the proportion of tilled land in cotton
increases the values produced by seven and a half per cent.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 153

An increase of ten per cent, of the proportion of farms over fifty acres
increases the values produced by five per cent.

An increase of ten per cent, of the proportion of farms rented increases
the values produced by one-half per cent.

An increase of the proportion of colored population increases the values
produced three and one-third per cent.

Such conclusions are liable to material modifications, when viewed in
relation Avith the numerous conditions that complicate such a problem.
For instance, the increase in the colored population does not necessarily
show that the proportion of colored farm labor is increased in the same
ratio ; a fact which will be observed by reference to the reports of town-
ship correspondents. Nevertheless, if these facts only show in which di-
rection the answer lies, it follows that these answers are opposed to the
generally received teachings and theories on these questions, and at the
same time that these answers are in accord with the persistent and pre-
vailing practice of those whose decision is paramount in the matter — the
land owners and the laborers.

SYSTEM OF FARMING AND LABOR.

The larger portion of the lands are held in tracts of from two hundred
to five hundred acres. On three-fourths of the farms mixed husbandry
is practiced, and on the remaining fourth attention is bestowed almost ex-
clusively on cotton.

The attempt to raise farm supplies is, therefore, pretty general, and is
reported as increasing, except in Laurens, where it remains the same, and
in Abbeville, where it is decreasing. Usually this attempt is in so far
successful as to provide a considerable portion of the subsistence for farm
hands and stock. Bacon is largely imported from the North and West,
and sometimes, hay and corn also, for farm use. In two instances these
supplies are reported as brought from North Carolina. The amount of
provisions raised for sale is everywhere inconsiderable. The facilities
offered by railroads have largely contributed to this. For instance, in
Chester the country mills, which were formerly numerous and flourishing,
have been to a large extent abandoned, since it has been found easier to
get meal by rail each week as required, from the Merchant Mills in Au-
gusta, Georgia ; and there is an increasing tendency, under the low rates
of through fares to supersede the Augusta mills by the product of the
northwestern mills.

The system of credits and advances prevails to a large extent, con-
suming from one-third to three-fifths of the crop before it is harvested.
The statement is general tliat this is on the decrease, and is correct in so

154 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

far that a larger amount of supplies is being produced at home, and a
larger number of purchases for cash are being made by farmers since
1876. On the other hand, the number of farms having largely increased
in the same period, the number working on advances, especially among
the smaller farmers, has largely increased also. The records of the courts
show that the number of liens on the growing crop is greatly on the in-
crease ; the rate of increase being twenty-three per cent, per annum for
the last two years. The number of such liens on record in eleven of the
counties under consideration is (there being no return from Union) 30,205 ;
a number nearly equal to the number of farms, but as two or more liens
are not unfrequently recorded against the same crop, probably not more
than one-half of the growing crops are under lien. The aggregate value
of these liens is $2,334,956 ; an average to the lien of seventy-seven dol-
lars. It appears that. the five counties lowest in the ratio of farm produc-
tions to farm values have a larger amount in liens, by thirteen per cent.,
than the five counties standing highest in this ratio. In the former the
recorded indebtedness is four dollars and twenty-eight cents for each acre
in cotton, on which crop alone liens are taken; in the latter it is two dol-
lars and eighty-four cents per acre in cotton. As may be inferred from
the number and average amount of these liens, they are mostly taken
from the smaller farms, usually renters, for advances made by the land-
lord, or more frequently by the store keeper. There has grown up in
this region a system of banks at the county seats, for the accommodation
of farmers. The National Bank of jSTewberry was the first to be estab-
lished ; under the excellent and judicious management of its president,
Robert L. JNIcCaughrin, the operations of this bank have added largely to
the prosperity and independence of this county ; which, besides leading
in cotton production in proportion to its area, is, in man}^ other regards,
the most thriving in the region. The capital of this bank, $150,000, was
subscribed by the citizens of the county, except $12,000, and ninety-five
per cent, of the stock, which is at thirty per cent, premium, and not for
sale, is now held within the county. It has six hundred and fifty-four
accounts, three-fourths of which are with farmers. These accounts vary
in amount, from forty dollars upwards ; only sixty-five of them, however,
reach or exceed $1,000. Since 1872, the rate of discount has been
from twelve to seven per cent., or from one-half to one-third of the
average rates prevailing elsewhere in the State. The loans during the
crop season aggregate $324,000, and the doubtful debts for the operations
of the last ten years do not reach in all $6,000. Loans are made purely
on personal security or on collaterals, liens and mortgages are not asked
for or given. If there is a question as to the abihty of the party seeking
accommodation to meet his payments promptly, he is required to obtain

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 155

the endorsement of one or more of his neighbors. In this way it fre-
quently happens that three neighbors endorse each others notes, so that
if ill-luck beftill one during a crop season, the others help him through,
and it is found that such assistance is equalized in a series of seasons.
Besides the direct assistance this bank affords, its indirect influence is
highly beneficial, not only does it encourage personal trustworthiness and
integrity, but by the circulation of its capital during the active season of
the year, it gives a healthy cash tone to business ; where a large propor-
tion of the sales are for ready money, the purchases by merchants are
more carefully and economically made, and even advances on liens are
less exorbitant than elsewhere.

Field labor is performed exclusively by natives, and chiefly by colored
laborers. In Spartanburg, two-thirds of the field labor is performed by
whites, even where the colored population largel}^ preponderates. The
reader will find by reference to the township reports, that a considerable
amount of it is done by whites ; not unfrequently a much larger propor-
tion than one would infer from the ratio between the races. The laborers
are healthy, easily managed, work moderately and live easily. Their
condition is reported as good in eight localities ; as improving in two ;
and as poor, but contented and happy, in one. Very few negro laborers
own land or houses in Newberry, York and Abbeville ; sixteen per cent,
own a house or land in Greenville; and five, per cent, in Spartanburg,
Fairfield, Chester and Laurens.

The prevailing wages of field labor is eight dollars by the month, or
one hundred dollars by the year. In Greenville it is seven dollars, and
in Laurens it is eight dollars to twelve dollars by the month. In portions
of Edgefield it is seventy -five dollars per the year. In all cases the la-
borer is furnished with shelter, rations and firewood, and almost inva-
riably with a garden and the privilege of raising poultry and some stock —
a cow or a hog. The farm work is light, and the extreme care formerly
given to preserving the health of the slaves, has bequeathed regulations
regarding labor not customary elsewhere. Work commences at sunrise,
and is over with at sunset ; no night work of any sort being required ;
the time allowed for meals varies ; for dinner it is from one to three hours,
according to the length of the days. All exposure to rain or bad weather,
even in pressing exigencies, is scrupulously avoided, and during excep-
tionally chilly weather little work is obtained or expected of negro
laborers.

A large proportion of the land is worked on shares. When the land-
lord furnishes the tools, stock, and stock-feed, he takes one-half the crop
in Laurens, Chester, Abbeville, and York, and in portions of Fairfield
and Spartanburg. In Greenville, and in portions of the counties last

156 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

named, the laborer takes one-third, and the landlord two-thirds, under
the above conditions. In Greenville also, the laborer takes two-thirds, if
he furnishes tools, stock and feed for it. The portion paid for land alone
varies from one-third to one-fourth of tlie crop — the latter rate being the
most general one.

In Laurens, Newberry and Spartanburg, and portions of Fairfield and
Chester, wages are preferred, the laborer running no risk of the seasons,
faring better and working better in consequence. In Aljbeville and York
the share system is preferred, and is the prevailing practice ; the demands
on the care and attention of the landlord is less, and the independence
of control and freedom from steady work it affords the laborer is highly
prized by him. In Greenville, laborers using stock, tools and provisions,
find the share system most profitable, otherwise they prefer wages.

Tolerable satisfaction with the system prevailing in each locality is ex-
pressed, but the feeling is general that the relations of labor and capital
are in a transition stage, and, either that those now existing need per-
fecting, or that better ones would .be preferred.

Eight out of nine correspondents report that under the present system
the lands are not improving, but deteriorating, especially those rented
and worked on shares; the ninth only qualifies the general statement by
tlie expression, " with care it improves." Though there may be much
sad reality in these statements, they are to be considered in connection
with the facts above given, which show that within the last decade the
two leading crops in this region have increased, one by one hundred and
seventy-two, and the other by one hundred and thirty-nine per cent.

Statements regarding the average market value of land vary with every
locality. They are for Greenville and Laurens, six dollars to ten dollars
an acre ; for York, six dollars ; for Abbeville and Spartanburg, ten dollars ;
for Newberry, six dollars to twenty-five dollars ; for Fairfield, three dollars
to fifteen dollars ; for Chester, seven dollars to eighteen dollars. There
will be found a fuller detail in the Abstract of Township Correspondents,
*and attention is directed to their frequently recurring expression, that
" there is little land for sale, but nearly all of it to rent." Only three out
of eleven correspondents state the rental of land in money ; it is put in
York and Chester at two dollars, and in Laurens at three dollars to four
dollars. Three state that no land is rented for money. In tliese cases
one-fourth to one-third of the crop — estimated in Fairfield at an average
of five dollars an acre — is given, or a larger proportion where stock and
other supplies are furnished. In Abbeville, the average rent is given as
three bales of cotton for as much land as one plow can cultivate; in Fair-
field it is nine hundred pounds, and in Chester as much as twelve hun-
dred pounds of lint. Or, in other words, something over one thousand

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 157

pounds of lint cotton, worth one hundred dollars, for the rent of tliirty
acres of land. This would be three dollars and thirty-three cents rental
per acre, whitdi is the interest at seven per cent, on a capital of forty-seven
dollars and fifty cents. Taking seven per cent, as the standard rate of
interest, this may be taken as the intrinsic value at present of the arable
lands of this region. As, however, only twenty-eight per cent, of the
lands are under the plow, this amounts only to an average minimum
valuation of all the land tilled and untilled at thirteen dollars and thirty
cents per acre. As stated in the returns of the 10th United States Census,
which may be considered as fairly up to the actual average market values,
the lands with all farm improvements are put at an average of four dol-
lars and eighty-seven cents an acre. At this valuation, placed upon them
by their owners, these lands are paying dividends not less than twenty-
eight per cent, per annum, not taking into account that more than two-
thirds of these values are wholly unemployed, and that the remaining
one-third are operated mainly by the poorest and most ignorant class of
the community, where want of means alone would prevent them from
obtaining such returns as good culture would give. If the artificial ab-
surdities, inherited from the dark ages and feudalism, which enslave land
even under this free government, and burden its transmission from one
owner to another, could be abolished, if titles to this species of property
could be made commercial j^aper, and as convertible as the titles to prop-
erty in railroads and factories are through the medium of bonds and
stocks, such paradoxes as the above would be impossible, and that funda-
mental value, held to be the source of all others, land would be free to
furnish its full quota towards suj^plying human wants and assisting in
human progress.

TILLAGE AND IMPROVEMENT.

The usual depth of tillage is four inches on the land side of the furrow.
In Abbeville, Spartanburg, and portions of Chester, it is generally only
three inches. In parts of Fairfield it is only two inches, but in some
parts of Chester it is six inches to eight inches.

The draft employed is almost always one horse ; in a very few in-
stances two horses are used.

Subsoiling has only been practiced on a small scale, chiefly as an ex-
periment, generally with excellent results.

Fall plowing is very little practiced ; it is opposed to what is known as
the " David Dickson method of culture," which is the prevalent one, the
opinion being, that lands broken up in the fall become tightly packed by
the winter rains, an evil not counterbalanced by the disintegrating in-

158 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

fluence of frosts in this mild climate. The additional expense is also a
consideration. To the limited extent to which it is done, five reports
give the results as good, and in York and in portions of Chester, it is re-
ported as greatly on the increase ; five other reports state that it is of
doubtful advantage or none.

Rotation of crops is nowhere reduced to a system. With a moderate
use of manures, and careful culture, the same lands are planted for years
in cotton, it is thought not only without deterioration, but with actual
improvement. The ratio which the price of cotton bears to that of meat
and corn affects the succession of crops more than anything else. Never-
theless, there is but one opinion as to the beneficial influence of a rotation
of crops as a cheap means of preserving the thriftiness of the soil. The
succession of crops, as elsewhere in the State, is cotton, corn and small
grain. The clean culture of cotton leaves the land in good order for any
crop, and the small grain is planted in the same year, after the corn is
gathered. Usually, the Jand is kept in cotton from three to five years,
and after one crop of corn and small grain is taken from it, the culture
of cotton is resumed.

FALLOWIXG.

Fallowing forms no part of the system of culture, and it is thought that
the exposure of the soil, by tillage, to the summer sun is injurious. The
fallows consist chiefly of the lands lying out after the small grain crops
are gathered, in May and June, and even these are generally used as pas-
tures for stock. The

OLD FIELDS

are preferred, in many instances, to wood lands, and they are being
cleared of the short leaf pine that covers them, and replanted. They pro-
duce well with fertilizers, and, under careful treatment, are thought equal
to any of the land. One of the principal reasons for abandoning these
lands in the first instance Avas the washes and gullies produced by the
unskillful use of tlie plow. Efforts to remedy this by horizontal culture
and hillside ditches, where intelligently made — especially where the
plumb or the level has been used to lay off the rows and ditches — have
been very successful. Unskillfully made ditches, however, often do more
harm than good. Filling the gullies with brush is a safer and a ver}'
effective practice, but no attempt at under drainage, to remedy washing,
has been made. The damage to the soil is mainly to the hillsides, and
it is seldom the bottoms are injured by the detritus they receive.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 159

MANURING

has for its basis cotton seed. About one thousand pounds of cotton seed
are obtained from each bale of cotton, which makes 137,000 tons the
supply of this region. Of this, 25,000 tons, at two bushels per acre, is
used for j^lanting; a small amount is fed to stock. None is carried to the
oil mills, and very little is sold, the price being ten to fifteen cents per
bushel ; the balance, about 100,000 tons, is returned to the soil as manure.
For small grain, it is sown broadcast, and plowed in with the seed in the
fall. For corn, it is killed by heating, and applied in the hill. For cotton,
it is becoming the practice to compost it with acid phosphates and stable
manure, sometimes with the addition of other litter and lime. It is ap-
plied in the drill, at the rate of a ton to two to four acres. This leaves a
large portion of tilled land to be supplied with manure from other sources.
Corn rarely receives any manure, and the deficiency for the cotton lands,
when cotton seed and stable manures are exhausted, is supplied by the pur-
chase of ^commercial fertilizers. The amount purchased in this region
reaches an aggregate cost of nearly one-half million of dollars, or $1.98
for each acre planted in cotton. It varies, from a maximum in Spartan-
burg of §3.33 per acre in cotton, to a minimum of .92 cents in Abbeville.
It is used most extensively in Spartanburg, Greenville, York and Ander-
son, to stimulate the grow^th and maturity of the cotton plant in these
counties, which, being more elevated and nearer the mountains, have a
shorter growing season. In Newberry, the county most productive in
cotton of the region, the average is $1.02 per acre in cotton. Green
ntanuring has been practiced only as an experiment. Such experiments
with pea vines have had a very promising success, but it has been found
better to allow the vines to wither before turning them under.

CULTIVATION.

Fallow lands or lands that have been in other crops, and sometimes the
heavy red lands, are broken up broadcast during the winter and spring.
The great body of the lands, however, being plant-ed year after year
in cotton, the usual method is to lay off in the alley with a shovel plow,
drill in the manure, and bed to it with a turning plow. Three to five
furrows complete the bed, and the land is ready for planting. On the
thinnest lands, the rows are two and one-half feet apart — generally they
are three feet to three and one-half feet — and on the strongest lands they
are four feet. Planting commences on and after 10th April, and is com-
pleted on or before the 10th of May. The seed used is the short liinbed

100 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

cluster variety of cotton, kiiowu under the name of Dickson's improved,
or Boyd's prolific. It is rather a delicate plant, a prolific bearer,
of early maturity, and a short staple. Carefully sown, one bushel of seed
will plant an acre, though as much as three and sometimes five bu.shels
are used. With a planter, two bushels answer, and two to two and one-
half may be taken as the average. Most of the seed is sown by hand, in
a furrow opened by a small plow, and covered by various devices of
boards, propelled by hand or by a horse. On the smooth, well-prepared
land, planters, especially the Dowdow, are much used and well thought
of. The seed comes up in four to ten days in favorable seasons ; late
plantings* in dry seasons are longer in appearing, and may not come up
in a month, and then give a good stand. This occurrence is always a
misfortune, as it not only retards the crop, but allow's the grass a chance
to overtake it. As soon as the stand is perfected, thinning commences,
and the cotton is chopped out with a hoe to spaces varying from six
inches on thin lands to eighteen inches on the strongest, usually to nine
inches and twelve inches.

The after cultivation consists in keeping the ground light and lo(jse by
the use of the plow, and in keeping the grass out of the row with the hoe.
A great variety of plows are u^sed for this purpose — twisters, turn-plows,
shovels and harrows ; the later workings, when the plant is fruiting, are
usually given by passing twdce through the row with a sweep, which
skims the surface. Generally there are four plowings, and four hoeings ;
sometimes three answer..

When the plant is ten inches to fifteen inches high — usually about the
1st of July — it begins to bloom, though blooms are sometimes noticed as
early as the loth of June. Open bolls appear about the middle of Augui^ ;
in favorable seasons they are sometimes seen the last of July, and at other
times not until the 1st of September. Although in some instances the
plant grows as high as four feet to five feet, the height at which it is
thought to be most productive here is from two feet to three feet. Pick-
ing may commence about the 25th of August, but it is not in full blast
until the 1st to 20th of September. The crop is gone over three to four
times, and it is all out of the field by Christmas ; sometimes as early as
the 20th of November.

DISEASE AND ENEMIES.

In its early growth, unless in exceptionally windy and cold seasons,
or through bad hoeing, cotton does not suffer here at all from " sore shin."
Nor does it often run to weed ; in unusually warm and wet seasons, or on
strong fresh land this may occur ; cultivation and manuring are thought

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 161

to check excessive growth, and to promote fruiting. Worms are rarely
seen in this region, and are not at all feared. Shedding and rust are
often injurious. The first is likely to occur during alternations of dry
and wet weather. Black rust is confined to ill-drained soils, especially to
those of the trap rocks. Wet weather is more likely than dry and hot
weather to affect the cotton plant injuriously here. No crop grown any-
Avhere over so extensive an area is more certain than is the cotton crop in
this region. Drainage and stable manure, with fairly good culture, are
unfailing remedies for such diseases as have as yet affected it. The
enemy most dreaded and most certain to require the best efforts of the
farmer to hold it in check, is grass ; and, with one consent, the species is
known as " crab-grass," " a corruption," John Drayton says, " of crop-
grass, as it was unknown until the land was cultivated." BeBrahm,
writing of Carolina in 1752, says: "Because new land produces scarce
any grass, and once hoeing will do for the season, but the grass comes
and increases in such a manner that sometimes three hoeings are scarce
sufficient in one season, and when this comes to be the case, the plant-
ers relinquish these fields for pastures and clear new ground of its
wood." This grass makes an excellent hay, attaining a height of two
feet to three feet, and yielding from one to four tons to the acre, according
to the land and the season. Next to cotton picking, however, it is the
chief source of trouble and expense in the culture of this crop.

GINNING.

The ginning and picking season open and close together. The gins in
general use are Brown, Winnslops, Taylor and Hall gins. The most
generally used power is horse-power — four mules and the old wooden
cog-wheel gearing. Such power is used for gins of forty to forty-five saws,
and the out-turn is about two and a half pounds of lint an hour to the
saw, or an average of about eleven hundred pounds of lint as a day's
work for a gin. With steam and water power the same number of saws
are made to do double this work, but it is questionable if it is so well
done. The cotton on the average does not quite third itself, and as esti-
mated, 1,231 pounds of seed cotton are required to make four hundred
pounds of lint. This gives seventy-one bushels of seed as the daily pro-
duct, per gin, in the estimate above stated. For baling, six out of eleven
reporters used and preferred the old wooden screw, run by horse power ;
two used the Scofield press, and the remainder the Finley and other
hand-presses. It appears with these presses, if three to four hands and
one to two mules are employed, the out-turn for ten hours Avork is about
four thousand pounds of lint in eight or nine bales. The iron arrow tie
11

102 THE PIEDMONT REGION,

has entirely superseded rope for baling. Jute bagging, the heaviest Dun-
dee, or the domestic Ludlow is used. The weight aimed at in the bale
varies from four hundred pounds to five hundred pounds ; the average is
four hundred and fifty-two pounds.

SHIPPING AND SELLING.

As soon as the cotton is packed it is moved to market, commencing
about the 1st of September ; by the end of the year almost the whole crop
has passed out of the farmers' hands. The farmer usually sells to the
merchant at the nearest railroad station, and has only a charge against
him of ten cents a bale for weighing. In some localities the transporta-
tion, hauling from Laurens county to Greenville, is stated to cost two
dollars a bale. Cotton shipped by railroad to New York costs three dol-
lars and fifty cents a bale. To Charleston it costs, from Fairfield, two
dollars to two dollars and twenty-five cents ; from Spartanburg, two dol-
lars and fifty cents ; from Abbeville, two dollars and seventy-five cents.
From Chester the charge is, to Charleston, forty-eight cents per hun-
dred weight; to New York it is sixty -three cents per hundredweight.
Cotton shipped from Fairfield to Charleston, and sold by the farmer,
costs, everything included, four dollars and fifty-seven cents for a bale
weighing four hundred and sixty-five pounds, and it is usually estimated
at about one cent per pound.

COST OF PRODUCTION.

This is estimated in four reports at seven cents ; in one report at eight
cents, and in one at nine cents per pounds of lint. The following table
exhibits the detailed statements on this head.

THE PIEDMONT REGION.

163

Cost of each Item of Labor and Material expended in tlm Cidtivation of an

Acre of Cotton.

ITEMS.

llenL

Fencing, repairs interest on.

Knocking stalks

Pulling and burning stalks....

Other cleaning up

Listing

Beddini with hoes

Breaking up

Harrowing

Barring old beds

Splitting middles

Reversing

Laying ofT

Commercial Manures

Home-made Manures

Applying manures

Bedding up

Splitting middles

Knocking off beds

Planting, opening

Planting, dropping

Planting, covering

Replanting '.

Seed

Thinning

Three phiwings.

Three hoeinjrs

Picking

Hauling to gin

Ginning

Management

Wear and tear of tools

Bagging and ties

Total

$3 50

25
50
10

1 00

Cost per pound, deducting cotton seed at 12 cents
per bushel

Profit per acre, cotton 10 cts. per pound, seed 12
cts. per bushel,

Profit, rent excluded from cost..

2 00

2 50

50

1 00

30

15

30

05

30

50

1 00

1 50

C 15

1 00

■5 33

50

1 00

1 00

29 (i9

06

13 21

10 17

II.

$9 90

813 33

25

1 00

25
4 00

20
25
25

40
20
20

30

50'
1 00
4 80

1 60

1 00

III.

25

1 00

25
4 50
2 00
15
75
25

25

30
50
1 50
1 50
6 00
10
1 78

1 00

IV.

S2 60

2) 85' 35 66

05 f

IS 9fi

7 00

V.

34 00

40

10

1 00

18
3 00
1 50

10

as

17

16
10
16

25

40

1 00

1 20

5 Oil

1 60

1 00
85

20 &5

05 i

14 as

30

1 00

25

4 00

1 00

15

75

25

40

1 33

1 20

4 00

200
22

22 5-3

9 51

26 m> 20 33| 16 9Sl 13 51

VI.

$3 00

25
1 00

25

50
10

25

20

40

1 50

1 00

3 00

1 00

99

50

45

067-10

6 2t

9 2»

VII.

83 00

20

ATerage.

1 00

25
3 00
1 00

50

75

15

101
I
10

10

12H

50

60
1 20
3 00

25

90

50

17 97

1-10

3 71

6 71

So 61

10
18
07
U

93

zo

3 07

1 14

23

66

18

39

1 00

1 23

4 66

a5

1 74

17

22

80

23 78

06 7-10

10 01
16 62

I. R. C. Carlisle & J. S. Rennick, Newberry, yield 400 pounds lint Cotton, 825 pounds cotton seed.

II. Jno. C. Fiennikeu, Chester, yield 390 pounds lint Cotton, 804 pounds cotton seed.
HI. VV. L. Donaldson. Greenvide, yield 400 pounds lint Cotton. 800 pounds cott.on seed.

IV. G. H. McMaster. Fairfield, yield 330 pounds lint Cotton, 670 pounds cotton seed.

V. James Pagan, Winnsboro, yield 300 pounds lint Cotton, 620 pounds cotton seed.
Vr. W. R. Bradley, Abbeville, yield lOS pounds lint Cottcm 400 pounds cotton seed.
VII. .Ino. A. Summer, Lexinoion. yield 20) pounds lint Co ton, 420 pounds cotton seed.
Average, 318 pounds lint Cotton, 64S pounds cotton seed.

104 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

Abstract of reports of township correspondents in the Piedmont Region
of South Carohna :

Abbeville County.

Cokesbury Township {E. D. 12): Lands liilly and broken, light, gray,
gravelly and sandy soils, six inches to eight inches to subsoil of yellow,
sometimes of dark red cla3^ Streaks of red clay and mulatto soils traverse
these sandy soils. Underlying the subsoil is rotten sandstones, soapstone,
tough clay, and rotten mica slate. Growth, oak, hickory and pine, gen-
erally small. Lands occasionally change hands at seven dollars to ten
dollars an acre. Field labor is paid fifty cents a day, one-fourth to one-
third of it performed by whites.

Doncddsville ToiLmsliip{E.D. 11): Lands level, soils fine, light, gray, sandy
loam, with some clay loam ; subsoil red and yellow clay, underlaid by
solid clay. Growth, oak, hickory, walnut, poplar and pine. Crops, corn,
ten bushels ; wheat, eight bushels ; oats, fifteen bushels ; barley, fifteen
bushels; potatoes, thirty bushels; seed cotton, six hundred pounds to
one thousand pounds per acre. Lands sell for three dollars to ten dollars
an acre. Uplands rent for one-fourth, bottoms for one-third of the crops.
A good deal is rented for four hundred pounds to eight hundred pounds
of lint cotton for a one-horse farm. Quarries of building rock are worked.
Traces of gold occur. Lime rock is said to be found. Large w^ater-
powers on Saluda river. No attention is paid to stock, which might be
made profitable. No prevailing diseases. Field labor is j^aid forty to
fifty cents a day, w^ith board ; nearly one-half of it is performed by whites.

Greenwood Township, {E. D. 13) : Surface level and rolling.* Soils, fine
gray, sandy loam and rich clay loam ; subsoil, red clay. Growth, oak,
hickory and pine. Some land for sale at three dollars to ten dollars an
acre. Average crop, six hundred pounds to seven hundred pounds seed
cotton per acre. Lucerne, clover and millet do w^ell. Summer pasturage
abundant. Sheep kept during the winter on cotton seed and turnips, at
a cost of thirty cents a head. Attention is being much directed to stock
raising since the abolition of the fence law. Field labor paid fifty cents
to seventy-five cents a day ; one-fourth is performed b}'' w^hites.

Smithmlle Township {E. D. 16) : Lands elevated and rolling. Soil, a fine,
gray, sandy loam, and a red clay loam, with subsoil of clay resting on
clay or a fine white earth, resembling chalk. Growth, oak, hickory and
pine, wdth wild clover and various grasses. Crops, six hundred pounds
seed cotton ; ten bushels corn on uplands and twenty-five to thirty bush-
els on bottoms. Lands sell from three dollars to ten dollars per acre.
Wages of farm labor, fifty cents a day to one dollar and fifty cents and
two dollars during harvest; one-fourth performed by whites.

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 1G5

Whitehall Toimishij) {E. D. 15) : Level and undulating lands. The post-
oak and hickory land is a coarse, gray, sandy soil, resting on red clay, the
red bottom lands are on the creeks and branches. Growth, oak, hickory
and pine. Wild clover and native grasses abound. Crops, the best fresh
land will make a bale of cotton, without manure ; a bale to two acres is a
good average ; ten bushels to sixty bushels of corn ; ten bushels of wheat ;
twenty bushels to one hundred and twelve bushels of oats an acre. Par-
ticles of gold found in all the small streams. Traces of manganese occur.
Most of the lands are rented for eight hundred pounds to one thousand
pounds of lint cotton for twenty-five acres. Price of land from eight
dollars to ten dollars per acre, and advancing. Very little field work
done by whites. No climatic disease ; locality very healthy.

Bordeaux Township {E. D. 5) : Ridge lands elevated and rolling. Soil,
a sandy loam, with spots of gravel and rock, with a subsoil of yellow-
clay, mixed with sand, underlaid by a stiff red clay. Growth, oak,
hickory, gum and pine, with some chestnut. There are extensive river
bottoms, also creek and branch bottoms, which are very fertile. Crops,
five hundred pounds to one thousand pounds seed cotton ; ten bushels to
forty bushels corn ; twenty bushels oats per acre. Land can be bought at
five dollars an acre ; rents for two bales of four hundred pounds of cotton
for a one mule farm, or one-fourth of all crops. More than a million
dollars in gold has been taken from the Dorn mine ; and several new
mines have been recently discovered. The Savannah river. Reedy river
and Longcane afford numerous water powers. One-fifth of the farm work
performed by whites.

Ninety-Six Township {E. D. 14) : Lands undulating, very little hilly.
Soil, a gray sandy loam, and a deep red soil, subsoil generally clay, under-
laid by clay. Soft rock and white chalk. Growth, oak and hickory,
with some pine. Crops, half a bale of cotton ; fifteen bushels of corn ;
twenty bushels of oats per acre. Very little land for sale ; most of it
worked on shares ; little worked by hired labor.

Cedar Springs Townshij) (E. D. 3) : High rolling ridges, broken and hilly
on the streams. Soils, a gray sandy loam, and mulatto and red clay
loams. Sandy soils coarser than in the low country ; these are consid-
ered, since the introduction of fertilizers, as the most paying lands.
Subsoils clay, underlaid at eighteen feet to twenty feet, by granite slates
and an ash colored earth that has some fertilizing qualities. Growth,
oaks of all kinds, short leaf pine, walnut, hickory, sugar-maple, cucum-
ber tree and white gum. Crops, six hundred pounds seed cotton ; ten
bushels of corn; twenty-five bushels to seventy-five bushels of oats;
ten bushels to fifty bushels wheat. A little land for sale at three dollars
to ten dollars an acre for some ; but not the best. Rent from three dollars

i6G THE PIEDMONT REGION.

to ten dollars an acre, or on shares. Building granite and soapstone oc-
cur. Gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron are found. Longcane creek
furnishes several good water poAvers. Lucerne, clover, blue, orchard and
timothy grass are found to do well. No local diseases. One-half the
field work performed by whites.

Calhoun Mills TownsJa'p (E. D. 6) : The flatwoods are low, flat land.
Soil, a black loam, resting on a tenacious yellow clay, containing masses
of carbonate of iron, which, when broken off by the plow and mixed
with soil, give rise to the appellation, " Buckshot " lands ; underlaid by
decomposed felsitic and dioritic porphyry, that becomes hard in descend-
ing. Growth, heavily-bodied post oak and scaly bark hickory. Old
fields grow up in persimmon and sassafras, later, in old-field pine. Lands
wet, require draining ; make good corn crops. Clover, peas and the grasses
do well ; but cotton rusts. Surrounding the flatwoods, like the rim of a
cup, are the rolling, hilly, red lands. Growth, oak, pine and hickory.
Some of these lands, under cultivation since the Be volution, with little
manure, will produce good crops still; although they have been poorly
farmed, and are much washed. I have made thirty bushels of corn, forty
bushels oats, fifteen hundred pounds of seed cotton to the acre : but this
is above the average. Excellent bottom lands are found on Little and
Savannah rivers, and the small streams. Spring-water and shallow wells,
impregnated with iron and sulphur. Farms may be bought at from two
dollars to ten dollars an acre ; if well improved will sell higher. Traces
of gold, copper and antimony have been found. Eurite furnishes blocks
of excellent building material, a very fine granite, hammondite occurs,
and soapstone. Farm wages, ten dollars a month, with rations, garden,
the privilege of a cow and of poultry raising.

Anderson County.

Anderson Court House (E. D. 18): Level in the north and east; rolling
to the south. Soil : 1st. A stiff, sticky, red clay, with deep red subsoil.
2d. Red, loamy soil, mixed with fine sand, and having a red subsoil. 3d.
Gray sandy soil, with yellowish subsoil. Growth, oaks of all kinds,
liickor)' and pine. Crops, cotton, a bale to three acres ; corn, ten bushels ;
oats, ten bushels to fifteen bushels an acre. Some land for sale, at ten
dollars to fifteen dollars an acre. Rents for one five hundred pound bale
of cotton for every ten acres. Farm labor paid fifty cents a day ; one-
half of it performed by whites. Has forty acres set in clover," orchard
grass and red top, which does well.

Garvin Toumsliip {E. D. 27) : Land elevated and rolling, with some flats.
Soil : 1st. A gray or brown sandy loam, on red or yellow cla}'. 2d. Red

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 167

loam ; depth of soils two inches to eight inches ; the soils on bottoms
have a depth of from two inches to six inches, or more. Beneath the
subsoil is a fine, gray, soapy, sandy earth, mixed with mica. It has been
used successfully as manure. Growth, red, white, black, post, Spanish
and chestnut oaks, chestnut and hickory. Very little land for sale ; price
from eight dollars to ten dollars an acre. A good deal to rent for one-
fourth the cotton, two-thirds of the other crops. Croppers furnishing
labor and paying for guano, get one-third, two-fifths or one-half of the
crop. The worn out old fields, grown up in pines, are, when cleared again,
more productive than virgin forest, yielding with one hundred and fifty
pounds of guano one thousand pounds of cotton the first year. Clover
and other grasses do well. Wages of farm labor six dollars to ten dollars
a month ; about one-half performed by whites.

Holland's Store Toionship [E. D. 23) : The ridges are flat topped, and are
a fine gray sandy loam, on clay subsoil ; not having washed under cultiva-
tion, they have steadily risen in value. Near the rivers and creeks the land
is hilly and broken, the soil a red clay, and soft micaceous rocks are found.
Growth, oaks, hickory, sourwood, dogwood and old-field pine. Since the
abolition of the fence law has restricted the range of cattle, many grasses
and forest plants, thought to be extinct, have re-appeared, among them
the wild pea and vetches. Wild oats are getting so abundant that large
tracts of wood lands look like oat fields. Crops, one-third of a bale of
cotton, ten bushels to twenty-five bushels corn, on upland ; and twenty
bushels to fifty bushels on bottom land, six bushels wheat, ten bushels to
twenty bushels oats per acre. Traces of gold are found. A bed of brown
hammotite covers a square mile or more, and near it is a knob of soap-
stone, much used for hearthstones. Generostee creek furnishes six mill
sites of twenty to fifty horse power, and at McDaniel's shoals, on the Sa-
vannah river, there is a fall of twenty-five feet to forty feet in two miles.
Wages of farm labor, fifty cents a day ; for ditching and harvesting, one
dollar and sixty cents ; more than one-half performed by whites.

Equality Township (E. D. 28) : The ridges are flat or rolling, of a light
gray, gravell}^ and sandy porous soil, suited to cotton, but requiring fer-
tilizers to preserve their fertility. Towards the streams the land is more
hilly and broken. Soil, a stiff red clay on a red clay subsoil ; there are lands
under cultivation, yielding good crops, that were cleared one hundred years
ago, and have been worked for the last twenty-three years without manure.
Subsoil underlaid by rotten gneiss, mica, slate and hornblende, about
one-sixteenth dark brown loamy creek bottoms. Growth, black, white,
post and turkey oak, hickory, pine and chestnut. Crops, eight hundred
pounds seed cotton, fourteen bushels to forty bushel corn on uplands,
thirty bushels to seventy on bottoms, eight bushels to thirty bushels

168 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

wheat, twenty-five bushels to one hundred bushels oats per acre. Pea-
vines and red clover make good forage crops. Traces of gold are found,
but no regular mining. Field labor paid fifty cents a day and board, and
is largely performed by whites.

Williamston Tounship {E. D. 29) : Land rolling. Soil, light brown or
reddish sandy loam, five inches to six inches to subsoil of red clay, mixed
with sand. Beneath the subsoil rotten gneiss rock is found. Growth,
oak and pine, with some hickory and ash. Cotton yields a little less than
three-fourths of a bale per acre. Provisions not much raised. Price of
land, ten dollars to thirty dollars per acre. Graphite of good quality is
found in lumps over a considerable area, also red hermatite. The Pied-
mont and Pelzer factories are two large cotton mills on the Saluda. At
the first it is estimated that a twenty-foot dam will give over eight hun-
dred horse power ; at the latter an eight-foot dam will give three to four
hundred horse power. The Allen shoals, between the two, is about equal
to the Piedmont falls. Below the Pelzer factory, the Clement shoals fur-
nish a fall of fourteen feet, with abundant rock and an excellent site for
building. Native grasses and cane afford forage. Little attention is paid
to stock. Day labor, fifty cents to one dollar and twenty-five cents.
Nearly one-half the field work is performed by whites. Williamston is a
health resort, with a chalybeate spring, containing iron, magnesia, potash,
sulphur, iodine and an excess of carbonic acid ; and it has a large male
academj^ and female college, with one hundred and twenty-five pupils.

Varemies Toivnsliij) (E. D. 20): Land elevated and rolling; sometimes
hilly and broken. Soils are : 1st. Fine and warm sandy loam, three inches
to four inches to a yellowish sandy or dark drab-colored subsoil. 2d.
Clay loam, four inches to eight inches to a red or brown subsoil, which is
generally stift' clay, underlaid for ten feet by stiff red clay, that there be-
comes mixed with rock, mica, sand and rotten looking clay of all colors.
Growth, red, post, black, white and water oak, hickory, elm, pine, black-
jack and blackgum. Crops, four hundred pounds seed cotton, fifteen
bushels corn, eight bushels wheat, twelve bushels oats an acre. Lands
sell at eight dollars to twenty dollars an acre ; rents for one-third of the
crops. Building granite abounds. The McDonald mine yields gold,
some silver and rubies. Corundum of inferior quality is found at various
places ; also zircons and beryl. High shoals on Rocky river has a fall of
thirty-one feet in three hundred yards, estimated as furnishing one hun-
dred horse power.

Chester County.

Baton Rouge Tomiship {E. D. 37) : Rolling lands. Soils, gray, sandy,
gravelly, six inches to red clay subsoil and red clay loam. Growth, oak,

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 109

ash, walnut, pino, hickory. Lands rent for two bales cotton per one-liorse
farm. There is a gold mine, not worked now, however. The Lockhart
shoals furnish a great water power. The river is one-fifth of a mile wide,
eight feet deep, and has a fall of forty-seven feet in one-half a mile.
Field labor paid fifty cents per day ; one-half performed by whites.

BossviUe Toivnship {E. D. 43) : Northeastern corner, blackjack land and
level ; the balance hilly and broken. Soils, gray, sandy loam, red and
mulatto clay loam. Subsoil, mostly red clay and grayish pipe clay.
Growth, a variety of oaks, hickory, blackjack and old field pines. Crops,
ten bushels to twelve bushels corn, four bushels to five bushels wheat,
fifteen bushels to twenty bushels oats, and three hundred pounds to four
hundred pounds cotton an acre. Sixty bushels of corn have been made
on my place. Lands for sale at ten dollars to twelve dollars an acre ;
rent for three bales of cotton of four hundred pounds to the mule, and
less. Much land could be rented for clearing it up. Most of it having
been thrown out is grown up in old field pines. Good building granite is
found. An immense water power furnished by the old State canal on
Catawba river. Farm wages, fifty cents a day ; one-fourth performed by
whites.

LewisviUe Toivnship {E. D. 42) : Broken into hills and ridges, about one
hundred and fifty feet higher than the valleys of the numerous streams
crossing it. ooils, a gray sandy loam, and a red clay loam, resting on
red clay. In the northwest the blackjack lands have a grayish or whitish
pipe clay subsoil. Growth, many varieties of oaks, pine, chestnut, walnut,
and chinquapin. Cedar is taking the place of the old field pine. Little
land for sale. Most of it is forest. Abundant water powers. A large
cotton factory is being built on Fishing creek.

Chester Townshij) (E. D. 36) : Northwestern portion a light, sandy soil.
Growth thirty years ago was chestnut and chinquapin. They have died
out, and been replaced by oak and hickory. Once considered worthless,
these lands, with fertilizers, now produce heavy crops of cotton, and sell
for from ten dollars to fifteen dollars an acre. The middle portion is the
blackjack lands, level and flat, requiring ditching. The blackjack is
disappearing, and being replaced by oaks. These lands are adapted to
corn and clover and the grasses. With ditching, stable manure, kainit,
to prevent rust, they make good cotton crops. Spring water is limestone.
They may be bought for from two dollars to five dollars an acre. The
southern portion is mulatto or rod land. It is broken and hilly ; hard to
cultivate ; rents to negroes for seventy-five cents to one dollar an acre.
Farm wages, from forty cents to fifty cents a day ; one-fourth performed
by whites.

170 the piedmont region.

Edgefield County.

Wise Townshij^ (E. D. 65): Lands elevated and hilly and broken, with
narrow bottoms on the creeks. White sandy and red clay loam the pre-
vailing soil. Subsoil heavy, red, clay, gravelly Growth,-short leaf pine,
white oak, red oak, walnut, hickory and maple. Average yield, four
hundred pounds seed cotton, eight bushels corn, fifteen bushels oats per
acre. Most of the land rented by the year for one-fourth of the crop ;
may be purchased on easy terms. Good building granite and soapstone
are found, with clay, used for making earthenware. Several mill sites ;
very healthy ; only about one-tenth of the field work performed by
whites^.

Eyan Townsliip {E. D. 60): Lands elevated and slightly rolling. Soil,
a fine, gray, sandy loam, with a 3^ellow clay subsoil, and a coarse mulatto
loam, with red clay subsoil. The subsoil is close and compact, and is
underlaid by slates, soapstone and granite. Growth, short leaf pine,
cedar and a variety of oaks, hickory, walnut, dogwood, ash and elm.
Crops, six hundred pounds of seed cotton, fifteen bushels corn, fifteen
bushels wheat, thirty-five bushels oats, twenty-five bushels peas, one hun-
dred and fifty bushels potatoes per acre. Lands sell at from three dollars
to ten dollars an acre, and rent at fifty dollars for a one-horse farm. Gold,
manganese, silver and copper ores are found, but are only slightly devel-
oped. Wild clover, cane and several native grasses afford pasturage.
Stock raising is profitable, and could be made more so. Farm wages,
fifty cents per day ; one-tenth of it performed by whites.

Washington Township {E. D. 63) ; Elevated, hilly and broken in the
upper portions. The level soils are gray, sandy and gray clay loam.
Subsoil, grayish, light colored clay, underlaid by red clay, flint and slate
rock. Growth, w^hite, red and post oak, hickor}^ and pine. Crops, one-
fourth to three-fourths of a bale of cotton, twent}'' bushels to forty-five
bushels oats, ten bushels to twenty-five bushels corn, five bushels to twelve
bushels wheat per acre. Ver}'' little land for sale, prices ten dollars to
twenty dollars an acre ; rents from three dollars to five dollars per acre.
Good water powers on Stephen's creek. Very little field work done by
whites.

Rehobeth Township (E. D. 62) : Hilly, some level places and a few flats.
Soil, a dark or light gray loam, with subsoil of red clay, underlaid by clay
slate. Growth, oak, hickory, pine, ash and cedar. Crops, one-fourth to
one bale of cotton, ten bushels to tAventy bushels corn, ten bushels to
twenty bushels wh6at, ten bushels to thirtj^-five bushels oats an acre.
Know of none for sale, plenty to rent, for two bales to the plow. Prices
of land would average from two dollars and fifty cents to eleven dollars

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 171

an acre. Traces of gold. Large water powers on Stevens and Turkey
creeks. Wages of field labor, thirty cents to seventy-five cents a day ;
one-twentieth of it performed by whites. Very healthy.

Dimtonsville Township {E. D. 45) : Rolling lands. Soils, clay loam,
mixed with small particles of clay slate, or with grit or a stiff waxy clay.
Subsoils of the first two varieties composed of shatters of rotten clay slate ;
of the last, yellow and deep red clay, underlying the subsoil is red clay,
clay slate, granite and chalk. Growth, oak, hickor}', pine and ash.
Crops, one-third of a bale of cotton, fifteen bushels to fifty bushels oats,
five bushels to ten bushels wheat, seven bushels to ten bushels corn an
acre. Land for sale at four dollars to five dollars an acre ; rents for fifty
dollars for what one horse can cultivate ; house, firewood and pasture in-
cluded. There are three slate quarries, and traces of gold. Grasses do
well on flat places. Very healthy. Farm wages, fifty cents a day, and
board ; one-third performed by whites.

Grey Township {E. D. 51) : Level, undulating and hilly, not broken.
Soil, mostly a gray clay loam, underlaid by gray slate rock. Growth, red,
black, post, white and other oaks, with hickory, pine and dogwood. Crops,
six hundred pounds to eighteen hundred pounds (with acid phosphate)
seed cotton, ten bushels on upland to thirty bushels on bottoms of corn,
five bushels to ten bushels of wheat, ten bushels to forty bushels oats per
acre. Unimproved lands sell for from three dollars to five dollars an
acre. Little improved land for sale ; it rents for eight hundred pounds
to one thousand pounds seed cotton for forty acres. Arable land, farmed
on shares, everything furnished but labor and rations, and the crop divided.
Traces of gold are found, and there are quarries of soapstone and whetstones,
but not much developed. Good chalk and clay for manufacture of earth-
enware abound. Farm wages, fifty cents a day ; cradlers, one dollar and
twenty-five cents to one dollar and fifty cents. No prevailing disease.
One-fourth of the labor is performed by whites.

Mohley Township (E. D. 56) : Generally level. Soils, gray clay loam,
underlaid by hard and soft slate rock. Growth, mostly pine. Crops,
three hundred pounds to eight hundred pounds seed cotton, five bushels
to twenty bushels corn, five bushels to twenty bushels oats per acre.
Some land for sale at from five dollars to ten dollars per acre. A good
deal to rent for four hundred pounds lint cotton for ten to fifteen acres.

Hibbler's Township (E. D. 53) : Generally level, in some parts hilly.
Soils, a black clay loam, with red clay subsoil ; and a gray clay loam,
with white and yellow clay subsoil. The subsoil is underlaid by slate rock
and some granite. Growth, white oak, red oak, ash, pine and poplar.
Crops, eight hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, thirty bushels
oats, twenty bushels wheat per acre. Land sells for four dollars per acre ;

172 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

and rents for four hundred pounds lint cotton for twelve acres ; some slate
and soaptones are found ; also veins of gold. Clover and grasses do well.
One-half of the field work performed by whites.

HiiWs Township {E. D. 54) : Elevated and rolling. Soils, gray and red
clay loam, two and one-half inches, the subsoil of yellow or red clay.
Growth, oak, hickory and pine. Crops, six hundred pounds seed cotton,
ten bushels to fifteen bushels corn, fifteen bushels to thirty-five bushels
oats, eight bushels to twenty bushels wheat per acre. Lands sell for five
dollars to ten dollars an acre, and rent for two dollars to three dollars an
acre. Fine water power on Saluda river. Very healthy. One-half of
the field work is performed by whites.

Cooper Township (E. D. 49) : Lands rolling. The prevailing soil a stiff,
red clay. The subsoil is the same, with absence of vegetable mould.
There are also flat lands, known as " buckshot " or " black gravel soils,"
very dark. Cotton rusts, and corn " frenches " on them ; but oats do
well. Flint and black rock (trap) occur under the subsoil. Growth,
white, red and post oak, hickory and pine. Crops, five hundred pounds
cotton (seed) to one bale, ten bushels corn on the hills, twenty-five bush-
els to forty bushels on the bottoms ; ten bushels to forty bushels wheat,
twenty-five bushels to seventy-five bushels oats per acre. Blue grass is
making its appearance. Red and yellow clover do well. Stock raising
has been made profitable by a few persons on the streams, where native
grasses and clover, growing wild, furnish good pasture. Farm. wages,
from twenty-five cents to fifty cents a day ; sixty dollars to seventy-five
dollars by the year with board.

Fairfield County.

Fairfield Township {E. D. 79) : Lands level, rolling, sometimes hilly and
broken. Soil, light gray sandy loam, with yellov>^ clay subsoil and red
mulatto loam, with red clay, subsoil underlaid by red clay, granite and
decomnosing rocks. Growth, short leaf pine, oak, elm, walnut. Fine
building granite. Little attention paid to stock. Wages of field labor,
men, fifty cents to seventy -five cents ; women, thirty cents to fifty cents a
day. The negro not a success as a tenant. The land for sale at six
dollars to eight dollars an acre, and one-half to rent 'for one-fourth of the
crop. Varieties of granite, iron rock and soapstone occur. Gold and
iron have been mined. Bermuda grass and clover do well ; also crab-
grass and swamp grasses. Stock raising is found profitable. One-twen-
tieth of the field work performed by whites.

Fairfield, No. 10 Township {E. D. 70) : Hilly, rolling or broken. Soil, a
fine sandy loam, with yellow clay. Subsoil, a heavy clay loam, and a

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 173

shallow, gravelly soil, with red subsoil of red clay, mixed with gravel ;
under the subsoil strata of red clay and sand of variegated colors, with
gravel, are found. Growth, red and white oak, hickory, ash, Avalnut and
short leaf pine. Crops, one-third of a bale of cotton, eight bushels corn,
five bushels wheat, ten bushels to thirty bushels oats per acre. Know of
no lands for sale ; rents are one-fourth the crops. Farm labor, from
twenty-five cents to fifty cents a day.

No. 2. Township {E. D. 68) : Elevated, broken and hilly. Soil, fine sandy
loam, with red clay subsoil, underlaid by soft rock. Growth, oak, hickory
and gum. Crops, one hundred pounds lint cotton, six bushels corn, five
bushels wheat, fifteen bushels oats per acre. No land for sale, but much
rented for three dollars to four dollars an acre. Very little field work
done by whites.

No 1. Township {E. D. 67): Elevated and mostly hilly, with some table-
land, considerable bottoms on Broad river and its tributaries. Soil, of a
gray, chinquapin, sandy loam, and red clay loam. Subsoil, red or mu-
latto clay. Growth, oak and hickory, and old field pine, the latter assist-
ing greatly the recuperation of worn out soil. Crops, three hundred
pounds to fifteen hundred pounds seed cotton, six bushels to twenty -five
bushels corn, fifteen bushels to fifty bushels oats, eight bushels to fifteen
bushels wheat per acre. Little land for sale, most of it rented for one-
fourth of the crop, or for from one to six bales of cotton for a one-horse
farm. Good water power at Lyles's ford, on Broad river. The Egyptian
or Means grass grows luxuriantly on the red lands. Wages of field labor,
fifty cents a day ; one-fifth of it performed by whites.

No. 1. ToionsMp {E. D. 67) : Hilly ; three-quarters of the soil coarse and
sandy ; one-fourth stiff red clay. Subsoil, red or mulatto colored clay.
Growth, oak, hickory, pine and blackjack. Some land for sale at eight
dollars to ten dollars an acre. Wages, forty cents a day, except in harvest
time, then one dollar and fifty cents. One-fifteenth of the labor is Avhite.

No. 5. Township {E. D. 71): Lands elevated and rolling. The soil is a
sandy loam. Subsoil, stiff red clay, underlaid by rotten granite. Growth,
red, white and blackjack oaks, and old-field pine. Cash price of lands,
in large tracts, three dollars ; in smaller tracts, six dollars to seven dollars
an acre. Most of it is rented ; field stock and implements furnished
for one-half the crop, or for from two to four bales of four hundred and
fifty pounds of cotton for one-horse farm. Traces of gold found, but not
mined. One-fifth of the field labor performed by whites.

No. 4. Toimship {E. D. 70) : Elevated and broken. Soil, gray and yel-
low, gravelly, and sandy loam, and red clay loam. Subsoil, red clay.
Growth, oak and hickory. Crops, four hundred pounds seed cotton, ten
bushels corn, ten bushels wheat, twenty bushels oats per acre. Some

174 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

lands for sale at six dollars to seven dollars an acre ; rent for about one
dollar and fifty cents.

Greenville County.

Greenville Township {E. D. 82) : Land rolling. Soil, gray sandy loam,
four inches to subsoil of fine red clay, underlaid by soft gray rock.
Growth, red, white, black and chestnut oaks, hickory, ash, walnut, dog-
wood and pine. Crops, about eight hundred pounds seed cotton, and
twenty bushels of the various grains per acre. Lands sell for ten dollars
to forty dollars an acre. There is good brick clay and abundant water
power on Reedy and Saluda rivers. About one-fourth of the field work
is performed by whites.

Gant Toivnship {E. D. 83) : From level to rolling ; more or less hilly
and broken on the streams Soils, a gray sandy loam and a red clay loam,
six inches to sixteen inches to subsoil of red or brown clay, underlaid by
sound and rotten granite, sometimes coarse and fine gravel. Growth, as in
last, with the addition of long leaf pine. Crop, one-half bale of cotton per
acre. Clover and the grasses do well, when attended to. Attention is being
directed to fruit culture, especially apples. Price of land from ten
dollars to fifteen dollars an acre. A large proportion rented for one-
third the crop, or where stock, tools, seed, provisions and feed are ad-
vanced, for one-half the crop. Cost of fertilizer divided by renter and
owner. Iron ores occur. Abundant water powers on Reedy and Saluda
rivers. No climatic disease. One-twelfth or more of the farm w^ork per-
formed by white men, women and children.

Bates Township {E. I). 96): Land rolling. Soil, coarse, dark, sandy
loam, six inches to eight inches to subsoil of deep red, sometimes of dark,
mulatto clay, underlaid by clay and dark gravelly sand. Growth, oak,
hickory and chestnut. Crops,*six hundred pounds to seven hundred
pounds seed cotton, twelve bushels to forty bushels corn, eight bushels
wheat, fifteen bushels oats per acre. Lands sell from six dollars to ten
dollars an acre ; improved bottoms at forty dollars to fifty dollars ; rent,
from two dollars and fifty cents to five dollars per acre, or for one-third
the grain and one-fourth the cotton crop. Granite and red soapstone,
with other good building materials found. Gold found in the branches.
Wild clover, grasses and cane furnish forage. Three-fourths of the
labor performed by whites.

Dunklin's Township {E. D. 85) : Mostly rolling, some parts level and some
flat. Soil, a gray sandy loam, and a red clay loam, both with red clay
subsoil, underlaid by coarse gray gravel ; sometimes by gray rock mixed
with flint Growth, oak, hickory and pine. Crops, one-half to one and

THE PIEDMONT 'REGION. 175

on€-half l>ales of cotton, fifteen bushels corn, seven bushels to twenty
bushels wheat, fifteen bushels to fifty bushels oats. The mud bottoms on
Keedy river will produce fifty bushels of corn to the acre, and the corn
crop would be largely increased, if this stream, now much obstructed by
logs, was cleared out. Clover, lucerne and the grasses do well, when at-
tended to. Lands sell for ten dollars an acre; about one-half is rented
annually. Shoals on the Saluda river unimproved, afford abundant
water power. Good building granite is found. Farm wages, from eight
dollars to ten dollars a month. One-half the field work performed by
whites.

Paris Mountain Township (E. D. 90 and 97) : Level, broken and hilly.
Soils, sandy, chocolate and clay loam. Subsoil, red clay, underlaid by a
white gravelly earth, containing mica. Growth, oak, hickory and pine.
A little land for sale from five dollars to twenty dollars an acre. Build-
ing granite and soapstone are found. Farr's mills and Mackelheny's
shoals on Saluda river furnish water powers. Farm wages, fifty cents a
day ; one-half performed by whites.

Lancaster County.

Waxhaw's Township (E. D. 84) : Land rolling. Soil of southern portion red
loam, ten inches to red clay. Subsoil, granite, crossed by j^orphyritic
dykes. Northern portion, coarse, light colored sand, four inches to
white clay, rocks, talcere slate ; underlying subsoil a light colored dirt,
showing mica. Growth, oak, hickory, short leaf pine and holly. Crops,
eight hundred pounds seed cotton, and twelve bushels corn per acre. No
land for sale. Plenty to rent for eight hundred pounds to fifteen hun-
dred pounds lint cotton to the work animal. Splendid water power near
Land's ford, on the Catawba. Field labor paid fifty cents a day, without
rations ; comparatively none performed by whites.

Pleasant Hill Township {E. D. 42) : Generally level. Soil, coarse sand,
three inches to eight inches to red cla}'' subsoil. Growth, pine, oak,
and hickory ; on the bottoms, black gum and poplar. Crops, six hundred
pounds cotton (seed), ten bushels com, eight bushels wheat, ten bushels
or twelve bushels oats per acre. Not much land for sale. Unimproved
land is selling for three dollars, improved land for five to ten dollars an
acre ; rents for one-fourth of the crop. There is a gold mine, and kaolin
is found. Long and* short leaf pine in abundance. Little attention paid
to stock ; might be profitably raised. Have practiced medicine here for
twenty-three years, and know of no place freer of disease. More than
one-half the field labor is performed by whites. Wages, fifty cents a day
and fed.

170 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

Cedar Creek Towmldp {E. D. 18) : Elevated, hilly, and broken. Soil, coarse
sand and sandy loam ; subsoil, yellow clay, underlaid by red, gravelly
clay. Growth, short leaf pine, oak, and hickory ; abandoned fields grow
up in loblolly pines in three to six years, which, in turn, give place to
cedar. Crops, seven hundred pounds of seed cotton, eight bushels corn
per acre. Land sells at from three dollars to ten dollars per acre. Un-
limited water power on the Catawba river, which is one hundred and
fifty yards wide, three feet deep, and flows nearly with the velocity of a
cataract. Little attention paid to stock. It might be made profitable.
Good building granite. Very healthy. Wages of field labor thirty to
fifty cents a day.

Flat Creek Towmhvp {E.D. 79): Some level land, but mostly hilly and
rocky. Soils, coarse and fine, white, sandy loam and red clay loam ; sub-
soil, a red clay. Growth, long leaf pine, oak and hickory. Crops, one-half
bale of cotton, ten bushels corn, ten bushels wdieat, ten bushels oats per
acre. Price of land, from two dollars to ten dollars. There are several
gold mines. Valuable mill sites on Lynch's River.

Cane Creek Township : Elevated, rolling, in some places nearly level.
Soil, a fine, sandy loam, changing to clay loam near the streams ; subsoil,
red clay, underlaid with yellowish clay and gravel. Growth, oak and
hickory, also short leaf pine. Crops, eight hundred pounds seed cotton,
ten bushels corn, fifteen bushels oats per acre ; an average, on twenty
acres, of eighteen hundred pounds seed cotton has been made. Know of
no land for sale. At Land's ford, the Catawba river is three-quarters of
a mile wide, one foot to three feet deep, with a fall of thirty feet to the
mile. Lucerne, red and white clover, orchard, meadow, red top and blue
grass, all do well. These lands sold for fifteen dollars to twenty-five dollars
before the war, and have been under cultivation for nearly two hundred
years.

Laurens County.

Jacks Township {E. D. 103) : Elevated and rolling. Soils, red or mulatto
clay loam, with red clay subsoil, and gray, sandy lands, Avith a light-
colored clay subsoil. Growth, red, white, post, and water oaks, hickory
and walnut, some sugar maple. Hundreds of acres of abandoned land
are grown up in short leaf pine ; in the last decade, many long leaf pines
have appeared among them, and are rapid growers. • Crops, five hundred
pounds seed cotton, eight bushels corn, twenty bushels oats, eight bushels
to ten bushels wheat, are about the average ; on the bottoms, fifty bushels
corn per acre is made. Know of no lands for sale. There are thousands
of acres, owned by non-residents, rented to freedmen for a portion of the

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 177

crop, and miserably farmed. There is an immense amount of fine granite.
No prevailing sickness. Amovmt of field work performed by whites in-
creasing. Wages, fift}^ cents a day and rations.

Waterloo Township {E. D. 106): Hilly,' washes when not properly
ditched. Soils sandy, gravelly, and clay loam ; color mulatto, sometimes
a deep red ; depth, two inches to three inches to a pale red clay subsoil,
underlaid by clay, and in some places, by a dusky or bluish sandy earth.
A very hard, bluish granite rock found in some wells. Growth, red,
white, and post oak. Lands thrown out of cultivation grow up in pine,
and are more productive than the original forest. Crops, six hundred
^pounds to twelve hundred pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn on up-
lands, and fifty on bottoms, fifteen bushels oats, eight bushels wheat per
acre ; crab grass, after small grain, yields, sometimes, hay to the value
of twenty dollars an acre. Lands for sale at from five dollars to twenty
dollars per acre. Indications of gold are found in many places, but
no mines are worked. Reedy river and Saluda river furnish valuable
water powers. These streams are much obstructed by logs. Farm labor
paid ten dollars a month, generally employed for a share of the crop ;
one-fourth of it is performed by whites.

Sullivan's Township {E. D. 105) : Elevated ridges and level land between
the streams. Soils, a fine sandy loam, gray and chocolate in color, and
a red clay loam, resting on red clay subsoil. Growth, oak, hickory, ash,
dogwood, poplar, walnut and elm, with abundance of cedar along the
Saluda river. Crops, five hundred to twelve hundred pounds seed cotton,
ten bushels to thirty bushels corn, twenty bushels to thirty bushels bar-
ley, fifteen bushels to sixty bushels oats, and eight bushels to twenty-five
bushels wheat to the acre. Land can be bought at five dollars to ten
dollars an acre ; rents for one-fourth of the crop, or eight hundred pounds
lint cotton to the plow ; sometimes the laborer boards himself and pays
one-half to the land owner, who furnishes everything else. Gray and
blue granite, the latter used as mill rocks, are found. Gold, copper and
lead are found, but not mined. Lime rock crops out on Reedy river, and
below Garlington falls, on Reedy river, it is quarried for monuments and
for lime burning ; soapstone of fine quality also occurs. The great falls
on Saluda river, at the head of navigation, are seventy feet in two miles.
Abundant water powers are also furnished by other falls on the river, by
five falls on Reedy river, by falls on Rabnor creek. Ver}^ healthy. One-
half the field work performed by whites.

Scuffletown Toimship- {E. D. 104): Undulating. Soil, gray, gravelly,
sandy loam ; subsoil, clay. Growth, oak, hickory, maple, pine, cedar and
walnut. Crops, six hundred pounds to twelve hundred pounds seed
12

178 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

cotton, five bushels to thirty bushels corn per acre, Know of no land for
sale ; rents for one-fourth of the crop.

Newberry County.

Cromer TownsJiij} {E. D. 112) : Level and flat, rolling on the rivers.
On the levels, fine, gray, sandy loam, six inches to eight inches to subsoil
of red cla}'. The rolling lands have a clay soil and subsoil ; sand and
gravel underlies the subsoil. Growth, oak, hickory, walnut, cedar and
pine. Crops, one-half bale of cotton, ten bushels corn, twenty bushels
oats, eighty bushels barley, nine bushels wheat, seven bushels rye per
acre. About one-tenth of the land for sale for six dollars to eight dollars
an acre, and one-half to rent for one-fourth of the crop. Varieties of
granite, iron rock and soapstone occur. Gold and iron have been mined.
Bermuda grass and clover do well, also crab grass and swamp grasses.
Stock raising is found profitable. Field labor is paid fifty cents a day ;
one-twentieth of it performed by whites.

Hellei'Toimsliip {E. D. 119): Lands elevated, level, along the streams,
hilly. Soils, fine sandy loam, gray or whitish, eight inches to twelve
inches to subsoil of fine, compact, red clay, free from grit. Growth, oak,
hickory, short leaf pine, walnut, mulberry, ash and maple. Japan clover
and Bermuda grass cover the land when left uncultivated, and the
Egyptian or Means grass grows luxuriantly along the borders of streams,
and on sandy bottoms. Land for sale in small tracts at eight dollars to ten
dollars an acre ; three-fourths of it for rent;. if stock, stock feed, and im-
plements are furnished, the rent is one-half the crop ; for the land alone,
it is four hundred pounds lint cotton for every twelve or fifteen acres, or
one-third of all crops. Granite of the finest quality for building abounds.
Splendid water powers on Broad river and Hellers creek. Little atten-
tion paid to stock raising. Wages, seventy-five dollars to eighty-five dollars
per annum, or fifty cents a day, with board. One-fifth to one-seventh of
the field labor performed by whites.

Jalapa Township {E. D. 113) : Lands hilly and broken. Soil, red clay
loam, eight inches to red clay subsoil, underlaid by red clay. Growth,
oak and hickory. Three mill sites. Wagesj fift}' cents a day with board.
Very little white labor ; negro labor very unreliable, only willing to work
about one-third of the time.

Saluda Old Town TownsJiip (E. D. 115): Lands level or gently un-
dulating, broken into abrupt slopes near the rivers and creeks. Soil, on
the uplands, red clay loam and gray, sandy loam, subsoil of red — rarely
of yellow — clay ; a very fine and nearly white granite underlies the clay
at the depth of ten to twenty feet. The Saluda river bottom averages a

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 179

mile in width, and is a ver}^ rich, alluvial soil. Growth, short leaf pine,
oak, ash, hickory, walnut, poplar ; a considerable variety of native grasses
afford good summer pastures, both on the uplands and in the bottoms,
and cane for winter pasturage is abundant. Crops from one-third to one
bale cotton, seven bushels to fifteen bushels corn on uplands, and twenty
bushels to sixty bushels on bottoms, twenty bushels to fifty bushels oats,
eight bushels to twenty-five bushels wheat per acre. One-fourth of the
land for sale at six dollars to twelve dollars an acre ; one-half for rent for
two to two and one-half bales of cotton for a one-horse farm of thirty
acres or more. There is a mill-dam across Saluda river. Little attention
is paid to stock. Field labor is paid fifty cents a day ; about one-sixth
of it is performed by whites. Locality healthy. Traces of gold are found.
,MayMnton Toivnship (E. D. Ill): Bottoms level, uplands rolling, hilly
and broken near the water courses. Soil, red clay and gray, sandy loam,
underlaid by red and snuff-colored clay ; depth of soil, three inches to
five inches ; below the subsoil, granite, gneiss, hornblende and traprocks
occur. Growth, hickory, several varieties of oaks, short leaf pine, cedar,
walnut, dogwood, ash, poplar ; cane abundant in the bottoms. Crops,
from four hundred pounds to twenty-nine hundred pounds seed cotton,
from five bushels to one hundred bushels corn, from six bushels to forty
bushels wheat, from twenty bushels to one hundred bushels oats an acre ;
clover has given four tons per acre. All for rent for from one hundred
pounds to three hundred pounds seed cotton per acre ; not much land
for sale ; price seven dollars to fifteen dollars per acre. There is excellent
granite for building. Broad river is six hundred yards wide ; depth, in
shoals, four feet ; velocity, in shoals, estimated at thirty miles an hour ;
fall, at Lyles ford, eighteen feet in a mile. Ennoree river eighty yards
wide, six feet deep ; velocity, six miles in an hour. Wages of field labor
fifty cents a day ; one-fourth performed by whites. Very healthy.

Spartanburg County.

Cowpens Township {E. D. 145): Rolling. Soil, coarse, gray, sandy"
loam, with subsoil of red clay, underlaid by mica slate. Growth, white
and post oak, hickory and pine. Bottom lands very fertile. Gold is
found, and there are several fine water powers on Pacolet river, notably
at Clifton cotton factory. One-half of the labor is performed by whites.

Glenn Springs Township {E. D. 143) : Elevated, level. A dark gray,
sandy soil, eight inches to ten inches to subsoil of red clay. Growth, oak,
hickory, pine. Crops, six hundred pounds seed cotton, eight bushels to
ten bushels corn, eight bushels to ten bushels wheat, twenty bushels to
forty bushels oats per acre. Land sells from five dollars to twenty dollars

180 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

per acre, and rents for one-third of the crop. There are several gold
mines and an asbestos mine. Glenn Springs has long been a health re-
sort for those using mineral waters. One-third of the labor is white.

Cherokee Tomiship (E. D. 140) : Elevated, rolling, with steep hills on
the large streams. Soil, a gray, sandy loam, with yellowish sandy sub-
soil, aixl a red clay loam, with stiff, red clay subsoil, underlaid by a
yellowish isinglass earth that crumbles on exposure, and enriches the
soil when strewn on the surface. Growth, oak, hickory, and pine. Crops,
seven hundred and fifty pounds seed cotton, ten bushels corn, eight
bushels wheat, fifteen bushels oats per acre, a yield that is more than
doubled by manuring and good culture. Lands sell for eight dollars to
ten dollars an acre ; rent for one-fourth of the crop, or, with stock and
tools, for one-half. Bottom lands are very fertile. Gold is found, aijd
iron mines were formerly worked. There are several mineral springs.
The north fork of the Pacolet furnishes great water power. All the cul-
tivated grasses may be grown. Farm wages, fifty cents a day ; three-
fourths performed by whites.

Fairforest Township {E. D. 142) : Rolling ; on the water courses, hilly
and broken. A gray, sandy loam, underlaid by a yellowish or dark red
clay, is the prevailing soil ; there is some clay loam ; ten to fifteen feet
below the clay subsoil, rotten, and sometimes decomposed, granite and
gneiss are found. Growth, oak and hickory, occasionally chestnut and
walnut. Crops, four hundred pounds to eight hundred pounds seed
cotton, ten bushels to fifteen bushels corn, five bushels to ten bushels wheat
per acre, without fertilizers. Traces of gold. Valuable water powers on
Tyger river. The ridge between Tyger and Fairforest rivers is well
adapted for fruit growing, being seldom affected by frosts. Lands are
advancing in price, selling from eight dollars to fifteen dollars an acre.
About one-half the farm labor performed by whites.

Pacolet Toimiship (E. D. 145) : High, table land. Soil, a fine sand,
twelve to fourteen inches to a light red clay subsoil, deepening in color
as j^ou descend ; at twenty to twenty-eight feet, solid or disintegrated
granite is met ; in the northwest, lands are red clay. Lands sell from
ten dollars to fifteen dollars an acre, and rent for one-third of the
crop. There is a quarry of fine granite. Shoals on the Pacolet have a
fall of twenty-two and one-half feet in one hundred yards, and a mile
below, there is another fall of thirty-three feet. All garden vegetables,
melons and grapes do well. Rich Hill, a high plateau, six miles in ex-
tent, between the Pacolet and Fairforest rivers, is unequalled for the pro-
duction of fruits of all kinds. Frosts have injured it but once in forty
years. Farm wages, from eight dollars to ten dollars a month. Two-
thirds of the field work done by whites.

the piedmont region. 181

Union County.

Uaion Township {E. D. 150) : Lands broken, hilly. A light, gravelly
soil, resting on red clay subsoil, underlaid by granite rocks. Water of
the shallower wells impregnated with magnesia ; of deeper wells pene-
trating the granite freestone. Growth, short leaf pine, oak, dogwood,
sassafras, walnut, beech, poplar. Price of lands much advanced since
passage of stock law ; sell for ten dollars to twenty dollars an acre. A
fine-grained, hard, durable, and easily split granite abundant. Water
powers, a fall of twenty feet on Fairforest river, over granite rocks, and
another of five and one-half feet ; several falls on Tj'^ger river. Stock
raising not considered profitable. No attention paid to anything but
cotton. No prevailing disease. Very healthy.

Goivdeysville Township (E. D. 156): Hilly, and a good deal broken. Pre-
vailing soil red clay, with a red clay subsoil ; some sandy soil, with white
clay subsoil. Underlying subsoil is granite, and some rotten rock, or
white clay. Growth, short leaf pine, oak and hickory. Bermuda and
Means grass thrive. Clover grows finely. Creek bottoms, rich, sandy and
vegetable loam. Crops, seven hundred pounds seed cotton, corn, upland,
twelve bushels to twenty-five bushels, and fifty bushels on bottoms per
acre. Lands sell from five dollars to fifteen dollars an acre ; rent for
one-third of the crop. Several mill sites on creeks, and unlimited water
power on Broad river. Stock might be profitably raised, but no attention
is paid to it. Field labor, ten dollars a month, and fifty cents a day. No
local disease. Three-fifths of the field work performed by whites. Seve-
ral gold and iron mines.

Santee Township {E. D. 149) : Lands generally level towards centre of
tow^nship. Prevailing soil is a fine w^hite sandy loam ; along Broad and
Tyger rivers, red clay hills ; depth to subsoil of pipe clay six inches to
twelve inches. Sand underlies the pipe clay. Growth, short leaf pine,
oak and hickory. -Average crops, six hundred pounds seed cotton, ten
bushels corn, and fifteen bushels oats per acre. Price of lands increased
from two dollars and fifty cents to ten dollars per acre, since passage of
stock law. Sandy lands considered the poorest before the use of commer-
cial fertilizers, now bring the highest prices. A neighbor made last year
forty bales of cotton, a sufficiency of corn, and sold seed oats, on a two-
horse farm. Not an isolated case. Know of no lands for sale. Most of
it to rent for three four hundred and fifty pound bales of cotton for a
one horse farm, which usually contains forty acres in cultivation and sixty
acres in old field pastures and woodlands. Almost impossible to hire a hand
for wages. Laborers prefer to work on shares or to rent. A mill site on
Broad and also on Tyger rivers. No attention paid to stock. Day labor

182 THE PIEDMONT REGION.

on farm, fifty cents a day, with rations ; seventy-five cents without. Very
healthy. Don't know a doctor who lives by his profession in the county.
One-fifth of the field labor performed by whites.

•Goshen Township (E. I). 155) : Hilly and rolling. Soil, fine, dark gray,
light sandy loam, two inches to four inches to subsoil of stiff red clay, or
pipe clay, with rocks underlaid by whitish sand, hard and soft rocks, with
some isinglass. Growth, different oaks, poplar, ash, walnut and pine.
Crops, one-half bale of cotton, eight bushels to fifteen bushels corn, on
uplands ; twenty bushels to fifty bushels, on bottoms ; ten bushels to
eighty bushels oats, four bushels to ten bushels wheat per acre. Clover
and the grasses do well, where attended to. Lands sell from five dollars
to ten dollars an acre ; rent for three bales of cotton for a one-horse farm.
Farm hands paid eight dollars a month. No attention paid to stock
raising, except some fine horses. A very small proportion of the labor
is white.

•

York County.

King^s Mountain Township {E. D. 170) : Lands rolling or level, in places
mountainous, elsewhere hilly. Soils, sandy, rocky gravelly or clay loam,
with red or yellow clay subsoil. Growth, oak ; where cut down it is suc-
ceeded by broom sedge and pine. Crops, twelve bushels corn, upland ;
thirty bushels creek bottom ; wheat, ten bushels to twenty bushels ; oats,
ten bushels per acre. The poorest soils yield cotton well, with aid of
guano. Fine monumental granite, iron ores and barytes are found.
Lands sell for from two dollars and fifty cents to ten dollars an acre.
Healthy; negroes suffer from consumption. Wages of field labor, fifty
cents a day, or ten dollars a month, with board ; one-half of it performed
by native whites.

BeHiesda Township {E. D. 162) : The hilly and rolling lands are red
clay or sandy soils, with yellow clay subsoil. These are the best cotton
lands. The level or flat lands are the blackjack lands. Black, rocky
soils, with pipe clay subsoil, underlaid by a hard, whitish, gravelly sub-
stance, produce the small grains well, but cotton rusts and continues
yellow or frenches after a few years cultivation, unless stable manure is
applied. Lands sell from two dollars to twenty-five dollars an acre, and
rent for eight hundred pounds of lint cotton for a one-horse farm of
twenty-five or thirty acres.

OHi^LPTER Vlir.

THE ALPINE REGION.

LOCATION.

The Alpine Region of South Carolina occupies the extreme north-
western border of the State. Commencing at King's mountain, in York
county, it extends westward through Spartanburg, Greenville, Pickens and
Oconee counties, widening in the three last named, until it embraces a
tier of the most northern, townships, two or three deep. This wedge-
shaped area has a length of one hundred and fourteen miles, and a width
varying from eight to twenty-one miles.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES

of this region present a rolling table-land, broken and hilly on the mar-
gin of the streams, but scarcely anywhere inaccessible to the plow. It
has a general elevation above the sea level of 1,000 to 1,500 feet. The
gently undulating surface extends to the mountains, Avhose rock-bound
walls often rise suddenly to their greatest height. The southeastern face
of King's mountain rises perpendicularly five hundred feet above the
plain, and its northwestern slope descends gently towards the Blue Ridge
mountains. Table Rock also rises eight hundred feet vertically, or a
little overhanging above the southeastern terrace at its base, formed of
the loose fragments that in the course of ages have fallen from above.
The steep ascent of these mountains from their South Carolina or south-
eastern face, and their gradual slope on their northeastern face, and their
gradual slope to the northwest, where the mountains of North Carolina
rise apparently from a level country, is the reverse of the prevailing rule
on the Atlantic slope, which is, that the short, steep sides face northwest,
and the long, gentle slopes face southeast. Lieber thinks that these

184 THE ALPINE REGION.

mountain cliffs indicate the occurrence here, in the remote past, of a great
fissure or crevasse in the earth's crust, a gigantic fault when tlie southern
slopes fell down hundreds of feet and exposed the precipitous rock w^alls
that now face the southeast.

The boundary line of South Carolina reaches the most easterly chain
of the Appalachian mountains, known here as the Saluda mountains,
near the corner of Greenville and Spartanburg counties, and follows the
summits of the ridge for fifty miles (thirty miles in an air line) until it
intersects the old Cherokee Indian boundary line. From this point the
mountain chain, here called the Blue Ridge, curving lightly to the north,
passes out of the State, and the boundary line pursues a more southerly
and a straight course to where the east branch of the Chatuga river in-
tersects the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude. The Chatuga, flowing
westward to its junction with the Tugaloo river, which in turn becomes
the Savannah river, flowing to the southeast, are the northwestern and
western boundaries of the State. The mountain chain divides the w^aters
of the State flowing to the Atlantic Ocean from those flowing northward,
which eventually find issuance to the southwest through the Tennessee
and Mississippi rivers into the Gulf of Mexico. Considering the water-shed
of South Carolina alone, the culminating point wdience the rivers of this
section flow, is to be found in the horse-shoe curve of the mountain chain
north of the straight boundary line referred to as uniting the Chatuga
and the Blue Ridge. Hence the numerous sources of the Keowee river,
White Water, Toxaway, Jocassee and other creeks take their rise and flow
nearly due south. The main stream of the Saluda sw^eeps away to the
east, and the Chatuga hurries westward.

It was from a noted summit" of this range (Whiteside) that Mr. James
E. Calhoun observed, as early as 1825, that the character of the mountains
change from an unbroken chain to isolated masses towards the south.
Such isolated masses form a striking feature of the mountains of South
Carolina, and they make their appearance over a wide area of the State,
extending w^est and east from Stump House mountain, near Walhalla, in
Oconee county, past Paris mountain, in Greenville, Gilke's mountain, in
Union, to King's mountain and Henry's Knob, in York. Southward
they reach to Bird's mountain, in Laurens, Parson's mountain in Abbe-
ville, and Ruft's mountain on the Newberry and Lexington line. The
narrow^ mountain ridge that divides the river system of the Mississippi
from that of the Atlantic slope, and the interdigitation, as it were, of the
sources of the Hiwassee and Tennessee with those of the Savannah, have
long suggested to engineers the possibility of establishing an interflow ,
between these w^aters. A canal, Mr. Calhoun says, across Rabun Gap
would pour thirty-five miles of smooth water from the Little Tennessee

THE ALPINE REGION. 185

into the Tugaloo river, while the Chatuga, the Hiwassee, the Toxoway,
and innumerable mountain streams of this well-watered region would
serve as feeders to maintain the water supply in any desired quantity. In
1873 water was drawn from Black creek, an affluent of the Tennessee,
across the Gap, to Izell's mills, on Chicken creek, an affluent of the
Savannah.

The elevation above the mean level of the sea of the following points
in western South Carolina were determined by the United States Coast
Geodetic Survey: King's Mountain, 1,(392 feet; Paris Mountain (near
Greenville), 2,054 feet; Caesar's Head, 3,118 feet; Mt. Pinnacle (near
Pickens, the highest point in South Carolina), 3,430 feet.

The bracing and healthy climate of this region, its beautiful scenery,
the bold mountain outlines, the rich luxuriance of every growth, no
stunted plant on mountain side or summit, every part, even the crevasses
of the rocks, covered with trees and shrubs of some kind, all full of life
and vigor ; the clear, swift streams that everywhere leap in a succession
of cascades from crag and cliff, and sparkle in their course along the
narrow but fertile valleys, have made it for generations a health and
pleasure resort during summer.

THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

of this region are very similar to those of the one lying immediately
south of it. The prevailing rock is gneiss, sometimes changing into
granite, of good building qualities, and sometimes slaty, furnishing su-
perior flagging stones, a 'remarkable locality of which occurs eight milas
south of Pickens Court House, on the Greenville road. For the most
part, the rock is found at a depth of thirty to fifty feet beneath the sur-
face in a state of greater or less decomposition. Above the gneiss, whose
out crops are much confined to the beds of streams, islands of mica slate,
occupying the more elevated lands, are found. The largest of these iso-
lated bodies extends for a considerable width along the ridges above the
Chatuga river.

The proportion of mica slate is greater here than elsewhere in the
State. Between the mica slate and the gneiss, and cropping out almost
everywhere around the edges of the first named rock, are extensive seams
of hornblende rock, and its decomposition adds largely to the fertility,
especially of the creek and river bottoms, of this region. Above the mica
slate, on the large body of that rock on the Chatuga, some talc slate is
found. The last named slate underlies a considerable area of itacolu-
mitic sandstone that, in turn, support several bodies of limestone rock.
A number of limekilns have been in operation here.

186

THE ALPINE REGION.

Of the useful ores and minerals of this section, it may be further
stated :

There are numerous gold deposits, at some of which washings have
been carried on with much profit. Vein mining, in spite of many
promising indications, has not been regularly undertaken.

Indian and Revolutionary traditions tell of lead mines, which in former
times furnished belligerents with an ample supply of this necessary
metal. Unfortunately, these traditions have not preserved the dis-
closure of their locality. At the Cheohee gold deposit mine, on the head-
waters of Little river, in Oconee county, Lieber examined a very prom-
ising vein of argentiferous galena, which he thought might be profitably
developed.

Traces of copper were observed by Lieber on Tyger river, in Spartan-
burg county, near the Galena mine above mentioned, and in some mill
races in southern Pickens and Greenville.

Graphite is found on Paris mountain, and also in Oconee county.

Manganese and iron occur, but have not been explored.

^^aluable soapstone quarries have been worked to a limited extent in
Pickens. Large sheets of transparent mica have been found near Wal-
halla, and asbestos of good quality is reported as occurring near Seneca
City.

THE SOILS.

The soils are similar to those found elsewhere in the State, which are
produced by the decomposition of gneiss rock in situ. On the more level
uplands, a gray, sand}'^ loam, with a red, and sometimes on the mica
slates, with a yellowish white, clay, predominates. On the hillsides, a
stiff, red clay soil prevails. In the bottoms, a still darker loam, more
thoroughly saturated with lime and potash from the decomposed horn-
blende and mica slates, is found. Those bottom lands have long been
highly esteemed as yielding abundant crops of corn, the small grains,
and the grasses. Little thought or attention was bestowed on the up-
lands previous to the attempt so successfully made within the last few
years to introduce upon them the culture of cotton.

CLBIATE.

According to the physical charts of the ninth United States census,
and the rain charts of the Smithsonian Institute, 2d Ed., 1877, this region
has a mean annual temperature corresponding with that of Kansas or
New Jersey. The more mountainous portions have, however, a mean
annual temperature that corresponds with that of Montana, or the lower

THE ALPINE REGION.

187

region of the great lakes. The mean of the hottest week of 1872, taken
at 4h. 35m. P. M., was 90° F. The mean of the coldest week of 1872-3,
taken at 7h. 35m. A. M., was 25° F.

The prevailing winds are from the southeast, and the mean velocity of
the movement of the atmosphere is much below the average for the
United States at large. In the frequency with which the region is
traversed by storm areas of say fifty miles in diameter, it ranks with the
lowest in the United States. With the more extensive region south of it,
it is peculiarly exempt from destructive storms.

Blessed with an unusual number of clear days and a large amount of
sunshine, the fig tree thrives here without protection, at an elevation of
fifteen hundred feet above the sea. " The climate is less subject to sudden
changes than in the plain below. Vegetation is late, but when once fairly
begun, is seldom destroyed by subsequent frosts. Neither are there any
marks of trees being struck by lightning,* or blown up by storms."
(David Ramsay, Hist, of S. C.)

The annual fall of water is over sixty inches, and this is, therefore,
among the regions of heaviest precipitation in the United States. For
spring, it is over eighteen inches, and for autumn, it is twelve inches,
which are also the maximum in the United States. In winter, it is six-
teen inches, which is less than the maximum, and in summer, it is four-
teen inches, which places it third in a series of five, or just medium.
Dewless nights rarely occur, and the luxuriant vegetation of this region
does not in consequence suffer from the rigor of extreme droughts so fre-
quent elsewhere.

The following observations on the temperature of springs in this region
were made by Lieber :

Locality.

Time of
Observation.

Temperature.

ATMOSPHERE.

WATER.

Poinsett Spring, in Greenville,
near N. Carolina line . . .

7th June, 7| A. M.

72.050°

56.86°

Spring on Jones' Gap Road,
near Turnpike gate. . . .

16th June, 2 P. M.

75.74°

57.56°

Cold Spring, or Caesar's Head.

29th June, 9^ A. M.

80.60°

55.40°

House Spring, Cassar's Head .

29th June, lOJ A. M.

78.80°

57.50°

*lt is a saying in this region that " to pick the teeth with a splinter from a tree struck
by lightniug. will cure the toothache ; " the meaning being that such a splinter is not
to be had.

188 THE ALPINE REGION.

GROWTH.

The prevailing growth is oak, chestnut, and short leaf pine. Proceed-
ing toward the mountains, the following trees mark the ascent in the
order here named : Rock chestnut, oak (quercm primus mmiticold), cucum-
her tree {magnolia accuminatar), mountain laurel {rhododendron maximum),
white pine (piniis strohus), hemlock or spruce pine {abies canadensis). The
forest products are shingles, tan bark, and dogwood, with other hard
woods, besides abundant timber for building purposes. The Indians
once gained their chief livelihood here by gathering and disposing of
medicinal herbs, such as spigelia marylandica, ginseng and snake root,
which are to be found in great abundance.

STATISTICS.

The Alpine region of South Carolina embraces an area of 1,250 square
miles, and is, therefore, the smallest division of the State here treated of.
The population numbers 34,496, an increase since the census of 1870 of
sixty-six per cent. This gives the density of the population as twenty-
seven to the square mile which is below the average of the State, and
less than in other regions — the sand hills and lower pine belt alone
excepted. Twenty-six per cent, of the population is colored.

Eighty per cent, of the land is wood land and forest, sixteen per cent,
is tilled, and four per cent, is in old fields. The area of tilled land has
more than doubled since 1870, being now 132,791 acres, and then, only
64,802 acres. This is 3.8 acres per capita of population, against 3.1 acres
in 1870, showing that improvement has more than kept pace with the
increase of the population.

The number of farms is 4,646, which gives an average of twenty-eight
acres of improved land to the farm. Of this number, forty-three per
cent, is under fifty acres, and may be considered as in the hands of small
farmers. Nevertheless, there are some large landholders in this region.
For instance : Mr. James E. Calhoun owns a body of 100,000 acres* of

*0n the marjiin of his plat of these lands, Mr. Calhoun remarks : " Well timbered,
soil good, scenery superb. It is so healthy that no physician ever lived in that part of
the country. There are mineral springs. Cultivation is exclusively by white labor.
It is a plateau within the ' thermal belt,' where fruit is never affected by frost Gold,
iron, lime, hydraulic cement and kaolin are known to be abundant. Report adds
silver, copper, lead and corundum. The Blue Ridge railroad runs twelve miles through
it. In its lentrth of twenty-two miles and width of fifteen miles, it would be difficult
to find a single spot two miles distant from water powers, of which there are
more than eighty miles in direct line, and which, if developed, would be e.vempt from

THE ALPINE REGION. 189

land along the Chatuga river, in Oconee county. Of the farms forty-five
per cent, are rented, and of the rented farms seventy-four per cent, are
under fifty acres — showing that the renters are farmers on a small scale.
Of the fifty-five per cent, worked by their owners only fifteen per cent,
are under fifty acres. Of bona fide small proprietors, if landliolders of
under fifty acres, who till their own land, may be termed such, the num-
ber is small, being only seven per cent, of the total number of farm-
holders. By far the larger number of farms are rented for a portion of
the crop, very few being rented at a fixed money rental. For instance :
in five adjacent townships in Greenville, where there are six hundred
and thirty-one farms rented, only one is reported as rented at a fixed
money rental.

Of the tilled land, 88,76G acres, or sixty-five per cent., is in grain of all
kinds ; 25,740 acres, or tw^enty per cent., is in cotton ; and 18,285 acres,
or fifteen per cent., in fallow, and all other crops, including gardens,
orchards and vineyards, and a small area in tobacco.

The average yield of grain is only a little over eight bushels to the
acre, and does not express the capability of this section for the produc-
tion of this article. Fields of corn on bottom lands averaging forty to
sixty bushels an acre are not uncommon, and the minimum calculation
of the crop for uplands without manure is ten to twelve bushels per acre,
while twenty to thirty bushels are obtained by good culture. Rice has
grown here, without any manure, over one hundred bushels to the acre,
though very little of it is planted. The yield of grain per capita is
twenty bushels, and is greater than elsewhere in the State, except in the
Sand Hill region.

The average yield of cotton to the square mile is 6.3 bales, an increase
of over six hundred per cent, since 1870. This is more than upon the
coast; in the lower pine belt, and in the sand hill region, but much less
than elsewhere in the State. The average yield of lint per acre planted
in cotton is one hundred and forty-one pounds, Avhicli is sixty per cent,
more than the yield on the coast, but less than elsewhere in the State.
The yield per capita is one hundred and five pounds of lint against four-
teen pounds in 1870. This is one hundred per cent, more than the
yield on the coast, and seventy per cent, more than the extensive lower

taxation for ten years. Immigrants are exempt for five years. The northwestern
States ought to be most urgent for an outlet to the ocean througli the Tennessee, Hi-
wassee, Tugaloo and Savannah rivers. Besides being tlie shortest and safest, and always
available, it would bring them directly in front of the marts of the world ; whereas, by
des(;ending the Mississippi, tiiey are thrown widely away, and, moreover, are made to
encounter deadly malarial diseases every season, and yellow fever at short intervals.
The eastern cities should also advocate this outlet, since it would place the vast pro-
ductions of the Northwest within easy grasp of their coast shipping."

190 THE ALPINE REGION.

pine belt. Still it is not one-third of the yield in the remainder of the
State.

The work stock number 5,798, against 4,096 in 1870. This is 4.1 to
the square mile, the average for the State being 4.4. The ratio of work
stock to the population is less than elsewhere in the upper country, but
more than in the regions below the red hills. There are twenty-two acres
of tilled land to the head of work stock, which is more than elsewhere in
the State, except in the red hills and the metamorphic region.

Other live stock numbers 66.035, being more per square mile than else-
where in the State, and more per capita of the population except only
anions the sand hills.

LABOR AND SYSTEM OF FARMING.

The farms are very rarely larger than can be worked by four horses.
The landholdings average from one hundred and fifty to three hundred
acres, including woodlands. The larger portion of the farm supplies are
raised at home, but near the towns, and along the Air-Line railroad sup-
plies from the west are largely purchased, the system of credits and ad-
vances to the smaller farmers prevails, absorbing with rents, not unfre-
quently, seven-eighths of the entire crop. Most of the land is rented or
worked on shares. The cash rental varies from two dollars and fifty cents
to four dollars an acre ; the usual terms are one-fourth the cotton and
one-third of the grain ; where stock and implements are furnished by
the landlord, he gets one-half the crop. The average market value of
lands is stated at five dollars an acre ; improved lands sell at from six
dollars to ten dollars an acre. About one-half the field laborers are ne-
groes, and since attention has been given to cotton culture they are on the
increase. Wages are fifty cents a day ; six dollars to eight dollars a month,
with board ; seventy-five dollars a year, with board. The condition of in-
dustrious laborers is good. The number of negro laborers owning houses
and land varies from one to five per cent, according to the locality.

TILLAGE AND IMPROVEMENT.

One-horse plows are generally used, very rarely two horses. The
depth of the furrow on the land side varies from three to four inches.
Subsoiling is not practiced. Occasionally lands lie fallow, and the result
is beneficial if stock are not allowed to destroy the crop of grass and
weeds. Cultivated fallows are unknown. There is no system in the ro-

THE ALPINE REGION. 101

tation of crops. After land has been planted two or three years in cotton
it is planted one or two years in wheat, corn or oats ; the results of such
a change are excellent, if stock is kept off the stubble. Fall plowing is
little practiced ; it has been found of advantage where stubble, grass or
weeds cover the land to turn them under at this time. The amount of
land in old fields is not great. Such fields, after lying out eight or ten
years, have been found to produce as well as ever, and most of them have
been brought into cultivation again. The washing of hillsides does not
amount to a serious evil, and it is reported as easily prevented and effect-
ually checked by hillside ditching when necessary. The use of commer-
cial fertilizers has largely increased with the facility of obtaining them
by railroad, and the practical demonstration of their value in the culture
of cotton. Cotton seed is worth ten to fifteen cents a bushel ; little of it is
sold. It is applied green and broad-cast as a manure for wheat, and com-
posted with stable manure as a fertilizer for cotton. A portion of it is
fed to stock. •

COTTON CULTURE

was a leading industry in the upper counties of South Carolina previous
to 1826. The crop raised was from one hundred and twenty pounds to
two hundred pounds lint per acre in the four most northerly counties,
and averaged one hundred and forty-five pounds. At that date, however,
and for long afterwards, probably not an acre of cotton was planted in the
region now under consideration. The opening of tlie Air-Line railroad
having reduced the cost of fertilizers, attention was drawn to the large
bodies of gray sandy lands hitherto little considered, and experiments in
cotton growing by their aid proved so successful that the cultare w^as
largely increased. It has extended over the table lands and even up the
mountain slopes, and is now grown in every township of the region except
one, Chatuga township, in Oconee county, already referred to as the cul-
minating point of the river system. It has been found that while the
season is shorter, the stimulation of the growth by the use of fertilizers
compensates for this. The same tillage as is given further south ex-
pended here in a shorter period of time has a like effect in pushing the
plant to maturity. With slave labor this was inconvenient, if not im-
practicable. With free labor it is, if anything, easier and cheaper to ac-
complish thirty days work in three days than to do it in ten. It has been
further found that the growth of the plant is steadier here; it does not suffer
from those checks during long dewless intervals, which retard its progress in
the hotter and dryer sections. The claim is also made, that better cotton is
grown here than further south. Experienced cotton buyers have long given

192 THE ALPINE REGION.

preference to staples of both long and sliort cottons grown towards the
northern limits respectively of their culture. It is said that the fibres
are stronger and of more equal and uniform length, admirable qualities,
which might naturally be expected from a short, steady and continuous
growth. For all these reasons, together with the improvements in the
selection of seed, by which the period of growth is lessened and an earlier
and more simultaneous ripening of the fruit is obtained, it is expected
that what has been already done is only the commencement of a much
wider extension towards the mountains of the growth of the cotton plant.
No peculiarities of cotton culture are to be noted in this region. Little
or no previous preparation is given to the soil until it is thrown into
ridges thirty inches to four feet apart, according to the strength of the
land, just before planting. The seed is planted from the 10th to the 20th
of April, commencing on the same date as in the region below, but con-
cluding earlier by ten to twenty days. About two bushels of seed are
used to the acre, and it is, for the most part, sown by hand, the outlay of
twelve dollars for a planter being generally considered too great for the
advantage gained, especially by small renters, who hold their farms only
for the crop season. The seed comes up in six to fifteen days. The
variety preferred is some one of the cluster cottons, prolific bearers, of
early maturity. In two weeks after planting, the cotton is chopped out
with a hoe to about twelve inches apart, sometimes to only six inches,
and on very strong land, intervals of eighteen inches between the plants
may be left. If the soil be well stirred with the ploAV, and kept clean in
the drill with the hoe, the cotton will have obtained a height of eight
inches to eighteen inches by the 1st to the 10th July, when blossoms will
appear. The first blooms are now looked for the latter part of June, but
until the last year or two, they were never expected before the 4th of
July, and even that was thought early. Open bolls are seen from the
25th of August to the 1st of September. Picking commences from the
10th to the loth September. The growing season ends with the first
black frost, which occurs about the 15th October to the 1st November.
The crop is gathered by the 15th to the 31st December. The plant is
considered most productive when it attains the height of two feet. Fresh
lands yield seven hundred pounds to twelve hundred pounds of seed
cotton. The same lands, after two to ten years culture withc^ut manure,
yield six hundred pounds to four hundred pounds seed cotton ; with
moderate manuring and fairly good culture, they improve. It is esti-
mated that it requires here an average of twelve hundred and twenty-five
pounds of seed cotton to produce a bale of four hundred pounds.

THE ALPINE REGION. 103

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

are restricted here almost exclusively to one — frost. Caterpillar is un-
known. A little rust and shedding occur on ill-drained soils, but there
is no general complaint regarding them. The vegetable enemies of the
plant are crab grass, with now and then complaints of rag weed and May-
pop vine.

GINNING

here differs in no regard from the accounts already given of it in the other
regions. The weight aimed at for the bale is four hundred and fifty
pounds to five hundred pounds, and the average obtained, from the state-
ments made, is four hundred and eighty-three pounds.

Farmers sell their cotton to the merchants at the nearest railroad sta-
tion, without charges of any kind, and make no estimate as to the cost
of shipping and selling.

The cost of production is estimated at eight cents to ten cents per
pound. No itemized statement of the cost of culture could be obtained
from this region, and it probably differs in no wise from that in other
regions.

Abstract of the reports of township correspondents for the Piedmont
Region :

Oconee County.

Wagner Toionship {E. D. 120): Lands hilly and rolling, embracing
Stump House mountain, the slopes of which are very fertile ; below the
mountain there is much table or level land. The soils are, 1st, a gray,
sandy soil, underlaid by stiff clay, with partially decomposed slates at a
depth of fifty feet ; this soil is well adapted to cotton : 2d, a mulatto
soil, producing tobacco well, the culture of which is found very re-
munerative and is yearly increasing : 3d, black, loamy soils of creek and
branch bottoms, ver}^ productive in corn, oats and the grains. The
growth is pine, oak, hickory, very large chestnut, and dogwood ; the last-
named wood is being sawn into blocks for shuttles, and shipped north by
the carload. One-half mile from Walhalla there is an inexhaustible
quarry of very fine building granite ; very large plates of mica are also
found here. Numerous swift, clear streams afford abundant water powers
not developed. Land is cheap, but is not priced by the acre. Stock
13

194 THE ALPINE REGION.

raising might be made profitable. Field labor is paid fifty cents a day,
two-thirds of it performed by whites. There are no prevailing diseases.

Keowcc Township {E. D. 12.3) : Southern portion nearly level, western
portion hilly ; Smeltzer's mountain in northeast corner. Soils chiefly
gray, sandy soils ; the bottoms of the Keowee river, averaging two
hundred yards in width, and extending eighteen miles through the
township, are very fertile ; the subsoil is red, sometimes white clay.
Growth, pine, oak, ash, hickory, chestnut, beech, blackjack, dogwood.
Crops, corn, thirty bushels per acre in bottoms, twelve bushels on uplands ; "
sweet and Irish potatoes, one hundred bushels per acre; tobacco does
well, is grown only for home use ; cotton was not planted before 1879 ;
the average yield is six huntlred pounds seed cotton per acre. Improved
lands, with river or creek bottoms, would sell for ten dollars an acre ;
improved uplands at three dollars to five dollars an acre ; forest lands at
two dollars ; a large pine forest recently sold at less than one dollar per
acre. Not more than one-tenth of the lands under cultivation ; about
one-third of the farming lands for rent, at from one-third to one-fourth
the crops, or where stock and tools are furnished, at one-half. There are
fourteen fine water powers in the township. There are four tanyards.
Most of the farm lands, hitherto neglected, are well suited for cotton cul-
ture, under the present method, with the use of fertilizers.

Pulaski Township (E. D. 124): The Stump House mountain belt crosses
the southern portion ; on the north, along the Chatuga river, and on the
west along Tugaloo river, the river hills and cliffs make it mountainous ;
through the centre a belt three to four miles wide of well-watered rolling
land is found. The numerous crreeks and branches crossing it have bot-
toms, fifty yards to two hundred yards in width, of great fertility, yield-
ing, with good culture, twenty -five bushels to eighty bushels of corn, and
abundant grass crops. Fruits do well ; apples, from the early June to
the late winter produce well, grapes grow well also. The soil is mostly
a sand}'^ loam, with red, sometimes with yellow clay subsoil. Limestone
is found and there is a lime-kiln in operation. Soapstone of excellent
quality occurs. Not more than one-twelfth to one-fifteenth of the land is
under cultivation. There are numerous water-powers, there being on- four
streams twelve falls, varying from thirty feet to one hundred feet fall per-
pendicular. TJiere are indications of gold, silver and copper ores, but no
regular mining is done. Lands sell for fifty cents to ten dollars an acre.
Parties clearing have tlie use of it free of charge for two to four 3'ears.
Rent is one-third of the crop, or one-half if stock and tools are furnished.
Fine stock ranges are found among the mountains, the large droves of
sheep, however, destroy the grass for the cattle.

^

the alpine region'. 195

Pickens County.

Hurricane TownsJiip {E. D. 131) : Country for the most part broken and
liilly. Soil, a light yellowish brown loam, three inches to five inches to
a stiff red clay, lying on sandstone and gray rock. Growth, pine, oak,
and hickory. The uplands yield ten to twenty bushels corn per acre.
Within a few years the people have found out that they can raise cotton,
the lands producing five hundred pounds to one thousand pounds seed
cotton to the acre. Lands for sale from two dollars to ten dollars an acre.
There is considerable good bottom land on the streams. Four creeks
aiford good water-powers. There are no prevailing diseases. Nine-tenths
of the field labor is performed by whites.

cha.:pter IX.

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Between the years 1816 and 1826, $1,712,626 were expended by the State
of South CaroUna in internal improvements. A large portion of this
amount was appropriated to building nine canals around the rapids of
the Wateree, the Catawba, the Congaree, the Broad and the Saluda rivers,
with a view to the improvement of their navigation. From time to
time surveys of these streams, especially by engineer officers of the
United States army, have been made with the same object in view. In
the absence of anything like a general or detailed account of the water-
power of the State, it was upon reports regarding these works that per-
sons interested in the matter chiefly relied for information. Quite re-
cently, however. Gen. Francis A. Walker, Superintendent of the 10th
United States Census, as a part of the census work, has had a survey of
the water-power of the Southern Atlantic water-shed made by Mr. George
F. Swain, S. B., Instructor in Civil Engineering in the Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, Boston, Mass. Mr. Swain's report, just published
l)y the census office, contains a large amount of new 'and very valuable
information ; so far as South Carolina is concerned, it is the first attempt
to give a systematic account of its water-power. In the endeavor here
made to condense a statement of the points of chief interest in this report
relating to this State, the reader is informed that Mr. Swain's report is so
closely written and so full of facts that it is not susceptible of such treat-
ment satisfactorily, and those interested in the subject are referred to
the report itself

Mr. Swain divides the Southern Atlantic water-shed into tlireo belts,
running in a northeasterly direction, parallel for the most part with each
other, and also with the sea coast on the southeast, and with the general
trend of the Appalachian mountain chain on the northwest. These are :

I. The eastern belt, reaching inland from the coast one hundred to one
hundred and forty miles, and formed by the slowly descending slope of

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 197

the tertiary plain. In South Carolina the average elevation of the streams
at the upper edge of this belt above tide level is about seventy feet in an
average distance, following the windings of the streams of about two hun-
dred and fifteen miles ; this gives something like 0.3 foot fall per mile,
and of course renders the streams of this section, as a rule, unavailable
as motor powers, although the smaller streams sometimes have such fall
as to allow of their use for cotton gins, grist, and even for saw mills. For-
merly along the coast of Carolina tidal water-power was utilized for rice
mills, but this motor has been here superseded by steam.

II. The middle belt comprises what has been described as the " Red
Hill," "Sand Hill " and " Piedmont" regions of South Carolina, with a
portion of the upper pine belt, in all about 18,000 square miles. It has a
general elevation above the sea level of about six hundred feet, and
the average fall of the streams passing through it varies from two feet to
seven feet per mile. This is the region of the great water-powers, and to
it Mr. Swain has devoted his chief attention.

III. The western belt is among the mountains. In South Carolina it
is described as the Alpine region, and embraces about twelve hundred
square miles. The streams here are numerous, and tneir fall is very great,
but they are much inferior in volume to those of the middle belt, and
consequently rank below it, as affording water-power of tlie largest
capacity.

The advantages offered by the water-power of South Carolina are much
enhanced by topographical and climatic conditions prevailing here.

The undulating plateau of the Piedmont region has a pervious soil to
an average depth of fifty feet or more, formed by the unusuall}' deep dis-
integration of the metamorphic rocks, and presenting a mixture of sand
and clay, well adapted for the al)sortion of rain water. This pervious
soil rests at the depth indicated on the impervious strata of rock, granite,
and gneiss, or the various slates, which impede the deeper percolation of
water. The streams have cut their channels down to these underlying
beds of rock, and it is along their surface that constant supplies of water
held in reserve by the permeable soils of their water-sheds are received,
thus adding largely to the amount and the regularity of their flow. A
similar condition obtains among the sand hills, where the porous sands,
through the interstices of which the rain disappears almost as readily
and rapidly as it does through the air, rest at a depth of one hundred
feet to one hundred and fifty feet on impervious beds of kaolin clay. . As
a consequence the streams of the sand hill region lose little of the rain-
fall through surface evaporation and maintain a flow hardly affected per-
ceptibly by unusual seasons of rain or drought, and Mr. Swain more than
once expresses his astonishment at the horse-power furnished by streams

198 WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

having so small a drainage area. This result is likewise promoted by
the extensive woodlands of the middle and western belt, which occupy,
according to the census of 1880, something more tlian seventy-five per
cent, of the surface. The larger streams of the Piedmont region, in ad-
dition to their drainage area within the State, receive the rains from
3,058 square miles of water-shed in North Carolina. The rocky beds of
these streams afford everywhere good sites and permanent foundations
for mill dams, while the high angle at which they cross the ledges of rock
increases the perpendicularity of the fall, and presents a clean smooth
edge, adding to the facility with which the water-power is made available.
Thus, at ^'^anPatton's shoals, on the Enoree river, so very even is the edge
.of the rock that a single plank bolted to it, forms a sufficient dam by which
1,550 honse-power maj*^ be utilized. " The facilities for storing water are
on the whole good." — Swain. Besides the resources of the neighboring-
pine forests, building material is furnished everywhere in the excellent
clay for brick-making that is found. In addition to these, the metamor-
phic rocks laid bare on the banks of the streams furnish material for dams
and buildings of the best quality. Besides soapstone, gneiss^ talc and
mica slates, there are few localities where a fine-grained and easily split-
ting granite is not to be had. The last named rock extends even into the
sand hill region, forming the shoals and rapids in the streams there, and
has been utilized in the structure of the large cotton mill at Graniteville
on Horse creek.

Speaking of the climate, Mr. .James E. Calhoun writes: "Blessed with
sunshine and showers throughout the year, there is just winter enough
to keep the insects in check, while the pomegranate and the fig do not
require to be sheltered. Destructive storms of wind, rain or hail never
occur here. Living immediatel on they banks of a river half a mile
wide (Trotters's shoals, on the Savannah), I am never troubled with mos-
quitoes. Nowhere can there be found a larger percentage of the popula-
tion of seventy 3'ears and upwards. I am an octogenarian, with the fresh
vitality of twenty -five." Low water from snow-fall or freezing, and fresh-
ets from ice gorges are unknown here. It has been argued that in more
bracing climates, as in ]\Iaine, the operatives in factories can accom})lish
ten per cent, more work than in these warmer latitudes. It is possible that
unacclimated Northern operatives might experience some such degree of
languor here. Nevertheless there are few better workers than the Southern
factory hand. The climate does disincline the Southern white to out-of-
door employment, and, surrendering, in a large measure, farm labor to
the colored race, they eagerly seek employment in factories. "Thus it
happens that factory hands are much more abundant than would be an-
ticipated from the density of the population. Northern mill owners have

AVATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

199

not been slow to express their high estimate of Southern help. Contrast
with the negro element of the population cultivates a pride of race which
-inspires a higher tone and renders the white working class more reliable
than it is usually found elsewhere. Labor unions and leagues are un-
known, and there are those who maintain that this freedom from labor
troubles, and the permanency and certainty they enjoy in their help
more than compensates for some remoteness from railroad transportation.
The expense saved in the item of heating adds largely to the economy of
factories, and by rendering the conditions of life easier and healthier, it
promotes the increase of an already very prolific population, which, if
prevented from migrating and fostered by such capital as would open up
employment in manufactures, would respond readily to almost any de-
mand made upon it.

The average annual rainfall is stated at fifty-two inches, and it proba-
bly exceeds rather than falls below this figure. This is from four inches
to six inches more than in the same region in Virginia, North Carolina
and Georgia. The following statement shows how it compares with the
rainfall of the New England and Middle States, the maan of observations
made at twenty-six station? on the principal rivers in those States being
given :

6

Summer.

Autumn.

'A

Year.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

Piedmont region of South Carolina..

12

14

10

16

52

New England and Middle States

11

12

10

9

42

There are four chief river systems in South Carolina — the Pee Dee,
the Santee, the Edisto and the Savannah. The numerous salt water
rivers, important as they are for purposes of communication along the
coast, and even for a considerable distance into the interior, are omitted, as
tidal water-power is not to be considered. Such streams as flow through
the level country, although they are sometimes of considerable length, with
large drainage areas, and affording some water-power, as the Big and
Little Saltkehatchie and others, are likewise omitted. The following
table exhibits the leading features of these rivers. The number of mills
and the horse-power utilized are from the enumerator's returns for the
10th United States Census ; the estimate of drainage area, length and fall,
are bv Mr. Swain :

200

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Table, giving Names of Streams, Numbe)' of Mills, Horse-Powei' Utilized and
estimated Drainage Area, Length and Fall of the Rivers of South Carolina.

NAME OF STREAM.

DRAINAGE

AREA IN

SQUARE MILES.

Hi

0
7\

HORSE-POWER
. EMPLOYED.

Pee Dee System.
Great Pee Dee and lesser tributaries (9,700 sq
miles in North Carolina)

17,000
1,200
2,000
1500
1,350

159
65
50

0.44

62

2

21

13
26

880

Waccamaw

22

Little Pee Dee

243

Black River

232

Lyuch's River

240

383

Total

124

1760

Santee System.
Santee River

14,725
5,225

4 375
7,965

4,950
730
720
475

2 350
386

184
116

76
50

1C5

7(.
36
50
HO
60

0.5

1 to 4^

5.24
1.

3.9

"4 to 7"

7
3 to 6

AVateree and tributaries

Catawba and tributaries (1,725 sq. ra. dr. area
in North Carolina

28

40

27

38
36
52
37
103
66

4L'7

95

78
8

375

825

Congaree and tributaries

Broad and tributaries (1,400 sq. lu. dr. area in

North Caroli na...

Enoree and tributaries (length iu straight line)..
Tyger River and tributaries " '' " '' ..
Pacolet and tributaries •' ' » •• _
Saluda and tributaries

384

640
574
626
809
2,267
1,330

Reedy River (fall greater than Saluda or Enoree)

Total

7,830

Edisto System.
North and Houth Forks and tributaries

1,535

11,000
143
650
530
241
908
870
350

60

355
20

2 to 4

0 4 to 2^
20

1,126

SAV.ANNAH River Syste.m.
Savannah River and lesser tributaries (5,000

sq. ra dr. area iu Georgia) ,

Horse Creek

Stevens Creek . .

1.453

1.807

Little River

40
60
49
3(^

10

7
75
28

206

124

427

95

206

852

252

Rocky River

7 to 8J
6J

121

Seneca River and affluents

880

Tugaloo Ri ver

313

Chatauga River

Total

4 806

Recapitulation.
Pee Dee system..

1 760

Santeesystera

Edisto system

7,830
1.1. >6

Savannah system

4,806

Toal

15 522

\

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

201

The kind of mills and the amount of power employed by each may
be summarized thus :

KIND OF MILL

HORSE-POWER

Grist and flour mills
Cotton factories . . .

Saw mills

Cotton gins

Miscellaneous . . . .

Total

The water-power that a stream will furnish is determined by its fall and
its volume of water. The amount of fall is accurately determined by a
carefully made line of levels. The time allowed Mr. Swain to survey
the large field allotted to him enabled him to visit in person only a few
of the most important water-powers, and even in these instances the only
instrument of measurement he could use was a Locke pocket level, with
which he says he was in some cases " enabled to arrive at quite close ap-
proximation of the fall, while in others the results obtained are liable to
large errors." To determine the volume of water in a stream is a much
more difficult, tedious and delicate matter. Accurate gaugings of the
stream are to be made, and these are to be continued through the different
seasons of the year, and for a series of years, before the average amount
of flow to be relied on can be stated. " In the absence of such a series of
gaugings," Mr. Swain was forced, in order to arrive at any approximate
estimate of power, to adopt an entirely different method. He i)oints out
the uncertainty of this method, and is scrupulously careful that his errors,
whatever they may be, shall always be on the safe side — that is, below
tJie mark, but never above it. His method consists, first, in determining
the drainage area of the different streams by geometrical measurement
on the best maps accessible to him, and here he naturally remarks on the
inaccuracy and lack of agreement among the maps ; the next was the
determination of the average annual rainfall and the spring, summ.er,

202 WATER-rOWEES OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

autumn and winter rainfall on each drainacre basin. Here, again, the
number of years during wliich observations have been recorded, at least
so far as South Carolina is concerned, leave much to be desired, espocially
in the regions remote from the sea coast. Then comes the consideration
of the very complex factors affecting the disposition of this rainfall, the
proportion dissipated hy evaporation under the various and varying in-
fluences of temperature, the humidity of the atmosphere, the prevalence
of winds, the permeability of the soil, and its protection by forests, and,
lastly, the residue remaining to be discharged by the streams. Now, it
would seem that in these regards, the item of temperature only excepted,
the discharge of streams in the South should be greater than those of the
North. The force of the wind is less. No large lakes present broad sur-
faces for evaporation There is no loss by evaporation from snow and
ice during months of the year. The soil is deeper and more permeable,
and its protection by forests must be as great or greater. For the streams
of the sand hill region Mr. Swain seems to allow some force to such con-
siderations in placing the minimum flow at one-third to one cubic
foot per second for each square mile of drainage area. For the
other streams of South Carolina he allows a less discharge, placing
the minimum flow at 0.13 to 0.23 cubic feet per square mile of
drainage area, notwithstanding that the average minimum flow in
ten New England rivers which he gives, is 0.26 cubic feet. Whenever
Mr. Swain's estimates of fall or flow differ from those made by others, it
will be found that Mr. Swain's is much below theirs. As an instance of
how much such under-estimates may amount to, Mr. Swain himself points
out that while his estimate of the minimum flow on the Portman shoal,
of Seneca river, is one hundred and eiglity-nine cubic feet per second,
" it must be speciall}' mentioned here that Maj. Lee, who is an engineer
of eminence, long experience and well acquainted with the country,
writes that ' one thousand cubic feet of water per second all the year
round — two-thirds of the year double this flow — is to be had.' " But,
however far short of the aggregate Mr. Swain's estimates of the water-
power may be, there can be no question that, under the circumstances,
he has accomplished a great deal, and, as a preliminary reconnoisance, his
treatise is invaluable.

Mr. Swain makes four estimates of the horse-power at each locality he
mentions :

I. The minimum, being the minimum flow during a period not exceed-
ing a few days at intervals of several years.

II. The minimum low seasons. This occurs for a period of three to
six weeks, when the stream is at its lowest. In most years the average
flow during: the season of least flow will exceed this amount, and a small

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 203

storage of water will render it available at all times. This flow is ascer-
tained by taking twenty -eight per cent, of the rainfall as the amount dis-
charged by the streams. This would be something like fourteen and a
half inches for the middle and western water-power regions o/ South Car-
olina, but Mr. Swain limits it not to exceed ten inches to thirteen inches.

III. Maximum with storage. This is the same as the last, assuming
that by storage (ponds arid dams) a discharge of two inches to four inches
on the water-shed can be added thereto, less for the larger and more for
the smaller areo.s.

IV. Low season flow dry years. Without storage this flow may be de-
pended on. In ordinary years a quarter more may be calculated on.

The following summary of the water-power of South Carolina, so far
as investigated by Mr. Swain, through correspondence or by personal ex-
amination, will not be liable to any charge of being an over-estimate.

204

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

Summary of Powers on Rivers in South Carolina, Examined by G. F. Swam
S. B., Special Agent Tenth U. S. Census.

Falf,.

Flow

Pkk

.Second.

H0R.SE-P0WER
AVAILAIJLK.

STREAM AND LOCALITY.

To

X

a

S

s

£

1

1
i

si

S3

0 ,/

VVateree River, Wnteree Canal (a)

Tributaries: IJiji Pine Tree Creek 1 ,1.

4.S76

55

12

3,600

3,425

I«,5

223

380

7,300

115

4,76ii
4,525
4,I.S0

3,4yo

2 590

2,400

1,3,S7

1 357

1,142

1,132

375

280

2:!4

234

91

94

94

30.S

274

112

Feet
.52
40
18
173
40

5 rn.

963

28

6

793

750

18

2.5

5')

1,680

3,500

55

12

2.900

2,900

160

200

330

B,200

5,700

.3.2

07

I5,0.i(

3,400

2

28

50

4,20(J

66

7,7.50

41

3 2

21 000

4,6.50

3

4.5

68

5,50tj

20,700

8 850

6 3

4.9

24,0<I0

5270
3 4

Lillle •' 1 ^^^

Catawba Hiver, 'ireat Falls (c)

8 m.

.57,00)

13.000

18.2

22,8

37.0

15 500

13.2

Tributaries of Catawba River : Rocky Creek

5.6

8 0

Sugar Creek

Congaree River at Columbia.

22 A
34

6,400

Tributaries of Congaree River: CmisareeCr'k ), ,

Red Bank Cr'kr^'-

Broad Kiver, Bull Sluice (/)

Ninety-Nine Island Shoal

Boney Shoal

12

17.2

tj.O

IKil

113;

9.7o

40

2 mi)

925

1.775

1,350

8.50

:h 900

2 3">0

2,3.50

1250

36*

144

4.)0

6
290
42
25
32
272
1^0
90

""m

000

"lib

1,275

2,700

1.5' 10

1000

75

150

"■2V0
9.4
45

32

'2050
8.100

800

1 150

1..500

2,275

12

3.2
1.1311

4.50
1.700

114

3 1

2%"m.

0.94'm!
4.930 ft.
?, SOO ft.

'"62
42

a5

35
10
10
10
45

'"27
62

■62

"70
62

670

"406
300
250
2.50
100
100
100
3.30

"m

420

'i,m

400

"'2ri56

700

1.350

1,1.50

6.50

2 000

ISOu

1 ,8(M)

1,000

280

112

3;S0

48

2.50

3^

20

v5

204

70

72

35

81
420

70

1.000
2100
1,1.5*1

800
60

120

■ 160

7

34

40

25

5,700
.560
825

l.OHO

1,600

9

2 5

9.36

H75

1,20: 1
102
2 3

7.9-56

2 000

5.000

;(,,voo

2,.5.50

ll,0<JO

6900

6,900

4.000

1,1.50

725

2.400

310

1,.5.50

3411

200

260

1500

274

2,S8

"140

' '»ii'3

2.860

""•m

3 800
8,100

3,250
1,075
2,000
1.600
1 000

Summer Shoal

Lyle's Shoal

Neal's Shoal

Lot'kliart's .Slioal (</)

47 (ill 11 111

4, .500
2 700
2.700
1,4.50

fslnety-Nine Island Shoal

Cherol<ee Shoals (h.)

Surratt Shoal

50
50.2
35
10
l(i
70
12
.55
30
18
23
40
9
36
2(»
11
14
35

27
60
15
8")
16
31
20
55
5
10
21
20
.......

20
22
6)

8
10
75

9
14
1.8
30

3.20 m.

2 m.
1.75 m.

1 m.

Enoree River, Yarboro Mill

176

Mountain Slioal (t)

500

i.eatherwood shoal

72

Van Patton Shoal

?M

Pelliam Manufacturing Company..

51

Buena Vista Factory

31

Teagiie's Kail

80 ft.

39

Tvger Rjver, Hill's Factory

320

Nesbitt's

200

Ott's Mill

300 yds

2o5

(leveland"s

60

Dean's Mill

50

2.5

Ballinger's '

32

Penny .shoal

< 'rawfordsville (J )

50

3(i0yd's!

42
40

Murphy's, Fair Forest Creek

ISO

3.^0

S2

S2

2,350

2 350

2.300

G:i5

(iOO

5-3

400

.3S0

386

i:i5

Pacolet River, Trough Shoals (k)

700

Hurricane Shoals I)

91)

(ilendale (h)

•>oo

Saluda River, SaludaFactory (0)

1.500

Mouth of Saluda

2,U m.
I m.

\% m.

3 'tV.

Dreher's Canal (p)

4,400 I T.=V1

Great b'alls (17)

4.000
.300
600

"976

45 4

70

"260
710

slsoii

21.7.50

1 20")

Mattox Mill

90

Erwin's Mill (?•)

175

Pelzer Manufacturing Company (s).

Piedmont Manufacturing Co. (t)

*Reedy River

"284

■■75 ft.

.500 yds.

"6i"o"ft!
7 m.
% m.
1 m

5 rn.

11 1

TuMibling Shoals (iv

53

Fork Sh<)a» (2:)

Reedy River Manufacturing Co. (,(/)..
Camperdown Mills

87

89

+C<)X it Markley's Factory {z)

Savannah River, HUie Jacket .Shoal

Trotter's Shoal

2,H61

2 212

2.100

2.078

i,90'i

531

18{

815

775

710

lis

140

12

2.:^50
9 ifl%

Cherokee Shoal

Gresig's Shoal

2.100 !)00
3.2001 1 :25

Middleton's Whoal

McDaniel's Shoal

Tributaries Savannah River :Little River

"79
22
20

189
ll
20

4.50
1.5s
925

"825
135
16S

4.000i l,7tM)

6,100 2,000

51 14

Long Cane

■■■3!)
17
60
60

18 36

Tugaloo River, Hatton's Shoal

V4 m.

1 m.

2 m.

4.0051 1,287

fiuest's shoal

1 a50 5'20

.Seneca River, Portmans Shoal

5 020 19.50

Twelve Mile Creek

92) 165

Litile River

19. 1 1 4.0

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 205

v'«) A canal here built by the State. 1818-28, Is five miles long and has flfty-two feet fall, with
six locks. <iul would be available in utilizing the entire power.

(6) Streams in sand lulls of Kershaw county. The horse power given per foot fall. That
given here may be doubled by storing the water at night. Other tributaries to the Wateree fur-
nish good poweis, concerning which n(j detailed information could be obtained.

(c) Three State canals here: 1st, Lower canal, one mile long, with three locks. The total
amount of WJiter could be utilized through it. 21. Middle canal, three miles long, having three
flights of locks, viz., four locks thirty-two feet lift, four locks thirty-six feet lift, three locks
twenty-seven feet lift, another lock above, nine feet lift, and guard lock, in all, thirteen locks,
one hundred and four feet li t. At any and all the three flights, the facilities for using a large
power are very great; building room ample.

The upper canal is the property of Mrs. S. A. Boylston, of Winnsboro, S. C. It is one and
three-fourths miles long, on the west side of Catawba river, and enters Fishing creek at a poini
about five miles from Fort Lawn, on the Chester and Cheraw railroad. The total fall is fifty-one
feet. There aie two flights of locks; the lower one has four locks, thirty-three feet lift ; the upper
has two locks, fifteen feet lift. These works are well built of cut stone laid in cement are in
good preseivalion, and were constructed by the State at a cost of about $1U0,<I00. There are four
factory sites, with ample building room. The first site has a fall of twenty-four and twenty-one-
one-hundredths feet; the second, of .thirty feet; the third, of thirty-eight feet; the fourth, of
thirty-three feet. Granite of the best quality is at hand.* The available power is estimated
at fifteen thousand horse-power.

(d) State canal here, two miles long, dam, guard lock, and four other locks of thirty-five feet
lift; abundant building room , no liability to overflow.

(e) Sand hill streams of Lexington. Those of Richland not examined.

(/) The State of South Carolina is now engaged in developing the power in Broad river, from
Bull Sluice shoal, by building a dam at that point, with a canal two and seven-eighths miles
long, extending to Gervais street in the city of Cjlumbia. The works are being built first-class
in every respect, with dimensions sufficient to give four hundred and fifty-three horse powers of
water for each foot fall. The total power developed wiU be, on the average fall, about 10,030 horse
powers of water.

The Saluda and Broad rivers unite opposite the city of Columbia. These streams, near their
confluence, have, in ordinary low water, a flow with sufficient fall to yield 40,000 horse-powers of
water if propi>rly developed. They take their rise in the Blue Ridge mountains, flowing through,
in their upper course, a wooded country, giviuir them a very uniform flow of water, and suflfering
but little from high water, and that but of short duration. This magniflcent power has surround-
ings adapting it to manufacturing purposes equal to any locality in the South ; a liealthy climate,
an abundance of the naw material, railroad facilities in every direction, with good sites for
buildings, and other desirable features. (Maj. Thos. B. Lee, Engineer Columbia canal.)

(,(/) St ite canal here, 7,809 feet long with guard lock and six other locks of first-class cut stone
masonry, cost $130,000. Estimate of cost to put gates, locks and masonry in good ordei, $3,7&4.
Used in lSo2.

(/i) Above is site of abandoned works of Magneticlron Ore Company. Three hundred horse
power obtained, with surplus of water all the time from fall of ten leet. A fall of sixteen feet is
available; banks very favorable for building.

(i) Above Mountain Shoal are Kilgore's, Yarborough's, Flemmlng's and WoflTord's shoals,
having available falls.

(.7) South Tyger river, drainage area one hundred and eight square miles; furnishes two to
seven horse-power per foot fall, and has several av^iilable falls.

(fc) Above are Brown's mill, fourteen feet fall; Hammett's mill, ten feet fall; Crocker's,
Thompson's forils, shoals and other rapids.

(I) Above is Lindner shoal, eight feet fall; North and South Pacolet forks, with eighty square
miles drainage area ; each have numerous falls of twelve feet to thirty-four feet.

(71) Beiow ( jlendale, on Sampson's fork, is a fall of fifteen feet— ninety horse-power ; above are
several good shoals. Thicketty creek, one hundred square miles drainage area; Bullock's and
King's creeks, seventy-two square miles drainage area, and Buffalo creek, one hundred and seven-
ty-two square miles drainage area, empty into Broad river. BufTalo creek has considerable fall,
with five and one-halt to fifteen horse-power per foot fall.

(o) There is here a State canal two and one-half miles long five locks, thirty-four feet lilt;
might be repaired, and would render available double the present fall.

(p) State canal here, two and one-half miles long, with four locks, twenty-one feet lift.
Between this p.dnt and the Newberry an<l Lexington line are seven falls, viz. : Wise's ferry,
seventeen leet; Hunter's ferry, six feet; Snellgrove's isla.id, nine feet; M.inning island, fifteen
feet; Simm's ferry, fifteen feet. Above, in Newberry and Edgefield, are McNary's mill, eleven
feet; Pei kin's ford, ten feet; r$ouknight's mill, six feet.

(q) Mills gives this fall as seventy -six feet.

(r) Above are Harper's shoals, eight feet: Kay's and Gambrell's shoals. Poor's and Cox's mills.

200 WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

eight feet; Hamilton's shoal, ten feet ; Ilrlland's shoal, fifteen feet in three hundred yards, one
and one-quarter miles from r-iilroad: Blackhurn's inland shoal, ten feet,; Tripp's sluml, sixteen
feet.

(.1) Above, Allen's shoil, fourteen feet fill in two hundred and fifty yards ; may be increased
to 18 feet.

(t) Above are Blassingarae's, Harrison's, Farris's and other shoals, all about six miles from
Greenville.

(w) Above is Cedar falls, twenty-one feet.

(art Above are Harrison's and Houff's mills, ten feet fall each; Log shoal, fourteen feet fall;
Ashmore's mill, ten feet fall, and Linderman'.s shoal.

(.(/) Jones's paper mill, eleven and one-half feet fill, fifty horse-power; Parkin's mill, eleven
feet fall; Green's shoal ; ^>awmill shoal, nine feet fall.

(z) Tributary to Reedy river are Laurel creek and Rearburn creek, with a good fall of twenty-
six feet at Goodgion's mill, and another of fourteen .'"eet at Fuller's factory.

(*) Twelve Mile creek, tributary of the Saluda, in Lexington count.v, has a drainage area of
ninety-three square miles, and five horse-power per foot fall at low water. .Several falls on it are
from seven feet to twelve feet, and might be increased to twenty feet or thirty feet. Other tribu-
taries are. Little Saluda river, draining two hundred and ninety-seven square miles in Edgefield ;
Bush river, one hundred and five square miles in Newberry; Little river, two hundred and
twent.y square miles.

(t; North Fork Saluda, draining flfty-six square miles, has a perpendicular fall of two to
three hundred feet over a gneiss ledge, and another not quite so high. .Middle Fork drains
flfty-six square miles. South Fork drains seventy-eight square miles; on it Rock shoal has nine
feet, and an unused sho d, twelve feet fall. A mill sixteen miles from Greenville has eighteen feet
fall. All the head waters abound in cataracts, some several hundred feet, almo^t verticil.

The tributaries and affluents of the Savannah river not enumerated
above are in the sand hill region — the Upper and Lower Three Runs,
Hollow creek and Horse creek, all considerable streams. On Horse
creek 1,807 horse-power have been utilized, and there is a large amount,
say one-third, still unemployed. The streams named should furnish at
least as much as this one, which would give about 10,000 additional
horse-power available in this section alone. Above the fall line Big Stevens
creek is a large stream, and so are Big and Little Generostee creeks.
Tugaloo river has for its tributaries Big Beaver Dam, Choestoe and
Chauga creeks. The Chatauga river has Brasstown, AVhetstone and
other considerable tributaries, scarcely any spot in its drainage basin
being two miles from a water-power. Seneca river has Deep, Eighteen-
Mile, Twenty -three Mile, Twenty-six Mile and Conner's creeks, all large
streams, with abundant fall. The Keowee river has Toxaway, Big Es-
tatoe and Whitewater creeks, the latter with one fall of six hundred feet
in three hundred yards. This whole region abounds in streams of clear
"a'ater flowing over rock, having numerous cataracts and fed by an annual
rainfall of more than sixty inches.

In the above statement the available water-power examined is estimated
at something over 300,000 horse-power. Of this amount about 4,000
horse-i^ower only are employed by all kinds of mills, Avhich is only a
little more than one per cent. The returns of the census enumerators,
however, above given, show that altogether more than 15,000 horse-power
are actually employed by mills in this region. Now, it is more likely
that Mr. Swain would pass over without examination such water-powers

WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 207

as were not utilized than such as were, and tlie total may be safely in-
creased in the proportion in which he has done this, which would be to
multiply the above total by four. So that, without further allowance for
ins low estimates or for the improvement that art might effect by dams
and canals, there can be no question that from the lower line of hill
country northward in South Carolina there is more than a million of
horse-power in water-powers, varying in size from thirty to thirty thousand
horse-power, easily and cheaply available under condition peculiarly ad-
vantageous, not counting the presence of the large amount of raw ma-
terial in the shape of cotton to be manufactured.

A million of horse-power is about eighty per cent, of all the water-
powers now in use in manufacturing throughout the United States. It
is about seven times the amount of water-power now employed in the
United States in the manufacture of cotton goods, and nearly four times
the steam and water-power together so employed. It is sufficient to move
all the cotton factories, grist and flour mills and saw mills now worked
by water throughout the entire country. If such a power were used in
manufacturing cotton goods it would call for 600,000 operatives; in
grinding flour and grist, 75,000 ; in sawing lumber, over 200,000. It
appears, therefore, that the supply, for some time to come, must be in
excess of any demand likely to be made on it. If, however, the present
rate of increase in the employment of water-power in South Carolina
should continue, the time when all this power might be utilized is not so
indefinitely remote as might at first sight be thought. The amount of
water-power employed in manufacturing in South Carolina was thirty-
three per cent, greater in 1880 than it was in 1870. At this rate about two
hundred and twenty years would elapse before all this power would be
required. Just at the present time, however, the rate of increase is much
greater than this. By the census of 1880, only 2,398, H. P. water-power was
employed in the manufacture of cotton goods. By an enumeration, how-
ever, made by the State Department of Agriculture, in November, 1882,
it was ascertained that 4,113, H. P. water-power were thus employed, an
increase of seventy -one per cent, in a little over two years, or ten times
greater than the rate of increase shown between the 9tli and lOtli
United States Census. Up to this date this rate of increase is maintained,
and may be said to be accelerated, rather than diminished. How long it
will continue, and what will limit it, can not now, with any certainty, be
estimated. The increase in the employment of steam-power in South
Carolina, as given in the 9th and lOth Census, is much greater than that
of water-power, and amounts to one hundred and sixty-four per cent. Of
the total power used in manufacturing in South Carolina, in 1870, G9.62 per
cent, was water, the balance being steam, but in 1880 this ratio is much

208 WATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

reduced, and water gives only 53.63 per cent, of the total power employed.
This tendency of sup[)lantihg the use of water by steam prevails thi'ough-
out the United States, with the exception of five only of the newer and
remoter States and territories. For the whole country the percentage of
steam in the total power used has risen, since 1876, from fifty-one to sixty-
four per cent.

Under the United States tariff protecting manufactures, no pressing
necessity has been felt for attention to economy in the matter of motive
powers. The present attitude of the public mind seems to indicate that
this state of things will not obtain much longer, and the cost of motive
powers of different kinds and in different localities must become a ques-
tion of much consequence. The following statement exhibits the cost of
water and steam powers at several well-known manufacturing points :

Annual Rent or Estimated Cost of One Horse-Power.

W.\TEIi-POWER. STEAM-POiVER.

Lawrence, Mass $14 12 $64 00 to $74 00

Dayton, Ohio 38 00 33 60

Birmingham 20 00

Cohoes, New York 20 00

Turner's Falls, Mass 10 00

Augusta, Georgia 5 50

It is estimated that if the State rents the water it is now developing at
Columbia at five dollars per annum for one horse-power, that it will ob-
tain a handsome revenue from the labor and material expended.

At seven per cent, on the cost of dams and canals for the water-power
utilized and available in South Carolina, the following is a statement of
the cost of a horse-power per annum at several factories in this State :

Langley $2 10

Graniteville 5 81

Vaucluse 7 00

No. l,Camperdown 0 43

Glendale 0 39

Saluda Factory 0 28

Average for the whole, one dollar and seventy cents per annum per
horse-power.

CH^^PTER X.

A LIST OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF
SOUTH CAROLINA.*

BY FREDERICK W. TRUE,

CURATOR IN THE V. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM.

SUB-KINGDOM VERTEBRATA. THE VERTEBRATES.
CLASS MAMMALIA. MAMMALS.

A class of hair-clad vertebrates, possessing a four-celled heart, dis-
charging warm, red blood, which contains both white and red cor-
puscles. Skull with two condyles. Limbs never less than a single pair,
never more than two pairs. Symmetry of the two sides of the body com-
plete. Young from a minute egg, brought forth alive, and nourished
by a secretion (milk), from modified glands of the skin.

*This list is based, in part, upon data furnished by Dr. G. E. Manigault, of the
Charleston Museum. The literature relating to the vertebrate fauna of the Southern
States has likewise been carefully examined. That the list may not be a merely nom-
inal one, the mark of interrogation has been placed before the names of those species
whose range is supposed to extend over South Carolina, but whose occurrence in the
State has not been recorded. An exception is made, however, in the case of species
known to occur in both North Carolina and Georgia. These are included without
question. A comparison with the list published by Prof. Gibbes, in 1847, is almost im-
practicable on account of the many changes which have occurred in the nomenclature
and determination of species, resulting from the progress of the study of vertebrate
zoology since that time. F. \V. True.
14

'210 VBRTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH rAJtOUNA.

A group of uiiimals representing the liigliest phases of the develop-
nient of life. To man, the highest exponent of the class, the less
perfected species stand in the most important relations, both as being, in
a sense, his progenitors, and as furnishing him with those things which
are quite indispensable to his sustenance and advancement. A number
of species have existed in a state of domestication from time immemorial.

Compared with lower groups, the class is a small one, although
having no inconsiderable number of species. Al>out three hundred spe-
cies inhabit North America.

SUB-CLASS MONODELPHIA.

Mammals, whose .young are of considerable size and almost perfect
development at birth. The anterior portion of the brain, or cerebrum,
much overlaps the posterior jDortion, or cerebellum (super-order Edu-
cahilia), or leaves the latter considerably exposed (super-order Incdu-
(■abilia).

SUPER-ORDER EDUCABILIA.

ORDER CARNIVORA. CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS.

Flesh-eating mammals, having both fore and hind feet well devel-
oped ; in one sub-order, Pirmipedia or Seals, for aquatic progression;
in others, for terrestrial progression. The thumb or pollex of the fore
limb is never opposable to the lingers, as in man. Teeth of three
sorts, molars, canines and incisors.

It is somewhat difficult to define this order in a manner intelligible to
all, since the distinctions are mostly of an anatomical nature. Two of its
representatives, however, the house cat, Felis domcMica, and the dog. Cam's
familiarhi, are familiar to every one. The Carnivores furnish but little
food supply for man, but Iheir thick furs enable him to withstand the
rigors of winter. In the tropics, where one branch of the order, that of
the cats, reaches its liighest development, they are decidedly more
harmful than useful to man.

VERTEBRA! E AXIMAI.S OF SOUTH (AHOIJNA. 211

FELID.E.

WILDCAT.. Lynx rufus (Guldenstiidt), Kafinesquo
PUMA or PANTHER.* Felis concolor, Liime.

CANID.-E.

WHITE-AND-GRAY WOLF. Canis lupus. Linn': griseo-albus.

RED FOX. Vulpes fulvus, Desuiarest.

GRAY FOX. XJrocyon virginianus, iSolirel)or) Gray.

Ml'STELID.F..

BROWN MINK. Putorius vison. Scbreber) Gapi>. '
ER]MINE; ST<:tAT. Putorius erminea, (Linne) Griffith.
AMERICAN OTTER. Lutra canadensis. (Turt<Mii F. Cuvicr.
COMMON SKUNK. MepMtis mephitica, ' Slim-. BainL
LITTLE STRIPED SKUNK. Mephitis putorius, ' Linnei Co',ics.+

PROCYOXID.E.

RACCOON. Procy'bn lotor, i Linne) Storr.

URSID.E.
BL.\CK BEAR Uraus americanus. PalLi?;.

PHOCID.E.

C;OMMON SEAL-t Phoca vitulina, Linne,

*Probably extinct in South Carohna.

tlnclnded upon the authority of Catesby as interpreted by Coue?.
XA s=eal was oaujzht in the harbor of Charleston in is">2 The -pocimen i.-- now in the
museum of the College of Charleston. — G. E. ^I.

'212 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA;

ORDER UNGULATA. HOOFED MAMMALS.

Herbivorous, terrestrial mammals, possessing three sorts of teeth, the
])ermanent series of which is preceded by a set of milk teeth. Fingers
and toes encased in horny coverings or hoofs, and never prehensile.
i3ne sub-group with liorns or antlers, and more or less complex stomachs
(Artiodactijli) — deer, antelope, swine, &c. ; another with neither {Per issodac-
tyll) — horses, tapirs, &c.

The most useful of mammalian orders, including the majority of domes-
ticated animals, and furnishing the greatest proportion of the most valu-
able animal products employed in the arts and for consumption.

The order is not abundantly represented in North America, the num-
l)er of recognized species being about fifteen.

CERVID^.

VIRGINIA DEER. Cariacus virglnianus (Boddaert), Gray,

WAPITI ; ELK. Cervus canadensis, E^rxleben. (Extinct.)

BISON; BUFFALO. Bison americanus, (Gmelin) Smith. (Extinct.)*

ORDER CETE. WHALES.

An order of aquatic mammals, devoid of hind limbs, but possessing
fore limbs, modified into paddles, the fingers being furnished with an
unusual number of bones, and enveloped in a common integument.
Skin without hair ; teeth, when present (porpoises, sperm whales, &c.),
conical and not preceded by milk teeth ; absent in some species (baleen
whales), which are furnished, instead, with horny plates.

The whales are, perhaps, the least known of mammals. The number
of species is still unsettled, and the habits and migrations of some are yet,
entirely unknown.

*Mr. Vincent killed the last elk known of in South Carolina, in Fairfield
co.:nty. The following statement regardin;:^ the last buffalo known on the Atlantic
slope is by Col. Chas. C. Jones, Jr., of Augusta, Ga. :

" I have seen the skull of a buffalo, with the horns still attached, in good state of
preservation, which was ploughed up in a field in Brooks county, Georgia ; and the
father of Mr. J.imes Hamilton Couper, of St. Simon's island, shot a wild buffalo early
in the present century, near the head waters of Turtle river, not very far from Bruns-
wick, Georgia. The swamp is known to this day as Buffalo swamp.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 213

The majority of toothed whales subsist upon fish and cuttlefish, while the
whalebone whales devour immense quantities of small organisms, prin-
cipally crustaceans, which they strain out from the water taken into the
mouth, by means of their baleen plates.

The whale fishery, once a most extensive industry, has shrunken to
comparatively small proportions, principally on account of the disuse of
whale oil as a burning fluid.

BAL^NID^.

RIGHT WHALE.* Eubalaena cisarctica, Cope.

ZIPHIIDiE.
BOTTLE-NOSED WHALE.* Hyperoodon semijunctus, Cope.

DELPHINID.E.
PORPOISE. ?Phocaena brachycion, Cope.

SUPER-ORDER INEDUCABILIA.

ORDER CHEIROPTERA. BATS.

An order of mammals at once distinguishable from all others by
the great modification of the anterior limbs for purposes of flight. The
fingers are much elongated, devoid of nails except in one family, and
connected with each other and the body by an extremely thin skin.
Thumb abortive, and furnished with a strong hook or nail. Teeth of
three sorts, encased in enamel. Young suckled by pectoral mammae.

The bats form a group of moderate size, and are distributed through-
out the globe. They are eminently fitted for aerial progression, but walk
very awkwardly and with much difficulty. They are active only during
the dark hours, remaining, during the day, in secluded places, suspended

* Specimens of both these Cetaceans have been caught in Charleston harbor, and
their skeletons are in the museum of the College of Charleston. — G. E. M,

214 VKRTEHKATE ANIMALS OF SOVTH CAROLINA.

by the liijid foot, Avliich arc furnished with strong, acutely-pointed claws.
The majority eat insects and worms, but a few are fruit eaters. They
are most abundant in tropical countries.' North American species, about
twenty-five.

NOCTILIONID.E.
LARGK-NOSP^I) BAT. Nyctinomus 'brasiliensis, GeoflVoy.

VESPERTILIONID.E.

TWILIGHT KA'l". Nycticejus crepuscularis, LeConte.

RED B.VT. Atalapha noveboracensis, (Erxleben) Peters.

HOARY P. AT. Atalapha cinerea, (Beau vois) Peters.

CAROLINA BAT. Vesperugo serotinus, (Schreber) Keys, and Bias. ; fuscus.

GEORGIAN BAT. Vesperugo georgianus, (F. Cuvier) Dobson.

LITTLE BROWN BAT. Vespertilio subulatus, Say.

SILVERY-HAIRED BAT. Scotophilus uoctivagans, LeConte.

BLUNT-NO.SED BAT. Vespertilio lucifugus, LeConte *

BIG-EAR]':d BAT. Plecotus macrotus, LeConte.

ORDER, INSECTIVORA. INSECT EATERS.

A group of small mammals, possessing many of the characteristics of
the bats, but having both fore and hind limbs adapted for walking. The
two bones of the fore-arm are separate. The mammae are inguinal.

This order, of which the common mole forms a well-known example, is
composed mostly of burrowing animals, which feed upon insects and live
a secluded life. Few or none are of economical value, and the moles, at
least, prove obnoxious to the farmer by injuring his pasture land.

SORICID^.

3IA8KED SHREW. Sorex personatus, Geofi'roy.
CAROLINA SHREW Blarina brevicaudata, (Say), Baird.

* Vespertilio virginianus, Kuduhon and Bach man, a species of uncertain identity, is
included by Gibbes in the South Carolina fauna. " V. nigrescem, Bachman," also given
by Gibbes, I have been unable to find a description of.

VERTEBRATE AXIMALS OF -SOUTH CAROLINA. 215

TALPID.E.

COMMON MOLE. Scalops aquaticus, (Linne) Fischer.
STAR-XO.SED MOLE. Condyl'ira cristata, (LinnL^) Desmarest. (G.)

ORDER GLIRES. RODENTS.

A large order of mammals, at once distinguishable from' all other pla-
cental mammals by the form of incisor teeth, which are bent into an arc of
greater or less magnitude, possess a chisel or gouge-like edge, and grow
perpetually from a soft pulp. Canine teeth are wanting ; the feet are
suited for walking and leaping.

The species of rodents are more numerous than those of all other
orders of mammals combined. They are distributed throughout the
world. Some, as the squirrels and chipmunks, are adapted for arboreal
life, while others, as the marmots, live in the open prairies. The com-
mon rat has been introduced everywhere where commerce has pene-
trated.

The rodents are of comparatively little commercial value, although
some families, as the beavers, furnish beautiful furs, and others, as the
squirrels and hares, may supply some considerable amount of palatable
food. On the other hand, many members of the family MuridR, or rats,
are injurious to grain and other products of husbandry.*

SCIURID.E.

? EASTERN CHICKADEE. Scuirus hudsonius, Pallas ; hudsonius.

SOUTHERN FOX SQUIRREL. Sciurus niger, Linne; niger.
? NORTHERN GRAY iSQUIRREL. Sciunis carolinensis, Gmelin ; leucotis.

SOUTHERN GRAY SQUIRREL. Sciurus carolhiensis, Gmelin ; carolinensis.

FLYING SQUIRREL. Sciuropterus volucella, (Pallas) Geoff. ; volucella.

CHIPMUNK ; STRIPED SQUIRREL. Tamias striatus, (Linne) Baird.

WOODCHUCK ; GROUJSiD HOG. Arctomys monax, (Linne) Schreber.

*The Jumping Mouse, Zapus hudsonius, (Zimm.) Cones, representing the iiimily Zapo-
(lidx, is included by Gibbes in the fauna of South Carolina, but apparently without
reason.

210 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

MURID.E.

BROAVX RAT. Mus decumanus, Pallas. (Introduced.)
BLACK EAT. Mus rattus, Linne. (Introduced.)
COMMON MOUSE. Mus musculus, Linne. (Introduced.)
MUSK RAT. Fiber zibethicus, (Linne) Cuvier.
PINE MOUSE. Arvicola pinetorum, (LeConte) A. and B.
COMMON MEADOW MOUSE. Arvicola riparius, Ord.
H .\RYEST MOUSE. Ochetodon humilis, ( Aud. and Bach.) AVag.
RED MOUSE. Hesperomys aureolus, f Aud. and Bach.) Wag.
COTTON MOUSE. Hesperomys gossypinus, LeConte.
GRAY-BELLIED MOUSE. Hesperomys leucopus. Wagner.
RICE-FIELD MOUSE. Hesperomys palustris, (Harlan) Wagner.
FLORIDA OR WOOD RAT. Neotoma floridana, Say and Ord.
COTTON RAT. Sigmodon hispidus, Say aud Ord.

CASTORID^.
AMERICAN BEAVER. Castor fiber, Linne. (Extinct)

LEFORIDM,

GRAY RABBIT. Lepus sylvaticus. Bach man ; sylvaticus.
MARSH HARE. Lepus palustris, Bach man.

SUB-CLASS DIDELPHIA.

A sub-class of mammals distinguished from the j^receding by the fact
that the young are born in an incompletely developed condition, and
are protected in a pouch on the abdomen of the mother, where they are
retained for several months, being nourished by the milk secreted
by the mammae therein contained. The sub-class contains but a single
order, the Marsupalia.

The n:|^rsupials vary very much in size, and are mostl}' confined to
Australasia. A single famil}', the Didelphidx, or opossums, inhabits
America, and is peculiar to our continent.

DIDELPHID.E.
OPOSSU-M. Didelphys virginiana, Shaw.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 217

CLASS AVES. BIRDS.

A class of oviparous, warm-blooded, air-breathing vertebrates, having
the anterior limbs greatly modified for flight. Hind limbs always
present. Exoskeleton in the form of feathers. Teeth in existing species
absent. In certain extinct forms, Odontorniths, teeth are present.

The birds form a remarkably compact class of animals. They have
attracted more attention on account of their beauty and prevailing harm-
lessness than, perhaps, any group of animals, and vie with the mammals
in the degree of their usefulness to man.

No corner of the globe is without representatives of this group.
About nine hundred and twent3^-four species and sub-species are North
American. Many orders, such as the ostriches, are not represented in
our country.

ORDER PASSERES. PASSERINE BIRDS.

Birds having four toes fitted for perching, but never versatile, i. e., ca-
pable of being turned laterally from one position to another. Hind toe
on a level with the others, and always with a claw as long or longer than
that of the middle toe. Tail-feathers twelve, primaries (the stiff feathers
inserted from the bend of the wing to the tip, and usually ten in num-
ber), nine or ten. Sternum uniform in pattern in the various species.

This group of birds is the most numerous of all in species. The
musical capabilities are developed in a high degree, and throughout
their structure they display " the highest grade of develoiannent and the
most comj^lex organization of the class." — (Coues). Their relations to
the success of agriculture are varied, some families being granivorous,
and doing much damage to corn and grain, others being insectivorous,
and hence of importance in reducing the abundance of noxious insects.
Recognized North American species, about three hundred and forty.

TURDIDiE.

WOOD THRUSH. Hylocichla mustelina, (Gmel.) Baird.
WILSON'S THRUSH. Hylocichla fuscescens, (Steph.) Baird.
? GREY-CHEEKED THRUSH. Hylocichla alicise, Baird.
OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH. Hylocichla ustulata rfwainsoni, (Caban.) Ridgw.

218 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

HERMIT THRUSH. Hylocichla unalascae pallasi, (C'abanis) Ridgway.

AMERICAN ROBIN. Menila migratoria, (Liniu-) S\v. and Rich.

MOCKING BIRD. Mimus polyglottus. aJnne) Boie.

CAT-BIRD. Galeoscoptes carolinensis, (Linn^) Caban.

BROWN THRrSH OR THRASHER. Harporhynchus rufiis, (Linn^) Caban.

SAXICOLIDtE.
BLUE-BIRD. Sialia sialis. (Linne) Haldeman.

SYLVIID.E.

BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER, OR FLYCATCHER. Polioptila carulea,

(Linne) Sclater.
RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET, OR WREN. Regulus calendula, (Linn6)

Lichtenstein.
GOLDEN-CRESTED KINGLET. Regulus satrapa, Lidit.

PARID^.

TUFTED TITMOUSE. Lophophanes bicolor, (Linn^) Bonaparte.
BLACK-CAPPED CHICKEDEE, OR TITMOUSE. Parus atricapiUus, Linn6.
CAROLINA TITMOUSE, OR CHICKADEE. Parus carolinensis, Audubon.

SITTID.E.

WHITE-BELLIED NUTHATCH. Sitta carolinensis, Gnielin.
? RED-BELLIED NUTHATCH. Sitta canadensis, Linne.
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH. Sitta pusilla, Latham.

CERTHIID.^.
BROWN CREEPER. CertMa familiaris mexicana, (Gloger) Ridgway.

TROGLODYTID.E.

CAROLINA WREN. Thryothorus ludovicianus. (Gni.) Bonaparte.
BEWICK'S WREN. Thryomanes bewicki, (Aud.) Baird.
HOUSE WREN. Troglodytes aedon, Vieillot.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 210

LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN. Telmatodytes palustris, ( Wilson) Baird.
SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN. Cistothorus stellaris, (Light.) Acb.
WINTER WREN. Anorthura troglodsrtes hyemalis, ( Vieillot) Coues.

MOTACILLID^.

AMERICAN TITLARK. Anthus ludovicianus, (Gm.) Liclitenstein.

MNIOTILTID^.

BLACK-AND-WHITE CREEPER. Mniotilta varia, (Linne) Yieillot.
PROTHONOTARY WARBLER. Protonotaria citrea, (Bodd.j Baird.
SWAINSON'S WARBLER. Helonsea swainsoni, Andnbon.
WORM-EATIxVG WARBLER. Helminthotherus vermivorus, [Gm.) Salvin &

Godman.
BACHMAN'S WARBLER. Helminthophaga baclimam, (Aud.) Cabanis.
BLUE-WINGED YELLOW WARBLER. Helminthophaga pinus, (Linne) BairU
GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER. Helminthophaga chrysoptera, (Linne) Baird.
NASHVILLE WARBLER. Helminthophaga ruficapilla, (Wiis.) Baird.
? ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER. Helminthophaga celata, (Sayj Baird
TENNESSEE WARBLER. Helminthophaga peregrina, (Wilson) Baird.
BLUE YELLOW-BACKED WARBLER. Panila americana, (Linn^) Bonaparte.
CAPE MAY WARBLER. Perissoglossa tigrina, (Gmelin) Baird.
SUMMKR YELLOW BIRD; YELLOW WARBLER. Dendroeca jestiva, (Grn.)

Baird.
BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER. Dendroeca cserulescens, ( Linne) Baird.
YELLOW-RUMP WARBLER. Dendroeca coronata, (Linne) Gray.
BLACK-AND-YELLOW WARBLER. Dendroeca maculosa, (Gmelin) Baird.
BLUE WARBLER ; CERULEAN WARBLER. Dendroeca carulea, (Wils.) Baird.
CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER. Dendroeca pennsylvanica, (Linne) Baird.
BAY-BREASTED WARBLER. Dendroeca castanea, (Wilson) Baird.
BLACK-POLL WARBLER. Dendroeca striata, (Forst.) Baird.
• BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER. Dendroeca blackburniae, (Gm.) Baird.
YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER. Dendroeca dominica, (Linne) Baird.
BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER. Dendroeca virens, (Gmelin) Baird.
PINE-CREEPING WARBLER. Dendroeca pinus, (Wilson) Baird.
YELLOW RED-POLL WARBLER. Dendroeca palmarum hypochrysea, Ridg-

way.
PRAIRIE WARBLER. Dendroeca discolor, (Yieillot) Baird.
WATER THRUSH. Siurus nsevius, (Bodd.) Coues.
GOLDEN-CROWNED THRUSH Siurus auricapillus, (LinntM Swains.
LARGE-BILLED WATER THRUSH Siurus motacilla, (Yieillot) Coues.

220 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. -

CONNECTICUT WARBLER. Oporornis agilis, (Wilson) Baird.
KENTUCKY WARBLER. Oporornis formosa, ( Wilson) Baird.
:\I0URNINC4 WARBLER. Geothlypis pMladelphia, (WiLson) Baird.
MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT. Geothlypis trichas, (Linne) Cabanis.
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. Icteria virens, (Linne) Baird.
HOODED WARBLER. Myiodioctes mitrata, (Gniel.) Audubon.
BL\CK CAPPED YELLOW WARBLER. Myiodioctes pusiUus, (Wils.) Bp.
? SMALL-HEADED FLY CATCHER Myiodioctes minuta, (Wils.) Baird.
CANADL\N FLY-CATCHING -WARBLER; CANADA FLY-CATCHER. Myio-
dioctes canadensis, (Linne) Audubon.
AxMERICAN REDSTART. Setophaga ruticilla, (Linne) Swainson.

VIREONID^E.

RED-EYED YIREO; RED EYED FLY-CATCHER. Vireosylvia oHvacea,
? PHILADELPHIA YIREO. Vireosylvia pMladelpMca, Cassin.
WARBLING VIREO. Vireosylvia gilva, iVieili.) Cassin.

(Linne) Bon.
YELLOW-THROATED VIREO ; YELLOW-THROATED FLY-CATCHER. Lani-

vireo flavifrons, (Vieillot) Baird.
BLUE-HEADED VIREO OR FLY-CATCHER ; SOLITARY VIREO. Lanivireo

solitarius, (Vieillot) Baird.
WHITE-EYED VIREO. Vireo noveboracensis, (Gm.) Bonaparte.

LANIID.E.

LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. Lanius ludovicianus, Linne.
? GREAT NORTHERN SHRIKE. Lanius borealis, Vieillot.

AMPELID^.

CEDAR WAX-WINCt; CEDAR BIRD. Ampelis cedrorum, (Vieillot) Baird.

HIRUNDINID^.

PURPLE MARTEN. Progne subis, (Linne) Baird.
? CLIFF SWALLOW. Petrochelidon lunifrons, (Say) Lawrence.
BARN SWALLOW. Hirundo erytbrogastra, Boddaert.
WHITE-BELLIED SW^\LLOW. Tachycineta bicolor, (Vieill) Cabanis.
BANK SWALLOW. Cotile riparia. (Linne) Boie.
ROUGH- WINGED SWALLOW. Stelgidopteryx serripinnis, (Aud.) Baird.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 221

TANAGRID^.

SCARLET TANAGER. Pjrranga rubra, (Linne) Vieillot.
SUMMER REDBIRD. Pyranga sestiva, (Linne) Vieillot.

FRINGILLIDtE..

PURPLE FINCH. Carpodacus purpureus, (Gm.) Baird.

AMERICAN GOLDFINCH; YELLOWBIRD. Astragalinus tristis, (Linn^)
Cabanis.

PINE GOLDFINCH ; PINE FINCH. Chrysomitris pinus, ( Wils.) Bonaparte.
? SNOW BUNTING. Plectrophanes nivalis, (Linni') xMeyer.

SAVANNAH SPARROW. Passerculus sandwichensis savanna, fWils ) Ridg-
way.

GRASS FINCH. Pocecetes gramineus, (Gm.) Baird.

YELLOW-WINGED SPARROW. Coturniculus passerinus, (Wils.) Bonaparte.

HENLOW'S SPARROW OR BUNTING. Coterniculus henslowi, (And.) Bon-
aparte.
? SHARP-TAILED FINCH. Atnmodromus caudacutus, (Gm.) Swainson.
? SEA-SIDE FINCH. Ammodromus maritimus, (Wils.) Swainson.

WH [TE-CROWNED SPARROW. Zonotrichia leucophrys, (Furster) S\vain.son.

WHITE;-THR0ATED sparrow, zonotrichia albicoUis, (Gm.) Bonaparte.

TREE-SPARROW. Spizella montana, (Forst.) Ridgway.

CHIPPING SPARROW. Spizella domestica, (Bartram) Cones.

FIELD SPARROW. Spizella pusilla, (Wils.) Bonaparte.

BLACK SNOW BIRD ; SNOW BIRD. Junco hyemalis, (Linne) Sclater.

BACHMAN'S FINCH. Peucsea aestivalis, (Lieht.) Cabanis.

SONG SPARROW. Melospiza fasciata, (Forster) Scott.

SWAMP SPARROW. Melospiza palustris, (Wils.) Baird.
? LINCOLN'S FINCH, Melospiza lincolni, (And.) Baird.

FOX-COLORED SPARROW. Passerella iliaca, (Merrem) Sw.

CHEWINK; TOWHEE GROUND-ROBIN. Pipilo erythrophthalmus, (Linne)
Vieillot.

CARDINAL GROSBEAK; REDBIRD OR CARDINAL REDBIRD. Cardinalis
virginianus, (Brisson) Bonaparte.

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK. Zamelodia ludoviciana, (Linne) Cones.

BLUE GROSBEAK. Guiraca cserulea, (Linne) Swainson.

INDIGO BUNTING. Passerina cyanea, (Linne) Gray.
? PAINTED BUNTING ; NONPAREIL. Passerina ceris, (Linne) Gray.

BLACK-THROATED BUNTING. Spiza americana, (Gm.) Bonaparte.

222 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ICTERID.E.

BOBOLINK ; IMAY-BIRD; REED BIRD; RICE-BIRD. Dolichonyx ory'zivonis,

(Li line) Swainson
COWBIRD. Molothrus ater, (Bodd.) Gray.
RED-AND-BUFF-SHODLDERED BLACKBIRD. Agelaeus phoeniceus, (Linn<^)

VieiL
MEADOW LARK. Sturnella magna, (Linn6) Swainson,
ORCHARD ORIOLE- Icterus spurius, (Linne) Bonaparte.
BALTIMORE ORIOLE Icterus galbula, (Linne) Cones.
BULLOCK'S ORIOLE. Icterus buliocki, (Swainson) Bonaparte
RUSTY BLACKBIRD OR GRACKLE. Scolecopliagus ferrugineus, (Gmelin)

Swainson.
BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE OR .lACKDAW. Quiscalus major, Vieillot.
PURPLE GRACKLE. Quiscalus purpureus, (Bartr. i Licht.

CORVID.E.

CO?*I]MON CROW. Corvus frugivorus, Bartr.
? AMERICAN RAVEN, Corvus corax carnivoras, (Bartr .) Ridgway,
FISH CROW. Corvus ossifragus, Wilson.
BLUE JAY. Cyanocitta cristata, (Linne) Strick.

«

ALAUDID^.

SHORE LARK. Eremophila alpestris, (For.st.) Boie.

TYRANNID.E.

KINGBIRD; BEE MARTIN. Tyrannus carolinensis, (Unn^j Temminck.
GREAT-CRESTED FTA^-CATCHER. Myiarchus crinitus, (Linn6) Cabani?.
]'Ha:BE BIRD ; PE WEE. Sayornis fuscus, i G m . ) Baird.
• OLIVE-SID ED FLY-CATCH EU. Coatopus borealis, i. Swaing.) Bp.
WOOD PEWEE. Contopus virens, ( Linne) Cabanis.

TRAILL'S FLY-CATCHER. Empidonax pusillus trailli, (Audubon) Baird.
Y FLLO W-BELLIED Fr,Y-CAT( U ER. Empidonax flaviventris, Baird.
ACADI \N, OR SMALL GREEN-CRESTED FLY-CATCHER. Empidonax aca-

dicns, (CJmelinI Baird.
LiCAST FLY-CATCHER. Empidonax minimus. Baird
YELLOW-BELLIED FLY-CATCHER. Empidonax flaviventris, Baird.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLIXA. '2"23

ORDER PICARI.E. PICARIAN BIRDS.

Birds witli four toes, the hinder small, sometimes absent, with a claw
shorter than that of the middle toe. Third and fourth toes. sometimes
with fewer than the normal number of joints; second and fourth some-
times versatile. Tail feathers eight to twelve, but usually ten ; primaries,
ten,

A much varied group of peculiar birds, with imperfect musical powers.
Includes the humming birds, in some respects the most beautiful of
birds. Mostly insectivorous or carnivorous, and, with a few exceptions,
of great usefulness to the farmer. "Widely distributed over the globe,
except the humming birds, which are strictly American.

TROCHILID.E.

IJUBY-THROATED HUMMING BIIID. TrocMlus colubris, Linne.

CYPSELID.E.
CIIIMNF.Y SWIFT OR " SWALLOW." Cliffitura pelasgica. { Linne) Baird.

CAPRIMULGID.E.

CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW. Antrostomus carolinensis, (Gm) Gold.
WHIP-POOE-WII,L. Caprimulgus vociferus, i Wils.) Bp.
NIGHTHAWK. Chordeiles popetue, (Vieillot) Bainl.

PICID.E.

IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER. Campephilus principalis. iLinne) Gray.
HAIRY WOODPECKER. Picus villosus, Linne.
DOWNY WOODPECKER. Picus pubescens, Linne.
RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER. Picus querulus. Wilson.
YELLOW-BELLIED AVOODPPX'KER. Sphyrapicus varius fLinne), Baird.
PILEATED WOODPECKER OR BLACK WO< iDCoCK. Hylotomus pileatus.

(Linne) Baird.
RED-RELLIED WOODPECKER. Centunis carolinus. (Linne) Bp.
REDHEADED WOODPECKER. Melanerpes erythrocephalus. (Linne) Sw.
YELLOW-SHAFTED FLICKER. Colaptes auratus, (Linne) Sw.

224 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ALCEDINID^E. , *

BELTED KINGFISHER. Ceryle alcyon, (Linne) Eoie.

CUCULID.E.

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO. Coccyzus americanus, (Linne) Bonaparte
BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO. Coccyzus erytliroplithalinus, (Wils.) Baird

ORDER PSITTACI. PARROTS.

Brilliantly colored birds, with extremely thick bills, strongly hooked
tongues short and fleshy (.Jordan). The outer toe of the foot reversed, so
that two toes are opposed to two (zygodactyle).

Well-known birds, much admired for their gorgeous plumage, and for
the quaint efforts at speech which some can be trained to put forth.
Inhabitants of tropical countries. Not well represented in North Amer-
ica, but abundant in South America.

PSITTACID.E.
CAROLINA PARAKEET.* Conurus carolinensis, (Linne) Kuhl.

ORDER RAPTORES. BIRDS OF PREY.

Large and powerful carnivorous birds, with strong beaks and sharp
claws. Four toes, the fourth sometimes versatile. Legs frequently
feathered to the ankle. Tail feathers, twelve ; primaries, ten.

Found in every part of the world. The order includes some of the
strongest flying birds. Many are obnoxious to the poultry keeper
(hawks), while others (buzzards) are of great service in removing carrion.

STRIGID.E.

?BARN OWL. Aluco flammeus americanus, (And.) Ridgway.
LONG-EARED OAVL, Asio americanus, (Steph.) Sharpe.
SHORT-EARED OWL Asio accipitrinus, (Pallas) Newton.

■"■Extinct in South Carolina — G. E. M.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 22")

BARRED OWL. Strix nebulosa, Forster.

LITTLE SCREECH OWL. Scops asio, (Linn4) Bonaparte.

GREAT-HORNED OWL. Bubo virginianus, (Gm.) Bonaparte.

SAW-WHET OWL. Nyctale acadica, (Gmel.) Bp.

SKOWY OWL. Nyctea scandiaca, Linm'.

FALCONID.E.

PEREGRINE FALCON DUCK HAWK. Falco peregrinus n»vius, (Gm.

Ridf^way.
PIGEON HAWK. iEsalon columbarius (LinnL'), Kaup.
SPARROW HAWK, Tinnunculus sparverius (Linne), Yieillot.
AMERICAN OSPREY; FISH HAAVK. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis, (Gm.

Ridgway.
SWALLOW-TAILED KITE Elanoides forficatus, (Linne) Ridgway.
MISSISSJPPI KITE. Ictinia subcserulea, (Bartram) Coues.
MARSH HAAVK ; HARRIER. Cirius hudsonius, (Linne) Yieillot.
COOPERS HAAVK. Accipiter cooperi, Bonaparte.
SHARP-SHINNED HAWK. Accipiter fuscus, (Gmelin) Bonaparte.
RED-TAILED HAAVK. Buteo borealis, (Gm.) Yieillot.
RED-SHOULDERED HAAVK. Buteo lineatus, (Gm.) Jardine.
AVHITE-TAILED HAAVK. Buteo albicaudatus, Yieillot.
? BROAD-WINGED HxAAVK- Buteo pennsylvanicus. (AVils.) Bonaparte.
? ROUGH-LEGGED HAAVK. Arcbibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis, (Gm.) Rid-

-way.
? GOLDEN EAGLE. Aquila chrysaetus canadensis, (Linne) liidgway.
BALD EAGLE; GRAY EAGLE. Haliaeetus leucocephalus, (Linne) Savig.

CATHARTID^E.

TURKEY BUZZARD. Cathartes aura, (Linne) Illiger.

BLACK YULTURE ; CARRION CROW. Catharista atrata, (Wils.) Lesson.

ORDER COLUMB^. DOVES.

Birds, typified in the common dove, having small heads and
straight beaks, homy at the tip, which is separated from the softer por-
tion by a constriction. The hinder toe on a level with tlie rest.
"^15

226 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

Birds of downy plumage and gentle manner. Monogamous. Many
species domesticated. Abundant in most regions, but especially so in
the East Indies. The Columba livia of that part of the globe is supposed
to be the ancestor of all the domesticated breeds of pigeons.

COLUMBIDiE.

MESSENGER; WILD PIGEON. Ectopistes migratoria, (Linn^) Sw.
MOURNING DOVE; TURTLE DOVE. Zenaidura carolinensis, (Linne) Bp.
GROUND DOVE. Chamsepelia passerina, (L.) Swainson.

ORDER GALLINiE. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

Mostly thick-set birds, having short and stout wings, legs and bills,
the latter convex and horny and not constricted. Hind toe elevated,
shorter than the rest, sometimes wanting.

A large order of the most useful l)irds, including some of the domes-
tic fowls and the principal game birds. Too well known to require
comment.

MELEAGRID^E.
WILD TURKEY. Meleagris gallopavo americana, (Bartram) Coues.

TETRAONIDiE,
? RUFFED GROUSE. Bonasa umbellus, (Linne) Steph.

PERDICIDiE.

PARTRIDGE; BOB WHITE; AMERICAN QUAIL. Ortyx virginiana, (L.)
Bonai)arte.

VEKTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 227

ORDER LIMICOLiE. SHORE BIRDS.

Birds usually of small size, with rounded heads, long legs and necks,
and long, soft bills, suited for probing in the mud. Hind toe elevated.

Largely aquatic and widely distributed. Abundant in America. The
order includes many much valued game birds.

PLATALEID^E.
? ROSEATE SPOONBILL. Ajaja rosea, (Rrisson) Ridgway.

H^MATOPODID^.
AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHER. Hsematopus palliatus, Temminck.

STREPSILID.E.
TURNSTONE. Strepsilas interpres, (Linne) Illiger.

CHARADRHDiE.

BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER. Squatarola helvetica, (Linni?) Cuvier.

GOLDEN PLOVER. Charadrius pluvialis, Linne.

KILLDEER; KILLDEER PLOVER. Oxyechus vociferus, (Linne) Reich.

SEMFPALMATED PLOVER, ^gialites semipalmata, (Bonap.) Cabanis.

PIPING PLOVER, ^gialites meloda, (Ord) Bp.

WILSON'S PLOVER. Ochtliodromus wilsonius, (Ord) Reich.

SCOLOPACID.E.

AMERICAN WOODCOCK. Philohela minor, (Gmel.) Gray.

ENGLISH SNIPE. Gallinago media, Leach.

WILSON'S SNIPE. Gallinago media wilsoni, (Temm.) Rids,'way.

RED-BREASTED SNIPE; GRAY SNIPE. Macrorhamphus griseus, (Gmel.)

Leach.
? RED-BELLIED SNIPE; GREATER GRAY-BACK. Macrorhamphus griseus

scolopaceus, (Say) Cones.
STILT SANDPIPER. Micropalama himantopus, fBonap.) Baird.
KNOT. Tringa canutus, Linne.

228 VEKTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

PUKPLE SANDPIPER. Arquatella maritima, (Biunn) Baird.

GRASS SNIPE. Actodromus maculata, (Vieillot) Coues.

BONAPARTE'S SANDPIPER. Actodromas fuscicoUis, (Vieill.) Ridgway.

LEAST SANDPIPER. Actodromas minutilla (Vieill.) Bj).

RED-BACKED SANDPIPER. Pelidna alpena americana, Cassin
? CURLEW SANDPIPER. Pelidna subarquata, KTulb.) Cuvier.

SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER. Ereunetes pusillus, iLinnej Cassin.

SANDERLING. Calidris arenaria, (Linne) Illiger.

MARBLED GOD WIT. Limosa fedoa, (Linne) Ord.

HUDSONIAN GODWIT. Limosa haemastica, (Linnej Coues.

TELL-TALE; GREATER YELLOW-LEGS. Totanus melanoleucus, (Gmel.)

Yioillot.
YELLOW LEGS; LESSER YELLOW SHANKS. Tetanus flavipes, (Gmel.)

A'ieiilot.
SOLITARY SANDPIPER. RhyacopMIus solitarius, ( Wils.) Cassin.
WILLET; STONE CURLEW. Symphemia semipalinata, (Gmel.) Hartlaub.
FIELD PLOVER; BARTRAM'S SANDPIPER. Bartramia longicauda, (Bech-

stein) Bp.
BUFF-BREASTED .SANDPIPER. Tryngites fuscescens, (Vieill) Cabanis.
SPOTTED SANDPIPER. Tringoides macularius, (Linne) Gray.
LONG-BILLED CURLEW. Numenius longii'ostris, Wils.
HUDSONIAN CURLEW. Numenius hudsonicus, Latham.
ESKIMO CURLEW. Numenius borealis, (Forst.) Latham.

PHALAROPODID.E.

? RED PHALAROPE. Phalaropus fulicarius, (Linne) Bp. '

? NORTHERN PHALAROPE. Lobipes byperboreus, (Linne) Cuv.

? WILSON'S PHALAROPE. Steganopus wilsoni, (Sab.) Coues.

RECUR VIROSTJRID.E.

? AMERICAN AVOSET, Recurvirostra americana, Gmelin,
•? BLACK-NECKED STILT. Himantopus mexicanus, MuUgord.

ORDER HERODIONES. STORKS AND HERONS.

Birds of ])eciiliar appearance, with long legs and S-shaped necks,
and with broad wings and short tails. Hind toe long, and usually
not elevated. Bill long, hard and pointed, with sharp, cutting sur-
faces.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 220

Readily recognizable birds of odd form. Of no considerable value
commercially. Certain species are or have been venerated by different
nations, c. g., the European stork and the sacred ibis of Egypt.

ARDEID.E.

GREAT BLUE HERON. Ardea herodias, Linne.

AMERICAN EGRET; WHITE HERON. Herodias alba egretta, (Gmel.) Ridg-

way.
SNOWY HERON. Garzetta candidissima, (Gmelin) Bp.
LOUISIANA HERON. Hydranassa tricolor ludovicianuas, (Wils.) Ridgway.
LITTLE BLUE HERON. Florida cserulea, (Linne) Baird.
GREEN HERON. Butorides virescens, (Linne) Bp.
NIGHT HERON. Nyctiardea grisea naevia, (Bodd.) Allen.
WHITE-CROWNED NIGHT HERON. Nyctherodius violaceus, fLinn^) Rich.
AMERICAN BITTERN. Botaurus lentiginosus, (Montague) Stepb.
LEAST BITTERN. Ardetta exilis, (Gm.) Gray.

CIRCONIID.E.
AVOOD IBIS. Tautalus loculator, Linne.

IBIDID.E.

WHITE IBIS. Eudocimus albus, (Linne) Wagler.
GLOSSY IBIS. Plegadis falcinellus, (Linne) K.aup.

ORDER ALECTORIDES. RAILS AND CRANES.

Birds somewhat resembling the herons. The hind toe small and ele-
vated. " Body more or less compressed. Wings short, rounded, con-
cave. Tail short and small ; size various." — (Jordan).

A comj^aratively small order of tall birds, chiefly valued as game-
birds.

230 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

RALLID^.

RED-BREASTED RAIL; MARSH HEN. Rallus elegans, Audubon.
CLAPPER RAIL. Rallus longirostris crepitans, (Gniel.j Ridgway.
VIRGINIA RAIL. Rallus virginianus, Limie.
SORA RAIL ; CAROLINA RAIL. Porzaua Carolina, (Linn6j Baird.
LITTLE YELLOW RAIL. Porzana novoboracensis, (Gmel.) Balrd.
LITTLE BLACK RAIL. Porzana jamaicensis, (Gmel.) Baird.
PURPLE GALLINULE. lonornis martinica, (Linne) Reich.
FLORIDA GALLINULE. Gallinula galeata, (Liclit.) Bp.
AMERICAN COOT. Fulica americana, Gmel.
? AVPIOOPING CRANE. Grus americana, (Linue) Temm.

ORDER LAMELLIROSTRES. ANSERINE BIRDS.

Birds with flattened bills, raised on the edges into a series of tooth-
like ridges. A high, compressed head, with small eyes. Usually with
short legs (excepting the flamingoes, in which they are remarkably long),
giving a " squatty " appearance. All swimming-birds to a greater or
less extent.

In economic importance this group compares favorably with the galli-
naceous birds. " An important and familiar order, comprising nearly
all the 'water-fowl ' which are valued in domestication or as game-birds."

The order is comparatively small, and includes but two families, the
ducks and the flamingoes.

PH^ENICOPTERID^.
? AMERICAN FLAMINGO. Phoenicopterus ruber, Linne.

ANATIDiE.

WHISTLING SWAN. Olor americanus, (Sharpless) Bp.

SNOW GOOSE. Chen hyperboreus, (Pallas) Boie.

AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. Anser albifrons gambeli, (Hartlaub)

Cones.
CANADA GOOSE. Bernicla canadensis, (Linne) Boie.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 231

BRANT GOOSE. Bernicla brenta, (Pallas) Steph.

MALLARD. Anas boscas, Linne.

BLACK DUCK. Anas obscura, Gmelin.

GAD WALL. Chaulelasmus streperus, (Linne) Gray.

PIN-TAIL DUCK ; SPRIG-TAIL DUCK. Dafila acuta, (Linne) Bonap.

BALDPATE. Mareca americana, (Gmel.) Steph.

SHOVELLER ; SHOVELLER DUCK. Spatula clypeata, (Linne) Boie.

BLUE-WINGED TEAL. Querquedula discors, (Linne) Steph.

GREEN-WINGED TEAL. Nettion carolinensis, (Gmel.) Baird.

WOOD DUCK ; SUMMER DUCK. Aix sponsa, (Linn6) Boie.

SCAUP DUCK ; BIG BLACK-HEAD. Fulix marila, (Linne) Baird.

LITTLE BLACK-HEAD. Fulix affinis, (Eyt.) Baird.

RING-BILLED BLACKHEAD : RING-NECKED DUCK. Fulix coUaris, (Donov.)
Baird.

CANVAS-BACK. .^lythyia vallisneria, (Wils.) Boie.

REDHEAD, .ffiytbyia americana, (Eyt.) Bp.

AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE. Clangula glaucium americana, (Bp.) Ridgway.

BUTTERHEAD ; BUFFLEHEAD. Clangula alveola, (Linne) Steph.
? LONG-TAILED DUCK ; OLD SQUAW. Harelda glacialis, (Linne) Leach.
? AMERICAN SCOTER. (E Jemia americana, Sw. and Rich.
? AMERICAN VELVET SCOTER. Melanetta velvetina, (Cassin) Baird.
? SURF DUCK. Pelionetta perspicillata, (Linne) Kaup.

AMERICAN SHELDRAKE. Mergus merganser americanus, (Cassin) Ridg-
way.

RED-BREASTED SHELDRAKE. Mergus serrator, Linne.

HOODED SHELDRAKE. Lophodytes cucuUatus, (Linne) Reich.

ORDER STEGANOPODES. TOTIPALMATE BIRDS.

Toes entirely webbed ; the hinder one lengthened. Bill horny, but
never lamellate. A prominent gular pouch.

A tolerably large group of medium sized or large birds, aquatic and
largely marine. Fish-eating. Well distributed over the globe.

TACHYPETID^E.
FRIGATE PELICAN ; MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. Tachypetes aquila, (Linne) Vieil.

■232 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

PELECANID.E.

AMERICAN WHITE PELICAN. Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, Gmelin.
BROWN PELICAN. Pelecanus fuscus, Linne.

PHALACROCORACID.E.
FLORIDA CORMORANT. Phalacrocorax dilophus floridanus, (And.) Ri.Jgwii\

PLOTIDiE.

SNAKE BIRD; AMERICAN ANHINGA. Plotus anhinga, Linne.

SULARID^E.

COMMON GANNET. Sula bassana, (Linne) Brisson.
BOOBY GANNET. Sula leucogastra, (Boddert) Salvin.

ORDER LONGIPENNES. LOXGAVIXGED SWIMMERS.

Birds with peculiarly long and pointed wings, and possessing remark-
able powers of flight. Feet webbed ; hind toe small (sometimes wanting)
and elevated.

This order includes only two families, the gulls and the petrels.
Both are largely marine, subsisting on fish. Being excellent flyers they
are often found manv hundred miles from land.

RHYNCHOPSID.E.

BLACK SKIMMER. Rhynchops nigra, Lmne.

LARID^.

GREAT BLACK -BACKED GULL. Larus marinus, UnnL
HERRING GULL. Larus argentatus, Briinn.
RING-BILLED GULL. Larus delawarensis, Ord.
LAUGHING GULL. Larus atricilla, Linne.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 233

BONAPARTE'S GULL. Larus philadelpMse, (Ord) Gray.

BULL-BILLED TERN ; MARSH T1<:rn. Sterna anglica, Montag.

COMMON TERN. Sterna fluviatilis, Namnann.

FOSTER'S TERN. Sterna forsteri, Nuttall.

CABOT'S TERN. Sterna cantiaca acuflavida, (Cabot) Ridgway.

ROYAL TERN. Sterna regia, Gambel.

ROSEATE TERN. Sterna dougalli, Montague.

LEAST TERN. Sterna antillarum, (Lesson) Cones.

BLACK TERN. Hydrochelidon lariformis surinamensis, (Gmelin) Ridgway.

PROCELLARIID^.

GREATER SHEARWATER. Puffinus major, Faber.

DUSKY SHEARWATER. Puffinus audubonii, Finscb.
? BLACK-CAPPED PETREL. (Estrelata haesitata, (Temm.) Coues.
? MOTHER GARY'S CHICKEN ; STORMY PETREL. Procellaria pelagica, Linne.

WILSON'S PETREL. Oceanites oceanica, (Kubl) Coues. •

ORDER PYGOPODES. DIVING BIRDS.

Birds with veiy short wings and pahnate or lobate feet. External por-
tion of the body legs very short, causing awkwardness in terrestrial pro-
gression. Bill horny, variously serrate or lamellate.

Strictly American birds. Noted for their powers in diving and lack of
proficiency in flight. About twenty-one species are recognized. One
member of this group, the Great Auk, Alca impeniiis, has been exterminated
within a century. Purely marine and mostly arctic birds.

PODICIPITID^.

AMERICAN RED NECKED GREBE. Podiceps holbolli, Reinhardt.

HORNED GREBE. Dytes auritus, (Linne) Ridgway.

THICK-BILLED GREBE ; DABCHICK. Podilymbus podiceps, (Linne) Lawrence.

COLYMBIDiE.

LOON. Oolymbus torquatus, Brunn.

RED-THROATED DIVER. Colymbus septentrionalis, Linne.

BLACK-THROATED DIVER. Colymbus arcticus, Linn6.

234 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OP SOUTH CAROLINA.

ALCID^.
? C OMMON PUFFIN. Fratercula arctica, (Linnt") Steph.

CLASS REPTILIA. REPTILES.

Air-breathing vertebrates with cold, red blood. Exoskeleton developed
as scales (serpents and lizards), or horny or bony plates (tortoises). Limbs
absent (serpents), or present and adapted for walking and swimming.
Eggs hatched externally (oviparous reptiles), or in the body of the parent
(ovoviviparous reptiles).

A large class of useful (tortoises) and baneful animals, remarkable for
their varied modifications of structure. Many species which are per-
fectly harmless, and possess great interest for the unbiased observer, are
commonly regarded with an aversion kept alive by the fables of folk-lore.
Aljout two hundred and sixty species are North American. Five orders
are usually recognized.

ORDER OPHIDIA. SERPENTS.

Reptiles of an extremely attenuated form, devoid of limbs (rarely
possessing rudiments of hind limbs), and with the two halves of the
lower jaw united by ligament. Right and left lungs unequally developed.
Exoskeleton in the form of scales. Oviparous.

This order includes some of the most venomous of all animals. Only
two poisonous families, however, are represented in the United States,
namely, the rattlesnakes {Crotalidse), and the harlequin snakes {Elapidee).
All other North American snakes, except five species, belong to the great
family Colahrixhe, and are perfectly harmless. About one hundred and
thirty -two species of this order inhabit North America.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 235

CROTALIDiE.

BANDED KATTLESNAKE * Crotalus horridus, Linne.
WATER RATTLESNAKE. Crotalus adamantens, Beauvois.
GROUND RATTLESNAKE. Caudisona miliaria, (Linnu) Baird and Girard.
BLACK RATTLESNAKE ; PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE ; MASSASAUGA. Caudi-
sona tergemma, Say.
WATER MOCCASIN. Ancistrodon piscivorus, (Lacepede)Cope.
COPPERHEAD. Ancistrodon contortrix, (Linne) B. and G.

ELAPID^.

BEAD SNAKE. Elaps fulvius, (Linne) Cope.

COLUBRID^.

GROUND SNAKE; WORM SNAKE. Carphophiops amoenus, Say.
VALERIA'S SNAKE. Virginia valerise, Baird and Girard.
BROWN SNAKE. Haldea striatula, (Linne) B. and G.
CROWNED TANTILLA. Tantilla coronata, Baird and Girard.
RED-LINED SNAKE. Abastor erythrogrammmus, (Daudin) Gray.
RED-BELLIED HORN SNAKE. Farancia abacura, (Holbrook) B. and G.
YELLOW-BANDED SCARLET SNAKE, Cemophora coccinea, (Blumpnbaoh)

Cope.
SCARLET SNAKE. Osceola elapsoidea, (Holbrook) B. and G.
SCARLET KING SNAKE. Ophibolus doliatus doliatus, (Linne) Cope.
RED KING SNAKE. Ophibolus doliatus coccineus, (Linne) Cope.
HOUSE SNAKE ; MILK SNAKE ; CHICKEN SNAKE ; THUNDER AND

LIGHTNING SNAKE. Ophibolus doliatus triangulus, (Linne) Cope.
THUNDER SNAKE;! KING SNAKE; CHAIN SNAKE. Ophibolus getulus

getulus, (Linn6) Cope.
BLOTCHED KING SNAKE. Ophibolus rhombomaculatus, Hoi brook.
RING-NECKED SNAKE. Diadophis punctatus punctatus, (Linne) Cope.

* This and the suoceedino; species of venomous snakes, except the harlequin, can be
readily distinguished from the innocent ones, on close examination, by the presence
of a i)it in the cheek, between the eye and the nostril. No infallible remedy seems to
have been discovered for the cure of bites of these serpents. The immediate cauteriza-
tion of the wound and the application of large quantities of stimulants, alcohol, whisky,
and the like, internally, constitute the treatment most generally successful. Delay in
this matter is dangerous.

23G VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

? RING-NECKED SNAKE. DiadopMs punctatus amabilis, (Linne) Cope.

XANTUS' SNAKE. Hypsiflena ochrorhyncha, Cojie.

GREEN SNAKE. Cyclophis sestivus, (Linnej Giinther.

CHICKEN SNAKE. Coluber quadrivittatus, (Holbrook) B. andG.

MOUNTAIN BLACK SNAKE. Coluber obsoletus obsoletus, (Say) Cope.

RED-HEADED COLUBER. Coluber obsoletus confinis, (B. and G.) Cope.

CORN SNAKE. Coluber guttatus, (Linn^) B. and G.
? COUPER'S SNAKE. Spilotes couperi, Ho' brook.
? GEORGIA SNAKE ; INDIGO SNAKE. Spilotes erebennus, Cope.
?PINE SNAKE; BULL SNAKE. Pityophis melanoleucus, (Daudinj Holbrook.

BLACK SNAKE. Bascanium constrictor. (Linne) B. and G.

COACH- WHIP SNAKE. Bascanium flagellum, (Shaw) True.

RIBAND SNAKE; SWIFT GARTER SNAKE. Eutsenia saurita, (Linne) B.
and G.
? LONG'S GARTER SNAKE. Eutaenia proxima, Say.

STRIPED SNAKE ; GARTER SNAKE. Eutaenia sirtalis sirtalis, (LinneJ Cope
? CHURCHILL'S GARTER SNAKE. Eutaenia sirtalis dorsalis, (Linne) Cope.

GRASS SNAKE. Eutaenia sirtalis ordinata, (Linne) Cope.

STORER'S SNAKE. Storeria occipitomaculata, Storer.
-? DE KAY'S SNAKE. Storeria dekayi, Holbrook.

BROWN QUEEN SNAKE. Tropidonotus leberis, Linne.

GREEN QUEEN SNAKE. Tropidonotus rigidus, Say.

BELTED WATER SNAKE. Tropidonotus fasciatus, (Linne) Holbrook.

WATER SNAKE ; WATER MOCCASIN. Tropidonotus sipedon sipedon, (Linne)
Cope.

COPPER BELLY. Tropidonotus sipedon erythrogaster. (Linne) Cope.

DARK-SPOTTED WATER SNAKE. Tropidonotus taxispilotus. Holbrook.

BLOWING VIPER ; HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Heterodon platyrbinus, Latreille.

BLACK HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Heterodon platyrMnus atmodes, (Latreille) Cope.

BLACK VIPER. Heterodon platsnrhinus niger, (Latreille) Yarrow.

HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Heterodon simus simus, (Linn^) Cope.

ORDER LACERTILIA. LIZARDS.

A very compact order of reptiles, presenting close affinities with the
serpents. From these they are distinguished, however, by the presence
of external ears, the o.sseous union of the two halves of the lower jaw, and
the occurrence, in the majority of cases, of visible limbs.*

* The " glass snake," Ophiosaurm ventralis. although devoid of external limbs, presents
the remaining and fundamental characteristics of the lizards, and is not to be regarded
as a serpent.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 237

The lizards, as a class, revel in sunshine and all warmth, and abound
most in countries where these things are most plenty. In the United
States, they live principally in the southern States, though one or two
species make their way as far north as Pennsylvania and Washington
Territory. Man}^ species will bite when provoked, but few are venomous.
The order will repay a far greater amount of attention than has yet been
bestowed upon it.

SCINCID^.

GROUND LIZARD. Oligosoma laterale, (Say) Girard.

SCORPION; RED-HEADED LIZARD; BLUE-TAILED LIZARD. Eumeces
fasciatus, (Linnet Cope.

TEID.E.

SIX-STRIPED LIZARD. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, (Linnt) Dumeril and
Bibroii.

ANGUID.E.
GLASS SNAKE. Ophiosaurus ventralis, Daudin.

IGUANID.E.

BROWN LIZARD. Sceloporus undulatus undulatus, (Harlan) Cope.

ANOLID^.

GREEN LIZARD. Anolis principalis, (Linne) Cope.

ORDER TESTUDINATA. TORTOISES.

An order of reptiles characterized by the absence of teeth, and the
modification and expansion of the ribs and vertebrae to form a more or
less bony chamber, which covers and protects the soft part of the body.
Exoskeleton usually in the form of horny scales. Oviparous.

238 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

This order is, perhaps, the most useful of tlie chiss, at least from an
economical point of view. The flesh and eggs of the sea turtles furnish
palatable and nutritious food, while the scales of some species, the hawk-
bill turtles, afford the beautiful " tortoise-shell " of commerce. The terra-
pins and soft-shelled turtles are the delight of the epicure. The " gopher "
is the hon bouche of the Southern negro. INIany species of tortoises now
unused might be employed for food were it not for prejudice.

The tortoises have a very peculiar distribution, being most largely
represented in the eastern parts of America and Asia. About seventeen
genera and forty-two species inhabit the United States.

SPHARGIDID.E.*
LEATHER TUETLE. Lermatochelys coriacea, (Vandelli) Strauch.

CHELONIID^.*

LOGGERHEAD. Thalassochelys caretta, (Linne) True.
GREEN TURTLE. Chelonia midas, (Liiine) Schweigger.

TRIONYCHID^.

SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISE. Aspidanectes ferox, (Sohw.) Wagler.
SPRING SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISE. Aspidonectes spinifer, (Les.) Agassiz.

CHELYDRID.E.
SNAPPING TURTLE. Chelydra serpentina, (Linn.:^) Schw.

CINOSTERNID^E.

MUSK TORTOISE; STINK POT. Aromochelys odorata, (Latreille) Gray.
MUD TORTOISES. Cinosternum pennsylvanicum, (Rose) Gray.

EMYDID.E.

FLORIDA TERRAPIN. Pseudemys concinna, (LeConte) Gray.
YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN. Pseudemys scabra, (Linnr) Cope.
SALT WATER TERRAPIN Malacoclemmys palustris, (Gmelin) Agassiz.

*These marine turtles occur along the greater part of the Atlantic coast of the
United States, and although likely at any time to be found on the shores of South
Carolina, cannot properly be said to be included in its fauna — F. W. T.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 230

CHEQUERED TERRAPIN. Chrysemys picta, (Hermann) Grya.
CHICKEN TERRAPIN. Chrysemys reticulata, (Bosc) Cope.
SPECKLED TORTOISE. Chelopus guttatus, (Schw.) Copo.
COMMON BOX TORTOISE. Cistudo Carolina, (I.inn^j Gray.

TESTUDINID^.
GOPHER. Xerobates polyphemus, (Daudin) Cooper.

ORDER CROCODILIA. CROCODILES.

An order of lizard-like reptiles, with four legs, fitted for walking or
swimming, the feet being webbed. Skin hard and raised into scales,
beneath which there are often bony plates. Tail with a series of scales,
each crested on the back. Teeth conical,, rootless. Heart with two ven-
tricles.

The Crocodilia, of which the prominent North American species, the
alligator, is well known, form a compact group, better represented in
past time than at present. They live in sluggish rivers and ponds, and
subsist largely on animal food.

Species of this order are abundant in South America. In North
America there are but two recognized species, the alligator and the
Florida crocodile {Crocodilus acutus, Cuvier).

ALLIGATORID^.
ALLIGATOR Alligator mississippiensis, Daudin.*

CLASS AMPHIBIA. AMPHIBIANS.

A class of cold-blooded vertebrates, closely allied to the fishes. They
breathe when young, or throughout life, by external gills. Limbs, when
present, present bony elements homologous to those in the limbs of rep-

*The question has been raised whether there are two species or varieties of alligators
in North America, differing in color and other characters. Observations on this point
would be of great value.— F. W. T.

240 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

tiles. Skill usually Avitliout scales. Eggs without hard shell, strongly
resembling those of fishes.

A class of animals mostly of no economic value. The frogs, however,
furnish excellent food, and the toads are invaluable to the agriculturist
as insect-eaters. Many absurd notions exist regarding these animals,
which have no foundation of truth, Ijut are progeny of ignorance and
prejudice. The majority of amphibians are entirely harmless.

ORDER ANURA. TAILLESS AMPHIBLA.XS.

Amphibians without tails in the adult state. Body broad and short ;
legs large, usually adapted for jumping. Young (tadpoles) with tail and
gills, but without teeth.

A comparatively small group of clo.sely allied animals, found through-
out the world. Some are almost exclusively terrestrial {Bnfoniche and
Hylad-x), while others are almost totally aquatic. This and the remaining
orders of amphibians are, in certain respects, the least known of the
vertebrates.

RANID^.

BULL-FROG. Rana catesbiana, Shaw.
GREEN FROG; SPRING FROG. Rana clamitans, Merrem.
SHAD FROG. Rana haiecina halecina, i^Kalm) Cope.
MARSH FROG. Rana palustris, LeCcnte.
WOOD FROG. Rana teniporaria silvatica, (Linne) Coi)e.
? FLORIDA FROG. Rana areolata capito, ( Baird and Girard) Cope.

SCAPHIOPID.E.

SOLITARY SPADE-FOOT. ScapMopus holbrookii. (Harlan) Baird.

HYLID^.

GREEN TREE-TOAD. Hyla carolinensis, Pennant.
DAUDIN'S TREE-TOAD. Hyla femoralis, Daudin.
COMMON TREE-TOAD. Hyla sauirella. Daudin.
? FLORIDA HYLA. Hyla gratiosa, LcContc.
CHAMELION HYLA. Hyla carolinensis samifasciata, iPennanti Cope.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 2-41

ANDERSON'S HYLA. Hyla andersoni, Baird.

DARK-GREEN TREE-FROG. Chorophilus nigritus, (Leconte) Cope.
BLACK-SPOTTED BROWN TREE-FROG. Chorophilus ornatus, (llolbr ) Cope.
? TREE FROG. Chorophilus ocularis, Daudin.
CRICKET FROG. Acris gryllus gryllus, (Leconte) Cope.
WESTERN CRICKET. Acris gryllus crepitans, (LeConte) Cope.

ENGYSTOMID.E.
CAROLINA TREE FROG. Engystoma carolinense, Holbrook.

BUFONID^.

LATREILLE'S TOAD. Bufo lentiginosus lentiginosus, (Shaw) Cope.
AMERICAN TOAD Bufo lentiginosus americanus, (Shaw) Cope.
OAK FROG. Bufo quercicus, Holbrook.

ORDER URODELA. SALAMANDERS.

Amphibians, possessing elongated bodies, covered with smooth, naked
skin. Four hmbs present. No external gills in the adult. Tail long,
round or flattened.

A large group of peculiar and, usually, small animals.

PLEURODELIDiE.

EASTERN WATER LIZARD. Diemyctylus miniatus miniatus, (Raf.) Cope.
GREEN TRITON. Diemyctylus miniatus viridescens, (Raf.) Cope.

DESMOGNATHIDiE.

BLACK TRITON; BLACK SALAMANDER. Desmognathus nigra, (Green)

Baird.
BRO VVN TRITON. Desmognathus fusca fusca, (Raf ) Cope.
EARED TRITON Desmognathus fusca ariculata, (Raf) Cope.
16

242 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

PLETHODONTID^.

TWO-STRIPED SALAMANDER. Spelerpes bilineatus, (Green) Baird.
YELLOW-BACKED SALAMANDER. Spelerpes guttolineatus, (Holbrook)

Cope.
RED SALAMANDER; RED TRITON. Spelerpes ruber ruber, (Daudin) Cope.
MOUNTAIN TRITON. Spelerpes ruber montanus, (Duudin) Cope.
SALMON TRITON. Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, Green.
LEAST SALAMANDER. Manculus quadridigitatus, (Holbr.) Cope.
VISCID SALAMANDER. Plethodon glutinosus, (Green) Baird.
RED-BACKED SALAMANDER. Plethodon erythronotus, (Green) Baird.

AMBLYSTOMIDiE.

BURROWING SALAMANDER. Amblystoma talpoideum, (Holbrook) Gray.
OPAQUE SALAMANDER. Amblystoma opacum, (Gravcnhorst) Baird.
SPOTTED SALAMANDER. Amblystoma punctatum, Linne.
TIGER SALAMANDER. Amblystoma trigrinum, Green.

MENOPOMID.E.

HELLBENDER. Menopoma alleghiense, Harlan.
TENNESSEE HELLBENDER. Menopoma fuscum, Holbrook.

AMPHIUMID^E.
CONGO EEL. Ampbiuma means, Linne.

ORDER PROTEIDA. PROTEANS.

Tailed amphibians, with large external gills persistent throughout life.
The lungs, however, retain a more or less functional capacity.

Peculiar animals, closely resembling fishes, for which they are fre-
quently mistaken by the unlearned. Some species inhabit caves and are
blind.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 24^

PROTEIDiE.

GIBBES' PROTEUS. Necturus punctatus, Gibbes'.
LAKE SIREN ; PROTEUS. Necturus lateralis, Say.

SIRENID^.

STRIATED SIREN. Pseudobranchus striatus, LeConte.
SIREN. Siren lacertina, Linne.

CLASS PISCES. FISHES.

Cold-blooded, aquatic vertebrates, with fore and hind limbs, the pecto-
ral and ventral fins, adapted for swimming. A more or less bony skull.
A relatively small brain. The single or unpaired fins, namely, those
on the median line of tlie back (dorsal fins), and that behind the vent
(anal fin), do not represent limbs, but are special developments from the
skin. A distinct lower jaw. A heart witli, two cells and an arterial bulb.
Breathing carried on by means of gills (branchiae). Skin covered with
scales or bony plates ; rarely naked.

The foregoing definition is intended to include the true fishes and the
ganoid fishes, such as the sturgeons and gar-pikes.

The fislies constitute a very large group, whose representatives vary
greatly in size, form and mode of life. They are distributed everywhere
over the globe, occurring in all bodies of water, whether large or small
as well in arctic as tropical regions. A few lakes, such as the Dead Sea.
are uninhabited by fishes. Other bodies of water of cjuite as unusual a
character, such as hot springs and saline springs, often contain represen-
tatives of this class.

Fishes form the object of the most completely organized, extensive, and
important industry anywhere carried on in connection with animals in
the wild state. The fisheries of the world, according to Prof. Goode, furnish
products at the present time valued at not less than $235,000,000. Not
only do fishes furnish an abundant food-supply, but, also, great c^uan-
tities of other valuable products, such as oils and fertilizers.

About thirteen thousand species of fishes are known, of which some
thirteen hundred are North American.

244 VERTEBRATE AXIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

Sl'B-CLASS PHYSOCLISTI. CLOSED-BLADDER FISHES.
ORDER PLECTOGNATHI.

Fishes which have the intermaxillary bone (that in front of the upper
jaw bone) immovably united with the jaw bone. Ventral fins absent.
Skin hard, rough, or covered with plates. Marine fishes.

ORTHAGORISCID^.
SUN-FISH. Mola rotunda, Cuvier.

TETRODONTID^. .

PIN-CUSHION; RABBIT FISH. Chilomycterus geometricus, (Bl. and Schn.)

Kaup.
SMOOTH PUFFER ; TAMBOR. Lagocephalus Isevigatus, (Linne) Gill,
ROUGH PUFFER ; BLOWER ; SWELLFISH. Tetrodon turgidus, (Mitch.) Gill.
? SPENGLER'S PUFFER. Tetrodon spengleri, Bloch.

BALISTID.E.

LONG-TAILED FILE FISH. Alutera schoepffi, ( Walb.) Goode.
CHECKERED FILE FISH. Alutera scripta, (Osbeck) Bleeker.
HOG FISH ; FILE FISH Ceratacanthus aurantiacus, (:\Iitch.) Gill.
STORER'S FILE FISH ; FOOL FISH. Monacanthus broccus, (Mitch.) Dek.
• EUROPEAN FILE FISH ; OLD-AVIFE; LEATHER-JACKET. Balistes capris-
cus, Gmelin.

OSTRACIIDiE.
COW-FISH ; CUCKOLD. Ostracium quadricorne, L.

ORDER PEDICULATI.

Fishes, prominently represented by the goose-fish (Lophius piscatorius),
which are peculiar in having the wrist-bones elongated so as to form a
sort of arm, at the juncture of which with the body the gills open. Ma-
rine fishes.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 245

MALTHEID^E.

?.BAT FISH ; NOSE FISH. Malthe vespertilio,(Linn^) Ciivicr.

? SPOTTED SEA-BAT. Malthe vespertilio nasuta, (Guv. and Val.) J. and G.

LOPHIID^.

?FISHIXG-FROG; MONK-FISH; GOOSE-FISH; ALL-MOUTH; BELLOWS-
FISH ; ANGLER. Lophius piscatorius, Linne.

ORDER HETEROSOMATA. FLAT-FISHES.

Fishes which are peculiar in that the anterior portion of the skull is
so twisted that the sockets of both eyes are brought to the same side, one
being vertical, the other lateral. The posterior portion of the skull is
normal. — (Cope).

The Flat-fishes form a compact group, all the species being included
in a single family. They are almost exclusively marine, and are widely
distributed. About four hundred species are recognized.

PLEURONECTID^.

TONGUE-FISH; LONG SOLE. Aphoristia plagiusa, (Linne) J. and G.
SPOTTED SOLE ; HOG CHOKER. Achims lineatus, (Linn6) Cuvier.
GRAY FLOUNDER. Etropus crossotus, J. and G.
NEW YORK FLOUNDER. Paralichthys ommatus, Jor. and Gilb.
FLOUNDER. Paralichthys squamilentus, J. and G.
? PALE-SPOTTED FLOUNDER. Paralichthys albigutta, J. and G.
SOUTHERN FLOUNDER. Paralichthys dentatus, (Linne) J. and G.
FLOUNDER. Paralichthys ocellaris, (Dek.) J. and G.
FLOUNDER Citharichthys spilopterus, Giinther.

ORDER ACANTHOPTERI. SPINY-RAYED FISHES.

This is the great order of typical modern fishes. The skull is symmet-
rical. The gills and their covers (the opercular apparatus) are normal and

240 VERTEBRATE AKIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

complete. The former open anterior to the pectoral fins. The anterior
rays of tlie dorsal and anal fins exist as spines.

The fishes of tliis order are of wide distribution, and among them are
found both marine and fresh-water forms. The majority of the marine
food-fishes belong 'here. About six hundred species are found in the
waters of and about North America.

GADID.E.

HADDOCK. Gadus aeglifinus, L.
EARLL'S HAKE. Phycis earlli, Bean.

OPHIDIID.E.
? BROWN SNAKE-FISH. OpMdium marginatum, DeKay.

LYCODID^.
Lycodalepis pclaris, (Sabine) J. and G.

BLENNIID.E.

?Clinus nuchipinnis, Quoy and Gaimard.
CAROLINA BLENNY. Blennius carolinus, (C. and V.) J. and G.
? BLENNY. Hypleurochilus geminatus, (Wood) J. and G.
SPOTTED BLENNY. Isesthes punctatus, (Wood) J. and G.
HENTZ, BLENNY. Isesthes hentzii, ( Les.) J . and G.
OLIVE-GREEN BLENNY. Isesthes scutator, J. and G.
BOSC'S SHANNY. Chasmodes boscianus, (Lac.) Cuv. and Val.

BATRACHIDiE.

TOAD FISH ; OYSTER FISD. Batrachus tau, (Linne) Cuv. and Val.
MIDSHIP3IAN. Porichthys plectrodon, J and G.

GOBIESOCID^.
Gobiesox strumosus, Cope.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 247

TRIGLIDiE.

FLYING ROBIN'. Cephalacanthus spinarella, (Linne) Lao.

LINED SEA-ROBIX ; FLYING FISH. Prionotus evolans, (Linn^) GilL

AVEB-FINGEKED SEA-ROBIN; CAROLINA ROBIN. Prionotus palmipes,

(MiOth.) Storer.
SEA-ROBIN. Prionotus tribulus, Cuv. and VaL
SPOTTED SEA-ROBIN. Prionotus scitulus, J. and G.

SCORP^NID^.
SCORPION. Scorpsena steamsii, Goode and Bean.

GOBIID^.

? SCALELESS GOBY. Gobiosoma bosci, (Lac.) J. and G.
BLACK GOBY. Gobius carolinensis, GiU.
OLIVE GOBY. Gobius encaeomus, J. and G.
STRIPED SLEEPER. Dormitator lineatus, Gill.
OLIVE CULIUS. Culius amblyopsis, Cope.

Lepidogobius thalassinus, J. and G.
Gobionellus oceanicus, (Pall.) J. and G-

URANOSCOPID^.

? NAKED STAR-GAZER. Astroscopus anoplus, (Cuv. and Val ) Brevoort.
Astroscopus y-grascum, (C. and V.) Gill.

CH^ETODONTID^E.

? ANGEL-FISH ; ISABELITA. Pomacanthus ciliaris, (Linn.) J. and G.
? BANDED BRISTLE- TOOTH. Cbffitodon maculocinctus, (Gill) J. and G.

EPHIPPIID.E.
ANGEL FISH ; MOON FISH. Chffitodipterus faber, (Bronss.) J. and G.

\

248 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

LABRID^.

BLACK-FISH ; TAUTOG. Tautoga onitis, (Linne) Giinther.

Caliodon ustus, Cnv and Val.
i; AZOR-FISH. • Xyrichthys lineatus, Cnv. and Val.
ELIJE-FISH ; DONCELLA. Platyglossus radiatus, (L.) J. and G.

GERRID^E.

? BROWN GERROID. Gerres homonymus, (Goode and Bean) J. and G.
SILVER GERROID. Gerres gulo, C. and V.

SCI^NID^.

SPOTTED SEA TROUT ; SALMON TROUT. Cynoscion maculatum, (Mitchell)

Gill.
SALT-WATER TROUT ; WEAK FISH. Cynoscion regalis, (Bloch) Gill.
SALT-WATER TROUT. Cynoscion thalassinus, (Holb.) Gill.
WHITE TROUT : SALT-WATER TROUT. Cynoscion nothus, (Holb.) Gill.
DRUM. Pogonias chromis, (Linn^') C. and V.
YELLOW TAIL. Liostomus xanthurus, Lacepede.
CHUB. Scisena stellifera, (Block) J. and G.
SILVER PERCH. Sciaena chrysura, (Lac.) J. and G.
SEA-BASS; SPOTTED-BASS. Sclsena ocellata, (Linne) Giinther.
CAROLINA WHITING. Menticirrus albumus, (Linne) Gill.
SHORE WHITING. Menticirrus littoralis, (Holbr.) Gill.
CROAKER. Micropogon undulatus, (Linne) Cuv. and Val.
CROAKER Larimus fasciatus, Holbrook.

SPARID^E.

BREAIM. Pimeleptenis boscii, Lacepede.

SPOT-TAILED PIN-FISH. Diplodus caudimacula, (Poey) J. and G.
BREAM. Liplodus holbrooki, (Bean) J. and G.
BREAM. Lagodon rhomboides, (Linne) Holbrook.
SHEEPSHEAD. Archosargus probatocephalus, ( Walbaum) Gill.
PORGY. Stenotomus argyrops, (Linne) Gill.
GILT HEAD. Spams aculeatus, (Cuv. and Val.) Gill.
FLASHER. Lobotes surinamensis, (Bloch) Cuvier.
? WHITE GRUNT. Diabasis trivittatus, (Bloch and Sdni.) J. and G.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 240

STRAIGHT-BACKED GRUNT. Diabasis chrysopterus, (Linn.) J. and G.
BLACK GRUNT. Diabasis formosus, ( L., J. and G.
? VIRGINIA HOG-FISH. Pomadasys virginicus, (Linne) J. and G.
SAILOR'S CHOICE; HOG-FISH. Pomadasys fulvomaculatus, (Mitchell) J.

and G.
MANGROVE SNAPPER ; BASTARD SNAPPER. Lutjanus aurorubens, (Cuv.

and Val.) Vaillant-
YELTING ; GLASS-EYED SNAPPER. Lutjanus caxis, (BL, Schn.) Gill.

SERRANID^.

SOAP-FISH. Rypticusmaculatus, Holbr.
RED GROUPER. Epinephelus morio, (Cuvier) Gill.
BLACK GROUPER. Epinephelus nigritus, (Holbr.) Gill.
SQUIRREI- FISH; SERRANO. Serranus fascicularis, Cuv. and Val.
GRAY SERRANO. Serranus trifurcus, (Linn.) J. and G.
BLACK FISH. Serranus ratarius, (Linne) J. and G.
ROCK-FISH ; STRIPED BASS. Roccus lineatus, (BL, Schn.) Gill.
WHITE PERCH. Roccus americana- (Gmelin) J. and G.

PERCIDiE.

YELLOW PERCH ; AMERICAN PERCH ; RINGED PERCH. Perca ameri-
cana, Schranck.
BARRATT'S DARTER. Pcecilicthys barratti, (Holbr.) J. and G.
? Nothonotus vulneratus, (Cope) Jor.
? Nothonotus rufilineatus, (Cope) Jor.
CRAWL-A-BOTTOM. Hadropterus nigrofasciatus, Agassi z,

Alvordius crassus, Jordan and Brayton.
? Alwrdius neviensis, (Cope) Jor.
?Bollosoma eflfulgens, (Grd.) Cope.
?Boleosoma olmstedi, (Storer) Agassiz.
? loa vitrea, (Cope) J. and B.

CENTRARCHID.E.

SMALL-MOUTHED BLACK BASS. Micropterus dolomieu, Lac

Lepomis holbrooki, (Cuv. and ^'ai.) IMcKay,
BLUE SUNFISH ; COPPER-NOSED BREAM ; DOLLARDEE. Lepomis pallidus,

(Mitch.) Gill and Jor.
LONG-EARED SUNFISH. Lepomis megalotis solis, (Cuv. and Val.) McKay.

\

250 VERTEBRATE ANI^[ALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

? LONG EARED SUNFISH. Lepomis auritus, (L.) Raf.

Lepomis elongatus, (Iloiljr ) Gill and Jor.
BLACK -BANDED SUNFISH. Mesogonistius chsetodon, (Baird) Gill.

Enneacanthus simulans, (Cope) McKay.
? Enneacanthus gloriosus, (Holbr.) Jor.
? Enneacanthus obesus, (Baird) Gill.
3IUD SUNFISH. Acantharchus pomotis, (Baird) Gill.
Centrarchus macropterus, (Lac.) Jor.

APHREDODERID.E.
? PIRATE PERCH. Aphredoderus sayanus, (Gilliams) DeKay.

BRAMID.^.
Pteraclis carolinus, Valenciennes.

CORYPH^ENID^E.
Coryphaena sueuri, Cuv. and Val.

STROMATID.E.

HARVEST FISH. Stromateus peru, Linne.

POMATOMID.E.

BLUEFISH ; SKIP-JACK. Pomatomus salatrix,.(Linne) Gill.

CARAXGID.E.

HORSE FISH. Selene setipinnis, (Mitch.) Liitken.
SILVER MOON-FISH. Selene vomer, (Linn(5) Lutken.
DOTTED SCAD Decapterus punctatus, (Agassiz) Gill.
MACKEREL SCAD. Decapterus macarellus, (Cuv. and Val.) Gill
? BIG-EYED SCAD. Caranx crumenophthalmus, (Bloch) Lac.
YELLOW CREVALLE. Caranx pisquetus, Cuv. and Val.
HORSE CREVALLE. Caranx hippos, (Linne) Giinther.
HORSE CREVALLE. Caranx fallax, Cuv. and Val.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 251

GREEN CREVALLE. Caranx falcatus, Holbr.
? BEAN'S CREVALLE. Caranx beani, Jordan.

THREAD FISH. Blethari crinitus, (Akerly) DeKay.

THREAD FISH. Chloroscombrus chrysurus, (Linne) Gill.

SHORT PAMPANO. Trachynotus ovatus, (Linne) Giinther.

GLAUCOUS PAMP \N0. Trachynotus glaucus, Cuv. and Val.

CREVALLE ; CAVALLI.

POMPYNOSE Trachynotus carolinus, (Linne) Gill.

POMPYNOSE. Seriola fasciata, (Bloch) C. and V.

KUDDER FISH; BONITO. Seriola zonata, (Mitch.) C. and V.

RUDDER FISH. Seriola carolinensis, Holb.
? YELLOW-TAl L. Seriola lalandi, Cuv. and Val.
? PILOT-FISH. Naucrates ductor, (Linn.) Raf.

SCOMBRID^.

MACKEREL. Scomber colsos, Gmelin.

MACKEREL (occasional)- Scomber scombrus, Linne.

BONITO SKIP-JACK. Sarda mediterranea, (Bl. and Sch.) J. and G.

HORSE MACKEREL. Orcynus thynnus, (Linne) Poey

SPANISH MACKEREL. Scomberomorus maculatus, (Mitch.) J. and G.

BLACK-SPOTTED SPANISH MACKEREL. Scomberomorus regalis, (Bloeh) J.

and G.
SIERRA. Scomberomorus caballa, (Cuv. and Val) J- and G.

TRICHIURIDiE.

HAIR-TAIL. Trichiurus lepturus, Linne.

XIPHIIDiE.

? BILL-FISH ; SPEAR-FISH ; AGUJ A BLANCA. Tetrapturus albidus, Poey.
? COMMON SWORD-FISH. Xiphias gladius, L.

EL AC ATI D^.
CRAB-EATER; COBIA. Elacate Canada, (Linne) Gill.

ECHENEID^. '

REMORA. Echeneis remora, L.

LONG-JAWED REMORA. Phthirichthys lineatus, (Menzies) Gill.

PEG A DOR. Echeneis naucrates, L.

252 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

POLYNEMID^.
Polynemus octofilis, (Gill) J. and G.

SPYR^NID^.

PICUDA ; BARRACUDA PIKE. Spyrsena picuda, Blccla and Schn.
? BARRACUDA. Sphyrsena guaguancho, Cuv. and ^'al.

ATHERINID^.

? SILVERSIDES. Menidia notata, (Mitch) J. and G.
AVANDERING SILVERSIDES. Menidia vagrans, (Goode and Bean) J. and G.
BOSC'S SILVERSIDES. Menidia vagrans laciniata, Swain.
CAROLINA SILVERSIDES. Atherina Carolina, Cuv. and Val.

MUGILID^.

MULLET. Mugil albula, Linne.

WHITE MULLET; LIZA. Mugil brasiliensis, Agassiz.

ORDER HEINIIBRANCHII. HEMIBRANCHS.

A small order of fishes, allied to the Acanthoptcri, but having the
mouth bounded above by the premaxillary bones only, and the bones of
the throat reduced in number. The ventral fins are abdominal.

The North American species are but eleven in number. All the rep-
resentatives of the order are of small size and economically unimportant.

GASTEROSTEID.E.

STICKLEBACK. Apeles quadracus, (Mitch.) Brevoort,

CO:iIMOX STICKLEBACK ; BURNSTICKLE. Gasterosteus aculeatus, L.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 253

ORDER LOPHOBRANCHII.

Fishes with tufted gills and small toothless mouths, bounded above by
the premaxillary bones and carried at the end of a long snout. The
l)asis of the pectoral fins are elevated, and the skin is covered with bony
plates.

Small fishes of peculiar form and curious and interesting habits. Six
species representing two families occur in North American waters.
Fishes of the sea and brackish waters.

HIPPOCAMPID^.

FLORIDA SEA-HORSE. Hippocampus stylifer, J. and G.
SEA-HORSE. Hippocampus heptagonus, Raf.

SYNGNATHID.E.
LOUISIANA PIPE-FISH. Siphostoma louisianse. (Glinther) J. and G.

ORDER SYNENTOGNATHI. SYNENTOGNATHOUS FISHES.

Fishes in which the shoulder-blade is connected with the skull by
means of a post-temporal bone. The parietal bone of the skull is very
small. The ventral fins are abdominal, and, as in the case of the others,
are without spines. »

This order includes but a single family, the Scomber cscidse, or Flying-
fishes and Gar-fishes. They have peculiar elongated mouths, and are
carnivorous. The family is represented in North America by seventeen
species. Marine fishes. The flying-fishes have attracted much attention
on account of their curious aerial performances. They are able to sus-
tain themselves in the air for about a minute at a time, during which
period they vibrate their " wings " or pectoral fins, and move with great
rapidity. At such times they are fleeing from their aquatic enemies.

SCOMBERESOCID^E.

FLYING FISH. Exoccetus novaboracensis, Mitchill.
FLYING FISH. Exoccetus hiUianus, Gosse.
HALF-BEAK. Himrliamplius unifasciatus, Ranzani.

254 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

SH0RT-X0SI:D skipper. Scomberesox brevirostris, Peters.
? SAURY ; SKIPPER ; BILL-FISH. Scomberesox saurus, ( Wulb.) Fleming.

SILVER GAR ; BILL-FISH. Tylosurus marinus, (Bl. and Schn.) J. and G.
? NEEDLE-FISH. Tylosurus Mans, (C. and V.) J. and G.

SUB-CLASS PHYSOSTOMI. SOFT-RAYED FISHES.

ORDER APODES. EELS.

An order of fishes well known from its representative, the common
Eel. The maxillary bones and gilhcovers are frequently wanting, as are
in all cases the ventral fins. The vertebne are unusually numerous.
No spines in the dorsal and anal fins, which are not distinct from the
tail. The body is serpentine and usually entirely without scales.

There has been much doubt relative to the manner in which eels
spawn, but it has at length been proved that the mode is not unlike that
of fishes. The male is smaller than the female.

ANGUILLIDiE.

? CONGER EEL. Conger niger, (Risso) J. and G.
CO:»IMON EEL. Anguilla rostrata, (Le Sueur) DeKay.
GOLDEN SNAKE-FISH. Ophichthys chrysops, Poey.

ORDER HAPLO^IL HAPLOMOUS FISHES.

In the fishes of this order the mouth and gill-covers are normal, and
the former is furnished with teeth. The ventral fins are present (except
in a few instances), and are abdominal in position. The vertebra? are
normal. The scales of the head and body are eycloid.

A large group of fishes of varying size, of which the family of Pikes
are kell known. The majority inhabit fresh waters. Tlie Cyprinodonts
swarm in every brook.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 255

ESOCIDiE.

COMMON EASTERN PICKEREL ; GREEN PIKE. Esox reticulatus, Lesueur.
BANDED PICKEREL. Esox americanus, Gmelin.

CYPPvINODONTID.E.

r Girardinus fomiosus, Gid.

Gambbusia patruelis, (B. and G.) Girard.

Zygonectes cingulatus,, (C. and V.) Jor.

MINNOWS. -{ Zygonectes zonatus, (]Mitoh,) Jor.
I

Zygonectes chrysotus, (Giinther) Jor.

'Zygonectes melanops, (Cope) Jor.

j^ ?Zygonectes atrilatus, Jordan and Brayton.

COMMON KILLTFISH; MUMMICHOG ; SALT-WATER MINNOW. Fundulus

heteroclitus, (L.) Gimther.

? Fundulus nigrofasciatus, (Le S.) C and V.

Fundulus similis, (Baird and Girard) Gthr.

KILLIFISH ; MAYFISH ; ROCKFISH. Fundulus majalis, (Walb.) Gthr.

Fundulus swampius, (Lac.) Gthr.

? Cyprinodon variegatus, Lacepede.

AMBl YOPSID^.
BLIND-FISH. Chologaster cornutus, Agassiz.

ORDER ISOSPONDYLI. ISOSPONDYLOUS FISHES.

A veiy large order, of which many representatives are Avell known,
but which it is dificult to define on account of the hick of positive char-
acters. The vertebrate, mouth and gills are normal. The latter are
four in number, and behind the last is a slit. In several families,
notably in the Salmonidse, an adipose, rayless fin is found on the back.
The order has nearly a hundred representatives in North America, in-
cluding the Salmons, Herrings, and other very important food-fishes.

SALMONIDyE.

BROOK TROUT ; SPECKLED TROUT. Salvelinus fontinalis, (Mitch.) GiU and
Jor.

256 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

SCOPELID^.
SAND PIKE ; LIZARD FISH. Sinodus foetens, (L.) Gill.

ENGRAULIDID.E.

ANCHOVY.. Stolephorus brownii, (Gmelin) J. and G.

MITCHILL'S ANCHOVY. Stolephorus mitchillii, (C and Y.) J. and G.

DOROSOMATID.E.
GIZZARD SHAD ; HICKORY SHAD. Dorosoma cepedianum, (Le S.) Gill

CLUPEIDiE.

MENHADEN ; BUG FISH. Brevoortia menhaden, (Mitch.) Gill.

SHAD. Clupea sapidissima, Wilson.

THREAD HERRING; MENHADEN. Opisthonema thrissa, (Csbeck) Gill.

BRANCH HERRING. Clupea vernalis, Mitch.

HICKORY SHAD ; FALL SHAD. Clupea mediocris, Mitchill.

GLUT HERRING ; BLUE-BACK. Clupea asestivalis, .Mitchill.
? COMMON HERRING ; " WHITEBAIT " (Young.) Clupea harengus, L.
? ROUND HERRING. Etrumeus teres, (DeKay) Crunther.

ELOPID.E.

TARPUM; JEW-FISH. Megalops thrisoides, (Bloch and Schneider) Giinther.
BIG-EYED HERRING. Elops saurus, L.

ALBULID.E.
? LAD Y^FISH ; BONE.FISH. Albula vulpes, (L.) Goode.

ORDEPv PLECTOSPONDYLI. PLECTOSPONDYLOUS FISHES.

A large group of fishes, with normal mouths and gills, but with the
first four vertebree much modified. They are mainly inhabitant of fresh
water, and abound alike in large rivers and tiny brooks. They vary

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 257

much in size, some species being the smallest of all fishes, while others,
such as the Buffalo fish, are conspicuously large. More than three hun-
dred species are recognized as inhabiting North America.

CYPRINIDiE.

CARP. Cyprinus carpio, L. (Introduced).
SOUTHERN BREAM. Notemigonus americanus, (L.) Jor.
BREAM. Notemigonus gardoneus, (C. and V.) Jor.
Squalius vandoisulus, (Val) Jor. and Gilb.
? CHUB ; HORXED DACE. Semotiius corporalis, (Mitch.) Putn.
r Ceratichthys zanemus, Jordan and Brayton.
DACE, -j ? Ceratichthys labrosus, Cope.

Ceratichthys hypsinotus, Cope.

Minnilus scepticus, Jordan and Gilb.
? Minnilus matutinus, (Copei Jor.
FALL-FISH. ^ ? Minnilus altipinnis, (Cope) Jor.

j Minnilus chiliticus, (Copej J. and G.
I Minnilus chlorocephalus, (Cope) Jor. and Gil.
? RED FALL-FISH. Minnilus rubricroceus, (.Cope) J. and G.
RED-CHEEKED SHINER. Minnilus coccogenis, (Copej Jordan.

f Cliola pyrrhomelas, (Cope) J. and G.
SHINERS, -j Cliola chloristia, Jordan and Braytun.

1. Cliola nivea, (Cope) J. and G.
MILKY-TAILED SHINER. Cliola galactura, (Cope) J. and G.
I Cliola euryopa, (Bean) J. and G.
Cliola storeriana, (Kirt ) J. and G.
Cliola saludana, Jor. and Brayt.
? Cliola spectruncula, (Cope) J. and G.

SHINERS.

CATOSMIDiE.

JUMPING MULLET ; JUMP-ROCKS. Moxostoma cervinum, (Cope) Jordan.
r ? Moxostoma conus, (Cope) Jordan.
? Moxostoma crassilabre, (Cope) Jordan.
JUMPING I ? Moxostoma thalassinnm, (Cope) Jordan.
MULLETS 1 ? Moxostoma pidiense, (Cope) Jordan.
I ? Moxostoma velatum, (Cope) Jordan.
I Moxostoma papillosum, (Cope) Jordan.
? WHITE MULLET. Moxostom album, (Cope) Jordan.
BLUE MULLET. Moxostoma coregonus, (Cope) Jordan.
17

258 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

SPOTTED MULLICT; STRIPED SUCKEPv Minytrema melanops, (Raf.) Jordan.
? CREEK FISH; CHUB SUCKER. Erimyzon sucetta, (Lac) Jordan,
? HOG SUCKER; STONE ROLLER; TOTER ; CRAWL-AP.OTTOM ; HAMIMER-

HEAD; STONE LUGGER; HO(i MOLLY, Catostomus nigricans, Le

Sueur.
? COMMON SUCKER; WHITE SUCKER; BROOK SUCKER; FINP:-SCALED

SUCKER. Catostomus commersoni, (La(rpode) Jordan.

ORDER NEMATOGXATHI. CAT FISHES.

This order is principally typified in the well-known cat-fishes {Silurida).
The lower jaw is rudimentary, and prolonged into the base of the longest
of the barbels which adorn the chin. There are no real scales, but some-
times Iwny plates in the skin.

These are mostly fresh-water fishes, and are particularly abundant in
South America.

SILURID.E.

FORK-TAILED CATFISH, ^lurichthys marinus, (Mitch.) Baird and Girard.

SEA CATFISH. Arius felis, (L.) J. and G.

CHANNEL CAT ; WHITE CAT. Ictalurus punctatus, (Raf.) Jordan.

MUD CAT. Amiurus platycephalus. (Grd.j GilL

GREEN ;mUD cat. Amiiirus brunneus, Jordan.

Noturus insignis, (Ridi.) Gill and Jonlan.
? Noturus eleutherus, Jordan.

SUBCLASS HOLOSTEI. BONY GANOIDS.

ORDER HALECO^IORPHI. AMIAS.

Ganoid fishes with partially heterocercal tails, vertebrae concave at
both ends, and peculiarly modified pectoral fins. The intestine with a
rudimentary spiral valve. But one species is known. It inhabits the
fresh waters of the United States.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 259

AMIIDtE.

MUD FISH; DOG-FISH; BOW-FIX; GRIXDLE ; "JOHN A. GRINDLE;"
LAWYER. Amia calva, L.

ORDER GINGLYMODI. GAR-PIKES.

TliG Gar-Pikes resemble the Amias, and with them form the sub-class
Holostei or Bony Ganoids. The tail is heterocercal ; the vertebrae are
concave only in front. The jaws are elongate, the upper being the longer.
The body is covered with rhombic plates.

LEPIDOSTEID^E.

LONG-NOSED GAR ; BILL-FISH; COMMON GAR PIKE. Lepidosteus osseus,

(L.) Agassi z,
SHORT-NOSED GAR. Sepidosteus platystomus, Raf.

SUB-CLASS CHRONDROSTEI.
ORDER GLANIOSTOMI. STURGEONS.

An order of ganoid fishes possessing an elongated body covered with
five rows of bony scales or shields. There are four barbels under the
mouth, which is toothless and opens directly downward. The tail is
heterocercal.

A small order of peculiar and readily recognizable fishes, usually of
large size, and mostly inhabiting fresh waters northward. A few spe-
cies are marine. The eggs of these animals furnish the well-known
caviare, a food product more extensively eaten in Europe than in
America.

ACIPENSERIDiE.

SHARP-NOSED STURGEON. Acipenser oxyrhyncus, Mitch.
SHORT-NOSED STURGEON. Acipenser brevirostris, LeSueur.

260 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII. SHARKS AND RAYS.

Having a cartilaginous skeleton, no swim-bladder and a naked skin,
or one covered with plates. The skull is cartilaginous. The pectoral
fins are large. Teeth are invariably present. The eggs are few, large,
often laid within a leathery, tendrilled case, secreted by a large gland in
the oviduct.

The class contains two sub-classes, the Chiniffiras, Holocepliali, which
have sub-terminal mouths, large fins, very long tails, and naked skins ;
and Sharks and Rays, Plagiostomi, which have inferior mouths, shorter
tails, and skin covered with large, placoid scales. The sub-class of the
Cluma^ras is undivided, but in the sub-class Plagistomi, two orders are
recognized, the Sharks, Squali, and the Rays, Raix. All are marine.

This class' was more fully represented in the past than at present.
The American species are not well known. The members of the group
have but little commercial value in America, except among the Chinese
of the West coast. In Europe, however, skates are quite extensively
eaten. Sharks, especially those species known as dogfish, furnish con-
siderable quantities of oil.

ORDER RAI.E. RAYS.
CEPHALOPTERID.E.

DEVIL-FISH. Manta Mrostris, f Walbaum) J. and G.

MYLIOBATID.E.

CLAM-CRACKER ; BISHOP RAY. ^tobatis narinari, (Euphrasen) Miil'er and
Henle.
? COW-NOSED RAY. Rhinoptera quadriloba, (Les.) Cuvier.
? SHARP-NOSED RAY'. Mylobatis fremenviUei, LeSueur.

TRYGOXID.E.

BUTTERFLY RAY. Pteroplatea maclura, (LeSuear) Miiller and Henle.

STING RAY. Dasyatis sabina, 'LeSueiin Goode and Bean.
? STING RAY ; STINGAREE. Dasyatis centrurus, (Mitch.) J. and G.
? SAY'S RAY". Dasyatis sayi, (LeSueur) Goode and Bean.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 201

RAIID.E.

? CLEAR-NOSED RAY. Raia eglanteria. (Lac.) LeSneur.
? SUMMER SKATE. Raia erinaceus, Mitchill.
? WINTER SKATE. Raia laevis, Mitcliill .

Raia ornata, Garman.

Raia plutonia, Garman.

TORPEDINID^.
TORPEDO ; CRAMP FISH. Torpedo occidentalis, Storer.

RHINOBATID^.

SPECKLED LONG-NOSED RAY. Rhinobatus lentiginosus, Garman.

PRISTID^.
SAW FISH. Pristis pectinatus, Latham.

ORDER SQUALL SHARKS.
SQUATINID.E.
? ANGEL-FISH ; SHARK RAY. Sauatina angelus, Dameril.

LAMNID^.

MACKEREL SHARK, Isurus glaucus, (M. and H.) J. and G.

CARCHARIIDiE.

SAND SHARK ; SHOVEL-NOSE. Carcharias americanus, (Mitch.) Jordan and
Gilbert.

2()2 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

SPHYRNID.E.

HAMMER-HEADED SHARK. Sphyrna zygaena, (Linni) 31. and H.
SHOVEL-HEAD SHARK ; BONNET-HEAD. Reniceps tiburo, (Liniiej Gill.

GALEORHINID.E.

SHARP-NOSED SHARK. Scoliodon terras-novse, ( Rich.) Gill.
SHORT-NOSED SAW-TOOTH. Hypoprion brevirostris, Puey.
SMOOTH HOUND ; DOG-FISH. Mustelus hinnulus, f Blainv.) J. and G.

GINGLYMOSTOMATID^.
NURSE SHARK. Ginglymostoma cirratum, (Gmel.) M. and H.

CLASS LEPTOCARDII. LEPTOCARDIANS.

A class of aquatic vertebrate animals in which the skull is undevel-
oped, being represented by a continuation of the cartilaginous back-bone
(notochord). The brain and the heart are not developed.

A very limited group of rather rare animals, the lowest of the verte-
brates, connected witli the fishes, in a systematic arrangement, through
the class 3Iarsipo branchiates, or lamprey, eels and hog-fishes. All are
marine. The following species belong to the order Clrrostomi :

BRANCHIOSTOMID.E.
LANCELET. Branchiostoina lanceolatum, (Pallas) Gray.

BIBLIOGKAPHY.

1. GENERAL WORKS ON BIOLOGY.

Jevons — The Principles of Science. Vols.
I. and II. London: Maemillan & Co.,
1874.

Spencer — The Principles of Biology. Vols.
I. and 11. American .edition. New-
York : D. Appieton & Co., 1S81.

Darwin" — On the Origin of Species. Ameri-
can edition. New York : D. Appieton
ct Co., 1880.

2. GENERAL WORKS ON ZOOLOGY:

Semper — Animal Life. New York: D. Ap-
pieton & Co., 1881.

Gegendbaur — Elements of Comparative
Anatomy. English Translation. Lon-
don : Maemillan & Co., 1878.

Balfour— A Treatise on Comparative Em-
bryology. Vols. I. and II. London :
Maemillan & Co., 1880.

Huxley — An Introduction to the Classifi-
cation of Animals. New edition. Lon-
don, 1882.

3. WORKS RELATING TO NORTH

AMERICAN MAMMALS.

Baird— Mammals of North America. Phila-
delphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1859.

Gill — Arrangement of the Eamilies of
Mammals. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington.

Coues — Mustelidaj, or Fur-Bearing Ani-
mals. L'nited States Geological Sur-
vev. Washington, 1877.

Allen — History of North American Pin-
ne|)eds. United States Geological Sur-
vey. AVashington, 1880.

Coues and Allen— Monographs of North
American Rodentia. United States
Geological Survey. Washington, 1S77.

Allen, H. — :\Ionograph of the Bats of
North America. Smithsonian Insti-
tute, Washington, 1864.

Jordan— Manual of the Vertebrates of the
Northern Ignited States. Second edi-
tion. Chicago : Jansen, McClurg &
Co., 1878.

4. WORKS RELATING TO NORTH

AMERICAN BIRDS
RiDGWAY — Nomenclature of North Ameri-
can Birds. United States National
Museum, Washington, 1881.

Baird — Review of American Birds. Smith-
sonian Institution. Washington, 1864.

Baird, Brewer and Ridgway — A History
of North American Birds. Land Birds.
Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1874.

Coues — Birds of the Nortliwest. United
States Geological Survey. Washington,
1874.

Cooper— Ornithology of California, Vol. I,
Land Birds. Baird, Editor. Cambridge:
1870.

5. WORKS RELATING TO NORTH
AMERICAN REPTILES AND BA-
TRACHIANS.

Cope — Check-List of North American Rep-
tilia and Batrachia. Smithsonian In-
stitution, Washington, 1875.

Agassiz— Contributions to the Natural His-
tory of the United States, A'ois. I. and
II. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1857.

Holbrook— North American Herpetology,
Vols. I.-V. Philadelphia. 1842.

264

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Baird and Girard — Catalogue of the Ser-
pents of North America. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, 1853.

BouLANGER — A Catalogue of the Specimens
of Batrachia Salientia and Ecaudata in
the British Museum, Second edition.
London, 1882.

6. woEKs rp:latixg to north

AMERICAN FISHES.

GooDE — Fishery Report, United States
J 0th Census, Vol. It, Part 33. Fishes,
Washington. [In Press].

GuNTHER — An Introduction to the Study
of Fishes. London, 1881.

GiiL— Li.st of the Families ot Fishes.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
1872.

Gi'NTHER — Catalogue of the Fishes in the
Briti.sh Museum, Vols. I.-VIII. Lon-
don, 1SG4.

Jordan — Coniril)utions to North American
Ichthyology, Nos. 1 to 3. United States
National Museum, Washington, 1877,
1878.

Jordan and Gilbert. — Synopsis of the
Fishes of North America. Bull. I'i,
L'. S. National Museum, Washington.
1883.

CHAPTER XT.

A LIST OF THE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA
OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

BY L. 0. HOWARD,

U. S. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTME^"T, WASHINGTOX, D. C.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

*

As an appendix to the report of Professor Tuomey, on the Geology of
South Carolina (Columbia, 1848), appeared a list of the fauna of the
State, prepared by Prof. Lewis R. Gibbes. To the portion of that list
upon the invertebrata, the present paper may be considered as a supple-
mait, so far as the classes Insecta, Arachnida, and INIyriapoda are con-
cerned, and as a revision of the remainder of the list, including many
species since described, and others which have since been found to form
part of the fauna of the State. For the portion of the list relating to the
Insecta, I am myself responsible. With regard to the order Araneina
(spiders), I have been enabled, through the kindness of Mr. George
Marx, of Washington, to present not only a list of the described species,
but to add to it a large number of undescribed species, indicated by Mr.
Marx's manuscript names. The list of Myriapoda I have compiled from
Prof. H. C. Wood's monograph of this group. For the remainder of the
list, beginning with the Crustacea, Mr. Henry W. Turner, of the U. S.
Geological Survey, is responsible. He has carefully compared Prof.
Gibbes' list with the more recent publications, and the list is as accurate
as the limited time and material will allow.

2(;r,

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

It will be noticed that where a species is recorded from an adjoining
State, rendering it highly probable that it also occurs in South Carolina,
the State is entered after the specific name in parenthesis. The species
is recorded without remark (1), Avhen it has been collected within the
confines of the State ; (2), when, as is frequently the case, it has been
collected at Savannah, just across the border line; and (3), where it has
been recorded both from North Carolina and Georgia, or from ^''irginia
and Georgia, as, in such case, it is almost certain to be also found in
South Carolina.

With the Class Insecta, a comi:)lete list would swell this work for be-
yond its practical recjuirements. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the
enumeration of the principal species which are injurious to vegetation,
or which are beneficial through their direct products, or from the fact
that they prey upon or are parasites upon injurious species. This enu-
meration is supplemented, however, by a list of such works as the student
will find useful in filling out gaps. In this list no works are mentioned
which do not bear upon the geographical distribution of the species.

LELAXD 0. HOWARD.

AVashington, October 22, 1882.

SUB-KINGDOM ANNULOSA.
CLASS INSECTA.

[Air breathinc; articulates, with three regions (head, thorax and abdomen), six
legs, and usuallj' wings.]

LIST OF WORKS.

BoiSDUV.\L AND LeConte — Histoire General
et Iconographie des Lepidopteres et
des Chenilles de TAmerique Septen-
trionale, Paris, 1833.

Cresson, E. T. — Xotes on the Species be-
longing to the sub family Ichneumon-
ides found in America, north of Mexico.
Trans. Am. Entomological Soc, 1877.

CoMSTOCK, J. H. — Report on Scale Insects. \ Edwarps, W. H.— The Butterflies of North
An. Rept. U. S. Dept. Agric, 1880. j America. Bo.ston, 1879.

Cresson, E. T. — Catalogue of the described [ Glover, T. — Manuscript Notes from my

species of several families of Hymenop-
tera inhabiting North America. Proc.
Entomological Society Philailelphia,
1801 -CO.

Journal — Hemiptera AVashington,
187(). (Onl}' a few copies printed from
stone for private distribution.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

237

Hagen, De. H. a .— Synopsis of the Neurop-
tera of North America. Washington,
Smithsonian Institute, 18(11.

LeConte, J. L. — All of Dr. LeConte's gen-
eral papers in the Proceedings Acad.
Sciences, Pliilada., and Proc. American
Philosoph. Soc.

LeConte and Horn — The Rynchojihora of
America north of Mexico — Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc , 1876.

Morris, Dr. J. G.— Synopsis of tlie described
Lepidoptera of tlie United States,
Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1862.

XoRTox, Edvv.— Catalogue of the described
Tenth redinidaj of North America
Trans. Am. Entom. Soc, 1867-68.

Osten-Sacken, C. R — Catalogue of the
dest'ribed Diptera of North America.
Washington, Smithsonian Inst. 1878.

Packard, A. S., Jr.— A Monograi)h of the
Geometrid Moths, or Phala'nidu', of
the United States. Vol. X. Reports of
the U. S. Geological Survey of the
Territories. Washington, 1876.

de Saussure, Henri— Synopsis of American
Wasps. Washington, Smithsonian In-
stitute, 1875.

Smith and Abbott- The Natural History
of the rarer Lepidopterous In-ects of
Georgia. London, 1797.

Thomas, Cyrus— Synopsis of the Acrididtc
of Nortii America. U. S. Gelogical Sur-
vey of the Territories, Vol. Y. Wash-
ington. 1873.

Zimmeemann, C. — Synopsis of the Scolyti-
dse of America, north of Mexico, with
Notes and an Ajjpendix by Dr. LeCcntc
Trans. Am. Entom. Soc, 1868.

ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

[Four membranous wings with comparatively few veins; the posterior wings
smaller than the anterior; moutli parts formed for sucking and biting ; metamorphosis
complete]

Of the families Uroceridx (Horn-tails), Cynipidx (Gall-flies), Evaniidse,
Prodotrupidse, Chrysididse, Formicidas (Ants), Mutillidse, Scoliadae, Pompilidpp.,
Sphegidse, Larridse, Bembecidep., Nijssonidfe, Cmbronidw, Vespidx (true V^^ asps)
Andrenidse, and Apidx (Bees), we shall omit detailed lists.

FAISIILY ICHNEUMONID.E. ICHNEUMON FLIES.

As all Ichneumon Flies are of prime importance, in that the}' are para-
sites upon other insects, we give as complete a list as possible of the
principal sub-family.

208

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

SUB-FAMILY ICHNEUMONIN^,

Ichneumon saucius Cress,
maurus Cress,
viola Cress.
cincticornis Cre-s.
galenas Cress., (Va.)
centrator Say.
cseruleus Cress,
nierus Cress, (Va.) "
subcyaneus Cress
vittifrons Cress,
sublatus Cress., (Va.)
azotus Cress., (Va-)
imifasciatorius Say.
bronteus Cress,
wilsoni Cress., (V:i.)
versibilis Cress., (Va.)
comes Cress-, (Va.)
laetus Brulle, (Va.)
zebratus Cress., (Ga.)
parvus CresA, (Va.)
flavizonatus Cress., (Va.)

Hoplismenus morulus (Say), (Va-)

Amblyteles montanus (Cress.), (Va.)
illaetabilis Cress., (Ga.)
indistinctus (Prov.), (Ga )
fraternus (Cress.), (Va.)

Trogus exesorius Brulle.

ob^dianator Brulle.
bruUei Cress.

Iclineumon paratus Say, (Va.)

vinulus Cress., (Va.)
honestus Cress., (W. Va., Ga.
leviculus Cress., (Va.)
grandis Brulle, (Va.)
rufiventris Brull6, (Va.)
devinctor Say.
insolens Cress,
lewisii Cress,
trogiformis Cress,
instabilis Cress,
funestus Cress-, (Va.)
mains Cress,
duplicatus Say.
annulipes Cress., (Va.)
scitulns Cress., (Va.)
seminiger Cress., (Va-)
volens Cress,
mucronatus Prov., (Va)
nanus Cress,
rutilus Cress., (Va.)

Amblyteles nubivagus Cre-ss-, (Va.)
subrufus (Cress.) (Va.)
suturalis (Say), (Va-)
concinnus (Say.)

Trogus apicalis Cress. (Ga.)

austrinus Cress., (Ga.)
nubilipennis Hald.

FAMILY CHALCIDID.E. CHALCIS FLIES.

The species of this family, also parasitic upon other insects, have been
very little studied in this country, hence the list subjoined, on account of
the present state of knowledge, can hardly be considered as even indi-
cative of the genera :

I^eucospis affinis Say.

Smicra torvina Cress, (Va )
nortonii Cres.s., (Va-)
bracata Sanborn, (Va.)

Smicra mariae (Riley.)

nigrifex Walk., (Ga.)
mirabilis Cress, (Ga )

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 269

Chalcis ovata Say, Cluilcis minuta Fabr, (Ga.)

PliasijDnophora sulcata, Westw., (Ga.)

Perilampiis alexinus Walk., (Ga.) rerilampus (.-yaneus Brulle.

lepr.os Walk., (Ga.)

Isosoma honlei (Harr.) (The joint worm-fly.)

Spalangia politus (Say) (Va.)

Episteuia coerulata Westw., (Ga.)

Eupelmus mirabilis (Walsh.)

Meta])elma spectabilis Westw-, (Ga.)

Comys bicolor Howard, (Ya.)

Chiloneiirus albicornis Howard, (Va.)

Aphycus emptor Howard, (Va.)

Blastothrix longipennis Howard, (Va.)

Aphelinus inali (Hald.) Aphelinus fu.scipennis Howard, (Va.)

mytihuspidis LeBaron. pulchellus Howard, (Va.)

abnormis Howard, (Va.)

Coccophagus lecanii Fitch. Coccophagas varicornis Howard, (Va.)

fraternus Howard, (Va.)

Enplectrus comstockii Howard, (Ga )
Cirrospiius esurus, Riley, (Ga.)
Trichogramma pretiosa Riley.

FAMILY TENTHREDINID.E. SAW FLIES.

The larvae of all the saw flies, sometimes called " false caterpillars,"
are injurious to vegetation. The following list is taken mainly from
Norton's Catalogue of the described Tenthredinidoe :

Cimbes americana Leach.

Schizocerus plumigera (Klug.) (Ga.)

Atomacera ruficoUis Norton, (Va.)

Hylotonia macleayi Leach. Hylotoma abdominalis, Lpach, (Ga.)

analis Leach, (Ga.) humeralis, Beauv.

virescens Klug, (Ga.) coccinea Fabr.

Pristiphora tibialis Norton, (Va.) Pristophora grossu'ariae Walsh., (?) (Na-

tive currant worm).

Emphytus iuornatus Say, (Va.) Emphytus varianus Norton, (Va.)

apertus Harr., (Va.) testaceus Norton, (Va.)

270 INVKRTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Dolerus arvcnsis Say.

Sclandriu vitis Harris, (The vine saw fly.)

obtiisa (Klug.) (Ga.) " Selandria iabiata (Klug.) (Ga.)

MaiTophya puldiella (Klug.) (Ga.) Macropliya tibiator Norton, (Va.)

tlavicoxae Norton, (Va.) formosus (Klug.)

Taxonns albido-pictus Norton, (Va.)
Strongylogaster multicinctus Norton, (Va.)
Tenthredo 14-punctatus Norton, (Va.)

Lophyrus fabricii Leach, (Ga.) Lophyrus al)bottii Leach, (Ga.) (Pine saw

fly.)
compar Loach, (Ga.) americanus Leach, (Ga )

Lyda semicincta Norton, (Va.) Lyda aniplecta Fabr.

circumcincta Klug., (Ga.)

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

[Wings, four, membranous; covered witli imbricated scales. Mouth parts formed for
sucking : Metamorphosis complete.]

FAMILY PAPILIONID^. BUTTERFLIES.

There are about seventy-five species of diurnal Lepidoptera or Butter-
flies in South Carolina, We Avill mention, however, only three species,
distinguished by their particularly injurious larvae :

Pieris rapae L. (The Kape Butterfly, parent of the "Imported Cabbage-Worm.")

protodice Bd. (The Southern Cabbage Butterfly).
Goniloba proteus L. (The Roller-Worm Butterfly).

FAMILY SPHINGID.E. HAWK-MOTHS.

Sphinx Carolina L. (The tobacco-worm of the South).
Philampelus pandorus Hb. (Injurious to the vine),
achemon Dr. (Injurious to the vine).
Darapsa myron Cr (Injurious to the vine).
Thyreus abbotti Swains. (Injurious to the vine).

IXVERTEBEATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

271

FAMILY AEGERID.E. CLEAR-WINGED MOTHS.

Aegeria exitiosa Saj'- (Peach tree borer),
tipuliformis L. (Currant borer).

FAMILY BOMBYCID.E. SPINNERS.

Although this famil}^ contains many leaf-eating caterpillars, none are
sufficiently noted to be mentioned here. "We give, however, several of
the larger spinners, the silk of which has been or could be used.

Actias luna (L.)
Attacus cynthia Dru.
Antheria ])ol3'phemus (L.)
Callosamia proniethea (Dm.)
Samia cecropia, (L.)

FAMILY NOCTUID.E. OWLET MOTHS.

This family comprises many of the most injurious insects of the State,
which we shall give somewhat in detail. Every species not otherwise
designated in the list is a cut-worm in its larva state : •

Agrotis baja S. V.

norinaniana Gr.
c-nigrum Limi.
bicarnea Guen.
subgothiea Haw.
tricosa Lintner.

herilis Gr.
pleeta Liun.
cupida Gr.

Mamestra legitima Gr,

subjuncta G. and R.
Hadena arctica Boisd.
Hyppa xylinoides Guen.
Prodenia conimelinae Guen.
Trigonophora periculosa Guen.
r-brunneum Gr.

Agrotis clandestina Harr.
incivis Guen.
lubricans Guen.
velleripentiis Gr.
messoria Harr.

annexa Treitach., (one of the cot-
ton cut-worms),
malefida Guen.
ypsilon Rott.
saucia Hiibn.

Mamestra hiudabilis Guen.
Hadena miselioides Guen.
Prodenia flavimedia Harv.

272 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Eu])lexiii lucipara (L.)
Nepbelodes viohins Guen.
Ilydroecia nictitans Bonk.

Lapliygma friigiperda (Sm. and Abb.) (Grass-worm).

Leuc-ania pallens L. Le'.icania unipuncta, (Haw.) (Army worm

of the Xorth.)
phragmitidicola Gr. pf^eudargyria Guen.

Aletia xylina (Say). (Cotton worm).
Plusia brassicae Riley. (Cabbage looper).
Ileliothis armitrera Hiibi. (Bjll-Worm or Corn E.ir Worm).

FAMILY GEOMETRID.E.

The larvae of the Geometridae are familiarly known as " measuring-
worms," or " loopers." Dr. Packard, in his MonograjDh, referred to before,
enumerates 184 species found in the limits of the Alleghanian and Caro-
linian faunae, and the great majority of these are doubtless to be found
in South Carolina. A common example is the " Gooseberry Span-worm "
{Eufitclda riberia, Fitch). The larva of Eugonia siibsignaria (Hiibn.) has
recently done much damage to frnit trees in Fannin County, Georgia,
and is very common in South Carolina.

FAMILY PYRALID.E.

This is a poorly defined and very miscellaneous family. It has recently
been split up into several smaller families, but it answers our purpose to
consider it as a whole. The habits of the larvae are extremely varied,
and many of them are very injurious. The most injurious South Caro-
lina species are subjoined :

Asopia costalis (Fabr.) (The Clover Hay "Worm).

Pempelia lignosella Zell, (The smaller Corn-Stalk Borer).

Distraea sacchari (Fabr.) (The large Corn-Stalk and Sugar-Cane Borer).

Chilo oryzaeellus Riley. (The Rice-Stalk Borer).

FAMILY TORTRICID.E. LEAF ROLLERS.

This is a large family of -small moths, the larvae of which roll the
leaves of different trees and plants. Although injurious to a certain
degree, they rarely occur in sufficiently great numbers to become mark-

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

273

edly so. A familiar example in Carolina is the " Cotton leaf-roller,"

(Loxotiinla nmiccana, Harr. ?)

FAMILY TINEID.E. LEAF MINERS.

The larvae of this family are mainly leaf-miners, twig borers or case
bearers. About eight hundred species have been described in the United
States. The most injurious South Carolina species is undoubtedly the
Angoumois grain n\oi\^ ^jlelechia cerealla, Oliv.). The clothes moth
{Tinea fiarifroutella, Linn.) is also a familiar example.

ORDER DIPTERA. FLIES, GNATS, ETC.

[Wings, two ; the posterior pair re [ilaced by a pair of knobbed threads ("poisers"
or "balancers"): Mouth parts formed for sucking : Metamorphosis complete.]

The collected North Amarican Diptera number about 5,000 species of
sixty families. We shall mention here the eight families which possess
the greatest economic interest.

FAMILY CECIDOMYID^. GALL FLIES.

This family contains several very injurious insects, two of which arc
found in South Carolina, as will be seen in the following list:

Ceeidomyia chrysopsidis Locw, (D. C.) Cejidomyia hirtipes 0. S., (D. C.)

destructor Say. (Tlie Hes- serrulatae O. S., (D. C.)

sian fly).
Diplosis caryae 0. S., (D.C.) Diplosis robiniae (Hald.) (D. C.)

maccus Loew, (D. C.) . tritici (Kirby). (The Wheat

Midge.)

FAMILY CULICID^. MOSQUITOES.

Culex boscii R. Desvoidy.
rubidus R. Desvoidj'

18

Culex taeniatus Wied., (Ga.)

taeniorhynchus Wied. ( Atlantic

States.)

274 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY ASILID^. ASILUS FLIES.

The Asilus, or " Robber-flies " are of much interest, as they destroy
other insects, both injurious and beneficial ;

Leptogaster carol inensis Schiner.

Diogmites discolor Lrt'W. { Kills cotton vorms.)

Atomosia piiella Wied.

Dasyllis saffrana Fabr.

Laphria caroliiiensis Scliiner. Laphria melanogaster "Wied.

flavescens Macq. georgina Wied-

bicolor, Wied. (So. States.)
Andrenosoma pyrrhacra AVied.
Mallophora boiiiboides Wied, (Ga.) Mallophora orcina Wied.

clausicella Macq., (Va )
Promachiis quadratus Wied, (Ga.) Proniacbus rufipes Wied, (Ga.)

Erax apicalis V\ ied- (Kills cotton worms.) Erax feniiratus Macq.

bastardi Macq., (N. A.)
Proctacanthus heros Wied. Proctacanthus longus Wied, (Ga.)

Neomoctherns gracilis Wied.
Tolmenis annulipes Macq. Tohuerus notatus Wied.

FAMILY OESTRlDiE. BOT-FLIES.

Gastrophilus eqni Fabr. \ Horse hot-fly.) Gastrophilus nasalis L., (N, A.)

haemorrhoidalis L., (N. A,)
Hypoderma bovis DeG. [Cattle botfly) Hypoderma lineata Villier.s, (N. A.. Ky.)
Oestrus ovis L. [Sheep botfly.)
Cephenemyia phobifer Clark.

Cuterebra buccata Fabr. Cuterebra horripilum Clark,

cuniculi Clark (Rabbit hot-fly.)

FAMILY TACHINIDiE. TACHIXA FLIES.

The Tachina flies much resemble common house flies. They are
parasitic upon other insects :

Trichopoda ciliata Fabr. Trichopoda liirtipes Fiibr.

cilipes Wied. lanipes Fabr. (Ga".)

flavicornis R. Desvoidy. pltmnpes Fabr.
formosa Wied. (Ga.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 275

(Jrymnosoma luliginosa R. Dosvoidy.

Cistogaster immaculata Macq.

Ocyptera epytiis Walk., (Ga) Oryptera litiiarta Oliv.

Ervia triquetra Oliv.

Jurinia amethystina Macq., (Ga.) .Turinia virginiensis Maoq , (Va.)

georgica Macq., (Ga.)
Micropalpus piceus Macq.
Gonia aiiriceps Meigen, (Ga )
Nemoraea leucaniae (Kirk.). {Preys on the Armij-n<orn>.)

trixoides, "Walk., (Ga.)
Tachina atra Walk., (Ga.) Tac'hiiia interrupta Walk., (Ga. )

Clytia atra R. Dewoidy.

FAMILY HIPPOBSCID^. FOREST FLIES AND SHEEP TICKS.

Olfersia americana (Leach\ ithe owl tick),
ardea;- Macq,, CS. A.)
brunnea Oliv.

Ornithomya avicularia L. (X. A.i (bird tick).
nebulosa Say, (N. A.)
pallida Say, (N. A.)

Melophagus o villus L., (X, A.), (.sheep tick).

Ilippobosca equina L., (N. A.), horse tick).

ORDER COLEOPTERA. BEETLES.

[Wings four; anterior pair (e^z/^ra) meeting, usually, in a straight lino down the
hack. Elytra much thickened, forming a case, under which tlie posterior wings are
folded: Posterior wings membranous: Mouth parts formed for l»iting. ]\retamor-
phosis complete.]

Tliis is the best known order of Insects. Some eight thousand five hun-
dred species have been described in tlie United States and Canada, and, at
an estimate, some four thousand species will probablybe found, by diligent
collecting, in South Carolina. An extensive collection of the Colcoptcru
of the State was made by Dr. C. Zimmerniann, who resided f(»r some
time at Columbia. This collection is now in the po.ssession of the
Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Camlnidge, Mass., a)ul Dr. Ziminer-
m.ann's MS. notes are in the good care of Dr. LeConte. of IMiiladelphia

276

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The luiiiiber of known species of South Carolina Coleoptera is so great
that, in order to keep our list to its proper proportions, we have intro-
duced simply an authoritative list of the genera of the more important
families. For this list we are indebted to Mr. E. A. Schwarz, a Avell-
known Coleoptcrist. Each of these genera is represented in South Caro-
lina, those in italics being essentially Southern genera.

FAMILY CICINDELID.E. TIGER BEETLES.

The beetles of this family are all jiredaceous.

Tdrachu West. Cicimlela Linn.

FAMILY CARABID/E. GROUND BEETLES.

The ground beetles are mostly carnivorous ; some of the species have,
however, been found to be vegetable feeders.

Omophron Latr.
Calosoma Web.
Carabus Linn.
Nomaretus LeC-
Cychriis Fabr,
Pasiiuachus
Scarites Fabr.
Dyschirius Bon
Ardistomis Pntz.
Aspidoglosm Futz.
Clivina Latr.
Schizogenins Futz.
Brachvnus Web.

Panag?eus Latr.
Morio Latr.
Heluomorpha Lat.
Galerita Fabr.
Pterosticlius Bon.
Amara Bon
Badister Clairv.
Diplochila Brulle.
Diceelus Bon.
Anomoglossus Cha.
Chl?enius Bon.
Oodes Bon.
Cratacanthus Dej.

Tai'bvs

Casnonia Latr.
Leptotrachelns Latr.
Eucperus LeC.
Lebia Latr.
Ntmotarsns LeC.
Tetragonod eras Dej.
Apristus Chaud.
Blechrus Motsch.
Apene.s LeC.
Cymindi^ Latr-
Phloexena Chend.
Callida Dej.
Coptodera Dej.
Ziegler.

Calathus Bon.
Platynus Bon.
Loxandrus LeC.
Euarthrus LeC
Agonoderus Dej.
Anisodactylus Dej.
Anisotarsus Chd.
Gynandropus Dej.
Bradyt'ellus Er.
Selenophorus Dej.
Harpalus Latr.
Stenolophus Dej.
Bembidium Latr.

FAMILY COCCINELLID^. LADY-BIRDS.

Tlie familiar lady-birds are, in the main, beneficial by destroying in-
jurious insects. Certain species have, however, been found to be vege-
tarian.

Megilla Muls.
Hippodamia Cher.
Anisosticta Chev.
Coccineila Linn.

Cycloneda Cr Exochomns Redi. Scyninus Kug.

Anatis Muls. CEiieis Muls. Cephaloscymmts Cr.

Psyllobora Cliev. Braobyacantha Muls. Pentilia.

Cbilocorus Leach. Hyperaspis Chev.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

277

FAMILY SCARABEIDiE.

Many of the Scarabeids are vegetable feeders ; others feed upon dung
and decaying animal and vegetable material. These last are here
omitted.

Serica McLeay. Diplotaxis Kirby.

Macrodactylus Latr. Lachaosterna Hope.

Cyclocepliala Latr. Polyuiceclius LeC.

Ckalepus McLeay. Xyloryetes Hope.

Ligyrus Bnriii. Strategus Hope.

Aphonus LeC. Dynastes Kirby.

Polypliylla.

Anomala Koeppe,
Phileurus Latr.
AUorhina Burm.
Euphoria.

Strigoderma Burm.
Pelidnota McLoay.
Osmoderma Lep.
Gnorimus Lep.
Trichius Fabr.

Cremastochilus Kn. Vultxus Scriba.

FAMILY BUPRESTID^.

The larva; of the Buprestida3 are wood-borers.

Calcophora Sol.
Dicerca Esch.
PiDKcilonota Esc-li.
Buprestis Linn.

Cinyra Lap. Actenodes Lac. Agrihis Sol.

Melanophila Esch. Acmjeodera Esch. Taphrocenis Sol.

Anthaxia Esch. Mastogenins Sol. Brachys Sol.

Chrvsobothris Esch. Rhseboscelis Chev. Brachyscekis Sol.

FAMILY ELATERIDiE. CLICK-BEETLES.

The larvae of

Cerjphytiim Latr.
Melasis 01! v.
Deltometopus Bv.
Fornax Lap,
Anelastes Kirby.
I'erothops Er.
Adelocera Latr-
Elater Linn.

the " Click-beetles " are the familiar

Drasterius Esch. Lacon Germ.

Megapenthes Cand. Chalcolepidius Esch.
MonocrepidinsEseh. Alaus Esch.
Dicrepidius Esch. Hemirhippus Latr.

Ischiodontus Cand.
Ludius Latr.
(Jrthostethus Lac
Crigmns LeC.

Cardisphorus Esch.
Horistonotus Cand.
Cryptohypnus Esch.
Dolopius Esch.

' wire-worms.

Glyohonyx Cand.
Melanotus Esch.
Limonius Esch.
Athous Esch.
Sericosomus Esch.
Corymbites Latr.
Asaphes Kirby.
Melanactes LeC.

Cebris Fabr,

FAMILY TELEPHORIDiE. SOLDIER BEETLES.

The larva; of the Soldier beetles often destroy injurious larvfc : Thus,
Chauliognathus marginatus destroys the Cotton worm.
Cbaiiliognathus Telephorns Schdfler. Ditemnns LeC. Malthinus Utr.

Hentz. PolemiusLeC. Trypherus LeC. MalthodcsKiesenw.

Podabrus Westw. Silis Charp. Loberus Kiesenw.

278

IWEl.TEnUATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY CERAMBYC

The liU'Vie of tlie Long-horn« arc

Malio'lon Serv. Clytus Laicli.

Orthosjma Scrv Xylotrechus Cliev.

Prioiius Geoff". Neoclytus Thorns.

Sphenoytetluis Hald! Clytanthus Thorns.

Aseaiuni E.sc-h. Mirroclytus LeC.

Crioc-ejihahis ^luls. ("yrtophoriis LeC.

T'dlomorpha Blanch.
Euderces LeC
Atimis Hald.

Smodifuni LeC.
Dularius Tlioins.
Phyton Xewm.

Callymoxys Kraatz. Distenia Serv.

Moloivhus Fabr. Necydalis Linn.

Rhopalapiiora Serv. Rhagium.

Batyle Thorns. Centrodera LeC

Steno.spbeniis Ilald. Toxotus Serv.

Cyllene Xewm. Gaurotes LeC.

Arhopalus ?-erv. Strangalia Serv.
Typooerns LeC.

'ID.E. LONG-HORKS.

almost all wood-borers.
Phymatode-s INluls- Liopus Serv.

CEme Xewin.
ChionXewm.
Ebiiria Serv.
Ehiphidion Serv.
Tvhjnotus Hald.

Lepturges Bates.
Hyperplatys Hald.
Graphisurus Kirby.
Acanthocinns Stepji,
Dectes LeC.

HeterachthesXewin. Ecyrus LeC.

Curius Xewni.
Leptura Serv.
Cyrtinus LeC.
Psenocerus LeC.
Monohammu.s Serv.
Dorchaschema LeC.
Hetoemis Hald.
Goes LeC

Aoanthoderes Serv.
Leptostylus LeC.

Eiipogonius LeC.
Oncideres Serv.
Ataxia Hald.
Hippo'psisServ.
Saperda Fabr.
Mecas LeC.
Oberea Muls.
Tetraopes Serv.
Am phionyi'ha Thorns.

FAMILY CHRYSOMELID.E. LEAF BEETLES.

This family includes many of the most injurious beetles, including
the Colorado Potato-beetle, the Sweet Potato-beetle, the Grape-vine Flea-
beetle, and many others.

Pliyllecthi-usLeo.

Luperus Geoff.

Diabrotica Chev.

Adimonia Laich.

Galerucra Geoff.

Trirhabda LeC.

Donacia Fabr.
Macroplea Sam.
Orsodachna Latr.
Le:na Fabr.
Anommi Lac.
Babia Chev.
Saxlnlx Lac.
Coscinoptera Lac
Chlamys Knoch.
Exema Lac.
Monachus Chev.

Pachybrachys Chev.
Fidia Baly,
Xanthonia Baly.
Heterasj)is Chev.
Glyptosjelis LeO.
Myochrons Chev.
Typophorus Chev.
Paria LeC.
Metachrouia Chev,
Colaspis Fal»r,
Chry.somela Linn.

Systena Chev.
Orthaltica Cr.
Lyperaltica Cr.
Crepidodera Chev.
Epitrix Fond.
Mantura Steph.

Piichyonychus Ciiev. Cerataltica Cr.
Hypolarapsis Cik. Chaetocnema Steph.

Cry ptocephalus Geoff. Gastrophysa Chev.
Triachus LeC. Melasoma.

Diachns LeC Cerotoma Chev.

(;riburiu.s Hald. Chelimorpha Chev.

Phv.sunota Boh.

CEdionychis I^atr.
Disonycha Chev.
Graptodera Chev.
Longitarsus LeC.
Batophila Fond.
Phyllotreta Fond.
Aphthona Chev.
Dibolia Chev.

Psylliodes Latr.
Blepharida Chev.
Odontota Chev.
Charistena Baly.
Microrhopala Chev.
Cassida Linn.
Coptocyla Chev.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

279

. FAMILY MELOIDiE. BLISTER-BEETLES.

The Blister-beetles are vegetable feeders, but their larva? are usually
parasitic.

Meloe Linn. Epicanta Redt. Pomphopcea LeC. Tetraonyx Latr.

:\Iacrobasis LeC Pyrota LeC. Cantharis L. Zonitis Fabr.

Nemof'natlia 111.

COLEOPTERA RHYNCOPHORA.

[Sevfi-al of the old family, including the weevils and the Staphylinids, are now united
in this group, which may be called a sub-order. Nearly all the species are injurious.]

FAMILY RHINOMACERID^.

Rhinomacer Fabr.

Auletes Sch.

FAMILY RYNCHITID^.

P^usnamptus Sch. Rynchites Hbst. Pterocolus Sch.

FAMILY ATTELABID^.

Attelabus L.

Epic.vriis Sch.
Phyxelis Sch.
Agraphus Sch.

FAMILY OTIORHYNCHID^.

Neoptochus Horn.
Pachnseus Sch.
Tanymecus Sch.

Pandeletejus Sch.
Brachystylus Sch.
Aramigus Horn.

Aphrastus Sch.
Eudiagogus Sch.

Sitones Sch.
Listronotus Jekel.
Macrops Kirby.
Pachylobus LeC.

FAMILY CURCULIONID^.

Anchodemus LeC. Conotrachelus Sch. Coeliodes Sch-
Lissorhoptrus LeC. Rliyssematus Sch. Ceutorhynchus Germ
Bagous Germ. Chalcodermus Sch.

Otidocephalus Chev. Zaglyptus LeC.

Pelenomus Thorns.
Coelogaster Sch.

280

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Hylobins Sch,
Pissodes Germ.
Lixu.s Fabr.
Dorytomns Sch.
Desmoris LeC.
Pnchytythius Jekel.
Smicrunyx Sch.
Phyllotrox Sch.
Endahis Lap.
Bracliybamus Germ.
Onychylis LeC.

Eupsalis Lac.

Magdalis Germ.
Anthonomus Germ.
Orchestes III.
Prionomerus Sch.
Piazorhinus Sch.

Acamptus LeC.
Aoalles Sch.
Tyloderma Say.
Phyrdenu.s LeC.
Cryptorhynchus 111.

Tlivsanocnemis LeC. Piazurus Sch.

Gymnetron Sch.
Miarus Sell.
Laemosaccus Sch.
Centrinus Sch.
Zygobaris LeC

Copturus Sch.
Acoptus LeC.
Tach3goni:s Sch.
]Mononychu.s Germ.
Craponius LeC.

Balaninus Germ.

FAMILY BRENTHIDiE.

Eliinonclms Scli.
Trichoburis LeC.
Aulobaris LeC.
Baris Germ.
Onychobaris LeC.
Pseudobaris LeC
Ampeloglypter LeC.
Madams Sch.
Stethobaris LeC.
Barilepton LeC.
Plocamus LeC.

FAMILY CALANDRID^.

Rhyncophorus.
Sphenophorus Sch.
Calandra Chauv.

Dryopthorus Sch.
Cossomus Clairv.
Stenomimus WoU.

Phloephagus.
Wollastonia.

Amaiirorhinus.

Stenoscelis.

FAMILY SCOLYTID^.

Platypus Hbst. Xyleborus Eich.

Corthylus Er. Cryphalus Er.

Monarthrum Kir.sch. Xylocleptes.
Pityopthorus Eich. Tomicus Latr.
Hypothenemus West.Micracis LeC.

Scolytus Oliv.
Chramesus LeC.
Phloeotribus Latr.
Cne-sinus LeC.
Hvlesinus Fabr.

Phloeosinus Eich.
Carphoborus Eich.
Pendroctomus Er.
Hvlastes Er.

ORDER HEMIPTERA.

[Wings, four; anterior portion either of same thickness throughout, and, usually,
sloping at sides, or thickened at base with thinner extremities which overlap : Moutii
parts formed for sucking : Metamorphosis incomplete.]

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 281

SUB-ORDER HOMOPTERA.

[Heniiptera liavinji' the anterior winjis of the same thickness throufrhont. and
usuallj' si ipino; at the sides : IMoutli parts inserted at the jjosterior and inferior por-
tion of tlie head.]

FAMILY COCCID^. BARKLICE. OR SCALE INSECTS.

This is one of the most injurious families of insects. The species have
been very little studied, so that their geographical distribution is not well
known. A number of species have been described by Prof Com.stock,
from the District of Columbia, and, as the majority of these will proba-
bly be found in South Carolina, thej^ are included in the following list :

Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam, (D. C, on Ma- Aspidiotus pini Comst., (Ga., on pines),
pie, Peach, Hackberry.)
obscurus, Comst., (D. C, on tenebrieosus Comst. (D. C, on

Willow and Oak.) red Maple.)

Diaspis carueli Targ., Tozz.— (D. C, on Diaspis rosae fSandberg). (On Rose, Black-
Juniper and Arbor Vitae.) berry and Raspberry.)
Chionaspis euonymi Comst., (Va., on Euon- Chinaspis nyssae Com.st. (On Black Gum.)

ymus.
furfurus (Fitch). (D. C, on Apple.) pinifoliae (Fitch). (On Pines.)

Mytilaspis poniorum (Bouclie). (On Apple.)
Lecaniuni hesperidum (L.) (On Ivy and Orange.)
Kermes gallaeformis Riley. (On Oak.)
Dactylopius destructor Comst. (INIealy bug.)
longifilis Comst. (D. C.)

FAMILY APHIDID^. PLANT LICE.

About 170 species of Plant lice have been described in the United
States. They are very injurious insects, and are familiar to all gardeners
and florists. During the past year the grain louse {SipJionopliom avenae,
Fabr.) has done much damage to wheat in North and South CaroHna.
We mention some of the most prominent South Carolina species :
Siphonophora avenae (Fabr.) (The grain Si phonophora rosae Beau v. (0;i i?ose.)

louse.)
Myzuscerasi (Fabr.) [On Cherry.) Myzus persicae (Selzer). {On Peach.)

Aphis mall Fabr. [On Apple.) Aphis brassicae Linn. {On Cabbage.)

maidis Fitch. On Corn.)
Schizoneura lanigera Hausm. {The Woolly Schizoneura americana Riley. {On Elm.)

Apple Louse.)
?emi)higns alnifolii Riley. {On Maple.)
Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon. {Tlie Grape Phylloxera.)

282 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAxMlLY CICADELLIDil^]. LEAF HOPPERS.

This is a family of large extent, and is not well worked up. The com-
mon " Grape vine thrips " {Erythroneara vitis Fitch) is a good exam[)le.
The Clcadula cxitiosa of Uhler did much damage to winter grain in York,
Ahbeville, Union, and Laurens counties, South Carolina, in the sf)ring of
1879, and another member of this family, Diedrocephala jiavice}')^ Rilov,
was concerned in the same work.

FAMILY CICADID.E. " LOCUSTS."

The Seventeen Year Locust (O/cac^a septendecim Linn.) is the best known
representa,tive of this family.

SUB-ORDER HETEROPTERA.

[Hemiptera havinc; the anterior wings thickened at base, with thinner extremities,
which overlap on tiie baclv : Mouth parts inserted at the anterior and inferior portion
of the head.]

This sub-order is one of great extent and includes many of our most
injurious insect enemies, as well as many of the most beneficial predatory
species. The North American species have been carefully monographed
by Mr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, and this inonograph wull probably be
published before long as one of the Smithsonian contributions.

FAMILY REDUVIID^.

The insects of this family prey upon other insects and may be classed
as veiy beneficial to man.

Nabis lerus Latr. {Do'troys plant lice.)

Prionotns cristatus L. [TIic " Wficel-bug," or "Devils^ Coach Horse ;" ilestrot/s <i variety of

injuriouA insects.)
Sinca multispuiosa Say. {Destroys the Cotton- worm).

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 283

FAMILY CORLSID.E.

The mcni])ers of this family (we use it for convenience in its old sig-
nification) liavo varied liabits, some being vegetable feeders and very in-
jurious, while others are carnivorous ; others still combine the two habits :

Acanthocephala feinorata Fabr. {Destroys cotton and army icurmn.)
Anasa tristis DeG. (Feeds on garden cegetubles.)

arinigera Say.
Antliocoras insidious Say. (" Fahe. Cldncli bay.'''')

Corimelaena pulicaria Germ. (Punctures strawberry and rus2)'jerry plants.)
Euschistis tristigma Say. (Carnivorous.)
lieptoglossus phyllopus L. (Destroys Cabbage-bug.)
Lygaeus bicrucis Say.

lineolaris Beau v. (Punctures plants.)
Micropus leucopterus Say. (Chinch bug.)
Nezara hilaris Say. (Destroys Cotton-worms.)
Oebalus typheus (Fabr ) (Carnivorous.)
Pirates biguttatus Say. (Feeds on Bed-bugs.)
Podisus cynicus Say- ( Vegetable feeder ; also carnivorous .)

spinosus Dallas. (Destroys Cotton- ^vorms.)
Stracliia histrionica Hahn. (The Harlequin Cabbage bug.)

FAMILY MEMBRACID.E.

Mention is made of this family on account of its containing, amojig
its members the common bed-bug (Acanthla lectularia, L.)

FAMILY PEDICULIDAE. BODY LICE.

ORDER ORTHOPTERA. CRICKETS, GRASSHOPPERS, ETC.

[Wings four ; anterior ])air tbickened and usually overiapiiing ; posterior pair thinner
and folded in plates longitudinally : Mouth parts formed for biting : Metamorphosis
incomplete.]

This order includes many injurious insects. We shall make special
mention of four of the seven families, omitting the Phasmifhr (Walking-
sticks), Blattklie (Cockroaches), and Forficulidx (Earwigs).

284

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY GKYLLIDiE. CRICKETS.

This family is not well worked up for America. Among the South
Carolina species we mention only the following :

Gryllus luctuosus Serv.

Gryllus abbreviatiis Serv.

Gryllotalpa longipennis Sriuld. {Mole cricket.)
Oecanthus niveus Harr. [Snoivy tree- cricket.)

FAMILY LOCUSTID.E. LONG-HORN GRASSHOPPERS.

Microeentrus retinervis Scudd. (" Xaty-did."')

Orchelimum glaberriuin Burm. (?) Orchelimum agile DeG.

Xiphidium fasciatum DeG.

Conocephalus crepitans Scudd.

Phanerotptera curvieauda Harr.

FAMILY ACRIDID^. GRASSHOPPERS OR TRUE LOCUSTS.

The members of this family are all so injurious that we shall give as
complete a list as possible.

Tryxalis brevipenis Cliarp.
Opomala punctipennis Serv.

bivittata Serv.
Pyrgomorpha punctipennis Thos.
Stenobothrus admirabilis Uld. (D. C. S. 111.

occidentalis Sauss.
Tragocephala infuscata Harr.
Tomonotus sulphureus Sauss.
(Edipoda sordida Burm

Carolina Linn.

fene.stralis Serv.

rugosa Scudd.
Pezotettix longicornis Saues.

edax Sauss.
"[Jaloptenus femur-rubrum De Geer.

differentialis Thos.
Chrouiachris (;olorata (Serv.)
Acridium rubiginosnm Harr.

alutaceum Harr

americanum (Hrury.)

Opomala varipes Serv.
marginicollis Serv.

Chrysochraon viridis (So., 111. and Fla.)
Stenobothrus Maculipennis Scudd.

Tragocephala viridifasciata Harr.
Tomonotus xanthopterus (Burm.)
Q<]dipoda discoidia Serv.

phtenicoptera.

sincerata Harr.

Pezotettix scudderi Uhl (Md.)

Caloptenus bivittatus (Say.)

Oxya claviger (Serv.)

Acridium ambiguum Thos. (Tenn.)

obscurum (Fabr.

obtusum Burm.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

285

Khomalea centurio (Drury.)
Tettix ornata (Say.)

femorata Scudd (Md.
Tettigidea lateralis (Harr.)

Rliomalea marci Serv.
Tetlix oxycephala Burm.

Tettigidca polyniorpha (Burm ) (Ala.)

FAMILY MANTID^.

The insects of this family are raptatorial, and prey upon other insects.
The common South Carolina species is Ilcuitis Carolina Linn., commonly
known as the " Rear-horse." It is common all through the South, but
was originally described from Carolina. »

ORDER NEUROPTERA.

[Wiiigs four, membranous, net-veined, generally large and of nearly equal size;
Mouth-parts formed for biting : Metamorphosis complete or incomplete: Abdomen
of female with no sting or piercer.]

This is a very heterogeneous Order, and none of its members are of
sufficient importance economically to merit special mention here Dr.
Hagen, in his synopsis (1S61), mentions eight hundred and twelve
North American, of which twenty-nine onh' are from Carolina, while
one hundred and four are from Georgia. This, however, cannot be
taken as an index to the true number of species in the State

CLASS ARACHNOIDEA.

[Body of two regions (cephalo-thorax and abdomen) : thorax with eight legs : ab-
domen with six spinarets: head without antenn* : No metamorphosis.]

ORDER ARANEINA. SPIDERS.

[Jaws used exclusively for biting; abdomen spherical, sac-shaped, not divided
into segments, and attached to the cephalo-thorax by a slender pedicel.]

280

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY EPEIROIDiE. ORB-WEAVERS.

Gastcracantlia canrer (Hentz.)
Acrosoma spiuea (Hentz.)
rugosa (Hentz.)
Arjiiope riparia (Hentz )
Kj)eifa insularis Hentz.
septima Hentz.
(lomicilioriim Hentz.
INJiranda bonibyeinaria (Hentz.)

displicata (Hentz.)
Acanthepeira stellata (Hentz.)
verrucosa (Hentz.
Ocrepeira ectypa (Walk.)
Cyrtophora tuberenlata ]\Iavx M.S.
Cyrtarachne cornigera (Hentz.)
Singa foliata (Hentz.)

pratensis (Hentz.)
rubella (Hentz.)
Zilla globosa (Keyserling.)
labyrinthea (Hentz.)
placida (Hentz.)
gil)berosa (Hentz.)
Epeira prompta Hentz.

albida Marx MS.
Fbyllira maraeata Hentz.
Hypiiotes cavatus (Hentz)
Nephilla plumipes Koch.

Acrosoma mitrata (Hentz.)

Argiope fasciata (Hentz.)
Epeira vulgaris Hentz.

strix Hentz.

thaddeus Hentz.
^Miranda nigrostriata ^larx MS.

heptagon (Hentz.)
Acanthepeira spinosa Marx MS

Singa tetragnathoidcs Marx MS.
nigrifrons Marx MS.

Zilla maculata Keys.

hortorum (Hentz.)

scutulata (Hentz.)

caudata (Hentz.)
Epeira fera Marx MS.

textrix Marx MS.
Phjdiira riparia Hentz.

FAMILY THERIDTOID.E. SNARE-WEAVERS

Episenus truncatus "Walk.

Erigone coccinea (Hentz.)

indirecta Cambr.

neophita (Hentz.)

Linyphia comunis Hentz.

marmorata Hentz.
scripta Hentz.
Miniethus interfecta Hentz,
Thalaiiiia parietalis Hentz.

Erigone anglica (Hentz.)

oscitabundum (Hz.)
rosida (Hentz.)

Linyphia conferta Hentz.
costata Hentz.

ISIimethus tuberosus Hentz.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

287

ThoiitUnin vulgare Hentz.

serpentinum Hentz.

maniioratum Hentz.

boreale Hentz.

studiosiim Hentz.

frondeum Hentz.

ernciatiim Hentz.

fnnebre Hentz. *

cancellatnm Hentz.
Lathrodeitus verecundus (Hentz.)
Sninthrus tlavidus Hentz.

Tlieridium intentum Hentz.
blandum Hentz.
lyia Hentz.
sphaerula Hentz.
trigonum Hentz.
tectum Hentz.
])ic-tinn Hentz.

fuliaceuni Hentz.

FAMILY PHOLCOIDiE.

PholcuH atlantieiis Hentz.
Spennaphora meridionalis Hentz.

Pholous pullulus (Hentz.)

FAMILY SCYTODOID.E.

Scytodes cameradus Hentz. Loxosceies longipes Marx :\rP.

FAMILY AGALENOID/E. FUNNEL SPINNERS.

Dirtyna sublata (Hentz.)

volupis Keys.
Amaurobiusatrox Marx MS.
Cirlotes comunis Marx MS.
Tegenaria medicinalis Hentz.
Halmia pulchella Marx MS,
Asalena nania Hentz.

Dictvna moderata ^larx MS.

FAMILY DRASSOID.E. ASSASSIN SPIDERS.

Trachelas inermia Marx MS.
I/iooraniun zonarium (Hentz.)
crocatum (Hentz )
^licaria nitens Marx MS.
Herpylbi8 ecdesiasticus Hentz,
bicolor Hentz.

Liocranum variegatum Marx IMS.

Herpyllns vulgaris Marx MS,

288

invertf:brate fauna of south Carolina.

Anyphrona liillens (Hentz.)
albens (Hentz.)
Phonolitlius nitens Marx MS.
Gnaphosa variegata (Hentz )
Clubiona pallens Hentz.

obesa Hentz.

piscatoria Hentz.

tranguilla Hentz.

celer Hentz.

saxatiles Korh.
Cheiracanthiam albicum i\Iarx MS.

saltabunduni (Hentz.)
Drassus aureolis Marx MS.

longipalpus Marx MS.
Phriirolithus nitens Marx MS.

Anypbicna gracilis (Hentz.)

Pbonolitlius fasciatus Marx MS.
Gnapbosa colunibiana ]\Iarx MS.
Clubiona amarantha AValk.

abottii Kodi.

excepta Koch.

corticalis Walk.

riparia Koch.

CheiraL'anthiiun atrox Marx MS.

riparium Marx MS-
Drassus tristis Marx MS.

pavidus Marx MS.
Phrurolithus fasciatus Marx MS.

FAMILY DYSDEROID^.

Pylarus bicolor Hentz.

FAMILY FILISTATOID^,

Filistata hibernalis Hentz.

FAMILY THERAPHOSOID.E. MINING SPIDERS.

Atypns niger Hentz.
Paeliyiomerus solsticialis (Hentz.)
Eurypelma bicolor (Hentz.)
Mvgale truncata Hentz.

Pacbylomerus carolinensis (Hentz.)
Euryiebna gracilis (Hentz.)

FAMILY THOMOSOID.E. CRAB SPIDERS.

Xysticus triguttatus Keys.

pulgerimus Keys.

lenis Keys.

punctatus Keys.

elegans Keys.
Osyptilla georgiana Keys.
Coriarachne versicolor Keys.
Syneina i)arvula Keys.

Xysticus limbatus Keys,
emertonii Keys,
variabilis Keys.
gulosus Keys.

Synema nigroinaculata Keys.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

280

Misumena spinosa Keys.

rosea Keys.

americana Keys.
Diaea lepida Thorell.
Runcinia brendelli Keys.
Tmarus candatus Keys-
Tibellus duttoni Keys.
Thanatus rhombodoidus Marx MS.
Philodromus aureolus Keys
laticeps Keys,
vulgaris Hentz.

Misumena georgiana Keys,
vatia Walk.

Thanatus rubicundus Keys.
Philodromus infuscatus Keys.

imbecillus Keys.

molitor Marx MS.

FAMILY LYCOSOID^E. WOLF SPIDERS.

Lycosa scutulata Hentz.

punctulata Hentz.
Tarentula sagitata (Hentz).
ocreata (Hentz).
ruricola (Hentz).
lenta (Hentz).
carolinensis (Hentz).
georgiana (Marx MS).
fatifera (Hentz).
Trochosa furio.sa Marx ms.
Dolomedes tenebrosus Hentz.
tenax Hentz.
albineus Hentz.
urinator Hentz.
Ctenus literalis Marx MS.
Ocyale carolinensis (Hentz).

Lycosa funerea Hentz.

Tarentula saltatrix (Hentz).
erratica (Hentz).
litoralis (Hentz).
maritima (Hentz).
aspersa (Hentz).
ripararia (Hentz).

Dolomedes sexpunctatus Henta.
marginatus Marx IMS.
audax Marx MS.

Ocyale variegata Marx MS.

FAMILY OXYOPOID^. LYNX SPIDERS.

Oxyopes viridans Hentz.
scalaris Hentz.

Oxyopes salticus Hentz.
astutus Hentz.

FAMILY ATTOID^. JUjMPING SPIDERS.

Attus insolens Hentz.
cardinalis Hentz.
capitatus Hentz.
militaris Hentz.

19

Attus parvus Hentz.
rarus Hentz.
niger Hentz.
gracilis Hentz.

290

IXVERTEHRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

multicolor flentz.

sexpunctatus Hentz.

falcarius Hentz.

bebes Hentz.

oastaneus Hentz.

taenifolia Hentz.

elegans Hentz.

familiaris Hentz.

tripunctatus Hentz.

laystaceus Hentz.

atiosns Hentz,

fasciolatus Hentz.

rufns Hentz.

podagrosus Hentz.

rupicola Hentz.

nubilis Hentz.

parvus Hentz.
Epiblemum faustum Hentz.
Hentzia palmarum (Hentz).
Synemosyna formica Hentz

scorpionia Hentz.

leojiardus Hentz.
puerperus Hentz.
vittatus Hentz.
coronatus Hentz.
coccatus Hentz.
pulex Hentz.
anratus Hentz.
viridipe-s Hentz.
multivagus Hentz.
cristatus Hentz.
mitratus Hentz.
sylvanus Hentz.
superciliosus Hentz.
morigerus Hentz.
cyaneus Hentz.
oftavus Hentz.

Synemosyna epliippiata Hentz.
picata Hentz.

ORDER PEDIPALPI.

[Maxillary palpi greatly enlarged, ending in a forceps ; abdomen jointed.]

FAxMILY PHALANGTD.E. HARVEST MEN, "DADDY-LOXG-

LEGS."

Phalangium dorsatum Say (?) (Va.) Phalangium maculosum Wood,
vittatum Say. ventrico3:nn "Wood-

calcar Wood. grande Say.

forinosum Wood. • nigrum Say.

FAMILY GONILEPTID.F:.

Gonyleptes ornatum Say. (?)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 291

ORDER ACARINA. MITES.

[Cephalo-thorax merged with the non-jointed abdomen : Month parts adapted for
biting or sucking.]

The Mites of this country have not been well studied, and we shall
omit them from our list.

CLASS MYRIAPODA.

[Body cylindrical ; composed of from ten to two hundred joints.]

ORDER CHILOPODA. CENTIPEDES.

[Each body-joint simple, and bearing a single pair of legs: Head composed of two
regions; one before and one behind the mouth.]

FAMILY CERMATIIDiE.

Cermatia forceps Rafinesque.

FAMILY LITHOBIIDiE.

Lithobinus americanus Newport.
Bothropolys multidentatus Newport.

FAMILY SCOLOPENDRIDyE.

Scolopendra heros var., castaniceps Wood, Scolopendra.viridis Say; (mountains of

(Ga.) ^''^•)

polymorpha VVood.
Cryptops hyalina Say (Ga.)
Opisthemega postica Wood.
Soolopocryptops sexspinosa (Say).

202 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY GEOPHILID/E.

Mecistocephahis melanotus Wood (Ga.)

Geophilus laevis AVood (Ga.)

Strigamia laevipes Wood (Ga.) Strigamia taeniopsis Wood (Ga.

ORDER DIPLOPODA. MILLIPEDES.

[Body divided into numerous joints, each furnished with two pairs of short legs.]

FAMILY LISIOPETALID^.

Spirostrephon lactarius (Say).

FAMILY JULID.E.

Julus rainutus Brandt.

Spirobolus marginatus (Say). Spirobolus spinigerus Wood.

FAMILY POLYDESMID^.

Paradesmus erythropygus Brandt.
Fontaria virginiensis (Drury).

FAMILY POLYXENID^.

Polyxenus fasciculatus (Say).

FAMILY POLYZONID.E.

Octoglena bivirgata Wood (?) Ga.

FAMILY SIPHONOPHORID^.

Brachycybe LeContii Wood (?) Ga.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTPI CAROLINA.

293

CLASS CRUSTACEA.

[Articulate animals with two pairs of antennae or feelers, with jointed appendages
to some of the abdominal segments, with gills or vesicles for breathing air in water,
and a hard chitinous or subcalcareous covering to the body]

ORDER DECAPODA. TEN-FOOTED CRUSTACEANS.

Achelous spinimana DeHaan (N. C.
Alpheus minus Say.

Cancer borealis Stm. (Atlantic coast).

Cambarus immunis Hagen (N. C. )
latimanus LeConte.
lecontei Hagen (N. C.)
pencillatus LeConte.

Achelous gibbesii Stm. (N. C.)

depressifrons Stm. (N. C.)
Alpheus heteroehelis Say (N- C.)
Araneus cribrarius Dana (N. C.)
Calappa marmorata Fabr.
Callianassa stimpsonii Smith (Atlantic coast).
Callichirus major Stm.
Callinectes hastatus Ordway [Sea-crab).
Cancer irroratus Say (Rock-crab).
Cambarus (Cray-fishes Fresh water.)
advena.
acutus.

blandingii Harlan,
carolinus Erichson.
Carinus moenas Leach (Atlantic coast).
Clibanarius vittatus Stm. (N. C.)
*Crangon vulgaris Fabr.
Euceramus praelongus Stm. (N. C.)
Eurytium limossum Say.
Eupagurus (Hermit-crabs, living in abandoned shells of periwinkles, and other mol-

lusks; the following three species are found) :
E. annulipes Stm.
longicarpus Stm.
pollicaris Stm.
Gebia afflnis Say.
Gelasimus. (Fiddler-crabs. Very abundant on the muddy banks of salt-marsh,

streams, and hiding in holes in the ground).
G. minax LeConte (N. C.)
pugnax Smith,
pugillator (N. C.)

* This is the common shrimp. It may be distinguished from its congener, the common prawn,
by the character of the rostrum or beak that projects Irom the head end of the back. This oeak
in the sTiriwp is short, with a single spine behind it. In the prawn it is long, upturned, and
toothed, having eight or nine teeth on the upper edge, and three or four on the lower. The name
of the common pj-awn. is Palaemonetes vulgaris.

294

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Hepatus decorus Gibbes. {Spotted crab.)

Heterocryi)ta granulata Gibbes.

Hippa talpoida Saj',

Hippolysmata Murdemanni (Gibbes) Stin. Hippolysmata paludosa.

Homariis ainericanus M. Edw. {Lobster.)

[The common Lobster has been found at Ft. Macon, North Carolina, but it does not
ajipear to have been recorded from South Carolina.]

Lepidops scutella Desm. (N. C.)
Libinia caniliculata Say [Spider crab).
Lithadia cariosa Stm. (N. C.)
Menippe mercenaria Say {Stone crab).
Metoi)orha]iis calcarata Say.
Xeptunus sayi Stm. (Atlantic coast),
(^cyopoda arenaria Say {Land crab).
Palaemonetes carolinus Stm.
Panopeus herbstii M. Edw.
Panopeus depressus Smith (Atlantic coast.'
Peneus braziliensis Latreille.

constrictus Stimp.son.
Pelia mutica Gibbes-
Persephone punctata Browne.
Pilumnus aculeatus M. Edw.
Pinnixa cha3topterana Stimpson (N. C.)

cylindrica Say {S. C.)
Pinnotheres maculatus Say
Piagusia.

Platyonichus ocellatus Herbst {Sand Crab.
Pontonia domestica.
Porcellana ocellata Gibbes-
Ranilia muricata Edw. (Atlantic coast.)
Sesarma cinerea Bosc
Tozeuma carolinensisKingsley (N. C.)
Urocaris longicaudata Stimpson.
Virbius pleuracanthus Stimpson (X. C.)

Libinia dubia (M. Edw )

Palaemonetes vulgaris Say {Common praiun)
Panopeus harrisii Gould (Atlantic coast).
Panopeus sayi Smith (Atlantic coast.)
Peneus setiferus M. Edw.

Pinnixa sayana Stimpson (X. C.)
Pinnotheres ostreura Sa'y {Oyster Crab.)

Porcellana sociata Say.
Sesarma reticulata Say.

ORDER STOMAPODA.

[Seven or eight pairs of legs. Eyes pedunculated. Gills genei-ally attached to the
false fat of the abdomen.]

Squilla dubia M. Edg. ? Squilla neglecta Gibbes.

empusa Saj'. scabricauda Sas.

? mantis.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 295

ORDER AMPHIPODA

[Seven pairs of legs. Eyes sessile. Membraneous vesicles for breathing organs.
Body frequently compressed.]

Amphitlue dentata Say.

Gammarus mucronatus Say. Gammarus fosciatus Say.

Talorchestia longicornis Smith (commonly known as Beach-flea, and Sand-hopper.)

ORDER ISOPODA.

[Seven pairs of legs. Eyes sessile. Gills for breathing organs. Body usually de-
pressed]

Armadillidium pilularis Say [Pill-hug.)

Asellus communis Say. Asellus lineatus Say.

Conilera concharum Hargr.

Idottea cteca Say.

Livoneca ovalis Say [Fish-louse.)

Lygia gaudichaudii M. Edw. ( Wharf-louse )

Nesfea caudata Say.

Nerocilla variabilis Gibbes.

Porcellio (probably several species; on land only; commonly known as sow bugs and

pill bugs.)
Sphteroma quadridentata Say.

ORDER L^MODIPODA.

[Posterior segments of body provided with legs. Eyes sessile. Breathing by
vesicles. All marine.]

Caprella equilibra Say. Caprella geometrica Say.

EATOMOSTRACA.

[This group includes several orders of cru.staceans, which have mostly a horny or
chitinous shell. Most species are minute, and many live in fresh water.]

Cyclops naviculus Say.
Cypris sp.

29G INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Cy there bifasciata Say.

Daplinia angnlata Saj'.

Limulus polyphemus Linn. (This species has a long, pointed, spine-like tail. It at-
tains a length of more than a foot. It is commonly known as the Horse-shoe
Crab, also King Crab.)

CIRRIPEDIA. BARNACLES.

[Six pairs of forked, cileated limbs. Permanently attached in the adult state ]

Acasta spongites.

Balanus balanoides Stm. (Acorn barnacles.)
ebnrneus Gould,
galeatus Darwin.
Lepas (Goose barnacles.)
anatifera Linn,
anserifera Linn,
pectinata Spengler.

CLASS ANNELIDA. TRUE WORMS.

[Mostly with red blood ; body with external segmentation. Xo jointed appendages.
Aquatic respiration by means of the general surface of the body, by involutions of the
skin, or by gills.]

ORDER POLYCH.ETA.

Arabella opalina Verrill (N. C.)

Anthostoma robustum Verrill (N. C.)

Cistenides gouldii Verrill.

Diopatra cuprea Claparede

Hydroides dianthus Verrill (N. C.)

Nephthys picta Ehlers.

Nereis limbata Ehlers.

Rhynchobolus aniericanus Verrill (N. C.)

INVERTEBKATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 297

Sabellaria vulgaris Verrill (N. C.)

Sabella micropthaluia Verrill (N. C.)

Serpula fascicularis Lam,

Spio caudatus.

Spirorbis sp.

Terebe'la conchifera Pall. Terebella ventricosa Bosc.

ORDER OLIGOCH^TA.

Lumbricus terrestris Linn. (This is the common earth or angle worm.)

ORDER HIRUDINEA. LEECHES.

Clepsine SM^ampina Diesing. (Upon frogs and toads.)

CLASS SCOLECIDA.

[Mostly parasitic; possessing a ■water- vascular sj'stem.l

ORDER TURBELLARL\. NON-PARASITIC.

Balanoglossus aurantiacus Verrill.
Cerebratulus ingens Verrill (N. IJ.)
^reckelia ingens Leidy.

ORDER GORDIACEA. HAIR WORMS.

[In one state parasitic in grasshoppers, etc. They are the so-called Hair-snakes
when in water.]

208 INVERTEBRATE FAUXA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER NEMATODA. ROUND WORMS.

The two following doubtless occur :
Trichina spiralis. (The pork parasite.)
Anguillula aceti, (Vinegar eel.)

ORDER TiENIADA. TAPE WORMS.

Ttenia echinococcus is found in the dogr, and T;enia mediocanellata and solium in
man. (For further information, see Verrill's work on Parasites.)

MOLLUSCA.

CLASS CEPHALOPODA.

[Mollusks with a distinct head ; around the mouth are eight or more tentacles ; body
enclo.*ed in a mantle ; two or four plume-like gills.]

Loligo brevis Blainville. (Squid.)
Octopus granulatus Lam. (Cuttle-fish.)
Ommastrephes bartramii Lesueiir (N. C.)

CLASS GASTEROPODA.

[Shell univalve ; locomotion effected by a ventral foot or fin-like organ : head dis-
tinct.]

TERRESTKIAL OR LAND SXAILS.

Glandina truncata Gmelin.

Hyalina cernioidea Anthonj'^ (N. C.) Hyalina ligera Say (Ga.)

arborea Say (Eastern U. S.) demissa Binney (Ga.)

indentata Say (East. U. S.) fulva Draparnaud (U. S.)

intertexta Binney (Ga.) interna Say (Ga.)

(Helicodiscus) lineata Say (E. U. S.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

290

Macrooylis concava Say (Ga.
Helix alternata (East U.S.)

perspectiva Say (East. U. S.)

posteliana Bland (Ga.)

espicola Eavenel.

hazardi Bland (Ga.)

pustula Fer.

pustuloides Bland (Ga.)

leporma Gould (Ga.)

spinosa Lea (Ga.)

barbigera Redfield (Ga.)

stenotrema Fer (Southern States.)

maxillata Gould (Ga.)

monodon Rackett (East. U. S)

palliata Say (Ga.)

obstricta Say.

appressa Say.

inflecta Say (Ga.)

Helix rugila Shuttleworth (N. C.)
tridentata Say.
liillax Say.

introferens Bland fN. N.)
hopetonensis Sliuttleworth.
major Binney.
albolabris Say.
elevata Say (Ga.)
clarkii Lea (N. C.)
christyi Bland (N. C.)
exoleta Binney (Ga.)
wheatleyi Bland (N. C.)
thyroides Say.
bucculenta Gould (N. C.)
jejuna Say (Ga.)
pulchella Mueller.

aspera Mueller (European. Intro-
duced.)

Bulimulus dealbatus Say (N. C.)

Stenogyra decolata Linn. (Introduced from Europe at Charleston, S. C.)

Pupa pentodon Say.

fallax Say.
Vertigo milium.
Succinea avara Say (East U. S.)

obliqua Say (Ga.)
Sonites kopnodes Binney (Ga.)

laevigata Pfeiffer (E. U. S.)
inornata Say (N. C.)
Tebennophorsus carolinensis Bosc
Limax flavus Linn.

Pupa contracta Say (East. U. S.)

costioaria Say.
Vertigo ovata Say.
Succinea campestris.

Sonites sculptilis Bland (N. C.)
elliotii Redfield (N. C.)
suppressa Say (East. U.S.)

MOSTLY FRESH WATER
Carychium exiguum Say.
Melampus bidentatus Say.
Limnsea columella Say
Physa gj'rina Say.
Planorbis lentus Say.

glabratus Say.

trivoluis Say (U. S.)
Pomus depressa Say (Ga.)
Viripara intertexta Say (Ga.)

contectoides Buiney (Ga.)
Melantha decisa Say.

Melampus obliquus Say (On beach N. C.)
Limnsea humilis Say.
Phy.«a heterostropha Say (Ga.)
Planorbis bicarinatus Say (E. U. S.)
parvus Say.

Viripara georgiana Lea.
Melantha coarctata Lea.

300

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Lioplax cydostomatiformis Lea (Ga.)
Bythinella tennii)es Coupr. (Ga.)
Poinatiopsis laj^idaria Say (Ga.)

(Under stones in wet places),
Helicina articulata (Ga.)

MOSTLY MARINE.

Utriculus canaliculatus Say.
Bulla solitaria Say.
Chiton apiculatus Say.
Entalis pliocena T. and H. (N. C.)
Crepidula formicata Linn.

formicata var. intorta Say (N.

conveya Say.
Fissurella alternata Say.
Zizyphinus sp. (N. C.)
Turbo crenulatus Gm. ?
Littorina irrorata Say.
Scalaria humphreysii Keiner (N. C.)

angulata Say.
Solarium granulatum Lam. (N. C)
Vermetus radicula Stimpson (N. C.)
Cerithium sp. (N. C.)
Bittium nigrum Tott.

greenii C. B. Ad. (N. C.)
Triforis nigrocinctus C. B. Ad. (N. C.)
Chemnitza spirata Ktz. and Stm.
Odostomia seminuda C. B. Ad.
Turbonilla interrupta Tott- (N. C.)
Obeliscus crenulatus Holmes. (N. C.)
Eissoa pupoidea Ktz. and Stm.
Eulima oleacea Ktz. and Stm.
Sigaretus persjiectivus Say.
Natica pusilla Say.

Porcellana (Cypraea) exanthema Linn.
Pleurotoma cerina Ktz. and Stm.
Marginellaapicina Menke. (N. C.)

guttata Dillwyn.
Oliva literata Lam

Crepidula unguiformis Say (N. C.)
C.) aculeata Gmelin.

Littorina dilatata d'Orbrgny. (N. C.
Scalaria lineata Saj'.

turbinata Conrad (N. C.)

Bittium sp. (N. C.)

Odostomia impressa Say.

Eulima conoidea Ktz. and Stm.

(N. C.)

Pleutotoma plicata C. B. Ad. (N. C)
Marginella roseida Redfield (N. C.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

301

Olivella mutica Say.
Columbella avara Say.

lunata Say,
Dolium galea Linn.
Seinicassis granulosa Lamarck (N. C.)
Cassis cameo Stm. (N. C.)
Purpura floridafta Conr. (N. C.)
Ilyonassa obsoleta Say.
Nassa vibex Say.

Ceritliiopsis terebralis C- B. Adams.
Acus concavus Say.
Anachis similis Verrill. (N. C.)
Eapana (Fusus) cimerea Say.
Busycon pyrum Dillw.

canaliculatum Linn.
Cancellaria reticulata Linn.
Fasciolaris tulipa Linn.

distans Lara.
Ranella caudata Say.
Murex spinicostata Val. (N. C.)
Strombus pugilis Gm. (N. C.)
INIitra granulosa Lamarck.

Columbella mercatoria Linn. (N. C.)
ormata Ravenel ? (N. C.)

Nassa trivittata Say.
Acus dislocatus Say.

Busycon carica Linn.

perversum Linn.

Fasciolaris gigantea Kriener.

Strombus alatus Gm.

CLASS PTEROPODA.

Free ; swimming by means of two wing-like appendages (epipodia)
Styliola acicula Lesuenr (N. C.)

CLASS LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Gills in the form of lamellae ; shell bivalve.

302

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

FAMILY UXIOXID.E. FRESH-WATER CLAMS OR MUSSELS.

Unio abbevillensis Lea.

aberans Lea (N. C.)

angustatiis Lea (Cooper River.)

barrattii Lea (Abbeville.)

beaverensis Lea (N. C.)

bisselianus Lea (N. C.)

buxens Lea (Abbevil'e.)

castus Lea.

catawbensis Lea (X. C.)

charlottensis Lea (N. C.1

chathamensis Lea (X. C.)

cistellaeformis Lea.

complanatus Sol.

concavus Lea (Abbeville.)

confertus Lea (Santee canal.)

congaraeus Lea (Congaree River.)

contignus Lea (X. C.)

contractus Lea (X. C.)

cnratus Lea (X. C.)

datus Lea (X. C.)

decoratus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)

dorsatus Lea (X. C.)

emmonsii Lea (X. C.)

exactus Lea (X. C.)

fulvus Lea.

gastonensis Lea (X. C )

geddingsranus Lea (Congaree River.)

gracilentus Lea (X. C.)

griffitbianus Lea.

hepatieus Lea (Salkaliatchie River.)

humerosus Lea (X. C.)

indefinitus Lea (X. C )

ineptiis Lea (Abbeville Dist )

insulus Lea (X. C )

jejunus Lea.

lanceolatus Lea (X. C.)

lazarus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)

livingstonensis Lea (X. C.)

lucidua Lea (X. C.)

meeklenbergensis Lea (X. C.)

mediocris Lea (X. C.)

Unio merus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)

micans Lea (X. C.)

tnodioliformis Lea (Santee canal.)

nasutulus Lea (N. C.)

neusensis Lea (X. C.)

nubilis Lea (X. C.l

obesus Lea.

oblatus Lea (X'. C)

palliatus Lea fX. C )

pawensis Lea (X. C.)

percoarctatus Lea (X'. C.)

perlatns Lea (X. C.)

perlucens Lea (X, C.)

pernodosus Lea (X. C.)

perstriatus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)

pertennis Lea (X. C.j

planilaterus Con. (X. d)
protensus Lea (X. C.)
pullus Con (Wateree River.)
pumihis Lea (X. C.)
purus Lea (X. C.)
pygmaeus Lea (Abbeville.)
quadriiaterus Lea.
raleighensis Lea (X. C.)
ravelianus Lea (X. C.)
roanokensis Lea (X. C.)
rostrum Lea (N. C.)
rufusculus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)
sordidus Lea (Abbeville Dist.)
spadiceus Lea (X. C.)
squalidus Lea (.X. C.)
squamens Lea (X. C.)
striatulus Lea (X. C.)
tenerus Rav.

tuomeyi Lea (Abbeville Dist.)
utriculus Lea (X. C.) ■
vaughanianus Lea (Camden.)
viridulus Lea (X. C.)
watereensis Lea (Wateree canal.)
waccamawensis Lea (N. C.)
veldoncnsis Lea (N. C.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Margaritana marginata Say. jMurgaritana triangulata Lea.

raveneliana Lea (N. C.)
Auodouta doliaris Lea (N. C.) Anodonta virgulata Lea (N. C.)

dunlapiana Lea.

MARINE SPECIES.

Teredo megotara Hanle}'.
Pholas triincata Say,

{Ship Worms.)

Teredo dilatata Stm.
Pholas costata Linn.

Panopa\a bitrancata Cour. (fossil?) (N, C.

Strigilla flexuosa Say.
Tellina iris Say.
polita Say.

Ziriiha?a crispata Morch.

Saxicava distorta Say.

Pandora trilineata Say (N. C.)'

Lyonisia hyalina Cour (N. C.)

Cochlodesma leanum Conr. (N. C.)

Gastrochpena sp. (N. C.)

Panoprea aniericana Conr. (N. C.)

Myalina subovata Conr. (N. C.)

Corhula contracta Say.

Mya arenaria Linn (long Clam.) (Tliia is also called the soft-shelled claui.)

Solemya velum Say (N. C.)

Siliquaria bidens Chenin (N. C ) Siliqiiaria gibba Spengle.

Solen ensis Linn. (Razor shell.)

Strigilla sp (N.C.)

Tellina alternata Say.

tenera Say.

tenta Say.
Abra ?equalis Say.

Amphidesma constrieta? Phill. (X. C.)
Semele orbiculata Say
Cumingia tellinoides Cour.
Donax variabilis Say.
Mactra lateralis Say.

solidissinia Chem.
Raeta lineata Say.
Petricola pholadiformis Lam.

Venus mercenavia Linn. (Quahog ) (This is the common round clam.)
Lucinopsis sp- (N. C.)
Dorsinia discus Reeve.

Cytherea gigantea Chemn. (N. C.) Cytherea convesa Say (N. C.)

Tottenia manhattensis Verrill (N. C.)
Chione grata Say (N. C.)
Gemina totteni Stm. (N. C.)

Jlartra raveneli Cour. (N. C)

Rteta canaliculata Saj'.
Petricola dactylus Sow.

304

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

{Sea Mussel?

Mercenaria mortoni Conr. (N. C.)

violacea Schum. (N. C.)
Cardita tridentata Say.
Astarte lunulata Conr.
Diplodonta? punctata Say (N. C.)
Lucina chrysostoraa (N. C.)
Liocardium mortoui Conr. (N. C.)
Cardium isocardia Linn

muricatum Linn.
Chama macrophylla Chemn. (N. C.)

Mytilus carolinensis (N. C.)

edulis Linn. (N. C )
Argina pexata Gray (Bloody clam.)
Modiola americana Leach (N. C.)

castanea Say?
Modiolaria lateralis Say.

Avicula atlantica Lam.
Pinna muricata Linn.
Leda acuta Conr. (N. C.)
Yoldia limatula Say,
Nucula proxima Say.
Area americana Gray.

holmesii Kurtz.

lienosa Say.

noa2 Linn.

occidentalis.
Pectunculus charlestonensis ? Holmes.
Pecten nodosus Lam.

concentricus Say.
Lima scabra Born.
Plicatula depressa Lam.

Ostrjea virginiana Latr.
equestris Say.

Anomia glabra Verrill (fossil ?).

TUNICATA.

[Body protecte-l by a leathery, elastic integument,
of a respiratory sack.]

Molgula pellucida Verrill (N. C )

Cynthia partita Stm. (N. C.)

Amaroecium stellatum Verrill (X. C.)

Mercenaria violacea var. notata (N. C.)

Lucina strigilla Stm.

Laocardium Ijevigatum Lam. (N. C.)

Cardium magnum Born. (N. C.)

Chama arcinella Linn.

Mytilus cubitus Say.

Modiola plicatula Lam.

hamatus Verrill (N. C )

Pinna seminuda Lam.

Area transversa Say.
limula Conr.
ponderosa Say.
incongrua Say.

Pecten dislocatus Say.

(Oysters)

Ostrrea fundata Say.

Mouth opening into the bottom

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

305

BRACHIOPODA.

[One nerve ganglion ; shell bivalve ; mouth with two long cirriferous arms. Mostly-
fossil.]

Lingnla pyramidata Stm. (N. C.)

BRYOZOA OR POLYZOA.

[Body consisting of a double -walled sack ; mouth surrounded by a circle or crescent,
of hollow, ciliated tentacles. Animals always in composite colonies.]

Crisia eburnea Lamx. (N. C)
Amathia alternata Lamx. (N. C.)
Vesicularia armata Verrill (N. C.)
Aetea anguina Lamx. ? (N. C.)
Bugula turrita Verrill (N. C.)
Acamarchis neritina Lamx. (N. C.)
Membranifora lineata Busk. (N. C.)
Biflustra denticulata Smitt (N. C.)
Hippothoa hyalina Smitt (N. C.)
biaperta Smitt (N. C.)
Cellepora avicularis Hisscks (N. C)
Lepralia americana Verrill (N. C.)
Discopora nitida (N. C.)

Membranifora catenularia Smitt (N. C.)
Hippothoa (Aescharella) variabilis Verrill.

CLASS ECHINODERMATA.

[Radiate animals, with a calcareous shell, or with calcareous spicules in the skin-
They possess an ambulacral system.]

ORDER HOLOTHUROIDEA. SEA CUCUMBERS.

[Echnioderms covered with a coriaceous skin, in which are calcareous granules or
spicules. Shape of body, elongated, slug like.]

Thyone briareus Selenka (N. C.)
Pentamera pulcherrima Ayres.
Thyonella gemmata Verrill.
Anaperus caro^nus Frosch.

20

300 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER ECHNOIDExV. SEA URCHINS.

[Echinoderms with a shell usually globose in shape, and made up of calcareous
plates, having a definite arrangement. Teeth present, forming a complicated mechan-
ism, known as Ari.stotle's lantern, Pedicellaria present in some ]

Arbacia punctulata Gray (N. C.)

(Commonly known as the purple sea-urchin).
Cidaris tribuloides Bl.
Clypeaster subdepressus Ag.
Echinanthus rosaceus Gray.
Echinometra subangularis Desml.

Echinocardium flavescens A. Ag. Echinocardium cordatum Gray.

Encope emarginata Ag.
Mellita pentapora Liitken | Sand cakes.

sexforis A. Ag. j Shape flattened.

Moira atropos A. Ag.
Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis A. Ag.

(Commonly known as the green sea-urchin).
Toxopneustes variegatus A. Ag. (X. C.)

ORDER ASTROIDEA. STAR-FISHES.

[The viscera extending into each of the five arms. Pedicellaria present. No teeth.]

Asterias forbesii Verrill (X. C.) Asterias spinosus Link.

Astropecten articulatus (Say) Luetken.
Luidia clathatra (Say) Luetken.

ORDER OPHIUROIDEA. BRITTLE SEA-STARS.

[Body discoidal ; the five arms do not contain prolongations of the alimentary canal-
No pedicellaria. A masticatory apparatus.]

Ophiura brevispina Say. Ophiura elongata Say.

Ophiophragmus wurdemanni Lyman (N. C.)
Ophiotrix angulata Ayres.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA. OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

CLASS ACALEPH.E. JELLY-FISHES.

[Radiate jelly-like animals, with a central cavity hollowed out of the mass of the
body, which is usually made up of four (or some multiple of four) parts.]

Bolena littoralis McCready.

Mnemiopsis gardenir Agassiz.

Beroe punctata Esch.

Idyiopsis clarkii Ag.

Stomolophus meleagris Ag.

Dactylometra quinquecirra Ag (N. C.)

Cyanea versicolor Ag.

Foveola octonaria A. Ag.

Cunina discoides Fewkes (N. C.)

Cheiropsalamus quadrumanus F. Mueller

Tamoya haplonema F. Mueller (N. C.)

Persa incolorata McCready.

Liriope scutigera McCreadj'.

Oceania folliata Ag.

Eucheilota ventricularis McCready.

Dipleuron parvum Brooks (N. C.

Clytia bicophora Ag.

Platj'pyxis cylindrica Ag.

Campanularia carolinensis Verrill (N. C.)

Eucope divaricata A. Ag.

Eutima mira McCr.

cuculata Brooks (N. C.)
Aglaophenia tricuspis Ag.

trifida.
Nematophorus sp. Brooks (N. C.)
Plumularia quadridens McCr.
Dynamena cornlcina McCr.
Diphasia (nigra-like) Ag.
Margelis carolinensis Ag.
Nemopsis bachei Ag. (Charleston).
Endendrium ramosum McC.
Turritopsis nutricula McCr. (Charleston).
Stomatoca apicata McCr. (Charleston).
Willia ornata McCr.
Dipuriiia cervicata McCr.
Corynetis agassizii McCr.
Gemmaria gemmosa McCr.
Pennaria tiasella McCr.

Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz.

(N. C.)

Campanularia noliformis McCr. (N. C.)
Eucope obliqua Brooks (N. C.)
Eutima emarginata Brooks (N. C.)

variabilis McCr.
Aglaophenia rigida ? AUraan (N. C.)

Plumularia (catharina-like) McCr.
Dynamena bilateralis Brooks (N. C.)

Endendrium tenue ? A. Ag. (N. C)

Dipurina strangulata McCr.

Pennaria inornata Brooks (N. C.)

308 INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Ectopleura tnrricula Ag. Ectopleura ochracea A. Ag (N. C.)

Parypha cristata Ag.
Streenstrupia gracilis Brooks (N. C.)
Hydractinia polyclina Ag.
Eudoxia alata McCr.
Diphyes pusilla McCr.
Physalia arethusa Til.
Velella mutica Bosc.
Porpita linniana Less.
Nanomia cara A. Ag.

Obelia commissuralis McCr. (Charleston).
Lafoea calcarata A. Ag. (Charleston).

Sertularia cornicina Verrill (Charleston). Sertularia carolinensis Verrill (N. C.)
( Desmoscyphus ) achilleas Ver-
rill (N. C.)
!Pelagia cyanella Peron and Lesueur (N. C.)
Diphasia sp. (N. C.)

CLASS POLYPI OR ANTHOZOA.

[Eadiate animals, with a tubular or sack-like body, in the centre of the summit of
which is an opening called the mouth, which is surrounded by one or more rows of
tentacles.]

ORDER ALCYONARIA. CORAL ANIMALS.

[Body built on the plan of four ; eight pinnately fringed tentacles. They are
called the Asteroid Polypes. The red coral of commerce belongs here.]

Renilla renifornis Cuvier (N. C.)

Leptogorgia carolinensis Verrill (N. C.) Leptogorgia virgulata M. Edw. (N. C.)

setacea Verrill (N. C.)
Anthopodium rubens Verrill (N. C.)
Titanideum suberosum Verrill (N. C.)
Telesto fructiculosa Dana (N. C.)

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 309

ORDER ACTINARIA. SEA ANEMONES &c.

Sagartia leucolena Verrill (N. C.)
Paractis rapiformis M. Edw. (N. C.)
Halocampa producta (Stm.) Verrill (X. C.)
Calliactis sol Verrill (N. C.)
Aulactinia capitata Verrill (N. C.)
Cladactis cavernata Verrill (N. C. )
Cerianthus americamis Verrill (N. C.)
Ilyanthus chloropsis (Ag.) Verrill (N. C.)
Paranthea pallida Verrill (N. C.)

ORDER MADREPORARIA.

[The polypes of this order have tentacles, mostly six or some multiple of six in
number. Most corals are formed by animals of this group. They abound in tropical
waters ]

Astrangia danse Ag. (Star coral.)

Oculina arbuscula Verrill (N. C.) Oculina implicata Verrill (N. C.)

PROTOZOA.

[Animals generally of minute size, composed of a nearly structureless, jelly-like
substance, having no definite body cavity, presenting no trace of a nervous system,
and whose alimentary apparatus, if at all differentiated, is very rudimentary.

SPONGIDA. SPONGES.

Microciona prolifera Verrill (N. C.)

Chalina arbuscula Verrill (N. C.)

Cliona sulphurea Verrill (N. C.)

Hircina campana Nardo (N. C)

Spongia vermiculata var. Hyatt (N. C.)

Spongelia spinosa Hyatt (N. C.) Spongelia dubia var. foraminosa Hyatt (X.C.)

Dysidea fragilis Johnston ? (N. C.)

Doubtless, if the fresh water ponds are examined, other sponges will
be found growing in quiet spots on submerged branches, stones, &c.
The student is referred to an article by H. J. Carter, in the Ann. and

310

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Mag. Nat. Hist., Febr., 1881, on the known species of Spongilla\ also, to
Mr. E. Potts, Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Pa., who is making a special study of
Fresh Water Sponges.

MICROSCOPIC PROTOZOANS.

[Most of the following Rhizopads and infusoriuns were originally described by
Ehrenberg.]

Amreba proteus
Amblyophis viridis.
Amphileptas anser.
A reel! a dentata.
Difflugia pi'oteiformis.
Dinobryon sertularia.
Epistylis anastatica.
Euglena pleuronectes.
Hydatina senta. '

Lepadella ovalis.
Megalotrocha alboflavicans
Monostyla lunaris.
Ophrydium versatile.
Peridininm carolinianum Bailey.*
Pterodina patina.
Scardidiuni longicaudum.
Squamella oblonga.
Vorticella clorostigma.

Arcella vulgaris.
Difflugia spiralis Bailey.

Euglena viridis.

Peridiniuni cinctum Ehrenberg.

The following Protozoans belonging to the Rhizopoda, as defined by Leidy, are so
wide spread in the fresh waters of the United States-, that they probably all occur in
South Carolina. They are to be looked for in the ooze of ponds, among Sphagnum in
swamps, etc.

Amoeba verrucosa Ehrenberg.
Pelomyxa villosa.
Difflugia pyriformis Perty.

urceolata Carter.

cratera Leidy.

acuminata Ehrenberg.
Xebela collaris Ehren
Arcella discoides Ehren.

Ama3ba radiosa.

Difflugia lobostoma Leidy.
corona Wailich.
constricta Ehren.

Arcella mitrata Leidy.

INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

311

Centropyxis aculeata Eliren.
Cochliopodium bilimbosum Auerbacli.
Pamphagus mutabilis Bailey.
Pseudodifflugia gracilis Schlumberger.
Cypboderia ampulla Ehren.
Campascus cornutus Leidy.
Euglypha alveolata Dujardin.
Sphenoderia lenta Schlumberger.
Actinophrys sol Miiller.
Actinosphserium eichornii Ehren.
Acanthocystis chretophora Schrank.

Cochliopodium vestitum Archer.
Pamphagus hyaliiiis Ehren.

Most of the above species marked (N. C.) are given on the authority of Drs. Coues
and Yarrow, whose papers on the fauna of Ft. Macon, N. C, in the Proc. Phila. Acad-
Sci., 1871 and 1876. will be found of value to the student. We suggest that those in-
terested endeavor to verify and add to this list.

The following works, most of which have been used in the revision, will be useful
to the student of South Carolina Invertebrata :

Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound ; by A.
E. Verrill in the Rep. U. S. Fish Com-
mission, 1871-72.

Land and Fresh Water Shells of N. A. j
by W. G. Binney. Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections.

A Synopsls of the Family Unioxid.e : by
Isaac Lea- 4to, Phila., 1870.

Monograph of N. A. Astacid.e ; by Her-
mann Hagen, Museum of Comp. Zoolo-
gy, Cambridge, Mass.

The External and Internal Parasites
OF Man and Domestic Animals ; by A.
E. Verrill in the Eeport Connecticut
Board of Agriculture, 1870.

Illustrated Catalogue of N. A. Acalephs
or Jelly Fishes ; by A. Agassiz, Mu-
seum Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
1865.

History of the Infusora ;
Published in London.

Pritchard.

Microscopic Observations made in S. C,
Ga. and Fla. ; by J. W. Bailey, and
published in the Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Knowledge, Vol II., 1S51.

Fresh Water Phizopoda of N. A. ; by
by Jos. Leidy. IJ. S. Geol. Survey,
1879. 4to, with 48 plates.

(The last three works treat wholly of
microscopic animals.)

CHA.PTER XII.

A LIST OF THE MORE COMMON

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS
OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

BY H. W. RAVENEL,

AIKEN, S. C, MAECH, 1882.

SERIES I.

Flowering plants, with roots, stems, leaves, fruit and seeds. Phaenogams.

CLASS I.

Plants with two seed leaves (cotyledons), as cotton, peas, &c., having
stems with bark and pith, and a woody layer between them : growth
by annual layers between the wood and bark ; veins of the leaves form-
ing a network. Dicotyledons or Exogens.

DIVISION L

Having two sets of floral leaves, one green, the other colored ; the
colored leaves more or less numerous ; separate. Polypetalous.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

313

ORDER I. CROWFOOT FAMILY. RANUNCULACE^.

Herbs or climbing shrubs, with water_v, acrid juice : leaves general!}^ divided, with
leaf stallc dihxtedat base ; ovaries distinct, numerous ; fruit dry.

1. CRISPED CLEMA.TIS; BLUE JESSAMINE.

2. TRAVELER'S JOY ; LEATHER FLOWER.

3. VIRGIN'S BOWER.

4. DWARF CLEMATIS.

5. WOOD ANEMONE

6. CAROLINA ANEMONE.

7. LIVER LEAF.

8. EARLY MEADOW RUE.

9. MEADOW RUE

10. RUE ANEMONE.

11. ORANGE ROOT ; YELLOW ROOT ; GOLDEN

SEAL.

12. MARSH MARYGOLD ; COLT'S FOOT ;

GROUND IVY.

13. CELERY-LEAVED CROWFOOT ; BITING

CROWFOOT.

14. CREEPING CROWFOOT.

15. ROUGH CROWFOOT,

16. SHINING CROWFOOT.

17. SMOOTH CROWFOOT.

18. DWARF CROWFOOT.

19. COLUMBINE.

2f). BLUE LARKSPUR.

21. TALL LARKSPUR.

22. DWARF LARKSPUR.

23. GARDEN LARKSPUR.

24. MONKSHOOD ; WOLFSBANE.

25. YELLOW ROOT.

26. RATTLE-TOP; BLACK SNAKE ROOT; CO-

HOSH.

27. BANEBERRY; WHITE COHOSH.

Clematis crispa.
Clematis viorna.
Clematis Virginica.
Clematis ochroleuca.
Anemone nemorosa.
Anemone Caroliniana.
Hepatica triloba.
Thalictrum dioicum.
Thalictrum comuti.
Thalictrum anemonoides.

Hydrastis Canadensis.

Caltha palustris.

Ranunculus sceleratus.
R. repens.
R. recurvatus.
R. nitidus.
R. abortivus.
R. pusillus.
Aquilegia Canadensis.
Delphinium azureum.
D. exaltatum.
D tricome.
D. consolida.
Aconitiim uncinatum.
Zanthorhiza apiifolia.

Cimicifuga racemosa.
Actaea alba.

ORDER II. MAGNOLIA FAMILY. MAGNOLIACE^.

Aromatic trees or shrubs, with alternate, leathery leaves, and large, showy flowers.

1. MAGNOLIA; BIG LAUREL.

2. SWEET BAY; AVHITE BAY.

3. LONG-LEAVED CUCUMBER TREE.

Magnolia grandiflora.
M. glauca.
M. Frazeri.

314 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

4. HEART-LEAVED CUCUMBER TREE. M. cordata.

5. CUCUMBER TREE. M. acuminata,
(i. UMBRELLA TREE. M. umbrella.

7. TULIP TREE ; POPLAR. Liriodendron tulipifera.

ORDER III. CUSTARD APPLE FAMILY. ANONACE.E.

1. PAPAW ; CUSTARD APPLE. Asimina triloba.

ORDER IV. MOONSEED FAMILY. MENISPERMACE^

Climbing, shrubby vines.

L RED-BERRIED MOOXSEED. Cocculus Carolinus.

2. MOONSEED. Menispermum Canadense.

ORDER V. BARBERRY FAMILY. BERBERIDACE^.

1. BARBERRY. Berberis Canadense.

2. BLUE COHOSH; PAPOOSE ROOT; SQUAW

ROOT. • Caulophyllum thalictroides.

3. UMBRELLA LEAF. Diphylleia cymosa.

4. WILD JALAP; MAY-APPLE; MANDRAKE. Podophyllum peltatum.

ORDER VI. POND-NUT FAMILY. NELUMBIACE.E.

Aquatic lierbs, with large, circular, floating leaves. Fruit, a nut.
1. WATER CHINQUEPIN; POND NUT. Nelumbium luteum.

ORDER VII. WATER SHIELD FAMILY. CABOMBACE.E.

Aquatic herbs with floating leaves.

1. WATER SHIELD. Brasenia peltata.

2. NARROW-LEAVED WATER SHIELD. Cabomba Caroliniana.

ORDER VIII. WATER LILY FAMILY. NYMPHEACEiE.

Water plants, with round or heart-shaped leaves. Fruit, berry-like.

1. WATER LILY ; POND LILY ; BONNETS. Nymphaea odorata.

2. YELLOW WATER LILY. Nuphar advena.

3. ARROW-SHAPED WATER LILY. N. sagittifolia.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 315

ORDER IX. PITCHER PLANT FAMILY. SARRACENIACE.E.

Perennial marsh herbs, with hollow, pitcher or trumpet-shaped leaves, and nod-
ding flowers.

1. HUNTSMAN'S CUP; PITCHER PLANT. Sarracenia purpurea.

2. RED-FLOWERED TRUMPET LEAF. S. rubra.

3. SIDE-SADDLE FLOWER ; TRUMPETS ;

FLY-TR\P. S. flava.

4. SPOTTED TRUMPET LEAF; FLY-CATCHER. S. variolaris.

ORDER X. POPPY FAMILY. PAPAVERACEiE.

L MEXICAN POPPY ; THORN APPLE ;

PRICK LY POPPY. Argemone Mexicana.

2. PUCCOON ; BLOOD ROOT. Sanguinaria Canadensis.

ORDER XL FUMITORY FAMILY. FUMARIACE^E.

These are mostly mountain plants.

ORDER XII. MUSTARD FAMILY. CRUCIFER.E.

Herbs with pungent juice ; the four petals of the flower forming a cross.

1. WATER CRESS. Nasturtium officinale.

2. MARSH CRESS. Nasturtium palustre.

3. WALTER'S CRESS. N. tanacetifolium.

4. SPRING CRESS. Cardamine rhomboidea.

5. PEPPER ROOT. Dentaria diphylla.

6. SICKLE POD. Arabis Canadensis.

7. TANSY MUSTARD. Sisymbrium canescsns.
8 HEDGE MUSTARD. S. officinale.

9. WHITLOW GRASS. Draba vema.

10. WART CRESS ; SWINE CRESS. Senebiera pinnatifida.

11. PEPPER GRASS. Lepidium Virginicum.

12. SHEPHERD'S PURSE. Capsella bursa-pastoris.

13. SEA KALE. Cakile maritima.

ORDER XIII. VIOLET FAMILY. VIOLACE^.

1. BLUE VIOLET. Viola cucullata.

2. HAND-LEAF VIOLET. V. palmata.

3. WILD PANSY ; HEARTSEASE. V. tricolor, va. arvensis.

31G NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

4. HAIRY VIOLET. V. villosa.

5. ARKOW-LEAF VIOLET. V. sagittata.

6. BIRD-FOOT VIOLET. V. pedata.

7. PRIMROSE-LEAF VIOLET. V. primulsefolia.

8. LA^X■E-LEA^ VIOLET. V. lanceolata.

9. PALE VIOLET. V. striata.

ORDER XIV. ROCK ROSE FAMILY. CISTACEiE.

1. FROST WEED. HeUanthemum Canadense.

2. ROCK ROSE. . H. Carolinianum.

3. SMALL PIN-WEED. • Lechea minor.

4. LARGE PIN-AVEED. L. major.

ORDER XV. SUN DEW FAMILY. DROSERACE^.

1. THREAD-LEAVED SUN DEW. Drosera filiformis.

2. LONG-LEAVED SUN DEW. D. longifolia.

3. ROUND-LEAVED SUN DEW. D. rotundifolia.

4. SHORT-LEAVED SUN DEW. D. brevifolia.

5. VENUS' FLY-TRAP. Dionaea muscipula.

ORDER XVI. PARNASSIA FAMILY. PARNASSIACE.E.
.1 GRASS OF PARNASSUS. Pamassia Caroliniana.

ORDER XVII. ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY. HYPERICACE^.

1. ROCK ROSE. Hypericum prolificum.

2. ST. JOHN'S-WORT. H. perforatum.

3. GROUND PINE ; ORANGE GRASS. H. sarothra.

4. ST. PETER'S-WORT. Ascyrum crux-Andrese.

5. MARSH JOHN'S-WORT. Elodea Virginica.

ORDER XVIII. PURSLANE FAMILY. PORTULACCACE^.

1. PURSLANE. Portulacca oleracea.

2. GARDEN PORTULACCA. P. pilosa.

3. SPRING BEAUTY. Claytonia Virginica.

4. SEA PURSLANE. Sesuvium pentandrum.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

317

ORDER XIX. PINK FAMILY. CARYOPHYLLACEiE.

1. SANDSPURRY.

2. PIXE CHEAT; SAND SPURRY.

3. INDIAN CHICKWEED.

4. SAND-WORT.

5. SAND-WORT.

6. CHICKWEED.

7. STAR CHICKWEED.

8. ONE-FLOWERED CHICKWEED.

9. MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED.

10. STAR CHAMPION.

11. INDIAN PINK.

12. CATCH-FLY.

13. SOAP-WORT

14. COCKLE.

Spergularia rubra.
Spergularia arvensis.
Molugo verticilata.
Alsine squarrosa.
Arenaria serpyllifolia.
Stellaria media.
S. pubera.
S. uniflora.
Cerastium vulgatum.
Silene stellata.
S. Virginica.
S. antirrhina.
Saponaria officinalis.
Agrostemma Githago.

ORDER XX. MALLOW FAMILY. MALVACEA.

1. MALLOW.

2. SPRING MALLOW.

3. VELVET LEAF. INDIAN MALLOW.

4. MARSH MALLOW.

Malva rotundifolia.
Sida spinosa.
Abutilon Avicennae.
Hibiscus Moscheutos.

[In this order are also the Garden Okra, Hibiscus esculentus, and the Cottou-phmt,
Gossipj'um herbaeeum, and the Althea.]

ORDER XXI. THE LINDEN FAMILY. TILIACEAE.

1. SOUTHERN LINN.

2. W^HITE LINN.

Tilia pubescens.
T. heterophylla.

ORDER XXII. CAMELLIA FAMILY. CAMELLIACEAE.

1. LOBLOLLY BAY.

2. STUARTIA.

Gordonia Lasianthus.
Stuartia Virginica.

LUnder the Order Aurantaceae, Orange Family, may be mentioned the Orange, both
sweet and sour, the Lemon, and the Shaddock, which are cultivated in the southern
portion of the State, extending up as far north as Charleston.]

318 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER XXIII. PRIDE OF INDIA FAMILY. MELIACEAE.

1. PRIDE OF INDIA. CHINA BERRY. Melia azadarach.

Now well naturalized.

ORDER XXIV. ' FLAX FAMILY. LINACEAE.
1. WILD FLAX. Linum Virginicum.

ORDER XXV. WOOD SORREL FAMILY. OXALIDACEAE.

1. FURPLE WOOD SORREL. Oxalis violacea.

2. WHITE WOOD SORREL. 0. acetocella.
3 YELLOW WOOD SORREL. 0. stricta.

ORDER XXVI. GERANIUM FAMILY. GERANIACEAE.

1. CRANESBILL, ALUM ROOT. Geranium maculatum.

2. CAROLINA CRANESBILL. G. Carolinianum.

ORDER XXVII. BALSAM FAMILY. BALSAMINACE^.

1. PALE TOUCH-ME-NOT. Impatiens pallida.

2. JEWEL WEED— SPOTTED TOUCH-ME-NOT. I. fulva.

ORDER XXVIII. RUE FAMILY. RUTACE^.

1. PRICKLY ASH ; TOOTH ACHE TREE. Z inthoxylum Carolinianum,

2. HOP TREE. Ptelea trifoliata.

ORDER XXIX. CASHEW OR SUMACH FAMILY.
ANACARDIACE^.

1. STAG-HORN SUMACH. Rhus typhina.

2. SMOOTH SUMACH. R. glabra.

3. COMMON SUMACH. R. copillina.

4. DWARF SUMACH. R. pumila.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 319

5. POISEN SUMACH ; POISEN ELDER. R. venenata.

fi. POISEN OAK. R. toxicodendron.

7. POISEN VINE. R. radicans.

ORDER XXX. VINE FAMILY. VITACE.E.

1. FOX GRAPE. Vitis Labrusca.

2. SUMMER GRAPE. V. sestivalia.

3. FROST GRAPE ; AVINTER GRAPE. V. cordifolia.

4. BULLACE ; SCUPERNONG. V. vulpina.

0. VIRGINIA CREEPER ; AMERICAN IVY. Ampelopsis quinquefolia.

ORDER XXXI. BUCKTHORN FAMILY.. RHAMNACE.E.

1. SUPPLE JACK. Berchemia volubilis.

2. TI-TI. Sageretia Michauxii.

3. CAROLINA BUCKTHORN. Frangula Caroliniana.

4. JERSEY TEA ; RED ROOT. Ceanothus Americanus.

ORDER XXXII. STAFF TREE FAMILY. CELASTRACEiE.

1. STRAWBERRY BUSH ; BURSTING HEART. Euonymus Americanus.

2. BURNING BUSH. E. atropurpureus.

3. WAX-WORK ; BITTER-SWEET. Celastrus scandens.

ORDER XXXIII. BLADDER-NUT "FAMILY. STAPHYLEACE^.

1. BLADDER-NUT. Staphylea trifolia.

ORDER XXXIV. SOAP BERRY FAMILY. SAPINDACE/E.

1 SOAP BERRY. Sapindus marginatus.

2. BUCK-EYE; HORSE-CHESTNUT. ^sculus Pavia.

3. YELLOW BUCK-EYE. JE. flava.

4. SMALL FLOWERED BUCK-EYE. .ffi. parviflora.

ORDER XXXV. MAPLE FAMILY. ACERACE^.

1. ASH-LEAVED MAPLE ; BOX-ELDER. Negundo aceroides.

2. RED MAPLE. Acer rubrum.

3. SILVER MAPLE. A. dasycarpum.

4. SUGAR MAPLE. A. saccharinum.

5. STRIPED MAPLE. A. Pennsylvaricum.

320

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER XXXVI. MILKWORT FAMILY. POLYGALACE^.

1. BACHELOR'S BUTTON.

2. SENECA SNAKE-ROOT.

3. BLOOD-RED P'OLYGALA.

Polygala lutea.
P. senega.

P. sanguinea. And many other
species.

ORDER XXXVII. PULSE FAMILY. LEGUMENOS^.

Herbs, shrubs and trees with compound alternate leaves, fruit a legume or pod.
A large and very important family of plants— weli represented in our State.

1. RATTLE BOX.

2. PARTRIDGE PEA.

3. LUPINE.

4. HAIRY LUPINE.

5. BLUE LUPINE.

6. RED CLOVER.

7. WHITE CLOVER.

8. CAROLINA CLOVER.

9. BUFFALO CLOVER.

10. RABBIT-FOOT CLOVER.
IL YELLOW CLOVER.

12. HOP MEDICK, LUCERNE.

13. YELLOW MELLILOT.

14. WHITE MELLILOT.

15. BUCK ROOT.

16. INDIGO BUSH.

17. LOCUST; FALSE ACACIA.

18. CLAMMY LOCUST.

19. ROSE LOCUST.

20. VIRGIN'S BOWER; AMERICAN WISTARIA,

21. RABBIT-PEA; GOAT'S RUE.

22. CAROLINA INDIGO.

23. INDIGO.

24. MILK VETCH.

25. VETCH ; TARE,

26. WILD VETCH.

Crotallaria sagittalis.

C. ovalis.

Lupinus perennis.

L. villosus,

L. diffusus.

Trifolium pratense.

T. repens.

T. Caroliniana.

T. reflexum.

T. arvense.

T. procumbens,

Medicago lupulina.

Melilotus officinalis.

•M. alba.

Psoralia canescens.

Amorpha fruticosa. And one

other species-
Robinia pseudo-Acacia.
R. viscosa. Only in the moun-
tains.
R. hispida.
Wistaria frutescens.
Tephrosia Virginica. And two

other species.
Indigofera Caroliniana.
I. Anil. Introduced and formerly
cultivated.
Astragalus glaber,
Vicia sativa,

V. Caroliniana. And two other
species.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

321

27. PENCIL FLOWER. Stylosanthes elatior.

28. JAPAN CLOVER. Lespedeza striata. A native of

Japan— now natu.-alized and spreading everywhere— also three or four
more native species.

29. BEGGAR'S TICKS. Desmodium. Thin is a huge fam-

ily of plants, of which there are sixteen species growing in the State.
The term " Beggar's Ticks " is indiscriminately applied to all of them,
from the peculiar formation of the Legume, or seed-pod, composed of
jointed parts, easily separated, and clothed with hooked hairs, causing
them to adhere to clothes of any one brushing them.

30. DOLLAR PLANT.

31. WILD GROUND-NUT.

32. WILD BEAN.

33. NATIVE ERYTHRINA.

34. WILD PEA VINE.

35. MILK PEA.

36. WILD INDIGO.

37. JUDAS TREE; RED BUD

38. WILD SENNA.

39. FLORIDA COFFEE; STYPTIC WEED.
40 PARTRIDGE PEA; GOLDEN CAS.SIA.

41. HONEY LOCU.ST.

42. ONE-SEEDED L03UST.

43. SENSITIVE PLANT.

Rhynchosia monophylla. And
two other species.
Apios tuberosa.
Phaseolus perennis. And two

other species.
Erythrina herbacea.
Atnphicarpa monoica.
Galactia pilosa And four other
specie?.
Baptisia tinctoria. And seven

otlier species.
Oercis Canadsnsis.
Cassia Marylandica.
C. occidentalis.

C. chaTnsorista. And two other
si:)ecies.
Gladitschia triacanthos.
G. monosperma.
Schrankia angustata.

[Under this Order are many of our cultivated plants— Garden Peas, Cow Peas, Beans,
Ground-Nut, or Pindar, or Pea-Nut— and many others.]

ORDER XXXVIII. ROSE FAMILY. ROSACE/E.

1. CHICKASAW PLUM. ,

2. RED PLUM ; AUGUST PLUM.
3 SOUR PLUIM.

4. WILD CHERRY.

5. WILD ORANGE: MOOK OR.ANGE.

6. INDIAN PHYSIC.

21

Prunus Cbicasa.
P. Americana.
P. umbellata.
P. serotina.
P. Caroliniana. i

Gillenia trifoliata.

line ever-
green.)

'>•)

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED I'LANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

18.

11).
20,
21.
21.
23.
24.
25.
20.
27
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

AMERICAN IPECAC.

AGRIMONY ; FEVERFEW.

WILD BURNET.

AYENA.

CINQUIFOIL ; FIYE-FINC4ER

STRAWBERRY.
WILD STRAWBERRY.
COMMON STRAWBERRY.

G. stipulacea.
Agrimonia eupatoria.
Sanguisorba Canadensis.
Geum album.

WILD

HIGH- BUSH BLACKBERRY,

JUNlfBERRY^

LOW-BUSH BLACKBERRY ; TRAILING

BLACKBERRY.
FLOWERING RASPBERRY.
PURPLE RASPBERRY.

SWAMP ROSE.

WILD OR DWARF ROSE.

EGLANTINE ; SWEET BRIAR.

CHEROKEE ROSE.

NARROW-LEA YED THORN.

SUMMER HAW ; RED HAW.

HAIRY THORN.

DWARF THORN.

SCARLET HAW.

SUMMER HAW; POND HAW.

PARSLEY-LEAVED HAW.

COCKS PUR HAWTHORN.

TREE HAW.

CRAB APPLE.

NARROW-LEAVED CRAB.

CHOKE BERRY.

WILD CRANBERRY.

SERVICE TREE.

Potentilla Canadensis-

Fragaria Virginiana.

F. vesca. (This .species stray.s

from gardens and has become

naturalized.)
DEW BERRY Rubus viUosus.
R. cuneifolius.

R. trivialis.

R. odoratus. ( In the mountains.)
R. occideutalis. (In the moun-
tains.)
Rosa Carolina.

R. lucida.

R. rubiginosa.

R. laevigata.

Crataegus spatbulata.

C. fiava.

C. glandulosa.

C parvifolia.

C. coccinea.

C. aestivalis.

C. apiifolia.

C. Crus-galli.

C. arborescens.

Pyrus coronaria.

P. angustifolia.

P. arbutifolia.

P. er3rthrocarpa.

Amelancliier Canadensis.

Pe,

[The cultivated representatives of this large and important order are, the Apple,
ar, Quince, Plum, Peach, Apricot, Almond, Cherry, Roses, Spireas, etc.]

ORDER XXXIX. CAROLINA ALLSPICE FAMILY.
CALYCANTHACE.E.

1. SWEET-SCENTED SHRUB. Calycantbus floridus, and two

other species.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

)0'">

ORDER XL. DEER-GRASS FAMILY, MELASTROMACE^.

1. DEER GRASS.

Rhexia glabella, and five otluT
species.

ORDER XLI. LOOSE-STRIPE FAMILY. LYTHRACEiE.

1. LOOSESTRIFE.

2. SWAMP LOOSE STRIFE.

3. BLUE WAX WEED.

Lytlinun alatum.
Nesea verticillata.
Cuphea viscosissima.

[The Crape Myrtle (Lagerstroemia Indica), so common in cultivation as a flower-
ing tree, from Eastern Asia, belongs to this order ]

ORDER XLII. EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY. OXAORACE^.

1. EVENING PRIMROSE.
2- SUN DROPS,

3. SEED BOX.

4. WATER PURSLANE.

5. ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE.

G. MERMAID WEED.
7. WATER MILFOIL

Oenothera biennis.

0. fruticosa, and two or three

other species
Ludwigia altemifolia.
L. palustre, and ten other species.
Circaea Lutetiana. (In the

mountain^.)
Proserpinaca palustris, and one

other species.
Myriopbyllum verticillatum.

ORDER XLIII. CACTUS FAMILY. CACTACE^.

L PRICKLY PEAR.

•2. CROWFOOT PRICKLY PEAR.

Opuntia vulgaris.
0. Pes-Corvi.

ORDER XLIV. CURRANT FAMILY. GROSSULACEiE.

L SMOOTH GOOSEBERRY. Ribes rotundifolium. (In the

mountains.)

ORDER XLV. PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY. PASSIFLORACE.E.

1 . MAY POP ; PASSION FLOWER.

2. YELLOW PASSIFLORA.

Passiflora incamata,
P. lutea.

524

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER XLVI. GOURD FAMILY. CUCURBITACE.E.

1. COMMON GOURD ; CALABASH.
L>. ONE-SEEDED CUCUMBER.

Lagenaria vulgaris.
Sicyos angulatus.

[In tliis order are the Squash, Pumpkin, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cantaloupe,
Cucumber and Gherkin of the gardens.]

ORDER XLVII. ORPINE FAMILY. CRASSULACE^.

1. WILD ORPINE.

2. THREE-LEAVED STONE CROP.

3. MOUNTAIN MOSS.

4. DITCH STONE CROP.

Sedum telephoides. (In the
mountains. )
S. tematum.

S. pulchellum. (In the mountains.)
Penthorum sedoides.

ORDER XLVIII. SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. SAXIFRAGACE^.

1. LETTUCE SAXIFRAGE.

2. EARLY SAXIFRAGE.

■■). ALUM ROOT.

4. FALSE MITRE-WORT.

5. MITRE-WORT.

(J. GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE.

7. WILD HYDRANGEA

8. SNOWY HYDRANGEA.

9. CLIMBING DECUiVIARIA.

10. ITEA.

11. SYRINGA.

12. ROUGH SYRINGA.

13. SCENTLESS SYRINGA.

Saxifraga erosa. (In the moun-
tains.)

S. Virginiensis. (In the moun-
tains.)

Heuchera Americana.

Tiarella cordifolia.

Mitella diphylla.

Chrysosplenium Americanum.

Hydrangea arborescens.

H. radiata.

Decumaria barbara.

Itea Virginica.

Philadelphus grandiflorus (In
tlie mountains.)

P. hirsutus. (In the mountains.)

P. inodorus.

ORDER XLIX. WITCH HAZEL FAMILY. HAMAMELACE.^.

1. WITCH HAZEL.

2. DWARF ALDER.

3. SWEET GUM.

Hamamelis Virginica.
Pother gilla alnifolia.
Liquidambar styraciflua.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

oZO

ORDER L. PARSLEY FAMILY. UMBELLIFERiE.

1. PENNY-AVORT.

2. WATER GRASS.

8. SAXICLE; BLACK SNAKE ROOT.
4. BUTTOX .:JXAKE ROOT.

.1 DWARF CARROT.

6. COMMOX CARROT.

7. WATER HEMLOCK.

8. BISHOP WEED.

9. AVATER PARSXIP.

10. MEADOW PARSXIP.

11. AXGELICA.

12. ARCHAXGELICA.

13. WATER DROP- WORT.

14. COW-BANE ; PIG POTA.TOE.

14. CHERVIL,

Hydrocotyle Americana.

H. umbellata, and two or three
other species.

Sanicula Marylandica, and one
other species.

Eryngium Virginianum. (Wo
have five species of Eryngiuni,
and most of them are known
as Button Snake Root.)

Daucus pusiDus.

D.carota. (Some what naturalized. I

Cicuta masculata.

Discopleura capillacea.

Slum lineare.

Thaspium aureuin, and two other
scecies.

Ligusticun actaeifolium.

Arcliangelica hirsuta.

Tiedmannia teretifolia.

Archemora rigida, and one other
species.

Chserophyllum procumljens.

ORDER LI. GINSENG FAMILY. ARALIACE.E.

1. SPIKENARD.

2. WILD SARSAPARILLA.

3. PRICKLY ASH ; HERCULES CLUB.

4. GINSENG; SANG.

5. DWAKF GINSENG.

Aralia racemosa.
A. nudicaulis.
A. spinosa.

Panax quinquefolium. (In the

mountains )

P. trifolium. (In the mountains.)

ORDER LII. DOGWOOD FAMILY. CORNACE.E.

1. DOGWOOD.

2. SWAMP DOGWOOD.

3. SOUR GUM ; BLACK GUM ; PEPPERIDGE.

4. TUPELO; POND TUPELO.

5. SWAMP TUPELO ; COTTON GUM.
G. OGEECHEE LIME ; SOUR TUPELO.

Comus Florida.

0. sericea, and tliree other species.

Nyssa multiflora.

N. aquatica.

N. uniflora.

N. capitata.

32G

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

DIVISION II. Floral envelopes double, consisting of both calyx and
corolla, the latter mostly united into one petal. Monopetalous.

ORDER LIII. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. CAPRIFOLIACE^.

1. CORAL BERRY.

2. BUSH HONEYSUCKLE.

o. WOODBINE; HONEYSUCKLE.
4 YELLOW WOODBINE.

5. HORSE GENTIAN.

6. ELDER.

7. RED- BERRIED ELDER.

8. BLACK HAW.

- i». SHEEP BERRY.
10. POSSUM HAW^; SHAW^NEE HAW.
n. ARROW-WOOD.

Symphoricarpus vulgaris.
Diervilla triflda. (In the moun-
tains.)
Lonicera sempervirens,
L. flava.

Triosteum perfoliatum,
Sambucus Canadensis. All over
the State.
S. pubens. In tlie mountains.
Viburnum prunifolium.
V. Lentago.
V. nudum.
V. dentatum.

ORDER LIV. MADDER FAMILY. RUBIACE^.

L SMALL BEDSTRAW.

2. BUTTON WEED.

3. BUTTON BUSH.

4. PARTRIDGE BERRY; RUNNING BOX.

5. GEORGIA BARK.

6. BLUETS ; DAISEY.

7. PINK ROOT.

8. MITRE WORT.

9. YELLOW JESSAMINE.

Galium trifidum. And tliree other
species.
Diodia Virginiana.
Cephalanthus occidentals.
Mitchella repens.
Pinckneya pubens.
Houstonia coerulea. And several
other sjiecies.
Spigelia Marylandica.
Mitreola petiolata.
G-elsemium sempervirens.

ORDER LV. VALERIAN FAMILY. VALERIANACE^.
1. LAMB LETTUCE. . Fedia radiata.

ORDER LVI. COMPOSITE FAMILY. COMPOSIT.E.

1. IRON WEED. Vemonia Novaeboracensis. And

two other species.

2. ELEPHANT'S FOOT. Elephantopus Carolinanus.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

327

3. blazing star.

4. button snake-root.

5. va^^illa plant.

(]. thorough-wort; bone-set.

7. trumpp:t weed.

8. upland bone-set.

9. rich weed.
10. wild horehound.

n. DOG FENNEL.
12. DOG FENNEL.

13 CLIMBING HEMP-WEED.

14. MIST FLOWER.

15. WHITE-TOPPED ASTER.
IG. ASTER ; STARWORT.

large genus, compri.sing about thirty-five species found in the State, but
they have received no common names.

17. DAISEY FLEA-BANE. ' Erigeron strigosum.

18. HOG-WEED; HORSE-WEED. E. Canadense.

19 FLEA-BANE. E. Philadelphicum.

20. ROBBIN'S PLANTAIN. . E. bellidifolium.

21. GOLDEN ROD; ANISE-SEED GOLDEN ROD. Solidago odora.

Liatris squarrosa.

L. spicata.

L. odoratissima. And six or seven

otlier species.
Eupatorium perfoliatum.
E. purpurem.
E. sessilifolium.
E. ageratoides,
E. aromaticum.
E. fceniculaceum.
E. coronopifolium. And eleven

other species.
Mikania scandens.
Conoclinum coelestinum.
Sericocarpus conyzoides.
Aster corymbosus. Tliis is a very

[This is another large genus, comprising over thirty species in this State. Most of
them are called indiscriminately Golden Rod, but that name more proi)erly applies to
the species noted above.]

22. SILK GRASS ; SCURVY GRASS.
23 COTTONY SILK GRASS.

24. ELECAMPANE.

25. GROUNDSEL; CONSUMPTION WEED.

26. MARSH FLEA BANE.

27. STINKING FLEA BANE.
2S. BLACK ROOT.

29. LEAF CUP.

30. BEAR'S FOOT.

31. ROSIN WEED.

32. MARSH ELDER.

33. BUFFALO WEED.

34. RAG WEED; CARROT WEED ; STICK WEED

Chrysopsis graminifolia.
C gossypina.
Inula Helenium.
Baccharis halimifolia.
Pleuchea bifrons.
P. fcetida.

Pterocaulon pyclmostachyuin.
Polymnia Canadensis. In the

mountains.
P. uvedalia.
Silphium laciniatum.
Iva frutescens.
Ambrosia trifida.
A. artimesiaefolia.

328

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

35. COCKLE BUR ; SHEEP BUR.

36. THORNY COCKLE BUR.
:;7. BRAZILIAN COCKLE BUR.

Xanthium strumarium.
X. spinosum,
Acathospermum xanthioides.

This Exotic is a recent introduction of about twenty years ago. Spreading from the
woollen mills of Augusta, Ga , it has extended along the railroads in all directions, and
may be found at nearly every station.

38. SEA OX-EYE.

39. ZINNIA; OLD MAID.

40. OX-EYE.

41. PURPLE CONE FLOWER.

42. CONE-FLOWER.
NARROW-LEAVED SUN -FLOWER.

have several other species in the
Flower, Helianthus annuu^^, and tl
Helianthus tuberosus, are partially

43. TICK-SEED.

44. TICK-SEED SUN-FLOWER.

45. TALL COREOPSIS.

46. BUR MARYGOLD.

47. BEGGAR'S LICE.

48. BEGGAR'S LICE ; SPANISH NEEDLES.

49. STICK WEED ; CROWN BEARD.

50. SNEEZE WEED.

51. MAY WEED; FALSE CHAMOMILE.

52. MILFOIL; YARROW.

53. OX-EYE DAISY ; WHITE DAISY; WHITE

WEED.
54 TANSY.

55. WILD WORMWOOD.

56. EVERLASTING.

57. CUD WEED.

58 EVERLASTING.

59. FIRE-WEED.

00. INDIAN PLANTAIN.

61. RAG WORT.

62. THISTLE.

63. SWAMP THISTLE.

64. YELLOW THISTLE.

Bdrricliia frutescens.

Zinnia multiflora. Stray from the
gardens.

Heliopsis Isevis.

Echinacea purpurea.

Rudbeckia hirta.

Helianthus angustifolius. We
State. The common cultivated Sun-
le Jerusalem or Ground Artichoke,
naturalized.

Coreopsis discoidea.

C trichosperma.

C tripteris.

Bidens chrysanthemoides.

B. frondosa.

B. bipinnata.
Verbesina Siegesbeckia.
Helenium autumnale.
Maruta Cotula.
Achillea millefolia.

Leucanthemum vulgare.
Tanacetum vulgare. Sparingly
naturalized.
Artemesia caudata.
Gnaphalium polycephalum.
G. purpureum.
Antennaria margaritacea.
Erechthites hieracifolia.
Cacalia atriplicifolia.
Senecio aureus.

Cirsium lanceolatum. Introduced
and naturalized.

C. muticum.
C. horridulum.

NATIVE AND NATUEALIZEI) PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

329

05 BURDOCK.

66. IIAWK-WEEl).

67. RATTLE-SNAKE WEED.

68. WHITE LETTUCE.

Gl). GALL OF THE EARTH.

70. DANDELION.

7L FALSE DANDELION.

72. WILD LETTUCE.

73. BLUE LETTUCE.

74. SOW THISTLE.

Lappa major.

Hieracium scabrum.

H. venosum.

Nabalus albus.

N. Fraseri.

Taraxacum Dens-Leonis.

Pyrrhopappus Carolinianus.

Lactuca elongata.

Mulgidium acuminatum.

Sonchus oleraceus.

ORDER LVII. LOBELIA FAMILY. LOBELIACE^.

1. CARDINAL FLOWER. '

2. GREAT LOBELIA.

3. BLUE LOBELIA.

4. INDIAN TOBACCO ; LOBELIA.

Lobelia cardinalis.
L, syphilitica.
L. puberula.

L. inflata. And three or lour
other species.

ORDER LVIII. CAMPANULA FAMILY. CAMPANULACEyE.

1. BELL FLOWER.

2. MARSH BELL FLOWER.

3. HARE BELL.

4. VENUS' LOOKING-GLASS.

Campanula Americana.
C. aparinoides.
C. divaricata.
Specularia perfoliata.

ORDER LIX. HEATH FAMILY. ERICACE^.

1. BLUE HUCKLEBERRY.

2. DWARF HUCKLEBERRY.

3. BLACK HUCKLEBERRY.

4. BEAN BERRY.

5. SWAMP HUCKLEBERRY.

6. DEER BERRY ; GOOSEBERRY.

7. CREEPING HUCKLEBERRY.

8. SPARKLE BERRY.

9. GROUND IVY; MAYFLOWER; TRAILING

ARBUTUS.

10. MOUNTAIN TEA ; WINTER GREEN.

11. DOG LAUREL.

12. TI-TI.

Gay-Lussacia frondosa.

G. dumosa.

G. resinosa.

G. ursina. In the mountains.

Vaccinium corymbosum.

V. stamineum.

V. crassifolium.

V. arboreum.

Epigaea repens,
Gaultheria procumbens.
Leucothce Catesbaei.
L. aciiminata.

330

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

13.
14.

15.
If).
17.

18.
19.
20.
21.

24.

FETTER BUSH.

STAGGER BUSH.

PEPPER BUSH.

SOUR WOOD; SORRELLTREE.

WHITE ELDER; SWEET PEPPER BUSH.

CALICO BUSH ; KALMIA.

WICKY; SHEEP LAUREL.

PURPLE HONEY-SUCFvLE.

BLAZING HONEY-SUCKLE.

CLAMMY IIONEY-SUCKLE.

SMOOTH HONEY-SUCKLE.

LAUREL; ROSE BAY.

25. OAK-LEAVED LAUREL.
2G. DWARF LAUREL.

27. SAND MYRTLE.

28. FALSE WINTER GREEN.

2;) PIPSISSEWA; PRINCES PINE.
:50. SPOTTED WINTER GREEN-
:]1. DUTCHMAN'S PIPE; EYE-BRIGHT.
o2. PINE SAP.

Andromeda nitida.

A. Mariana.

A. Ligustrina.

Oxydendrum arboraum.

Clethra alnifolia.

Ka?.mia lati folia.

K. angustifolia.

Azalia nudiflora.

A. calendulacea.

A. viscosa.

A. arborescens.

Rhododendron maximum. In
the mountiiins.

R. Catawbiense. In the moun-
tains.

R. punctatum. In the moun-
tains.

Leiophyllum buxifolium. In the
mountains.

Pyrola rotundifolia.

Chimapbila umbellata.

C. maculata.

MjaDtropa uaiflora.

M. Hypopitys.

ORDER LX. GALAX FAMILY. GALACIX.E.
1. COLT'S FOOT. Galax aphylla.

ORDER LXL HOLLY FAMILY. AQUIFOLIACE^.

1. COMMON HOLLY.

2. DAHOON HOLLY.

3. YAUPON.

4. GALL BERRY ; INK BERRY.

5. TALL GALL BERRY.

Ilex opaca.
I. Dahoon.
I Cassine.
Prinos glaber.
p. coriacea.

ORDER LXII. STYRAX FAMILY. STYRACE^.

1. MOCK ORANGE.

2. SNOW-DROP TREE.

3. SWEET LEAF; YELLOW WOOD.

Styrax grandifolia.
Halesia tetraptera.
Symplocos tinctoria.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 331

ORDER LXIII. CYRILLA FAMILY. CYRILLACE.E.
I. BUIIX-WOOD BARK ; HE HUCKLEBERRY. Cyrilla racemiflora.

ORDER LXIV. EBONY FAMILY. EBENACEyE.
1. PERSIMMON. Diospjrros Virginiana.

ORDER LXV. SAPODILLA FAMILY. SAPOTACEiE.

1. BUCK THORN. BumeUa lyciodes.

2 TOUGH BUCK THORN. B. tenax. And two other species.

ORDER LXVI. PLANTAIN FAMILY. PLANTAGINACEiE.

1. PLANTAIN. Plantago major.

•2. NARROW-LEAVED PLANTAIN. P. lanceolata. And three other

species.

ORDER LXVII. LEAD-WORT FAMILY. PLUMBAGINACE^E.

1. MARSH ROSEMARY. Statice Caroliniana.

ORDER LXVIII. PRIMROSE FAMILY. PRIMULACE.E.

L FEATHERFOIL. Huttonia inflata.

2. LOOSE STRIFE. Lysimachia stricta.

2. FIVE SISTERS. L. quadrifolia. And three or four

other species.

3. AMERICAN COWSLIP. Dodecatheon Media.

4. PIMPERNEL. Anagallis arvensis.

5. CHAFF WEED. ' Centunculus minimus.

6. BROOK WEED. Samolus floribundus.

. ORDER LIX. BLADDER-ROOT FAMILY. LENTIBULACE.E.

f

1. BLADDER WORT. Utricularia inflata. And seven

other species ; mostly in bogg}' grounds, or floating in still waters.

2. BUTTER WORT. • Pinguicula lutea.

332 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OP SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER LXX. BIGN0NI4 FAMILY. BIGNONIACE.E.

1. CKOSS VINE.

2. TRUMPET FLOWEK.

3. CATALPA.

4. UNICORN PLANT.

Bignonia capreoleta.
Tecoma radicans.
Catalpa Bignonioides.
Martynia proboscidean

ORDER LXXI. BROOM-RAPE FAMILY. OROBANCHACEiE.

1. BEECH DROPS.

2. SQUAW ROOT.

3. CANCER ROOT.

Epiphegus Virginiana.
Conopholis Americana.
Aphyllon uniflorum.

ORDER LXXII. FIG-WORT FAMILY. SCROPHULARIACE.E.

1. MULLEIN.

2. MOTH MULLEIN.

3. FIG WORT.

4. SNAKE-MOUTH.

5. BEARD-TONGUE.

6. TOADFLAX.

7. MONKEY FLOWER.

8. HEDGE HYSSOP.

9. FALSE PIMPERNEL.
10. CULVER'S PHYSIC.
IL PAUL'S BETONY.

12. PURSLANE SPEEDWELL.

13. CORN SPEEDWELL.

14. FICKEL SPEEDWELL.

15. BLUE HEARTS.

16 FALSE FOX-GLOVE.

17. FLAX-LEAVED GERARDIA.

18. PURPLE GERARDIA.

19. CHAFF SEED.

20. LOUSE WORT.

21. COW WHEAT.

Verlaascum Thapsus.
V. Blattaria.
Scrophularia nodosa
Chelone glabra.
Penstemon pubescens.
Linaria Canadensis ,

Mimulus ringens.
Gratiola Virginiana. And two
or three other species.
Ilysanthes gratioloides.
Veronica Virginica.
V. serpyllifolia.
V. peregrina.
V. arvensis.
V. agrestis.
Buchnera Americana.
Dasystoma pubescens. And three
other species.
Gerardia linifolia.
G. purpurea. And three other
species.
Schwalbea Americana.
Pedicularis Canadensis.
Melampyrum Americanum.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 333

ORDER LXXIII. ACANTHUS FAMILY. ACANTHACE^

1. RUELLIA.

2. WATER WILLOW.

Diptercanthus strepens And two
other ispecies.
Dianthera Americana.

ORDER LXXrV. VERVAIN FAMILY. VERBENACExE.

L WHITE VERVAIN.

2. BLUE VERVAIN.

3. VERVAIN.

4. FROG FRUIT.

.'). AMERICAN MULBERRY; WILD MUL-
BERRY.
(5. LOP SEED.'

Verbena urticifolia.
V. hastata.

V. ofiicinalis. And two other
species.
Lippia nodiflora.

Callicarpa Americana.
Pliryma leptostacliya.

ORDER LXXV. MINT FAMILY. LABIAT.E.

]. SPEARMINT.

•>. PEPPER MINT.

3 ROUND-LEAF MINT.

4. BUGLE WEED.

5. DITTANY.

(). MOUNTAIN MINT.

7. HORSE BAL^NI.

S. PENNY ROYAL.

9.. BASIL THYME.
10. BALM,
n. WILD SAGE.

is the common garden sage.

12. HORSE :MINT ; RIGNUM.

13. HORSE MINT.

14. GIANT HYSSOP.

15. CATNIP.
IG. HEAL-ALL.
17. SCULL-CAP.

Mentha viridis.
M. piperata

M. rotundifolia. All our Mints
are introduced.
Lycopus Virginicus.
Cunila mariana. In the moun-
tains.
Pycnanthemum incanum. And a
few other species.
Collinsonia Canadensis.
Hedeoma pulegioides
Calamintha Nepeta.
Melissa officinalis.
Salvia urticifolia. S. ofRcinatis
S. Coccinea, is partly naturalized.
Monarda punctata.
Blephilia ciliata.
Lophanthus nepetoides.
Nepeta Cataria.
Brunella vulgaris.
Scutellaria versicolor. Five or six
other species.

334

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

18. MACBRIDA.

19. DRAGON HEAD.

20. DEAD NETTLE; HEX-BIT.

21. HOREHOL'ND.

22. MOTHER WORT.

23. HEDGE NETTLE

24. FALSE PENNY ROYAL.

25. BLUE CURLS.
2G. WOOD SAGE.

Macbridea pulchra.
Physostegia Virginiana.
Lamium amplexicaule.
Marru"bium vulgare.
Leonurus Cardiaca.
Stachys aspera.
Isanthus coenileus.
Trichostema dichotomum.
Teucrium Canadense.

ORDER LXXVI. BORAGE FAMILY. BORAGIXACE.E.

1. HELIOTROPE.

2. INDIAN HELIOTROPE; TURNSOLE.

3. GROMWELL

4. HAIRY PUCCOON; GROMWELL.

5. ROANOKE BELL; VIRGINIA* COWSLIP.

6. HOUND'S TONGUE.

7. WILD COMFREY.

8. BEGGAR LICE.

9. FORGET-ME-NOT

Heliotropium Curassavicum.
Heliophitum Indicum.
Onosmodium Carolinianum.
Litnospermum hirtum.
Mertensis Virginica.
Cynoglossum officinale.
C. Virginicum.
C. Morisoni.
Myosotis laxa.

ORDER LXXVII. WATER- LEAF FAMILY
HYDROPHYLLACEiE.

1. WATER LEAF.

Hydropliylluin Virginicum. (In
the mountains.)

ORDER LXXVIII. POLEMOXIUM FAMILY. POLEMOXIACE.E.

1. PHLOX.

2. WILD PINK ; RUNNING PHLOX.

3. HAIRY PHLOX.

4. GREEK VALERIAN.

5. FLOWERING r^IOSS.

Phlox paniculata.

P. subulata.

P. pilosa, and three or four other
species ; the Texan Phlox,
Phlox Drummondii, of . the
gardens, is partially natural-
ized.

Polemonium reptans.

Pyxidanthera barbulata.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER LXXIX. CONVOLVULUS FAMILY

1. CYPRESS VINE.

2. MORNING GLORY.

3. WILD POTATOE.

4. SWEET POTATOE.

5. BIND WEED.

(i. LOW BIND WEED.

7. SILKEN BIND WEED.

8. DWARF GROUND CONVOLVULUS

9. DODDER ; LOVE VINE.
10. LOVE VINE.

CONVOLVULACE.E.

Quamoclit vulgaris.

Pharbitis NiL

Ipomea pandurata, and three
other speL-ies.

Batatas edulis. (This can scarcely
be said to be naturalized, the frosts of winter killing
the tubers, and the plant not maturing seed. We
have a native species growing on the sands of the
coast, B. Littoralls.)

Calystegia sepium.

C. spithamea.

Evoivulus sericeus.

Stylisma humistrata.

Cuscuta arvensis.

C. Gronovii.

ORDER LXXX.

1. NIGHTSHADE.

2. HORSE NETTLE.
8. SODOM APPLE.

4. GROUND CHERRY.

5. JAMESTOWN WEED

STRAMONIUM.

NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. SOLANACE^E.

Solanum nigrum.

S. Carolinense.

S. aculeatissimum. (Among the
cultivated representatives of this order are the Jeru-
salem Cherry, (S. Pseudo-capsicum), Tomato (S. Ly-
copersicum), the Irish Potatoe (S. tuberosum), and
the Egg Plant or Guinea Squash (S- Melongena).

Physalis viscosa.
; THORN APPLE ;

Datura stramonium.

ORDER LXXXI. GENTIAN

1. CENTENARY.

2. FIVE-FLOWERED GENTIAN.

8. FRINGED GENTLA.N.

4. SAMPSON SNAKE ROOT.

5. SAMPSON SNAKE ROOT.
(]. SAMPSON SNAKF. ROOT.

7. NARROWS-LEAVED GENTIAN.
S. COLUMBO.

9. FLOATING HEART.

FAMILY. GENTIANACEiE.

Sabbatia angularis, and six other
species.
Gentiana quinqueflora.
G. crinita.
G. ochroleuca.
G. Elliottii.
G. saponaria.
G. angustifolia.
Frasera Carolinensis.
Limnanthemum lacunosum.

336 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER LXXXII. DOGBANE FAMILY. APOCYNACE.E.

1. INDIAN HEMP. Apocynum canabinum.

2. DOGBANE. A. androsagmifolium,

3. PERIWINKLE. Vinca rosea. {Naturalized. )

ORDER LXXXIII. MILKWEED FAMILY. ASCLEPIADACE.E.

1. POKE MILKWEED ; SQUAW ROOT, Asclepias phytolaccoides.

2. PLEURISY ROOT ; BUTTERFLY WEED. A. tuberosa.

3. PURPLE MILKWEED. A. purpurascens.

4. SWAMP MILKWEED. A. incarnata.

5. RABBIT'S MILK. . A. amplexicaulis, and eight other

species.

6. GREEN MILKWEED. Acerates viridiflora

7. RUNNING MILKWEED. Gonolobus hirsutus.

ORDER LXXXIV. OLIVE FAMILY. OLEACE.E.

L DEVIL WOOD; AMERICAN OLIVE. Olea Americana.

2. PRIVET. Ligustrum vnlgare. (Partly natu-

ralized.)

3. FRINGE TREE ; OLD MAN'S BEARD. Chionanthus Virginica.

4. WHITE ASH. Fraxinus Americana.

5. WATER ASH. F. platycarpa.

6. RED ASH. F. pubescens.

7. GRP:EN ash. F. viridis.

DIVISION III. Floral envelopes single, consisting of a calyx onl}'-,
or altogether wanting. Apetalous.

ORDER LXXXV. BIRTHWORT FAMILY. ARISTOLOCHIACEtE.

1. HEART LEAF. Asarum Virginicum.

2. HEART LEAF. A, arifolium.

3. WILD GINGER. A. canadense.

4. VIRGINIA SNAKE ROOT ; SMALL SNAKE

ROOT. Aristolochia serpentaria.

5. BIG SARSAPARILLA ; WILD GINGER. A. sipho.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAPvOLINA. 337

ORDER LXXXVI. POKEWEED FAMILY. PHYLOLAECACE^.
1. POKE WEED. Phytolacca decandra.

ORDER LXXXVII. GOOSE-FOOT FAMILY. CHENOPODIACE^.

J LAMB'S QUARTERS.

2. WORM SEED: JERUSALEM OAK.

o. ORACHE.

4. SAND ORACHE.

0. SEA GOOSE-FOOT.

G. SAMPHIRE.
7. SALT- WORT.

Chenopodium album.
C. anthelminticum.

Atriplex hastata. (Sea shore.)
Obione arenaria. (Sea shore.)
Chenopodina maritima. (Salt

marsh.)
Salicorniaherbacea. (Salt marsh.)
Salsola kali. (Sea shore.)

ORDER LXXXVIIL AMARANTH FAMILY. AMARANTACE^.

1. AMARAXTH.

2. GREEX AMARANTH.

3. THORNY AMARANTH.

4. DWARF AMARANTH.

5. WATER HEMP.

(). FORTY KNOT ; REBEL PLANT.

Amarantus albus.
A. hybridus.
A. spinosus.
Euoxolus pumilus.
Acnida canabina.
Alternanthera achyrantha.

ORDER LXXXIX. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. POLYGOXACE.E.

L SOUR DOCK.

2. SWAMP DOCK.

3. BLOODY DOCK.

4. BITTER DOCK.

5. GOLDEN DOCK.

6. SORREL.

7. SORREL.

8. BUCKWHEAT.

9. PRINCE'S FEATHER.

10. LADY'S THUMB.

11. SMART WEED.

12. WATER PEPPER.

13. KNOT GRASS.

22

Rumex crispus.
R verticillatus.
R. sanguineus.
R. obtusifolius.
R. maritimus.
R. acetosella.
R. hastatulus.

Fagopyrum esculentum. (Par-
tially naturalized.)
Polygonum orientale.
P. persicaria.
P. acre.

P. hydropiperoides.
P. aviculare.

338 -NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

14. SCRATCH GRASS. P. arifolium.

15. TEAR THUMB. P. sagitatum

16. FALSE BUCKWHEAT. P. dumetorum.

17. ERIOGONUM. Eriogonum tomentosum. (In the

Sand Hills.)

ORDER XC. LAUREL FAMILY. LAURACEiE.

1. RED BAY. Persea Carolinensis.

2. SASSAFRAS. Sassafras officinale.

3. SPICE BUSH. Benzoin odoriferum.

4. POND BUSH. Tetranthera geniculata.

ORDER XCI. MEZEREUM FAMILY. THYMELEACE^.
1. LEATHER-WOOD; MOOSE- WOOD. Dirca palustris.

ORDER XCII. SANDAL WOOD FAMILY. SANTALACE^.

1. TOAD FLAX. Comandra umbellata.

2 OIL NUT ; BUFFALO NUT. Pyrularia oleifera.

ORDER XCIII. MISTLETOE FAMILY. LORANTHACEiE.
1. MISTLETOE. Phoradendron flavescens.

ORDER XCIV. LIZARD-TAIL FAMILY^ SAURURACE^E.
1. LIZARD-TAIL. Saururus cernuus.

ORDER XCV. HORN-WORT FxVMILY. CERATOPHYLLACE.E.

1. HORN-W^ORT. CeratophyUum demersum. (In

etill water.

ORDER XCVI. WATER STAR-WORT FAMILY.
CALLITRICHACEiE.

1. WATER STAR-WORT. Callitriche verna.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 339

ORDER XCVII. RIA^ER WEED FAMILY. PODOSTEMACE^E.
1. RIVER WEED. Podostemon ceratophyllum.

ORDER XCVIII. SPURGE FAMILY. EUPHORBIACE^.

1. FLOWERING SPURGE.

2. WARTED SPURGE.

3. WILD IPECAC.

4. SPOTTED SPURGE.

5. SHORE SPURGE.

6. VARIEGATED SPURGE.

7. QUEEN'S DELIGHT.

8 CANDLE TREE; WAX TREE.

y. THREE-SEEDED MERCURY.
10. NETTLE.

IL TREAD SOFTLY; HORSE NETTLE.
12. CASTOR OIL PLANT.

Euphorbia corollata.

E obtusata.

E. Ipicacuanhae.

E. maculata.

E. polygonifolia.

E. marginata. Naturalized.

Stillingia sylvatica.

S. sebifera. (Naturalized.l

Acalypha Virinica.

Tragia urens.

Cnidoscolus stimulosus.

Ricinus communis.

ORDER XCIX. CROWBERRY FAMILY. EMPETRACEJ]].

1. HEATH CERATIOLE.

Ceratiola ericoides. (In the Sand
Hills.)

ORDER C. NETTLE FAMILY. URTICACE.E.

1. TALL NETTLE.

2. STINGING NETTLE.

3. WOOD NETTLE.

4. CLEAR WEED.

5. PELLITORY.

6. FALSE NETTLE.

Urtica gracilis.

U. urens.

Laportea Canadensis.

Pilea pumila.

Parietaria Pennsylvanica.

Boemeria cylindrica.

ORDER CI. MULBERRY FAMILY. MORACE.E.

1. MULBERRY. Moms rubra.

2. FRENCH MULBERRY; PAPER MULBERRY. Broussonetia papyrifera.

[The edible fig (Ficus carica) belongs to this order.]

340

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

ORDER CII. ELM FAMILY. ULMACE.E.

L WHITE EL:\r; COMMON ELM.

2. SLIPPERY ELM.

3. WAHOO; WIXGED ELM.

4. PLANER TREE.

5. SUGAR-BERRY TREE ; HACKBERRY.

Ulmus Americana.
U. fulva.
U. alata.

Planera aquatica.
Celtis occidentalis.

ORD-ER cm. PLANE TREE FAMILY. PLATANACE^.
1. SYXAMORE; PLANE TREE. Platanus occidentalis.

ORDER CIV. WALNUT FAMILY. JUGLANDACE.E.

s.

9.
10.
11.

BLACK WALNUT.

WHITE WALNUT; BUTTERNUT.

SHELL-BARK HICKORY^

THICK SHELL-BARK HICKORY.

PECAN NUT.

WHITE HICKORY.

PIG-NUT HICKORY.

SMALL NUT HICKORY.

NUTMEG HICKORY.

BITTER-NUT HICKORY^

WATER BITTER NUT.

Juglans nigra.

J. cinerea.

Oarya alba.

C. sulcata.

C. olivaeformis. (Naturalized.)

C. tomentosa-

C. glabra.

C. microcarpa.

C myristicseformis.

C. amara.

C. aquatica.

ORDER CV. OAK FAMILY. CUPULIFERiE.

1. WILLOW OAK.
•2. LAUREL OAK.
;;. MY^RTLE OAK.
4. SHINGLE OAK.

■'i. TURKEY OAK; HIGH GROUND WILLOW
OAK.

6. DWARF OAK.

7. LIVE OAK.

8. DWARF LIVE OAK.

9. WATER OAK.

10. BLACK JACK.

11. SCRUB OAK.

Quercus Phellos.
Q. laurifolia.
Q. myrtifolia.
Q. imbricaria.

Q. cinerea.
Q. pumila.
Q. virens.
Q. maritima.
Q. aquatica.
Q. nigra.
Q. Catesbaei.

(Coast.)
(Mountains.)

(Coast.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA

341

12. BLACK OAK.

13. SCARLET OAK.

14. RED OAK.

15. SPANISH OAK ; RED OAK.

16. BEAR OAK.

17. POST OAK.

18. WHITE OAK

18. OVER-CUP OAK.

19. MOSSY-CUP OAK.

20. SWAMP CHESTNUr OAK.

21. ROCK OAK.

22. CHESTNUT OAK.

23. CI-IINQUAPINOAK.

24. CHESTNUT

25. CHINQUAPIN.
2(3. BEECH.

27. HAZEL NUT.

28. BEAKED HAZEL NUT.

29. HORN BEAM ; IRON WOOD.

30. HOP HORN BEAM.

Q. tinctoria.

Q. coccinea.

Q. rubra.

Q. falcata.

Q. ilicifolia. (INIountains.)

Q. obtusiloba.

Q. alba.

Q- lyrata.

Q. macrocarpa. (Mountains.)

Q. prinus.

Q. monticola. (Mountains.)

Q- castanea.

Q. prinoides.

Castanea vesca.

C. pumila.

Fagus feruginea.

Corylus Americana.

C. rostrata.

Carpinus Caroliniana.

Ostrya Virginica.

ORDER CVI. WAX-MYRTLE FAMILY. MYRICACE^.

1. WAX MYRTLE; BAYBERRY.

2. DWARF MYRTLE.

3. SWEET FERN.

Myrica cerifera.
M. pumila.
Comptonia asplenifolia.

ORDER CVIL BIRCH FAMILY. BETULACE.'E.

1. RED BIRCH.

2. BLACK BIRCH.

3. ALDER.

Betula nigra.

B. lenta. (Mountains.)

Alnus serrulata.

ORDER CVIII. WILLOW FAMILY. SALICACE.E.

1. SWAMP WILLOW.

2. GRAY WILLOW.

3. WEEPING WILLOW.

4. CAROLINA POPLAR.

5. COTTON TREE.

6. LARGE-TOOTHED ASPEN.

7. LOMBARDY POPLAR.

Salix nigra-

S. tristis. (Mountains.)

S. Babylonica. (Naturalized.)

Populus angulata.

P. herterophylla.

P. grandidentata.

P. dilatata. (Naturalized.)

342

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER CIX. PINE FAMILY. CONIFER.E.

1. TABLE MOUNTAIN PIXE.

2. JERSEY OR SCRUB PINE.

3. SPRUCE PINE; WALTER'S PINE

4. SHORT-LEAF PINE ; OLD FIELD PINE.
.5. PITCH PINE.

(). PO.N'D PINE.

7. LOBLOLLY PINE; OLD-FIELD PINE.

5. LONG-LEAF PINE; YELLOW PINE.
9. ELLIOTT'S PINE.

10. WHITE PINE.
n. BALSAM FfR.

12. BLACK SPRUCE.

13. WHITE SPRUCE.

14. HEMLOCK SPRUCE.

15. RED CEDAR.

16. WHITE CEDAR.

17. CYPRESS ; B.ALD CYPRESS.

18. ARBOR VIT.E.

Pinus pungens. (Mountain.s.)

P. inops.

P. glabra.

P. mitis.

P. rigida.

P. serotina.

P. Taeda.

P. australis.

P. Elliottii.

P. strobus. i^Iotintains.)

J^bies Fraseri. (Mountuins.)

A. nigra. (Mountains.)

A. alba. (Mountains.

A. Canadensis. (Mountains).

Juniperus Virginiana.

Cypressus tbyoidcs.

Taxodium distichum.

Thuja occidentalis.

CLASS II.

Plants with one seed leaf {cotijledon), as the Grasses, Sedges, Palms, &c.,
having stems composed of cellular tissue, and scattered bundles of woody
fibre and vessels, without proper pith ; bark in concentric layers, and in-
creasing in diameter by the deposition of new fibrous bundles. Leaves
mostly alternate, entire, and parallel-veined ; commonly sheathing at
the base, not falling off by an articulation. Monocolytedons or Exogens.

ORDER ex. PALM FAMILY. PALM^.

1. PALMETTO; CABBAGE PALMETTO.

2. SAW pal:\ietto.

o. DWARF PALMETTO.
4 BLUE PALMETTO.

Sabal Palmetto.
S. serrulata.
S. Adansoni.
Chamaerops hystrix.

ORDER CXI. ARUM FAMILY. ARACE^.

1. INDIAN TURNIP.

2. DRAGON ROOT.

3. ARROW ARUM.

Arisaema triphyllum.
A. Dracontium.
Peltandra Virginica,

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 343

4. SPOON FLOWER. Xanthosoma sagittifolium.

5. GOLDEN CLUB ; WATER DOCK. Orontium aquaticum.

6. CALAMUS. Acorus Calamus.

ORDER CXII. DUCK-WEED FAMILY. LEMNACEiE.

L DUCK-WEED. Lemna minor, and two other spe-

cies. Very small aquatic plants
floating in still water.

ORDER CXIII. CAT-TAIL FAMILY. TYPHACE^.

1. CAT-TAIL. Typha latifolia.

2. BUR REED. Sparganium ramosum.

ORDER CXIV. POND WEED FAMILY. NAIADACE.E.

1. EEL GRASS ; SEA WR \CK. Zostera marina.

2. DITCH GRASS. Ruppia maritima.

3. POND WEED. Potamogetonpectinatus, and four

other species.

ORDER CXV. WATER PLANTAIN FAMILY. ALISMACEtE.

1. WATER PLANTAIN. Alisma Plantago.

2. ARROW GRASS. Triglochin triandrum.

3. ARROW LEAF. Sagittaria variabillis, and four

other species.

ORDER CXVL FR0G3BIT FAMILY. HYDROCHARIDACEiE.

1. WATER WEED. Anacharis Canadensis.

2. TAPE GR.iSS. Valisneria spiralis.

3. FROG BIT. Limnobium Spongia.

ORDER XCVII. ORCHIS FAMILY. ORCHIDACE.E.

1. ADDER'S MOUTH. Microstylis ophioglossoides.

2. TWINING BL\DE. Liparis liliifolia.

3. CORAL ROOT. Corallorhiza odontorhiza.

4. PUTTY ROOT. Aplectum hiemale.

344

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

5. BEARDED PIXK.

(3. CRANE-FLY ORCHIS.

7. TREE ORCHIS.

8. POGONIA.

11. SHOWY ORCHIS.

10. YELLOW ORCHIS.

11. GREEN ORCHIS.

12. YELLOW FRINGED ORCHIS.

13. WHITE FRINGED ORCHIS.

14. CRESTED ORCHIS.

15. RAGGED ORCHIS.

16. TWISTED ORCHIS ; LADY'S TRESSES.

17. RATTLESNAKE PLANTAIN.

18. TURVYBLADE.

19. YELLOW LADY'S SLIPPERS.

20. PURPLE LADY'S SLIPPERS.

Calopogon pulchellus.
Tipularia discolor.
Epidendrum conopseum.
Pogonia ophioglossoides, and

three other species.
Orchis spectabilis.
Platanthera flava.
p. bracteata.
P. ciliaris
p. blephariglottis.
P. cristata.
P. lacera.

Spiranthes cemua.
Goodyera pubescens.
Listera australis.
Cypripedium pubescens.
C. acaule.

ORDER CXVIII. CANNA FAMILY. CANNACE^.

1. INDIAN SHOT. Canna flaccida.

2. CANNA. C. Indica. Partly naturalized.

ORDER CXIX. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. AMARYLLIDACE^.

1. ATAMASCO LILY

2. SPIDER LILY.

Amaryllis Atamasco.
Pancratium rotatum. And three
other sj^ecies.
.". RATTLESNAKE'S MASTER-PIECE : FALSE

ALOE. Agave Virginica.

4. AMERICAN ALOE. A.Americana. (In cultivation.)

5. YELLOW STAR GRASS. Hypoxis erecta.

ORDER CXX. BLOOD-WORT FAMILY. HiEMODORACEiE.

1. RED ROOT Lacbnanthes tinctoria.

2. WHITE STAR GRASS ; COLIC-ROOT. Aletris farinosa.

3. GOLDEN STAR GRASS. A. aurea.

ORDER CXXI. PINEAPPLE FAMILY. BROMELIACE^.

1. LONG MOSS.

2. BARTRAM'S MOSS.

Tilandsia usneoides.
T. Bartramii-

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 345

ORDER CXXIL IRIS FAMILY. IRIDACE.E.

1. BLUE FLAG. Iris versicolor.

2. THREE-PETALLED FLAG. I. tripetala.

3. CRESTED IRIS. I. cristata.

4. DWARF IRIS. I. verna.

5. BLTJE-EYED GRASS ; PEPPER GRASS. Sisyrinchiun Bermudianum.

ORDER CXXIII. YAM FAMILY. DIOSCOREACE^E.
] . WILD YAM. Dioscorea villosa.

ORDER CXXIV. SMILAX FAMILY. SMILACE^.

1. EVERGREEX S:MILAX ; CHINA ROOT. Smilax Pseudo-China.

2. SARSAPARILLA. S. glauca.

3. RED-BERRIED BAMBOO. S. Walteri.

4. LAUREL-LEAVED SMILAX. S. laurifolia.

•5. CARRION FLOWER. Coprosmanthus herbaceus.

6. WAKE ROBIN. Trillium sessile.

7. WILD PEPPER. T. erytlirocarpum. (In the moun-

tains.)

8. CUCUMBER ROOT. Medeola Virginica.

ORDER CXXV. LILY FAMILY. LILIACE^.

1. TURK'S CAP LILY. Lilium superbum. (mountains.)

2. CAROLINA LILY. ' L. Carolinianum. (Low Country.)

3. YELLOW LILY. L. Canadensis. (Mountains.)

4. ORANGE LILY. L. Pbiladelpbicum.

5. GATES BY'S LILY ; SOI^THERN LILY. L. Catesbasi. (Flat woods in low

country.)
0. SPANISH BAYONET. Yucca aloifolia.

7. BEAR GRASS. Y. filamentosa, and two other

species.
S. DOG'S TOOTH VIOLET; YELLOW ADDER'S

TONGUE. Erythronium Americanum.

0. SOLOMON'S SEAL. Polygonatum biflorum.

10. FALSE SPIKENARD. Smilacina racemosa.

11. LILY OF THE VALLEY. Convalaria majalis.

12. WILD ONION. Allium mutabile, and two or three

other species.

346 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ORDER CXXVI. COLCHICUM FAMILY. MELANTHACE.E.

1. BELL-WORT. Uvularia perfoliata, and three

other species.

2. BUNCH FL0WP:R. MelantMum Virginicum.

3. BIG HELLEBORE; BEAR CORN. Veratrum viride. (Mountains.)

4. FLY POISON ; CROW POISON. AmiantMum muscatoxicum.

5. BLAZING STAR ; DEVIL'S BIT. ChamaeUrium luteum.

6. FALSE ASPHODEL. ToSeldia glabra.

ORDER CXXVIL. RUSH FAMILY. JUXCAOE.E.

1. BIG RUSH. Jtmcus eSfussus, and twelve otlier

species.

ORDER CXXVIII. PICKEREL-WEED FAMILY.

PONTEDERACE.E.
1. PICKEREL WEED. Pontederia cordata. (Swamp.)

ORDER CXXIX. SPIDER-WORT FAMILY. COMMELYNACE.E.

1. DAY FLOWER. Cominelyna communis, and two

other species.

2. SPIDER- WORT. Tradescantia Virginica.

3. ROSE SPIDER-AVORT. . T. rosea.

ORDER CXXX. YELLOW-EYED GRASS FAMILY.

XYRIDACEiE.

1. YELLOW-EYED GRASS. Xyris brevifolia, and seven other

species.

ORDER CXXXI. PIPE- WORT FAMILY. ERIOCAULONACEJE.

1. PIPE- WORT FAMILY. Eriocaulon.decangularie, and two

other species.

2. YELLOW PIPE- WORT. Paepalanthus flavidus.

3. HAIRY PIPE-WORT. Lachnocaulon Michauxii.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 347

ORDER CXXXII. SEDGE FAMILY. CYPERACE.E.

4.
5.
6.

7.

S.

9.
10.
11.
12.

13.
14.
15.

16.

17.

18.

19.
20.
21.
22.
2.3.

STRIGOSE CYPERUS ; BRISTLE-SPIKED

GALINGALE.
JOINTED CYPERUS.
COMPACT-HEADED CYPERUS.
SHARP GRASS
YELLOW CYPERUS.
SLENDER CYPERUS.
NUT GRASS.
GRASS NUT.

SHEATHED DULICHIUM.
DWARF KY'LLINGIA.
UMBRELLA GRASS.
SPIKE RUSH.

SWORD GRASS.
WEAK-STALK SCIRPUS.
LARGE MAESH SCIRPUS.
MARITIME SCIRPUS.

COTTON GRASS.

TICK-SEED GRASS ; BEAK RUSH

HORNED RUSH.
BALD RUSH.
SAW GRASS.
TWIG RUSH.
NUT RUSH.

^i. TUSSOCK SEDGE.

Cypems strigosus.

C. articulatus.

C. vegetus.

C. virens.

0. flavescens.

C. gracilis.

C. rotundus.

C.repens,and fifteen other species.

Dulichium spathaceum.

Kyllingia pumila.

Fuirena squarrosa.

Eleocharis equisetoides, ami sLk-
teen other species.

Scirpus pungens.

S. debilis.

S. lacustris.

S. maritimus, and four or five
other species.

Eriophonim Virginicum.

Rhyncliospora plumosa, and twen-
ty other species.

Ceratoschoenus machrostacliyus.

Psylocarya rhynchosporoides.

Cladium effusiim.

C mariscoides.

Scleria triglomerata, and four
other species.

Carex stricta. (Tliis very large
genus of sedges, Cfur-r, containing about seventy-five
species in the Southern States, is well represented in
South Carolina, but there are few that have attracted
attention enough to have acquired common names.
There are some fifty or sixty species within the
limits of our State.)

ORDER CXXXIII. GRASS FAMILY. GRAMINE.E.

1. RICE GRASS; FALSE GRASS. Leerzia oryzoides, and two other

species.

2. CULTIVATED RICE. • Oryza sativa. (The common rice

in cultivation.)

34s

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

3. WILD RICE ; INDIAN KICK.

4. WILDCATS.

5. FLOATING WILD RICE.
G. FLO.-VTING FOX-TAIL.

7. MEADOW FOX-TAIL.

8. TIMOTHY; CAT'S-TAIL GRASS ; HERD'S

GRASS.

9. BEARD GRASS.

10. WIRE GRASS ; DROP-SEED GRASS.

11. BLACK SEED GRASS.

12. RUSH GRASS.

13. THIN GRASS.

14. HAIR GRASS.

14. BENT GRASS ; HERD'S GRASS.

15. DELICATE HAIR GRASS.

16. WOOD REED GRASS

17. NIMBLE WILL ; DROP-SEED GRASS.

18. HAIR GRASS.

19. REED BENT GRASS,

20. FEATHER GRASS.
2L WIRE GRASS.

22. POVERTY GRASS.

23. THREE-ARMED GRASS.

24. MARSH GRASS.

25. MARSH GRASS.

26. MARSH GRASS.

27. FLAT GRASS

28. BERMUDA GRASS ; JOINT GRASS.

29. LEMON GRASS.

30. CROW-FOOT GRASS; EGYPTIAN GRASS.

31. GOOSE-FOOT GRASS.

32. SAND GRASS.

33. MELIC GRASS.

34. CANE; LARGE REED.

35. REED; DWARF CANE.
3G. SPIKE GRASS.

37. MAY GRASS ; SPEAR GRASS.

37. BLUE GRASS; MEADOW GRASS.

38. BLUE GRASS.

39. ORCHARD GRASS.

40. ERAGROSTIS.

Zizania aquatica.
Z. miliacea.

Hydrocholoa Carolinensis.
Alopecurus geniculatus.
A. pratensis.

Phleum pratense.

Polypogon maritimus. (Sea coast.)

Sporobolus junceus.

S. Indicus. (Common about lawns.)

Vilfa aspera.

Agrostis perennans.

A. scabra.

A. alba.

A. aracbnoides.

Cinna arundinacea.

MuMenbergia diffusa.

M. capilaris.

Calamagrostis coarctata.

Stipa avenacea.

Aristida striata.

A. dichotcma.

A. purpurescens, and five other

species, all of which are known

as " Wire Grass."
Spartina juncea. ^ In the salt
S. polystachya. > marshes of
S. glabra. j the coast.

Eustacbys petrsea. On the coast.
Cynodon dactylon.
Ctenium Americanum.
Dactyloctenium jSgyptiacum.
Eleusine Indica.
Triplasis Americana.
Melica mutica.
Arundinaria gigantea.
A. tecta.

Brizopyrum spicatum.
Poa annua.

p. pratensis. ] Both species are
P. compressa. ) called Blue Grass.
Dactylis glomerata.
Eragrostis. Nine species of this

grass.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZKD PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

349

41. FESCUE GRASS.

42. TALL FESCUE; MEADOW FESCUE,

43. CHEAT: CHESS.

44. RESCUE GRASS.

45. BEACH GRASS.

46. REED GRASS.

47. LYME GRASS ; RYE GRASS."

47. BOTTLE BRUSH.

48. DARNEL; RAY GRASS.

49. HAIR GRASS.

50. WILD OAT GRASS.

Festuca Myurus.
F. elatior. And four other spedes.
Bromus secalinus. And one other
species.
CeratocMoa breviaristata. Nat-
uralized.
Uniola paniculata. And two

other species.
Phragmites communis.
Elymus Virginicus. And one

otlier species.
Gymnosticliium Hytrix.
Lolium Temulentum.
Aira flexuosa.
Danthonia spicata.

[Triticum vulgare, Wheat; Secale cereale, Rye; Hordeum vulgare, Barley; Avena
sativa, Oats, are iu common cultivation.]

5L
52.
53.
54
55.
56.
57.
58.

59.
60.
61.
62.
63
(>4.
65.
66.

67.

68.
69.
70.
71.

TALL OAT GRASS.

SWEET-SCENTED GRASS.

SOUTHERN CANARY GRASS.

VELVET GRASS.

FLOATING PASPALUM.

SHEATHED PASPALUM.

TWIN SPIKED PASPALUM.

JOINT GRASS ; RICE-FIELD JOINT GRASS.

Arrhenathenim avenaceum.

Anthoxantlium odoratum.

Phalaris intermedia.

Holcus lanatus.

Paspalum fluitans.

P. Walteri.

P. Digitaria.

P- distichum. This crass is some-

times confounded with Bermuda Grass, or highland joint grass, Cynodon,
Dactvlon.

EARLY PASPALUM.
SMOOTH PASPALUM.
PURPLE PASPALUM.
HAIRY-LEAVED PASPALUM.
FLORIDA PASPALUM.
CRAB-GRASS. *

ERECT PANICUM.
GUINEA GRASS.

TEXAN MILLET.
PURPLE PANICUM.
GAPING PANICUM.
COMPRESSED PANICUM.
SEA-SHORE PANICUM.

P. prsecox.
P. Iseve.
p. undulatum.
p. ciliatifolum.
P. Floridanum.
Panicum sanguinale.
p. filiforme.

P. jumentorum. Introduced and
partly naturalized.
P. Texana. Partly naturalized.
P. gibbum.
p. hians.
P. anceps.
P. virgatum.

350

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

74.

75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80-
81.
82.
83.
84.

BITTER PANICUM.
LARGE WATER PANICUM.
HAIRY-STALKED PANICUM.
NARROW-LEAVED PANICUM.
BROAD-LEAVED PANICUM.
LARGE-SEEDED PANICUM.
FEW-FLOWERED PANICUM.
VISCID PANICUM.
ROUGH-STEM PANICUM.
MANY-BRANCHED PANICUM.
COCK'S-FOOT GRASS.
SOFT PANICUM.
CREEPING PANICUM.

genus among the Grasses.

P. amarum.
P. geniculatum-
P. capillare.
P. angaustifolium.
P. latifolium.
P. scoparium.
P. pauciflorum.
P. viscidum.
P. scabriusculum.
P. dichotomum.
P. Cnis-Galli.
P. molle.

P. hirtellum. This is the largest
There are some omitted from this Ust, as

So.
8G,

87.
88.
89.
90.

they have not received common names. Most of the common names
above (of Paspahim and Panieum) have been taken from Elliott's
Sketches.

FOX-TAIL. Setaria glauca.

ITALIAN MILLET. S. ItaUca. Along the coast natu-

ralized.

SAND SPUR. Cenchrus tribuloides.

COCK'S SPUR. C. echinatus.

GAMA GRASS. Tripsacum dactyloides.

BROOM GRASS. Andropogon scoparius. And five

or six other species, nearly all of which are called '• Broom Grass "

91 FOX-TAIL.

92. INDIAN GRASS.

93. WOOD GRASS.

94. I\IEANS' GRASS ; JOHNSTON'S GRASS

CUBA GRASS ; COCO GRASS.

Erianthus alopecuroides. And
one other species.
Sorghmn avenaceum.
S. nutans.

S. Halapense. Naturalized.

[Of the Sorghum in cultivation there are the Durrah Corn (S. Vulgare), the Broom
Corn and Sweet Sorghum (S. saccharatum) and the Guinea Corn (S. cernuumj.

SERIES II. CRYPTOGA^IS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

Vegetables destitute of proper flowers, and producing, in place of seeds,
minute homogenous ])odie3 (spores) containing no embryo.

NATIVE AND NATUEALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 351

CLASS III. ACROGENS.

Plants with a distinct steni, growing from the apex only, containing
woody fibre and vessels.

ORDER CXXXIV. HORSE-TAIL FAMILY. EQUISETACEiE.
1. SCOURING EUSH ; HORSE-TAIL. Equisetum lavigatum.

ORDER CXXXV. FERNS. FILICES.

1. POLYPOD.

2. HOARY POLYPOD.

3. BRAKE.

4. DWARF BRAKE

5. LIP FERN.

G. MAIDEN HAIR ; HAIR FERN.

7. WOODWARDIA.

8. WALKING LEAF.

9. SPLEEN WORT.

10. EBONY SPLEEN WORT.

11. BLADDER FERN.

12. WOOD FERN.

13. SHIELD FERN,

14. SENSITIVE FERN.
13. CLIMBING FERN.
IG. FOWERING FERN.

17. MOON WORT,

18. ADDER'S TONGUE.

Polypodium vnlgare.

P. incanum.and one other species.

Pteris aquilina.

P. Cretica.

Cheilanthes vestita.

Adiantum pedatum.

. Two species.

Camptosorus rhizophyllus. In

the mountains.

Asplennium pinnatifidum. In the

mountains.

A. ebeneum. And two or three

other species.
Cystopteris fragilis.
Aspidium Thelypteris.
A. Novseboracense. And two

other species.
Onoclea sensibilis.
Lygodium palmatum.
Osmunda regalis. And two other
species.

Botrychium Virginicum. And

one other species.

Ophioglossum vulgatum.

ORDER CXXXVI. CLUB-MOSS FAMILY. LYCOPIACE/E.

1. CLUB-MOSS.

2. CAROLINA CLUB-MOSS.

3. GROUND PINE.

Lycopodium clavatum.
L. Caroliannum.
L. dendrodeum.

352 NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF 80UTII CAROLINA.

4. CREEPING CLUB-MOSS. L. alopecuroides.

5. SELAGINELLA. • Two species.

6. PSILOTUM TPJQUETRUM.

ORDER CXXXVII. WATER-FERN FAMILY. HYDROPLERIDES.

L FLOATING AZOLLA. Azolla Caroliniana. In still

water.

CLASS IV. ANOPHITES, OR ACROGENS.

Cryptogamous acrogenoiis plants, growing upwards by an axis or stem,
and usually furnished with distinct leaves (sometimes the stem and
foliage confluent into a frond) composed of cellular tissue alone.

ORDER CXXXVIII. MOSSES. MUSCI.

These small and inconspicuons plants have attracted so little of general attention
that scarce!}' any of them have received common or popular names. It is onh' of late
years that they have claimed the attention and study of Botanists in our country.
The eliler American botanists confined themselves mostly to the larger and more con-
spicuous flowering plants; and thus it is that there are many new species continually
being discovered.

The same may be said of all the other lower Cryptogams, thS Hepatics, the Lichens,
the Fungi, and the Algje.

A mere list of scientific names of species of all these Cryptogams, besides occupying
more space than can be spared, would be of little interest, except to botanists I ^vill,
therefore, give an enximeration only, — and say that in my own herbarium there are
about 127 species of Musci collected within the limits of the State.

ORDER CXXXIX. LIVER WORTS. HEPATIC^.

Of this order I have in my herbarium sixty-five species collected in this State.

CLASS V. THALLOPHITES, OR THALLOGENS.

Flowerless plants of the low^est grade, entirely composed of cellular
tissue, with no distinction of stem, root, and leaves ; not growing by
buds, nor furnished with reproductive organs analagous to flowers ; some

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 353

of the lowest forms remarkable for the spontaneous movements they
exhibit.

ORDER CXL. LICHENS. LICHENES.

Perennial plants spreading in the form of a lobed-thallus over trees, or ui)on rocks,
or on the ground. Some of them contain nutritious qualities, and are used in the arts
and in medicine. The Iceland Moss of the druggists shops (Cetraria Islandica) con-
tains eighty per cent, of gelatinous nutritious substance. The Tripe de Jioch; (Rock
Tripe) is a species of Umbilicaria, and the Eein-deer Moss is a Cladonia. Some of them
yield important coloring matters, and are employed in the arts.

I have in my herbarium 258 species, collected in this State.

ORDER CXLI. SEA WEEDS. ALG^.

Leafless plants with no distinct axis, growing in water (fresh or salt water) and rarely
on trees, consisting either of simple vescicles or of articulated filaments, or of lobed
fronds. Many of the marine sea weeds have useful properties. The " Irish Muss "
(Chondrus crisi:)us) of the shops is used for its gelatine in making blanc-mange.
Many other species have similar qualities, and the famous edible " Swallow's-nests "
of the Chinese is composed of a species of Alga.

Of the Algse found in our State, Prof. Harvey, in his " Nereis Boreali-Americana,"
gives twenty-eight marine species found in Charleston harbor. These added to my
own collection, amounting to 1-10 species (composed altogether of those inhabiting
fresh water, trees, &c.), will give a total for the State of 168 species.

ORDER CXLII. THE MUSHROOM FAMILY. FUNGI.

Plants growing on dead or dying matter, — sometimes on living plants, — often on the
ground, deriving nutriment mostly from the substance on which they grow. Fruit
various in external character. Spores either naked or contained in utricles (Asci) and
then called Sporidia, — mostly producing a mass of threads or cells (Mycelium) from
which the plant grows.

This is an immense Order, counting by the thousands ; but a small proportion of
which have attracted popular attention — and we cannot pretend to do more than
merely to indicate a few of the more prominent and conspicuous forms which affect
us, either for their benefits or for the evil they entail.

They comprise a great variety of external form and size, from the larger Mushrooms
which we see on the ground and on trees, to the minute species which infest the
leaves of plants, and are scarcely visible to the naked eye.

If the annual loss on our cultivated crops by insect depredation is estimated at mil-
lions of dollars, no less do the minute fungi do their part to the same effect, in tlie
form of rust, smut, mildew, and mould. Most growing plants— crop plants— are more
or less infested by these microscopic organisms, wldch injure them to some extent, and
frequently destroy vitality. It is only of late years that much attention has been
drawn to them. In fact, it is only through the superior microscopes, so much improved
of late, that we can form any idea of their structure and organization— and thus pro-
ceed in a proper manner towards their treatment. Their structure, habits and mode
23

354

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

of jtropatration must be investi<:ated and understood, before any legitimate mode of
treatment can be devised. But in order to do this, ^ve have first to collect, classify and
arran^'e them in some intelligible order, and to give them names, so they may be
known, and so that scientists, in describing them, may know what they are talking
about. The first pioneer work therefore is to make collections, and then classify and
arrange them by some definite method for future use. To thoughtless persons it may
seem useless to devote attention to such small objects, and even frivolous to occupy
oneself with such matters, but the day for such comments is passing away. As we
learn more and more of the works of the Creator, we see that "small and great" are
only terms of our own. They have no place in the vocabulary of nature. In fact it
is by the examination antl study of these simplest forms of life, tliat we are enabled
to learn more of the higher and more complete forms. They assail us directly at all
points. Their minute and invisible spores are everywhere present — in the air we
breathe and in the water we drink. Diseases, injurious to animal as well as vegetable
life, owe their origin to them and their destructive agency, — and demand our attention.
It is to these simplest forms of the animal and vegetable kingdom, as easiest of com-
prehension, that the most profound philosophers of our day are turning their inquiries
and studies in their search after the origin of life.

Every one is familiar with the ordinary Mushrooms which we see springing up about
the woods, or on the roadways, and in fields and gardens — how numerous they are —
and how they vary in color, and size. These are tlie Agarics. They constitute a very
large genus of fungi, and to them belongs the famous edible Mushroom, and many
others which are not only wholesome food, but even sought after as delicacies. They
are the most highly organized group of the order There are doubtless many un-
wholesome, and some very poisonous, members of this genus, but probably the much
largest portion are either innocuous or wholesome. The late Dr. Curtis, of North Car-
olina, who paid special attention to this branch of botany, proved by personal experi-
ment, the wholesome properties of over one hundred different species. In Europe,
where population is more dense, large ciuantities are consumed. In our newer country,
where the means of living is easier, we hear less of tliem, because other food is more
abundant.

I will now proceed to note a few of the most prominent and well known species (in
accordance with the arrangement in the previous part of this paper) and then give an
enumeration of the whole number of fungi found in our State.

1. IMPERIAL MUSHROOM.

2. FLY-AGARIC.

3. HALLIMASCIIE.

4. CLUSTERED AGARIC.

5. PARASOL MUSHROOM.

6. LONG-ROOTED MUSHROOM.

7. OYSTER MUSHROOM.

Agaricus Caesareus. Edible ; in

woods.
A. muscarius. Poisonous ; in

woods.

A. melleus. Edible ; in clusters on

rotten stump.s.

A. caespitosus. Very similar to

the last.

A. procerus. In lawns and woods ;

edible.
A. radicatus. Edible ; in woods.
A. ostreatus. Edible ; on dead

trunks.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

OOO

8. COMMON MUSHROOM. A. campestris. This is also tl.e

fiuuous eatable miishrootn of Europe, and cultivated for market in large
quantities.

9. PEACH-SCENTED MUSHROOM. A. amygdaUnus. Fully as good

as the last
10. FIELD MUSHROOM. A. arvensis. Also very good.

[The Agarics constitute one of the largest genera among fungi. We have collected

and noted about different species growing in this State, of which a large portion

are edible.

11. LA CHANTARELLE.

12. DRY-ROT

13. FAIRY-RIXG MUSHROOM.

14. BEEF-STEAK MUSHROOM.

15. MEDUSA-HEAD MUSHROOM.

16. CLAVARIA.

Cantharellus cibarius. Edible ;

in woods.

Merulius lacrymans. In cellars

and damp wood.

Marasmius oreades In woods ;

edible.

Fistulina hepatica. Edible ; on

trees.

Hydnum Caput - Medusae. On

trunks.

. Most of the

17. JEWS-EAR.

18. STINK-HORN; DEVIL'S BREATH

19 PUFF BALL ; EGG MUSHROOM.

20. EARTH-STAR.

21. HYDROMETER.

22. CUSTARD MUSHROOM.

23. LITTLE-NEST.

24. RUST.

25. CEDAR BALLS

26. RED RUST.

27. SMUT.

28. CORN SMUT.

29. CLUSTER CUPS.

Clavarias are edible.
Herniola auricula- Judae. On logs.
Phallus rubicundus. In fields and
roadside.
Lycoperdon Bovista. Very good.
There are also several other smaller species equally good.
Geaster fornicatus.
G. hygrometricus.
.ffithalium septicum. On logs;
not eatable.
Nidularia pulvinata.
Puccinia graminis. Common on
grasses.
Podisoma macropus. On Cedar

trees.
Uredo rubigo. Common on grasses
and cereals.
Ustilago Segetum. On oats, &c.
U. Zeae. On Indian corn, destroy-
ing tlie ear.
.fficidium. There are large num-
bers of species, growing on various
plants.

35G NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

80. HORNED CLUSTER CUP. RoesteUa. Many species of this

al.si>, mostly on the Api>le family.

31. BLACK-SEED GRASS SMUT. Helminthosporium Ravenelii.

Very common on Black-seed
grass (Sporobolus Indicus), and
destroys the seed.

32. MORELLE. Morchellaesculenta. Good, edible.

33. EARTH TOXGUE. Geoglossum hirsutum. In woods.

near rotten logs.

34. PLUM DISEASE. Sphseria morbosa. Attacking the

living branches.
36. TUCKAHOE; INDIAN POTATOE. Pachyma cocos.

30. MOULDS. Various species of Mucor, Pennicilium, &c.

[Note. — In the above " List of the more Common Native and Naturalized Plants of South
Carolina," I have only noted :

1st. Such Phsengamous plants as were most common and well known, and had
received popular names. To have given the botanical names of all others would have
exceeded the limits to which this paper is restricted. In the recapitulation, at the
end, I will state the whole number found within the limits of our State, including
those above-mentioned.

2d. Of Cryptogamous plants, there are but very few that have received popular
names, and to these few I have alluded ; and for the same reason as stated above, I
have omitted the others, but I will also give, in the recapitulation, the whole number
found thus far in our State. I am not aware that any other botanists .have ever made
any collections of the lower Cryptogams within our State, except the late Dr. Curtis
(who resided a few years at Society Hill) and myself, nor have any catalogues ever
been published ' Not having access to Dr. Curtis' collections to ascertain his species, I
am compelled to consult only my own Herbarium. In stating the number, therefore,
it must be borne in mind that these are only what I have myself collected in this
State.]

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 357

SUMMARY.

FLOWERING PLANTS— Exogens, about ■ 1,310 Species.

Endogens, about 500

1,810

FLOWERLESS PLANTS— Filices, about 30

Equisetaceee 1

Lycopodiacefe 9

Hydropterides 1

Characeaj 3

Musci, about 127

Hepaticfe, about 65

Licheiaes, about 258

Algai, about 168

Fungi, about 1,920

2,582

Total species found in the State 4,392

358

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

LIST OF BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, CATALOGUES AND
CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINES.

RELATING TO THE BOTANY OF THIS STATE.

Flora Carolinian a, Thomas Walter; 1
Vol. London, 1787,

Flora Carolin.eensis, J. L. E. Shecut ; 1
Vol. Charleston, 1806.

Carolina Florist, by John Drayton ; 1
Vol., 1807. MSS. in library of State Uni-
versity, Columbia, S. C-

Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina
and Georgia, Stephen Elliott ; 2 Vols.
Charleston, 1817-1824.

Catalogue of Ph^.nogamous Plants and
Ferns, Native or Naturalized, found
growing in the Vicinity of Charles-
ton, John Bachman. 1834.

Catalogue of the Plants of Columbia
and its Vicinity, Lewis R. Gibbes.
1835.

A Medico-Botanical Catalogue of the
Plants and Ferns of St. John's Berke-
ley, F. Peyre Porcher. 1847.

Catalogue of the Natural Orders of
Plants in the Vicinity of the Santee
Canal, as Represented by Genera
AND Species, H. W. Ravenel ; Proc.
Am. Ass. Adv. Science, Vol. III. 1850.

Flora of the Lower Country of South
Carolina, Wm. Wragg Smith ; Proc.
Ell. Soc. 1859.

Notice of Some New and Rare Plants
FOUND IN this State, H. W. Ravencl ;
Proc. Ell. Soc. 1856.

Description of a New Species of Baptisia
(with plate), H. W. Ravenel; Proc.

Ell. Soc 185G.

Some Rare Southern Plants, H. W.
Ravenel ; Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club,
New York, 1876.

Description of Species of Fungi found
NEAR Charleston, S. C, M. Bosc.
French Consul, in Berlin Magazine,
1811.

Contributions to the Cryptogamic Botany
OF South Carolina, H. W. Ravenel ;
Southern Medical Journal.

Fungi Caroliniani Exsiccati, H. W. Rav-
enel ; Charleston, 5 Vols. 1852-1860.

Fungi Americani, H. W. Ravenel ; Lon-
don, 8 Vols. 1878-1882.

Enumeration and Description of South
Carolina Fungi, M. C. Cooke-Gre villea.

London, 1878.

Thirty New Species op American Fungi,
Baron de Thuemen. Vienna, 1878.

Species of American Hyphomycetes,
Baron de Thuemen. Vienna, 1879.

Notes on the Marine Alg.e of S. C. and
Florida, J. Cosmo Melvil, inTrimens'
Journal of Botany, Vol. IV. Lon-
don.

NATIVE AND NATURALIZED PLANTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

359

PUBLICATIONS OF A MORE GENERAL CHARACTER, IN WHICH THE
BOTANY OF THE STATE IS ILLUSTRATED.

Flora Boreali-Americaxa, Andre Mi-
chaux. 1796.

Flora op North America, Frederick Pursb.
1814.

Sylva Americana, or Forest Trees of
North America, F. A. Michanx. 1804.

North American Fungi, M. J. Berkley.
Grevillea, London, 1873-1874.

The Erysiphei of the United States, C.
E. Bessy. 1877.

The Valsaei of Norih America, M. C.
Cooke. Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Pha., 1877.

1838-1840.

Southern Eotany, Darby. 1 Vol

Flora of Southern LTnited States, A. W.
Chapman. 1860. 1 Vol.

Resources of the Southern Fields and
Forests, F. Peyre Porcher. 18G9. 1
Vol.

Nereis Boreali American:, W. H. Harvey.
3 Vols. Smithsonian Institution. 1857.

Prodromus of a Study of North American
Fresh AVater Alg.e, H. C. Wood. 1869.

Contributions to the History of the
Fresh Water Alg.e of North America,
H. C. Wood. Smithsonian Institution,
1873. 1 Vol.

Species of Fresh Water Alg.e, Francis
Wolle. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club. New
York.

Synop.sis Fungoru.m Carolin.e, L. de
Schweinitz. Leipsick, 1822. 1 Vol.

Synopsis Fungorum in Boreali-America,
L. de Schweinitz. Philadelphia, 1831.
1 Vol.

Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, M.
J. Berkley. London, 18.57. 1 Vol.

Contributions to the Mycology* of North
America, Berkley «& Curtis. Silliman's
Journal, 1848.

Contributions to the Mycology of North
America, Berkley & Curtis. Hooke's
London Journal of Botany.

Mycosraphia, seu IcoNes Fungorum, M. C,

Cooke. 1875-1879. Six Parts.

North American Flora, Torrey and Gray. ; The Hypo.mycetous Fungi op the United

St.\tes, M. C. Cooke. 1877.

Synopsis op the Discomycetous Fungi op
the United States, M. C. Cooke.
Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Science, 1875.

The Myxomycetes of the United States,
M. C. Cooke. Annals of Lyceum of
Nat. Hist., New York.

Species of Lycoperdon in United States.
Ch. H. Peck. Albany Institute, 1879.

Musci Boreali-Americani, Sullivant t\:
Lesquereux. 1856.

The Mosses and Hepatics of U. S., East
OF the Mississippi, W. S. Sullivant.
1856.

Icones Muscorum, W. S. Sullivant. 1864.
1 Vol., with plates.

Musci Appalachiani, C. F. Austin. 1870.

Hepatice Boreali-A.merican,e, C. F. Aus-
tin. 1873.

Description of Mosses and Hepatics, C. F.
Austin. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club.

Genera Lichenu.m, or an Arrangement
OF the North American Lichens, Ed.
Tuckerman. 1 Vol. 1872.

A Llst of North American Lichens, H.
Willey. 1873.

Observations on North American Lichens.
Ed. Tuckerman.

Synopsis of North American Lichens, Ed.
Tuckerman. Part I. 1882.

Botany of North Carolina (in connection
with the Geological Survey of the
State), M. a. Curtis. 1867.

TABLE I. — Ahstrad of Meteorological Observations in South Carolina, Recorded h

Year

1752

1 Ih?.

1754

1755

1756

1757

1758

1759

1791 1792

1793

r

1 Aknttm. Mk\?c

2
3

Highest

90

28

93
30

89
30

Lowest

Winter Mean.

58

58

60

53

56

57

53

53

H

Highest

Lowest

83
18

76

82

28
75

86
22
75

80
27
73

84
26

74

79
25
76

84
29
76

81

28

77

O 1 "

S !

7

8
9

Summer Mean.

j

Highest

101
49

i
911 <^i

90
46

96
46

90
45

94
35

93
55

42

49

1

10
11
12
13
14

Annual Total.

46.49

1.96

10.70

27.16

6.47

40.93

2.59

18.87

17.41

5.06

37.64 44.14

3.50 7.13

11 711 i?;q9

33.76
8.93
8.21

10.07
6.55

40.17

8.47

18.31

11.31

2.01

31.95

2.48

10.92

12.92

5.63

34.51
6.49
8.74

16.15
3.73

o

'Z

Summer

Autumn

13.88
8.55

13.21
7.88

■<

ti

1

15

j

K

16

17

18

Hi'diest

I

O
<

.|

|__

n

19

•

Prevailii

loAVind

. 1

1 1

-

mSk

Lu.

UDB

vij"

TVHIE I— •I'"'''"''' I'i Milmmhgkal OhHCfcations in South Carolina, Remnkil by Dr. Lionel Chalmen, fi-om 1762 to 1759 ; by John Drayton, from 1791 to

from ISee t^ 187S ; in Office of United States Signal Service

1801;

Bureau,

n Timncy's Geological Reportu of South Carolina, from ISlC lu ISIfG; in Official Returns of flmrkxlon City Rciiinlrarn
from 1S7S to 1880.

1

h

3

" -^ —

1752

1763

1754

1765

1750

1757

1758

1759

1701

7792

170S

ifM

1795

1706

1797

I79a!l79fl 18001801

ISlb

1811

1818

1819

1820 1823 1824

1825

1827

1829

1880

183dl842

1843

1844

1845

1846

1866

1867

1808

1869

1870

1871

1872

1878

R

1876

1876

1877 1878

1879

1880

p

1

1 1 1

1

1

1 1

1

1

£l

i

1

1 .1 1

00

67

67

64
94
20
54

63
90

2

1

65
96
19

«6 05
96 96

66
97
23
55

U6 07 u- 67! «■■;

1

9o] 98
28 30

89
30

.'SI

i34

92
29

80

17

88
22

88
31

89 91
19 24

94

28

80
10

100
22

100 07 104 -100
36 26 23j 13

"'*'"

. .. . i

1

58

58

60

53

1

eo| 57

53

53

IVi

55

56

54

66

58

66

B 1 1 " ■*

1 ' -

Highral

Lowest

9CUUSR MEA^^

83
18

76

82
28
75

80
22
75

80
27
73

84
29
76

::

77

84
20

74

!

1

20
74

25
76

1

.

1

74

77

73

77

'77

74

75

79.9

75.8 77 76

r

;

-.
•

Highest

Lmrert

101
49

91
42

91
42

90

90
46

00
45

94
35

90
41

!

55

1

"

1

1

48.49
1.90
10.70
27.10
C.47

40.93
2.59
18.87
17.41

.iOI

37.64
3.50
11.71
13.88

44.14
7.13
16.92
13.21
7.88

33.761 40.17

1

31.95
2.48
10.92
12.92
5.63

.|...

71

58. 55

48

76

1

30.5

48.6

48.27
11.28
13.49
10.92
12.59

60.88
12.41

7.74
24.23

0.49

78.4
11.24
31.34
26.91

80.14 77 44 60. 40.07

60.77
8.96
15.97
1663

6.49
8.74
16.16
3.73

0.15
1410
11.84

4.4,1

11.27
22.3!
20.09
7.39

12.36
19.70
16.84
13.23

9.37
9.88
9.81
13 97

12.13
9.22

14.73
7.43

9.09

11.9 19.44

" i"
" 11?

Summer.......

Autumn

Winter.

8.21
10.07
6.55

18.31
11.31
2.01

i

22.73 28.20
19.19 15.44
11.05 10.30

16.56j 11.02
16.341 10.58
7.30| 9.63

3 '

f |i<

.i...

;

8.40
8.47

I6.30' 10.62 11.40

1

28:i3

1

1

I_....l

1 1.1 .

30.13
30.58
20.60

i

1 1

1 1 1 1 ' I 1 1 I

i in; HiKiifflt

■■

.1...

1 1 J ..

30 359
29.020

30.794
29.4M

30.670
29.630

30.091 30.608 30.514

30.600
29.6C0

30.730 30.730 30.057 30.059' 30.534130.314.30.009 30.680

1716
171;
1118
619

i

1 1

Lowest

1

1

FMBi^Eorliorf

T 1 1

'

6 on.

1

[

1

lODec 2 OctillNovl29Nov 2UVov

1 1
10Apr22MarllMar| OFeb 5 Apr

26K01'

19; Utei -

1

1

SOA^r

-" - -=--— — _

1 1

1

1

frenil

' L...L...L..

1

1 1

34

>.w.

....

8.W.

8.W.

84

E.
OS

8.W.

73

s.vr. S.W.

78 66

S.W. S.W.

S.W.

s.w.

132

S.W(. S. S.W.i S. jS.-B'.

S.W.
106

S.W. S.W. 2620

So. on

«J«rainroll.....

1 j

711 I1OIJ77J74

— ■ —

^-=^^i^^

-—

......

^

J J^

=

f

yiDVr

■RNDi

UBKa&Y

TABLE U.— Table compiled from Ceimis Returns of ISSO, shoiving the A',

each Agrt

AGRICULTURAL

REGION

OF

SOUTH CAROLINA.

AREAS

IN

SQUARE

MILfiS.

1. Alpine Region ...

2. Piedmont Region

3. Sand Hill Region.

4. Red Hill Region..

5. Upper Pine Beit..

6. Lower Pine Belt..

7. Coast

8. Total

Population.

1,251
10,425
2,441
1,(520
6,230
10,226
1,700

33,893

25,182
173,819
11,730
19,742
88,564
61,206
10.828

COLOBED

391,071

9,314
221,224

16,882

25,124

132,845

142,542

56,308

604,235

NUMBER
OF
TOTAL. FARMS.

34,496
395,043

28,612

44,866
221,409
203,748

67,132

995,306

ACRES

OF
TILLED
LAND.

Co

ACRES.

4,646
38,581

4,238

4,568
19,386
16,598

5,847

132,791
1,861,902
151,359
234,682
948,521
358,533
106,772

25,74
748,51
35.43
84,93
358,50
63,55
80,69

93,864 3,794,5601,347,38

TABLE III. — Table compiled from Cenms Returns of 1870, shovAng the I

Agricul

AGRICULTURAL

AREA

IN

SQUARE

MILES.

Population

ACRES

OF

IMPROVED

LAND.

-

REGION

OF

SOUTH CAROLINA.

WHITE.

COLORED.

TOTAL.

BAL

OF

COTT'

1. Alpine Region

2. Piedmont Region

3. Sand and Red Hills "

4 Upper Pine Belt

1,251

10,425
4,001
6,230

10,226
1,700

16,020
138,392
29,665
44,238
58,342
2,135

4,785

135,478

46,758

85,230

124,511

19,052

20,805
273,870

76,423
129,468
183,853

21.187

64,802

1,214,679

333,540

780,024

729.839

87,655

!

1

93
24

83

5. Lower Piue Belt

6- Coast

2U
1

7. Total

33,893

289,792

415,814

706,006

3,010,539

224

1

TABLE U.— T(ibh winpihl fmn Census Hdwns of ISSO, xho

iny the- Arm, Popiilatimi, Tilled Lands, Leadmg Oro}is and Slock, with the Hdalicmg to Arm and Pnjmlutk
each AgncuUaral Regixyti of South Carolina.

AGlilcrWlIKAL

BEGIOX

OF

SUL'TH I'AKULINA.

Popi-LATIOK.

Jl.

.,°1

CtyiTos.

S.OCK.

STOCK.

Per Sqoahe Mile

Per Capita op Population.

i

1

u.

To

SQIABF.

.0...

.0,..

BL^nEts

1 •
1 1

1 .

1

8

1
<

s

1

2

1

1

t

jl

O

1

■^ ■
0 1 .^

Si

r

1,251
10,425

2,441

1,1)20
■ 6,230
10,220

1,700

23,182
173,819
11,730
19,742
88,6I>4
61,206
10,828

9,314
221.224
16,882
26,124
132,845
142,542
56,308

60*,235

34,496
395,043

28,612

44,866
221.409
203,748

67,132

4,046
38,681

4,238

4,068
19,386
16,698

5,847

132,791
1,861,902
161,369
234,682
948,521
368,633
106,772

25,740
748,610
36.433
84,939
368,605
63,658
30,696

1.347,381

7,970
274,318
15,065

712,031
7,731,628
920,444

.5,798 60,036
69.(i03l 473,180
8,618 70,901
7,(;03l (11.569
35,4691 313.811
18,4.53 235.724

27.6 3.7 106
37.8 3.7i 178

20
71
14
62
67
6
18

39

6.3
26.3

6.1
21.1

23.7
2.7
6

15.1

569
741
377
490
682
236
466

501

4.ll 52
6.6| 46

11

3.S 105
4,7 310
6.2; 2»9

22

09
14
10
08
08

191 .I7I1.I
32| .291 2.4

193 17

27-6
35.5
18.9
39 4

29.3

2.8, 144
3.1 1 152
1.6i 35
3.41 62

2.7 111

4.7
6.6
1.8
4.6

4.4

38
60
33
26

37

6. Upper Pine Belt

148,0501 3,631,302

4.2! 3J7 iej .161 i.4

202
219
92

21
12
U

5

8,543
610,490

793,669

1.5' <2I 11

.n .0

391,071

995,306

17,010,693

.15 1.27

-, — 1 -

TABLE l\l.~T(xhk compiled fn

Cenms Retimis of 1S70, shoxmng the Popidation, Improved Land, Leadmg Crops, d-c.,
Agricultural Region of South Carolina.

nih their Bdatio-ns to Area and Population in each

AGRICULTURAL

POPIILATIOS.

■M.EOVE„

.AEES

OEA...

HI

—

Per Sqdaee Mile.

Per Capita of Popl-latios.

REGION

OF

SOUTH C.4H0LINA.

SQBAEE

.n.xE.

COEOEE.

.O.AE.

1

i

si

¥

•<

1 1

1 1

1

1

1

>

0

r

.1

►J c

II
1"

'i

a

1

n

1

1

0

L Alpine Region

-■ Pieillnont Repiun ..

' S«nJan^lRedlIill,••

1,251

10,425
4,061
6,230

10,226
1,700

16,020
138,392
29,665
44,238
58,342
2.135

4,785
135,478
40,768
86,230
124.611
19,052

20.806
273.870

76,423
129,468
183,853

21.187

64,802
1,214,679
333,540
780,024
729.839

87,655

1,299 400,449
93,494 4.467.365
24.222 987.343

4,096
47,779
12,544
20,214
13,965

2,115

32,865
297..378

92,053
149,448
133,740

10,134

10
27
IS
20
IS
12

61
116

32
125

61

51

1.

8.9
6.9
11.7
1.9
1.1

320
428
243
347
129
229

3.2
4.6
3.
3.6
1.2
1.2

26
28
22
24
13
9

3.1
4.2
4.

6.
2.8
4.1

14

19.
16.
12.
17. ■
7.
18.

19 16
.16 1-4
.16 11
.17 1-1
.07 0.7
.10 0 7

1
2
3

o. Lower Pine liell

20,403
1,873

1,327,318
389,720

5

'■ Total

33,893

289,792

415,814

706,006

3,010,639

224,500

9,735,469

100,715

721,118

20

8S

6.

287

2.9

21

42

147

TABLE IV. — General Statistics of Agriculture for the United States and for
South Carolina, according to the United States Census, with the Percentage
of Increase and Decrease in each Particular, since 1850.

1S80

1870

1860

1850

Percentage of
Increase

OK

Decrease.

1880 1870 1860

!N umber of Farms.

Total land in Farms,
acres

Average Size of.
Farms, acres

U.S.
.S. C.

U.P.
s. C.

{

'ercentage of unim- ( U.S.
proved Land i iw
Faims % { S. C.

Value of Farms.

Val
M

. ^ (I

ue of FarmingJ j

achinery 8 [ji-

Val ae of Live Stock, $
Horses, number

U.S.
B.C.
U.S.

\ IS. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

Mules and Asses,
number

j jU. S.

is. c.

WorkintiOxc
ber

n,Num-J

Milch Cows, number..
Other Cattle, number

Sheep, number

Swine, number

Butter, pounds..

U.S.

S. C.
U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

lis. c

4,00«,907

93,864

536,081,835

13,457,613

46.9

69.3

131

113

10,197,096,776

68,677,482

400,520,055

3,202,710

1,500,464,609

12,279,412

10,357,488

60,660

1812,808

67,005

993,841

24,507

12,443,120

139,881

22,488,-550

199,321

35,192,074

118,889

47,681700

628,198

777,250.287

3,196,851

2,659,985

51,889

407,735,041

12,105,280

53.7

75.1

153

233

9,262,*- 03,861

44,808,763

336,878,429

2,282,946

1,525,276,457

12,443,510

7 145,370

44,105

1,125,415

41,327

1,319,271

17,685

8,935,332

98,693

13,566,005

132,925

28,477,951

124 594

25,134,569

895,999

514,092,683

1,461,980

2,044,077

: .3,171

407,212,5.38

16,195,919

59.9

71.8

199

488

6,645,045,007

139,652,508

246,118,141

6,151.657

1,089,329,915

23,934,465

6,249,174

81,125

1,151.148

56,456

2,254,911

22,629

8,585,735

163,938

14,779,373

320,209

22,471,275

2:33 509 1

33,512,867

965,779

4.59,681,372

3,177,934

1,449,073

29,967

293,560,614

16,217,700

615

74.9

203

541

3,271,575,426

82,431,684

151,587,638

4,136,354

514,180,516

15,060.015

4.336,719

97,171

559,331

37,483

1,700.744

20,507

6,385,094

193,244

9,693,069

563,935

21,723,220

245,551

30,354,213

1,065,503

313.545,306

2,981,850

50

24

80

26

31

00

11

*24

*6.8

*6.2

*5.8

3.3

*n

*23

*38

*52

10

30

53

*67

20

36

41

*62

*1

40

*1

*48

51

14

37

*45

61

*2

62

*28

*24

*41

38

*21

39

4

41

*38

65

*7

49

*140

23

27

*5

»49

89

*25

57

*58

51

H

119

*85|

41

10

35

CO

*1.6

*3.1

*46

*11

103

69

62

48

100

59

21

*19

106

50

32

10

34

*15

51

*76

3

*18

10

*9

46

6

Note.— In the three columns shoAving percentage of increase and decrease, decrease is indi-
cated by *. In comparing the values of 1880 with 1870. it IS to be renienibered that the average
prenr. ium of gold for the latter was 25.') per cent.

TABLE IV. — (Concluded.) — General Statistics of Agriculture for the United
States and for Soidh Carolina, according to the United. States Census, with
the Percentage of Increase and Decrease in each Particular, since 1S50.

Pekc

ENTAGE OF

Increase

OR

1»80

1870 ♦

IS60

1850

Deckease.

1880 1870

1860

AVool. pounds -|

U.S.

s. c.

155,681,751
272,758

100,102,387
156,314

60,264,913
427,102

52,516,959
487,23:3

55
74

65
*61

14
*10

Cotton, bales <

U.S.

s. c.

5,755,359
522,518

3,011,996
224 500

5,387,052
353,412

2,409,093
300,901

91
132

*78
*36

117
17

Corn, bushels <

U.S.

s. c.

1,754,591,676
11,767,099

760,944,549
7,614,207

838.792,742
15,065,606

592,071,104
16,271,454

130
54

*9
*95

41
*7

Rice, pounds <

U.S.

s. c.

110,131,373
52,077,515

73,635,021
32,304,8-'5

187,167,032
119,100,528

215 313,497
159,930,613

49
61

*60
*72

*13
*25

Wheat, bushels <

U.S.

s. c.

459,483,137
962,358

287,745,626
783,610

173,104,924
1,285,631

100.485,944
1,066,277

59
22

66
*39

73
20

Oats, bushelfi <

U.S.

S. c.

407,858,999
2,715,505

282,107,157
613,593

172,643,185
936,974

146,584,179
2.322,155

41
ai2

*63
*36

17

*59

Barley, bushels ^

U.S.

S. c.

43,997,495
16,257

29,761,305
4,752

15,825,808
11,490

5,167,015
4,583

47
242

88
*58

206
IM

Rye, bushels <

U.S.

s. c.

19,831,595
27,049

16,918,795
36,165

21,101,380
89,091

14,188,813
43,790

17

*25

*I9

*59

32

103

Irish P Ota toes,;

U.S.

169,458,,539

143,337,473

111,148,867

65,797,896

18

28

68

bushels 1^

8. C.

144,942

83,252

226,725

136,494

74

*63

67

Sweet Potatoes,)

U.S.

33,878,693

21,709 824

42,095,026

38,'268,148

53

*48

10

bushels : 1

s. c.

2,189,622

1,342,165

4,115,688

4,337,469

63

*67

*5

TABLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Townships.
FIRST SERIES.

Population.

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

c a CSS

mcg on

691
885
853
925
1345
1568
1337
1462
1009
1207
820
1471
1868
1648
886
1039
1046

852
999
893
929
1404
1602
1315
1468
1068
1250
857
1474
1900
1678
907
1067
1092

627
530
430
726
954
697
358

1072
849

1287
886

1177

1096
942
375
441
725

916
1354
1316
1128
1795
2473
2294
1858
1228
1170

791
1768
2672
2.3H4
1418
1665
1413

1543

I
1884

1746

1854

2749

1

3170

2652:

1140

t
9805

368 119
4486 1205

88071 :3902il031

2930 323

2077
2457
1677
2945
3768
3326
1792
2106
2138

12240
14988|
20180
12140
1518i;
10452

12326' :5618
433l! [2795

12957 6167

ll
23348:16315

I
16876 13809

16 26

11784
10842

9061 15081

4974 1393

67751953;

I !

5816 18331

5286 1682

5696 2128j

45101450

1929

2208
2081 !
2047
1289
1265
14551

4562
4702

114 206
188 274
158 257
153:217
265282
1512.39
185 '234
124128

!

250^244

222!290

1
218 284

117

181

129 179
177 199

187 449

143 577

104 478

21 302

28 227

27 413

27 380

36 2270

521
7661

14.38
1162

18602
20937
21910

2318
8966
10731

12893

37405 10540

1163329581 18288

I
854i:25648

1748! '47526

i
1284!i32818

987' '34930

11687
12663
6182
9382

797; 24543
155:1009 44388
375'l247!;3!840 44B80
665 L5.57 27848 '39338

7903
136191

768 1852018107
802 2013512377;

■335 1056 129677

I ll

9978

589
4978
3836
4485
4766
8910
6559
8599
5286
8654
6426
6467
9730
9532
5707
6281
6800

76
22

15

105

875
958
1118
740
704
805
641
1047
1258
1114
1260
1176
1069

31 i! 1175

32 ' 940

935

758

975
1019
1098
777
732
799
652
1008
1301
1125
1199
1370
1112
1145
970
968
788

1024
1051
873
739
926
830
767
1244
1274
1358
1452
1679
1198
1206
1232
901
993

1343

778
511
774
526
811

1285
881

1007
867
983

1114
678

1002
553

1850
1977

9910

221&:2()0l

II I
1517 207'

94
1339

1437

16041

!

1293 233

11
205.5J 195

I
2.559 316

2239! |308'

2159! 385^

I I
2546 !239

218l|221

232o|[334

1910 318

1903 280

1546 291

223

3776

I ■
10716 3779 1571

I;

9736 ;^08 1351

8292j
7869

2678 1 968
3398 1219:

125 227
152 207
'157

123

184
6825 2636 1007 1127 151

10980 4375

1415 176

143

43

18 201

25' 251

22' 286

50| 321

8 1 269

26 248

53

2731

10104 3204 1163 148 205! 38 349'

116.33
12189
9205
10263

!4026 1222 ;i83 222
4311 1317! 209 209
4216 1376
j-f 809 1567;

181! 195
125 220

1779

121871 [4388

IO682' 3S30 1675
8129 3684 1460
9545 3714 1334;

131 1911

132 177

416
469

sioj

282

4641
434
311

357

43
339
370
329
350
190
250
368
334'
497
460
325j

452

I

653l

I
.532'

375'

198

11 1 2607
597l!.30403
412 30634
526' '28700

25077
[30969
575 27914
566||26061

3640
8355
7344
2743
4711
3762
5682.
74291

741
5291
6284
5190

427 683' 33878 8368;

809

5751
4073...
7104
5383

120

976 31917
901! 43930
394; 24295
6&3!30236

915 352071

" I

932[ 36449;

3S4J 481 32566|

28; 714''21803l

73981
6637!
7214'
5611
6551
3569:
2936^
2660

6296 291
8130 18

6843!

I

75961

9240|

7727!

62181

i
511--ii 5

TABLK V. — AgriculHral Statistics of South Carolina, /or the year 1880,

hy Townslti-ps.
FIRST SERIES— (Continued.)

Population.

Cotton.

CQ

Stock.

OQ

a S

02 02

Grain.

£«| 0«! ^PQi Stfl

.885

1014

1999

2066

1757

1802

1140

1205

668

720

1296

1358

1.321

1.321

1832

1844

952

970

1945

1994

631

650

577

589

1022

1064

1211

1220

1296

1236

672

710

1064

1121

31

31

905

878

1215

1161

1866

1779

1443

1452

735

745

1476

1482

1329

1329

562

.5.35

812

747

618

640

912

762

1234

1284

1420

1410

978
778

1314
816
329
814
904

1148
554

921

3287
2245
1529
1059
1840
1741
2528
1368

1899
406.5
3559
2345
1388
.2654
2645
3676
1922

33 1078
3.57 22274i

205651
11001
6597,
136571
13563
281! 20102:
241 10623

480
9512
|8513
'5065
3470
6534
6030
7365
4715

223
35.36:

2558
1910!
1377
2453

2290;
2839
1857

38 22

21

26

467

18 599

280

240

26|

413' 1208'

I 1

229|1416

69 i 993

85 566

I

478 1028,

3511 748;

I 1

693 1727j

195 10661

\ 2.361 2159
01.535' 1^164
52293 6473
37645} 9765
J32204J 0418J
|39510| 12358
3441411314
153715 20759
143628 5873

697
4691
4831
4045

875
4413
5:^23
8613
2277

1062
473
545
354

1086
852

1075

1010

26

787

1177
775

1398
337

1062

1174]
315
508 1
262
310I
951
479'

2877

808

621

17.32

1375

1680

307

1175

36

996

1199

2870

1498

1143

1896

1482

802

1051

996

1364

1567

2351

3939
1281
1166
2086
2461
2.532
1382
2185
62
1783
2376

3645

!
2S96i

1480

29,58

2056

1117

1559

1258

1674

2518

2830

11924
10730

6828

7726
13559
11895

7568

16262

588

9265
14133
17717
10283

6800

15555

I
17196|

44081

7418

7125!

8048

9435

13677

I
554312394

2218
:2656
1641
,5644

12617

I

2119

I

{3556

I 260

3200

3917

819

857
1593
2305:
1038J

875
1486

116

903
1753

!9221 .3389

1.5909 '2339,

82s!

17542
4579
il600

4084
12875
4550
4718

.3227I
18-38

471
1750

754
1471
1850

702712831

365 212
88 93
84 142
84 1.30
218

137

178

171 234

354
281
2.36
219
547
430
407
422
24
375
497
438
563
344
304
604
219
170
285
300
299
822

667
436
41
919
505
492
4.58
483
24
615
675
372
S06
472
354
1159
477
320
363
440J
365
434

643 I396il30462i247.37i

34 1 992 20800 ! 1.5134'

! i! I I

8711034 12007 106081

i • I 1

IS61 769 19102 6069

2121i 43634

25801,

12081 147582!40166|

17439

36117

260

1062; 1870 ,19208
49| 1584 1.31653
131'! 1677
1626 48095 21811

2634:41852:38753

i
17S6 :32158'23571

2695 36252133760

11021

1814

14279] 14041

I
34480! 16782

2907 45630137544

646J12378
1092 '14734
619jll039
993;20067
1419 '27949

7524
4475!

13884'

I

10265'
471li

1245 23748.11191

4006
2.532
2472

540
4801
6653
4747
4277

110
4190
5759
1658
4192
2305;
4254!
39S1
2218
1722!
2435 j
2207
1340!
^442

24

TABLE v.— Agricultural Statisiics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Townships.
FIRST SERIES.— (Continued.)

Population.

1003
1209
1394
1200
79G
782
763
437
1260
1011
631
823
922
1480

1147
1213
1473
1236
726
737
793
462
1298
1074
661
824
918
14S9

Cotton.

«

bo

ee

<u

<u

«

cS

0

<

w

s

685
705
527
489
207
217
605
180
1131
576
387
262

1465
1717
2340
194
1315
1302
951
719
1427
1512
905
1385

303 1537

611 1 2a58

I

2150, j 85
2422j 1200
2867 jl86

2436 :355

1
1522i ,204

1519] t234'

!i
1556! 183

899 97

2558 219

20881196

1292! 130

Stock.

Grain.

S^

383o;;2506| 996 I 30 ' 105
19312 5241 |213C 130310

12268 16587 2710

i

47389 '7665 3481

7492 4559

12368
5748
6400
7737

10457

j4307

2879

4149
5941

1566

1647

1210

6517! .3511

li
6741)3435

1118
|l.35
i 441231

1542 I 62 154
950; 88' 1 26
33 in

14331

17881

122J188
2741195

1146: 60

j

1147J 77

12799 0920 2753 83

1840 224

2969! 328 14836: 8493 2955 125 369

1 .

67|

«

199

4

248

12

253

6

218|

53

190|

76 175

16 115

62 305

53 535

30 157^

26

193

4 248

43

366'

i

42 33

237

37

267

229

70

90

84

428

408

410

258

326

327

308

87

185

206

493

179

995 41035 9357

II

1205
1648
1086
866
851
1008
1147
1136
1175

89

1172

90

1144

91

1134

92

893

93

810

94

942

95

437

96

1083

97

775

1350

1529

1957

1840

1066

637

866

831

830

1058

999

1153

1214

1373

1115

1156

1119

1247

1220

1306

1103

1444

1133

1662

913

1477

851

1547

997

1590

440

786

1083

15'52

698

785

2555;
3605!

2152 239' 6409 2.505

1026
1765
1515

901

623

854 1 2007 195

132
615

1732,
1681;

7193,
5748

3013
2568

10S34 4277

151
13

1156 1 127
1 LSI i! 128 j 103

789|! 7914c

1095
1047
1086
803
605
3591
114]
349'
91
604
688

1.384! 140

I I ■ I 1
2361 :257 j 13039 4321 1 1220[ i 113

f' i i| It «
11456' 4760 1842| 1230

22511196

!
2294 397

2392,
2247i

2267 290

8689, 5308 2052 ' 142' 223
10655 3923

8309
8117

155'
1225

2732

3372! 1202 '226

1836 2361 7599j|2131
1661 12671 6569! 11059
1939 321! 629ll' 802
877; lee! .3041 63

21661

I

1473!

3561 8840| 12073
227 666412148

896

204

425

149

310

124

20

84

718

185

889

1

147

14
12|

235!

266]

205

376

353

648

515'

317

341

402'

I

305

339

333

241

400

269

2:311 12:3

17!

162
2520

218

390 23154

675 129743

472' '19799

ij
649 33721

262j 665^-21494

482|1143 |35158

4132' 1314 33686

I '•
277! 758,263941

455 912,138703

545; 664! 1321' 38187!
i . 1

271 562 1276 44693

418

1545(388ft5

50212082178065

.387 38Jlll48 24865'

63512519 |61324
90 939 31623

260
60
4059
315-2
2396
4744
4661
6192
8101
4624
4300
34:30
2154
2114
2300
20
5194
4906

26
1300
3061
319S
2854
5172
4624
4820
3921
2242
3679
5204
6021'
6131!
2921!
299'
3955
2701!

20

420
53

TABLE v.— A r/ri cultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1S80,

by Townships.
FIRST SERIES.— (Continued.)

Population.

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

03

;;« om ^b

5^ S

5a

98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107

385
1869
1490
1678
2400
1371
1022
1198
1999
1186

367
1966
1463
1738
2461
1426
1038
1205
2019
1157

408
1249

990
2136
1116

814

708
1357
1689
1289

344
2586
1963
1280
3751
1983
1352
1046
2329
1054

752
3835
2953
3416
4867.
2797
2000
2403
4018
2343

722
12520
15163
18423
23277
15069
10396
11797
19194
12837

227
8.565
6964
6370
10608
6580
4966
4905
9999
4580

83
3268
2648
2595
4369
2469
1707
1907
.3613
1763

32! 840

1212ij48978

1320 33573

15001 156063

1300 '.52610

9181 136722

t
548|j25170

921 40340

i!
1405 150760

8001 36877

435
13671
28496
10993
32314
10855

6417
14792
23322

8115

153
8439
7128
6077
8430
4976
4197
7866
9540
5437

27

1083
1057
740
736
1341
1114
1399
1012
1107
1313
918
1208

1259
1083
816
765
1340
11.30
1431
1090
1123
1285
923
1192

1012
522
446
346
573
440
759
361
461

1574
908
834

1330
1618
1110
11.58
2108
1804
2071
1741
1769
1054
932
1566

2342
2140
1556
1504
2681
2244
2830
2102
223o!
2628
1840
2400

1029
8164
10569
7987
12684|
1142.5
14936
10955
13082
13010
10129
12408

603
4059
4494
3912
5471
5414
6991
5456
6084
4328
42.54
6243

258
1828
1773
1565
2475
2332;
3055J
2091
2642
2067
1675
2.331

40
II 152

18 1 200
7 193
51 389

4 321

5 317

134! 288

236 234

69
184
320

42
152
337
206
222
271
1128
251
320

2365
13258

663 18993 8635

1895
15989

li

|22773| 4329
398:^8! 11033
10221 27734 14253

869
1157

740
3486
3765
2171
5225
5989

14881 |37932j2H41j 7308
922JJ25382! 10809] 4086
1142 25690 2253 4 j
22811 138576 45075,

1123J24431

147ll 136627

15226
9284'

7763
11765
6304
5531

1563
1497
314
891
351
1793
1090
380

1684
1588
404
957
390
1820
1144
390

2380
2092

678
1521

715
2133
1688

748

867
993

40
327

26
1480
546

22

324
308.5

718
1848

741
3613
2234

770

8075
13660
292.5
6622
2669
11895
7443
2545

1882
4505

4701
1143

1727

42

3880

1469

51

505

I

12i

1250:

410J
13!

205

99

79

361

293 210

98

485

66

51

54

197

192

111

132

371

46

38

118

150

248

201

78

427

161

97

97

281

70

19

44

169

331 60016860
784 721112131

350,1066! 827|

1 I i
603 14112146

244' 744

I

47680
20431
42655

1069; 15164
533 475 1727' '58188

210: 69511300; 132348

I I 'I
2271 739 11013; 118505

4906

2828

13376 9082

806

202

3208

1555

357

365

11115

7754

5147

3530

uv

51

12

20

105

TABLE V.-

- Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,
by Townships.
FIRST SERIES.— (CoNTiNUEP.)

0.

H

a

O
H

O

d

Population.

&

fa
0
d

a

1

<

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

>

O

'■J

03

a>

"3

2

■6

0
• 0

"5
0

H

re

u
«
<

5

1

S
0

p

d
%

CO

®

s

a .

o5

a s

om

1-

P

man

O
O

'A
W
W
O

128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135

905
i 1502
840
738
572

1088
416

1085

951
1528
879
732
595
1073
425
1060

1195
2IS1
1358
1256
1107
1424
626
1526

661
849
361
214
60
737
215
619

1856
3030
1719
1470
1167
2161
841
2145

310
357
280
258
195
229
131
307

0014
12395
10997
5400
5048
8124
3ia3
12446

2747
4721
2142
1629

458
3195

283
3189

724
1723
855
379
133
1008
88
814

175

i

219

140

I1I5

i

151

137

82

166

168
239
182
6(i
40
150
68
1&3

43
30
33
97
75
20
52
2

291
439
340
308
267
333
170
363

147
474
316
217
313
366
210
279

553
635
827
648
985
512
478
398

1292 45372

1493 '50021

1604 53857

1454 26395

1588' 32001

1
1259 42966

1039 31294

1338' 32158

4360
3719
3367
2691

558
4942

300
4050

3135
8821
3434
1760
1231
5211
852
6916

63

70
899

H
'A

O

136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149

970
588
2612
1884
1416

nil

818
1215
1917

929
2181
1148

941
2051

1099

596
2615
1897
1490
1143

912
1330
1963

922
2239
1189

986
2217

1049

682
3421
2818
2381
1511

923
1699
2581
1180
2753
1509
1114
2751

1020
502

1836
963
525
743
807
846

1299
671

1667
828
813

1517

2069
1181
5257
3781
2906
2254
1730
2.545
3880
1851
4420
2337
1927
4268

8
18
,537
335
340
^171
295
411
523
270
'562
211
176
376

196

248
21199

9390
10979
10668
10454
11577
14890:

7963
20519

7771

9714
13167

67
113
7881
4165
314
4800
3747
5229
5247
3939
8714
4098
3299
4922

26
44
3366
1630
12.3
1810
1304
1725
1959
1460
4202
1353
1199
1955

13

18
366
227
2.50
'129
157
182

bg

153
320
176
155
'240

4

2

416
362
250
298
193
173
307
158
277
168
202
276

30

50

113

3

3

100
11
12
16

2
82

8
12
825
543
57S
402
307
510
748
350
328
313
345
476

11

1015
652
466
672
497
597

1187
270
870
287
393
376

547
821

1088
235
450
412

1473
434

1039
342
457
710

10
15

2286
1346
1682
1224
1075
1492
1834

809
2.531

788
1190
1125

405
480
j71560
J84450
47772
26512
33369
'39993
59971
33056
78056
35980
28555
53295

430
5792
5479
5579

10196
6521
4900
4724
3696

11941
2140
8868
4303

136
206

15201
8724
5099
5975
5508
4698
4067
1972

16085
2542
5108
4610

18

100

O

o

Iz;

O

ID

150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159

1775
1116
729
1064
840
846
1605
1060
1555
1280

1862
1116
766
.1123
874
876
1647
1078
1572
1296

1566
979
825

1208
271
333

1849
988

1660
837

2071
1253
670
979
1443
1389
1409
1150
1467
1739

3637

2232
1495
2187
ni'l
1722
3252
2138
3127
2567

159
322
216
301
212
214
126
309
397
268

9076
15532
8096:
8849
7195
8901
12210
9887
15936
12895

4728
7480
3586
4379
3693
3675
5997
3832
7269
i6272

1656
2469
1397
1555
1443
1445
2506
1338
2537
2165

147
158
114

172
125
118
204
195
250

il60

i

205

230
171
239
171
201
348
277
369
319

14

2
54
41
29
25
11

7
29

259
479
267
401
225
251
502
473
561
594

330
583

468
320
364
430
704
428
778
591

126
459
185
447
61
252
354
286
502
396

630
1079
729
836
893
854
1279
1326
1957
1314

29063
53814
21591
43364

21159

1
25070

162270

134161

.52766

36072

j

4542
6720
5313
2787
2S70
5052
3613
2755
5566
3122

2712
4412
219H
3622
537
1677
5163
4556
6735
2044

......

TABLE Y. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Toivnshijys.
FIRST SERIES.— (COxNCix-DED.)

w

Population.

-O 1
a> 1

H

39

< .

COTTONl

Stock. i Grain.

o

H
o
6

—
« ■

w

s

■6

u
o

0

o

o

1

Ei,
<•-
O

c

;5

1

>

E-

G
O

Acreage.

Bales.

Horses,
Mnles.

a
o

K
O

p

3 w

Other
Cattle.

Sheep.

|l u tt a.

% "5 = 1 « =

; 1

V*

^1

15

it

160

2080

2168

2063

2185

4248

264

13887

5596J2332'l98l353

15

421

411

549

li

923' 62924 8655

825:^

161

1230

1342

1232

1340

2572

225

18636

4959 2ia3 222 376

3

377

496

705

1234 660S7 10305

8464

162

1836

1845

1299

2382

8681

,306

19664

7905,3299 348 400

14

522

500

270

I486: 67865

19082

9116

25

O

163 !

1106

1140

1055

1191

2246

190 11311

35564317; 1711304

1 '' 1

31

411

705

725

184.Si, 62966

5131

5013

164

1675

1671

1315

2031

a346

229 j 16556

6167124^ 138 393

33

453

575

427

1163 68365

7172

5922

16.3 i

1180

1269

992

1457

2449

,179J 8447

1020 1558131 177

14

236

270

20

632 224W 10246

2586

i4

166

993

1001

670

1324

1994

28913.591

5719 2261 123 278

35

290

175

161

579 3;}456 10727

3856

o

167

1210

1231

1667

774

2411

227

7070

22421 82o';166!228

25

338

518

992

1177 58081 1 4000

7071

168

1168

1060

683

1545

2228

263

24127

7577 3226| 162 482

8

298

170

106

711 66427 16674

8021

169

1407

1427

1392

1412

2831

311

14817

7341

2798 I85i309

7

338

325

232

1107 55.312 21928

7408

170

134b

2345

1665

1009

2674

315

11765

j 154

64

215 360

1

39

436

374

1245

1745 626ft5 5662

ii

9463

TABLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 18 SO,

by Tow7iships.
SECOND SERIES.

POPTTLATION.

COTTO>

Stock.

iSo

Grain.

o-

■ -^ x'— I * —

1

592

2

818

3

445

4

1183

5

1129

6

884

7

923

8

175

9

251

10

260

11

329

12

1005

13

260

14

443

15

1192

16

1018

17

579

18

980

19

474

20

583

21

328

999
400
1444
1262
9a5
877
200
255
227
321
923
261
45S
1250
lOlS
591
951
453
548
307

479
701
450
2157
1404
419
3«8
302
329
317
412
1028
389
491
490
401
429
788
524
736
299

721

1116

395

470

987

1370

1412

73

180

170

238

90u

132

410

1952

163-

741

1143

403

395

336

1200
1817
845
2627
2391
1789
180o!

375'

509
487
650
.928
521
901
2442
2J36
1170
1931
927
1131
635

6162
86
4992
1075
4630
6982
9693
1369
279'
3003
3'
10601
3123
4258
9187
11107
6977
13308
5740
8588
4043

1781
173
1151
212
1381
2968
4461
388
506
837
602
2900
679
1269
3493
3532
2458
4501
1747
1165
783

678

116

392

63

613

1246^

1909i

111

160

316

191

1242

244

500I

1324

1283

1134;

1521

609

345

2931

95

78

20

13

90

64

18

8

56

98

86

167

114

285

43

17

54

37

56

45

83

49

173

163

52

45

86

77

83

1C9

115

206

78

133

105

233

93

92

107

72

59

53

221
23
254
54
221
241
170
135
169
122
218
414
166
162
287
271
220
624
208
283
190

382
19
374
54
426
160
362
244
320
133
401
767
381
380
425
501
350
715
300
278
423

80

726

188

1173

1190
232
1482

16197
1289
11770

19218

1416:23106
22321 [55135
626 7050
10408

774
1439
231
1194
1109

8020
11484
27618
12075
19474

11971 118624

2.506
1103
1429

.38970

16472

35570
i
11331 [12323

18031 119583

875' 13540

7376

835
1054

61
2719
2355
9185

588

451
1901
1084
6429

485
2977
8035

970
3088
2189

665
1322

570

1059

12

1882| 61

52! 100

269 220

391 350

317 1830

12171

148o| 390

1001

1527
2762
1822
1725

272

10

1110

653
117]
1699
1932

12
12209
11
1340
80
243
199

TABLE y. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Townships.
SECOND SERIES.— (CoNTiNiED.)

»:

•d

t

s

Population.

c;

COTTOK

Stock.

09

,

hJ

O

o

OS

0)

■5

5
0

s

c
d

S
<

1

OS

«

C

'<i4

I

i

c

0

0)

ill)

03

<!

0!

a

n

<u
t

0

s

0

ii5

a,
0

0

1 1

Gkaik.

i: 2

C35

22 i 1260

40

1709

II32J

9261

I

1081

1791

772^

1290'

I
728|

960'

I

1211 i

lOool

I

1021 1
905J
580 1
4.37
787
933

1341

1320

8.52

1728

1770 1103 2376

1174

848

1458

838

518

1246

25.S0r227 11222 .5112 1615 136,150

1782

4.57 1622

1431 2142

795 4301 1137

I

]310; 383 2217

776
1012

552 952
3781 1594

1203! 900

1514

801
1293

1008 1262

1070' 807

I i
856, 5261 1235

i
622j 355 817

396| 466' 387

760 095 852

3479 214 17044 57672184

ll I I !
23061 204 1 10907 4232! 1393'

1764i'l80 8803 42761362

2079 17.3 1.3.584 .5027 1879

II i I
a573| 1296; 17302 7251245;

11 I I
1567 145,10272, 4006 1.53;

2600 'l68'2352U 62412010

1.504| 161 8670 1962 689

1972; 1169 13165' 4879' 1856

2414 217 18291 1567 1378

100,162
129 197 1

39 399 7.5.5

249 223

2063
2100

891
1328

78b
1104

1038
1565

1761 ll

1203 "UlO
853'!10J
1547 128

24614167
19 J 8678
160 10375
12952
5785 2059 612

6726 2319

3323! 1284'
J3640 1060
12635

1261

1091

1824
2669

9480! 3144 1035
96081 ls715 1360

!|

128811:4984 1880

268 120
128

462
241
332
280
331
435
389
784
16 259
250

471
936
717

388
.301
306

56! 198 496
23; 188l 525

I I
2 278

52 308

60 1.596

58; 1964.

I I

118jl774|

jlOll

319 2173

140 3144J

1429

163 126-5

7620201

I

140 2.339

182794

276128341

I

93 2334

37 14.58

I

.... 15021

'28371 5795 .

39695116670 773
33035 7782 1820
22843 2900 Zo\
3.5178; ft556| 8361
53432' 16841 3582
22299! 38851 482

2823442830

123635 3868 109
39287 2650 3431
^12911 74071 540i

41221
35725

78 1776
123 2139

6744 2668
73951 348

29723 5064 843

I '

122460] 3491 1 793

22657' 3324 1741

2 485' 4981 247

2292
21S'

127895
139144

9263 95
12704:2817

490
2932

765
91

370
1730
7241
2840
2942

754

715

2125

1424

69

593

484
112;?
22f5

700

1117
1367
1157
1277

877

! 1788
I 973

1432
1551
1268
1336
856

1215 1298

1821
884

10831 1164

2ia5
1613

2262
1702

616

228
29

525

412
51
25

146
35
77,

298

1933
2690
2396,
2(t88
1321
2462
3581
1711
2212
4320
3017

2549
2918
2425
2613.464
1733; {300
2513 183
3609 ,392
1857!i274
2247 180
4397 '459
33151160

2705] 936

ii
4097 1296

5436 I 783

3174' j 435

2192! 783

6874 1776

23291 804

ll

8152 1647

5688 3017

I
8375, 93

211

38

264

91

275,

114

137

168

124

327

185

159i

75

331

61

899

207

12

81

11 1131
30 149'

20 151

161 148

2881 213

758 j 1100

744 305

88

57
914
650

12
263

816 5038

368 14145[ 200

1206,19862 121 1

972 11681 400'

449 6951 I

565,31339
377110856
134j 533 7776
56 12591 i21987
93 715'! 6117

800,

20
330.

2183

2812
17333

8629

510

74113

6532

3721
285215

TABLE Y .—Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year ISSO,

hy Townships.
SECOND SERIES.— (Continued.)

80
81
83
84
85

175
8G
87
S8
Si)
90
91

173
92
93
95
96
97

Population.

1198

500

1281

744

406

2133

451

1699

1907

1032

2042

1715

1167

702

1145

2077

989

822

1238

1252

507

1281

651

412

2088

462

1557

1837

1008

2101

1628

1212

698

1226

2161

988

800

1104

112

8

77

70

37

1219

29

1221

931

239

919

314

152

67

189

151

784

2.36

252

2338
999
2485
1328
781
3002
881
2035
2813
1861
3224
3029
2227
1333
2182
4087
1193
1366
2090

2450
1007
2562!
1398

818
4221

913
32-56
37441
2100J
4143
3343
2379
1400
2371
1238
1977!
1622

23.570!
2312
2:524
3555
12S9
4693

1372

I
284 130111

210 1 61261

115l 37J2

8728
7260
7765

A5\ 460-i

2342 60

8515
7190'
3981
2410
3419

Cotton.

C3

434

37

256

262

88

1161

103

4261

15S

3

2384

3262

2607

'567

16,54

2998

481

509

177

201

12

I

55

»133

35

590

41

1678

71

1

886

1003

1124

531

511

913

137

153

53

Stock.

218 221

49

58

350

3:)5

8

32

527

6

2816

1260

217

907

100

147

223

59

212

889

2.53 3.35
303 388

137

51
140
402

80

1.50a
522
742
523
3a5
193

93
130
699
213

48

GUAI.V.

i-hCQ

c: 3 r = --3

113

227

398

378

84

29J1

121

3904

13ou

674

1695
5069

10937
5038
2597

479.57
2.S01

44155

8982

3876:
I
2176; 128740

18821 |2S818

823! 1444i

' 1215 22

137h

364

585

I

20441

658

751

1.5.550
104)0
16364
9674
9255
4766

514

300

18

.550

85

8427

815

580

ysoo

2570
425
105
160
180
923
260
700

20

800

225

1785

66

1.3325

16202

2990

12182

.50703

87.562

56320

1532

34433

87

45

2011

1289

45108

224-S5

1270
l:«l
623

27499

143;J
1315
560

22565

27419

19984

696

896

1807

2703

21

1349

196

53

12'5

2.521

2616

72

5810

1205

820

175

1008

1183

48

939

2

1

14

5

212

192

149:

4

122

2410

5005
1397

930
1810

IWBLE y. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, foi' the year 18S0,

by TownsJi'ips.
SECOND SERIES.— (Continued.)

Population.

>- — ;

c

cS

£

o
c

H

0)

o

<

105

3379

2J9

7639

130

60r»

192

16699

200

3237

149

3608

190

2926

242

3733

122

3257

■MH

5418

m

2947

167

2212

148

4143

95

4780

65

5493

246

3851

224

5219

269

9840

Cotton,

Stock.

aci Si ^

oo

02

Grain.

("I'll "J ! t; "J
5ffi| CK ^£

92»

99
100
101
102
103
lOJ
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115

2217

989

1248

1134

106 ♦

451

744

1319

847

972

725

679

84H

747

741

830

1775

932

2192
979

1273

1183
926
426
6^7

1339
861

1050
5S1
&58
900
743
814
782

1779
945

537

1207
49

1207
760
427
390
971
160
713
403
179

1167

611

78

776

1553
906

3872

761
2 172
1110
1230

450
1011
1687
1548
1315

903
11.58

581

849
1477

836
2001

911

440t
1968

2521

I
2317J

1990;

877
14:31
2(558
1708
202S
1306
1337
1748
1490
1555
1612
3554
1877

421
659
163

2847
387
816
236
554
357
904
385
396
440
486
373
247
524

1192

1661
28.S]
74
117S
187
456
129
253
119
376
182

u;

170
229
103
139
245
440

80110
267 132

132 05
50

458
1032
294
1479
510
593
87'
379
299
546
725
584
1223
383
472
515
17.79
1153

409
2774

518
3749
281^
2236
1385
1331

120

16011800

1328
1051
1585
1027
530
3334
2203
2979

8533
29891
14715
43039
[21137
! 14949
19168
22.584

7273
17185
15408
17696
19172
11880
I 9536
j31975
J36511
135880

30
2903

200

16440

3765

2985

1176

350

358
8345
2896

12U
2805
6970

618
4970
2730
8436

623

30

30

194

5C301
7210
138c22
5840
a5?l
8150
4750
6940

56221
8750
7033
2584
3509
7220

52184
4413

19980
9560

931

832

705

1058

1763

304

6943

782

245

145

75

113

689

1245

519

1374

1486

1591

1090

1987

3077

390

15714

5490

1677

313

191

9i

798

1740

766

4577

12a3

1309

555

2037

2592

204

12818

4411

1720

138

216

39

685

1035

503

2864

980

1033

338

1675

2013

1-32

7473

3803

1414

76

134

19

189

419

362

926

2415

2290

2236

2499

47a5

307

164J6

4698

1874

318

248

32

931

682

494

4572

964

9.58

757

1155

1922

142

5344

697

230

133

58

34

469

400

152

1240

899

861

311

1449

1760

63

2574

1328

442

58

64

11

230

364

38

951

446

4*3

284

595

879

76

1126

202

47

35

14

27

320

825

161

445

22709
47550
41471
19228
68602
14505
11190
2629

1430

14867

64

15219

7493

15266

83

1990

1805

495

9

25253
5850
1950
275
8750
7523
8S54
1371

TABLE Y .—Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Townsldi^s.
SECOND SERIES.— (Continued.)

0,'

1

•0

3

09

Population.

c

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

1

O

d

;2i

1

s

u

Cm

c
d

1

<

O

s

O

a

"5
1

6

i
<

CO

«

4)

c
B

1

a

0

0

sa

u 6

13

02

6

c

i

rJ2

a* .

it

OP3

0

123

367

376

617

126

743

113

3711

'477

169

96

40

85

265

534

334

1658

15030

220

2270

995

124

441

451

758

134

892

117

3832

147

61

104

57

36

230

483

396

1503

14200

663

2578

263

125

1168

1258

1459

967

2426

346

12024

4101

1588

250

289

6

485

1062

890

2914

37178

21515

6475

126

458

485

696

247

943

144

5066

736

279

127

51

48

297

586

455

1406

17551

925

2762

725

127

723 824

625

922

1547

155

4741

1211

524

62

129

64

226

455

35

1161

25690

2188

1483

550

o

128

611

597

800

408

1208

142

5712

1436

482

144

64

58

262

498

436

1409

17127

2892

2817

55

55

O

129

1008

1066

837

1237

2074

191

10633

3503

1510

130

295

5

346

798

506

1955

34318

24978

3933

100

H

O

130

920

8fi5

1063

722

1785

181

8003

2641

1035

291

107

18

309

555

578

1705

22552

12873

4305

121

131

033

621

848

406

1254

201

7329

2092

913

221

122

16

310

623

606

1916

2740

15104

5017

2

132

1025

1040

1370

695

2065

220

9635

1915

732

233

175

18

384

830

743

2379

27185

1

19922

6879

485

133

437

414

658

193

851

122' 3723

661

289

103

36

35

199

456

136

1574

13625

260

2109

405

134

720

755

925

550

1475

236J 8355

2200

848

224

249

4

451

735

1619

2781

,29415

19398

592-4

45

135

605 696

440

861

1301

150 5016

1642

637

76

114

20

327

662

178

1691 '23598

i

352

1615

790

136

1780

1884

629

30aT

• 3664 j303 16798 6707

2931

175

318

33

371

489

110

1531

31T74

9445

145

1210

137

1013

997

667

1343

2010

2ul 6144

1050

467

151

90

30

184

594

400

1847

25069

7633

137

6421

138

1052

1064

768

1348

2116

216 11293

3302

1472

188

174

23

295

871

487

2079

41685

1885

2584

3510

139

1441

1440

864

2017

2881

377

18039

5794

2378

226

269

43

555

1020

74

2766:'47708

2782

1414

150

140

561

588

361

788

1149

161

5546

764

301

134

38

19

209

467

617

1859

12042

3883

6

5025

172

532

503

541

494

1030

154

6440

1564

531

116

71

12

229

460

206

1467

22607

10791

S88

1903

141

760

730

433

1057

1490

141

5938

2546

931

|109

121

9

112

374

225

1249 19550

4826

42

6221

142

1372

1309

1182

1499

2681

262

13562

3893

1392

231

217

95

448

671

310

4857

45686

6703

4129

6924

k;
^

113

474

486

510

450

960

152

4429

1208

390

115

58

42

236

477

573

1002

16549

1293

1319

690

o

144

623

592

621

594

1215

97

5013

1018

358

110

34

15

136

320

55

1019

14548

5366

1387

1389

145

1200

1228

419

2009

2428

109

13281

48a'

2093

157

1

220

3

152

466

110

1380 24109

5294

128

2293

t2

146

830

833

548

1115

1663

222

8833

2472

883

203

169

292

598

329

2453

128832

7694

191

13143

147

604

663

272

995

1267

116

5809

1443

660

1100

1(X)

7

147

439

246

1088

'17420

4766

235

4033

55

148

1054

1086

927

1213

2140

36

1298

295

183

38

21

55

96

24

1C9

4800

1385

1340

O

149

1941

1965

833

3073

3906

296

20314

5816

2560

295

2.54

11

362

665

738

2454

56599

15722

797

8.560

150

970

1024

393

1601

1994

215

9050

3886

1503

,136

177

13

150

570

48

1736

20127

4624

406

450

151

796

716

446

1066

1512

149

8:m

2603

1167

114

160

12

143

271

82

1370

158231 2838

66

506

152

596

664

387

873

1200

159

8216

2082

694

102

120

2

137

361

259

1878

12220 9180

84

4550

153

706

712

381

1037

1418

135

8222

248]

881

117

111

14

196

482

99

1136' 1668910067

392 2203

151

857

891

978

770

1748

203

9317

2921

940

189

81

21

324

451

179

1879 29058

7240

1044 1150

155

636

650

206

1080

1286

161

5231

2410

842

80

109

14

169

348

170

1092

11181

3104

122 2425

156

785

787

576

996

1572

195

7418

2172! 887

1 1

152 75

1

16

197

424

236

1342

23601

11100

679 1025

1

'ABLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Toivnships.
SECOND SERIES.— (Concluded.)

h

Population.

1

•a 1

s i

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

02

s

Hi

a

^

o

CS

<o

3

o
6
12;

ai

a;

_2

a

o

1

1

o
d

H

3)

<

Q
he
09
<U
Ut
O
<

10

CO

a

X

0

0

06

a

«

n
02

02

"5

omj

Wheat
Bushels

Rice,
Bushels

157

789

799

1140

448

1588' 220

3731 765

22.5 1 58

88

145

388

240

155il211

10921

56o!

H

D
O
O

158

1168

1118

1024

1262

2286' 200

ji

6365 2504

917'

101

97

89

336

4.37

592 1402

17652

403

551! 290

159

481

529

423

587

1010

95

2512

553

254

60

50

9

100

72

^'i

5324

5110

500

150

160

945

1092

374

1663

2037

187

5655

2251

1163

95

168

40

190

164

44 519

23414

5199

785

2540

161

j

Q

to

4639

5397

4338

5698

10036

9

194

91

59

6

10

12, 12

12

490

190

167

1
1

168

1604

1556

244

2916

3160, i396

18198

6618 2635 '■ 80

ij

282

197

220 289

200 886

:39892

705

147

109

1121

1093

154

2060

2214

320

9989

52:3:3 19261 88

195

95

195

2.5S

161 1017j

19173

1592

9 350

C!

170

1739

1768

519

2988

3507

491

12292

7150

2696 145

259

180

353

351

302

968J

.31567

6354

52

171

1359

1376

969

1766

27351322

il

9936

:3196 1098'!l84

i 11

247

85

405

682

327

I8O9'

22607 10791 [

1872

1

TABLE Y .—Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

hy Toimships.
THIRD SERIES.

i

1

H
fa
O

o

Population.

1

CO

s

O

6

C

•d
<u

to

<

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

K

O

o

CO

(U

s

i

a
u

O

5

<

CO

0

1

a

a
XI

O
M

1

i6

a.

a;

i

OS

c

Si
IS

d S

m

1 =

o

0

w
5

H

a

a

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

639
1265

435

488
1187

882
1112
1015

983

586
1378

483

499
1170

879
1157
1090
1097

891
773
516
746
1499
1273
1411
1440
949

334

1870
402
241
858
488
858
665

1131

1225
2643
918
987
2357
1761
2269
2105
2080

!l46

165

t
19

149

359

232

317

303

247

3790
7108
1939
3495
9189
7937
8824
9914
8606

930
2791
622
406
.3538
2820
2531
2897

1905

1

325
1273

499

143
1387
1?32

932
1164

778

! 93
113
25
66
196
'129
,197
189
jll9

47
103
30
19
100
154
115
169
114

100
86
6
IM
337
114
268
96
172

276
181
29
275
472
427
458
173
362

392
307
53
26f.
230
859
879
864
759

444 1545
109 1429
5 177
264 1360
616 1321
830 1865
1256 2099
514 2187
329 1736

1

19651
2(>162
10120
14569
38172
32493
j37883
40142
27938

540
10712
6775
408
4876
2770
7246
5588
2731

416
799

198
1598
1378
2118
3728
85

25

75
81

10

z

o
u

"^

o

PS
<

o

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

253
804
4S0
348
928
580
367
,.2
512
481
275
407
457
496
212
899
496
357
536

255
832
484
343
932
575
354
728
527
446
299
388
498
533
190
852
45-5
352
547

259
435
295
516
317
122
170
692
332
754
287
224
326
422
248
323
172
275
93

249

1181

669

175

1543

1033

551

748

707

173

287

571

629

607

154

1428

779

434

990

508
1636
964
691
1860
1155
721
1440
1039
927
574
795
955
1029i
402
1751
951
709
1083

80
171
118
114
242
168

85
107
164
120
100
144
165
170

61
213
191
112
200

3453
9166
5046
2407
9150
3711
2917
3201
5125
4075
1928
3288
3909
4483
1617
7082
4138
2197
5403

321
3126
1526

526
3838
1743

855
1032
1152

971

524
1061
1406
1521

471
2498
1817

729
1557

95
998
516
135
1353
512
256
327
398
321
172
303
439
451
141
788
630
214
514

38
110
47
53
119
72
40
55
51
94
27
45
49
55
36
84
56
48
61

21
113
61
40
137
82
34
58
79
46
22
64
60
74
15
113
91
22
52

31
35
27
40
31
18
37
30
63
51
31
56
38
60
33
79
76
43
56

111

181
147
117
328
134
139
201
197
190
153
151
198
170
74
282
217
170
189

140
401
257
167
271
325
336
396
407
243
216
229
265
250
134
531
326
165
277

80

78

5

218

46
147
40
190
228
172
50
101
47
61
10
14

102

678
931
782
1102
1355
987
744
1450
1907
1544
851
1039
1068
968
699
1752
947
836
989

3913
,17582
12605

9195
16976

8809

8118
13920
jl5976
14822

7295

8505
11321
12908

6190
20784
14626

8538
10241

790
2299
1495

880
8341
102r

535
3197
1003
1404

275
1140
2412
1350

150
1158
418
903

42

12

• 59

27

48

24

34

6

182

51

121
10
5

252

810

1132

1530

985

190

990

1685

1925

6999

775

1784

610

1350

1202

2925

6i9

1317

1570

TxVBLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, foi' the year 1880,

by Townships.
THIRD SEEIES— (Continued.)

M

s

Z,

b
o

6

POPTJLATION.

ce

s

0

d

•6

a

—

X

s

Cotton

Stock.

Grain.

z,

3

"5

i
fa

o

a

a7

?

u
0

<

1

C
PS

a

s

S
i<

0

0

0-
0 *

1

%

.a

1

29

578

576

563

591

1154

112

4627

1980

701

90

49

54

125

126

42

11
838i!l4617

2107

542

38

30

811

776

170

1417

1587

195

9386

4782

1769:1106

157105

225

202

411

1310128547

4326

55

980

31

700

713

722

691

1412

175

6879 26691 1129' 164

68' 53

178^ 326

61

1459 17893

5100

1281 650

32

1387

1429

774

2042

2816 |206

7245

3238

1192 96

92

93

142 232

7

921 16747

5359

287

890

33

657

661

287

1031

1318

153 9028

3122

1102

90

74

81

120

161

17

829 17613

4546

274

784

34

578

582

651

509

1160 161

4953 i 1J13

413

80

78

74

187

341

80 1509 14872

7242

240

2942

35
36

1515
771

1567
766

972
901

2110
636

3082
1537

57
164

5358
6730

1437
2755

668
1215

70
135

37
112

37
61

•81
204

48
215

168 410:10130
1791526-23350

2265
4565

8

O

874

4125

37

841

813

529

1125

1654

159

7178

3350

1351

152

92

65

180

168

191 1596 24186

3323

524

1258

38

325

346

432

239

671

93

30001

834

287 54

40

30

145

286

116 1256 10715

859

314

895

39

780

784

542

1022

156i

157

S999

3426

1332 il35

117

58

163

221

228 1222 21835

6485

745

253

40

1162

1063

1186

1039

2225-235

10019

3781

14801171

132

109

317

330

62 2927 36338

4629

245

1725

2

<!

41

766

777

835

708

1542 192

T702'

3177

1230

156

97

■50

168

236

48 1537,j26447

3032 1320

1

285

42
43

764

844

748
794

205
364

1307

1274

1512 93S

7935

8630

3447

19^7

,107
■137

135
144

126
70

162
136

309
185

179' 1139' 117078
4a3 1167, 27475

1030
7275

1638

171

j
4641 1942

492

672

44

626

683

710

599

1309

202

6822

2751 964j 144

86

74

178

280

50 1599 21720

3181

900

612

45

1307

1357

450

2214

2564 236

9713

4501

2031

1153

192

144

165

202

57 794

33336

12999:1391

20

46

653

647

859

441

1300 219

7177

3209

1338 Il52

95

29

197

473

149 1524 19070

6133 1657

193

47

826

880

757

949

1706 157

7841

3070

12661 136

99

59

150

155

25

1406,127879

5967

1731

692

48

505

586

305

786

1091 168

3923

1732

634' 47

56

106

150

228

13

927;;15096

290

21C8

49

734

807

715

826

1541 116

3955

1403

631100 45

49

130

134

591027 15923

3503

581

850

H

50

1197

1360

737

1820

2557

.™..

51

944

979

167

1756

1923

66

5398

2

1

47

87

111

323

328

1450

152(1

7825

1584

132125

n

52

644

685

455

874

1329

|140

2413

78

22

71

26

185

564

661

999

2ft55

12051

550

28725

o

53
54

539
1974

518
2082

231
466

826
a591

1057
40.57

49
120

1237
5234

44
36

22
17

33
63

17
83

46
105

90
334

199
534

42
531

330
1139

1 3032
6320

850

2;

227

123434

55

1019

1177

155

2031

2196

44

2846

17

11

25

76

169

113

195

280

378

2160

900

31382

56

717

803

144

1376

1520

22

1223!

22

8

46

34

51

25

104

871

80

12220

o

57

1661

1680

344

2997

3341

69

2219

20

8

44

30

66

98

59

118

35

3611

400

63661

o

58

801

832

757

876

1633

117

1584

166

74

59

15

126

359

366

501

1393 8491

1

1810

TABLE V. — Agricultural Statisti^^ of South Carolina, for the year 1880,

by Townships.
THIRD SERIES.— (Continued.)

POPTJLATION.

a s

I' Si.

3 2

Cotton

< M

Stock.

Grain.

ao

o **

^P3

om

s ^
^m

67

622 648

1074
1177
438
374
634
553
487
611
1182
650

1062
1185
392
322
636
558
474
643
1244
608

1119

151

1013

1123

1477

885

738

92

522

174

1054

216

935

176

878

83

446

808

1683

743

767

491

1270

2136

2362

830

696

1270

1111

981

1254

2426

1258

2359
2645
1553
2541

2056
4578
3141

2340i

27771
45831
578

1232
1772
212
433
821
458
1063
586
2084
1032

2720
2499
2552
1602
2641
3563
2279
2279
2430
5095
1555

8569
11941
9495
8102
7973
16120
11536

10260
14395
5524

67
240
123
114

30
259
126
50
23
25

2661
8266
2950

995

285
1933
2122
1725

710
2850

613

1704
2976
824
1598
1057
1250
1236

1621
3112
956
1675
1016
1252
1261

1191
976

1315

1452
717

1215
788
762

1128

1043

ia57

1389

692

1210

889

779

2227

1098

1841

4247

832

948

52S

2745

732

1341

1046

1456

686

1811

568

1751

572

1447

1858

814

1221

1620

681

728

1472

&53

1229

448

334

1207

332.5
6088
1780
3273
2073
2502
2497

14691
15054
320
9169
9063
11789
8542

7681
154
5534
[3208
|5381
13244

1407
3232
74
2020
1226
1917
1404

2319
2019
2672
2841
1409
ai25
1677
1541

15890
8273

10800
9006
7095

13710
8022

10062!

5154
3471
4715
3400
3098
4684
2154
4068

2191
1539
2109
1437
1127
2009
884
1383

1508
1011

16 34

280
353
490
403
156
431
79 387
17 145

391 375

447 312
495 82

3507
2996
18
1216
1329
1352
854

48041
42932
980
36525
27289
26850
37340

98&
1004
22971
1345

436
1612
1532

42898
31022
52,571
41040
30649
42498
32039

44 321 '19222

634712912

5011
650
5030
7300

487

150
1402

1336
1030

2989 528 14
7075 62 2950

8154
3556
5430
6383
8008
7043
654'
3264

2029,
1675
2343
1990
1805
2727
3473
810

TABLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of South Carolina, for the year 1880,.

by Tawnships.
THIRD SERIES.— (Continued.)

si

i!

73

as

b
O

d

Population.

a

(3

-a

OOTTOW.

Stock.

Ghai:w.

&
o

i

S

ID

.

<u
0

5

1

i\

o ,

1 t <o

6 i

0

0

Li

u

<

1
"3

m

<o
to

0

X

0

3

a
s>
X

0

M
u

c

Sail

D.
(0

CD

1
« 1

5 '

^ :

"1

-321

5«j

.1 .
— ' S

5 te - X

cSPfCS

85

702

736

660

778

11 1 I
143a tl32 6451 12580

1297)

1
781126

40

218 .349

1 i,
347 i 19771:27437

1 ' '

5704

1363

279

86

713

707

659

761 1420i|182; 3670*

5761 229*

71 33

159

3.53 705

205:3572 11061

492

46

3920-

87

1183

1222

969

1416 3405li272j 8540i

2169i ^

129 92

204

331 367

201

1548J^1552

739

42

3821

88

743

772! 832

682

15151 183' 7138!

.3046il543l

98 183

1

65

243

387

382|2586l 131258

3303

G98

1740-

89

1374

1309

1096

1587

2683-^ 279tI27a*

4701i;W89l

1 '

1901234

12

304

661

238l2581:-12679i 14253

j 1 '

3047

730

90

1124

1145

1234

1035 2269*1231 9192;

2480 1072

185(127

76

270

516

272-2290J 135800

2685

290

9801

tn"

91

1222

1305

811

1716! 25271:228 98.55'

3&^ 1521

221146

129

309! .566

5.55 29681)33030

5110

10

13553-

92

830

848

719

959

1678! -1301 SOSO'

ssei'isri*

1 1

101 1127

85

258

538

615l2247i .22291

6147

412

2312.

s

93

783

829

940

672

1612lil91 6134
17701 i244 8086

1900

84a

I23I 60

96

257

.358

331 2294) ;19502| 8334

25

195a

94

844

926

967

803

3868|2098

112

180

67

189 221

13012659' :.36800

3192

1208

350

O

1-1

95

1178

1257

893

1542

2435i268|10720

2971 '1401

214

127

149

2311 3a5

2361208.5; ;35886

6265

»45

7525-

<

96

414

410

468

356

824

151 290

44I 36

,20

2

18^ 27

74JJ 590

325

136-

97

1062

1058

888

1232

2120

2191 6565

3072 840

135

93

150

323. 504

193 20061:22336

4053

462

6321

96

664

714

736

642

1378

11331 6715

24.51

1122

97

102

49

152 249

299 1770:22990

4449

675

1635

99

879

897

1027

755

1776

J231

4754

J1503

594

110

36

273

353

322

61I2955II2122I

1753

5342

100

1431

1476

1716

1191

290711291

10963

|4243

1601

213

128

130

421 587

428:3396J 137460

2075

168

3723

101

532

590

387

735

1] 221)141

4143

11158

486

87

37

118

212 345

1122296113927

1183

12

1325

102

984

1014

661

1337

1996

220 7140

i2849 141o|

146

98

127

332 384

9013179 ;23.364

3705

28

1999

103

j 131

99

204

26

230

1 41 47^ i 19 d

7

1

43

1011 104

96:1468 i 2588

1 li

44

32

r^

104

1363

1333

1330

1366

2696' '215

11336' 558513630;

^3 167

34

265

434

22 2263 52650

7110

.3327

105

! 1539

1632

868

2303

3171

162

128131 i6498i4212i

176 228

6

166

286

330 1367 41020

12090

1048

40^

O

106

1 931

958

869

1020

1889

185

7635,132951193^

167 141

5

187

384

113i2008 :33054

3433

2673

15-

o

107

965

973

853

1085

1938

175

11006' 4215I2146

119 188

48

254

475

97 2200i!31015

7399

637

850

108

1434

1395

1229

1600

28291 ;196

h

11431; 4949J3048

195 208

18

254

667

25 2387! 44762

1

7.S15

4655

425-

109

1220

1215

1011

1424

2435j;196

11763|!5417J3132

195 204

18

290

577

88i2332^ 49955

7491

3510

20

110

1480

1530

870

2140

3010! 203

10.581 5671J2867

1 1

185 204

49

290

485

861654' 38162

9366

1735

75

S

111

1282

1348

996

IGM

2630 ilflii

10864 L'ifi:^i:'?74n

145(2.^

53

291

675

' '!

£04i17lK< 47P(lfl

8976

2492

j

1

!

1

TABLE V. — Agricultural Statistics of Smdh Carolina, far the year 1880,

by Townships.
THIRD SERIES.— (Concluded.)

h

1

•6

03

o
H
fa
o

d

15

Population.

s

u
cS
fa

0

d

ci

1-5

H

(S

<

Cotton.

Stock.

Ga^

IW.

H

P

o
o

■3

s

CO

6

0
0
0

0

0

0

<

CO

X

0

3

a

'A

0

0

06

ft ®
<jj c

03 ro

a"

..a

00

oc'—

on

Wheat,
Bushels.

Rice.
Bushels.

112

1178

1131

977

1382

2309

261

10168

4910

2304

175

177

43

252

513

59

1762

32385

6529

467

360

113

825

798

487

1136

1623

102

4825

2637

1182

84

119

13

116

189

28

749

17275

4289

87

38

114

1013

1135

606

1542

2148

294

9052

2445

865

128

130

78

283

442

454

2019

30009

4232

79

4926

115

1409

1371

734

2016

2780

290

9702

3891

1544

171

148

98

343

653

210

2399

38438

4769

167

3460

116

279

311

106

485

590

103

3146

928

344

82

46

16

90

228

16

647

8943

703

14

153

(m

117

1144

1160

439

1865

2304

242

8620

3323

1256

105

159

60

237

420

152

1509

30072

6720

83

8238

7,

118

885

888

300

1473

1773

171

11142

2566

1190

111

146

56

240

257

249

1450

24405

5397

161

301

O

119

1244

1212

594

1862

2456

344

102.56

4880

1685

160

257

93

287

504

131

1022

32598

6063

153

3322

H

120

1047

1124

725

1446

2171

261

8932

3401

1159

137

122

86

308

307

OSS

1937

28160

3366

1008

395

121

1013

1021

403

1631

2034

261

9269

4305

lft51

137

156

115

259

215

101

1608

26074

4114

25

860

122

1087

1089

446

1780

2176

352

9708

5568

2118

109

197

46

235

280

227

1617

24007

2801

77

36

02

123

1208

1197

1069

1336

2405

327

7.S46

2719

1013

156

112

163

3S6

420

156

29f2

boi23

8372

156

132

124

984

966

862

1088

1960

2r2

7643

3907

1341

123

116

93

277

192

17

1255

p6189

1700

171

450

125

1495

1566

372

2689

3061

244

9a50

4,583

1820

145

183

28

285

229

122

1260

[22396

2015

175

126

1546

1609

468

2687

3155

350

7897

3189

1313

136

118

182

245

353

152

1685

34726

4106

66

3243

127

888

1123

1035

976

2011

20

382

96

47

27

4

28

18

34

1378

1466

250

128

1097

994

357

1734

2091

273

7360

4763

1602

155

173

31

359

124

40

2026

136888

2930

2912

129

367

366

465

268"

733

114

1732

205

66

59

21

56

570

990

2684

2006

7463

40

1425

130

1145

1181

615

1711

2326

192

6360

1888

707

132

74

208

476

781

148

2375

121571

eas

4128

k4

131

949

965

317

1597

1914

244

5463

1799

5^4

105

54

229

267

578

714

1761

|15621

728

4732

EH

5^1

132

1188

1209

972

1425

2397

120

4276

758

273

89

38

155

306

708

630

2255

12126

1528

15

2342

&

n

133

1387

1455

595

2247

2842

273

7838

2182

774

138

105

160

424

844

97

2443

26383

943

5

6820

C3

134

647

625

792

480

1272

175

3843

769

238

79

39

199

225

287

758

2269

18882

475

23

6932

135

648

&17

208

1087

1295

102

3522

751

312

47

48

56

182

450

844

8355

210

2426

03

136

809

810

1217

402

1619

160

4618

1038

339

99

43

164

251

327

637

2340

19161

068

138

5319

1^

137

702

669

362

1009

1371

151

2817

643

245

45

44

141

393

539

104

2074

18330

66

1612

r^

138

728

753

237

1244

1581

247

2899

831

336

71

66

107

401

477

1002

1504

9436

210

20

4721

i-i

139

963

1038

410

1591

2001

147

5755

1606

646

125

44

146

283

453

646

1688

17761

707

88

5842

140

1351

1406

1026

1731

2757

241

7884

1722

581

159

60

195

509

875

702

3076

[25862

1.647

41

6926

141

385

394

232

547

779

124

1623

473

134

38

19

62

137

227

100

1064

6019

721

142

667

656

310

1013

1323

196

5455

1166

— ~rr

392

68

47

99

328

655

1279

1078

14737

1646

70

1852

PART II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEOPLE.

24

CHAPTER I

POPULATION

INDIANS.

The tlirce fundamental races of mankind, the yellow, the white and the
black — the American, the European, and the African — are occupants of
the soil of South Carolina. AVithin her borders, as elsewhere on many
wider fields throughout human history, the still unsettled problems of
the conflict and intermingling of races present themselves for solution.
Although four centuries barely separate-us from the discovery of America,
it would be quite as difficult to give an accurate statement of the nations
and tribes of the Indians and of their numbers, as encountered by the
first European explorers, as it would be to turn back forty centuries and
to disentangle the Egyptian, Ethiopian, Libyan, Chaldean, Nubian and
Berber races, united under the sixth dynasty of the Pharaohs iu the con-
struction of the })yramids. The history of the. Indians is almost a blank.
Their earth mounds, stone implements and weapons, and other relics,
throw only a very uncertain glimmer of light over their past. Their vague
traditions are known in some instances not to retain any count of many
memorable events for even one century. Their origin is a subject open to
the widest conjecture. Adair entertains the fanciful notion that they are
descended from the lost tribes of Israel, and the proximity of Northwest
America to Asia, has suggested their migration by way of Behring Straits
to this continent. The most recent researches, noting on the other hand
a general westward migration of the Indian tribes from the Atlantic to the
interior, and tracing a resemblance between their languages and that of the
Basque people of Europe, hold that they are emigrants from that country.
That they were driven thence by the intrusion of the Aryan hordes from

364 • POPULATION.

the East, themselves contemplative and submissive races, whose character
and language was modified by the high spirited, liberty-loving aborigines
of Central and Western Europe, whom they absorbed or dispersed. A
remarkable fact in the economy of the Indians is, that they alone, of all
the peoples of the world, possessed and cultivated Indian corn, and that it
was their only cereal. That the most valuable of all the grains should
have been the exclusive possession of one people is sufficiently strange,
but becomes much more so, when it is considered that this people were
the least advanced of all in the arts of peace, that they were the poorest and
most thriftless of laborers, in fact, in no sense laborers at all, and yet that
they depended entirely for their bread on this grain, requiring more skill,
care, and labor in its culture than any other.

Great discrepancies exis't as to the estimates of the condition and num-
bers of the Indians between the accounts of travelers in the 16th and in the
18th centuries. The latter, in explanation of the small number of frag-
mentary tribes they found, where great and powerful nations were reputed
to have dwelt, give the traditions of great wars, famines and epidemics, that
were said to have occurred. The prevailing opinion now is that these were
not exceptional occurrences among the aborigines, but that they had always
been subject to such disasters, which had kept in check their population and
their civilization. Bancroft and Draper think that, by the highest estimates
that can be placed upon their numbers, all the Indians east of the Missis-
sippi, from the Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence, did not, 200 years ago,
exceed 180,000. As the great plains of the West were not habitable for man
before the introduction of guns and horses by the Europeans, the estimate
of these distinguished authorities may be considered as applying, with in-
considerable additions, to the whole area of the United States having its
drainage towards the Atlantic. This area contains now (Rep. Secretary
of Interior, 1881) 203,608 Indians, and the number of Indians in the
United States, exclusive of Alaska, is 255,938.

Governor Drayton hazards the opinion that the Indians of South Caro-
lina may have numbered originally 30,000 or 40,000 souls, but gives no
data upon which it is founded. Adair says, that old traders stated that
about 1700, the Cherokees had 6,000 warriors. In 1752, he found only
some 2,300 warriors among them, and says, " so great a diminution, that
after a like revolution of time there will be few of them alive." A predic-
tion regarding the destructibility of a race, that, like many similar ones,
has fallen far wide of verification. i\Ir. Bancroft says that the " Chero-
kees are more numerous now than ever."

The oldest reports from Georgia claim that there were only a few In-
dians within 400 miles of Savannah. John Lawson estimates very suc-
cinctly the Indian population of North Carolina as 4,780, men, women

rOPULATION.

3G5

and children, including 1612 fighting men, in the year 1700. Judging
from his journal of a thousand miles travel among the Indians, from
South to North Carolina, they could not have been more numerous in this
State at that date.

The following is a synopsis of tlie natives and tribes of Indians men-
tioned as residing in South Carolina :

NATIONS. TRIBES.

12.'?

Cherokee Echotee, Nequassee, Tehohee,

4 5 6

Chatusee, Noyowee, Chagee.

7 8 9

Estatoe, Tussee, Cussatee,

10 11 12

Tugoola, Keowee, Echav,

13 14 lo"

Aconee, Toxaway, Seneka,

16 17 "

Tewraw, Tukwashwaw,

IS 19 2)

Chickerohe, Naguchie, Totero,

21 _ 22 23

Quacoratchie, Chota, Enoc,

_ 24 25 20

Stickoey, Esaw, Sapona,
Wisack.

II

Catawba.

28

The Cherokees were a moun-
tain race, occupying extensive
territory in Alabama, Tennessee,
Georgia, North and South Car-
olina and Kentucky. Less than
1-10 *of this territory is in the
present boundaries of South
Carolina, comprising the coun-
ties of Oconee, Pickens, Ander-
son, Greenville and Spartan-
burg, which would make the
number of warriors in this State
by Adair's computation, to have
been 230, or a total population
not exceeding 1000. They were
expelled in 1777, for siding with
the British, and are now the
most advanced in civilization of
the Indians.

The Catawbas were a Cana-
dian tribe, driven thence, in
1650, by the more powerful Coik
newangas. Part of their num-
ber amalgamated with the
Chickasaws and Choctaws. The
remnant reached South Caro-
lina in 1660, fought a great bat-
tle with the Cherokees on Broad
river, and made that stream the
dividing line between the two
nations. They occupied York,
Chester and Lancaster counties.
Their warriors were estimated
by Governor Glenn at 400, giv-
ing a population of about 1600.

366

POPULATION.

III.

tJchees.

29

IV.

Creek or -^o 3i 32

Mus Koo-ee Savanna, Sernna, Cusoboe.

3.3 34 m

Yamassee, Huspa, Cosah.

About 1-8 of tlie territory of
the Uchees extended across the
Savannah river into Aiken,
Edgefield and Barnwell coun-
ties. There is no estimate of
their numbers. Their Princess
of Cutifachiqui (Silver Bluff)
entertiiined DeSoto Avith great
splendor, according to the narra-
tive of the gentleman of Elvas
(1540). They were absorbed by
the Creeks, and have left no
trace excei:)t in the name of a
small stream in Silverton town-
ship, Aiken county, and of a
neighboring steamboat landing
on the Savannah, Talemeco, af-
ter their great temple, which it
is said stood there in DeSoto's
time.

Fragmentary tribes on the
Savannah river, south of the
Uchees, in Barnwell county.

The Yamassees numbered
about 100 men, women and
children, near Pocotaligo, in
1715, and were driven across
the Savannah, by Governor
Craven. Twenty men of the
tribe were left at Saint Augus-
tine, Florida, in 1743, and they
were absorbed by the Seminoles.

The Yamassee, or Jamassi,
were one of a small number of
isolated tribes, of dark com-
plexion, found widel}' scattered
among the inhabitants of North
and South America. Supposed
to have been immigrants from
Africa prior to the European
discovery of America (see Hu-

POPULATION.

3G7

Salutab.

Cono^aree.

Santee.

39 40

Westoes and Stonoes.

■11 42

Wateree and Chickasee.

43

Waxsaws.

44

Wenee.

45

"Win yaw.

46

Sewee.

man Species, Ly A. De Quatie-
fages). If this be so, it explains
why D'Alyon persisted in slave
hunting about Beaufort (1521),
these negroes being valuable as
laborers, while the Indians were
worthless. It were strange, too,
if negroes first occupied this sec-
tion where they now predomi-
nate.

Located near Saluda old town,
Newberry county, removed to
Connestoga, in Pennsylvania.

On the river of that name.
Jno. Lawson visited them in
1700, and found a town of 12
huts, one man at home and the
women gambling.

Near Nelson's Ferr}', in Clar-
endon. Jno. Lawson found a few
of their huts, in 1700.

Between Edisto and Ashley
rivers, in Colleton and Charles-
ton counties, amalgamated with
the Catawbas.

On Pine Tree Creek, KershaAV
county, Lawson says they Avere
more populous than the Con-
garees.

Lawson makes a day's march
from the last.

Indian, old township, Wil-
liamsburg county.

On the inlet of that name.

On Sewee bay. Lawson says
the larger part of them were
lost at sea, or rescued and sold as
slaves by the English, in an at-

3G8 POPULATION.

tempt they made to open direct
communication with England,
by a fleet of canoes, in which
they put to sea in the direction
whence they had observed the
English vessels arrive.

47 48

Saraw or Clieraw. Chesterfield and Marlboro

counties, absorbed by the Ca-
tawbas.

49

Kaclapaw. Lynch's creek, joined the Ca-

tawbas.

The Pee Dees are not mentioned, as it is thought the name is of Euro-
pean origin, probably from P. D., the initials of Patrick Daly, a white
man, carved upon a tree by an early settler. The nineteen tribes, claimed
under the Creek nation, occupying at least one-half of the State, appears
to have been very insignificant in numl^ers, according to the earliest au-
thentic accounts of them. Governor Glenn sums them all up in one sen-
tence. " There are among our settlements several small tribes of Indians,
consisting only of some few families each." Lawson says of them : " Al-
though their tribes or nations border upon one another, yet you may oft-
en discern as great an alteration in their features and disposition (he was
much impressed by the comeliness of the Congaree women) as you can in
their speech, which generally proves quite different from each other,
though their nations be not above ten or twenty miles in distance."

Admitting, however, that these scattered and fragmentary tribes
equaled in numbers the Cherokees and the Catawbas, there is no data
for supposing that the total Indian population within the present bound-
aries of South Carolina could have much exceeded 3000 at the date of
the early white settlements.

Accepting Lawson's enumeration (above given) of the Indians of North
Carolina, and assuming an equal density for them in the two States, there
would have been 2870 Indians in South Carolina.

Adopting the maximum estimate of Bancroft and Draper, it would give
a population of one Indian to five square miles, or 6116 for South Caro-
lina. In 1750 there were in South Carolina 64,000 whites and negroes,
so tliat even at this early date immigrants from across the Atlantic ex-
ceeded the aborigines by more than ten to one.

By the census of 1881, the number of Indians, chiefly Catawbas, in
South Carolina, is 131. This statement would seem to confirm the very
general notion as to the rapid process of decay and extinction among the

roruLATioN. 309

Indians. Such A conclusion is, however, by no means warranted, if account
is taken of the number of Indians removed from the State and residing
on reservations west of the Mississippi. The Cherokees are there more
populous and prosperous than ever, and with them are Santees, Senekas,
and the other small tribes absorbed by them. Furthermore, there is scarce-
ly a township in the State in which one or more families (chiefly negroes)
are not found, showing the distinct traces of the Indian descent which
tliey claim. If such half-breeds numbered 6-10 of one per cent, of the
present population, there would be as much Indian blood in South Caro-
lina to-day as at the date of its settlement by the Europeans. The inter-
mixture of the Indians with the whites and negroes was facilitated by the
total absence of all moral restraint among their women — there was no
word for continence in their languages — as Avell as by the remark-
able lack of sexual initiative on the part of the men, as observed by
LaAvson and others. In 1758, Anthony Park found a solitary Scotchman
among the Indians west of the Alleghanies, who had lived there forty
years and was the father of some seventy cliildren in the nation. One
hundred such Scotchmen would have transmitted to another generation
as much Indian blood as was found in Carolina by the first settlers.

The conclusion from such facts can only be that an inferior race, in a
condition of absolute savagery, brought into contact with superior races,
enjoying all the advantages of the highest civilization, has not only not
dwindled aw^ay and perished, but has fully held its own and perpetuated
itself. So indestructible is a race of men.

NEGROES

were brought to America as earl}' as the year 1503. In 1511 they were
pronounced by the Spaniards to be more robust and hardy, more capable
of enduring fatigue, and more patient under servitude than the aborig-
ines. The labor of one negro was computed as equal to that of four
Indians. Charles V., in 1516, granted a privilege that was transferred to
the Genoese merchants, of introducing four thousand Africans to the
Spanish colonies; and Queen Elizabeth, through her agent. Sir John
Hawkins, engaged, about 1507, in a lucrative African slave trade with
these colonies. A Dutch vessel, in 1618, sold part of her cargo of Africans
to the English colonists on James river, Virginia. The first negroes
brought to Soutli Carolina were brought by Sir John Yeamans, from the
Barbadoes, in 1671. The year following, white slaves from England were
sold in Virginia at £10 apiece, while negro slaves brought there, at the
same date, from £20 to £25. In 1727, the citizens of South Carolina
loudly complained of the importation of Africans, both because they

370 roruLATiON.

■were Africans, and because they could only be slaves. * The mother
country, however, persisted in forcing them upon the colony, maintain-
ing, as late as 1745, that " the African slave trade was the great pillar
and support of the British plantation trade."

The negroes were brouglit from the whole western coast of Africa, be-
tween the Sahara and Caffre land. There is no record of their lineage.
A single ship would bring emigrants of different nations, and from places
a thousand miles apart in Africa. They came as strangers to each other ;
they brought no common language, no abiding usages, no worship, no
nationality. The admixture of diverse people thus inaugurated, was
further greatly increased by the numerous and widely remote settlements
in America among which the negro emigrants were distributed. Never
in the same space of time was any race so rudely mixed, shaken together
and sifted out.

Raynal and Hume compute that, outside of the United States, nine
millions of Africans were forcibly imported into the various European
settlements. The present treatise is not concerned with their fate, still it
may be mentioned, that, of the total import into the British West Indies
of two millions of Africans, there remained to enjoy the advantages of
emancipation, in 1834, only six hundred and sixty thousand.

Nor was this fearful mortality due to climatic causes ; for among the
British troops in the West Indies, the average annual death rate for the
whites was 8.81 per cent., and for the negroes, 3.91 per cent.

The importations of negroes into the United States never approached
these figures. In Macpherson's Annals of Commerce (Vol.VL, p. 150, et seq.),
such statements as these are to be found. During the eight months end-
ing 12th July, 1753, five hundred and eleven negroes were imported into
Charleston ; fourteen hundred and eighty-two Africans were imported
into Georgia in the years 1765 and 1766 ; from 1783 to 1787 none were
brouglit directly from Africa to the United States, but it was estimated
that three hundred came annually from the West Indies. The slave
trade was abolished by Act of Congress in 1776, but was reopened for the
port of Charleston for four years — 1804 to 1807. During this period the
following numbers of African slaves were imported in two hundred and
two vessels into Charleston, by citizens of foreign nations and the United
States, as here given :

POPULATION. 371

By English merchants 10,649

" merchants of Rliode Island 8,238

" " of other foreign nations 5,177

" " and planters of Charleston and vicinity 2,006

of other Northern States 1,400

of France 1,078

of other Southern States 687

Total . • 38,775

In 1714, there were in all the English colonies, from New Hampshire
to South Carolina, fifty-eight thousand eight hundred and fifty Africans,
of wliom it was tliought that about one-half had been imported. H. C.
Carey, in his work on the slave trade, domestic and foreign, gives the
following estimate of the numbers of Africans imported subsequent to
that date :

Prior to 1714 30,000

1715 to 1750 90,000

1751 to 1760 . . . .■ 35,000

1761 to 1776 74,500

1771 to 1790 34,000'

Subsequent to 1790 ... 90,000

Total 353,500

By the United States census of 1790, there were 757,208 negroes, which
would make 464,858, the number of the natural increase. This would be
for the whole period of seventy-six years, from 1714 to 1790, a natural
increase upon those already in the country, and imported during that'
time, of something over one hundred and fifty-eight per cent., or more
than two per cent, per annum.

At the date of the emancipation of the negro slaves, which practically
took place in 1865, they numbered about 4,600,000. Subtracting the
number imported during this period, viz : 90,000 (a very large estimate),
and not counting those who emigrated, this gives an increase of 3,752,792,
or the enormous natural increase in seventy-five years of four hundred
and forty-two per cent. If there be something repulsive to the delicate-
minded in this rapid pi'opagation of the human species under slavery,
perhaps it may be admitted that it were better, as in this case, that twelve
should be emancipated where one was enslaved, than as in the case of the

372

POPULATION.

Britisli AVest Indies, where the philanthropists only found one to be
emancipated wliere four had been enslaved.

But this rapid increase is by no means due to slavery. The free negroes
increased during slavery even more rapidly, and while their numbers
were augmented by manumitted slaves, the fact that their increase was
somewhat the same in the slave, as in the free States, shows that it was
dependent in a large degree on the birth rate. The numbers are for the

FREE NEGROES.

1790

18G0 .■

P. C. Incietist

United States , . .

. . 59,527

488,070

723

South Carolina . .

. . 1,801

9,914

450

The census of 1880 shows that there are 6,580,793 negroes in the United
States, an increase of 1,980,793, or a natural increase of forty-three per
cent, during the fifteen years which have elapsed since emancipation.

Practically, there has been no importation of negroes from foreign coun-
tries into South Carolina since 1810. By the U. S. Census of that year,
there were 200,919 negroes in the State. The census of 1880 shows that
the number has increased to 604,332. But these figures do not show the
full rate of increase. For in 1880, of negroes born in South Carolina there
were 93,498 residing in other States, chiefly in Georgia, Mississippi, Ala-
bama and Florida, in the order here named. On the other hand, there
were only 15,513 negroes residing in South Carolina, who were born out-
side of the limits of the State. Showing a nett loss of 77,985 by emigra-
tion in the negro population. Nor is this loss so great as the one in the
preceding decade on the same account. By the census of 1870, it appears
that 97,479 negroes born in South Carolina were living in other States,
while the negro population of the State was only increased by 7,219, born
beyond its limits, showing a nett loss of 90,260 in a smaller population
than that of 1880.

The extraordinary rate of increase among the negro population is one
of the most interesting and important questions presented by the race
problem in America. J. Stahl Patterson, who has made a special study
of this subject, estimates this rate of increase for the negro race throughout
the United States has been 33J per cent, for the last decade, while that of
the native whites at the North was less than 15.7 per cent. Should these
respective rates of increase continue without interruption, for the next
century, the negro would outnumber the native Northern whites by 12,-
000,000, notwithstanding that at the present time the negroes stand six
and one-half millions to twentv-four and one-half millions of Northern

POPULATION. 373

whites. Majorities may not always govern, even under universal suf-
frage, but they have their importance, and it is interesting to note that
the competitors in point of increase with the negroes are the Southern
whites, wliose rate of increase is 30.4 per decade, and immigrants from
Europe, whose rate of increase here is as great, or greater.

No effort adequate to even an approximate determination statis-
tically of the intermixture of the negro and white race, has, as yet,
been undertaken. The enumeration of mulattos, attempted by the
census of 18(30 and of 1870, was entirely unsatisfactory, and. in the
census of 1880, none was attempted. Mr. Patterson, who has given
attention to the subject, says: "Even now they are no longer negroes.
One-third has a large infusion of white blood, another third has less,
but still some, and of the other third it would be diffi-cult to find an
assured specimen of pure African blood." This is a startling statement,
but in the absence of statistics, Avho puts it to the test among his negro
acquaintance, will be surprised at the degree in which it conforms to the
facts. If the lineage of those negroes whose color and features seem most
unmistakably to mark them as of purely African descent, be traced, indu-
bitable evidence may often be obtained of white parentage, more or less
remote. In such cases it will be noticed that external characteristics are
by no means invariably associated with internal ones, and that such
blacks are often more intelligent, and bear morally a closer resemblance
to the white race than do many bright-colored mulattos. Here, as else-
where, " in the crossings between unequal human races, the father almost
invariably belongs to the superior race. In ever}" case, and especially in
transient amours, woman refuses to lower herself ; man is less delicate."
{Quatrcfages).

Thus, whatever advance a race makes, it is the female who preserves and
perpetuates it. The intermixture of the races being dependent on negro
mothers will be most rapid and complete where the negro females are in
excess to the males, and vice versa. In this connection it may be re-
marked that the number of negro females, in proportion to males, seems
to have been steadily on the decline in South Carolina since 1850. The
number of negro females to 100,000 males of that race, as given at the
following dates, being :

1850 1860 1S70 1880

105,290 10-1,192 104,232 102,938

The last figure is less than tlie ratio of white females to males, which,
in 1880, is 103,125 to 100,000 males. The proportion of females to males,
among the negro population, is much greater in some of the Northern

374 POPULATION.

States. Thus, in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,
New Jersey and Pennsylvania, there were, in 1850, 108,100 females to
100,000 males in the negro population of these Stajtes ; and in 1880, the
number is 108,419 females to each 100,000 negro males,

The centre of the negro population of the United States lies near the
84 meridian, between the 32 and 33 parallel north latitude, a few miles to
southeast of Macon, Georgia. On the same meridian, but some 600 miles
to the north, lies the centre of the foreign born population of the United
States, between the cities of Toledo and Detroit. The foreign born ex-
ceeds the negro population by only about 100,000, each being in the neigh-
borhood of 6| millions. On the same meridian again, and between the
two centres named, is found at a point in Kentucky, a short distance
southwest of Cincinnati, the centre of the aggregate j^opulation of the
United States ; since 1790 this centre has moved westward from the city
of Baltimore along the 39 parallel of latitude, a distance of 457 miles.
The wide divergence of these two well marked and nearly equal streams
of population, the European and the African, while making the same pro-
gress westward during so considerable a period of time, might naturally be
taken to indicate that it was a result of natural and insurmountable cli-
matic and geographical conditions. Between these poles the greater prox-
imity by 200 miles of the aggregate population to the northern one, in
consequence of the sympathy of Christendom with the European immi-
grants, and race prejudice against the African, have confirmed this
plausible but superficial view, and given rise to many wide spread and
erroneous impressions, regarding the unsuitableness of the Southern
section of the United States as a home for the Caucasian race. It
has come to be regarded as a low, wet, marshy, malarial region, fitted
for the negro and cotton culture, and owing to these, as it were acci-
dental features, its chief importance. It should be remembered, how-
ever, that before the advent of negroes, and long before any importance
attached to cotton, wealthy Englishmen, with the whole country open
to them, well informed as to its climate and resources, after two centuries
of explorations, made choice of South Carolina as the locality best
adajjted for the material development of an English colony. The
Northern and Middle States were colonized by political and religious
refugees, or by persons of peculiar social views. The South was chosen as
a land of promise for those who sought to increase their fortunes, and es-
tablish a people under conditions most favorable for their development.
This is not the place to discuss the adventitious circumstances which have
favored the mis-impressions here referred to ; such, for instance, as the
changes in the art of navigation, which opened the most direct and speedy
communication between the nearest points of Europe and America, in

POPULATION. 375

spite of ocean winds and currents, whereas the sailing vessels of a
hundred years ago found their easiest route from Europe even to New-
York, to he by Charleston. But the relation of the population to climatic
and topographical conditions, as given by the 10th United States Census,
will show that these are not rea-l hinderances to the peopling of the South
with greater numbers of tlie Caucasian race. For while it appears that
the African race does not thrive outside of certain climatic limits, these
limits include nothing injurious to the Caucasian race It will be noted
that the percentage of negroes diminishes in low temperatures
and that it also diminishes in high temperatures, and that in both
cases where the negroes decrease in numbers the percentage of for-
eign born Caucasians increase. It would seem that the more temperate
and genial climate and the most fertile soils, having been fir.st occupied by
Africans, European immigrants, mfluenced by prejudice against the insti-
tution of slavery, which has passed away, and b}" prejudice against a race
which, as has been shown, has greatly changed, and is in process of still
greater changes, have settled on less favored soils, under greater extremes
of climate.

The following table shows the distribution of the population in eleva-
tion above the sea level, according to the 10th Census.

PERCENTAGE OF

Foreign. Aggregate. Xegro.

Below 100 ft 28.31 18.25 22.28

Between 100 and 1000 ft . 40.07 59.41 70.85

Above 1000 ft 31.62 22.34 6.87

100.00 100.00 100.00

Here the negro population occupies the medium elevations, while a
larger percentage of foreigners occupy low lands or greater elevations.
The largest percentage of the aggregate population is also found at the
same elevations with the negro population. And in each instance, ex-
cept as to extreme elevations, the distribution of the negroes more closely
approaches that of the aggregate than the foreign does.

In South Carolina 27 per cent, of the negro population is below 100 ft.
and of this number one-third is immediately on the coast, and not exceed-
ing 40 ft. above the sea level. The remaining two-thirds who live below 100
ft. are thinly scattered over a wide region. It appears that each population
falls off between an elevation 100 and 500 feet. Owing doubtless to
the fact that these elevations, more than others, need drainage to render

376

POPULATION.

them suitable for human habitation. Between 500 and 1000 ft. 43 per
cent, of the negro population of South Carolina is found just where the
largest percentage of the foreign and the aggregate pojiulation are located
in the country at large.

The mean annual temperature of South Carolina varies from 50° in
the mountains to CA° on the seaboard. Within this range of temperature
is found fifty-four per cent, of the aggregate j)opulation of the United
States.

The following table shows the distribution of the foreign, aggregate
and colored populations in accordance with the mean annual temperature:

PERCENTAGES OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTS

Foreign. Aggregate. Negro. of the regions.

Below 40° 1.30 1. 0.03 Wheat.

40° to 50° . . . . 53.G6 37. 3.67 Corn.

50° to 60° . . . . 40.03 44. 36.52 Tobacco.

00° to 70° 4.10 17. 57.42 Cotton, Rice, Sugar.

Above 70° 91 1. 2.36 Tropical Fruits.

100.00 100.00 100.00

Both the foreign and the aggregate population are distributed over a
wider range of mean annual temperatures than the negro. The lower
temperatures are doubtless not favorable to the latter, if indeed they are
to any, but they occupy a temperate climate, and one that yields to the
agriculturist the largest variety of the most profitable crops, with a
mean annual temperature similar to the region reported to have been the
birth-place and cradle of the human race.

The distribution of the population according to the midsummer tem-
perature, or the mean of July as the hottest month, is :

percentages of
Foreign. Aggregate. Negro.

Below 60° 1.63 1. 0.02

60° to 70° 17.27 12. 5.44

70° to 85° 80.69 87. 94.35

Above 85° 0.41 0. 0.19

100.00 100.00 100.00

Here again the bulk of the population forms the mean between the
negro and the foreign, and the latter has a wider distribution, especially
as to the extremes of high and low temperatures.

POPULATION. 377

The distribution of the popuhition according to Avinter temperature, or
the mean temperature of January, taken as the coklest month, is as
follows :

PERCENTAGES OF

Foreign. Aggregate. Netiro.

Below 10° 1.80 1. 0.01

10° to 30° G3.94 50. 5.39

30° to 50° 29.1G 44. 82.58

Above 50° 5.10 5. 12.02

100.00 100.00 100.00

Here again the negro has a more restricted distribution in the more
temperate regions than the foreigner, whose percentages exceed those of
the aggregate in the extremes of both heat and cold.

The distribution of the population according to the greatest observed
heat is as follows :

PERCENTAGES OF

Foreign. Aggregate. Negro.

Below 90° 3.59 ^ 0. 0.07

90° to 105° 91.87 94. 96.53

Above 105° 4.54 6. 3.40

100.00 100.00 100.00

The extreme high temperatures here referred to are much more fre-
quent at the North than at the South, and the result is shown by the
numerous deaths from sunstroke at the North every summer. Such heat
does occur at rare intervals at the' South, and it is equally as fatal here,
as witness the deaths in Charleston in June, 1876, when the hottest day
in more than a century occurred.

The' distribution under the extremes of cold observed is :

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION.

Foreigners. Aggregate. Colored.

Below — 45° 0.09 0. 0

—45° to 10° 92.52 80. 33.88

10° to 20° ..... , 4.53 19. 66.00

Above 20° 2.86 1. 0.12

100.00 100.00 100.00

The remarks made regarding other climatic conditions apply here also ;
the negroes occupy the medium and temperate regions, the aggregate
population comes next, and on the outside, in the extremes, are the
foreign born.
25

378 POPULATION.

Distribution of population in conformity to the annual rainfall, Table 1,
and to the summer rainfall, Table 2.

Table 1st — i>ercextage of

Foreign. Aggregate. Negro,

Below 30 in 12.89 0.08 0.38

30 in. to 45 in. . . . 54.55 52.57 17.14

45 in. to 60 in. . . .81.54 89.65 76.88

Above 60 in 1.02 1.70 5.60

WO.OO 100.00 100.00

Table 2d — percextage of

Foreign. Atrgregate. Negro.

Below 13° 5.86 2.89 0.20

15° to 25° 87.83 76.18 38.47

25° to 35° 6.29 20.77 60.76

Above 35° 0.02 0.16 0.57

100.00 100.00 100.00

It is to be borne in mind that where the annual rainfall is less than
twenty-five inches, or the summer rainfall, that i's the rainfall during the
crop season, does not reach fifteen inches, agriculture cannot be conducted
profitably except by irrigation. And of course the irrigation afforded by
streams traversing such regions must be so limited that a large agricultural
population can take no foothold there, hi these arid regions the bulk of
the population is foreign, and engage little in agricultural pursuits. With
regard to rainfall, as with the other factors of climate, the percentage of
negroes is greatest where the conditions are most favorable for the sup-
port of the human race ; the aggregate j^opulation have the next choice,
and the foreigners again fall upon less favored regions. AMiile the negroes
occupy regions of abundant rainfall, this rainfall is nowhere excessive,
nor does it produce an 'atmosphere saturated with moisture. The porous
character of the soils of South Carolina, through which the water, not neces-
sary for vegetation, readily disappears, and the large number of cloudless
days make mist and fog, mildew and rust, a rare occurrence, so that even
in areas of the heaviest rainfall the relative humidity of the atmosphere
is similar to, but even less than that of the most noted health resorts of
the world. (See Sand Hill Region Climate.)

Within the State of South Carolina the distribution of the negro popu-
lation does not appear to have been determinately influenced by climatic
or topographical conditions. They still prej^onderate most largely along
the southern and south-western borders of the State, where they were first

POPULATION. 370

cofcnized. Hence they have spread over irreguhir areas, maintaining in
them their preponderance even to the northern boundaries of the State.
The areas thus successively occupied by them are those where cotton cul-
ture has been the leading pursuit. They are characterized by a light soil,
of easy culture, yielding a crop readily and directly convertible into cash,
requiring no fore-cast as to drainage and fallows, and no complex combi-
nations of the areas to be directed to tillage and pasturage, to grain and
cattle. Their minimum percentage to the other population is found in
Horry county, upon the southeastern seaboard of the State and diagonally
across the State from this locality, among the mountains in the northwest.
While three or four lines, where the white population predominates, cross
the entire State in a north and south direction.

The rate of increase of the negro population from 1790 to 1860 was
much slower in those counties in which they were originally the
most numerous — in Beaufort, Charleston, Georgetown and Colleton.
Here their numbers were barely doubled during this period, while they
were being quadrupled in the State at large. They seemed to have reached
their maximum then, and were on the decline. This was most marked in
the case of Charleston county. Here, in 1790, they numbered 34,846, in
1830 they were 65,534, and then steadily declined to 40,822 in 1860.

Since 1860 the increase has been pretty uniform. Charleston has re-
gained her losses, and reached and passed her maximum of 1830, num-
bering now 71,808, but the other counties which were earliest most
thickly peopled with this race still lag behind, and Beaufort, Colleton
and Georgetown continue to show considerable losses, while the increase
of the upper country has been large. This is the more notable, as this
region where these losses have accrued is the very one thought best
adapted to the African, being low, wet and warm.

The geographical indefiniteness of the census of 1870 docs not allow
the movements of the colored population during the last decade to be
traced with precision. The following table gives the nearest approximation
that could be obtained to the facts in this regard.

PERCENTAGE OF COLORED IN TOT.VL POPULATION'.

1870. IBSO Increase Decrease.

Alpine Region 23 27 3 *

Piedmont Region 49 56 7 *

Sand and Red Hills 61 56 * 5

Upper Bine Belt m 59 * 7

Lower Pine Belt 67 70 3

Coast Region ....••. 90 84 * 6

380 ropuLATiox.

These figures show no tendency of the colored population to sepai^te
from the aggregate population and to become localized. On the contrary,
the coast region, where they have preponderated for generations, where
they own more property than elsewhere, where they have retained
undisputed control in political affairs, and where, in fine, every condition
seems most favorable to promote, developc and maintain colored predom-
inance, exhibits a marked decrease in their percentage of the population.
At the same time in the Alpine and Piedmont regions, where their num-
bers have always been smaller, an increase appears whicli more than com-
pensates for the decrease on the coast. Such fluctuations seem rather to
indicate that the colored race has a tendency to mix with the white pop-
ulation in certain limited proportions. This opinion gathers force by
considering their ratio in the towns as compared with what it is in the
rural districts in the differe^t sections of the State. Thus, while the
negroes form 86 per cent, of the rural population of Charleston (old),
Beaufort and Georgetown counties, they only form 56 per cent, of the pop-
ulation of the towns themselves. And in the Piedmont region, while they
are only 35 per cent, of the rural population of Greenville and Spartan-
burg counties, they form 45 per cent of the population of the towns.
Of the 739 towns of the united counties having a population of 4,000
and upwards, only eight are without a colored population. Only three,
however, in all this number, viz : Newbern and AVilmington, N. C., and
Danville, Va , have a colored population that reaches sixty per cent., a
percentage quite common among the rural population.

The rapidly augmenting and more mobile populations of the towns
may thus indicate what is to be the general tendency in the pro-
portions of the races that where negroes are in excess of 56 per cent, they
w^ill diminish, and where they are less than 45 per cent, they will increase
in presence of the white race. It is at least more probable that the final
result will be determined by some law like this, and not by any wholesale
movement on the part of either race. For the exodus of negroes to the
northwest api^ears, in the light of the late census, to have amounted to
nothing, just as their much talked of return to Africa from Charleston
a few years since did. Mississippi, Louisiana and North Carolina, whence
the emigrations took place, show large gains in their colored population ;
while Kansas and Iowa, whither these emigrants went, have actually lost
in the relative proportion of the black to the white population. But
while a movement in mass of the negro population has not and may
never take place, the indications that their general diffusion is progress-
ing rapidly are well marked. They are now present in greater or less
number in every State and Territory, and are increasing most rapidly
where formerly they were fewest. The northern and western non-slave-

POrULATION. 381

holding States had less than six per cent, of the negro population of 18G0,
but they have nearly ten per cent, of the much larger negro poi)ulation
of 1880; and while the increase during this period was only forty-eight
per cent, for the whole country, it was one hundred and twenty-five per
cent, for this region.

Contrary, then, to the many theories on this subject, the fticts, up to
this date, point decidedly to a general dissemination of the negro race.
To say that they are not adapted to -these northern and western latitudes,
and that they will only go there to be destroyed by the severity of the
climate, is, to use an argument that has no general application to the
great movements of mankind. Even now, the foreigners avIio go to
those same regions, suffer fearfully from the severity of the climate, as
shown by their death rate (see page 377) ; nevertheless, they continue
to go.

The negro in South Carolina is performing a fair share of physical
labor, but left to himself he is without initiative and is well content to do
little work and to reap small profits. They are of temperate habits, and
drunkenness and gluttony are rare among them. Without the more
robust virtues or vices of the white race, they are cheerful, pleasant tem-
pered and inoffensive. If they suffered grievous wrongs during slavery,
as has been so widely asserted, with every opportunity and incitement
from outsiders to do so, they have shown no disposition to take revenge
upon their former masters. The personal relations between the two races
continue most friendly, and perhaps no where in the world and at no
time in its history, has such easy, considerate, kind and respectful inter-
course subsisted between employer and employee, as between the Southern
white man and the negro.

EUROPEANS

1497 derived their first knowledge of South Carolina from Sebastian
Cabot, an English subject, who visited these coasts shortly after
the discovery of the new world.

1520 D'Ayllon, in quest of gold and slaves, landed on St. Helena island,
gave it its name, and claimed the country for Spain.

1562 Admiral Coligny sends a colony of French Huguenots, in two
small vessels, to Port Royal ; a settlement of twenty-six persons is
made there ; but the following year they build a vessel and return
to France, leaving to the country only its name, Caroline, after
their king, Charles IX., and a small fort.

1G29 The country is granted to Sir Robert Heath by Charles I. of
England, under the name of Carolina.

382 POPULATION.

1GG3 Charles II. of England grants the country to certain English
noblemen, stjded the Absolute Lords and Proprietors of Carolina.

1670 The proprietors, at an expenditure of £12,000, send out two small
vessels, under Capt. Wm.'Sajde, to Beaufort. This colony removes
the next year to Ashley river, and a few years later occupy the
present site of Charleston, and form the first permanent white
settlement in South Carolina.

The proprietors offer to all immigrants lands at £20 per one
thousand acres ; Avhere cash could not be paid, an annual rent of
one penny per acre was required. For the first five years every
freeman was offered one hundred acres, and every servant fifty
acres, at an annual rent not exceeding half penny per acre.

1671 The proprietors grant land to a colony from the Barbadoes,
under Sir John Yeamans.

1674 The ^proprietors furnish two small vessels to remove a Dutch

colony from Nova Belgia (New York) to John's island, whence

they spread into the surrounding country.
1679 Charles II. provides at his own expense two small vessels to

transport foreign Protestants, chiefly French Huguenots, to

Charleston.
1696 Members of a Congregational church, with Mr. Joseph Lord,

their pastor, remove in a body from Dorchester, Massachusetts,

to the neighborhood of Charleston.
1701 According to Dr. Hewitt, the population of South Carolina

is seven thousand. It consists of a medley from many countries,

and of different faiths. There are Cavaliers and Puritans from

England, Dissenters from Scotland, Dutchmen from New York,

French Huguenots, and Africans.
1712 The Assembly of South Carolina offer £1-1 to the " owners and

importers " of each healthy male British servant, between the ages

of twelve and thirty years, " not a criminal."
1715 Five hundred Irish immigrate at their own expense to occupy

the lands from which Yemassee the Indians have been driven,

but finding them laid out in liaronies for the Lords Proprietors,

most of them remove to the North.

1718 The Lords Proprietors, having advanced £18,000 to' the settlers,
refuse to furnish additional supplies, and when asked for cattle,

' reply that " they wished not to encourage graziers, but planters."

1719 The proprietors sell their right and interest in the soil and gov-
ernment of Carolina to the king, for £17,500, and an additional
£5,000 for the quit rents, over due by the colonists.

172-4 According to Dr. Hewitt, the population is thirty-two thousand.

POPULATION. 383

1730 The colonial government marks out eleven townships of twenty
thousand acres each, and offer fifty acres, rent free for ten years, to
every man, woman and child who would come over to occupy
them. After that period a rental of four shillings per one hundred
acres was to be paid annually.

1731 The government offers Peter Pury £400 for every one hundred
effective men brought over from Switzerland. Three hundred and
seventy arrive, and are granted forty thousand acres on the lower
Savannah river, at Purysburg. (Full fare across the ocean at this
time is £5 for immigrants.)

1733 The Scotch-Irish descendants of the Scotch Covenanters, from
Downe county, Ireland, settle Williamsburg county, named after
King William III.

1735 A colony of Germans settle in Orangeburg county, wliich is
named after the Prince of Orange.

173G The Assembly grants a large tract of land on the Pee Dee to
Welsh settlers from Pennsylvania.

1739 The council appropriate £6,000 as a bounty to the first two hun-
dred immigrants (above twelve years of age, two under to count
as one over that age) from Wales, settling upon the Welsh tract on
the Pee Dee. They offered in addition to each head above twelve
•years, twelve bushels corn, one barrel of beef, fifty pounds pork,
one hundred poinds rice, one bushel salt, and to each male one
axe, one broad hoe, one cow and calf, and one young sow.

1746 After the battle of Culloden many of the Scotch rebels were
removed to South Carolina.

1750 Saxe Gotha township (Lexington county) was laid off and occu-
pied by settlers from Saxe Gotha, Germany. In the same year a
colony of Quakers from Ireland settle Camden (Kershaw county).

1755 Governor Glenn opens the upper-country for settlement by a
treaty he makes with the Cherokee Indians, obtaining from them
the cession of a large tract of territory, and by erecting in the
Northwest (Pickens county) Fort Prince George.

1760 After Braddock's defeat, numbers of Pennsylvanians and Vir-
ginians, feeling insecure on account of the Indians, move overland
to the upper-country of South Carolina.

1764 King George furnishes £300, tents, one hundred and fifty stand
of arms and two small vessels, to a colony of Germans, who receive,
on reaching Charleston, £500 from the Assembly, and are assigned
lands in Londonderry township (Edgefield county).

1764 Two hundred and twelve French Protestants reach Charleston,
and are furnished transportation to Long Cane, Abbeville county,
where they settle New Bordeaux township.

384

1705

1783

POPULATION.

Population according to Hewit : white, 38,000; colored, 85,000;
total, 123,000.

The war of independence being achieved, " multitudes from
Europe and the Eastern and Middle States of America moved into
South Carolina. "

Such, in brief, were the various and numerous peoples who contributed
to the early colonization of South Carolina. The first permanent settle-
ment had for its motive the ambition of certain wealthy English noble-
men. In the hope of increasing their power and wealth, they offered
lands, transportation, and bounties to all adventurers ; offers not unac-
ceptable to the crowded populations of Europe, who had fallen heirs to
religious, social and political oppressions as their sole legacy. Afterwards
colonization was promoted by direct trade with England, by European
wars and persecutions, by military disasters in the Northern States, by
largesses offered to settlers by the local government, and last, but above
all, by the successful issue of the war of independence, which opened this
country to the oppressed of all nations.

The following table shows the population of South Carolina and of the
United States for each census, from 1790 to 1880 :

United States.

South Carolina.

2
a*

o

P
cr'

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m

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YEAR.

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1790 . .

239,935

3,929,214

16.4

249,073

140,178

108,805

.06

1800 . .

305,708

5,308,483

17.4

345,591

196,255

149,336

11.5

.06

38.7

1810..

407,945

7,239,881

17.71

415,115

214,196
237,440

200,919

13.8

.05

20.1

1820 . .

508,717

9,633,822

18.9

502,741

265,301

16.7

.05

21.1

1830 . .

632,717

12,866,020

20.3

581,185

257,863 323,322

19.3

.04

15.6

1840. .

807,292

17,069,453

21.1

594,398

259,084 335,314

19.7

.03

2.2

1850 . .

979,249

23,191,876

25.7

668,507

274,563 393,944

22.2

.03

12.4

1860 . .

1,194,754

31,443,321

26.3

703,708

291,300,412,320

23.3

.02

5.2

1870 . .

1,272,239

38,558,371

30.3

705,706

289,667

415,814

25.3

.OlA

0.2

1880. .

1,569,570

50,155,783

32.

995.577

391,105,604,332

32.9

.01A41.

PERCENTAGE OF THE INCREASE

At Each Census, from 1790 to 1880, of the Population of South
Carolina, represented Graphically.

1790

1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860

PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF THE AGGREGATE POPULATION.
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF THE WHITE POPULATION.
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF THE COLORED FREE POPULATION.
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF THE COLOREO SLAVE POPULATION.

1880

POPULATIOX,

385

Percentage, of Increase of the Population of South Carolina from 1790 to 1880.

Period.

White.

Colored.

Totals.

Free.

Slave.

South
Carolina.

States
of the
Union.

1

2

o
o

4

5
6

7
8
9

1790 to 1800 . .
1800 to 1810 . .
1810 to 1820 . .
1820 to 1830 . .
1830 to 1840 . .
1840 to 1850 . .
1850 to 1860 . .
1860 to 1870 . .
1870 to 1880 . .

40.00
9.14

10.85
8.06
0.47
5.97
6.05
(«) 0 55

35.01

76.84
42.98
49.89
16.04

448

8.26

10.64

00

45

36.46
34.35
31.62
22.02

3.68
17.71

4.52

87

.33

38.75

20.12

21.11

15.06

2.27

12.47

5.2

0.2

41.0

34.66
36.30
33.11
33.53
32.74
35.38
35.57
22.22
29.50

(a) Decrease.

THE INCREASE OF THE POPULATION

of South Carolina from 1790 to 1800 was greater that it has been at any
subsequent period prior to the census of 1880. The increase for that de-
cade was much greater than for the country at large, and there were only
five out of all the States, at that date, that were making a more rapid
growth than South Carolina. The second decade — the one during which
the slave trade was temporarily reopened at Charleston — showed a large
diminution in the rate of increase ; it went down sixteen per cent, below
that of the country at large, and from fifth, the State fell to eleventh in the
order of increase. The third decade showed a slight improvement, and
South Carolina stood thirteenth among the twenty-four States of that
date in order of increase. In the fourth decade the decrease continued ;
twenty States had a larger growth, and South Carolina was increasing at
a rate less than half of that at which the country at large was growing
in population. The fifth decade was marked in South Carolina by the
nullification agitation ; the rate of increase fell enormously. While the
country at large maintained nearly the same rate as at the outset, the
rate here was only one-seventeenth of what, it had been in 1800, and
South Carolina stood last of all the States, at this date, except one— Dela-
ware. There was a marked improvement between 1840-50, the rate of
increase being nearly six times as great as in the preceding decade.

386 POPULATION.

Nevertheless, South Carolina was again lowest, except the "States of
Vermont and New Hampshire, and the very erroneous opinion was en-
tertained in some quarters that, like those States, she had about reached
the limit of the population that her soil would sustain. The next de-
cade opened with the first secession agitation ; there was a still lower
rate of increase, and South Carolina still stood behind all the States ex-
cept Vermont and New Hampshire. Then came the sixth decade, of
war and reconstruction ; the political and social doctrines at variance
with the publfc opinion of all Christendom came to an open rupture, and
were submitted to the arbitrament of the sword. The increase of the
population was less than one per cent. ; among the whites there was an
actual decrease of one-half of one per cent., and South Carolina was
behind all the States but Maine. The dust has scarcely lightened from
the ruin wrought bv this great overthrow than a new South Carolina
appears, more vigorous than ever. The census of 18S0 shows that, from
next to last, she has advanced above twenty-nine of her sister States, and
stands eighth in the order of increase of the population. For the ninth
decade her increase is forty-one per cent. — higher than it ever was — and
more than one-third more than that of the country at large. One of the
most remarkable features of this increase is, that it is not due, to any
very large extent, to immigration, but chiefly to the large degree in
which the migration of her natives to other States has ceased.

The obvious parallelism between the changes of the aggregate popula-
tion and those of each of its constituent elements, indicates most clearly
that here there has been no distinctive antagonism of the races and con-
ditions of men. Slave insurrections and the dread of them have been
much dwelt on. In reality, they have amounted to nothing. Only two
are recorded in a period of more than two hundred years. In 1740, a mob
of drunken negroes, supposed to have been incited thereto by hostile
Spaniards, marched a distance of fifteen miles, murdering two clerks in
a warehouse and Mr. Godfrey and his family. They were attacked by
the congregation of a small country church at Willtown, who at once
dispersed them without suffering any loss. In 1821, some negroes (34)
were hanged in Charleston on what was held to be evidence of a con-
spiracy to excite a slave insurrection. The Hamburg and Ellenton
riots, in 1876, resulted in seventeen homicides, with, possibly, an equal
number for all the election conflicts during reconstruction ; and were all
the casualties resulting from the contests of the whites and negroes in
South Carolina during the whole history of the State counted, the num-
ber would not ec[ual that of the agrarian outrages reported in a single
year in Ireland. For ninety years the increase of the white And colored
population of the State has moved on parallel lines, with only two ex-

POPULATION. 387

ceptions. The variable element in each of these exceptions has been the
slave population, which, in 1820 and in 18G0, diminished, while the
white and free colored were augmenting their rate of increase.

The variations are not great, and were, probably, due to the movement
of slaves in larger numbers, at these dates, to the fresh lands of the
Southwest. No such variations appear between the rate of increase of
the whites and the free colored. With the facts as they presented them-
selves in 1860, it is remarkable that, in view of the uniformly greater
rate of increase of the free colored population, that the Superintendent
of the seventh census should have ventured to predict the disappearance
of the negro race as the probable consequence of emancipation. It is
noteworthy, regarding these predictions of the census ofhce, made during
the war, that, while the white population of 1880 in the United States
falls fifteen per cent, short of the figure it was thought it would reach,
the colored population reaches within one-half of one per cent, of the
number it was estimated at. This prediction was based on the estimate
that the colored race would increase at the rate of 22.07 per cent, in each
decade, a rate of increase that is less that the least recorded at any date
for the aggregate population of the United States. In as much as the
increase of the colored race has fallen short, in the last two decades, of
even this moderate figure, the fears that have been expressed by certain
scientific writers, that their numbers would attain proportions threaten-
ing the suj)remacy of the white race, are evidently without foundation
in fact.

The wonderful recuperation in the rate of increase of the population
of South Carolina within the last decade, after seventy years of steady
decline in that rate, and so immediately after the final and overwhelm-
ing catastrophe of the decade of 1860 to 1870, makes it plain that the
limit of the natural resources of the State for sustaining a large popula-
tion has not only not been reached, but that these resources may be said
to be almost untouched. If the drainage basin of the Santee river, the
river of Carolina, were peopled as thickly as the basin of the Hudson or
the Delaware, instead of a population of three hundred thousand, it
would hold one of more than two and one-half millions. In natural ad-
vantages, whether the amount of navigable highway be considered, or
the power its waters could furnish for stationary machinery, and the
facility with which it might be utilized, or the healthfulness of the cli-
mate, or the fertility of the soil and the diversified crops it can produce
—in any and all these regards the river of Carolina will compare favor-
ably with the others named. If the State were as thickly settled as
Rhode Islai 1 and Massachusetts, it would contain a population of seven
to eight millions, a number equal to the population of the entire United

3S8 POPULATION.

States in 1810, more than double that of Scotland, and more than twice
the population of Australia, now paying annually ninety millions of
dollars interest to England on loans of English capital invested there.
Meanwhile, ten thousand square miles of the most fertile region of Caro-
lina does not to-day average as many inhabitants to the square mile as
are to be found in each house of the old town of Edinburg. Practically,
therefore, in these regards, the natural advantages and capacities of South
Carolina may be said to be unlimited. "Whatever her future increase
may be, it will suffer no let or hindrance on these accounts, but will de-
pend upon the degree in which she can succeed in establishing and
maintaining cordial relations with the other States and nations ol Chris-
tendom. Freed finally and forever from all that in the past has so
heavil}" shackled their intercourse with outsiders, the polity of her people
has taken a new and vigorous departure ; they have thrown their gates
wide open to all comers ; aid and welcome is extended to immigrants ;
manufacturers are encouraged b}^ relieving the capital invested in them
from taxation, and their traditional doctrines of free trade would admit
all people to their commerce.

MOVEMENT OF THE POPULATION.

The first settlements took place along the seacoast, thence, slowly mov-
ing inland, they followed the rivers. There were settlers in the
upper-countr}^ as early as 1736, but no great progress was made there
until the middle of the eighteenth century. Meanwhile there remained,
as there is now and has been during all the movements of population in
the State, a vacant or thinly-settled belt between the upper and the lower
country. The State is this day traversed by two such belts of thinly-
settled country, the sand hill region and the flat lands of the lower pine
belt. The first is comparatively narrow, and is due to the dry and sandy
soil which unfits it, in large measure, for the present methods of agricul-
ture. The other is due to the want of drainage, which, with the accession
of wealth, will be remedied, and an extensive and fertile region will be
opened to settlers.

The Indians were, perhaps the most mobile of all the populations that
have inhabited South Carolina. Nevertheless, there is everywhere and
always a continual movement of the population in progress. Even in
England and Scotland, where the populati^jn might be considered " to
the manor born," it has been found that only a little over seventy-five
per cent, were living in the counties where they were b orn. If for coun-
ties, States are substituted, about the same percentage obtains for the
United States, a little more than seventy -six per cent, of the native popu-

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rr

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CO

111

ul

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I- h-

U3 CO

POPULATION.

389

lation being found in the States in which they were born, according to
the census of 1880. This percentage, however, varies widely in tlie dif-
ferent States. In Vermont, only fifty-eight per cent, of those born there
were found remaining in their native State. In Texas, on the other
hand, this percentage was ninety-five, as given, in both instances, by the
census of 1880. For South Carolina it is eighty per cent., and only
fourteen out of thirty-eight States retain more of their native population
than she does. The fluctuations that have occurred in this regard will
be seen by reference to the following data, taken from the returns of the
United States census for the years specified :

Movement of the Population of South Carolina in the United States, and from

other Countries.

1860

Persons born in S. C. living in the U. S.
Persons born in S. C. living in S. C. . ,
Loss by movement within the U. S. . .

Population of S. C

Gain by immigration from all quarters .
Balance of emigration over immisration.

470,257
276,868
193,389, . . .
291,S00'412,408
14,432: . . .
178,957[ . . .

703,708

1870

Persons born in S. C. living in the U. S.
Persons born in S. C. living in S. C. . .
Loss by movement within the U. S. . ..

Population of S. C. .

Gain by immigration from all c{uarters .
Balance of emigration over immigration.

418,875 505,899
270,301408,407
148,574 97,492
290,067 415,938

19,766

128,809

17,531!
79,961

924,774

678,708
246,066
700,005
37,297
208,770

1880

Persons born in S. C. living in the U. S.
Persons born in S. C. living in S. C. . .
Loss by movement within the U. S. . .

Population of S. C

Gain by immigration from all quarters.
Balance of emigration over immigration.

500,994 682,8174,183,311
363,5761588,819 952,395
137,418j 93,498 230,916
391,105^604,472 995,577
27,5291 15,653 43,182
109,889 77,845 187,734

390

POPULATION. -

Percentage of the Population at each Decade.

Year.

1^

Colored.

<

O

1860

Born in S. C. and residing in other States.
Coming into S. C. from all quarters . .
Balance of emigration over immigration.

.66
.04
.61

Born in S. C. and residing in other States.

1870 ,Coming into S. C. from all quarters . .

Balance of emigration over immigration.

.51

.06
.44

.23

.04
.19

.34

.05

.28

1880

Born in S. C. and residing in other States.
Coming into S. C. from all quarters . .
Balance of emigration over immigration.

.35 .15
.07 .02
,28 .13

1

.23
.04
.17

There can be no doubt as to the significance of these figures. The
immense losses the State has hitherto sustained in the migration of her
natives to other States, is rapidly lessening, especially as regards the
white population. Natives of South Carolina are found in every State
and Territory of the Union, not excepting Alaska. They are met with
in the largest number in the following States, varying in the order here
named, from 50,000 to 11,000: Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas,
Florida, North Carolina, Arkansas and Tennessee. Natives of each
State and Territory of the Union, except Alaska and Washington Terri-
tory, are found in South Carolina ; the largest number are from North
Carolina, 17,297; Georgia, 7,641; Virginia, 4,158; New York, 1,070.
There are, also, among the citizens of South Carolina, natives of each of
the following countries: Africa, Asia, Australia, Austria, Belgium,
Bohemia, Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, British
America, Central America, China, Cuba, ' Denmark, France, Baden,
Bavaria, Brunswick, Hamburg, Hanover, Hessen, Mecklenburg, Nassau,
Oldenburg, Prussia, Saxony, Wurtemberg, England, Ireland, Scotland,
AVales, Greece, Greenland, Holland, Hungary, India, Italy, Malta, Mexico,
Norway, the Pacific Islands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Sandwich Islands,
South America, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the West Indies,

POPULATION. 391

besides thirty-two born on the high seas. The total number of foreign
born is 7.686, which is 2,300 less than in 1860, showing that the State
has not yet resumed relations, as they existed previous to the war, with
foreign countries, despite the efforts being made to encourage immigra-
tion. That the conditions of life in South Carolina are unusually favor-
able to foreigners is shown by the fact of the much larger proportion of
persons descended from foreign born parents in South Carolina than in
the country at large. Thus, the number of persons in this State having
one or both parents foreign born is 21,666, or something over 2.8 for each
resident foreigner, while for the country at large it is only 2.2 for eacli
resident foreigner. That persons of foreign descent in South Carolina
should number 182 per cent, of the foreign born population of the State,
and only 123 per cent, of that of the whole country, is due to the lower
rate of mortality and to the higher rate of natural increase promoted by
a more temperate and healthful climate in Carolina, and also doubtless
to moral causes. These are, that owing to the large colored population
of the State, the more skillful and intelligent foreigners are able to com-
mand more remunerative positions in the higher occupations here than
elsewhere. And when their descendants, having more time for observa-
tion, ascertain this state of things, they are not slow to migrate hither,
from places where, from the facilities offered by transportation, their
parents may have first landed and settled. Thus 12 per cent, of the for-
eign population of the whole country is engaged in agriculture, but only
6 per cent, of that population in South Carolina is so engaged ; 14 per
cent of the foreign population of the country is engaged in personal and
professional service against 10 per cent, in South Carolina ; and of tiiis
14 per cent. 11 per cent., or 777,382 foreigners belong to the lowest of
drudgeries, that is to the class of common laborers and domestic servants.
In the higher and more remunerative occupations of trade and transpor-
tation only 7 per cent, of the foreign population of the country at large
find occupation, while 19 per cent, of that of South Carolina is thus en-
gaged. Again, in manufactures and mining, 18 per cent, of foreigners
in the country at large find work, against 11 per cent, of that population
in South Carolina ; and of this 18 per cent, there are 126,325 miners ;
74,961 cotton factory operatives, and 167,971 operatives and laborers in
other manufacturing establishments; making in all 5 per cent, of the
entire foreign-born population in this class of laborious and compara-
tively poorly paid occupations. Now that slavery is abolished and labor
is free here, foreign workmen and artisans will not be slow to perceive
the better chance offered bv the condition of affairs in Carolina.

302 POPULATION.

SEXES.

There are fourteen thousand seven hundred and sixty-one more females
than males in South Carolina, or something over three per cent., indi-
cating a peaceful and settled mode of life, and the prevalence of such
occupations as furnish employment to females. In the ratio of females
to males South Carolina ranks sixth among the States of the Union, the
District of Columbia standing first. The Western and newer States, where
the conditions of life are harder and the occupations require more robust
natures, rank lowest, and in some of them the number of females are only
half the number of males. Within the State the males are slightly in
excess in Horry and Clarendon counties, and in portions of Colleton,
Hampton, Barnwell, and Edgefield. Elsewhere females predominate.

AGES.

Multiplying the number of individuals enumerated at each age and
adding the products together, the aggregate number of years lived by
the population is ascertained. This aggregate for the population of the
entire United States, according to the late Census of 1880 is 1,211,568,528
years. If divided by the number of individuals it will give an average
of 24 7-10 years for each. For South Carolina the average number of
years for each individual ascertained in the same way is 21 27-100 years.
At first view it might be inferred that the population of South Carolina,
having lived fewer years, was the shorter lived. The real explanation is
however, quite different. Foreigners constitute about 12 per cent, of the
population of the United States and only 7-10 of 1 per cent, of that of
South Carolina. The maximum number at any one age among the
foreign-born population is found between the ages of 40 and 50, while
among the native population this maximum varies from the age of one
year for colored females in the United States to six years for the same
class in South Carolina. Thus it happens that the number of years lived
by the population, including the larger percentage of adult foreigners is
swelled by the number of years these immigrants have lived in other
countries, while the years lived by the native population is diminished
by the deaths common everywhere in the early periods of life. This
observation has especial force in South Carolina, owing to the greater
number of children there. It will be found also that the aggregate of
years lived by those attaining old age in South Carolina gives an average
of 77 2-10 years for each person over 70, while this average for the
country at large, despite the advantage given by the foreign element, is only

POPULATION.

393

76 years. Which indicates that the chances for longevity of persons ad-
vanced in life is greater in Carolina than elsewhere. If instead of the
above estimate, the number of individuals enumerated at each age be
multiplied by the mean future expectation of life from that age, as given
in life assurance tables, it Avill be found the results for South Carolina
and for the United States agree very nearly, being about 33 years each
From an economical point of view, the ages of the population may be
considered in regard to the proportions between the number of persons
belonging to the dependent anid the number belonging to the self-sus-
taining and contributing ages. The following table shows tlie number
of persons in each 1,000 of the male and female, white and colored native
population of South Carolina and of the United States at the early de-
pendent or formative age, 1 year to 15 years ; at the self-sustaining and
contributing ages, 15 years to 70 years ; and at the later dependent age,
70 years and over, according to the United States Census of 1880 :

White.

Colored.

Ages.

Male.

Female.

Male.

Female.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S.

S.C.

1 to 15 years.
15 to 70 years.
70 y'rs & over.

448

535

17

459
523

18

443
539

' 18

422

557.

21

464

521

15

508

473

19

460

521

19

483

497

20

Total

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

26

594

POPULATION.

The following table gives the same data for the aggregate population,
aiul for the male and female foreign born population of South Carolina
and of the United States, and the average of seven European States:

Aggregate.

Foreign Born.

.-1

-^ CO

Ages.

Male.

Female.

O jH

P 9^

1

B 2

U.S.

s. c.

u. s. 1 s. c.

U.S.

s. c.

> :3

1 to 15 3'ears

399

470

70

29

79

45

336

15 to 70 years

582

511

899

921

886

894

632

70 years and over. .

19

19

31

50

35

61

32

Total

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

The most notable feature in these tables is the greater number of young
persons in South Carolina than in the country at large and the still
Greater number than in foreign countries. AVhile this necessarilv adds
to the burden of the working population, it forms the hope of the future,
and life is so much easier in South Carolina than it is in more densely
peopled countries, that the promise to multiply and increase and replen-
ish the earth is still regarded here as a promise of blessing, and surprise
is felt that it should anywhere be a burden. There are only two exceptions
to this preponderance, namely, among the foreign-born and white females.
The foreign-born however do not seem to find the conditions unfavora-
ble to them, the proportion that pass on through the working period of
life to full old age being much greater in this State than it is either in
tlie United States at large, or in their native countries. The somewhat
smaller proportion of white females, if not accidental, is otherwise unex-
plained, unless it results from a diminution of female births, which might
also account for the diminution of females to males, which has occurred
within the last decade.

It will be observed that in the particular above referred to, the ages of
the population of the country at large resemble those of the European
populations more than the ages of the population of South Carolina do.

POPULATION. 395

In Europe the natural increase of the population is much restrained, the
closer struggle for existence there tells against the young, adults are re-
quired to endure its hardships, and hence their preponderance. And it
is at once sad and curious to recall that in this, these highly civilized
Christian nations resemble savage tribes, among whom the proportion of
children to adults is always small. The population of South Carolina, as
represented by the numbers at the different ages, is one growing rapidly
by natural increase, and under favorable conditions ; these favorable con-
ditions being exhibited by the relatively large numbers passing over
from the working period of life to old age. Such a state of things is
highly promising, provided that the numbers in tlie early formative age-
realize by their labors on reaching the self-sustaining and contributing
age what has been expended in rearing them.

It is a popular estimate that one-fifth of the population are fighting
men. If this is intended to designate the natural militia, that is the
male population over eighteen and under forty-five years of age, it will
almost always be an over estimate except in a population receiving large
accessions of adult immigrants or among savage tribes. It is true that
during the war of secession South Carolina is estimated to have put
60,000 men in the field from a white population, from eighteen to forty-
five years, not exceeding 55,046. This was during a period of four years
however, and the number actually in service at one time probably never
exceeded 44,000. During the war of the Revolution, 1775-83, South
Carolina furnished more than eight per cent, of' the entire American
forces. — (Rep. Secretary of War, May LOt'i, 1790,) although her white
population was only four per cent, of that of the old Thirteen States.
During the war with Mexico, 1846-48, the volunteer troops from South
Carolina sustained one-seventh of all the casualties in the volunteer
forces of the whole country. South Carolina's losses in the Confederate
service, 1861-65, is estimated at 12,000 men. While in times of war
South Carolina thus " stiffened her sinews and bent up every spirit to its
full height," in times of profound peace, as at present, she feels there is
" nothing more becomes her than quiet, stillness and humility." Her
military service is purely voluntary. The whole number of troops en-
rolled is about 4,000, of whom only about 2,500 parade at inspections.
The Legislature appropriates $5,500, or $1.35 a man, in aid of those con-
nected with the military organizations of the State. The following table
shows, according to the United States Census for the years specified, the
numbers of the natural militia in the white (native and foreign), the
colored and in the aggregate population of South Carolina and of the
United States, and also the percentage of this class in each of the above
named constituent elements of the population and in the total population :

396

POPULATION.

MALES FROM 18 TO 45 YEARS OF AGE.

White.

1

Colored.

Per Cent, of
Population.

TOTA-L.

Year.

Native.

Per Ct. of
Populat'n.

Foreign.

Per Ct. of
Populat'n.

Per Cent. (
Populatioi

1860, U. S . .

. . . .

. .

. . . .

. .

....

. .

5,624,065

20

1860, S. C . .

55,046

IS

1870, U.S..

4,782,409

17

1,873,402

34

861.164

18

7,570,487

19

1870, S.C.

49,721

17

2,606

32

70,407

16

120,154

17

1880, U. S. .

7,028,134

IS

1,960,751

29

1,242,354

18

10.231,239

20

1880, S. C . .

70,616

18

2,021

26

98,285

16

170,922

17

It will be noted how much the foreign element adds to this class in
the country at large, being more than double the colored race, although
the two populations differ in numbers only about one-tenth of one per
cent. It will also be observed that this class is on the increase in the
white population of South Carolina, while there is a marked decrease
among the negroes, owing, doubtless, to the emigration to other States of
adult negros.

POPULATION.

397

Similar data from the same sources, in regard to the number of males
at the age of citizenship, are exhibited in the following table :

MALES 21 YEARS OF AGE AND UPWARDS.

White.

1

1

Colored.

Per Cent, of
Population.

Total.

•i 1

Year.

Native.

Per Ct. of
Populat'n.

Foreign.

Per Ct. of
Populat'n.

Per Cent, o
Population

18(30, U. S. .

6,690,620

^4

18(30, S C

64,956

8,425,941

21

1870, U. S. .

5,811,136

20

2.542,475

45

1,032,475

21

23

1870, S. C.

58,269

20

4,278

53

85,475

20

146,614

20

1880, U. S. .

8,270.518

23

3.072,487

46

1,487,344

22

12,830,349

25

1880, S. C. .

82,910

21

3,990

51

118,889

19

205,789

20

Here a more remarkable increase is shown in the ratio of voters in the
native white population, and it is quite sufficient to dispel any apprehen-
sion than any but native whites will preponderate in this country. This
increase occurs in South Carolina, but is less marked than in the country
at large, the population of the State not having yet, in this regard, re-
covered fully from the losses incurred during the war. Were the races
arrayed politically against each other, as was practically the case prior to
1876, it would have required a change of thirteen per cent, of the colored
voters to the whites in 1880 to give the latter a majority, and, in 1770 it
would have required a change of more than fourteen per cent. Local
and restricted political issues between the races may occur hereafter, but
the plea, that if the whites obtained representation the liberties of the
colored race would be lost, with which alien white men organized a solid
black vote in the State, has forever lost its force. The experience of seven
years has assured the colored race in South Carolina that they have noth-
ing to fear, as a race, from the native wdiites of the State.

308 POPULATION.

DWELLINGS AND FAMILIES.

AVliile the climate of South Carolina, like that of Greece, Rome and
Palestine, renders life out of doors pleasant and preferahle for the larger
portion of the time, and while it never necessitates the protection of
costly houses, the materials for huilding are abundant and cheap. In
the upi)er third of the State the crystalline rocks furnish a great variety
of building stones ; the granite itself being of the very finest quality ; in
the low country the great lime beds are being utilized in the manufac-
ture of concrete blocks for building, and the lime rock, though not de-
veloped, has long since been tested, and found durable (see Lower Pine
Belt). Clay suitable for brick is found in nearly every neighborhood,
they are burned at a cost of about $3.00 per thousand, and sell at from
five to ten dollars per thousand, according to the facilities of transporta-
tion and the demand. The best yellow-pine lumber may be had for seven
to twelve dollars per thousand. Cypress, for roofing, is cheap and al)un-
dant, and there are many varieties of hard woods. The cheapest houses
are log cabins. Such a house, twenty feet square, with a good wooden
floor raised a foot or more above the ground, ten feet between joints,
plastered outside with clay and ceiled inside with split pine boards, with
a good chimney and board roof, furnishes complete protection against the
vicissitudes of the seasons, and is estimated to cost, work and material,
from thirty to fifty dollars, according to locality. The population of
South Carolina has always enjoyed ample house room, as will appear
from the following comparison wdth the country at large, not to speak of
the populations of Europe, W'here, with the exception of France, Wap-
peaus makes the average number of occupants to a dwelling from 8. 86 in
Saxony to 5.42 in Belquiver. The following table gives the facts relating
to dwellings and the number of persons to a family in South Carolina,
with such general data as serves to exhibit the status here in comparison
with the country at large :

POPULATION.

399

Dwellings.

Families.

c3
G

Maxima and Minima

ej

Maxima and Minima

Year.

for the

O

for the

11

o

United States, and

■^- X^

United States, and

Number of States having
less than So. CarxDlina.

11

Number of States having
less than So. Carolina.

1850, S. C. .

5.39

2 States having fewer.

5.36

8 States have fewer.

U.S..

5.95

R. L, 6.59 ; Cal., 3.90.

5.56

Missouri, 5.89 ; Cal., 3.77.

1860, S. C. .

5.18

7 States having fewer.

5.14

10 States had fewer.

U.s;.

5.54

R. I., 6.43; Kansas, 2.96.

5.28

La., 5.93; Nevada, 3.38.

1870, S. C. .

4.92

7 States have fewer.

4.67

4 States had fewer.

u. s, .

5.49

N.Y.,6.37; Nevada, 3.27.

5.09

Ken, 5.67; Cal., 4.35.

1880, S. C. .

5.19

11 States having fewer.

4.93

20 States have fewer.

u. s. .

5.60

R. I. 6.68 ; Idaho, 4.24.

5.04

W. Va., 5.54 ; Montana,
3.94.

CHAPTER II.

VITAL STATISTICS.

It is conceded that tlie numbers of all the living in the United States
are, with inconsiderable exceptions, included in the returns of the 8th
and the 9th Census. Most strenuous efforts were made at these dates to
obtain a complete enumeration of those who died during the census years
of 1860 and 1870. On an inspection of the returns, however, it was ad-
mitted that in no case did this enumeration approach the actual facts
nearer than by forty or forty-one per cent. Nor is it expected that much
greater accuracy will be attained by the results of the 10th Census. For
instance, the attention of the very intelligent enumerators in the city of
Charleston, in 1880, being called to the difficulty of obtaining accu-
racy in the mortality returns no pains were spared to accom-
plish all that was possible in this regard. The result of the enu-
meration made the death rate 2.01 per cent. The actual death rate
obtained from the very accurate city registration being 3.25 per cent.
A difference of about thirty-eight per cent. Even here it might be ques-
tioned, whether the enumeration or the registration was the more correct.
So rapidly does that universal solvent, death, obliterate the traces of the
things which pass from life, that all memor}' and record of their existence
vanishes with unexpected, not to say indecent, haste. The known and
numbered graves are as one grain to the sands of the sea-shore in com-
parison with the vast multitudes of the unrecorded dead. The intelli-
gence and power of mankind have been so actively engaged through all
ages of human progress in devising and perfecting means for the destruc-
tion of human life, that little of either has been left free to find employ-
jnent in the preservation of this obstacle to progress, and still less for
collecting and preserving facts concerning the entrances and the exits on
the stage of life, and of the ills and accidents which beset the living.
Without such data any opinion as to the comparative healthfulness of
populations and localities must be of the vaguest and most uncertain

VITAL STATISTICS. 401

character ; unfortunately this circumstance in no wise diminishes the fa-
cility witli which such opinions are formed, their prevalence, or the tena-
city with which they are entertained.

The United States Census returns for 1850, '60, 70 make the average
annual death rate 1.25 per cent of the aggregate population. The same
returns make the death rate for South Carolina 1.21 per cent. There
being no reason to suppose that these returns were more defective in the
one case than in the other, it may be assumed that the ratio of these per-
centages to each other expresses with tolerable accuracy the comparative
mortality of the two populations.

The following statement touching the same matter is derived from the
census returns of 1860. It shows the order in which South Carolina
stands among the other States of the Union in regard to the greatest
mortality resulting from certain principal classes of disease.

Percentage of total deaths caused Position of South Carolfna among
by the following diseases: other States in the order of the

greatest mortality from these
diseases :
24.7 Diseases of the respiratory organs. ..... 32d.

11.3 Diseases of the nervous system 29th.

5.9 Diseases of the digestive organs 13th.

5.0 Violence 13th.

4.3 Fevers 9th.

It will be observed that this State, ranking then as 18th in population^
ranked as 32d in the number of deaths from those diseases which destroy
about one-fourth of mankind ; and 29th for diseases destroying more than
one-tenth. For the less fatal diseases, where the variations are necessarily
less between different communities, her position was higher.

The comparison may perhaps be more accurately made by another
method. If a people were perfectly healthy, and free from all the acci-
dents of life, death would only result from old age, and the population
would form an unbroken column from the cradle to the grave, except
that if it were increasing, the base of the column, representing those
under one year of age, would be larger than the other diameters, and if
it were diminishing the base would be smaller. Of course no such con-
dition of perfect healthfulness is ever found, and the numbers of the liv-
ing at different ages so far from being represented by a parallelogram
actually assume the form of a pyramid, with a very broad base for the
early periods of life, rapidly diminishing, as years advance, and terminat-
ing towards old age in a very slender and attenuated apex. Neverthe-
less, that population would be most healthful which showed the greatest

402 VITAL STATISTICS.

similarity between the numbers living at each age. To institute a com-
parison between South Carolina and the country at large, in this regard,
the diagram on the opposite page has been prepared. The number of
living persons at the five ages specified were obtained from the 7th, 8th
and 0th United States Census, and their percentage of the aggregate
population of the United States and of South Carolina was calculated.
A perpendicular line, A B, was marked off in lengths corresponding with
the number of years in each period of life from one to one hundred. The
scale used was too small to show the relative height for those under one
year of age, and this class are represented higher than it should be. The
percentage of the population found in each period was divided by the
number of years included in the period, and the quotient gave the
breadth of the block representing the living of that period.

It will be remarked that while the number under one year old is greater
in the country at large than in South Carolina, the decrease and conse-
quent mortality from one to fifteen years is much more marked for the
whole country than for South Carolina. In the working period of life,
from fifteen to sixty, the numbers for the country at large considerably
exceed those in South Carolina. This, however, is unfortunately not due
to greater healthfulness, but to the large accession of foreign immigrants,
persons mostly between those ages, very few of whom come to South Car-
olina. In fact. South Carolina lost heavily by emigration, the emigrants
being largely of the working age, (see Chapter on Population). Naturally
it would be expected that the greater numbers between these ages would
give the United States a marked superiority over South Carolina during
the succeeding period of life, from sixty to one hundred. It is observed,
however, that such is not the case. The explanation is found in the excep-
tionally large death rate of foreigners exposed to the vicissitudes and
rigors of the northern climate, where the large majority seek homes.
This death rate is estimated in the census of 1860 as 4.261 per cent, for
the males who preponderate, while the death rate for the whole country
is 23ut at 1.75 per cent., and for the white population of the eleven largest
cities at 2.75 per cent.

It appears that the black spaces, which represent the dead, are less in
South Carolina than in the country at large. Still they are of appalling
magnitude, and if the health of a people be a matter of the first conse-
quence it would seem that government, alone able to effect it, is called
on to collect and preserve vital statistics to the end that some light at
least might be thrown on this great darkness, so pregnant with human woe.

I. — The proportion of white and colored in the aggregate population of
South Carolina is summarized in the following table, taken from the
records of the United States Census ;

>-«

Per Cent.

o

o

h-1

"to

"en

2

p

to

•— '

en

S

oy

s

CD

o

CD

en

CO

o

i Population.

1

a

en

I—'

1

2

O

o-^oS

en o o

o O

o
o

i

; Ages.

I—"

so

■

1

1

1

■■■

■

o

^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

^^^^^^^H

(h

^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

^^^^^^^H

o

^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

^^^^^^^H

^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^^^^^H

^^^^^H^l

3*

^»

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

^^^^^H

O

^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

^^^1

/^

^

&|

w

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hj

^^^^1

•^

O

-H

^^

H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

^^^^^H

H

3

^

^^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^l

^^^^1

?j

- ^%

i

^^^^^^^^^^^HH

^H|

d

- -'IT'

^

im^miiini^^i

^^H

2? 0.§

^^

^^^^^1

>

^ ?3 "-I

^

^^^^H

H

^»

^^^^^1

yi

■ - oS

1

■

'fi

2 M

2 ^2

1

^1

^

^^^^1

.3 ^3

1

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jlfll

W

2 H H H H (t>

i

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■

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c' ij a G 'Tf'XS

■^^H

fc

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>-. i -1 :^ o
2 3 ? 5 ■» 3
:rj; =.g >">

1

H

73

o

^^

^^^^^1

^H

- = H- 3 -■ 5

1

^^HH

■

>

1

^^^^H

H

o

5 eg

1

^^^^P

H

2!

>

3 ' i2

1

^^^^H

H

<_

s

_m

■

jjjjjjll^^^^^^l

^1

—

j_^

' G

H^

o

i_.2

1^

/.„i-5 1— '

h- H 05

a H

o

Ages.

t-'O

o

"^O Oi

CA O O

o o

►<!

s

or

s

Per Cent.

1—'

^

^

«

^

-*

o

o

(—1

to

C7«

o

OF

p

tc

CO

^J

tc

*»

bii b

CO

OS

OS

POPULATIOK.

o

Ol <X!

o

to

rf>.

'

'

VITAL STATISTICS.

40^

PrOPORTIOX to PorULATION.

m '

o o

m 1

O li

1^ r:?

a> ^

Ph O

> Ch

- o

f^-^

zi o

YEAR.

^^^

^(^

^_, CD

•^ O o

«+-! O

^ O

-^^ n- -S

^-o

-tJ .—

^ ^^ , "^

■*^ F^ •

c o

^S^

Sh O PL|

fe^-^

O)

Ph

^

Ph

1790. . . .•

56.28

0.72

43.0

1800

56.79

0.92

42.2

1810

51.60

1.10

47.3

1820

47.33

1.36

51.4

1830

44.37

1.36

54.2

1840

43.59

1.39

55.0

1850

41.07

1.34

57.5

1860.

41.28

1.48

57.24

1870

41.05

58.95

• * •

1880

39.28

60.72

- • •

II. — ]\Iarriages. — In the 4 years, 1856-9, there were registered 6,537
marriages among the white population, estimated at 287,000, or an
average of 5.71 annually to each 1,000 of the population.

The following table gives the ages at which each sex was married
during the same period :

J-<

o

^

(^

aj

0

c

I^

01

»o

b

0

0

0

0

O)

1-^

<M

CO

-^

LO

0

r^

T^

■3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

S

' ^

-*.s

-1-^

-►J

-+J

^

^

0

LO

0

0

0

0

0

(M

C<J

CO

^

to

0

t^

Males .
Females

6,537 1 406
6,5371 2,626

2,718
2,173

Percent 'ge of Marriages

at known ages :
Males ..."....
Females

5,990
5,970

6.7
43.9

45.2
36.5

1,4291
613

858
374

23.8
10.3

14.5
6.4

318160
138i 31

7/
12

o

241547
2568

5.3
2.3

2.6
.5

1.1

9

404

VITAL STATISTICS.

For the year 1859 the social condition of those marrying is stated as
follows: 1,213 bachelors, 281 widowers, and 169 unknown. Of the
widowers more than half married again before they reached 40 years,
and 20 of them were married beyond the age of 65. Of the women,
1,340 were maids, 105 widows, and 168 unknown. One-third of the
widows were married under 25 years, and 2 between the ages of 60 and 70.

The number of marriages occurring during each month of the year, for
two years, is given as follows :

1858
1859

2 3^ears..

o

1,689
1,613

3,302

>.

>>

fH

^

cS

a

:i

0

!->

rH

rO

rl

<s

*-z

l^

[129
1130

102! 98
124 100

110
99

:3

1-5

88 81
106 63

;h

^1

o

<s>

r^

r^

^

S

P

.

;3

o

nO

o '

1-5

fax:

<

o
o
O

>
o

CD

O
1=1

83113|104|151190 290150
81 81 122137il71 308 91

!259

226,198,209 1941144 164:i94!226 288,361:598 241

We have here a striking coincidence in the result of the two years.
December both times furnishes the largest number of marriages, Novem-
ber stands second, October third, and January fourth, while we always
find June lowest and July next.

III. — Births. — The number of births, with distinction of race and sex,
is given as follows :

White Births.

Negro Births.

?3

n f CO 1

n^^-^fe

fe rH C3^

^ -;

w

c3 o <^ ^ !■£

^ .;

w

o3 o § O wj

Year.

2,011

S

962

One in
ulati

No.of
to 10
male

5,957

CD

3,061

g

•

O

No.of
to 10
male

1853 .

1,049

81.31

109.04

2,896

32.47 105.69

1854 .

1,765

914

851

79.31

107.52

5,734

2,939

2,795

30.98 105.15

1856 .

4,381

2,294

2,087

64.71

109.91

14,492

7,492

6,980

26.55

107.33

1857 .

4,628

2,410

2,218

61.26

108.65 114,292

7,332

6,960

26.93

105.31

1858 .

4,816

2,479

2,337

60.24

106.07

14,226

7,110

7,116

27.06

99.91

1859 .

5,677

2,950

2,727

48.27

108.14

14,377

7,287

7,090

26.05

102.77

Total. .

23,278

12,096

11,182

73.09 108.17 69,078

35,221

33,837

33.43

104.08

VITAL STATISTICS.

405

Comparing the births and marriages during the period 1856-0, for
which the record of each is given, it appears that while tlie average
annual number of marriages was 5.71 to 1,000 of the j)opulation, the
births stood 13.6 to the 1,000. These figures apply to the white popula-
tion. The rate of increase among the negroes Avas much greater. The
above table makes the average annual number of their births 29.9 per
thousand. For both races the birth rate was 23 per 1,000. The number
of births during each month for the four years 1856-9 is given with the
distinction of sex as follows :

Births for Four Years.

Month of Birth.

Month of

CONCErTION.

o o

rr ca "o

January. .
February. .
March . ,
April . . .
May . . .
June ... .
July . . .
August . . .
September .
October. .
November .
December .

Total. . . .

April.
May .
June .
July .
August .
September
October . .
November .
December.
January. .
February .
March. . .

4,260
4,294
4,974
5,396
5,623
5,604
5,684
6,079|
6,181
5,717
5,868
6,162

65,792

2,372
2,246
2,721
2,816
2,926
2,876
2,831
3,082
3,067
2,881
2,893
2,978

33,689

1,888
2,048
2,253
2,580
2,697
2,728
2,803
2,997
3,114
2,836
2,975
3,184

32,103

484

198

468

236

229

148

28

85

47

45

82

206

1,586

^ S

6 o

126.16

109.66

120.77

109.14

108.49

105.42

100.99

102.83

98.49

101.58

97.24

93.53

104.31

This being the whole number of births of known dates, registered in
South Carolina during this period. From the foregoing tables may be
deduced the following one, showing the order of relative fecundity of each
month.

Returns of 1856

Sept.

Dec.

Aug.

Oct,

June

July

Nov-

May

Apr.

March

Jan.

Feb.

Returns of 1357

Sept.

Aug.

July

May

June

Nov

Dec.

Oct.

Apr.

March

Feb.

Jan.

Returns of 1858

Sept

Dec.

Nov.

Oct.

Aug.

May

Apr.

June

July

March

Feb.

Jan.

Returns of 1850

Dec.

Aug.

Nov.

June

May

Sept.

July

Apr.

Oct.

March

Feb.

Jan.

406

VITAL STATISTICS.

It is remarkable that either January or February always gives the
lowest number of births, while March uniformly comes next.

The first quarter gives the least number of births, and the third quarter
the greatest. If we examine the following table we find that in four
years the births of known dates registered, stood thus:

1st quarter,
13,528.

2d quarter,
10,623.

3d quarter,
17,804.

4th quarter,
17,747.

If the year be separated into summer and winter months, the former
embracing the 2d and 3d quarters, and the latter the 1st and 4th, it
will be observed that there were 34,517 births in the warmer, and only
31,278 in the colder season.

It was noticed in the returns of 1858 and 1859 that .January, which
gave the fcAvest births, gave much the largest male excess ; while Septem-
ber, November and December, showing the most births, produced the
smallest proportion of males. December, January and February appear
to be the months most favorable to conception.

Plurality Births. — In the returns of twin and triplet births the races
are not given separately until the year 1859. In that year 428 cliildren
were born twins or triplets ; wdiich was 2.1 per cent, for all the children
born. There being 212 cases of such births, the}'' were over 1 per cent, of
the total number of births. Among the whites there was 74 cases of
plurality births, and 148 children, the cases being 1.3 per cent, of the
births, and the children 2.6 per cent, of those born. Among the negroes
the cases were 138, and the children 277, the former being 9 per cent, of
the births, and the latter 1.9 per cent, of the children.

The following table gives the number of plurality births in each month
for four years :

Plurality Births for Four Years.

o

Whites il4

XeOToes llO

141812121 8101416121 Sil0'l48

16i24 24 321 35i20i25 22118 18 25; 269

I I I I Mill

Total in 1859 24 30142 36 44 43 30 39 38 30 26 35'l417

Total in 1856, '57, '58 29:48 4158 40 63,58:4448,35 50 51

,565

Total in four vears .

53 78 83,94'84 106 88 83,86 65,76 86 '982

VITAL STATISTICS.

407

June is foremost in plurality births, and January stands lowest of all.
Of 982, the total number, 512 were males, and 470 females, or 108.93 of
the former to 100 of the latter.

Still-Births. — The races in these tables are given separately only for
the year 1859. In this j^ear there were 403 children registered as born
dead. Of these 139 were whites, or one child was lost out of every 40.80
births ; and of negroes there Avere 264, or one out of 54.46, whilst in the
whole number of births in the total population, one was still-born in
every 49.76. This would give 2.4 per cent, of the white births, and 1.8
of the negro births still-births :

Still-Born for Four Years.

o

139
264

403
565

Whites

Negroes

Total in 1859 . .
Total in 1856, '57, '58

Total in four years. ,

915

2617

lojlO
16.27

12

11

15 20j24 32

21 35 32

41 58|40

2829
3550

5883

629372

94,95 85

75

63 79

94 968

For a series of years, January gave almost uniformly the fewest still-
born as well as plurality and also total births. July, June, December
and April produced each nearly the same number of still-births, and a
good many more than the months next highest to them. There are
more still-born negroes in December and fewer in March, wiiile among
the whites there were most in August and least in November.

'''There is a remarkable preponderance of males in the still-births.
This pre})onderance is greater in the Avhite than in the negro race. In
the former the still-born were 162.33 males to 100 females. In the latter
there were only 118.18 males to 100 females. For the two races during
the whole 4 years the still-born were 121.54 males to 100 females.

*NoTE. — It is supposed the sex is determined b.v the preponderance of the sexual im-
pulse in the sexes at genesis. If the female impulse is strongest for the male, males
are produced; if the male impulse for the female is strongest, females are i)roduced ;
and the number of males preponderating among the still-born is another among the
many natural checks to a strong sexual impulse among females,

408

VITAL STATISTICS.

IV. — Deaths. — The following table presents an abstract of all the
deaths registered in South Carolina during six years, viz :

Deaths of Whites.

Deaths of Negroes.

03

1

rt

(V

ai

ID

1=1

Ph

a5

C

^-s

bJD

g

(^ o

6X3
<

Year.

iz;

w

a rt

<v

^

CO

OS S

CD

(V

CO

e5

s .2

c3

>— 1

CO

c .2

cS

o

1.— 1

485

a

CD

457

O

>

o

a

1,348

O

1853 . .

942

173.60

Unknown.

2,746

1,398

70.44

Unknown.

1854..

1,117

582

525

127.45

u

2,771

1,414

1,357 64.11

((

1856 . .

2,183

1,101

1,082

129.52

a

7,627

3,781

3,846 54.76

u

1857 . .

2,917

1,436

1,481

97.19

28.03

8,770

4,404

5,366 43.89

21.13

1858 . .

2,423

1,265

1,158

117.01

25.36

7,277

3,608

3,669 52.91

15.29

1859 . .

2,003

1,033
5,902

970
5,673

136.82

28.42

6,318

3,129

3,18950.20

14.87

Total. .

11,585

146.90

27.27

35,509

17,734

17,775

65.05

17.09

The annual average of registered deaths to the pojDulation was 11.7 per
1,000. Among the whites it was 7 deaths to the 1,000, and among the
negroes 15.3, a disproportion not due altogether to the greater mortality
of negroes, but owing to the fact that the return of deaths among this class
of the population was more accurate, inasmuch as every case was reported
by a master, who had sustained thereby a severe pecuniary loss, and
was on this account less likely to overlook or forget the event.

As regards the sexes, the proportion of deaths in both races together
was 100.8 males to 100 females. Among the whites it was 104.03 males
to 100 females ; among the negroes it was 99.76 males, a difference due in
part to the preponderance of males among the whites and females
among the negroes.

Deducting the deaths from the births, we have an average annual rate
of increase for both races of 11.3 per 1,000. For the whites it is 6.6 per
1,000. For the negroes it is 14.6 per 1,000.

VITAL STATISTICS.

409

The following table exhibits the number of deaths occurring in each
month for four years :

Months.

January .
February.
March. . .
April
May. . .
June . . .
July... .
August . .
September
October. .
November
December

Total . .

1856.

442
448
517
481
490
656
849
982
867
702
540
596

7,570

1857.

446
463
529
568
570
849
998
1,313
1,130
804
756
699

1858.

9,125

473

538
593
588
693
816
925
1,039
1,014
758
636
718

8,791

1859.

401
463
552

522
613
736

848
866
804
689
588
641

Aggregate
Four Years.

Total.

1,762
1,912
2,191
2,159
2,366
3,057
3,620
4,200
3,815
2,953
2,520
2,554

Per
Cent.

5.30

5.75

6.89'

6.50

7.12

9.20

10.90

12.64

11.49

8.89

7.58

7.99

7,723 33,2091 100.00

It will be observed that only 40.64 per cent, of the deaths occur during
the first six months of the year, while 59.36 per cent, occur during the
last six months.

The following table shows the order of mortality among the months,
commencing with the most fatal :

185G,

1857,
1858
1859

Aug.
Aug.
Aug.

Aug.

Sept.
Sept.
Sept.

July Oct. June
July June Oct.

July

July I Sept

June
June

Oct.
Oct.

Dec.
Nov
Dec.
Dec.

Nov. March

Dec. I May.

I
May I Nov.

May Nov.

May. April. Feb Jan.
April. March Feb [.Tan.
March'April. Feb. I Jan.
March April. Feb. Jan.

The months showing the least mortality correspond very nearly with
those most favorable to conception.

27

410

VITAL STATISTICS.

The following table contains the returns of death at different ages, and
also expresses the aggregate number of each sex dying at proximate ages,
and their proportions to each other :

Ago

rREGATE FOR FoUR YeARS.

Ages.

1856.

1857.

1858.

1859.

o

Is

o •

o

a

Oo

1,649

1,821

o

o

ci

Under 1 year.

2,122 1,973

i 7,565

23.31

3,892

3,673

105.96

Ito 5 years.

1,636

2,151

1,981 1,560

7,328

22.58

3,841

3,487

110.15

5 to 10 years.

484

629

677

486

2,276

7.01

1,166

1,110

105.04

10 to 15 years.

272

416

405

328

1,421

4.37

683

738

92.54

15 to 20 years.

236

461

423

363

! 1,583

4.87

728

855

85.14

20 to 30 years.

578

755

755

555

i 2,643

8.14

1,272

1,371

92.85

30 to 40 years.

439

613

554

505

2,111

6.50

919

1,192

77.09

40 to 50 years.

362

479

472

406

1,719

5.29

795

924

86.03

50 to 60 years.

356

459

396

332

1,543

4.75

778

765' 101.69

60 to 70 years.

373

511

452

401

1,737

5.35

875

862! 101.50

70 to 80 years.

313

407

345

322

i 1,387

4.27

700

687i 101.89

Over 80 years

263

7,061

326

9,028

283
8,865

263
7,494

1 1,135

3.49

542

593 91.39

Total ....

; 32,448

i

100.00

16,191

16,257

99.59

As respects the proportional mortality of the sexes at the same age, it
will be seen that the male deaths are much in excess up to the age of 10
years, after which period, as far as 50 years, more females die. ^lales then
predominate until 80 years, after which females again are remoyed in
greater proportion. Hence, it appears, that " from the api)roach of
puberty to the end of the period of reproduction, the female is more liable
to disease and death."

Deaths in Extreme Old Age. — There were twenty-two deaths regis-
tered at the age of 100 years and oyer, of which only four were whites, viz :
one male and three females, the remaining eighteen (nine of each sex)
being negroes. The oldest were a black man and a black woman, both of
whom died in St. Bartholomew's Parish, the former aged 120 years, and
the latter 110 years. A list of them is here given :

VITAL STATISTICS.

411

Deaths at Advanced Ages.

Districts.

Abbeville

ii

Barnwell

Clarendon

Kershaw

Laurens

Lexington

Marlboro'

Marion

Orange Parish

Prince George, Winyaw
St. Bartholomew's. . .

St. Helena

St. Luke's .

St. Peter's

St. Philip's & St. Michael's.
Williamsburg

Race. 'Sex.i Month.

Col'd

White.

Col'd

White.
Col'd

White.
Col'd

F. November.
M. 'June.
M. [Unknown.
F. June.
M. I April.

June.

July.

August.

December.

November.
F. |April.
F. I February
F. ISeptember.

M.
M.
F.
M.
F.

M.
M.
M.

F.
F.
M.
F.
F.
F.

November.

December.

September.

February.

December.

February.

August.

March.

November.

Ag

E.

100 y

ears.

100

100

100

100

100

102

102

100

100

104

100

100

100

100

120

110

100

100

100

100

100

Cause.

Old Age.

Gastritis.
Old Age.

Deljility.
Diarrhoea.
Old Age.

Drowned.
Old Age.

This list might be largely added to. One compiled from the records of
the Sextons of the Cemeteries of the City of Charleston enumerates, be-
tween 1808 and 1880. tw«nty-seven deaths in that city occurring between
the ages of 100 and 128. During 1880, forty-five deaths occurred of people
over 80 years of age — twenty-one whites and twenty -four negroes. Robert
Mills enumerates among a large number of aged persons, 41 (specifying
their names and residences) who exceeded 100 years, between 1800 and
1820, in South Carolina, giving in addition cases like the following : Mrs.
Morgan, of Darlington County, died in 1805, aged 90, leaving 244 descend-
ants ; Mrs. Easeley, of Pickens County, was the mother of 34 live-born
children, having twins only once ; Mr. and Mrs. Neighbors, of Laurens
county, enjoyed 80 years of married life together ; Mr, and Mrs. Nettles,
of Sumter County, who had been married 72 years, had 134 descendants
in 1803. In 1882 there died in Orangeburg County, Mr. and Mrs. Smoak,
over ninety years of age, leaving within a radius of 9 miles from the spot
where they had lived so long together more than 300 of their descendants.

412

VITAL STATISTICS.

The following abstract exhibits the relative mortality from each class of
diseases in the total population during the six registration years :

1

Average

1853. 1854. 1856.'1857.

1858.

1859.

FOR

42.99,46.15

36.81

36.68

34.65

28.84

Six Years.

I. Zymotic Diseases. . .

37.68

II. Uncertain Seat. . . .

6.58 6.95

8.75

11.26

10.94

11.62

9.35

in. Nervous Organs . .

5.97 6.95

7.79

7.25

9.15

10.03

7.85

IV. Respiratory Organs. .

18.23 17.77

17.69

19.40

19.49

21.97

19.09

V. Circulatory Organs . .

.90; .96

.95' .84

.64

1.30

.93

YI. Digestive Organs. . .

9.68

6.64

9.31 12.00

10.87

10.94

9.90

yil. Urinary Organs . . .

.01

.08

.29

.21

.40

.46

.24

VIII. Generative Organs . .

2.34

1.80

2.46

1.85

2.32

2.33

2.18

IX. Locomotive Organs. .

.58

.35

.65

.45

.42

.42

.48

X. Inteoumentarv Org's.

.00

.00

.06

.03

.19 i .05

.05

XL Old Age .

4.37i 4.79

4.71

5.11

4.22 4.41

4.60

XII. Violence

5.26

7.52

8.00

5.91

6.50

7.54

6.79

In the 1st Class, Measles, Influenza and Whooping Cough are most fatal
to negroes, and also "fever," which, however, is too vague a term to mean
any disease in particular. Of Diphtheria, a zymotic which has been very
prevalent in the Northern States, we have but three deaths recorded in
1859, all in negroes, two being. under 10 years, and the other one of un-
known age.

The second class in order of mortality, is always Class IV., comprising
the diseases of the Respiratory Organs, at the head of which stands Pneu-
monia, giving 10.41 per cent, of all deaths from known causes. In negroes
the percentage is 10 26, but in whites only 7.86, The greater number
occurred in February, nearly half being under 10 years of age, and there
beins: 436 males to 304 females.

Consumption comes next, killing 6.85 per cent, in Avhites, and 3.94 per
cent, in negroes, the month of July, and the period between 30 and 40
years of age showing the highest mortality, there being a considerable
excess of females in both races. Croup destro3'ed 150 children and 1 negro
Ayoman, the latter between 30 and 40 years of age. It is almost twice as
fatal to whites as to negroes. The largest number of deaths were in the
month of November, all but fifteen of the whole being under five ydars,
and only fourteen between five and ten years of age.

In Class VI., which is the fourth in fatality, the principal causes are
Teething, Worms, and indefinite " diseases of the bowels," all of which
claim the most victims in young negroes. Whites die in larger numbers

VITAL STATISTICS. 413

from Colic, Dyspepsia, Enteritis, Gastritis, Hepatitis, Jaundice, Diseases of the
Liver, Peritoneum, Spleen and Stomach, d'c. There were two deaths among
negroes from Dirt Eating, both females, one of whom was between ten and
fifteen years, and the other of unknown age.

Diseases of the Nervous System, comprising Class III., are the next in
order, giving a mortality of 10.03 per cent., which is considerabh^ higher
in 1859 than in any one of the five preceding j^ears. This class has been
found more fatal to whites in each one of the past years, although more
deaths of negroes are ascribed always to the indefinite " Convulsions,'
the most fatal of all causes under this head, as well as to I'rismus
Nascentium. Apoplexy, Delirium Tremens, Hydrocephalus, Neuralgia, Paralysis
and Disease of the Spine, were all more severe with whites.

The l'2th Class, external causes or violence, produced, in 1859, 7.54 per
cent, of all the deaths, which is a little more than the average for six years.
As might be expected, it is more than doubly fatal to slaves than to whites,
the principal figures being from Barns, Accidents and Sujfoccdion, (infants
smothered, choked or overlaid.) Very few slaves died of Homicide, Intem-
perance, Neglect, Poison and Suicide.

Old Age, which forms the 11th Class, furnished 4.41 per cent., which
is a little below the average for six years. In slaves, the mortality in
1859 was 4.97, and in whites only 2.75 per cent. A very similar dif-
ference in the two races is observed every year. As to sex, the femaks
were in the majority in both races.

414

VITAL STATISTICS.

Table showing the Percentage of the Total Mortality Due to tJie Principal Diseases
in eacJi Pace, and for the Wltole Population dvring 'Three Years.

Returns of

Returns of

Returns of

1857.

1858.

1859.

Principal Diseases.

^L,

1

o

6

q3

^ o

o

d

^

^^

^

3i

o ^

^

Pneumonia

10.20

12.55

11.90

6.16

11.12

9.84

7.86

11.26 10.41

Typhoid Fever . . .

9.83

7.29

7.99

10.76

.87

9.27

8.76

9.36 9.21

Dropsy

5.79

7.43

6.98

3.84

6.50

5.81

3.42

5.83 5.23

Dysentery .....

5.71

5.66

5.68

4.07

3.01

3.41

3.87

1.65 2.20

Diarrhcea

11.51

2.83

5.23

2.84

1.68

1.98

2.64

1.76 1.98

Old Age

3.79

5.63

5.11

3.08

4.58

4.22

2.75

4.97 4.41

Measles

2.57

5.32

4.55

3.55

3.54

3.55

.44

.76 .68

Teething

1.83

4.57

3.93

1.32

4.19

3.45

2.13

4.18 3.67

Consumption

3.83

3.06

3.28

5.31

2.92

3.53

6.85

3.94 4.67

Fever

2.04

3.31
3.14

2.96
2.95

1.66
1.80

2.65
2.01

2.40
1.95

1.34
1.51

3.36 2.85

Bowels, disease of . .

2.44

1.72| 1.67

Worms

.53

3.37

2.59

.52

3.72

2.90

.50

2.60! 2.08

Brain, disease of . . .

3.83

1.64

2.25

3.46

1.53

2.03

.34

1.551 2.04

Scarlatina

2.77

1.84

2.14

7.21

2.60

3.79

5.61

1.14 2.26

Whooping Cough . .

.73

2.47

1.99

1.13

3.25

2.70

1.62

4.69

3.92

Convulsions ....

.89

2.11

1.77

.94

2.92

2.41

1.85

2.59

2.40

Catarrh

1.34

1.92

1.76

1.28

1.35

1.33

.39

2.17

1.73

Burns and Scalds . .

.44

2.08

1.29

.71

2.22

1.83

.95

2.32

1.98

Croup

1.51

1.53

1.52

2.27

1.79

1.92

3.20

1.76

2.12

Suifocated

.08

2.06

1.51

.18

2.35

1.80

.33

3.11

2.42

Congestive Fever . .

1.67

1.18

1.32

1.66

1.25

1.23

1.96

1.33

1.49

Remittent Fever . .

2.36

.81

1.24

1.80

1.08

1.27

1.51

1.12

1.22

Accident

1.30

1.25

1.26

1.51

1.43

1.45

.78

1.61

1.40

Cholera Infantum . .

1.10

1.01

1.04

1.23

.95

1.02

1.57

1.08

1.21

Apoplexy

1.10

.90

.96

2.08

1.25

1.47

1.79

.90

1.12

Child-birth

1.10

.87

.94

1.28

.87

.97

.95

.93

.94

Quinsv

1.34

.72

.89

.71

.11

.26

.28

.11

.15

Paralvsis

1.75

.42

.79

1.85

.41

-.78

2.19

.80

1.15

Yellow Fever. . . .

9,15

.26

•

2.55

• ■

• •

Pneumonia was much more fatal among negroes than among whites,
especially in the months of January and February, and under 5 years of
age, as well as between 20 and 40 years. July produced the largest num-

VITAL STATISTICS.

415

ber of deaths from Typhoid Fever, which was most fatal between the ages
of 15 and 30, and more so by a fraction in negroes than in whites.

The tables and statements above given are taken, ahnost exchisively,
from the six annual reports to the Legislature, made by Robert W. Gibbes>
M. D., Registrar, and published with Acts of the General Assembly.

The opinion has prevailed widely that certain regions of South Carolina
were peculiarly liable to malarial fevers of a deadly type. Those regions
were the Coast and the Lower Pine Belt, comprising together about 10,000
square miles. The remainder of the State it has never been doubted was
as free from this scourge as any portions of America. It was also main-
tained that the negro race was less liable to these malarial fevers than the
whites. It is, therefore, of interest to consult these reports of the Regis-
trar regarding the causes, of death in the different climatic regions of the
State, and as to the two races, to obtain, as far as possible, some numerical
expression as to the conclusions.

The following table shows the percentage of total mortality from speci-
fied causes, resulting from fever, including under the headings Fever and
Congestive Bilious, Remittent, Intermittent and Yellow Fever, as recorded
in the Registrar's Reports, arranged with reference to the different
regions, and compared with the percentage of death caused by Typhoid
Fever :

Regions.

1856.1857. 1858

1859.

> c

<1^

I. Alpine

II. Piedmont

III. Sand and Red Hill

IV. Upper Pine Belt

Y. and \1. Lower Pine Belt and Coast
For the Whole State . . '.

Percentage of Deaths from Typhoid Fever.

0

3.24

2.57

1.83

14.10

4.36

3.65

4.16

3.81

6.45

3.85

4.33

1

6.25

7.99

0

3.66

7.66

5.85
3.74

11.80 7.55

7.87 5.78

9.27

3.04

2.78

6.92' 8.00

6.25 4.54 4.52

7.72

5.42

9.21 8.45

416 VITAL STATISTICS.

It is to be noted, first, tliat the unusual mortality in the Sand Hill
Region, in 1856, was confined to Kershaw County. Seventy-five negroes
died there from fever, while in the other three Counties of the region there
were only four deaths from this cause. It was, therefore, dependent not on
any general influence, but probably on some local and accidental cause, as
a new settlement and clearing on some stream, or the breaking of a mill-
dam in summer. 2d. The next largest percentage of deaths was on the
Coast, in 1858, and was due to Yellow Fever, from which cause there were
178 deaths in the City of Charleston, where the disease was imported, and
21 deaths in Christ Church, across the harbor, a health resort, to which
cases contracted in Charleston were doubtless taken for treatment, these
209 deaths in one locality being all that occurred in the State. There
Avere also 13 deaths on the Coast from Yellow Fever in 1857, the disease
being again imported, but not spreading. 3d. In this table is included
all the deaths that could have occurred from malarial or climatic causes,
and it is probable many that were not due to these causes, for the general
term fever may well cover many other sorts of fever than those in
question.

But taking the figures as they stand it appears :

1st. That the number of deaths from Typhoid and Pneumonia much
exceed those from malarial causes in South Carolina, even crediting the
imported disease, Yellow Fever, to the latter.

2d. That if there is an excess of deaths from malaria in the loAver
country, it does not amount to more than 2.30 per cent., which would
make the malarial influences of that region rank as tenth among the
causes of death, or less than the number of infants overlaid and suffocated
b}^ their mothers.

Of Yellow Fever it is to be remarked that the epidemics of this disease
are much less fatal in Charleston than in cities further North, as Norfolk.
Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and, above all, Boston, Avhere the largest propor-
tion of deaths to cases occur. Nor is its recurrence anything like as fre-
quent or its diffusion so great as in New Orleans and along the Missis-
sippi River. Intervals of over 40 years have occurred between its visita-
tions to the Carolina Coast, and it is almost invariabl}' confined to the
immediate locality into which it is imported.

The following table shows the percentage of total mortality from speci-
fied causes in each race, resulting from causes that might in any wise be
termed malarial :

VITAL STATISTICS.

417

Races.

Malarial Fevers.

1857.

1858.

1859.

Total.

White. . .

6.61

14.17

5.21

8.13

Black . . .

-■

5.41

5.51

6.04

5.63

This table would seem to confirm the general impression that negroes
are less injuriously subject to malarial influences than whites. But this
impression requires important modification when it is stated that deaths
from Yellow Fever is included in the table. It being a question here of
a large section of country, it is not proper to include a disease that never
occurs except in one or two restricted localities of that region, and which
is far more fatal in these localities to foreigners than to natives or resi-
dents of either race. If, therefore, deaths from Yellow Fever be excluded
from the table, it will stand thus:

Races.

1857.

1858.

1859.

Total.

White

Black

6.22
5.35

6.08
5.21

5.21
6.04

5.93
5.53

Thus in 23,770 deaths from specified causes, the white race in Soutii
Carolina seems to have suffered from malarial influences more than the
black race by four-tenths of one per cent., a difference which amounts
literally to nothing.

It is noteworthy that in the ratio of deaths from specified causes to
total deaths reported in 1860, under the head of fevers. South Carolina
stands ninth, while Kansas stands first.

According to the mortuary statistics of Kentucky for eight years,
South Carolina for four years. New Orleans for two years, fever, including
congestive, remittent and intermittent fevers, caused 4.85 per cent, of the
deaths among whites, and 7.82 per cent, of the deaths among negroes.

418

VITAL STATISTIC?.

Furthermore, the death rate among negroes appears to be much greater
in localities considered most subject to malarial influences than in those
less so. Thus, up to ISGO, the returns of the eleven largest cities of the
United States show an average annual death rate among negroes of 3.47
per cent. In malarial districts, as New Orleans, it was 5.82 ; in Memphis
it was 5.74 ; while in Charleston it only reached 2.0G per cent.

Since this chapter has been in press the compendium of tlie 10th
United States Census has been published, giving a portion of the Vital
Statistics collected by the enumeration of 1880. The general results are
exhibited in the following table :

Table A. — Percentage of Deaths in the Population of the United States and
South Carolina, and in the Pojyulation of the Upper, Middle, and Lower

Country of the latter.

Total.

Male.

Female.

United States

1.51
1.57
1.09

1.33

2.08

1.53
1.55

1.48

South Carolina

1.60

Upper Alpine Region • • . . .

Middle Country, or Piedmont, Sand and \

Red Hill, and Lpper Pine Belt Regions, j
Lower Coyntry, or Lower \

Pine JBelt and Coast Regions j

It is estimated the number of deaths not reported do not exceed thirty
per cent, of those reported. The average mortality for the whole country
is given, when thus corrected, at 18.2 per thousand, as against 20.5 per
thousand in England, and 21.5 per thousand in Scotland. The slightly
higher death-rate above given for South Carolina, may be due to a more
accurate enumeration, or it may be accounted for by the preponderance
of the colored race, whose death-rate is always higher than that of the
whites. In this census these respective rates, as given by the enumera-
tion, are 17.28 per thousand for the colored population against 14.74 per
thousand for the white population. This difiference is chiefly due to the
diflerence in infant mortality. Both reasons above mentioned co-operate
to produce the heavy death-rate in the Lower Pine Belt and Coast region,

VITAL STATISTICS.

419

one-fourth of this population is in the City of Charleston, where an ac-
curate system of the registration of deaths makes the mortality returns
more complete than they are anywhere else, except in twenty-two of the
large cities, w^here the same measures are in force. The colored race
also forms seventy-three per cent, of the population in these regions,
against sixty per cent, for the State at large .

Table B. — Percentage of Total Deaths occiirrmg under 1 Year, vnder 6
Years, and vnder all Ages among the Male and Female Fopidcdion of
the United States and of Soidli Carolina, and in the TJf.pcr, 3Iiddle,and
Loiver Counti^ of the latter.

All
Ages.

Under
1 Year.

Under
5 Years.

d
'^
^

6

d

United States

South Carolina

Upper or Alpine Region

•

Middle Country, or Piedmont, Sand and 1
Red Hill, and Upper Pine Belt Region. J

Lower Country, or Lower \ ..... .

Pine Belt and Coast Region | * * ' *

51.8

48.4

52.7

47.9
48.4

48.2
51.6
47.3

52.1
51.6

12.8
12.2
18.5

12.5
13.0

10.3
11.1

8.0

10.6
12.1

21.5
23.5
23.4

23.7
23.7

18.2
21.2
14.8

20.9
22.0

The number of deaths under five years of age amount to sixty-three
per cent, of all deaths in the country at large, and to nearly seventy per
cent, in South Carolina, due to the excess of infant mortality in the
colored population. The excess of female over male deaths is due in
part at least to the preponderance of females in South Carolina.

420

VITAL STATISTICS.

Table C. — Percentages, of Deaths in the United States and in South Carolina,
and in the Upper, Middle, and Lower Country of the latter, o'esnlting from
ten principal Diseases.

S CO

0 a

13

Diseases of t
Respiratory S3

_c

Oh

g

0

Diseases of th
Nervous Syste

Diarrlioeal
Diseases.

Diphtheria.

Diseases of th
Digestive Org

CD

>

u
CO

0

■|
0

w

CD
1— 1
c«

a

CD

United States ....

14.2

12.0

11.0

8.6

5.0

4.5

3.0

2.0

1.2

1.1

South Carolina . . .

12.3

10.4

9.2

8.0

3.5

6.2

3.7

0.1

2.2

1.9

Alpine Region . . .

15.7

7.7

6.5

7.7

1.8

4.6

11.1

0.2

1.2

• •

Piedmont, Sand and ^

Red Hill, Upper V

13.1

9.8

8.6

9.0

8.1

6.7

4.0

, .

2.4

3.0

Pine Belt Regions, j

Lower Pine Belt and \
Coast Regions. j

10.7

9.7

10.4

6.2

4.1

5.7

2.4

3.9

1.1

Table " C " exhibits the causes of death, and shows that the most fatal
diseases are less potent in South Carolina than elsewhere. The data, as
regards malarial diseases, are not given. But deaths from this cause are
only 2.7 per cent, of the total deaths for the country at large, and 6.5 per
thousand in the grand group, where it is most prevalent, being in New
Orleans itself only 4.4 per cent., are less than the deaths in the country
at large from diseases of the digestive organs. The percentage from con-
sumption in Carolina is doubtless much larger than it should be, the
numbers being increased by the deaths of transient visitors, having this
disease, to health resorts in this State, as well as by the permanent settle-
ment here of many persons bringing the disease with them, in the hope
that they may find relief in the mildness of this climate.

CHAPTER Iir.

A. SKETCH

OF THE

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS
OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

PREPARED FOR THE STATE DEPARTiMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BY G. H. SASS, Esq OF THE CHARLESTON BAR.

The first permanent European settlement in South Carolina was made
by a colony of Englishmen, who landed at Port Royal in 1670. There
had been several previous attempts at colonization by, French and
Spanish expeditions, but they had all failed, and had left no trace behind
them except in the name bestowed upon the Province, which was called
Carolina, in honor of King Charles IX. of France.* The advantages of

* The question of the derivation of the name of Carolina i.s a somewhat obscure
one. Some historians derive it from Charles II. of England. Rivers seems to give
the ])referen(e to Charles I. of England, because, in the grant by that king to Sir
Rol)ert Heath, in 1(>30, the country i.s called Carolina, or Carolana. This fact is cer-
tainly fiatal to the claim of Charles II., but it does not dispose of the prior claim of
Charles IX. Some of the early annalists (such, for example, as Drs. MoUigan and
Hewett) say distinctly, that the name was given in honor of Charles IX. ; and it is
reasonable to suppose that the name given by Ribault and Laudonniere to the country
surrounding Charles Fort {arx Carolina), in honor of the French King, survived the

422 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Port Royal, with its magnificent harbor, had also been pointed out by
the French expedition under Ribault, and this led to its selection as a
landing place by the English colony mentioned above. In 16G3, Charles
II. of England granted a charter to certain English noblemen, known in
the history of the Province as "The Lords Proprietors," conveying to
them all the lands l3'ing between the thirty-first and thirty -sixth degrees
of north latitude, comprising all of the present States of North Carolina,
South Carolina and Georgia. This grant was enlarged two years later
so as to include all between twenty-nine degrees and thirty -six degrees
and forty seconds, north latitude, and from these two points on the At-
lantic coast westward to the Pacific ocean. The Bahama islands were
subsequently added to the grant. The colony which landed at Port
Royal in 1670 was sent out by the Lords Proprietors, and. was commanded
by Col. Wm. Sayle. Port Royal proved to be too near to the Spanish
settlements in Florida, and to the Indian tribes allied with the Spaniards,
for the peace or safety of the colony, and within a year Col. Sayle deter-
mined to remove further up the coast. Leaving between themselves and
their enemies the several rivers, bays and estuaries which indent the
coast of Carolina between Port Royal and Charleston, the colonists se-
lected a spot on the west bank of the Ashley river, about three miles
above the present city, and called it, in honor of the King, Charles Town.
This situation, however, was soon found to be inconvenient for shipping ;
and by degrees, the inhabitants of Charles Town began to move lower
down the river, and to establish themselves nearer the sea. The point
formed by the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, and known
as Oyster Point, w^as low and marshy, and cut up by numerous creeks ;
but there was sufficient high ground on the Cooper river side to afford
room for a settlement, and by 1677 there were enough houses built upon
it to need some designation, and the new settlement was called Oyster
Point Town. In 1680, so large a majority of the people had removed to
this spot, that the seat of government was formally transferred to it, and
its name was changed to New Charles Town. Two years later, the old
settlement was virtually abandoned, and the new one became the only
Charles Town. It w^as at that time declared a port of entry, and in 1685
a collector was appointed. It was not, however, until 1783 that the city

de.struction of the French colony, and was adopted by the Englisli settlers. This is
the view held by Simin*, in his '' History of South Carolina." Speaking of the fort
which Laudonniere called "La Caroline," in honor of the reiirning monarch, he says
(page 28) : " The name thus conferred extended over the whole country a full century
before it was occupied by the English. It remained unchanged, and was adopted by
them, as it really served to distinguish their obligations to Charles II. of England, under
whose auspices and charter the first permanent Eurojiean colony was settled in
Carolina."

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 423

was incorporated by the State Legislature under its present name of
Charleston.

The colony of Carolina, very early in its history, began to attract to
itself emigTants from all parts of Europe. Though the Church of England
was the established church, freedom of religious worship was guaranteed
to all, and settlers of all social classes and all religious denominations
began to swell the population. Emigrants were offered land at an easy
quit-rent, and clothes and provisions were distributed by the Proprietors
to those who could not provide for themselves. The Proprietors, being
of the cavalier class, aided or induced many of their friends or dependents
to emigrate to Carolina ; while the English Puritans, whom the restora-
tion of the monarchy in England had deprived of many of their religious
rights, were attracted to the colony by the greater religious freedom there
enjoyed. Two vessels also arrived from New York with emigrants, and
in 1671, the Grand Council of the colony laid out for them a town on a
creek to the south of Stono, to be called James Town, lots in which were
granted to every person in each family. These colonists were Dutch, and
they were followed by others of their countrymen from Holland. The
settlement at James Town was abandoned after a few years, and the
settlers spread themselves over the country. In 1679, Charles II. pro-
vided, at his own expense, two small vessels to transport to Carolina a
few foreign Protestants, who might there domesticate the productions of
the South of Europe. In 1683, a colony of Irish were attracted to the
Province by the fame of its fertility, which was spread abroad, and they
were received with so hearty a welcome that they were soon merged
in the other colonists ; and about the same time, the remnants of a
Scotch settlement at Port Royal, who were driven thence by the Spaniards,
found a refuge in (,'harles Town and its vicinity. In 1685-6, a very im-
portant accession to the colony was made by the arrival of a large number
of French Protestant refugees, whom the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
drove out of France. In 1696, a colony of Congregationalists, from Dor-
chester, in Massachusetts, settled near the head of the Ashley river, about
twenty-five miles from Charles Town.

Such were the components of the colony over which the Lords Pro-
prietors exercised their original jurisdiction, and for the government of
which they proceeded to frame a system of laws under the powers com-
mitted to them in the charter of Charles 11. Their first organized at-
tempt at such a system embodied itself in the famous Fundamental Con-
stitutions, generally attributed to the English philosopher, John Locke,
but probably inspired to a considerable extent by Lord Shaftesbury. It
is unnecessary here to state in detail the provisions of Locke's Constitu-
tion. Its principal feature was the establishment of an oligarchy of rank

424 INSTITUTIONS, OOVERNMFNT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAIiOLIXA.

and power. The eldest of the eight Proprietors was always to be Pala-
tine, and at his decease was to be succeeded by the eldest of the seven
survivors. The Palatine's court was to sit in place of the King, to review
all laws made by the Colonial Legislature, and to appoint a Governor,
who was the King's representative in the colony. Three orders of nobil-
ity were created, called Barons, Cassiques, and Landgraves, tlie first to
possess 12,000, the second 24,000, and the third 48,000 acres of land, and
their possessions were to be inalienable. An upper and a lower House
of Assembly were to be established, which, Avith the Governor, consti-
tuted the Parliament. A sort of feudal military system was provided,
and all the inhabitants from sixteen to sixty years of age were subject to
the call of the Governor and Council. Three terms of religious com-
munion were fixed. 1st. Belief in a God. 2d. That He is to be wor-
shipped. 3d. That it is lawful and the duty of every man, when called
upon by those in authority, to bear witness to the truth. Without ac-
knowledging these tests no man was permitted to be a freeman or to have
any estate or habitation in Carolina. But religious toleration within
these limits was ensured, and all persecution for religious differences was
expressly forbidden. Supreme Courts were established, but it was de-
clared to be a base and vile thing to plead the cause of another for money
or reward.

It is not surprising that such a system of government should have
been distasteful to the colonists. The introduction of Locke's Constitu-
tion was strenuously resisted by the people, and its practical working was
soon found to be so unsatisfactory that, in 1693, the Proprietors, upon
public petition, abolished the Constitution, and for a considerable time
the colony was regulated by certain temporary rules and instructions pre-
scribed by the Proprietors. The government was of the form which
Englishmen naturally adopt. The executive power was represented by
the Proj)rietors, who appointed the Governor and other officers ; the
Legislature, by a Council or Upper House, also appointed by the Proprie-
tors, and a Commons House of Assembly chosen by the freemen. The
first popular election in South Carolina of which there is an}^ record, was
held in April, 1G72, under a proclamation of the Grand Council, requir-
ing all the freeholders to elect a new Parliament. From this body five .
Councillors were chosen, who, with the Governor and the Deputies of the
Lords Proprietors, formed the Grand Council.

Such a condition of things could not last. Ihe rule of the Proprietors,
exercised, as it was, from a distance, and with little regard to the local
necessities of the colony, soon became -intolerable to the free spirit of the
people, and in 1719 the colonists at last made up their minds to get rid
of the Lords Proprietors altogether. The history of the Revolution.

\

\

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 425

which ensued, need not be given in detail. It was bloodless but decisive.
The colonists organized a convention, appointed a new governor, and
announced their intention of casting off " the confused, helpless, and
negligent government of the Lords Proprietors," and putting themselves
directly under that of the British crown. In 1721 the government of
George I. decided in their favor, and in 1729, in the reign of George II.,
the Province was purchased by the crown from the Lords Proprietors,
and was divided into North and South Carolina. The form of govern-
ment conferred on the colony was modeled upon the English Constitution.
It consisted of a Governor, Council and an Assembly. To them the
power -of making laws was committed. The King appointed the Gov-
ernor and Council ; the Assembly was elected by the people.

During the next half century the population of South Carolina steadil}'-
increased. Many inducements were offered to emigrants. Bounties were
given, free lands assigned, and the door was thrown open to settlers of
every description. Parties of emigrants arrived constantly from Great
Britain and the various countries of Europe. Between the years 1730
and 1750 a large number of settlers from Great Britain and Ireland,
Germany and the Palatinate, Switzerland and Holland, found homes in
South Carolina. The Germans established themselves chiefly in that
portion of the country around Orangeburg and along the Congaree and
Wateree Rivers ; the Scotch-Irish settled in Williamsburg ; the Welsh
along the Pee Dee River, in what are now the counties of Marlboro and
Marion, and the Swiss along the banks of the Savannah River. After
the Scotch rebellions of 1715 and 1745 many of the expatriated High-
landers came to Carolina. The population, which had hitherto been con-
fined to a radius of about eighty miles from the coast, now began to
spread into the interior of the State. A large territory was acquired from
the Indians, embracing the present counties of Edgefield. Abbeville,
Laurens, Newberry, Union, Spartanburg, York, Chester, Fairfield and
Richland, and settlements were soon made all through those fertile por-
tions of the country. Fifteen hundred French arrived from Nova Scotia,
and in 1704 a French Protestant colony settled in Abbeville District, and
gave the names of Bourdeaux and New Rochelle to their settlements.
The cultivation of wheat, hemp, flax and tobacco was introduced by col-
onists wdio came from Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, and that
of the vine and of silk by emigrants from the Palatinate. Indigo, also,
was for some years profitably cultivated. When the War of Independ-
ence began, the population of South Carolina amounted to forty tliousand
souls. It is needless to dwell upon the part played by South Carolina in
the Revolutionary War. It belongs to the history of the whole country,
and cannot be treated of here. During the war, of course, the growth
28

426 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

of tlio })opulation was checked, but this was amply compensated by the
jjrogress made by the State after tlie peace of 1783. Multitudes from
Europe and the more Northern parts of America poured into South
Carolina; and Greenville and Pendleton Districts, which were obtained
in 1777, by treaty founded on conquests, from the Cherokee Indians,
filled so rapidly with settlers that in the year 1800 those two Districts
alone are estimated to have contained upwards of 30,000 inhabitants.
The last group of settlers which the State received from foreign countries
consisted of several hundred French, chiefly from St. Domingo, who
settled for the most part in the vicinity of Charleston.

Inference has been made to the Constitution, of John Locke and to the
forms of government which superseded it under the Lords Proprietors,
and, later, under the royal administration of the Province. For the first
ninety-nine years Charleston was the seat of justice for Provincial Caro-
lina. In 1712, a Court of Chancery was established in the persons of the
Governor and his Council, and, later, in 1769, an Act was passed by
which new District Courts were established at Beaufort, Georgetown,
Cheraw, C/amden, Orangeburg and Ninety -Six. The Penal Code of Great
Britain, when introduced into this Trovince, underwent considerable
revision. An Act was passed in 1712 making certain English Statutes
of force in the Province, and by that Act the English Common Law was
declared to be of full force in Carolina, except in a few comparatively
unimportant particulars. The ancient tenures were abolished, and free
and common soccage was declared to be the tenure of all lands in the
Province. The Habeas Corpus Act of Charles II. was also adopted and
enacted. The Church of England enjoyed a nominal supremacy, but
liberty of conscience was fully guaranteed to all persons; and all religious
denominations worked together in the dissemination of moral and relig-
ious training. The Presbyterians were among the first settlers, and were
always numerous in South Carolina. The Independents, or Congrega-
tionalists, in conjunction with the Presbyterians, were formed into a
church in Charleston as early as 1682 ; and the Baptists formed a church
there in 1685. The Methodists established themselves in 1785. The
French Protestants formed a church in Charleston in 1700. The Jews
have had a synagogue in Charleston since the year 1756 ; and about the
same period the German Protestants formed themselves into a congrega-
tion. The Roman Catholics were not organized into a church in South
Carolina until 1791. The Quakers were ver}^ early in the field, and one
of the most distinguished Governors of the Province, John Archdale,
after Avhom one of the streets in Charleston is still called, was a Quaker.
The im})ulso towards freedom, which had driven the emigrants who set-
tled Carolina from their homes in the Old World, kept alive in their

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LA^S OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 427

breasts the spirit of religious liberty and toleration, and all through the
history of the State the same spirit has manifested itself in shaping leg-
islation and administering government. Such persecution for opinion's
sake as defaced the annals of some of the other American colonies has no
place in the history of South Carolina.

When the State threw off the royal authority, it adopted (in 1770) a
provisional Constitution, and, so far as the civil power could be exercised,
this Constitution was in operation during the Revolutionary War. After
peace was declared, it became necessary to devise a more permanent form
of government, and, in 17U0, a convention was called, which, after ng^giture
deliberation, established a Constitution, which, with but few mollifica-
tions, continued to be the law of tlie State until the end of the great civil
war. As that Constitution has been superseded by the one now in opera-
tion, and which was adapted to the new conditions and relations of
society growing out of the results of the civil war, it will not be necessary
here to detail its special provisions. The judgment of a learned and
eloquent writer may, however, be fitly quoted upon its general scope and
character. " Though the form of government in South Carolina," says
Ramsay, " has been materially altered six or seven times, yet each
change has been for the better. In the eighteenth century, while exper-
iment and the reasoning powers of man were improving the arts and
sciences, the art of government was by no means stationary. South
Carolina, as one of the United States, and acting her part in tlie Ameri-
can Revolution, has practically enforced the following improvements in
the art of government : 1. That all power is derived from the people,
and ought to be exercised for their benefit ; that they have a right to
resist the tyranny and oppression of their rulers, and to change their
government, whenever it is found not to afford that protection to life,
liberty and property for the protection of which it was instituted. 2. That
it is the true policy of States to afford equal protection to the civil rights
of all individuals and of all sects of religionists, without discrimination
or preference, and without interference, on the part of the State, in all
matters that relate only to the intercourse between man his Maker. 3.
That the ultimate end and object of all laws and government is the
happiness of the people, and that, therefore, no laws should be passed, or
taxes or other burdens imposed on them, for the benefit of a part of the
community, but only such as operate equally and justly on all for the
general good. 4. That war shall only be declared, or entered upon, by
the solemn act of the people, whose blood and treasure is to be expended
in its prosecution. * * * * t- \^ government founded on reason
and the rights of man, and exclusively directed to its proper object, the
advancement of human happiness, was first established by common

428 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

consent in the eighteenth century, and in the woods of America. Its
foundation in South Carolina rests on the following principles: No power
is exercised over the people but what had been granted by them with the
express view of its being used for the general good. No laws bind them,
nor are any taxes imposed on them, but with the consent of themselves,
or representatives freely and fairly chosen every second year by a ma-
jority of votes. There are no privileged orders. All are equally subject
to the laws, and the vote of any one elector goes as far as that of any
other. No freeman can be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized of his free-
hold, liberties or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner
destroyed or deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by the judg-
ment of his peers, or by the law of the land. Religion is so perfectly free
that all sects have equal rights and privileges, and each individual may
join with any or with none, as he pleases, without subjecting himself to
any civil inconvenience. These and similar principles of liberty and
equality pervade the Constitution and laws of the State. The first is the
work of the people in their sovereign capacity, and prescribes limits to
all the departments of government. These departments are three —
legislative, executive, and judicial ; for it is necessar}'- in regular govern-
ment that laws be enacted, expounded and applied, and finally executed.
* * ^ * The duties required and the burdens imposed by the laws
are equally binding on the law makers as on the people. They who are
legislators cease to be so in the Senate at the end of four years, and in the
House of Representatives at the end of two, and all power reverts to the
people till, by a new election, they invest the men of their choice with
authority to act for them. Every precaution is taken to identify the
interests of the people and their rulers. If the electors are not wanting
to themselves, the laws thus cautiously made, impartially expounded,
and liberally executed by the men of their choice, must be the collected
will and wisdom of the people deliberately pursuing their own happiness
as far as is practicable in the imperfect state of human nature. Such,
after two revolutions in one century, and three attempts to form an
efficient Constitution, is the result of the efforts of the people of South
Carolina for the preservation and advancement of their political inter-
ests." [Ramsay's History of South Carolina, Vol. 2, p. 139, et seq.]

The period which elapsed between the two great wars was one of con-
stant growth and prosperity. Under the operation of the constitutional
government described by Ramsay, the progress of South Carolina was
marked and steady. The various nationalities which have been shown
to have contributed to her population became gradually welded together
into a homogenous whole, and the upper districts of the State soon be-
came the homes of thriving and industrious settlers. Count}' seats Avere

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 429

established in the different Districts, and various Judicial Circuits were
formed, the Judges and Chancellors alternating with each other in the
different Circuits, while appeals were heard in Charleston and Columbia
by a full Appellate Bench. The pursuits of the people were almost en-
tirely agricultural, the chief staples of the State, cotton and rice, being
mainly worked by the aid of African slave labor. The political differ-
ences between the Northern and Southern States which culminated in
the civil war, though always existing, did not interfere with the internal
prosperity of the State. In 1800 the white poj)ulation had increased to
291,300. In the United States Census of 1860 the white population is
rated at 391,105 and the colored at 004,332. In the civil war South Car-
olina put more than 50,000 soldiers into the field, and when the war was
over, in 18G5, more than 12,000 of her male population had laid down
their lives in the struggle for independence. The result of the war left
the State in a j)rostrate and exhausted condition. An immense amount
of public and private property had been destroyed. Columbia, the capi-
tal, had been burned by the Federal armies, and the whole machinery of
government was subverted and overthrown. Under the authority of the
United States Congress a convention was called in 1868 to frame a new
Constitution. The present Constitution of South Carolina was framed
by that convention, and was submitted to the registered voters of the
State at an election held on the 14th, 15th and 16tli days of April, 1868,
and was adopted and ratified by them.

LEADING PRINCIPLES OF THE CONSTITUTION.

The leading principles of the Constitution may be briefly summarized
as follows:

All men are born free and equal, endowed with certain inalienable
rights, among which are the rights of enjoying and defending their lives
and liberties, of acquiring, possessing and protecting property, and of
seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness. Slavery is prohibited,
as well as involuntary servitude, except in the shape of confinement with
labor, inflicted as a punishment for crime, of which the party shall have
been duly convicted. All political -power is declared to be derived from
and vested in the people alone, and they have the right at all times to
modify their form of government as the public good may demand. Every
citizen owes paramount allegiance to the Constitution and government of
the LTnited States, and no law of this State passed in contravention thereof
can have any binding force. The American Union is declared to be in-
dissoluble, and the State shall ever remain a member thereof, and shall
resist any effort to dissolve it. The right of the people peaceably to

430 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

assemble to consult for the common good and to petition the government
or any dojiartment thereof shall never be abridged. All persons may
freely speak, write and publish their sentiments on any subject, being re-
sponsible for the abuse of that right, and no laws shall be enacted to re-
strain or abridge liberty of speech or the i:)ress. In prosecutions for libel
upon public officers, the truth of the matter may be given in evidence to
justify the publication, and the jury in such cases are the judges of the
law and the facts. Absolute freedom of conscience shall be secured to
all, with only the provision that such freedom shall not justify practices
inconsistent Avith the peace and moral safety of society. There shall be
no established church nor form of religion, but every denomination shall
be protected by law in the peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of wor-
ship. The right of trial by jur}^ shall remain inviolate. Every individ-
ual shall have the same personal rights; that is, no class of persons shall
have any advantages before the law over an}' other class, and there shall
be no discrimination between classes or individuals with regard to
rights, restraints or responsibilities. No person shall be held to answer
for any crime or offence until the same is fully and clearly explained to
him ; and he shall not be compelled to accuse himself or furnish evidence
against himself, but shall have the right to produce all his proofs in his
defence ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him and to cross-
examine them ; to have a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury,
and to be fully heard in his own behalf, either personally or by his coun-
sel, as he may elect.

No person shall be aiTCsted, imprisoned, deprived of his jiroperty or
privileges, put out of the protection of the law, exiled or deprived of his
life, liberty or estate, except by the judgment of his equals or the law of
the land. No law shall be passed by the General Assembly subjecting
any one to punishment without trial by jury, nor shall any law have a
retrospective effect, but shall apply only to offences committed after its
passage.

All Courts shall be public, and every person aggrieved shall have full
access to them and remedy by due course of law, and there shall be no
unnecessar}' dela}' in the administration of justice. All persons shall be
bailable, before conviction, by sufficient sureties, except for capital offen-
ces where the proof is evident or the presumption great, and excessive
bail shall not be required. Whipping and corporal punishment of any
sort are prohibited. The privilege of the writ of liabcas corj^us shall not
be suspended except in cases of insurrection, rebellion or invasion, Avlien
]'equired by the public safety.

No person shall be tried again for the same offence after having been
once acquitted by a jury. Small offences, under the rank of felonies, and

IXSTITUTIOXS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 481

in which the punishment does not exceed a fine of one hundred dollars
or imprisonment for thirty days, shall be tried summarily before a Jus-
tice of the Peace, on information under oath, without the intervention of
a grand jury, but the defendant shall have the right of appeal to a higher
Court. No person shall be held to ansAver for any higher crime or of-
fence unless on presentment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in
the land and naval service of the United States, or in the militia in ac-
tual service in time of war or public danger. Imprisonment for debt is
abolished, except in cases of fraud ;' and a certain amount of property
shall be set aside as a family homestead [as more particularly stated
hereafter], which shall be exempt from seizure or sale for any debts or
liabilities, except for debts due the State. No bill of attainder, ex post facto
law, nor any law impairing the obligation of contracts, shall ever be
passed, and no conviction shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of
estate. All persons have the right to be exempt from unreasonable
searches or seizures of their persons, houses, papers or possessions. Such
searches or seizures can only be made by special warrants formally issued
by proper officers and supported by affidavits, and containing a particu-
lar designation of the persons or objects of search, arrest or seizure. Pri-
vate property cannot be taken for public use, or for the use of corpora-
tions, or for private use, without the consent of the owner, or a just com-
pensation being made.

The Legislature alone has the power to declare martial law. The leg-
islative, executive and judicial departments of the government shall be
forever separate and distinct, and it is declared that the Legislature ought
frequently to assemble for the redress of grievances and the making of
new laws. The right of the people to keep and bear arms for the com-
mon defence is recognized and established. Standing armies are prohib-
ited, and the military power is declared to be always in subordination to
the civil. In time of peace no soldier shall be quartered in any house
without the consent of the owner, and in time of war only in such man-
ner as shall be prescribed by law.

No person who conscientiously scruples to bear arms shall be compelled
to do so, but shall be allowed to pay an equivalent for personal service.
All elections shall be free and open, and all electors shall have the same
rights to elect officers and be elected. There shall be no property quali-
fication for holding office, and no office can be held for a longer time
than during good behavior. Fighting a duel, or sending, bearing or ac-
cepting a challenge for that purpose, is prohibited, and shall disqualify
a person for holding office. Representation shall be apportioned accord-
ing to population, and the right of suffrage shall be secured to all citi-
zens, and, once obtained, shall not be forfeited by temporary absence from

432 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

the State. Property shall be taxed in proj)ortion to its value, and no
taxation or iin})Ost of any kind shall be established except by Act of the
Legislature. No title of nobility or hereditary emolument shall ever be
granted. All citizens, without distinction, shall enjoy equality of pul)lic,
legal and political rights. All navigable waters are public higiiwayS)
free to all the citizens of the State.

Legislative Department. — The legislative department consists of two
distinct branches, styled respectively the Senate and the House of Repre-
sentatives, and both together the General Assembly of the State of South
Carolina. The House of Representatives is composed of members chosen
by ballot every second year by the qualified electors of the State. Each
County of the State constitutes one election district. The General As-
sembly has the power to organize new Counties by changing the boun-
daries of the old, but no new County can be formed of less extent than
G2o square miles, nor can any old County be reduced to less area than
625 square miles. The House of Representatives consists of 124 mem-
bers, apportioned among the several Counties, according to the population.
A census every ten years is provided for to regulate this appointment.
The Senate is composed of one member from each County, except Charles-
ton County, which has two Senators, to be elected for four years by the
qualified voters of the State. But upon the first election after the adop-
tion of the Constitution, the Senators were divided b}' lot into two classes
as nearly equal as possible, the members of the first class holding their
seats for two years, and those of the second for four years, so that one-
half of the Senators ma}^ be chosen every second year. No person is eli-
gible to a seat in the Senate or House who, at the time of his election, is
not a citizen of the United States, nor any one who has not been for one
year next preceding his election a resident of the County whence he is
chosen, nor any one w^ho has been convicted of an infamous crime, nor
any one holding any office of profit or trust under this State, the L'nited
States, or any other State of the Union or foreign power, except officers
of the militia, Magistrates or Justices of Inferior Courts receiving no sal-
ary. Senators must be at least 25 and Representatives at least 21 years
of age. All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House, but
may be altered, amended or rejected by the Senate. All other bills maj'
originate in either body. No bill has the force of law until it has been
read three times, on three several days, in each house, has had the Great
Seal of the State affixed to it and has been signed in the Senate House by
the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House. No money
can be drawn from the treasury except in pursuance of an appropriation
made by law, and a regular statement of receipts and expenditures of all
public moneys must be published annually. The members of both

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 433

houses receive a fixed ;)fr dimi and mileage settled by the General Assem-
bly. In all elections by the General Assembly, or either House, the
members vote viva voce, and their votes are entered in the Journal. Both
houses sit with ojjen doors unless a secret session be ordered, in their dis-
cretion.

Executive Department. The supreme executive authority of the
State is vested in a Chief Magistrate, who is styled the Governor of the
State of South Carolina ; he is elected by the qualified electors of the State,
holds his office for two years and until his successor shall be chosen and
qualified, and is re-eligible. No person is eligible for the office of Governor
who denies the existence of the Supreme Being, or who, when elected, is
not thirty years of age, or who has not been a citizen of the United States
and a citizen and resident of this State for two years next preceding the
day of election. The Lieutenant Governor is chosen in the same manner
and at the same time as the Governor, must possess the same qualifications,
and is ex officio President of the Senate. The Governor is Commander-
in-Chief of the militia of the State ; he has the power of reprieve and
pardon, but must report his actions in that regard to the General Assem-
bly ; he must sign all bills passed by the General Assembly before they
become laws, and if he refuses his assent to any bill, it can only be passed
over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The other executive officers of the
State are the Comptroller General, Treasurer, and Secretary of State.
They are elected by the qualified voters of the State, and hold their
offices for the term of two years.

Judicial Department. The judicial power of the State is vested in
a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices,
two Circuit Courts, namely, a Court of Common Pleas, having civil juris-
diction, and a Court of General Ses.sions, having criminal jurisdiction ;
Probate Courts, having jurisdiction in matters testamentary and in busi-
ness relating to minors, and of dower, idiocy and lunacy ; Courts of Trial
Justices, having cognizance of minor off'ences and civil matters of a
trifling sort. The Trial Justices also act as examining courts in criminal
matters, and discharge, commit or bind over to the Sessions Court persons
charged with off'ences. They may bail all persons except those charged
with capital crimes. The. Supreme and Circuit Court Judges are elected
by the General Assembly, the Probate Judges by the electors of the several
counties, and t"he Trial Justices are appointed by the Governor. The
term of office of the Justices of the Supreme Court is six years, but it was
directed that, immediately after their first election under this Constitu-
tion, the General Assembly should determine by lot which of the two
Associate Justices should hold office for two years, and which for four
years, so that there should be an election for Chief Justice or one Associate

434 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Justice every two years. The Circuit Judges hold office for four years ;
the Probate Judges and Trial Justices for two years. TJie Judges receive
a fixed compensation, and are allowed no fees nor perquisites of office.
The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction only in cases of chancery,
and constitutes a court for the correction of errors at law. It has a gen-
eral supervisory control over all other courts in the State. Two of the
judges of the Supreme Court must concur to make a decision. The Cir-
cuit Judges interchange circuits. The Circuit Court has the usual civil
jurisdiction exercised by Courts of Common Pleas, and the distinction
between law and equity is abolished. The Court of Common Pleas must
sit at least twice a 3'^ear in each judicial district, and the Court of General
Sessions at least three times a year. Three persons are elected every two
years by the qualified electors of each couiity as a board of County Com-
missioners, who have jurisdiction over roads, highways, ferries, bridges,
and in all matters relating to taxes, disbursement of money for county
purposes, and the internal affairs and local concerns of the respective
counties. Appeals lie to the State courts from their decisions. Judges
are forbidden to charge juries in respect to matters of fact ; they may
state the testimony and declare the law. The Attorney General of the
State is elected for two years, and a Solicitor for each circuit for four
years. The electors of each county elect a Sheriff and Coroner for the
term of four years, who must reside in their respective counties during
their continuance in office, and who shall be disqualified for re-election
if in default of moneys collected by virtue of their offices.

The Suffrage. In all elections by the people, the electors vote by
ballot. Every male citizen of the United States, of the age of twenty-one
years and upwards, not laboring under the disabilities named in the
Constitution, without distinction of race, color or previous condition,
who was a resident of the State at the time of the adoption of the Con-
stitution, or who, after that period, shall have resided in the State for one
year, and in the county in which he offers to vote sixty days next pre-
ceding any election, is entitled to vote in any election by the peojile.
But no person disqualified by the Constitution of the United States, nor
any person while kept in any alms house or asylum, or of unsound mind,
or while confined in any prison, can vote or hold office. Absence, while
employed in the service of the United States, or while engaged upon the
waters of the State or of the United States, or on the high seas, or tem-
porary absence from the State, does not forfeit residence for the purpose
of voting. On the other hand, the mere sojourning within the borders
of the State of any person there stationed as a soldier, mariner or seaman,
in the army or navy of the United States, does not confer residence for
the purpose of voting. The right to vote involves and implies the right

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 435

to hold office, except as otherwise hmited by the Constitution. No law
curtailin<>; the right of suffrage can bo passed by the General Assembly,
except for treason, murder, robbery or duelling, whereof the person shall
have been tried and convicted. The Presidential Electors who cast the
vote .of the State for President and Vice-President of the United States,
are elected b}' the people. In all elections by the people, the candidates
receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The
State is divided into thirty-four judicial districts, called counties. Each
county is a body politic and corporate. [By a recent Act of the Legisla-
ture, following a provision of the Constitution, all electors must be regis-
tered in the election precinct in which they reside before they are entitled
to vote.]

Taxation. — Taxation must be uniform and equal, and no tax shall be
levied except in pursuance of a law, which shall distinctly state the ob-
ject of the same, to which object such tax shall be applied. All State
taxes are levied by the General Assembly. A poll tax of one .dollar on
each poll is provided, to be applied exclusively to the public school fund.
The buildings and premises actually occupied by public schools, colleges
and institutions of learning, all charitable institutions in the nature of
asylums for the infirm, deaf, dumb and blind, idiotic and indigent per-
sons, all public libraries, churches and bur3dng grounds, are exempt from
taxation. A new assessment of property must be made every five years.
The State may contract public debts for the purpose of defraying extra-
ordinary expenditures, but it must do so by special act, specifying some
single object, and levying a special tax sufficient to pay the annual inter-
est on such debt ; and such Act must be passed by the vote of two-thirds
of the members of each branch of the General Assembly recorded by
yeas and nays on the journal. Municipal taxes are levied by the corpo-
rate authorities of counties, townships, school districts, cities, towns and
villages, under the authority of the Legislature. Such taxes must be
uniform in res|)ect to persons and property.

Education. The supervision of public instruction is vested in a State
Superintendent of Education, who is elected by the qualified electors of
the State, in the same manner as the other State officers. One School
Commissioner for each county is also elected biennially, and the Com-
missioners so elected form a State Board of Education, of which the
State Superintendent is ex officio Chairman. It is made the duty of the
General Assembly to provide for a liberal and uniform system of free
public schools throughout the State and to provide for their support by
taxation. These schools must be unsectarian. [See infra " Statute
Law ; Public Instruction."]

The Militia. [See rnfra under " Statute Law."]

43G INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Marriage and Divorce, [See mfra under '' Statute Law."]
Amendment and Revision of the Constitution. The Constitution
may be amended in the following manner : The proposed amendment
may be moved in either house. If two-thirds of the members elected to
each house agree to it, such amendment shall be entered on the journals,
and the yeas and nays recorded. It is then submitted to the qualified
electors of the State at the next general election thereafter for represen-
tatives, and if a majority of the voters vote in favor of it, and two-thirds
of each branch of the next General Assembly ratify such amendment,
after reading the same three separate times on three several days in each
house, it shall become a part of the Constitution. A convention to revise
the Constitution can onl}^ be called by a vote of two-thirds of the mem-
bers elected to each branch of the General Assembly, which action of the
General Assembly shall be submitted to the electors at the next election
for Representatives, and such electors shall vote for or against a conven-
tion. If a majority of all the electors voting at said election shall vote
for a convention, the next General Assembly shall provide by law for
calling the same, and such convention must consist of at least as many
members as compose the largest branch of the General Assembly.

[Under these provisions several amendments to the Constitution of
18G8 have been made. The first prohibits the creation of any debt by
the State without the consent of the people, signified by a majority vote
of two-thirds of the qualified electors ; the second changes the time of
holding elections from October to November. Both these amendments
were adopted in the regular manner in the years 1870-73. The third
amendment, ratified March 5, 1875, changes the terms of office of the
Comptroller-General, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Attornej'^-General,
Adjutant and Inspector-General, Superintendent of Education, from
four to two years. The fourth amendment, ratified January 2Gth, 1878,
provides for a county school tax to be levied in each county by the
Boards of County Commissioners, for the support of the public schools.
The fifth amendment, ratified December 13, 1880, relates to the home-
stead exemption, and settles the law upon that point, as more particu-
larly stated hereafter. Two amendments are now pending, one of which
adds to the list of crimes disqualifying any citizen for the suffrage, " burg-
lary, larceny, perjury, forgery, or any other infamous crime," and the
other relates to the mode of creating new counties. These last two
amendments have not yet been voted upon.]

IXSTITUTIOXS, GOVERN.MEXT AND l.AVTH OF SOUTH CAEOLIXA. 437

THE STATUTE LAW.

The Statute Law of* the State, which has been recentl}' consolidated into
a Code and is embodied in a vohnne called The General Sfohites, is a de-
velopment of the organic law as laid down in the Constitution, and pro-
ceeds along the lines there indicated. It will only be necessary here to
note some of the more important provisions.

Crimes and Punishments. Every person arrested under process, or
taken into custody by an officer, has a right to know from the officer who
arrests him, the true ground on which the arrest is made, and if the
officer refuses to inform him, or informs him falsely, or declines to pro-
duce his warrant, such officer shall be punished as for a misdemeanor.
Any person may arrest a felon upon view or certain information of the
commission of the felony, and take him to a judge or trial justice to be
dealt with according to law ; and any citizen seeking to arrest a person
who has broken into a house, or has stolen property in his possession, or
where the circumstances raise a just suspicion of his design to commit a
felony, may use any means to enforce the arrest, even to the extent of
taking the life of the offender. The punishment of death b}^. hanging
is attached in South Carolina to the following crimes, viz. :

Murder, Eape, and Arson. In addition to the common law defini-
tion of murder, it is provided that where the death of any penson results
from any obstruction placed upon a railroad, the person convicted of
placing or causing to be placed such obstruction shall be adjudged guilty
of murder. Any person wounding another in a duel is guilty of murder
if death ensue from the wound within six months. Rape is punishable
with death, but the jury ma}^ find a special verdict recommending the
party to mercy, in which case the punishment shall be reduced to im-
prisonment for life in the penitentiary at hard labor. Arson is the wilful
and malicious setting fire to or burning b}'' day or night of (1) any house
of any kind whatever within two hundred yards of and appurtenant to
a dwelling ; (2) any court house or public building, whether owned by
the State or a corporation or individuals ; (3) any barn or stable, coach-
house, gin-house, store-house, ware-house, grist or saw-mill, railroad
depot, coach or cotton factory, or other house used for manufacturing
purposes, or any building habitually used for public worship. Any per-
son convicted of arson as principal, aider, abettor or accessor}^ before the
fact, shall suffer death by hanging, with the same proviso for a special
verdict as stated above in the case of rape.

Manslaughter, or the unlawful killing of another without malice,
express or implied, is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary,

438 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAHOLINA.

at hard labor, for not less than two nor more than thirty years. Attempt
to administer poison is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary
for not less than two nor more than ten years. Any one sending or
accepting a challenge to fight a duel, shall be deprived of the right of
suffrage and disqualified from holding any office of honor or trust, and
imprisoned in the penitentiary not exceeding two years. Any person
carrying a challenge shall be disqualified from holding office, and im-
prisoned in the penitentiary not exceeding two years, and fined not less
than ^500, nor more than $1,000. The principal or second in a duel
may be compelled to give testimony against any person indicted without
criminating himself The carrying of a deadly weapon concealed about
the person is a misdemeanor, punij liable by line and imprisonment, and
an assault with such concealed weapon is an aggravated offence. Kid-
napping sailors or minors, ill treatment of apprentices, children, servants,
&c., and enticing away a laborer under contract -with another, or emplov-
ing a laborer known to be under such contract, are misdemeanors,
punishable by fine and imprisonment. Burglary at common law is
punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary for life at hard labor.
Breaking into a house in the day time is a felony, punishable by impris-
onment for not more than one year. Burning stacks of corn, etc., and
burning or cutting frames of timber, are punishable by imprisonment.
Firing turpentine farms is a felony, punishable by fine or imprisonment.
Stealing grain or cotton from the field is a felony, punishable by fine or
imprisonment. Larceny of live stock is punishable by fine and impris-
onment in the penitentiary for not less than one nor more than ten years.
Among the misdemeanors to which special punishments are attached
are : Setting fire to grass ; malicious wounding. of live stock; malicious
injury or defacement of houses, trees, &c. ; marking or branding of the
animals of others ; obtaining property under false pretences ; obstructing
rivers and creeks and fish sluices, ditches and drains ; selling property
on which a lien exists ; fraudulent removal of property levied on by
sheriff; fiilse packing of cotton; selling seed cotton between sundown
and sunrise ; failure of factors to account for produce placed in their
hands; and cruelty to animals. Bigamy is punishable by imprisonment
in the penitentiary not less than six months nor more than five years,
and by fine not less than $500. Adultery and fornication are punishable
by fine and imprisonment, or both. Practicing medicine or dentistry
without the proper qualifications is punishable by fine* and all practicing
phy.sicians are required to register themselves in the office of the Clerk
of the Court of Common Pleas for their respective counties. Lotteries
are prohibited, and penalties are attached to setting up or advertising tlie
same, or selling lottery tickets. Where any person is reported to the

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 430

coroner to have come to a violent or untimely death within his jurisdic-
tion, he shall hold an inquest upon the body Avith the aid of a jury of
fourteen men of the county, and all jDersons subject to jury duty in the
Circuit Court are liable to serve on a coroner's jury. The coroner can
arrest and bind over for trial any person appearing to be concerned in
such death, and also material witnesses to the facts. As already stated,
the punishment of whipping is not permitted by the laws of South
Carolina.

Law OF Property. There are, of course, many details of property
law which can only be learned by consulting a lawyer, but a few general
principles and important provisions may be noted here. Any man or
woman of legal age, owning real estate in fee simple, may freely dispose
of it by will, or sell and convey the same by deed, executed in the pres-
ence of two or more witnesses, and dul}' recorded. If the deed be by a
married man, the wife must renounce her dower in a formal manner,
provided by statute. A married woman may hold property separately
from her husband and may dispose of the same as if she were unmarried.
All deeds of conveyance or mortgage, trust deeds, marriage settlements,
&c., leases between landlord and tenant for a longer period than twelve
months, liens on crops and mechanics' liens, and liens on ships and
vessels, must be recorded in the office of the Register of Mesne Convey-
ances for the county where the property is situated, in the case of real
estate, and in the case of personal property, for the county where the
owner resides, within forty days from the time of execution or delivery,
in order to affect the rights of subsequent creditors or purchasers without
notice. No person having a lawful wife or children can give to any
illegitimate children or concubine, by conveyance, gift or legacy, a greater
proi)ortion of the value of his estate than one-fourth thereof. Every
conveyance for the purpose of defrauding creditors is void. So, also, are
conveyances to deceive purchasers. Upon the payment of a debt secured
by mortgage, the mortgagor may compel the mortgagee to enter satisfac-
tion on the mortgage. No parol lease is valid for more than one year,
and every written lease shall terminate at the period therein stated, with-
out its being obligatory on either party to give notice. The landlord
may distrain for rent in arrear. Tenants in common and' joint tenants
are compellable to make partition. Liens on real estate are of no force
after the lapse of twenty years, unless kept alive by some payment or ac-
knowledgment of indebtedness, except in the cases of judgments provided
for in the Code of Procedure. Wills in South Carolina nuist be signed
and acknowledged by the testator in the presence of three witnesses, who
must sign in the presence of the testator and of each other. Aliens can
hold and dispose of real and personal property in the same way as

440 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

citizens, and so far, therefore, as the rights of property are concerned,
naturalization is not necessary. So, also, aliens can lend money upon
security, and can have the same remedies for suing for and recovering
the same as if they were citizens, whether the foreign State, of which the
alien is a subject, be at war with the United States or not ; and if a citizen
leave an alien widow, such widow's riglits in his estate shall be exactly
the same as if she were naturalized. In case of intestacy, the property of
the intestate is distributed by law among his nearest kin, according to
certain rules sjjecifically laid down by statute. AVliere he leaves a widow
and children, the widow takes one-third and the children two-thirds.
The Probate Court has power to grant administration of the personal
estate. The property of a felon is not escheated, but descends to his
representatives. A homestead in lands, whether held in fee or any lesser
estate, not to exceed in value one thousand dollars, with the yearly pro-
ducts thereof, is exempt to the head of every family residing in South
Carolina from lev}^ or sale for debt upon any judgment recovered against
him ; and it is the duty of the sheriff before selling the real estate of any
head of a family to have such homestead set off by appraisers in the
manner prescribed b}' law. If the property cannot be set off, the sheriff
must sell and pay one thousand dollars of the purchase money into
Court, to be applied to the purchase of a homestead. If the husband be
dead, the widow is entitled to the homestead ; and if both parents be
dead, the right is secured to the children, and no waiver of the homestead
is valid, except in cases of conveyance or mortgage. Personal property
to the value of five hundred dollars is exempt from attachment, levy or
sale. Where a married woman has separate property she is entitled to
the homestead when the husband's property is not sufficient. The Statute
of Frauds is in force in South Carolina, and all agreements for the sale
of lands, leases for more than one year, promises to answer for another's
debt or default, contracts for the sale of goods above the value of fifty
dollars, &c., must be in writing and signed by the party to be charged,
or his duly authorized agent. Assignments of the property of an insol-
vent debtor for the benefit of creditors which give to any creditor prefer-
ence over any other, are utterly void. The legal rate of interest is seven
per cent. ; but by written contract a rate of interest not exceeding ten
per cent, may be charged. If more than ten per cent, be charged, all
the interest is forfeited, and only the principal sum can be recovered.
And if aii}^ greater amount than ten per cent, shall be received, the per-
son or corporation receiving it shall forfeit double such amount.

Public Instruction. The duties of the State Superintendent of Edu-
cation have been already touched U})on. He has general supervision
over all the free public schools of the State, and is required to visit every

IXSTITUnONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 441

County in the State to inspect tlie same and to make an annual report to
tlie General Assembly. He is trustee for all property granted or devised
for the purposes of education. The State Board of Examiners consists
of tlie State Superintendent of Education and four persons appointed by
the Governor, with the consent of the Senate. They meet from time to
time and constitute an Advisory Board for the Superintendent of Edu-
cation. They have a general power in all matters relating to the schools
and e.ipe^ially to teachers. They examine persons who apply for appoint-
ment as teachers, and issue certificates of their qualifications. In each
County a School Commissioner is elected at the general election, whose
duty it is to superintend all the sjhools in his county, to report their
condition to the State Superintendent and to apportion the school fund
for his county. It is the duty of the County Boards of Examiners and
of the Boards of Trustees to see that in every school under their care
shall be taught, as far as practicable, orthography, reading, writing,
arithmetic, geography, English grammar. History of the United States
and of this State, the principles of the Constitution and laws of the
United States and of this State, morals and good behavior. In each
county there is a County Board of Examiners, composed of the County
School Commissioners and two other persons appointed by the State
Board. They constitute the Advisory Board of the County School Com-
missioners. They appoint in each School District in their county three
School Trustees; who take the management of the local education of the
School District, subject to the supervision of the County Board of Exam-
iners. The poll tax is applied to school purposes and the County Treas-
urer is required to account for it to the School Commissioners.

The Depae/tment of Agriculture is administered by a Board of
five persons — the Governor, Chairman ex officio, the Master of the State
Grange of Patrons of Husbandry, the President of the State Agricultural
and Mechanical Society, and two citizens chosen by joint vote of the Gen-
eral Assembly for two years. The Commissioner of Agriculture must be
an agriculturist, chosen by joint vote of the General A.ssembly for two
years. The Board prescribe the duties of the Commissioner; they regu-
late the returns of County Agricultural Societies chartered by the State ;
issue blanks to County Auditors for collection of agricultural statistics ;
investigate all matters relating to agricultural interests, diseases of stock,
fish, &c., and to commercial fertilizers, and have control over the phos-
l>hate interests of the State. The Commissioner of Agriculture is required
to keep a book in which lands for sale may be registered, and also books
in which shall be entered the names of persons desiring employment as
laborers, a fee of !^1 being charged for such registry, and the books shall
be open for inspection free of charge. Pie shall collect specimens of ag-
29

142 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

ricultural products, minerals, &c. The Department of Agriculture regu-
lates the matter of immigration to the State. An annual report of all its
proceedings is made to the General Assembly.

Immigrants and Seamen. No person is permitted to keep an immi-
grants' or sailor's hotel or boarding house in the city of Charleston with-
out a license from the City Council, and hotels not so licensed cannot so-
licit boarders. The City Council must issue badges and the agents or
owners of boarding houses must wear such Ijadges when engaged in
soliciting boarders. Harboring deserting seamen or enticing them to
desert is punishable by fine ancl imprisonment. Impressing seamen is a
misdemeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment.

The Militia. All able-bodied male citizens of the State between the
ages of 18 and 45 years, except such as are exempt by law, are liable to
service in the militia, but there is no compulsory military service except
in certain cases of emergency. The Governor has power to call out the
militia to execute the laws, repel invasion, repress insurrection and pre-
serve the public peace.

MARRiACiE AND DivoRCE. Complete freedom of marriage is allowed,
except within certain close degrees of consanguinity, and except that
intermarriage between the white and colored races is forbidden. The
real and personal propert}'- of a woman held at the time of her marriage,
or that which she may thereafter acquire either by gift, grant, inheri-
tance, devise, or otherwise, does not pass to her husband by her marriage,
nor become in any way subject to his debts, but remains her separate
property, and she can deal with it as she chooses during her life and dis-
pose of it by will as if she were unmarried. It is provided by the Con-
stitution that divorces from the bonds of matrimony shall not be allowed
but by the judgment of a court as shall be prescribed by law. For some
years after the adoption of the Constitution an Act was in force provid-
ing for and regulating such divorces by the courts, Imt that Act has been
repealed, and there is, therefore, now no tribunal in South Carolina by
which divorces can be granted. The Court of Common Pleas has, how-
ever, power to hear and determine any issue affecting the validity of con-
tracts of marriage, and to declare such contracts void for want of consent
of either of the contracting parties, or from any other cause going to
show that at the time the supposed contract was made, it was not, in fact)
a contract — provided that such contract has not been consummated by
cohabitation of the parties.

General Remarks. Except as it may have been inodified by sj^ecial
enactment, the common laAV of England is in force in South Carolina.
The general tendency of the legislation under the new Constitution has
been towards the simplification of the tenure and dispo.sition of property^

INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 443

of process and pleading in tlie Courts, and of the collection of debts, and
towards the increased security of person and estate. Short and easy
remedies are provided for the recovery of debts. The agricultural inter-
ests of tlie citizens are protected by the laws already mentioned with re-
lation to the maiming and stealing of stock, &c., and by a recent Act
entitled " An Act to provide a general stock law and regulate the opera-
tions of the same," which prohibits persons from allowing their live stock
to run at large beyond the limits of their own land. The counties of
Georgetown, Horry and Williamsburg are excepted from the operation
of the law, but are required to have fences and gates erected on their
boundary lines. Owners of stock trespassing are liable for damage done
and expenses of seizure, &c. Stock trespassing may be seized by the
owner of the land. It is made a misdeitneanor to break or leave down
gates or fences, and also to rescue stock impounded. Persons making
advances either in money or supplies to those engaged in planting have
a lien on the crop to the extent of the advances so made in preference to
all other liens, provided an agreement in writing be entered into. Land-
lords have such a lien to the extent of one-third of the crop witliout
recording or filing. Laborers employed in making a crop have a lien
thereon for their wages. Persons furnishing labor or materials for erec-
tion, alteration or repair of buildings, have a lien upon the building and
upon the interest of the owner in the land on which it stands for their
debt.

Every encouragement is given to the employment of capital in manu-
facturing industries. By a special Act of the Assembly, it is provided
that capital invested in the manufacture of cotton, woolen and paper
fcdirics, iron, lime, and agricultural implements, shall be exempted from
all State, County and municipal taxation for a period of ten years from
the time of the commencement of the enterprise, excepting only the two
mill tax for school jDurposes But this exemption does not apply to the
land upon which factories are erected. Vessels of one hundred tons
measurement, and upwards, built and owned within this State, are en-
titled to the benefit of this Act. Those desiring to avail themselves of
the Act must file with the Comptroller-General proof of the invest-
ment. For the purpose of encouraging immigration, real estate pur-
chased by immigrants, and capital invested in improvements thereon,
up to $1,500, is exempted for five years from all State, County or municipal
taxation, except the two mill school tax. The department is authorized
to use a fund under its control to encourage and aid the introduction of
immigrants.

444 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNMENT AND LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

PRINCIPAL AUTHOPJTIES CONSULTED.

History of South Carolina, 1670-1808. D. Ramsay. Charleston, 1809.

An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of
South Carolina and Georgia. Hewit. London, 1779.

History of South Carolina. W. G. Simms. Charleston, 1860.

History of the United States, George Bancroft. Boston, 1841-1874.

Statistics of South Carolina. Robert Mills. Charleston, 1826.

" Dual State Governments." Address by Joseph W. Barnwell, Esq.,
before the South Carolina Historical Society, May 18th, 1880. Charles-
ton, 1880.

Guide to Charleston. Charleston, 1875.

Charleston Year Books, 1881 and 1882.

Appleton's American Cyclopedia, title " South Carolina." New York,
.1873-1876.

Constitution of South Carolina. 1868.

General Statutes of South Carolina. 1881.

Acts and Joint Resolutions of the General Assembly of South Carolina.

CHAPTER IV.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH

CAROLINA.

BY R. MEANS DAVIS,

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE IN SOUTH
CAROLINA COLLEGE.

1882.

CONTENTS OF SKETCH.

I. Historical Sketch.
II. Public School System.

III. Schools in Charleston.

IV. Schools in Columbia.

V. Charitable and Educational
Associations.
VI. Private Schools,
VII. Higher Education for Males.

VIII. Military Training and Instruction
FOR Males.
IX. Higher Education for Females.
X. Professional and Special Instruc-
tion.
XI. Education of Colored Race.
XII. Periodical Literature.

XIII. Illiteracy.

XIV. Appendix.

School Officers, 1881-2.

HUGH S. THOMPSON,
State Superintendent of Education.

State Board of Examiners.
HENRY P. ARCHER.
Rev. JAMES DUNLOP.
Rev. J. SCOTT MURRAY.
CHARLES PETTY.

School Officers, 1882-;>.

ASBURY COWARD,

State Superintendent of Education

State Board of E.xaminers.

HENRY P. ARCHER.

Rev. J. SCOTT :SIURRAY.
*R. W. BOYD.
*R. MEANS DAVIS.

* Vice Rev. James Dunlop ami Charles Petty, resigued.

446 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

I. HISTORICAL SKETCH.

The people of South CaroHna, from the earliest period, fostered educa-
tion. The first permanent settlement was made about the year 1671, and
at the close of the seventeenth century the population scarcely reached
five thousand, yet among the first recorded acts of the Colonial Assembly
was the enactment of laws for the observance of the Sabbath, the pre-
vention of idleness and drunkenness, and for " securing the Provincial
Library in Charleston." In these early times

RELIGION AND EDUCATION WENT HAND IN HAND.

Contemporaneously with the establishment of these Colonies, was the or-
ganization in England of a " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts," by which missionaries were sent out, not only to preach,
but " to encourage the setting up of schools for the teaching of children."

Through the liberality of Dr. Bray, the Bishop of London's Commissary
for Mar3dand, aided by the public spirit of the Lords Proprietors and
settlers, the nucleus of a public librar}^ had already been formed in
Charlestown ; and in 1700, the Assembh'' took this library under public
control, appointed the minister of the Church of England ex officio
librarian, and created an advisory board of nine commissioners to aid him
in the discharge of his duties. Other libraries were established in the
Province by the coml)ined action of the people, the Assembly, and the
Societ}' for the Propagation of the Gospel.

From Carroll's History we learn that " the missionaries represented
frequently to the Society the great want of schools in the Province for
the instruction of the children in the principles of religion, and teaching
convenient learning. Dr. Le Jau, of Goose Creek, did very earnestly
press the Societ}" to allow a sj^lary for a schoolmaster in his parish, and
they appointed Mr. Dennis schoolmaster in 1710. He had a good num-
ber of scholars for several years, till the Indian war broke out, which
dispersed the people and all his scholars." About this time, the Rev.
Mr. Guy was appointed schoolmaster and assistant curate at Charleston.

FREE SCHOOLS.

Free schools date their origin as far back as 1710. In that year, the
Assembly passed " An Act for the founding and erecting of a Free School"
in Cliarlestown. The preamble recites that " It is necessary that a free
school be erected for the instruction of the youth of this Province in

A SKETCH OF EDITCATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 447

grammar and other arts and sciences and useful learning, and also in
the principles of the Christian religion," and that " several well disposed
Christians, by their last wills, have given several sums of money for the
founding a free school." The Act constitutes a body corporate, consisting
of the Governor and fifteen others, with power to prescribe rules, and to
elect a master, who shall be of the Church of England, and shall teach
the Latin and Greek languages, and, also, the useful parts of the mathe-
matics. An amendatory and more general Act passed in 1712, appoint-
ing John Douglass master, at a salar}' of £100 and a house, allowing him
an usher, and a writing master to teach writing, arithmetic and mer-
chants' accounts, and the arts of navigation and surveying. Twelve
beneficiaries were provided for, and free scholarships for five years were
granted to any citizens on payment of £20 each. An additional provision
was that " any

SCHOOLMASTER SETTLED IN A COUNTRY PARISH,

and appointed by the vestry, should receive £10 per annum from the
public treasury ;" while each parish was allowed £12 towards erecting a
school-house.

This Act deserves mention, not so much from the actual results
achieved, but as a proof of the enlightened and liberal spirit of the people
in the presence of most unpropitious circumstances. It must be remem-
bered'that the early settlers of Carolina were continually harassed by
foes from without and dissensions at home. " They raised their scanty
crops, not only with the sweat of their brows, but at the risk of their
lives." Cavaliers and Puritans brought with them the memories of old
feuds, and were united only in oppressing the Huguenots. Locke's
model constitution was an exasperating failure. Proprietors and people
held diverse interests, and Governors were often at daggers' points with
the governed. Over issues of money had destroyed public confidence
and depleted the treasury. A disastrous expedition against the Span-
iards, in 1702, and the necessity of repelling a counter invasion, ren-
dered the situation still more distressing. At the very time that the
free school was founded, the Province was torn by the claims of two con-
flicting Governors, and the dispute was scarce settled before a severe
contest arose against hostile Indians. The four years from 1715 to 1719
marked constant strife between the people and the Proprietors, and
tranquility was not secured until the appointment, in the latter year, of a
royal Governor.

THE FIRST ROYAL GOVERNOR.

The first appointee of the Crown. General Francis Nicholson, combined
boldness, activity and firmness with liberality, wisdom and integrity.

4-18 A SKETCH OF FDIT'ATIOK IN f-f;T'TH CAROLINA.

His great zeal in behalf of education is thus chronicled b}' Hewitt: "As
no public school had yet been instituted for the instruction of youth in
the principles of virtue and religion, the Governor urged, also, the use-
fulness and necessity of such provincial establishments. It was alleged
that the want of early instruction was one of the chief sources of impiety
and immorality ; and if they continued any longer to neglect the rising
generation, piety and Christianity would insensibly decay, and the}'
would soon have a race of white people in the country equally ignorant
as the brown Indian. Animated by the example, and assisted by the
generosity of the Governor, the colonists, therefore, in good earnest en-
gaged in providing seminaries for the religious .education of youth."

PRIVATE BENEFACTIONS.

Particular legacies swelled the educational fund. Mr. Whitmarsh left
£500 to St. Paul's Parish ; Mr. Ludlam, £2,000 to Goose Creek ; and
Richard Beresford, £6,500 to St. Thomas ; James Childs bequeathed £600,
and other })arishioners added £2,200 more to an institution in St. John's
Parish, established in 1733 ; Francis Williams donated £200 for the in-
struction of the poor.

In 1734, a free school was opened in Dorchester, a town that had been
settled in 1696 by a colony of Congregationalists from Massachusetts,
under the Rev. Joseph Lord. The preamble of the act of incorporation
mentions that the school at Charlestown is insufficient to meet the wants
of the people. The teacher was required to give instruction in the
learned languages and the principles of the Christian religion.

After this time, as we are informed by Ramsay, the youth of the
Province were always able to secure instruction in the classics and in
elements of mathematics.

With increasing wealth came increasing love of learning. Opulent
planters maintained private tutors, or sent their sons abroad. " None of
the British Provinces, in proportion to their numbers, sent so many of
their sons to Europe for education os South Carolina."

EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE ASSOCIATIONS

continued to be formed during colonial times. The South Carolina So-
ciety, organized in 1737, and incorporated about fifteen years later, em-
ployed teacliers and taught and clothed poor children; besides extending
!)Ounty to indigent members and their sons and daughters. The Winyah
Indigo Society of Georgetown was incorporated in 1757, and the Fellow-
shi}) Society of Charleston _ in 1730, for a similar purpose. In this last

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 449

named year an attempt was made to found a provincial college, but it
failed, owin-;-, it is said by some, to the oppositioii of those who believed
that, by facilitating the acquisition of knowledge, existing distinctions
of rank would be destroyed ; or, as others say, because the rich and
influential members, who controlled legislation, were able to send their
children abroad, and felt no need for higher education at home.

THE EEVOLUTIONAEY PEKIOD.

During the trying times of the revolution, learning did not languish.
In 1777, were incorporated Mount Zion Society, Winnsboro', and Catli-
olic Society, Camden ; in 177S, Salem Society, Camden, and St. David's
Society, Cheraw. Immediately after the declaration of peace a fresh
impetus Avas given to education, three colleges being incorporated in
1785 on the same day ; the first, the College of Charleston, which still
exists ; the second. Mount Zion College, in Winnsboro', which subse-
quently became an academy of great merit, and a third, which was to be
established at Cambridge, but never went into operation. In 1795, a
college was founded in Beaufort, but the funds were subsequentl}" trans-
ferred to a seminary of high grade. The Beaufort Society had already
been incorporated in 178G, and the St. Helena Society in the same year.
In 1787 was incorporated the Camden Orphan Society ; in 1789, the
Claremont Society, at Stateburg; in 1791, the Beaufort District Society;
in 1798, St. Andrew's Society, in Charleston ; in 1799, Upper Long Cane
Society, in Abbeville ; in 1800, the John's Island Society, and in 1809,
the INIount Pleasant Academy. All these, as far as known, were endowed
cither by private donations, or by the proceeds of escheated and contis-
cated lands, or both. Besides these, the Fair Forest Academy in Union,
the Mount Bethel Academy of Newberry, the IMinerva Academy in
Richland, and one of the same name in Spartanburg, are mentioned by
Ramsay as filling positions of great usefulness.

In 1797, the Legislature went so far as to incorporate a fifth college,
located in Pinckney District, and styled " The College of Alexandria."
The district and its college alike live only in the memories of the past.

Besides these chartered academies were several flourishing private
schools,. chief among them,

THE WILLINGTON ACADEMY,

in Abbeville, conducted by Dr. Moses Waddell. Here gathered students
from all parts of this and adjoining States, and the Avild woods of the
Savannah resounded with the echoes of Plojner and Virgil, and Cicero

450 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

and Horace, as the " winged words " issued from the lips of this vener-
able preceptor, or his ardent disciples. Generations have passed away,
but the impress of Dr. Waddell's genius and influence is still seen in the
social and political condition of the State.

By 1801 the State had become convinced of a want of wisdom in dis-
sipating its resources ; and upon the strong recommendation of Governor
John Drayton, the Legislature that year passed an act incorporating

THE SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE.

A sketch of this celebrated institution will be given elsewhere. Since
then, at different times, private colleges of great usefulness have been
established, to which further reference will also be made.

In 1798, trustees were appointed to establish free schools in Orange-
burg. AVith this exception, it Avould appear that, after the efforts of the
early colonial governments, no further special attention was paid to free
instruction until the year 1811.

FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

On the 26th of November of that year. Governor Henry Middleton
urged, in his annual message, the establishment of free schools. On the
following day Senator Strother presented petitions for free schools, signed
by citizens of Fairfield, Chester, AVilhamsburg, Darlington, Edgefield,
Barnwell, York, St. Stephen's, St. James' Santee, St. John's Colleton, and
St. Peter's. A joint committee was appointed, with the Hon. Stephen
Elliott as chairman. A bill drawn by Mr. Elliott was reported by the
committee; passed the Senate without the roll call, and was adopted in
the House by a vote of seventy-two to fifteen.

This Act established in each district and parish free schools equal in
number to the representatives in the lower house. Elementarj'' instruc-
tion was to be imparted to all pupils free of charge, preference being given
to poor orphans and the children of indigent parents. Three hundred
dollars per annum were voted to each school. Commissioners, varying
in number from three to eleven in each district and parish, serving with-
out pay and without penalty, were entrusted with their management.
Until a sufficient number of schools should be established, the commis-
sioners were permitted to move the schools annually, but no school
should be established until the neighborhood had built a school house.
The funds of the free schools might be united with the funds of the
public schools. The aggregate appropriation was about $37,000 a year.

The system having been thus auspiciously inaugurated, vigorous efforts

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH (JAROLINA. 451

followed to put it into successful operation. Legislative committees made
annual reports, showing greater or less progress. Leading men interested
themselves in free education.

GOVERNORS, IN THEIR ANNUAL MESSAGES,

evinced an earnest desire for a more general diffusion of knowledge.
Among these were Governor Middleton, in 1812; Governor Williams, in
1815 and 1816 ; Governor Pickens, in 1817 ; Governor Bennett, in 1822 ;
Governor AVilson, in 1823 ; Governor Manning, in 1826 ; Governor I\Iil-
ler, in 1829 ; Governor Hamilton, in 1831 and 1832 ; Governor Hayne, in
1833; Governor McDuffie, in 1835 and 1836; Governor Butler, in 1837
and 1838 ; Governor Noble, in 1839, and Governor Henegan in the fol-
lowing year. Governor Hammond, in both his messages (1842 and 1843),
urged the endowment of an academy in each district. Other governors
have touched upon the subject with more or less earnestness.

An amendatory Act, introduced hj Judge Frost, and passed in 1835,
provided penalties for non-performance of duty by the commissioners,
but gave no pay ; and failed to designate any one whose business it
should be to enforce the law. While such thickly inhabited localities as
Charleston had derived benefits from these schools, sparsely settled com-
munities had accomplished little, and the general result was unsatisfac-
tory. Instead, however, of abandoning the attempt,

INCREASED EFFORTS WERE MADE

to ensure success. A committee, consisting of Rev. Stephen Elliott and
Rev. James H. .Thornwell, was appointed in* 1838, to confer with the
various school commissioners, and suggest improvements. Their report,
presented in 1839, is full of interest; containing, among other contribu-
tions, a most elaborate paper by the Hon. Edmund Bellinger, of Barn-
well, which showed that in twenty-seven years, the average attendance
for the State was 6,018 pupils, and the average annual expenditure,
$35,000, that during the whole time regular reports were made in only
five years, that the exj^enditure for each year bore no proportion to the
scholars, that several parishes and districts received no regular sum, that
the expenditure for each district bore no proportion to the scholars edu-
cated or to the population, that out of the attendance not more than one-
sixth was believed to be composed of necessitous pupils. The greatest
number of scholars in any one year was 10,718, in 1833 ; and the largest
expenditure was $48,951, in 1819, during which year the attendance was
but 3,002. Since 1815 the annual appropriation had been $37,000.

452 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

There was an almost unanimous concurrence in the recommendation
of some sort of general supervision, either in the person of one official,
or of several, with liberal salaries. Tliis same measure had been in-
sisted upon l^y leading statesmen and educators time and again ; but it
was never adopted.

NO DEFINITE RESULTS

came from the prv33cntation of this report. In 1846, at the request of
the State Agricultural Society, Hon. R. F. W. AUston prepared an elabo-
rate report, in which he dwelt upon the necessit}^ of supplementing the
State appropriation by local taxation of an; equal amount. Though
thoroughly imbued with a desire for better schools. Governor Allston,
sulxsequently, when President of the Senate, opposed a larger State ap-
propriation, on the ground that, without local taxation, it would accom-
plish nothing. Mr. Henry Summer made a report to the Legislature in
1847, insisting upon better free schools, as supplementary to the college,
urging the establishment of a normal school, and a more equitable ap-
portionment of the public funds.

In 1852, the Legislature, b\^ a close vote, passed an Act doubling the
appropriation for free schools ; and after that time $74,400 were annually
set apart for their maintenance. Attendance in 1853 was over 17,000,
and in 1854, over 16,000, exclusive of Charleston. While in some districts
free schools were established, in others contracts for tuition of indigent
pupils were made with teachers of private schools. The report for 1880
■shows an aggi-egate of 1,270 schools, and 18,915 pupils. The appropria-
tion was $74,400, the expenditures $127,530 41, an excess of $62,367.80,
of which $49,344.38 were in Charleston City, and wore probably met by
a city tax. Excess in the 'other districts and parishes may be explained
partly by overdrafts and partly by unexpended balances of former years.

In 1863, there were 823 schools, 815 teachers, and 10,811 pupils.

It may reasonably be asked why this system of instruction

BORE SO LITTLE FRUIT,

in the face of so much interest and so many admirable attempts to culti-
vate it. Dr. Cuny attributes the cause to the existence of slavery.
"Slavery sparsified our population, created a kind of aristocracy, among
wliom, as Burke said, ' Freedom was to them not only an enjoyment, but
a kind of rank and privilege.' Slave owners held borrowed estates,
were surrounded by a host of menial dependents, lived luxuriously, dis-
])ensed a cordial and magnificent hos])itality, 'combined with the spirit
of freedom the haughtiness of domination,' and free schools became un-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 453

necessary or impossible." Although these schools were made free to all
by the Act of ISll, they soon came to be regarded in many localities as
pauper schools. As far back as 1839, Rev. Mr. Thrummell, of All Saints',
reports, as the radical defect of the system, that " it is a bounty, intended
for the poor. The rich will not avail themselves of it, since they do not
need it, while the poor will rather keep their children home altogether,
tlian, by sending them to the free school, attach to them, as they think
and feel, the stigma of being poor, and of receiving education as paupers."
In his view, the imposition of a local tax, by compelling all to contribute
to the school would induce all to send to it, thus removing the existing
reproach. Instances are cited in which parents refuse to send children
to these " pauper institutions," yet willingly accept the offer of a rich
neighbor to pay their bills at a private academy.

. Another cause of failure was the Avant of proper supervision, and the
consequent incompetency of many teachers. Another defect was the
establishment ot schools in proportion to representation in the Legisla-
ture, instead of causing them to be based upon the number of children.
Under the ante bcUum Constitution, wealth was an equal factor with pop-
ulation, in determining representation. So that the richer the district,
the greater the number of free schools.

But the controlling cause of the failure of the free school system was,
that its need was not felt by the people. Private institutions had sprung
up on every hand ; and, through individual beneficence or the generosity
of teachers, the rudiments of instruction, if nothing more, were in reach
of all who desired to secure them. In this way have some of the bright-
est intellects of the State been trained to shed lustre upon the pages of
her history.

THE CENSUS OF 1850

shows that the expenditures for education within the limits of the State
during that year, amounted to $510,879, of which $410,430 were raised
by tuition fees, $79,099 by taxation and public funds, and $21,350 by
endowment, 1-epresenting endowment funds aggregating $305,000, on a
basis of seven per cent.

THE SUCCEEDING DECADE

was in every respect a period of unexampled progress. By the census
estimates, the true value of property had risen from $288,257,694 in 1850,
to $548,138,754 in 1860. The sums expended for education had increased
to $690,412, of which $420,944 came from tuition fees, &c., $135,813
from taxation and public funds, and $133,755 from endowment, repre-
senting, at seven per cent., endowment funds of $1,910,788. This last

454 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

feature is wortliy of special note, as evincing a determination to assure
the permanence of educational institutions. This absolute increase is
remarkable, being six fold in ten years. Its comparative increase is. note-
worthy, as being from a fraction over two per cent, of the aggregate en-
dowments in the whole Union, in 1850, to something more than six per
cent, in 1860. In that year South Carolina was fifth on the list in the
amount of College endowments, and sixtli also in the income of her
Colleges ; as will be seen by reference to the census.

At this time were in most successful operation the South Carolina
College, the State Military Academy, the Charleston College, Erskine
College, Wofford College, Furman University, Newberry College, the
Medical College in Charleston, and three Theological Seminaries, all for
males. Female Colleges of high repute flourished in different portions
of the State. Classical or Military Academies were located in almost
every town, and in many country places, selected for their salubrious
climate or other natural advantages. All these were patronized alike by
parents who had received a liberal education, and by those who, feeling
the want themselves, desired it for their sons and daughters. Xor was
patronage confined to schools and colleges at home. Large sums of
money flowed into the coffers of renowned educational institutions in
other States and beyond the seas, so that it is safe to estimate the annual
expenditure at not much less than a million dollars for education.

AS THE CLOUDS OF WAR

thickened, these institutions closed one by one, and teachers and pupils
alike passed from classic shades to the tented held. Some school ediflces
were destroyed, some converted into hospitals for the sick and wounded,
and others afforded shelter to refugees from the devastated districts. The
last call for troops, in February, 1865, swept into the field every white
male from sixteen to sixty.

The year I860 was most disastrous to every interest. The pangs of
defeat were intensified by the pangs of hunger, and the desire for know-
ledge gave place to cravings for bread. The following year, however,
marked

A GENERAL REOPENING OF SCHOOLS

One of the first acts of the new legislature .that succeeded military rule
was the rehabiliment of the South Carolina College, and its enlargement
into a University, with a full academic course and complete schools of
law and medicine. Private colleges set themselves bravely to the task
of collecting scattered students and replenishing bankrupt treasuries.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAPvOLlNA. 455

Schools and academics again opened their doors to the rising generation,
and it was fondly hoped that progress would be rapid. This hope was
short lived.

An organic revolution soon occurred Avliich convulsed society to its
very foundations, and wrought changes more violent even than those
that first followed the surrender. A new constitution was adopted, the
old forms of government, the courts and many existing institutions were
changed. New law-makers, supported by a new constituency, brought
in new ideas and new methods.

The old system of private institutions was henceforth gradually to be
supplanted by a general system of State instruction for rich and poor alike.
Hereafter we will find public schools occupying a much more prominent
place in the public mind and in public legislation.

II. PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM.

The adoption of the amendments to the Federal Constitution caused
a thorough reconstruction of the State government, and elevated an
entirely new element to the control of public affairs. A new State Con-
stitution was adopted in 18G8. It incorporated a system of public
instruction into the organic law of the land, and provided for the
election of a State Superintendent of Education, and for subordinate
officers in the different counties for the management of schools and the
improvement of teachers. Provision was made for raising necessary school
funds, and a compulsory attendance was ordered so soon as the school
session should reach six montlis in each year. The sources of revenue
were threefold — first, a general legislative appropriation ; second, a poll-
tax of one dollar on all able-bodied male citizens (with a few exceptions)
within certain specified ages ; and third, a voluntary local taxation.

The system, perfected as it had been in other States as the result of
careful study and long experience, was

GOOD ENOUGH IN THEORY j

but in practice proved a failure, owing partly to its novelty, but chiefly
to the ignorance and dishonesty of many parties connected with its
management.

State Superintendent Jillson (1868-1 87G) makes repeated complaints
of the diversion of school funds to other purposes, and, in his report for
187G, shows an aggregate deficiency of $324,058.40. Besides this, in

456 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

almost every county existed school claims in excess of estimated appro-
priations, thus swelling the debt to still greater proportions.

Notwithstanding the discouragement and even exasperation of friends
of education in consequence of these gross frauds against the system, the
number of schools and pupils all along increased, an evidence of what
might be expected under better management.

in 1877

A CHANGE OP GOVERNMENT

occurred, since which time the charges of dishonesty have totally ceased,
and complaints of incompetency are steadily decreasing. ]\Iuch of this
progress is due to the zeal and ability of the Hon. Hugh S. Thompson,
for six _years State Superintendent. As parents, children, and officials
become better acquainted with their respective duties and responsibilities,
the system improves in a constantly increasing ratio.

SCHOOL REVENUES.

A constitutional amendment, adopted by all parties in 1876, provides
for an annual levy of not less than two mills on the dollar for public
schools, to be expended in the county in v^dnch it is raised, thus insuring
stability to the system. The poll-tax is devoted to educational purposes,
and in some localities the option of local taxation rests with the property
holders.

TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS AND GOVERNMENT.

Each county is divided into school districts, varying in number in
different counties, managed by local boards of trustees, and being for the
most part co-terminus with the townships. Every such school district is
a body politic, capable of suing and being sued, of contracting, and of
holding property for school purposes.

STATE AND COUNTY OFFICIALS.

The State Superintendent of Education is a constitutional officer,
elected biennially by the people, giving a bond for |5,000, and receiving
a salary of $2,100. He exercises general supervision over all the public
schools of the State, and is required to visit every county for the purpose
of inspecting the schools, and awakening an interest in education. He
is required to secure, with the aid and advice of the State Board of
Examiners, uniformity of text-books and the exclusion of secular or par-
tisan books and instruction, and to perform such other duties as may be

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 457

prescribed, or become necessary. An annual report of bis visits, and of
tbe condition and requirements of the public schools, must be made b}'
him through the Governor to the Legislature.

The State Board of Examiners consists of the Superintendent of Edu-
cation and four persons, appointed biennially by the Governor. This
board meets twice a year, or oftener, if deemed advisable, and is consti-
tuted an advisory body, which the Superintendent shall consult when in
doubt as to his official duty. It renders final decisions upon all questions
of appeal from the County Boards. It has power to adopt rules not incon .
sistent with the general law for the government of the schools, to pre-
scribe standards of efficiency for teachers, to examine teachers, and grant
State certificates ; and also to prescribe text-books for a period of not less
than five years.

At each general election a School Commissioner is chosen by the voters
of each county, giving bond for $1,000, and receiving a per diem allow-
ance not exceeding $600 a year, except in the County of Charleston.

He acts as the organ of communication between the State Superin-
tendent and the local authorities. It is his duty to apportion the school
fund among the several districts in his county according to the average
attendance of pupils during the preceding year, to visit the schools and
acquaint himself with their character and condition, and to make sug-
gestions that, in his opinion, are conducive to the welfare of the system.
An annual report is sent by him to the State Superintendent.

The County Board of Examiners is composed of the County School
Commissioner and two p^sons appointed by the State Board of Exam-
iners, to serve two years without pay. It conducts county examinations
for teachers upon questions prescribed by the State Board, arranges the
school districts, appoints school trustees, and acts as a tribunal in all
disputes arising between trustees and teachers or patrons.

Three School Trustees for each district are appointed biennially by the
County Board of Examiners. They serve two years without compensa-
tion, and are entrusted with the general management of affairs, sucli as
the erection and location of school-houses, the employment and payment,
of teachers, the suspension or dismission of pupils, the calling of district
meetings, and the visiting and supervision of schools.

TEACHERS.

Every teacher in the public schools of South Carolina must be of good
moral character, and must hold a certificate of qualification issued by the
State Board, the County Board, the City Board of Charleston, or the
Faculty of the State Normal Institute. Xo school commissioner or
trustee shall teach in the public schools. Three grades of excellence are
30

458

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

recognized in the issuance of certificates. Tlie first may be renewed for
three years without re-examination ; the second for two years ; third
grade certificates are valid for but one year. Three Normal Institute cer-
tificates entitle the holder to a life diploma. Teachers are required to
file monthly reports of enrollment and attendance, with the branches
taught, upon which pay certificates are granted by the trustees, approved
by the school commissioners and paid by the county treasurer.

CUREICULUM.

In every school shall be taught, as far as practicable, orthography,
reading, writing, arithmetic, geography and English grammar, History
of the United States and of the State, the j^rinciples of the Constitution,
and laws of the United States and of this State, morals and good be-
havior. In some schools higher instruction is also imparted.

SCHOOL AGE.

The school age is not absolutely fixed, but the school census taken in
former years embraces all children between the ages of six and sixteen
years.

SCHOOL DISTRICTS AND SCHOOLS.

There were 481 school districts, and 3,057 schools in 1881, distributed
as follows :

Counties.

t»

I—I -^J

O;

O O

c -r

o

^ -H

o

O M

- 1

32'^

Z)

^

w.

Abbeville 16

Aiken 17

Anderson . . ... 18

Barnwell 20

Beaufort 8

Charleston. .... 18

Chester i 9

Chesterfield | 8

Clarendon 10

Colleton I 18

Darlington I 22

Edgefield
Fairfield. .
Georgetown
Greenville .
Hampton .
Horry . . .

33
15

9
16

6
11

Counties.

137jiKershaAv.
93 'Lancaster

111

143

62

145

73

45

m

112

77
138

Laurens . .
Lexington .
Marion . .
INIarlboro ,
Newberry .
Oconee . .
Orangeburg
Pickens . .
Richland .
Spartanburg

79 Sumter

^'^'lU

142

86
88

nion,

Williamsburg
York ....

xn

12

8

9

13

18

8

11

8

52

8

9

18

16

11

14

VI

o -r o

-^ -^ I 2

0 03,^

61
58

102
83

123
51
75
87

113

m

55

188
85
71
58

12 I 137

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 4o9

SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

Reports in 1881, from all but four counties, give the number of school
buildings as 2,989, with a valuation of $435,289. In addition to these,
163 buildings were rented for school purposes during the year, at a cost
of $2,882.08. Of all these, 698 were owned by school districts, and the
remainder b}' other parties. There were 1 ,649 reported as in good con-
dition, 813 in fair condition, and 477 in bad condition.

GRADED SCHOOLS AND LOCAL TAXATION.

The public schools of Charleston City have always been supported in
part by a city tax. The system of local taxation, which existed through-
out the State between the years 1868 and 1876, and which was abrogated
in 1877, has been renewed in several localities in more recent years under
restrictions which protect the property-holders from oppression by pro-
viding that they alone shall exercise the right to vote in the district tax
meetings. Under the operation of the amended law graded schools for
white and colored pupils were established in Winnsboro in 1878. Ches-
ter established similar schools the year following. The success of these
attempts to secure more ample instruction has induced other towns to
follow their example, and it is believed that in a few years graded schools,
based on local taxation as supplementing the public fund, will be found
in many, if not all, the towns of South Carolina. The privilege of local
taxation now exists in Charleston, Columbia, Winnsboro, Chester, Cam-
den, Union, Johnston, Varnsville, Monticello and Feasterville. It had
not, up to 1882, been put into operation in Columbia, Union and Feaster-
ville. An excellent graded school is conducted in Graniteville, by Mr.
W. N. Marchant; a large portion of the funds for its support being fur-
nished by the Graniteville Manufacturing Company. Other manufac-
turing companies, with equal liberality, have established good schools
for the instruction of the children of the operatives. Abbeville has had a
graded school for some years, under the charge of Mr. D. B. Johnson.
The school is supported by tuition fees for seven months, and during the
last three is. a public school, free to all. Sumter lias a similar school.

STATE NORMAL INSTITUTES.

The late State Superintendent of Education, Hon. Hugh S. Thomp.son,.
whose great zeal in the cause was equalled by the ability with which he
discharged the duties of his office, at an early day urged upon the Legis-
lature the necessity of providing for some special instruction of teacJiers,.

4G0 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

ill order tlmt thev might become still more efficient in their profession.
For this purpose he recommended the establishment of a Normal School.
Failiny- in this, he resolved to establish a summer teaclier's institute.
Through the liberality of the Peabody trustees, who furnished him a
thousand dollars, he organized the first

STATE NORMAL INSTITUTE,

in the City of Spartanburg, during the month of August, 1880. The
authorities of Wofford College tendered the use of their building and
apparatus, free of charge, and the Faculty of the College and the citizens
generally vied in their efforts to make the institute a success.

Professor F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, an eminent educator, was made
principal of the institute, assisted by Prof. E. S. Joynes, of the University
of Tennessee, and several teachers of the State. The institute lasted
four weeks, and proved a most gratifying success. Lectures were de-
livered by most of the college presidents of the State, and by other dis-
tinguished gentlemen. The enrolled attendance was nearly two hundred,
from all parts of South Carolina, and on special occasions the attendance
was estimated at between five and six hundred.

so GREAT WAS THE SUCCESS OF THIS

Institute, that in the following August, a second institute Avas held in
Greenville, in the buildings of Furman University, which were gene-
rously tendered for the purpose. Prof. Soldan again presided, assisted
by the former faculty and by other teachers. The enrolled attendance
was three hundred. Lectures were delivered by General Eaton, United
States Commissioner ; Prof. W. T. Harris, of Concord, Mass. ; Rev. J. L.
M. Curry, and others.
In 1883

A THIRD INSTITUTE

was held in the buildings of the South Carolina College, in Columbia.
To the great regret of all his friends. Prof. Soldan was prevented by busi-
ness from again taking part ; but his place was ably filled by Dr. M. A.
Newell, the State Superintendent of Maryland.

The Legislature had in the meantime passed an Act conferring au-
thority upon the Faculty of the Normal Institute to issue certificates and
diplomas, which are of the highest grade in the State. At the close of
the Institute in 1882 several teachers passed successful examinations and
received certificates.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 4G1

Thete institutes are growing in favor and in usefulness, and promise
to become permanent features in the public school system of South Caro-
lina, though the benefits secured are free to all teachers and other per-
sons desirous of obtaining knowledge. These institutes have already
given a great impetus to education by introducing new methods and the
best ideas of leading teachers.

A COLORED INSTITUTE

was held in Columbia during the month of July, 1881, under charge of
Prof. Montgomery, a leading colored teacher of Washington, assisted by
an able foculty. The attendance was very encouraging, in point of
numbers and earnestness.

A SECOND COLORED INSTITUTE

was held in Columbia, during July, 1882 ; Prof. Montgomery again pre-
sided. The work was thorough and most interesting, and proved of
great advantage to the colored teachers of South Carolina. Institutes
for colored teachers will continue to be held.

During the month of October, 1880, a colored county institute was
held in Charleston for one week, under the auspices of Bishop P. F.
Stevens, School Commissioner of Charleston County.

COUNTY INSTITUTES.

A very successful county teachers' institute was conducted in the town
of -Johnston, Edgefield County, for four weeks, during the summer of
1882, under Prof. B. Neely, of Augusta. About fifty pupils were present,
and the interest was maintained throughout.

Besides these, county conventions and teachers' institutes have been
held in a number of counties in the State ; notably in Spartanburg.

III. SCHOOLS IN CHARLESTON.

When the Free School system of the State was established in 1810, the
sum of $5,100 was assigned to Charleston for the pay of three male and
two female teachers, the former at a salary of $1,200, the latter of $750
each. Out of this each teacher was required to provide a school house,

4(V2 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

and often, to supply text-books to indigent pupils. The attendance gen-
erally averaged from eighty to a hundred for each teacher.

Notwithstanding the existence of numerous admirable private schools,
it was resolved, in 1854, to make such improvements in the free school
system as were demanded by the progress of the city, and the growing
needs of the people. The first step was the erection of the Bennett, the
Memminger, the Friend Street, and the Morris Street School buildings.
Trained teachers were secured who soon raised the schools to a high de-
gree of excellence. Four thousand white 2:)upils attended during the
year 1860.

At the close of the war, the school authorities recognizing the altered
condition of affairs, set apart the Morris Street building, the largest of
all, for the instruction of the colored children. This action, and the pre-
vious destruction of the Friend Street school, by fire, in 1861, has left
somewhat restricted accommodations for white pupils.

THE FIVE TEACHERS

of 1811 had grown, in 1881, to 91, six males and eighty-five females. The
white pupils numbered 2,009, and the colored 2,005, a total of 4,014.

The schools were as follows :

Bennett School, Mr. H. P. Archer; bo3-s, 745, girls, 379. Total, 1,124.

Memminger School, Miss Simonton, girls, 597.

Meeting Street School, Mr. F. W. Clements; boys, 108, girls, 180. To-
tal, 288.

Morris Street School (colored), Mr. A. Doty ; boys, 547, girls, 714. To- »
tal, 1,261. ,

Shaw Memorial School (colored), ]\lr. Edward Carroll ; bo3^s, 330, girls,
414. Total 744.

The School Session embraces a period of ten months, vacations occur-
ring in August and September, with two weeks in April and one in De-
cember. Daily sessions from 9 A. M., to 2 P. ]M.

SCHOOL LAW.

At every general municipal election, one School Commissioner is
elected for each ward. These Commissioners constitute the School Board
and elect officers, and perform all such duties as devolve upon the Boards
of Trustees of other School Districts.

A City Superintendent is elected by the Board. Mr. William Simons
is the present incumbent.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 463

REVENUES.

In 1880 the taxation for Public Schools in the City of Charleston was
3| mills, made up of 2 mills State tax, 1^ mills special tax, and I mill
for the rebuilding of the Friend Street School. The total revenue reached
$61,500, exclusive of appropriations to institutions of higher learning.
During the past decade CJharleston has expended about three quarters of
a million dollars for public schools, of which |o47,602.12 was from the
special tax. This largely exceeds the rate of taxation, even in the most
progressive of the larger cities of tile North.

For the year 1881, the income was $61,072.12, and the expenditure
$59,320.07, a per capita expenditure of $14.78, for the year.

The Friend Street School was rebuilt in 1881-82, and named in honor
of the late William Crafts, an ardent friend of free schools more than
seventy years ago. It was reopened this Autumn, under the charge
of Mr. F. W. Clements.

THE HIGH SCHOOL,

designed as a training school for business or college, was established in
1839, and has had an honorable career. In the past two years, it has been
reorganized and perfected. The King mansion and grounds have been
purchased and converted into a commodious school building, while an
admirably equipped gymnasium, in charge of competent teachers, fur-
nishes facilities for instruction in athletic exercises and sports. The
standard of scholarship has been raised, the study of Latin made imper-
ative, and Greek, or French and German as alternatives, required. This
institution is in charge of Mr. Virgil C. Dibble, with a competent corps
of assistants. The revenues are derived partly from tuition fees, and
partly from an appropriation by Council, which reduces the rates of tui-
tion one-half. The average attendance is about one hundred and fifty —
all males. The receipts for 1881 were $6,391.04.

SEMI -PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.

Several educational establishments in the city, though supported by
private means, m'ay be considered almost as public schools.

THE CENTRAL SCHOOL,

founded by Bishop England, of the Roman Catholic Church, in 1820,
has been constantly growing in usefulness. Located on George street, it
employs six teachers and has. an attendance of between three and four

4G4 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA,

lumtlred pupils, at an average annual expense of about $3,600. A female
school in Society street, established in 1873, has five teachers and an
average attendance of 230 pupils.

A rAROCHIAL SCHOOL FOR COLORED CHILDREN,

attached to St. Peter's Church, numbers two teachers and 130 pupils.

HOLY COMMUNION CHURCH INSTITUTE.

In the year 1867, the Rev. A. Toomer Porter, D. D., of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, conceived the idea of establishing a classical school
for children of parents in straitened circumstances, the pupils to pay such
sums for tuition and board as they might be able, while many were
taught gratuitoush^ Its excellence has commended it to general patron-
age. The alumni of the school already number over two thousand. Ex-
penses have averaged ^18,000 a year, a total of nearly $300,000 during
its existence. Its revenues are derived partly from tuition fees, and partly
from subscriptions raised at home. and abroad.

Parties in New York had contributed up to 1881, $43,000, Baltimore
and Washington $24,000, Hartford $15,000, Boston $12,000, while other
localities had swelled the total from abroad to $108,000. Friends in Eng-
land contributed $32,000 more.

In 1881, the further sums of $12,400 were given by Northern friends,
and $4,300 by English philanthropists. The school closed the year free
of all debt. Mr. .John Gadsden is principal, with nine male and five
female assistants. Attendance in 1881 was 206, of which number 44
boarders, and 37 day scholars were beneficiaries.

CONFEDERATE HOME AND SCHOOL.

The first practical step for the organization of the Confederate Home
and School in Charleston was taken August 12, 1867. On that day, the
present and only President which the institution has ever had — Mrs. M.
A. Snowden — in company with her pastor, secured the present premises,
at the rent of $1,800 per year. To meet this rent there was. but one
dollar in hand, the gift of an inmate of a charitable institution in Balti-
more.

Immediately after securing the building, which has been ever since
used, a meeting of ladies was called, a constitution adopted, and an organ-
ization effected. The following officers were elected : President Mrs.
M. A. Snowden ; Vice-President, Miss Sus(in Matilda Middleton ; Secre-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 405.

tary and Treasurer, Miss Mary B. Campbell ; Corresponding Secretary,
Mrs. Wm. E. Mikell ; Managers : Mrs. P. C. Gaillard, Mrs. Daniel Elliott
Huger, Mrs. Geo. Robertson, Mrs. Wm. Ravenel, Mrs. Henry Ravenel,
Mrs. Isabel S. Snowden, Mrs. C. S. Vedder, Mrs. .John S. Palmer, Mrs. M.
P. Matlieson, Miss Anna Simpson, Miss Eliza E. Palmer.

The institution Avas immediately opened, and twenty-five ladies were
furnished with rooms. A school was organized for the children of the
inmates, numbering twenty-five pupils. These were gratuitously taught
by young ladies of the city.

THE FIEST SEMI-ANNUAL RErORT

showed that the institution was giving shelter to seventy inmates, and
that the school numbered fifty scholars. As there was still room in the
spacious premises for more occupants, the plan was then devised to make
the educational feature of the " Home " more prominent, and to take a
limited number of young ladies, who should be provided with all the
conveniences of home, and attend upon some of the best schools in the
city. This plan was carried out, and proved so valuable and successful
that it was still further improved upon. Some disadvantages arose from
having the young ladies at different schools, however excellent, and
there were considerations of expense which compelled attention. The
importance of having the pupils under the immediate supervision of the
Board of Control — who were responsible for their welfare — and excited
to generous emulation by pursuing the same studies under the same
teachers, led to the organization of

A FEMALE SEMINARY WITHIN THE HOME.

This is the plan under which the institution has now worked for
twelve years. Competent teachers, a portion of them residing in the
institution, have charge of the school. All the branches of a thorough
education are taught, beginning with the rudiments, and including
French, German, Latin and Music. The young ladies are provided with
board, lodging, fuel and washing, and provision is made, in extreme cases,
to aid in the purchase of books and uniform. The number of pupils
each year has averaged about fifty, who have been resident in tlie Home
for the annual term of nine months. Day scholars arq received also
from the city.

The institution is under the charge of a Board of Control, consisting
of fifteen ladies, who meet each alternate Tuesday. Daily oversight of

4C6 A SKETCH OF EDUCATIO^' IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

its management is given by tlie President, Mrs M. A. Snvowden, and by
a matron and housekeaper, and by resident teachers.

THE HOME HAS LITTLE SOURCE OF INCOME

but voluntary contributions. The Confederate Home Association num-
bers one hundred and fifty, who pay annual dues of one dollar, and a
" Gentlemen's Auxiliary Association," the yearly membership of which is
ten dollars. The donations of friends have been liberal and frequent, so
that the Home Association not only owns the premises w^hich were at first
rented, but has added to them a very large building adjoining, and front-
ing upon another street. At the request of some of the donors, their
gifts have been used to purchase scholarships of $500 each, bearing an
annual interest of |3o for beneficiaries of the Institution.

By far the greater portion of the pupils are wholly or in part benefi-
ciar3^ When, however, there is ability upon the part of the parents or
friends to pay anything, it is strictly required. The sum of two hundred
dollars yearly will provide board, lodging, fuel, lights, books and uni-
form ; yet but one pupil last year and but one pupil this year has been
able to meet this requirement. All others have been wholly gratuitous,
or the amount paid merely nominal.

The number of pupils, including resident and day scholars, averages
sixt3^ In addition to the pupils of the school, the Confederate Home
has provided, for fourteen years, and still provides rooms for an average
of forty permanent inmates — mothers, widows or daughters of Southern
soldiers, with every possible help to their maintenance.

THE SHAW" MEMORIAL SCHOOL.

After the close of the war, the relatives of Col. R. G. Shaw, of ^lassa-
chusetts, who was killed in command of a regiment of colored troops
bafore Battery Wagner; endowed the " Shaw Memorial School " for
colored children. For several years it was supported by Northern funds,
but in 1<S74, the property was conveyed to the city, which undertook its
maintenance, at an annual expenditure of between six and seven thousand
dollars. This school has been mentioned among the public schools.

THE AVERY NORMAL INSTITUTE,

for colored students, was organized in 1865. A building was erected
at a cost of $25,000, in 1868, by the American Missionary Association,
and named for the Rev. Mr. Avery, a philanthropist of Pittsburg, who

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 467

gave $150,000 to the Society for educational purposes. Superintendent
W. L. Gordon has eight assistants. The attendance for 1S81 reached
439, and the expenditures, $5,190, of which $2,674 were drawn from
tuition, and the rest supplied by the A. M. Association.

WALLINGFORD ACADEMY,

establislied for colored pupils in 1865, occupies a building erected at a
cost of $13,500, of which $7,800 was given by the Freedmen's Bureau.
It is conducted by Principal L. A. Grover and six assistants, with an en-
rollment, in 1881, of 618 pupils, an expenditure of about $2,900. The
school takes its name from a lady in Pittsburg, who paid off the in-
debtedness on the building.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

Besides the public and charitable institutions, the city contains a num-
ber of private academies and schools for youth of both sexes. These
are of the highest order of excellence, and not only supply additional
facilities for the young people of Charleston, but attract a number of
pupils from abroad.

Some of the principal private schools are as follows :

Charleston Classical School, B. R. Stuart, Principal.

English Classical and Mathematical School, Jos. T. Caldwell, Principal.

English and Classical School. Messrs. Coleman and Kent, Principals.

German Academy, C. H. Bergmann, Principal.

Confederate Home School (Female), Mrs. G. W. Alexander.

Charleston Female Seminary, Miss E. A. Kelly.

Schools for Girls and Kindergarten, Mrs. Isabel A. Smith.

Miss Murden's School, for girls and boys.

Miss S. D. Pinckney's School, for girls and boys.

Miss DaSaussure's School, for girls and boys.

Miss C. M. Smith's School, for girls and boys.

The Mis.ses Scott's School, for girls and boys.

Mrs. Toomer's School, for girls and boys.

Miss A. T. Quigley's School, for girls and boys.

Mrs. F. A. Porcher's School, for girls and boys.

Madam Feugas' School, for girls and boys.

Miss Beckmann's School, for girls and boys.

4G8 A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

IV. CITY OF COLUMBIA.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

The Legislature, in 18S0, pas.sed an Act providing for a special system
of public instruction for the City of Columbia. Four School Commis-
sioners are elected by the, voters of the city, who have authority over the
schools.

The law j)rovides for an annual vote by the resident tax-payers of
Columbia upon the question of levjdng a local tax. Meetings were held
in 1881 and 1882, at each of which the proposition to levy a tax was de-
feated. By the year 1883, the quota of the school fund arising from the
two-mill tax had become so small, in consequence of small attendance at
the public schools, that these were open only for sixty days. Out of nearly
$7,500 paid into the school fund, the city received back only about $1,700.
At a meeting held January 31st. 1883, however, a levy of one mill was
made, which will realize nearly four thousand dollars, and will do much
towards creating a system, which as yet cannot be said really to exist.
The Park School, for whites, is in charge of Mrs. Stein. The Howard
School, for colored children, is conducted by Prof W. M. Dart.*

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

The Columbia Male .Academy and the Columbia Female Academy,
under the control of a board of trustees, have long been in successful
operation. Their early history has been lost; but it is known that land
was given to them b}^ Colonel Thomas Taylor, and that under the old
charter of McGowan's Ferry across the Congaree, half the tolls were given
to the academy. This provision is not continued in the new charter of
Guignard's Ferry.

THE MALE ACADEMY

is now conducted by Mr. Charles H. Barnwell. He has several assistants,
and more than sixt}' pupils, some of advanced standing.

THE FEMALE ACADE>;Y

is in charge of the Misses Elmore, who have a large number of pupils.
Mr. R. H. Clarkson established a classical school a few years since,
which is growing rapidly in favor.

* Since the above was written, tlie City Board of Columbia have fully or^ranized a
system by the election of D. B. .Johnson, Esq., as Superintendent, and a full corps of
instructors. The male and female academies have been leased for the use of the
public schools.

SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH (CAROLINA 469

The Misses Martin have a private school of great excellence and long
established reputation.

The female school of the Misses Reynolds has sent into life many
young ladies thoroughly and carefully trained.

A female boarding school of high grade has recently been opened by
Mrs. Mary Preston Darby, chiefly for the accommodation of visitors from
abroad, who seek the climate of Columbia for health or pleasure.

The Palmetto Academy was established by the Odd Fellows. It has
been in existence a number of years,- and has done much good.

Other private schools are in existence in the city.

V. CHARITABLE, EDUCATIONAL, AND LITERARY
INSTITUTIONS.

1751. South Carolina Society, Charleston.
1757. Winyah Indigo Society, Georgetown.
1769. Fellowship Society, Charleston.
1777. Mount Zion Society, Winnsboro.

1777. Catholic Society, Camden.

1778. Salem Society, Camden.
1778. St. David's Society, Cheraw.

1788. Beaufort Society, Beaufort.
1780. St. Helena Society, St. Helena.
1787. Camden Orphan Society, Camden.

1789. Claromont Society, 'Stateburg.
1791. Beaufort District Society.

1798. St. Andrew's Society, Charleston.
179"). Upper Long Cane Society, Abbeville.
1800. John's Island Society.
1809. Mt. Pleasant Academy, Christ Church.
1811. Free Schools established.

The reader cannot but be struck with the number of these societies
organized between 1751 and 1809, which are a proof that though little
was done for public schools, attention was directed to private institutions.

Mr. B. J. Ramage, of this State, in an essay read at Johns Hopkins'
University, attributes this fact to the tendency existing in South Carolina
towards local self-government, it being believed that each neighborhood
could judge better of the educational needs than the State at large. The

470 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

sparseness of population of the State was also a bar to any general pub-
lic system.

These societies flourished with more or less vigor, and some of tliem
exist to the present day. A few of these will receive special mention.

THE WINYAH INDIGO SOCIETY.

According to tradition, "The planters of Georgetown District, about
the year 1740, formed a convivial club, which met in the town of George-
town on the first Friday in each month, to talk over the latest news from
London (never less than a month old), to hold high discourse over the
growth and prosperity of the Indigo plant (then, and for a long time
after, spelled in the invoices to London. Indico), and to refresh the inner
man, and so keep up to a proper pitch the endearing ties of social life by
imbibing freely of the inevitable bowl of punch." The members were
genial gentlemen and liberal benefactors ; so that when the treasury, in
1753, had become plethoric with gold, it was moved by the president and
unanimously resolved, amid the clinking of glasses, " that the surplus
funds in the treasury be devoted to the establishment of an independent
charity school for the poor."

To Thomas Lynch, president, and his associates, was granted, in 1757,
a charter, by King George. A school was established that '' has been the
school for all the country lying between Charleston and the North Caro-
lina line for more than a hundred years. In its infancy it supplied the
place of primary, grammar and high-school, and collegiate institute.
Rich and poor alike have drunk from this fountain of knowledge, and
to many it has been the only source."

By private benefactions, added to fees and* the proceeds of escheated
lands, the endowment had reached $11,000 in 184G, despite a loss of
$7,000 by the United States Bank, and the income was for years sufficient
to warrant gratuitous tuition to all scholars.

The entire endowment was lost by the war. The academy building
was occupied as a Federal garrison. Soldiers defoced tlie walls, injured
tiie premises, and carried off many valuable books, among them Audu-
bon's Collection of Birds. Fifteen years ago the school was re-opened.

The handsome and commodious two-story brick building has been re-
paired and fitted with furniture of the most approved jiattern.

Fifteen or twenty pupils still receive gratuitous instruction ; but the
society is compelled to exact fees from the rest in attendance. Since the
]'e-opening the instructors have been Mr. Connor, Prof. D. A. DuPre, and
Mr. A McP. Hamby.

The society claims a large membership ; and, trui- to its traditions, en-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 471

joys an annual oration and an annual banquet; the two combined
bearing no small jiart in awakening the members to " renewed efforts to
make the society again a potent agent for good in the educational inter-
ests of the State."

The largest bequests to the society were $1,453.50, by Jonah Horry;
$500 by George T. Lathrop ; and 15,000 by Francis Withers.

THE MOUNT ZION SOCIETY.

This society was established at Charlestown, January 29th, 1777, and in-
corporated on the 13th of February following, for the purpose of " found-
ing, endowing and supporting a public school in the district of Camden."
It was empowered to hold property not exceeding three thousand dollars
per annum. The membership was about ec^ually diyided between the
low-country and the up-country. C. C. Pinckney, AVm. Bull, Elias
Horry, John Vanderhorst, AVade Hampton, Richard Winn, and Thomas
Taylor were among the number. Of thirteen directors seyen were to be
from the country and six from the " city." John Winn was first president.
In 1785, Mt. Zion College was incorporated, located in Winnsboro.
Its faculty were Rey. T. H. McCaule, president ; tutors, S. W. Yongue,

Wm. Dayy, and Humphrey. In 1793, Rev. Wm. Nixon became

president, and, in 1794, Rey. Samuel Yongue. The college for a time
gave regular diplomas, at least one of which is in existence.

The most distinguished jirincipal w^as the late James W. Hudson, who
taught from 1834 to 1858. He drew students from all the Southern
States, and the attendance reached into the hundreds. At the time of
his death, twenty members of his first class were admitted into the South
Carolina College. A handsome marble monument was erected to his
memory over his grave on the college green.

During the latter part of the war the college buildings were occupied
as a hospital.

In 18G6 exercises were resumed under Mr. T. J. Wells. Since then
the principals have been G. A. Woodward, M. M. Farrow, R. H. Clark-
son, W. M. Dwight, R. Means Davis, and D. C. Webb.

In May, 1807, the large three-story building, valued at over $20,000, was
destroyed by fire. In 1873, a smaller building, costing about $3,500, was
erected. In 1878, a public graded school was established in Winnsboro,
in connection with the Mt. Zion Society. It has been very successful.
The present principal has three assistants, and the jupils number between
]25 and 150.

Endowment. About $800 were received in 17S5, from a fund left by a
Mr. Prew, of Charleston, " to be equally divided among the first schools or

472 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

colleges that should be incorporated for the purpose of education."
(xeneral Winn gave about one hundred acres of land, and tradition saj'S
that Colonel John A^anderhorst gave $10,000. About twenty acres more of
land were given by other parties. The endowment was about $8,000 at
the beginning of the war, and $2,000 at its close. Lands were sold to
aid in the erection of the new building. The property is now valued at
about $0,000, in buildings and lots. There are two $300 scholarships,
one belonging to Colonel J. H. Rion, the other to Messrs. McMaster &
Brice.

No exact estimate can be made of beneficiary instruction, but a large
number of pupils have been taught without pay, or have been sent to
school by public spirited citizens. Since the establishment of the graded
school all the common school curriculum is taught free of charge. The
society is still in active existence, and promises to continue its great in-
fluence for good.

THE CAMDEN ORPHAN SOCIETY

was incorporated in 1787. Although its records j^rior to 1822 were de-
stroyed by Sherman's army, reliable information is that the school was
first established in the lower part of Camden, in Colonel KershaAv's resi-
dence, known as " Cornwallis's Headquarters." The first teacher, Dr.
Flynn, was succeeded in turn by Mr. Judah Lee and Dr. Reed. At
this time the school was moved to the " Yellow House," on the west side
of the town, and was placed under Dr. Whitaker, and his son, Mr. D. K.
Whitaker, who was at one time editor of the Southern Quarterly Hevicw,
in Charleston, and is now living in New Orleans. The existing hand-
some buildings in DeKalb street were erected in 1822. The following
principals w^^re elected in succession : Dr. McEwin, Mr. E. P. Miles, in
1828 ; Mr. H. P. Hatfield, in 1830, and Dr Moses Holbrook, in 1836.

The public features of the institution were now^ abandoned, and the
property was let to private teachers on condition of admitting a certain
number of beneficiaries. Thus the institution flourished many years.

In 1820, the fine library of Judge DeSaussure, consisting mostly of
standard English works, was purchased by the society. It had become
much injured and depleted by 1856, and was sold at that time.

After the war the society languished, but in 1874 the three or four
surviving members resuscitated it, and admitted many new ones. The
buildings were repaired and used, one as a school-house, the other as
the teacher's residence. Caj)tain J. W. Jamison was elected principal,
and served till 1880, when ill health impelled his resignation.

A graded public school was established in Camden in 1881, in charge

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 473

of Prof. Si'hoenberg. It is located in the society buildings, and fulfils to
a large extent, by its public features, the original aims of the benevolent
founders of the societ}'.

ST. David's society, cheraw.

St. David's Society was incorporated in 1778, but nothing was done
until 1787, when it was reorganized, and maintained a flourishing school
until 1836 or 1838. The society then closed an active existence, and the
buildings were transferred to private teachers. About 1820, the ladies of
the community established a female school of very high grade, which
lasted for ten years. The two societies then exchanged buildings, and
the St. David's Academy was "transferred to the Baptist Church for use
as a lecture-room. After the war, it was sold to the Freedmen's Bureau,
and it is now used as a school for colored children. In early days,
the school was patronized by most of the Pee Dee country. Col. W. H.
Evans, of Society Hill, says : " In ni}^ boyhood, we had scholars from
Cheraw to Georgetown. The rod, the dungeon and the fool's cap reigned
supreme. I have seen them all in full operation." The dungeon re-
mained until the transfer of the property to the Baptist Church. Dr.
Park and Mr. Handford, both afterwards professors in the South Carolina
College, taught here, as did also Judge Wilds. Further information about
the society can be obtained in " Gregg's History of the old Cheraws."

the cheraw LYCEUM

was organized 8th January, 1856, with a president, vice-president, a
l)ook committee of three, an executive committee of three, and a sec-
retary and treasurer. Monthly meetings are held, at which an original
e-53ay is read and some subject discussed. A course of public lectures
has been delivered ever since the beginning, and an anniversary oration
is pronounced on the 8th of January. An original poem is sometimes
read. The Lyceum has a well selected library. During the twenty-six
years of its existence it has exercised much influence in furthering the
enlightenment of the people.

THE DE LA HOWE SCHOOL.

Dr. John De la Howe, of Abbeville district, by a will dated 7th Sep-
tember, 1796, devised the bulk of his property to the Agricultural So-
ciety of South Carolina, in trust " for the purpose of establishing and
maintaining forever, at his former residence in that district, an agricul-
oi

474 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROIJXA.

Inral school for twelve jioor boys and twelve poor girls, to be boarded
and clothed, as well as educated and taught to woi'k." This is said to
have been

THE FIKST MANUAL LABOR SCHOOL

in the United States. The desire of the testator was, that scientific agri-
culture and, especially, the science of chemistry should be taught.

The Agricultural Society resigned the trust to the State in 1805.
Since that time the fund has been in charge of trustees elected by the
Legislature, with directions to make annual reports. For many years,
and until quite recently, a school was conducted at Lethe, the home of
the testator. The report of 1848 shows that the full number of boys
and girls were in attendance ; the capital was $43,827, and expenditures,
12,476.33. By 1859, the fund had increased to $47,000. The report
states that the pupils were engaged in manual lalwr half their time, the
boys on the farm, the girls in housework and domestic occupations. By
law, the trustees were authorized to apprentice the boys at twelve years
of age for five years, and the girls at ten years for a similar period.
Teachers were elected annually by the trustees. By the fortunes of war,
much of the endowment was swept away. The fund now amounts to
about ten thousand dollars. The school is at present suspended for want
of sufficient means to carry it on. William Llenry Parker, Esq., of Abbe-
ville, is treasurer of the fund.

THE LUDLAM FUND.

The Rev. Richard Ludlam, Rector of St. James' Goosecreek, dying in
1728, bequeathed all his estate, real and personal, to the society, in trust
for erecting and maintaining a school for the instruction of the poor
children in this parish. His estate was valued at about £2,000. The
fund thus accruing was placed at interest for accumulation. In 1744,
certain parishioners added £675, and, subsequently, about £1,400 or more
were subscribed to the fund. The school-house w^as erected about the
year 1765, and the purposes of Mr. Ludlam began to be realized. The
fund, in 1778, amounted to £15,272.

For nearly a century, four schools were maintained with the proceeds
of this bounty. A report made in 1848 to the Legislature, showed an in-
vestment of $9,850 in State, city and bank stock, and a note for $3,379
additional. Thirty-seven pupils were receiving instruction in two schools.

The fund realized an income of $884 in 1860, expended in the main-
tenance of three schools. A " league and labor " of land in Texas had
been mortgaged as security for the note above mentioned.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 475

Tlie report of the vestry in 1863 shows a capital of $14,531, besides
the mortgage on the land in Texas. These schools were still in existence,
with fifty-six pupils. Part of the fund was invested in Confederate bonds.
The Attorney General was ordered by the Legislature to take steps to re-
cover this land, but the close of the war put an end to the eifort. After
the war, the land was identified. Efforts were made to realize something
from the land, the other part of the fund having been swept away.
About four thousand acres lie in Coryell county, Texas, which, at last
accounts, had been sold to parties for taxes. It is to be hoped that this
historic fund will not lapse.

THE DOWNER INSTITUTE.

Alexander Downer, an Englishman by birth, who, when a lad, had
enjoyed the benefits of an orphan school in Richmond county, Georgia,
and had subsequently acquired a handsome estate near Beech island, then
in Edgefield district, left the bulk of his estate, by a will made in 1S18,
for the founding of an institute at Beech island for the .maintenance and
education of orphan children. Nothing was done until 1843, the estate
having in the meantime suffered some diminution. In that year an in-
stitute was erected on an eligible spot. Exercises were begun on the
17th May, 1848, and continued without interruption until the close of
the war, excepting a temporary suspension from April, 1858, to January,
1859. Fifty orphans had received benefits during that time.. The de-
ranged condition of the funds has prevented reopening since 1865. The
fund, in 1851, amounted to $15,621, and in 1859, to S20,500. The institute
and grounds were valued at $8,000 additional. In 1879 the Legislature
appointed a referee, Mr. E. S. Hammond, to investigate the fund. The
next year he w^as appointed treasurer of the fund. Three commis-
sioners were also appointed. It is believed that the fund will amount
to about $6,500 by 1885. Years will be required for it to accumulate so
as to carry out the beneficent purposes of Mr. Downer. By a provision
of the will, Richmond count}'-, Georgia, is entitled to one-fourth of the
benefits of the fund, and " Edgefield district " to the remainder.

THE WADSWORTH FUND.

Dr. Thomas Wadsworth, of Charleston, in the year 1808, devised a.
considerable quantity of land — some lying in Laurens district, and
some in the adjoining districts — to trustees to be elected by the
" freemen residing in Laurens district, in the lower battalion of the
9th Regiment, and second Brigade of the upper Division of the State,

476 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

to be holden l)y them, or tlieir successors in trust, for the purpose of
raising a fund for the annual support of a free scliool." The Legislature,
about ]810, authorized these trustees, by special Act, to sell these lands
for the purpose of establishing a school. Shortly afterwards, sales were
made of at least a portion of the land for a period of ninety-nine years,
and the proceeds applied, partly to the erection of a school-house, and
partly to the support of a teacher. The school was located near a place
called Belfast, the home of Col. John Simpson. It was carried on success-
fully until the war, doing much good. Poor children Avere taught free,
others supplemented the fund. The endowment was lost during the war.
The lands leased will revert in about twenty years, and will then be, doubt-
less, of considerable value. Some years before the war, Messrs. C. P. Sulli-
van and W. D. Simj^son were employed by the trustees to secure possession
of certain lands on which the present town of Anderson is situated. The
artificial marks were all lost, but by a certain spring, and other natural
marks, the land was located. The plat, by survey, was found to corner
in one of the streets, and on digging down below the surface, a lightwood
knot was found as called for. Owing to lapse of time, the Court pre-
sumed a grant from the trustees, and decided against the plaintiffs.

^Ir. Edward Paslv, of Laurens county, is the sole surviving trustee, and
has for vears been treasurer of the fund. In view of the prospect of a
renewal of the fund after the expiration of the leases, this board should
be tilled at once, especially as leases may have been granted for a shorter
term than ninety -nine years.

THE BEEESFORD BOUNTY.

In 1721, Richard Beresford. Esq., of St. Thomas' Parish, devised to
Colonel Thomas Broughton in trust, certain property to bo devoted,
partly to the supjDort of a school-teacher, and partly to the maintenance
and education of the poor of the parish. The fund, after some years,
amounted to £6,500, Carolina money, of which £1,200 were expended for
a plantation, and the rest invested as a fund. The foundation was
known as the " Beresford Bounty." Five hundred pounds were added
]jy Mr. Richard Harris in 1731. In 1763, Rev. Mr. Garden reports that-
eight children were clothed, boarded and educated from that bounty.
In 1777, the fund amounted to £16,013, but a reduction soon occurred
from shrinkage in securities.

Records from 1796 up to the war are lost. The fund, in 1861, reached
nearly $70,000. It now amounts to at least $15,000. The vestry of St.
Thomas has, in accordance with the original plan, combined the office
of rector and teacher, and in this way, keeps open both the church and

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA, 477

the school at Cainhoy. Rev. R. F. Clute, the rector, has now twelve
pupils in the school. He has been requested by the vestry to endeavor
to supply the missing records. The fund is in careful hands, and is
increasing.

The Beresford Bounty is specially noteworthy, first, from its great an-
tiquity, and second, from its being the only colonial endowment still in
healthy existence.

THE COKESBURY SCHOOL.

The first school of high grade in that section of the country was es-
tablished at " Old Tabernacle Church," about two miles from Cokesbury.
The first teacher, 1821-1824, was Mr. Stephen Olin, of Vermont, who
subsequently entered the Methodist ministry, and became professor in
the University of Georgia, President of Randolph Macon College, and
President of the Wesleyan University at Middletown. His school was
moved to " Mt. Ariel," its present site, for hygienic reasons, and was pre-
sided over by the Rev. Joseph Travis. In 1836, it was turned over to
the Conference, which converted it into a

MANUAL LABOR SCHOOL,

the students working five hours a day, and receiving a discount on board
and tuition. This feature was soon abandoned. About the year 1844,
Mr. Holloway, then living near old Cambridge, endowed the school with
$20,000, the interest being applied to the board and tuition of the
sons of Methodist ministers in the Conference. Only $2,000 remained
after the war, the interest of which is still used in the same way.
The school is a three-story building, fifty by sixty feet. It is now in
charge of Mr. Reid, a competent teacher. The attendance numbers
about fifty, and is mostly local.

THE SOUTH CAROLINA SOCIETY,

of Charleston, was the oldest and richest of these associations. It existed
as a semi-educational corporation for nearly a hundred years. In 1846,
its capital amounted to $116,455.17, notwithstanding a loss of $17,000
through the United States Bank. About that time it supported fifty
widows or families, and was educating twelve children. A little later it
gave instruction to seventy-two pupils. Upon the rise of public schools
in Charleston, the Society put an end to the educational feature, and de-

478 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION' IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

voted ity fund to the maintenance of families of members. The Society
still has a good endowment, and owns substantial buildings.

THE FELLOWSHIP SOCIETY.

This Society for many years maintained both male and female schools,
and elected teachers annually. After 1858, these schools were aban-
doned, and the Society entered into an arrangement with the Nor-
mal and High schools, b}^ which, and on payment of $10,000, it was
agreed tliat the pujDils of the Society shall never be debarred the right
of admission to these schools in case of crowding. This contract is still
in force. The endowment of the Society was $100,000 at the beginning
of the war. It is now about twelve or fifteen thousand.

The membership now numbers fift3'-four. Weekly meetings are held
for the promotion of goodfellowship. The charitable feature is still
maintained.

THE GERMAN FRIENDLY SOCIETY.

A number of sons of the Fatherland had already settled in South Car-
olina by the year 1766, and at that time they conceived the charitable
design of organizing a society for mutual benefit, and for the aid of fel-
low-countrymen in the colon3^ By the year 1772, the funds had so in-
creased as to warrant the establishment of a permanent charit}', and in
1777 a loan was made to the State of £1,300.

The membership and the fund constantly increased, until in 1800 the
income was $1,800. A commodious hall was erected. Two 3'ears later
a school was opened, for children of members, and for others. In twenty-
six years the school lost but $37.50 in tuition fees.

The report for 1828 shows an endowment of $40,000.

In 1847, acQording to the report, " It M'as found that it was believed
that our schools were charity schools (although it was a very erroneous
opinion) and it had the eff'ect of injuring the usefulness of the schools,
and they were abolished."

This society suffered, like the rest, by the war, losing much of the en-
dowment, and also its hall. Still it celebrated its centennial in 1866, and
])y strenuous efforts it has erected a new hall, and is accumulating a fund
which already reaches a considerable amount.

ST. Andrew's society

was founded in 1798, with features similar to those of its sister associa-
tions. For years it maintained a school, which was abandoned when the
necessitv for it was removed. It was in St. Andrew's Hall that the

A SXETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 479

ORDINANCE OF SECESSION

was passed, December 20th, 1861. The great conflagration swept the
'lall away. The society still exists, with reduced endowment.

THE CHARLESTOJSr LIBRARY SOCIETY.

In 1748, seventeen yovmg gentlemen of Charleston united in sending
ten pounds sterling to London for the purchase of pamphlets and maga-
zines. Some months later they organized a library society, and elected
officers. By 1750 the society had increased to 160 members. After two
unsuccessful efforts, owing to the hostility of Governor Glenn, a charter
was secured in 1754, and ratified by the crown the following year. After
this the society rapidly increased in numbers, and its library received
constant additions. The governor of the Province was regularly elected
president ; and membership was regarded as a mark of social distinction.

For many years it was desired to establish a high school or college in
connection with the library ; but estimates made in 1762, showing that
an immediate outlay of $15,000, and increased annual revenue of $2,000
would be required, caused a reluctant abandonment of the scheme.

A disastrous conflagration, in 1778, swept away almost the entire library
of five thousand volumes ; only one hundred and eighty-five escaping the
flames. Many curious pamphlets were irreparably lost.

The Legislature, in 1790, refunded eleven thousand dollars that had
been placed in the treasury at the beginning of the Revolution. Six
thousand four hundred dollars were deposited in bank as a permanent
fund, and the rest used to purchase books, in 1792.

In 1808 the catalogue showed 4,500 volumes; in 1811, 7,000; in 1826,
nearly 12,000 ; in 1876, 15,500, and in 1882, 17,130. During that year
over seven thousand volumes were taken out by subscribers, The library
has been carefully selected, and many of the books are of great merit.

The society owns a substantial building. The receipts for 1882 were
$2,102.54, of which $925 were derived from membership fees.

The annual membership fee is four dollars, A number of members,
who paid $100 each in 1835, for the purchase of the building, are absolved
from dues.

In 1770, Benjamin Smith left a legacy of six hundred dollars. Ex-
Governor Aiken has presented the society with about $3,000 in securities,
and the late William Lebby bequeathed a legacy of $1,000. General W.
G. DeSaussure is president ; Colonel C. H. Simonton, vice-president, and
Rene R. Jervey, Esq., librarian, of the society.

The Apprentices' Library, formed in 1824, for the benefit of appren-

480 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

tices and minors, gradually increased in prosperity until 18(Jl, when its
liall was burned. In 1870, it placed its books on the shelves of the
Charleston Library, and in 1874 the new society was fully merged into
the elder.

A handsome catalogue (1876) gives full information regarding the
library.

THE SOUTH CAROLINA HISTORICAL SOCIETY

was organized at Charleston in 1856, " with the design of tracing out
those minor points in the history of our State which have escaped the
notice or eluded the grasp of our historians,, and more particularly to
record the history of local events which, however, strikingly illustrative
of social life, are generally considered unworthy of notice. It proposes
to collect information respecting every portion of the State, to preserve
it, and when deemed advisable to publish it." In that year and for three
years thereafter the Legislature appropriated five hundred dollars annu-
ally to aid the society in its publications. Three volumes of publications
were issued up to 1860, but of the last volume only a few scattering
numbers survived the war, the greater part not having been distributed.
Some years after the war the society was reorganized. It now numbers
about one hundred members, of whom one-third reside in the interior of
the State. The publications and manuscripts of the society are deposited
in the Charleston Library. Sufficient material is now^ on hand for a
fourth volume, which will be published when the society is able to meet
the expense. Its revenues are about $200 per annum. The present
officers are Prof. F. A. Porcher, president ; Rev. C. C. Pinckney and S. P.
Ravenel, vice-presidents, and Messrs. Yates Snowden and C. A. McHugh,
secretaries.

THE THORNWELL ORPHANAGE.

Bordering on the thriving village of Clinton, in Laurens County, is a
farm of a hundred and twenty-five acres, the property and site of the
Thornwell Orphanage. On the 1st of October, 1872, a number of gen-
tlemen met and discussed the plan of an orphanage conducted under
Presbyterian auspices. To-day that plan is in successful operation. Two
handsome concrete buildings, and other wooden structures, accommodate
the officers of the institution and the thirty-two orphans under their
charge. Another building, the Orphans' Seminary, is now in course of
construction, on the completion of which there will be accommodations
for a hundred children. Besides the literary instruction, the boys are
practised in farming, printing, carpenter work, house-painting and shoe-
making. The girls are trained in domestic duties. This orphanage has

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 481

gathered about $20,000 .worth of property, and $13,000 have been ex-
pended in its support. The endowment is already $5,270, in paying se-
curities. Aid has come from Sabbath schools and churches, and
from benevolent persons in this and other States, including Illinois and
California. Though great good has been accomplished, much remains
to be done ; and the orphanage is a most worthy object of benevolence.
Although a Presbyterian institution; it supports orphans representing six
denominations.

There is an admirable school, a small library, and a printing press,
from which a newspaper is issued. The officers are as follows : Rev. W.
P. Jacobs, president ; Mrs. Lucy N. Boyd, matron ; Miss Pattie Thorn-
well, Prof. W. S. Lee, and Miss Laura Whaley, instructors; Mr. T. C.
Scott, agent, and Mr. R. S. Whaley, superintendent of the farm.

VI. OTHER PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

It is impossible to secure a correct list of the private schools in South
Carolina. The State Superintendent and the United States Commissioner
of Education have made repeated efforts to do so, without success. The
following partial list is published in the hope that it will stimulate other
teachers to report their schools to the State Superintendent of Education
in Columbia. The educational work of the State cannot be computed
without full statistics from private as well as public schools. Especially
is it important to secure itemized returns from those schools that are
conducted by joint private and public funds :

Partial List of Private Schools, 18 S 1-2.

ABBEVILLE.

Lethe (De la Howe School suspended for the present.)
Brewer Institute (colored).

AIKEN.

(Private schools are usually conducted conjointly with public schools.)

ANDERSON.

TEACHERS. PUPILS.

100

Anderson Female Seminary, L. M. Ayer '

Vnderson Home School, Mrs. Murray 1 2o

4S2 A Sketch of eduoation in south Carolina.

BARNWELL.

(Either pti})lic or private schools.)

BEAUFORT.

TEACHERS. PriMLS.

Poiin IiuUistrial School, Miss L. M. Towiie 0 218

Marher Industrial School, Mrs. R. C*. Marhcr 2 75

Mrs. Bohiin's School, Elementary 2 87

CHARLESTON.

(Reported elsewhere.)

CHESTEi;.

(No private schools.)

CHESTERFIELD.

Tvce-Hampton High School, Joseph Blain.
Cheraw Academy, A. M. Rankin.

CLARENDON.

Manning High School, R. B. Mahoney 2 39

COLLETON.

(No returns.)

DARLINGTON.

Darlington Male Academy, H. S. Thompson 2 35

Miss Player, 15 ; Miss Spain, 10 ; Miss Davis, 48 ; Miss Mc-

Carter, 15; Miss Woodward, 9 ; Miss Waring, 12; Miss

Church, 40 ; Mrs. Singletary, 14 ; Miss Kilpatrick, 37 ;

Miss Murphy, 20 ; Miss Bacot, 7 ; Mrs Edwards, 25';

Miss Dalrymple, 10 ; Mrs. Doover, 25 ; Miss Moon, 15.

Florence High School, Mr. Evans 1 14

Florence High School, Mr. Hooper 1 15

Florence High School, Mr. Seabrook 1 37

Kershaw Elementary (colored) 1 50

Kertle Elementary (colored) 1 20

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. -dSo

EDGEFIELD.

(No re})ort.)

FAIRFIELD.

(All schools public.)

(lEORGETOWN.

TEACHERS, rrrii.s.

Winyali Indigo, A. McP. Hamby 1 (i-3

GREENVILLE.

Patrick's Military School, J. B Patrick 4 oO

Business College, J. M. Perry . 1 Oo

Trescot School, Misses Trescot 2 30

Gowensville Academy, Rev. S. J. Earle 2 oo

Grier's Academy, .J. W. Kennedy 2 45

Grove Military Academy, E. T. Kemp 1 40

Piedmont High School, A. E. Miller 2 30

HAMFTON.

(No returns.)

HORRY.

(No returns.)

KERSHAW.

Leslie McCandless, Mrs. M. C. Thomasoii, Miss Fretag, Mrs.
Withers.

LAURENS.

Laurens Female College, J. D. Anderson 4 '^i

Clinton Male High School, H. E. Lee 4 70

LEXINGTON.

Lexington Academy, .

MARION.

Marion Academy, A. W. Lynch 2 07

_, Marion Female Seminary, J. R. McLean 2 40

^ Marion Primary School, Miss DuBois 1 52

Little Rock Academy, H. R. Walker 1 43

Mullins Academy, Charles Lovejoy 2 74

Mars' Bluft; F. s'. McLean . . . 1 2G

484 A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IN' SOUTH CAROLINA.

MARLBORO'.

TEACH Kits. PUPILS.

^liiieral Spring High School, -J. Eleigh 1 24

Beniiettsville School, Miss Sallie Cook 1 !•'>

Meadow School, Miss Lily Breeden . . 1 l."5

Fletcher's Mill, Henr}^ Newton 1 2.')

NEWBERRY.

College Preparatory, * . . , 39

Prosperity School, J. S. Perrin.

OCONEE.

(No report.)

ORANGEBURG.

Riser's School, Rev. J. F. Riser , 1 30

Academy, H. G. Sheridan 2 50

Academy, S. R. Mellichamp 1 58

Female High School, Miss Albergottie i 40

PICKENS.

All schools connected with the public system.

RICHLAND.

Columbia Male Academy, C. H. Barnwell 4 G3

Graded Classical School, R. H. Clarkson.
Columbia Female Academy, Miss Elmore.
Female Academy, ]\Iisses Martin.
Female Academy, Misses Reynolds.

Palmetto Academy, .

(Full returns not received).

SPARTANBURG.

Wellford High School, W. S. Morrison.
Gaffney Cit}^ High School.
Ring's"^ Mountain High School, W. T. R. Bell.
Reidville Male Academy.

SUMTER.

Female Institute, Mrs. L. A. Brown.

St. Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic), Misses Hurst, Flem-
ing, Herbert, Nettles, Williams, Hudson.
Boys' Grammar School, T. P. McQueen.
A number of schools in the countv.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 485

UNION.

TEACHERS. I'lPI !..'<.

Clifford Soniinary, Rev. B. G. Clifford 4 oO

WILLIAMSBURG.

(No report.)

YORK.

Fort Mill Academy, A. R. Banks. ■

VII. HIGHER EDUCATION FOR MALES.

While South Carolina has been reproached for her failure in the past
to provide for the education of the masses, no one can truthfully deny
that much attention has been paid to higher education from the earliest
times. During the colonial period, the sons of the rich sought instruc-
tion in Europe; and when the Revolution came on, South Carolina's
sons stepped to the front in the forum, as well as on the field. In literature
and science, as well as in statesmanship, South Carolinians had distin-
guished themselves from the earliest days. Dr. Lionel Chalmers, a
native of Scotland, practiced medicine in Carolina from 1737 to 1777,
during which time he published several medical works. Rev. Richard
Clarke, for some years rector of St. Philip's, was widely known as a
theologian beyond the limits of America, and when he returr.ed to Eng-
land, he taught there the sons of Charle.stonians, who had followed him.
William Henry Drayton left a manuscript history of the American Rev-
olution in three volumes. Christopher Gadsden understood Latin, Greek,
French, Hebrew, and the Oriental languages. Imprisoned at St. Augus-
tine by the British, " he came out much more learned than he entered."
Dr. Alexander Garden moved to Charleston from Scotland, and studied
botany and natural liistory with such success as to become a vice-presi-
dent of the Royal Society of England, and to win the admiration of
Linnfcus, who named the " Gardenia " after him. Sir Nathaniel John-
son was a scientific experimenter. He introduced silk and improved
rice culture in South Carolina. The learning of Henry Laurens is well
known. His son, John Laurens, who, at the age of twenty-five, was sent
to Paris to negotiate with France in 1780, was an adept in "ancient
and modern languages, philosophy, geography, history, and the ordinary
circle of sciences, and he excelled in drawing, dancing, fencing, riding,
and all the graces and refined manners of a man of fashion." The Rev.

48G A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROI-IXA.

Thomas Reese amassed great knowledge, and wrote an exeellent essa}'
on tlie influence of religion in society, for which he was made a Doctor
of Divinity by Princeton. John Rutledge was a man of varied attain-
ments.

Dr. John Lining was one of the first experimenters in electricity, and
corres})onded on the subject with Franklin. He wrote the first pamphlet
on yellow fever that appeared from America. William Bull, the first
native of South Carolina that obtained tlie degree of ]M. D., defended a
thesis before the University of Leyden.

After the Revolution there w^ere a number of learned and scientific
men. Dr. David Ramsay introduced vaccination into Charleston in
ISOG, four years after its discovery by Jenner. (His son, Mr. Nathaniel
Ramsay, who was the first subject, died near Columbia, in 1882.) Besides
this, he wrote a Universal History, a History of the Revolution, and a
History of South Carolina, from which are taken many facts of this
sketch, and of all other sketches of our early history. Stephen Elliott
was a thorough botanist. Washington Allston, a painter and poet. Hugh
S. Legare, a scholar as well as orator. But it is needless to say more.

This appreciation of higher education led the people of South Carolina
first to send their sons abroad and then to endow colleges of their own at
home.

Sketches of these colleges are appended, each written by the president
or one of the professors of the college described.

THE SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE.

On the 7th day of December, 1723, the Rev. Thomas ]\Iorritt made
proposals in the Colonial Assembly for the establishment of a college.
This is the first time the word occurs in South Carolina legislation. A
manuscript bill, partly in the handwriting of John Rutledge, in the time
of Lieutenant-Governor Bull (1769) provides, in addition to public
schools, for " a college for the education of the youth of this province."
The plan was most liberal, embracing instruction in the natural sciences,
medicine and law, as well as in the classics and philosophy.

To Governor Drayton, however, w^as reserved the honor of inaugu-
rating a successful movement. His message, November 23d, 1801, advo-
cated the erection of a S'ate College. An Act of Incorporation passed
the same year. Fifty tliousand dollars were appropriated for buildings,
and six thousand annually for salaries.

An organization was effected in February, 1S(>2, and liuildings were
erected by 1804. A facult}' was chosen in April of that year. Rev. John-
atlian Maxcy wa^ elected president. Born in Massachusetts in 1768, he

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 487

was chosen president of Brown University at the age of twenty-four. In
1802 he became president of Union College, and two years later, came to
South Carolina to organize this Institution. There he served faithfully,
and with distinguished success, until his death, in 1820. A handsome
monument to his memory graces the College Campus.

The College opened on the 10th .January, 1805, its first matriculate
being William Harper, afterwards Chancellor of the State, and one of the
ablest jurists that have adorned the American bench. Eight other stu-
dents entered the same day, and by .July the number had increased to
twenty-nine. From that time the College went on increasing in honor
and in usefulness. Its history is indissolubly connected with that of the
State. With reason has it been said that much of the peculiar genius of
;Soutli Carolina, much of her prominence in the councils of the Union,
much of that high sense of honor characterizing her sons in every walk
of life, w^ere due to the formative influences of the South Carolina College.

The youth of the State imbibed political economy from a Cooper, his-
tory and government from a Lieber, eloquence from a Preston, logic from
a Thornwell, science from an Ellett, or a Le Conte, Greek from a Henry,
and other branches from learned masters. Calhoun's Disquisition on
Government was, by law, a text-book in the College. All the depart-
ments of the State government attended commencement exercises in a
body. The C-olk^ge was the gymnasium in which youthful intellects
were prepared to grasp the problems of statesmanship equally with those
of ordinary business life.

The succession of presidents up to the war were Rev. Jonathan Maxcy,
Thomas Cooper, Robert Hcnvy, pro. Jan., Robert W. Barnwell, William C.
Preston, James H. Thornwell, Charles F. McCay, and A. B. Longstreet.

Among the alumni, now dead, who bore off honors, are James L.
Petigru, B. J. Earle, J. B. O'Neall, George McDutfie, Hugh S. Legare,
D. L. Wardlaw, F. H. Wardlaw, Richard Yeadon, Basil ' Manly, T. J.
Withers, Edmund Bellinger, James H. Thornwell, James Simons, and
Robert W. Barnwell, Jr.

Among the graduates during the first quarter of a century, were Wil-
liam Harper, B. F. Whitner, Warren R. Davis, Job Johnston, W. C.
Preston, Waddy Thompson, A. P. Butler, T. N. Dawkins, J. H. Ham-
mond, and Stephen Elliott. The dead alone are mentioned ; the living
speak for themselves.

On several occasions the College passed through trying ordeals, but
the State rallied to her support. Hon. Robert W. Barnwell was espe-
cially successful in twice restoring confidence and infusing new life into
the Institution. His name is more closely linked with the College than
any other.

488 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

By the year 1847 additional buildings were necessary, and the roll of
students the following session numbered 221. A fire destroyed one
building in 1851, and, four years later, a still more serious loss was in-
curred in the burning of Rutledge College and tlie old chapel. These
damages were speedily repaired.

A rebellion in 1852 led to a relaxation of the old rule requiring all
students to board in commons. After this the Steward's Hall served only
as a check upon regularly licensed boarding houses.

The College continued its usefulness until the war. A company was
formed within the walls for State service.

In 1862 the exercises were suspended, and the students and professors
were called to other duties. Hundreds of matriculates and alumni
were near the flashing of the guns, and many of them achieved high
reputation.

The college buildings served as a hospital up to the time of the sur-
render.

THE SOUTH CAROLINA UNIVERSITY.

In 1800, the college was reopened and converted into a university',
Hon. Robert W. Barnwell beino; a second time called from private life
to the presidency. He placed the institution on a soun:l footing. Schools
of law and medicine were attached to the academic department. A num-
ber of earnest students attended, and the attendance increased to more
than a hundred. The reorganization of the Board of Trustees, in 1869,
was followed by some resignations in the faculty. In 1873, a radical
change was made. The doors were thrown open to all students, regard-
less of race. The old professors resigned their places, and a new faculty
and a new class of studsnts cam 3 into o?3upancy. In 1877,

THE INSTITUTION WAS CLOSED

b}^ the Legislature. In 187i), the Legislature issued State stock to revive
the fund, given by the general Government for an agricultural and me-
chanical college, and lost by tlie State autliorities between 18(58 and 1876.

THE UNIVERSITY WAS REOPENED

in 1880 with two branches — the South Carolina Agricultural and Me-
chanical College at Columbia, for the whites, and Claflin L^niversity at
Orangeburg, for the blacks. Hon. Wm. Porcher Miles was elected Presi-
dent of the College at Columbia. Tins organization continued two years.
In 1881, the Legislature made additional appropriations, and the trustees,

A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA. -ISO

in May following, elected five additional professors. The college opened
in October with flattering prospects, the attendance reaching one hun-
dred and fifty in a few weeks. Mr. Miles having resigned to accept im-
portant private trusts, the faculty elected Prof. J. M. McBryde Chair-
man, and he was subsequently elected President.

FACULTY AND OFFICERS.

John M. McBryde, President, and Professor of Agriculture and Horti-
culture ; James Woodrow, Ph. D., D. D., Professor of Geology, Mineralogy,
Botany, and Zoology ; Benjamin Sloan, Professor of Mathematics and
Natural Philosophy; Wm. Burney, Ph. D., Professor of Analytical and
Agricultural Chemistry; E. L. Patton, LL. D., Professor of Ancient
Languages; E. S. Joynes, M. A., LL. D., Professor of Modern Languages
and English ; ReV. W. J. Alexander, A. M., Chaplain, and Professor of
Philosophy ; R. Means Davis, Professor of History and Political Science.
Secretary of the Faculty, R. Means Davis ; Treasurer, X. B. Barnwell ;
Librarian, Miss E. W. Barnwell ; Marshal, R. S. Morrison.

COURSES OF STUDY, FOUR YEARS EACH.

There are three Science courses, conferring the degree of B. S. The
first is of general science, the second of applied science (mechanics and
engineering), and the third of applied science (agriculture and applied
chemistry).

There are, also, tAvo Literature courses, conferring the degree of B. A.
The first embraces a first course in classics. The second substitutes
modern languages for the stud}^ of Greek.

There are three special courses, Practical Agriculture, Practical Sur-
veying, and Practical English.

Tuition is free. A charge of ten dollars is made for rq>air.-. &c.
Board is secured at reasonable rates.

BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS.

The college buildings are enclosed in the college grounds, which con-
tain about sixteen acres. The " campus " contains nearly four acres.
Around it are the recitation rooms, the tenements, and the professors'
houses. The dormitory system is adopted. For each pair of students
there is a suite of three rooms, thus insuring comfort and privacy. The
buildings are valued at §250,000. The library contains about 27,000
32

490 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

volumes, selected with great care by such scholars as Elliott, Thornwell
and Lieber. Maiiv of the books are of rare value.

FUNDS.

The college receives a portion of the proceeds of the $192,000 in agricul-
tural scrip. In addition, the Legislature has for tAvo years appropriated
^10,000 for professors, and $2,500 for other purposes. "^ The trustees have
made an appropriation for the purpose of carrying out the agricultural
feature. A handsome conservatory is in course of erection, and an ex-
perimental farm will be carried on for the purpose of testing new seeds,
fertilizers, &c. The endeavor will be to make this college practical as
well as literary, and to afford a thorough training to the youth of the
State.

THE COLLEGE OF CHAKLESTON.

The College of Charleston was incorporated by Act of the Legislature
in 1785. Two other colleges were incorporated on the same da}' — i\Iount
Zion College, in Winnsboro ; and one in Cambridge. The last, it is be-
lieved has no further history. The second was, for years, a respectable
grammar school. Certain funds wliicli were bequeathed by individuals
to aid in " the first college which shall be chartered," were thus divided
among the three which were thus simultaneously created by the Legisla-
ture. The college thus chartered in Charleston enjoyed the possession
of the Old Barracks, with the lands attached to it, between George, St.
Philip's and Green streets, and it is on that land the present college building
stands. At the time of the charter the Rev. William Smith, afterwards •
Bishop of the Diocese of South Carolina, kept a large classical school in
Charleston, and it was determined to make his school the nucleus of the
new college, but it was not until 1794 that the college gave degrees to its
graduates. In that year a commencement was held, and the Baccalaure-
ate conferred on six candidates, among whom we find Nathaniel Bowen,
afterwards Bishop of the Diocese, and John Davis Gervais.

This was the first and also the last commencement of the college in
that century. Its pretensions as a college seem to have been lost sight
of, and for many years it held rank only as a classical school, whose repu-
tation depended upon the character of its head.

In 1824, an effort was made to raise its collegiate character, and three
of the principal schools were united under the' presidency of Bishop
Bowen. It was then a school of a mixed character, in which it was not
easy to distinguish the academics from the pupils of the grammar or
preparatory school. Having organized the college, Bishop Bowen retired

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 491

from its headship, and was succeeded by Rev. Jasper Adams. In 1825, the
first degree was conferred on Alex. Gadsden, and in 1826 the Rt. Rev.
Bishop Wightman took the Baccalaureate. From this time to 1835 the
exercises of the college were continued Avithout interruption, and the
list of graduates contains the names of gentlemen who have been favor-
ably known to the conniiunity as lawyers, jurists, merchants and divines.

In 1835, the exercises of the college were suspended in consequence of
financial embarrassment. In 1837, by an agreement between the trustees
and the City Council, the property of the college was ceded to the Council,
which, in return, charged itself w^th its maintenance.

Under this arrangement the college was re-opened under the presi-
dency of Rev. W. H. Brantley, D. D., two professors and a tutor. The
grammar or preparatory school was dropped, and this arrangement, with
the addition of other professors, continues to the present time.

In 1826, the Old Barracks were taken down, and the centre of the
present college building erected. This was enlarged by the addition of
the two wings, in 1850. The first commencement was celebrated in 1840,.
and there has been no interruption since that time. In 184-, Dr. Brant-
ley died, and was succeeded by H. Perroneau Finley, Esq., who resigned
in 1858. In 1850 the Cabinet of Natural History was added to the col-
lege, and occupies the wdiole of the upper story of the building. The
board of instructors was increased to six.

In 1858, N. Russell Middleton, Esq., was elected president, and served
until the end of 1880.

During the w^ar the exercises of the college were not suspended, but the
greater number of youths of the age to go to college were called into the
service, and in 1865 the college was not opened.

The wdiole number of graduates between 1825 and 1870 is two hundred
and ninety-seven. This, of course, shows small classes, but the college-
educates few persons outside of the city. Hence the number of students
is always, and must always be, small ; but among the graduates are
found the names of most of those wdio have led public opinion in the
city. In this list are forty-two lawyers, thirty-two physicians, thirty-two
merchants, and twenty-three clergymen, besides most of those w^ho have
made a mark as educators and teachers of youth. The course of studies
does not differ materially from that of other colleges in the United States,
and it is doubted w'hether any college excels it in its mathematical course.
Of late particular attention has been given to a practical knowledge of
English Literature, including a critical reading of the early poets..
French and German have been made obligatory portions of the cur-
riculum.

The funds of the college are reported by the Mayor as $300,000. This

492 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

lias been oljtained from various sources. In 1864, Mr. Ephraim Mikell
left the college city stock amounting to more than $] 50,000. Besides
this Mr. Ker Boyce left a fund of more than $20,000, the interest of
which was to be employed in the support of worthy youths during their
college course.

The college opened October, 1882, with the folloAving faculty :
Henry E. Shepherd, President, Professor of English Language and
Literature ; Lewis R. Gibbes, Professor of Astronomy, Phy.sics and
Chemistry ; Francis W. Capers, Professor of Mathematics and Civil En-
gineering ; A. Sachtleben, Professor of Ancient Languages and Lit-erature ;
Sylvester Pumer, Professor of Modern Languages and Literature; X.
Russell Middleton, Professor Honorary, Lecturer on Moral and Political
Philosophy, and Evidences of Christianity ; F. A. Porcher, Professor
Honorary, Lecturer on Belles Lettres and History ; H. M. Bruns, Profes-
sor Honorary, Lecturer on Classical Literature.

ERSKINE COLLEGE.

This Institution is the property of the Associate Reformed Synod, of
the South.

It is situated at Due West, in the upper part of Abbeville County, four
miles west of the Donald's Depot, on the Columbia and Greenville Rail-
road, and on the line of the Atlantic and French Broad Valley Railroad,
now being constructed.

For some years previous to 1830, the Institution, which afterwards
develoj)ed into a College, had been open as a Classical School. In the
Fall of 1835, steps were taken to enlarge the course of instruction, which
was carried into effect in 1830. The first name of the College, was

CLARK AND ERSKINE SEMINARY.

It was organized as Erskine College, in 1839, and the course of instruc-
tion extended so as to comprehend all the studies appropriately belong-
ing to Colleges. The first President was Rev. E. E. Pressly, D. D., with
the following corps of Professors : Mr. N. M. Gordon, Rev. J. N. Young
and Rev. J. P. Pressly, D. D. As the patronage and means of the Col-
lege increased, additional Professors were employed until the plans of
1839 were fully met. It has had the following distinguished gentlemen
as Presidents: Rev. E. E. Pressly, D. D., Rev. R. C. Grier, D. D., (two
terms, 1846 to 1858, and 1865 to 1871), Rev. E. L. Patton, LL. D., Rev.
W. M. Grier, D. D., son of the former Dr. Grier. The following gentle-
men have been connected at different times with the College as Profes-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 493

sors: Rev. D. McCaw, Rev. William McWhorter, Rev. W. R. Hemphill,
D. D.; Professors J. F. Lee, J. P. Kennedy, Wm. Hood, W. S. Lowry, J.
H. Miller, L. P. Kennedy and J. J. McCain. The last five named,
together with Dr. W. M. Grier, as President, compose the Faculty at this
time. These gentlemen represent, as alumni, quite a large number of
Colleges and Universities. The first Faculties were drawn mostly from
Northern Colleges, such as Jefferson, Pa , and Miami University, Ohio.
In later years, they have been taken from graduates of Colleges in the
South — such as the University of Georgia, South Carolina College, and
Erskine College. Several of them have taken courses of special study in
Yale, Johns Hopkins' University, Amherst, &c. All of these gentlemen
have been noted for their devotion to education, and have stood high in
their respective departments.

The course of instruction is believed to be as thorough and full as the
ordinary purposes of an education can require, or as students are able to
accomplish in the time usually devoted to a college course.

While it is true that, although like most denominational colleges,
Erskine is the child of hard struggles, she has now attained such age
and growth as place her future beyond the dangers of ordinary con-
tingencies.

Endowments. Previous to 1853, the College relied on tuition fees and
the interest of a few donations and bequests to defray expenses. In that
year, " the plan of endowing the College, by the sale of scholarships
was adopted, and a vigorous attempt made to carry out the scheme * *
Money was scarce, and crops not abundant, but by making liberal offers
in the way of tuition, more than $50,000 was raised towards the endow-
ment of the College." This, in connection with funds previously received
from Capt. Blair and others, and more recently from Christopher Strong,
Esq., of Tennessee, and Col. Wm. Wright, of Yorkville, South Carolina,
raised the endowment to about $70,000.

The results of the late war swept away all of this endowment, except-
ing about $13,000. Having tried some temporary expedients, the Synod,
in 1871, entered on a second effort to secure a permanent endow-
ment. The plan was similar to the one of 1853, except that the price of
scholarships was raised to $20 each, and the term of the College obliga-
tion limited to 1895. Until that time, each share or scrip for $20 entitles
the holder to one year's tuition. Though the friends of the College were
impoverished and discouraged, by the disasters of the war, this effort
met a liberal response, and the sale of scholarships, together with a few
additional donations and bequests, raised the endowment to about $80,000.
The largest donation was $15,000, by Mrs. Ann Wallace, of Kentucky,
and the largest bequest the College has received, was by the will of the

494 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAEOLINA.

late Dr. Hearst, of Abbeville, S. C. He left two-thirds of his estate to
the Collef!;c. About $11,000 has been realized on it. ,

BmJdingH. Tlie first permanent building was erected in 1842, and is
a large fine brick structure of three stories ; affording ample rooms for
recitations, library and other purposes. A second building was erected
in 1850-1. It is also of brick, and has two stories. The first floor is
divided into chapel, school and reading rooms. The second floor, with
a seating capacity of 1,200 to 1,500, is Commencement Hall, or " Lindsay
Hall," named after James Lindsay, Esq., in consequence of his liberality
as builder. Llere all exhibitions and commencements, not only of
Erskine College, but also of the Due West Female College, are held.

Attached to this building is an observatory, about one hundred feet
high, on which is mounted a large and valuable telescope under a re-
volving cupola.

In subsequent years, two other brick buildings of two stories each
were erected in the campus. These are appropriated to the uses of the
two Literary Societies connected with the College. Each contains a gen-
eral hall for forensic practice, a library and other rooms. They were
built by contributions of the members, their alumni, and other friends.
One was built in 1858, the other a year or two later.

BENEFICIARY SCHOLARSHIPS.

Provision has always been made in one way or another for aid of de-
serving students in straitened circumstances, and many young men have
been enabled to graduate in this way. Until recently, however, there
has been no regular beneficiary fund. In the last year or two the " Duane
jNIower Scholarship," has been founded, the annual interest of which is
offered by the Faculty to worthy, but indigent young men.

The buildings and other property are valued at about $40,000.

The foregoing is a brief sketch of the history and purposes of Erskine
College. During the forty odd years of its existence, it has annually (ex-
cept during the war period) sent out a considerable number of alumni.
It has graduated more than four hundred young men, most of whom are
now honoring all the learned professions in many States of the Union.

ASSOCIATE REFORMED THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.

Since tlie origin of Erskine College, a Tlieological Seminary has been
connected with it, though in no sense a part of it.

Its funds are distinct from the funds of the College. The only connec-
tion, is that the two institutions belong to the same body of people, and

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAKOLINA. 495

some of the rooms, not needed by the College, answer the purposes of the
Seminary, No endowment has yet been undertaken for it. It is sup-
ported by an annual assessment of the Churches comprising the Synod.

The only funds it has received for permanent investment are donations
and bequests. The largest of these was by the will of the late Dr. jNIc-
Millen, of San Francisco, Cal. This is not in hand yet, but according to
reports of the executors, it is believed it will yield a very handsome sum.
This, added to others, similar, the more recent of Avhich is from Mrs.
Ann Wallace, of Kentucky, and Mr. Thomas Torbit, of Chester, S. C,
raise the amount to about $20,000.

At present, the Seminary has three professors, with Rev. James Boyce,
D. D., as the President of the Faculty. The course of instruction is two
years, of nine months each. Tuition is free.

Intimately connected with the Seminary, and therefore more or less
interesting to the friends of the College, is a Board of Foreign Missions,
all of whose officers reside in Due West. The Board was organized in
1875, at which time the first missionary was sent out. As this Board is
quite young yet, its funds are also quite small, not amounting to much
over 13,000.

WOFFORD COLLEGE, SPARTANBURG C. H., S. C.

This Institution was founded by the Rev. Benjamin Wofford, a min-
ister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and is called by his
name. For some years before his death, Mr. Wofford liad been deeply
interested in the subject of education, and was anxious to affbrd the ad-
vantages of the highest literary improvement to the youth of the up-
country of his native State. In his will, he left $100,000 " for the pur-
pose of establishing and endowing a college for literary, classical and
scientific education, to be located in his native district, Spartanburg,, and
to be under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church of his native
State, South Carolina." The college received its charter from the Legis-
lature of South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1851. A board of trustees was
appointed, with " authority to confer and award all such distinctions,
honors, licenses, and degrees as are usually conferred and awarded in
colleges and universities in the United States. The buildings were
completed at a cost of $50,000, leaving the same amount as the nucleus
of an endowment. The college building is an imposing and handsome
structure of brick, containing a chapel capable of holding about one
thousand persons, lil.>rarv, museum and laboratoiy, and recitation rooms.
The other buildings included in the college property consist of a jiresi-
dent's house, and houses for four professors. They are all substantial
brick buildings

49G A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

The first faculty of tlie college was composed of the Rev. W. M.
"Wightman, D. D., President ; David Duncan, A. ]M., Professor of Lan-
guages; James H.Carlisle, A.M., Professor of Mathematics; Warren
DuPre, A. M., Professor of Natural Science. To these were added, in
the following year, Whitefoord Smith, Professor of English Literature.
The regular exercises of the college were commenced on the 1st day of
August, 1854. During cur late war, the exercises of the institution
were never wholly susi:)ended, but a high school was kept up under
the supervision of Professors D. Duncan and J. H. Carli.sle.

After the close of the war, the regular collegiate classes were again
frirmed, and the number of students has steadily increased. During
the last year, one hundred and forty were in attendance. The standard
of scholarship in this institution has always been very high, and the
services of its graduates as teachers have been in great demand. It
has given a large number of its graduates to the work of the ministry,
v\hile many others have been called to the field of educational labor,
others to distinguished positions in civil and political life.

It is greatly to the credit of Wofford College that it has given the
advantages of liberal education to man}' poor young men who otherwise
would have been deprived of them ; and this is more to its credit when
it is known that its endowment funds were nearly all lost in the dis-
astrous effects of the last war.

The college is beautifully located in the northern part of the town of
Spartanburg, and has a campus emljracing about seventy acres, nearly
all of which is delightfully shaded with forest trees. This section of the
State is noted for the salubrity of its climate, pure water, and general
healthfulness. It is known as a good summer resort for those living in
the lower part of the State. It is almost unequalled for the high moral
tone of its society.

The cost of board and tuition is very reasonable, and the necessary ex-
penses of a student here are small. A group of students formed a mess,
last year, at a cost of only seven dollars a month to each, and their table
was as good as is usually found in private families.

Sessions begin on the 1st October, and close on the Wednesday after
the second Sunday in June.

The present faculty is composed of James H. Carlisle, A. jM., LL. D.,
President, and Professor of Mathematics ; Rev. "Whitefoord Smith, A. M.,
D. D., Professor of English Literature ; Rev. W. W. Duncan, A. M., D. D.,
Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy ; Daniel A. DuPre, A. M., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry and Geology; F. C. Woodward. A. ]M., Professor of
Latin and French ; J. A. Gamewell, A. M., Professor in charge of Intro-
ductorv Classes; J. H. Kirkland, A. M., Professor of Greek and German ;

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 407

W. W. Duncan, Financial Secretary and Treasurer; J. A. Gamewell,
Secretary of Faculty.

FUEMAN UNIVERSITY, GREENVILLE, S. C.

This institution, founded by the Baptists of tlie State, has been in
operation a little rnore than thirty years. It is situated within the cor-
porate limits of the city of Greenville, upon the western side of Reedy
river, a little stream rising near the- foot of the mountains and, on its
way to the Saluda, intersecting the site of Greenville city. The grounds
of the University embrace some forty acres of land, constituting a wooded
height of remarkable beauty. Near its centre, and fronting the main
street of the western portion of the city, stands the main pile of the Uni-
versity building. The scene from its tower is one of the finest. The
undulations of Laurel creek and Reedy river, the near heights of Lowndes
hill, Piney mountain and Paris mountain, the more remote lines of Plog-
back, Ctesar's Head and Table Rock, with yet more distant points of the
Blue Ridge, present a view of surpassing beauty. The building itself is
wholly devoted to the immediate purposes of instruction ; one section
containing a chapel, a chemical laboratory, a philosophical apparatus
room, and a library room. Another section contains seven recitation
rooms, and two society rooms. These two sections are connected by the
mathematical room, which is furnished with ample blackboards, and
with tiers of desks and seats which enable every student to see distinctly
the work upon the blackboards.

There is no provision for boarding within the Universit3^ The history
of colleges shows that dormitories in college buildings, and boarding in
commons, have been the sources of incalculable moral damage. Li a
correspondence with some leading instructors, instituted by those who
projected this institution, facts and opinions were gathered which made
them unwilling to embrace the old college system in the plan to be in-
augurated in Greenville. The late President Way land, for instance, gave
it as his deliberate opinion, that forty-nine-fiftieths of the trouble in col-
leges grow out of the dormitory system. Boys, to be safe in college, must
divide in families ; and the boarding-house which is most like home is
the best place for them. More than thirty years' experience in Furman
University has confirmed these views. There has never been the slightest
sign of any thing like a rebellion. There has been scarcely any need for
discipline beyond the kind, quiet admonition. A few instances, at long
intervals, have occurred, in which it has been necessary to put away a
student for unworthy conduct; but in every such instance, the action of
the faculty has had the unqualified moral support of the body of students.

498 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

In addition to this, the utmost good feeling has ever been reciprocated
between the students and the citizens of the town.

The name of the institution, under which it was incorporated, " Furman
University,'' was adopted because, in its incipiency, it embraced an academic,
a collegiate, and a theoloc/ical department, with the expectation of adding
afterward, a dejiartment of laiv. Arrangements to this effect were on
foot when the war rendered them impracticable. The Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary, now located at Louisville, Ky., but originally
founded in Greenville, S. C, is an outgrowth of Furman University,
which gave up its theological department in order that other States besides
South Carolina might be brought in as supporters of a common Southern
theological institution.

Soon after the war, the university sought to provide free tuition in the
collegiate department on the basis of bonds given for the support of the
faculty, on condition of free tuition for ten years. Having no provision
for the support of a preparatory department, it was not reorganized.

The plan of free tuition for ten years proved a failure, owing, mainly,
to the fact that the bonds matured at the time of the greatest financial
stringency known in the State for many years. Out of $200,000 in bonds,
the amount actually collected enabled the trustees to invest $20,000 as a
permanent interest-bearing fund, the balance being appropriated to meet
current expenses.

An experience of five years convinced the trustees that the plan of free
tuition would not be a success. Accordingh^, at a meeting of the Board,
August 30th, 1881, the University was reorganized. It was determined
to discontinue free tuition, and appeal directly to the Baptist churches
of the State for the means to meet current expenses. For this purpose,
the President visited most of the associations meeting in the fall, and such
responses Avere received as gave assurance that the institution would be
continued.

The results of the last session, which closed June 18th, were such as
greatly to encourage the friends of the institution ; and as arrangements
have been instituted for the satisfactory settlement of the outstanding
bonds, a career of enlarged prosperity is confidently anticipated.

The present organization includes an academic and a collegiate de-
partment. The former is intended to prepare students for the college
studies, and is under the immediate direction of a principal, who has
alread}'' achieved success in this department. The college department
embraces seven distinct schools, viz: the Latin Language and Litera-
ture ; the Greek Language and Literature ; Mathematics and Mechanical
Philosophy ; Natural Philosophy ; Chemistry and Natural History ;

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 409

I Metaphysics ; the English Language and Literature. Provision is made
for a two years' course in German and French.

The Faculty is as follows : Charles Manly, D. D., President, and Pro-
fessor of English ; Rev. James C. Furman, D. D. Professor ot Meta-
physics ; C. H. Judson, Professor of Mathematics ; Harvey T. Cook,
Professor of Ancient Languages ; George D. Purinf on. Professor of Chem-

i istry and Physics ; Pt. E. Gaines, Assistant Listructor ; W. W. Brown,
Principal of Academic Department.

For catalogues giving full information, application may be made to
the President, Rev. Charles Manly, D. D., or to the Secretary of the
Faculty, Prof. H. T. Cook, at Greenville, S. C.

NEWBERRY COLLEGE, NEWBERRY, S. C.

r At a meeting of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of South Carolina,
f held in 1856, it was resolved to establish a " Classical and Literary Listi-
tution." A board of trustees was elected, a charter obtained, and New-
berry, S. C, chosen as the location. In 1857, the corner-stone of a
building was laid, and in the following year, a large and attractive
college edifice was completed, at a cost of $20,000. The faculty was as
follows : President, Rev. T. Stork, D. D., and Professors, R. Garlington,
0. B. Mayer, M. D., J. Bachman, D. D., LL. D., J. A. Brown, C. A. Stork,
A. P. Pifer, J. M. Streckhise, and M. Whittle.

The college was opened in 1858, and during the second session (1859-60)
175 students were enrolled.

A plan of endowment by scholarship was adopted, which was so suc-
cessful that, in 1860, the sum of $50,000.00 had been secured. A presi-
dent's house was built at a cost of $4,000.00, and cash subscriptions in
hand amounted to $3,000.00. Thus it appears that, in 1860, the property
of the college in endowment, buildings, etc., exceeded $75,000.00 in value.
The breaking out of the war between the States, in 1861, caused the
withdrawal of the faculty, and nearly all the students enlisted in the
armies of the Confederacy.

In 1862, Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D. D., was elected president, who, during
this and the following year, obtained subscriptions to funds of nearly
$50,000.00. From 1861-5, the college Avas not regularly open for stu-
dents. In 1865, the S3mod recommended to the Board to reopen the
college. Professors were elected, and, with a limited number of students,
the exercises of the institution were resumed in November of that year.
But the finances of the college were in a shattered condition, the endoAv-
ment had been totally lost by investment in Confederate securities ; and
the college building, beautiful in its architecture, but defective in its

500 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

construction, necessarily somewhat uncared for during the troublous
times of the war, and much injured by its occupancy by United States
soldiers during four months of the year I8G0, was found in ISOC to be
unsafe. Ste^DS were taken to effect the necessary repairs, Ijut to tlie
astonishment of the Board and the friends of the college, claims against
the Board to the amount of $18,000.00 were presented. Such was the
poverty of the people that the building could not Ije reclaimed and these
debts paid. The trustees, therefore, made sale of the property and closed
the institution.

At this juncture, the citizens of Wallhalla, S. C, made favorable pro-
posals to have the college located at that place. The offer was accepted,
and in Xovember, 1868, the college was removed to Walhalla. Here the
college sojourned for nine years, struggling amid many and heavy em-
barrassments.

In 1877, the citizens of Xevrberry, desiring the re-location of the college
on its old site, offered to the Sjmod buildings and grounds worth 815,000.
The offer was accejDted, and in September, 1877, the exercises of the
college were opened at Newberry. By the close of this year, a suitable
and substantial brick building was finished, and the property of the
college at this date, 1882, in building, grounds, library, apparatus, ifec, is
worth f 25,000.

Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D. D., who had been president of the college for
sixteen years, upon the removal of the college from AValhalla, retired
from the presidency, and Rev. G. W. Holland, the present incumbent,
was elected his successor.

Up to 1882, the college has graduated forty-eight young men, twelve
of whom are now teaching in this State.

In addition to the first faculty, the following gentlemen have been at
various times members of the corps of instructors : Rev. J. P. Smeltzer,
D. D.; D. Arrington, Rev. J. McNeill Turner, D. D., Rev. G. W. Holland,
D. B. Busby, E. J. Dreher, Carl Weber. Rev. J. F. Probst, G. D. Halti-
wanger, G. B. Cromer, and perhaps others.

The faculty, as at present constituted, is as follows: President, Rev.
G. W. Holland, and Professors 0. B. Mayer, M. D., S. S. Rahn, B. AV.
Bittle, C. W. Welch, and E. H. Aull.

The average number of students for the past four years has been
about one hundred.

A small endowment of $12,000.00 has been raised from proceeds of the
college in the State, and generous patrons of education in Boston have
contributed about $4,000.00 toward the equipment of the college.

It is believed that a career of prosperity and usefulness is now opening
to the institution, and that its friends will soon add to its endowment

A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 501

and other appliances. It is hoped, also, that its patronage will, in the
near future, be largely extended,

ADGER COLLEGE (pRESBYTERIAN), WALHALLA, S. C.

In 18G8, Newberry College was removed to Walhalla, at which place
it flourished for nine 3'ears. The Lutlieran Synod, in the spring of 1877,
resolved to carry this college back to its original site in Newberry.
Thereupon the people of AYalhalla, of all denominations, determined to
organize a new college in place of the one about to be removed ; and as
other denominations had colleges, it was resolved to place this institution
under Presbyterian control.

A subscription was begun, and in a few months the sum of ten thou-
sand dollars had been raised. The subscribers formed a joint stock
association on tlie basis of one vote for every twenty-five dollars of sub-
scription. It was resolved, also, that upon securing an endowment fund
of ten thousand dollars in addition to the subscriptions, the institu-
tion would be placed under the control of the Presbytery of South Caro-
lina. The subscriptions were secured by bonds, payable 1st January,
1890, and bearing seven j)er cent, interest, payable semi-annually from
the 1st July, 1877.

At the commencement of Newberry College, June, 1877, announce-
ment was made of the opening of Adc^er College in the ensuing autumn
The new institution was called in honor of a family whose unsullied
name had long l^een identified with Presbyterianism. A charter was
obtained for a white male college. The local subscriptions reached
$21,000, in sums ranging from $25 to $500, and before 1879 the endow-
ment of .$10,000 was also secured. Presbytery accepted control of the
college on 2(3th September, 1878.

A temporary organization was effected with Rev. J. R. Rile}', D. D., as
chairman of the faculty.

Parties subscribing $500 each were entitled to free tuition in all depart-
ments for all their sons, and every addititional $500 entitled the sub-
scriber to designate a person whose sons should also secure free tuition ;
this designation being subject to approval of the college management.

Thus equipped, the college began a career of usefulness. In June,
1882, a permaiient organization was effected, by the election of the Rev.
F. P. Mullally, I). D., President ; Rev. J. R. Riley, D. D., Professor of
Languages ; Rev. H. Strong, Professor of Natural Sciences ; and W. S.
Moore, A. B., Professor of Mathematics.

Upon this permanent organization a new interest sprang up, and sev-
eral hundred dollars in cash were added to the endowment fund, with a
prospect of a much greater increase.

502 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

The location of the college is all that could be desired — within four
miles of a mountain range, its water and air are pure and bracing. The
surrounding population is generally of the moral, energetic, industrious
class, which is the hope of true progress and prosperity.

In the town of Walhalla there are four churches of whites, viz : Bap-
tist, Methodist, Lutheran and Presbyterian, with an aggregate member-
ship of between five and six hundred, supplied by able ministers.

Walhalla is the terminus of the Blue Ridge railroad, eight miles
above its crossing of the Atlanta and Charlotte Air-Line Railway, and
easily accessible from all sections of the countiy, but advantageously
removed from the bustle and confusion of larger railroad towns.

Students obtain good board and lodging at nine dollars per month,
owing to the fact that the cereals are produced in this neighborhood
more abundantly than any other crop. The tuition is forty dollars per
scholastic year, and, as might be expected, from the financial statement
in regard to the population, there is no extravagance among us. Our
college, our town, and our country are all free from debt. We have in
the county about four whites to one colored inhabitant. The average
attendance of pupils in the collegiate and sub-collegiate clas.ses of the
college during the five years of its tentative exisitence has been eighty.
Xow, that it has been put upon a permanent basis, and its success no
longer doubtful, with all the advantages of accessibility and of religious,
moral and industrious surroundings, and econoni}' in tuition, board and
dress, with a population yearning for learning and liberal in its support,
we confidently expect to find this infant, alread}' strong in its preparation
for good, substantial, literary work, soon in the foremost rank of educa-
tional institutions.

INSTITUTIONS FOR SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.

THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (pRESBYFEKIAN), COLUMBIA, S. C.

In 1828, Hopewell Presbytery, in Georgia, took the first steps in the
establishment of a theological seminary. A theological school was opened
in that year, in Lexington, Georgia, under the charge of Rev. Thomas
Goulding, D. D. South Carolina Presbytery agitated the matter with
such success that., in 1830, the seminary was removed to Columbia, a
commodious private residence with ample grounds having been purchased
for the purpose. Dr. Goulding was assisted by the Rev. George Howe.
The Synod of South Carolina and Georgia assumed general supervision.
After this the seminary prospered, other professors were added, and two

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 503

additional buildings erected. The endowment constantly increased.
When the war came on there were five professorships, with an average
endowment of about forty thousand each ; besides about fifty thousand
more for contingent fund and scholarships.

Judge John Perkins, of Columbus, Miss., in 1859-60, erected a " Per-
kins Professorship of Natural Science in connection with Revelation,"
with an endowment of $40,000. Exercises continued throughout the
war, and were interrupted only a few months, in 18G5.

In 1880, the institution was compelled to close, in consecjuence of tem-
porary financial embarrassment. Additional sums were subscribed to the
endowment fund, and large amounts again became available, so that in
September, 1882, the seminary reopened with five professors, and an
endowment of about $150,000 ; which is still increasing. Its future pros-
pects are full of promise.

The whole number of the alumni is over five hundred. Of these sev-
enteen are foreign missionaries.

The seminary is open to students of every denomination.

OFFICERS.

Hon. James Hemphill, Chairman of the Board of Directors ; T. A.
McCreery, Esq., Treasurer.

FACULTY.

George Howe, D. D., LL.D., Professor of Biblical Literature ; James
Woodrow, Ph. D., D. D., Perkins Professor of Natural Science, in connec-
tion with Revelation ; J. L. Girardeau, D. D., LL.D., Professor of Di-
dactic and Polemic Theology ; Rev. Charles R. Hemphill, A. M., Asso-
ciate Professor of Biblical Literature ; W. E. Boggs, D. D., Professor of
Ecclesiastical History and Church Polity. The senior professor is chair-
man of the faculty. Dr. Howe has held this position since 1834.

Professors formerly connected with the institution, were Rev. Drs.
Thomas Goulding. A. W. Leland, C. C. Jones, A. T. McGill, B. M. Pal-
mer, J. H. Thornwell, J. B. Adger, W. S. Plumer, and Joseph R. Wilson.

Many of the leading divines of the South have been trained in tliis
seminary.

LIBRARY.

The seminary contains a library of over 19,000 volumes, chiefly eccle-
siastical and theological. They are carefully selected, and are of much
value. Few additions have been made since ISGD.

504 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS.

The seminary occupies a square of four acres, in the heart of Columbia.
The buildings are of brick, three stories in height, and substantial. The
campus is shaded with trees of native growth.

INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND.

Prior to the year 1849, deaf, dumb, and blind children were sent to
the American asylum, at Hartford, Connecticut. In that year, seven
pupils were in attendance from the " upper division of South Carolina,'"
at a cost of $421. At that time a private school for mutes was estab-
lished at Cedar Springs, Spartanburg, by Mr. N. P. Walker. The location
was five miles from the courthouse, on a hill, from the foot of which
gushed a beautiful, cold spring. Five pupils were in attendance, all
fi-om Spartanburg district. Hon. T. N. Dawkins, commissioner of the
► deaf, dumb, and blind, was so favorably impressed with the advantages
of this institution that he recommended it specially to the attention of
the Legislature, besides paying to it $250, and providing for tw^o more
beneficiaries. In 1850, Gov. Seabrook called attention to the fact that
out of seventy mutes in the State, only thirteen were receiving instruc-
tion. The Legislature resolved to send no more pupils abroad, and ap-
propriated $3,000 for instruction, but refused to make the school a State
institution. The appropriation was increased to §5,000, in 1855, and a
school for the blind was added by Prof. Walker. A Board of Commis-
sioners was appointed to negotiate for the purchase of the property by
the State, and the transfer was made in 1857. §10,000 were appropriated
for buildings, and $7,000 for instruction. $20,000 more were appropri-
ated, in 1858, for the completion of the buildings, and in 1860, they were
ready for occupancy. Sixteen mutes, and seventeen blind pupils were in
attendance.

On the 13th November, 1861, Prof. Walker's death closed his useful
labors, and his duties devolved on JMrs. Walker and the faculty ; Prof.
Henderson (blind) being in charge of the school for the blind, while the
department for the deaf and dumb was presided over by Prof Ilughston,
himself one of the late Prof. AValker's first mute pupils. The institution
received annually from $7,000 up to $15,000, in 1863. Until 1863, the
total appropriation had never been expended.

The school was closed in the beginning of 1865, but in the fall of 1866,
the exercises were resumed for a single session. Prof. Hughston had
been elected superintendent after the death of Prof. Walker. In 1869,
the institution was reopened. Prof. Xewton F. Walker, son of the found-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA, 505

cr, was first made associate principal, and then superintendent, Prof.
Hughston continuing to preside over the mute department.

In 1873, this institution was again compelled to suspend, owing to the
failure of the Republican Legislature to make appropriations for its
maintenance.. It was reoj)ened in 187G, and has since then been in a
prosperous condition.

An instructor in Bell's system of visible speech was added to the fac-
ulty, in 1880, and a number of the mutes are making gratifying progress
in the art of conversation.

There are in attendance fourteen blind, and forty-eight deaf and dumb
pupils.

The institution is supported by an annual appropriation of $10,000,
and is under control of a Board of Commissioners.

In 1882, an appropriation of $1000 was made for a department for col-
ored mutes.

FACULTY.

N. F, Walker, Superintendent ; J. M. Hughston,* and D. S. Rogers,*
Instructors of Deaf and Dumb ; L. H. Cromer,t and Miss Annie Sjtevens, of
the Blind; Miss Eva Ballard, Teacher of Articulation; H. W. Estes,*
Music ; Mrs. V. E. Walker, Matron ; R. P. Brown,* Master of Shoe Shop ;
H. W. Este3,t Master of Broom and Brush Shop.

MEDICAL COLLEGE OF THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The " Medical College of South Carolina," under the control of the
Medical Society of South Carolina, and located in Charleston, received
its charter from the State in 1825. In consequence of some difference
between the professors and the society, the former resigned, in 1832, and
a new faculty was elected, which conducted the college until 1839, at
which time it was permanently closed.

The professors who had resigned from the old Medical College imme-
diately organized another Medical College, which was chartered under
the name of" The Medical College of the State of South Carolina," and
which still exists. A full Board of Trustees was elected, with Mr. Na-
thaniel Heyward as President.

The faculty was organized as follows :

J. Edward Holbrook, M. D. ; Samael Henry Dickson, M. D. ; Thomas
G. Prioleau, M. D. ; Edmund Ravenel, M. D. ; Henry R. Frost, M. D. ;
and John Wagner, M. D.

* Deaf and dumb, f Blind.

506 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

The institution was closed during the war, but reopened immediately.
Its list of alumni numbers 2,153 names.

The college owns no property, with the exception of the large and
handsome building in which instruction is given, and an expensive and
valuable museum of pathological specimens, and anatomical prepara-
tions. The college has never been the recipient of any bequest or pecu-
niary gift, with the exception of one from the State, thirty or forty years
ago, in virtue of which the Governor has the right of appointing one
beneficiary from each congressional district. There are no other benefi-
ciary scholarships.

Edward McCrady, Esq., is President of the Board of Trustees, and E.
Horry Frost, Secretary and Treasurer.

FACULTY AND AUXILIARY INSTRUCTORS.

Medical Department, J. Ford Prioleau, Dean ; R. A. Kinloch, M. D.,
Professor of the Principles and Practice of Surgery and Cliniccd Surgery ; J.
P. Chazal, M. D., Professor of Pathology and Practice of Medicine, and of
Clinical Medicine ; Middleton Michel, M. D., Professor of Physiology ; C.
U. Shepard, Jr., M. D., Professor of Chemistry ; F. L. Parker, M. D., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy, and Clinical Lecturer of Diseases of the Eye and Ear; J.
Ford Prioleau, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and Gynacology ; F. Peyre
Porcher, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics; Manning
Simons, M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy ; H. D. Geddings, M. D., Assist-
ant to ike Prof essor of Chemistry; George G. Kinloch, M. D., Instrvctor in
Microscopy and Prosector to the Professor of Surgery ; P. Gourdin DeSaus-
sure, M. D., Prosector to tJie Professor of Anatomy ; John L. Dawson, Jr.,
M. D., Assistant to the Clinic of the Diseases of the Eye and Ear.

Pharmaceutical Department (established 1801), C. F. Panknin, Dean.

Faculty : C. U. Shepard, Jr., M. D., Professor of Chemistry ; F. Peyre
Porcher, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica. and Lecturer on ]\Iedical
Botany ; C. F. Panknin, Instructor in Practical Pharmacy, and Professor
of Pharmacy ; H. D. Geddings, M. D., Assistant in Pharmaceutical and
Practical Chemistry.

CLINICAL INSTRUCTION.

For several years past, by arrangement with City Council, the Roper
Hospital has been under the medical and surgical direction of the faculty
of the college. This hospital contains two hundred beds, and affords
excellent opportunities for clinical instruction, daily lectures being giv-
en in the hospital during the session.

A SKETCH OP EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 507

EXPENSES.

Medical Department. — Matriculation fee, $5 ; Laboratory, expenses for
first course students, $5 ; Entire course of lectures, including Demonstra-
tor's ticket, and hospital advantages, $75 ; Graduating fee, $30.

Pharmaceutical Department. — Matriculation fee, $5 ; Tuition fee, $30 ;
Practical laboratory work, $10 to $15 ; Graduating fee, $10.

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR MEDICAL GRADUATION ARE,

1st. The applicant must be twenty-one years of age, and have had a pre-
liminary education satisfactory to the Faculty.

2d. He must file a satisfactory certificate of having studied medicine for
at least tJiree years under a regular graduate or licentiate and practitioner
of medicine, in good standing.

3d. He must have attended two full courses of lectures at a medical
school approved by the Faculty, the last of which has been in this Insti-
tution. (No school will be admitted upon the ad eundem list that ar-
ranges its course of instruction to graduate students in less than the
time prescribed by this College).

4th. His examination on all the branches, attendance upon lectures,
habits and general character must be satisfactory to the Faculty.

The Faculty will give a prize to the candidate for medical graduation
who passes the best examination.

Professor R. A. Kinloch, for the best report of his Clinical Lectures on
Surgery.

Professor F. L. Parker, for the best report of his Clinical Lectures on
Disease of the Eye and Ear.

Professor C. U. Shepard, Jr., to the first-class student who passes the
best examination upon Practical Chemistry.

The term begins on the 15th October, and closes during the first week
in March. The average attendance is between eighty and a hundred.

The gra'duating class of 18S3 numbers thirty. Further information
may be obtained from Dr. J. Ford Prioleau, Dean of the Faculty.

VIII. MILITARY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION.

The people of South Carolina in early colonial days and during the
revolution became thoroughly enured to the hardships and hazards of
war. The exploits of Marion and Sumter, and their companions, were a

508 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

constant theme to succeeding generations, and aided in stimulating their
martial spirit. At every succeeding call to arms the sons of Carolina
added fresh laurels to her chaplet of military glory. With the memories
of the past before them, and in the midst of exciting discussions over po-
litical and social complications, which it was evident Avould terminate in
a bloody protracted struggle, it is not surprising that the youth of Caro-
lina were trained to bear arms. Not only the State Military Academy,
but private institutions were organized for this purpose.

Since the last war, which has put an end to all further prospect of
strife, military s'chools are still maintained for the sake of their discipline,
to ensure a harmonious development of all the faculties, " the mens sana
in sano corpore.''

THE SOUTH CAROLINA MILITARY ACADEMY.

For some time f)revious to the year 1841, this State had two arsenals
for storing its arms and munitions of war, one in Charleston and the
other in Columbia, each guarded by a comj^any of enlisted soldiers under
officers of culture, trained to the profession of arms. The expense of
maintaining the two garrisons was $24,000. Governor Richardson sug-
oested the propriety of supplying the place of these soldiers with young
men, who, in addition to military training, should receive instruction
from their officers in the useful and mechanic arts. Accordingly, Col.
Phillips introduced in the House a bill to convert the arsenal at Colum-
bia into a military school. It failed of passage, but Gov. Richardson
nevertheless placed a number of deserving young men mider the instruc-
tion of the officers of the guard. In 1842, Gov. Richardson earnestly
urged such legislation as would establish two schools upon a sure foun-
dation. His successor. Gov. Hammond, was equally interested in the
measure, and on the 20th December, 1842, a bill, introduced by Gen.
Jamison, was passed, converting both the arsenal and the citadel into
military schools.

By the Act, as subsequently amended, authority was invested in a
Board of Visitors, consisting of the Governor and the Adjutant and In-
spector-General, ex-officio, and five persons appointed by the Governor.
The first members were Gov. Hammond, Gen. Cantey, and Messrs James
Jones, D. F. Jamison, W. J. Hanna, and John H. Means. They per-
formed the duty of organizing Avitli zeal, fidelity and judgment. Both
schools were opened in March, 1843, provision being made for the en-
trance of fifty-four beneficiaries and as many pay cadets, the latter pay-
ing $200 a year, which covered all expenses. At first the academies
were independent of each other. An attempt to unite both in Charles-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 509

ton, in 1845, failed, and tlie arsenal was then made auxiliary to the Cita-
del, providing for the instruction of the entering class.

Thus organized, the academy was in full and successful operation from
March, 1843, to April, 1865. These years were marked by the lights and
shadows of life, and the record of them is crowded with much of joy and
of sorrow.

The course of study resembled as near as possible that pursued at West
Point, taking, in some departments even a wider range. " It may just-
ly be claimed that the education the-re imparted was that of which the
State has now the greatest need." The constant purpose of the Board of
Visitors was not to attempt too much, but to do thoroughly what was
prescribed. The cadets were taught " how to think," not " what to
think." Thus practical education was aimed at and attained. The course
of training was designed to develop the whole man by careful attention
to the cultivation of all his powers, physical, mental and moral. From
the moment of his matriculation until the time at which he left the
academy, the cadet was ever under the eyes of vigilant officers. Thus he
was shielded from many of the temptations and allurements of vice which
so often beset and mislead the youth when first freed from the restraint
of parental discipline and deprived of the watchful guidance of parental
love. But while the authority thus exercised was absolute, it was not
arbitrary, and though the discipline was firm, it was not harsh.

The result of this training is best shown in the career of the gradu-
ates. In all associations, whether in the learned professions or in the
more active pursuits of life, they have not only done honor to the insti-
tution, but have vindicated the wisdom of the statesmen who founded
and maintained it, by winning the high prizes always awarded to those
possessing what Gov. Richardson styled " the energy and decision of a
military character."

During the first period of the academy nearly eighteen hundred young
men of the State were educated partly or wholly within its walls. Though
but two hundred and forty passed entirely through the prescribed course
of stud}^ the large numbers should not be forgotten who remained long
enough in the institution to feel the wholesome effects of its training.

ITS MILITARY RECORD IS BRILLIANT.

Of the 226 graduates living at tiie beginning of the war, more tlian two
hundred were officers in the Confederate Army, filling every grade from
lieutenant to brigadier-general, and discharging their duties with a zeal
intelligence and courage that made them distinguished even in that great
army of Southern soldiers.

510 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

Their first military service was performed in drilling the Palmetto
Regiment previous to its departure for Mexico. From an unfinished
earth Avork on the 9th of January, 1861, a detachment of cadets fired the
first shotted gun of the war upon the Star of the West, as she was advanc-
ing to the relief of Fort Sumter.

The service of the cadets in many fields from the beginning to tiie end
of the war are too well known and too highly cherished to need repeti-
tion here.

Upon the evacuation of Cliarleston the Citadel was seized by Federal
forces, and was occupied as a garrison until 1878. On the 13th Septem-
ber, 1877, the survivors of the graduates met in Charleston and organized
with Gen. Johnson Hagood as President, and other ofRcers. Immedi-
ately thereafter a general meeting was held of all who had been connect-
ed with the institution, and steps were taken to secure the reopening of
the citadel.

The Federal government claimed the Citadel as conquered property.
The State maintained that it was private property, and through Gov.
Hampton made application for its restitution. President Hayes declined
to act, but suggested an appeal to Congress. A bill was introduced in
the Senate of the United States to restore the Citadel to the State on con-
dition that a claim of $100,000 for rent and damages by fire be relin-
quished. The State refused these terms, and the bill was not passed ;
but the building was turned over to the State voluntarily, and was taken
possession of on 1st April, 1882.

. In 1881, the legislature passed an Act authorizing the reopening of
the academy for the education of 68 beneficiary cadets (two from each
county) and as many pay cadets as could be accommodated without ex-
pense to the State. Ten thousand (^10,000) dollars were appropriated
for the repairs of the building, and five thousand for the expenses of the
current year, with the provision that these amounts should be refunded
out of the amount which may be received b}' the State from the general
government for rent.

By direction of Gov. Hagood, Senator G. B. Lartigue, of Barnwell, as-
sumed control of the work of reopening, and had the building put in ex-
cellent condition. Bathing arrangements, ventilation, and general sani-
tary measures have been secured under his supervision.

The library will be filled as rapidly as possible, and a reading room is
provided with newspapers and magazines for the use of cadets when not
on duty. An annual encampment will be held in August and Septem-
ber in different portions of the up-country, for military exercises and
practical instruction in surveying, engineering, mineralogy, geology and
other subjects. Military discipline will be used as a means to an end —

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 511

the aim being not so much to make soldiers as to make men equal at
once to civil and military results.

The Board of Visitors consists at present of Gen. Johnson Hagood,
Chairman, Barnwell C. H., S. C; Rev. S. B. Jones, D. D., Pendleton, S. C. ;
Col. Edward Croft, Greenville, S. C. : Col. H. A. Gaillard, Wimis-
boro', S. C. ; Gen. C. I. Walker, Charleston, S. C. ; The Governor of
the State of South Carolina, ex-officio, Columbia, S. C. ; The Adjutant
AND Inspector-General of the State of South Carolina, ex-officio, Colum-
bia, S. C.

The academy opened on the 2d October, 1882, with 180 cadets, a num-
ber of applications having been declined for want of accommodations.

The officers and professors are as follows : Col. J. P. Thomas, Super-
intendent and Professor ; Capt. Wm. Cain, Professor ; A. Sachtleben,
Professor pro tem; First Lieut. P. P. Mazyck, Assistant Professor ; First
Lieut. H. T. Thompson, Assistant Professor ; Dr. F. L. Parker, Sur-
geon ; Wm. W. White, Bursar.

The following is the course of study prescribed at present :

FOURTH CLASS.

First Term. Algebra, Physical Geography, English Grammar and Word
Analysis, French, Reading of British Classics.

Second Term. Algebra and Geometry; Elements of Zoology ; Anatomy and
Physiology ; History of England; French ; Reading of American Classics ;
Free Hand Drawing; Declamation and Composition, for the Session.

THIRD CLASS.

First Term. Geometry Completed ; Plane Trigonometry ; Spherical Trig-
onometry completed ; Physics ; Rhetoric and Study of Synonyms ;
French ; Industrial Drawing; Reading and x4.nalysis of Shakspeare.

Second Term. Surveying — Field Work with Instrument ; Descriptive
Geometry, Shades, Shadows and Perspective ; Physics (continued) ; Out-
lines of General History, and Lectures on Philosophy of History; Elements
of Mythology; French; Reading and Analysis of Shakspeare; Topo-
graphical Drawing ; Declamation and Composition for the Session.

second class.

First Term. Analytical Geometry ; Civil Engineering — Descriptive
Chemistry — Inorganic ; British Literature and Lectures ; French Com-
pleted ; German ; Projection Drawing ; Shaw's Companion Reader,
British.

512 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

Scco7ul Term. Calculus, with Philosophy of Mathematics ; Elements of
Quaternions ; Military Engineering — Descriptive ; Clicmistry — Organic ;
Chemistr}^ — Agricultural; United States Literature by Lectures; INIental
Philosophy; German; Mechanical and Agricultural Drawing; Elocu-
tion and Composition for Session, and Lifantry Tactics ; Shaw's Com-
panion Reader — American.

FIRST CLASS.

First Term. Civil Engineering — Stresses in Bridges and Stability of
Structures in general; Mechanics; MineralogA^; Moral Philosophy, and
Lectures on Ethics ; Elements of Logic ; German.

Second Term. Civil Engineering — Strength of JNLaterials, Retaining
Walls, &c., and Lectures on Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering; As-
tronomy ; Geology ; Science of Wealth, and Lectures ; Elements of Con-
stitutional Law, and Lectures ; German ; Book-keeping ; Elocution and
Composition for Session, and Artillery Tactics.

Daring the Military Session, there will be such practical and military
(special) instruction as the Board may hereafter prescribe. It is contem-
plated, further, to give to cadets the advantages of a military system of
Gvmnastic Exercises, and a system of Swimming.

KINGS MOUNTAIN MILITARY SCHOOL.

Li 1855, Micah Jenkins and Asbury Coward, M'ho had just graduated
with distinction in the State Military Academy, formed a military school
at Yorkville. A three story building of brick, with additions for officers
houses, was erected, and the session opened with bright promises. As a
preparatory school to the Citadel, and an institution for military train-
ino- it enjoyed great success. At the sound of the tocsin of war the prin-
cipals entered the army, and served with distinction. The gallant Jen-
kins fell at the head of his troops in the heat of battle. After the surren-
der, Col. Coward assumed sole control, and has conducted a school in
which the training, intellectual and physical, is of a high order. In
1882, Col. Coward was elected, without solicitation, State Superintendent
of Education. Gen. E. M. Law is now associate principal. Prof. Wm.
Currell is instructor in Ancient Languages and Belles Lettres, and Lieut.
John M. Jenkins instructor in Arithmetic and Book-keeping.

There are five classes, the highest of which is required to study De-
scriptive Geometry, Shades, Shadows and Perspective, Astronomy, Evi-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 513

clences of Christianity, Whateley's Rhetoric, Steedmaii's English Compo-
sition, Elocution, Drawing.

A fall classical course is optional.

This school deserves special mention as the only strictly military
school that was established before the war, and is still in successful opera-
tion.

GREENVILLE MILITARY ACADEMY.

Another military academy is in successful operation in Greenville, in
charge of Capt. J. B. Patrick, formerly an officer and instructor in the
South Carolina Military Academy. Capt. Patrick has three assistants
and the attendance, according to the report for 1881, was over fifty.
Though comparatively a new institution, it is in a prosperous condition.
There are several other academies in the State, in which certain military
features exist.

IX. FEMALE EDUCATION.

The census of 1880 shows that fifty-nine per cent, of illiterate adult
wdiites in South Carolina are females. It is true, also, that the females
have a preponderance in the total population; but the excess of popula-
tion is not in proportion to the excess of illiteracy. This is startling to
those especially who believe that intellectual progress depends upon the
education of Avoman. Some consolation may be derived from the fact
that South Carolina is no worse off in this respect than her sister
States, and that the excess of female illiteracy in this State is decreasing.
In 1850, females constituted sixty-two per cent, of the adult illiterate
population of South Carolina ; in 1860, sixty per cent. ; in 1870, fifty-
nine per cent. ; and in 1880, fifty-nine per cent. In 1870 and in 1880,
females constituted fifty -one per cent, of the entire population.

Turning to the census of 1870, we find that there are more illiterate
females than males in all save three States of the Union, California,
Nevada and Vermont. In these, females show the following propor-
tion: California, in population, 40 per cent., in illiteracy, 44 percent.;
Nevada, in population, 24 per cent., in illiteracy, 20 per cent. ; Vermont,
in population, 40 per cent., in illiteracy, 48 per cent. In only two States,
Nevada and Vermont, can females claim educational superiority over
males.

South Carolina compares favorably with the other States. The per-
centage of females as to population and illiteracy is respectively as fol-

514 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

lows : Alabama, 51 and 65 ; Georgia, 51 and 65 ; Indiana, 47 and 61 ;
Kentiick}', 49 and 59 ; Massachusetts, 51 and 63 ; New Jersey, 50 and 60;
New York, 50 and 61 ; North Carolina, 52 and 65 ; Pennsylvania, 50 and
65 ; Rhode Island, 51 and 62 ; South Carolina, 51 and 59 ; Virginia,
51 and 59.

From the above it will be seen that South Carolina is doing relatively
more for her daughters than many of her neighbors. Her people have
long patronized female academies at home and abroad.

Before the war the schools at Limestone, Barhamville and Orangeburg
especially enjoyed high repute ; while female colleges in Laurens, York-
ville, Sumter and other places, aided in forming the character and train-
ing the minds of hundreds of the women of the State. Female academies
and schools also existed, some of which are still in operation, and are
noticed elsewhere. The fact, however, remains that the daughters of the
State have not as yet received as many advantages as her sons, yet it is
hoped that, at no distant day, education will be more nearly propor-
tioned, if indeed the balance do not turn in the opposite direction, under
a new order of things, which sends boys into the business walks of life,
while girls are kept for a longer period at their studies.

In this connection it is proper to mention the female colleges now in
operation in the State.

GREENVILLE FEMALE .COLLEGE.

"In 1853, the Baptist State Convention of South Carolina appointed-a
committee to take into consideration the subject of female education as a
denominational interest. At the ensuing meeting of the Convention,
held in Greenville in 1854, the committee reported, urging the establish-
ing of ' a Female College of high order,' and, to secure a liberal education
for young ladies, recommended that ' the standard of attainment be
high.' " The report was adopted, and the enterprise was begun. Green-
ville was chosen as the location, having been long ftimed as an intellectual
centre, and remarkable for its health and social and religious advantages.
A handsome building was erected, and under such educators as Professors
Duncan, Sams and Judson, the college entered upon and maintained a
highly successful career.

In 1878, Prof. C. H. Judson resigned the presidency', to accept an
equally honorable and responsible position in Furman University, and
Prof. A. S. Townes, the present incumbent, was chosen to succeed him.

The catalogue of 1881-2 shows a lar:.;er attendance than at any pre-
vious stage of the college's history. The number of pupils in the primary
department was 29 ; in the academic department, 62 ; students in the
collegiate department, 80 ; irregular students, 9. Total, 180.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 515

The prevsent accommodations arc too small, and handsome additions
are expected soon to be in course of erection.

COURSE OF STUDY.

Primary Department. The usual elementary studies, with features of
the Kindergarten system.

Academic Department. Studies pursued in grammar schools, particular
attention being paid to composition.

Collegiate Department. This department is divided into seven schools.
Completion of the entire course entitles the student to full graduation,
but partial courses are allowed, and diplomas given in each School. The
schools are as follows : I English; II. Latin; III. French; IV. Math-
ematics; Y. Physical Science; VI. Mental and Moral Science; VII.
History. Extra courses in Greek and German are provided, besides a
Post Graduate course, entitling the graduate to the degree of Mistress
of Arts. Special attention is paid to Calisthenics, a daily drill being had
during the entire term. The music department is in charge of Prof. M.
G. DeCamps, of the Conservatoire of Music of Brussels. Drawing and
painting are taught by the lady principal, Miss M. C. Judson. Lessons
are also given in ornamental and fancy work.

societies, &c.

The Judson Literary Society meets twice a month, and publishes a
monthly periodical, " The College Mirror.'" The Lula Whilden Missionary
Society and a Girls' Temperance Union are in successful operation.

faculty.

A. S. TowNES, President, English, Mathematics, Latin, ]\Iental and
Moral Science; Miss Mary C. Judson, Logic, Physical Science, Elocu-
tion and Calisthenics ; Miss Caroline E. Dawson, French, Mathematics
and History ; Miss Anna M. Gaines, Composition, Latin and English ;
Prof. J. M. Perry, Writing and Book-keeping ; Miss F. G. Bibb, Prin-
cipal of Academic Department ; M. G. DeCamps, Principal Music Depart-
ment ; Mrs. M. E. DeCamps, Pianoforte ; Miss M. C. Judd, Drawing and
Painting ; Mrss Ida Roberts, Ornamental and Fancy Work ; Miss F. G.
Bibb, Governess ; Mrs. J. A. Fitzgerald, Matron.

The term begins in September, and is divided into two terms of twenty
weeks each. Terms for twenty weeks, including board, $87.50 to $121.50;
graduation fee, $5.

51G A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

THE COLUMBIA FEMALE COLLEGE (mETHODISt).

Daring the prosperous period of the State, between the years 1850 and
1860, it was determined by the Methodists of South Carolina to establish
a first- class college for their daughters, as they had already secured AYof-
ford for their sons. Liberal subscriptions were made. A lot was secured
in Columbia, and a handsome building of brick was erected, in which
exercises were opened during the fall of 1859. For several years its suc-
cess was most marked, and its career of usefulness continued until the
occupation of the city by Federal troops, February 17th, 1865. Owing
to the general distress which paralyzed intellectual effort, the college was
closed, and the building rented as a hotel. By 1873, the effects of the
war had partially passed away, and the college was reopened. It has
been continually growing since then, and now stands high in attendance
and in excellence. Its several presidents have been: Rev. Whitefoord
Smith, D. I)., Rev. Wm. Martin, Rev. H. M. Mood, Rev. Samuel B. Jones,

D. D, J. L. Jones, Esq., and Rev. 0. A. Darby, D. D.

The property is owned by the South Carolina Conference, and is con-
trolled by a Board of Trustees appointed by Conference. The attendance
is not confined to children of Methodist parents, but all denominations
are welcomed. For the year 1881-82, there were 88 students in the col-
legiate department, and 39 preparatory pupils; 45 pupils were taught in
music.

FACULTY.

The fiiculty consists of Rev. 0. A. Darby, D. D., President, Mental
and Moral Science; Lawson B. Haynes, A. M., Mathematics and Natural
Science; E. Von Fingerlin, M. A., Ph. L., Modern Languages; Miss M.

E. BoHN, English Literature, Physiology and Botany ; Miss A. R. Hol-
lingsworth, Latin and French; Miss A. H.AVarren, English, History
and Elocution ; Ernst Brockmann, Instrumental Music ; Miss C. J.
Laval, A^ocal Music ; Miss A. G. Lynch, Guitar ; Miss M. E. Bohn,
Painting, Drawing and Calisthenics ; Miss Mary B. Wiltberger, Orna-
mental Work ; Miss Sallie F. Reynolds, Principal of Preparatory De-
partment ; Mrs. Kate Darby, Governess ; Mrs. Kate Buel, in charge
of Domestic Department.

COURSE OF study.

The Preparatory Department embraces a course of six years, and is
divided into a primary and grammar school.

The Collegiate Department is composed of distinct schools, each
constituting a complete course for the subject taught. Of these there are

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 517

thirteen, viz : English Language and Literature ; Matliematics ; Natural
Science ; History ; Mental and Moral Science ; Lathi Language and
Literature; Greek; French; German; Italian; Commercial School;
School of Art ; School of Music.

Three degrees are conferred : Mistress of English Literature ; Mistress
of Science ; and Mistress of Arts.

The session begins in the middle of September. Tuition, including
board, lights and fuel, about $200 per year, with extra charges for music,
&c.

The students enjoy the benefit of a library, reading room and public
lectures. They have two library societies, a missionary society, and a
temperance society. Written and oral examinations are required.

The government is firm, but mild.

THE DUE WEST FEMALE COLLEGE (ASSOCIATE REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN).

This college is located at Due West. Established in 18G0, by a com-
pany of citizens, it has been in successful operation ever since. Its first
president was the Rev. J. I. Bonner, D. D., who served in this capacity
until his death, in the year 1882. The college has its own buildings,
constructed substantially of brick, and supplied with all the modefn
improvements. Exhibitions are held in the public hall of Erskine Col-
lege, but the two institutions have no further connection. The grounds
cover seven acres, and are laid out in walks and flower beds, affording
opportunities for exercise on the part of the pupils. The college has no
endowment. It enjoys patronage from a number of States. By the
catalogue of 1881, attendance in the collegiate department was 52; in
the academic department, 16 ; in the preparatory department, 60. Du-
ring the present year the attendance has nearly been doubled.

COURSE OF STUDY.

The course of study is thorough, comprising a Primary Department,
an Academic Department, and four Collegiate classes. Especial atten-
tion is paid to music. One hour weekly is devoted to sewing, and the
Art Department is conducted in the most thorough maimer.

TERMS :

Tuition, per term of three months. Primary, $5 ; Academic, $7 ; Colle-
giate, §14. Extras from $8 to $15 per term each. No charge for Latin or
vocal music. Board, including everything, $3 per week.

518 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

FACULTY.

J. r. Kennedy, A. M., President; Mrs. K. P. Kennedy, and Mrs. L.
M. Bonner, Vice-Principals ; Miss E. McQuerns, Miss J. V. LeGal,
Miss S. L. Miller, Miss A. E. Perry, Miss L. J. Galloway.

Miss E. L. Pressley, Principal Academic Department. Miss M. E.
Hood, Assistant.

The Boarding Department is under the supervision of Mrs. Kennedy
and Mrs. Bonner, assisted by Miss Sanders. The students wear a uni-
form. The term begins on the first Monday in October, and closes in
June.

THE WALHALLA FEMALE COLLEGE

was chartered 4th March, 1872, under the auspices of Dr. Thomas S.
Waring, then its President, and the act of incorporation named sixteen
prominent citizens of the town as trustees. It is undenominational.
During the first five years after its charter the college was not a success,
having no endowment and no suitable buildings in which to conduct it.
At the end of this period, Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D. D., having determined
not to remove with Newberry College, was elected President of the Wal-
halla Female College, and thereupon, with his own means, erected com-
modious buildings and established a college worthy of his reputation as
an educator, which, with the assistance of a competent corps of teachers,
he has successfully carried on to the present time.

During the session 1881-82, the enrolled students, including nineteen
in the juvenile department, numbered eighty-seven.

THE COURSE OF STUDY

is arranged for six classes, three sub-collegiate, and three collegiate, junior,
intermediate, and senior. A post-graduate course of study is provided,
including Greek, Analytical Trigonometry, and Calculus, English Litera-
ture, Mental Philosophy, Geology, and instruction in practical duties of
life.

Music and other ornamental branches are optional.

Terms : — Board and washing, $11.50 per month ; tuition from seventy-
five cents to $4 per month ; music, $3. Reduction is allowed to ministers'
daughters.

FACULTY.

Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D. D , President ; Miss S. J. Frierson. Latin,
English Language and Literature; Miss Lizzie McAnnally, Music,
Piano, Guitar, and Drawing ; Miss Lizzie W. Chapman, Preparatory
Department and Fancy Work ; Miss H. J. Legare, French, Ornamental

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 519

Branches, and Painting ; Miss A. A. Schroder, Wax Works ; Miss S.
Katie Smeltzer, Organist ; Mrs. A. E. Smeltzer, Matron.

WILLIAMSTON FEMALE COLLEGE.

At the beginning of the year 1872, Rev. S. Lander, of the Methodist
Episcopal Church South, with the co-operation of the citizens of Wil-
liamston, in Anderson County, determined to open " a school of high
grade for the education of girls." A building formerly used as the Wil-
liamston Springs hotel was rented, and on the 12th February, 1872, the
school was opened, with forty pupils. So great was its promise that dur-
ing the fall season a joint stock company was formed, which purchased
the building, and organized a permanent institution. In December,
1872, it was proposed to place the college under control of Conference,
but as the Methodist Female College was about to be re-opened, in Co-
lumbia, the compan}^ deemed it best to preserve this as a non-sectarian
institution. A vote of nine-tenths of the stock is now required to place it
ungler the control of any denomination.

Increasing patronage caused the erection of additional accommodations
in 1873, 1874 and 1875. The standard has been also raised from time to
time, with beneficial results. Attendance has been steadily increasing,
the catalogue of 1882 showing a list of 138 students.

PECULIAR FEATURES.

Several new features have been introduced into the management and
curriculum of this college, for which the President claims the sanction,
not only of theory, but of practical success. These '' innovations " de-
serve special mention.

SEMI-ANNUAL SESSIONS.

The year is divided into two sessions of twenty weeks, each sub-divided
into four sections of five weeks, and followed by a vacation of six weeks.

New classes are organized each session, instead of only once a year.
This ensures better classification, and allows each pupil to find her level.

TUITIONAL PREMIUMS.

Instead of offering " prizes " for excellence, the college makes deduc-
tions from the regular tuition fees as follows : for an average of from 80
to 85 per cent., a discount of ten per cent. ; for an average of from 85 to

520 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

90, twenty per cent. ; from 90 to 94, thirty per cent. ; 94 to 97, forty per
cent. ; 97 to 100, fifty per cent. An additional discount of ten per cent.
is offered for an average of 95 in spelling. Thus any student may reduce
tuition fees from $20 down to $8 per session. Up to June, 1882, these
premiums aggregated $1,897.25.

" ONE STUDY PLAN."

This name is not exactly appropriate, as it conveys an erroneous idea.
The plan is thus described. In most institutions a curriculum is pre-
scribed of several studies in parallel courses, each receiving equal atten-
tion during the entire session. In this college there are four depart-
ments. 1st, Mathematics ; 2d, Natural Science ; 3d, Latin ; 4th, Belles
Lettres. During the first five weeks, special attention is paid to Math-
ematics, with Arithmetic as a review study ; during the second, the entire
school studies Natural Science, with Geography as a review study ; dur-
ing its third, Latin is studied, with a review in English Grammar ; and
during the fourth, attention is paid to Belles Lettres, with a review in His-
tory. A pupil, for instance, in the fourth class, during- the first section,
has every day three lessons in Geometry, one m Arithmetic, and one in
spelling ; during the second section, three recitations in Science, one in
Geography and one in Spelling. During the third section, three daily
recitations in Ceesar, one in English Grammar, and one in Spelling, and
during the fourth, three recitations in Logic, one in History, and one in
Spelling.

Exercises in Reading, Composition, Penmanship, and Vocal Music
obviate all danger from monotony.

The advantages claimed, are : 1st. Undivided attention to the special
subject. 2d. Attention in recitation, the temptation to review stealthily
in the class some other study, being removed. 3d. Retention of what is
learned ; each lesson forming the introduction to the next. 4th. Enthu-
siasm arising from rapid progress. 5th. Habits of concentration. 6th.
Symmetrical development, by preventing the study of a " favorite " branch
to the exclusion of others. 7th. Ease of classification, each study being
independent. 8tli. It is liked by the pupils. 9th. It admits of

GRADUATION EIGHT TIMES A YEAR.

That is, a student may graduate at the end of any section of five weeks,
as soon as she shall have completed the round of studies.

Another feature is private graduation. No exhibitions are held, but
students are subjected to strict examinations. Completion of the curricu-
lum entitles the student to the degree of Artium Liberalium Baccalaurea.

A SKETCH OF EDTJt'ATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 521

FACULTY.

Rev. Samuel Lander, A. M., D. D. ; John G. Clinkscales, A.B. ; Rev.
Jno. M. Lander, A. B. ; Wm. T. Lander, A. B. ; Mrs. M. L. Prince,
Miss Franciade Wagner ; Mrs. Margaret J. Langdon ; Miss Augus-
ta M. Hagen ; Miss Ada E. Lineback ; Miss Laura McP. Lander.

Terms : For twenty weeks, from |71 t6 §136. See catalogue.

cooper limestone female institute.

As far back as 1835, a number of gentlemen, attracted by the fame of
the Limestone Springs, in Spartanburg district, resolved to make a fa-
mous watering place there, and for that purpose erected a hotel, four .sto-
ries in height, with capacity for accommodating between two hundred
and fifty and three hundred boarders.

The want of convenient transportation to and from the Springs defeat-
ed the object of the projectors of the enterprise, so that shortly after the
attempt- was abandoned, and the property was sold to the State.

In 1846, the Rev. Dr. Thomas Curtis, and his son, William Curtis, of
England, purchased the property, and founded a female college. Their
administrations are a part of the history of the State. The thorough in-
struction, the refined home influence, the salubrious climate, offered to
pupils, attracted large numbers, and Limestone Springs became almost
as famous as Dr. Waddell's school, at Willington, in former 3'ears. The
institution continued until the close of the war.

After this, the property changed hands several times. At length it
was purchased b}' the philanthropist, Peter Cooper, of Xew York, whose
intention it was to establish a technical school for women. He subse-
quently made a donation of the property to the " SpARTANBURCr Baptist
Association," for school purposes.

The present principals, Messrs. H. P. Griffith and R. 0. Sams, were
elected by the Association, and in October, 1881, the exercises of the In-
stitute were regularly begun. About fifty pupils attended during the
first year, and the numbers are increasing. The future of the Institute
is full of promise.

Location. Limestone is situated in the Piedmont country of South
Carolina, one mile from the Air Line Railroad. Its post office is Gaffney
City, a flourishing town. The building contains about one hundred
comfortable rooms, and the grounds extend over six acres of blue grass,
shaded by elms and oaks. A mineral spring, pouring out sixty gallons a
minute, is just outside the enclosure.
34

~)22 A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

FACULTY.

H. P. Griffith, Ancient Languages, English Literature, Moral .Sci-
ence, History, Rhetoric; R 0. Sams, Mathematics, French, Physical Sci-
ences ; Miss E. C. Black, Preparatory Department ; Miss H. W. Gale,
• Instrumental and Vocal Music, Calisthenics ; Miss C. M. Croft, Instru-
mental Music, Penmanship ; Miss E. C. Black, Drawing and Painting ;
Miss M. C. BuDD, Matron.

Terms: Board for 20 weeks, $62.50 ; Tuition, Preparatory, .$10 ; Aca-
demic, |15 ; Collegiate, $25. Music, Drawing, &c., extra. Season begins
September 28th.

ANDERSON FEMALE SEMINARY.

This Seminar}^ was established by the Rev. L. M. Ayer, in 1879. Since
that time he has completed the building of a large and elegant boarding
house, and an academy building of six commodious school rooms. The
school is supplied with furniture and apparatus of the most approved
kind.

The school is entirely non-sectarian in character, but a healthy, refined
home influence is exercised over all the pupils. The success of the Semi-
nary has been most gratifying. During the session of 1881-82, the at-
tendance exceeded a hundred ; and the number of pupils will be larger
during the present year. The Seminary is situated in the thriving town
of Anderson.

FACULTY.

Rev. Lewis M. Ay'er, English, Oriental and Classical Literature, ]\Ior-
al and Intellectual Science, and Greek ; Mrs. L. INI. Ayer, Music, Instru-
mental and Vocal ; Miss Sarah Atkinson, Assistant Instructor of Music ;
Miss Bessie F. Bagby, Latin, Mathematics, Physics, and French, and
Calisthenics ; Miss Sarah Atkinson, German, French, Mathematics, and
Latin ; Miss Susan Wilson, Drawing, Painting, and Intermediate Eng-
lish ; Mrs. M. C. Van Wyck, Principal Primary Department ; Miss Mag-
gie G. Simpson, Assistant in Primary Department ; Mrs. L. M. Ayer,
Matron ; Miss Mary Rowan, Housekeeper.

Terms : For twenty weeks, board, &c., $70 ; Tuition, $10 to $25 ; Mu-
sic, Designing, and Painting, extra.

The pupils enjoy the use of a well selected library of about one thou-
sand volumes.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 523

X.— EDUCATION OF THE COLORED PEOPLE.

Slavery was introduced into South Carolina almost contemporaneously
with the settlement of the colony ; by the early part of the eighteentli
century the blacks were already the preponderating element of popu-
lation. These slaves, imported from the coast of Africa, were untutored,
unclad savages. The first task of their masters was to civilize them and
teach them the English language ; and the early labors of the mission-
aries w^ere largely directed to that end. The first missionary sent to
Carolina, the Rev. Samuel Thomas, made a report, in 1705, to the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel, stating, among other things, that in the
parish of Goose Creek, twenty negro slaves came regularly to church,
while several others were able to speak and read the English language.
He added, that among the thousand negro slaves in the province, many
of them were well disposed towards Christianity, and were willing to pre-
pare themselves to embrace it by learning to read, the time consumed in
which they redeemed from their masters by extra labor.

In the proceedings for 1752, of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel, it w^as stated, " that a flourishing negro school was taught in
Charleston by a negro of the society, under the inspection and direction
of the w^orthy rector, Garden, by which means many poor negroes were
taught to believe in God, and in his Son, Jesus Christ."

This religious and literary training went on a long time, until the idea
began to prevail that knowledge should be reserved for free men, and.
could not, with safety, be imparted to slaves. Several insurrections gave
strength to this view, and despite the earnest protests of many of the lead-
ing men of the State, laws were passed, providing penalties for the teach-
ing of slaves to read and to write. Notwithstanding this prohibition, a?
number of servants managed to acquire some elementary knowledge,,
either through their own efforts, or aided by indulgent masters and mis-
tresses, or, more often, by younger children of the family. The daily as-
sociation of favored servants with their cultured superiors was, in itself, an
education of no mean order. Even when literary instruction was denied,,
religious training was zealously imparted. Scarcely a household was
there in the confines of the State in which colored children, and some-
times their parents, were not assembled for either morning or evening
prayer, or for catechism and religious services on the Sabbath. In every
church was a place set apart for the blacks ; they were admitted into
church membership, and partook of all the sacraments. On larger plan-
tations chapels of worship were established, in which clergymen of dis-
tinguished merit regularly officiated. Preachers of their own color were

r)24 A SKETCH OF EDUCA'flOX IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

also permitted to minister to their spiritual wants. Catechisms for the
special use of the blacks were carefully prepared by such able divines as
Dr. Winkler, of Charleston ; Dr. Jones, of Georgia ; and Bishop Capers.
At the solicitation of Bishop Capers, two missionaries were sent, in 1829,
by Conference to labor on the plantations. In 1855, there were twen-
ty-six Methodist missionary stations in South Carolina, tliirty-two mis-
sionaries, 11,546 members, and a revenue of $25,000.

The reports of the Presbyterian Synod of South Carolina, for 1859,
give the colored membership as follows : South Carolina Presbytery, 861 ;
Bethel, 688; Harmony, 1,823; Charleston, 1,637. Total 5,009— five thir-
teenths of the entire membership. This constituted, of course, but a small
proportion of those who received religious instruction.

From the parochial reports of the Protestant Episcopal Church, for the
year 1860, the following statistics are taken :

Baptisms, Avhites, 491 ; colored, 1,156 ; marriages, whites, 105 ; colored,
209 ; communicants, whites, 3,166 ; colored, 2,960 ; confirmed, whites,
215 ; colored, 173 ; Sunday school scholars, white, 1,563. and colored, 604.

Of fifty-six reports made by rectors, Ijut one contained no mention of
services among the colored people ; fifty-five rectors report baptisms,
burials, and marriages, or at least one of these services for the colored
people ; twenty report colored communicants in excess of whites ; twent}^-
five report Sunday schools, and twenty -two mention chapels for the use
of the blacks. Almost every church for whites contained galleries or
special seats for colored. Besides this, seven ministers were employed
specially as missionaries for the slaves.

Other denominations did equalh' efficient work, though exact statistics
cannot be secured. All these members received more or less instruction,
and their mental, as well as material condition, compared favorably with
the loAver classes in many countries of Europe, at least. The statistics of
illiteracy of the colored race in South Carolina, previous to emancipation,
are incorrect, since, in those days, an acknowledgment on the part cf a
slave of an ability to read might have proven, at least, inconvenient. It
may be added here that these statistics are not proper criteria b}" which
to judge the standard of culture. The ability to write one's name, or to
trace illegible characters representing misspelled words, can be acquired
iri a few months, at most, and is sufficient to remove from one the stigma
of illiteracy. Yet, in manners, in morals, in integrity, and even in oral
expression, he may be greatly inferior to another, who has learned much
of these, and has been forbidden only to write and read. • A striking proof
of this is afforded by the many instances, just after the war, in which
newly enfranchised citizens, though classed as illiterate, made most ef-
fective speakers and skillful parliamentarians.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 525

Very many slaves were apprenticed to the useful trades, and formed a
vast proportion of tlie mechanics and artizans before the war. Almost
every planter of large means had his own carpenters, masons and black-
smiths. Cabinet-makers, butchers, tailors, porters, hotel waiters, semp-
stresses and laundresses, and pastry cooks, trained nurses and midwives
were taken to a great extent from the colored population. Many of these
were suffered to hire their own time, and thus accumulate sums of money.
A few persons of color tiicmselves owned slaves. The fireman on the first
train that ran from Charleston to Augusta is said to have been a colored
man, and his was the longest trip recorded up to that time. From the
ranks of the barbers and hotel waiters, who had listened to the conversa-
tions of statesmen and public men, were recruited most of the legislators
and congressmen of the era of reconstruction.

EMANCIPATION WAS FOLLOAVED

by attempts to instruct the freedmen. The efforts of the State were aided
by philanthropists from abroad, who founded schools and churches in
different portions of the State. The public schools attracted continually
increasing numbers, as follows :* In 1870, 1,800; in 1871, 33,384; in
1882. 38,635 ; in 1873, 46,938 ; in 1874, 56,249 ; in 1875, 63,415 ; in 1876,
70,802 ; in 1877, 55,952 ; in 1878, 62,121 ; in 1879, 64,095 ; in 1880, 72,-
,853; in 1881, 72,119. (It is believed that the report for 1876 is incor-
rect, as the salaries of school commissioners depended on the attendance,
and there was no fixed rule for estimating the latter.)

CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY, ORANGEBURG, S. C.

History. In 1869, the Orangeburg Female College was purchased by
friends in the North, prominent among whom was the late Lee Claflin,
of Massachusetts, and opened as a school for colored youth. A Univer-
sity charter was obtained from the succeeding Legislature, perpetuating
the name of the most liberal donor.

In 1872, the Act of Congress, appropriating certain lands for main-
taining Agricultural Colleges and ]\Iechanical Institutes, was accepted by
the Legislature, and an Agricultural College was made a co-ordinate
branch of Claflin University.

When the State University was reorganized at Columbia, in 1877, the
Agricultural College was made a branch of that University, but still con-
tinued at Orangeburg, and remains in successful operation under that
union.

*For the inte'.le>-tual progress of the colored people, see the section on Illiteracy.

•")"2(> A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

Industkial Department. The farm of one hundred and fifty acres
of choice land, and a carpenter shop connected with tlie institution, afford
an opportunity for manual labor, by which students can defray, in part,
the expenses of their education.

1st. Literary Department. College course of four years, both Clas-
sical and Scientific.

The course of study covers about the same range in higher English,
JNIathematics, Natural Sciences, Ancient and Modern Languages, History,
iNIental and Moral Science, as is usual in the better class of colleges.
North and South.

2d. Normal School Course. The object held in view in this school
is the preparation of teachers for the common schools.

The course of study covers a period of three years beyond the ordinary
common school studies, and embraces History, Rhetoric, English Com-
position and Criticism, Higher Arithmetic, Algebra and Plane Geometry,
Physiology, Natural Philosophy, and Chemistry.

3d. Grammar School. The object of this school is to prepare students
for the higher departments, and will be a necessity till the common
schools of the county shall do a higher grade of work.

The course of study covers two years, and does the work of the better
class of common schools.

ATTENDANCE THE PAST YEAR.

In College Classes 24

In Normal and College Preparatory 136

In Grammar School 184

Total 344

GRADUATED IN JUNE, 1882.

On College Course 2

On Normal School Course 10

Total 12

A valuable apparatus for the Natural Sciences and higher Mathematics
adds to the facilities for instruction in these branches.

The library contains about two thousand volumes and a large col-
lection of pamphlets. Many of the. books are very valuable as books of
reference.

Faculty : Rev. Edward Cooke, LL.D., President, Profe.ssor of Ethics
and Lecturer on Agricultural Topics. Rev. W. H. Lawrence, A. M., Pro-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 527

fossor of Latin, Greek, and German Languages and Literature. William
J. DeTreville, Jr., C. E., Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics. Jas.
A. Heyward, A. M., Professor of Natural Science. Miss Sarah G. Bag-
nail, Preceptress, Professor of Rhetoric, English Literature, and French.
Julian A. Salley, Adjunct Professor of Mathematics, William L. Bulkley,
A. B., Tutor in Classics. Rev. Alonzo G. Townsend, A. B., Master of

Grammar School ; , Assistant ; , Second

Assistant. Prof. W". H. Lawrence, Librarian.

ALLEN UNIVERSITY (AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL), COLUMBIA, S. C.

Allen Universit}'', occupying commodious grounds in the suburbs of
the city of Columbia, was organized in April, 1881, under the control of
the Columbia and South Carolina Annual Conferences of the African
Methodist Episcopal Church, and is sustained by annual contributions
from the churches which compose these Conferences. The property
already secured aggregates in value about eight thousand dollars. It is
in charge of colored educators. The aim of the institution is set forth in
a circular written by Right Rev. Wni. F. Dickerson, D. D., of the A. M.
E. Church, which concludes as follows :

" To aid in the development of the highest tj^pe of Christian manhood,
to prove the negro's ability, to inaugurate and manage a large interest,
to govern, to control under normal impulses with only the help which is
afforded institutions of like grade and similarly situated (for which we
entreat our friends) ; to stimulate and encourage the worthy and aspiring
young women of a race pressed to the rear by its previous condition ; to
train them not only for the pulpit, the bar, the sick room and school
room, but for intellectual agriculturists, mechanics, and artizans, so that
those who are now doing the manual labor in the South shall be fully
equipped to perform the mental operations incident thereto as well. To
educate, in the fullest sense of that comprehensive word, is the work,
mission and cause for the establishment of Allen University "

Faculty : Rev. James C. Waters, D. D., President and Professor of
Systematic Theology and Hebrew; Rt. Rev. W. M. Dickerson, D. D.,
President Board of Trustees, and Professor of Moral Philosophy and
Church Government ; Prof Joseph W. Morris, A. M., LL. B., Mathematics
and Ancient Languages, and Instructor in Law ; D. A. Straker, LL. B.,
Dean of Law Department and Instructor in French ; Miss B. B. Wolfe,
Principal in Department of Music ; Mrs. Hannah A. Jones, Matron.

528 A SKETCH OF EDUCATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

Instructors : Rev. J. B. Smith, N. W. Edwards, J. D. Edwards, Jno.
•H. Byrd, C. C. Dunlap, Mrs. E. A. Piiidle, I^Irs. H. E. Lee, Misses Sarah
F. Perry, Ella H. Clemens, Julia E. Perrin, and Emma Felder.

COURSE OF STUDY.

The University is divided into the CoUerjiatc Department, the Theological
Department, the Normal College Department, and the Law Department. A
3Iedical Depeivtment will soon, it is ho})ed, be opened under Dr. George R.
Henderson.

Terms : Board, including fuel, &c., $9.50 per month. Tuition, 75
cents. Instrumental Music, $1.50. Students' preparing for the ministry
p)ay no tuition. Tuition in Law Department, $50.

Firm but reasonable rules are adopted for the maintenance of disci-
pline.

Attendance during the session of 1881, 1882, was in excess of three
hundred, and the proprietors of the enterprise feel much encouraged.

MISSIONARY AND OTHER SCHOOLS.

Benedict Institute, located in the suburbs of Columbia, was estab-
lished in 1871, by the American Baptist Home Missionary Society, for
the education of ministers of the gospel and of teachers, male and female.
It is maintained partly by tuition fees and partly by subscriptions from
Northern Baptist churches and individuals. The total receipts for the
year ending March 31st, 1882, were $7,598.80 ; expenditures, $11,705.21,
the difference being contributed by the Society. The value of the prop-
erty is $25,000 ; endowment $20,000. Students of both sexes are taught
and boarded under careful regulations. The attendance for the year was
more than two hundred. The course of studv is Preparatory, Normal,
Classical, or Theological. Rev. C. E. Becker, A. M., is President, and he
is assisted by Mrs. C. E. Becker, J. K. Davis, Mrs. A. M. Wood, Miss S.
E. Mead and Miss Mary Simms.

Brainerd Institute, Chester, was founded in 1874, by the Northern
Presbyterian Chur'ih, as a Normal school for the colored. It is in charge
of Rev. Mr. Loomis and two assistants. It has a small library, and a
chemical laboratory. Besides the Normal department there is a graded
school, supported for ten months by State tax and by local taxation.
Much good has been accomplished by it.

Fairfield Normal Institute, Winnsboro, founded in 1869, by the
Northern Presbyterian Church. The church owns a school house, a par-

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 529

sonage, and several outbuildings for the accommodation of boarders.
The Rev. Willard Richardson has for a number of years labored most
acceptably as Principal, assisted by three white ladies. In 1880, of the
pupils in attendance one hundred were preparing to teach, and twenty to
enter the ministry. Pupils of the school have taken high stands in How-
ard University and other institutions of learning.

The Schofield School, in Aiken, has been supported for a number
of years by funds from the North. It has handsome buildings, and is
well fitted up. About one hundred thousand dollars, in all, have been
expended in its support.

XL PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

According to Ramsay and others, " Newspapers were first published in
South Carolina, in or about 1730, by Lewis Timothy." Prof. Rivers
doubts this, as the Legislature, in 1731, passed an Act offering induce-
ments " for the encouragement of a printer to settle here." Mr. King, in
his sketch of the newspaper press of Charleston, shows that, in 1730, Mr.
King offered to print, at his own charge, the laws of the Province, and
argues from this that there was no newspaper in the colony. According
to him, the first new^spaper, " The South Carolina Gazette, appeared on
Saturday, January 8th, 1731-2," under the management of Thomas
Whitmarsh. It was published weekly, at a cost of £o, and was a quarto,
of eleven and a half by seven inches, containing two columns to the page.
A copy of the first issue is or was in the Charleston Library. It contains
the announcement of the passage of a charter for the establishment of
the Colony of Georgia ; while the number, bearing date January 20th,
1732, chronicles the arrival of James Oglethorpe and over a hundred
colonists.

A press for printing pamphlets was established, by parties now un-
known, in 1731. George Webb and Eleazer Phillips, Jr., came over about
the same time, and the latter is believed to have established a paper,
called the South Carolina WeeJcly Journal, but no number of it appears
elsewhere than in the notice of the settlement of his estate.

The Gazette, which was the fifth newspaper in America, flourished for
a long time without a rival in Carolina. Whitmarsh died in 1733, of
yellow fever, and was succeeded by Lewis Timothy. The Gazette was
conducted in turn by himself, his wife, his son, and other parties, under-
going several changes of name. Indeed, it appears that every paper in

530 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

the colony was called a Gazette, with some distinguisliing title in addi-
tion. Thus there were The South Carolina Gazette, The South Carolina
Gazette and Country Journal (1765), The South Carolina Gazette and Anu-ri-
can General Gazette, The Royal Gazette, The South Carolina Gazette and General
Advertiser, The Charleston Evening Gazette, &c. Some of these were different
names of the same paper, but they appear to have been distinct from the
original Gazette.

The South Carolina Gazette lived until 1837, Avhen it was purchased by
the Courier, and continued by that paper as an auxiliary until 1840,
when it was discontinued. As is known, the Courier became a part of
the News and Courier, so that this metropolitan daily can claim an
indirect descent from Thomas Whitmarsh.

It is unnecessary to notice all the other newspapers that sprang into
life and died between 1760 and 1865. A few will be mentioned, owing
to their influence on affairs. The State Rights and Free Trade Evening
Post was founded in 1831, under the editorship of John A. Stuart. He
sold it to Messrs. Norris & Gitsinger, but it expired after the excitement
of Nullification passed away.

The Investigator was founded in 1812 by John Mackey and John Lyde
Wilson, and earnestly advocated the war against Great Britain. A mob
attacked the paper in September of that year.

Ten 3'ears later Mr. Wilson became Governor of the State. He had
great literary attainments ; translated into verse and published the epi-
sode of " Cupid and Psyche ; " codified the laws of the State about 1827,
and was the author of the celebrated " Code of Honor."

Governor David R. Williams was also at one time connected with jour-
nalism, having been proprietor of the Gazette for several years.

The two leading newspapers of South Carolina up to the time of the
war were the Courier and the Mercury.

THE CHARLESTON COURIER

was founded in 1803, by Loring Andrews and S. S. Carpenter, and printed
by A. S. Willington. For many years it was the organ of the opponents
of Nullification and Secession. In 1851, it advocated co-operation as a
choice of evils, and in 1860 reluctantly advocated withdrawal from the
Union, in view of the election of a sectional President. The chief repu-
tation of the Courier was as a business paper. In matters commercial it
was an authority. The proprietors showed much enterprise. Special
couriers, during the Mexican war, outstripped the United States mails,
and this undertaking was the precursor of press associations. Surviving
the war, the Courier was purchased by the proprietors of the Daily Neivs,
and became a part of the News and Courier.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 531

THE CHARLESTON MERCURY

was founded by Edmund Morford, in 1822, and purchased by H. L.
Pinckney, June 1st, 1823. It became the representative of the " Free
Trade and States Right Party of South Carolina." Distinguished by the
bokhiess and the eloquence of its utterances, the Mercury was largely
instrumental in bringing about the war between the States. Its material
was destroyed in the tire in Columbia in 1865, and, though publication
was resumed shortly after, it suspended finally in 18G8.

Other papers in Charleston, Columbia, and different parts of the State,
enjoyed greater or less prosperity. The attention of all was chiefly
drawn to politics, and they lacked much of what is now considered essen-
tial to journalism The editorial department often overshadowed the
rest, and they are to be regared more as leaders than as chroniclers of
events.

The following is a partial list of the newspapers published at the begin-
ning of the war :

Abbeville Banner, Abbeville Press, Spartanburg Spartan, and Express,
Sumter Watchman, Union Times, Yorkville Enquirer, Barnwell Sentinel,
Charleston Courier, Charleston Mercury, Charleston Evening News, Southern
Christian Advocate, U. S. Catholic Miscellany, Chester Standard, Cheraw
Gazette, Clarendon Banner, Darlington Southerner, Edgefield Advertiser,
Fairfield Herald, and Register, WiwysAi Observer, Greenville Mountaineer^
and Southern Enterprise, Camden Journal, Lancaster Ledger, Laurens
Herald, Lexington Dispatch, Marion Star, Newberry Herald, Orangeburg
Clarion, Keowee Courier, Pickens Sentinel, Columbia South Carolinian,
Southern Guardian, Souther}} Baptist, and Southern Presbyterian.

There were also several literary periodicals. The Southern Presbyterian
Review, founded in 1847, which still exists, wielded great influence in the
religious world. The Southern Quarterly Review, and RusseWs Magazine,
with several literary papers, were the vehicle of thought of the highest
order and eloquence not often surpassed.

The census gives the newspaper statistics for 1850, 1860 and 1870.
Except as to the number of newspapers, the table is not trustworthy, for
no means have ever yet been devised for securing a true report of circu-
lation from all newspapers.

532 A SKETCH OF PJDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

The followiiio; table is an indication :

>.

1

3

72

1-5

1

o

^

O

-<-^

li

Tot'l

'3

•i-H

CO

o

Hi

1850 . .

46

7

5

27

5

4

53,743 1

7,145,930

1800 . .

45

2

4

35

4

7

53,870

3,054,840

1870 .

55

5

4

42

8

. 9

80,900

8,901,400

It will be seen that the census of I860 is utterly wrong. The details
give only two daily newspapers, with a circulation of 1,600 against a
circulation of 16,000 both in 1850 and 1870.

Estimating the total issue at 8,000,000 in 1860, we find an average of
eleven issues per year for each inhabitant, against an average of over
thirty issues to each inhabitant of the United States. The total issue
for that year in Massachusetts reached 102,000,000, and in New York,
320,000,000. This means that while South Carolina thought and senti-
ment was expressed 8,000,000 times, that of Massachusetts was announced
102,000,000 times. Is there any cause for surprise at the outcome of the
war ? The overwhelming paper broadsides of the North were no less
effectual than the guns of a Farragut, in shutting out the South from
intercourse with, and assistance from, the rest of the world.

During the war, papers suspended for want of patronage, want of ma-
terial, and want of compositors. 1865 marks a blank almost in country
journalism. The Courier went on, the Mercury was destroyed, and the
Columbia papers had gone up in smoke. A new daily was established
in Columbia by Julian A. Selby, who brought a bag of type on his back
from a neighboring town, and, with the aid of Wm. Gilmore Simms as
editor, founded the Phcenix. One by one the country papers resumed
operations, and in a year or so the number had largelv increased. Since
that time there has been a steady progress. Old papers have been con-
solidated, new ones have sprung up, and are being born every day.

THE CHARLESTON DAILY NEWS

of Charleston was established in August, 1865, b}^ Benjamin AVood, of
New York. In 1867 it changed hands, Messrs. Riordan & Dawson be-
coming the managers. Absorbing the Courier, it is now the only daily
in Charleston, and, as

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 533

THE NEWS AND COURIER,

is one of the leading papers in the land. The influence of its enterprise
and business management may be seen in the general improvement of
the State press.

The Phoenix, the Guardian, and the South Carolinian, have lived and
died, since the war, in Columbia.

THE REGISTER,

begun several years ago, in Columbia, as a co-operative journal, is now
owned by C. A. Calvo, Jr., and edited by Col. J. W. R. Pope. It is a
sterling journal.

THE PALMETTO YEOMAN

is an evening daily, published also in Columbia by Mr. C. M. McJunkin.
The only other daily in the State is

THE GREENVILLE NEWS,

a live sheet, which discusses all the topics of the day with pungency and
vigor. Its editor is A. B. Williams, Escp

OTHER PAPERS.

Among the other papers in the State are : The Charleston Zcitnng,
published in German, which is the only representative of foreign lan-
guages in South Carolina. The Abbeville Press and Banner, and Abbe-
ville Medium, the Saluda Argm, Aiken Recorder, and Journal and Review,
Anderson Intelligence^^ and Journal, Barnwell People, and Sentinel, Beaufort
Palmetto Post, Berkeley Gazette, Charleston Mercury, and New Em, Chester
Reporter, and Bulletin, Cheraw Sun, Clarendon Enterprise, Colleton Pre?s,
Darlington Southron, Florence Times, Edgefield Advertiser, Clironicle, Mon-
itor (Johnston's), Winnsboro' News and Herald, Georgetown Times, and
Enquirer, Greenville News, and Enterprise and Mountaineer, Hampton
Guardian, Conwayboro' Telephone, Kershaw Gazette, Camden Journal, Lan-
caster Ledger, and Review, Laurensville Herald, Lexington Dispatch, Gil-
bert Hollow News, Marion Star, and Merchant and Farmer, Bennettsville
Farmer's Friend, Newberry Herald, News, and Observer, Keowee Courier
(Walhalla), Orangeburg Times and Democrat, Pickens Sentinel, Seneca
Journal, Spartanburg Spartan, Spartanburg Hercdd, Gaffney City Caro-
linian, Sumter Watchmaii, Advance, and Spirit of the Times, Union Ihnes,
Williamsburg Herald (Kingstree), Yorkville Enquirer, Rock Hill Hercdd.

534 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

RELIGIOUS PAPERS.

Associate RefoiTnied Presbyterian, Due West; Baptist Courier, Greenville;
Lutheran Visitor, Prosperity; Christian Neighbor, Columbia.; Southern Chris-
tian Advocate (Metliodist), Charleston ; Southern Presbyterian, Columbia.

THE SOUTHERN PRESBYTERIAN REVIEW,

already mentioned, is published quarterly, in Columbia, by the Rev.
James Woodrow. It is an able review, being one of the leading expo-
nents of Presbyterianism in the South.

The Department of Agriculture issues monthly bulletins, which
are full of valuable information to the farmer at home and to the public
abroad.

PRINTING ESTABLISHMES'TS.

Messrs. Walker, Evans & Cogswell, of Charleston, conduct a very large
printing and binding establishment, and are the publishers of a series of
text books.

The News and Courier, the Columbia Picgister, and the Southern Presby-
terian, have large job offices, capable of turning out any kind of work.

Mr. E. R. Stokes, of Columbia, conducts a book bindery. There are a
large number of job printing ofhces in different parts of South Carolina.

CONCLUSION.

The census of 1880 relating to newspapers has not been published ;
and the tables of advertising agencies are not reliable. It can safely be
predicted, however, that the statistics will show material progress ; while
the intellectual and journalistic progress is evident to any careful reader.
The power of the press is making itself felt more strongl}'' than ever ;
and, in consequence, it is calling into service a number of the brightest
minds of the State.

XII. ILLITERACY.

The illiteracy existing in South Carolina is much to be deplored. It
is well, however, to examine into this abnormal condition, in order to ex-
plain it, and deduce hope for the future. A comparison instituted be-
tween South Carolina and other States on equal terms, is unfair. Three-
fifths of her population were, but seventeen years ago, in a state of bond-

A SKETCH or EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

535

age. With the exception of a few " free people of color" (always free),
there is not now, nor will there be for some time, a single colored voter
who was not once a slave. Next, with one exception. South Carolina was
the heaviest sufferer by the war, her assessed property shrinking from
$480,000,000, in 1860, to $183,000,000, in 1870, while the true shrinkage
was from about $550,000,000 to a little over a hundred millions ; more
than half her territory was ravaged by hostile armies. After the surren-
der came two years of political chaos, and eight of rapacious robberj^
Not until 1876 did South Carolina shake off the leash and enter the
race afresh.

What has been done for education has been shown ; the results will
now be considered.

In discussing education before the war, it is but proper to exclude the
slaves from consideration. The subjoined table gives the total white pop-
ulation of several States, with the number of illiterate whites twenty
years of age and over twenty. Comparison is made Avith States justly
celebrated for zeal in education. A much more favorable showing might
have been made. This and the following tables are compiled from
statistics of the U. S. Census.

Comparative White Illiteracy 1850 and 1860.

1

Illiterate

Whites 1

Total White Population

20 and over. |

Percentage

1850. 1860.

1850.

1860.

1850. 1860

Connecticut . .

363,099

451,5041

4,739

8,488

1.8

1.8

Illinois ....

846,034

1,704,291

40,054

58,037

4.7

3.4

Indiana ....

977,154

1,338,710

70,540
6,147

60,943

7.2

4.5

Maine

581,813

626,947

7,552

1.0

1.2

Massachusetts .

985,450

1,221,432

27,539

46,262

2.8

3.7

Ohio

1,955,050

2,332,808

61,030

58,642

3.1

2.5

Pennsvlvania . .

2,258,160

2,849,259

66,928

72,156

2.9

2.5

Rhode Island . .

143,875

170,649

3,340

5,852

2.3

3.4

South Carolina .

274,563

291,300

15,684

14,792

5.7

5.0

Vermont . . .

313,402

314,369

6,189

8,869

1.9

2.8

The percentage decreased in South Carolina. In some others, notably
the New England States, possibly owing to immigration, the rate ad-
vanced. In 1860, the rate for South Carolina was 5 per cent. ; for INIas-
sachusetts, 3.7 per cent ; and for Rhode Island, 3.4 per cent. By 1870,
the percentage of illiterates over twenty years had increased to 4.2 in
Connecticut ; 3.8 in Illinois ; 5.6 in Indiana ; 2.1 in Maine ; 5.8 in Massa-
chusetts ; 4.2 in Ohio; 5.1 in Pennsylvania; 7.5 in Rhode Island; 10.5
in South Carolina ; and 4.0 in Vermont. It must' be remembered that

536

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

all the other States were iDrospering, while South Carolina was financially
bankrupt.

COLORED ILLITERACY.

A comparative statement of colored illiteracy in five leading States,
before the war, may be of interest.

Colored Illiteracy, 1850 and 1860.

1

Illiterates 20

Total Free Col'd Population.!

Yrs. and over.

Percentage.

1850.

1860.

1850 1860.

1850. 1860.

Indiana . . .

11,262

11,428

2,170

1,773

19.2

J 5.5

Massachusetts .

9,064

9,602

806

659

8.8

6.8

Pennsylvania .

53,626

56,949

9,344

9,359

17.4

16.4

Rhode Island .

3,670

3,952

267

260

7.2

6.5

South Carolina ,

8,960

9,914

880

1,416

•9.8

14.3

This table shows that prior to the abolition agitation, free j^ersons of
color received almost equal advantages in South Carolina and New Eng-
land, while they were comparatively neglected in Pennsylvania and In-
diana. In consequence of the agitation illiteracy appears to have in-
creased in South Carolina, remained almost stationary in Pennsylvania,
and decreased in the other States. (It may be added that the table does
not show any large immigration of colored people North, prior to 1860,
Colored artizans fared better in the South than they did elsewhere. "Free
persons of color " in the South were not always advocates of emancipa-
tion.)

Reverting to the statistics of South Carolina, it is found that there
were

In 1800, white illiterate males, twenty years and over, 5,811. Total white

population, 291,300.
In 1870, white illiterate males, twenty-one years and over, 12,940. Total

white population, 289,667.
In 1880, white illiterate males, twenty-one years and over, 13,924. Total

white 2^opulation 391,005.

This tells the story. Those who were twenty-one years old in 1870,
were eleven years old in 1860. The finger of war is evidently here. It
is gratifying to see that the increase of adult illiterates during the past
decade is small.

' A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

537

A comparison of illiteracy by ages between the census of 1870 and that
of 1880, is subjoined.

White Illiteracy.

10-14 Yrs

15,328
13,()74

15-21 Yrs.

10,114
11,102

1

21 and over.

34,335
30,391

Total
Illiterate.

Total _
Population.

1880
1870

59,777
55,167

391,105

289,667

Increase

1,(354

988

1 3,944

4,610

101,438

Total increase of illiterate whites, 4,610, relative increase, 8.4 per cent.

Total increase of white population, 101,438, relative increase, 35.4 per
cent.

The population has increased over four times as fast as the illiteracy.
TJiis is a sign of progress..

Colored Illiteracy.

10-14 Yrs.

57,072
40,805

15-21 Yrs.

21 and over.

Total
Illiteracy.

310,071
235,164

Total

Population

1880
1870

52,936
45,605

200,063
148,754

604,332
415,814

Increase

16,267

7,331

51,309

74,907

188,518

Total increase in illiterate colored, 74,907, relative increase, 31 percent.
Total increase in colored population, 188,518, relative increase, 44 per
cent.

The population has increased about IJ times as rapidly as illiteracy.
This, at least, shows that illiteracy is not on the increase.
xVgain, the census of ISSO, gives the following

Colored persons ivho could write, and those who could not, 1880.

Ages

10-14 Yrs.

76,981
57,702

19;909

15 Y]

[•s. and over.

Total.

Colored Population.
Could not write . .

317,769
252,999

394,750
310,071

Could write ....

64,770 1

84,679

There were, in 1880, therefore, 84,679 colored persons of ten years of
age, and over, who had some acquaintance with the art of reading and
writing. AVith the exception of a few " free persons of color," these repre-
sent the progress of fifteen years, between 1865 and 1880, or of ten years
of free schools, of which five or six were, in an educational sense, " years
35

538 A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

of famine." It must be remembered, too, that a very large proportion of
the illiterate blacks were too old to avail themselves of school facilities.
So that in ascertaining real progress they should be eliminated from the
problem. Data for doing this are, unfortunately, not at hand.

The census of 1870 was obviously incorrect, in many respeiets. Taken
carelessly, it was more apt to include prominent than obscure individuals,
and, therefore, to lower the percentage of illiteracy. For this reason,
greater progress may be claimed for the past decade than a compari-son
of the statistics would seem to indicate.

Despite the most favorable showing that can be made, it is yet obvious
that some extraordinary measures must be taken to combat ignorance.
A State, in which the average amount of property per capita is not more
than a hundred and twenty dollars, cannot be expected to put one-half
its population to school. That it is doing much in proportion to its
means is shown by the constitutional tax. The government of the United
States elevated the slave to citizenship. His political mistakes are to-day
apparent in their influence on public affairs. The United States must
aid in universal education as supplementary to universal suffrage. One
cannot safely exist without the other,

Xor must South Carolina be weary in well doing. Her own people are
capable of additional effort. They cannot wait for outside aid.

In these da3\s, knowledge is power. Xo longer do men sprinkle their
chariots with Olympic dust. Never again will Hercules raise himself to
Heaven by dint of muscle, or the fate of Christendom depend on the
weight of a Coiur de Lion's battle-axe. Phvsical strength is not the
standard of merit.

^lan has conquered Nature. She does his work without fatigue, and
without complaint. But for him she cannot think. Thought is his
alone, and he thinks best who thinks most, whose mind is best trained
in correct methods. Bismarck, Beaconsfield, Gladstone, Moltke, have
swayed Europe by brain, not by brawn. Indiana's war Governor and
Georgia's Commoner, from their invalid chairs have, at times, shaken
our political fabric to its foundations. A single thought of Edison's may
be worth millions.

Fertile soil, salubrious climate, rich mineral deposits, unlimited water
power, valuable virgin forests — all that nature can bestow — are but noth-
ing compared to the cultured brain. More than railroads, more than
canals, more than factories, Carolina needs schools. Having them, the
rest will come.

A State that claims such glorious educational traditions, that has mani-
fested such love of knowledge in most untoward circumstances, that even
now is making progress in solving a problem never before submitted to

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 539

mankind, may be relied upon to keep abreast with the other members of
the great Aryan race, in its pecuHar domain, the realm of intellect.

THE PEABODY FUND.

No sketch on education would be complete without some mention of
the Peabody fund, that lasting monument to the greatest philanthropist
of his age. By the will of George Peabody, several million dollars were
given in trust to a Board, for the education of the children of the South.
The fund is carefully guarded. The interest annually accruing is de-
voted, not to helping the destitute, but to building up and improving
i3chools already in a healthy condition, or to fitting young men and
women to become skillful and intelligent teachers. For several years aid
was given directly to the public schools ; but recently the greater portion
of the revenue is expended upon Normal schools, and Normal Institutes.
The report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, for 1880, shows that
since 1868, the trustees had expended $1,191,000, of which South Caroli-
na, owing to the inefficiency of her school system, between 1872 and 1876,.
had received but $38,200, while $223,250. had been given to Virginia,
$220,150 to Tennessee, and $118,000 to West Virginia.

In 1881, this State received $4,050, and 1882, $5,875, making in all.
$47,625.

PEABODY SCHOLARSHIPS •

for deserving young white and colored persons, of both sexes, desiring to.
become teachers, are established, for whites, at Nashville, for the colored,,
at Hampton, ^^irginia. Eight students at Nashville and ten at Hamp-
ton were enjoying this bounty in 1881. The scholarships are for two
years. Applicants are appointed after competitive examination, and,
these are required, after graduation, to teach at least two years in the
public schools of the State.

A.PPEIsrDIX.

Tabular Statements Copied or Compiled from^ the Tables of the United States
Census and the Report of State Superintendent of Education, for 1883.

Table I. A Comparison of White Population, School Expenditures
and White Illiteracy in Thirty-three States in 1860.

Table II. Scholastic Population of South Carolina in 1880.

Table III. Population and Illiteracy in South Carolina in 1880.

Table IV. Scholastic Population and School Attendance between the
Years 1869 and 1882.

Table V. Record of Public Schools in the State. 1882.

Table VI. Teachers and Salaries, 1882.

Table VII. Course of Study for 1882.

Table VIII. School Fund and Poll-Tax, 1880-81.

Table IX. School Houses used by Public Schools; 1882.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

541

TABLE I.

Showmg, in 1860, 1st, the Total White Population of thirty-three States;
2d, the total Expenditures for Education of all kinds; 3d, the Per Capita
Expenditure; 4-th, the adult White Illiteracy ; 5th, the rate per cent, of
Illiteracy. {Compiled from statistics of the U. S. Census.)

STATE.

Total White
Population.

Expenditure.

Per

Capita

Adult
White

Rate
Per Cent.

1 1

Illiteracy.

Illiteracy.

Alabama ....

526,271

$ 838,002

U 59

37,605

7.14

Arkansas . . .

324,143

194,.344

59

23,652

7.29

California . - .

323,177

559,849

1 73

18,989

5.87

Connecticut . .

451,504

748,454

1 65

8,488

1.83

Delaware. . . .

90,589

124,809

1 37

6,661

7.36

Florida ....

77,746

95,511

1 23

5,341

6.87

Georgia ....

591,550

855,270

1 44

43,684

7.39

Illinois ....

1,704,291

2,517,546

1 47

58,037

3.40

Indiana ....

1,338,710

882,688

66

60,943

4.56

Iowa

673,779

. 701,116

1 04

19,782

2.83

Kansas ....

106,390

50,792

48

3,004

2.82

Kentucky . . .

919,484

1,080,800

1 17

67,577

7.34

Louisiana . . .

357,456

1,019,726

2 85

17,808

4.98

Maine

626,947

554,610

88

7,552

1.20

Maryland . . .

515,918

510,766

99

15,825

3.06

Massachusetts

1,221,432

2,230,611

1 82

46,262

3.79

Michigan . .

736,142

816,666

1 10

17,441

2.37

IVIinnesota . .

169,395

116,702

63

4,751

2.81

Mississippi . . .

353,899

733,621

2 07

15,526

4.39

Missouri ....

1,063,489

1,2.59,139

1 18

59,660

5.61

New Hampshire

325,579

369,945

1 13

4,683

1.43

New Jersey . .

646,699

858,129

1 32

19,276

2.98

New York . .

3,831,590

5,057,971

1 32

115,965

3.02

North Carolina

629,942

758,444

1 20

68,128

10.81

Oliio ....

2,332,808

3,031,770

1 30

58,642

2.51

Pennsylvania.

2,849,259

3,379,015

1 18

72,156

2.53

Rhode Island

170,649

235,827

1 38

5,852

3.43

South Carolina

291, .300

690,512

2 36

14,792

5.07

Tennessee . .

826,722

1,076,571

1 30

70,359

8.51

Texas ...

420,891

651,374

1 54

18,414

4.37

Vermont . . .

314,369

298,595

95

8,869

2.18

Virginia .....

1,047,299

1,289,819

1 23

73,955

7.06

Wisconsin ....

773,693

760,096

98

16,448

2.12

Eighteen Free \
States j

18,595,412

23,170,382

1 22

547,140

2.99

Fifteen Slave \
States /

11,244,646

13,991,348

1 30

538,987

•

4.79

542

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

TABLE II. SCHOLASTIC POPULATION.

Showing the number of persons in South Carolina between the ages of Q and IG
according to the United States Census of 1880.

AGES.

Whites.

Colored.

All Classes.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

6 Years. . . .

6,131

5,893

11,156

11,449

17,287

17,342

7 Years. . . .

5,536

5,173

9,585

9,833

15,121

15,006

8 Years. . . .

5,641

5,307

10,361

10,282

16,002

15,589

9 Years. . .

5,061

4,769

7,609

7,464

12,670

12,233

10 Years. . . .

5,538

5,163

10,404

9,534

15,942

14,697

11 Years. . . .

4,246

4,151

5,636

5,699

9,882

9,850

12 Years

5,092

4,955

9,352

9,219

14,444

14,174

13 Years. . . .

4,166

4,130

6,599

6,394

10,765

10,524

14 Years. . . .

3,942

3,817

.7,332

6,812

11,274

10,629

15 Years. . . .

2,871

2,868

6,745

6,364

9,616

9,232

16 Years. . . .

3,216

3,523

6,118

6,528

9,334

10,051

Total . . .

5i;440

49,749

90,897

89,578

142,337

139,327

Males — White .
Females — Whi te

SUMMARY.

51,440 Colored . . 90,897
49,749 Colored . . 89,578

Total
Total

142,337
139,327

Totals

101,189

180,475

281,664

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA. 543

TABLE III. POPULATION AND ILLITERACY.

According to the United States Census for 1880.

Total
Population.

Population.
10 Years
and Over.

Cannot
Read.

Cannot Write.

10 to 14 15 to 20
Years. Years.

21 and
Over.

Total.

AVhite. .
Colored .

391,105
604,332

272,706
394,750

667,456

,

15,32810,114
57,072 52,936

34,335

200,063

59,777
310,071

Total .

995,577

321,780*

72,400 63,050

234,398

369,848

*Details not eiven.

544

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

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5AG

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

TABLE VI. TEACHERS AND SALxVRIES.
Showing the Number of Teachers Employed in 1882, and their Salaries.

AvERAfiE

Teachers Employel

,

Monthly Wages

Total Amount

1

Paid Teachers ,

1

Paid

COUNTIES.

1

To Teachers

d

_o -

H 1

6

During

■*^

o

1 1

6

a

0)

the Year.

?

O

s

■

O

^

1

Abbeville . . .

94

57

79

72

151

j

§20 34 $20 04

$11,228 00

Aiken . . .

82

31

77

36

113

35 54

29 41i

8,894 79

Anderson . .

80

40

65

55

120

25 11

22 88'

12,887 57

BarnAvell . .

93

64

109

48

157

31 07

28 24'

12,325 88

Beaufort . .

16

49

38

27

65

30- 83

27 07

6,580 50

Charleston .

155

91

64

182

246!

37 05

29 60;

73,416 78

Chester .

55

35

47

43

90|

22 00

20 00|

8,371 25

Chesterfield

31

7

26

12

38

21 12

23 12;

2,495 00

Clarendon.

35

17

25

27

52

17 16

20 06

3,354 30

Colleton. . .

63

50

78

35

113'

30 00

25 00

14,524 50

Darlinoton

54

43

57

40

97

22 16

27 05

10,948 60

Edgefield .

96

58

80

74

154

24 70

15 65

11,103 10

Fairfield. . .

62

37

53

46

99'

26 80

24 42

11,297 62

Georgetown

16

30

34

12

46'

27 05

24 86

5,600 00

Greenville.

112

54

71

95

166;

25 83

23 66

14,983 96

Hampton .

52

24

43

33

76;

23 00

23 00

6,149 00

Horry . .

51

21

52

20

72

22 76

20 16

4,007 95

Kershaw .

37

27

45

19

64

26 91

23 84

6,790 50

Lancaster .

33

25

40

18

58'

24 84

24 10'

4,618 25

Laurens. .

59

50

60

49

109;

25 63

23 70

7,020 66

Lexington.

76

26

73

29

102

28 36

26 80'

7,079 00

]Marion . .

86

43

105

24

129

27 29

22 11

10,662 05

^Marlboro .

36

• 23

43

16

59

27 39

28 06

5,420 50

Newberry .

51

38

45

44

89

23 70

22 89

9,653 92

Oconee . .

73

17

58

32

90

19 10

16 73

5,089 03

Orangeburg . .

70

48

70

48

118

31 93

32 48

9,177 09

Pickens ....

52

18

37

33

70

21 62

18 12

4,360 25

Richland . . .

38

32

34

36

70

35 27

30 04

9,728 75

Spartanljurg. .

133

68

117

84

201

26 44

25 44;

17,459 14

Sumter ....

59

43

53

49

102

25 50

21 90

10,329 00

L^nion . . . .

64

34

48

50

96

24 87

25 65

9,807 36

AVilliamsburg .

36

28

43

21

64

28 86

29 94

3,702 25

York

76

59
1,287

71
1,940

64
1,473

135
3,413

17 98

14 82

10,629 00

Totals .

2,126

$26 00

$23 97

$349,695 55

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

547

TABLE VII. COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE YEARS 1881-82.
Number of Papils Studying each of the Branches Taught.

BRANCHES.

1881.

1882.

Alphabet

Spelling

Reading

Writing

Mental Arithmetic

Written Arithmetic . • . .

Geography

English Grammar. . .
History of the United States
Higher Branches

13,078
100,380
85,408
63,156
39,261
44,361
37,400
23,533
19,566
4,259

14.070
114,727
92,514
68,184
43,587
46,105
37,465
24,748
19,205
4,307

992
8.347
7,106
5,028
4,326
1,744

25

1,215

361

48

nicrcase.
increase,
increase,
increase,
increase,
increase,
decrease,
increase,
decrease,
increase.

54S

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

TABLE VIII.

SUowing by Counties the Public School Fund for the Fiscal Year 18S0-81, as
Contained in the Annual Report of the Comptroller- General. Also the
Net Proceeds of the Poll-Tax, {Included in the Available Fund.)

corxTY.

Paid
School Ordebs.

Cash ox Hand.

Total I
Available Fund.

Net Proceeds
PcLL Tax.

Abbeville . .

1 114,418 47 0

1
$2,022 70 4

1
: $16,441 17 4

$5,179 00 0

Aiken. . . .

i 10,564 93 0

5,749 28 5

16,314 21 5

3,233 55 0

Anderson . .

13,881 34 0

1,129- 53 7

15,010 87 7

4,404 47 0

Barnwell . .

! 16,887 98 0

3,103 07 3

19,991 05 3

5,145 32 5

Beaufort. . .

10,402 18 0

1,306 80 0

11,708 98 0

4,028 45 0

Charleston . .

i 58,687 04 0

16,423 68 0

75,110 72 0

4,867 03 0

Chester . . .

9,249 51 0

1,886 71 0

11,136 22 0

2,813 60 0

Chesterfield .

3,321 32 0

6,811 78 5

10,133 10 5

2,763 00 0

Clarendon . .

4,481 79 0

2,684 20 9

7,165 99 9

2,449 07 5

Colleton . . .

10,458 45 0

2,894 21 8

13,352 66 8

5,203 43 0

Darlington. .

11,781 54 0

952 14 4

12,733 68 4

4,474 55 0

Edgefield , ,

^ 13,414 63 0

13,414 63 0

4,461 85 0

Fairfield. . .

14,080 18 0

1,836 69 1

15,916 87 1

4,081 70 0

Georgetown .

5,733 85 0

451 68 0

6,185 53 0

2,408 00 0

Greenville . .

13,291 84 0

2,390 08 7

15,681 92 7

5.075 33 0

Hampton . .

6,291 76 0

82 58 6

6,374 34 6

2,261 20 4

Horry. . . .

2,618 17 0

3,574 09 0

6,192 26 0

2,168 00 0

Kershaw. . .

7,886 52 6

1,311 86 0

9,198 38 6

3,158 98 6

Lancaster . .

4,501 71 0

946 31 9

5,448 02 9

2,267 00 0

Laurens ...

9,114 74 0

1,818 68 0

10,933 42 0

4,130 31 0

Lexington . .

8,499 75 0

8,499 75 0

2,830 02 0

Marion . . .

12,847 54 0

* 1,880 34 9

14,727 88 9

2,923 94 0

Marlboro. . .

6,159 39 0

3,136 68 0

9,296 07 0

3,916 70 0

Newberry*. .

Oconee . . .

" 5.124 45 b

2,256 22 6

7,380 67 Q

' 1,850 20 *5

Orangeburg .

13,222 16 0

299 96 2

13,522 12 2

4,918 82 0

Pickens . . .

5,006 54 0

62 54 5

5,069 08 5

1,690 90 0

Richland . .

16,328 73 0

565 45 0

16,894 18 0

2,272 00 0

Spartanburg .

19,428 34 0

1,643 05 3

21,071 39 3

4,887 17 5

Sumter . . .

12,568 98 0

787 99 2

13,356 97 2

4,181 84 0

Union. . . ,

7,309 88 0

5,133 74 0

12,443 62 0

' 3,671 67 0

Williamsburg

8,363 83 6

1,673 88 0

10,037 71 6

3,033 10 0

York ....

17,670 40 0

4,551 46 3

1 21,221 86 3

3,688 67 5

Totals. . .

$373,597 95 2

$79,367 48 8

$452,965 44 0

$114,438 90 5

i

*No settlement rnade as yet. The matter is in course of adjudication.

A SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 549

TABLE IX.

Showing the Number and Value of School Houses iised by Public Schools in 18S2.

NAME

OF

COUNTY.

SCHOOL HOUSES.

Erected
Pkeviously,

Built During
THE Year.

rr

E>>

j::

Si

<a

Oi

C

a

?

O

O

;^

o

^

r^

^

1 ^

7.

|z;

OCL,

«

School Houses

Rented

During the

Year.

'/^

HPh

Abbeville .
Aiken . . .
Anderson ,
Barnwell. .
Beaufort . .
Charleston .
Chester. . .
Chesterfield.
Clarendon .
Colleton . .
Darlington .
Edg-efield .
Fairfield . .
Georgetown.
Greenville .
Hampton .
Horry . . .
Kershaw . .
Lancaster. ,
Laurens . .
Lexington*.
Marion. . .
Marlboro. .
Newberry. .
Oconee. . .
Orangeburg.
Pickens . .
Richland. .
Spartanburg
Sumter. . .
Union . . .
Williamsburg
York

Totals. . .

121

62

120

146

69

60

61

52

52

109

26

154

94

42

137

67

96

58

55

107

144,050

10,918

15,250

15,613

7,925

133,713

3,862

2,860

295

2,740

8,400

OOj
00!
00
00
001

00 12

00
00
00
75
00

29
59
81
75

110
66
55

173
79
72
62

127

18,600
2,770

18,628
4,610
3,360
6,945
3,325
8,550

00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00

. 2,574 00
8,775 00

10,435 00
8,750 00

1,745 00

7,555 00

10,300 00,

7,030 00

5,360 00

735 00

21,250 00

3
1
2
6
10
9
3
6
2
1

$441 06|

393 obi

368 88]

1,842 05

165 95;

90 00

15 00

189 80

38 85'

300 OOj

125 00

659 42

489 25

77 00

323 88

250 00

75 00

156 50

2,146 57

146 75

250 50

2,6761396,923 751105

588 20
180 00
670 00
150 00
550 00

40|
24

43

24

46

21

2

6

7

26

6

4

15

22

27

43

9

2

5

81

38

120

103

45

14

40

50

46

102

7:

12|
521
li
1
1
II

29
33
6
50
29
20
30
20
42
30
32

56 111
148 . .

90|| 11

27'1 6'
115

401

53

49

53
102

103
26
75
25
81
46
25

153
37
42
30

127

$51 00
98 50

48 50

84 90

721 45

200 00

15 00

20 00

22 00

129 50

812 60
142 00
320 00

5 00

59 00
14 50

103 50

146 00

44 00

9 00

15 00

28 00

$10,682 66 693 2,142 138 $3,089 45

*Nu report. . , , j v.

Note.— The returns relatinar to School Houses are verv imperfect. Comparatively few are owned by

the public most of the Public Schools being tau2;ht in Chu'che*. residences and out-buildiugs, which are

owned by 'other parties, and of which no accurate reports can be made.

CHJ^lPTER v.

CHURCHES.

More than a century after the fierce and bloody conflicts of the French
Huguenots and the Spanisli Catliolics along the coast of Carolina, and
half a century after the congregation of Pilgrims sought shelter from re-
ligious persecution at Pljanouth Rock, certain English noblemen, moved
by a desire to enlarge the dominions of Charles II., and zeal for the pro-
pagation of the Christian faith among savages who had no knowledge of
God, planted the first permanent colony, in South Carolina. The colo-
nists had no sectarian bias. It was only required that in the terms of
communion of every church and profession, these following shall be three :

"1. That there is a God."
" 2. That God is publicly to be worshiped."

" 3. That it is lawful and the duty of every man, being thereunto
called by those that govern, to bear witness to truth."

Most of the Lords Proprietors and the officers of the colony were mem-
bers of the Church of England, and, in 1698, it excited little attention
that a salary was voted to the Episcopal minister in Charleston by the
Provincial Assembly. In 1704, when the colony numbered be'tween
5,000 and 6,000 souls, the Episcopalians had one and the Dissenters four
churches in the province. Nevertheless, through the instrumentality of
the Governor and others, the election of members of the Church of Eng-
land to a majority of the seats in the Provincial Legislature was obtained
in that year. Immediately thereafter, to the surprise and indignation of
the people of the province, an Act was passed making conformity to the
Church of England a qualification necessary to a seat in the Common
House of Assembly, and declaring that church to be the settled and estab-
lished church of the province. It became the only church having a legal
status in Carolina ; its ministers were paid out of the provincial treasury.
Each clergyman received £25 upon arrival, and if afterwards elected rec-
tors, their annual legal salary dated from the same period ; its parish
churches, rectories, and schools were built out of th3 cjaiinjn tax fand.

CHURCHES. 551

At first a board of lay commissioners were invested with temporal and
ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the affairs of this church. In 172G, the
Bishop of London, who had immediate care of these churches, appointed
the Rev. Mr. Garden his commissary, and the spiritual and ecclesiastical
jurisdiction of the lay commissioners was transferred to him. In 1740,
the percentages of the different religious denominations in Carolina is
given as follows :

Episcopalians " 45.

Presbyterians, French and other Protestants^ . . .42.

Baptists 10.

Quakers 3.

100

Between 1731 and 1775, as many as one hundred and two Episcopal
clergymen arrived from England, the average number officiating at one
time for some years prior to the revolution, varying from twelve to twen-
ty ; of the whole there was not a single native of Carolina.

The Church Act encauntered violent and continued opposition. It
was passed originally by a vote of only one majority in the Lower House.
Appeals were made to Parliament, and the English House of Lords pe-
titioned Queen Anne, beseeching her to deliver the province from this
oppression. In spite of this, however, and in spite of the steady growth
of other religious denominations in numbers and in wealth, the Church
of England remained the established church, and sustained its supremacy
for seventy years, until the war of the Revolution. Nor was this without
advantage to the colony. Through this instrumentality a large number
of highly educated and cultivated clergymen were brought into the pro-
vince. The interest of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts was aroused, and valuable donations, not only of money,
but also of books for the parochial libraries, were sent from England.
Parishes were laid out, churches, rectories, and schools established, and
the poor and the ignorant cared for and taught. The parochial rule was
administered with moderation and toleration, the watchful opposition of
the other denominations operating as a continual check to any undue or
arbitrary exercise of authority. Those in authority were persons of cul-
ture, liberal in their views, and while their livelihood and position was
assured, this never served as a stepping stone to any higher offices. Their
very authority was a mere incident to occupations of more transcendent
importance. It was a sort of impersonal rule that taught self govern-
ment as government of self, and the fierce, and often unworthy, struggles

552 CHURCHES.

of local political bodies were avoided. The parish system, founded in
part on the representation of territory and wealth, sprang out of it.

But the spirit of the people was opposed to conformity with prescribed
forms of any sort. George Whitfield, a gifted and eloquent divine, de-
clined to be bound to the observance of church forms, and, during thirty
years of controversy with the church, preached almost daily to crowded
congregations. Besides the growth of other denominations in the low
country, the upper country became settled almost exclusively by Presby-
terians and Baptists. So that when the entire physical force of the coun-
try was called on, in the war against Great Britain, one of the very first
acts of the Legislature, with a view to prevent all discord among religious
sects, was the repeal of all the privileges granted to the Episcopal Church,
and the establishment of all religions on an equal footing. This wise
movement fully accomplished its object in uniting all parties in the
struggle for independence. Notwithstanding there are those who think
that certain long prevailing differences, and even jealousies, between the
upper and the lower sections of the State, owed their origin, in part, to
the supremacy during the colonial days of the Episcopal Church. Even
after the Revolution it was still known as the Church of England, at a
time when all things English were not favorably regarded. At this time
the Episcopal Church suffered much embarrassment. Deprived of State
aid, it was for the first time thrown upon its own resources. While the
severance of the tie with the church in England was such an obstacle to
the Apostolic succession that no ordination of ministers in the State oc-
curred for twelve years previous to 1795, when all difficulties were re-
moved by a convention of Bishops, in Philadelphia, two American Bish-
ops having been ordained at the Archiepiscopal palace of Lambeth, in
England, some years previously, in 1787.

Numerous Scotch and Irish j^eople among the first settlers of Carolina
were Presbyterians. Unaided by tlie State, they at once established
churches, and early in the 18th century the Presbytery of Charlestown was
constituted agreeably to the principles and practice of the Church of
Scotland.

In 1685, Rev. Mr. Screven established the first Baptist .Church in
Charlestown. Prior to the Revolution this denomination had thirty
churches. In 1804, there were 130 churches, 100 ministers, and 10,500
communicants of this persuasion.

In 1790, the Independents, or Congregationalists, established a church
in Charleston, the latter forming themselves into a separate congregation
in 1730.

In 1756, a Jewish Synagogue was erected in Charleston.

In 1759, the German Protestants built the first Lutheran Church.

CHURCHES.

553

In 1785, the Methodists made their first appearance as a religious
society, and increased with great rapidity. In 1800, camp-meetings were
organized, slielters being extemporized out of bagging the planters had
for baling their cotton. In 1801 there were 12 circuits, 26 traveling and
93 local minioters, preaching in all 17,784 sermons in the year. There
were 200 charches and stations erected at a cost of $27,000.

In 1791, the Roman Catholic Church was organized, under the care of-
Bishop Carrol, of Baltimore, the Reverend Doctor Keating officiating in
Carolina.

The Christian culture and instruction of the negroes was at first ob- .
structed by a notion prevalent " from New England to Carolina, that
being baptized is inconsistent with a state of slavery." In 1712, the
Legislature of South Carolina passed an Act declaring " that it was lawful
for any negro to receive and profess the Christian faith, and to be there-
unto baptized." The Rev. Mr. Taylor, in 1713, examined a considerable
number of negroes in St. Andrew's Parish, who had been instructed in
the Christian religion by Mrs. Haige and Mrs. Edwards, fourteen of
whom gave him so great satisfaction that he baptized them. In 1742,
the Rev. Mr. Gcirden had a school house for negroes built in Charleston,
and for twenty-one years a number of children, varying from thirty to
sixty, with sometimes as many as fifteen adults, were instructed there.
Other schools were organized and churches erected for the colored popu-
lation, and their religious instruction became a matter of the first con-
sideration with all the Christian denominations in the State. The
following illustration, one of many that might be cited, will show how
wide-spread and groundless the misapprehensions on this point have
been. When the Federal Army took possession of Beaufort, they found,
in gilt letters over the pulpit of one of the largest churches in the town,
PREACH THE GOSPEL TO EVERY CREATURE. Some of them
tore down the last word and put in its place, in derision of course, WHITE
MAN. Now this church was built by the Rev. Richard A. Fuller, in 1843,
and for many years had about 300 white and about 2,000 colored mem-
bers. So great were the numbers of the latter that the communion
service sometimes occupied three hours. They were received into the
white churches, but in most instances they had separate church organi-
zations, under the care of wliite ministers, and not unfrequently under
that of preachers of their own race. And it is estimated that not only
now, but for several generations past, the percentage of members of
Christian churches has been greater among the colored population than
among the white. Since emancipation they have withdrawn almost
entirely from all connection with the churches of the whites, and have
established everywhere numerous organizations of their own. The largest
36

554 ' CHURCHES.

niini])crs ure Baptist, and next come the Methodists, but there are also
Presbyterian and Episcopal churches among them. They are easily
susceptible to profound religious emotions, and each individual seems to
realize vividly his immediate personal relations with the Author and
Ruler of all things. It is this personal and individual character of their
religious sentiments which has prevented the establishment among them
on any extended scale of a hierarchy or priesthood. Their preachers have
great influence with them, but this the more because they are representa-
tive men chosen by themselves from among their number, than on ac-
count of their priestly character. Their religious services are, for the
most part, conducted without a liturgy, but voluntary responses and
frequent ejaculations attest that each feels he has, of his own right, a
share and interest in them.

This will also explain why separate and independent church organiza-
tions as are practicable under the Baptist form of worship, should have
greater attractions for them than the more centralized and elaborately
organized systems of the Catholics and Episcopalians. Despite the in-
junction "judge not," it has been asserted that the morality of the ne-
groes is not in proportion to their religious fervor. A class marked as
distinctly by their inferior social position as they are by race, invites such
charges, which are far more sweeping than just. If morality be the fruit
of religion it is not surprising, wonderful as the progress made by the
African in South Carolina has been, that it has not in one century and
a half attained that maturity among the colored race which has been the
result of nearly nineteen centuries of Christian teachings to the European.
Nevertheless, it would be a great mistake to suppose that any people ex-
hibit in a higher degree that instinctive faith in the existence of absolute
justice, truth, and goodness, which marks the capacity of human nature
alike for religion and for morality, than the colored people of this State
do. Space does not admit of a delineation here of the attitude of the
Christian churches to the colored race in Carolina. It is safe to say, how-
ever, that the ecclesiastical polity announced recent!}'- at a conference of
the Episcopal clergy and laity, of preserving the unity of the church or-
ganization, by receiving on equal terms the clerical and lay deputies of
the colored race into the Diocesan Conventions, will meet Avith encour-
agement, at least from that portion of the former masters of these people,
who are usually stigmatized as Bourbons.

The following table exhibits the general condition of the church in
Carolina as compared with those of the United States as far as given by
the census records of 1850, 18G0, and 1870. Unfortunately the figures of
the enumeration of 1880, which are essential to complete the picture, are
not at this date accessible.

CHURCHES.

555

Table A.

1870

Ch'hes.

Sittings. Property

Cii'hes Sittings. Property. Ch'hes. Sittings. Properly

I860

1850

Unitea States 62,082

South Carolina l,30t)

Percen tage of f U.S.A... 16

increase (.So. Ca... 8

r.„,.no„uo /U.S.A... 1 to 621

Per Capita jg^^ Ca... 1 to 539

21,665,062 |283,5S6,765i
■191,425i 2,621 ,.5S6'

13 641

8 21clecr'se.i

Per Square Mile.. \

Churches, Sittings, i
and Church prop-
erty to Dwelling'.s. J
Population and ]
all otlier prop-
erty

'U.S.A...
So. Ca...

U.S.A..
So. Ca..

1 to

1 to

0..55
0.69

I tola)
1 to 109

55 to 100
e9 to 100

S7 35,

$3 7l!

$220'
»86

SI to 883'

11 to $t).j!

51.009
1,207

I to 582
1- to 5-55

1 to 22
1 to 23

1 to
1 to

19,128.751 S171,397,932i
451,256 3,481 236,

34
2 decrease

0.60
0.64

60 to 100
64 to 100

$5 43
SI 94

38.061
. 1,182

14 234.818 8;7,32S.801
460,450 2,172,242

1 to 633
1 to 565

S143 1 to 25
8U5 1 to 26

Si to S94

SI to f 157

1 to 88
1 to 43

0.61
0.68

61 to 100
68 to 100

S89

»72

to 881
lo S132

Table B. — Showing the Condition of the Leading Religious Denominaiions in South
Carolina and in the United States in 1850, 1860, 1870, according to United StatesCensus^

1870

Ch'hes.

Sittincrs.

Property.

1860

Ch'hes.

Sittings.

Property.

1850

Ch'hes.

Sittings.

Property.

Baptist

Jlethodist .

/U.S.A...
' X So. Ca...

f U.S.A...
ISo. Ca...

f TI S A
Presbyterian {yo. Cai:

f TT S A
Episcopalian jso Ca!'

Lutheran {^o.^ct:

It .man Catholic, lyo^ca!'

All others.

(U.S.A..
I So. Ca..

12,857
466

21.337
532

5,683
136

2,601
81

2,776
44

3,806
13

13,022
36

3,997,116

190,750

6,528,209
164,050

2,198,900
61,450

991,051
35,351)

977,.332
17,900

1,990,514
10,775

4,989,800
11,150

$31,383..377|
551,106

55,883,2971
521,720

38,262,986,

430,320|

29,211,6401
573,6S0j

11,934.198!

109,9601

48,784.853
233,200

68,127.400
201,600

11,221
443

19.883
506

5,061
149

2,115
82

2,128

48

2,550
11

11,021

28

3,749.551
169,530

6,2.59,799
149,812

2,088,838
70,525

847.296
30,109

757,637
15,775

1,404,437
8.705

4,027,000
6,800

»19,799,378
698,678

33.093,371
632,948

24,227,359

718 885

21,66.5,698
818,130

5,385.179
153,780

26.771,119
304,300

4,452.810!
154,415

9,376
413

13,302
484

4,820
136

1,451
72

1,231
41

1,222
14

6,655
22

3,247,069

165,805

4,345,519
165,740

2,079,765
t)7,765

643,598
28,940

539,701
14,7.50

667,863
6,0i0

2,711,000
10,420

«11,020.S55
293.8t.3

14,825,070
341,108

14,.543.7S9
483,175

11.375,010
616,950

2,907.711
1()9,5()0

9,256,758
78 815

23,399,000
249,275

Table C. — Percentage of the Leading Ec-
clesiastical Denominations in South Caro-
lina, according to the Census Returns of
1850, 1860, 1870.

Church

euifices.

1870 1860 1850

Sittings.

1870 1860 1850

Baptist

Metliodist

Presbyterian

Episcopalian

Lutheran

■ Roiuan Catiiolic
All others

Total .

100

100 100

I

Property.

1870 1860 1850

100 100 100

Table D. — Percentage of the Leading Ec-
clesiastical Denominations in the United
States, according to the Census Returns of
1850, 1860, 1870.

Churches.

Sittings.

Property.

1870

I860

1
1850

1870 I860I 1850 'l870|lS60 1850

1 i II 1

21
SI
9
4
5
6
21

100

21
37
9
4
4
5
20

25,
35I
131
4
3
8
17i

19
30
10
5
4
9
23

20i 23 11

12[ 13

83 i 30
lOl 15
6 4
4 4

20
14
10
4

19i 17

Presbyterian

Episcopalian

141 17
13 i;i
3 3

Catholic

7 51 17
21 19ii 24

16 10
23 27

Total

100 lOOi

100

100 ! lOOj 100 100 100

I

1

5oG

CHURCHES.

According to table (A) it appears that the growth of the churches in
South Carolina during the prosperous decade, from 1850 to 18G0, was not
so great as elsewhere. In the succeeding decade of war and reconstruc-
tion this slow rate of increase continues, and is to be attributed to the
destruction of much church property, and even of man}^ of the churches
themselves, by the invading army. It is to be observed, however, that
even during these periods the proportion of churches and of church ac-
commodations to the population is considerably greater in South Carolina
than it is in the country at large. It will also be seen that the propor-
tion of church buildings to dwellings is greater here, and that even dur-
ing the depression of 1870, a larger percentage of the property of the
community was devoted to church purposes.

From the other tables it seems that taking into consideration at one
view the number of edifices, the accommodations and the church property,
while the preponderance in the country at large was with the Metho-
dists, this preponderance in South Carolina was in some regards divided
with the Baptists, the Presbyterians, and the Episcopalians. The per-
centage of the latter to all denominations was greater in Carolina than
in the United States, while that of the Catholics was greater in the United
States than in Carolina. No correct ideas of the general status and ten-
dency of the various denominations can be formed, however, until the
result of the enumerations of 1880 are published.

As to the distribution of the various ecclesiastical denominations in
the different sections of the State, no data later than of 1870 can now be
furnished ; it will be sufficient, therefore, merely to mention here the six
counties having the largest proportion of each leading denomination in
the order in .which they ranked in this regard in 1870. Showing at the
same time the order in which they stood as to population.

POPULATION

ALL DENOM-
INATIONS.

METHODIST

PP.ES-
BYTERIA>

CJhaflestoii

Edgefield

Barnwell

Beaufort

Abbeville

Darlington

Edgefield

Charleston

Anderson

Altbeville

Barnwell

Spartanburg

Edgefield 1 Charleston York
Greenville lEdgefield Abbeville

Barnwell i. Abbeville

Anderson Orangeburg

Spartanburg Anderson

I
Beaufort ; Union

Chester
Charleston

EPISCO-
PALIAN

Charleston
Beaufort
Colleton
Anderson

Clarendon Abbeville
Anderson I Kershaw

Ltr-

THEKAN

CATHOLIC

Edgefield Icharlestou

I
Lexington j Edgefield

Newberry Barnwell

Charleston Sumter

Richland
Oconee

Chester
Beaufort

CHAPTER VI.

OCCUPATIONS.

The population of South Carohna, according to the late census, may
be accounted for as follows :

Under the working age, that is under 10 years 332,121

Over the working age, that is over 80 years 4,887

Children over 10 years attending school . . 129,075

Defective and Dependent Classes — Idiots 1,588

Defective and Dependent Classes — Insane 1,112

Defective and Dependent Classes — Blind 1,100

Defective and Dependent Classes — Deaf Mutes 564

Defective and Dependent Classes — Paupers 720

Delinquents in all the prisons 042

Engaged in all classes of respectable and gainful occupation . . 392,102
Unaccounted for 120,700

Total 995,577

In considering those not accounted for, it must be borne in mind that
there are in the State over 185,000 married women, who have their time,
more or less, occupied with the care of families and children, especialh^
with the 67,023 of the population, one year or under in age. There are
also more than 30,000 unmarried females, between 18 and 25 years of age,
most of whom remaining with their parents and assisting their mothers
in household duties, are not yet listed in any regular employment.
Allowance, too, is to be made for a certain number of young men of the
working age engaged in preparation for professional careers, or in ac-
quiring some trade or art. No allowance, however, is to be made for
those who are unoccupied, simply because their wealth enables them to
be so ; their numbers are altogether insignificant, the more wealthy class
being usually those most fully occupied. After reasonable deductions on
these accounts, the remainder are vagabonds or persons engaged in dis-
reputable occupations. Their numbers cannot be very large, but it must
give cause for serious consideration, that not more than thirty-nine per
cent, of the population can be classed as bread-winners.

For the United States at large the percentage of the population engaged
in gainful occupations is still less, being only thirty -four per cent, accord-

i58

OCCUPATIONS.

ing to the tenth census. Tliis percentage varies greatly in the different
States and Territories, being fifty -seven in Montana and twenty-eiglit in
West Virginia ; twelve out of forty-seven having a higher percentage
of workers than South Carolina.

The status of the State in this regard may be more definitely ascer-
tained by considering the percentage of those of the working age who are
listed as workers, and comparing this number with the similar percentage
of the population of the whole country over ten years of age. It w411 be
more satisfactory also to make this comparison for the ante war period
as shown by the census of 18(30; for the period of war and reconstruction
as shown by the census of 1870, and for the period of peace subsequent
to the war and reconstruction, as shown by the census of 18S0. This is
done in the following table :

A.

o

jPoPULATION OVER

i TEN Years
i OF Age.

u. s.

s. c.

1860
1870

23,329,997,492,316
28,228,945 503,763

1880'36,761,607;667,456

Ditto Engaged

IN all

Occupations.

u. s.

s. c.

Per Cent, of AVorkers.

On Popula-
tion over Increase. Decrease.
10 vears.

U. S. S. C. U. S. 'S. C. U. S. S. C.

11,011,645 359,874:1.47 j .73
12,505,923' 263,321 1 .42 1 .50 I .

17,392,0991392.1021

.47 .58 i .06 .12

.06

.89

These figures are taken from the census returns of 1870 and 1880 with-
out change, but although no definite statement to that effect was found,
it was inferred that the table of occupations in the census of ISGO referred
only to the free population. Of the 81,631 persons listed in the occupa-
tion tables of 1860, at least 49,291 were engaged in pursuits not open to
slaves, such as teachers, merchants, clerks, planters, etc. There were,
however, at that date in South Carolina 278,243 slaves over ten years
who all had gainful occupations, and these heav}^ battalions of trained
laborers have been added to the 81,031 free workers in calculating the ta-
ble above given. The table shows that the people of (Carolina were work-
ers of old. It shows the immense nett loss the working class sustained
by war and the subsequent period of industrial disorganization. And

OCCUPATIONS.

559

above all, it shows the increase in the number of bread-winners for the
country at large, and for the State, since this period of disquiet has
passed. A comparison more in detail of the ninth and tenth census as
regards the increase and decrease of persons engaged in gainful occupa-
tions will exhibit some of the more general features of the industrial ten-
dencies of the State. The increase and decrease here referred to is esti-
mated as follows : The population of South Carolina over ten years of
age in 1870 was 503,763 ; in 1880, this population was returned as 667,-
456, giving an increase of 163;693, or thirty-two per cent. In 1870, the
workers numbered 263,321, and if they increased in the same ratio as the
population, that is by thirty-two per cent., they should have numbered
347,588, but actually they are numbered in the tenth census at 392,102,
a gain of 44,519, or a net increase of workers of twelve per cent, over
and above, and in addition to the natural increase of thirty-two per cent.
This increase furnishes what may be called the index to the moral, as
distinguished from the natural increase in industrial tendency. If it is
desired to know the gross rate of increase in all occupations, or in any
leading class of occupations given in the following table (B,) the natural
rate of increase of the, population over ten years must be added to the
percentage there stated. This is, as above stated, thirty-two for South
Carolina, and thirty for the United States.

l.ahle showing the percentage of net increase or decrease — (m) designates the
latter — in relation to the increase of the jiopulcdion over ten years, of
persons engaged in occupations in South Carolina and the United States,
between 1870 and 1880.

B.

South Carolina.

United States.

Total.

Male.

Female.

Total.

Male.

Female.

All occupations . . .

1
.127

.110

.138

.067
(m)

.051
(m)

.110

Agriculture

.087

.052

.108

.005

.024

.161

Professional and person-

(m)

al service

.410

.359

.484

.165

.275

.017

Trade and Transporta-

1

tion

.219

.188

.397

.167

.137

1.016

Manufactures and Min-

ing ........

.079

.079

.000

.088

.040

.383

5G0

OCCUPATIONS.

Here the marked tendency to the increase in female workers is clearly
shown. Tliat this should be more apparent in the United States than in
South Carolina is doubtless due to the fact, which will presently appear,
that the proportion of females among the workers of the United States is
considerably less than in South Carolina, and in so far as this is owing to
natural conditions the percentage of increase in the female workers of
the United States above given, shows the force of the moral tendency in
opposition to natural conditions. The rate of increase of the classes en-
gaged in professional and personal services, and in trade and transporta-
tion is markedly greater than in the other occupations, and this rate of
increase is very much greater for South Carolina than it is for the coun-
try at large. By a curious coincidence the increase of the persons en-
gaged in manufactures and mining in South Carolina agrees precisely
with the rate of natural increase, that is, thirty-two per cent. A more
complete view on these points may be obtained by considering the

SEX AND NATIVITY

of the working population as given in the census of 1880, and from data
there given is compiled the following :

Table shoiving the j^ercentage of males and females, native and foreign born
engaged in all occupations, and in each leading class of occupations in the
United States and in South Carolina.

C.

U.S.

So. Ca.

U.

S.

So. Ca.

M.

F.

M.

F.

6

Foreign.

6

(-1
.fee

o

All occupations

1
.85

.15

.69

.31

.80

.20

.991

.009

Agriculture

9^?,

OS

71

^9

89

11

998

OO'^

Professional & personal services.

.66

.34

.54

.46

.75

.25

.988

.012

Trade and Transportation . . .

.97

.03

.97

.03

.75

.25

.924

.076

Manufacturing and Mining. . .

.83

.17

.84

.16

.67

.33

.986

.014

OCCUPATIONS. 5G1

Although South Carolina has taken no prominent part in the move-
ment for the emancipation of the female sex, it is notable that here the
proportion of women who enjo}^ the privilege of earning their livelihood
in respectable occupations, is more than double that of the country at
large. In thus leading in one of the great movements of modern civili-
zation, which seeks more and more to make women bread-winners, the
State is largely indebted to favorable conditions afforded by its climate.
For while the percentage of females engaged in the occupations embraced
under trade, transportation and manufactures, occupations pursued
under shelter, and in a large measure independent of climatic influences,
is almost identical in South Carolina and in the United States, the state
of the case is altogether different as regards out of doors occupations,
such as agriculture. From the above table it appears that in the tem-
perate climate of South Carolina twenty-nine women are capable of per-
forming field work, where under the rigors and vicissitudes of the climate
to which the population of the country at large is exposed, only eight
women are found able to engage in this employment. The crops culti-
vated also favor this. Nowhere is female labor more remuneratively
employed than in picking cotton, and of the four and one-half millions
of dollars annually disbursed as wages in the State in this employment,
the larger proportion goes to females. The seeding and hand culture of
the crop is also light, but nice work, and employs many women. Since
the reverses of fortune following the late w^ar, many delicately reared,
and once wealthy ladies, have found themselves able to assist in this re-
munerative labor. This state of things is alone sufficient to explain the
greater healthfulness and vigor of Southern women, as indicated by the
more rapid increase of the Southern populations. Comparing the white
population North and South, in this regard, J. Stahl Patterson, (Fop. sci.,
Vol. XIX, p. 671,) makes the ratio of increase per decade of the Northern
whites to be 15.7 per cent., and for the Southern whites, 30.4, or nearly
double.

As regards nativity, it will be observed that while the country at large
owes one-fifth of its working population to foreign nations, South Caro-
lina is indebted for only nine-tenths of one per cent, of her workers to
such assistance from abroad. Comparatively few of the foreign born
population engage in agriculture, the leading pursuit in South Carolina.
They are chiefly miners, traders, and dealers, and domestic servants, oc-
cupations, hitherto, hot largely represented in South Carolina, but which
are daily acquiring more importance, and becoming more remunerative
here. (See Table E.)

502 OCCUPATIONS.

It is of interest to note the

CHANGES OF OCCUPATION

wliicli are in progress, and with this view the following table has been
compiled from the returns of the Ninth and Tenth U. S. Census, show-
ing tlie percentage of persons at different ages and for the sexes engaged
iji all occupations in the United States and South Carolina in 1870 and
1880, and also the per cent, engaged in each of the four great classes of
occupations.

D.

Ages,
10 TO 15.

Ages.
15 TO 59.

Ages,

60 AND OVER.

TOTALS.

Se

X.

Se

X.

Sex.

u. s.

So. Ca.

r2

6

s

6

Is
S

1870

1880

1870

1880

i

^ United States
United States

South Carolina
South Carolina
I

1870
1880

1870
1880

.0456
.0475

.0730
.0810

.0151
.0169

.0446
.0535

.7584
.7467

.5656
.5577

.1273
.1312

.2495
.2413

.0506
.0537

.0567
.0549

.0030
.0040

.0106
.0137

.100

.s

100

100

1

.100

<

1

South Carolina :

Agriculture

1870

.0663

.0361

.4467

.1788

.0480

.0092

.48

.79

1880

.0700

.0425

.4156

.1688

.0464

.0088

.44

.75

Professional and per-

1870

.0046

.0070

.0507

.0598

.0055

.0047

.21

.13

sonal services

1880

.0094

.0082

.0738

.0638

.004:2

.0043

l_

.24

.17

Trade and Transpor-
tation

1870
1880

1870

.0002
.0004

.0008

.0299
.0320

.0373

.0007-
.0008

.0109

.0011
.0009

.0030

.10

n^

.10

03

Manufactures and

.0006

.0003

.21

.05

Mining

1880

.0018

.0007

.0361

.0087

.0032

.0002

.100

.22
.100

.100

.05
.100

The increase in the percentage of bread-winners among the old and
the young is clearly shown in this table, and is even more marked in
South Carolina than in the country at large. The only exception to the
general rule is found among males over sixty years in South Carolina.
The decrease in workers of this class is small, and is due, doubtless, to
reduction in the number and strength of this class as a consequence of
the late war, men now over sixty having been at that date in the prime
of life, and especially exposed to the casualties of war. That the same

OCCUPATIONS. 5G3

reduction is not apparent in the country at large results from the fact,
that immigrants, which count for nothing in South Carolina, have else-
where filled the gap ; and, furthermore, that the proportion of soldiers to
the population was far greater in Carolina than in the country at large.
The explanation of this tendency is that, with the development of civil-
ized life, industrial improvements render labor easier, so that the very
young and the very old may, by art, supply the vigor of adult lil'e and
become bread-winners. Nature has also assisted here, and in a genial
climate like that of South Carolina the young and the old may engage
in many kinds of labor, especially in agricultural labor, from which
much more robust workers would be precluded by the extremes of severer
seasons in more northern latitudes.

Before examining in further detail the changes of occupation taking
place, attention is directed to the following table, copied from the eighth,
ninth and tenth census, showing the number of persons engaged in each
occupation, in which more than five hundred persons in South Carolina
were engaged, according to the census of 1880.

OCCUPATIONS.

E.

1800.

So. Ca., U.S.

1870.

So. Ca. U. S.

1880.

So. Ca.

U.S.

A 2 r i c u 1 1 u r e

A jzri cultural laborers

Farmers and planters

Turi^entine farmers and la-
borers

2. Professional and personal'

services I

Clergymen

Domestic servants I

Laborers

Launderer and laundress •• j

Lawyers |

Officials and employees of

Government |

Teachers \

Physicians and Surgeons...!.;

Trade and Transportation...

Traders and dealers

Draymen, hackmen, team-
sters, etc

OflScers and employees of
R. R. companies

Sailors, steamboatmen, pi-
lots watermen

Manufacturing and Mining..

Blacksmiths

Shoemakers

Brick and stone masons and
stone cutters

Carpenters and joiners

Coopers

Cotton and woolen mill op-
eratives

Millers and sawyers

Tailors, milliners, seam-
stresses

All classes of occupations ..

I I! 206,654' 5,922,471

6,812 795,679 j 163,528 2,885,996
40,392'2,547,:J39 42,546 2,981,320

160

586

1,103

5,796

309

457

445
1,455
1.116

1.303

3,720
505
364

282

37,529

259,908,

969,301 i

38,623

33,193

31,170'

118,596

55,055

268,978
92,207:
36,567

102,087,

692| 112,207i

589; 164,108!

569' 109,913

1,848,! 251,286

1761 43,624

I I

623i 87,289'

5261 52,282,

!

2,898: 252,953

81,6318,287,043

240

34,383

553 1

24.563

16,780,

1,555

1.126

475 1
1,111

789

8,470
2,798.

661 1

1,211

491

13,794

1,140

538

494

2,454

294

1,064
678

2,528

2.4781

2,684,793,

43,874i

975,734:

1,031,666
60,906
40,736

44,743

136,570

62,283

1,191,238
351,477

120,756

163,303

98,255

2,707,421
141,774
171,127

115,541

344,596

41,780

215,317
48,512

257,317

263,301 112,505,923:]

294,602

198,147

93,550

64,246

1,165

18,463

32,486

4,793

614

1,077

2,170

919

13,556
3,794

I

1,309!

2,035

691

19,698

1,404

647

735

3,177

618

2,304
892

2,544

392,102

7,670,493
3,323,876
4,225,945

7,450

4,074,238

64,698

1,075,055

1,852,223

121.942

64,137

115,531

227,710

85,671

1,810,256
481,450

177,580

250,458

100,902

3,837,112
172,726
194,079

138,315

873,142

49,138

310.533
120,490

104,379

17,392,099

Agriculture remains, as it has always been by a long interval, the pre-
dominant pursuit of the people of South Carolina. Nevertheless, there
is evidence that this predominance is on the wane. Within the last
census decade the number of agricultural workers has only increased
twenty-one per cent., which is eleven per cent, less than the natural
increase of the working population, and twenty-three per cent, less than
the actual increase in workers in that period. The result is that, in com-

occurATioNS. 565

l-)arison with the otlier leading classes of occupations, agriculture has
suftered a decrease of four per cent., and this is the only decrease anj^-
where to be noted. In the United States at large there is also the same
decrease of four per cent, in agriculture, which, relatively to the num-
bers concerned, is much greater than the decrease in South Carolina.
For, while agriculture employs nearly one-half of the aggregate working
population of the country .at large, and double the number engaged in
any other of the leading classes of occupation, still the proportion of agri-
cultural laborers in the United States is not two-thirds of the proportion
so employed in South Carolina. In this decrease South Carolina follows
the general tendency throughout the country, and it might be said
throughout Christendom. For there seems to have prevailed with in-
creasing power, during the present century, a proneness among the popu-
lations everywhere to abandon the open country, and to flock to cities
and towns, and laying one side rural pursuits, to adopt urban occupa-
tions. England strikingly illustrates this tendency ; there, side by side
with the development of enormous wealth in commerce and manufac-
tures, has been a decline in agricultural prosperity to such an extent,
that, it is said, some of the landholders find it more profitable to lease
their lands to sportsmen for hunting and fishing than to cultivate them.
There has been in South Carolina, during the decade under considera-
tion, an increase in the number of independent farmers of 110 per cent.,
while the increase in the country at large in this regard has only been
40 per cent. Among the classes engaged in

PROFESSIONAL AXD PERSONAL SERVICES,

a marked increase has taken place in Carolina. It amounts to 87 per
cent, on those thus engaged in 1870, while the same increase for the
country at large amounted to only 51 per cent. This class of occupations
shows in this State a gain of 4 per cent, upon the others, being identical
with the loss just remarked regarding agricultural pursuits. Clergymen
have increased 110 per cent., or at the same rate as the small farmers.
Lawyers, on the other hand, have decreased 46 per cent., there being less
demand for their services since the establishment of peace and good gov-
ernment in 1876. Physicians have increased only 14 per cent., and are
still 17 per cent, less than they wer£ in 1860, notwithstanding the great
increase in the population. This enormous falling off is due to the fact,
that the colored population are no longer able to pay for the services of
physicians, as they were during slavery. Teachers have increased 95
per cent., but this increase amoinits to only 49 per cent, on the number
of this class in 1860, an increase wholly disproportionate to the great
increase of the school population by the introduction of the colored race.

566 OCCUPATIONS.

Domestic servants have decreased onc-tliird, wliile for tlie United States
at large there has been an increase since 1S70 of 11 per cent, in this class,
and since 1800, of 297 per cent. Thus, while domestic servants constitute
G per cent, of the whole working population of the country at large, they
only form 4 per cent, of that in South Carolina. These facts justify the
very shrewd observations of Sir George Campbell, who points out to the
emigrant classes of England and Ireland the excellent opening here for
competent servants. The great increase, however, in those engaged in
personal services in this State is due to the increase in laborers. For this
large and important class it amounts to 98 per cent, since 1870, and is
greater than that which has taken place for the country at large within
two decades. This augmentation is accounted for in South Carolina only
in a very small degree by immigrants, but comes almost exclusively from
the large class of idlers and vagabonds created by emancipation, who
have been admonished, by the gentle but steady pressure of good govern-
ment since 1876, that they must earn their bread in the sweat of their
brows. The percentage of all workers engaged in

TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION

has varied during the last decade less than one per cent, both in South
Carolina and in the United States, the increase being but slight in both
cases. In spite of the large river and harbor appropriations the actual
numbers of sailors, steamboatmen, pilots, watermen, etc , have decreased
more than 1000 in the United States since 18G0. In South Carolina this
class of Avorkers have increased over forty per cent, in the last decade.
There has also been in this State a large increase in the official and em-
ployees of railroad companies, amounting to about sixty-eight per cent,
on those enumerated in 1870. As it was formerly a popular argument
in this State against railroads, that the}' would do away with horses in
transportation, to the loss of corn and hay raising farmers, and put an
end to the occupations of teamsters, stage-drivers, hackmen and dray-
men, it is curious to note, that side by side with the above statement, the
classes here referred to have more than doubled in numbers in the same
time. Traders and dealers have, with the restoration of peace and quiet,
increased over thirty per cent, since 1870 ; the,y only number, however,
seventy-four more than they did in 1860. A most insignificant increase
in comparison with the increase in the population. None of the colored
population engage in trade, saving a few as porters in large stores. In

MANUFACTURES AND MINING

the percentage of increase in the working class of the country at large
has been one per cent,; in South Carolina the increment has been

OCCUPATIOXS. 5G7

less. So much for change of occupation. Actually the numbers of per-
sons engaged in these occupations in South Carolina were more numer-
ous in 1880 than it was in 1870 by nearly forty-three per cent., an incre-
ment slightly greater than that of the United States, as a whole, which
did not quite reach forty-two per cent. In the major manufacturing in-
dustries the numbers engaged have greatly increased in South Carolina.
For example, the number of cotton mill operatives increased from 1870
to 1880 one hundred and sixteen per cent., and if account be taken of the
additional increase up to the 1st February, 1883, as ascertained by a spe-
cial enumeration, made by the State Department of Agriculture, this in-
crease will be raised to three hundred and fifteen per cent, on those em-
ployed in 1870. The same increase has not taken place in the minor
manufacturing industries, and this would seem to confirm the impres-
sion that South Carolina is lacking as regards the lesser mechanical pur-
suits, an impression doubtless, in the main, correct. However, by the
tenth census. South Carolina is represented in fifty-three out of fiftj'-seven
manufacturing occupations mentioned in the compendium, and has over
and above this seven per cent, of her workers engaged in this class of in-
dustries employed in other lesser and miscellaneous pursuits of this char-
acter, not mentioned. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut are
represented in all the fifty-seven leading manufactu-ring industries, but
in the first two named only six per cent., and in the latter nine per cent,
of their artisans are engaged in the smaller and miscellaneous pursuits.
So that as far as the mere number of industrial pursuits of this character
is concerned, South Carolina would seem to have very nearly as many
as these States, notable for the great diversity of their manufactures.
More definite information on this point will not be had until the com-
pleted census returns of 1880 are published. In the census of 1870, out
of about four hundred specified manufacturing industries. South Carolina
is credited with only sixty-three pursued within her bordres. But the
deficiency now under consideration may be better accounted for in an-
other way. Take, for example, blacksmiths, masons, and carpenters.
The numbers engaged in these occupations form four per cent, of the
entire working population of Connecticut, five per cent, of that of Massa-
chusetts, and six per cent, of that of Rhode Island. In South Carolina
only a little over one per cent, of the working population is engaged in
these trades. Only 4,442 are enumerated as pertaining to these occupa-
tions. This was far otherwise in 18G0. Then, in addition to the 3,006
free persons, mostly whites, engaged in these occupations, and in addi-
tion to a large number of slaves, who having served their time as appren-
tices, were hired out at their trades, every large plantation had one or
more blacksmiths, one or more carpenters, and not unfrequently a brick-

508 OCCUPATIONS.

layer. The acquisition of such arts by negroes added largely to their
value, and was being more and more encouraged. The class of planta-
tions here referred to exceeded 2,000 in number, and it would be safe to
say that at least 6,000 slaves were then engaged in these occupations,
whicli, if added to the number of free artisans, would make the total
number at work in these trades 9,000, or more than double the number
enumerated in 18S0. The elder of these slave mechanics have almost all
passed away in the years which have elapsed since emancipation. The
negro apprentices and younger mechanics very generally abandoned their
pursuits when emancipated, each feeling that the brand of servitude at-
tached to the special occupation in which he. had been engaged, and
hopeful of a higher calling, threw it aside least it might interfere with
his chances. Such callings were to vote, to go to the Legislature, to
preach, or to become a land owner. The gap has never been filled. The
work-shops, that were filled with negro apprentices in former days, have
none now, and very few negroes have learned trades since the war. If
to the occupations named, those of tailor, seamstress, shoemaker, and
cooper be added, in all of which large numbers of negroes were formerly
employed, but among which few are found now, the explanation would
be fully given as to the comparatively small numbers engaged in the mi-
nor manufacturing iiidustries in South Carolina.

As to the comparative healthfulness of the various classes of occupa-
tion in South Carolina and elsewhere. The only data at present available
are the very meagre ones in the census of 1870. From these it appears
that among agriculturists one death occurs in every one hundred and
fourteen so employed in the country at large, and one in every one hun-
dred and thirty-five in South Carolina : among clergymen there is one
death in sixty-nine for the United States, one in forty-two for South Car-
olina ; among laborers, one in seventy-seven in the United States, and one
in ninety-seven in South Carolina ; among lawyers, one in sixty-six in
the United States, and one in one hundred and sixty in South Carolina ;
among physicians, one in sixty -three in the United States, and one in
seventy-eight in South Carolina ; among teachers, one in one hundred
and twenty -two, in the United States, one in two hundred and twenty-two
in South Carolina. The number of persons in South Carolina having

NO OCCUPATION

because they belong to the defective and delinquent classes, is 5,726.
Table B presents the data regarding these classes.

OCCUrATIOXS.

569

Number of defective, dependent, and delinquent jKrsons in each 100,000 of the
population of South. Carolina and of the United States, according to iJtc
Seventh, Eighth, Ninth and Tenth U. S. Census.

F.

1850.

1860.

U.S.

So. Ca.!iU. S. So. Ca

1870.

1880.

U. S I So. Ca.l U. S. So. Ca

Insane ....

Idiots ....
Blind ....
Deaf Mutes. .
Paupers .. . .
Prisoners . , .

Totals .

67

. . .'

76

45

97

47

67

.

60

58

63

65

42

•

40

41

52

63

42

• . .

40

28

42

301

217

193

263

202

199

293i

29
464

5

60
539

12

85

103!

1

198

386

538

■ 601

153

153
97
67

176;

117

111

159

110

oG

72

64

793

It will be observed from these totals that the burden of these classes has
always been less in South Carolina tlian in the country at large, except
for the decade embracing the period of Avar and reconstruction. The hu-
mane and cnliohtened treatment of

THE IX.SAXE

is of modern origin, and takes date from the efforts of Dr. Pinel, in Paris,
in 1791, and of William Tuke, of York, England, in 1796. Virginia
was the first State in the Union to grant aid to this charity, and South
Carolina was the third. In 1828 the South Carolina Lunatic Asylum,
with accommodations for 120 patients, was opened at Columbia. It was
a handsome fire-proof building, with extensive grounds, costing some-
thing less than $100,000. Since this date extensive additions and im-
I>rovements liave been made. On November 1st, 1877, 310 patients were
accommodated. Under the able superintendence of Dr. P. E. Griffin a
number of large and commodious buildings have been added, and in the
year 1882, 755 patients were under treatment. The Institution is sup-
ported by an annual appropriation from the State of §70,000 or §80,000,
and during the last few years of $20,000 or $30,000 in addition for build-
ings and improvements. There are also accommodations for the insane in

0/

570 OCCLTATIONS.

the Ro]ier Hospital, iu Charleston, a charity founded by a bequest from
Mr. Thomas Roper, in 1854, and aided since by the City and State. The
results of the treatment in 1SS2 are as follows : Deaths, 10 per cent ;
cured, 8 per cent. ; discharged, improved, or on trial, G per cent. ; dis-
charged on other accounts, 4 per cent. ; remaining at the Asylum, 72 per
cent.

The great apparent increase in tLe number of the in.sane since the
census of 1870 is not attributed by those who have studied the subject
most closely to any " sudden and surprising increase in the number of
luifortunates " themselves, but to the more careful and accurate methods
adopted in their enumeration. Owing to the very defective manner in
^vhiell data regarding this matter have hitherto been collected, it is doubt-
ful if there is anywhere positive evidence tliat this class of diseases is on
the increase, much less as to the rate of such increment, if any.

As regards the number of the insane in hospitals, especially for their
treatment, it appears, from the tenth census, that 44 per cent, of those in
the country at large were found in such institutions, while onl}' 37 per
cent, of the insane of South Carolina were found in such institutions. It
is })0ssil3le that the enumeration of these defectives was more thorough in
this State than elsewhere ; on the above showing it must at least have
been as thorough. But, making no count of this, the figures of the tenth
census fall far short of showing the actual state of the case in South
Carolina at the present time. The number of the insane in hospitals on
tlie first day of .June, 1880, is given at 41(3 by the census. By Dr. Grif-
fin's report it appears that, on the 31st of Octol;>er, 1882, there were in the
Asylum at Columbia 550 patients, besides 255 others under treatment,
during the year. So that, allowing that the 1,112 insane enumerated in
1880 had increased to 1,200, and making no account for those in the
Roper Hospital, or for such insane of the State as were under treatment
outside of its limits it appears that more than GO per cent, of these un-
fortunates Avere receiving treatment at the State Asylum at Columbia,
nor will the character of this charity be lessened by stating that only 25
of this number were pay patients. In this connection it is to be noted
that Dr. Griffin has practiced the system of release on probation to a
greater extent than has l^een done in any other asylum. Giving the
results of his experiments in this line in 1882, he says : " There were
sent home 93. Of those who were afterwards discharged as cured, 35 ;
as imi)roved, 13 ; as unimproved, but able to bo cared for at home, 6 ;
died, 5 ; 18, who were recently released, are still absent, and only IG have
returned. It is gratifying to state that, so far, there has been no instance
of violence on the part of those released." Should this plan prove equally
successful in future, it will largelv increase the numlxn- of those who mav

OCCUPATIONS. 571

enjoy the charity of tlie State. Tlie insane belong not only to the de-
fective, but also to the dangerous classes, and if the opinion now growing
among jurists is well founded, that the delinquent classes are largely
recruited from these defectives when neglected, the State, taking the
greatest care of its insane, may hope, in a measure, to be freed from the
incalculably greater burdens of criminals. In 1880, while there were
ooO criminals in the insane asylums of the Union, there Avere none of
this class in the State Asylum at Columbia.

By the tenth census, only 29 per cent, of the colored insane of the
United Slates were receiving treatment, while 32 per cent, of this class
in South Carolina were the recipients of State charity. This percentage
is doubtless very largely increased since, a-, of the increase at the State
Asylum, in 1882, the whites were 27 and the colored 33 ; and while the
census makes only 132 colored at the Columbia Asylum on the 1st of
June, 1880, Dr. Griffi:i reports 220 colored patients present on the 31st of
October, 1882. Thus the numerous charges brought against the people
of this State, of the ill-treatment of this race, is not sustained by the care
of these helpless unfortunates.

The increase in the number of

IDIOTS,

in conseciuence of the more accurate enumeration made by the tenth
census, is about the same in South Carolina as in the United States. Of
the 1,588 in the State, 7 are foreigners, and 782 are colored, including 2
Indians. There are no training schools for idiots in South Carolina, but
51 of these unfortunates are charitably maintained in the State asylums
and alms houses.

THE BLIND AND DEAF MUTES.

Of the 1,100 blind in South Carolina, GG9, or a little more than GO per
cent., are colored. Of the oGl deaf mutes, the larger proportion are
whites, there being only 263, or about 46 per cent., negroes. The South
Carolina Institution for the Education of the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, at
Cedar Springs, Spartanburg County, was educating, in 1880, 16 blind and
50 deaf mutes. The institution is maintained by the State, and prior to
its foundation, as early as 1831, the Legislature made an annual appro-
priation for sending deaf and dumb children to the Hartford school.

PAUPERISM

is an evil so slightly developed in South Carolina as to be of small con-
cern. The comparative status of the State is most truly shown in this
regard by the census of 1880, in which the number of paupers in alms

572 occurATiONS.

houses is alone given. For the otlier years the number of persons receiv-
ing support on the 1st June in each year, is chosen as the most accurate
upon which to base the comparison offered in table F. This number in
South Carolina agrees very nearly with the number of paui:)ers estimated
to have been supported during each census year. This is far from being
the case with the figures given for the country at large. There the
agsiregate number of paupers supported during the year exceeds those
enumerated on the 1st of June of each year by from 52 per cent, in 1870,
to 293 per cent, in 1860, and 168 per cent, in 1850. Wliile the superin-
tendent of the census states, as his opinion, that these figures are of little
value for purposes of comparison, nevertheless, in the absence of all other
data, so far as they may be relied on, they show that there has been from
one-half to one-fourth the proportion of pauperism among the population
of South Carolina that there has been in the countr}' at large, saving
only during the period of militar}^ rule and reconstruction, as shown by
the census of 1870. Of the inmates of alms houses in 1880, 277 were
whites and 242 were colored.

THE CRIMINAL POPULATION

of South Carolina has never bsen large, as will be seen by reference to
table F. It has always been less than that of the country at large, except
in the dark days of misrule, during reconstruction in 1870 — days never
to return, unless some social upheaval, of which no symptoms now ap-
pear, should occur. Of the 642 prisoners enumerated in this State in
1880, 586, or 91 per cent., were colored, and were confined chiefly for
thefts. During slavery such offences were prevented or ^punished by
home discipline, and when emancipation imposed the burden of their
correction upon the public, the number of delinquents largel}' exceeded
any accommodations available for them. As a consequence. South Caro-
lina, in common with other Southern States, was forced to lease out her
convicts. iSIeasures have been taken to remedy this. Industrial estab-
lishments are being erected at \he Penitentiar}-. Earl}' in 1883, the
Board of Directors of the State Penitentiary announced that, on the
expiration of the leases now in force, no more convicts would be let
out ; and that hereafter all persons condemned to labor would be worked
either within the Penitentiary itself, or upon State works, under the
supervision of State officers.

CHAPTER VII.

MANUFACTURES.

The occupation of the inhabitants of South Carohna has been more ex-
clusively agriculture than that of most civilized communities. One great
cause of this is, that the soil and climate here render agriculture more
profitable than in most places. A brief comparison of South Carolina
with the country at large, as regards the relative values of farm produc-
tions and farm expenditures, will make this clear. The following data
are taken from the compendium of the Tenth U. S. Census; the latest au-
thority on the subject,

UNITED STATES. OUTLAY.

Value of farms, including land, fences, and buildings . . $10,107,096,770

Value of farming implements and machinery -100,520,055

Value of live stock on farms, 1st June, 1880 1,500,464,009

Cost of building and repairing fences, in 1879 .... 77,703,473

Cost of fertilizers purchased in 1879 ' . . 28,580,397

Total outlay $12,210,431,310

Value of all farm productions in 1879 . . $2,213,402,504
Percentage of value of productions on outlay .... 18

SOUTH CAROLINA. OUTLAY.

Value of farms, including land, fences, and buildings .... $08,077,482

Value of farming implements and machinery 3,202,710

Value of live stock on farms 1st June, 1880 12,279,412

Cost of building and repairing fences in 1879 917,000

Cost of fertilizers purchased in 1879 2,059,909

Total outlay $87,736,573

Value of all farm productions in 1879 $41,909,749

Percentage of value of productions on outlay 47

r>74 MANUFACTURES.

Xevcrtheloss, from {in early period numerous processes were invented
and practiced by the people of Carolina in rendering raw material suit-
able for business uses. Such was the extraction of indigo, in the middle of
the last centur}', and notably the inventions for threshing and cleaning
rice. Power mills accomplishing the latter purpose were first invented in
this State, and have since served as models in this important industry
for the rest of the world. South Carolina was also the first State to pay
Eli Whitne}' for the use of his invention in cleaning seed cotton. The
first water gin was erected by Captain Kincaid, on Mill Creek, near !Mon-
ticejlo, Fairfield county, in 1795, and for many years, dating from 1801,
the Boatwrights, of Columbia, were the great .manufacturers of cotton
gins for the South. Before and during the Revolution the families of
l)lanters and their slaves were clothed in cotton homespuns made in tlie
State. A factor}^ weaving these goods for tlie supply of the adjacent
country, was established some years previous to 1790, by the Scotch-
Irish settlers, at Murray's Ferry, Williamsburg county, and Mr. Benja-
min Waring established, in the latter part of the last century, a cotton
factory, near Statesburg, for spinning and weaving " Manchester cotton
stuffs." At this time there were in York, Greenville, Spartanburg, and
Anderson, seven iron works for extracting the metal from the ore, and
Avorking it. The one in York possesses a forge, a furnace, a rolling mill,
and a nail manufactory, and was operated by an improved water blast,
the invention of Mr. Hill, one of the proprietors. There were five fulling
mills in the upper country, and throe excellent wheat merchant mills on
Pine Tree Creek, Camden county, one of which, thought to be equal to
any in the United States, produced fifty barrels of superfine flour per
da^^ By the census returns of 1810, the CaroUnas, Georgia, and Yir-
ginia manufactured greatly more in quantity and in value than the
whole of New England together. These facts, at least, make it plain
that neither the original character and activities of the people, or their
natural surroundings, such as the climatic or physical features of the
country, were hindrances to manufacturing pursuits.

That manufacturing has not held a more prominent position among
the occupations of the people is by no means wholly due to the great
profits accruing to agricultural pursuits. The improvements in spinning
and weaving, the invention of the power loom, the development of great
iron ore and coal resources, and the consequent activity in the manufac-
ture of machinery of all sorts, which took place in Great Britain in the
earlier part of the century, distanced competition in other countries, mak-
ing English goods far cheaper than any produced elsewhere. But the
chief obstacle to manufactures in South Carolina was the institution of
slavery. The large land holders had a monopoly of labor, which, in

MAXUFACTl'RES. .)7-)

common with all other monopolies, was adverse to the (levelo})ment of
manufactures. More than this, the sentiment against slavery, which
spread about this time tliroughout Christendom, isolated the industrial
institutions of the South. Forced by the necessity of the case to .stand
by the institution with which, against her protest, she had been bur-
dened, she faced single-handed the public opinion of the civilized world.
Feeling that every man's hand was against her, she became suspicious
of strangers, Immigration ceased almost entirely, and the elbow-touch
vv'ith the great industrial advance of the age was lost ; resigning her-
self almost as exclusivelv, as she was elsewhere excluded, to agricultural
pursuits, South Carolina satisfied herself with such profits as were gained
in the culture of cotton, and produced the largest amount of the raw ma-
terial ever offered in the markets of the world. Even then. South Carolina
was not unmindful of the great advantages to be obtained from diversified
pursuits, and the development of manufactures. Propositions for employ-
ing slave labor in cotton factories were discussed, and ninety-eight negro
slaves as operatives, under a single white overseer, were successfully
worked at the Saluda Factory, near Columbia, in 1S48, and in this same
factory, destro^'ed during the war, and rebuilt since, mixed operatives
have been emplo^'^ed, and the negro has been found as capable of learn-
ing, within certain limits, as the white.

'When at length the obstacle of slavery was forever removed, as a re-
.sult of the war of secession, step by step w4th the recovery of the people
from the ruin then wrought, the interest in manufactures has advanced.
To-day there is, perhaps, no community more anxious to diversify their
pursuits, and to engage in manufactures, than the people of South Caro-
lina. Abundant evidence of this is given in the exemption, b}' stat-
ute for ten years, from taxation of all capital invested in manufactures,
by the encouragement that has been given to immigration, and particu-
larly b}'- the growth of manufacturing industries.

This will appear more clearly by an inspection of Tables A, B, and C,
on the following page.

57G

MAXUFACTUKES.

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C si C iH C

MANUFACTURES. 577

Tlie growth of manufactures has been gigantic. In less tlian one
generation there is an increase more than five-fold of the capital seek-
ing investment in these industries; three times as many hands are em-
l^loyed, and six times the value of raw material is converted to human
uses. .In spite of the much greater cheapness of all manufactured ar-
ticles, the aggregate value of the products has increased five-fold.
The amount of raw material that each hand manufactures is nearly
doubled in South Carolina, as well as in the United States, indicating the
great advance in skill and efficiency, together with the improvements in
machinery. If on the whole the percentage of the nett products on capi-
tal show a decline, this is in accordance with a general tendency of ca})i-
tal, where there are large accumulations, to accept lower rates of inter-
est and of profits, while the steady improvement of wages is a subject for
gratulation, the greater remuneration of labor,. moving parallel with its
greater productiveness, and pointing to that great goal of all industrial
systems, when each lal)orer shall be paid in accordance with the work
he does.

It will be seen that the historj'- of South Carolina for this period docs
not conform with that of the country at large. The asterisks in Table C
will show that during the first two decades there was an actual decrease
in some regards, and no where ver}^ marked gains in her manufacturing
industries. This decline may in reality be said to have continued until
the close of 1876, as it was not until the restoration of civil government
at that date, that the wonderful recuperation exhibited in these tables
set in. As has been remarked, social institutions — now passed away —
unfavorable to manuftictures, checked their growth in Carolina during
the decade 1850 to 1860, immediately anterior to the war, notwithstand-
ing it was otherwise a period of great material prosperity in Carolina, as
it was elsewhere in the country. The war, as usually happens, was a
great incentive to the development of manufactures in the United States,
and to some extent, in South Carolina. But here the destruction of pro-
perty w^as too great, and the pressure of the contest, and subsequently of
military government, bore too heavily on every interest to admit of any
decided material progress. With a removal of this pressure the census
of 1880 shows a remarkable change. Manufacturing establishments are
increasing in numbers at a rate five times greater in South Carolina than
they are in the country at large; in fact, the 49-4 new establishments in
South Carolina represent nearly one-third of the total increase through-
out the country. While such an increase does not indicate the higher
development of manufactures, where the tendency is to the consolidation
of establishments, it is common to their early and vigorous growth, and
shows plainly the direction which the activities of the population are

578

MANUFACTURES.

taking. The rate of increase in capital and hands is nearly three times
as o-reat as in the whole country. The amount of material used has more
than doubled in South Carolina, while it has only increased seventy per
cent, in the United States, and this disparity would be greater if either
the value — over 3440,000,000 — of grain converted into flour and grist in
the United States Averc* deducted from the materials used in manufac-
tures, or the value— $25,000,000 — of seed cotton converted into lint and
seed by the gins of Carolina, were credited. The rate of increase in man-
facturecl products of South Carolina doubles that for the United States,
and the rate of increase in net products, that is, in products after deduct-
ing the cost of materials, is nearly three times as great. The impres-
sions thus derived from the data furnished by the U. S. Census will be
strengthened by a consideration of those given for 1882. The statement
for this data is based for the most part upon the U. S. Census returns of
1880, most of the items being taken directly from it. Other items have
been added in consequence of the development of new indu.stries not in
operation at that date. And a careful renumeration of cotton mills and
fertilizer factories has necessitated important additions. These will be
treated of in detail when the respective items are considered, and the fol-
lowing statement of manufactures in South Carolina in 1882, is given.

Table D. — Manufacturing Industries in South Carolina in 1882.

o 9f j

i S3

Cotton Manufactures

Cotton Gins

Cotton Seed Oil Mills

Fertilizers

Flouring and Grist Mill products.
Foundry and Machine Shop ''

Luin ber Sawed

Paper Mills '...

Printintr and Publishing

Tar and Turpentine

All other industries

26i §4,084,000
2800 i 3,000,000

120,000;

1,511,000'

1,339,269:
179,850!

1,056,2651
120,000|
132,7001
565.200

1.663.120;

3

11

720

18

420

2

14

192

672

4,467

8942,700

3,000

319,770

50

5,000

537

195,387

1,052
314

1,468
110
242

139,352
90,449

221,963
20,000

115,947

4.619
3,356

555,460
755,694

§5,219,564

300,000'

80,000j

1,567,833

3,265,485

137,389

1,237,361

85,000

89,450

666,179

1,384,170

$8,147,126
3,228.062

193,200
2,230.000
3,779,470

289,502
2,031.507

133,000

299,520
1,893,206
2,857,981

Total 4S78 813,771, 404 19,215 $3,361,725 $14,032,531 ?25,062.574

I ' i I I •

In the United States the number of establishments enoa^ed in

THE manufacture OF COTTON GOODS

constitute less than one-half per cent, of the manufacturing establish-
ments. The capital emploj^ed is a little over seven per cent, of the ag-

MANUFACTURES.

or.

gregate capital engaged in manufactures, the iron and steel business alone
being larger. The number of hands is a little more than five per cent,
of all hands employed in manufactures, and somewhat larger than in any
other manutacturing industr3^ The wages are four per cent, of the ag-
gregate of wages paid in manufacturing, and about equal to the amount
dis1.)ursed for picking the cotton crop. The materials are three per cent,
of all materials converted b}' manufacturing, and seven other industries,
to wit : flour and grist mill products, slaughtering and meat packhig.
Iron and steel, lumber, sugar and molasses, and men's clothing, consume
more. The products are three per cent, of the aggregate products of man-
ufactures; five industries, to wit: flour and grist mills, slaughtering and
meat packing, iron and steel, lumber, and foundry supplies, produce
more. But cotton manufactures form the chief manufacturing industi-y
in South Carolina, and their condition and growth from 1S50 to 1880, as
shown Ijy United States Census returns, are given in the following table :

Table E.

:s -J:; : Spindles, t Capital.

W

No.

Hands
No.

Wages.

Cotton
Consumed,

Lbs.

Cost

OF

Value

OF

Mate'als. Products.

1850.
U. s. A.
So. Ca...

ISBO.

r. s. A.

So. Ca...

*1870.
U s.A.
So. Ca...

1880.
U. S. A.
So. Ca...

ti88:j.

So. Ca...

1094!
18

1091
■ 17

74,.500,9.31

857,200

5,255,7271 98,585,269
30,890| 801,825

95fi 7,132,415,112,545,032

121 34,940 j 1,009,600

75()| 10,653,435:208,280,340

14i 82.334! 2,776,100

26i

181,7431 4,084,000

92,286
1,019

122,028
891

135,369
1,123

174,6.59
2,053

4,467

23,940,108
123,300

31 ,235,307
206,143

42,040,510
380,844

942,700

288,-558,000
4,468,050

422.704,975
3,978,061

409,901,106
4,756,823

750,343,981
15,601,005

34,835,0.56
295,971

65,501.687
842,440

57.285,5341115,681,774
431,525; 713,050

89,399,548 141,891,781
609,173j 1,223,949

102,206,.347 492,090,110
l,808,.300l 2,895,769

47,924,2731 5,219,564

8,147,126

Note.— *The fi.eures given in the United States Census are stated in currency for the
year 1870; they are here reduced to gold, which was at an average premium in that
year of 25.3 per cent-

fThese totals are from an enumeration made by the Department of Agriculture of
South Carolina in November, 1882, which is given in detail further on.

The marked and continuous decrease during this entire period in the
number of establishments throughout the country at large indicates that
the old established centres of this indu.stry had already before its com-
mencement attained their Avidest extension, and that thereafter the
development of these enterprises depended rather on consolidating and
enlarging existing mills, than on erecting new ones. Such a degree of

580 MANUFACTURES.

maturity is not apparent in South Carolina, and the large increase in the
number of cotton mills here since 1870 shows that there remains much
suitable territory still unoccupied, and that the competition between the
larger and the smaller mills is not yet so sharp, but that all may survive
and prosper.

Between 1850 and 1860, while the capital and hands employed in cot-
ton mills throughout the country show an increase, each of about 32 per
cent., and the products an increase of 76 per cent., there was a marked
decrease in all these regards in South Carolina, making it plain that,
during that period of exceptional prosperity, there Avas no tendency in
the State towards the development of cotton mills.

During the decade of war and reconstruction, 1860-70, there is a
marked change. The percentage of increase, except only as regards the
number of spindles, is notably greater in South Carolina than elsewhere.
The capital employed in cotton manufactures increased 33 per cent.,
while in the United States the increase was only 14 per cent. ; the num-
ber of hands increased 26 per cent., against only 10 per cent, throughout
the country at large. South Carolina consumed 19 per cent, more cotton
in 1870 than in 1880, while there was an actual diminution in the
amount used in the United States of 3 per cent. ; the value of the pro-
ducts of the mills in^^reased 23 per cent, for the whole country, but in
South Carolina this rate was nearly trebled, being 02 per cent. ; the gain
in the number of spindles was 36 per cent, for the whole United States,
but only 13 per cent, in South Carolina. The mill owners here still lack
the capital necessary to purchase a full supply of macliinery, but they
make no mean showing with what they have.

In the decade ending 1880 the gains are great everywhere, and in every
particular, but in every particular the rate of increase is very much
greater in South Carolina than in the country at large. The United
States have 52 per cent, more spindles, but South Carolina has more than
double, the increase being 133 per cent. The capital employed in cotton
manufactures in the country at large is 84 per cent, more than it was in
1870; in South Carolina this increase rises to 159 per cent. The United
States employ 28 per cent, more hands, while South Carolina furnishes
work for 82 per cent. more. The value of the products of the cotton
mills of the United States is greater than it was in 1870 by 35 per cent.,
but the value of the products of the Carolina mills lias nearly quadrupled
this rate of increase, showing a gain of 137 per cent. As to the raw
material, the country at large consumed 183 pounds in 1880, where it
consumed 100 pounds in 1870, and for every 100 pounds manufactured
in Carolina in 1870 there was, according to Mr. Atkinson, 328 pounds
manufactured in 1880. The fifteen and a half millions pounds of raw

MANUFACTURES. 581

cotton manufactured in South Carolina in 1880 Avas more than four tinier
.as much as the entire amount used by the eighty-seven cotton mills of
the United States in 1810, according to Mr. Albert Gallatin's report to
Congress in that year. It is interesting to note that this greater work
performed in 1880 in Carolina engaged but little more than half the
capital, half the number of hands, and only about three per cent, more
spindles than are shown in 1810 by the enumeration of INIr. Gallatin.

Owing to the decline of manufactures in South Carolina between 1850
and 1860, if the comparison were made between their condition in the
last named year and in 1880, their progress would be more clearly
marked. But, taking the whole period under consideration, the follow-
ing results are exhibited. The United States has increased its spindles
by 102 per cent.. South Carolina by 166 per cent. ; the capital engaged
in cotton manufactures in the whole country has increased 179 per cent.,
in South Carolina the gain is 222 per cent. ; the number of hands finding-
work in the mills is greater for the United States by 88 per cent., in
South Carolina by 101 i:>er cent. ; the value of the products of the cotton
mills of the whole country is greater by 191 per cent, in 1880 than it was
in 1850, in South Carolina this increase is 246 per cent. ; the increase in
the annual consumption of raw material is 160 per cent, for the United
States, and for South Carolina it is 248 per cent. Rapid as the develop-
ment of this industry thus appears for the country at large, the rate of
progress is shown to be greater in each particular in South Carolina. Nor
does this complete the statement.

In the ftxll of 1882, the Department of Agriculture of South Carolina
undertook an enumeration of the cotton mills of the State. The data
obtained are exhibited in detail in the folio win 2; table :

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MANUFACTURES. 583

The returns are only partially complete, and it was found impracticable
to obtain answers in full, unless there were some law compelling the mill
owners to make them. No returns whatever could be obtained from the
Pendleton Factory, and those published some years since were used. The
lirst nine columns are very nearly complete, and furnish important in-
formation. The aggregate of the other columns is given l)y estimates
Inised, in part, upon Mr. Edward Atkinson's statements regarding the mills
in Soutli Carolina in ISSO, and in part on deductions from the data fur-
nished by such mills as made complete returns to the Department of Ag-
riculture. Looking from this enumeration in 1882, backwards to the
condition of the cotton manufactures in South Carolina in 1850, it will
l)e seen that the number of mills has increased forty-four per cent.; the
numl)er of spindles is nearly six-fold greater, showing an increase of four
hundred and eighty-eight per cent. ; the capital employed is nearly five
times as nmch, showing an increase of tliree hundred and seventy -six per
cent. ; there are more than four times as many hands, their increase being
three hundred and thirt3"-nine per cent. ; the value of the products has
increased eight hundred and sixty-seven per cent., and the amount of raw
material annually consumed, nine hundred and seventy-four per cent.
Nor does this movement seem as yet to have approached a limit. There
i-^ scarcely a town above the lower Pine Belt, that is, in the upper two-
1 birds of tlie State, in which the erection of one or more cotton mills is
not being actively agitated ; at the last session of the Legislature, in De-
cember, 1882, nine new companies for the manufacture of cotton Avere in-
corporated, and several of these will commence operations on the present
cotton crop. It would seem that this State, which was a pioneer in the
cultivation of cotton, is about to assume the position of a cotton manu-
facturing State on a large scale. Already the forty-seven millions of
pounds of raw cotton required by the spindles in operation in this State,
in 1883, is more than the average consumptionof the whole United States
from 1825 to 1830, which is placed at 129,954 bales per annum, averaging
le?s than four hundred pounds. Already also, the value of the products
of the mills in this State exceeds the cost of the cotton goods consumed
annually within its borders, assuming this to be about the average
consumption per capita of the whole country. For if the value of the
products of cotton manufactures in the United States ($192,090,110) be
added to the value of the yearly imports of cotton stuffs ($29,922,000) and
from this sum the value of the yearly exports (§9,981,000) be deducted,
the remainder will represent the domestic consumption,and will be about
$4.22 to each inhabitant of the country. On this basis the consumption
of cotton goods in Carolina would bs less than $5,000,000 per annum,
and the mills running in 1SS3 are expected to yield a product exceading

58 1 MANUFACTURES.

§8,000,000. A-^ain, the amount of raw cotton maimfactured in Carolina
in 1883 is about equal to the total quantity of that material imported
into Great Britain in the year 1800, the import for 170D being given as
forty-three millions pounds, and for 1801 as fifty-six millions pounds.
The rapid development taking place in the cotton manufactures of South
Carolina is not exceptional. It is almost entirely within the present cen-
tury that this industry has had its growth, and "taking into consideration
the capital invested, the labor employed, the genius it has waked, and
the honors with which that genius has been crowned, the endless stDam
marine, the number of merchants, bankers, clerks, and sailors engaged
in its world-wide distribution, it may be said that the cotton manufactur-
ing industry fills a larger space in the commercial activity and greatness
of to-day than any other, perhaps, than all the other manufacturing in-
dustries of the world combined." The value of the products of the cot-
ton manufactures of the world for 1880, are estimated at i^l,348,31 0.000.
Of this enormous product forty -one per cent, comes from the United
Kingdom of Great Britain, seventeen per cent, from the United States
(which ranks next by more than double the quantit}' produced by any
other nation), and forty-two per cent, from all the other countries of the
world. And yet, if the natural and reasonable wants of mankind in the
matter of cotton goods are to be supplied, this industry is only in its in-
fancy, licaving out of view all the numerous and important human uses
that cotton goods subserve, and the new purposes (such as roofing, &c.,
etc.,) to which they are being daily applied, if the matter of underwear
alone be considered, it is computed that the cleanliness, comfort and
health of a human being will be increased by an annual consumption of
cotton cloth up to $20 at current prices. But the greatest consumption
of cotton goods in 1880 in Great Britain and Ireland was only $5.71
per capita, having risen from $3.47, in 1853. In the United States it is
twenty-one per cent. less. Taking the population of Europe, including
Russia and Turkey, and -of North and South America, the annual
product of the world would supply only $2.95 per capita. China and
India chiefly supply themselves with cotton goods, manufactured by
hand looms. The former country produces annuall}'' by this primitive
and costly method, 7,300,000,000 yards, an amount almost equal to twice the
total annual export of cotton piece goods from Great Britain. If their
population be included, the present products of the cotton mills of the
world would only furnish goods to the value of $1.20 per capita. If, finally,
the populations of the rest, of Asia, of Africa, and the islands of the sea
Ije included, and the entire product of the world's cotton manufactures
Avere divided out to its inhabitants, there would be only a value of
ninctv-three cents for each. How far and how fast the civilization of

MANUFACTURES.

585

this age will open up markets for these products is one of the great ques-
tions of the day, and one of paramount importance to the Southern States
which produce seventy-six per cent, of the raw material on which this
stupendous industry is based, a supremacy they are likely to maintain in
the future, as they have in the past, whatever the course of events may
be. It would seem to follow from these facts that the apprehensions
sometimes expressed that cotton manufactures and cotton culture are be-
ing overdone is idle and without foundation, "in view of the hundreds of
millions of people, with an increased ability to purchase, which every
new invention makes, who are awaiting the advent of civilization to avail
themselves of more perfect appliances for their daily wear."

What is of immediate interest here, is to ascertain the facilities offered
by the character of our manufacturing operations, and the conditions
that surround them for their successful competition in the markets of the
world with those of other countries. Some of the more important of
these details in cotton manufacture in South Carolina and in the United
States, as deduced from the U. S. Census returns, are exhibited in the
following table :

Table G.

1880.

1870.

1860.

1

]

1 1850.

<

1 h^

<
6

1
<

d

<

< !

6 1

<

<
d

Spindles per hand

Pounds cotton consumed per hand

Pounds cotton consumed per spindle...
Value of products per hand

No.
Lbs.
Lbs.

$

' $

1

p. c.

p. c.

cts.

cts.

cts.

61
421)5

70
1093

273
18
92

22

25

13.7

19.2
240

40

7602

177

1410

344

35

104

25

18

11.6

14.
185

50
3020

57
1040

157

19

126

18

34

21.7

29 4

30

4324

133

1089

274-

35

114

28

!

25
12.8
171

42

'3463

80

948

283

22

117

34

27

13.5

19.2

34

4464

125

800

188
20
8i

19

17

10.8

13.9

3102
"709

""87

22
12.

4483

"8->:'5

Value of products per hand, less wages
and materials

Value of ]iroductsper spindle

Value of i)roducts per cent, on capital..

Value of products per cent, on capital,

less waives and materials

98

Value of products per pound cotton
used

18

Cost of materials per pound cotton
used

fi.6

C(jst of materials and wages per pound
cotton used

Wages per hand

230

183

114

138

If the number of spindles run per hand' be considered, it would appear
that the effectiveness of the operatives in Carolina was not so great as in
the country at large. In this particular, if the comparison be made in
ISGO, it will be more favorable than if made in 1880. The reason for

38

586 MANUFACTITRES.

tliis is quite simple, in tlie great increase in the nunilx'r of hands em-
ployed, drawn almost entirely from the immediate neighborhood of the
new mills, many inexperienced ones have been brought in, and are being
taught. Nevertheless, South Carolina shows forty spindles to the hand,
while in Germany there are only thirty -nine, in France twenty-four, and
in Russia, nineteen. Great Britain boasts, it is true, of eighty-three spin-
dles to the operative, and in this respect she is further ahead of the United
States than the latter is of South Carolina.

At all times Sovith Carolina exhibits a marked superiority in the num-
ber of pounds of raw material manufactured per hand, while the cheaper
products of her mills do not compare with the more delicate and costly
fabrics of England and the North, they are suited to a far wider market,
and, therefore, furnish a safer and more stable basis of operations. This
view gathers force when it is observed that tlie gross value of the pro-
ducts per hand in Carolina is greater than elsewhere, even than it is in
Great Britain, where it is only $1,169 per hand. (See Cotton Goods Trade
of the World, Government printing press, Washington, D. C, 1881.) It
will be strengthened also by noting that the value of the net products
per hand, that is of the products less the cost of materials and wages, is
greater in Carolina ; and further, that these products, both gross and net,
give a larger percentage on the capital employed in Carolina than in the
country at large.

The most striking advantage exhibited by the census in the manufac-
turing operations of Carolina over those of the country at large is in the
much lower cost here of materials, a difierence in favor of the Carolina
manufactures of from eight and nine-tenths cents per pound of cotton
consumed in 1870, to two and one-tenth cents per pound, according to the
carefully prepared statements of ^Ir. Edward Atkinson, of Boston, in 1880.
Computed from the data furnished by the report of the Cotton Goods
Trade, above referred to, each pound of cotton consumed by the English
manufacturers in 1880, cost 14.8 cents, or 3.2 cents per pound more than
in Carolina. These differences in the cost of raw material between the
Carolina cotton fields and other places may need some qualifications in
view of the fact that manufactured material, as yarns, more costly than
raw cotton, may be included among the materials consumed in other
places. For England, at least, such corrections must be very small, as
the total value of the yarns imported in 1880 only exceeded by a small
fraction one per cent, of the cost of the imports of raw cotton, and are
probably more than offset by the cheaper, though poorer materials ob-
tained from India. It is not easy to form even an approximate estimate
of the actual difference between the cost of raw cotton to the manufac-
turer in Carolina and to the manufacturer in Europe. The rates of

MANUFACTURES. 587

freight and insurance are probably far from being the largest items.
There are the commissions for buying and selling, often more than once;
the charges for hauling, weighing, storage, drayage, wharfage, compress-
ing, mending ; the loss by shrinkage of various sorts, by sampling, by
damage from dirt and damp during transportation, by injury in com-
pressing, by stealage, by the deduction of a heavy tare, which is heavily
discounted b}^ the foreign purchaser, and which, fall as it may at first on
the producer, is paid finally by the consumer of cotton goods. Then there
is other tribute paid in various forms to the vast army of middlemen who
exact every iota the material will bear during its passage between the
planter and the manufacturer. And above all these, the robber hordes
of speculators, increasing daily in numbers, hover over the trade for the
opportunity to plunder it affords. To illustrate the confusion worse
confounded with which this last named class involve those transactions,
it is sufficient to mention that the speculations in 1881-82 caused the
price of American cotton to be lower during the whole year in Liverpool
than it Avas to American spinners, and that with a nearly uniform supply
and demand the price was forced up three cents per pound, or thirty per
cent., in the summer of 1882. Water can not be made to run up hill
without much work, and this reversal of the natural order of things in
the cotton market could have been effected only at immense cost. And
this much is certain, that whoever might pay for it, or gain by it in the
first instance, ultimately it must all be charged in the cost of cotton goods,
and operate as an obstacle in the development of this trade. The cotton
mills in Carolina find it largely to their interest to purchase directly
from the farmers, and several find it profitable to have gins for cleaning
the seed cotton, which they afterwards purchase for their own consump-
tion.

In the matter of wages the advantage is once more with South Caro-
lina. And this arises partly from the very nature of things, for in a
genial and healthful climate like this, human life being easier, must,
under other like conditions, be more abundant. The labor, too, has many
admirable characteristics in addition to its cheapness. The Anglo-Saxon
population here, anxious to escape from field labor, possesses all the
intelligence and good qualities exhibited by that race wherever it has
been Americanized, beside being, as yet at least, unaffected by those
Communistic notions that have interfered so profoundly with the effect-
iveness of such labor in many places. If a greater extension of manu-
facturing operations should make larger demands for labor than the
native white population of the State could supply, besides the induce-
ments such a state of things would hold out to immigrants, there is the
negro population, which, as the whites passed on to the higher operations

oSS MANUFACTURES.

requiring greater skill, might be brought in for the simpler kinds of
work. The experience of the Saluda Mills with colored operatives,
already referred to, shows what may be done in this line. At an}' rate,
things will change very much in South Carolina before manufacturers
here will ask for a tariff of 40 per cent, on their products to protect them
from the cheap labor of other countries, or cease to demand its removal
in order that they may avail themselves of the new inventions and
cheaper machinery of other lands.

The other natural conditions which surround manufactures, such as
the available water powers, and cheap land and building material of
stone, brick and wood in South Carolina, have :been referred to in detail
in the preceding chapters of this book. It only remains to mention that,
with the opening up of the great coal and iron fields of Alabama, now
in rapid progress, these materials will also be supplied here at low rates.
Mr. McCaughrin, President of the National Bank of Ne\vberry, and late
President of the Columbia and Greenville Railroad, says that when the
Atlanta and Birmingham Railway is opened this fall, coal from that
point will be delivered in this State for $4.50 or less per ton.

With cheaper land and with cheaper and better raw material than can
be had elsewhere, and with cheaper and, as it would appear, more reliable
and effective labor, and with every advantage in the other natural condi-
tions of the environment, it follows that the future development of cotton
manufactures in South Carolina will be limited alone by the amount of
capital seeking investment in them. Although the laws which regulate
the movements of capital are perhaps as little understood as those which
compel the migrations of men and animals, they are doubtless as absolute
as those which govern the diffusion of gases. And it may be assumed
that when the tendency of production, prevalent everywhere, in opulent
countries, and especially in old established centres of manufacturers, to
reach a minimum rate of profits, is no longer checked by the importation
of cheaper raw material and food supplies, or by new inventions, cheap-
ening still more the cost of production, or by commercial revulsions, to
all of which there is a limit, but one resource will be left to capital —
emigration. This must come in the cycle of events, and, with the amaz-
ing rapidity with which history reaches maturity in these days, it may,
in the matter of cotton manufactures, come soon. In view of the advan-
tages offered by South Carolina, above detailed, a comparison of the value
of factory stocks and the rate of dividends exhibited by the mills in
Carolina, as shown in the enumeration furnished by the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture, with those of other countries, would indicate that
even now some such movement would be profitable. Take for example
this statement from the United States Consul at Manchester, England,

MANUFACTURES.

589

January 12th, 1881 : " Out of 125 cotton spinning and manufacturing
companies, mentioned in the Oldham CJtronide, one paid a dividend for
the last quarter of 2 per cent., one of 2| per cent., two of 4 per cent., six
of five per cent , one of 5| per cent., two of 8 per cent., five of 10 per cent.,
while 104 paid no dividends, and, in a great majority of cases, made
losses, more or less serious." If these 104 mills were removed to the
healthy hills of granite along the Catawba, the Broad, and the Saluda
rivers and their tributaries in this State, they would escape the close com-
petition which threatens their destruction. Such an increase of numbers
here M^ould facilitate manufacturing operations, and it would be long
years hence, if ever, before their productions would reduce their profits
in the wide markets of the world. Always there, would rest with them
the vantage that first comers hold, which is now held against them.

COTTON GINNING

is one of the most important industries in South Carolina, but it has
never received separate mention in the returns of the United States
Census. Its omission in the list of manufacturing industries, which
includes the grinding of wheat and corn into flour and grist, depends
rather upon some arbitrary definition of manufactures than upon any
essential diflference in the industries themselves. In the absence of a
general enumeration of the gin houses of the State, the following estimate,
based on partial enumeration, is offered as an approximate statement in
regard to this industry :

Power Employed.

Capital.

Hands.

Expenses.

Product.

o

03

D
O

w

S

02

O

H

Wages.

Kepairs,
Supplies,
Insurance.

Bales
Cotton.

Tons
Seed.

2800

5967

5661 2295

13,923

$3,000,U00

1

3000

$319,770 $303,369

1 1

516,498

258,245

Before the subdivision of the large plantations into the numerous small
farms of the present day, nearly every cotton planter had a gin house of
his own. Now, however, there is not more than one gin house to each
thirty-two farms growing cotton. From this it has resulted that cotton
ginning has become a business, in a large measure, separate and distinct
from cotton srowins. In the reorganization of Southern industries on

590 MANUFACTURES.

the new basis, it was jfirst thought that movable ginneries would meet
the necessities of the case, and for a year or two traction engines with
ginning equipments went through the country for this purpose. It was
found, however, that they would not answer. The small cotton farmers
did not have the facilities for storing their cotton until the whole or even
a large portion of their crop was gathered ; the exigencies also of their
financial condition made it necessary for them to put their cotton in the
market without delay after it was gathered. For these reasons the port-
able gins were obliged to change their location for nearly every bale they
ginned, Avhich was so expensive that, after a fair trial, they were aban-
doned as unsuitable. Immediately, in addition to the gin houses estab-
lished of old upon the plantations, new ones were erected by countr}^
merchants and others as toll gins, expressly for the purpose of supplying
the wants of the new growth of small cotton producers. The competition
for custom among these new establishments greatly reduced the charges
for ginning ; formerly the seed was given for the ginning, noAV bagging
and ties are supplied in addition where the seed is taken. The money
charges for ginning were at first $1.00 j^er cwt. of lint ginned, or $5.00 a
bale, now it has been reduced to $3.00, and even as low as $2.00 a bale,
the average price being about $2.50 per bale.

Unfortunately, with the reduction of the charges for ginning, there
has been a great falling off in the quality of the work done. There is
usually a cheap steam engine of five to eight horse power, the gins ave-
rage forty to forty-five saws, and the object is to prepare the cotton as
rapidly as possible for their customers, to take the lint from the seed as
close as practicable, and not to reduce the weight of the product by sep-
arating too much the dust and motes from the lint. The consequence is
that the quality of the staple is much poorer, not only on account of the
motes and dust not removed, and of the short fibres which the close gin-
ning of the seed mixes with the longer ones, but also by the knotting,
and even breaking of the fibres, owing to the high speed with which
these small gins are run, in order to turn off each customer's work with
the least delay to him possible. As a rule, a forty saw gin is made to
give ten to twelve bales, or about 5,000 pounds of lint per day, Avhereas
to separate the fibres, without injury, from the seed, four bales, or 2,000
pounds lint per day, is the most that was done when horse powers were
used before the introduction of steam engines.

The deterioration of American cotton, which has recently, been much
complained of, both at home and in England, is partly due to the causes
above mentioned. Other causes co-operate to promote this evil. The
small and decreasing size of the farms leads more and more to the inter-
mixture of cotton of different qualities. First, because where less than

MAXLTACTURES. 591

one bale is produced on the farm it must necessarily be mixed with cot-
ton grown elsewhere, and most likely of different quality. Second, if the
farm j^roduces as much as one bale, this is gathered at successive pick-
ings, which effect a difference of quality. And third, the necessities of
the small farms compel them to dispose of much of their cotton in the
seed, to country storekeepers, -which is, perhaps, the most frequent cause
of mixture. In these regards the situation approaches that which has
occasioned the inferiority of India cotton. Dr. Watson Forbes, in his elab-
orate report on cotton gins, published by order of the Secretary of State,
for India. 1879, states the chief sources of difficulty as follows: " The small-
ness of the farms in India, as compared with the American cotton plan-
tations, is at the root of the evil. In India there are but few ryots who
could produce, at a single picking, as much even as one bale of cotton ;
each bale being made up of cotton produced by several ryots. It is clear
that under such circumstances the difficulty of producing cotton of uni-
form cjuality must be immensely increased." The gravity of this evil will
be appreciated from Dr. Watson Forbes' statement that formerly " the loss
of cleaning the impurities from India cotton was four times as great as
for American uplands." Nor is the crop so well handled now as formerly
in picking. The laborers being paid by the hundred weight, find it to
their advantage not to separate the dirt and trash from the cotton ; in-
deed, it is not uncommon for them to add water and sand to increase the
weight, a practice very apt to escape detection where the baskets and
sheets are weighed in the twilight, at the close of the day's work. The
sheets on which the cotton is emptied during the day by the pickers
were formerly kept open and exposed to the sun's rays, so that the dews
on cotton gathered early in the morning might be thoroughly dried out ;
now the sheets are kept carefully covered, so that the laborer may escape
loss from evaporation. The lo.ss resulting is not only in the loss of
w^eight, but in the injury to the staple consequent upon the storing and
ginning of damp cotton. The waste of cotton incurred in preparing it
for spinning averages thirteen per cent., and varies from five to twenty
per cent. Although this loss apparently falls on the manufacturer, such
is by no means the case, for they discount it, adding thereto a large mar-
gin, in the price paid to the producer. Mr. Edward Atkinson, a practi-
cal manufacturer, estimates that careful preparation of cotton would ad-
vance its price one cent per pound. This would amount, in South Caro-
lina, to a clear gain of more'than two and one-half millions of dollars,
annually, a sum nearly sufficient to replace, with modern conveniences,
all the gin houses in the State.

It therefore becomes a matter of much importance to determine how in
the present tran.sition state of the industrial organization of the State, so
considerable a saving in this one industry may be effected.

.392 MANUFACTURES.

The loss or waste sustained in spinning ginned cotton arises from the
presence in the lint of foreign substances, such as sand, dust, and leaf, or
of motes (which are light immature seed), of short fibres, of fibres crimped
or knotted, termed nips, and of fibres that have been strained and weak-
ened by being pulled with too great or sudden a force from the seed.

The adventitious impurities, such as sand, dust, and leaf, are to be
remedied by careful handling in picking and storing, and they may be
in large measure removed by passing the cotton, before ginning, through
machines known as openers, whippers and threshers, where the cotton,
while violently agitated, is exposed to a current of air. At an early period
this was accomplished by subjecting the cotton to the vibration of cord
fastened to a large wooden bow, and cotton known as " bowed cotton," or
" Georgia bows," enjoyed a high rcputaticn in the market. Formerly
these machines were to be found in nearly every gin house, and although
several excellent patterns of these machines are still offered by the makers
of agricultural implements, their use has been almost entirely aban-
doned. The plea being the loss in weight, which is of the same short-
sighted character as the notion that the out-turn increased by the use of
the heaviest bagging and ties, not reflecting that all this tare is estimated
and overestimated by the purchaser, and deductions made therefor in
the price.

Motes are separated by their greater specific gravity from the lint.
The volume of air passing to the gin brush, wdiich sweeps the lint
through to the lint room, is regulated by a movable mote board. In
most gins the proper arrangement of tlie mote board effectually separates
the motes from the lint. Many of the patrons of toll gins, however, ob-
ject to the loss in weight occasioned by tlie removal of these impurities,
a loss which, owing to the bulk of the loose motes, is more apparent
than real.

Short fibres are, to some extent, a necessity, as both short and long
fibres occur on every seed. The remedy is a careful selection of planting-
seed having the most uniform length of fibre. Mr. Ephraim Clark, a
distinguished selector and perfector of long staple seeds, pays special at-
tention to this, using a comb to straighten out the fibres on the seed, so
as to ascertain accurately the degree of uniformity before selecting them
for planting. Ginning first for the long, and a second time for the short
fibres mitigates the evil, as did the old-fashioned lint room in use before
the introduction of condensers, where the different lengths of fibres were
separated by ])eing blown greater or less distances as they fell into a
large room. The i:)rolific source of the trouble is, however, the mixing
of difierent lots of cotton, those grown from different seed, or on different
soils, or even opening at different periods of the same season, all which

MANUFACTURES. 593

circumstances would materiall}^ modify tlie character of the fibre. This
cause depending on the small and lessening size of cotton farms might
be counteracted by diminishing the size of the cotton bales, as uniformity
could be more easily obtained with packages of one hundred pounds than
with those of five hundred pounds. The tendency, however, is towards
making the packages larger.

Cotton samplers are in the habit of speaking of " gin cut " cotton, but
except witli wet cotton, or where very great speed is employed, the cut-
ting or breaking of the fibres is not a- frequent occurrence. The saw gin
does not saw or cut the fibre from the seed, and in so far is misnamed. The
teeth of the so-called saws are in reality small hooks, which, in passing
through the seed cotton, catch the lint and pull it through the bars or
ribs of the feed hopper, j^laced so close to each other as to prevent the
passage of the seed. These teeth, or hooks, pass through a rapidly revolv-
ing brush, that cleans them of the lint and casts it out by the draft of air
its rotation causes, on the other side of the gin. In Whitney's first gin
these hooks were made of wire, which, there being no wire at hand, Whit-
ney, then a law student, drew out for himself. The idea of a notched
iron plate, or so-called saw, Whitney is thought to have borrowed from
a Mr. Bull, of Georgia, who was experimenting there at the same time in
devices for separating the lint from seed cotton. The hooks, if properly
formed, never cut a fibre, nor if moving at the proper speed, are they
likely to break one. The fibre is spindle shaped, being largest and
strongest in the middle, and tapering towards the ends, so that when
caught Ijy the hook it gives way at this smaller and weaker point of at-
tachment to the seed, and is separated from it without being broken.

Crimped and knotted fibres, or nips, are avoided in all good gins by
regulating the speed at which the teeth strike the fibre, and the relative
speed of the brush to that of the saws. The same remark regarding speed
applies to the weakening and straining of the fibres while they are being
detached from the seed. Of the two classes of gins in use, those which
pinch and beat the seed from the lint, as the various forms of roller gins
do, and those which simply pull the lint from the seed, as the saw gins
do, the former are much more liable to produce the class of injuries here
referred to than the latter. The loss in the best samples of roller ginned
long staple, as tested by the Willimantic comber, at the Atlanta exposi-
tion, Avas frequently as much as twenty per cent., due to injury of the
fibre, exclusive of motes, seed, dust and other foreign matters.

It remains to mention another hindrance to the better handling of cot-
ton. This is a more intelligent demand on the part of purchasers and
consumers for the best article to be had. Such a demand, if made in
definite terms, would do much towards creating the supply. That it is

504 ' MANUFACTURES.

nDtmalcis diie largely, per'ia )s, to the ronobea3"i-5 of iniiiafa':;tiirer3
from the producers of cotton, and to the large intervening class of buy-
ers, sellers, and speculators, and middlemen, who prosper more by
" rendering darkness visible " than by revealing the interest of these two
great classes of laborers, in their true light. The following extract from
a letter of a large manufacturer of cotton goods will illustrate this.
Speaking of his former experience of sixteen years in selling Florida long
staple cotton, he says : " Some of it was saw ginned and some of it was
roller ginned. The roller gin retained all of the trash, and a good many
of the seed. The saw ginned was free of seed, and in every way cleaner
than that ginned on the roller gin. Still that- ginned on the roller gin
sold for five cents to six cents per pound the highest. I argued the point
with the buyers, affirming that the saw ginned was hot cut, and was
really the most valuable, on account of the freedom from seed and trash,
and proved it to them. Their only reply was, ' I think you are right,
but my orders are to pay so much for that ginned on the roller,' and
they acted as per orders. I wrote to my customers these facts. Their
objection to the roller was that it was too slow, and they fell on the plan
of using the saw gin, and after ginning to pass the lint through a whip-
per. The whipper gave it the appearance of having been ginned on the
roller gin (except the seed and trash), and buyers took it as roller ginned,
and paid a higher price for it."

The statement above given in the table regarding the gin houses in
South Carolina includes buildings, gins, feeders and condensers, and the
presses used for baling the cotton. These are mostly hand lever presses.
They are not so powerful as the old wooden pin screw, moved by horses
attached to levers thirty feet in length. The result is that, while the
average Aveight of the bale has increased from 350 pounds to 450 pounds
and 500 pounds, it has increased also in size in about the same propor-
tion. So that the average bale now occupies about thirty-seven cubic
feet of space. At the shipping ports the size is reduced b}^ placing it
under a powerful and costly hydraulic compress, which crushes it into
about seven cubic feet, an operation that by no means improves the
quality of the staple ; removed from the repress the bale swells up, be-
coming rounded in form, so that when packed in layers above each other
they actually occupy, counting the spaces between the rounded sides,
nearly twenty cubic feet each. The Dederick perpetual press in use at a
few gin houses apparently removes all these difficulties. It compresses
the original package, with the power in use and less hand labor, into
square bales of such density that from twelve to fourteen tons, according
to the power of the press used, may l)e put into a grain car. The bales
are compressed in sections, a section at a time, so that no portion is sub-

MANUFACTURES.

595

jected to undue pressure, as must always be the case where the pressure
is applied at one time to the \^hole bulk of the bale. That the staple
tlius treated is not injured may be inferred from a statement made by
the Willimantic Company regarding high-priced sea island cotton, which
it has always been thought could not, without great loss, be packed in
any press yet devised. The treasurer writes of a bale compressed by this
method tested in this mill : " The cott'jn so compressed makes less waste
at the picker, in the cards, and in the combing machine."

From these facts it appears that iio new inventions are essential to
overcome mechanical difficulties in the proper handling of cotton to
secure the best quality of staple, if the methods already devised are
employed with intelligence and skill. The old gin houses, with their
laborers skilled by a lifetime of careful training under intelligent direc-
tion, have passed away with the plantation system. Portable ginneries,
with skilled labor, have been tried and have been found unsuitable.
Numerous small toll gins, where the quantity, without consideration as
to the quality, of the work done, is the object, now occupy this field.
The improvement and development possible and demanded for this im-
portant industry can only be looked for in the consolidation and enlarge-
ment of gin houses. This raises the cpiestion whether the conditicn?
are favorable for the enlargement of these establishments. The most
important of these conditions is the production of a sufficient amount of
cotton to afford full work within such a distance as would admit of haul-
ing seed cotton by wagon to the gin. In the partial enumerations on
Avhich the estimates as to the statistics of gin houses is here based, the
average distance that cotton was hauled was 1.4 miles ; the maximum
distance seed cotton was hauled was eight miles, and for the largest
purely toll gin the distanced averaged four miles. It may be therefore
considered that, if sufficient inducements were offered, an improved gin
house might command the ginning within a radius of four miles. The
production of cotton for the whole State is about seventeen bales per
square mile, which for an area having a radius of four miles, would be
about eleven hundred and seven bales. But if the three principal cotton
regions, the Upper Pine Belt, the Red Hill, and the Piedmont Region,
which produce ninety per cent, of the cotton crop of the State, be taken,
the average is found to be about twenty-seven bales per square mile,
which gives seventeen hundred and ninety-five bales for the area indi-
cated. The average size of the enumeration districts for the census of
1880, for the regions above specified, was about sixty square miles. Of
these two hundred and seventy districts, seventy-two, or more than one-
fourth, produced between two tiiousand and three thousand bales of cot-
ton each, and twenty between three thousand and four thousand. It

506 MANUFACTURES.

follows, therefore, that there are at least seventy locations where more
than two thousand hales of cotton are growr; within a maximum distance
not exceeding four miles. A two-horse wagon would transport at least
four bales of cotton in the day over this distance, so that the propinquity
would suffice. The buildings proper for a giimery, turning out in the
three ginning months two thousand bales of cotton, would not cost $2,000.
Three fifty saw gins, with feeders and condensers, would cost $650. A
Dederick cotton press, $1,000 ; shafting, elevators and belting, $350 ; for
the power, whether water or steam, $1,000 would suffice. In all, an
investment of $5,000, against an average cost of $1,074 for the gin houses
actually enumerated, having an average capacity of six bales a day. The
expenses of running such an establishment would be : for supplies, in-
cluding wood, if a steam power were used, $400 ; for wages, one mechanic
at $2.00 a day, $200 ; a firemen at $1.00 per diem, $100 ; two boys and
two grown laborers for the season, $120 — total, $120. At the minimum
charges for ginning, viz : $2.00 per bale, the proceeds would be $4,000 for
the season, and deducting running expenses, there would be left $3,180,
or sixty-three per cent, on the capital invested. It will naturally be
asked what inducements over and above the minimum charges would be
offered to draw custom. To the present gin house the small producer
delivers his seed cotton without knowing exactl}^ what it weighs, it is
stored in close proximity to other heaps of cotton, which are to be ginned
first, and there is always more or less doubt, uncertainty, and suspicion
as to the out-turn. Besides, for the most part, the cotton has to be carried
up stairs to the second story, a laborious process, and almost always there
is a delay of one or two days.

With the enlarged gin house the cotton might be weighed on platform
scales, in the wagon, it could be quickly and easily thrown into a hopper,
and thence carried, by an elevator, immediately to the platform from
which it would be raked into the feeders. In twenty minutes, or almost
as soon as the wagon could be unloaded, the ginning would be complet-
ed, the seed delivered, and the bale packed, weighed and thrown on the
wagon. The wdiole process would be completed under the immediate
inspection of the producer, and to his satisfaction. Tliis method is pur-
sued at a ginnery connected with the Glendale cotton factory, in Spar-
tanburg, which, in consequence, receives the patronage of the neighbor-
hood, seed cotton being hauled there from a distance of eleven miles. To
these inducements are to be added the increased value of the cotton from
better handling, the cost of repressing at the shipping port would be
saved, and there would be a reduction of freight on inland transportation
for the compressed bales. Where these ginneries were on a line of rail-
way the cotton might ba delivered at reduced rates in any market town

MANUFACTURES. 597

specified by the producer, at a great saving of expense in labor to him, as
otherwise lie must haul his crop home, store it, and again haul it to mar-
ket. The seed, too, could be shipped without delay to the nearest oil mill,
and the producer might return home with a railroad receipt for his cot-
ton and cotton seed meal prepared to feed his stock, or fertilize his land,
accomplishing by one step what it now requires several tedious ones to
compass.

The value of cotton seed and of its manufacture into oil and cake is
just receiving a development which is likely to make great changes. In
1880 the price of upland cotton seed in South Carolina was ten to twelve
cents per bushel, and it was used almost entirely as a manure. There
was no oil mill in the State, and only one in Georgia. Before the Avork-
ing season of 1882, at least five new oil mills were established in Georgia,
and three in South Carolina. Those in Carolina w^ere the Charleston Oil
Mill, capital $60,000, having three twenty box presses, with a capacity of
w^orking fifty tons of seed a day ; two other mills, one in Greenville and
one in Chester, having together about the capacity of the former, so that
now of the 250,000 tons of cotton seed annually produced in the State,
about 20,000 tons, or less than ten per cent., can be worked up into oil
and cake. As a consequence of these enterprises, cotton seed is selling at
eighteen cents per bushel, or at an advance of eighty per cent, in two
years. So that this crop, worth $1,721,000 in 1880, may, in 1882, be sold
for $3,097,000. Nor is there anything of a merely speculative character
in these advances. Cotton seed oil is to-day the cheapest edible oil in
the world. Up to January 1st, 1881, none of this oil, as such, ^vas sold
for consumption in South Carolina. In the summer of 1882 it was to be
found in nearly all of the country grocery stores along the lines of rail-
road, and in all the principal towns; about one hundred barrels a month
are sold from Charleston, and the consumption in the State w^as not less
than 2,000 barrels. Such is the favor with which it has been received
that the dealers estimate that more than 5,000 barrels will be required to
supply the demand during the present year. Considering the excellent
qualities of this oil as a salad oil, or for cooking, and the present wide
margin between its price and that of lard and olive oils, together with
the growing population, and the increasing demand for food stuffs all
over the world, nothing seems more certain than that it must advance
in value rapidly as soon as its use becomes generally tested and known.
The cotton seed cake, or meal, now sells for $21 per ton at the oil mill ; two-
thirds of it is exported, and about ten per cent, is used as a fertilizer, being
considered by tlie manufacturers of commercial manures as the cheapest
supply of nitrogenous material; the balance is used for stock feed, chiefly
by Northern farmers and dairymen, a single broker, in Boston, dispos-

598

MANUFACTURES.

ing last year of more than 15,000 tons for consumption there. Mr. Thos.
Rose (see Dr. "Watson Forbes' Report on Cotton Gins, Vol. II., p. 415) gives
the value of that cake in England as £10 per ton, which would be $48 50.
The following table gives the comparative value of cotton seed meal and
corn meal, from the German fodder tables :

Proteine

Matter.

Per cent.

Carbo-
hydrates.
Per cent.

Fat,
Per cent.

Comparative
Money Value.

Cotton seed meal .
Corn meal ....

41.5

8.9

24.4
70.6

■ 18.0
4.1

$3.60 per cwt.
1.62 per cwt.

Here the proteine matter and fats, which go to form flesh, fat, milk,
butter, and cheese, are valued at four and one-eighth cents per pound,
and the carbohydrates, which support respiration, at nine-tenths of a cent
per pound. From this estimate it appears that when corn meal is worth
seventy-seven and three-quarter cents per bushel for stock feed, cotton
seed meal is worth $72 per ton, or just three times its price at the oil mill
in South Carolina.
■ The product of a ton of cotton seed is stated as follows :

Thirty-five gallons of oil, value forty cents per gallon . . $14.00
Seven hundred and fifty pounds cake, at $24 per ton . . 9.00
Twenty-four pounds lint, at six cents per pound .... 1.44

$24.44

No count is made of the 1,000 pounds of hulls ; they furnish fuel needed
in the process of manufacture. From this estimate, the value of the pro-
ducts of the manufacture of the cotton seed crop of South Carolina would
be $6,295,000. If the English value for the cake was instituted, this
amount would be $8,643,000, or by the German estimate of the value of
the cake, it would be $10,552,000.

Heretofore the chief obstacle to the successful operation of cotton seed
oil mills has been the difficulty of procuring a supply of seed. The in-
creasing facilities of railroad transportation will, to some extent, remove
this difficulty. The diffusion of more accurate information among the
cotton growers and ginners must convince them that they will gain enor-
mously by disposing of their seed at present prices, and buying back the
meal as stock feed, or to be employed directly as a fertilizer. Nothing
heats and rots more rapidly than cotton seed, especially when fresh

MANUFACTURES. 599

ginned and heaped in bulk. The seed are now kept in this manner by
ginners and cotton growers until the month of February, when they are
composted or drilled in the furrow for manure. A recent examination
in the month of January of a number of such heaps, aggregating thou-
sands of tons, revealed the fact that at least three-fourths of the seed, that
is, all but those on the top of the heaps, were heated until the kernels
were black, and they were entirely valueless for the manufacture of oil.
The seed so examined were under shelter, and had received far above av-
erage attention. Unfortunately, no chemical analysis has been made to
determine the exact deterioration as regards fertilizing constituents re-
sulting from this heating process. It has, however, long been known prac-
tically to farmers that fresh green seed were far more valuable for ferti-
lizing purposes than those which had been heated or fermented. Leav-
ing chemical considerations aside, the mere loss in weight by evaporation
is enormous, and it is probable that of the seed cleaned by the gins dur-
ing the fall months barely one-half to one-third in weight remains to be
hauled out into the fields the ensuing spring, so that it would be econo-
my for the ginner to turn his fresh seed over without delay to the oil
manufacturer, being sure to receive in return cotton seed meal, neaily
equal in weight to what his seed would be reduced to if he kept them
himself, while the former contains nearly three times the fertilizing con-
stituents of the latter.

The true basis, however, for the development of this remunerative in-
dustry would seem to be the establishment of ginneries in connection
with oil mills. The following estimates of the cost of such a combined
establishment is taken from the statements of Richard Macdonald, of
Charleston, who has had thirty years' experience in England and Ameri-
ca in the manufacture of cotton seed oil. A mill to work fifteen tons a
day will cost as follows :

Hydraulic press $ 4,900

Hulling machine 900

Pair of rollers 500

Linter 650

Engine and boiler complete , 3,000

Cake mill, for grinding meal 240

Horse hair mats 104

Woolen cloth 100

Screws, elevators, belting, shafts, pulleys, &c. . . . 1,500

Oil tanks 250

Cost of construction 1,000

Land, buildings, freight, &c 5,000

Total §18,144

600 MANUFACTUEES.

Allowing that only a custom work of 2,000 bales could be counted on
at a ginnery, it would rec^uire four such establishments to furnish seed
for one fifteen-ton oil mill. Their total cost, as above estimated, would
be $20,000, making in all $38,144, say $40,000. The oil mill would yield
say :

4,000 tons of seed, yielding 35 gallons oil per ton, @ 40 cts. per gallon $o6,000

4.000 tons of seed, yielding 750 pounds cake per ton, (5. ?24 per ton 30,000

4,000 tons of seed, yielding 24 pounds lint per ton, @ 6 cents per pound 5,700

Total product 807,700

If frona ihe above expenses be deducted, as follows :

Cost of 4,000 tons of seed, ® 812 per ton 848,000

Expense of working ditto, 82 per ton 8,000

Freight, $2.50 per ton 10,000

Total expenses 866,000

Net product .-.. 831,760

This would be 175 per cent, on the investment in the mill. If the
capital invested in the ginneries be included, and their net product of
$3,180 for each of the four, as above estimated, be added, in all, $12,720,
it makes a total net product of $44,480. This will amount to one hun-
dred and eleven per cent, on the combined capital ($40,000) of the gin-
neries and oil mill. The cost, especially of the gins, is here given at the
highest figure. The ase of water power would be a saving of $1,200 per
annum. On the other hand, the minimum rates for ginning are taken,
and no allowance is made for the profits accruing from handling 8,000
bales of cotton, from the improved staple of these bales, representing itself
a net gain of $40,000 per annum, at one cent per pound, and from the
saving in waste and in cost of transportation by the easier handled pack-
ages. These gains would, in part, be shared with the farmer as an in-
ducement to secure his patronage. But it must be remembered that such
establishments, wdiile immediately surrounded by the producers, would
also be in direct contact with the consumers. Cotton would be sold on
samjjles taken during the ginning, and contracts with manufocturers
might be filled directly from the gin house at a great saving to both
parties.

The numerous water powers in the middle and up-country would fur-
nish suitable and healthful locations for such establishments. Those
convenient to both railroad and river transportation would offer the great-
est advantages, and would always hold a leading position. The expenses
and repairs attending steam would be obviated, and cheap land and
abundant labor could be commanded, Such ginneries and oil mills
would at once become the centres round which the leading industries
connected with cotton growing would organize themselves, and the

MANUFACTURES. 601

present supremacy of the cross-road grocery would be transferred to it.
The cotton seed, now little better than a waste of the farm, would be trans-
formed into staple articles of food for man and beast, to which all the
markets of the world are open. The growing deterioration in the prepa-
ration of the great staple of the country for market would be arrested,
and it would be furnished to the manufacturer in its cleanest and best
form. The various qualities'of cotton could be kept separate bv the sub-
stitution of small, compact packages for the present unwieldly bales,
such packages might be carried on the shoulder instead of being pulled
through the mud with hooks, as at present. There would be a vast sav-
ing in tlie labor of transportation to the farmer, and in the reduction of
freight to the manufacturer. Such establishments would, while infusing
fresh strength into agricultural pursuits by rendering its entire product
available and valuable at the least cost, form a connecting link between
the field laborer and the manufacturer, cleaning up the enormous waste
and -changes that now cumber the space between them. Here is the
point where a reorganization and renewal of the agricultural and manu-
facturing industries of the South may join hands and take a new de-
parture.

AVhile this paper is passing through the press three new cotton seed
oil mills are being erected in the State. In giving the aggregate for the

FERTILIZER FACTORIES

in South Carolina, only those establishments have been considered which
employed machinery in preparing their products ; the changes effected
in the materials by merel}'^ mixing by hand the different constituents of
a fertilizer not being considered of sufficient importance to entitle the
parties engaged in it to be regarded as manufacturers. But even if all
these latter were included, it is not apparent how twenty-five fertilizer
factories ever employed 2,(379 hands, as stated in the compendium of the
Tenth U. S. Census. It is probable that the number of hands emploved
during tlie short shipping season in sacking and handling the pho.'^phate
Avas taken in the census returns, in place of the average of the force cUi-
nually employed. The lattei' is here given from returns made by each
company. The material used b}^ these companies consists chiefly of the
phosphate rock mined in the vicinit3\ This is ground and used in this
state, or treated with sulphuric acid and sold as a soluble superphos-
phate, to which other materials, containing nitrogen and potash, or both,
are sometimes added. The ground rock is reduced to extreme fineness,
known in commerce as " floats," and it is thought that the subdivision of
the particles is sufficient to enable the roots of plants to appropriate the
39

(502

MA N UFACTURES.

j)hosphoric acid it contains as food. Measurements Avitli the micrometer
show that the size of the particles obtained by grinding vary from the
(1,003 inch to the 0,00003 inch. By chemical tests it was estimated that
as much as twenty-five per cent, of the phosphoric acid present in this
(hist was dissolved by the ammonium citrate solution used in laborato-
ries to represent the soil water, plant-root juices and other solvents in the
f'oW ; from which it was inferred that this jDcrcentage was available by
]>lants. The best results were obtained from the finest powder, that is,
Avhere eighty-five per cent, of the particles were finer than 0,0003 inch.
Improvements in machinery to reduce the phosphate rock to an impalpa-
ble powder are being much sought, since the great expense necessitated
by chemical processes in rendering it soluble would be avoided if this
could be accomplished by mechanical means. Analysis shows that the
[icrcentage of phosphoric acid in "floats" varies from 24.2 to 27.8. The
following table shows the average of the analysis of fertilizers manufac-
tured in South Carolina, being tlie mean of ana]3^sis made for the De-
partment of Agriculture of South and of North Carolina, together with
tlie estimated value per ton of 2,000 pounds, based on the current prices
of the phosphoric acid, ammonia, and potash they contain.

o

^

^

c 3

O Ci^<

O c3

Q

o2.2

f-< "5

f-> rn'

■opB

t-l

CO

>

>

<

Simple Superpliosphates

Simple Superphosphates, with Potash . . .
Ammoniated Su2:)erp'phates, without Potash.
Ammoniated Superpliosphates, with Potash.

11.77

10.55
9.61
8.95

2.96
2.70

$28.57
1.29| $26.66
. . $38.41
1.73| $35.18

The product of these factories exceeds 110,000 tons yearly, the average
estimated value of the product at the factory is placed at $20 per ton.
By the Tenth U. S. Census, South Carolina stood fifth among the States
in the manufacture of manures. The product for the State was estimated
at that date at 64,794 tons, and it is prol)able that the increase in the

MANUFACTDTvES.

603

product, as above shown, makes South Carolina at this time the largest
producer, except, perhaps, the State of Maryland alone. In 1870 there
were but two fertilizer factories in Carolina, and the value of their pro-
ducts was less than one-fifth that of the present product, which is greater
than the product of the entire United States in 1860, by 148 per cent.

FLOURING AND GEIST MILL PRODUCTS,

while greater in value than those of any other single manufacturing in-
dustry in the United States, form only about nine per cent, of the aggre-
gate products of manufactures. In South Carolina they amount to
twenty -two per cent, of the products of all manufactures. The figures of
the U. S. Census relating to this industry in the United States, and in
South Carolina, from 1860 to 1870, are given in the following table:

Table of Flouring and Grist Mill Products.

Periods

Estab-
lish-
ments.

Capital.

H.VXDS.

Wages. Materials.

Products.

rXJ S

24,338
720

22,573
624

13,878

177,361,878 .52.407

17,422,316
139,352

11,672,067

87,509

8,729,390

66,424

441,545,225
3,265,485

293,^13,698
2,130,759

208,499,309
1,517,366

505,185,712

1880-^

[s. c

1,330,262

121,252,361

668,652

84.485.064

1,052

58,448

1,138

27,692

355

3,779,470

fU.S

355,988,147

*1870^

Is G

2,444,998

("U.S

248,580,365

1860 j

(s c

270 639.52-5

1,757,174,

*Here and elsewhere the currency values of 1870 are reduced to gold.

The rate of increase and decrease in this industry during the period:
under consideration will be most readily seen by consulting the. following
table, deduced from the above.

G04

MANUFACTURES.

Table shoioing Percentage Rate of Increase and Decrease {the latter marked hy *)
in Flour and Grist Mill Products in South Carolina and in the United
States, during the two decades embraced in the period from 1S60 to ISSO.

Establish-
ments.

CAPITAL.

Hands.

Wages.

u.sJs. c.

Materials. Products.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S. i S.C.

U.S. s c.

U.S.

S. C. U.S.

S.C.

I860 to 1870

1870 to 1880

62

7

120 43 4
15 46 98

Ill

*10

220
*7

33: 31

49 1- 59

40
41

41
53

43
41

39
54

The impetus this indnstry received during the decade of war and re-
construction will be noticed. The rate of increase appears greater in
South Carolina than in the country at large in every particular, except
two. The increase of capital is markedly less and is explained by the
losses of war ; the increase in products is naturally somewhat less also.
In the subsequent decade, 1870 to 1880, the rate of increase lessens, but
to a less degree in Carolina than in the country at large, and her rate of
increase in capital and in products is large. Notable features in this de-
cade are the lower rates of increase in the number of establishments, and
the actual decrease in the number of hands employed, and Avere it not
accompanied in a marked rate of increase of wages, in which Carolina
leads, it would almost seem that improved machinery and enlarged cap-
ital were assuming entire control of this industry.

SAWING LUMBER

ranks, as to value of products, third among the manufacturing industries
of the countr)^, the iron and steel industry and meat packing alone ex-
ceeding it in this regard. It produces four per cent, of the aggregate
products of manufactures iq the United States, and twelve per cent, of
these products in South Carolina. The following table exhibits the con-
dition of this industry in the United States and in South Carolina, as
given in the U. S. Census returns from 1860 to 1880 :

MANUFACTURES.

605

Periods.

Estab-
lish-
ments.

Capital.

Hands.

Wages.

Materials.

Products.

■ $

j-U. S

25,708
420

25,832
227

20,657
361

181,186,122

1,056,265

114,794,586

436,730

74,530,090

1,145,116

147,956
1,47<S

149,997

1,212

75,862

1,263

31,845,994
221,963

32,007,330
167,842

21,702,265
219,361

146,155,385

1,237,361

82.668,986

465,400

44,551,763

498,290

233.268,729

1880^

s. c

2,031,507

ru. s

178,127,462

1870-^

[s. c

957,004

ru. S

96,715,854

1860^

(s. c

1,125,640

The following table, deduced from the above, will make the changes
that have occurred plainer :

Table shoiuing. the Percentage Rate of Increase and Decrease {the latter marked
by *) in the Lumber Industry in South Carolina and in the United States,
in the two Census decades embraced between 1860 and 1880.

Establish-
ments.

Capital.

Hands.

Wages.

Materials.

Products.

U.S.

s.c.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S.

S.C.

U.S.

S C.

I860 to 1870

1870 to 1880

20

*37
88

54
57

*61
139

98
*1

*4
20

47

^■-5

23
32

85
76

-6
187

83
30

*14
105

The decade of war and reconstruction does not seem to have promoted
the lumber business as it did manufactures in general, and it was actually
disastrous to this industry in South Carolina, as shown by the decrease
during this period in the number of mills and in the capital, hands, ma-
terials and products of the industry.

In the last decade, 1870 to 1880, however, the losses are much more
than recovered, and the rate of increase is much greater in each partic-
ular in Carolina than it is in the country at large. Next to the pine for-
ests, which cover 20,000 square miles in the lower part of the
State, and furnish the very best quality of yellow pine, the c}-
press is, perhaps, the most important timber tree in Carolina. The
lumber is light and durable, especially for outside work. The
tree is of rapid growth, and attains a great size, occupying swamps
and waste places. Whenever the timber supply is reduced to the

GOG

MANUFACTURES.

extent of necessitating the culture of trees, as in the older coun-
tries of the world, the cypress will be among the most available
here. Before tliat time however arrives, there are thousands of square
miles in Carolina to be denuded of their pine forests. The live oak, for
shi]) Ijuilding, and many other hard woods, as the persimmon, for cogs
of motive wlieels, tlie dogwood, for shuttles, and white oaks, for staves,
abound in this State. The only other manufacturing industry in South
Carolina whose annual products, according to the U. S. Census, exceed
one million of dollars, is the manufacture of

TAR AND TURPENTINE. .

The data furnished by the U. S. Census regarding this industry in
South Carolina for the years 18G0-70-80 are given in the following table :

Census
Year.

Estab-
lishments

Capital.

Hands

Wages

Ma-
terials

Products

1860 . . ;
1870 . . .
1880 . . .

95

54

192

$931,270
205,425
565,200

1,432

876
4,619

$150,124
123,645

555,460

$691,555

422,378
666,170

$1,096,974

774,077

1,893,206

The product of South Carolina in 1880 is over one-third of the aggre-
gate products of this class in the whole United States.

In the thinly peopled lower third of the State, where lumber, turpen-
tine and phosphate rock are the chief products of industry, the lands
from which these bounties of nature have been gathered are esteemed of
little value. And yet, if the physical and chemical constitution of these
soils be considered (see Lower Pine Belt), or the crops they yield, there is
no reason why they should not make to agriculture returns as valuable
as any lands in the State. If the State, or capitalists, would arrange for
their thorough drainage, this would become a certainty, and a large
region, now almost waste, would be opened for the colonization of a
permanent and thriving population. This would be facilitated by a
number of private railroads five to twenty miles in length, built here by
lumbermen and phosphate miners, rendering points formerly remote
easilv accessible.

MANUFACTURES, GOT

Space does not here admit of mention ol the

OTHER MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

of South Carolina. The five leading industries, according to the census
of 1880 furnish seventy-eight per cent, of the aggregate products of man-
ufactures in the State, The case is widely different in the country at
large ; there the five largest manufacturing industries only furnish twen-
ty-eight per cent, of the aggregate products. It is this apparent lack of
development of the minor manufacturing pursuits in this State which
has sustained a very general belief that the people possessed little apti-
tude for manufacturing. It has been pointedly charged that they had
little skill for small affairs ; there was no change among them for a nick-
el, and in all their transactions they preferred wholesale methods to re-
tail. Granting that there is some force in this charge, it obviously needs
qualification when applied to a comparison of the industries of one State
with the diversification of pursuits rendered practicable by the diversity
of conditions obtaining over the country at large. Doubtless also, the
accurate enumeration of these minor pursuits among a population largely
rural, while it was much more difficult, was necessarily less complete.
Nevertheless, after making every allowance, the want of the minor me-
chanical industries in Carolina is much felt, and nowhere do the resources
of the country or the necessities of the people offer greater promise of
success to artizans of this description.

MINING.

The gold product of South Carolina was, by the U. S. Census, $13,040
in 1880, which puts the State fifteenth in point of production of this metal
among the other States. By the report of the director of the U. S. Mint
this production increased in 1882 to $25,000, which would place the
State fourteenth in point of production. (See page 134.)

The commercial value of the numerous deposits of

PHOSPHATE ROCKS

along the coast of Carolina was established in 1868. The river mining
yielded from 1870, when the product was 1,987 tons, to the close of 1882,
when the yield was 140,772 tons, an aggregate of 948,852 tons, paying a
royalty into the State treasury of one dollar per ton. In 1876, the total
product of the river and land mining companies was 132,625 tons ; in
1883 it is given as 355,333 tons. The aggregate product for this period

COS

MAMJFACTURES.

of ei_i;lit years is 1,850,440 tons. Tlio market ])rice of tlie rock has varied
from So.oOto 10.50 j^er ton ; a circular dated 1st June, 1883, states that
" tlie two largest mining companies (producing over forty per cent, of all
the roek raised) have sold all they can produce for the remainder of the

vear.

The following statement will give a general view of this industry in

1883

Companies.

No.

Capital.

Hands.

Wages.

Products.

River Mining

11
14

$525,000
1,980,000

649

1,28G

$259,300
363,5()0

$907,170

Land ^Mining

1,283,830

Total

25

$2,505,000

1,935

§622,860

$2,190,000

KAOLIN CLAY.

There are, in the neighborhood of Aiken, Graniteville and Beech I.sland,
some large deposits of kaolin clay of excellent quality. Several of these
deposits are being worked. The capital employed is stated at $65,000,
and the average annual product for some years past has been about $88,-
000. Other deposits of this material in Lexington, Kershaw and other
counties have been mentioned in describing the localities where they oc-
cur, but they have not been developed.

GRANITE.

Thomas W. Woodward's Rock City quarries, four miles southwest of
Winnsboro, the count}^ seat of Fairfield, cover several square miles, fur-
nishes the finest quality of blue and white granite, and compares favor-
ably with any quarry in the world as to the quantity, quality and acces-
sibility of the material. A steam tramway connecting these quarries
with the Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta Railroad, is being constructed.
The U. S. Postoffices and Courthouses of Columbia, S. C, and of Nash-
ville, Tenn., are built of granite from this point. These sales of this rock
with those to the asylum in Columbia and others, aggregate up to this
time about $135,000. The white granite is the finest, and has been in
use only since 1877. It is fine grained, free from impurities, works easi-
ly, has fine finish from the hammer and polishes well. Buildings con-
structed of it do not assume the sombre hues common to stone houses,
it whitens with age, and a])proaches marl)le in appearance.

MANUFACTURES. 609

The Granby quarry, two miles below the city, furnished the material
of Avhich the State House is built. It has not been worked since the war.

The Green quarry, one mile north of Granby, is worked by the Co-
lumbia Granite Company, making blocks for the pavements of Charles-
ton. The company have a large capital, employ about twenty block
makers and fifty drillers and laborers ; the product is at the rate of one
million of paving blocks annually.

Colonel F. W. MclNIaster has a quarry of fine granite on the Greenville
Railroad, one mile north of Columbia ; it is also within one hundred feet
of the State canal that is being constructed here.

Professor Woodrow, of the University of South Carolina, who has ex-
amined these rocks in the vicinity of Columbia, says : " As to c^uantity
they are practically inexliiiustible. The rock is of a light gray color,
the feldspar being light colored and the mica dark brown or black. It
is fine grained, compact, and of uniform texture, and is comparatively
free from seams and injurious veins, so that solid blocks of any desired
size may be attained. Its durability might be inferred directly from the
condition of its constituent material, and it is attested not only by blocks
long exposed to the weather in the oldest buildings in the vicinity, but
better still by the condition of the blocks that have been lying upon the
surface for untold ages." For numerous other quarries see chapter on
the Piedmont region, and the accompanying map.

FISHERIES.

South Carolina comes twentieth in the fish producing States, with
1,005 fishermen, and products valued at $212,482. She is, however,
noted for her shrimp fisheries, these being more extensive than those of
any other State, and nearly equal to those of all other States combined.
In 1880 her fishermen secured 18,000 bushels, valued at $37,500. The
principal fisheries are about Charleston, where several hundred negroes,
with an occasional Spaniard, are engaged in fishing with hand-lines from
vessels and small boats, to supply the City with whiting, blackfish and
other species. A limited fishery occurs in the sounds about Beaufort,
from which point a few fish are shipped to interior cities. Beyond the
places mentioned no sea fishery of importance occurs, though there is
more or less fishing for local supply along all portions of the coast.
About 400,000 pounds ofalewives, 207,000 pounds of shad, and 261,250
pounds of sturgeon, with considerable quantities of other species, were
taken by the river fishermen, the largest fisheries being in the Edisto river
and in the tributaries of Winyah Bay.

GIO MANUFACTURES.

The following is from U. S. Census of 1880 :

Persons employed 1,005

Capital dependent on fishery industries .... $G6,275
Pounds of sea products taken, including oysters , 5,090,400

Value of same . $173,125

Pounds of river products taken 1,043,850

Value of same $30,357

■ Total value of fishery products $212,482

It may be here mentioned that in 1882 six whales were taken off Port
Poyal.

In 1878 a fish commission was appointed by the State government.
Many eggs have been taken and the young fry hatched, and released in
the streams of the State. In 1882 the commission released 1(36,000 well
formed salmon, and 1,945,000 shad, besides a number of black bass and
some salmon trout in the waters of the State. A State pond for the ar-
tificial propagation and culture of caj^p is established at Columbia, and
has furnished these fish to 894 private ponds in the different sections of
the State. •

CHAPTER VIII.

THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION

OF

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA

By W. L. TRENHOLM.

The area of the State is al)out 30,000 square miles, and its topography
creates tliree natural divisions, called the upper, middle and lower, of
wliich the dividing lines are nearly parallel with the general line of the
coast.

Its frontage on the Atlantic, in a straight line from Little River Inlet
to the mouth of the Savannah river, is one hundred and ninety miles,
and towards this line the country descends in long undulations until it
runs into the ocean, where it's flat edge is frayed out into capes and points
and spits, or rent into islands, which present to the sea sloping beaches of
Avhite sand, backed by dunes covered with myrtle and studded with
palmettos. ""■ - .

Between and behind these insulated fragments of the continent the
sea water extends in bays; sounds and harbors, bordered with vast areas
of marsh-covered mud flats, which, like the islands and the main land
in rear of them, are pierced by innumerable inlets, creeks and passages,
where twice a day the tides sweep through in endless ebb and flow.

Here the large rivers from the upper and middle country mingle their
fresh waters with the brine, and lose their way to the sea amidst a laby-
rinth of tortuous passages.

On a belt varying in width from ten to thirty miles and stretching
along the whole coast, these features repeat themselves with endless vari-
ation of detail, presenting to sloop and steamboat navigation access to
full five thousand miles of shore line and to rivers, up which these vessels
may ascend for hundreds of miles.

In the old days before railroads, half the area of the State enjoyed un-
interrupted water communication with Charleston, and if we go back to

0)12 TRA.NSPORTATION IX SOUTH CAROLIXA.

tlie first permanent European settlements, in 1670, we shall find that
these characteristics of the country influenced materially the course of
colonial development.

In the first place it was probably owing to the sub-division of the land
by these water courses that the Indians in lower South Carolina were
found in detached tribes, of only a few hundred each, which were too
weak to contend singly against the whites, and too much separated from
each other by physical barriers and old feuds to combine successfully. •

In the next place the first settlers found the Indians well supplied with
boats, but without roads, bridges, or domestic animals of burden, hence
all the earlier needs of the colonists, in the way of transportation, were
supplied by using the vessels they brought with them and the Indian boats.

These. Indian boats were of the same sort as were found along the
whole coast from the Delaware capes to Florida, where they had been
seen by Verazzani, in 1524, nearly a century and a half before the settle-
ment of Charlestown. His description of them is thus translated by
Hackluyt :

" We saw many of their boats made of one tree, twenty foote long and
four foote broad, which are not made with iron or stone, or any other
kind of metall ; ******--!= they help themselves with fire burning
so much of the tree as is sufficient for the hollownesse of the boat, the like
the}^ doe in making the stern and fore part untill it be fit to sail upon
the sea."

This sort of boat, constructed however with tools, continued in use by
the colonists for a long time, under the names of Perriaguer, Pettiauger,
and Dug-out. In 1(396, the Colonial Legislature passed an Act to punish
" any person who should steal, take away, or let loose any boat, perria-
guer, or canoe," and from the earliest dates the statutes are full of the
provisions made for opening and keeping open navigable waters.

It happened, too, that rice soon became the chief product of the coun-
try ; it was grown in the swamps extending between the oozy water
courses near the coast, and, being a heavy grain, is peculiarly dependent
upon water transportation. The row boats and sloops that brought the
rice to " town " belonged to the planters, and were manned by slaves ;
they carried back the family and plantation supplies, and at a later period
were used in the annual moving to and from the city, in spring and
autumn, which came into vogue. The rice was conveyed from the plan-
tation to the landing in flats upon canals, or, when that was not practi-
cable, it was hauled by oxen, on sleds.

Lumber, the next most important product of the country, was rafted
to Charlestown, and on the rafts came also the wood to supply the city
demand for fuel.

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. G13

Among the exports, beef and pork occupy positions next in importance
to lumber; the cattle and hogs, we know, were driven through the woods,
for among the early Statutes is one prohibiting the slaughtering of ani-
mals within a certain time after they had been driven to " town."

A third consequence of the character of the country was, that when
the colonists, who at first were planted only at Charleston and its imme-
diate vicinity, began to push their settlements into the surrounding
territory, their movements and location were determined by the direc-
tions and naviga])ility of the water courses.

Georgetown, Beaufort, Goose Creek, Dorchester, Coosawhatchie, Salt-
ketcher and Pocotaligo, were early occupied by traders with the Indians,
and became, afterwards, rallying points of the colonists who took up the
lands around them.

It was only after some settlements had been thus made that the colo-
nists seemed to turn their attention to communications by land. In 1682,
there is mention of a hundred and fifty mares and some horses that
had been brought into the Province from New York and Rhode Island ;
and in the same year, on tlie 2Gth May, the Colonial Assembly passed
the first law to provide for the making of roads.

Unfortunately, the text of the statute is lost, but the title has been pre-
served. It is " An Act for Highways." This Act was followed b}^ many
others of a special character, i. e , relating to particular localities, or pro-
viding for some particular work, all, however, conforming to a general
plan which placed the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges,
as well as the conservation of ivavigable water courses, in the hands of
prominent residents of the vicinity. Two or three of the leading planters
in each neighborhood constituted the board of commissioners for that
road district, and the confines of their territory were precisely defined.

Every male inhabitant between sixteen and sixty years of age was com-
pelled bylaw to work on the roads of the district in which he lived; and all
the timber recpiired foi bridges and causeways could be taken by the
commissioners without compensation to the owner.

The location of roads and bridges, during the early days of the colony,
was obviously governed by military considerations,- rather than by thoi^e
relating to trade and peaceful travel. The colonists Avere never free from
attacks by the Spaniards and Indians until after 1715, and both before
and after that time the apprehension of servile insurrection seemed
always present to their minds.

To secure the public safety was, therefore, necessarily a prime con-
sideration, and since the roads were at first regarded chiefly as lines of
communication by which the scattered colonists could concentrate for
defence, it is not surprising that the whole labor of the community should

G14 TRA.NSPORTATIOX IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

have been rendered available for their construction and maintenance.
The road law was only parallel to the militia law, which placsd in
service every white man capable of bearing arms, and settled, by the
place of his residence, to what division, brigade, regimant, battalion and
company he should belong.

The facilities for water transportation were so good, and the colonists
had become so habituated to their use, that the trade with the distant
tribes of Indians probably occasioned the only land traffic of any im-
portance up to the middle of the eighteenth century. It was in allusion
to this that Governor Archdale, in 1707, wrote : " Charlestown trades
near one thousand miles into the continent." Muskets, powder, lead,
woolen cloth, tools, and iron ware were the principal articles supplied to
the Indians ; frontier trading stations were established at Savana Town
and old Apalachicola Town, both on Savannah river ; at Wineau, near
the Waccamaw Indians ; at Congaree Fort, in South Carolina; Altamaha
Fort, in Georgia, and Forts Palochuclas, Moore, and Charlotte, on the
Savannah river. Later, in 1762, was established the station at Keowee,
Fort Prince George, for trading with the Cherokee Indians. Beyond the
frontiers, the transportation of the " goods, wares and merchandises "
into the Indian country was effected by means of pack horses and Indian
" burtheners," and these brought back the skins and furs which, with
Indian slaves, constituted the returns in the trade. There was water
transportation between Charleston and all the trading posts except Keo-
wee, and from the latter to Fort Charlotte was not a long way. It ap-
pears, however, that at intervals trains of pack horses and some vehicles
passed directly between Charleston and Keowee, but by what route is not
certain.

The magnitude and growth of the Indian trade are partly shown
by the export of deer skins, which, according to official records were,
In 1710, 70,000 deer skins.
In 1731, 250,000 deer skins.
In 1748, 600,000 deer skins.

These 600,000 deer skins were valued at £36,000 sterling, about
§180,000 gold, or thirty cents each.

The Indian trade was encouraged by the Provincial government, but
it was, also, strictly regulated, with a view always to preserving the con-
fidence and friendship of the tribes surrounding the colony. Among the
re5trictions imposed upon traders was one that they should employ no
negroes, even in rowing the " perriagos " between Charleston and the
trading stations ; and another, that they should bring no free Indians
into the settlements.

The " burtheners," therefore, could not be used within the frontier.

TRANSPORTATION- IN SOUTH CAROLINA, G15

nor could negroes be employed in tlieir place, and hence arose an ad-
ditional influence tending to restrict Indian traders to the use of water
transportation for their goods between Charleston and the several trading-
posts, while they and their agents passed on horseback by the trails
through the woods.

Until after 1730, no settlement had been made above the tide-water
line, and there was little occasion, near the coast, for any but short roads.

The early history of the roads, bridges and ferries of the State can be
traced in the statutes of the Colonial Legislature. There it appears that,
during fifty years, these public works were confined to the strip of land
along the coast, about twenty miles wide, and to the settlements along
the navigable rivers and watercourses ; but.

In 1737, An Act was passed which refers to the settlements lately made
by several families in Orangeburg township, and directs a road
to be made to them from the " head of the path that leads from
Dorchester to Captain Izard's cow pen."

In 1739, A ferr}' for " passengers, horses and cattle," was authorized
across the Savannah river, from Fort Moore, in South Carolina,
to the Sand Bar, in Georgia, but it appears not to have been
established, even in 1747, when another Act was passed for the
purpose.

In 1742, An Act provides for a ferry across the Santee, and a road to be
made in connection with it, " to facilitate the passage of travel-
ers from Charlestown to Williamsburg and other, the northwest
parts of this Province."

Up to 1750, all the white inhabitants of South Carolina were Europeans,
who reached the province by sea, and passed to their destination in the
interior by boat; hence the interior settlements of that day were at or
near river landings. These settlements were no where far from the coast,
except at Windsor (near Hamburg), on the Savannah river, the " Conga-
rees " (near Columbia), on the Congaree river, Camden, on the Wateree, and
Cheraw, on the Pee Dee, these places being respectively at the head of
schooner navigation on each of the four great rivers of the State.

By reference to the map, it will be found that a line drawn from Ham-
burg, through Columbia and Camden, to Cheraw, will be nearly straight,
nearly parallel to the coast, and will about divide the State in half. The
upper country which lay beyond this line began to be peopled about
1750, by settlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia, whose numbers were
afterwards greatly increased by the effects of Braddock's defeat, in 1755.
The few immigrants who made their way there from the coast were absorbed

GIG TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

into the mass of these overland immigrants, who were an enterprising
and progressive people, prepared, by several generations of frontier life
to conquer success under difficult conditions, and accustomed to depend
wliolly upon themselves in all the exigencies of their surroundings.
They knew neither the benefits nor the burdens of government, nor, if
they had known, were they of the temper to assume the burdens for the
sake of the benefits. Afterwards, their descendants, acquiring property,
took a short cut towards government through the " Regulation."

Between the upper Carolinians and the colonists of the low country,
the patient subjects of the Lords Proprietors, and afterwards of the King,
there were no ties of consanguinity, no identity of history, traditions or
experience, no religious affinities, no personal acquaintance, no com-
mercial relations. It is natural to suppose that the upper Carolinians
maintained some intercourse with their own people, both those at their
old homes in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and their kinsfolk and ac-
quaintances settled in Ohio, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this in-
tercourse would naturally take the form of trade as soon as the new
settlers had any surplus produce to exchange for the articles of consump-
tion which they had been accustomed to obtain from Philadelphia,
Baltimore and Richmond. As these immigrants had come with wagons
and teams, there must have been practicable routes for a wagon trade ;
indeed, for a part of the way, they . would have the same roads that
served other offshoots from the Pennsylvania and Virginia stock, and, no
doubt, some families were scattered all along the route from the Alle-
ghanies to the southern slopes of the Saluda mountains. It was not
only more natural for them to maintain intercourse with the northern
S3ttlem3nts than with those on the coast, but was less difficult, for the
whole middle country of South Carolina was a wilderness in 1750, and
there were no roads through it practicable for wagons. There were, as
yet, few ferries, except very near the coast, the rivers were not fordable,
and approach to tliem was obstructed by swamps, which are more for-
midable even than rivers to highland people with wagons.

There were, as has been said, four points in the middle country enjo}'-
ing water communication with Charleston, but they do not appear to
have been attractive or even practicable as markets for the upper country,
and it is probable that they had little or no trade, besides that with the
Indians, until after the Revolution.

In the absence of definite information on the subject, I am strongly of
opinion that, until the Revolution had knit them together, the upper and
lower Carolinians had very little intercourse with each other, and that,
on the other hand, a constant overland trade was maintained by the
former with the northern settlements. In corroboration of this opinion.

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 017

I am informed that, oiih^ two or three generations ago, cotton was sent
by wagon to Philadelphia from the neighborhood of Hamburg ; and if
from a point in constant water communication with Charleston, why not
more probably from points not so advantageously situated in that respect?
In Gregg's History of the old Cheraws, page 110, it is said : " The stock
was driven to Charlestown and other places on the coast, as well as to more
distant markets. Large numbers of cattle were sent from Peedee to Phil-
adel}»hia." Also, at page 112, in a note, Ave find the following : " Gen.
Harrington sent three four-horse wagon loads of indigo to Virginia, and
with the proceeds bought 15@20 negroes."

It may be a mere coincidence, but it is singular that, to-day, when
railroads dominate trade, the only railroads in the State which are avow-
edly ancillary to the trade of Charleston, are those which terminate at
Hamburg, Columbia, Camden and Cheraw ; precisely the four points
which, a century and a half ago, were outposts of European colonization ;
while all the railroads traversing upper South Carolina are controlled
either by the Pennsylvania Railroad, or by the Richmond and Danville,
of Virginia :

Is it the persistence of some occult natural law of trade, is it fate,
or is it simply accident, that has wrested from Charleston the control she
once had of the Greenville and Columbia, the Blue Ridge, and the Lau-
rens railroads, and thrust them into the hands of Pennsjdvania and
Virginia ? However this may be now, tliere is evidence that, as soon as the
settlement of , the upper country developed itself, the Provincial Legis-
lature, at Charleston, were diligent in passing Acts for the establishment
of ferries and the construction of roads to connect the new settlements
with the capital. It appears, from a careful comparison of the.se Acts,
that many of them failed of their purpose, for the same roads and the
same bridges were over and over again ordered to be constructed, and
frequently new commissioners were appointed at each repetition of the
legislation.

The principal roads (omitting those connecting the coast settlements,
and one from Charleston to the " Congarees") were projected as follow- :

1753. From Eutaw Springs, on the " Congarees " road, by Beard's ferry,

across the Santee, through M mchester, Camden and Lancaster

C. H., " to the upper settlements on the northeast of the Watoree

river, near the Catawba nation," about 120 miles.

(This Act also provided for openin.g out the navigation of the Wateree

river.)

40

CIS TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

17C(). From near Fort Motte, by McCord's ferry, over the Coiigaree, just
above tlie point of its confluence with the Wateree, along the west
side of the Wateree to Fishing Creek, " so far as the Province
extends," about 110 miles.

170G. From near Fort Motte, up the west bank of the Coiigaree, across
this stream at Howell's ferry, " through the Forks of the AVateree
to Lee's Fort," about 80 miles probably.

1768. In conjunction with a ferry across Peedee, near Society Hill, two
roads, one on northeast side of Peedee, connecting Bennettsville,
Marion and Conwayboro with Georgetown, and so with Charles-
ton, about 150 miles of new road. The other, from Cedar Creek,
through Society Hill, Darlington and Kingstree, to Fort ]Motte
road, about 90 miles.

1768. From Orangeburg, across the Saluda, near Rocky Creek, through
Newberry, to Laurensville, about 110 miles.

1770. From Orangeburg, across the Edisto, through Ninety-Six, across
the Saluda, through Abbeville to Pendleton and beyond, about
170 miles.

1770. From Augusta, through Edgefield, across Saluda river, near Nine-
ty-Six, across Enoree river to Broad river, at Fishdam Ford, about
100 miles.

The highways were ordered to be constructed b}" the personal labor of
the inhabitants of the country through which they respectively passed,
which seems certainly to have been a hardship upon those thus burdened.

The road laws then in force in England required personal labor on
local roads, but the main highways were maintained at the expense of
the whole public. The Colonial Legislature, as we have seen, had at
first only local roads to make, and these were sanctioned by military
exigencies, hence it was quite appropriate to have them built and kept
up by the neighborhood, according to the English system, but when the
time came to build highways so as to connect the capital with the distant
parts of the Province, then only recently settled, the law-makers seem
not to have recurred to English precedents ; they simply applied to these
highways the laws in force for the construction and maintenance of the
roads previously built, which were wholly local.

Besides this hardship of making the dwellers along a highway keep it
up for the convenience of a traffic in which they have no interest, there
were special circumstances Avhich made the road law more onerous in the
upper country tlian in the low country.

In the first place, in the low country the large number of slaves ren-
dered the burden of road duty in that section comparatively light on the

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. " G19

whites, whereas in the upper country at first, there were no slaves, and
their numbers remained small until after the heaviest work on the roads
must have been already finished, so that there both road duty and mili-
tary duty fell on the same individuals.

In the second place, in the low country each person could see the im-
portance to his individual safety and convenience of every road on which
he had to work, either in person or with his slaves, and these roads were
used exclusively by those who made and kept them up ; but in the up-
per country the highways were intended principally to. promote a traffic
between distant points, which brought with it no advantages to the great
majority of those wdiose time and labor were consumed in constructing
and mending them, while this demand upon their time and labor prevent-
ed, retarded, or at least rendered more onerous, the making of such short-
er roads as were needed and, would have suffi.ced for the convenience of
each neighborhood. After the highways were built and the cultivation
of indigo, tobacco and cotton spread throughout the upper country, the
benefit of having good roads to Charleston became apparent, and their
existence was found to be essential to the material prosperity of the country..

During the Revolution the people of South Carolina seemed to realize,,
for the first time, that they were all bound together by common interests,
and had all a common destiny. Both AVhigs and Tories recognized the
unity of the State and acted upon it, and when the struggle was over, the
patriotic enthusiasm it had excited manifested itself in efforts to render,
intercourse between all parts of the State easy and agreeable.

Roads, bridges, ferries and water courses were improved, new routes-
were established, and there was evidently a desire to improve, too, the
methods previously relied upon for making and mending the roads.

The legislation of this period contains the following Acts of interest or.
importance.

1778. To render navigable the Wateree river, by an assessment upon.the
inhabitants, and upon owners of uninhabited lands, within a cer-
tain distance on both sides the river.

This Act seems to have been an effort to break away from the.
principle by which for more more than a century all work of that
sort in the State had been exacted of the people in kind, but it still,
clung to the idea that the locality, and not the whole State, should,
pay for such public works. Unfortunately this timid endeavor
after a better method seems to have been abortive, and having been
tried again and again, during the next decade, was abandoned.

1784. The road duty age was changed from, between sixteen, and sixty
to between sixteen and fifty.

G-20 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

1785. To clear the navigation of several rivers, by voluntary subscrip-
tions and by assessments upon the lands in the vicinity, and upon
the male inhabitants between sixteen and fifty. (Another weak
and vain innovation.)

178G. To establish a company for the inland navigation from Santee to
Cooper river. (Santee Canal Company.)

1786. To make, inter alias, a road from Friday's ferry, on Congaree, to
Augusta.

(N. B. On the same day, 22d March, was passed the Act to es-
tablish the seat of government at a place near Friday's ferry — to
lay out a town there and to call it Columbia.)

1 787. To establish a company to improve the navigation of Edisto and
Ashley rivers, and to make a. canal between the two rivers.

1787. To establish a company to open the navigation of the Catawba and
AVateree rivers, from the North Carolina line to Camden.

Among the corporators were John Rutledge, Thomas Sumter,
•John Gaillard, Benjamin Waring and Joseph Atkinson.

The company was to construct canals, dams and locks, or otherwise
to render the river navigable ; whereupon it was to acquire perpetual
control of the stream, with power to levy upon the traffic whatever tolls
the directors thought proper, not exceeding, in any annual aggregate,
twenty-five per cent, of the whole outlay of the company down to that
date. The company had also the power to open roads through any
private lands, so as to connect the rivev landings with the existing high-
ways ; it might take up and acquire title to any land, not already granted,
within two miles of the river bank on either side. The shares were to
be forever exempt from taxation, &c. The company might import
negroes, not exceeding three hundred, and have credit for five years for
the duty on such as they should import.

1787. Lynches creek, Clarke's creek and Black creek to be opened by
labor of inhabitants in the neighborhood of each respectively.

1788. A general road law. Term of commissioners, three years ; limit
of road duty, twelve days in the year : penalty for non-attendance,
two dollars for each white man, and one dollar for each slave per
diem. Bridges may be built by contract, and cost assessed on
male inhabitants between sixteen and fifty years of age.

1788, To establish a company for opening the navigation of Broad
and Pacolet rivers. This charter was almost the same as that
given for oj)ening the Wateree and Catawba.

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 621

1789. General road and ferry law. Vests in road commissioners the
granting of licenses for taverns and billiard tables, the proceeds
to be expended in repairing bridges and roads within the j^arish
or district to which the license applies. This new departure, like
that of 1778, seems to have been unsuccessful.

The dawn of the nineteenth century found tlie people of Soutli Caro-
lina at peace, united and prosperous. The years which had elapsed
since the Revolution had been well employed in securing these material
benefits. Industry and frugality had been elevated into the rank of
patriotic and fashionable virtues by the spirit of republican simplicity
which then pervaded all parts of the State. The cultivation of cotton
had spread rapidly and was very profitable, and the roads, bridges, ferries
and water courses were kept in as good order as circumstances allowed.
Drayton's " View of South Carolina," published in 1802, contains, at
page 158, the following sketch of the roads of that day: " The roads in
the State are well adapted to transportation and traveling, even to the
mountains ; and hence, wagons find no difficulty in coming from the
upper counties, bringing with them the commodities of that distant
region. Cross roads to and from each court house are made throughout
the State, and a wagon road has lately been made from the north fork of
Saluda river, over the mountains to Knoxville, in the State of Tennessee,
by which wagons have passed, carrying loads of twenty-five hundred
pounds weight. This opens a new source of wealth to this State, and
speeds a happy intercourse between the countries east and west of the
Apalachian mountains.

" In the upper country, the water courses are mostly fordable, and
when they are not, like other parts of the State, they are crossed by
bridges and ferries. These roads are made and kept in repair — under the
direction of commissioners — in the lower country by negroes, and in
the middle and upper country by a suitable number of the residents in
the county or parish through which they lead ; otherwise there is little
or no expense attending them, and at this time a carriage and four
may be driven from any part of this State to the other, and from tlie
sea shore to the mountains, without any other difficulty than such as
naturally arise in long journeys. Some few toll bridges are erected, but
the spirit of the people is not yet favorable to these taxes on traveling.
It is hoped, however, that the day will come when bridges which are of
too great magnitude to be built and kept in repair by individuals, will
be taken under the direction of government. This is one of the good
purposes for which public moneys maybe reserved in the public treasury,
and for which thev mav be drawn out in the public service."

G22 TRANSPORTATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA.

Tho vehicles used upon these roads for heavy traffic were of three
kinds. In the low country, they were mostly ox carts, made with large
wheels, four to six inches tix ad, drawn by three or four yoke of oxen, and
capable of carrying three to four barrels rice — about two thousand pounds.
In the middle and upper country, sleds were used for short distances on
the farms and cross roads, while for long distances, four and six horse
wagons were employed, capable of carrying two to three tons. These
wagons had narrow wheels, and cut up the roads in winter, especially
where the ground was claye3\ Besides these ordinary conveyances,
several novel methods were employed of moving produce to market. It
is said that cotton was sent to Hamburg from the country near the
upper Savannah by throwing the bales into the stream and letting them
float with the current. When produce had to be hauled to market from a
locality requiring no return in goods, it was sometimes the practice to
put it on a sled drawn by oxen, so that, at the end of the journey, not
only the produce, but the oxen and even the material of the sl6d could
be sold. . Persons now living remember hogsheads of tobacco arriving in
Charleston, having been hauled by oxen or horses attached to a shaft run
through the axis of the hogshead, from head to head, so that the pack-
age might roll freely. Barrels of rosin were sometimes secured together,
and floated in rafts to Georgetown from the Cheraw section.

The efforts wliith after the Revolution had been so earnestly directed
towards ilicilitating communication between Charleston and the middle
and upper parts of the State reached their climax in the conception and
construction of the Santee Canal. By referring to the map it will be
seen that the Santee river unites the- waters of the Wateree and the Con-
garee, and these, in turn, trace their sources to the head waters of the
Catawba, the Broad, and the Saluda, all beyond the northern limit of
the State. Had the improvements then contemplated proved j^racticable,
those streams, and some of their tributaries, would have been rendered
navigable to the State line, and then, by means of the Santee Canal, con-
necting the Santee and Cooper rivers, Charleston would have received by
water the products of all Clarendon, Sumter, Kershaw, Lancaster, York,
Chester, Fairfield, Richland, Lexington, Newberry, Laurens, Union, Spar-
tanburg and Greenville, with those of a part of each of the counties of
Oconee, Anderson, Abbeville, Edgefield and Orangeburg. So patriotic
and magnificent a project deserved the success which, alas, it did not ob-
tain. The corporators named in the Act of 1786, chartering the " Com-
pany for the inland navigation from Santee to Cooper river," are John
Rutledge, John Fauchereuad Grimke, Theodore Gaillard, George Haig,

James Kennedy, Graham, Thomas Sumter, Benjamin Waring,

Thomas Walker, John Vanderhorst, James Mitchell, ^Edanus Burke,

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 023

Peter Fayssoux, Richard Champion, Aaron Loocock, Pearson,

John James, Francis Marion, John Dawson, Alexander Gillon, Samuel
Midwood, John Richardson, Ephraim Mitchell, William Bull, Duncan
McRae, Nathaniel Russell, Philip Gadsden, Peter Belin, Henry Laurens,
Jr., Edward Rutledge, Ralph Izard, John Budd, Robert Beatty, William
Smith, Minor Winn, William Clarkson, William Plill, James Theus,
Joseph Atkinson, Thomas Jones and Daniel Bourdeaux. This was the
grandest work of internal improvement that had been attempted in all
America (although it was soon afterwards surpassed by similar schemes
in other States), and nothing can show more conclusively the devotion
and resolute spirit of its promoters than the fact that after the charter
was obtained six years were consumed in making up the company. At
length, in 1792, work was commenced, and in July, 1800, at a cost of
$750,000, the canal was finished and a boat loaded with salt went from
Charleston to Granby.* The Santee Canal, twenty-two miles long, thirty-
five feet wide at the surface of the water, with a minimum depth of four
feet (the same as the Erie Canal), and thirteen locks, all built of stone or
brick, was a work of which the State may well be proud. It was no
light misfortune either to the generation which built the canal or to those
which witnessed its gradual disuse and final abandonment, that so much
public spirit, so much faith and energy, should have failed to yield a rich
return. Although the Santee Canal never realized the expectations of
its pryectors, it served a useful purpose, and was for thirty- odd years an
important highway, serving to keep down the rates of land carriage be-
tween Charleston and an extensive and important region. The defect in
the canal was its location across a ridge, and consequently the want of a
supply of water at its summit, sixt^^-nine feet above tide level.

The facilities for water transportation in South Carolina probably
reached their highest development just before the epoch of railroads —
they are thus described in Mills' Statistics, published in 1826, page 156,
ef seq. : " The Savannah river divides this State from Georgia. It has
a ship navigation eighteen miles, from the ocean to the city of Savannah,
and good steamboat navigation 140 miles further, to Hamburg and Au-
gusta. Above these places, 100 miles, to Andersonville, the river has
thirty-three miles of rapids, with a fall of about eight feet to the mile,
on a regular inclined plane; the other sixty-seven miles is smooth, deep

* In this same year. 1792, the " Western Inland Navigation Company " was incor-
porated by the State of New York, for the purpose of makino; a lock navipition from
the Hudson river to Lake Ontario, but it accomplished very little, and after great
expenditures, abandoned its work, which extended from the Mohawk to Oneida Lake.
Nothing more was done until 1817, when the New York Legislature appointed a com-
mission to build what has been since known as the Erie Canal. This was finished in
1 825 — a quarter of a century after the Santee Canal was opened.

G24 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

water. Boats descend from Andersonville with seventy bales of cotton,
or ten tons. The Tugaloo is navigable for similar boats twenty-five miles,
to Pulaski, and the Seneca twenty-six miles, or six miles above Pendleton
Court House. At the junction of Twelve Mile Creek the Seneca changes
its name to Keowee, which is capable of being made navigable entirely
within the mountains by merely sluicing. The Tugaloo branch of the
Savannah rises in the mountains, a short distance from the Hiwassee, a
navigable branch of the Tennessee river. By means of these streams it
is believed the Southern Atlantic may be connected with the Western
States by a navigable canal. The general government have ordered sur-
veys to be made to ascertain its practicability.

The Santee river enters the ocean by two mouths. There is a good
steamboat navigation on this stream to the junction of the Congaree and
Wateree, and up both these rivers to Camden and Columbia. (The
Wateree changes its name to Catawba at the Wateree creek). This river,
above Camden to the North Carolina line, is interruj)ted by four principal
falls, around which canals have been cut, except at Rocky Mount, where
the work is now going on. The first fall is at the Wateree Canal, which
is five miles long, with a width of fifty -two feet, and having six locks ;
the second is at Rocky Mount, where there is a fall of 121 feet, requiring
thirteen locks. The canal here is cut the greatest part of the distance.
The third fall is at the Catawba canal, where there is a fall of fifty-six
fjet in three miles. The canal and seven locks here are finished. The
Iburtli fall is at Landsford, where a canal two miles long, with five locks,
completes the navigation. Above this the river has rapids, but the small
boat navigation can be extended with care within the Alleghany moun-
tains. The Congaree is formed by the confluence of the Broad and
Saluda rivers, where there is a fall of thirty-four feet, which is overcome
by a canal three miles long, and five locks. On the Broad river, the
navigation for small boats extends to King's creek, with the aid of Lock-
hart's Canal, which overcomes a fall of fifty-one feet by seven locks in
two miles. Above King's creek there are several rapids and extensive
falls ; locks would be requisite to make good navigation here, and when
these are once passed, the navigation to the foot of the mountains is only
obstructed by a few^ rapids. Green river, a main branch of Broad river,
extends to a point in the Blue Ridge (properly the Alleghany) where this
mountain is very low and narrow ; on the opposite side of the mountain
rises the French Broad, a large branch of the Tennessee. It is confi-
dently presumed that the Atlantic and Western waters may be united
here by a navigal)le canal with great comparative ease.

The Saluda river is navigable 120 miles above Columbia. There are
three canals on it :

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 625

1st. The Saluda Canal, two miles and a lialf long, with five locks, over-
comino; a fall of thirty-four feet.

2d. Drehr's Canal, one mile long, and with four locks, overcoming a
fall of twenty-one feet.

3rd. Lonck's Canal, which has a single lock of six feet lift.

The Pee Dee river rises in North Carolina (where it is called the Yad-
kin), and enters Winyaw Bay, above Georgetown. To Cheraw, above
120 miles from the ocean, it has a good steamboat navigation ; from
Cheraw to the North Carolina line, nine miles, there is a fall, on a regular
inclined plane, of eighteen feet, and above that line the rapids extend to
the narrows, about seven miles by water, where the fall is very great.
Above the narrows to the mountains this river is represented as favorable
for small boat navigation. Tt heads near New river, one of the main
branches of the Great Kenawha.

The Little Pee Dee rises in the sand hills in North Carolina, and is
navigable from Lumberton.

The Black river is navigable to the line of Sumter district, about sixty
miles from its entrance into Winyah bay.

Lynch's creek is navigable eighty miles, and Black creek thirty miles
from their junction with the Big Pee Dee;

The Edisto discharges into the ocean by two mouths, called North and
South Edisto inlets. It rises in the region of sand hills in two branches,
which unite below Orangeburg; both branches and the main river are
navigable, having no shoals. It has been contemplated to unite this
river with the Ashley, by a canal fourteen miles, extending from near
Gweham's ferry to Dorchester. The Edisto will form the feeder ; the
ridge between the two streams is only thirteen feet high, and less than
a half mile through. This canal will save eighty miles of difficult, and,
in some places, dangerous navigation between the upper Edisto and
Charleston.

The Combahee has a schooner navigation to Saltcatcher bridge, and
the main Saltcatcher is navigable for boats ten miles higher. It may
be made navigable to Barnw^ell Court House by merely removing logs
which now obstruct it.

The Waccamaw river rises in AVaccamaw lake, near the Cape Fear
river. From this lake it is navigable for boats to Conwayborough, and
from that place to Winyah bay it is navigable for schooners. From Win-
yah bay to Santee river the Winyah Canal, six miles long, has been
partly executed, and from the Santee to the head of the Owendaw there
is good schooner navigation. From the head of the Owendaw to schooner
navigation on the Wando, the distance is about eight miles, a canal here
would reciuire only eight feet depth of digging to be fed with tide

C)2C) TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA,

Avater. "NVando river enters Charleston harbor. From Charleston to
Savannah there is a steamboat navigation between the islands and the
main, with the exception of about half a mile between the Broad and the
Savannah rivers, where a canal is now cutting. Hence it will be seen
that witli fourteen miles of canaling, a good steamboat navigation, en-
tirely inland, and parallel to the coast, may be effected from the North
Carolina to the Georgia lines. It is supposed that five locks will be all
that are necessary. This work has been estimated at less than .$250,000.
It would appear to fall within the system of internal improvement con-
templated by the general government.

The Ashepoo has a schooner navigation to the Ashepoo feiw.

The Ashley river enters Charleston harbor on the southwest of the
city, and is navigable for schooners to Dorchester, twenty miles.

The Cooper river is a good navigable stream to the entrance of Biggin
creek, thirty-four miles by land from Charleston. From this point to
the Santee river, the Santee canal, twenty-two miles long, has been con-
structed, passing a summit sixty-nine feet above tide waters in Cooper
river, and thirty-four feet above the Santee. There are on this canal
thirteen locks. A great part of the produce from the upper Santee, Con-
garee. Broad, Saluda, Wateree and Catawba rivers pass this canal in
boats carrying one hundred and twenty bales of cotton or twenty-five tons
of merchandise.

It is said that upwards of three million dollars was expended in the
internal improvements thus described, without estimating the value of
the labor assessed upon the localities adjacent to the works. In spite,
however, of State expenditures, in spite of roads, bridges and ferries, in
spite of canals, companies and steamboats, in spite of patriotism and
State pride, the trade of upper Carolina could not be permanently
retained by Charleston.

In Judge O'Neal's Annals of Newberry it is mentioned that, in 1813,
the late Hon. Ker Boj^ce, then keeping a store at Newberry, " began to
trade overland with Philadelphia. Cotton was hauled from Newberry
to Philadelphia, and goods brought back, by wagons. He and the late
Thos. Pratt annually mounted their iiorses and rode to Philadelpliia,
purchased their goods, and thus laid the foundations of their respective
fortunes. In 1815, they visited Amelia* island on horseback, pur-
chased a stock of goods which they understood was there for sale, and
transported it to Newberry by wagons." These operations ceased with
the peace of 1815, and they were, perhaps, rendered possible only by the
war and the fidelity of Charleston to the National cause, and to the em-

* Amelia Island, in Florida, was then lntely taken from the Sj)aniard-=, and a noted
I^laee for contraband trade.

TRANSPORTATIOX IX SOUTH CAROLINA. G27

bargolaid by Congress; but they serve to show how frail were the com-
mercial ties binding the richest portion of tlie State to her own emporium,
and how habituated the peo])le of the upper country were to seeking
markets in distant States, After 1815, steamboats and teamboats were
added to the appliances for utilizing the rivers and canals of the State ;
and, for a time, they served to increase the volume of trade between
Charleston and the interior, and to render it apparently more stable.

In INIills' Statistics, published in 1826. page 428, it is stated that there
were, at that time, ten steamboats plying between Charleston and the
towns of Savannah, Augusta, Hamburg, Georgetown, Cheraw and Colum-
bia. The average capacity of these was six hundred bales of cotton, of
three hundred and twenty j)ounds each, but some boats carried up to
one thousand bales.

The movement of cotton to Charleston by water, between
1st October, 1826, and 1st October, 1827, was, through
the Columbia canal . • 45,612 bales.

Shipped down the Congaree from Granby, about .... 10,000 bales.

Total f[uantity from above Columbia .... 55,000 bales.

Total quantity from Camden . 40,000 bales.

Total cpantity shipped at the various landings on the Con-
garee, Wateree and Santee, above A^ance's Ferry . . 15,000 bales.

Total Cj[uantity from above Vance's Ferry. . . 110,600 bales.

Total quantity from Hamburg and Augusta 37,500 bales.

Total ([uantity from other sources and wagons 51,900 bales.

Total Cotton Receipts (320 lbs. per bale) . . . 200,000 bales.

Flatboats, bringing cotton from Columbia, &c., passed through the
Santee canal. They w^ere manned, generally, by a " patroon " and five
hands, carried 110 bales of 320 lbs. each, and consumed twenty-four daj's
in the round trip, from Columbia or Camden to Charleston and back.
The tolls on the Santee canal were |40 on each boat each round trip.
The freight was |1 per bale, or $7 per ton. Cotton w^as brought from
Augusta and Hamburg to Charleston by steamboats ; freight average,
about $1.50 per bale, insurance, 25c., equal to $1.75 on 320 lbs., or $12.25
per ton. The up-freights were 50c. per 100 lbs., or $10 per ton, and in-
surance one per cent. The delays on this route from various causes were
very great, and, at times, the Savannah river was so low as to stop all
navigation. Travel was slow, difficult and expensive, and the mails only

G28 TRANSPORTATION IX SOUTH CAUOLINA.

passed thrice a week between Charleston and Augusta, two days and
niglits l)eing consumed in the journe}^ by the mail stages. The only
regular lines of stages running out of Charleston were those to Savannah,
Augusta, Columbia and Georgetown. Travelers who could not make use
of these or the steamboats, had to resort to private conveyances.*

The natural advantages of the country for water communication, and
the enterprise with which they were improved and utilized, the money and
labor expended upon roads, bridges and ferries, failed to meet the needs of
the country, and to maintain the trade of the city. A magazine writer in
1831 says : " The rich inhabitants of the back country of South Carolina,
and of those parts of North Carolina and Georgia which trade with
Charleston, are obliged, at great expense, to transport their produce and
receive, in return, their supplies ; weeks, and not unfrequently months,
have elapsed before places not more distant, in a direct line, than one
hundred and twenty miles, could effect their communications, and then,
and at all times, with great expense, and at no time without great risk
of loss and great delay.

The profits of the planter, or what ought to be his profits, are but too
often consumed in the expense of transportation ; and the merchant
finds it impossible to calculate, with that certainty which his operations
require, the time he may expect arrivals or hear of his shipments having
reached their points of destination. Capital which would otherwise be
active, is thus dormant a large portion of the time, and, consequently,
more of it is required than would suffice with more certain, rapid and
safe communication for the same amount of business.

Our climate presents an obstacle of no small magnitude to trans-
portation, either for goods or for persons, at least during three months
in the year. The rivers are unhealthy, and often too low, the roads are
sandy, heavy and hot ; the laborers and the animals engaged in trans-
portation are with difficulty brOught to perform their task, and too often
sink Ijeneath it.

The exports of Charleston amount to ten millions of dollars per annum,
whilst the direct foreign imports are scarcely' more than a tenth of that
amount. The merchants in the interior cannot postpone until the ftill their
supplies for the season, and as they cannot risk the approach to the city,
as early as is required in the summer to purchase them and have them
transported to their respective homes b}' the present tedious and expen-
_ _ ^

*0n the 15th May, 1815, Gen.Thos. Pinckney, with two ladies of his family, set out
from their plantation on theSantee, in their own carriage, and traveled to Boston. A
diary of the journey, in MS., is still extant. They reached Philadelphia on the 15th
June, havinu; traveled 1)92 miles in 31 days, including stoppages, to that jsoint. The
traveling expenses, including two weeks' stay in Philadelphia, amounted to §42l\

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. G29

sive modes, they prefer sailing to New York, and laying them in at that
place."

Mr. Elias Horry, in his address upon the completion of the railroad to
Hamburg, in 1833, thus refers to the inception of that work, five years
earlier. " In South Carolina, particularly in Charleston, a respectable
j)ortion of our citizens wisely determined that railroads would be emi-
nently beneficial to the State; that they would revive the diminished
commerce of our city, and tend to bring back the depreciated value of
property to its former standard. In fact, it became necessary that some
efficient measures, some great enterprise, should be resorted to. Real es-
tate in and near Charleston had sunk to half its former value, and in
some instances to less ; and this depreciation had extended also to coun-
try property.

Industry and talent had lost encouragement and met not their merit-
ed rewards. These evils had commenced and accumulated within a few
years, and were still progressing, and during the same period the North-
ern and Eastern States and cities had attained to great and increasing af-
fluence and prosperity, while those of the South were gradually falling
into decay. To improve, therefore, the welfare of Charleston, and for-
w^ard as much as possible her prosperity, and that of the State, our best
merchants and most intelligent men decided in favor of the adoption of
the railroad system.

The plan was that a railroad be located from Charleston to Hamburg,
on the Savannah river, and that a branch should be extended from the
main line, when completed, to Columbia, and afterwards to Camden.
The project was grand, and required knowledge and experience to have
devised it."

The first charter w^as obtained 19th December, 1827, but being unsat-
isftictory, another was granted by the Legislature on 30th January, 1828,
providing for a corporation, to be called " The South Carolina Canal and
Railroad Company."

The Chamber of Commerce, on 4th February, 1828, appointed a com-
mittee of ten of its members to " inquire into the effect likely to result to
the trade and general interests of the city of Charleston by the establish-
ment of a railroad communication between the said city and Ham-
burg," also to collect information about railroads, and report the prob-
able cost of such a road, and the revenue likely to be obtained from it.

Mr. Alexander Black, the chairman of this committee, on 3d ]\Iarch,
1828, submitted a very lucid account of all that was then known about
railroads, and added the committee's opinion as to the probable effect of
the contemplated railroad upon the prosperity of Charleston. Among
other things, we learn from this report that " the trade of Charleston is

G30 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

supported by about 200,000 bales of cotton and 100,000 barrels of clean
and rough rice annually," and that a bale of cotton was worth about $25.
Estimating the barrel of rice at 600 pounds, and its value at $20 (3|- cts.
per pound) the whole trade of Charleston was only $7,000,000. The re-
port concludes, " Charleston * * * has for several years past retro-
graded with a rapidity unprecedented. Her landed estate has, within
eight years, depreciated in value one-half Industry and business talent
driven by necessity, have sought employment elsewhere. Many of her
houses are tenantless, and the grass grows uninterrupted in some of her
chief business streets."

While Mr. Black's committee were at work collecting information from
a distance, some public spirited citizens furnished the means to have a
preliminary survey made of the proposed route, and obtained a report of
that survey on the loth March.

These reports were published, and on the 17th March, 1828, books of
subscription to the capital stock of the company were opened at Charles-
ton, Columbia, Camden and Hamburg.

When the time expired and the books were closed, the subscriptions
taken at Charleston amounted to 3,500 shares, the minimum required
by the charter, but at the three other places not one share was taken.

On the 12th of May, 1828, the company was formally organized at a
meeting of the stockholders, at tlie City Hall, Charleston, and officers
were elected as follows :

President. — William Aiken.

Directors. — Alexander Black, Thomas Bennett, Joseph Johnson, John
Gadsden, A. S. Willington, E. L. Miller, T. Tupper, William Bell, John
Robinson, Thomas Napier, Henry F. Faber, James Holmes.

Secretaries. — Edwin P. Starr, John T. Robertson.

Exploring Surveyors. — Col. J. B. Petti val, Mr. C. E. Detmold, Mr. R. K.
Payne.

United States Engineers. — Dr. Wm. Howard, and Messrs. Harrison, Swift,
Guion, Anderson and Belin.

In time, Engineer Corps were organized as follows :

Chief Engineer. — Horatio Allen,

Asmtants.—:i . B. Pettival. C. E. Detmold, E. Watts, P. Martineau, W. B.
Thompson, James Clarke, C. 0. Pascallis, A. A. Dexter.

Alexander Black may be regarded as the father of the eiiterprise. He
got the first charter in 1827, supplied the information which attracted and
satisfied others, and became commissioner, that is, /ac totum, of the com-
pany during the whole period of construction.

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 631

President Tupper, in his farewell address in 1843, saj^s it was an un-
l^opulai- undertaking. Mr. Black and Mr. Allen, in the several reports
made by them, from time to time, mention the opposition of the land
owners between the Ashley and Edisto to 'the location of the road through
that section, which was wealthy and populous, and the Board of Directors
in their annual reports refer to the obstacles thrown in the way of bring-
ing the road below Line street.

As late as 1837, the use of locomotives south of Line street was made
the basis of an indictment of the company as a public nuisance.

We can not, therefore, do too much honor to the men who risked repu-
tation and the public favor, as well as their private means, in carrying
the Charleston and Hamburg railroad through to completion.

It rec^uired courage as well as skill and labor, and when success was
attained, when the public confidence was conquered and public support
was ready to attach to an extension of what was quaintly called " The
Railroad System," these heroic men resigned to others the leadership and
prominence in the enlarged projects that followed.

The Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston Railroad, the South Caro-
lina Railroad, and the Southwestern Railroad and Banking Company,
.were great conceptions, and w^ere eagerly championed by the orators and
statesmen of the day; but in no case were the practical results in any de-
gree comparable with those achieved by Mr. Black, Mr. Horry, Mr,
Tupper, and their associates.

Mr. \Vm. Aiken, the first president, died on the 5th March, 1831, and
was succeeded by Mr. Elias Horry, who brought to the support of the
already flagging enterprise a noble spirit, and the financial force of his
large private fortune.

" The mode of construction adopted for, the railroad," says a writer in
the Southern Review, of May, 1831, " is to prive piles every six feet apart
in parallel lines, the heads of these j5ileg are bound together by trans-
verse sleepers; * these are surmounted roy the longitudinal wooden rail,
about nine inches square, in various leiigths, from fifteen to thirty-five
feet, on the top of which, on the jnnei/ side, the flat bar-iron is nailed.
The tracks are about five feet apart."

Mr. Horry, the president, says, in one of his letters, that " the timl^er
was varnished."

To do justice to those who conceived and executed the building of the
Charleston and Hamburg railroad, w^e must fully realize the lack of infor-
mation on such subjects generally, and, above all, the utter newness of
such an undertaking in the sort of country to be traversed by this road.

* Hence probably the term " cross-tie," which still adheres to the transverse piece
of timber underlying the rails, though the piles -.vhich they tied across are no longer
used.

G32 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

It was the first effort in America to build a railroad expressly for loco-
motive power, and in England the railroads were short straight lines,
built at enormous expense.

The Baltimore and Ohio, begun bafore the Charleston and Hamburg,
was intended for horse-power, it being then supposed to be impracticable
to use locomotives on short curves.

]Mr. Peter Cooper practicalh^ refuted this notion, in August, 1830, but
some months before his experiment at Baltimore, viz : on the 14th Jan-
uary, 1830, five days after the commencement of work on the road, the
Board of Directors of the Charleston and Hamburg railroad adopted the
report of Mr. Bennett, containing this memorable sentence :

" The locomotive shall alone be used. The perfection of this power
in its anplication to railroads is fast maturing, and will certainly reach,
within the period of constructing our road, a degree of excellence which
will render the application of animal power a gross abuse of the gifts of
genius and science "

George Stephenson's "Rocket" made its trial trip at Liverpool, on the
Gth October, 1829, so that there was barel}^ time for the news of it to have
reached Charleston, in January, 1830.

On the 2Sth of December, 1829, the contracts were given out, and on
the 9th of January, 1830, the railroad was actually begun, by the driving
of piles at " Lines' street."

Mr. E. L. Miller, one of the directors, undertook, at his private risk, to
provide a locomotive that should draw three times her own weight at a
speed often miles an hour, and the contract was accepted b}' the Board
of Directors on the 1st March, 1830. The locomotive was built in New
York, under Mr. Miller's direction, and was the first constructed in the
United States for actual service on a railroad. It weighed four tons, had
four wheels, made with spokes, was called the " Best Friend," arrived in
Charleston on the 23d October, 1830, and made one trip on 2d Novem-
ber, when the wheels proved of insufficient strength. Others had to be
got from New York, and finally, on the 14th and loth December, 1830,
trial trips were made, when the " Best Friend" accomplished from six-
teen to twenty-one miles per hour, drawing four or five cars with forty
or fifty passengers. Without the cars the locomotive run thirty-five
miles an hour, to the amazement of the community.

This achievement will be considered all the greater when we remem-
ber that the roadway was formed by stringers set on posts, with only a
strap of iron spiked along one edge of the surface of the stringers.

In 1830 six miles of road were built. In 1831 the whole line was
placed under contract. On the 7th November, 1832, the road was opened
to Branchville, sixty-two miles ; on the 7th February, 1833, to Midway,

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 633

ninety-two miles, and in October, 1833, the whole road was completed*
and opened to the public from Line street, near Charleston, to Hamburg.
Cost $951,148.39. It was then the longest continuous line of railroad
track in the world, 136 miles, and continued to be the longest until 1840.
It was built entirely on piles. In February, 1832, the first United States
mail ever carried on a railroad was transported over the twelve miles
then in operation nearest the ci^y. Stages to and from Columbia and
Augusta completed those routes.

The Charleston and Hamburg railroad demonstrated both the practi-
cability and convenience of this mode of transportation, and the unwise
deflection via Kingville of the Columbia branch of the South Carolina
railroad shows how completely the previous apathy of the interior com-
munities had given place to an ardent desire to share in the benefits of
the accomplished enterprise.

When the railroad from Columbia to Greenville was projected, the first
surveys showed a straight and practicable line via Laurens, but so eager
had grown the desire for the new accommodation that influences arose
strong enough to fasten upon tlie undertaking an egregious and costly
route, which exhausted the resources of the corporation, and forced it to
build up a territory it could not command, and to occupy a line inviting
comj^etition. It is unnecessary to trace in detail the various railroad
projects that have from time to time been set on foot. Some failed that
should have succeeded, and some were carried out that should have failed.
Following the completion of the railroads to Greenville and Charlotte
came the great abortive effort to penetrate the Blue Ridge at Rabun Gap.
This was rightly regarded as a public work, and on that ground both
the State and city of Charleston contributed liberally to its accomplish-
ment, but the Avar of secession came on and nothing of importance has
been done since to utilize the great outlay made, beyond Walhalla.

The period between 1834 and 1860 was marked by the gradual devel-
opment of railroads, and by many changes within the State, resulting
from that development, which deserve careful consideration, as showing
the efibcts of physical conditions upon society and politics.

Before considering these, however, it should be observed that no ef-
fective opposition was ever made to any project for building railroads
within or across the territory of the State, but on the contrary, the Legis-
lature freely chartered, and in some cases substantially aided railroads
which diverted business from our own centres and tended to benefit cities
beyond our borders at the expense of those within the State.

Augusta, Charlotte, and Wilmington profited largely by the uncalcu-

.*The Liverpool and Miincliester railroad, thirty miles long, was begun in June,
1S2G, and linished 15th J^eptember, 1830, at a cost of £820,000, about §4,000,000.

41

G34 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

latiiig liberality of South Carolina in this respect, and although Charles-
ton was necessarily the chief sufferer, and exercised at that time an al-
most paramount influence in the State, she never sought to monopolize
the trade of the interior by obstructing the charters of railroads leading
to rival cities.

" It is due to a high-minded and generous community to record this
^fact, and to point out that it was the consequence of consistent adherence
to principle, and not attributable to either weakness or indifference.

The effects produced by railroads, above referred to, are these :

1st. The railroads were built, for the most part, on the ridges between
the rivers, and thus tended to produce a new distribution of population
in those parts of the State which they traversed.

The earliest settlements in the low country, as we have seen, followed
the rivers, and in 1817, Col. A. Blanding stated in a published address,
that " two-thirds of all the market products of the State are raised with-
in five miles, and most of the other third within ten miles of a navigable
stream ;" one of the consequences, no doubt, of the work done in im-
proving internal navigation, and of the insufficient means provided for
making and keeping up the roads. It will be seen from this why the
earlier railroads were so coldly received by the persons then most promi-
nent as representatives of the agriculturalists of the interior, and why
they were taken up and carried to completion only by men Avho, like
Mr. Aiken, Mr. Horry, Mr. Tupper and Judge O'Neale, looked beyond
the interests and prejudices of a class, and sought to promote the prosperity
of the masses.

The richer lands bordering the rivers were held in large tracts by
wealthy proprietors, who had water carriage for their crops and horses
and carriages for them.selves, but the small farmers, scattered over the
less fruitful lands upon the ridges, were without facilities for travel and
for marketing their produce. To them the railroads were a great boon,
but to the land owners on the rivers they were an annoyance. The
Charleston and Hamburg railroad was prevented from passing through
St. George's, Dorchester, and up the valley of the Edisto, by the opposi-
tion of the planters, but w^as welcomed and aided with gifts of land by
the scattered settlers in the pine barrens, between the Ashley and Cooper.

2d. The railroads created towns, and the countr}^ town became at once
a new and important element in the development of the interior of the
State. These towns were the centres of trade ; churches and schools
arose there, some ac([uired colleges, and each town attracted to itself the
enterprise, talent, and me(ihanical skill of the vicinit}', and lawyers, cler-
gymen, doctors, and merchants united, gave the towns that leadership
in local affairs, social and political, which had been before enjoyed by

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. C)35

certain large " settlements." Since towns represent the thoughts and in-
terests of communities, while the " settlements " had represented chiefly
family influences, the significance of the changes is obvious. Railroads
made upper South Carolina even more strongly democratic than it had
been before.

3rd. The railroads facilitated negro deportations from the State and
thus tended to reduce the wealth of the low country, whence the chief
movement took place, while, by cheapening transportation, they vastly
augmented that of the upper and middle country. As a consequence,
the low country gradually lost the social and political ascendency in the
State, which, acquired in colonial days, had been retained until the ad-
vent of railroads took it away. Thus it happened that in building the
Charleston and Hamburg railway, Charleston unconsciously initiated a
movement which ultimately subverted her influence in the State, and de-
flected the course of social and political development in the Common-
wealth, away from the aristocratic modes, which its origin and history
had fixed upon the low country, and towards those principles which un-
derlay the development of upper South Carolina, and which are the expo-
nents of popular institutions both in government and society.

4th. The railroads stimulated the extension of cotton culture and made
Western provisions so cheap that the farmers neglected the production of
food at home. By cheapening the transportation of corn and bacon to
the cotton lands, and cheapening the carriage of cotton to the seaboard,.
an unaccustomed adjustment of prices came about, which misled the
farmers into that vicious semblance of economy of which the evil eff'ects
are still seen and felt throughout the State, whereby the independence
and the substantial comforts of farm life are sacrificed to the pursuit of
money returns from a large cotton crop.

5th. After the railroads were finished, the highways, which had been,
so early located, and which were built and maintained by so costly, and
even oppressive a system of personal road service, Avere of little use as
main arteries for trade and travel, but the former cross-roads, connecting
the new towns and the railroad stations with the country around them,
became important thoroughfares. Owing to the peculiar topography of
the country, and to the course of the railroads along the ridges, these old
cross-roads were ill adapted to such requirements, while the road laws
were not elastic enough to remedy the inconvenience by applying to
them the means used in building the former highways. Hence to this
day some towns and many important railroad stations are almost inac-
cessible in bad weather. This affects even the prosperity of the railroads,,
for good common roads are essential as feeders to the railroads.

0th. No precautions have been at any time taken to obtain for the Legis-

G36 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

lature, or the public, trustwortliy information as to what railroads should
be encouraged and what obstructed, nor as to the judicious location of
such roads as may be desirable in a general way. Upon every occasion
on which the State was asked to grant a charter and to confer the " right
of way " along a given route for a railroad, even in cases where the State
was asked to aid the enterprise, the field of discussion has been left solely
to volunteers. Thus the public interests involved in the undertaking
were rarely if ever adequately represented, and as a general thing only
that side of the case which was urged by the advocates of the enterprise
ever had a hearing either in the Legislature or the newspapers. An}'
voice raised in dissent was weak and ineffectual against the clamor of
the interested, while arguments in opposition were too often answered
only by charges of unworthy motives on the j^art of those who ventured
to make them public.

It has been an unfortunate thing that the State abolished the Board of
Public Works just at the time when in the building of its railroads such
an institution would have been most useful. If the board had been re-
tained, and had been charged with the duty of laying out a systematic
and comprehensive scheme of railroads for the whole State, leaving each
route to be taken up by a private corporation as soon as it proved to be
attractive, we should now be far better off than we are in respect to rail-
road accommodations. Our railroads, in that case, would have been less
costly, and therefore might have remained in the hands of the original
stockholders; whatever extensions might have been required to meet the
demands of increased population and production, could have been made
in accordance with a carefully considered and definitely settled plan,
avoiding injury to previously vested interests of the same character. It
is not yet too late for the State to provide in some way for supplying the
public and the Legislature with the advice of a disinterested engineer of
high professional standing, whose views, under the sanction of official re-
sponsibility, should be obtained upon every project of public improve-
ment which may be hereafter brought forward. It is now obvious that
such an official, regarding matters from the stand-point of the general in-
terest of the people,, apart from local interests, would have been eminently
useful in the past, and on that ground alone, even if there were no others,
it is likely that in the future there will be equal need of a State engineer.
There are, however, other reasons wh}' the State should have in its ser-
vice engineering talent and skill. Our road laws are of the worst form
of the antique, they were not good when made, and are entirely un-
suited to present uses. Certain neighborhood roads may perhaps be ad-
vantageously and economically kept up b}' this antiquated method of per-
sonal service, but certainly every highway should be maintained in good

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. Go7

order by the State, and the work should be done upon scientific princi-
ples, as respects grading and drainage. Since navigable rivers and rail-
roads are channels of public travel and traffic every road leading from a
highway to a frequented landing, or to a railroad station, should be re-
garded as a part of the highway.

A Board of Works, with a competent engineer at its head, and the
convict labor of the State at its disposal, would soon demonstrate its value
and would take its place in public estimation as an indispensable part of
the machinery of good government.

The war, terminating in 1865, had made excessive demands upon the
transportation institutions of the State, and left the railroads in an ex-
hausted condition, both as to motive-power and car resources, while
miles of track and trestle had been destroyed. The water transportation
had been early broken up, and towards the end many important bridges
had been destroyed. The common roads and the causeways, from neglect
and unusual traffic, were in bad order ; almost the only vehicles of any
sort in the country fit for use were a few army wagons and ambulances ;
horses and mules were scarce and dear, while horse-feed and forage were
equally so.

The recuperation of the railroads proved to be very costly, owing to
the high prices which prevailed up to 1873, and when the exceptional
tariffs of that period were no longer practicable, corporation after corpo-
ration succumbed under the burden of their augmented debts.

From 1873 to 1880 was the period of receiverships and reorganization,
and of legislative action directed towards the regulation of railroads in
their relations to the public. These matters can not be discussed here.

The reorganization of the railroads on a lower basis of capital and
debt excited new hopes as to their profitableness, and encouraged expen-
ditures and a S3^stem of management, producing marked improvement
in rails, bridges, and station accommodation, and quite a new order of
things in the speed and frequency of trains.

According to the report of the Railroad Commissioner for 1882, there
are in operation in South Carolina about 1,000 miles of railroads, which
transported in that year 961,313 passengers over distances Avhich make
the total passenger traffic equivalent to the carriage of 48,664,470 persons
one mile.

The amount of freight carried over those roads in that year is 1,323,364
tons, and taking this vast quantity in connection with the distance trav-
ersed, it is equal to the transportation of 122,043,275 tons one mile.

According to the same report, the average amounts paid by the public
were 3.42 cents per passenger p&r mile, and 2.47 cents per ton of freight
per mile.

038 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

In 1821, Mr. Robert Mills, avIio was both an ardent patriot and an
accomplished and accurate statistician, published through "The Tele-
scopic Press," at Columbia, a pamphlet, advocating certain internal im-
provements for the facilitating of trade and travel, and from this authentic
source we gather the following facts :

1st. That the bales of cotton then weighed about 320 pounds, and were
reckoned as running seven bales to the ton (page 28).

2nd. That the freight on cotton from Columbia to Charleston by the
steamboats which descended the Congaree and Santee, was $1.50 per bale,
equal to $10.50 per ton, but this route was so long and hazardous that
shippers preferred to send their cotton by wagons at a cost of $3.00 per
bale, equal to $21.00 per ton (page 19 and ser|).

3rd. That the " merchandize, salt, liquors," &c., carried back to Colum-
bia, cost for transportation from $15.00 to $30.00 per ton, both by steam-
ers and wagons. The water route being 500 miles, and the road 110
miles.

4th. That " there are annually brought to Charleston from the country
watered by the Santee and its branches, 50,000 bales of cotton, at a cost
for transportation of $115,000." This is equal to $2.30 per bale of 320
pounds, or $16.10 per ton.

5th. Cotton carried from Chatham (now Cheraw^) and Society Hill to
Georgetown by steam and team-boats, cost, before the improvement of the
Peedee, $1.25 per bale, and afterwards 75 cents per bale. The carriage
by land cost $2.00 per bale, of 320 pounds, to Georgetown.

The whole quantity carried in one year was put down at 6,000 bales.
A team-boat, carrrying 300 bales, required eight mules to propel it, five
men to manage it, and took fifteen days to descend the stream from
Society Hill to Georgetown. The freight from Georgetown to Charleston
is not given.

It is impossible to compute how much the public gains in time and
convenience by having railroads, but considering only the gain in econ-
omy, calculated upon the data thus furnished, we shall find the follow-
ing results :

Cost of wagon transportation between Columbia and Charleston in
1821, 110 miles : To Charleston, $10.50 to $21 per ton ; average, $15.75.
To Columbia, $15 to $30 per ton ; average, $22.50. Average both ways,
a little over $19 per ton — 17tV(7 cents per mile. The route between
Charleston and Columbia being the main artery of travel, rates were
probably lower on that route than on any other in the State ; hence we
might safely assume a higher rate per ton per mile for the cost of carriage
over the less frequented routes. The present cost, by average, on all the
railroads in the State is, according to the Railroad Commissioners, 2.7

TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 639

cents per ton per mile. Between this rate and that of 17.27 cents there
is a difference of 14.57 cents, which represents the minimum saving to
the pubhc on the transportation of merchandise. Without raih-oads, or
some equivalent convenience, the freight traffic could never have at-
tained its present dimensions, because the public could never have paid
to move so much material at the old rates. But it may be instructive to
observe that the tonnage figures for 1882, given by the Railroad
Commissioner, show that, if paid for at the old rates, the excess of
cost on the transportation of freight' alone, would have amounted to
(122,0-43,275x14.57) $17,781,705.16. The data for estimating the saving
in traveling expenses are not as precise as those we have for calculating
the saving in the carriage of freight, but we may, perhaps, safely assume
it to be in proportion to the ratio of the number of passengers to the tons
of freight carried one mile by the railroads in 1882, i. e., as 48,000,000 is
to 122,000,000. AVe shall thus have :

Gain on freight $17,781,705

(122 : 48 : : 17,781,705 :) Gain on passengers 7,000,000

Annual gain in cost of transportation by railroad . . $24,781,705

Avhich is equal to seven per cent, per annum , on $354,000,000, and to
nearly seventeen per cent, per annum on $145,442,292, which is the total
value of all property in the State, real and personal, including railroad
property to the amount of $14,877,250, as stated in the Report of the
Comptroller General for 1882.

The cost of all the railroads in South Carolina may be estimated at
about fifty million dollars, so that the public is now annually receiving an
equivalent of about fifty per cent, on their cost, over and above all
interest and dividends paid by the railroads to their creditors and
shareholders. This should be remembered when complaint is made of
insufficient accommodations and high charges by the railroads, especially
since these great public works have, in nearly every case, proved unre-
munerative to their builders.

Another point of gain is, that the railroads are built and kept in order
by the corporations owning and operatinrj them, the annual outlay being
taken out of the earnings at even 2.7 cents per ton per mile, whereas the
wagons of 1820-34 made no contributions even to the repair of the roads
which they incessantly lacerated, and, besides paying enormous rates of
freight, the public was obliged to keep up the roads and rivers.
. While the extension of railroads has been taking place, there has also
been an expansion in the freight traffic of some of the rivers, notably, the
Santee and Pee Dee.

(140 TRANSPORTATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

The greater volume and activity imparted to the currents of trade by
tlie more numerous and more rapid processes of transportation causes
more traffic upon the common roads, which are really extensions of rail-
road and steamboat routes. These common roads should be put in good
order and kept so b}' the State, because the benefits to be derived from
their improvement is diffused over the whole State. If the roads leading
to a given town are good or bad, not only the interests of that town, but
the convenience and economy of the whole surrounding region are af-
fected, and even, in some cases, the effects extend to distant points having
only railroad connection with the town concerned. To this purpose the
State may well appropriate all its convict labor and such funds as may
be necessary to the efficient and sustained employment of the convicts.
Such appropriations would soon appear to be in the nature of remunera-
tive investments, raising the value of lands and augmenting the emolu-
ments of labor wherever the road improvements extend.

CHAPTER IX.

TAXATION AND DEBT.

The fiscal history of South Carolina presents many remarkable vicissi-
tudes. Periods of great financial embarassments and depression have not
been wanting, but they have never discredited the industry, economy or
integrity of her people, and the recurrence of eras of great prosperity
illustrate the recuperative powers with which the manifold resources of
the country have endowed it.

The first tax, for the sum of £400, was imposed in 1682, twelve years
after the settlement of the colony. During the twenty succeeding years
the taxes aggregated £2,320, and the largest amount raised in one year
was £800.

Between 1702 and 1720, wars with the Spaniards, the Indians, and the
pirates caused an augmentation of taxes, and during this period they
amounted to £215,000. A tax of ten per cent, was laid on skins * and
furs, and a duty imposed on goods and merchandise imported into, and
exported out of the province. The custom duties were a source of in-
come until 1790, when their collection was transferred to the Federal
government. Specific duties were laid at this time on the importation of
negroes ; real and personal property was taxed, and a tax was appor-
tioned among the merchants and inhabitants of Charleston. The As-
sembly also issued bills of credit to the amount of £33,000. A land bank
was established to promote the rapidly increasing and successful culture
of rice. It emitted paper bills to the amount of £52,000. The deprecia-
tion of this paper currency quickly ensued, exchange and the value of
produce rose two hundred per cent, in two years, and in 1722 the value
of this paper money was fixed at four for one of sterling

Under the Rojul government warm disputes between the diff'erent
branches of the Legislature for and against the issue of bills of credit
occurred. The King's council refused to sanction the paper money, and
the provincial House of Commons declined to concur in passing any legis-

*Inthe early settlements (as in Newberry) deer and beaver skins were used as cur-
rency, and were a tender in law in payment of debts, being rated at certain valuations
for tiie(Jifferent sorts, as summer and winter dressed, or undressed skins, provided they
weighed one pound or upwards.

042 TAXATION AND DEBT.

lative act whatever, and none were passed from 1727 to 1731. But the
Lower House prevailed in 173(3, not, however, without a strong protest
from Arthur Middleton, James Kinloch and Joseph Wragg, in passing
an Act to emit £210,000 in bills of credit, declared in the Act itself to be
equal to about £30,000 sterling. In 1746 a second sum of £210,000 was
issued by the same authorit}^ and loaned out at eight per cent., as the
first had been. During this jDeriod the provincial currency Avas some-
times as low as ten for one, and averaged seven for one of sterling.
" Proclamation money," which was an aggregate of the depreciation es-
tablished by Queen Anne's proclamation of 1708, determining the value
of coin in the provinces at one-quarter advance on sterling, and the de-
preciation of provincial currency fixed at four for one in 1722, passed at
the rate of five for one of sterling.

During the French and English wars South Carolina paid in taxes,
from the year 1755 to 1765, the enormous sum of £2,020,652, of Avhich
£535,303 were raised in the year 1760. The last emission of provincial
paper currency was in 1770, amounting to the sum of £70,000, and valued
at about £10,000 sterling. The total amount of paper money issued by the
province during these sixty-eight years was £605,000, of which more than
two-thirds was secured by mortgage, and this sum greatly exceeded the
amount in circulation at any one time, as the earlier issues were called in
before the later ones were thrown into circulation. The conclusion of the
early legislators, after a long experience, and a full discussion of the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of an irredeemable paper currency was, that,
" while under proper restrictions it might be useful to a certain extent,
proper restrictions were seldom imposed, and seldomer observed."
(Ramsey.)

The last colonial tax raised in South Carolina was in 1769, for about
£9,600 sterling, or twenty-four times as much as the first tax levied
eighty-seven years before ; as both periods " were times of peace, requir-
ing no extraordinary expenditure, this fact is a strong proof of the pro-
gressive improvement of the country." (Ramsey.)

For five years previous to the Revolution there was great scarcity of
money in South Carolina. The importation of about 5,000 negroes an-
nually by Great Britain caused the balance of trade to be against the
colony. Gold and silver were very scarce. No tax bills had been passed,
and there was no emission of paper currency by the Assembly for several
years. The clerk of the House of Commons merely issued certificates to
the public creditors, that their demands should be provided for in the
next tax bill. This stringency was temporarily mitigated by certain
gentlemen, men of large estate, who, in 1775, issued their joint and
several notes, in convenient sums, payable to bearer, to the amount of

TAXATION AND DEBT. G43

£128,000. They passed freely from hand to hand, but in a short while
the war came on, a flood of paper money was issued, depreciation followed,
and this project turned out both unprofitable and vexatious.

In the Revolutionary war, as in the wars in which Carolina had been
previously engaged, recourse was again had to the emission of paper bills
of credit. Between 1775 and 1779 no less than £7,817,553 was thrown
into circulation. For the space of one year and nine months the enthu-
siasm of a people struggling for liberty maintained, undiminished, the
value of this paper, but in April, 1777, a destructive depreciation set in,
and the circulation of these bills was wholly arrested by the fall of
Charleston, in 1780. Their total value at the dates when the several
issues were made, was estimated at £481,065. At the date of the extinc-
tion of this circulating medium, there was literally no currency in the
State, for about that time also the Continental pai3er, " like an aged man,
expiring by the decays of nature, without a sigh or a groan, fell gently
asleep in the hands of its last possessors." The Spanish and French
loans, wdiich w^ere of such vital assistance to the Federal government in
the prosecution of the war at this critical juncture, furnished little or no
relief to the people of Carolina. The war, however, was carried on with
the same vigor. There was no money. Plate, rings, keepsakes, old coin
and such like articles, were brought into use by those who had them.
Buying and selling for the most part ceased, those having the necessaries
of life divided them freely with the destitute. Simply to live, was the
aim of most, and this was done to the astonishment of many, who could
scarcely tell how it had been effected.

When at length the war was over, the State liquidated its war debts
by giving to its creditors an acknowledgment of the sums due them in
the form of an indent. For five years the interest on these indents was
paid by issuing special indents, made receivable in taxes, which were an-
nually imposed for their redemption. And thus every year two to three
hundred thousand dollars was furnished, which obtained considerable
circulation.

In 1785, the State again issued bills of credit to the amount of £100,000,
loaning them in small amounts on mortgages of land or deposit of plate,
at seven per cent, interest. Of this loan £58,067 was outstanding in
1802, yielding a revenue of $17,420 to the State. The merchants came
forward in a body and agreed to take these bills at par with gold and
silver. No second issue was made, and the depreciation of the bills was
inconsiderable. The South Carolina Bank received this paper medium
on deposit and made repayment in specie or in its own bills.

In 1790, the United States, to consolidate the finances of the country
and to equalize the condition of the several States, assumed the debts of

G44 TAXATION AND DEBT.

the thirteen original States, contracted in the prosecution of tlie war.
That of South Carolina was the largest and amounted to $3,999,651. In
tlie further adjustment of the war accounts of the several States with the
United States, on the showing of Simeon Theus, it appeared to the satis-
faction of the cornmissioners appointed on behalf of the United States,
that the latter were indebted to South Carolina, for advances made by her,
in the further sum of $1,447,173, and certificates of funded stock were
given to the State for that sum.

These settlements, and the general prosperity ^which ensued with the
establishment of the independence of the country, gave a stable founda-
tion to the finances of South Carolina. A branch bank of the National
Bank was established in Charleston, in 1792, and others followed soon
after, and the inconveniences which had afflicted South Carolina in every
preceding period of her history from the w^ant of a circulating medium
passed away, and the country rose to a high pitch of prosperity.

Nevertheless, in 1799, it appeared that no man in or out of office in
the State, was able to tell the amount of the debts or of the credits of the
State. In consequence, the office of Comptroller-General was established,
and Paul Hamilton, the first incumbent, stated in his final report, in
1804, that the balance due to the State was $7o4,oo5.

This flourishing condition of the finances induced the Legislature to
subscribe $300,000 to the State Bank, and to establish and endow the
South Carolina College at Columbia.

The war between England and France, causing the imposition of the
embargo, and the non-intercourse acts, of 1807 and 1809, and finally the
declaration of war against Great Britain, in 1812, bore heavily on the
agricultural interests of South Carolina. From December, 1807, foreign
trade was almost entirely cut off. Agricultural productions accumulated
in the hands of the planters, becoming well-nigh unsalable. Money
almost ceased to circulate among the people, and business came to a stand-
still. To relieve this distress, the Legislature, in 1812, chartered the
Bank of the State, vesting in it the cash in hand and the funds belonging
to the State, with power to loan on real security and personal, at an in-
terest of seven per cent., the interest being paid in advance annually,
and renewable for years. All stocks, bonds, shares and claims belonging
to the State, the unexpended money in the treasury, and all taxes to be
thereafter collected, were deposited in the bank, and vested in the Presi-
dent and Directors, and the faith of the State pledged to suppt)rt the
bank, and to make good all losses. The bank was to pay the interest on
the State debt. This debt consisted of three per cent. Revolutionary
stock, and was estimated by the Legislature for redemption at fifty-five
cents on the dollar, making it, by this valuation, $332,870. The bank

TAXATION AND DEBT. 645

was directed to redeem and extinguish the same by the 31st of Decem-
ber, 1824. The bank was chartered until May, 1836.

With the return of peace another period of great prosperity com-
menced. The assets of the State were gradually realized by the bank,
and its effective capital amounted, in 1819, to $1,372,500. In this year
also Stephen Elliott, the learned and distinguished president of the bank,
placed the value of property in South Carolina, at $200,000,000.

The subject of internal improvements was discussed in South Carolina
as early as 1687, but it was ninety-nine years later before the Santee
Canal Company was incorporated, and this work was completed in 1800,
at a cost of £150,000 sterling. Other private companies, for the improve-
ment of the Wateree, Catawba and Edisto rivers, were incorporated in
1787. It was not, however, until the year 1816 that the office of civil
and military engineer to the State was established, and aid given by the
State to these improvements, at the rate of $50,000 a year. This expendi-
ture was soon much increased, and by the year 1826, the State had paid
out more than $2,000,000 in internal improvements, chiefly for canals
and turnpikes, and of this sum, $1,550,000 remained as a debt.

Thus it happened that the extravagant expenditures indulged in by
many of the States on account of internal improvements, which threat-
ened them with bankruptcy, and culminated in the financial crisis of
1836-42, occurred some years earlier in Carolina than elsewhere. So that
in 1827, when the Charleston and Hamburg railroad — the first railroad
built in the world with a view to its operation by locomotive steam
poAver — was projected, the already depleted treasury only aided the
private companj', who obtained the charter, by a loan of $100,000, secured
by mortgage, payable in seven years, and bearing five per cent, interest.

In 1830, the Bank of the State was rechartered until 1856. It had
discharged $215,931 of the principal of the State debt. This burden,
however, had been increased, by the expenditures for internal improve-
ments, to $1,892,880, leaving about $1,676,949 still due. The available
assets of the bank at this date amounted to $3,768,292. During the suc-
ceeding decade, the debt of the State and assets of the bank were both
largel}'^ increased, as will appear from the following staiements :

When the South Carolina Railroad, one hundred and thirty-seven
miles in length, was completed, in 1834, the most brilliant anticipations
of its success were entertained. The State had once again become pros-
perous ; cotton rose from eight to fifteen cents per pound, and thence, i"n
1836, to twenty cents. The idea of developing great interior routes of
communication occupied the public mind throughout the entire United
States, and seized for a second time upon South Carolina.

The Charleston, Louisville and Cincinnati Railroad and Banking Com-

G4G TAXATION AND DEBT.

pany, to have a capital of $36,000,000, was chartered. The State took
$800,000 of the stock, advanced $200,000 in cash, and endorsed the bonds
of the company for $2,000,000. This magnificent project, with many
similar ones undertaken at this date, failed ; accomplishing, some years
later, of its great promise, only the Columbia branch of the South Caro-
lina railroad, sixty-seven miles in length.

Meanwhile, the enormous increase of the debts of many of the States
of the Union, on account of their expenditures for internal improve-
ments, threatened to assume the proportions c^f a great national evil.
These debts aggregated $174,306,994, and the Federal Government, free
from debt, and with a large amount of surplus revenue in its treasury,
was appealed to on all hands for help. $36,000,000 of this surplus rev-
enue was ordered to be distributed among the States in four cj^uarterly
instalments, commencing January, 1837. The pro rata assigned to South
Carolina was about $1,350,000, and of this amount $1,051,422.09 was
actually deposited with the State in July, 1837, "being the first three
instahnents. The financial distress, which culminated in the panic of
1837, prevented the payment of the fourth and last instalment.

In 1838, a great fire destroyed a large portion of the city of Charleston,
and an extra session of the Legislature authorized a loan of $2,000,000 to
aid the sufferers. The Bank of the State negotiated this loan, borrowing
the money in England and loaning it on mortgages to the people of
Charleston.

The result of these events was that, in 1840, the State debt had in-
creased to $3,676,949 (not counting the surplus revenue deposited by the
United States with the State until otherwise ordered by Congress). The
assets of the bank had also increased, from the sources above cited, to
$5,420,809.

Although the decade, 1840 to 1850, does not appear as one of unusual
prosperity, it was marked by great economy in the management of the
financial affairs of South Carolina. A strong anti-debt feeling was aroused
among the people. No new loans were made, and, in 1850, the return of
the Comptroller-General shows the debt of the State, less the surplus
revenue, to be $2,105,920, funded in three, five and six per cent, stocks
and bonds. The assets of the Bank of the State amounted to $3,633,718,
and other assets of the State in railroad stocks and bonds amounted to
$1,320,156. In all, $4,953,874.

This prosperous condition of the treasury again induced a recurrence
to unusual expenditures, a tendency which was fostered by the rapid
increase in Avealth of the people during the decade, 1850 to 1860. In
1852, the charter of the Bank ©f the State was a second time extended
until 1871. For the third time the project of a great highway to the

TAXATION AND DEBT. 617

Northwest obtained control of the Legislature, and the State issued six
per cent, bonds, to the amount of $1,310,000, in aid of the Blue Ridge
railroad. The great increase in State expenditures which prevailed,
adding largely to the burden of taxation, as for example, in the State of
New York, increasing its amount three hundred per cent, found a par-
allel in South Carolina, in the sums expended in erecting a new State
House of Cyclopean blocks of granite. For this enterprise, if it may be
termed so, the State issued at this time six per cent, bonds to the amount
of $1,822,210.

Nevertheless, the assets of the State were ample to meet all liabilities.
The report of the joint committee of the General Assembly, in December,
1859, showed that the bank was in a prosperous condition ; that it had
paid debts of the State in excess of the interest and principal of the funds
with which it had been intrusted by the State (excepting a portion of the
fire loan) ; that, deducting all the liabilities of the bank for issues, de-
posits, balances due to- other banks, &c., from the $7,779,337 representing
its assets, there remained $3,085,397 of net assets, the fruit of its man-
agement. This sum, with $2,652,300 held by the State in railroad
shares — in all, $5,737,597 — represented the fiscal resources of the State
available to meet its public debt, which' (subtracting the fire loan stocks
and bonds already deducted from the assets of the bank) amounted to
$2,478,796, as stated by the Comptroller-General in his report for that
year.

Such was materially the condition of the finances of South Carolina at
the commencement of the war between the States.

In 1867, the Comptroller General stated the funded public debt of the
State, interest and principal, as $8,378,255, and the assets of the State, con-
sisting chiefly of assets held by the Bank of the State and shares in rail-
road companies, as $8,709,189.

Of this increased indebtedness, $2,241,840 was for principal of bonds
issued during the war for the military defence of the State ; $729,200 re-
duced interest on bonds and stocks ; $436,600 State capitol bonds, &c.,
issued during and after the war ; thus leaving $4,978,615 to represent the
ante-bellum debt increased in the interval b}^ interest.

Doubtless a considerable portion of the asset? of the bank, with which
these liabilities were to be met, would eventually have proved valueless,
as did the results of many of the financial transactions during the war.
Time, however, to test this matter was not allowed

In 1868, the Federal military authorities summoned a convention to
" Reconstruct " the State of South Carolina. From this convention the
former citizens of South Carolina were virtually excluded, and it was
placed by the military authorities, as the State government, for eight

648 TAXATION AND DEBT.

years. Subsequent!}' it was in the hands of the newly emancipated
negro slaves.

The convention declared the $2,241,340 of war debt wholly and for-
ever invalid. The first negro Legislature that met passed an act, in the
fall of 1868, to close the operations of the Bank of the State. Thereafter,
the assets of this venerable institution added nothing to the revenues of
the State. In 1870, it was placed in the hands of receivers, under whose
administration its funds have gradually diminished.

Thus passed away a powerful institution, which, for more than half a
century had exercised exclusive control of the fiscal affairs of the State.
Its friends claimed that it had saved, consolidated and made profitable
the funds of the State ; that it had furnished relief to many citizens,
added to the general revenues of the State, improving and developing
the towns of the interior ; its profits were employed in paying the in-
terest and in reducing the principal of the public debt ; it preserved its
capital entire and its funds safe, maintaining the character and credit of
the State in Europe and at home without blot or suspicion. Its most
violent opponents admitted the ability and integrity displayed in its
management, and declared that the abiding confidence of the people in
it was a high but dangerous compliment to the purity of the public
characters of the State.

This was but the prelude to the wreck which the negro government
made of the finances of the State. Its policy was of extreme simplicity. It
consisted in raising money by every means available, and at any cost, to
be squandered in profligate and corrupt extravagances upon the plunder-
ers in power. Space does not allow here even a brief summary of the
numerous and devious methods adopted for these purposes. Of the high
assessments placed on the remnants of property spared by the ravages of
war; of the equally high rate of taxation; of the issues of bonds and
stocks of the State by the Legislature, by the Governors, Treasurers
Speakers of the House of Representatives, and financial agents ; of their
sale and hypothecation ; of the army of clerks, messengers, porters, &c.,
aggregating 2,505, employed by the Legislature ; of the legislative ac-
counts for services, including wines, groceries and dry goods, amounting
to $543,232 ; and of much more, concerning which statements made by
their own witnesses, will be found in the reports on legislative frauds
during the years 1871, '72, '73, '74.

The average of the annual State taxes for the ten years preceding the war
— a time of great prosperity and large expenditure — was $442,589. From
1869 to 1873, they averaged $1,822,007. During this latter period, the
assets of the State disappeared. The interest on the public debt remained
unpaid, large deficiencies occurred, no public works were undertaken.

TAXATION AND DEBT. 649

The sequel is briefly stated in the language of the Financial Investigating
Committee of the negro Legislature of 1871-2 : " We find ourselves
facing a total debt of $28,977,008. This sum represents the present
actual and contingent liabilities of the State as the committee find
them." The credit of the State was entirely destroyed. " It was with
the greatest difficulty that the officers of the State Lunatic Asylum could
purchase four thousand dollars worth of provisions on credit, although
appropriations had been made to be payable out of the revenues which
were then about to become due " (Statistics Public Indebtedness, 10th U.
S. Census). The appalling spectacle was presented of a State struggling
in the slough of debt, with Labor resting on her rusted implements, Com-
merce folding her wings. Trade in prison garments, and the Genius of
Liberty weeping over her people, prostrate, bankrupt and disgraced.

Extreme measures were of urgent necessity. A constitutional amend-
ment w^as ratified forbidding the General Assembly to create an}?^ further
debt without first submitting the question to the people at a general
State election, and unless two-thirds of the qualified voters cast their
votes in favor of it. The negro Legislature, by act of the 22d December,
1873, declared as absolutely null and void bonds recently issued to the
amount of $5,965,000. By the same act, known as the " Consolidation
Act," the State Treasurer was authorized and required to receive from
their holders certain specified certificates of stock and bonds, and to give
in exchange therefor, other certificates of stock or bonds equal in amount
to fifty per centum of the face value of the bonds and certificates of stock
surrendered. Interest was no longer to be paid on the old bonds and
stocks unless exchanged, and then at the rate of six per cent, per annum.
The bonds and stocks thus specified were :

Bonds and Stocks issued by the State from the year 1794 to

the year 1861, amounting to $2,837,460

Bonds and Stocks issued during the war, from 1861 to 1866,

amounting to 124,865

Bonds and Stocks issued after the war, before the Reconstruc-
tion Convention of 1868, amounting to 1,021,218

Bonds and Stocks issued by the negroes from 1868 to 1870,

amounting to 5,835,100

Total $9,818,643

This sum was to be paid at fifty per cent, discount, in consolidation
bonds. It would have amounted to $4,904,321, to which the past due in-
terest was to be added.
42

(150 TAXATION AND DEBT.

Even these measures failed to secure an honest administration of the
debt. The Comptroller-General of the negro government reported, in
1875, that the volume of consolidation bonds had been much increased
by the funding of a " large amount of coupons, although the records of
the treasury prove that they had been previously paid."

This was the state of affairs in .January, 1877, when the United States
troops were withdrawn from the State House ; the negro government al-
lowed to fell to pieces, and the white citizens permitted once more to
take part in the administration of affairs.

On October 31st, 1877, the State Treasurer reported that

The principal funded under the Act of December, 1873,

amounted to $4,396,290

The principal then still fundable under the Act amounted to
$2,704,551, which, at the rate established by the Act,
amounted to 1,352,276

Total principal $5,748,566

It was found necessary to appoint a commission to investigate the in-
debtedness of the State, under the Consolidation Act. The irregularities
discovered by this commission were so numerous and important that the
Legislature, in 1878, created a court, known as the " Court of Claims,"
with jurisdiction to hear and determine cases testing the validity of the
consolidated bonds, coupons, and certificates of stock. A number of
cases involving issues of law and of fact were determined by this court,
and on appeal, b}' the Supreme court. In 1879, the Legislature appoint-
ed a special commissioner to ascertain, in accordance with the decisions of
the courts mentioned, and to establish the validity or the percentage of
validity of each consol bond, certificate of stock, or of the unpaid interest
thereon. The holders of these consols to have the right to surrender the
same for cancellation, and to receive new consols from the State Treasurer,
bearing interest at six per cent., for the exact amount reported valid in
the consols surrendered. These new consols, issued after February, 1880,
are engraved from the same plates as the green consols issued under
prior Acts, ])ut are distinguished by their color, being brown.

The " deficiencies," or floating indebtedness, left by the negro govern-
ment, was adjusted by a " Court of Claims " established in 1878. '' De-
ficiency " bonds and stocks, bearing six per cent, interest, and payable in
ten years, were issued in settlement of such portion of these claims as the
20urt adjudged valid.

By the^e means the final adjustment of the debt of the State has been

TAXATION AND DEBT. 651

nearly completed. The interest on it is being paid regularly as it falls
due. The State credit has been restored. The bonds and stocks which
had been sold as low as sixty cents on the dollar, under the Republican
administration, now commands from $1.04 to §1.06 in the money market.

Statement of the Public Debt, 31st October, 1882.

Total consols (valid) $5,429,928 54

Total deficiencies ....... ' 501,992 24

State scrip Agricultural College 191,800 00

To be funded for ante bellum principal and inter-
est—say . 168,924 47

To be funded for post bellum principal and interest

—say (all valid) 85,237 50

To be funded for post bellum principal and interest

—(partly invalid) , 88,275 00

To be funded for '* Fundable Interest " partly in-
valid—say 105,289 68

To be funded for bills of the Bank of the State . . 378 00

Total bonded debt $6,571,825 43

052

TAXATION AND DEBT.

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TAXATION AND DEBT. 653

It will be noticed in 1881 that there is an item of $464,300, under the
head of " poll and school tax," not treated with the annual State taxes.
It is derived from the poll tax and a tax of two mills on all property in
the State, and is not imposed by the General Assembly, nor subject to ap-
propriations made by it. A perpetual tax of this sort is levied by a con-
stitutional provision, ratified in 1877, and its proceeds are devoted exclu-
sively to educational purposes.

In addition to the regular State taxes, South Carolina, in common with
the other States of the Union, allows" the citizens of the minor civil divis-
ions, and of the towns and cities, to impose, under certain restrictions,
such local county and municipal taxes as they may think necessary.
The counties and municipalities may also create county and muni-
cipal debts, distinct from the State debt. This local taxation was in
South Carolina for the year 1880, $554,164 for the counties ; and $542,109
for the minor civil divisions and municipalities. Of the latter the larger
part was levied in Charleston and Columbia. Outside of the counties in
which these cities are situated, the total township, town and village taxes
of the State aggregated only $62,514. Distributed according to popula-
tion, the sum of this local taxation amounted to $1.10 per capita; dis-
tributed according to area, it was $36.33 to each square mile. Through-
out the country at large the weight of these burdens is much greater,
the average for the United States being $5.09 per capita, and $94.49 per
square mile. The indebtedness of counties, townships, school districts,
cities, towns and villages in South Carolina amounted, in 1880, to $6,706,-
767 ; outside of Richland and Charleston counties, this total amounted
to only $1,498,437. This amounted to $6.72 for each one of the popula-
tion, and $222 to each square mile. The aggregate of this species of in-
debtedness for the country at large averages $16.67 for each one of the
population, and $276 for each square mile of territory.

FEDERAL TAXATION.

In common with the citizens of the other States, the citizens of South
Carolina pay taxes for the support of the Federal Government. These
are of two sorts, the customs duties on articles imported, and the

INTERNAL REVENUE TAXES.

The United States Collection District of South Carolina paid for the
fiscal year 1881, internal revenue taxes to the amount of $135,907-
This is a little more than one-tenth per cent, of the entire collections of
internal revenue in the whole United States. It is notable that the cost
of making these collections in South Carolina — compensation of collec-
tors, office expenses, per diem of store-keepers, fees and travelling ex-

G54 TAXATION AND DEBT.

penses of gaugers — amount to $45,332, or 33.35 per cent, of the amount
collected, while for the whole United States the cost of collections
amounted to only 3 7-10 per cent. During the period of the tax
on cotton the collections in South Carolina were much larger,
amounting in 1866 to 34-100 per cent. ; in 1867 to 73-100 per cent.,
and in 1868 to Ih per cent, on the collections for the whole United States,
and aggregating, in the yenv last named, $2,634,800.

The collections made in the State are not, however, the criterion of the
amount paid on account of the tax within its limij,. For if no collections
whatever were made in the State by revenue officers, the citizens consum-
ing the articles taxed would pay the tax thereon. If the amount of
taxed articles consumed could be ascertained, the chief factor in the
amount of tax paid would be determined. This can be done only ap-
proximately. It is perhaps safe to assume that retail dealers in the
articles taxed make about the same average amount of sales everywhere.
The leading articles subject to the internal revenue tax are distilled
liquors and tobacco. Liquor dealers are less numerous in South Carolina,
where they are only about one to one thousand of the population, than
in the rest of the United States, where they average a little more than
three to the thousand. In special taxes on pursuits there is collected :

In South Carolina, from retail liquor dealers $ 27,119

In the United States 4,265,092

In South Carolina, from dealers of manufactured tobacco . . 29,367

In the United States 1,827,495

This would make the percentage of the liquor trade .0066 of that of
the United States, and the retail tobacco business .016 per cent, of that of
the United States. Assuming, as above that these percentages represent
the percentages of these taxed articles consumed in South Carolina, and
that the tax is paid in proportion to their consummation, the statement
would be :

Tax from distilled liquors collected in the whole United
States for the whole period Internal Revenue taxes have
been in force, $707,209,362, of which .0066 per cent, is

paid by South Carolina $4,667,581

Likewise of the $524,240,114 collected on tobacco, of which

.016 paid by South Carolina 8,387,841

These items form 80 per cent, of the Internal Revenue collec-
tions, and at the same ratio, 20 per cent, should be added

to express the amount paid by South Carolina 3,263,854

To these items add the direct collections in South Carolina for

the whole period 7,743,334

Making total revenue tax jmid in South Carolina .... $24,062,610

TAXATION AND DEBT. 655

This would make the tax paid in Soutli Carolina to average about one
and a half millions of dollars for each year of the sixteen during which
the tax has been collected. The aggregate amount is .0085 of the $2,807,-
153,628 collected as internal revenue in all the States. Taking the popu-
lation of 1880, the average for the whole United States is $55 per capita;
for South Carolina it is $24 per capita.

THE CUSTOMS TAX

of South Carolina is still more difhcult to compute. It is a strong point
in favor of these indirect taxes that, while as other taxes they are as
certain to come as death, they more resemble this dread visitor in coming
unawares. The collections made of customs in South Carolina offer no
basis whatcA^er for an estimate. Estimating the amount of the $186,-
522,064 of customs collected in 1880, in the ratio of the population of
South Carolina to that of the United States, the share paid by this State
would be about $3,700,000. This is probably more than what is really
paid, but it is estimated much higher by many. From this it will appear
that, granting that South Carolina pays less in Federal taxes than
the average elsewhere in the Union, nevertheless, she pays, annually,
$5,200,000 in such taxes, or more than double all her other taxes, State,
county and municipal together.

SUMMARY.

To estimate even approximately the burden that taxation and debt are
to any community, it is essential to form some idea of the relation they
bear to the wealth of the community. Unfortunately, the assessment
valuation for purposes of taxation furnish no data from which to judge
of the true values of property. Thus, in 1870, the assessed value of pro-
perty in Vermont was only 43 per cent, of the true valuation, and in 1860
it was 67 per cent. ; in New York, in 1870, it was 30 per cent., and in
1860 it was 70 per cent. ; in Illinois, in 1870, it was 22 per cent., and in
1860 it was 70 per cent. ; and in all the States the percentage of true val-
uations returned for taxes in 1870 was 47 ; for 1860 it was 70. The true
valuations of property for the year 1880 are in course of preparation in
the census office, but will not be completed for some months to come.
The census valuations of property in South Carolina placed it at $288,-
257,694 in 1850 ; in 1860 it was given at $548,138,754. This increase of
90 per cent, was rather remarkable, when it is remembered that, during
these ten years, the State not only gained little by immigration, but that
she spared largely of her population and wealth in opening up new set-

65G TAXATION AND DEBT.

tlements in tlie Southwest, and it is to be attributed altogether to an
intelligent and careful husbandry which developed the natural resources
of the State. For 1870, the census valuation, reduced to a gold basis
for comparison, amounted to only $160,416,582, showing that nearly 70
per cent, of the accumulations of 1860 had been sunk by the war. The
facts furnished by these pages show how great in many regards the
recuperation has been since this date, and especially since 1876. No
estimate of the aggregate gains will be here attempted, as without an
elaborate study of the values in each of the States, such as is being now
conducted by the census office, it would furnish no basis of comparison
with other sections. It is safer to compare the relations of debt and taxa-
tion with certain comparatively well ascertained factors of wealth. Of
the three factors of wealth, land, labor and capital, it may be assumed in
communities so homogeneous, in most respects, as the States of the Union,
that land and labor correspond, to a considerable extent, with population
and area, and therefore a comparison of the debt and taxation per capita
and per square mile of one community with another, if not decisive, is
at least dealing with tolerably well known elements having a most im-
portant bearing on the problem.

TAXATION AND DEBT.

G57

The following table, taken from the United States Census returns gives
the figures, in accordance with which diagrams A, B and 0 were con-
structed :

1860.

Population.

Area.

Debt.

Taxation.

New England. . . .

3,185,283

• 62,005

$ 9,170,113

$13,564,907

Middle States. . . .

8,333,330

111,940

259,168,359

28,226,668

United States. . .

31,443,321

2,970,000

528,443,991

94,186,746

Western States . . .

9,531,195

966,135

144,354,788

34,152,803

Southern States . .

10,259,016

797.125

115,750,731

18,132,242

South Carolina . . .

1870.
New England. . . .

703,708

30,170

4,733,242

1,280,386

3,487,924

62,005

123,611,000

43,309,461

Middle States. . . .

9,848,415

111,940

303,844,000

89,130,842

United States ....

38,558,371

2,970,000

868,676,000

280,591,521

Western States . . .

13,660,591

966,135

172,129,000

105,475,784

Southern States . ,

11,250,411

797,125

268,476,000

41,467,885

South Carolina . . .

705,606

30,170

13,075,229

2,767,670

1880.

New England. . . .

4,011,529

62,005

178,654,977

42,010,217

Middle States. . . .

11,756,073

111,940

488,638,655

101.466,347

United States. , . .

51,155,783

2,970,000

1,117,821,671

312,756,721

Western States . . .

18,524,989

966,158

243,984,183

129,117,979

Southern States. . ,

15,257,393

797,125

204,887,865

37,507,417

South Carolina . . .

995,577

30,170

13,419,958

1,839,983

G58 TAXATION AND DEBT.

Plate A exhibits the relation of debt and taxation to population in
South Carolina, and for the principal geographical divisions of the United
States during the thirty years represented by the United States census
returns of 18G0, 1870, 1880. National debt and taxation are not con-
sidered, but only State and local indebtedness and taxation, the latter
including county, township and munici})al debt and taxes. It appears
that the ratio of debt and taxation to population has greatly increased
since 1800, and that these burdens become larger in passing from South
Carolina and the Southern States to the Western, Middle, and New Eng-
land States. The increase in 1870 is in part attributable to the premium
on gold at that date, but in South Carolina it was due in a still greater
degree to the corrupt character of the State government, maintained by
military authority during " reconstruction." The gradation of taxation
from New England to South Carolina is more striking even than that of
indebtedness, and while it shows the frugality with which the State gov-
ernment is administered, shows also how unjust the general and sweeping
charges of repudiation are, inasmuch as the load of debt imposed by the
" reconstruction " government is still being borne.

Plate B exhibits the ratio of State and local taxation and indebtedness
to area, and agrees in its general features with plate A. The State and
local indebtedness per capita of South Carolina is less than one-third
that of the Middle and New England States. Per square mile, it is only
one-eighth that of the former, and one-tenth that of the latter.

Plate C exhibits the total burden of debt and taxation, Federal, State
and local, chargeable on the State of South Carolina, per capita and per
square mile, for the periods of 1860 and 1880. The national debt and
taxes are here assumed to be equally distributed according to population
and area, and the portion assigned South Carolina is estimated on this
basis. Of course the Federal debt and taxes are not actually distributed
in this manner. As it is certain that no estimate, as to where and by
whom these indirect taxes are actually and ultimately paid, would pass
unchallenged, the above is given to show the relative magnitude of the
changes which have occurred since 1860 in State and Federal taxation
and indebtedness. The Federal debt was :

In 1860 S64,800,000

In 1880 $2,120,415,370

The Federal taxes were :

In 1860 $53,187,511

In 1880 8360,474,657

One thing is at least clear, that however and by whomsoever the por-
tion of Federal taxes paid by South Carolina be estimated, they will be
found to be largely in excess of all taxes. State and local, collected
within her borders.

Plate A.

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PER CAPITA

COUNTY AND TOWN,} SOUTH CAROLINA TAX.

1880

STATE,

COUNTY AND TOWN

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~] CUSTOMS, ) l^tUtHAL TAX

FEDERAL DEBT

PER SQUARE MILE

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9 SoUNTY AND TOWN, } ^OUTH CAROLINA DEBT

INTERNAL

CUSTOMS,

FEDERAL TAX

loUNTY AND TOWN, {south CAROLINA TAX

CHAPTER X.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The urban population of the United States was 3.S per cent, of the
aggregate population in 1700. By the last census it has risen to 22.5 per
cent. The facilities offered to trade and manufactures during the present
century by the introduction of the use of steam, by improvements in
machinery, by the telegraph and cheaper and better postal arrangements,
has promoted everywhere this increase in city populations. In South
Carolina this tendency has been less obvious than in most countries
similarly located. Nevertheless, with the abolition of slavery, the barriers
which isolated the State have been removed, and it is plain that she is
making haste to take part in this as well as in the other great movements
of the age.

Governor Drayton enumerates forty-two towns and villages in South
Carolina in 1800, the population of which may be estimated at not ex-
ceeding 30,000, or twelve per cent, of the inhabitants of the State. ]\Iills,
in 1820, makes the number of towns and villages sixty-one, with a popu-
lation of near 45,000, being eight per cent, on the enumeration of the
census for that year. William Gilmore Simms counts, in 1840, of towns,
villages and hamlets, some seventy-five, with a population not far from
65,000, being ten per cent, of the people in the State. The census of
1880 counts one hundred and five towns in the State. This count, how-
ever, includes only a small proportion of the lesser villages and trading
settlements, which are increasing with great rapidity, and are effecting
marked changes in the social and industrial condition of the population.
The growth of the larger towns has been set back by the destruction and
losses attendant upon the war, and by the radical revolution it affect-
ed in the industries of the State, disturbing all the established methods
of trade. But along the lines of railways, and every where in the rural
districts, there has been a remarkable increase in the number of estab-
lishments engaged in trade. The cross-road store has become an impor-
tant factor in the organization of labor and in the distribution of wealth.
Established in the first instance as an adjunct to other industries, as
commissariats for farm hands, or those employed in saw mills, turpen-

GGO TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

tine or pliosphate works, they have gained a foothold of their own, draw-
inir round them small but growing communities, which find such locations
cHgible for the diversified industries and pursuits demanded by civilized
life. Originally, the Indian traders, following the trail of the hunters
and trappers, opened the interior of the State for settlement. Graziers
and stock raisers, known as " cowpen keepers," were the first to follow
them. In their wake, and to supplement for their uses the short-comings
of the seasons, came the tillers of the soil. These throve and prospered
until in the fullness of time they became large planters and great land-
lords, supplanting and overshadowing all others. Then came the war,
and the destruction of the plantation system. The thirty -three thousand
plantations of 1860 are divided out among ninety-three thousand small
farmers in 1880. Wholly occuj^ied by their struggle with the soil
and the seasons, these small farmers, of necessity, intrust their trading
interests to the care of the country storekeeper. And thus the cross-
roads store stands again, as stood formerly the Indian trading post, a
pioneer in a new industrial departure. The blacksmith, the wheelwright,
and the trial justice settle near them, and when two or three stores are
gathered together, churches and schools are opened, and a town which,
from its very commencement, has instantaneous communication through
the telegraph with every quarter of the globe, is admitted into the great
felloAvship of cities, and takes its growth.

The attempt is here made to express numerically the character and
distribution of these towns and trading points. As in some sort, a first
attempt, it is necessarily defective. The defects are, however, those of
omission, and these can be supplied by more accurate enumerations in
future.

In the following statements, trading settlements alone are considered.
Health, educational or social resorts, as such, are not included, nor are
mills or manufactories entered unless stores are connected with them.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Towns, Tradmg Points, Stores &c. in South Carolina.

6G1

Regions.

Towns and Trading
Points.

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VII. Alpine

Totals.,

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16

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20

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8

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100

58,750 52
9,095 6

21,538 9
7,4031 10

50,788 12
3,084 33
15

150,664

1,169
330

1,009
221

1,750
166

4,645

$20,322,000

51

1,473,000

4

5,030,000

14

1,816,000

4

10,546,000

26

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187
295
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62

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53

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4

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4

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It may be roughly estimated that the annual sales are about one hun-
dred and fifty millions of dollars. In this connection, a general view of
the condition of the

BANKS

in South Carolina, in the present and also in the past, is exhibited on
the following page.

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TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. GG3

COAST REGION.

On the Coast Region of South Carolina there are 1 ,111 stores. Of these,
four hundred and fifty keep general merchandise and groceries ; one hun-
dred and sixty-four, dry goods ; eighty-five, hardware, and three hundred
and ninety-seven are classed as miscellaneous. Notwithstanding the
I)reponderance of the colored race, only twenty -two stores of this whole
number are conducted by them. There are seventy-three stores or
saloons where liquors are sold. In

BEAUFORT COUNTY

there are 94 stores, to wit: Beaufort, forty-three; Port Royal, seven;
BlufFton, three; Hardeeville, four; Yemassee, four; Sheldon, eight;
St. Helena Island, seven ; Ladies' Island, one; Pocotaligo, one ; Coosaw,
two ; Grahamville, eight ; Ferebeeville, two ; Chisolm's Landing, two ;
Combahee, two ; and doubtless some others which have escaped enu-
meration. Nine are kept by colored j^ersons, and the aggregate wealth
of the storekeepers is estimated at §588,000. The lines of trade are
represented as follows : sixty-nine groceries and general merchandise,
twelve dry goods, five hardware, and three miscellaneous. There are
eight stores or saloons selling liquors.

PORT ROYAL,

the terminus of the Port Royal and Augusta railroad, is a striking in-
stance of great natural advantages long known and neglected. It is the
nearest point on the Atlantic ocean to the great centres of travel and pro-
duction in the Northwest. It has the deepest entrance, and the deepest,
safest and most commodious roadstead from Portland to Pensacola. It
is the nearest port on the Atlantic coast to the West Indies and South
America. Surrounded on all sides by large bodies of salt water, it is
troubled by none of the malarial influences usually affecting fresh water
estuaries. Dr. Spear, Surgeon U. S. N., gives the average annual death
rate of the U. S. naval forces in Port Royal waters as 5.6 per 1,000 men.
The range lights erected on Hilton and Paris Islands enable vessels with-
out a pilot to come in during blowing weather, with perfect safety by
day or night. Capt. .Jas. E. Jouett, U. S. N., writes that he has passed in
and out several times at night, and never with less than twenty-nine feet
of water. There are two distinct channels, so situated that sailing vessels
may enter with the wind in any direction, and, passing up Broad and

664 TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

Port Royal rivers, they may enter Battery creek and reach the present
wharves under full sail, where there is a stretch of anchorage five miles
in length, with twenty-eight feet depth of water.

The net- work of broad and deep rivers, the beautiful islands resting
in their midst, the verdure of the forests, the immense live oaks, venerable
with the growth of centuries, the glistening fronds of the palmetto trees,
the orange trees, the vines, laden with grapes, climbing everywhere, the
abundance of wild fowl, and the fragrance of flowers that perfumed the
air of this healthful and genial climate, attracted the early explorers and
settlers to this locality. Here, in 1520, the Senator and Judge, De Ayllon,
was the first European to land on Carolina soil. Here, in 1562, the
Huguenots, under Jean Ribault, made the first settlement on the North
American continent. Coveted and fought for by Spaniards and French-
men, the remains of the forts they built are still to be seen here. It was
to this point, called then " the beauty and the envy of North America,"
that the English colony, led by William Sayle, which afterwards settled
permanently at Charleston in 1670, first came.* And here, in 1682,
Lord Cardross and his Scotch colony were dislodged and driven off by
the Spaniards. In 1742, the headquarters of the British squadron on
this coast was located here. More recently, this port was selected as the
rendezvous of the United States naval force during the late war, as a depot
of supplies and for repairs, and as a sanitarium for the troops. The records
of the Navy Department bear ample testimony to its many natural ad-
vantages. The railroad was projected and built to this port under the
idea that it was the most accessible from the interior, that it was the
legitimate shipping point for Western produce, and that, in time, it
would be the terminus of the great Southern lines of railway to the
Pacific. That these hopes and plans have not been realized and accom-
plished has in no instance been attributed to anything wanting in the
place itself, its surroundings, or its geographical relations to other places.
The first settlements were abandoned in consequence of the inroads of
Spaniards and pirates. To-day, it is said that hostile railroad combina-
tions and the ill-advised jealousies of neighboring towns have checked
the growth of this great seaport. As an illustration of this, it may be
mentioned that, in 1875, the city authorities of Savannah presented a me-
morial to Congress, expressing the fear that the " establishment of a naval
station at Port Royal may result in the establishment of a grov/ing com-
merce at that point, to the serious and lasting detriment of the commerce
of the city of Savannah."

The present town of Port Royal is built on the southwestern point of

This colony report seeing, on St. Helena Island, many peach trees.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 605

Port Royal island,* on a high sandy bluff, near the junction of Battery
and Port Royal rivers, eighteen miles from Port Royal bar. There are
three thousand feet of wliarf room fronting Battery river, and the track
of the Port Royal railroad terminating here, runs along the wharves
within twenty feet of the vessels' berths. There is a larire railroad ware-
house across the railroad track on the wharves, with a storage capacit}''
of 13,000 bales of cotton, uncompressed, 55,000 tons of fertilizer, and 250
tons of merchandise. The steam cotton compress in this warehouse is
located within sixty feet of the wliarf, where the deepest draft steamships
may lie, and is one of the most powerful compresses in the South, and
has a capacity of 500 bales per day ; the grain elevator, adjacent, has a
capacity of 90,000 bushels. Five pilot boats attend Port Ro^^al and St,
Helena bars, with an average of three full branch pilots to each boat.
A'essels requiring water, coal or wood, can obtain them here. Towing
facilities ample. Towage rates the same as in Savannah and Charleston.
The town has a population of 387 ; three churches and a school ; two
hotels, and two boarding houses. The taxable valuation of real and
personal property is ^390,000. Town taxes are fifty cents on $100. Stores
rent for $8 to $25, and dwellings from $6 to $15 per month. The con-
nections by rail are, with Augusta, one hundred and twelve miles ; Yem-
assee, on the Charleston and Savannah railroad, twenty-five miles, this
point being sixty and a half miles from Charleston, and fifty-five and a
half miles from Savannah. There is an inland passage among the sea
islands, between Charleston and Savannah, and two steamers are on the
line, and touch at this point. A line of sea-going steamers run to New
York. The number of vessels arriving during 1882 was 429, tonnage,
219,050 ; ships of deep draft, with heavy freights, as railroad iron, cotton
ties, salt and fertilizers, find it convenient to deliver their loads here.
The shipments are, of upland cottons, about 22,000 bales (in 1880, 48,000
bales were shipped), yellow pine lumber, manganese ore, cotton seed meal
and Kaolin clay. The value of the exports from this port and Beaufort
for the year 1881 are stated as $1,461,807, against $2,678,893 for the year
previous. Customs receipts in 1879, $13,294. Port Royal has seven
stores, and the yearly sales are given as $45,000 provisions, $15,000 dry
goods, $10,000 hardware. Phosphate rock of the finest quality is found
in Battery creek and the Port Royal Fertilizing Company has extensive
works here.

BEAUFORT,

the county seat, settled about 1717, has a population of 2,549. It is built
on rising ground, on Port Royal island, about sixteen miles from the sea

*Iii tlie Statutes of State, 179.3, this island is called Port-Republican island.

43

CtC)Cj TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

and one hundred and eight miles a little east of south from Columbia.
It covers an area of one thousand acres. The southern front of the town
is on a bluff over the deep and Avide waters of the Port Royal river; along
it is a fine broad drive, laid with shell, a mile in length, and a turf-cov-
ered promenade, shaded by a growth of massive live oaks. The streets
are twei^ty-seven miles in length, and forty to sixty feet wide. They are
regularly laid out, running east and west and north and south, dividing
tlie town into one hundred and thirty-seven blocks. The sidewalks are
neatly curl^ed and raised above the roadways, which are laid with shell,
well kept, and shaded by avenues of fine trees. A number of small
parks, open squares planted in shade trees and furnished with seats, are
interspersed through the town. Wells twenty feet in depth furnish an
abundant supply of excellent water, and cisterns for rain water are also
used to some extent. The porous, sandy soil absorbs the rains so rapidly
that there is little cause for drainage. The sewerage collected by surface
and under ground drains is delivered into two large brick sewers, one a
thousand, and the other six hundred feet in length, which empty into
the river north and south of the town at low water mark. Ea.st of
the promenade is the business portion of the town, and the wharves,
which hav3 nineteen feet depth of water at low tide. The Sea Island
hotel is well located on the promenade, and is large and well kept ; there
are a number of good boarding houses. The private houses are well
built, and having been erected as residences for the wealthy planters of
the sea islands, are much larger and handsomer than those usually met
with in towns of this size. Tlie public buildings are the Arsenal, now
used as a Court House, the Town Hall, the Steam Fire Engine House
and Hall, and two hand fire engine houses. Building material consists
chiefly of choice yellow pine lumber, which costs $10 to $15 per thou-
sand feet ; tabby, a mixture of shell lime and gravel, was formerly much
u-ed for walls and foundations, but is now superseded by the use of
brick. The shell road, stretching across the island, furnishes a fine drive,
and the facilities for transportation are good, carriages for pleasure drives
hiring from seventy-five cents to one dollar per hour. The National
cemeter}", just beyond the town limits, covers thirty acres. It is hand-
somely laid out, and contains the graves of 10,000 Federal soldiers and
sailors who lost their lives in the civil war. There are six other small
cemeteries attached to the churches in the town, and a number of bury-
ing places outside, now used by the colored people. The St. Helena
Episcopal Church, built of tabby and brick, dates from 1720. There is
als ) a Baptist church for the whites and a Roman Catholic church. The
colore 1 people have two Baptist, two Methodist and one Reformed Epis-
copalian church. The whites have a Masonic lodge, and the colored

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. GG7

population has a number of charitable organizations for tlie care of their
sick and the burial of the dead. Some of these are, the Benevolent So-
ciety of the First Baptist Church, the Workers of Charity, the Shekinah
Society, the Sons and Daughters of Zion, the Rising Sons and Daughters
of Zion, the Rising Sons and Daughters of Benevolence, the Rising Sons
and Daughters of Charity, the Mary and Martha Society, the Olive
Branch, the Sisters of Zion, the Knights of AVise Men, and an Independ-
ent Order of Odd Fellows. These societies have an aggregate member-
ship exceeding one thousand, and own eleven buildings and lots, valued
at over $12,000. There is a white school, attendance sixty, and a colored
school, attendance one hundred. The market is excellent, and living is
cheap, fish, oysters, clams, shrimp, sea turtle and terrapin, with game,
including partridges, water fowl, wild turkeys and deer, are abundant ;
the cost of beef on the foot is four cents to six cents, and of mutton three
cents to five cents. The stores on the Bay rent for $300 to $1,200, and
dwelling houses from S180 to $600 per annum ; the Sea Island hotel rents
for $2,500. The indebtedness of the town is $5,000, bearing seven per cent,
interest, and represents the unpaid balance of the sums expended for
the purchase of the steam fire engine, in building the house for it, and
in laying the brick sewers. The taxable property is valued at $500,000
for the real estate, and $200,000 for the personal property. The taxes
are one per cent , and the sale of licenses yield $1,500 more per annum.
The government of the town is invested in an intendant and six alder-
men, elected annually by the citizens. The police force consists of a chief
marshal and two assistants. The town is remarkable for quiet and good
order ; for twenty years past, not a single individual has been killed or
seriously injured in any disturbance within the corporate limits. There
are fort^'-three stores, and the yearly sales are estimated at $300,000 for pro-
visions and groceries, $200,000 for dry goods, $15,000 for hardware, $20,000 •
miscellaneous; total, $535,000. Trade and the mechanical and manufac-
turino; industries engaged the attention of the old residents of Beaufort to a
very limited extent. It was the home of the large landowners of the ad-
jacent sea islands. Those whose time was not fully occupied with the care
of their estates, devoted themselves to the professions, to politics, or to
literature. In addition to the amusements incident to a refined and cul-
tivated society, their chief pastime was in boating, fishing and hunting,
and Elliott's volume on the Field Sports of Carolina is esteemed a
classic in such literature, as well for the scholarly elegance of its style,
the vivid interest it excites in the adventures and scenes it describes, oc-
curring in this immediate vicinity, as for the pleasant pictures of rural
life it portrays. Recently, three large steam custom gins have been es-

CG8 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

tablislied, two large saw mills, aiul three large manufacturing mills for
the manufacture of phosphate rock into fertilizers.

BERKELEY COUNTY.

On the coast of Berkeley County there are twenty-nine stores, to wit :
Edisto Island, nine ; Eockville, one ; Enterprise, seven ; Mount Pleasant,
nine ; Cainhoy, three. These are all groceries, or stores keeping general
merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is placed at
S104,500, and one of them is a colored person.

MOUNT PLEASANT,

the county seat, is on the north shore of Charleston harbor, three and a
half miles from the city. Its front beach extends one and a half miles
along the harbor, of which it commands a fine view, its width varies
from four hundred to one thousand yards. Population, 783. Location
high, dry and remarkably healthy. Excellent water is obljained from
wells thirty feet in depth. About four miles of streets are laid with
shell and well kept. The place has long been a pleasure and health
resort for the planters of Christ Church parish and the people of Charles-
ton. The Alhambra Hall, surrounded by a grove of live oak, is used for
public entertainments, and there are two other halls, St. George's and
the British Masonic. A park of ten acres has been laid out, and the
county buildings will shortly be erected. The whites have an Episcopal
and a Presbyterian church, and the colored people have a Methodist,
Baptist, Presbyterian, and free church. There is also a two-story school
house, and an orphan asylum for colored children— -private charities.
Stores and dwellings rent for $10 to $20 a month. The tax assessment
values the property at $182,275 for real estate, and $12,000 for personal,
on which a tax of one-half cent is levied. Truck farming is largely and
profitably engaged in ; as an instance, the cabbages alone from one farm
of eleven acres sold for $10,500 in 1881. Near by is a large saw-mill, and
an extensive brick and tile factory. There are nine stores, owned chiefly
by Germans. A steam ferry plies regularly to Charleston, and the town
will be the terminus of a railway, the stock for which has been recently
subscribed, to extend along the coast to the Santee river, and beyond it to
Little river, which will develop a region hitherto untouched.

CHARLESTON COUNTY

lies entirely along the coast, and besides the City of Charleston, has two
small towns. Moultrieville, on Sullivan's Island, is five miles across the

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. GG9

bay from Charleston, and is connected with it by a steam ferry. It is a
pleasure and health resort for Charlestonians and people from the upper
country, who resort here in summer to enjoy the sea air and bathing its
fine beach affords ; it contains many handsome cottages and some attrac-
tive drives. It derives its name from Fort Moultrie, which beat off the
British fleet of Sir Peter Parker, June 28th, 1776, and which, with Fort
Sumter, a mile distant across the north channel, guards the entrance to
the port. There are six stores.

McClellansville has ten stores, and is some thirty miles to the northeast.

The city of

CHARLESTON

is built on a peninsula, formed by the confluence of the Ashley and
Cooper rivers, that has an average elevation of eight to ten feet above
high tide. Its safe and spacious harbor, forty feet deep at the city, and
three miles wide, opens to the sea at a point about six miles to the south-
east. The soil is loose, quartzose sand for a depth of twent}'^ feet, resting
on a tenacious and impervious clay. The city is three miles long, and
varies in width from half a mile to two miles. " The first site of the
town (on the western bank of the Ashley) had been chosen without re-
gard to commerce. The point between the two rivers, to which the
names (Ashle}^ and Cooper) of Lord Shaftesbury were given, soon at-
tracted attention ; those who had purchased grants there, desirous of ob-
taining neighbors, willingly offered to surrender one-half their land as
commons of pasture. The neck of land, then called Oyster Point, soon to
become a village named from the reigning king, immediately gained a
few inhabitants ; and on the spot where opulence now crowds the wharves
of the most prosperous mart on our Southern seaboard, among the groves
that swept down to the river's brink, and were covered with the yellow
jesamine, which burdened the vernal zephyrs with its perfumes, the cabins
of graziers began the city. Long afterwards the splendid vegetation,
which environs Charleston, especially the live oak, palmetto and cypress
trees along the broad road which is now Meeting street, delighted the
observer by its perpetual verdure. The settlement steadil}^ increased ;
and to its influence is in some degre3 to bs attributed the love of letters.
and that desire of institutions of learning for which South Carolina was
afterwards distinguished." (Bancroft.)

NotAvithstanding the provisions of the fundamental constitutions of
the great John Locke, devised expressly for this colony, Charleston was
not governed by a mayor or aldermen. Nor was there any township or-
ganization, or " select-men," no merchant or craft guilds, or unions, taking
part in local politics. The affairs of the town were administered directly

(wO TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

1)}^ tlie Provincial Governor and Assembly; the regulation of many
things, especially such as related to education and the care of the poor,
being left with the church. Through the leading part taken by the
vestry, the parish system, long a feature in the State government, was
developed, and thus it happened when, more than a century afterwards, in
1783, Cliarleston was incorporated by Act of the Legislature, the church
wardens were deputed to conduct the first election for intendant and city
wardens.

In 183G, the titles intendant and wardens were changed to those of
mayor and aldermen. They were to be elected by citizens qualified to
vote for members of the Legislature, were declared to be the City Council
of Charleston, and were vested with the power to establish such by-law.-',
rules and ordinances respecting the harbor, streets and public buildings,
and, in general, every other by-law and regulation that should to them
appear requisite for the welfare and security of the city, or for the
preservation of peace and good order, and to make assessments on the
inhabitants of Charleston for the convenience and benefit of the city, and
to fix, levy and recover fines for all offences against their by-laws, and to
appoint officers to carry their by-laws and regulations into effectual
execution. Such was and has since been the form of government for
the city of Charleston, except when it was temporarily suspended in 18G7
and 1868, by order of the military authorities in charge of the military
district of South Carolina.

The cost of the city government of Charleston reached its maximum
in 1870, when it was $320,306. For the decade including this year and
the succeeding nine, the average annual cost was $794,255. From this
date a more economical administration of the city finances ensued, and
for the last three years the average cost of the city government has been
reduced to $653,136. The increased expenditure in 1SS2 was occasioned
by the establishment of the paid Fire Department and the Fire Alarm
Telegraph, costing $70,000. The following statements give the receipts
and expenditures in detail :

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 671

Statement of Receipts and Expenditures for the years 1S70, 1S80, 1S81, 1882.

RECEIPTS.

1870.

1881.

1882.

Cash Balance 1st January

Licenses

Markets

Taxes, curreni year..

Taxes, other years

Other Sources

Interest Account

Police Uepartmeat

Orphan House

Fire Department

Railroad Bonds

Rents

Keal Estate

Bon as Receivable

Health Department

Powder Magazine

8 56,583 91
12tJ,230 91

"58L96968
43,780 08

681 33

"7,3V)0'9G

2.50 00

26.000 00

3,085 50

5848,972 37

8 3,ft51 44

104,443 24

5.(i80 69

504,518 28

30 387 14

61 180

2.000 00

450 00

1651,142 59

S 5.168 43

128,569 19

4.(iSt) SO

473 195 93

34,602 78

S646,283 13

? 5,525 55

156 3(r7 sti

4,836 24

486,563 75

18,396 25

i.954 28
1,550 63

321 60
789 68
688 00
030 33
554 31

S-709,578 51

EXPENDITURES.

Agricultural Society

Aiken Hospital

Alms House

Appraiser's Office

Bathing House

City Officers

City Court -•••

City Hall

t'ity Hospital

Clerk of Council

College

Commissioners of Public Lands

Citadel .Square

Commissioners of Election

Colonial Common

Destitute Orphans

Knston Home

Engineers Department

Fire Department

Gas Lights

Health Department

High School

Harbor Master

Incidental Expenses...

Interest Account ! •o.y.-.VioV.V

Interest on Public Debt i <^-^i-rv? *?!:

203 50
24 672 49

8,5.56 15

4.483 33
1,486 83

"l',784"00

251 25

10 902 00

19,187 13

6,000 00

"2!959 90
32,191 95

28 823 00
29.959 53
2.571 00
1442 90
11 982 00

7,168 45

400 00

31,912 14

Lunatic Asylum

Lazaretto.

Miscellaneous ai)propriations

Mayor's Annual Report

Mayor's Office

JNIaps for Assessor

News and Courier Co ■■.V-;Vnr,"A"A

Notes Payable | ^■^•'^^^ ^^

Ordinances. (Jity

Orphan House

Police Department

Printing and Stationery

Public Buildings

^sinking Fund , •v,\-:*.v;-"qV

Street Department \ ^"'^-^^i %

St. Michael's Clock

Tidal Drains

Transportation.

Treasurer's t)ffice

Unpaid Bill 1879

Vaults for Treasury

Water Works

Widows' Home, ,

3,072 25

32,388 66

74.011 52

1,594 80

277 47
11,296 56

5.697 50

408 52

§820,306 75

« 8,000 00

19,820 00

13,000 00

4 000 00
3,954 60

61 4;j

"eioooob

600 00
26.000 00
2.5,024 57
15 490 96

2 750 00

•71 40

217.004 00

11.069 53

19 828 24
ftj.OOO 00
3 000 00
4,000 00

"n"mm

"'4,720"84

129,592 08

$650,977 65

1 1,000 00
"'7"947"58

"2L5()6"6()

""'i.mm

3,961 09

""6,000 "OO

600"00

20,000 00
18,193 51
13,000 00

2,986 91

34 55

249,393 05

14,000 00

19.996 02
70,525 00
3,498 .50
10,000 00
10,000 00
101 ,.500 00

'"""4,487 47

9,000 00

8609,623 52

$ 1,000 00
'"""8,"248"'72

2.000 00
24 210 00

14,999 02

2.000 00
3,999 69

6.981 91
6.000 00
7,900 00
6(10 00
92 000 00
18.306 ()2
13.456 75
4,000 00

■' '"2- 500 00

""l83,"474"oi

16,281 83
500 00

.39606

2,250 00

""l'.5O0 00
20 000 00
73,022 97
3.190 31
2.5,471 29

"l".50,'o6o 00

'" "'l,936 (io
340 50

2.640 (K1
10,500 00

8698,806 90

072 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Tlie rate of taxes for 1880 was two and one-half per cent., and for the
following two years it was two and one-quarter per cent. In this period
the taxable values in the city had advanced two and one-half millions of
dollars, or nearly twelve per cent. At the same time it was found by
comparison of the sums actually realised on the sale of a number of
pieces of property, with their assessment valuations, that the actual
value was considerably in advance of the assessed value. In 1881 this
advance was stated at twenty -two and one-half per cent., and in 1882 it
was still greater, being thirty-four per cent.

CITY DEBT.

There has been no growth in America greater or more remarkable than
the growth of town and city debts. Previous to 18G0 the entire muni-
cipal indebtedness of the country aggregated only $51,222,558, being about
$10 per capita for the urban population. In 1870 these debts had reach-
ed $211,119,688, and stood at $26 per capita. In 1880, the enormous in-
debtedness of $710,555,924 is attained, exceeding $51 for each citizen ;
in twenty -two cities it exceeds $85 per capita, and reaches a maximum of
$216 per capita. The history of the debt of Charleston is in some degree
similar. Prior to 1850 this debt amounted to only $388,252, or about $9
per capita. By 1856, however, it had reached $3,161,695, and was $78
per capita. Its maximum was reached between 1872 and 1880, and
amounted to $5,643,534, being $115 per capita. Alarmed at this rapid
growth, and at the almost unlimited power granted by the city charter
to the Council for contracting debts, the city government elected in De-
cember, 1879, obtained from the State Legislature the passage of an Act
restraining the exercise of this dangerous power. By this Act the City
Council was prohibited from creating or endorsing any obligation be-
yond the municipal income of the current year, except when a proposi-
tion, specifying the object and amount of the indebtedness it was pro-
posed to incur, should, by a two-thirds vote of the Council, have been
submitted to a vote of the citizens, and having received the votes of two-
thirds of the ciualified voters voting at the preceding municipal election,
should then have been submitted to and approved by the State Legisla-
ture. The spirit of economy thus expressed has made itself practically
manifest by a reduction of the city debt to the amount of nearly one and
one-half millions of dollars, as Avill be seen from the following statement :

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. C73

The debt of the City of Charleston on the first

day of January 1870, was ' $5,241,709 77

It was increased by the issue of six per cent.

stock, for past due interest $ 5,725

Five per cent, stock College and High School 22,000

Seven per cent. Fire Loan Bonds 324,000

Four per cent, bonds issued in settlement of

case Fraser & Dill vs. City . , 50,100 401,825 00

$5,643,534 77
Amount decreased by the cancellation and re-
tirement of Fire Loan Bonds $250,100 00

Six per cent, stock 743,983 79

Five per cent, stock 47,600 00

Four per cent, stock (cancelled in '81 and '82) 372,100 00

Six per cent, stock, old issue 500 00 1,414,283 79

Leaving public debt 1st January, 1883 . . . $4,229,250 98

Which is made up of

Bonds, four per cent $3,413,300 00

Bonds, six per cent 160,500 00

Bonds, seven per cent 500,000 00

Bonds, seven per cent., Fire Loan 103,400 00 4,177,200 00

Stock, six per cent $29,050 98

Stock, five per cent 23,000 00 52,050 98

$4,229,250 98
April 24th, 1883.

The burden of this debt has been still further and greatly relieved by
a reduction in the rate of interest, which a wise policy of promptly meet-
ing all claims at maturity has enabled the present administration in a
large measure to eflect. Prior to 1880, the annual interest charges on
the citv debt amounted to $314,557, being $6.41 per capita. In 1883,
this charge has been reduced to $188,000, or about $3.65 per capita.
Ifthe present plan of paying at maturity the debt bearing six and seven
per cent, interest is persisted in, the city will, at an annual outlaj^ of
$23,000, clear off the whole of this debt in eight years, and have remain-
ing nothing but the four per cent, bonds maturing in 1909, with an an-
nual interest charge of only $140,000. Notwithstanding the disasters
through which it has passed, swept as it has been by fire and sword, the

074 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

credit of the City of (Charleston lias once more gained the high rank it
formerly held. While only one-eighteenth of the aggregate municipal
indebtedness of the United States bears so low a rate of interest as four
per cent., more than three-fourths of tlie debt of Charleston is placed at
that figure.

STREETS.

Charleston has seventy miles of streets. Cobblestone roadways extend
nine and one-eighth miles, and there is a shell road for one and three-
eighth miles. There were five and one-eighth miles of plank roadway,
but this has been reduced, and will be entirely done away with. The
remainder of the streets are much in the condition in which they were
two hundred years ago, a state of things that would have been impossible
but for the dry and porous nature of the soil: For the thirteen years pre-
vious to 18S0, about $100,000 were annually expended b}'' the city on
the streets ; in that year, two and one-eighth miles of stone roadway was
laid, at a cost of $70,000 ; in 1881, of stone roadway, cobblestone, and
^facadam roadway, about 1.4 miles was laid. The city is also charged
with the sidewalks. The cost of paving with flagstone is estimated at
tAvo dollars, and with brick at one dollar per square yard. In 1881,
besides resetting and repairs, 4,257 square yards of flagstone, and 3,811
scjuare yards of brick pavement were laid, together with 2,534 feet of
curbstone. Charleston has five miles of street railway. The early
settlers obtained an abundant supply of excellent

WATER

by sinking wells, twelve to fifteen feet in depth, through the loose sands:
with the growth of the city this water lost its purit}^ and recourse was
had to cisterns supplied by rains. Many plans were proposed to remedy
this evil. As early as 1803, Mr. Longstreet attempted to bore an artesian
well, but did not succeed. From time to time other similar attempts
were made, with like results. At length, in 1876, Mr. Spangler bored a
Avell on Citadel Green, to the depth of 1,970 feet, and obtained an abundant
supph^ of water. The delivery, tested at four feet above the surface of the
earth, was found to be 250 gallons a minute, or 360,000 gallons a day. The
water has a temperature of 99.5° Fahr. It is pleasant and healthful for
drinking and culinary purposes, it is delightful for bathing, and sui)erior
even to cistern water for washing. This demonstrates the practicability
of furnishing an unlimited supply of excellent water for the city. Mr.
Spangler is working at another well, and others will be constructed as
occasion requires.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. G75

DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE.

There are five and one-quarter miles of tidal drains, built at twenty
inches above mean low tide. These drains would be a complete and
effective scavenger, but being built with plank floors on loose sands, the
planks have in some places rotted, and in others the sand has washed
out, lowering the levels to such a degree as to render thorough drainage
impracticable. They are to be replaced with concrete or other hard
floors. The numerous street drains, built at different times, do not con-
stitute a uniform system, and are defective as to levels, the vital necessity
of which is not so conspicuous in tidal drain localities, where the water
runs up hill half the time. In 1881, there were laid 11,320 feet of twelve-
inch vitrified ironstone pipes, at a cost of eighty-seven and one-half cents
a foot, in substitution of brick and wooden drains, and 6,105 feet of
eight-inch pipe-drains. The scavengering has been transferred from the
Street Department to the

BOARD OF HEALTH,

with ver}'- satisfactory results. It is also proposed to concentrate the
slaughtering houses at a public abattoir under their supervision. The
achninistration of quarantine too has been transferred to this Board. The
City Registrar is Secretary of the Board, and there is in operation a very
effective system for the registration of vital statistics.

In consequence of the high rate of mortality prevailing among the col-
ored race since emancipation, due to their disregard of the laws of hygiene,
especiall}'^ as regards children, it is necessary, to form a fair estimate of
the healthfulness of Charleston, that the mortuary statistics of the races
be considered separately. The ratio of deaths among the colored popu-
lation of 'the city was, in 1830, 24.85 per 1,000, in 1840 it was 27.60, in
1850 it was 20.98, or an average of 24.47. In 1870 it had risen to 41.08,
aiid in 1880 to 41.08. In 1880 the ratio of death per 1,000 of the colored
population was as folloAvs, for some of the Southern cities : Nashville,
35.23 ; Norfolk, 37.06 ; New Orleans, 44.49 ; Savannah, 45.47. The fol-
lowing table exhibits the mortality among the white race in Charleston,
as compared Avith that of some Northern cities during the last half
century :

G7G

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

C'jmpamtive Mortalitij. Ratio per 1,000 Whites m the City of Charleston, S. C.

and in other Cities.

1830.

1840.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1880.

Aggre-
gate.

Ratio 0
Decades

Philadelphia .

20.90

17.78

19.63

19.18

22.72

20.91

121.12

20.18

Charleston . .

25.65

18.94

18.68

17.70

23.69

22.01

126.67

21.11

] Boston. . . .

20.00

22.19

24.59

24.68

24.30

23.53

139.29

23.21

Baltimore . .

22.82

20.04

24.91

22.91

27.09

27.16

144.94

24.15

New York . .

25.66

25.16

30.70

28.19

28.84

26.47

165.02

27.50

FIRE DEPARTMENT.

In the Fire Department of the city there was a substitution, in 1881,
of paid for volunteer service. The service is performed under the direc-
tion of a Board of Firemasters. There are six steam fire engines, two
reserve steam fire engines, and two hook and ladder trucks, with one
hundred men and a sufficient force of officers, horses, fuel, wagons, &c.
The fire alarm telegraph has thirty miles of wire, and ninety-three signal
boxes, in six separate and distinct metallic circuits, connected only
through a rej)eater at the central office.

PUBLIC GROUNDS.

On the extreme southeastern front of the city a massive stone wall, ten
feet in width and fifteen hundred feet in length, rises immediately from
the waters of the bay ; a broad, smooth drive separates it from the hand-
some private residences of the city that, with their gardens, occupy this
quarter. The view covers the spacious harbor, with its shipping, forts
and islands, stretching seaward to the southeast, where the unbounded
ocean terminates the horizon. It is known as the Battery, and forms a
seaside promenade scarcely surpassed anywhere. From the southern
terminus of this promenade a walk, twenty-five feet broad, extends for
eight hundred feet along the southern shore line of the city. Opening
on this walk are the entrances to the White Point gardens, covering-
eight acres of ground, beyond which is again the broad, smooth drive,
with the handsome private residences and beautiful gardens. Wash-
ington Square, adjoining the City Hall, centrally located, covers one
and a quarter acres, with its shade trees. Marion Square, in front of the
Citadel, is a well kept parade ground, of nine and a half acres. Hamp-
stead, Wragg, and Aiken Malls, are lands belonging to the city, making

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. G77

for the whole fifty-three acres, susceptible of being greatly improved for
the pleasure and comfort of the citizens. The public buildings, State and
Federal, the numerous churches, to some of which historic as well as
architectural interest attaches; the Academy of Music, one of the finest
theatres in the South ; the colleges, the library, the edifices devoted to
charity, and many other fine buildings, including the imposing Charles-
ton Hotel, and the Market, famous for its fruits, fish, game and vegetables,
can not find place in this brief account. Charleston has always been
generous in its

CHARITIES.

Mills enumerates fifty-one benevolent and missionary societies in ope-
ration prior to 1824; of these fourteen were established in the eighteenth
century. He ascribes to Charleston the honor of establishing the first
religious charitable society in America. The Fellowship Society, formed
in 1762, for the succor of the insane, was doubtless one of the first of
these humane institutions in modern times. The first library was a dona-
tion from Dr. Bray, in the year 1700, and the first free school was opened
in 1712. At present the city maintains its chariiable institutions at a
cost of about ten per cent, on its gross income. Their management is in
the hands of boards of commissioners, who serve gratuitously, deeming
it a privilege to be intrusted with the duties of administering hospitals
and bestowing relief on pauperism ; a survival perhaps of the sj^onta-
neous charity cultivated by the old vestry influence. The Orphan House
was established in 1790, and has accommodations for three hundred
children ;. it is maintained at an annual cost of $20,000. The Alms House,
founded in 1712, has an annual average of sevent^^-eight inmates, besides
its outdoor relief to two hundred and eighty-nine others. The Ashley
River Asylum, for colored persons, averages sixty-eight inmates. The
Roper and City Hospitals, and the Shirra's Dispensary, with four physi-
cians employed permanently by the city, give relief to the sick poor, and
by arrangement between the city and the Faculty of the Medical Col-
lege, " the best medical and surgical skill is at all times available to the
humblest person at a nominal cost, without regard to race or creed."

C7S

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Population of the City of Charksion, as shown by the United States Census from
1790 to 1880, with the Decennial Rate of Increase compared ivith that of
the State, and the Number of Dioellings.

Population.

Per Cent. I

NCREASE.

Year.

*< ^

AVhite.

Colored.

Total.

City.

State.

^P

1700 . .

8 080

8,270

16,350

1800 . .

0,030

10,843

20,473

.25

.38

. .

1810 . .

• 11,568

13,143

24,711

.20

.21

,

1820 . .

10,653

14,127

24,786

•^

.21

2,336

1830 . .

12,828

17.461

30,280

.22

.15

2,481

1840 . .

13,030

16,231

20.261

Dec. .3

2

2.804

1850 . .

20,012

22,073

42,085

.46

.12

2.780

1860 . .

23,321

17,146

40,417

Dec. .5

.0

1870 . .

22,740

26,173

48,056

.21

.2

6,861

1880 . .

22,600

27,276

40,084

.41

6,552

In 1870, Charleston ranked twenty-sixth among the cities of the United
States as to population; in 1880 it ranks thirty-sixth. In 1870 it ranked
twenty-sixth as to the number of persons engaged m useful and remune-
rative occupations, in 1880 it ranks as thirty-fifth in this regard. In
1870 it was twenty-eighth as to the number of families, in 1880 it is twenty-
ninth in this respect. In 1870 it was twenty-ninth as to the number of
dwellings, in 1880 it is forty-fourth in this respect. In 1870 eighty-eight
per cent, of the population were natives of the State, nine per cent, foreign
and three per cent, were born in other States of the Union. In 1880,
eighty-eight per cent remain natives, eight per cent, are foreign and four
\)QY cent, are from other States.

the haecor

is deep, spacious, land-locked, and perfectly safe. The deep water beyond
the bar is only six miles from the city. The present wharves, furnish-
ing as much as forty feet depth of water, have accommodations for about
two hundred vessels, and the wide and deep waters of the Ashley [Kca-
wah, Indian name) and Cooper (Elitvau) rivers extend for six miles aloi^g
the peninsula on which the city stands. The depth of water on the bar
is at present about eighteen* feet. Since 1878 the United States govern-

* Mills gives the depth, in 1827. as twenty to twenty-two feet.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. G79

ment lias been engaged in extensive works for increasing the depth of
the entrance. A stone jetty from Sullivan's Island, running southeast
and seaward, and another from Morris Island, bearing northeast and to-
ward the first, are being built. There will be an opening of 2,000 or
2,G00 feet in width at their point of convergence, and it is estimated that
the concentrated force of the currents and tides will scour out and keep
open, through this funnel-shaped aperture, a permanent channel twenty-
six feet in depth. Foundation courses 15,000 feet in length, for the north
jetty, and 12,757 feet for the south jetty, in all 27,757 feet, have been laid,
varying in width from forty-three feet to one hundred and eighteen feet,
and height from two and a half feet to fourteen feet from the bottom, ex-
clusive of spur jetties at certain points. The expenditure has been
11,045,000, and it is estimated that it will require $755,000 to complete
the work, which can be accomplished by the 30th of June, 1884.

In 1881, the entire management and control of the affairs of Charleston
harbor was vested by the State Legislature in a Board of Harbor Com-
missioners. The mayor of the city is, ex officio, chairman of this board,
which includes among its members, the President of the Chamber of
Commerce, a member of the Board of Health, and ten others, appointed
by the Governor, one of them a full branch pilot. The board appoints
annually, with power to remove at discretion, the Harbor Master and
Port AVardens, and defines and assigns their duty. Formerly there were no
port charges ; at present the support of the officers and other port expenses
i^ borne by a fee bill of five cents to ten cents per foot of length over all,
charged upon vessels ariving. The Harbor Commissioners have charge of
all matters pertaining to pilotage and cpiarantine. The pilot ground for
Charleston is thirty miles in any direction from the port. The service is
performed b}' eleven pilot boats and thirty-five authorized pilots ; the
rate of charges varying from fifteen dollars for six feet to one hundred
and eighty dollars for eighteen feet, with four dollars per day detention
money. Every care is taken to insure the faithful and efficient discharge
of these responsible duties. It is proposed to establish a marine signal
station, with telegraphic communication from the Charleston light-house
to the city, so that on arrival, masters of vessels will be at once in
communication with the commercial world. Charleston is nearer to the
grain fields of the great West than any Atlantic port lying to the north
of it. The distance from Havana to Cincinnati, via Charleston, is three
hundred miles less than by Baltimore, and five hundred miles less than by
Boston. For the European trade, this, the largest seaport on the South
Atlantic coast, is nearer than the Gulf ports, and ofi"ers to immigrants
the Scifest and most comfortable voyage at all seasons of the year, with
fiicilitie.s for their distribution on landing as cheap and convenient as

G80

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROJ.INA.

those at any port on the continent. Nearly two hundred years ago the
transportation charges for immigrants from Europe to Charleston were
twenty dollars apiece. The following statement shows the foreign tonnage
entered at the port of Charleston, for the years named :

1801 . . 50,880
1802 . . 67,914

1843
1853

21,148
94,475

1859
1870

129,7(34
3(3,332

1881 . . 15(3,500

The following statement shows the value of the exports and imports of
merchandise at Charleston for the years given, and also the percentage of
such value on the value of the total exports and imports for the colonico,
and for the United States :

w

W .

s

K

ti

^2

l<

r^ <^

a O

z -

5! %-

Year.

Exports.

Imports.

—4

Year

Exports.

Imports.

|g

1700

£14,158
20,793

4

£10 003

3

1810

$5 290 614

11

t

1710

9

19,613

6

1821

7,200,511

14

$3,007,419

7

1720

62,736

13

18,290

5

18.30

7,627,051

13

1,054,019

2

1730

151,739

26

64,785

11

1840

10,036,769

9

2,058.870

2

1740

265,560

37

181,821

22

1845

8,890,648

8

1,143,158

1750

191.607

23

134,037

20

1848

8,081,917

6

1,485,299

1760......

162,7()9

21

218,131

8

1856..

17,328,503

5

1,905,2.34

1770

278,907

27

146,273

7

1860

21,170,273

6

1,500,570

1775

£579,349

30

£378 116

14

1870.....

10,772,071

o

505, (509

1791

?2,a!)3,2()8

11

$1,520,000

11

1880

19,590,627

2

202,790

1796

7 ()2(MI49

17

1881..

26,498,827
17,617,483

440,240

1800

14,304;045

42

1882

586 800

In 1769, the exports from Charleston were valued at £508,108, and
were greater than from any of the other English colonies ; in the same
year her imports amounted to £306,600, and were greater than those of
New York and Pennsylvania added together. It was not until 1816 that
the value of exports from New York equalled those made from Charles-
ton in the first year of the century, and as late as 172-1 the value of the
domestic exports from Charleston was greater than that of any city in
the United States. The largest value of imports after the revival of pros-
perity, about 1850, was in the year 1858, and amounted to $2,070,249.
The lowest ebb in this regard, after the war and reconstruction, was
reached in 1879, when the value of the imports amounted to only $131,-
182. Here, as elsewhere, it will be observed that there was great devel-
opment from 1850 to 1860, a disastrous falling away from that date, with
a fair promise of a restoration of prosperity since 1880. From 1791 to
1825 the Federal customs revenues collected in Charleston ajxcrrecated

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

681

$22,337,381 (more than the assessed value of the real and personal pro-
perty of the city in 1880), with a minimum, in 1796, of $52,443, and a
maximum_, 1817, of $1,616,460. In 1879, the receipts from customs in
Charleston was $53,727.

The Leading Articles Received at and Shijjped from Charleston in 1882.

ARTICLES.

Receipts.

Shipments.

Domestic.

Foreign.

Cotton, Uplands, bales ....
Cotton, Sea Islands, bales. . .

Rice, tierces

Rosin, barrels

Spirits of Turpentine, barrels .
Phosphate Rock, tons ....

Lumber, feet

Railroad Ties, feet

Staves .

Corn, bushels

Oats, bushels

Flour, barrels .

Berries, quarts

Potatoes, barrels

Vegetables, packages

Melons

488,427

16,468

43,602

70,0471

288,9281

146,946i

19,028,928,

23,021,621

409,586

1,100,000

150,000

150,000

650,000

55,000

71,000

190,8561

12,533

28,104i

15,702|

110,907'

117,470!

18,662,258,

23,021,621!

10,700

450,000
45,000
62,333
40,000

297,572
3,933

54,345
178,039

29,476
366,665

398,886

44

082 TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA,

Mechanical and Manufacturing Industries of the City of Charleston, 18S2.

Industries.

Product.

Axle Grease

Bafjgino: Factories

Bakeries

Basket and Willowware

Beer and Breweries

Blacksmithing

Boots and "-hoes

Dentistry, Meelianical

Candy Factories

( arpentering

Carriages and Wagons

Cigars

Clothing, Men's

Concrete Piping

Cotton Factory

Cotton Compresses

Cotton Seed Oil Mill

Engraving

Flouring and Grist Mill Products

Fertilizers

Furniture

Gas

Harness

Iron Founderiesand Wurks

Lock and Gunsiuithin^i

Marble and Stone vvorks

Mineral and Soda Water !

Painting and Paper Hanging j

Photographing i

Plumbing and Gas-Fitting '

Printing

Rice Mills

Paddlf ry \

Saw Mills

Ship-Building

Shirt and Underwear

Street Car Repairs

Tin, Copper and Sheet Iron....

Tobacco

Upholstering

Wood and Saw Mills

AVatch and Clock Repairs

Miscellaneous

273

$5,000

245,000

30,000

2,500

50,000

10,050

1,120

2,800

8,000

140,000

30,000

30,000

60,000

12,000

500,000

530,000

100,000

6,000

15,000

2,386,000

20,000

375,000

45,000

390,000

23,300

25,000

4.500

5,550

8,600

30,000

240,000

450,000

22,000

325,000

44,350

7,000

5,000

35,000

10,000

4,700

260,000

15,000

160,000

475
65|

lOOi
50 1
101

200 j

230j

60

5

60

920

9

50

60

450
8
60
13
44
7
13

215

226
35

415
85
65
9
42
56
15

381)
18

210

62,9001
62,900 j

2,708

4,059
9,629

52,8101

6,000'

65,000
84,000

2,000

7,800
10,228

53,350!

30,420

$9,000

400.000

200,000

3.000

80,000

13,727

13,191

9,880

70.000

300,000

70,000

145,000

70,0«.0

50,000

600,0G0

174,900

135,000

4,500

80,000

2,562,000

8,900

200,000

60,000

75,000

11,413

80,000

20.250

25,450

7,000

42,000

290,000

1,202,000

50,000

800,000

138,000

15,000

15,000

48.000

53,000

49,600

660,000

20,000

150,000

$6,628,470 i

)167 $9,010,731

These figures include those of several large industries which have gone
into operation since the enumeration for the Tenth U. S. Census was
made. Had they been in operation at that date, Charleston would have
ranked as twentieth among the cities of the United States in regard to
the amount of capital invested in manufactures.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

G83

The number of firms engaged in the

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE

of the City of Charleston is given, in January, 1883, as 924. They are
ere lit^d with an aggregate wealth of ^18,785,100. Of their number 302
were engaged in the grocery and provision trade ; 148 in selling dry
goods, clothing, boots and shoes ; eighty dealing in hardware ; miscella-
neous, 394. There were reported fifty-eight establishments where liquor
was sold. Of the whole number twelve were under the direction and
management of colored persons. The sales for 1882 were given as fol-
lows :

Provisions Groceries $15,700,000

Grain and hay .... 945,000

Ice, fish and oysters. . 60,000 $16,705,000

Dry Goods Dry goods 4,320,000

Boots and shoes . . . 1,255,000

Hats and caps .... 175,000

Clothing 375,000 0,125,000

Hardware ' 1,525,000

Miscellaneous 4,600,000

Total $28,955,000

The aggregate values of the annual trade of the city may be summa-
rized as follows :

Value of staple products received $34,840,132

Value of local manufactures .- . . 9,010,731

Value of wholesale and retail trade ....... 28,955,500

Total $7'i,80G,363

Banks of Charleston.

1848. 1860.

i

1883.

Number ot Banks. . . .

Capital

Dividends .

Surplus ....

7
$9,152,582
5.03 to 7.44

9

$11,129,637
6. to 10.

6
$1,120,000

637,000

084 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

There is a large business in foreign and domestic exchange and in dis-
counts carried on by merchants in the city, employing a capital three to
four times as great as that of the banks.

The most recent improvement in the railroad facilities offered by
Charleston is the extension since July, 1882, of the South Carolina Rail-
way track to deep water on the Cooper river, in the northeastern portion
of the city. The railroad company has built here, on creosoted piling, a
wharf 931 feet long and 100 feet wide, with two slips for loading lighters,
and a slip on the north for loading lumber. Besides a number of sheds
on this wdiarf, there are two storage sheds for fertilizers, each 400 feet by
60 feet. The wharf is furnished w^th ten electric lights. West of the
wharf, and separated from it by double rows of railway tracks, are two
warehouses, 410 by 60 feet each. There is a hoisting engine, and an
automatic bucket and dump car, two automatic railways, wdth switch
and chute to facilitate the handling of heavy freights. Immediately
west of the southern section of the wharf is the freight depot, 400 feet
long, and two business offices. Other wharves are being constructed.
The}^ w^ill consist of a number of piers, with docks from 200 feet to 30i )
feet long. Railroad tracks will run to the head of the piers, enabling
vessels to load directly into the cars.

GEORGETOWN COUNTY.

Georgetown, the county seat, the only seaport on the South Carolina
coast north of Charleston, is situated at the head of Winy aw bay, on a
slightly undulating sandy and clay loam, on the north bank of the Sam-
pit river. Immediately above the town, the Black, the Pee Dee and the
Waccamaw rivers enter Winyaw bay. The Santee river was also for-
merly connected with Winj^aw ba}^ by a canal six miles long. To avoid
the shoals af the mouth of this river and to render it more accessible,
the United States government has made an appropriation to reopen a
canal here. When this is completed, Georgetown will be at the outflow
into the sea of a system of rivers having a drainage area of 31,000 square
miles. These streams are now navigable b}'^ steamboats for a distance of
799 miles. Surveys and appropriations for perfecting their navigation
have been made by the general government. The status of this work,
up to the 1st July, 1881, may be briefly summarized as follows :

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

G85

Name of River and part Navigable.

i

a

o
C

CS

5

O i>

t-S

ST
Q

Estimates for per-
fecting Naviga-
tion.

Appropriaiions
made by U. S.
(iovernment.

Am't. Expended
1st July, 1881 1

Waccamaw, from mouth to Conwayboro'

66
123

55
149
50
60
184
()4
48

12 1
« I

4J
9 to 'M
3|
3

7k
4

129,370
25,250

?25,000
13,000

Waccamaw, from Conwayboro' to Reeves Ferry
Waccamaw, from Reeves Ferry to Lake Wac-
camav/

§?,9r4

Great Pee Dee, to Cheraw

6,215

Little Pee Dee

Black River

\..'.

Santee River and Canal, to Winvaw Bav

104.427
45,991

22,000
8,000

Waieree, to Camden '. !

Congaree, to Columbia

Total

799

$205,038

$08,000

$12,169

These great highways, through the most fertile and perhaps the least
developed portions of the State, could thus be permanently opened for
transportation, which would be cheapened to the lowest rates by the com-
petition consequent on the free admission of all carriers. The cost being
estimated at only $257 per mile.

The improvement in the Waccamaw river, which has its course par-
allel to the Atlantic coast, will make it a link in the great interior line
of water communication along the seacoast, uniting at the Cape Fear
with the inland water routes leading to Norfolk, Va. The estimates of
the amounts necessary to complete the whole line of interior navigation
from Georgetown to Norfolk is stated by the United States engineer corps
as $6,225,805 ; the distance being 538 miles, the cost would be less than
half of that for a railway.

Looking south west ward, the Winyaw canal, uniting the Santee with
the waters about Georgetown, opens an inland route for steamboats to
Savannah, requiring for its completion, according to Robert Mills, one
or two short canals, aggregating in length eight and a half miles. Be-
yond Savannah there is the long contemplated inland route across the
peninsula of Florida, and thence, by interior salt water rivers, to New
Orleans, an improvement, the cost of which has been estimated at less
than half the original outlay for the Erie canal, besides being always free
from the obstacles of ice. Such a route would allow fleets of steam tugs
and barges to transport in bulk, safely and cheaply, along the Galf and
Atlantic coast, all the products of the great West, from the head waters
of the Missouri and the Mississippi.

()8G TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Vessels drawing twelve feet are sometimes detained at Georgetown,
because the bar of Sampit river affords only nine feet at low water.
Capt. Phillips, United States Engineers, reports that this obstacle may be
removed at a cost of a trifle over $14,000.

In the year 1700, a vessel that was detained by low tide at Charleston
bar, had previously made its way, without a pilot, to the present site of
Georgetown. At that very time, however, a great storm occurred which
opened the inlet through North Isla'nd, known as North Inlet. The
pressure of the vast flood of waters descending the rivers in Winyaw bay
Avas thus no longer confined to a single channel, and as a consequence
the entrance has filled up to a considerable degree. Capt. Marcou, United
States Corps of Engineers, estimates that it would require the outlay of
one and a half millions of dollars to establish a depth of nineteen to
twenty-two feet at low water on the Georgetown bar.

The railroad connecting Georgetown with the Northeastern railroad is
nearly completed. AVhen this is done, Georgetown will have the shortest
railroad connection with Columbia of any seaport in the State.

Georgetown was founded early in the eighteenth century by the Rev.
Mr. Screven, the first Baptist minister in South Carolina. It covers an
area a mile square. In 1820, the population was 2,000 ; in 18-10, it was
1,500 ; in 1850, it was 1,628 ; in 1860, it was 1,720 ; in 1870, it was 2,080 ;
in 1880 it was 2,557.

It is regularl}^ laid out, and has fourteen miles of streets, paved with
stone, brick or wood. Transportation through the streets is performed
by drays or carts, at fifteen cents a load. Buggies and carriages may be
hired at $2.50 to $1.00 a day. Wells and cisterns afford an abundant
supply of water. Four main drains, with a number of lateral drains,
empty into Sampit river, and constitute an excellent sj^stem of drainage.
There are three boarding-houses ; charges, from $1.00 to $2.00 a dav for
transient boarders. The court house, jail, and market house are of brick,
and were erected at a cost of $50,000. The hall of the Winyaw Indigo
Society is also of brick ; it is two stories, and cost $18,000. The lower
story is used as a school, the upper story has a library, and is used as a
public hall ; fees for exhibitions, $5.00. There are five churches, three
for whites. Episcopal, Methodist, and Baptist, and two for the colored
})opulation, Methodist and Baptist. They have an aggregate seating
capacity of over three thousand, and cost about $30,000. The pupils of
the Winyaw Indigo Society school are prepared to enter West Point and
the colleges and universities of the United States. There are two public
schools, one white and one colored, and, in addition, a number of private
schools. The Winyaw Indigo Society, one of the oldest charitable insti-
tutions in the South, was incorporated in 1756 ; its funds have been chiefly

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 687

devoted to the education of orphan children, many hundre*ds of whom
have enjoj'ed its bount}'. There is, also, a lodge of Masons. The choicest
game, fish and o^^sters are abundant and cheap. Beef and mutton sell
at ten to twelve cents per pound ; eggs, twelve to fifteen cents per dozen ;
fowls, twenty to twenty-five cents. Stores rent from $100 to $500, and
dwellings from $60 to $300 per year. The building materials are heart
pine and brick ; the latter are manufactured in any quantity called for,
on Port's creek, eight miles from the town. The total value of all pro-
perty, real and personal, is stated at $800,000, and the annual taxes are
about $7,000. The town has no debt.

One hundred and seventy -five sail of vessels, of from fifty to five hun-
dred tons burthen, and drawing six to thirteen feet of water, cross
Georgetown bar annually. There is regular communication with
Charleston and Cheraw by steamboat, and a line of eight three-masted
schooners ply regularly between this port and the coast towns. The
annual shipments are given as follows :

1,500 bales cotton, valued at $ 75,000

30,000 bbls. spirits turpentine 540.000

170,000 bbls. rosin 510,000

6,500,000 feet lumber, shingles and other stuff 300,000

16,000 tierces of rice 560,000

Total $1,885,000

The yearly sales of goods is estimated as follows :

Groceries and provisions $ 700,000

Dry goods 300.000

Hardware and miscellaneous . . 300,000

Total $1,300,000

There are three saw mills, capacity of 20,000 feet per day ; a shingle
mill, capacity 15,000 to 20,000 shingles per day ; an inexhaustible supply
of the finest cypress timber is at hand; it is furnished in blocks three
feet to five feet diameter, clear of knots, at five cents to seven cents per
cubic foot. A large rice-pounding mill has recently been established,
and the direct shipment of this grain to Northern ports is increasing.
Other manufactures are the preparation of naval stores, and of corn in
various forms, oak staves, &c. The average wages paid to laborers is
twenty-five cents to seventy-five cents a day, and for skilled labor, one
dollar to two dollars a day.

688 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The roads' leading from the town are fine and well shaded, offering in-
ducements for pleasure riding and driving, and there are delightful walks
along the Sampit and Black or W3'nee rivers. Winyaw bay is a beauti-
ful sheet of water, and North island, on the seaward side of it, has a fine
beach, and affords, with the adjacent sea islands, cool and salubrious
summer resorts. "Here," says Robert Mills, "besides the refreshing sea
breeze, the good things of this life, the treasures of the ocean and the land,
are offered in great abundance to the inhabitants."

LOWER PINE BELT REGION.

The ten thousand square miles in lower South Carolina, described as
the lower pine belt region, contains, according to the census of 1880, only
sixteen villages, with an aggregate population of 4,722. Of these AVal-
terboro is the largest, with a population of six hundred and ninety-one-
If, however, all the small settlements and trading points in this region
be counted, they will, with addition of those mentioned in the census,
amount in all to seventy-eight. The following account will make them
appear still larger, as the settlements in each county will be named, for
convenience, under the county, whereas since some of these counties ex-
tend into the adjoining regions, towns outside of the lower pine belt will
be necessarily mentioned.

HAMPTON COUNTY

contains fifteen towns and trading settlements, with eighty-five stores,
to-wit: Brunson, nineteen stores; A^arnville, fourteen stores; Lawton-
ville, nine stores ; Hampton Court House, Brighton, and Matthews Bluff,
eight stores each ; Gillisonville, six stores ; Stafford, three stores ; Rob-
ertsville, Tillman's, Early Branch and McNeil's, two stores each, and
Peeplesville, Wagon Branch, and McCoy's Bluff, one store each. Of this
number, five sell liquor, two are drug stores, two millinery, and the
balance deal in general merchandise. One is kept by a colored person,
and the estimated wealth of the storekeepers is $438,000.

Hampton Court House (Township 120) was established in 1876. It
has a brick court house and jail, and a population now of three hundred.
It is situated in the centre of the county, on the Augusta and Port Royal
railroad.

Varnville, on the same railroad, has a town hall and high-school build-
ing. There are three churches, one of which is for colored persons, and
has a seating capacity of 1,200. The churches were built at a cost of
about $1,000 each. There are two schools, one for white, and one for

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 689

colored, pupils. Several thousand bales of cotton, a considerable quantity
of rice, naval stores, hides and wax are shipped to Charleston and Savan-
nah by rail. The Varnville Messenger is edited by E. W. Peeples. The
buildings are of brick and wood, and the population and trade are in-
creasing.

Peeplesville (Township 117) was settled in 18G5, and has now about
three hundred inhabitants. It has a hall seventy by thirty-five feet, and
there are three churches, and one school, with forty pupils, in the neigh-
borhood. The value of the real and personal property is given as $150,-
000. One thousand bales of cotton are shipped to Savannah. The yearly
sales are, provisions, $30,000; dry goods, $20,000; hardware, $2,000.
There is a boarding-house, blacksmith shop, and livery stable, and several
saw and grist mills, and naval stores manufactories. Planting, lumber,
and naval stores are the chief pursuits.

Brighton (Township 119). At the close of the war there was one
dwelling and one store, with a capital of one hundred dollars, here.
There are now eight stores, fifty dwellings, a population of three hundred,
two churches and a school. Two barrel makers, who came here ten years
ago without capital, are the owners of a steam saw mill, and a gin and
grist mill, with a turpentine and rosin still, as the result of their indus-
try. There is weekly communication with Savannah by. steamboat.

Gillisonville (Township 116) was formerly the county seat of Beaufort.
The public buildings were burnt during the last war. It has a church
and two schools.

COLLETON COUNTY

contains twenty-two towns and trading settlements, having in all one
hundred and twenty stores, to-wit : White Hall, eighteen stores ; Walter-
boro, thirteen stores ; Jacksonboro and St. George's, eleven stores each ;
Ridgeville, nine stores ; Saltkehatchie, eight stores ; Rantowles, Smokes'
and Green Pond, seven stores each ; Reevesville, five stores ; Ashepoo and
Combahee, four stores each ; Bell's, Ross', and Folk's, three stores each ;
Ravenel's, Byrds, Cottageville, Rumphtown, Twenty-six Mile, Parker's
Ferry, and Maple Cane, one store each. There is one drug store, the re-
mainder dealing in general merchandise. Three out of the whole num-
ber are kept by colored persons. The estimated wealth of the store-
keepers is placed at $383,000.

Walterboro, the county seat, is located in the centre of the county and
has a handsome brick court house and jail. The population in 1880 was
six hundred and ninety-one. There is an Episcopahan, a Presbyterian,
a Methodist, a Baptist and a Roman Catholic church in the town, with
three other churches for colored persons. A school house for colored

G<;0 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

children has a capacity for one hundred pupils. The white schools are
private. The Colleton Press is published weekly. There is a daily mail
by stage line to Green Pond, twelve miles distant, on the Charleston and
Savannah Railroad. A railroad from Walterboro to this point is graded,
and when completed it is proposed to extend it to Branchville, which
will make it the shortest line from the capital to the seaboard. Walter-
boro is in a region devoted formerly to rice culture, and no cotton was
sold here before the war; in 1881 one thousand bales were sold in the
town. The yearly sales are stated (probably underestimated) as follows ;
Provit,ions, ^75,000; dry goods, $25,000; hardware, |10,000 ; miscella-
neous, $45,000.

St. George's, on the South Carolina Railroad, has a population of three
hundred. There is here a hotel, two school houses and a church. About
4,000 bales of cotton are shipped annually to Charleston. The estimate
of yearly sales is, provisions, |75,000 ; dry goods, $30,000 ; hardware,
$6,000 ; miscellaneous, $50,000. There are two steam saw mills and a
grist mill.

BERKELEY COUNTY,

exclusive of the places on the seacoast already noticed, has ten villages
and trading settlements, with sixt3''-five stores, to wit: Summerville,
twenty-four stores ; St. Stephen's and Moncks Corner, twelve stores each ;
Bonneau's, eleven stores ; Oakley, three stores ; Ladson's, two stores, and
Pineville, one store. Of this number there is one liquor store, four drug
stores, the remainder dealing in general merchandise. Four are kept by
colored persons. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is given at
$200,000. Summerville, in the pine woods on the South Carolina rail-
road, is a health and pleasure resort for the citizens of Charleston. There
are two hotels, two livery stables, several boarding houses, and churches
of the leading religious denominations. The population is given by the
last census as 636. But during the season there are as many as 2,500
persons living here.

WILLIAMSBURG COUNTY

has thirteen towns and trading settlements, containing one hundred and
thirteen stores, to wit : Kingstree, thirtj^-one stores ; Graham's Cross
Road, eighteen stores ; Scranton, twelve stores ; Black Mingo, ten stores ;
Salters and Cambridge, nine stores each ; Gourdin's, seven stores ; Indian-
town and Johnsonville, six stores each ; Lane's, two stores ; Greeley ville,
Lynch's Lake, and Pine Bluff, one each. Among these two liquor stores
and one drug store are enumerated, the remainder keep general mer-
chandise ; one is kept by a colored person. The wealth of the store-
keepers is estimated at $478,000.

TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 091

Kingstree, the. county seat, lias a population of about 300. It is situated
at the head of navigation on the Black, more properly the Wynee river,
and on the North Eastern railroad. The court house and jail are hand-
some brick buildings. There is a Presbyterian, a Baptist, and a ^leth-
odist church, besides a church for colored persons. The Kingstree Star,
a weekly paper, is published here. About two thousand bales of cotton
are shipped annually. The name is derived from a large white or short
leaf pine tree that stood on the banks of the Wynee, which was called
the King's tree, after AVilliam III., of England.

Scranton, on the same railroad, has a hotel and church, and about two
thousand bales of cotton are shipped annually, besides lumber and naval
stores.

CLARENDON COUNTY

has ten towns and trading settlements, with fifty-one stores, to wit : Man-
ning, twenty-four stores ; Summerton, nine stores; Forreston, eight stores;
Fulton, five stores ; McFadden, two stores ; Dudley, Enterprise, Jordan,
Panola and Packsville, one store each. Of this number there are two
liquor stores, three drug stores and one millinery ; the balance deal in
general merchandise. The wealth of the storekeepers is estimated at
$217,000. Manning, the county seat, is on the Central Railroad, near
where it crosses Pocotaligo river. The Methodists, Baptists, and Presby-
terians have each a church in the town. There is an academy, and one
newspaper, the Clarendon Press.

Forreston, ten miles south of Manning on the niilroad, has a Baptist
church and two schools. Besides a considerable amount of lumber and
naval stores, about four thousand bales of cotton are shipped to Charleston.

HORRY COUNTY

has thirteen towns and trading settlements, with forty-five stores, to wit :
Conwayboro, twelve stores ; Board Landing and Port Harrelson, seven
stores each; Hickman's, five stores; Red Bluff and Bucksville, three
stores each ; Bayton, two stores ; Dogwood Neck, Gallivant's, Hickman's,
Wampee, and Round Swamp, one store each. The wealth of the store-
keepers is estimated at $284,000.

THE UPPER PINE BELT

is credited, in the census of 1880, with twenty-one towns, having a popu-
lation of 1 »,715. Including some omitted by the above mentioned enu-
meration, and the various trading settlements, they actually numbered,

G92 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

January, 1883, ninet3^-nine, with 1,009 stores and a population of over
20,000. The wealth of the storekeepers is given at between five and six
millions of dollars. Their distribution among the counties l3'ing chiefly
or wholly in this region is as follows :

BARNWELL COUNTY,

traversed in a north and south direction by two railroads, the Port Royal
and the Charleston and Augusta, has twenty-two towns and trading set-
tlements, to wit : Black ville, thirty-three stores ; Allendale, thirty-one
stores ; Bamberg, twenty-six stores ; Williston, twenty-two stores ; Barn-
well Court House, seventeen stores ; Midway, eleven stores ; Campbellton
and Graham, eight stores each ; Elko, five stores ; Appleton, Beldoc,
Dunbarton and Martin's, four stores each ; Buford's Bridge, Cohen's Bluff,
Lee's, Bobbins', two stores each; Erwinton, Fiddle Pond, Hattieville,
Millett, ^'"arn, one store each. Of these one hundred and ninety-one es-
tablishments, fifteen sell liquors, thirty-three miscellaneous articles, and
the remainder general merchandise. The w^ealth of the proprietors is es-
timated at $1,250,000.

Barnwell Court House has a high and healthy situation on Turkey
Creek, in the centre of the county. The public buildings and three-
fourths of the town were burned by Sherman's troops, in 1864, and after
the war the county seat was removed for some years to Blackville. In
1876, the old court house was rebuilt and a railroad, twelve miles in
length, opened to Blackville. The town is rapidly increasing in size since
this date. The Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists, Episcopalians, and
Catholics have churches here. Town lots and lands in the surround-
ing countr}^ are rapidl}^ advancing in price. A company is formed to
build a cotton factory on Turkey Creek, near by. There are two news-
papers, the Barnwell People and the Barnwell Sentinel.

Blackville, on the South Carolina Railroad, has now upwards of 1,000
inhabitants, four churches, four schools, a carriage factory, several gins,
saw and grist mills, and ships annually about 4,000 bales of cotton.

Allendale is a thriving and rapidly growing town on the Port Royal
railroad, of over six hundred inhabitants ; the leading religious denomi-
nations have churches, and there is one public and one private school.

Bamberg, on the South Carolina railroad, has two churches, a high
school, three private schools, a newspaper, a banking establishment, a
planing mill, three wagon and wood shops, a saw mill, several cotton
gins and grist mills, and ships about 5,000 bales of cotton annually. The
population, in 1880, was 648.

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. C93

ORANGEBURG COUNTY

has eleven towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and thirty-
five stores, to wit : Orangeburg Court House, seventy-five stores ;
Branchville, twenty-six stores ; St. Matthew's, seventeen stores ; Fort
Motte, seven stores ; Rowesville, three stores ; Elloree and Jamison, two
stores each ; Edisto, Felderville, Knott's Mills, one store each. Of this
number, eight sell liquors, and eight are druggists, thirty-eight deal in
miscellaneous articles, and seventy -six' in general merchandise. One is
kejjt by a colored person.

Orangsburg Court House is situated on high, level land, rising above
the clear waters of North Edisto river, at the head of raft navigation, and
on the Charleston and Columbia railroad. It was first settled in 1730,
by German subjects of the Prince of Orange, whence its name. In 1825,
the population was 1 52, in 1840, 350. The public buildings and most of
the town was burnt by Sherman's troops. It has been rebuilt, and the
population in 1880, was 2,140, and probably exceeds 3,000 at this time.
It has a circular area two miles in diameter, with the court house and
public square as the centre. The business portion of the town, including
many handsome brick buildings, is built about the public square. Be-
tween.this point and the railway station is a fine drive, on each side of
which are handsome private residences, with well kept grounds. The
town government consists of a mayor and two aldermen, a chief of po-
lice, and four patrolmen. The sidewalks have a wood curbing, and the
roads are well kept. The town is lighted by kerosene street lamps.
Water is abundant and good ; the drainage is into the Edisto river, sixty
to one hundred feet below the town. The court house is a fine brick build-
ing, costing $35,000. The Claflin University, a large three-story brick
building, with mansard roof, is surrounded by fine grounds, and has ac-
commodations for three hundred colored students. The Boliver and
May's halls are large and handsome halls, fitted with stage, seats, &c., for
public entertainments. Charges, $10 to $15 per night. There is a Pres-
byterian, an Episcopal, a Methodist, a Baptist and a Lutheran church.
There are two public schools for whites, and three private schools, with
one public school for colored pupils ; number of pupils about six hun-
dred. Five room cottages, with garden, rent for $12 a month. Stores
rent at from $10 to $40 per month. Bricks, for building, cost $7.50 per
thousand. Pine lumber, $10 per thousand ; shingles, $3.50 per thou-
sand. The value of real and personal property is estimated at $800,000 ;
there is no town debt, and the annual town tax on property is about one-
half of one per cent. The average yearly sales are given as follows :
provisions, $700,000; dry goods, $1^5,000; hardware, $25,000; miscel-

G04 TOAVXS OF SOUTH CAEOLINA.

lancous, $oO,000. The manufacturing industries consist of a cotton mill,
a rice mill, and two wagon factories, employing about one hundred
liands, at wages of $1 to $2 a day. There is a weekly newspaper. The
annual shipments of cotton average 10,000 bales, to Charleston and New
York.

SUMTER COUNTY

has eighteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and sixt}^-
two stores, to wit : Sumterville, seventy-five stores ; Maysville, twenty-one
stores ; Bishopville, twelve stores ; Magnolia, seven stores ; Providence,
Wedgefield, and Lynchburg, six stores each ; Mannville and Shiloh, five
stores each ; Spring Hill and Statesburg, four stores each ; Sanders' and
Boykin's, two stores each ; Bossards, Claremont, Durant, Mechanicsville,
one store each. Of this number seven deal in liquor, one in hardware,
eight in dry goods, twenty-nine miscellaneous, and one hundred and sev-
enteen in general merchandise. Seven are kept by colored persons.
The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is $812,000.

Sumterville, on the Columbia and Wilmington railroad, near the head-
waters of the Wynee river, was founded in 1800. It occupies a level site
on sandy soil, three-fourths of a mile in each direction from the court
house square as a centre. There is an intendant and four wardens, with
a chief of police, an assistant, and three regular policemen. There are
ten miles of streets, with elevated sidewalks of rammed clay. Besides a
fine courthouse building, there is a music hall fitted for public amuse-
ment ; charges per night, including rent, license and lights, $20.00.
There are five churches for the whites : one Episcopal, one Methodist,
one Baptist, one Presbyterian, one Catholic. The colored poj)ulation have
three churches : two Methodist and one Baptist. The educational estab-
lishments are the Sumter Institute, the St. Joseph's Academy (Catholic),
the Sumter public S'^hool for whites, cost $1,200, pupils 200 ; the Lincoln
public school, colored, cost $1,200, pupils, 250, and several private schools.
Stores rent from $12.50 to $60.00 a month ; dwelling houses from $5.00
to $20.00. The town taxes are four-tenths per cent, on real, and two-
tenths per cent, on personal property, realizing on the assessments about
$2,000 per annum. The indebtedness of the town is $12,000 for the
music hall, fire engines and floating indebtedness from 1872 to 1878, in-
terest, seven and eight per cent, Sumterville was only a small village
until the railroad was built from Columbia to Wilmington, in 1854.
Besides these connections, it is the present terminus of the Central rail-
road to Charleston, and has connection with Camden. About 12,000 bales
of cotton are shipped annually. The yearly sales are estimated at, pro-
visions, $250,000; dry goods, $200,000; hardware, $150,000; miscel-

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 695

lancous, $100,000. The Bellemonte cotton factory, recently erected, is in
successful operation. There are three weekly newspapers, and the town
is growing rapidly.

DARLINGTON COUNTY

has sixteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and seventy-
six stores, distributed as follows : Darlington Court House, fifty-three
stores,; Florence, forty-six stores ; Timmonsville, twenty-two stores; So-
ciety Hill, fifteen stores ; Dovesville, thirteen stores ; Lydia, four stores ;
Ebenezer, Hartsville, Palmetto, Parrotts, and Stokes, two stores each;
Cypress, Leavenworth and Oats, one store each. Of this number, ten
sell liquors, eight, dry goods, five, hardware, thirty-eight, miscellaneous,
and one hundred and fifteen, general merchandise. Two are kept by
colored persons. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is |938,000.

Darlington Court House, embowered in a majestic grove of evergreen
oaks, and washed on two sides by the clear waters of Swift creek, is the
county seat. It ships about 7,000 bales of cotton annually. It contains
two carriage and wagon factories and a furniture manufactory. The
school privileges are good, and there are churches of the leading de-
nominations. The Darlington National Bank has a paid up capital of
$50,000 ; surplus, $5,193. The fair grounds of the Agricultural Society
are well laid ofit, and have a commodious house. There are two weekly
newspapers.

Florence, on the Columbia and Wilmington railroad, and at the ter-
minus of the Northeastern and the Cheraw and Darlington railroads, had
a population, in 1866, of 600 ; in 1880, of 1,940 ; now estimated at 2,500.
There are fourteen miles of streets, constructed at a cost of $75.00 per
mile. There are two hotels, a two-story town hall, costing $5,000, seven
churches, built at a cost of $19,000, and four schools. Dwellings rent
from $7.00 to $17.00 a month, and stores from $15.00 to $40.00 a month.
Excellent bricks are burned in the vicinity, and lumber is abundant and
cheap. The town taxes are one-half of one per cent, on property, and
there is a town debt of $3,000, at seven per cent, interest, for the purchase
of a steam fire engine. About 4,000 bales of cotton are shipped annually.
The Florence Times is published weekly. There is a carriage factory,
four steam and two water gins and grist mills, three steam saw mills,
and the railroad shops located here employ about one hundred and fifty
hands.

Society Hill is an early settlement made by the planters of this section.
It is on the Cheraw and Darlington railroad, and has weekly communi-
cation with Georgetown by steamboat on the Great Pee Dee river, which
is one mile distant from the town.

GOG TOWNS OP SOUTH CAROLINA.

MAKLBORO COUNTY

has eight towns and trading settlements, with fifty-five stores, distributed
as follows : Bennettsville, forty stores, Clio, seven stores, Brightsville and
Brownsville, two stores each, Hunt's Bluff, Parnassus, Red Hill, and
Three Creeks, one store each. Liquors are not sold in the county, and
of the stores enumefrated, six deal in miscellaneous articles, and forty-
nine in general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers
is $524,000. Bennettsville is the county seat.

MARION COUNTY

has sixteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and thirty-
six stores, distributed as follows : Marion Court House, fifty-eight stores ;
Mullens, seventeen stores ; Little Rock, thirteen stores ; Mars Bluff, ten
stores ; Forestville, nine stores ; Effingham, Lynches Creek, seven stores
each ; Oak Grove, four stores ; Jeffreys' Creek, three stores ; Little Bluff,
two stores ; Brick Swamp, Campobella, Cranesville, Donohoe, Free State
and Hyman, one store each. Of this number, five sell liquors, three,
dry goods, twenty-seven, miscellaneous, and one hundred and one, gen-
eral merchandise ; two are kept by colored persons. The estimated
wealth of the storekeepers is placed at $633,000. *

The town of Marion, first called Gilesborough, is on the Wilmington
and Columbia railroad. The population was given, in 1880, at 824; it
is now thought to exceed 1,500. It has eight churches and five schools.
There are three weekly newspapers and an agricultural paper. Avenues
of stately trees offer an attractive promenade. About 8,000 bales of cot-
ton are shipped annually from this point.

THE RED HILL REGION

requires no separate mention as regards its towns. Being a long and
rather narrow region, running northeast and southwest, the railroads
crossing it only traverse it for a short distance, except the Columbia and
Augusta road. As the towns along this road are actually on the granite
formation, or the sand hills, they will be mentioned when treating of the
towns in these regions. Actually the two small towais of Wedgefield and
Stateburg, with St. Matthew's, in Orangeburg, are about the only towns
in this region, and this will account for the fact that the region itself has
never heretofore been recognized, notwithstanding its very characteristic
features, as one of the physical subdivisions of the State. The

TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, GO'

SAND HILL REGION

proper, though thinly settled has a larger per cent, of its population
collected into villages than either of the regions last treated of, as will
be seen by reference to the table. For convenience, the five counties
traversed by this region, to wit : Aiken, Lexington, Richland, Kershaw
and Chesterfield, will now be considered, and as some of their most
considerable towns are situated on intrusions, as it were, of the Piedmont
and Lower Pine Belt Regions into these counties, the aggregate of towns
will appear greater than strictly belongs to the region.

AIKEX COUNTY

has sixteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and four
stores, distributed as follows : Aiken Court House, forty-four stores ;
Graniteville, seventeen stores ; Hamburg, nine stores ; Beech Island, six
stores ; Langley, Windsor and Ellenton, five stores each ; Montmorenci,
three stores ; Bath and Vaucluse, two stores each ; Hammond, Johnston,
Kitching Mills, Merritt's, Sunnyside and White Pond, one store each. Of
this number eight sell liquors, three hardware, thirty-seven miscellaneous
articles, and fifty-six general merchandise. Two are kept by colored
persons. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is stated at §712,000.
Aiken, the county seat, was settled in 1833, when the South Carolina
railroad, then the longest in the world, was built. The first settlers were
persons from the lower country in search of a healtliy and invigorating
climate during summer. Since it has become a famous health resort for
those from Northern latitudes seeking a warm dry winter air and sunshine.
It has an elevation of about six hundred feet above the sea level, and the
soil is coarse quatzose sand to the depth of ninety to one hundred and '
fifty feet, sanitary conditions reinforced by the balsamic odors of the
great pine forest that surrounds it. In addition to numerous excellent
boarding houses, the Highland Park Hotel, open during the spring and
winter months for Northern visitors, is one of the largest and, in many
respects, one of the best hotels in the South. There is a private bank in
the town. The population in 1880 was 1,817. The streets of Aiken
are wide. The sidewalks are raised and covered with clay. This clay,
resting on a bed of deep sand, is kept well drained, and forms a smooth,
hard, elastic surface. A broad drive of the same material has been sim-
ilarly constructed from the Highland Park Hotel to the freight depot,
three-quarters of a mile, at a cost of $000. It forms an excellent road-
way, over which even heavily laden cotton wagons are in the habit of
45

COS TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

moving at a trot. It is claimed that six to eight inches of such clay,
spread ovel' these sand beds, will make a durable road of this character,
easily kept in repair. As bodies of this clay are met with in nearly
every locality throughout the sandy lower two-thirds of the State, the
above experiments suggest the material and methods suitable for construct-
ing good and cheap dirt roads in this section. Graniteville, on Horse
Creek, where the Columbia road approaches the Charleston and Augusta
railroad, is a thriving manufacturing village of 1,669 inhabitants. Vau-
cluse, a few miles above, and Langley and Bath, a short distance below,
are similar villages, situated in the valley of this stream. Hamburg,
opposite Augusta, has now only about 485 inhabitants. Fifty years ago
it was a prosperous village, of 1,200 inhabitants. Besides flour, corn,
tobacco and other productions, there was then shipped hence by steam-
boat to Savannah and Charleston as many as twenty-six thousand bales
of cotton in one season. Fifteen steamboats, capable of transporting six
hundred to one thousand bales at a load, once plied regularly, making
Aveekly trips between this town and the cities of Charleston and Savannah.

LEXINGTON COUNTY

has eleven towns and trading settlements, with sixty-three stores, dis-
tributed as follows : Batesburg, nineteen stores ; Leesville, sixteen stores;
Court House, twelve stores ; Gilbert Hollow, six stores ; Countsville, three
stores ; Rish's, two stores ; Bars, Keisler, Pine Ridge, Rishston and Sin-
clair, one store each. Of this number four sell liquors, twelve miscella-
neous articles, and forty-seven general merchandise. The estimated
wealth of the storekeepers is $350,000.

Leesville, on the Columbia and Augusta railroad, has a poj)ulation of
177. The situation is high and level. Soil sandy, with clay sub-soil.
There are two hotels, a Methodist and a Lutheran church. The Leesville
English and Classical Institute accommodates one hundred and twentv-
five pupils. The real and personal propert}' is valued at 8100,000. The
town taxes aggregate §112.50 yearly. Four thousand bales of cotton are
shipped annually, with fruit to the value of $15,000, lumber, oats and
otlier products. The yearly sales are, provisions, $112,000; dry goods,
S25,000 ; hardware, $2,000 ; miscellaneous, $10,000. The place is growing
rapidly.

EICHLAND COUNTY

has seven towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and sixty-
nine stores, distributed as follows : Columbia, one hundred and fifty-four
stores ; Eastover and Gadsden, five stores each ; Shand's, two stores ;

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 699

Kingville and Acton, one store each. Of this number thirty-two keep
liquors, seventeen hardware, seventeen dry goods, eighty-three miscella-
neous articles, and thirty general merchandise; three are kept by colored
persons. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is given at $1,308,000.

Columbia, the county seat of Richland, and the capital of South Caro-
lina, is situated in lat. 33° 59' 58" N. Long. 81° 2' 3" W. It has a level site
elevated some two hundred feet above the east bank of the Congaree, at the
confluence of the Broad and Saluda rivers, and three hundred and thirty-
six feet above the sea. It stands upon a promontory of granite, which
extends from the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Region along and
between the Broad and Saluda rivers, and at their union juts out into the
Sand Hill Region of the State.

The great falls of the Congaree begin at the upper end of the town, and
terminate a little below the lower end. The fall in this distance is thirty-
six feet, and the greatest width of the river is eighteen hundred feet.

Originally these lands were covered with a magnificent growth of im-
mense oaks, hickories and j^ines. Colonel Thomas Taylor, whose de-
scendants still reside here, was their first owner. The city was laid out
and incorporated in 1787, and the Legislature met here for the first time
in 1789. The town is two miles square, regularly laid out in streets one
hundred and one hundred and fifty feet in width, most of them planted
with beautiful shade trees. The streets aggregate sixty miles in lengthy
and are neatly kept. The roadways of the main thoroughfares are Mac-
adamized, the sidewalks paved. They are maintained, including lamps,
at a cost of $8,000 annually. Facilities for transportation of all kinds are
ample and cheap. Natural springs, issuing from a valley between the
town and river, afford an ample supply of excellent water, which is
raised one hundred and twenty feet by steam power, for use, at the rate
of one million gallons a day. The soil is porous, and its elevation above
the river offers every facility for thorough drainage. There are eight
hotels and first-class boarding houses, with moderate charges, and the
place is much frequented by invalids from the North during winter.
The public buildings are the State House, built of enormous blocks of
granite, quarried in the vicinity, and to cost five millions of dollars when
completed. The U. S. Court House and Postoffice is built of Fairfield
granite, which at a distance might be mistaken for marble. The large and
extensive fire-proof buildings of the Insane Asylum. The numerous
buildings of the State University, and those of the Presbyterian Theo-
logical seminary. A large and handsome City Hall and Opera House
(800 seats ; rent and license fee $40 a night). The Court House and Peni-
tentiary, with some fine blocks of business houses, banks, &c. The ag-
gregate cost of the public buildings exceeds six millions of dollars. Co-

700 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

lumbia is noted for the beauty of its public and private grounds, and for
its beautiful flower gardens. Sydney Park covers twenty acres, furnish-
ing attractive promenades. The Agricultural Society of the State has
extensive fair grounds, with numerous buildings, and during fair week,
in November, as many as twenty thousand persons assemble here from
all parts of the State. There are two handsome cemeteries. There are
fourteen churches, three free and fifteen private schools. Stores rent
for $20.00 to $50.00 a month, dwellings from $50.00 to $500.00 per an-
num. The assessed value of real and personal property is $3,000,000,
and the estimated true value is given as $5,000,000. The taxes aggre-
gate $45,000 yearly, of which $33,000 are levied on property, and $12,000
come from licenses. The city debt, incurred for permanent improvements,
water works, streets, &c., aggregates $850,000. Interest payable 'half-
yearly, and the capital in three installments, running ten, twenty and
thirty years. Railroads radiating from Columbia terminate at the fol-
lowing points : Charleston, one hundred and thirty miles ; Augusta,
eighty-five miles ; Greenville, one hundred and forty-four miles; Wal-
halla, one hundred and forty-seven miles ; Laurens C. H., seventy-two
miles ; Spartanburg, ninety -four miles ; Charlotte, one hundred and
ten miles ; Camden, sixty miles ; AVilmington, one hundred and ninety
miles. The Congaree river is navigable for steamboats from the south-
west end of the city to the Santee river, which is navigable to its mouth,
a waterway more than one hundred and seventy-five miles in length. For
many years this highway has been neglected, but as long ago as 1825,
two steamboats, besides a number of tugs and canal boats, plied regu-
larly on these streams and the Santee canal, transporting annually not
less than 30,000 bales of cotton from Columbia to Charleston, witli full
return freights. The receipts of cotton in Columbia in 1876 were 12,257
bales ; in 1882 they were 24,660 bales; and in 1883 they amount to this date
already to more than 38,000 bales. They will overrun 40,000 bales for
the whole year, not counting large amounts purchased by factors here
from points more or less distant on the railroads, and shipped thence di-
rectly. Charleston and Norfolk are the competing points to which pro-
duce is shipped.

The Carolina National Bank has a capital of $100,000, surplus $15,000,
and the Central National Bank has a cajjital of $100,000, with a surplus
of $20,000.

The annual yearly sales are given as follows : provisions, $500,000 ;
dry goods, $500,000; hardware, $500,000; miscellaneous, $1,000,000.
This is, probably, a good deal short of the actual figures. The manu-
factures of Columbia are thus stated in the Tenth U. S. Census :

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 701

Mechanical and Manufacturing Industries of Columbia, S. C, in 1880.

Capital.

Wages.

Materials. Products

Blacksmithing

Boots and shoes ....

Bread and baking products

Carpentering

Flouring and grist mill
products

Foundry and machine
shop products ....

Painting and paper hang-
ing

Photographing

Printing and publishing .

Tin, copper and sheet-iron
ware

All other industries . . .

Total • •

12

52

'$3,815
2.650
7,700
3,450

8,680

58,000

1,260

3,200

16,000

16,050
20,050

17

6

15

32

16

7

4

56

9
46

$140,855

293

$4,875
1,760
4,350
8,550

2,154

22,354

2,165

750

27,175

1,510
9,190

$84,833

$6,250

2,200

23,232

14,900

53,295

30,039

4,526
1,400
9,300

2,800
18,212

$166,754

$15,300

4,700

31,450

28,825

61,049

89,202

8,915

5,300

50,200

6,050
41,741

$842,732

This statement does not include the products of the manufacture of
gas, nor of Cjuarrying, or the statistics of establishments owned and ope-
rated by the railroad companies and by the State. The large railroad
shops located in Columbia, the gas works, the manufacturing operations
carried on in the penitentiary shops, would augment greatly the above
figures. Even without these, the thirty hands of the two quarries,
those of the brewery, ice factory, and the five hundred bricklayers
and carpenters constantly employed in the town, would swell the number
of skilled workmen to be found here, A cotton seed oil mill* is being
erected, and when the work on the canal, which is being done by the
State, is completed, and power for several large factories furnished, Co-
lumbia will be a manufacturing centre of considerable importance.

The population in 1820 was 4,000, and it was about the same in 1840.

* Before 1802 Mr. Benjamin Waring established an oil mill here, and obtained half
a jiallon of oil from one bushel of cotton seed. Mr. Stephen Brown had at that time a
valuable rope walk here. ]\Ir. Waring, and subsequently Mr. Herbemont, engaged here
successfully in grape culture.

7<)2 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

In 1850 it was 6,0G0. In 1860 it was 8,052. In 1870 it was 9,298. In
1880 it was 10,030. Since the latter date the population has increased
about 1,500, and since 1876 the returns of taxable property have in-
creased $750,000. The growth which set in in 1850 was much increased
during the war, to be swept off during the single night Avhich Sherman
occupied the town, by the great fire which destro3''ed it almost as com-
pletely as it was possible to destroy a town at one effort. During recon-
struction an unhealthy growth was stimulated by the corrupt politicians
who congregated here. This has passed away, and the city has entered
a promising period of normal and substantial progress.

KERSHAW COUNTY

has three towns and trading settlements, with eighty-four stores, to-wit :
Camden, seventy-eight stores ; Flat Rock, five stores ; Welche's, one store.
Of this number six sell liquors, two hardware, six dry goods, twenty-on'e
miscellaneous articles, and forty-nine general merchandise. Four are
kept by colored persons. The estimated wealth of the store keepers is
$380,000.

Camden, the county seat, is on the east bank of the Wateree river, a
mile from the stream, and at an elevation of one hundred feet above it.
The river is navigable to this point, and the town is one of the termini
of the South Carolina Railroad. Pine Tree creek and Belton's branch
wash it on three sides, giving it a position almost insular. It is the
oldest inland town in the State, being settled by Quakers in 1750 ;' it was
laid out into regular squares in 1760, and chartered in 1769. In 1825
the population was 2,000 ; in 1840 it was 2,300 ; in 1850 it was 1,133 ;
in 1860 it was 1,621 ; in 1870 it was 1,007 ; in 1880 it was 1,780. There
are four large churches for the whites — Episcopal, Methodist, Presbyte-
rian, and Baptist. Two large colored congregations — Baptist and Meth-
odist. Two weekly newspapers. About 20,000 bales of cotton are shipped
here annually, besides large amounts of naval stores and rice, the pro-
duction of the latter article is becoming very considerable and profitable
in the vicinage. A private bank in the town affords facilities for the
transaction of business.

CHESTERFIELD COUNTY

has six towns and trading settlements, with sixty -seven stores, to-wit :
Cheraw, fifty-six stores ; Chesterfield Court House, five stores ; Hornsboro
and Jefferson, two stores each, and Irvington and Old Store, one each.
Of this number four sell liquors, twenty-one miscellaneous articles, and
fortv-two general merchandise.

TOAVNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 703

Cheraw, at the junction of the Cheraw and Darlington Railroad with
the railroad to Salisbury, North Carolina, is one mile from the head of
navigation on the Great Pee Dae river. Thare is a population of 1,000
within the corporate limits, and about the same number on the outskirts
of the town. In 1825 the population was 1,200, and 20,000 bales of cot-
ton were shipped by steamboat on the Pee Dee river from this point ; in
1840 the population was 400; in 1800 it was 9G0. It is regularly laid off.
The streets are one hundred feet wide and have an aggregate length of
fifteen miles, three lines of handsome full grown shade trees, one on each
side, and one in the middle, render them delightful drives and Avalks.
A handsome two-story town hall has the upper story occupied as a Ma-
sonic lodge, the lower story is supplied with seats and scenery, and is
used for public entertainments (charges, including license and lights,
five to ten dollars). There is a skating rink, and the river, several
streams and two beautiful lakes near by afford good fishing. There is a
race-course near the town. There is a Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian,
Episcopal, and Catholic church for the whites. The cemetery of St.
David's church has been used for more than one hundred years, and a
number of British soldiers were buried there during the Revolution.
There are also several churches for the colored population. Stores rent
for one hundred dollars to four hundred dollars per annum, and dwelling
houses about the same. The real estate is estimated at $500,000, and the
personal property at $250,000. Taxes are restricted by the town charter
to one-half of one per cent., and it has been found necessary to call
for only half of this amount. Personal property is not taxed, except
the bar-rooms. There is no town debt. The Chester and Cheraw rail-
road is completed to Lancaster, and partially graded between that
point and Cheraw. A gap of eighteen miles from Cheraw to Hamlet,
North Carolina, remains to be built to complete what is considered the
shortest line from Augusta, Georgia, to Richmond, Virginia. There is
steamboat communication with Charleston, via Georgetown, by the Pee
Dee river. Besides considerable shipments of lumber, naval stores,
leather, hides, &c., about 10,000 bales of cotton are shipped annually.
There is a tannery, a tin-ware, a wagon, and a fertilizer manufactory in
the town, besides two steam grist mills, and gins, and one steam saw
mill. Abundant water powers in the neighborhood are little utilized.
Cheraw is one of the oldest settlements in the State, and has been long
noted for the wealth and culture of its citizens.

704 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

THE TOWNS IN THE PIEDMONT REGION

of South Carolina are given in the census of 1880 as thirty-six in num-
ber, witli a population of 30,999. A closer count, however, shows that,
includino- towns, villages, and trading poijits, this region numbers nearly
two hundred and fifty (two hundred and forty-four), with a population
exceeding fifty thousand. So that half the towns of the whole State, and
one-third of the town population is in the villages of the upper country.
A count of the stores give 1,750, and the estimated wealth of the store
keepers exceeds ten millions of dollars. The enumeration is made here
by the counties lying wholly, or in pa^t, in this region, taken in their
alphabetical order.

ABBEVILLE COUNTY

has twenty-five towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and
sixty-three stores, distributed as follows : Abbeville Court House, thirty-
nine stores ; Greenwood, twenty-one stores ; Ninety-Six, nineteen stores ;
Hodges, fifteen stores ; Due AVest, twelve stores ; Troy, ten stores ; Don-
aldsville and McCormick, seven stores each ; Antreville, four stores ;
Calhoun's Mills, Cokesbury, Lowndesville, Mapleton, and New Market,
three stores each ; Broadway, Simm's, and Verdery, two stores each ;
Bold Branch, Bordeaux, Lulah, Millway, Mountain View, Phoenix, and
Sawney, one store each. Of this number nine sell liquors, one hard-
ware, five dry goods, fifty-one miscellaneous articles, and ninety-seven
general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the store keepers is
$681,000.

Abbeville Court House, the county seat, in Lat. 34°, 13', 8" ; Long. AV.
from Columbia, 1°, 5', 15'' ; on a hill among the head-waters of Long
Cane, is the terminus of a branch from the Greenville and Columbia
railroad, twelve miles long. In 1840 the population was five hundred ;
in 1850 it was 1,252; in 1860 it was five hundred and ninety-two ; in
1880 it was 1,543. There are two hotels, six churches, and a large
graded school. The value of real and personal property is given at
§400,000. The town taxes are two mills. There is no debt. Stores,
built chiefly of brick, rent for from one hundred dollars to five hundred
dollars a year. The yearly sales are given as $500,000, and ten thousand
to fifteen thousand bales of cotton are shipped annually to Charleston
and Baltimore. There is a carriage manufactory, and two large weekly
newspapers. Property has increased in value twenty per cent, within
three years.

Greenwood, at the junction of the Augusta and Knoxville railroad

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 705

with the Columbia and Greenville railroad, had a population, in 1870, of
seven hundred ; in 1880, of seven hundred and forty-five, and is esti-
mated now at twelve hundred. There are three churches, and two
schools. Four thousand bales of cotton are shipped annually.

Ninety-Six, a colonial name, indicating the distance of this point from
the old frontier fort of Prince George, is on the Columbia and Greenville
railroad. It has a hotel, three churches and a school, with a population
of five hundred and fifty. The property is valued at $150,000. Six
thousand bales of cotton shipped annually. (3ne hundred and twenty-
five thousand bushels of oats were shipped in 1882.

ANDERSON COUNTY

has eighteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and thirty-
seven stores, distributed as follows : Anderson Court House, sixty-six
stores; AVilliamston, eighteen stores ; Pendleton, thirteen stores ; Honea
Path, twelve stores ; Belton, seven stores ; Andersonville and Pelzer,
three stores each ; Equality, Piercetown, Storeville, and Townville, tAvo
stores each ; Broyle's, Holland's, Mountain Creek, Newell, Robert, Rock
Mills, and Shallow Ford, one store each. Of this number two sell liquors,
five hardware, thirteen dry goods, fifty-two miscellaneous articles, and
sixty-five general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the store
keepers is placed at $1,080,000.

Anderson, the county seat, is on the Columbia, Greenville and Blue
Ridge railroad, and is the terminus of the Savannah River Valley rail-
road, which is being built. The population in 1860 was six hundred and
twenty-five; in 1870 it was 1,432; in 1880 it was 1,850, and has much
increased since. There are two hotels, three halls for public entertain-
ment owned by private individuals ; license fee, ten dollars per day.
The whites have five churches — Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Episco-
pal, and Catholic ; colored persons, two churches — Baptist and Metho-
dist. There are three public and a number of private schools, and two
weekly newspapers. Stores rent for from one hundred dollars to six
hundred dollars, and dwellings for one hundred dollars to three hundred
dollars a year. Personal property is estimated at $350,000. Real estate
$400,000. Town tax seventy cents on the one hundred dollars ; no town
debt. The yearly sales aggregate $750,000. The national bank has a
paid in capital of $50,000 ; surplus $50,000. The State Saving and In-
surance Bank a paid in capital of $25,000. About 20,000 bales of cotton
are shipped annually to Charleston, Philadelphia and New York.

Pendleton, on the Blue Ridge railroad, near Eighteen Mile Creek, had
a population, in 1840, of three hundred ; in 1860, of eight hundred and

700 TOAVXS OF SOUTH CAROLIXA.

fifty-four; in 1870, of nine lumdred and eighty-five, and in 1880, of six
hundred and seventy-two. There is a hotel, and four Ijoarding houses.
The Farmer's Hall is a two-story building. There are seven churches
and five schools. No town tax or debt. About fourteen hundred bales
of cotton are shipped to Charleston, and eight hundred to New York and
Pliiladelphia ; six hundred go to the Pendleton, and four hundred to the
Piedmont factories in this vicinit}^ There is a tin, a wagon, a shoe, and
a blacksmith shop.

Belton, at the intersection of the Blue Ridge with the Columbia and
Greenville railroad, had a population of three hundred and fourteen in
1880. A large hall, belonging to the Sons of Temperance, is used for
public exhibitions (license five dollars). There are five churches. The
hij^h school is a large new^ building ; there is also a private school, and a
colored free school. Brick stores rent for three hundred dollars to four
hundred dollars a year ; wooden ones, from one hundred dollars to two
hundred dollars. The Atlantic and French Broad Valley railroad is to
pass this point. About five thousand bales of cotton are shipped an-
nually, chiefly to Charleston, but in part to Norfolk and New York. The
yearly sales are, provisions, 875,000 ; dry goods, $15,000 ; hardware,
S5,000 ; miscellaneous, $25,000. There is a wood and blacksmith shop,
and a brick-yard. A church, five brick stores, and several residences
have been built within eighteen months.

CHESTER COUNTY

has sixteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and twenty-
five stores, as follows : Chesterville, eighty-seven stores ; Blackstock, nine
stores; Richburg, seven stores; Fort Lawn, four stores; Bascomville,
Chestnut Grove, Hazlewood, Loweryville, and Crosbyville, two stores
each ; Carmel, Camwell, Landsford, Rossville, and Wylie's, one store
each. Of this number five sell liquor, two hardware, twelve dry goods,
forty-seven miscellaneous articles, and fifty-nine general merchandise-
The wealth of the storekeepers is estimated at $90-1,000.

Chesterville, the county seat, is in Lat. 34° 37' 48", Long. 0° 21', West of
Columbia, from which it is distant forty-eight miles, in an air line. It is
built on a dyke of aphanitic porphyry, which slopes upward from all
sides, in the manner of a glacis, recalling the towns of the middle ages,
built about the castle of some feudal potentate. It has three hotels, and
a large hall for public exhibitions is let for $5 to $10 a night. Nine
churches, with accommodations to seat 3,000 persons, were built at a cost
of $35,000. There are two graded schools; the buildings cost $0,000,
with a capacity for five hundred pupils, a female academy, and a Metho-

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 707

dist Institute exclusively for colored pupils. Stores rent at $200 to $250
per annum, and dwellings at $100 to $250. Taxes are two and one-half
mills, with a street tax of $2.50 on all able-bodied males. There is an
indebtedness of $3,000, the balance due on the cost of constructing five
water tanks for fire supply, with a capacity of 100,000 gallons. Three
railroads unite here, the Charlotte and Columbia, and two narrow gauge
roads, the Chester and Lenoir, tapping the Atlanta and Air Line rail-
road, and the Chester and Cheraw, completed to Lancaster. The Nation-
al Bank has a paid up capital of $150,000, surplus $80,000. Besides
fruits, hides, &c., about 30.000 bales of cotton are shipped annually to
Charleston, New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. The j-early sales
are given as follows: provisions, $300,000; dry goods, $150,000; hard-
ware, $50,000 ; miscellaneous, $20,000. Among the industries of the
town is a large wagon and carriage manufactory, the Chester agricultural
works and machine shops, a saddler}^, and a cotton seed oil mill. Much
attention has been bestowed here on grape culture. Two newspapers are
published in the town, and the County Agricultural Society has exten-
sive fair grounds. In 1840 the population was 250, in 1880 it was 1,899.

EDGEFIELD COUNTY

has twenty-nine towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and
ten stores, distributed as follows : Johnston's, thirty-one stores ; Edgefield
Court House, fifteen stores ; Trenton, twelve stores ; Ridge Springs, nine
stores ; Parksville, five stores ; Kirksey's, four stores ; Clintonward, Elm-
wood, and Pleasant Lane, three stores each ; Big Creek, Butler, Clark-
skill, Duntonsville, Meeting Street, two stores each ; Bouknight, Caugh-
man, Celestia, Cold Spring, Denny's, Ethridge, Fruit Hill, Garvin's,
Longmires, McKee's, Mine ®reek, Modoc, Pleasant Cross, Rehol)oth, and
Havirdsville. one store each. Of this number five sell liquor, one dry
goods, twelve miscellaneous articles, and ninety-two general merchan-
dise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is placed at $549,000.

FAIRFIELD COUNTY

has seventeen towns and trading settlements with ninety-one stores, dis-
tributed as follows : Winnsboro, forty-nine stores ; Ridgeway, ten stores ;
Strother's, six stores ; Shelton, five stores ; Blythewood, Wallaceville, and
White Oak, three stores each ; Lylesford and Woodward, two stores each :
Blair, Buckhead, Gladden 's, Horeb, Long Run, Monticello, and Poplar
Spring, one store each. Of this number five sell liquors, five hardware,
five dry goods, nineteen miscellaneous articles, and fifty-seven general
merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is $075,000.

7C8 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

AViiinsboro, tlie county seat, is on the Charlotte and Columbia rail-
road, thirty miles from the latter place. The depot has an elevation of
five hundred and forty-five feet above the sea level. It is situated
on a ridge dividing the water shed of the Wateree from that of
Broad river. The soil is a rich, stiff, dark red clay loam. Granite
and trap rocks are found. Twenty feet below the surface the earth
becomes friable, somewhat resembling quicksand, being perfectly white
in some places. The town is regularly laid out ; the streets of good
width, aggregate six miles in length, have broad pavements, curbed
with split granite, and are well shaded by handsome trees. The Court
House, Jail, Town Hall, Market, Steam Fire Engine Halls, and Mt Zion
Collegiate Institute are all handsome brick buildings. The Thespian
Hall, fitted for exhibitions, is eighty by thirty-five feet. Many of the
private residences are beautifully located and are fine buildings. The
water supply is excellent and abundant from wells and springs. There
are five large fire wells and cisterns, a steam fire "engine, a hand fire en-
gine, and a hook and ladder company. Of the five churches for whites,
the Presbyterian cost $35,000 ; the Associate Reformed Presbyterian seats
300 ; the Episcopal Church seats 400 ; The Methodist 300 ; the Bap-
tist, 300. The colored people have an African Methodist Church,
seating 600, and Baptist Church, seating 200. The colored Pres-
byterian Mission School, built of wood, cost $2,000, and accommo-
dates 200 pupils. Stores and dwellings rent for $100 to $500, or about
ten per cent, of their value ; for the latter the demand is greater than
the supply, a considerable portion of the town having been burned b}^
Sherman's army, which has much retarded its growth. Excellent brick
are made in the vicinity, and four miles distant, on Col. Thos. J. Wood-
ward's land, is a quarry of the finest granite, to which a railroad is being
built. The yearly shipments are 14,000 t© 15,000 bales of cotton to
Charleston and New York, and 3,000 bales to Baltimore and Richmond.
The Winnsboro National Bank has a paid in capital of $75,000. and a
surplus of $15,000. The yearly sales are given as, provisions, $350,000 ;
dry goods, $150,000 ; hardware, $50,000 ; miscellaneous, $100,000. Pro-
perty is valued at $500,000. There is a debt of $3,000, balance due on
purchase of steam fire engine, interest seven per cent. Town taxes are
restricted to two and one-half mills on the dollar by statute. In 1840
the population was 500, in 1850 it was 355, in 1860 it was 1,124, in 1870
about the same, and in 1880 it was 1,500.

GREENVILLE COUNTY

has twenty-six towns and trading settlements, distributed as follows :
Greenville Court House, one hundred and forty-nine stores ; Greer's,

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 709

fourteen stores ; Piedmont, six stores ; Fairvicw, five stores ; Hunt-
ersville, Marietta, Merrittsville, and Sandy Flat, three stores each ;
Bellevue, Fork Shoals, Lima, O'Neal, Plain, Sterling Grove, Tay-
lor's, Highland Grove, two stores each ; Alba, Batesville, Chick
Springs, Fountain Inn, Gowansville, Lickville, Mush Creek, Pelham's,
Pliny, and Hart's, one store each. Of this number thirteen sell liquors,
twelve hardware, twenty-seven dry goods, sixty-nine miscellaneous arti-
cles, and ninety-one general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the
storekeepers is*^ $1,298,000.

Greenville, the county seat, long noted for the salubrity of its climate
and the beauty of its situation, at the foot of the Blue Ridge mountains,
and in full view of them, is located on Reedy river, at the junction of the
Columbia and Greenville railroad with the Atlanta and Charlotte Air-
Line railroad. In 1820 the population was 500, in 1840 it was 850, in
1850 it was 1,305, in 1860 it was 1,518, in 1870 it was 2,757, in 1880 it
was 6,160. A careful enumeration by the Inter-State Directory Com-
pany, in 1883, shows the population to be 8,355. It appeared on the
same date that there were in course of erection sixteen residences,
seven stores, one warehouse, one stable, one large church, and a musi-
cal conservatory three stories high, and including twenty-one rooms.

It has an elevation of ten hundred and fifty feet above the sea
level. It has six hundred yards of granite pavement, twelve hundred
yards of other rock pavement, and twelve hundred yards of brick pave-
ment. There are two miles of street railway in the town. Reedy river,
with two falls of over thirty feet each, traverses the town, which has in
addition twenty-five street cisterns, capacity, fifteen thousand gallons
each. Rock culverts and drains, with side drains of terra cotta, make a
good system of drainage and sewerage. There are six hotels and three
livery stables in the town. The handsome brick Court House cost
$25,000, and an opera hall, costing $15,000, has seven hundred seats.
The University grounds are handsomely kept, and the agricultural fair
grounds cover thirty acres, having some fine buildings. There are ten
churches, with a seating capacit}^ of three hundred to one thousand each,
and costing, in the aggregate, $75,000. There are two colleges, a military
institute, a public school, and a number of other schools. Building
materials are brick and granite, obtained in the vicinit^^ The value of
real and personal property is stated at $2,500,000, of which $1,800,000 is
insured. The taxes are six and a half mills on the dollar, yielding
$11,500 per annum. There is a debt of $55,000 in aid of the Air-Line
railroad. Forty thousand bales of cotton, it is stated, have been shipped
in one year to New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia and Boston, and yarn,
to the value of $200,000, to Boston. Before the war no cotton was shipped

710 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

from tliis point. The yearly sales are approximately given as : provis-
ions, $800,000 ; dry goods, $800,000 ; hardware, $300,000; miscellaneous,
$100,000. The National Bank of Greenville has a cajjital of $100,000;
surplus, $20,000, and there is a private bank also. Besides the Huguenot
and Camperdown cotton mills, there is a carriage factory, a furniture
factory, an iron foundry, a cotton seed oil mill, a mattress factory, three
saddle and harness shops, a flour mill, a terra cotta factory, three brick
yards, and a mill turning out pearl grits. There are three printing
offices, two newspapers and a religious paper. The town is lighted with
gas ; the mills have electric lights.

Piedmont is a flourishing manufacturing town, eleven miles south of
Greenville, where the railroad crosses the Saluda. The population is 1150.
There is a hotel, a two-story school house, capacity, one hundred pupils;
the upper story used as a town and society hall ; one church, capacity,
four hundred persons, built at a cost of $1,800. The value of the pro-
perty is estimated at $1,000,000. The shipments are confined to the
products of the mills of the Piedmont Manufacturing Company, estimated
at $900,000 ; by the last report of the president, " the net jDrofits during
the year amounted to 21 J per cent, on the capital stock of $500,000, or
over $105,000. The yearly sales are : provisions, $40,000 ; dry goods,
$40.000 ; miscellaneous $20,000. This village was commenced in 1874-5.

LANCASTER COUNTY

has nine towns and trading settlements, with fifty stores, as follows :
Lancaster Court House, thirty stores; Flat Creek, five stores; Pleasant
Hill and Taxahaw, four stores each ; Cureton's and Pleasant Valley, two
stores each ; Craigsville, Gum and Hail's, one store each. Of this num-
ber eight sell miscellaneous articles, and forty-two general merchandise.
The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is $272,000.

LAURENS COUNTY

has eighteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and
twenty -three stores, to wit : Laurens Court House, fifty-three stores ;
Clinton, twenty-seven stores; Martin's, eight stores; Line Creek and
Cross Hill, six stores oach ; Power's Shop and Waterloo, four stores each ;
Brewerton, Roseborough, Tumbling Shoals, and Tylersville, two stores
each ; Cedar Grove, Mountain Shoal, Mount Gallaghar, l^leasant Mound,
ScufHetown, Young's and Eden, one store each Of this number five sell
liquors, five dry goods, eight hardware, twenty-six miscellaneous articles,
and seventy-nine general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the
storekeepers aggregates $772,000.

TOWXS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 711

Clinton, on the Laurens branch of the Columbia and Greenville rail-
road, is a rapidl}^ growing village. In 1870 the population was 200, in
1880 it was 450, and it now exceeds 600. There are nine miles of streets,
a hotel, several boarding houses, and a livery stable. There are no taxes,
or town debt, and the sale of liquor being prohibited within three miles
of the depot, it is not thought necessary' to have a police. There are six
churches, with a membership of four hundred, costing §7,000, and able
to seat seventeen hundred and fifty persons ; a library society, three
lodges of Masons, Good Templars, and' Knights of Honor. The educa-
tional establishments are, the Thornwell Orphanage, the Clinton College
and preparatory school, a military school, and a private school. Among
the manufacturing establishments are three steam mills, one carriage
shop, one tin shop, one printing office, one gin factory, one steam brick
factory, one steam planing mill, one firm of tinners, two shoemakers, six
firms of carpenters engaged in house-building. Dwelling houses rent on
an average at -$100, stores at $100 to §250 per annum. Building mate-
rials are lumber, brick and stone, obtained in the vicinity, and a concrete
of granite, sand and lime is also being used for buildings. Cotton
shipments are about six thousand bales annually. The valuation of
l^roperty is given as §1 85,000.

NEWBERRY COUNTY

has fifteen towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and twenty-
one stores, distributed as follows: Kewberry Court House, eighty stores;
Prosperity, ten stores ; Chappel's and Saluda, five stores each; Liberty
Hall, four stores ; Kinard's, Silver street and Jalapa, three stores each ;
Pomaria, two stores; Belmont, Boston, Helena, Phifer's, Walton and
Whitemire's, one store each. Of this number nine sell licjuors, eleven
hardware, six dry goods, forty-seven miscellaneous articles, and forty-
eight general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is
§760,000.

Newberry, the county seat, is in Lat. 34° 16' 37", and Long. 0° 41' West
of Columbia, from which it bears N. 60 West, 36J miles. It is situated
on the Columbia and Greenville railroad, on the ridge between the Broad
river (the Es-waw-pud-de-nah, or line river, dividing the Indian tribes),
and the Saluda (Salutah or Corn river), and has an elevation of 502 feet
above the sea level. In 1840, the population was 300 ; in 1850 it was
509 ; in 1870, it was 1,891 ; in 1880, it was 2,342. The streets have an
aggregate length of twenty-four miles. Two small creeks traverse the
town, which, with springs and wells, furnish an abundant supply of excel-
lent water. Two large brick hotels, costing §15,000, are open. The court

712 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

house cost $8,000, the jail $6,000, the market $2,100 A new brick opera
house cost $25,000, seats 1,000 persons, and rents for $40 a night. The
wliites have six churches, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, the
Associate Reformed and the Episcopal, built at an aggregate cost of
$18,000, capacity, 4,000 seats, and three colored churches, costing $4,500.
There are flourishing organizations of Masons, Odd Fellows, Knights of
Honor, and Sons of Temperance. The Newberry College buildings cost
$20,000, the Female Academy $2,500, the Male Academy $1,000, the
Hoge School (colored) $1,500. The average rental of stores is $350.00 ;
of dwellings, $200.00. Building materials are brick and pine lumber
from the vicinity, and granite, great quantities of which of the finest
quality are found in three to five miles of the town. The mayor and
aldermen serve without pay. The town tax is two mills on the dollar,
and a revenue, in addition, of $2,400 from licenses. There is a debt of
$22,000, incurred in 1881, for building the opera house ; interest, seven
per cent. The Newberry National Bank has a paid in capital of $150,000 ;
surplus, $99,278. Twenty thousand bales of cotton are shipped annually
to New York and Norfolk. The yearly sales are given as, provisions,
$450,000; dry gccds, $200,000; hardware, $75,000; miscellaneous,
$125,000. A large cotton mill is about being built.

SPARTANBURG COUNTY

has twenty-three towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and
sixty-six stores, distributed as follows : Spartanburg C. H., seventy -four
stores ; Gaffney, thirty-two stores ; Woodruff, eight stores ; Pacolet and
Wellford, six stores each; Cowi)ens and Landrum, five stores each; Cross
Anchor and Reidville, four stores each ; Dumans, New Prospect and In-
man, three stores each ; Campobello, Damascus, Hobbyville and Martin-
ville, two stores each ; Compton, Crawfordsville, Fingerville, Glenn
Springs, Hills Factory and Rich Hill, one store each. Of this number,
seven sell hardware, fourteen dry goods, thirty-one miscellaneous ar-
ticles, and one hundred and fourteen general merchandise. The esti-
mated wealth of the storekeepers is $1,242,000.

Spartanburg, the county seat, is situated at the junction of the Spar-
tanburg, Union and Columbia railroad, and the Spartanburg and Ashe-
ville railroad with the Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line railroad. The
population, in 1820, was 800 ; in 1840, it was 1,000 ; in 1850, it was 1,170 ;
in 18G0, it was 1,216 ; in 1870, it was 1,080 ; it 1880 it was 3,253. It has
an elevation above the sea level of seven hundred and eighty -seven feet.
Besides the court house and jail, there is an opera house costing $11,000,
and three large and handsome brick hotels, one of which has one hun-

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 713

dred rooms. Tliere are four churches for the wliitcs, and three for
colored persons. The Wofford College is under the direction of the
Methodist Church. There is also a male seminary, a female seminary,
six public and private schools, and an orphan house. The National
Bank has a paid in capital of $100,000 ; surplus, $30,000. Property is
valued at one and one-quarter million dollars. There is a city debt of
$150,000 for subscription to railroads, and §20,000 for Macadamizing the
streets. Twenty-five to thirty thousand bales of cotton are shipped an-
nually to New York and Charleston. There is a mineral spring in the
town, and several in the vicinity. The town is lighted with gas.

Gaffne}'^, on the Air Line railroad, east of Spartanburg twenty-one
miles, was founded in 1873. The population, in 1880, numbered 400,
and is now estimated at 1,000. There is a hotel, and brick town hall
eighty-five feet by fifty-four feet ; four churches, costing $5,000, and two
schools. Stores and dwellings rent for ten dollars to twenty-five dollars
a month. The jiroperty valuation is $500,000. There is no town debt
or taxes. The yearly sales are about $315,000. Eight to ten thousand
bales of cotton are shipped to New York and Baltimore. There is a
brick yard, lime kiln and two blacksmith forges in the village. One
mile distant are the Limestone Springs, formerly a noted summer resort,
now a female academy. Near here is the ^Magnetic Iron Manufacturing-
Company, with a magnificent water power. Iron ore, lead, copper,-gold,
flexible siuidstone (ita columite or diamond rock), blue lime.stofie, white
and streaked marbles, fire-proof sand, and soapstone, are all found in this
neighborhood. There is a weekly newspaper.

Clifton, on the Pacolet river, two-thirds of a mile from the Air Line
railroad, is a manufacturing village, of one thousand- inhabitants, built
up within two years. The village is the property of the Cotton Manu-
facturing Company', which employs six hundred hands. There is a
church and school. Sales, about seventy thousand dollars per annum.
Shipment of factory goods, $600,000 per annum.

Woodruff, on the proposed line of the Greenwood and Spartanburg

railroad, is eighteen miles south of the Court House. It has a population

of three hundred. There are four churches, one colored, and three

chools. AVagon making and saw milling are local industries. Mail by

pi-ivate conveyance.

Reidville, twelve miles southwest of the Court House, and five miles
from Vernonville, on the Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line railroad, is a
village of three hundred ijihabitants, that has grown up around educa-
tional institutions located there. These are a female college, one hun-
dred and fifty pupils, and a male high school, one hundred pupils.
Board costs ten dollars to twelve dollars a month ; the buildings are of
46

714 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

brick manufactured there. DAvelling houses rent from six dollars to
eight dollars a month. Town taxes, one mill on the dollar. In the
neighborhood are two mineral springs, containing sulphur, iron and mag-
nesia.

Wellford, ten miles west of Spartanburg, on the railroad, has an Epis-
copal Church and the AVellford High School. Rate of tuition, board and
washing, §12.50 per month. The school-room accommodates one hun-
dred and twenty-five pupils.

Glenn Springs, twelve miles south of Spartanburg, is a summer resort
noted for its mineral waters and healthful climate. There are two
churches, a white and a colored school. Large numbers of visitors come
during the summer. Dwellings rent for sevent3^-five dollars to one hun-
dred dollars a year, cottages for thirty dollars during the summer. The
mineral waters are bottled and shipped.

UNION COUNTY^

traversed by the Union, Spartanburg and Columbia railroad, has eight-
een towns and trading settlements with eighty-four stores, as follows :
Union Court House, forty-eight stores ; Santuc, eight stores ; Jonesville,
live stores ; Cross Keys and Skull Shoals, four stores each ; Mountjoy,
three stores ; Fish Dam, Mount Tabor, and Smithford, two stores each ;
Asbury/Colerain, Goshen Hill, C^urdysvill, Meador, Pinegrove, Sedalia,
West Spring, and Wilkinsville, one store each. Of this number five sell
liquors, three dry goods, twenty -five miscellaneous articles, and thirty-
one general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is
$785,000.

YORK COUNTY

has twenty-one towns and trading settlements, with one hundred and
thirty -seven stores, distributed as follows : Yorkville, forty-five stores ;
Rock Hill, twenty -seven stores ; Black's, eleven stores ; Fort Mills,
eleven stores ; Whitaker and Clover, seven stores each ; Bullock's Creek,
four stores ; Clay Hill and Smith's, three stores each ; Blairsville, Bow-
ling Green, Clark's Fork, Guthriesville, Sandersville, Zeno and Bethel,
two stores each ; Corncob, Hickory Grove, Tirzah, Bethany, and j\IcCon-
nellsville, one store each. Of this number four sell liquors, two Hard-
ware, six dry goods, forty -three miscellaneous articles, and eighty-two
general merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is
$920,000.

Yorkville, on the Chester and Lenoir narrow-gauge railway, is the
county seat. In 1823 it had a population of 441, being fifty-two me-

TOWNS OF SOUTH CAEOLIXA. 715

chanics, eight lawyers, two physicians, and one clergyman ; there was
then eight stores, five taverns, a male and female academy, and two
weekly papers, one devoted to agriculture. In 1840 the population was
600 ; in 1860 it was 1,360 ; in 1880, 1,339. There are ten miles of street,
paved at a cost of twenty-five cents to one dollar per yard. The Court
House is a venerable and handsome building, costing originally $8,000.
The King's Mountain Military Academy and the Female Academy are
fine buildings, costing about $20,000 each ; there are several other
schools, and a newspaper. The churches are the Episcopal, Methodist,
Presbyterian, Baptist and Associate Reformed. Building materials are
chiefly stone and brick from the vicinity. Taxes are four mills on the
dollar, two of which go to pay the balance due on paving the streets,
which is nearly paid up. Six to ten thousand bales of cotton are shipped
to New York. The yearly sales are stated as, provisions, $200,000 ; dry
goods, $150,000 ; miscellaneous, $50,000.

Rock Hill, on the Charlotte and Columbia railroad, has an elevation
of six hundred and sixty-eight feet above sea-level. In 1880 the popu-
lation was 800, almost all of whom had settled there after the war. There
are three hotels, a town hall, engine house, and two public halls, with a
capacity for seating six hundred persons ; has stage, scenery, &c., for
theatrical exhibitions (license fee, $5). The whites have three brick
churches, and there are three wooden churches belonging to the colored
people. The best stores rent for $400 ; cottage dwellings, from $100 to
$150. Excellent brick are manufactured in the town. The value of
property is estimated at $500,000, of which $200,000 is insured. Taxes
are three mills on the dollar. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton are ship-
ped to New York, Baltimore and Charleston. The yearly sales of goods
aggregate $500,000. A cotton factory, two carriage factories, a tin man-
ufactory, two shoe shops, and two saddlery and harness shops, employing
one hundred and twenty-five hands in manufactures. There is a private
banking establishment in the town. The

ALPINE REGION,

of South Carolina, occupies the larger portions of Oconee and Pickens
counties, although it extends through the northern portions of Green-
ville, Spartanburg and York counties, whose towns have been already
treated of. Taken as a whole, it will be seen, on reference to the table,
that the percentage of the population living in towns is greater for
the Alpine Region than for any region in South Carolina, except imme-

710 TOWNS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

(liately on the coast. This is due to the wide stretches of mountain sides
that are but sparsely settled.

OCONEE COUNTY

has nine towns and trading' settlements, with one hundred and nine
stores, as follows : Walhalla, forty -nine stores ; Seneca City, twenty-six
stores ; Westminster, sixteen stores ; Fair Play, seven stores ; Oakway, six
stores; Fort Madison, two stores; High Fall, Long Creek, and Whet-
stone, one store each. Of this number three sell liquors, five hardware,
four dry goods, thirty-seven miscellaneous articles, and sixty general
merchandise. The estimated wealth of tlie storekeepers is $146,000.

Walhalla, the terminus of the Blue Ridge railroad, is the county seat,
and had, in 1880, a population of 789. There are four churches and two
colleges, the Adger and the Walhalla ; a newspaper, three saw-mills, five
grist mills, three ginneries, and two coach factories.

PICKENS COUNTY

has eleven towns and trading settlements, with fifty-seven stores, as fol-
lows : Easeley, sixteen stores ; Central, fifteen stores ; Pickens Court
House and Liberty, six stores each ; Briggs, four stores ; Rock, three
stores ; Dacusville, and Six Mile, two stores each ; Ninetimes, Stuart,
and Table Mountain, one store each. Of this number, one sells liquors,
one hardware, sixteen miscellaneous articles, and thirty-nine general
merchandise. The estimated wealth of the storekeepers is §223,000.

INDEX.

ABBEVILLE CO.,PIED:\rONT REGION :

The Metamorphic rocks on Savannah
river, 127 ; Mica Slate, overlying belts
of Hornblende upon Gneiss in the
nortliern portion of, 132 ; Talc and
Chiy Slates of, lo2 ; Trap rock gives
rise through the disintegration of Fel-
sitic and Dioritic Porphyries to the
"Flat Woods" of, 134; Gold mines
open in tl-e Talc Slates — above the
Metamorphic rocks the Streams gen-
erally contain Gold in their sands, ih. ;
Silver in Galena, Iron Ores, Feldspar,
Steatite, Zircons found in 137 ; Analy-
sis of the " Flat Woods," Soil, 143 ;
Original Growth Hickory, Oak and
Chestnut, with no underbrush, only a
dense growth every wliere of Cane,
Grasses, and the Wild Pea, grazed (»n
b}' herds of Deer and Bufialo — the
Chestnut has nearly disappeared, but
the long extinct Wild Pea is said to be
re-appearing since the passage of the
Stock Law, 146; Hemp, Tobacco, Silk
and Wine produced by the early
French settlers who gave its name to,
147 ; Warren Grape cuttings shipped
to France from, ib. ; Field Labor and
Wages in, loo ; Share System preferred
in, 15(5 ; Quality, Price of Land, Crops,
Water-power-i, Mines, Ac ,in, l(34-l()(i;
Waddell's celebrated U'illington Acad-
emy in, 449 ; Erskine College, 4*J2 ; Due
West Female College, 517 ; Schools of,
458 ; Towns and Trading Points of, 7U4.

AGRICULTURE : The Department of, in
the State Government. 441 ; Agricul-
tural and ]\]echaniccil Colleges of the
State Ilniversitv, 488.

AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH
CAROLINA: I. Coast Region, 14-43 ;
II. Lower Pine Belt, 44-70 ; III. Up-
per Pine Belt, 71-109; IV. Red Hill
Region, 110-110 ; V. Sand Hill Re-
gion, 117-125; VI. Piedmont Region,
12(i-182;YII. Alpine Region, 183-208.

AGRICULTURAL RETROSPECT: Early
Colonial Exports, Skins, Lumber, Tar,
Oranges, &c., i) ; Indiao, Indian Corn,
10; Cotton, 11: Sea Island ditto. 12;
Diagram showing the fluctuations of
all the Stai)le Crops from 11)70-1880,13.

AIKEN CO.: In the Sand Hills ; Lignite,
immense beds of line Buhr-stone, 112;
Boiling Springs, Blowing Wells, lit);

Granites, 119-131 ; Kaolin Quarries,
120; Soil Analysis — Ra])id Rise in
the Price of Lands in, 121 ; Peanuts,
Watermelons, ib. ; Flower Gardens,
Peach Orchards, 122 ; Aiken Town, a
Famous Health Resort. 123 ; Factories
of, 118, 582; Towns and Trading
Points in, 697.

ALPINE REGION : Location and Physi-
cal Features of, 183 ; Geology of the.
185 ; Soils and Climate, 186; Ginseng
and other Medicinal Herbs in great
abundance found in the, 188 ; Gold,
Iron, Lime, Kaolin, Silver, Copper,
liCad, Corundum, Mica, Mineral
Springs, 188 i Statistics of Farms, Pro-
ducts, &c., 180-195. See reports from
Pickens and Oconee. In climbing the
mountains the following trees mark
the steps of ascent : Rock Chestnut,
Mountain Oak, Cucumber Tree, Moun-
tain Laurel, White Pine, Hemlock or
Spruce Pine, 188.

ALMOND 115

APPLE 174

ANATA^SKS OF SOILS : Coast Region. 19 ;
Lower Pine Belt, 53 ; Upper Pine J^>elt,
74; River Swamp Lands, 76,78; Red
Hill Region, 113; Sand Hill Region,
120 ; Piedmont, 139 ; Gray Sandy and
Red Clay Loam, 139 ; Hornblendic
Soils, 140; Clay Slate, 141 ; Trappean,
142; Black-jack, 143.

ANDERSON CO.. PIEDMONT: Manga-
nese, Graphite, F'eMspar, Steatite, As-
bestos, Tourmaline, Zircon, Corun-
dum in, 137 ; Quality, and price of
lands. Growth, Mill Sites, Products,
Factories, Gold, Silver, Spinel Rubies,
of, 166-8 ; Water Courses, 204 ; Schools,
458, 481 ; Towns and Trading Points,
705.

ANIMALS, VERTEBRATE: Of South
Carolina, 209-262,

ARE.\ : Of South Carolina, 3 ; of Sea Is-
lands, 7 ; Rice Lands. 7, 57 ; Salt
Marshes, 7, 53 ; Swamp Lands, 7, 8, 52,
53 ; Improved Land of Coast Region,
24; of I^plands in Lower Pine Belt.
52; Swamp Lands in ditto, 53 ; Tilled
Land in ditto, 55; of I'nused Land
ada]ited to Rice Culture in ditto, 57 ;
River Swamps of the U])perPine Belt,
area of, 76 ; of Copland Swamps. 78 ; of
the Sand Hill Region, 118 ; of Bottom

718

INDEX.

Lands on Croeks in tlie Sand Hills,

ns; Ked Mills, 115; Piedinnnt, 126;

Alpine Kepion, 188. See Table II. for

areas of the regions, 3()2.

ASBi;ST()S 137

ASHLEY FISH BED 48

BAGGING: Charleston Factory of. 63

BALES: Cotton, different Presses for bal-
ing, Weiglit of, ()3, 91 ; Charges for
Transportation of, on Steamboats and
Railroads, 5)2 ; other Charges on, 98 ;
Tables Showing tlie Numbers in dif-
ferent Regions and Counties made in
1870-80 of, oG2 ; Size of, 594.

BANANA 24,114

BANKS, 643 ; Branch of the National Bank
Established in South Carolina, 044 ;
Bank of the State Chartered in 1812 —
1835, if).; re-chartered in 1830 until
1856,645; again in 1852 to 1871, 646;
Favorable Report of Joint Committee
of General Assembly on the Bank in
1871, 647 ; Closed bv Reconstruction
in 1870, 048 ; other Banks, 6(52.
BANK OF NEWBERRY, good plan for a

Farmer's Bank, 154.
BAPTISTS : Institutions of Learning of
the, 497, 528 ; First Establishment and
Early History of the, 552; Churches,
Sittings and Pro])ertv of the, 555.
BARLEY : Bushels made in 1850-'60-'70-

'80, 362.
BARNWELL CO., COPPER PINE BELT :
System of Labor in, 84; Quality and
Price of Lands, Marl, Swamps, Growth,
Products of, 99 . Towns and Trading
Points, 692.

BARYTES 137, 182

BEAUFORT CO., COAST REGION : Im-
mense Grape Vine in, 25 ; the First
Settlement in South Carolina made in;
Long Staple Cotton First Planted in,
27; Labor Contracts, 30; Marsh Grass,
Negro Farmers, Schools, Phosphate
Rock, Port Royal Harbor and Railroad,
31, 603 ; Towns and Stores, 663.
BERKELEY CO., COAST REGION : Sta-
tistics of, in 1880, Table V., 362 ; Towns
and Stores, 668.

BERMUDA GRASS 25, 87

BERYL 137

BIRD'S MOUNTAIN 184

BIRDS: Of South Carolina, 217-33; few
Fossil Remains of, 49.

BIRTHS 404-7

BIS:\IUTH 137

BLACK.IACK: Limit of. 169

BLIND, DEAF AND DUMB, School for,

557.
BLOSSOMS. COTTON: First Appearance
of, 35. 90.

BLOWING WELLS 119

BLOWING SANDS 17

BLUE RIDfJE MOUNTAINS, 184; height
of different Peaks of the, 185.

BOUNDARIES: Of South Carolina..3, 184
BOYLSTON, MRS. S. A. ( WINNSBORO) :

Fine Water Power on the Catawba of,

205.

BROOMSEDGE 87

BUFFALO 147,212

BUHR STONE: 46, 73; Mill Stones, 111,

112.
BUILDING MATERIALS ,.47, 398

CiESAR'S HEAD MT 185

CALHOUN, JAMES E 186, 188

CAMDEN : Jo.seph Kershaw's Flouring

Mills, near, 9 ; Trade in 1826, (>27.
CANAL: Act Establishing the Catawba,

620 ; Santee, 623 ; Saluda, 625.
CANE : Wild, 146, 170 ; Sugar, 25, 06, 1 14

CATHOLICS, ROMAN 553

CATTLE 360

CHALYBEATE SPRING 168

CHARGES ON COTTON 9.3-162

CHARLESTON CO., LOWER PINE
BELT : Ashley and Cooper Marls, 46 ;
Quality. Price of Land ; St '' homas
and St. Denis, once wealthy and popu-
lous, now abandoned— Growth, Indus-
tries, AVando Phosphate, 66; Towns
and Stores of, 609.
CHARLESTON: Health of, 21, 23, 676;
First Appearance of Y'ellow Fever
in, 22 ; Settlement and Early His-
tory of, 422, 669; Schools of, '461-7 ;
Charitable and Literary Institutions
of, 469; College of, 4i)0 ; Cotton Mill,
582; Water Communication with the
Back Country, 611; Early Trade with
the Indians, 614 ; Receipts and Ex-
penditures for 1879-80-1-2 and Debt
of, (572 ; Water Supply, Streets of, 674 ;
Drainage, Board of Health of. 675;
Fire Department, Public Grounds, 676;
Charities, 677 ; Population at differ-
ent periods — Harbor of, 078 ; former
Pre-eminence among the Cities of the
Union of, 680; Leading Articles of
Trade of. 681 ; Industries of, 682.
CHARLESTON AND HAMBURG RAIL-
ROAD: History of the. 630.
CHESTER CO., PIEDMONT : Iron, Stea-
tite, Flagging and Whetstones in, 137;
Gold, Granite, Blackjack Lands, Lime-
stone Spring, Quality and Price <>f
Lands, Catawba Canal in, 169 ; Cotton
Mills, 582; Towns and Trading Points
in, 706.
CHESTERFIED CO., IN THE SAND
HILLS: Beds of Lijfnite in, 112;
Brewer Gold Mine, Bismuth, 137 ;
Schools of, 482; Towns and Trading
Posts. 702.
CHURCHES: The "Church Act," 1704,
declaring the Church of England the
C hurch of South Carolina, 550 ; the
Parochial System of Government, 551 ;
Early Colonial, ibirl ; Negroes first
Baptized, 553 ; Numbers, Sittings and

INDEX.

710

Property of different. 555 ; Present
Condition and Distribution of tlie
most ini])ortant. ooli.

TLAFLIN UNIVERSITY 525

CLARENDON CO., IN THE LOWER
PINE BELT : Santee Marls underlie
tJie whole of, 47 ; Size of Farms, Labor
Contracts, Liens, Quality and Price of
Lands, (JO, 67 ; Stone reseniblinsz Mene-
lite, found in, 112; Towns and Stores
of, (iftl.

CLAY SLATES 133

CLIMATE : Of Sea Islands. 20 ; of Lower
Pine Belt, 54; of Upper ditto, 79 ; Red
Hills, 114 ; Sand Hills, 122 ; Piedmont,
144; Alpine Region, 185; Meteorologi-
cal Table, 300.

CLOVER 147, 18L

COLLEGE.S AND UNIVERSlTIi:S: The
South Carolina College, 48(i; Charles-
ton, 490 ; p:rskine. 492 ; Wofford, 495 ;
Furman, 497 ; Newberrv, 499 ; Adtrer,
501 ; Claflin, 525 ; Allen, 527 ; Medical
Colleofe, 50o ; Female, 511-.522.

COLLETON CO., IN THE LOWER PINE
BELT : Sea Island Cotton, tirst grown
I in, 27 ; Quality and Price of Lands,

Labor Sy.stem, Water-Powers, Swamp
Hiunmocks, Products of, 65; Towns
and Stores of, ()S9.

COLONY OF SOUTH CAROLINA : Earlv
I Historyof the. ..9,381, 421, 550,574.(il2.

COLUMBIA : Congaree Tribe and River,
8()7 ; Act of 22d :NLarch. 178(), to found,
620 ; Incorporated 1787, First Legis-
lative Session at, (599 ; Trade, Debt,
Population, Industries of, 699-702.

CONCRETE FOR BUILDING STONE, 20,
111.
NSTITUTION : Locke's Fundamental.
433 ; the Second in 1729 modeled after
the English, 425; the Provisional, 1776,
the Fourih, 1790, modeled after that of
the United State.s, 427 ; the Fifth,
made by the Convention summoned
by Congress in 1868, 429 ; Leading
Principles of the said, 429-442.

TOPPER 137, 180.

CORALLINE BED OF THE CHARLES-
TON BASIN 47.

COST OF MAKIXG COTTON: In the
Coast Region, per acre and pound, 42 :
in Lower Pine Belt, 64 ; in Upper ditto,
95.

COST OF PICKING COTTON 36, 42.

COTTON: Sea Island, derivation of the
name, 26; Appearance of the Plant,
28, 35, 79 ; First Crop Maximum Pro-
duct, Excellent Quality and High
Prices of, 12 ; Introduction and Early
History of, 27 ; Color, Length and
Strength of the Fibre of, 28 ; Labor
and Sy.stem of Planting, 29 ; Tillage
and imju-ovement of, 32-34 ; Diseases
and Enemies of, 3(), ]60; Preparation
for Market, 37 ; Gins, Roller and Toll,

38 ; Seed. 39 ; Santees and Mains —
western limit of, ilul ; Co.st in general
of producing, 40; Table of Itemized
Cost per acre. 42; per pound, 43.

COTTON : Uplands, Lower Pine Belt, 58 ;
System of Labor, .59; Cultivation of,
()0-62 ; Preparation for Market, G3 :
Cost of producing, 64.

COTtON: Uplands, Upper Pine Belt,
Tillage, 86 ; Manner of Planting, 88 ;
Ginning, Baling, Shi]>ping, 90; Di.sea.^es
■ and Enemiesof the Plant, 92 ; Charges
on Selling, 93 ; Co.st of, ihid ; Itemized,
ditto. 95 ;"Seed and Lint, 96.

COTTON: Number of bides made indif-
ferent Regions of South Cai-olina,
Tables II., III.; Number made in
United States and South Carolina in
18.50. 1S60, 1870, 1880, Number in sej)a-
rate Counties, Tal)leV ., 360-363.

COTTON : Manufactures of, 576-597 ; of
Raw Cotton in South Carolina, 58:5 ;
Shape of the fibre, 593 ; Ginneries in
connection with Factories. 5i»9.

COTTON SEED: Hybridization of, 30;
Oil and Meal made from the, .598-(i01.

COUNTIES: Township report of (see
names oH, Table V 3(J0.

COURTS AND. JUDGES 483.

COW PEA 61, 81.

CRAB GRASS KH.

CREEKS P29, 200, 204.

CRIMES AND PUNISHMENT 437.

CYCLE OF TRADE, 9 ; and of Transporta-
tion, 617.

DARLINGTON CO., UPPER PINE BELT :
System of Farming in, 85; T^^ble
showing Yield of Cotton in Lint.
Liens ])er bale. Size of Farms and Per-
centage of Owners, 86 ; F^xpenses and
Production of Plantation in, 97 ; Wine
^Making, Quality of Lands, Crops in,
103; Towns and Trading Points in.
695.

DEATHS : In Charleston. 1877-81, 23, 402 ;
Percentage of according to Age, Sex
and Color, 408; in Charleston, 1830 to
ISSO, 676, 54,

DEAF DUMB AND BLIND: Institutes
for the, 504 ; Numbers of, 569.

DEBTS: Remedies for the Recovery of,
443 ; State, Liquidated by Indents,
643 ; Assumption of by General (lov-
ernment, 644; Amount discharged by
the Bank of the State in 1S30, ti4.">;
Amount in 1840 of the, 646; In ].s.5«»,
646; War Debt declared Invalid, 648
State Debt 1871-72 Repudiated by Ne-
gro Government, (>49 ; Condition of in
1877, when the People of South Caro-
lina recovered the Government of the
State, 650; Adjustment by Court of
Claims, 650: Statement of, in 1882,651 ;
Tabular Statement of Receipts, Expen-

720

INDEX.

(litiiros and Indebtedness in South
Carolina, 1S01-1.S81, 052 ; ^tate and Lo-
cal f>f Country, (JoT ; Plates A. B and
C, <).")8 ft ai'ij. ; See Towns, Go!)-715

DFKK SKINS: Trade in 014

DKPKKSSIONS, CIRCULAR, IN THE

SAND MILLS IIU

DIAGRAMS : i:5, 32, 7i>, 118, 136, 385, 388,
402, (;.")8.

DTA^iIOND 133

DISEASES: 22, 145. (See Township Re-
ports), 401, 407 to 42(1.
DISINTEGRATION OF ROCKS ; 138, 197,
202,

DIVORCES 442

DORN, GOLD MINE: 1G5

DRAINAGE: 7, 33, 45, 86, 60(5.
DROITtHT : 76 02 ; Demarcation of areas
of, bv Synclinal Axis, 145.

DUELLING : 438

DI'E WEST, Female ColleL^e at 517

DWELLINGS AND FAMILIES: 398

EARTHENWARE : Clav, 171.

EARTHQUAKES : Felt during Drought,
145.

EDGEFIELD CO.: The Gneiss Rock dips
vertically, 132 ; Clay slate faces alter-
nately N. E. and S.'W.in, 133; Gold
jNIines, 134 : Silver. Manganese, Whet-
stones,Flagstones,Beryl, Spinel Rubies,
found in, 137; Soil Analysis, 140, 144;
Lands, Quarries, Water-powers, 170-72;
Towns and Trading Points, 707.

EDISTO ISLAND: 30,41

EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA:
Historical Sketch of, 446 ; Free School
System, 450 ; Expenditures in 1850 for,
453; Public School System under Con-
stitution of 1S()8, 455 ; State and Coun-
ty Otiicials, 45(); School Districts and
Schools by Counties in 1881, 458 ; Grad-
ed Schools and Local Taxation, 450 ;
Schools in Clliarleston, 461-467 ; in Co-
lumbia, 468 ; Charitable, Educational
and J^iterary Institutions, 460-481.;
Private Schools, 481-85; South Caroli-
na College, its Origin and History, its
Usefulness ; Presidents and Distin-
guished Alumni, 486-88 ; Reopened as
a University, 488; Present Faculty and
Courses of Study, 489; College of
Charleston, 490; Enskine College,
Clark and Erskine Seminary, 492;
Woflbrd College, 405 ; Furman Uni-
versity, 497 ; Newberry Cobetze, 499;
Adger College, 5(11 ; Theological Semi-
nary at Cohunbia, 502 ; Deaf, Dumb
and Blind In.stitution, 504; Medical
College of South Carolina, 505 ; South
Carolina Military Academj% its bril-
liant record, 509; King's JNIountain
Military School, 512 ; Greenville Mili-
tary .'Vca<lemy, 513; Greenville Fe-
male College, 514 ; Due West Female
College, 517 : Walhal'a Female Col-

lege, 518; Williamston Female College,
519 ; (,"o()per Limestone Female Insti-
tute, 521 ; Anderson Female Seminary,
522; Clafiin University, (Jolored, .525 ;
Allen University for ditto, 527 ; His-
tory of the Press of tlie State, 529;
Newspapers and Periodicals, extinct
and extant, 530-34 ; Comparative Il-
literacy, 535-537 : Peabody Fund, 539;
Svnoptii al Tables referring to. 541-49.
ELEVATION OF SEA ISLANDS, 8,18;
of L(nver Pine Belt, 45, 72 ; Hypsome-
trical Diagram of Sand Hill Region,
118; of River Banks. 127; of Pied-
mont Region, 127 ; of Alpine Region,
133; Highest Point in the State, 185.
(See Section on Map.)

ELK 212

ELLIOTT, WM. : First Long Staple Cotton

Planter, 27 ; ' Field Sports of Caro-

lit a," written by, 667 ; Stephen Elliott,

645

EOCENE FORMATION : 14, 46, 49, 73, 111,

119.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH: Recognized for
seventy years as the State Church,
551. ' j

EROSION 15,128 1

ERSKINE COLLEGE 492 I

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 433 I

FACTORIES : Comparative Cost of Power,
208; Enumeiation of in South Card-
liiui, in 1882, by Department of Agri-
culture, 582 ; see Manufactures.
FAIRFIELD CO., IN PIEDMONT RE- '
GION : On second line of Granite
Outcrop, 131 ; Building Granite, of,
131. ()()8 ; Soapstones. Whetstones,
Flagstones, 137 ; Lord Cornwallis' opin- j
ion of, 146 ; Compared with Blue Gr;iss '
Region, immense crop of Lucerne
made in. 148 ; see Township Reports, |
172-3 ; Towns and Tradin>i Points, 707.

FALLS OF THE RIVERS...'. 204

FALLOWING 29, 61,86, 158

FAMILIES AND DWELLINGS 398 >

FARMS: On Coast Region, 23-45; Lower j
Pine Belt, 55-62; Upper Pine Belt, I
82-9 ; Red Hill Region, 115 ; Sand Hill \
Region, 123; Tabular Statement of ]
Values and Productions, 152; Pied- '
mont Region, 15.5-6: Alpine Region,
193; see Rejwrts, Townshij) Corres-
pondents, and Tables II., HI., IV., V.

FAITLT 184

FAUNA : Of Phosphate Works, 48 ; found
bv Early Settlers of South Carolina,
146; 209 to 311.

FENCES .32, S6. 123, 150

PERTH JZERS : IManufacture of.. .601, 602

FIREPROOF CRUCIBLE CLAY 112

FIG 24

FISHES, 20, 45, 48 80; Fish Ponds, 610 ;
of South Carolina: 350 Species of, 248
to 264.

INDEX.

"21

ISIIEiaES, of the World; Value of the,
243; of South Carolina, 009-

*LAOST0NE8 185

F,LATW()ODS OF ABBEVILLE lOr.

FLOUR MILLS; OF JOSEPH KEF-
\ SHAW, in 17G0, 9 ; Tabular Statement
> of, ()(14.

FtLOW OF RIVERS 202

FbRAGE 25,58, (il, 88, 148. Kil

FORESTS AND FOREST INDUSTRIES,
1 53, 79 87, 18, 115; Chancres in 14(i, G06

FlkESHETS :...5. 40, 77, 78

F][iENX'Ii COLONISTS' settlement in
vSouth Carolina, of, 381, 425.

Fl^OSTS : Table 79

FJiUITS: Of the Coast Region, 24 ()(J4,
Note ; Sand Hill Re.don, 114, 322 ; Best
Regions for, 141, ISO.

G.VLENA 18(5

GAME: Birds 226

G.VRDENS 25, 122

GKODESIC : Changes in Rivers and Deltas

in South Carolina, 5, 6, IG.
GEOLOGY : Of South Carolina Upper and
' Lower Country, 4 ; of Coast Region,
14; of Lower Pine Belt, 75; of Red
Hill Region. Ill ; of Sand Hill Region,
119; of Piedmont Region, 130; Eras
of. loH; of Alpine Resion, 185.
GEORGETOWN CO , COAST AND LOW-
ER PINE BELT REGION: Quality
and Price of Land, 70 ; Exemption
from Stock Law of, 443 ; Towns and
Trading Points, 684; River Transpor-
tation, 685.

GERMANS 383,425

GIN : Cotton. Eli Whitney's. Roller Gin,
37; Toll Gins, 38; different kinds of,
63, 90 ; Steam and Water, 90 ; Long
Staple on Saw Gin, 593-4.
GINNING Cotton in the Upper Pine
Belt, 90 ; in Piedmont Resrion, Kil;
Alpine Region, 103 ; as an Important
Indu.stry, 589 ; Number of Gin-hou.ses
in South Carolina, 589 ; Enlarged Gin-
neries, 596.

GLENN SPRINGS 180, 714

GNEISS 131

GOLD: 134, 136, 164 180, 186. See Map
GRAIN. 13, 24, 56, 81, 115, 121, 150, 189
See Tables II , III., IV., V.

( iRANITE 119, 131, 169. 170, 608

<;RAPE VINE 25

(iRAPIIITE: 137,168,186. See Map.
u RASHES, 58,57,94; different kinds of,
9 347.

GREENLAND 136

GREEN SAND 47- 74,111

GREENVI LLE CO., IN PIEDMONT AND
ALPINE REGION, 174-5; Cotton
Mills of, 582 ; Towns and Trading
Points, "08.

GROWTH 53, 70, 114, 121. 146, 128

(iOVERNMENT: Laws and Instituti«)n.s.
Original Charter, 422: Loeke'.s Con.sti-

tution.423; Organization of, 424 ; Dif-
ferent Constitutions of, 426-429 ; De-
l>artmoutsof, 4:]2; SuH rage, 434 ; Tax-
ation, Education, Militia, 435; Statu-
torv Laws, 437-9 ; Public Instruction,
440"; Dep. of Agr. 441.
GULF STREAM....: 6

HAGOOD, GOVERNOR: Soil Analysis,
75 ; Bermuda Grass, 148.

HAMBUR(,4: Eormer Trade, 027, 698 ; C.
. & H. Railroad, 629.

HAMMOND, .1. IL, yield of Bottom Land,
77 ; Table of Frosts, 79 : P. F. ; Cost
of Producing Cotton, 94 ; Soil Analy.-is,

HAMMONDITE 187

H A:\IPT0N, wade, Upland Cotton Plan-
tation, 11.

iia:\ipton CO.. lower pine belt,

65, 84, 96, 98; Towns and Trading
Points, 688.

HAY .58, 148

HEALTH, 21. 34, 79, 114, 185 ; Re.sorts, 54,
114, 123 ; Mineral Springs for, 168, ISO

HE:\IATITE 168

HEMP 147

HERRING 80, 256

HIGHWAY'S: Colonial Acts Relating to,

613, 615, 617 ; JMaterials for, 698.
HISTORY' OF SOUTH CAROLINA : Chro-
nological Table, 381 ; Earlv, 425.
HOMESPUN : Cotton and Woolen, form-
erly used, ^Inrrav's Ferrv, 574.

LIOMESTEAD law; '. 440

HORNBLENDE, 131-2 (See Map).
HORSES : Act of Legislature against in-
ferior, 147.
HORSE CREEK 5, 118, 206

ICE AND SNOW 202

ILLITERACY IN SOUTH CAROLINA,
535.

INDIGO 9,80

INDIANS: Nations and Tribes formerly
inhabiting South Carolina, 3()3 ; Num-
ber, 368 ; Former Trade with Charles-
ton, 614.
INDIAN CORN : Value of early E.vport, 10 ;
Piirker's crop of- 11 ; White Flint, 25;
Swamp Crops, 77; Amount of Waste
Land adapted to culture of, 78; Ayer-
atre product in Sand Hills, 124. See
Tables IV. and V.

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 645

INTERNAL REVENUE 653-5

INSANE 557

INSECTS : 1770 Species euunierated, 266-
311.

IRISH SETTLERS 382

IRON. 137; Mines 172, 178, 180; Early

Works, 574; Pyrites, 135
ISLANDS: Formation of, 15; Elevation

of. 1 8.
ITACOLU:\IITE. OR DIAMOND BEAR-
ING ROCK, 133, 185.

722

INDEX.

JAMES' ISLAND 29

.TAMESTON WEED for Nut Grass 87

JOHN'S ISLAND 30

JOHNSON, (;rL\NCELL( )R : Tenant Sys-
tem of, 84 ; Soil of Donohoe, 75 ; Cost
of Cotton Production 'M.
JUDICLVL DEPARTMENT OF SOUTH
CAROLINA 433

KAINIT 42

KAOLIN 112, 12(t, 171, 17o, (;0S.

KERSHAW CO., SAND HILL AND PIED-
MONT KEGION: Steatite found in,
119; Porphyritic Granite in, 131;
Township Reports, 123 ; Early Flour
Mills, 574 ; Towns and Trading Points,
702.

KINCAID: First Gin made by 11

KING'S MOUNTAIN.: Height, 185; Mili-
tary School, 512.

LABOR: Sea Islands. 29; Lower Pine
Belt, 59. Upper ditto, 82; Piedmont,
lo9-lf)4, 199, 588.

LABORERS: Proportion of White and
Colored in Upper Pine Belt, 83 ; (See
Township Reports), 564.

LANCASTER CO., PIEDMONT REGION,
175; Schools, 483; Towns and Trad-
ing Points, 710.

LANDS : Former Prices of, 29, 57 ; Present
Value in Hampton, 65, 98 ; Colleton,
Charleston, Clarendon, Cu ; Williams-
burg, (58 ; Marion, <)9, 104; Barnwell,
99; Orangeburg, 100; Sumter, 101;
Darlington. 103; Marlboro', 107; Red
Hills, 115; Sand Hills, 123 ; Abbeville,
164; Anderson, lOH; Chester, 1(58;
Edgefield, 170 ; Fairfield, 172; Green-
ville, 174; Lancaster, 175; Laurens,
17(5; Newberry, 178 : Spartanburg, 179;
Union, 181 ; York. 182; General View
of Values of, 15(j-157.

LAURENS CO., PIEDMONT REGION:
Limestone, Manganese, Graphite, Feld-
spar, Asbestos, Tourmaline, Beryl.
Corundum, 137 ; Gray and Blue Gran-
ite, Gold. Copper, Lead, Quality and
Price of Lands, Sugar Maj^les, Water
Powers, 17li; Towns and Trading
Points, 710.

LEAD..; 137,177, 186

LENINGTON CO., SAND HILL RE-
GION: Granite and Sandstone, 119;
Soil Analvses, llJl ; Flowers and Fruits,
122; Statistics, Stock and Crops, 123;
Towns and Tradinir Points, 698.

LIBRARY : Charle.stim 479

IjIEN'S : Nnmljer afid average amount in
Upper Pine Belt, 82 ; Piedmont Re-
gion, 154 ; Laws concerning, 439.

LIGNITE 165

LIME : From Marls, 74 ; Kilns, 185, 194.

LBIESTONE, 137. (See Map.)

LIME SINKS 45

LINIVIATIONOFSOILS 139

LUCERNE : J. H. Rion's Crop of 148

LUTHERANS : College of, 499, 501 ; First
Church of, 552.

LUMBER 6(».5

LUNATIC ASYLUM .509

MACHINERY: Value of Farming ia
United States and South Carolina.
Tab'e IV 3<i2

MALARIA 54, 79, 145, 415, 416, 4:i7

MAMMALS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. ..2^9

MANGANESE 137, 1(55, li86

MAGNOLIA AND GRAY MOSS : Limit
of the 80, l|l4

MANNING, J. L. : Curious Siliceous Ro k
near re.sidence of. Ill2

MANUFACTURES : Laws to Encourage,
443 ; Numbers engaged in, 5()4 ; of Ip-
digo ; Machinery for Cleaning Rice
and (jinning Cotton invented and first
used in South Carolina ; Early Cotton
Factories in Williamsburg and Sum-
ter, Iron Works in York, 574 ; Increase
since 1850 of, 576 ; Manufacturing In-
dustries in South Carolina in 1882,578 ;
great Increase in last Decade, 581 ;
Names and Locations of cliief Cotton
Mills, &c., in South Carolina, 582 ;
Magnitude of Cotton Manufactures,
584 ; Products per Spindle, «&c., 585 ;
Proximity of Cotton, 587 ; other ad-
vantages of South Carolina, 588 ; Cot-
ton Ginninsf, 589; Fertilizer Factories,
(iOl; Flour Mills, (503.

MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS 473,477

MANURES IN COAST REGION, 20, 34;
Phosphates, Potash Salts, 61; Cow Pea,
Cotton Seed Meal. 88 ; the Marlboro
Plan, 88,89; Taylor's Method, ibid ;
in Piedmont Regio-n, 159.

MAPS, 3; of Population, 388.

MARLS 20, 45, 46, 47, 73

MARION CO., UPPER AND LOWER
PINE BELT, ()9. 85. 87; Schools of,
483 ; Towns and Trading Points, 693.

MARLBORO', UPPER PINE BELT:
Maximum Product of Cotton made in,
81 ; System of Farming, 85; no Aban-
doned Lands, 87 ; Product per acre,
88, 107; Schools of, 484 ; Towns and
Trading Points in, (596.

MARRIAGES, 4(»3-4. Divorce, 442.

MEDICAL COLLEGE OF SOUTH CARO-
LINA 505

METAMORPHIC ROCKS, 4, 119, 130, ctseq.
See Map.

METEOROLOGY: Table 1 3(50

METHODISTS: First appearance in
South Carolina, 553 ; Instituti(jns of
Learning, 495 ; Female College, Cohim-
bia, 516 ; Allen University, 527 ; Num-
bers, 555.

MICA SLATE 132, 186, 193. See Map.

MILITARY ACADEMY, 508; King's Mt.,
512; Greenville, 513 : Age, &c., 395.

MILITIA 4r

n

INDEX

723

MILLS 201,582

MINES, 135. See Gold, Iron, Phosphates.

MIXING 134, (507

MINERALS 137

MINERAL SPRINGS 132, 108

MIOCENE 4. 73

MOUNTAINS 184-5

MULES: Tables IV. and V 300

NAVIGATION. Extent of Inland, 6;
Water Courses suited to, 72 ; Navi-
gable Rivers, 129 ; Bays, Sounds, Har-
bors, Rivers, 001, 035.

NEGROES, 31 ; First Imported, 309; by
whom and number of, 1714-1805, 371 ;
Free Negroes, 372 ; Intermixture of
Races, 373 ; Distribution according to
Elevation and Temperature, 379 ; Per-
centage in different Regions, 379 ;
Character of the, 379 ; First Admission
to Christian Churcli, 553; Religious
Character of, 554 ; Trades, 1800, of,'G(i8 ;
Insane, 574 ; Criminals, 572. See
Township Reports for Negro Labor,
Wa^es, (&('.., iSzc.

NEWBERRY CO., PIEDMONT: Quality
and Price of Land, Crops, Growth,
Grasses, Granite, Gold, Water-powers,
178-79; Bank of, 154; College, 499;
Schools, 458; Towns and Trading
Points, 710

NUTGRASS; 87, 148

OATS: 9, '58, 362

OAKS : 80 ; 30 Varieties of, 340.
OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF
SOUIH CAKOLINA, IN 1880: Far-
mers, 93550 ; Farm Laborers. 198,147;
Factory Operatives, 2,314; Clergymen,
1. 105 ;"Physicians, 919; Lawyers, 014 ;
Teachers, 2, 170, Since 1870 the number
of those engaged in Agriculture has
decreased 4 per cent. ; the number of
Lawyers has decreased 46 per cent, ;
Clergymen have increased 110 per
cent. ; 504-05.
OCONEE CO., ALPINE REGION : Tour-
maline, Lead, Gold, Silver, Copper,
Graphite, Mica, Corundum, 137, 186 ;
Soils, AVater Falls, Winds, Springs,
Climate, 187 ; College at Walhalla,501 ;
Township Reports, 378; See Title
Alpine Her/ion ; Towns and Trading
Stations, ()93.
OIL : Of Cotton Peed and Meal ; the Man-
uliicture and Value of, 597.

OLD FIELDS: 158

OLIVES: 24

ORANGES: A Colonial Export, 9. 24. 317.
ORANGEBURG CO., UPPER PINE
BELT: Quality and Price of Lands,
Growth, Crops, Labor System, Abund-
ant Supply of Marl (Iron Ore), Water-
Powers, iOO; College, 525; Cotton
Mill, 582 ; Towns and Trading Stations
693.

ORCHARDS; 80, 122, 144, 179, 180

ORES AND MINERALS 137

OXEN 301

PACOLET : A Remarkable Fruit Region
in Fairforest and Pacolet Town.ships,
Spartanburg Co.. lying in the Ther-
mal Belt, not Liable to Frost. 144, 180.
PALAEOZOIC ROCKS OF SOUTH CARO-
LINA ...! 131, 133

PAL:\IETT0 : 18 ; Varieties of, 342.
PARI S GREEN : For Cotton Caterpillar, .37

PAUPERS 0.57

PEACH 122, 144

PEA NUTS 121

PEA, As a Fertilizer 61

PEE DEE: Herring in the., 80

PIEDMONT REGION : Water Courses of
the, 129 ; Geological Formation of the,
130-136 ; Ores and ^Minerals, 137 ; Soils,
139-143; Climate, 144; Growth and
Productions, 146; Statistics of Farms,
Crops. Stock, 149; Sy.steins of Labor
and Farming in the, 15.3-160; See
Counties of Ahheville, Anderson, Ches-
ter, Edgefield, Fairfield, Greenville, Lan-
caster, Laurens, Newberry, Spartanburg,
York.
PICKENS CO., ALPINE REGION : A«be-
tos.Copper, Feldspar, Iron, Mica, Lime
stone, Spinel Rubies, Steatite, 137, 186 ;
Towns and Trading Stations, 716.
PINNACLE, MOUNTAIN : The Highest

Point of South Carolina, 185,
PINCKNEY, GEN. C. C. : Water Culture

for Rice introduced bv, 9.
PINES: Short and Long Leaf, 114,121;
18 Varieties of in South Carolina. 342
PINE BELT, THE LOWER: Physical
and Geological Features of, 44-47 .
Phosphate Rock, ib. ; Soils, 52 ; Growtli,
53; Climate, 54; Area of, 55; Rice
Culture, Dry and Wet — General Sta-
tistics, 56; Area of Fertile Swamp
Lands in, 57 ; Systems of Labor and
Farming in, 59 . Housing Crops in,
63. See Charleston, Clarendon, Colleton,
Georgelovm, Hampton, Horry, Marion,
Williomshurg.
PINE BELT, THE UPPER: Geoloaical
and Physical Features of, 71, 73; Water
Courses, 72; Soil Analyses of, 74-6;
Climate, Growth, 79 ; Productions,
Statistics of Farms, Grain, Cotton,
Live Stock, 81 ; Systems of Farming,
Contracts, Wages, Liens, 82-6 ; Plant-
ing, Housing and Shipping Crops in, J)0.
See Barmcell, Darlington, Marion, Marl-
boro, Orangeburg, Sa)nter.
PHOSPHATE ROCK : Theories concern-
ing the Forma'ion of, 49; the Location
and Extent of the Formation— the
Companies now engaged in mining
the, 47-52.
PLANTS: Native and Naturalized, of
South Carolina, 312-357.

••24

INDEX.

PLANTIX(i AND CULTIVATION: See

Cotton.

rleiocknk and post-pleiocene
foi{:mati(jx^^, u, 20.

I'LOWING : 33, 34,60,80; Steam Plow for
Kice, ")7.

POT.YTITALAMIA 47

PORT ROYAL 92,603

POTATOES : Sweet, 25, 69 ; Irish, 362.

PREPARATION FOR :\rARKET OF SEA
ISLAND (OTTON, 37; Uplands, 63.

PRESS FS : Cotton, in use. 92, o94.

PRESBYTERIANS : Institutions of learn-
ing foun<le(l by ; Erskine CoUej^e, 492 ;
Adcer Colle<re, 501 ; Columbia Theo-
logical Seminary, 502; Due West Fe-
male Colle.se, 517 ; iMiinard, Fairfield
Normal Institute, 528; F'arly Church
of the, 552 ; Relative Standing in 1850-
'60-'70; of the Church of the, 555.

PRESS OF SOUTH CAROLINA : Papers,
Religious, Political; Periodicals, Ex-
tinct and Extant ; Printing, Publish-
ing and Binding Establishments, 529-
■ 5".4.

PROPERTY : Laws of ; 439

POPULATION: Indians, 364; Negroes,
369, 371 ; Free Negroes, 372 ; Increase
of the Black, ib ; DLstribntion of the,
375 ; Percentage of Colored, 379 ; Chro-
nological and Census Tables from
1790-1880 of the different Pursuits of
the, 391 ; as to Sexes and Ages, Com-
parative Tables, 392-6 ; Dwellings and
Families, 398 ; Comjiarative Mortality
in South Carolina to that of other
States upon the aggregate and classi-
fied, 401-408 ; Diseases of the, 412.

QUARRIES: Of Kaolin, 120; of Granite,
164, 172, 180, 193, 608; of Building
Rock, KM.

QUARTZ 138

RAILROADS 629. 634

RAIN FALL: In Piedmont, 144, 187; in

the State, Average, 199.
RATTLESNAKES : Four varieties of, 235

RECLAIMED LANDS 77, 78

RFXtIONS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, Seven:
I. Coast, 14; IL Lower Pine Belt, 44;
III. Upper Pine Belt, 71 ; IV. Red
Hill, 110; V. Sand Hill, 117; VI.
Piedmont, 126; VII Alpine, 183.
RED HILL REGION : The trend of this
narrow belt, which embraces the
" Ridge " and the " High Hills of vSan-
tee" below the Sand Hills, whose pro-
trusion occasionally interrui)ts it, fol-
lows that of the other regions, 110;
Geological Features of the, 111 ; Soils,
112; Climate, Growth, 114; and Statis-
tics of the, 115; Wedgefield, High
Priced Lands of, 116.
RENT : See Township Reports.
RIOPTILES OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 234-
240.

RION. J. H., Great Crop of Lucerne made
bv, 148.

RICHLAND CO., SAND HH.L REGION:
Lies on the dividing line between the
recent and very ancient formations ;
Growth, Productions, Climate and
Statistics of, 121-6 ; See Columbia, 698 ;
. and other Towns and Trading Sta-
tions, 699-701.
■ RICE : Early Export of. 9 ; Water-Culture
introduced in 1784 ; Mills for Cleaning
Rice invented bv Lucas, ib ; Exports
in 1828, 1850, 1870,10; Dry and Wet
Culture in Lower Pine Belt, 56; Area
Adaijted to Water-Culture. Process of
Cultivation, Price of Land and Product
of, 57; Protective Tarifi' on, 58.

RIVERS AND CREEKS OF SOUTH
CAROLINA, afibrding Inland Coast
Navigation, 4-6; Navigable Streams
in the Lower Pine Belt, 45 ; in the
Sand Hill Region, 118; Synoptical
Table of all the Rivers and Creeks in
the State, 129 ; with the Water-Powers
aflbrded bv each of them, 204.

ROTATION OF CROPS 61, 87, 158, 191

SALT MARSHES 18, 19

SAGO PALM 114

SAND HILL REGION: See Aiken, Ches-
terfield, Ken^hav, Lexinf]tnn, Rirldand,
Elevation of the, 118: Geologicnl Fea-
tures, 119; Kaolin, 120; Soil Analy-
ses, Corn, Watermelons, 121 : Peach
Orchards. 122 ; Salubritv of Climate,
122 ; Statistics of Farming, 123.

SANTEE MARLS 7. 46-7

SANTEES AND MAINS 89

SCHOOLS : Graded, 459 ; in Charleston,
461 ; Columbia, 468 ; Private, 481 ; Col-
ored, 527 ; Manual Labor, 474-7.

SCOTCH SETTLERS 383, 425

SEA ISLANDS : Formation of, 15 ; Char-
acter of, 18, 19.

SEAL: In Charleston Harbor 211

SECESSION ORDINANCE in 1860 479

SECTIONS : Geological, see Map.
SERVANTS, Statistics in relation to ...443

SHEEP: Tables IV.and V 360

, SHIPPING AND SALE OF COTTON, 63,
\ 90, 93, 1()2.

iSHIP CHANNELS: How King 17

I SHAD, STURGEON AND ROCK FISH,

; 80, (iio.

1 SHRIMPS 293, 609

SHARE SYSTEM IN LOWER PINE
BELT, 59, ()0 ; Upper ditto, 84 ; Pied-
mont Region, 156.

SILVER 135, 137

SNOW, Late f\ill of 79

SOCTETIES, Charitable, Educational and
Literarv, 4(;9-48(i.

SOUNDINGS: Depth of. 16

SOILS, Analysis of Producing Long Sta-
ple, 19 ; ditto in Lower Pine Belt, 52-3;
River Swamp, 76; Red Hills, 113:

INDEX.

725

Sand Hills, 120 ; Piedmont, 139; Horn-
blende. 140 ; Clay Slate, 141 ; Trau, 142.
SOUTH CAROLINA: Origin of the name,

421.
SPIDERS: 285 gpecies of, 242.
SPARTANBUR(7, PIEDMONT REGION:
Ores and Minerals, 137, 180; Towns
and Trading Puints, 712.
SPRINGS, Poiiinu:. 118; Temperature of
certain, 123; Mineral, 168, 180.

STATEBL'RG, Earlv Cotton Mill o74

STRIKE '. 4, 108

STUART'S OLD MILL 73

STACKHOUSE, E. T. : Cost of Cotton

Croj), 96.
STEAMBOATS: Charges for Transporta-
tion of Cotton, 92.
STEATITE, OR SOAPSTONE, 119, 137,

167, 174, 186.
STOCK LAW: Counties Exempted from

tlie 443
stock' Live, on Coast, 24 ; Lower Pine
Belt, 55; Upper ditto, 82; Red Hill,
116; Sand HiUs, 124; Piednumt, 150;
Alpine, 190. See Tables IL, III., IV., V.

STORMS 187-198

ST. HELENA : Negro Farmers 31

STRATA : Order of Superposition in
South Carolina, 4.

SUBSIDENCE OF COAST 15

SUBMERGENCE 15

SUGAR LOAF MOUNTAIN 117

SUGAR, 66, 114; Sorghum, 121; Sugar,

Maple, 174.
SUMTER CO., UPPER PINE BELT:
Elevation of, 71 ; Pliocene Marls, 73.
See Towiishi|) Rei)orts, 102: 'lowns
and Tradinu; Points, ()94.

S.YNlLINAL axis 145

SYNAGOGUE : The first in South Caro-
lina, 552.
SWINE : See Tables IV. and V.

TABLES, between First and Second Part.

TALC SLATE 133

TARIFF: On Rice, 58; on Manufactures,
588.

TASK IN HOEING 92

TAXATION 435

TEMPERATURE OF SPRINGS 187

TIDES 18

THOMPSON, HUGH S., Superintendent
of Education ; Zeal and ability of, 456 ;
Organization of State Normal School
by, 459.

TOBACCO 80

TOMMALINJi: 187

TOWNSHIP REPORTS, 65 to 70; 98 to
109 ; 164 to 182.

TOWNS: Table of 661

TRAP ROCK 1.34

TRANSl'ORTATION: History of in South
Carolina, 611-640 ; Coast Region, In-
land ^Vater Communication, 61 1 ; In-

dian Boats and Early Exports, 612 ;
Indian Trade of Charleston, 1707, ex-
tended 1000 Miles Inland, 014 ; Early
Road and Ferry Acts, 615 ; Two Lines
of Traffic till 1775; Upper Country
Trades with Virginia and the Low
Country through Charleston, Later
Road and Ferry Acts to connect Two
Distinct Peoples of South Carolina,
617-21; Canal System, 623-6; Steam-
boat Navigation, ()27 ; Charleston and
Hamburg Railroad, 629, Public Spirit
and Enterj^rise of Charleston, ib- : De-
velopment of Railroads results in re-
newing old divergence of Trade Routes,
63:!-34 ; Cost of Wagon, Steamboat and
Railway Transportation, 638.

UNION CO., PIEDMONT REGION : Third
Line of CTianite Outcrop and Second
Line of Tra^) Rocks, giving Rise to the
Meadow Lands, 134; Ores, 137 ; Itaco-
lumite, 133 ; See Township Re])orts,
181 ; Schools, 485 ; Towns and Trad-
insi Points, 714.

UNIVERSITIES: The South Carolina,
488 ; Furman, 497 ; Claftiin, 525 ; Al-
len, 527.

UP-COUNTRY AND LOAV COUNTRY :
Distinction of 4, 124, 388

VEGETABLE REMAINS : Fossil, 112

VERTEBRATES OF SOUTH CAROLI-
NA 211-262

VINE 25

VITAL STATISTICS 400-20

WAGES....: .?9, G5, 83, 98, 164

WAGON TRANSPORTATION COMPAR-
ED WITH STEAM 638

WALHALLA FEMALE COLLEGE ...501

WATER CULTURE OF RICE 56

WATERMELONS 121

WATER POWER : Summary of,. ..200-204
WATERSHEDS: Of the River Systems

of South Carolina, 129.
WARS OF THE REVOLUTION : Of i\rex-
ico and Secession; Troops furnished
by South Carolina duriuu- the, '.Ida.
WELL^ : 99, 73, 114 ; Artesian, 674.
WELSH AND SWISS SETTLERS IN
SOUTH CAROLINA; 383.

WHALES 213,610

WHEAT : 362 ; Mills for Grinding, 603.

WHETSTONES 137

WHITNEY ]0, 593

WILLIAMSBURG COUNTY, LOWER
PINE BELT : Farms, 59 ; Abandoned
Lands, 60 . Exempted from Stock Law,
443 ; First Cotton Factory of the State
Established in. 574; Towns and
Trading Points, 690.' See Township
Reports, (iS and 69.

720

INDEX.

WINDS 4, 17, 114, 187, 202

WOFFOHD COLLEGE .- 495

WOODWARD, T. W. : Granite Quarry ...608
WOOL 3iJ2

YAZOO FRESHET 5, 46

YELLOW FEVER 22, 416

YORK COUNTY, PIEDMONT REGION ;
Black Jack Lands, lo4, Ores and Min-
erals, 137 ; Large trees, 147. See
Township Reports, 182 ; Towns and
Trading Points, 714.

ZIRCONS 132

ZINC 137

I

#1 llli

1^

I

MAP

10LINA,

mercc and ladustrtes

mxnissioner,
C

inquiries as to lands and

ding settler or investor

at all times to furnish

aling with any particu-

\gain, this department

should visit the State

owing full well that

o the prospectors.

^f products the

scMi, Secretary

^: "Nosec-

"*r diversi-

for that

in this

the

d a

^al

I

35

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Form L9-39,050-8,'65(F6234b8)4939

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