(illjp i. B. BUI ffiibrarn Nortli (Harolina ^tatp MniuprBitg This book was presented to the Veterinary Medical Library by Dr. Robert A. Rice THIS BOOK IS _ INDICATED BELOW AND JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. 100M/7-87— 871203 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. D. E. SALMON, D. V. M., Chief of Bureau, SPECIAL REPORT DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD, HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, STILES, AND ADAMS. REVISED EDITION. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. Department of AGEicui^TtiRE, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washim/ton, D. C, June 1, 1903. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the mimuscript of the revised edition of the Special lleport on Diseases of the Horse, in accordance with the following resolution: [PuBBic Resolution — No. 33.] JOIXT RESOLUTION providing for the publication of two hundred thousand copies of the Special Beport on Diseases of the Horse. Resolved hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there be printed and bound in cloth two hundred thousand copies of the Special Eeport on the Diseases of the Horse, the same to be first revised and brought up to date, under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture, one hundred and twenty-eight thousand for the use of the House of Representatives, sixty-four thousand copies for the use of the Senate, and eight thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture. Approved, June 24, 1902. This report was first issued in 1890, and was at once accorded a hearty reception by the horse owners of the country. The limited edition that the Department was able to publish was ver}^ soon exhausted, and the demand then turned upon members of the National Legislature. The result was that Congress has ordered reprints from time to time until the total number of copies issued, not including the number pro- vided for in the above resolution, was but little short of half a million. The manuscript submitted herewith has been carefully revised either b}^ the authors of the several articles or by veterinarians of wide reputation. An entirely new article on " The examination of a horse," by Dr. Leonard Pearson, State veterinarian of Pennsj'lvania, is included; and the cha.pter on shoeing in this edition is written by Dr. J. W. Adams, professor of surgery and lecturer on shoeing, veterinary department. University of Penns3dvania. In presenting this revised edition, I desire to make the same observa- tions that were made when the first manuscript was submitted, which were as follows: This report upon diseases of the horse has been prepared with great care by a number of the most eminent members of the veterinary profession in the United States. The production of a work of this character is a task of such magnitude that it could not be undertaken by any one man with a prosi:)ect of its early completion. It was deemed best, therefore, to divide the subject into sections and to place the preparation of each section in the hands of a veterinarian whose practical experience 3 4 LETTEK OF TRANSMITTAL. and reputation would insure a valuable contribution. By adopting this i)lau the contents of the volume have been made ready for the printer within a year from the time the work waa begun. While, on account of this method of preparation, there may not be quite the same uniformity of style and treatment which would be expected in a volume written by a single author, it is hoped that this will not be found objectionable, and the speedy completion and the cooperation of authors who have given special attention to their subjects will prove of great advantage. The need of a work on the diseases of the horse, which could be distributed to farmers as a safe and scientific guide in the treatment of this species of our domesti- cated animals, either when affected with slight disorders or serious illness, has long been felt. This obvious want has led to the preparation of the present volume, which is designed as the first of a series to cover the di&eases of all varieties of farm animals. The writer would not advise the farmer in ordinary circumstances to dis- pense with his veterinarian, anymore than he would advise him to treat the diseases of his own family, to manufacture his own furniture, or to be his own blacksmith. There are, however, only too many cases in which the veterinarian can not be pro- cured in time for success, if at all; and, consequentl-y, the farmer who knows or has the means of learning the nature of the disease and the proper treatment will be able to save an animal when otherwise he would lose one. It is common for intelli- gent people to laugh at the idea of attempting to make every man his own doctor, his own veterinarian, or his own carpenter, and in an ideal condition of society no doubt this would be absurd. But under the conditions Avhich actually obtain on our farms, the farmer Avho can use tools, if but awkwardly, often finds it extremely con- venient to temporarily usurp the functions of the carpenter; and he also finds that in many cases he must treat his ailing animals or allow them to suffer without treat- ment. Knowing this to be the case, is it not far better for the stock owner to have at his command the advice of veterinarians eminent in their profession than for him to follow the absurd, often barbarous, methods of treatment which have been handed down by tradition from the empiricism and ignorance of long-past ages? It is an extremely diflficult matter to divest medical literature of technical terms and expressions more or less incomprehensible to the general reader. This has made scientific medicine a sealed book to the masses of our people, and there is no subject of which they are more ignorant. An attempt has been made in this work to present the matter in as simple language as possible, and while some of the authors have been more happy than others in this respect, it is believed that no great diffi- culty will be met with in any of the articles. While the subject has been treated in language of a more or less popular style and the book is intended as a guide to the farmer, its intrinsic scientific value should not be entirely lost sight of. In many respects it is a notable contribution to existing knowledge, and it will be prized by the veterinarian not less than by the farmer. No doubt there are some defei-ts in this first edition which the experience of the future will enable us to remedy, but as a whole the book is one which can not fail to be of numense service in educating horse owners and in hastening the adoption of humane and scientific treatment in the disorders which afflict man's most patient and faithful servant. . The illustrations have been very carefully drawn by Mr. Haines, the greater part of the subjects being selected by Dr. Cooper Curtice. In cases where they have been copied due credit has been given on the plates, but it should be stated here that we are indeljtcd to Dr. John S. Billings, of the Army Medical Museum, for the use of the Auzoux models and a number of specimens of diseased feet from which drawiuo^s were made. " Very rospectfully, ^ D. E. Salmon, Cli ief of Bureau of An Imal Industry. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The examination of a sick horse, Page. By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D 9 Methods of administering medicines, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 28 Diseases of the digestive organs, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 34 Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law, F. R. 0. V. S 75 Diseases of the respiratory organs, By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 10-i Diseases of tJte generaiive organs. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 142 Dif;eases of the nervous system, ByM. R. Trumbower, V. S 190 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and^ lymphatics, ByM. R. Trumbower, V. S ^25 Diseases of the eye. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 251 Lameness, By A. Liautaed, M. D., V. S 274 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, By A. A. HoLCOMBE, D. V. S 369 Diseases of the skin. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 431 Wounds and their treatment, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 459 General diseases, By Rush Shippen Huidekoper, M. D., Vet 482 Surra, By Ch. Wardell Stiles, Ph. D 546 SItoeing, By John W. Adams, A. B., V. M. D. = 552 5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page. Plate I. Digestive apparatus 74 II. Bots 74 III. Intestinal worms 74 I V. Longitudinal section through kidney 76 V. JMicroscopivO anatomy of kidney RS YI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney SS YII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88 VIII. Position of the left lung 128 IX. Instruments used in difficult labor 128 X. Normal presentations 166 XI. Abnormal presentations 166 XII. Abnormal presentations 166 XIII. Abnormal presentations - 176 XIV. Abnormal presentations 176 XV. Anterior presentations 176 XVI. Tlie nervous system 192 XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of h.eart and diaphragm 228 XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 228 XIX. Theoretical section of the horse' s ej-e 256 XX. Skeleton of the horse ^.. 288 XXI. Superficial layer of nniscles 288 XXII. Splint 288 XXIII. Ringbone 304 XXIV. Various types of spavin 304 XXV. Bono spavin 336 XXVI. Bone spavin .' 336 XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbo^r, Bourgelat's apparatus 336 XXVIII. The sling in use '. 336 XXIX. Anatomy of foot 372 XXX. Anatomy of foot 372 XXXI. Foundered feet 372 XXXII. Ringbone and navicular disease 372 XXXIII. Quarter crack and remedies 400 XXXIV. Sound and contracted feet 400 XXXV. Diseases of the skin 448 XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 448 XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation 4SS XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, shov.ing acute lesions. 528 XL. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, leftside, showing ulcers. 528 XLI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cicatrices 528 8 LIST OF ILLUSTKATI0N3. Page. Fio. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the "regular" form 559 2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 560 3. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position 560 4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow fonn in toe-narrow standing position. 501 5. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a stumpy fore foot 501 G. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a toe -. 563 7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered sht)e 567 8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 568 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 570 10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 570 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a ruljber pad and "thiee- quarter" shoe 571 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with a plain "dropped crease" shoe 571 13. Iloof surface of a right hind shoe to jirevent interfering 572 14. Ground surfac-e of shoe shown in fig. 13 572 15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the " breaking over" in a "forger" 573 16. Side view of a short-toed liind hoof of a forger 573 17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 574 18. Most common form of punched heel- weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet 574 SPECIAL REPORT DISEASES OF THE HORSE. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D., Dean of the Veterinary DejMrtment, University of Pennsyhania, and State Veterina.r'ian of Pennsylvania. In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method, or S3^stem. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ- entl}^ under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral depression more than does the Ijnnphatic draft horse. Hence a degree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thoroughbred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to be comparatively easy of application and sufiiciently thorough for the purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several writers. 10 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for. The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag- nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food tiiat the horse has liad, the use to which he has been put, and the kind of care he has received should all he inquired into closel3\ It ma}^ be found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged food, such as brewers grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon full rations, and that ho became suddenly lame in his back and liind legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial parahsis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, under these conditions, likeh' to prove to be inliucnza, or edematous pneumonia. It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are atflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. Another item of importance in connection with the history of the case relates to the treatment that the horse ma}- have had before he is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is ijuportant that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica- tion that has been emploj^ed. ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. Before beginning the special examination, attention should be paid to the attitude iind general condition of the animal. Sometimes horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck, and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subsequently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse with tetanus stands Avith his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat brac- ing position, as though ho were gathered to repel a shock. The neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightl}^ extended upon it, the face is drawn, and the nostrils arc dilated. The tail is usually held up a DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 11 Jittle, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs bade to its previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo- laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon the throat. In dumminess, or immo]>ility, the banging position of the head and the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito- nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive reg-ion. The horse maj" be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- tion mnj result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison- ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie doTjn is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath- ing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly all serious diseases of the respiratory tract, the horse stands persist- ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflamma- tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or of the feet in founder, or where the muscles are stiff and beyond con- trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained, because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be unable to arise. Abnormal attitudes tire assumed in painful diseases of the digestive organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a dog, or ma}^ stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front, or ma}^ endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from pain by lessening pressure, or tension, upon the sensitive structures. Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe the condition, or state, of nutrition; the conformation, so far as it may indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to esti- mate the amount of strength that remains a^d that will be available for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition is shown by the rotundity of the bodv, the pliabilit}^ and softness of the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disap- peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bon}^ prominences to 12 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Stand out; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh, we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This ma}' have resulted from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food and care. Where an animal is emaciated— that is, becomes thin— there is fii'ht a loss of fat and later the muscles shi-ink. B}' observing the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived under. By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep broad chest, allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing- sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins should be short— that is, the space should be short between the last rib and the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded, with- out superlluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. The cars, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and ffood breeding. The muscular development should be good; the shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of strength. The Avithcrs are sharp, which means that they are not loaded with use- less, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight and their axes are par- allel; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The cannons are T)road from in front to behind, and relatively thin from side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to resist hard work fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms, small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with flat soles. Tlie temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nerv- ous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera- ment. The temperame^nt is indicated by the gait, by the expression of the face, and by the'carriage of the head and ears. The nature of the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 13 expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a large extent on the temperament. THE SKIX AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of the skin ha\^e been referred to above. There is no part of the body that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of infor- mation as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping the coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarh^, the condition of the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a result of disease or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes become pale. This change in the nuicous membranes can be seen most readily in the lining of the ej'elids and in the lining of the nostril. For convenience of examination the e3^elids can readily be everted. Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness occurs physioiogic- alh' in painful conditions, excitement, and following severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circulation is transitoiy. In fevers there is an increased redness in the* mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane. This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity, and occurs in blood poison- ing, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does not operate, or when the red- l)lood corpuscles are broken down, as in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue when the blood is imper- fectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxide. This condi- tion exists in any serious disease of the respiratoiy tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure. The temperature of the skin A'aries with the temperature of the liod}'. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold. Where the general surface of the bod}^ becomes cold it is evident that the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the verge of collapse. The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse. This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to hav^e a soft, healthy 14 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite dif- ferent from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, thoy stand apart, and the animal has what is known as '"a staring coat.'' When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usualh' an indication that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely Horses sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; the}^ sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physiological causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. Swellings of the skin usuall}^ come from w^ounds or other external causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of intei-nal diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other part of the body. For example, there is the well-known "stocking," or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses when standing still and that comes from previous inllammation (lym- phangitis) or from iusufficieiit heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the skin, ma}^ occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insulE- ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor- rhagica large soft swellings appear on anj^ part of the skin, but usually on the legs, side of the bodj", and about the head. Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the skin, or the gas maj^ be air that enters through a wound penetrating some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here described is known as emi)hyseina. Emphj^sema may follow the fracture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerating process, an organ contiiining air is perforated. This accident is more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recognize d by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensitive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is stroked or pressed upon. Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 15 round, soft, dough-like swellings occur on the skin and may be scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen- erail}^, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate weJt- like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be determined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly just before it turns around the 16wer border of the jawbone. The balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should be pressed lightly on the skin over this arteiy when its pulsations are to be studied. The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as follows: Stallion 28 to 32 beats per minute. Gelding 33 to 38 beats per minute. Mare 34 to 40 beats per minute. Foal 2 to 3 years old 40 to 50 beats per minute. Foal 6 to 12 months old 45 to 60 beats per minute. Foal 2 to 4 weeks old 70 to 90 beats per minute. The pulse is accelerated hy the digestion of rich food, by hot weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The pulse should be regular; that is, the separate beats should follow each other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal fullness, or volume. In disease, the pulse may become slower or more xapid than in health. Slowing of the pulse msij be caused by old age, great exhaus- tion, or excessi^'e cold. It maj'- be due to depression of the central nervous sj'stem, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administra- tion of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is almost alwa3^s found in fever, and the more severe the infection and the weaker the heart, the more rapid is the pulse. Under these con- ditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recoveiy is not 16 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. promising, and espcc-iiill}' if this s>'raptoin accompanies hioh tempera- ture or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearl>' all of the dis- eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. . The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where the valves are affected. The irregularit}- may consist in varying inter- vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication of heart weakness. In examining the heart itself it is neccssar}- to recall that it lies in the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It extends almost to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightlj^ on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed against the left chest wall at a place immediateh^ above the point of the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers — two in the left and two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle), and from here it is sent with great force (for this chamber has ver^- strong, thick walls) through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each side and into the aorta arc guarded by valves. If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart, b}' placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth ril) and above the point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred tlie horse is the more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard during each pulsation and any deviation of the normal indicates some alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making this examination, one may appl}' the left ear over the heavy muscles DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 17 of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of the elbow, or, if the sounds are not heard distinctly, the left fore leg ma}^ be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this manner. The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is con- tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, causing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its opening into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profital^lcy in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations. Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the veterinary text-books. TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina- tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther- mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self -registering clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but larger,, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal is- measured in the rectum. ' The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ- ent conditions. It is higher in the J^oung animal than in the old, and is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise decidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal temperature varies from 99.5° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to 102.5° the horse is said to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 101° the fever is moderate; if it reaches 106° it is high, and above this point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108° or 110°. In the ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106°. A tempera- ture of 107.5° and above is very dangerous and must be reduced promptly if the horse is to be saved. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. In examining this system of organs and their functions it is custom- ar}^ to begin hy noting the frequency of the respiratory movements. This point can be determined b}^ observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the 11381—03 2 18 BUKEAU OF A^^IXAL IliDUSTKY. moisture of the warm air as it comes from the luno-s. The normal rate ot respiration for a health}' horse at rest is from S to 16 per min- ute. The rate is faster in 3'oung animals than in old, and is increased by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnane}", lyinj*' upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of poi tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; com pression of the kings or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con- trolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon-dioxide in the blood; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the lungs, as in pneumonia; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu- matism or pleurisy; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty- is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs pro- trude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the ampli- tude of the movement of the chest walls increas'ed, and the flanks heave. The expired air is of about the tcm.perature of the body. It contains considerable moisture, and it should come with ec^ual force from each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an indication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs av here there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be composed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza or nasal catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge is sticky and DiSEASEb OF TKE HOESE. 19 pns-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres tenaciousl}^ to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account, has been described as a pruFxe-juice discharge. Tlie discharge may contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the discharge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes from the lungs. In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem- ber that the nomial color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that disease. Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of Ij-mphatic giiiiids. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficidt to find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis- ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. On the other hand, tlic}'' may become indurated and hard from the pro- liferation of -connective tissue and attach themselves to the jawbone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders. If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the dis- ease causing the enlargement is acu^e; if they are hard and insensi- tive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno- sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easil}' excited, and occurs mereh" from accumulation of mucus and inflammatorj- product upon the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter- mine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is not 20 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract. The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain- ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air, and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in w^eak, debilitated animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom- panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist; it is dry when those characteristics are not present — that is, when the air in passing out passes over surface not loaded with secretion. In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus- cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con- tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is practiced wutli the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed ' firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami- nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy- ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, the percussion sound becomes diill. If, as in cmph3^sema or in pneu- mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear applied closely to the 'chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distincth^, especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu- monia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 21 stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of the beginning of pneumonia. By appl3"ing the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the ante- rior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing, bron- chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are com- pressed by fluid in the chest cavity. Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased conditions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing secre- tions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature and are known as mucous rales. Mucous rales are spoken of as being large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quan- tity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease, They occur in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion. Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. A friction sound is heard in pleuris}^ This is due to the rubbing together of roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar to a dry rubbing sound tliat is caused b}^ rubbing the hands together or by rubbing upon each other two dr}?^ rough pieces of leather. THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes. Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being ph3\sio- logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather may all' cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical difliculty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or destroyed. Sometimes there is an aj^petite or desire to eat abnormal things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition. 22 BUliEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. Thirst is diminished in a good man}'^ mild diseases unaccompanied by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depression or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after profuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec- tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe- rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and carefully looked for: Diseases of the teeth, consisting in deca}'-, frac- ture, abscess formation, or overgrov/th; inflammatory conditions, or wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips; paral^'sis of the muscles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Diffi- culty in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as "•quidding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well- chewed and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example, after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the mouth.- The horse then linds that from tenderness of the throat, or from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is similarly prepared, only to bo dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth when this tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quidding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the' floor of the stall. In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro- cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of taking food. A similar condition is seen in liyperemia of the brain. In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are made while the food is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat very rapidl}^ for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and stand stupidlj^ as though he has forgotten what he was about. In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior; that is, the front and sides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers through the interdental space in such a wa}"" as to cause the mouth to open. The mucous membrane should be clean and of a light-pink color, DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 23 excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yellowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse inflamma- tion, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge; local inflamma- tion, as from eruptions, ulcers, or wounds; necrosis of the lower jaw- bone in front of the first back tooth; and swellings. Foreign bodies are sometimes found embedded in the mucous-membrane lining of the mouth or lodged between the teeth. The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region of the throat and along the left side of the neck in the jugular gutter. Some- times, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esophageal tube or probang is passed through the nose or mouth down the esoph- agus to the stomach. Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more difficult for the horse than for most of the other domestic animals, because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal walls in contracting do not bring pressure to bear upon it so directly and forcibly, as is the case in many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stom- ach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the passage of food into the stomach, but does interfere with the exit of food through the esophageal opening. Still, vomiting is a sj-mptom that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to, and also makes it possible for more pressure to be exerted upon the stom- ach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the dis- tention to permit vomiting must be extreme, it not infrequently hap- pens that it leads to rupture of the stomach walls. This has caused the impression in the minds of some that vom'.ting can not occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, but this is incorrect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound. After rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting is impossible. In examination of the abdomen one should remember that its size depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal, and also upon the manner in which the animal has l)een fed and the use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen ma}^ be the result of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity; or, on the other hand, it may merely be an indication of preg- nancy, or of the fact that the horse has been fed for a long time on bulk}^ and innutritions food. Pendulous abdomen occurring in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet is an abnormal condition. The abdonlen may increase suddenlj^ in volume from accumulation of gas 24 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. in t3'mpanic colic. The abdomen becomes small and the horse is said to be "tucked up" from long-continued poor appetite, as in diseases of the digestive tract and in fever. This condition also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal walls and in diarrhea from emptiness. In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side, certain bubbling sounds ma}^ be heard that are known as peristaltic sounds, because thej' arc produced by peristalsis, or worm-like con- traction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intes- tines lie in the right flank. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an indication of disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of the intes- tines. This ma}" occur in certain kinds of colic and is an unfavorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intestines are con- tracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal canal. The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion. They should show that the food has been well ground, and should, in the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coat- ing of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung. Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity b}' the hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned. THE EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, The great brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it con- tains the centers that control motion in many parts of the bod3\ The front portion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior portions of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or an inflammator}" change in the region of a center governing the motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps, or inal)ility of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence from these centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pass beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla oblongat^i to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of the paths DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 25 on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one side of the body. The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordi- nation, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a totter- ing, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the spinal cord and the cerebellum, are the centers governing the circula- tion and breathing. The spinal cord carries sensor}^ messages to the brain and motor impressions from the brain. The anterior portions of the cord con- tain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain the sensory paths. Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a nerve trunk leading to the part that is involved. Paral3^sis of one- half of the bod}' is known as hemiplegia and results from destruction or severe disturbances of the cerebral hemisphere of the opposite side of the bod}' or from interference with nerve paths between the cere- bellum, or small brain, and the spinal cord. Paralysis of the poste- rior half of the bod}' is known as paraplegia and results from derange- ment of the spinal cord. If the cord is pressed upon, cut, or injured, messages can not be transmitted beyond that point, and so the poste- rior part becomes paralyzed. This is seen when the back is fractured. Abnormal mental excitement may be due to congestion of the brain or to inflammation. The animal so afflicted becomes vicious, pays no attention to commands, cries, runs about in a circle, stamps with the feet, strikes, kicks, etc. This condition is usually followed by a dull, stupid state, in which the animal stands with his head down, dull and irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in the severe febrile infectious diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a narcotic substance^ and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines. Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. When it occurs it is shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and, finally, inabil- ity to stand. Th§ cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain, or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass away and may never return, or it may be due to some permanent cause, as a tumor or an abscess7 or it may result from a hemorrhage, from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning. Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused by hemorrhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a saturation of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may follow upon cerebral depression, which occurs as a secondary state of inflam- mation of the brain. 26 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. AYhere the sensibility" of a part is increased the condition is known as hypcrasthesia, and where it is lost — that is, where there is no feeling or knowledge of pain — the condition is known as anasthesia. The former usually ac(-onipanies some chronic diseases of the spinal cord or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk, Hypcrasthesia is difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. This is sometimes a s^miptom of beginning- of inflammation of the brain. Anasthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to apart, in severe mental depression, and in narcotic poisoning. URINARY AND SEXUAI. ORGANS. In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs we may consider, at the beginning, a false impi'ession that prevails to an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the horse depresses his back it is at once said "his kidneys arc weak." Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any health}" horse — any horse with normal sensation and with a normally flexible back — will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If the kidneys are inflamed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly and is not depressed under this pressure. To examine the kidncj^s b}^ pressui-e the pressure should be brought to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the transverse processes of the vertcbra3 of the loins and beneath the hind- most ribs. If the kidneys are acutely inflamed and especially sensitive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to shrink. The physical examination of the sexual and generative oigans is made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami- nation should be carried out by a veterinarian onl}". By this means it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of local disease or from disease higher in the tract. The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, during which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by con- strained attitude, etc. This condition comes from inflammation of the bladder or urethra, urinarj- calculi (stones of the bladder or urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained from spasms of the nmsclc at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, infl;uumatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 27 The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder is weakened or parah'zed. This condition is seen after the bladder is weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a uartial paralj^sis of the hind quarters. Horses usuall}^ void urine five to seven times a da}', and pass from 4 to 7 quarts. DiseajSe may be shown b}'^ increase in the number of void- ings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irritable or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quantit}' is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys (inter- stitial nephritis) and in pol^mria the quantity" may be increased to 20 or 30 quarts dail.y. Diminution in the quantity' of urine comes from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and non- secreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. The urine of the health}" horse is a pale or at times a slightly red- dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and is more intense Avhcn the quantity is diminished. Dark-brown urine is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A brownish green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix- ture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, usually in the kidneys. The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It con- tains mucus which causes it to be slightly thick and string}^, and a cer- tain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloud3\ A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of the horse is normall}' alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in suspen- sion are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine ma}^ be unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary tract. The normal specific gravit}' of the urine of the horse is about l.OiO. It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the quan- tit}' is excessive. Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but require special apparatus and skill. Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus- sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train- ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points ma}' be mentioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excretions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation. METHODS OF ADiMINISTERING MEDICINES. By Cji. B. Michener, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. ?., V. M. D.J Medicine may enter the body through any of the followino- desig- nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air pas.sages; third, by the skin; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic meth- ods); fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the gcnito-urinary passages; and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). (1) By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. Solids administered as 2Jov;ders should be as finely pulverized as possible, in order to secure rapid solution and absorption. Their action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that arc without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the feed or tjiken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus spi'inkled on the feed. If mixed dr}^ the hor.se will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in cap- sules, as balls are given. Pills, or " Ja//.s'," when properl}' made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent their becoming too hard. Ver}- old, hard balls are sometimes passed whole witn the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so stick}^ as to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this \)\\.v- pose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls arc preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or nauseating; when the dose is not too large; when the horse is difiicult to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deli- quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required 28 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 29 for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain- able and are a convenient means of giving medicines in bail form. Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they ma}^, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from a small phial. Pastes, or electuaries^ are medicines mixed with licorice-root powder, ground flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of hone}', or a "■ soft solid." The.y are intended, chiefl}^, to act locally upon the mouth and throat. They are given b}^ being spread upon the tongue, gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. When balls are to be given we should observe the following direc- tions: In shape the^^ should be cylindrical, of the size above men- tioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given with the "balling-gun-'' (obtainable at any veterinary instrument maker's) or b}^ the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or gag ma}^ be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crush- ing the ball. Alwa3^s loosen the horse before attempting to give a ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmlj^ grasped with the left hand and gentl}' pulled forward; the ball, slightly moist- ened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand as far back into the mouth as possible; as the tongue is loosened it is drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling. This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or its becoming lodged in the gullet. It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids. When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use enough water or oil to dissolve or dilute it thoroughl}^; more than this makes the drench bulky and is unnecessary. Insoluble medicines, if not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water; the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and smooth about its neck; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, because they arc not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while 30 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTEY. the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread out in such a numner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugl}', or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of supporting the head is to i)lace a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injur3^ The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be hori:iontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the Iiead as far as possible, and then try to swallow\) The person giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth — on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be intro- duced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, w^hen the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediatelj'^ removed, and if the horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionallj' remoWng them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, hj any mishap, the bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head is high, a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but drenches must never he given tJtrough the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour- ing into the nose arc liable to strangle thcani'mal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it sets up an inflannnation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. Cattle are easily drenched by holding them by the nose with the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right. Balls are not to be given to cattle, for they are likel}'' to become DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 31 embedded in the great mass of food iu the stomach and act tardil}' if at all. (2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air i)assages b}^ insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. Insulation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. Gaseous and volatile medicines are given hy inhalation, as is, also medicated steam, or vapor. Of the gases used there may be men- tioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlo- rine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, v/here these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impreg- nated with them. Volatile medicines — as the anesthetics (ether, chloro- form, etc.) — are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medi- cated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodipe, creolin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the "medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or "distemper." Injections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat- ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu- tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since, as a rule, the horse objects ver\^ strongly to ^lis mods of medi- cation. (3) Br THE SKix. — Medicines are often administered to our la r- covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some medicines — as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. — over the entire body, as poison- ing and death follow in some instances from absorption through the skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to a'la,y local pain or cure local disease. (4) Bt the tissue beneath the SKIX (hypodeematic method). — Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic sj'ringe under the skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners 32 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are pow- erful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed, and a knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an abscess may be produced. (5) By the kectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when they can not be given b}" the mouth, or when they are not retained in the stomach; when we want a local action on the last gut; when it is desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation. Medicines are in such cases given in tlic form of suppositories or as liquid injections (enemas). Foods may also be given in this way. Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of these parts. They are not much used in ti eating horses. Enemas^ when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90^ to 100° F. Th. se, like foods given by the rectum, should be intro- duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand or by copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or cl^'sters, if to aid the action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend the bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt and water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a pas- sage. Stimulating enemas, as gl3'cerin, should be administered after those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the pur- pose of still further increasing the natural motion of the intestines and aiding the purging medicine. Liquids ma}-^ be thrown into the rectum b}' the means of a large syringe or a pump. A very good "irrigator" can be bought of any tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on every stock farm. It consists of a funnel about 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation to which a piece of rubber hose, such as small" garden hose, 4 feet long may lie attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently into the rec- tum about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be poured in the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will force it into the bowels. This appliance is better than the more complicated and expensive ojics. Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly recommended by many as a rectal infection for horses overcome by the excessive heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 35 (6) By the genito-urinart passages.^ — This method of medicatioD. is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinaiy organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the irrigator described above maj^ be used. (7) By the blood. — Injections directly into veins are to be prac- ticed by medical or veterinar}^ practitioners onl}^, as are probably some other means of giving medicines — intratracheal injections, etc, 1438 J:— 03 3 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By Cii. B. MicnENEij, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] It will uot prove an easy task to write "a plain account of the com- mon diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment," of the digestive organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of the food and drink of our animals, their quality, c[uantit3', analyses, etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to space, the endeavor must be made to give simpl}^ an outline — to state the most important facts— leaving man}' gaps, and continually checking the dis- position to write anything like a full description as to cause, preven- tion, and modes of treatment of disease. These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock owners, and I must ask nw professional brethren to bear this in mind when they are disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of the subjects. WATER. It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac- tice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand, "SVater that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximit}' to manure heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, and man}' other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with dili'erent poisons and contaminated with specific media of conta- gion produces death in very many instances. Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually thej never drink to excess. AVere the horse subjected to ship voyages or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary some- what upon the character of his food; if upon green food, less water will be needed than when fed upon dr}'- hay and grain. The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the 34 DISEASES* OF THE HORSE. 35 horse should receive water at least three times a Sny, when at work, more f requentl3\ The rule should be to give in small quantities and often. There is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he should not he allowed to drink, man}^ claiming that the first swallow of water "founders" the animal or produces colic. This is erroneous. No matter how warm a horse may be, it is alwaj^s entirel}^ safe to allow him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of ha}" and allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but sparingly. The danger, then, is not in the " first swallow" of water, but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when warm if he is not restrained. Water should never be given to horses when it is ice cold. It may not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the sun maj" shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Y\^ater, even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. In reference to the purity of water. Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- giene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface water as inJiolesome,' stored rain water and surface water from cultivated land, as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access and shallow- well water, as dangerous. The water that is used for drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an impervious claj" subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out, a large basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug, and there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent rains were it not foi; the fact that much organic matter is carried into it by surface drainage during each succeeding. storm. This organic matter soon undergoes decom- position, and, as the result, we find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water is di'unk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must not be lost sight of that stagnant sur- face water is much more certainly contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the herd, thus endangering the remainder. The chief impurities of water may be classed as organic and inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and copper are also fre- cjuentl}' found in water, and will be referred to hereafter. About the onlj- examination of water that can be made by the aver- 36 BUREAU OF ANIilAE INDUSTEY. age stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, ami clearness. Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be necessary in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., and can, of course, be conducted by experts only. FOODS AND FEEDING. In this phice one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive discussion of the subject of foods and feeding, and I must content myself with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, preparation, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quantity. Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence the reader can not fail to see how ver}' important it is to have some proper ideas concerning these subjects. KIXDS OK K( on. In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder, roots, oats, corn, wheat, and r3'^e. Many think that they could be fed on nothing else. Stewart, in "The Stable Book," gives the following extract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of inter- est at this point: In some sterile countries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and even on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesli balls, eggs, broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few, per- haps no, oats are grown; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses. In Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram {Cicer arietinum) forms the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or rice is seldouT given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops, and sometimes molasses are given. In the INIahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed to produce animation and to tine the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to horses. For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader to Jordan's or Armsby's book on feeding aiiimals, or to "Smith's Veterinary Hygiene." We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of the digestibility of foods; and by this we mean the readiness with which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that tit them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal econom3^ The age and health of the animal will, of course, modif}^ the digesti- bility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, pre- serving, and preparing the foods. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 37 In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and here, as in all other animals and with all foods, it is found that a certain part only of the provender is digested; another portion is undigested. This proportion of digested and undigested food must claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food, or bulky food containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of food must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused food, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in fact, too much food ma}- make an animal poor. In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological func- tions performed by each one of them. Foods must be wholesome, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of prepara- tion found by practical experience to be the best must be adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must be observed. The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse varies with the different foods. Hay and straT>^ pass out of the stomach more rapidh^ than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats should be given after ha}-, for if reversed the ha}^ would cause the oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experience confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insuring proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feeding, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is fitted for intestinal digestion. The stomach begins to empty itself ver_y soon after the commence- ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stomach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can not be performed on a full stomach. For such labor food must be given in small quantity and about two hours before they go to work. Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The small stom- ach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion that this ani- mal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in reality, should be done. The dispropoi'tion between the size of the stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard dai/s ivorl'. This must never be done. If a horse is completeh^ jaded, it will be found beneficial to 38 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small quantity of haj' may then be given, but his grain should be withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force to the horse that for an}' reason has been fasting for a long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat; for if allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and "colic" is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day. It will not answer to feed him entirch' upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intestinal tract; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feeding, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of feeding. Sudden changes of diet arc always dangerous. When desirous of changing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, this also must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must always be in proportion to the amouut of labor to be performed. If a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from v>'ork for a few days, see that he receives a proportionate amount of feed. If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunda}', there would be fewer cases of "Monday morning sickness," such as colics and Ivmphangitis. Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the lior.se is to stand for some daj's. Musty or moldy foods. — Above all things, avoid feeding musty or mold}' foods. These are A'cry frequent causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and "heaves," often follows the use of such food. The digestive organs alwaj's suffer from moldy or musty foods. Must}^ hay is generall}- considered to produce dis- order of the kidneys; a,nd all know of the danger to pregnant animals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variousl}' as cerebro- spinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. Leavijig these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly to the different kinds of foods: Hay. — The best hay for horses is timoth}'. It should l)c about one year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not be posi- tively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occasional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all, it should be mixed with old hay. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 39 Second crop, or aftermath. — This is not considered good ha}' for horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch cows, the claim being made that it inci-eases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the cur- ing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other circumstances; but it is well known that, in order to preserve the color and aroma of hay, it should be turned or tedded frequently and cured as quicJdy aspos- sihle. On the other hand, ha}^ spoils in the mow if harvested too green, or when not sufficiently dried. Mow-burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the horse to fall off in condition. The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at light work can be kept entirel}^ on h^ij. Such horses soon become pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay. Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all the}^ should be cut and mixed with haj- and ground or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oats straw are the ones most used, and of these oats straw is most easilj^ digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers. Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the "soft concre- tions," which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oats chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and some- times fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oats chaff. Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the bod}- exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the 40 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTEY. various tissues of the bod}'. Care must be taken iu selecting oats. According to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln- dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, f»r even though originallv^good this drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fer- mented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed — whole in the majority of instances; crushed to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain iu a thin layer. The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay above mentioned, about 12 cjuarts of good oats daih'. The best oats are those cut about one week l)ef()re being f ulh' ripe. Not only is the grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less waste from "scattering*' than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like ha}' and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or ha}". If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if given alone, but may be fed Avith other grains. It serves to keep the bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach and intestines and may even produce serious results. Maize (corn).— This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with " lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is bet- ter given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. Be very particular in giving corn to a^ horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute inaigestion than corn if these directions are not observed. Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 41 gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in man}" sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. Beets. — These arc not much used as food for horses. Caekots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during sickness. They improve the appetite and slighth" increase the action of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative prop- erties. The coat becomes smooth and gloss}- when carrots are fed. Some veterinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fedin small quantities are highly beneficial. Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nourish- ment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods and only eaten when there is nothing* else obtainable, while others are positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are suf- ficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed arc "soft,'' sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing stock, grass is indispensable, and there is little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines underg-o rest, and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each jear. It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recover3^ Wounds heal more rapidh" than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic dis- orders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. In my experience, grass does niore good when the horse crops it him- self. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoj'S at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons. "When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. PREPARATION OF FOODS. Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons: To render the food more easil}^ eaten; to make it more digestible; to economize in amount; to give it some new" propert}^; and to preserve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drjdng, and need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, /. (?., removes the laxative tendenc}" of most of them. The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or 42 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRr. even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of corn it is found that there is less waste when ground; and, in common with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. Hay and fodder arc economized when cut in short pieces. Not only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. Keference has alread}' been made to those horses that bolt their food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut ha}^, straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed; and the mixing trough even, unless frequentl}"^ scalded and cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it; bad foods are dear at any price and should never l^e fed. I have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would be more frequent were it extensivel}' fed. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Dentition. — This covers the period during which the young horse is cutting his teeth — from birth to the age of five 3"ears. With the horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second, or permanent, teeth than with the first, or milk, teeth. There is a tendenc}' among farmers and many veterinarians to pa}^ too little attention to the teeth of young- horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative of this that is best told in his own words: I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the diffi- culty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in conse- quence, filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that 1 saw the horse, DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 43 and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any sat- isfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I bad not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took out my pocketknife and made crucial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition. The mouths of 3"oung horses should be examhied from time to time to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long-, caus- ing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed with the forceps. Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late j^ears, espe- cially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly "• floated," or "rasped," by "veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessar3^ From the character of the food, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which maj^ excori- ate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condition can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close perfectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth correspond- ing to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all instances where horses " quid" their food, where they are slobbering, or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be caref ull}' examined. Horses whose teeth have unduly sharp edges are likely to drive badl}'; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too hard and "big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by the rasp. If decaj^ed teeth are found, or other serious difiiculty detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered, an expert should be called. Toothache. — This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache 44 BL^REAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed h\ him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is no foreign bod}' found we must then carefull}^ examine each tooth. If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth we can, in most instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such as a small hammer, the dne that is tender ma}' bo located. The horse •will llinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most cases there is nothing to T)e done but extract the decayed tooth, and this, of course, is onl}- to be attempted b}' the veterinarian. There is a deformity^ known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with prehension, mastication, and indirectly, with digestion. The upper incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by fric- tion. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the lower jaw become so long that the}- bruise the "bars'' of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should never be left entirel}^ at pasture. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. Lampas. — Larapas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. The hard palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the horse is feeding and this causes the ridges to become prominent, and they then help to keep food from dropping from the mouth. This swelling is entireh' natural and occurs in every healthy horse. Where there is some irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teeth- ing, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, due to the increased blood supply. In such cases the cause of the irritation should be sought for and removed. B\' way of direct treatment, slight scarifica- tion is the most that Avill be required. Burning the lampas is bar- barous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated. It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stablemen that lampas is a disease that ver}' frequently exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary, yet it is not the case. It ma}' be put down, then, as an affliction of the stableman's imagination rather, than of the horse's mouth. Stomatitis. — This is an inflammation of the nuicous membrane lin- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 45 ing the mouth and is produced hj irritating- medicines, foods, or other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and painful to the touch; there is a copious discharge of saliva; the mucous membrane is reddened; and in some cases there are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh cold water should be kept canstantly in the manger so that the horse may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances it ma}' be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Ha}', straw, or oats should not be fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis sometimes occurs that is characterized by the formation within the mouth of small vesicles, or blisters. In this disease the horse should be isolated from other horses, his stall, especially the feed box, and his bit, should be disinfected. Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. Injuries to the tongue maj^ produce this simple inflammation of its covesi^ing mem- brane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would require surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be followed. Plyalism, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive secre- tion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth; inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as lobelia, mercur}-, and man}- others. Some foods produce this, such as clover, and particularly second crop; foreign bodies, such as nails, wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astrin- gent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of a sponge. Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the phaiynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied by stomatitis or larj^ngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are noticed febrile symptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow; there is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). Increased flow of saliva, difficulty of swaltowing liquids in particular, and cough onl}' when attempting to swallow, are the symptoms best marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous and the disease ends in death. For treatment wrap a wet sheet around the throat and cover this with rubber sheeting and a warm blanket. This should be changed three times dail}^; or the region of the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until the skin becomes 46 EUEEAU OF A^^IMAL IXDUSTRY. irritated, but no longer; chlorate of potash ma}- be given in quantities of 2 drams four times daily, mixed with flaxseed meal or liquorice- root powder and honey, as an electuar3\ Soft foods should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the horse. Paralysis of the pharynx, or, as it is commonh' called, "paralysis of the throat," is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are as follows: The horse will constantl}' try to eat or drink, but will be unab'le to do so; if water be offered him from a pail he will apparently drink with avidity, but the quantit}' of water in the pail will remain about the same; he will continue trying to drink by the hour; if he can succeed in getting any fluid into the back part of the mouth it will come out at once through the nose. Foods also return through the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes verj^ much emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from inanition. Treatmeyit is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be applied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Str^^chnia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a day. This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be dis- tinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the mouth, by the absence of any offending body and l)}- the flabl)y feel of the mouth; and from the latter by the animal appearing in perfect health in every j)articular except this inability to eat or drink. Abscesses. — Abscesses sometimes form back of the pharynx and give rise to symptoms resembling those of larj^ngitis or distemper. Interference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression, without any observable swelling or soreness about the throat, will make one suspect the formation of an abscess in this location. But little can be done by the owner in the way of treatment, save to hurry the ripening of the abscess and its discharge, b}'^ steaming with hops, ha}', or similar substances and by poulticing the throat. The operation for opening an abscess in this region necessitates an intimate knowledge of the comjjlex anatomy of the throat region. DISEASES OF THE ESOrHAGUS, OR GULLET. It is rare to find diseases of this organ, except as a result of the introduction of foreign bodies too large to pass or to the exhibition of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administration of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and this DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 47 again is prone to be followed b}' constriction (narrowing-) of the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It may occur when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples or roots, and we should be careful never to approach suddenlj^ or put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone these animals very rarely attempt to swallow the object until it is suifi- cientl}^ masticated. Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to such horses as eat very greedil}' or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is also a frequent cause of choke. This accident may result from the attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls that are too large or not of the proper shape. Whatever object causes the choking, it ma}" lodge in the upper part of the esophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, giving rise to the designations of p/ia?'i/ngeal, cervical, and thoracic choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with food. The sy7n2)toms vary somewhat according to the position of the body causing choke. In p^iaryngeal choke the object is lodged in the iipi^er 2)ortioii of the esophagus. The horse will present sj^mptoms of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The abdomen rapidly distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by manipulat- ing the upper part of the throat from without and b^^ the introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is situated at any point between the throatlatch and the shoulder) the protrusion caused by the object can be seen and the object can be felt. The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen occasionally to draw himself up, arch his neck, and make retching movements as though he wished to vomit. The abdomen may be tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a conclusion may be reached by pouring water into the throat from a bottle. If the obstruction is complete you can see the gullet become distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the horse and watching the course of the esophagus, just above the windpipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction ma}^ be an angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken would sbow in these cases; but solids should not, however, be given, as the}" serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the bod}- more diflicult. In thoracic choke the symptoms are less severe. Food or water may be ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken a few swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally retching movements. Sometimes a horse that is choking is heard to emit groans. The facial expression 48 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. always denotes great anxiety and the eyes are bloodshot. The diag- nosis is complete if, upon jmssing the probang (a flexible tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. Treatment . — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet {pharyngeal) an effort must be made to remove the obstacle through the mouth. A mouth-gag, or speculum, is to be introduced into the mouth to protect the hand and arm of the operator. Then, while an assistant, with his hands grasped tightl}^ hehiad the object, presses it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it outward. This mode of pro- cedure must not be abandoned with the first failure, as we may get the obstacle farther toward the mouth b}' continued efforts. If we fail wath the hand force])s may be introduced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail we must then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in removing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse; and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as whipstalks, shovel handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and more than one horse has been killed by such barbarous treatment. Cervical choke. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- quently produce choke in the horse), begin by gentlv squeezing the lower portion of the impacted mass and endeavor to work it loose a little at a time. This is greath^ favored at times if we apply hot fomentations immediately about the obstruction. Persist in these efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more dangerous modes of treatment. If unsuccessful, however, the pro- bang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, use a piece of inch hose 6 feet long, or a piece of new three-quarter-inch manila rope well wrapped at the end with cotton twine and thoroughly greased with tallow. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The probang is then to be carefulh' guided by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gentl}- forced downward until the obstruction is reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not, at first, attempt too much force, or the esophagus will be ruptured. Simply keep up this firm, gentle pressure until 3'ou feel the object moving, after which you are to follow it rapidl}^ to the stomach. If this mode of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or physician is to be called in, who can DISEASES OF THE HOESE. -19 remove the object by cutting down upon it. This should scarce!}- be attempted bj^ a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomj- of the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve that are closely related to the esophagus in its cervical portion. Thoracic choke. — Thoracic choke can be treated only by means of the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks, and the careful use of the probang. Stricture of the esophagus. — This is due to corrosive medicines, previous choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, nar- row the passage), oj pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the majority of cases of stricture^ dilatation of the gullet in front of the constiicted portion soon occurs. This dilatation is due to the frequent accumula- tion of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. Sacular dilatation of the esophagus. — This follows choking, and is due to stretching or rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, allowing the internal, or mucous, coat to protrude through the lacer- ated muscular walls. Such a dilatation, or pouch, may gradually enlarge from the frequent imprisonment of food. When liquids are taken, the solid materials are partiall}' washed out of the pouch. Symptoms. — Tlie symptoms are as follows: The horse is able to swallow a few mouthfuls of food without apparent difficult}-; then he v/ill stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject a portion of the food through his nose or mouth, or it will gradually work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again taken solid food. Liquids pass without an}^, or but little, inconvenience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic portion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand to hand by "swap- ping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the sac become too firm to l>e dislodged as heretofore, and the animal succumbs. diseases of the stomach and intestines. As a rule it is most difficult to distinguish between diseases of the stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is that the stomach is relatively small. It lies away from the abdominal wall, and so pressure from without can not be brought to bear upon it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Nor docs enlargement, or distention, of the stomach produce visible alteration in the form of the abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there are few exceptions that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts likewise upon the intestines, so that it is customary to find them similarly deranged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together the diseases of the 14381:— 03 1 50 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. stomach and intestines and to point out such localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recognizing- and treating the dis- eases of the digestive organs of the horse. It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inllamrnation of the stomach and eyrtcritts an inflammation of the intestines. The two terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stoixiach and intestines, as gastro-enteritis. The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is what is termed " colic," and many arc the remedies that arc reputed to bo "sure cures" for this disease. Let us discover, then, vv'hat the word "colic" means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of the organs of the abdopien that arc accompanied by pain. If the horse evinces abdominal pain, he is likely to be put down as suffering with colic, no matter whether the difficulty bo a cramj) of the bowel, an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions differ so much in their causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve theoi all. Therefore it is important that the various diseased states that arc so roughly classed together as colic shall, so far as ix>ssiblo, be separated and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be pre- scribed. With this object in viov/, colics will bo considered under the following headings: (1) Engorgement colic, (2) obstruction colic, (8) tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic, (5) worm colic. The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of colic, are restlessness, cessation of Avhatever the horse is about, lying down, looking around toward' the flank, kicldng w^ith the hind feet upward and forward toward the belly, jerky switching of the tail, stretching as though to urinate, fz-equent change of position, and groaning. In the more intense forms the horse plunges about, throws himself down, rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and grunts Ioudl3\ Usually the pain is not constant, and during the inter- missions the horse may eat and appear normal. During the period of pain sweat is poured out freely. Sometimes the horse moves con- stantly in a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually there is no fever. (1) ExGOiiGEMEXT COLIC. — This fonii of colic consists in an over- lo;iding of the stomach with food. The horse may have been overfed or the food may have collected in the stomach through failure of this organ to digest it and pass it backward into the intestines. Even a normal amount of food that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause diseaice. Hence a sudden change of food ma.j produce engorgement colic. Continued full rations while tlie horse is resting for a dav or DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. 51 two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New oats, corn, or hay, damag-ed food, or food difGcult of digestion, such as barley or beans, inay incite ongorgcment colic. This disease may result from having fed the horse twice hj error or from its having escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground feeds that pack together makhig a soii of dough may cause engorgem.ent colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy eaters are predis- posed to this disease. Symptoms. — The horse shows the genei'al signs of abdominal pain, which may be long contmiied or of short duration. Retching or vom- iting movements are made; these are shown by labored breathing, upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high arching of the neck. The horse ma}^ assume a sitting position on his haunche3, like a dog. At times the pain is ver}^ great and the horse makes the most violent movements, as thougli mad. At other times there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy, or dazed, way with the head down, the eyes closed, and leaning his head against the manger or wall. There is, during the strug;gles, pro- fuse perspiration. Following retching, gas may escape from the mouth and this may be follov/ed b}" a sour froth and some stomach contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is vio- loutl}^ stretched and, if the accumulation of food or gas is great enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be great enough to rupture this organ. So it happens not infrequently that a horse will die from ruptured stomach after vomiting. But after the stomach ruptures vomiting is impossible. The death rate in this form of colic is high. Treatment. — The bov^els should be stimulated to contraction by the use of clysters of large quantities of Avater and of glycerin. Veterina- rians use h^'podermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intravenous injections of barium chloride, but these have to be employed with great caution. It is not profitable to give remedies by the stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphine (5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian herpp (2 drams) may be placed in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without passing to the stom- ach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to overcome the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be the means of causing rupture of the diaphragm or stomach. If facilities are avail- able, relief may be afi'orded bv passing an esophageal tube through which some of the gaseous and liquid contents oL' the stomach may escape. Rupture of the sfomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of engorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse vio- lently throwing himself when so affected. It ma}^ result from disease 52 BUREAU OF a:^:imal industry. anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intestines, and ver}' violent pulling or jumping iuunediately after the animal has oiitou hc-ailil}' of bullvv food. These or similar causes may lead to this accident. The st/wptoiiis of rupture of the stomach are not constant or always reliable. Always make inquir^'^ as to what and how much the horse has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most likeh^ to occur in heav}' draft horses. A prominent symptom observed (though it ma}' also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is where the horse, if pos- sible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes; it is also quicklj- regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky s3'mpLoms, of course, are present, and these will varj^ much and pre- sent no diagnostic value. As the case progresses "the horse will often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backward and downward until the belly nearl}" touches the ground, and then rise up again with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently^ the horse reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. In the absence of nwy pathognomonic symptom we must take into account the histor}- of the case; the symptoms of colic that cease sud- denly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse quick and small and thread}^, growing weak and more frequent, and at length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible; looking back at the Hank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hind quarters; with or without eructation and vomiting. There is no treatmeid that can be of an}^ use whatever. Could we be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy' the animal at once. Since, however, there is alwa3's the possil^iiity of a mistake in diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as possible. (2) Obstkuction colic. — The stomach or bowels may be obstructed ^>\ accumulations of parti}' digested food (fecal matter), by foreign bod- ies, by displacements, by paralysis, or b}' abnormal growths. Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very conmion bowel trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly treated, results in death. It is caused by overfeeding, especially of bulky food containing an excess of indigestible residue; old, dry, hard hay, or stalks when large h'^ fed; deficiency of secretions of the intesti- nal tract; lack of water; want of exercise, medicines, etc. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 53 Symptoms. — Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed b}- a slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap- pear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more fre- quenth", but in smaller quantities and more dry; the abdomen is full, but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw and soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most char- acteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat on his side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to look toward his flank; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most freedom from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his tail, and soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the ilank, are dimin- ished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels. The l)owels may cease entirely to move. The pressure of the dis- tended intestine upon the bladder ma}" cause the horse to make frec[uent attempts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being full and sluggish; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes rapid and feeble. Horses may suffer from impaction of the bowels for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or even three weeks have ended favorablv- As a rule, however, they seldom lust o^er four or five days, man}-, in fact, dj- ing sooner than 'this. The treatnient consists of efforts to i)roduce movement of the bowels and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large cathartic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the follow- ing arc recommended: Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 drams, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint and croton oil 15 drops; or from 1 pint to 1 quart of castor oil may be given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or Glauber's salts, 1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this causes the horse to drink largel}" of water, and thus mechanically softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever physic is selected, it is essential that Vifull dose be given. This is much better than small and repeated dose:;. It must be borne in mind that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a physic, and under no circumstances are physics to be repeated sooner than this. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the proper time, oil or some different cathartic should then be adminis- tered. All'jw the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be administered in half-dram doses, the powder being placed on the tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given. Enemas of glycerin, 2 'o 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulating liniments or strong mustard water will also, at times, favor the expui- 54 BUKEAU OF AlflMAL IXDU3TKY. sion of this mass. "S^^alking• exercise must oecasionall}' be given. If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majoritj^ of cases will terminate favorabl3\ Where relief is not obtained inflam- mation of the bowels ma}' ensue, and death follow from this cause. Constipation^ or costlveness. — ^This is often witnessed in the horse, and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in partic- ular if it presents an}' signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — iinme- diate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will only l)e necessary to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce the linger through the aims to break down any hardened mass of dung found there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving from 2 to -1 ounces. The foal should alwa}- s get the lirst of the moliier's milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphine, atropia, or similar medicines, the foa-1 should be fed during this time by hand and the mare millicd upon the ground. Constipation in adult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innuferitious food, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky s^-mptoms., a change to light, sloppy diet,*linseed gruel or tea, with plenty of exercise, is all that is required. If colic exists, a cathartic is needed. In very many instances tiie con.-tipated condition of the bowels is due to lack of intestinal secre- tions, and when so due, may be treated by giving fluid extract of bel- ladonna three times a day in 2-dram doses, and handful doses daily of Epsom salts in the 'feed. It is always best, when possible, to overcome tills trouble by a change of diet rather than by the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation such succulent foods as roots, grass, or green forage arc recommcndGd. Silage, however, should be fed spar- ingly, and not at all un.less it is in the very best condition. Moldy siiago may cause fatal disease. Fcreign hodles {calouU (stojies) in the stomach). — There are probably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead one to suspect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we can unmistakably assert their presence. Stones in the stomach have been most frequently found in millers' horses fed sweepings from the mill. A depraved and capricious appetite is common in horses that have a stone forming in their stomach. There is a disposition to eat the woodwork of the stable, earth, and, in fact, almost any substance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be considered as pathognomonic, since it is observed v/hen calculi are not present. Occasional colics ma}' result from these "stomach stones," and when these lodge at the outlet of the stomach they may give rise to symp- DISEASES OF THE HOPcSE. 55 torus of engorged stomach, alrcad}- described. There is, of course, no treatinent that will prove effective. Give remedies to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation. Intestinal concretions [calculi (stones) in tJic intestines). — These con- cretions are usually found in the large bowels, though they are occa- sionally met with in the small intestines. They are of various sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or multiple, and difl'<3r in composition and appearance, some being soft (composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others arc porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), and ot]jers are entirely hard and stone-like. The hair balls, so common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the horse. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign bod}^, as a rule= — a nail or piece of wood — whose shape they may as.sume to a certain ext.ent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often found in miller's horses, as well also as in horses, in limestone districts, where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and become lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death. There are no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recurring colics of the type of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to suspect the existence of thi. condition. Examination through the rectum may reveal the calculus. The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon postmortem examinations these stones will be discovered mostly in the large bowels; the intesiines will be inflamed or gangrenous about the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the action of a physic, or they may be removed b}' the hand when found to occupy the rectum. As in concretions of the stomach, there can be but little done in the way of treatment more than to o-^ercorae spasm (if any exists), and to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and carrying them on and outward. Intussuscejytion .^ or invagination, — This is the slipping of a portion of the intestine into another portion immediatel}^ adjoining, like a partiall}' turned glove linger. This may occur at any part of the bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated por- tion may be slight — 2 or 3 inches only — or extensive, measuring as man}'' feet. In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, con- gestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most likely to occur in horses that arc suffering from spasm of the bowel, or in those where a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural worm-like or ring-like contraction of the gut favors the passage of the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it. 56 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. It ma}" occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, inflammation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to coid, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldircction. Foals are most likeh' to be thus afflicted. Sijmptoms. — Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes strangulated, probabl}^ no symptoms will be appreciable, except con- stipation. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and the horse die v.ithin twenty-four hours, or it ma}' occur after several days — a week even — and death follow at this time. There are no symp- toms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe and continuous, are observed, and there may be at first diarrhea followed by constipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of intus- susception, and this should be given due credit when it occurs. As death approaches the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an anx- ious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare instances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of the gut has become strangulated. In this case the imprisoned portion sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the intestines at the point vfhere one portion has slipped into that behind it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such cases arc exceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor oil. sweet oil, or calomel in small doses should be given, and creolin in 2-dram doses in a pint of warm water. Soft feed and mucilaginous and nour- ishing drinks should be given during these attacks. E. Mayhew jMichener has operated successfully on a foal with intussusception by opening the abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut. Volvulus^ gut-tie, or twisting of the howels. — These are the terms applied to the bowels wheji twisted or knotted. This accident is rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner in Avhich a horse throws himself about wdien attacked by spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and obstructions of the bowels; the same directions as to treatment are therefore to be observed. Paralysis of the intestine. — This occurs in old, debilitated animals that have been fed on coarse innutritious fodder. This produces a condition of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for tlie intestine to advance its contents, and so obstruction results. The symptoms. are as in other forms of obstruction colic. The history of the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouble. The treatment consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's salts dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 57 Abnormal growths, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing contraction or stricture may be causes of obstruction. The colic caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is afforded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin and thus enable them to pass the obstruction. But in time the con- tracted place is likeh' to close so far that passage is impossible and the horse will die. (3) Flatulent colic (ty:.ipakitic colic, wind colic, or bloat). ^ Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men- tioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting, food then given vv'hile the animal is exhausted, new ha}^ or grain, large quantities of green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigestible food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and, in fact, an^-thing that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. The sym2)toms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws slightl}^, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the haunches a drum-like sound results. If not soon relieved the above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed difiicult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, sighing respiration, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plung- ing- forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on percussion. The treatment for wind colic diflers very materially from that of cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be given in any quantitj'. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also bene- ficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is then particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spas- modic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisk}^ may be given, or aromatic spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals. A physic should alwa^'S be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- ble, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned. Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces, may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the bow- els and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot water do much to afi^ord relief; they should be renewed eveiy five or ten min- utes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of coiic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompf^nd persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some apparently 58 BUBEACJ OF ANIMAL INDUSTET. mild attacks going on to spced^^ dcatli, while others that appear at the onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. Do not cease your efforts until you are (sure the animal is dead. In these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent (dis- tended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a needle of a hypodei-mic 83-ringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has often saved life, and such punctures, if made with a clean, sharp instrument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are accompanied by little danger and do more to quickly lelieve the patient than any other treatment. (■i) Spasmodic, ok ceamp, colic. — This is the name given to that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the email intestines. It is produced b}^ indigestible food; large drinks of cold water when the animal is warm; driving a heated horse through deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribu- tion of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous hor.;es than in coarse, lvm})hatic ones. Symptoms. — These should be carefuib,' studied in order to diagnose this from other forms of colic requiring quite ditlerent treatment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to stop abrupt!}-, stamp impatientl}^, and proljtibly look back. He soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown ])y pawing, suddenlv 13-ing down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he v,^ill resume feeding and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, hov/- ever, the pains return and are iricreased in severity, onh'^ to again pass off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though QXQXi now there are exacerbations of jjiiin. Animals suffering from this form of colic evince the most intense pain; the}' throw themselves down, roll over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike rather, w'ith the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent attempts to pass their urine. Only a small amount of water is passed at a time, and this is due to the bladder bein^g so frequentl}-- emptied. These attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as s^Miip- toms of trouble of the kidne3's or bladder. In reality they ai"e only one of the many w^a^^s in which the horse expresses the presence of pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidney's of the horse are exceedingly rare. To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic: Keep in mind the history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 59 shorter duration as the ease progresses), the violent pain, the normal temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent attempts to urinate, etc., and there is but little danger of eonfoundir.g this with other forms of colic. Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm, or cramp, of the bowels, medicines that overcome spasms — antispasmodics — ^are the ones indi- cated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in a dose of 1 ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As this drug is irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well diluted. A common and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laudanum; of each 2 ounces in a half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be composed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one- half pint in hot water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The body should be warmlj^ clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantit}'- of turpentine has been added should be placed around the belly and covered witli dry blankets, or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete until there is given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint of linseed oil. Injections into the rectum of warm soap}^ water or salt and water aid the cure. Rectal injections, el^^sters, or enemas, as a rule should be lukewarm, and from 8 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. They may be repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to Ijc taken not to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a i}iece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must bo blunt, rounded, and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or padciock, it is the best, as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be exti^cmely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels ma}^ result and complicate the trouble. (5) Worm colic. — Parasites of many kinds reside in the intestinal canal of horses. There are three kinds of tapeworms, one long round- worm, and several kinds of smaller roundworms. Besides these are 60 BUREAU OF ANlilAL INDUSTRY. the bot-fly grubs and lai'vtv. The intestinal worm most commonly seen is known as Ascaris eqwrnun. They are white or reddish in color and measure from -i to 12 inches in length. In thickness they vary from the size of a r3^e straw to that of a lady's little finger, being thickest at the middle and tapering at both ends. They are found singly- or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the small intestines. Of the smaller rovindworms, the more important are Strongylus equinus, which lives in the large intestine and whose larva? l)urrow in the walls of the great mesenteric arter}^, and the worms of the genus OxyuHs^ which collect in and irritate the rectum. The tapeworms, once seen, are easily recognized. They are white, flat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. Tapeworms of the horse sometimes measure from 20 to 30 feet in length. Symptoms. — Sj'mptoms of intestinal worms are not alwa3's observed, even when many parasites are present. If the infestation is extreme, there may be slight colick}" pains at times, or there may only be switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his coat; is hidebound and potbellied; the appetite is depraved, licking the walls, biting the vv'ooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his bod}', eating earth, and being particularly fond of salt; the bowels are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the upper lip, as shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stalls. Others again declare that whenever we. see the adherence of a dried whitish substance about the anus, worms are present. The one sj'mptom, however, that wo should always look for, and certainly the onl}' one that ir.ay not deceive us, is seeing the worms or their eggs (by the use of a microscope) in the dung. Treatment. — Remedies to destroy intestinal worms arc much more ef- ficient if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must be supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the best worm medicines ma}' be mentioned santonine, turpentine, tartar emetic, creolin, infusion of tobacco, and l)itter tonics. To destro}^ tapeworms, areca nut, malefern, and pumpkin seeds are the best. If a horse is passing the long roundworms, the plan of treatment is to give twice dail}' for three or four days a drench composed of turpentine or creolin 1 ounce and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by a physic of Barbados aloes 1 ounce, or one may give santonine 2 to 4 drams, with calomel 1 to 2 drams. This dose should not be repeated, and should be followed in six hours by 1 quart of linseed oil. If the pinworms are present (the ones that infest the large bowels), injections into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, one- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 61 half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few days, and follow by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne in mind that intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition; and an essential part of treatment then is to improve the appetite and powers of digestion. This is best done by giving the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, ginger, quassia, etc. , is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. To improve the general condition, one may give artificial Carlsbad salts, 1 tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 3 to 5 grains of arsenious acid. Bot-fly larvss do not require special treatment unless they lodge in the rectum, in which case thej^ may be dislodged by injecting tobacco water. If plentj^ of rock salt is allowed for horses to lick, they will thus be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight but useful dcgTee. Indigestiox or gastro-ixtestinal catarrh. — There is ample reason for considering these conditions together from the facts that the}^ merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneousl3^ This con- dition ma}' be acute — that is, of sudden onset — or it may be chronic. The clianges of structure produced by this disease occur in the mucous- membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemorrhage into it, it is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. The causes of indigestion are numerous but nearly all arc the result of errors in feeding. Some horses are naturally endowed wntli weak digestive organs, and such arc predisposed to this condition, x^nj^thing that irritates the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Foods that the animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, unripe, or damaged foods, are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. In suck- ling foals this condition may come from some disease of the dam that renders her milk indigestible or from overexertion or overheating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth making mastication imperfect and thus causing the horse to swallow his food in a con- dition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or indiges- tion. Any condition that reduces the vitalit}^ of the horse, such as disease, overwork, poor food, or lack of care, may indirectlj^ bring on indigestion b}" weakening the digestive organs. Sywptoins. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; refusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appe- tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, soiled 62 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL IlfDUSTKY. bedding, or oxen liis own feces; the bowel;=! arc irregular to-day, loose and bad smelling-, to-morrow bound; grain is often passed whole in the feees, and the haj^ passed in balls or impacted masses, undergoing but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the skin pre- sents a hard, dr}' appearance and seems very tight (hidebound). If the stomach is vevy seriously invoh^ed, the horse n\&y yawn by stretch- ing the head forward and upward and b}^ turning outward the upper lip. There may be more or le^s colicky pain. In the chronic cases there is mental depression; the horse is sluggish and dull. The abdo- men graduall}' becomes small, giving a "tucked up" appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. Treatmerd. — One should commence with the food — its qualit}', quantity, and tim.c of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given befpre feeding; then carefully ol>serve the condition of the mouth and teeth; and, continuing the observations as best we may, endeavor to locate the seat of the trouble. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down; if m\y are decayed they must bo extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger whore the grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. Any irritation, vsuch as worms, undigested. food, etc., that are operating as causes arc to be removed hy apj^ropriate treatment, as advised elsew-here. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach and bowels, with gas, during iiidigestion, the following may be used: •Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonf ul doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given hj dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of water and given as a drench. As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salts, 2 poiuids; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of this a heaping tablespoonful maj'- be given in each feed. If diarrhea exists, tlie treatment advised belo"w ma}^ be used. DiARiaiEA. — Diarrhea is due to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or to irritation of the bowel i from eating mold}^ or musty food, drinking stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating sub- stances, to being kept oii low, marshy pastures, and exposure during cold nights, or low, dam.p stables. Some horses are predisposed to scour and are called "washy" b}^ horsemeji; they are those with long- bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diar- rhea may cxis': as a complication of other diseases as pneumonia and influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver. DISEASES OF TEE HOESE. 63 The 8ymptoms arc the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or yrithout pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and judgjuent. If due to faulty food or water it is suiScient to change these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best gotten rid of b}" the administration of an oleagi: ous purge, for which nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil maj-^ be used if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disapx^ears with the ces- sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging c. n- tinues, it msa^j be checked bj^ giving wheat Hour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul- phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice d .ilj^. Good results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams, and subnitrate of bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. It should be remem- bered in all cases to lo >k \o the water and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily digested foods. With that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can be done, as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possi- ble before going on a drive. If there is much tlatulencj/ accompany- ing diarrhea, bakin.g soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a care, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor, this can be corrected hx 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in wati'r, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vege- table or mineral astringents, since tli:; majority of cases will 3'ield to change of food and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards feed upon wheat-fiour gruel or other lighh foods. The body should be warmly clothed. SuPESPUBGATiON. — This is the designation of that diarrhea, or llux from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of a phj^sic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflamma- tion of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Altliough in rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the follow- ing circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitatir.g dis- eases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of cold air; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is given to a horse sufl'ering from diseases of the respirator}' organs. Small and often-repeated ph3'sics are also to be avoided, as they pro- duce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to this disorder. When a plrrsic is to be given one should rest the horse and give him sloppy food until the medicine begins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; gi\'e only warm 64 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSIKY. water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four hours it can mostl}^ be stopped, or *'set," as horsemen sa}', by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or Aa'c times a da3^ Laminitis "founder" is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some similar bedding. Dysentery. — This -disease, sometimes called "bloody flux,'' is an intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, and fluid discharges, mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery arc coffee colored or l)loody, liquid, and ver}'^ offensive in odor, and passed with nmch straining. It is rare in the horse, l)ut is sometimes quite prevalent among foals. Caicses. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in d3\sen- tery); exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed foods; stagnant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant foods or from disease of the udder. In other foals it ma}'^ be produced b}^ exposure to cold and damp, to irritant food, or to worms. Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probabl}^ escapes notice in the majorit}^ of instances. The discharges are offensive and for the most part licjuid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous membrane and blood may be passed, or the evacuations may be muco-purulent; there is much straining, and, rarely, R3anptoms of abdominal pain; the subject lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened and the temper- ature elevated. Thirst is a prominent symptom. In the adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the disease ma}'- end in death after a few days. Treatment. — This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place more dependence upon the care and feed than anv medication that may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, v:arm, yet well-ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent rub- bings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small quantities; the food, that which is light and easily digested. Medicinalh^, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to which has been added 2 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 65 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or mineral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likel}" to prove fatal. In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy condition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or from a cow. Gastro-enteritis. — This condition consists in an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, or lining, membrane, as in gastro-intestinal catarrh, the inflammatory process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of the wall of the organ. This disease may be caused by irritant food, hot drinks, sudden chilling, mold}^ or deca3^ed foods, foul water, parasites, or by chemical poisons. It ma}^ also complicate some general diseases, especiall}' infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting in death are preceded by enteritis. The sijmptoms ^\Qqy somewhat with the cause and depend also, to some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colick}'- pain; fever develops; the pvilsc and respiration become rapid; the mucous mem- brane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease is caused by moldy or damaged food there may be great muscular weakness with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the histor}^ of the administration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid development of threatening- symptoms, the involvement of a series of animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symptoms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To make this chain of evidence com- plete, the poison may be discovered in the organs of the horse by chemical anal3'sis. In nearl}^ all cases of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression. The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or chloride of zinc, lye or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be 14384—03 5 6G BUKEAU 01' ANIXAL INDUSTKY. detected, certain general indications nuiy be observed. In all cases food should bo given in small amounts and should be of the most soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh grass, or rice ■water. The skin should be well rubbed with wisps of straw and alco- hol, to equalize the distribution of the blood; tlie legs, after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It is well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and frequently changed; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of the bell}'. Internall}', opium is of service to alia}'- pain, check secretion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to 3 drams, given every three or four hours. If there is constipation, the opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitratc of bismuth may be given with the opium or separately' in 2-dram doses. Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a drench. If putrid food has been consumed, creolin may be administered in doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there is obstinate constipation and a laxative must be employed, it should be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. For the various poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic, oxy hydrate of iron solu- tion, 1 pint to 1 quart, or calcined magnesia one-half ounce in 1 pint of water; corrosive suhliraate, the whites of a dozen eggs or 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur; sugar of lead, Glauber's salts, 1 f)ound in 1 quart of warm water, to be followed with iodide of potash, 3 drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days; sulphate of copper, milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron; sulp)hate or chloride of zinc, milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia; lye or alkalies, as caustic p>otash or soda, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams; mineral acids, chalk, or calcined magnesia, or baking soda; later give linseed tea and opium. Hemorrhoids, or tiles. — These are rare, comparatively, in horses. They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors after defecation, which ma}' remain visible at all times or bo seen only when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to constipation, to irritation, or injuries, or follow from the severe straining during dysentery. I have obsei'ved them to follow from severe labor pains in the mare. Treatment. — Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; they should bo soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed after which scar- ify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the part^ with some ano- dyne wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 67 in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days. Hernia, or rupture. — There are several different kinds of hernias that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symptoms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into reducible, irreducible^ and atrangidated^ according to condition; and into inguincd., scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaijhraginaiic, according to their situ- ation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ can bo returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, g'enerally larger on full feed, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangxdajted hernia is one where the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or where from pressure upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. Accord- ing to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be congenital or acquired. Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great majority of cases, as this enlargement often disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any time become strangidated, it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse. Scrotal liernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the inguinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the abdominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus filling, the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal hernia, for often horses have this condition without suffering incon- venience for years. Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may become 68 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen mostlj' in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that sct'otal hernia is seen only in entire horses, we can proceed to detail the symptoms of both strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated; by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickh' con- tract again. The histor}^ of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic," more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta- ble manner. The colicky sj'mptoms of these hernias are not diagnostic^ but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than an}- other bowel diseases. The diagnosis can, in many cases, be made onl}" by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring. Treatment of inguinal liernia. — If the reader can be sure of the existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and, with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pres- sure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If these means fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may occur at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the weight of the fetus or some degenerative changes taking- place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position. Treatment of ventral hernia. — In many instances there is no occasion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and particu- DISEASES OE THE HOESE. 69 larly if it is not too lai-ge, he ma}^, hj the proper aiiplication of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. Umbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omentum ('^ caul 'Vthrough the navel, forming a "tumor "at this point. This is |0Pi congenital in our animals, and is due to the imperfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the bodj^. Manjr cases of uml^ilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con- genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro- portionall}^ shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worr}^, and to neigh, or crj^, by the hour. The con- traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur- ing- neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Accidents may cause mnbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. Treatment of 'iwibilical hernia. — In the treatment of umbilical hernia it should be remembered that congenital hernias are often removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical hernias less frequently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be men- tioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being held in place by a broad tight bandage placed around the animal's hodj. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artiticial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clip- ping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in the same manner as the preceding, but ma}^ cause serious injur}^ if the syringe or solu- tion is not sterile. Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen and securel}- tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords 70 BUREAU OF ANIMAL IJ^DUSTBY. too tight^ as this would cause a speedy slough of the skiu, the intestines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied an adhesion is established between the skin and the umbilicus wliioh effectually closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking- up the fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it lintil the adhesion is formed. Dia^liraginatiG hernia. — This consists of the passage of an}' of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the cavity of the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often impos- sible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat characteristic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have alreadj'' seen, may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bow- els. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however; it must be kept there. Peritonitis. — Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the caAaty of and covering the viscera contained within the. abdo- men. It is ver}'^ rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It is, how- ever, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension of the inflammatory action involving organs covered b}'^ the peritoneum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, following the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, invagina- tion, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. Symptoms. — Peritonitis is mostly preceded b}^ a chill; the horse is not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or sore gait;, he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with the hind ones; lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while down, he maintains during most of the time the standing position; he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usual!}- present. Pres- sure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 102'-' to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is quick- ened, beating from seventy to ninety beats per minute, and is hard and vdry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation of the serous membrane, and if accompanied by colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. Peri- tonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the cavity of the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 71 belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteri- tis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitute the main dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belh^, consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment," turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purga- tives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomex. — This is seen as a result of subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the cavit}'" of the bell}^, a large collection of j^cllowish or reddish liquid; from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numerous loose Hakes of coagulable h mph. Symjytoms. — There is slight tenderness on j^ressure; awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional ver}^ slight colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease the l^owels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on both sides of the belly; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an advanced one, the horse is potbellied to the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Epsom or Glauber's salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumulation of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the application of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, mineral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts; a heaping table- spoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twice a da3% Good nutritious foods and gentle exercise complete the treatment. DISEASES of the LIVER. This organ in the horse is, in the United States, but rarel}' the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall 72 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases; as overdistentiou of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only arc diseases of the liver rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, and in man}^ cases pass totall^^ unobserved until after death. There arc some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us oxaminc the liver as carefuU}^ as possible. These are jaundice (3'el- lowncss of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in appearance. Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver. — This disease maj- be general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form. The sj/m2?toms of acute hepatitis arc: Dullness; the horse is suffering from some internal pain, but not of a severe tj'pe; constipated and cla}'- colored diuig balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general febrile s3'mptoms. If Ij'ing down, he is mostly found on the left side; looks occasionall}' toward the right side, which, upon close inspection, may be fovmd to be slightl^^ enlarged over the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the right leg mostl}^, may be a sj^mptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, during one of which he finally succumbs. De/ith is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood vessels. Causes. — Among the causes that lead to this disease we nuist men- tion first the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularl}^ during hot weather. Horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We nuist add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, foreign bodies — as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver — and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma- tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as Glauber's salts or the artificial Carlsbad salt, is indicated. These may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to be fed sparingl}' on soft food, bran mashes chiefl}^. If treatment proves sue- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 73 cessful find recovery takes place, see to it that the horse aftei'wards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a too highly nutritious character and not excessive. Jaundice, icterus, or the yellows. — This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was for- merlj^ considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a symp- tom of disorder of the liver. "The yellows" is observed by looking at the ayes, nose, and mouth, when it will bo seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light- colored horses the skin even may show this 3'ellow tint. The urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirt^^-gray color, and constipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal has fever the secretions are checked, the bile ma}' be retained and absorbed throughout the S3'stem, and yellowness of the nmcous membranes fol- lows. Jaundice ma}" also exist during the presence of simple consti- pation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. Treatment. — When jaundice exists Ave must endeavor to rid the sys- tem of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished bj- giving pur- gatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, should be given. Glauber's salts in handful doses once or twice a day for a week is also effective. Mavapple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels ma}^ be selected. We must be careful to see that tlie bowels are kept open by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods. Rupture of the liver. — This is known to occur at times in tli'i horse, most frequently in old fat horses and those that get but little exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for jcars eventually present sjnuptoms of colic and die qitite suddenl}^. Upon postmortem examination we discover that the liver had rup- tured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver indicate that this organ maj^ suffer small rupture and jet the horse recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent, or tear, is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from pe:itonitis. Enlarged liver is particu- larh^ liafjle to rupture. Causes.- — The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. The symj>toms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent of the laceration. If slight there will be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if exten- sive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing becomes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. 74 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY . Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the e3'es, nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc. , are the symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. Treatment. — But little can be done in the wa}' of treatment. Opium in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may Ijb given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak l^ark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantitj' of sugar of lead, ever}^ half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chloride of iron, in ounce doses, maj' be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage. Biliary calculi, or gallstones. — These are rarely found in the horse, but maj" occupj" the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colick}' pains. There are no absolutelj' diagnostic symptoms, but should one lind a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow- ing these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones are present. There is little or nothing to b,e done except to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience. Diseases of the pancreas and spleen.— Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their sj^mptoms so. little understood, that it i;. impossible to wi'itc anything concerning either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of practical value. .1 ■llliilll c>'> (S k^ o; ,« ti: r? o3 i ^ S S (S ^ ^ "0 Co K co" cv ^^ 1:5^ s7 S5 ^^- PI.A'!-K IL. '/7ic (u/ii/r B c:) "T H . 1 Bols in Iho sloniHch. 2 Bots iutlie (luodfiumn,. lus eiEN & CO r Pi..-\'i-K rii Sclerostoma arniatiiy/i .-Lfcari^v iiut/a/ocephtila I N r J.: S T I N .VI . W O R M s DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By James Law, F. R. C. Y. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell Unhersity. [Revised in 1903 by the author.] USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. The urinar}' organs constitute the main channel tlirough which are excreted the nitrog-enons or albuminoid principles, whether derived directly from the food or from the muscular and other uitrogenized tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in b}^ the mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural diges- tion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finall}^, poi- sons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous sj^stem, or other organs. Nor is this influ- ence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary sj^stem. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual balance main- tained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidne3's during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid exhales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspondingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usuallj^ kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely In solution, and these are liable to cr3^stallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that normally leave the bod}^, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions. PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains 76 BUIiEAU OF AXIMAL INDUSTRY. the urine; of an excess of hippuric ticid and allied products, which being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid and other bodies that tend, "when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritiition of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of gbrcogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired func- tional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the urine, which irritate the kidneys even if thej'^ do not produce solid deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary dis- orders, prominent among which are diabetes, ch^'lous urine, and albu- minuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia., and endanger the formation of stone and gravel. In ail extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form the urinary" secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison the system at large. Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the kidneys, as are also various cr3'ptogams, whether present in musty hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vegetables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich in phos- phates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake, cotton- seed cake) or by a privation of water which entails a concentrated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snowstorms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to further dis- order an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflamma- tion. The right kidney, weighing 23i ounces, is shaped like a French bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards, and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each consists of three distinct parts — (a) the external (cortical), or vas- cular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface of the sinuous secreting PKA'Cl'-, I\-, ./ -^^ niCorticrd (or voA-cular) portion ; b, Meciullarr (or Izt.buZaj-) portion-; c,J'e.riph^.ral portion of the latter; d, Interior of t/ie pelvic- ; et',d', Armsofthe-peh't^S! e, Border of the cre<9t ; f,rnfundihida/n j g, Ureter. lrt>o.M.'ux.(U-l. alter BiEN &. cot LOXCVITI'DINAL SHTTION THHOrOIl KIDNK^' DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 77 tubes leading from the sacs inward toward the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (J) the internal (medullary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, Ij-mphatics, and nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kidney to and from the outer Avascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular reservoir in the center of the kiduej", into which all uriniferous tubes pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at- the inner border of the kidney and which opens by a valve- closed oritice into the roof of the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circular muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by looped muscular fibers extending in all directions for- ward from the neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through a pink conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening ma}^ be found directly in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 4^ inches from its external opening. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE. These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation caused by stone. The animal moves stifil}^ on the hind limbs, strad- dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop- ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges- tive of kidne}^ disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, and diseases of the skin and nervous sj^stem. The oiled hand intro- duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kidneys even may be reached. EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar- ency, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be 78 BUREAU OF A2s^IMAL INDUSTRY. looked for: (1) Color: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or red from blood clots or coloring matter; 3'ellow or orange from bile or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse's urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatlj^ exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reactio?}^ as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or absti- nence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) Organic constituents^ as when glairy from albumen coagulable b}" strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of the urinifer- ous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. (5) In its salts^ which \x\%^ crystallize out spontaueousl}^, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glair}-, so that it may be drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows: If the liquid is opaque, it may bo first passed through filter paper; if verj^ dense and already precipitating its salts, it ma}^ be diluted with distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop b}" drop until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved it is albumen; if dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu- men is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules (anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma- tion of the lungs and pleurae, and even tympan}' (bloating), doubtless from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of the kidncj-s, acute or chronic. Casts of the uriniferous tubes can onl}- be seen h\ placing the sus- pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (wax}^) or entan- gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood globules or clear refrangent oil globules. They maj^ be even densely opaqvie from crj^stals of earthy salts. Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and are recognized b}^ clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that each cell shows two or three nuclei. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 79 DIURESIS (polyuria, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF urine). This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. Causes.- — Its causes may be any agent — medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous — which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless admin- istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or ha}^; new oats still imperfectl}^ cured; an excess of roots or other ver}' watery food; a full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinatel}^ fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properl}^ dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the riclc or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma somnolen- txim (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and especially in rainj^ districts. Syraqytoms. — The horse drinks deep at every opportunitj^ and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal — a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominent]}^, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when ih.Q, cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. Treatment. — This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons, or food, and suppljdng sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison a'- j. to sheath and protect the irritated kidnej^s. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powered gentian or Peruvian bark (tt drams) help greatly bj^ bracing the system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (i drams) properl}^ diluted, may be resorted to. 80 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. SACCHARINE DIAB"f:TES (dIABETES MELEITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA). This is primarily ii disease of the nervous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, it may be treated here. Causes. — Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is more than can be disposed of in the natural wa}', and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starch}- food, but this is due altogether to the super- abundant suppl}^ of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours only, and has no pathological signilicance. In many cases of fatal glj-cosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentall}^ by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong meduUa at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogtistric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) wdiich presides over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the pncumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this maladj^. The com- plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the organ having in health an inhilntive action on sugar production by the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by interruptiu' of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in destruction of the upper or lower cervical S3'mpathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injurj^ to the spinal IT. irrow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsa^ vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strj^chnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and phlorizin. Symj)toms. — The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 81' of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of con- dition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity^ of the bowels,, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet principle — grape- sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly detected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply b}^ adding a teaspoonf ul of liquid 3^east to 4 ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F. for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been changed inta alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will give indication, of the amount of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was formerlj^ 1.060 would indicate about 16 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be. indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal- lois' test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost ta dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is- changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis- appears on cooling and reappears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and. bell}^, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the. lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a. run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may ba treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainh-" albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, beans, vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best; remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or buttermilk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic acid«. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often ontir* ly restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. " (Jodeia. one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by Dr. Tyson, The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice daily. In cases- in which there is manifest irritation of the brain bromide of potas- sium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Salicylic acid and salic3"late of sodium have prov^ed useful in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving thenligostion and general health. 11381—03—6 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. BLOODY URINE, OR HE>L\TURIA. Cause. — As seen in the horse, bloodj'- urine is usually the direct result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its substance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diu- retic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incoraparabh^ less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, the differ- ence being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni- formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the microscope. Precision also may be aj^proxi mated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in the blad- der or urethra. Treatment. — The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treatment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in appl3dng general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, linseed tea) freeh', and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 3 drams, acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal perfectl}^ still. HEMOGLOBINURIA (aZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-forming functions than of the kidney, but as prominent s^miptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark- colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a pletliora in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directl}'' connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cottonseed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant dail}" work, even DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 83 though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipitated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually suc- cumb under the first hundred j^ards or half mile of exercise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdom- inal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condition, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable to maintain the health}'' functions of the nerve centers and muscles. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable .than the docile geldi ng. Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pi'o- duccd nephritis, blood}^ urine, and paraplegia in experimental animals, including horses, Sympto7ns. — In the milder forms this affection ma}^ appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- den exertion and attended b}^ a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the ej^e and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oi:>pression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- self. When down, the body and limbs are moved couvulsivel}', but there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly ela])0- rated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardj^ recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs ma}^ last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve), and a complete inability to stand. Prevention. — The prevention of this serious affection lies in restrict- ing the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. 84 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A liorse that has had one attack should uever.be left idle for a sinolc day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salts), and have graduated exercise, beginning with a shoi-t walk and increasing day by day. Treatment. — The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa- tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden atta<;ks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in- stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the spinal cord, nuiscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secretion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be resorted to, such as saltpeter one- half ounce, and powdered colchicum one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four da3's should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disap- pears, any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis maj^ be treated by one-half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet oil in equal proportions)^-ubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helped up and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFIAMIMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, accord- ing as they were acute or chronic, parench3^matous or tubal, suppura- tive or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc. ; but in a work like the present, utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic inflammation. Causes. — The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and during fevers. This ma}^ last onlj^ during the existence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart disease, throw- DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 85 ino^ the blood pressure back on the veins and kidnej^s, is anotlier cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidne}^ and causing increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decomposition of the detained urine in such cases, and the production of ammonia and other irritants, must also be named. In elimination of bacteria through the kidnej, the latter is liable to infection with consequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorption of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidne}^, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are carried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kid- ney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. Symjjtoms. — The S3'mptoms are more or less fever, manifest stifi'ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficult}' in lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequentl}^, a small quantit}" at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavj'^ clothing may be supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed ma}' be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum 86 BUEEAU OF A^^'IATAL I^'DUSTKY. as an injection, and blankets saturated vrith hot water should be per- sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the hair, and covered up with paper and a blanket. This raaj'^ be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It ma}^ then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reaj^plied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber's salts. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the kidne3^s is more commonly associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine ma}" be the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the sj'stem — as indigestion, hea-ii; disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease hy itself. Symjotorns. — The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it con- tains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity" of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Drops}', manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body, or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exertion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are sldn erup- tions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs elsewhere. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 87 detected, that should be treated first or simultaneous!}^ with this affec- tion of the kidne3's. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any elevated tempera- ture of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mustard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few daj's. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infusion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To appl}^ a cup shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantl}^ apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to sjmiptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- nized during life. PARASITES. To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococciis, the larval, or bladder-worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog; also the Cysticercus Jlstularis, another bladder worm of an unknown tapeworm; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro- scopic booklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine and thus establish a diagnosis. DloctojjJiyme renah, the largest of roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence can onl}^ bo certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. Immature stages of the armed roundworm of the horse, Stro7igylus equinus, may be found in the renal arter}" or in the kidney itself. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body of the bladder; or, if the organ is alread}^ unduly distended, these will be affected with temporary paral3^sis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no means unkno^vn in the mare. 88 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Causes. — The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with- out opportunit}' for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanisli fly or the application of extensive blisters of the same, alnise of diuretics, the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the bladder.^ As most mares refuse to urinate while in har- ness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief. Si/OTvptoms. — The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient Avill often shrink when it is handled. It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced back- ward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes frequent efforts to urinate, with var^dng success. JJnpracticed observers naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend, or loop, at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil- ient, overdistended bladder. It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined b\^ a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard, impacted bod}" can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually distended Avith urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctuating. Treatme7it. — Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of Struriure olthe l\idney. Diagrammatic. a , Mrc/itl/arylayef: b.Boundary xone ; c, Cortica/ Lover; l.ExcrUorr luhe;2,Opw "Iff on thr summit ofrena/ paf>Ma;3,First branch of hifu/^caUon; i,. Second branch orbif„rca(uvi; :>,ThuYl brancfy of birurccit4on.:6,SLrniqht collecting Cube- 7, Junc- tional lubule ,S, Ascending portion ofHentesLoop; 9, Descending portion or Henies loop; JO, Loop ot^IIcnle; Jl, Con \ ■oluted tubule ; J-?, Mcdpighian corpuscle; 13,Se/ial ar-^ tery:M,Bran/mj)toms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud- denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, especially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kidney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis are added. Uretral calculi. — These are so called because they are found in the passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to sym^ytoms almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the ureter is completely blocked for a length of time the retained urine may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous capsule contain- ing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly blocked the animal will die of uremic poisoning. Treatment of renal and uretral ca^ct^Z/.— Treatment is unsatisfactory, as it is ordy the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of belladonna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by sooth- ing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large proportion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the calculus is manifested onl}'^ by the frequent passage of urine with gritty particles, b}" stiffness of the loins and hind limbs, and by tender- ness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run at pasture 100 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long-continued secre- tion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the breaking down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid b}"- the organic sponge-like framework of the calculus causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-continued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the densit}^ and cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys develops, treat as advised under that head. Stone in the hladde)' {vesical calcxdxis^ or ctjstlc calculus). — These may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color. These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainflor being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out- ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic mat- ter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearh^ uniform consist- ency and without stratification. Synipto7ns of stone m the Madder. — The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled with mucus or blood or containing minute griliy particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite emptied, Li the smooth phosphatic variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incontinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation is left. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 101 In the mare the hard stone ma}^ be touched by the fino^er introduced through the short urethra. Treatment of stone in the Vladder. — The treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half full of liquid, and if necessarj'' one oiled hand may be introduced into the rec- tum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the blad- der, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may be need- ful to enlarge the j)assage b}^ cutting in a direction upward and out- ward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being simpl}' pressed against a wall by a pole passed from before backward along the other side of the bod}'. The tepid water is injected into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt tlirough the skin at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand press- ing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical incision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subsequent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such danger is to be apprehended. If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the 102 BUREAU OF ANIIsIAL INDUSTRY. forceps. The lithotrite id an instrument composed of a straight stem bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may be seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way must be washed out as advised below. When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter b}^ means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more apparent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacuation. To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding (dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease, whea.t bran^ etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must be cor- rected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxative, consisting largelj^ of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. Pow- dered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and sj^stem at large. TJTethral calculits {stone in the urethra). — This is less frequent in horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform appendix. The calculi arrested in the ui'ethra are never formed there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to pass, through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the chem- ical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from that point down to the extremit}" of the penis. 1 have found them most fre- quently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and immedi- ately behind this. Symjytoms of urethral calculus. — The sjmiptoms are violent straining to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the swell- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 103 ing of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethi-a beneath the anus. In any case the urethra betvreen the neck of the bladder and the point of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a distented tube fluctu- ating on pressure. Treatment of urethral calmihis may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine- pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between the thighs and directl}^ over the nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with forceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactoril3^ Healing will be favored hy washing two or three times daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. Preputial calculus {calculus in the sheath, or Mlocular cavity). — These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and smeared with sweet oil. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By ^V. IT. HARnAUGiT, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] The organs pertaining to the respirator}' function ma}' be eniimeriited in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs. The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the walls of the thora<;ic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the diseases under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three cx3ntinuous compartments by the two thin, scroll-like turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which commiuiicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than 104 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 105 the organs connected with an}^ other function of the animal, and, as many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable to know and stud}^ the causes. CAUSES OF DISEASES OF KESPIKATORY ORGANS. The causes of many of the diseases of these organs mnj be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are chang- ing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consecjiuently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessafil}^ have purer air than citj' stables. Stables on some farms are so faultil}^ constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and, therefore, can least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as nuich as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especiall}' remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm v/ith blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a per- nicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is over- heated it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; rubbing him dr}" and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan fo walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over the animal may 106 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the most fatal eases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid prolonged or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left to drj' by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respi- ration are most f recpient. It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly considers his interests he will stud}^ the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run into," or by running against something. Occasion- all}' the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con- servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there b}^ stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi- tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apai't, as cir- cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed awa}^ daih' with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him rul)bing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days, except when at work or eating. TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency. Treatment.— li the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 107 out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out- side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best Avay to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of j^our left hand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tamor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surel}'' into the tumor; make the opening large; a little blood ma}' flow out for awhile, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation ma}^ extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the inside of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the .general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated. Sijinptoms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is drj^, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less afi'ected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conxeyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of tempera- ture in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difiiculty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptl}^ called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a time. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good 108 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunn}^ sack, or, if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about.fifteen or twenty minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations. If the animal -is constipated, relieve this symptom bj^ injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three or four times a day, but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild character. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take time, and do it right. If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge frorti the nostrils continues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thor- oughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more dangerous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES). This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the mem- brane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is mani- fested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a neg- lected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. Other ])ut less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 109 the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused hj the pressure of pus collecting in them and b}" tumors filling up the cavity. Symptoms. — Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleets This affection is not contagious. It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril onl}^, which may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent discharge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged- edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasional!}^ sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, stud}^ well the symptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril ma}^ have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlargement, having the nppearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When j^ou tap on the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw, a hollow, drum-like sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected ma}^ be located in some instances. The hair ma}^ be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres- sion where it is pressed upon with the finger. Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutritive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. IIU BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTEY. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- tion are of the most value. For eight da3^s give the following mix- ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burn- ing sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in the usual way. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavitj^ which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non- professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modm operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved b}'^ trephining. THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be aft'ected, but one side only is the rule; and the affected yide may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasionally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Ill They vary much in size; some arc so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane. The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other opera- tions, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The result- ing hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or b}' packing the nostrils with surgeon's gauze. PHARY^'GEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the t-umor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the bod}^ of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it mdy seriousl}^ interfere with breath- ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination mj.ist be made by holding the animal's mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be removed in the same manner as though it were in the nose. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. 112 BUREAU OF A^^IMAL INDUSTRY. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing —causing- a rupture of a small blood vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream), and is not f rotlrv as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, p. 135.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, j-ou will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efEcient. If in spite of these measures the hemor- rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, toAV, or oakum. Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safel}^ withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor- rhage is profuse and pcrsistxjnt, give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water; or ergot, 1 ounce. INFLAMMATION OF THE TIIARYNX. As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. Fromithis organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, namelj^, influenza, strangles, etc., and is probablj- alwaj^s more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with the diseases of the digestive tract. SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. The laiynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some- what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside wnth a continuation of the res- piratory mucous membrane. Posteriori^' it opens into and is continu- ous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little con- sequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larnyx. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 113- Inflammation of the laniyx is a serious and sometimes a fatal disease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the- pharynx, constituting what is popularh^ known as "sore throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure. Symjytoms. — About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem- brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and-^ in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however,, does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is- involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw- bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx' induces coughing. The head is more or less "poked out," and has the appearance of being stifily carried. The membrane in the nose'- becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the- disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisj' char- acter; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respira-- tion, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionalh" the animal seems threatened with suffocation. Treatment. — In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for- cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continu- ously for hours — until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water ever}' fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonf ul of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to- the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild eases steaming; the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suflice. The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dr}' stall (a box stall- preferred), and should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body should be l)lanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best' of all, grass, if in season, which should be fresh. The manger, or' trough, should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary one should- be constructed at about the height he carries his head. Having tc- reach too high or too low ma}' cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might have than- inflict pain Iw craning his head for food or water. A supply of fresh, water should be before him all the time; he will not drink too much, nor ,vill the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be- relieved be enemas of warm water, administered three or four times- during the twentj'-four hours. 14384—03 8 114 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil unci 1 ounce each of solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together, may be thoroughly rublxid in about the throat from ear to ear, and about six inches down over the windpipe, and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a da}^ for two or three days. If the animal is breathing with great difficult}-, persevere in steam- ing the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in ever}" gallon of water he will drink; even if he can not swallow much of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some benelit to the pharynx as a gargle. An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice powder may be spread on the teeth with a paddle ever}- few hours. If the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphine may be added to the electuary. When the breathing begins to be loud relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of I'aborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the month. In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the oj)eration of tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examination, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or 6 inches below the throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assist- ant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Make the cut about 2 inches long hi the w'indj>i]pe ; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is neces- sary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested when the wind- pipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 115 horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting into the wind- pipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self -adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position b}^ means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downward toward the lungs. The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca^ tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animaFs ability to breath through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to. 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches tlirmujK the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not tlie horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the car- tilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open ]>y tying the strings over the neck. During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and sig- nifies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammo- nia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. The food should be carefully selected and of good qual- it}'. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, ma}" be employed. If abscesses form in connection with the disease thej^ must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife into swol- 116 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. len glands; wait until 3^011 arc certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus maj'^ be encouraged by the constant application of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an aj^plication of the following: Biniodide of mercur}^ 1 dram; lard, 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, s.tranglos, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases ma}- be consulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous mem- brane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diag- nosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptons have disap- peared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before feeding, three times a day, for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower jaw bones. The application may be repeated cver}^ third day until the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes recover and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is thus: Three drams of bromide of potassium three times a day, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water, for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered nux vomica (either on the food or shaken. with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. CROUr AND DIPHTHERIA. Neither of these diseases affects the horse. But these names are sometimes wrongly applied to severe lar3'ngitis or phaiTngitis, or to forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes exces- sivel}' inflamed and gangrenous. THICK WIND AND ROARING. Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is nois}^ onl}^ during the attack of the acute disease. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 117 Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free jDassage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polj^pi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal pol3^pi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any disease and is onh^ temporary. Ver}^ often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused b}^ the cramped position in which the head and lieck are forced in order to hold him back. Many other causes may occasion temporary", intermitting, or perma- nent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralj'^sis of the muscles of the larynx; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed, the cartilage and vocal cord that are normal 1}^ controlled by the affected muscles lean into the tube of the larnyx, so that when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the Itings its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the expiratory act. The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides a.re not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually parah^zed is owing to the difference in the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. In chronic roaring there is no evidence of anj^ disease of the larynx other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous supply, and cojisequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the condi- tion may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, if caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricit}^ has been used with indif- 118 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. ferent success. Blistering or firing over the laiynx is, of course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the nerve sup- ply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the affected mus- cles is treating only the result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extirpating the col- lapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and, as this operation is critical and can only be performed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in man}' cases accompanied I)}' a cough. The best waj' to test whether a horse is a "roarer" is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop him up a hill or over soft ground. The ol)ject is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes. The taint is transmissible in many instances. Grunting. — A common test used hj veterinarians when examining " the wind" of a horse is to see if he is a "grunter." This is a sound emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or startled, or struck at. . If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thoroughly tried b}^ pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, pleurodj'nia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justif}' the term of "grunter" being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. High hlmoing. — This term is applied to a nois}' l)reathing made l)y some horses. It is distinctlj^ a nasal sound, and must not be con- founded with "roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An animal that emits this sound is called a "high-blower." Some horses have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in their breath insr when exercised. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 119 Whistlinf/ is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a "roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes away with the disease that causes it. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This ma}^ be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is accompanied b}'^ a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, smothered, or muffled, while in other cases it is hard and clear. A whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. Treatment. — Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. The animal should have much the same general care and medical treatment pre- scribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7 grains) three times daily ma\' be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must bo mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 ounce three tunes daily in the drinking water. An application of mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should be the most nourishing. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the best diet. THE LUNGS, The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the "lights," situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules 120 BL'REAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. (little lobes). A little ])ronchial tube terminates in every one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the lunjrs. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch; the}^ have but one opening, the communi- cation with the branches of the little bronchial tu])es. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The air cells arc the consummation of the intricate structures forming the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the rest being com- plementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin; so, also, are the walls of the blood vessels. Through these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of the body; and through these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air cells, the oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosplicre. CONGESTION OF THE LUXGS. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate exercise. Veiy often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs is but a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart. The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses will give an idea of what is termed "putting a horse in condi- tion " to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day; the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is said to be "in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of being affected Avith congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular sj'stcm becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or far, no matter how health}^ he ma}^ be in other respects. If such a horse be given a hai-d ride or drive, he maj' start oft' in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag- ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the flanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suffo- cation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden and severe strain put upon them; the heart became unable to perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which eventually became engorged with the stagnated l)lood, constituting congestion of the lungs. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 121 The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, ma}'^ not exhibit alarming S3'mptoms until returned to the stable; then he will be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the e^'es wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and. almost gasping; the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the legs and ears cold; the breathing is both abdominal and tho- racic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfull}- brought into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart ma}" be felt tumultuousl}" thumping if the hand is placed against the chest, behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine crackling sound. One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road,, stop him immediatel^^ Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlimited sup- pi}' of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. Let him stand still; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure air to sus- tain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle, remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hav or straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relieving the lungs of the .extra quantit}' of blood that is stagnated there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the- body and legs well, until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put bandages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blanket over the bodj" and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated — brand}", whisky (or even ale or beer if noth- ing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic spirits of ammonia. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, given as a drench diluted with a pint of water, every hour until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses have been given. ^\ none of these remedies is at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once, but not r« ".ated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein. Do not ta^vfe more than 5 or G 122 BUBEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. quarts from the vein, and do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable stall, where he will not be' subjected to drafts or sudden changes of temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always in the stall, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass. When ready for use again the horse should at first receive moderate exercise onl3% which maj' be daily increased until he may safely be put to regular work. PNEUMOXIA, OR LLING FEVER. Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of pneumonia arc catarrhal — already discussed in connection with bron- chitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia — and the fibrinous or croupous variety. The latter form receives its name from the fact that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become as fii-m as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will not float in water. The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of conges- tion, or cngorg'cment, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages. The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated. The pleura co\'ering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked bj' a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and softening when healing commences. The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded material contained in the air cells and lung tissues becoming broken lown and softened and absorbed or expectorated tlirough the nostrils. |;i .nr' ' '^ssels return to their natural state, and the blood circulates I.: :;< ei [ -"■ ■' In the cases that do not terminate so happily the iiiijg uia^ je..'- „v ^.*f i^renous (or mortified), or an abscess may form, or the disease ii v^ < <>— ^r.-o into the chronic variety. Pneumoriisv rr.>i '- v . ..' - induced by any of the influences named DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 123 as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in man}^ instances it is due to neglect. A common cold or sore throat may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. An animal may be debilitated b}' a cold, and when in this weakened state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength; or he ma}^ be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out; or the stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of cold air. An animai is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated b}'' any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, accidentall}^ getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia is frequent!}'' seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and pleurisy arc most common during cold, damp weather, and especially during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterl}' winds. Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavit}^ may cause pneumonia. Sijmj)toms.— Pneumonia, when a primary' disease, is ushered in b}' a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a ver}- dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have risen to 103° F. or higher. The pulse is frequent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There is usuall}^ a dr}" cough from the beginning, which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become moist, or if pleurisy sets in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter affection; that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some cases the dis- charge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, while in other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, particularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the nostrils is red and at first drj", but sooner or later becomes moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air cai r.'^, obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse r-., ^ ,. but persists in standing from the beginning of the ' q^. if pneumonia is complicated with pleuris3^ '^' . -v, -: . • ^^. ..• • st-. less and lie down for a few moments to q, , ii - -f^ .j. • .ntio 124 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. pains, but lie soon rises. In pneumonia the ))roathing is rapid and difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are k(^pt as still as possible and the l)reathinarticular descrip- tion, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring l)oiling water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when ever3^thing else is refused. Bread may be tried, also apples or carrots. If the animal can be persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. Three or 4 gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which maj^ be stirred 3 or 4 fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some horses will di-ink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that all food nuist be taken by the horse as he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal will not eat, 3'ou will only have to wait until a desire is shown for food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; the very fact of it con- stantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything, the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing wdien there is nothing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. Nothing is well done that is overdone. There are many vakiable medicines used for the different stages and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 127 3'ou can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of c^uinine in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, -will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. The heart should be kept strong b}^ administering digitalis in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strja'hnia 1 grain made into a pill with liquorice powder three times daily. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pronounced character are required. The following- drench is useful: Rectified spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky, diluted with a pint of water, may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. During the period of conv^alescence good nutritive food should be allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substi- tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equall}?^ efficient in this case, especially the iodide of potash. Likewise, the same general instructions apply here. The chief causes of death m pneumonia are heart failure from exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater the danger, hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of one lung. THE WINDPIPE, Tlie windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates b}^ dividing into the right and left bronchi — the tubes going to the right and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to that lining the laiynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidently fractured, or the tube may be distorted or mal- formed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of trache- otomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result, 128 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. or sequol, of the operation. In passing over this section attention is mereh' called to these defects, as they require no particular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated that any one of the before-mentioned conditions ma}" constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as "thick wind." GUTTURAL POUCHES. ' These two sacks are situated above the throat, and communicate with the pharj'nx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, the}- contain air. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural pouches ma}" contain pus. The symptoms are as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent dis- charge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the phar3'nx, and through this small opening mat- ter ma}" escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treat- ment fails an operation must be performed, which should not be attempted by anyone unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-rNEUMONIA. Bronchitis is an inflanuuation of the bronchial tubes. When this inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are these: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. Symjytams. — The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes creamy or frothy, and Pl.ATK IX Haines.ilf"l.nft..>r riemiu° juli INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 12^ still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, and occasionall}^ it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscultation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the -air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a collapse of a large extent of breathing sur- face. Usually the mucus is expectorated, that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowed, and some is discharged from the nos- trils. The hoi'se can not spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the mouth. If in serious cases all the sjniiptoms become aggravated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates that the inflammation has reached the breath- ing cells and that catarrhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleurisy, the ribs are as nearly flxed as in the power of the animal to do so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing through- out the attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or win- dow to gain all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are con- stipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good sjmiptom, as it shows one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it gradually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a non- expert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it may as well be said here that the nonexpert will have difficulty in discrimi- nating between bronchitis and pneumonia. Treatment. — The matter of first importance is to insure a pure atmosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as com- fortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all 14384— 03 9 130 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heav}^, as the season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and then put on the bandages. Also rub mustard paste well over the side of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three days after the first one is applied. Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling water containing a tablespoonf ul of oil of turpentine and spirits of camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious* cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in an}^ case the oftener it is done the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day admini'stcr an electu- ary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with licorice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the ani mal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. AVlien the horse is hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of such accident it w^ill make the mouth sore, w^hich may prevent the ani- mal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass if in season. If he refuses cooked food, allow^ in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may all be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established recovery can not occur in less than two or three weeks and more time may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required. When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pur- sued. Give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 131 Give a powder ever}^ night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flaxseed tea and administered as a drench. If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of thick wind. PLEURISY. The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa- rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin glistening membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the internal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary observer appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the effects of fric- tion between the lungs and the walls of the chest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilation and contraction and the consequent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious friction. Inflammation of this membrane is called pleuris}-. Being so closely united with the lung, it can not alwaj^s escape participation in the disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondaril}" when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent diseased lung. It is a common com- 132 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. plication of pneumonia. Pleurisy will be described here as an inde- pendent affection, although it should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing diseases. ' The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that ramify in this membrane, and drjniess of the surface. This is fol- lowed b}' the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this accumulation may amount to several gallons. Symptoms. — ^When the disease exists as an independent affection it is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn round. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain, therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and suppressed, and comes as near being no cougli as the animal can make it in his desire to sup- press it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102^ or 103° to 105° F. The usual sj^mptoms that accompany fever are present, such as costivcness, scanty dark- colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps TO or more a minute, and is hard and Aviry. The legs and cars are cold. Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion occurs, the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the chest is dull. B}- striking different parts One may come to a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space in succession, beginning behind the elbow, until 5^ou arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at any other part. Auscultation ii also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, one ma}'^ hear a friction sound ver}' much like that produced b}^ rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. The sound appears immediatel}^ under the ear and is dis- tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is health}^, as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is sue- DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 133 ceecled by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid ma}^ now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorabl}^ within a week or ten days. If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the process of absorption to a great 'extent, and consequently convales- cence is dela^'ed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. AVhen this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema. Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it ma}^ affect both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. Treatment. — The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the laxative food, etc., in this case are equall}" necessary and efficacious. The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mus- tard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the begin- ning the following drench may be given ever}^ six hours, if the horse takes a drench kindly: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 8 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. If the patient becomes debilitated, the stinudants as prescribed for pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will partake of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best; but if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different kinds of food and allowed whichever kind he desires. In tlie beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the 134 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. animal to lie down or paw, morphine may be given by the mouth in S-g-rain closes, or the fluid extract of Cannabis indica may be used in doses of 2 to 4 drams. If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes still more rapid and diflicult. Anefl'ort must now be made to excite the absorp- tion of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times a day, for seven or eight da3's, if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water an hour before feeding, every night and morning for a week or two. Ilydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome b}' means of the use of medicines alone, when the operation is performed of tapping the chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. The punc- ture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided b}- inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only so when j^erformed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although it is attended with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the expert. There have been described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem- bered that the}^ merge into each other, and may occur together at one time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and tj^pes of the afl'ections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supposed to know ver}- little. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleuris}- and pneumonia combined, which is not infrequentl}' the case. At the beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 135 lung- tissue. There is a comljination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will l)e your g-uide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain. BEONCHO-PLEURO'PNEUMONIA. This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia all exist at once. It is imi)ossible for one w^ho is not an expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the atiimal is affected with pleuro-pueumonia. SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large por- tion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ven- tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The symptoms pf suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidi- fied area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offen- sive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MOETIFICATION. Gangrene, or mortification, means a death of the part affected. Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat- ment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or drench- ing through the nostrils may cause this serious condition. HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it m.ay fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suflocating the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the lungs it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas when the 136 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accom- panied b}^ coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connection with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept c|uiet. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for scleral hours, 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the pcrchloride of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hem- orrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffocation with- out the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. CONSUMPTION. Pulmonary consumption, or tuberculosis, has been recognized in the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease. HEAVES, BROKEN Vv^IND, OR ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or nois}'. Scientific veterinarians are well acquainted with the phenomena and localit}' of the affection, but there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this affection of the muscles leads to a paral3'sis of them, and the forced breathing to emph3\s<'ma, which always accompanies heaves. Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of diges- tion or to an error in the clioice of food. Feeding on clover haj' or damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions food, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badl}' ventilated stable, produce or predsipose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- winded for a long time, the changes are w^ell marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the volume, DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 137 as evidenced by floating- thfim in water. The walls of the small bron- chial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emph^'sema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular emphysema, wdiich consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the first. In this variety the air finds its wa}^ into the lung tissue between tlie air cells or the tissue between the small lobules. Sympfoms. — Almost everj^ experienced horseman is able to detect heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at once. But in recent cases the aflfected animal does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is diflicult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a grunt. When air is inspired, that is, taken in, it appears to be done in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that the great change in the breathing in perceptible. It must be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and, in consequence, of their power of contracting on account of the degener- ation of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the paralj^sis of nuiscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them f reel}', but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs; there- fore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellows-like movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratorj^ movement may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face or back of the hand. It wall be observed that the expirator}^ current is not con- tinuous, but is broken into two jets. When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. The animal ma}" have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean food in the trough, or manger. The stomach is liable to be over- loaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that form called "potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a very offensive odor. When first put to work dung is passed frequently; 138 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the bowels are often loose. The animal ca*n not stand much work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said to be pre- disposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. Certain 'individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. The}^ take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stom- ach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterinarian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been "fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it. Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reaj^pear in their intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed food of bad qualit}^ Clover hay or bulkj^ food which contains but little nutri- ment have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bud effect of moldy or dusty ha}^ fodder, or food of anj- kind can not be overestimated. A small quantity of the best haj^ once a day is sufiicient. This should be cut and damp- ened. The animal should invariably be v> atered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. Arsenic is efiicacious in palliating the s^^mptoms. It is best adminis- tered in the form of the solution of arsenic, as Fowlers solution or as the white powdered arscnious acid. Of the former the dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily. Of the latter one maj^ give 3 grains in each feed. These qiiantities may be cautiousl}^ increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil ma}^ be givea-once or twice a mouth, DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 139 or a handful of Glauber's salt ma}' be given in the feed twice daih', so long as necessar}^. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is' of secondary consideration; careful attention j)aid to the diet is of greatest importance. Broken- winded animals should not bo used for breeding purposes. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accompanies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with dis- eases other than those of the organs of respiration. It ma}^ be a symp- tom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused hj a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible, and the cough will cease. The treatment of the afi'ections will be found under their appropriate heads, to which the reader is referred. PLEURO-DYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are ver}' similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the exist- ence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETEATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the thoracic cavity outside of the lung. This condition is known as pneumo-thorax and ma}- result in collapse of the lung. The wound ma}' be so made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in such a manner as entirely to close the wound; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a 140 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. wound in the lung. In this form too air gains access from the lung, and there may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases the air maj- be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result. But when the s^miptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator. It is evident that the treatment of woiuids that penetrate the thoracic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickl}' ascertained whether or not a foreign body i-emains in the wound, then it should be thor- oughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in water 40 parts. The wound should then be closed inmiediatcl3% If it is an incised wound it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plasters; if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be prevented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectuall}' as possible. The after treatment of the wound should principal!}' consist in keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applj' ing fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their treatment, p. 459.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated ^s advised under that head. THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPTIRAOM. "Thumps'' is generall}^ thought b}' the inexperienced to be a pal- pitation of the heart. AYliile it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called "thumps,-' it must not be confounded with the affection under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of it in man are manifested bj^ what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, Avhile the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is usuall}^ much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce congestion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death usually results DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 141 from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breathing is interfered with hy the inordinate action of this important m.uscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida. KUrTUKE OF THE DIAPIIKAGM. Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which dis- tend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. The symptoms are intensely difficult respiration and great depression. There is no treatment. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By James Law, F. R. C. Y. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. [Revised in 1903 by the author.] CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES, OR ORCHITIS. In the prime of life, in vigorous healtli, and on stimulating food, stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usualh' restore them to a healthy condition. When the factors producing congestion are cxtraordinaril}- potent, when there has been frequent copulation and heav}^ grain feeding, when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and pen- etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy draft, compression of the blood vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir- cumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana, may also be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases like maladie du coi't, glanders, and tuberculosis, local- ized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. Symptoms. — Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, strad- dling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind liml)s or of the limb on the affected i>ide, arching of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, with more or less fever, elevated bod}^ temperature, accelerated pulse and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and 142 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 143 envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, pitting on i^ressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the malad}^ may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sac and cavity of the abdomen and pyemia ma}' follow. Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of a purgative (1 to \\ pounds Glauber's salts), and the local appli- cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 3 drams, extract of belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the loins and to the vipper part of the same surcingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to relieve vascu- lar tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctua- tion the knife may be emplo3''ed to give free escape to the pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak carbolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. SARCOCELE. This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resvilting from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small round cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very im.probal>lo. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and comparatively insensi- ble. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be edematous (pit- ting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spennatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the sj'mptoms are masked somewhat. 144 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of the bind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the disease wath hernia. The onl}" rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this nm}' not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuberculosis). HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. This mu}^ be mereh' an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, sper- matic cord, or walls of the sac. Symptoms. — The sj'mptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure. Treatment may be the same as for ascites, j'ct when the effusion has resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applica- tions (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacs. VARICOCELE. This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to. ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, however, the}^ are merely partially developed, and retained in the inguinal canal or abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double monster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second fetus have likewise been found in the testicle or scrotum. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. The testicles ma}^ become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- laginous, or cj'stic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treat- ment is castration. The}' also become the seat of cancer, glanders, DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 145 or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with cystic tapeworms or larval stages of the armed roundworm {Sfrongylus^ equinus). WARTS ON THE PENIS. These are best removed hj seizing them between the thumb and forefinger and twisting them oif . Or they may be cut off with scissors^ and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA, OR EPITHELIOMA). The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like grov/ths on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ^ obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the panis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half an inch- to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard od, the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages- may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, ta limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be suspended in a sling. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. This results f i om blows and other injuries, and also in some cases-- f rom too frequent and exhausting service. The j^ard hangs from the sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine- occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets; In cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricit}^ sent through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daily,, may prove successful. 14384—03 10 146 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. SEIiF- ABUSE, OR MASTURBATION. Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to desist through pain. MALADIE DU COIT, OR DOURINE. This is propagated, like sj'philis, by the act of copulation and affects stallions and mares. It has been long known in northern Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. From one to ten dsLys after copulation, or in stallions it may be after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of the external organs of generation, sometimes followed bj^ the eruption of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the vulva, clitoris, and vagina, and the consequent rupture of these vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting one part more than another and giving a distorted ap)pearance to the opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circular white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red, swollen, puckered,- and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness and paralysis of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection. The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male and thus propagate the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stupidity and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the testicles are unusually pendent and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby; the skin, as in the mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes partially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and of the sldn appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity increase until DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 147 death, in fatal cases, jet the sexual desire does not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat, except when food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases an apparent recover}^ may ensue, and through such animals the disease is propa- gated to new localities to be roused into activity and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer.) Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisf actor}-. It belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out b}- the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. This is usually done at one j^ear old, but may be accomplished at a few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will^alone be noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are washed with soap and w ater, any concretion of sebum being carefulh^ removed from the bilocular cavity in the end of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line betAveen the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle tsv%j draw it out of the hand and upwards tlirough the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces 148 BUREAU OF AJS'IMAL INDUSTRY. opposed to each other, thereby fultilling two important indications — (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (h) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitalit3% and the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, and the clamp may be left thus for twenty -four hours; then, by cut- ting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the stump liberated without an}^ danger of bleeding. Should the stump hang out of the wound'it should be pushed inside with the luiger and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the second day in hot Aveather or the third in cold, and from that time a good recover}' rnay be expected. CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleuris}^, bronchitis, pneumonia, purpura liemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that have been kept in close, ill ventilated, filthy buildings, where the system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other products. AVarm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. CASTRATION OF CRTPTORCHIDS (rIDGLINGS). This is the removal of a testicle oi- testicles that have failed to descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate anatomical knovvledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and manual dexterit}', and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal of the missing gland b}^ exploring through the natural chan- nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel between the a]>dominal nuiscles and the strong fascia on the inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part, water 2,000 parts (a car- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 149 bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the ecraseur. In man}^ such cases, too, it is desirable to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by adhesion. paijV after castkation. Some horses are pained and verj^ restless for some hours after cas- tration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may be given. BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord alwaj^s occurs, and in warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked b}^ dashing cold water against the part. Bleeding from the spermatic arteiy in the anterior part of the cord may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the arter}'^ twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and the closure of the arteiy. STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the wound, the skin wound in contracting grasj^s and strangles it, pre- venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing svv'elling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks stifil}", with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of the skin wound, and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If there is no material swelling and little protrusion the wound ma}^ be enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connection with the skin, and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See below.) 150 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy seasons, as the result of operating without cleausing the sheath and penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and imprisonment of matter. Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals of 3 or 4: inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and antiseptics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close again at once. A free; cream-like discharge implies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. PIIYMOSIS AND PARAPHYMOSIS. In cases of swelling, as above, the penis maj- be imprisoned within the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated fluid, will enable the operator to return it. TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. These arc due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in cas- tration, to strangulation of undul}^ long cords in the external wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence of infec- tion {Stajphylococcus lotriomyces). These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. The}^ may continue to grow slowly for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhe- sions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner as the testicle, while if larger and firmlj^ adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally, they must l)c carefullj^ dissected from the parts, the arteries DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 151 being tied as they are reached and the cord finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impossible, though a partial destruction of the mass nmy still be attempted by passing white-hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- tion for hernia in geldings, see remarks on hernia. CASTRATION OF THE MARE. Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the females of other domesticated quadrupeds, and should never be resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur- rence of heat, and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro- portion of. the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflamma- tion in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed under the bod}^, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the roof of the vagina just above the neck of the vfomb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted oS. It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the purpose. The straining that follows the operation ma}^ be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protrusion of the bowels may be obviated b}^ applying the truss advised to prevent e version of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal contents against the vaginal wound the marc should be tied short and high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which 1 have found it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. Another important point is to give bran mashes and other laxative diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload the rectum by copious injec- tions of warm water in case it should threaten to become impacted. 152 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. STERILITY. Sterility ma}' be in the male or in the female. If due to the .stallion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to the liiare, she alone fails to conceive. In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are retained within the abdomen; (h) inflammation of the testicles, result- ing in induration; (c) i'dtty degeneration of the testicles, in stallions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretoiy ducts of the testicles {vasa defereniia); {e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; {/) inflammation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; {(/) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis); (A) warty growths on the end of the penis; (/) tumors of other kinds (largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or penis; (_/) nervous diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles which is essential to the act of coition; (/•) azoturia with resulting weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the thigh (above the stifle); (l) os'sification (anchylosis) of the joints of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to rear, or mount; (m) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs, the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop short in the act. In the first three of these only ( a, h, and c) is there real sterilit}'^ in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect development of the male vivify- ing element (spermatozoa). In the other examples the secretion may be perfect^in kind and amount, but as copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum. In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect development of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (l) cystic or other tumors of the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in ver}'' obese, pampered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory tubes of the ovaries (Fallopian tubes); {c^ catarrh of the womb, with nuicopurulent dis- charge; (/) irritable condition of the womb, with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; {(/) nervous irritability, leading to the same expulsion of the male element; (/<) high condition (ple- thora), with profuse secretion and excitement; (?) low condition, with imperfect maturation of the ova and lack of sexual desire; (J) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; {/c) closure of the neck of the womb, tempora- rily b}' spasm or permanently by inflammation and induration; (/) clo- sure of the entrance to the vagina through imperforate h3'men, a rare, though not unknown, condition in the mare; (r/i) acquired indisposition to breed, seen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 153 stallion when aged; (n) change of climate has repeatedlj^ been followed b}^ barrenness; (o) h3'bridity, which in male and female alike usually entails sterilit}- . Treatment.— The treatment of the majority of these conditions will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is onl}'" nec- essar}^ here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be spe- cially referred to iu this place. Stallions with undescended testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment dail}" for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the S3^stem by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration is best met b}' an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, rape cake) and constant well-regu- lated work. Saccharine, starch}', and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially avoided. In the mare one diseased and irri- table ovary should be removed, to do away with the resulting excita- bility of the remainder of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent straining and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be corrected b}" a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even fatigue will act beneficiall}^ in some such cases, hence the practice of the Aiab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purga- tiv-e or the abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by ren- dering the blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and elsewhere, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2 di*ams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia demand just the opposite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albumi- noid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order. Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is easily remedied in the mare b}" dilatation with the fingers. The hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time until the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, laceration, or other cause of irritation is likel}' to interfere with the retention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the womb is rigid and un^delding from the induration w4iich follows inflam- mation— a rare condition in the mare, though common in the cow — more force will be requisite, and it ma}^ even be needful to incise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more opposite direc- tions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision ma}' be made with a 154 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a professional man if pos- sible. The subsequent dilatation ma}" be best effected by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the narrow canal. In such cases it is best to let the wounds of the neck heal before put- ting- to horse. An imperforate h3^nen mar be frcel}^ incised in a crucial manner until the £>assao-e will admit the human hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the wounds have healed. INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg- nane}', it is important that the result should be determined, to save the mare from unnecessai-y and dangerous work or medication when actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when she is not. The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) arc most significant though not an infallible sign of conception. If the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very exceptional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the horse persistent!}', though conception has not taken place, and this in spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feed- ing. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi- cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may be usually accepted as proof of conception. An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the excitement having been satisfied. An increase of fat, with softness and fiabbiuess of muscle, a loss of energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, indeed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by service, will usually imply conception. Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight falling in beneath the loins and hoUowness of the back are sig- nificant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even thoug'h it appears only at intervals during ges- tation. A steady increase in weight (li pounds daily) a]>out the fourth or DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 155 fifth month is a useful indication of pregnane}". So is a swollen and red or bluish red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane. From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the left stiHe. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard l)ody is felt to strike against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often stimulate the fetus to movements that maj'' be seen by the eye, but an excess of iced water ma}^ prove injurious, even to the causing of abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the fetus and equally endangers abortion. Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more dang-erous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on com- pression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, floating in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an inclined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle ma}'- detect the beat- ing of the fetal heart (one hundred and twentj^-five per minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid and correspond- ing to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is heard most satis- factorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first preg- nancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of male offspring. 156 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. IIYGIENK OF THE PREGNANT MARE. The preg-nant inarc should not be exposed to teasing- by a 3'oung and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, particularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is bcnelicial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate work the breeding mai'e should be kept in a lot where she can take exercise at will. The food should be lil)eral, but not fattening— oats, bran, sound ha}', and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing grasses and other green food, partially ripe rj^e grass, millet, hungarian grass, vetches, peas, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is overripe, . fibrous, innutritions ha}', or that which has been injured and rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested Avith smut or ergot. Food that tends to costiveness should be avoided. Water given often, and at a temperature considerably above freezing, will avoid the dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objectionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other equally bland agent. The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow so as to cramp her when lying down, or to entail violent efforts in getting up, and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant marc, as certain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor- responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but the dam is far more likely to perpetuate the evil in her progeny which was carried while she was individually enduring severe suffering caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone, causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the inflammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all active dis- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 157 eases in the breeding- mare should be soothed and abated at as early a moment as possible. EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION. It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed else- where than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which the sperm of the male, making- its way through the womb and Fallo- pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually increas- ing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. The arrest of the ovum raaj^ be in the substance of the ovar}- itself (ovarian pregnane}'), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached to an}^ part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment directly from that (abdominal pregnancy). In all such cases there is an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the point to which the embr^-o has attached itself so as to furnish the needful nutriment for the growing offspring. All appreciable S3nnptoms are absent, unless from the death of the fetus, or its interference v/ith normal functions, general disorder and indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, accelerated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural unim- pregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Further exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, and in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid hody of the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move, the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried for 3^ears, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening- through the abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In the later cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to water 50 parts. This may be repeated dail3\ Where there is no spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation, in the enormous fetal sack when that has been opened to the air. MOLES, OR AXIDIAN MONSTERS. These are evidently products of conception, in which the impreg- nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha- otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner 158 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. .surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv- eled and wasted. They arc usually accompanied b}' a Avell-developed fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under- gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the ordinar}^ process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the normally de^'eloped offspring. CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICLT.AR MOLE. This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of the villi on the inner surface of the Avomb, which become greatly increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts, or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with ano- dynes and secured a recovery. Where this is not available attempts mu}^ be made to remove the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, fol- lowing this up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last heading. DROPSY OF THE WOMC. This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb, but has been frequeutlj'' observed as the result of infection after sex- ual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy. The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of the fetus and without the detection of an}' solid body in the womb when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of four or eightmonths there arc signs of parturition or of frequent straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear and watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck of the womb closes the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency. The best resort is to remove any diseased product that ma}' bo found attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it daily with a warm solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram, water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics, gentian 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily, should be given, and a nutritious, easily digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed. DROPSY OF THE AMNION. This differs from simple drops}^ of the womb in that the fluid collects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection can occur onl}' in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb occurs in the DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 159 unimpregTiated. The blood of the pregnant mare contains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red globules, and when this is still further aggravated by poor feeling, and other unhygi- enic conditions, there is developed the tendency to liquid transudation from the vessels and drops3^ As the watery condition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of the amnion is a dis- ease of the last four or five months of gestation. The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus can still be felt to strike against the hand pressed into the swelling. If the hand is introduced into the vagina the womb is found to be tense and round, with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the rectum will detect the rounded swollen mass of the womb so firm and tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in supporting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appetite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing-, and colick}^ pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, laborious parturition may occur at the usual time. Treatment consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by puncturing the fetal membrane with a canula and trochar introduced through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trochar so as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This B:iay bring on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract further excessive eflfusion. DROrSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN. The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and beneath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and pit on pressure, but arc not especially tender, and subside more or less per- fectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In obstinate cases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to: Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a da}- or two after parturition. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps of the hind limbs. The limb is raised without flexing the joints, the front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the 160 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be firm and rigid. The cramp may be promptl}' relieved b}^ active rub- bing, or bv walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. CONSTirATION. This ma}' result from compression b}- the gravid womb, and is best corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed. PARALYSIS. The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are obstinate until after parturition, when the}' recover spontaneously, or under a course of nux vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments. PROLONGED RETENTIOX OF THE FETUS (fOAL). In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow, parturition may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried in the womb for a number of months, to the serious or even fatal injury of the mare. Hamon records one case in which the mare died after carrying the fetus for seventeen months, and Caillier a similar result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by Gohier, the bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent matter. Cause. — The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly strong (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal mem- branes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from frac- ture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the neck of the womb. The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the death of the foal; hence the latter has been born alive at the four hundredth day. Even jvhen the foal has perished, putrefaction does not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much inucus, the udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The marc usually refuses the male; yet there are exceptions to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 161 ing changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and th& mare finally dies of exhaustion. The treatment is such as Avill facilitate the expulsion of the fetus and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and thumb drpvwn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil- lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, an}' malpresentation rectified (see "Difficult parturition''), and deliver}^ effected. After removal of the mem- branes wash out the womb first with tepid water, and then vfith o. solution of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. This injection maj' have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The same course maj^ be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams, daily) will be highly beneficial in restoring health and vigor. ABORTION. Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live it is 2)rem.ature parturitioii, and in the mare this ma}' occur as early as the tenth month (three hundredth day). The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of in.portant internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck- le ?s use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence of stone in the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra may induce sa much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation service by the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo- men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she is soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are 14884—03 11 162 BUKEAU OF AIsIMAL llxDUSTEY. prolific causes. Bleeding the prooruant marc, a painful surgical opera- tion, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the a))dominal organs by a full drink of iced water maj^ precipitate a miscarriage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a ver}^ cold night after a warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinarj'^ or generative organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tans3% cottou-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food, indigestible food, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthj^, stagnant water is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in opposite ways caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of exercise strongly con- duce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent service, entail- ing debilit}" of the offspring and disease of the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only appears by her coming in heat. If more close!}' observed a small clot of blood may be found behind her, in ^vhich a careful search reveals the rudi- ments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in gestation, there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neighing, and straining, and the small bod}' of the fetus is expelled, enveloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended v^^ith greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb; There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail, moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural foaling, expels first fuucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the fetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for a day or more, the sj'mptoms subsiding for a time, onl}' to reappear with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhea. The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize it at as earlj' a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut short and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a pregnant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swell- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 1G3 ing, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus secre- tion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colick}- pains, straining, however little, and active movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive sj-mptoms and should be dulj^" counteracted. The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con- dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion alread}'- accomplished, and the examination with the hand in the vagina ma}^ detect the mouth of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly filled with a blood}^ liquid. Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularh^ of such as may seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abor- tions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the mat- ter of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, iadigestion, bloating, violent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera- tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. When abortion is imminent the mare should be placed alone in a roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some seda- tive. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, and even dail}^ if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or Yilmrnxtin frunifolivin, 1 ounce, maj- be given and repeated if neces- sary to prevent straining. When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in ordinar}^ parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may be necessary after deliver}- to employ antiseptic injections into the womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less requi- site in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent contagious al)ortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of antiseptics. After abortion a careful h^ygiene is demanded, especiall}^ in the matter of pure air and easily digestible food. The mare should not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after all discharge from the vulva has ceased. SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. As the period of parturition approaches the swelling of the udder bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into 164 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the hind llmUs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat and concretes as a yellow, wax-like mass around its orifice. About twenty-four hours before the birth this gives place to a Avhitish, milky liquid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with redness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glair}- mucus. The belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become depressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anxious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In man}- mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down; violent contractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains the water bags appear and burst, followed b}- the fore feet of the foal, with the nose between the knees, and b}- a few more throes the fetus is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The whole act may not occupy more than five or ten minutes. This, together with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises, if she has been down, and the membranes-are expelled a few minutes later. NATURAL PRESENTATIOX. When there is a single foal the common and desirable presentation is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward the anus, tail, and croup (Plate X, fig. 1). In this way the natural curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the womb and genital passages, and particularh' of the bon}- pelvis, and the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned upward toward the anus and tail of the mare (Plate X, fig. 2). In this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside from these two maj- be said to be abnormal and will be considered under " Difficult parturition.'' DIFFICULT PARTURITION. With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior i:)resentation, the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the passages with comparative ease. Even Avith the hind feet first a simi- DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 165 lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered eas}-^ and quick. DijEficulty and danger arise mainlj- from the act being- brought on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas- sages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from the tui'ning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is the normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and skill. From the proclivit}- of the mare to unhealth}'- inflammations of the peritoneum and other abdominal organs?, penetrating- wounds of the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal mem- branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturi- tion. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of parturient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is extremel}- difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been turned back when it should have been presented. When assistance must bo rendered the operator should don a thick woolen undershirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the bod}'- and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand sliould be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn together like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be turned with head dov/nhill and hind parts raised as much as possible. The con- tents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search for the othCr missing parts. Even if a missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the pains and allow the opera- tor to secure and bring up the missing member. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal proportions) to insensibility ma}' secure a respite, during which the missing members may be i-eplaced. If the waters have ])een discharged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and bod}- of the fetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before an}- attempt at extraction is made. When the miss- ing member has been brought up into position, and presentation has 166 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. been rendered natural, traction on the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a marc is inclined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the operator. PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. These may be brought on b}- any violent exertion, use under the saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorwaj^ or gate. Excess- ive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally injurious. Finall}", the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of the gvavid v/orab (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor pains prematurely. Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due. there will be less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and prob- ably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand intro- duced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the neck of .the womb will be felt not only closed, but with its projecting papilla, through which it is perforated, not yet flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptom-s are indeed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring. Treatment. — The treatment consists in the separation of the maro from all other animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free use of antispasmodics and anodj-nes. Opium in dram doses ever}^ two hours, or laudanum in oiuice doses at similar intervals, will often suf- fice. When the more urgent s3'mptoms have subsided these doses may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until the pas- sages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. Yihurnum yrunr folium.^ in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. Should par- turition become inevitable, it may be favored and way necessary assistance furnished. DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROAV PELVIS. A disproportion between the fetus got by a largo stallion and the pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustjxng mares. If the disproportion is too great the oul}'^ resort is embryotomy. FRACTURED HIP BONES. More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. 2.) PI.ATK X. afterVlemiu^ Verlebro SncraJ prcscnlation Luinho Sacral presentation M O RM AT . TJ R E S E NTAT IONS .IUSBIEN& cor PL.ATi: XII. 'frtmsvofse p/vsvitUi/itm -f/)/'i Slcni(>-f(/)f/t)Niintil />rps('ii/n/inii -//cfu/ tind 7'rct, crigagorL. atUT Fleiiuii'-. A 15 N C) n M A I . P f < !•: S V. N V \\ . ( > :, S . DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 167 Fractures at anj- point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired svith the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of'' the broken bone is another cause of constriction and between the two con- ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible w^ithout embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back- bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas- sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and follow- ing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been introduced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. TLTIORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS. Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and v.hen large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- ment tumors {melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro- trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu- ally tightened until that is torn through. HERNIA OF THE WOMB. The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare". The form of the fetus 168 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. can bo folt tnrough the walls of the sao, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usuall}- external violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition arrives, the first elTort should be to return the fetus within the proper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the bell}'. This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed to secure delivery. TWISTING OF THE NP:CK OF THE WOMB. This condition- is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turning in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of con- tinued efforts no progress is made, neither waterbags nor liquids appearing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner surface. The method of relief which 1 have successfull}' adopted in the cow maj" be equall}' happ\' in the mare. The dam is placed (with her head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds are effaced, and the waterbags and fetus press forward into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be repeated again and again until success crow^ns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo- sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of the womb^ and the supervention of intiammation and inflammatory DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 169 exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the equine subject. When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro- duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, fig. T, may be used. Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru- ment, then by using the cross-handle as a lever the fetus and womb ma}' be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the tAvist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces- sary, by rolling the mare as described above. EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL WALLS. This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. This condition is easily re(!Ognized . by the soft, doughy swelling so characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as ten da3'S before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the wound dail}^ with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, during parturition. CALCULUS (stone) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted with forceps (see "Lithotomy"). The large papillary tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva- riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. Foi'tuuatel}^, mares affected in this way rarely breed. IMPACTION OF TI?E RECTUM WITH FECES. In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused b}^ pressure 170 BUKIiAU OF ANIMAL IXDUSTKY. upon it will impel the animal to cut .short all labor pains. The rounded swellincr surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or well- soaped hand. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neek of the womb, which will be found tirmly closed so as to admit but one or two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening is left, with rigid margins. Treatment. — The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand w^ith fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, rupturing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extraction, as advised under "Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm water. FIBKOUS BANDS CONSTllICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB. These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen and compress and obstruct the neck of the w^omb, or they may extend from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry- otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision into the abdomen and extract by the Cesarean operation, or simply to cut the constricting band and attempt delivery b^- the usual channeL FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA. This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the remainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The presentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of successive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention to the rigid and enyielding cicatrices which may be incised at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after ^vhich tl atural expulsive efforts wdll usually prove effective. The resulting ounds DISEASES OF THE HORSE. I7l may be washed f requentl}^ with a solution of 1 part of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride to 1,000 parts of water. FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embrj'onic tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuit}" between the womb and fetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one commu- nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are pro- longed into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after birth, and a special risk of bleeding- from the womb, and of septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached with the hand and recognized they may be torn through with the fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted with hope of success. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS. It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of being very j^oung, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is alwa3\s great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the offspring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the veiy young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives — to induce abor- tion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by cmbryotoni}^ if impracticable otherwise. CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord round a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the latter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedil}^ delivered. WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE FOAL. This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a 172 BUREAU OF ANKvIAL INDU6TKY. great projecting rounded mass occup3'ing the spare from the eyes upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well until th.e body and shoulders have passed out, when progress is suddenly arrested by the great ])ulk of the head. In the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which maj^ be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trochar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and press- ing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punctured with a knife or trochar. Oftentimes with an anterior presentation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward and thus the forelimbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring up the miss- ing head, and then puncture it as above suggested. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IX THE FOAL, OR ASCITES. The accumulation of li(|uid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as completely as will hydrocephalus. "With an anterior presentation the foal ma}^ pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all cfi'orts fail to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by thii side of the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating contents. The onh^ course is to puncture the cavity and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long trochar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and ma}'' be easily' punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presentation the abdomen must be punc- tured in the same wa}^, the hand, armed with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still engaged in the wom}>, and pass- ing slowly from that into the advanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the pelvis and passed out where it can expand. DISEASES OF THE HOR!^. 173 GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS. In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com- nionh', however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured nor sutficientl}^ reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had to embryotomy. SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have onl}^ met with it in the dead and decomposing foal, after futile efforts have been made for several days to effect deliveiy. These cases are veiy difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. The only resort is embryotomy, b}^ which 1 have succeeded in saving a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition for four da3"s. CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. The foal is not aiwa3\s developed symmetricalh^, but certain groups of uniscles are liable to remain short or to shorten because of persist- ent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the head being held firmh* to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are con- tracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straight- ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some- times ))e straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, the next resort is embr3"otom3^ TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM. Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. 174 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. In some cases Avhat appears as a tumor is an impiisoned and undevel- oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually sacculated and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. MONSTKOSITIES. Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturition, especially such monsters as show excesshe development of some part of the bod}', a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redundancy" of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided into — (1) Monsters with absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or other organ. (2) Monsters with some part abnormal!}- small — dwarfed head, liml>, trunk, etc. (3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts — cleft head, trunk, limbs, etc. {■i) Monsters through absence of natural divisions — absence of mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. (5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal opening, etc. (G) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved spine, face, limb, etc. (7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super- numerary digits, etc. (S) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs — hermaphrodites. (0) Double monsters — double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, etc. Causes. — The causes of monstrosities appear to bo very varied. Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Others arc associated with too close breeding, the powers of sj'mmet- rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sexual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. Mere arrest of development of a part ma}^ arise from acci- dental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or por- tions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each hav- ing started independently from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and having devel- oped there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as a new tail DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. l75 will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. In the early embryo, with its g-ieat powers of development, this factor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its iniluence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Ililaire that such redundant parts are nearly alwa3^s connnected w^ith the corresponding portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other b}^ corresponding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, back to back. All this sug- gests the development of extra parts from the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The effect of disturbing con- ditions in giving such wrong directions to the developmental forces is w^ell shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnish- ing, shaking, and otherwise breaking up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that modify their circula- tion by inducing inflammation are at times followed by the develop- ment of a monster. The excitement, mental and ph3'sical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a similar wa}^, acting probably through the same channels. The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be i^resented double; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the pass- ages with tlic natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one fetus has become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its smallest and most wedge-like dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove the superflous parts, in which case the general principles employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Co?sarean section, by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacri- fice of the mare, Avhich should never be done for the sake of a monster. (See "Embrj'otomy," p. 181.) ENTRANCE OF TV.INS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easil}- recognized bj^ the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage Anterior pres- entations. Posterior pres- entations. Head 176 BUREAU OF A^'IMAL INDUSTRY. at once, tho front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal they Avould l)e turned in the same direction. Once recognized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a running noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will proceed in the natural way. TABLE OF AVRONG PRESEXTATIONS. (Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short- ened. Fore limbs | Crossed over the neck. Bent back at the knee. [Bent b>ack from the shoulder. I Bent downward on the neck. Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. Turned to one side. Turned upward and backward on the back. Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. „• IT 1 /Bent on itself at the hock. tJ"^^^ l'-"^^*^ tBentatthehip. Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. ^Inverted Back of foal to floor of i)elvis. „ . .- f 1, ] /With back and loins presented. Transverse presentation of body...|^y.^i^ y^^.^^^^ ^,^^1 ^^^1,^. presented. FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. In eases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee and shank bone undul^^ short, but the sinew extending from the front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The con- dition obstructs parturition b}^ the feet becoming pres.sed against the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. Relief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running noose is parsed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate IX) planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the liml)s in this wa}', the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) PI.ATK XIII. lliigft and croup presentation. after Flpinrag. Anterior presentation . HuidliM^I) deviation. AB N O R M AL. r» R E S t: N TAT I O N S IM.A'l- !•: Xl\'. Aruc r for prescntfitilon. Head (u/7i^d on side. \ \ ' A7 *''ju>r- />resentntivn Hrad turned on bark JULIUS BIEN & CO r A H N () H M .^I. I'K K S h: X ^^^''s.^r I O N S . f ^>lJ^^y^ ^ r /? DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 177 ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. With the long- fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the resulting- increase in thickness, both at the head and. shoulder, offers a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plato XI, fig. 2.) The hand introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb ma}' he traced obliquel}' across the back of the neck. If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot uiay bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu- rition will proceed normal!}'. FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. The nose and one forefoot present, and on examination tlie knee of the missing forelimb is found farther back. (Plate XI, lig. 1.) First place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push back the body of the fetus Avith a repeller, while the operator seizing the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plato XI, fig. 4.) By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize the fore- arm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed back b}^ the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS. This ma}' bo so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until 14384—03 12 178 BUEEAU OF A2IIMAL IJN'ItUSTRY. the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Kext have the assist- ants pusli back the presenting limbs, while the nose is stronglj^ lifted upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes the natural position and parturition is easy. When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible to rea,ch the nose. If, however, the labor has onl}' commenced, the limbs ma}' be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by dragging on wdiich the head ma}' be so far advanced that the fingers may reach tha orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts elevated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be attempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repulsion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the posterior presentation. HEAD TURNED BACK OX THE SHOULDER. In this case, the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. (Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized, it can be brought into DISEASES OF THE HOSSE. 179 the passage as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached, the orbit maj be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In ver}^ difficult cases a rope ma}^ be passed around the neck by the hand or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way in bad cases, a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be resorted to as advised under the last heading. HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK. This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XIV, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the hegd as the neck is straightened, and ends by bringing the head within easj' reach. HIND FEET ENGAGED IX TIIE PELVIS. In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the passages, and the farther labor advances the more tirmh' does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. (Plate XIII, fig. 2. ) The condition is to be recognized hj introducing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope carrier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure the ante- lior presenting part of the body ma}^ be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see ''Embryotomy"); then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the remaining portion is brought awa}- b}'- the posterior presentation. ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos- sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the 180 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes natural. BACK OF TlIK FOAL TUUNEI) TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. In a roomy marc this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturition, yet it may seriously impede it, hy reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubri- cation of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: (1) To turn the foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and (2) the amputaticn of the fore limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy. illNI) niESENTATIOX WITH LE(; TiEXT AT HOCK. In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis b}^ reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be pro- tected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb ma}' be torn. When the pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia, and l)y turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open: First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend the upper part of the liml), leaving the hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after which the bod}- may V)c extracted. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LE(JS liENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. This is merely an aggregated form of the presentation last described. (Plate XHI, iig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accomplished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until the fetlock is DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 181 reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then ampu- tation at the hips is the dernier ressort. HIXD PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TUEXED SIDEWAYS OR DOWNWARD. These are the counterparts of simular anterior presentations and are to be managed in the same way. PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the entrance of the pelvis, and the head and all four feet turned back into the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The hoAy of the fetus may be extended across the opening transversely so that the head corresponds to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical with the head above or below. In any such position the object should be to push the body of the fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may Ibest promise to bring up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and bv the use of a propeller. PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into the pas- sage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it prove difii- cult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed around the fet- lock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easih' pushed back. EMBRYOTOMY. This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will vary in difierent cases according to the necessity for the removal of one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or 182 BUREAU OF ANIMAL IT^fDUSTRY. to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest opera- tions in eml)r3'otomy (incision of the head in h3^drocephalus, incision of the belly in dropsy) have alread}^ been described. It remains to notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by the skilled anatomist. Amputation of the head. — This is easy when both fore limbs are turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as in double-headed monsters. The head is secured b}' a hook in the lower jaw, or in the orbit, or b}^ a halter, and the skin is divided circularh' around the lower part of the face or at tlie front of the ears, according" to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebrae (neck bones) are severed by cutting completel}' across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed b}' steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, the knife may be again used to sever an}^ obstinate connections. In the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. Amputation of the hind UnJj. — This mav be required when there are extra hind limbs, or when the hind limbs are bent forv\-ard at hock or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure reseral)les that for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge. Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the nmscles around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. Amputation of the fore Umhs. — This may usually be begun on the fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed out by a movable button when wanted. First phice a noose around DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 183 the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularh^ entirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breastbone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to di-ag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above ail wdien it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at ail points; much of it may be stripped off with the lingers or knuckles, or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is meanwhile held tense to render the spud effective. In case the limb is bent for^vard at the hock, a rope is passed round that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the lower end of the long bone alxtve (tibia). In case it is still needful to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded b}^ cutting in on the hip joint and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone and pulled on forciblv, while ain' unduly resisting struc- tures were cut with the knife. Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints and tear through the muscles when the}'' can not be cut; then with cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the floor of the pelvis to drag out the" pelvic bones; then put cords around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them; then remove the intestines; and finally, b}' means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward beneath it. 18-1 liUliEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Keuff cuts his way into the pelvis oi the foal, and with a knife .separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning- the quarter draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with them the hind limbs. The hind limbs havin<^ been removed by one or the other of these procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage and utilize them for traction. Removal of th,' ahdominal Vfscera. — In case the belly is unduly large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to \ny it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. Eemoval of the thoracic viscera.— To diminish the bulk of the chest it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends overlapping each other. Biasection of the trunk. — In case it becomes necessary to remove other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of preserving the skin so that all manipuhitions can be made inside this as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction on the remaining parts of the body, and as a covering to pro- tect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such part is passing. FLOODING, OR BLEEDIISKJ FROM THE WO:\IB. -This is rare in the mare, but not luiknown, in connection with a failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, swa}'- ing, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand introduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. Treaitnent consists in evacuating the Avomb of its blood clots, giving a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides this a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, with tincture of nuiriate of iron, may be introduced into the womb and squeezed t>o as to bring the li(iuid in contact with the walls generally. EVERSION OF THE WOMB. If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the af terpains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole inverted DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 185 organ appears external I3' and han^s down on the thighs. The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rec- tum with feces, and distension of tlie bladder with urine, all of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In return- ing the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruction to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet should be held beneath the womb and all tilth, straw, and foreign bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches wide, wind the womb as tightl}" as possible, beginning at its most dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those portions next the vulva are graduall}' pushed in with the hands; or the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed list, the return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even by those of assistants. B}^ either mode the manipulations may be made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the vagina the rest will usually follov\^ with increasing ease, and the operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still remains inverted within another por- tion. Should any such partial inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual mechanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate IX, fig. •!. The ring formed by the inter- lacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along thf spine, being wound round each other in their course, and are final!}' tied to the upper part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, belonging to the other rope, are carried down- ward and forward between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of the bell}' and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the collar. These ropes are draAvn tightly enough to keep closely applied to the opening without chafing, and will fit still more 186 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRT. securely when the mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tlo the mare short so that she may be unaljle to lie down for a day or two, and she should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent straining may be checked bj^ full doses of opium (one-half dram), and any costiveness or diarrhea shoidd be obviated by a suicablc laxative or binding diet. In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded!, or the mare nmst be rendered insensible l)y ether or chloroform. RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through tlie opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping into the abdominal cavitj'. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in eversion of Ihe womb this is practically impossible. In the last- named condition the wound must be carefully and accuratelj" sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected dailj^ with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If inflammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with hot water by means of a heavy woolen I'ag, and large doses of opium (one-half llram) may be given twice or thrice daily. RUPTURJES OF THE VAGINA. These are attended l)y dangers similar to those belonging to rupture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyriform mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downv/ard into the bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one connuon orifice with the vulva. Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recover}' is not attained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound communicating vvith the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and care, and though I Lave succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can not advise the attempt l)y unprofessional persons. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 187 BIX)OD CLOTS TX TME V.'ALLS OF THE VAGIXA. {See "Effusion oi" blood in the vaginal walls,*' p, 169.) INFLAMMATION OF THE V.'OMB AXD PETilTOXEUM, These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irntant infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposition of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is likely to occur. Symjytoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the bod}', looking back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge from the vulva of a liquid at first water}', reddish, or 3'ellowish, and later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especialh^ ciiaracter- istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the bellv, and is more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the iuflamination tends to become chronic and attended hx a whitish muco-puruient discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and weakr.ess from the general septic poisoning. Treatment. — In treatment the first thing to be sought is the remo^'al of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout- chouc tube introduced into tlie womb, and into which a funnel is fitted. "Warm water should be passed until it comes away clear. To insure that all of the womb has l>een washed out, the oiled hand may be intro- duced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solution 1 dram per- manganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Kepeat twice daily. Fomentation of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, ma}' greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indicates septic poisoning large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to. LEUCOERHEA. This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin- ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. Like the discharge of acute inflammation it contains many forms of 188 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. l)acteriii. 1)}- some of which it is manifestl}' inoculablc on tlic penis of the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge. Treat mtnf ma}' consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron, 3 drams, dail\') and the washing out of the womb, as described under the last heading, followed b}' an astringent antiseptic injection (car- bolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. LAMINITIS, OR I OUNDER, FOLLOWIXG TARTUKITIOX. This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it frequently does on disorder of the stomach. Its sj^nptoms agree Mith those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATIOX OF THK IDDER. This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of tlie abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation one or ))oth of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up or replaced hy a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at times becomes fetid; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recoverv, in abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- dation for a tumor of the gland, Trentnient. — The treatment is simple so long as there is only conges- tion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated oil, and the frequent drawing ofl: of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When active inflam- mation is pi-esent fomentation with w^arm water may ])e kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the camphorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and extract of bella- donna, A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Barbados aloes) will be of service in reducing fever, and one-half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be caref ull}^ injected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a suiall milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer (Plate VIII, figs. 2 aud 3). When 'pus forms and points externally, and can not find a free escape b}' the teat, the spot where it fluctuates must be opened freely with the knife DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 189 and the cavity injected daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent it may be rubbed daily Avith iodine ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 parts. TUMOES OF THE UDDER. As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seriously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If sucii swellings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine, the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often impli- cated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their colts, and therefore should not be bred. SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, ^^'ARTS. By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- tion, or indei^endentl}", warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. The M^arts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and sulphata of sine 5 grains. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. E. Tri-mbowek, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8., V. M. D.] THE ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system may bo regarded as consisting of ^two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebrospinal system; second, the synqxithetlc, or ganglionic system. Each is possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. In the iirst, the center is made up of two portions — one large and expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elongated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sj'stem con- sists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in S3"mmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- tion of nervous matter, namely, the white or medullary, and the gray or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also for the sensoiy, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve 190 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 191 consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together b}' a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma. Nerv^e fibers possess no elasticitj^ but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are throvv'n into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nen^e. Nerves may be paralyzed b}^ continuous pressure being applied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory^ or centrlj^eial, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor, or Gentrlfugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ ma}- excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the cerebellian, the pons Varolii, and the cerehruni — and it is covered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these mem- branes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the araclinold, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leav- ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- sj^inal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, or inner, the^^/« mater, is closely adherent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vas- cular than vv^hen it reaches the spinal cord, v>^hich it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oUojigata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extend- ing to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. ThQ2>ons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move- ments, that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a definite purpose. Injuries to the cere})ellum cause disturbances of the equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. 192 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The cd'chram^ or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irreguhir flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all ps^'chical activities. Only when they are intact are the processes of feeling", thinking, and willing possible. After they are destroj^ed, the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is onl}' the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The .y)in(fl eoyd, or spinal marrow^, is that part of the cerebro-spinal SA'stem which is contained in the spinal canal of the l)ackbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lateral symmetrical halves by tissures. The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of nerve trunks— «/*^<:Z« equina'. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter inter- nally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatt}' matter, the mem- branes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. The spinal nerves, forty -two or forty-three in number, arise each l)}^ two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The nerves originating from the brain arc twent3'-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which arc named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz: 1. Olfactory. 7. Facial. 2. Optic. 8. Auditory. 3. Oculo-motor. 9. Glosso-pharyngcal. 4. Pathetic. 10. Pneumogastric. 5. Trifacial. 11. Si)inal-accessory. 6. Abducenp. 12. Ilypogloggal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Inflammation ma}' attack these membranes singly, or any one of the anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the cranium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflaumiation, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonh' the seat of mflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate inflammation of the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 19& pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflammation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses — the cerebrum, cerebel- lum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain — without involv- ing- the surface. When, therefore, inflammation invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is propeVly called encepJialitis ; when the membranes alone are affected, it is called meningitis; or the bi'ain sub- stance alone, cerebritis. Since all of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered together. encephalitis, meningitis, and cerebritis (inflammation of the brain and it8. membranes). Causes.- — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over- feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such a» concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes- as sequelae to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring^ structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc.. Sy7n/ptoms. — The diseases here grouped together are accompanied by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso- ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point unmis- takably to a given lesion. Usually the first s^miptoms indicate mental excitement and these are followed by symptoms indicating depression.. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased sensibility to- noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction of the pupils- of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condition will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic move- ments, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes- af raid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop^ with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma ma}^ supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated, convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will be quick and hard; in the latter,, soft or depressed with often a dilatation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The sj^mptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease approach a fatal termination in less thait twelve hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improvement may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paralysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis- there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the dis- ease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms 14384—03 13 194 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. develop, succeeded b}' a decrease when coma becomes manifest. The A iolence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paralysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal becomes extremely violent earh' in the attack, and by rearing up, striking with the forefeet, or falling over, may do liin)self great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occa- sionallj' he may go through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a circle persistently. Early and persistent constipa- tion of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearlj^ all acute affections of the brain; retention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Following these symptoms there is depression, loss of power and consciousness,, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the head hanging or resting on the manger, the e3^es parti}' closed, and does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poisoning, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by excit- ability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and slug- gish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encephalitis ma}^ affect an animal for ten da3"s or two weeks without much variation in the s3'mptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement commences the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order in which they developed with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles is a ver}-- common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda- tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplex3^ The s3^mptoms are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timiditv, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 195 cases tlie symptoms are analogous to those of apoplex}''. The character of the S3'mptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the structure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete paralj^sis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. Lesions. — On making postmortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an exces- sive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with corre- spondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred a^ a later period of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and engorge- ment, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found more or loss watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gra}" matter under the membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different cases. Exudations of a membranous character ma}^ be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. In meningitis, especiall}^ in chronic cases, in addition to the serous effusion, there are changes which maybe regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highl}^ vascular la3^er or layers of mem- brane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membranous forma- tions. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found embedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralj'sis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The meningitis may be suppurative. In this case, a pus-like exudate is found between the membranes covering the brain. In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, surrounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and sometimes we may find one large abscess.. In cases of recent development the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac, or C5'st, and the contents have a very offensive odor. Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the mem- branes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and 196 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflammatory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished in the treat- ment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cerebritis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dangerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby lessen the irrita- tion or excitability of the affected structures. If the attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been onl}^ partially' successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory products and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the main objects in further treatment arc to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the dis- ease, where there is unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and ciuickened pulse, we should apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this purpose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often as necessary. . If the dis- ease is still in its early stages and the animal is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head are red from a plentiful suppl}^ of blood. The finger should be kept on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the follow- ing medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given at one dose: Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of bro- mide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in 20-drop doses, should be given every hour, and 1 dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec- tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every six hours. The limbs ma}^ be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus- tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 197 If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis) we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in 2-dram doses should be given three times a day, and 1 dram of calo- mel once a day, to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem- branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) ma}^ be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other s3"mptoius, sulphate of strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene- fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis- posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inacces- sible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diag- nosis is largely presumptive. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. Causes. — Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of the left ventrrcle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremel}" fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is 198 BUliEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. merely a functional affection, and in a .sligfht or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- trary, ma}' be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplex}'. Symjjtoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- festation and of short duration. The animal ma}' stop very suddenly and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes arc staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or imperfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensibility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effu- sion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compres- sion, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On postmortem examinations this engorgement is found universal throughout the 'brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflam- mations of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged congestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found perma- nently dilated. Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. Pi'evention. — Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the col- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 199 % lar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling' upgrade; regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become excessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclusively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. Exhaustion produced bj^ a long-continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track undergoing pro- ti-acted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exliaus- tion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for many hours^ which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sunstroke. Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109" F. In heat exhaustion the animal usuall}^ requires urging for some time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the breathing hurried or panting, eyes wateiy or bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highl}^ reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart l)oundi ng, followed by unconsciousness and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a long- period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and cause paral3^si8 of that organ. There are also changes in the composition of the blood. Treatment. — Under no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and along the spine and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces of whiskj^ should be given in 1 ^^int of water. Cold water should be showered upon the bod}^ of the horse from the hose or otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down to 103° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits 200 ^ BUREAU OF ANIMAL IKDUSTRY. of camphor oftc7\ 3'ield good results. The adunnistration of the stim- ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred, preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva- lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ventilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the sj'stem. Horses should be permitted to drink as nuich water as the}- want while they are at work during hot weather. An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is ver^^ liable to have subsequent attacks w^hen exposed to the necessarj^ exciting causes. APOrLEXY, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the j?r66?/.?/>06'2'w(7 and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen- eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breathing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon becomes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a small arter}^ and the extravasation limited, sudden paral3^sis of some part of the bod}" is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally' deranged by the pressure of the extra- vasated blood; hence tliese conditions are very variable. In the absence of an}- premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonabl}' certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain, or sunstroke. Pathology. — In apoplexy there is generall}' found an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usuall}' fol- lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 201 pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substance may follow, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all stinui- lating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is extremel}^ hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — In injuries from direct violence apiece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extrava- sation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arachnoid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized paraly- sis. All the sj'mptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paral3"sis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or ph3^sician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the s3miptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often cause concussion of the brain. Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immediately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal ma}" rall}^ quickly, or not for hours; death may occur on the spot or after a few da\'s. When there is only slight concussion or stunning 202 liUliEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insen- sibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery ma}^ take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the bod}', often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Conva- lescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent impairment of some organs remains. PatJwlogy. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which if not sufficiently sevei"e to produce sudden death msij lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished b}^ dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majoritj'' of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimu- lants, in the form of whisk}' or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the possible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction may often be fol- lowed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly-. For this reason the stimulants should not be adminis- tered too f reel}', and they must be abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further treatment unless complica- tions develop as a secondary result. Bleeding, which is so often prac- ticed, proves almost invariably fatal in this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their bal- ance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. ANEMIA OF THE BllAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting fits occur, Avith temporar}- loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within DISEASES OF THE HUESE. 203 the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probabl}^ the most frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by a blood clot. Symjytoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerel^ral hyperemia. The blood vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub- stance softened. Treatment.- — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. IIYDllOCErnALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIX. This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of external and internal hj^drocephalus. External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con- sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the forehead. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The disease is incurable and usually fatal. Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long-continued indigestion. Common, heav3'-headed draft horses are predisposed to this condition. The synqytoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and from their nature this disease is sometimes known as "dumminess" or "immobilit}".-' Ahorse so afflicted is called a "dumm3\" Among the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor memorj', etc. The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with a wisp of ha}' protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to drive, as they do not respond readil}' to the word, to pressure of the bit, or to the whip. Graduall}^ the pulse becomes weaker, respiration becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so afflicted is said to have "staggers." The outlook for recovery is not good. 204 EUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri- tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or h^ the use of small regular doses of Glauber's salts. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- quentl}^ and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paraly.sis, epilepsy, etc. Among- the more common tumors are the following: Osseous tumors^ growing from the walls of the cranium, arc not very uncommon. Dentigerous cysts^ containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found l3"ing loose within the cranium. Tumors of the choroid plexus^ known as hrain sand^ are frequently met with on postmortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance are believed to have induced the condition known as string-halt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal structures of the brain. Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of an}^ part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excess- ive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete mate- rials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonic spasm .^ when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm^ when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary as well as the vol- untary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 205 Spasm, of the glottis. — This is manifested by a strangling respira- tion; a wheezing- noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark-colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. Spasms of the intestines. — (See "Cramp colic," p. 58.) SjMsms of the neck of the Madder.- — This may be due to spinal irri- tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre- quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. Sjyasm of the diaphragm^ or thumps. — Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occa- sioned b}^ extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among horsemen as "thumps." This condition may be distinguished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each other. (See "Palpitation of the heart," p. 236.) Spasm of the thigh., or cramp of a hind limh. — This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors — generally in cold weather — or it nmy come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex the leg are unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back- ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may affect the eyelids, b}^ closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. Treatment of spasms. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro- form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles, will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single external muscles are affected. In spasm of the glottis, inhalation of sulphuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisk}^ with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypodermic injec- tion. If spasms result from organic disease of the nervous system, 206 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the latter should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually cau :e3 relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement, caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will certainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in manj' cases it does very quickl3\ Conmdsions. — Althougli there is no disease of the nervous system which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent sj'mptom that a few words ma}' not be out of place. General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinarj- spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self -limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory movements, checking the oxygenation and dccarbonization of the blood, the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxj^gen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitability that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy, so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCK. Chorea is characterized by involuntaiy contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other foi-ms of convulsions simulate chorea in appeaiimce. SfringhaJt is b}' some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. This S3'mptom ma}' be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the neck. Involuntar}'^ jerking of the muscles of the DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 207 hip or thigh is seen occasioually, and is termed "shivering'"' by- horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuutarj^ muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. Treatment. — In a few cases, earlj^ in the appearance of this affection, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 dram; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the form of Fowler's solution is often beneficial. If the cause is connected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary bod}^, which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur onh' once or twice a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. Synijytoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the jaws ma}'- be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue become lacer- ated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return of consciousness. Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxj'sm. After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the comjjlete and the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and sen- sibility are affected; the latter those in which onl}^ one or the other is lost or diminished. Paral3'sis may be general or partial. The latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When oiiXj a small portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is designated b}^ the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the periphery to the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes. — They are very A'aried. Most of the acute affections of the brain and spinal cord ma}^ lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease 208 BUKEAIJ OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed a general parah'sis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. General paralysis. — This can not take place without producing imme- diate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the bod}^ are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the brain by con- gestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. Hemiplegia^ or jyaralysis of one side^ or lialf.^ of theTjody. — Hemi- plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to pois- ons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflammatory character, it is seldom complete; it may afl'ect only one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and ma}^ pass ofl; in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the primary aflfection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack rpay be very sudden, and the animal fall down powerless to move one side of the bod}", one side of the lips will be relaxed; the tongue may hang out on one side of the mouth; the tail curved around sideways; an inability to swallow food or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the afl'ected side may be entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the animal maj' be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difiiculty in moving the aflfected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is complete loss of the power of movement, recoveries are rare. Paraplegia.^ or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities. — Paralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflammation affecting the spinal cord. (See "Spinal meningitis," p. 211, and "Myelitis," p. 212.) It ma^' also be due to a reflex irritation from DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 209 disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused by blood poisons, etc. Symptoms. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirel}^. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill- conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessitate his destruction. Locomotor' ataxia, or hicoordlnation of onovement. — This is charac- terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on the base of the brain. Local j)aralysis. — This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very fre- quently overlooked in diagnosis. Facial jparalysls. — This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, ihcj^ortlo dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compres- sion along its course after it leaves the medulla oblongata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. Sy7nptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inabilit}^ to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in chew- ing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. Laryngismus paralytieiis, or roaring. — This condition is characterized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar condition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. Paralysis of the rectum and tail. — This is generall}^ the result of a- blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum and 14384—03 14 210 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUbTRT. muscles belonging' thereto. This fracture would not be suspected were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. Intestinal pai^alysis. — Characterized by persistent constipation; fre- quently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the move- ment of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralj^sis. Sudden checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. Paralysis of the hUidder. — This usually affects tlie neck of the blad- der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. Paralysis of the optic nerve^ or amaurosis. — A paralj^sis of e3-esight ma}^ occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent, the ej^e looks clear, but does not respond to light. Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paral3-sis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of deglutition, pals}^ of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. Treatment for paralysis. — In all paralytic affections there may lie anesthesia., or impairment of sensibilit}', in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be hyperesthesia., or increased sensibilit3% in con- nection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where hyperesthe- sia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve sufferirig. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anes- thesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to secure tlic animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious injury from acci- dents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treatment of any form of paralj^sis we must always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the cause can not be deter- mined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong irritant liniments may ,be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemiplegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux vomica or DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 211 2 o-rains of sulphate of stiychnia twice a day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be emploj'ed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit ma3^ be derived from the application of the electric current, especi- ally' in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralj^sis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good groom- ing, etc., should be observed in all cases. SnXAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAIVIMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOP- ING THE SPINAL CORD, Causes. — This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood- poisons, exhaustion, and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc. Symptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or" a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiflly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paral^^sis or paraplegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the begin- ning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate i\\& two; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, poste- rior to the seat of the disease. Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the 2'>ici mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute sj^mptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con- trolled as early as possible b}^ giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride eveiy hour, until the desired result is obtained. 212 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- cular excitement of the vspinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become prettj^ well dilated. If the pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease generally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exudative prod- ucts and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodide of potassa in 2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a da}'. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day maj'^ be given in the feed. Electricitj^ to the para- lyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebrte, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. MYELITIS, OK INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or degeneration. Symi^tonis. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the localit}^ of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. PatJiology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain confined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congrested, reddened, often DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 213 softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL CONGESTION. This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased the spinal cord is almost invariably affected also. Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. Sym-ptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first s^miptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lowering of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region it may cause interference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be com- plete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. Treatment. — Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root 30 drops every hour until the symptoms become ameliorated. If no inflammatory products occur the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This ma}^ be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of peripheral irritation of some nerve. Symptoms. — Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sensibiiit}' , in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal congestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal recov- ers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. 214 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. SFINAL COMPRESSIOX. When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an increased sensibilit}' on the side corresponding to the compressed section, and a diminished sensibilit}- and some paral3'sis on the opposite side. Treatment.- — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflamma- tory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics arc indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid ca^nty, and large clots be formed. Si/m2}toms.—T\\Q sjnnptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as the}'^ are principally due to the compres- sion of the cord. A large clot ma}^ produce sudden paraplegia, accom- panied by severe pain along the spine; usualh^, however, the parah^sis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminished sensi- bility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indicates that the spinal cord is compressed. Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis it is always advisa))le to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour imtil three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced b}^ falling DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 215 over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches ma}- produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hem- orrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some dis- turbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralj'tic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, the}" have to be treated as heretofore directed. SPIXAL TUMORS. Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarcomata are found to be the most frequent, tumors maj'- form from the meninges and the vertebra, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the spinal cord indirectly b}- compression. In the meninges w^e may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. Symptoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop- ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is progressive, but not usuall}" marked with atroph}^ of the muscles or increased sensibilit}- along the spine. When the tumor is within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. Treatment. — General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may be giv^en; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadil}" luitil it proves fatal. XEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused b}' a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infiltration of serum mixed with pus. Symj)toms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. Treatment. — H3qoodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of morphia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below the ligature. NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it maj- appear after the lapse of 216 BUKEAU- OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. months or even j^ears. Neuroma iisuallj' develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval, running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. Symjjtovis. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more especiall}' after resting a while, and when pressure is made ujDon the tumor, it causes extreme suffering. Treatment. — Excision of the~ tumor, including part of the n(^r\-e above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. INJURIES TO NERVES. These ma}' consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessarily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the prin- cipal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to rem- edy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treatment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the appli- cation of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United States. It is most common in Maiyland, Delawar.e, Virginia, North Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it almost every j^ear. This condition consists in a poisoning and depression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water containing poison generated b}^ mold or bacteria. It has been shown to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contaminated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this disease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. In England a similar disease has been called "grass staggers," due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Pennsyl- vania it was formerly known by the name of "putrid sore throat" and " choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which is veiy prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 217 commonl}^ known by the name of "blind staggers," and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this disease. Symptoms. — The sj^raptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic, cere- bro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses, namely, excessive pain, high fever, and earl}^ muscular rigidity. In the recog- nition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks, the animal may llrst indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inability to swal- low solids or liquids, impairment of e3^esight; twitching of the mus- cles, and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the temperature is not elevated — indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic move- ments as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness bruise his head in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in from four to twenty-four hours from the time the first sj-mptoms became manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the disease; it may be almost imper- ceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular; the res- pirations generally are quick and catching. In the next form in which this disease may develop, it first becomes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastication, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be somewhat constipated. These symp- toms ma}'' remain unchanged for two or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more percep- tible; then sleepiness or coma maj^ appear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing- stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the spinal mus- cles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in frQm six to ten days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form, the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recovers. 218 BUBEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. In a few cases the spinal S3'mptoms, manifested b}' paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal- lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis may remain for some time, rarely persistent. One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. Treatment. — In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to 6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse con- sciousness. In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain doses twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder mus- cles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected .under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart sthn- ulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as they may be able to cat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly before them, sup- porting them in slings if necessary ; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. Pathology. — Postmortem examination reveals, in some cases, more or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and effu- sion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammator}^ action existed. In other cases the i^ostmortem examination is entirely negative, no gross lesions being visible. Hygienic measures needful, — Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should -be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash contain- ing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of water, and should have DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 219 time to dry tlioroughlj^ before the horses are replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest importance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense contractions of convulsive violence. Causes. — This disease is caused b}" a bacillus that is often found in the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the absence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed, and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous than superfi- cial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote from the 0x3^- gen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especiall}^ dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduc- tion of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It maj^ come on a long time after the wound is healed — three or four months. In som« countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presumption is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, excitable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usuall}' dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difiicult}^ in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the ej'e of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inabilit}' to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excitability and increased sf)asm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stifl' manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become constipated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidl}" aggravated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration breaks out on the body; 220 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are com.pletely set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightl}^ over the teeth, nostrils dilated, and the animal presents a pic- ture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affedts the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked; the nervous excitabilit}' and rigidity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the nock or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the s3Miiptoms may gradually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, how^ever, we find the muscular cramps almost solely confined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head symptoms are aeutel}'^ developed. On the contrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs perfectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the difli- culty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and, above all, the absence of paralj^sis, should serve to make the distinc- tion. Prevention. — Where a valuable horse has sustained a ^'>ound that it is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hj^poder- mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be afforded. Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box stall without bedding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach him; if the place is moder- ately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and cjuiet about him, to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Teta- nus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given in very large c^uantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in gl3"cerin and water (car- bolic acid, 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice dail3\ A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes, 6 to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 221 g-iven at once. This is best given in a ball form; if, however, the ani- mal is greatl}^ excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may be dissolved in two omices of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine b}^ the mouth should not be made. In such cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficientl}^ often to keep the animal continuallj^ under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severit}^ of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibilitj^ to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal- low liquids, oat-meal gruel and milk should be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequentl}^ may be obtained by clothing- the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with ver}' warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani- mal almost entire freedom from pain; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of an}^ lasting beneHt. llecently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec- ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed b}' relapse when tlie animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNKSS. This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — very rarely in two weeks. Symjytoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis- ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes 222 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will continuaUy rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generall}' the bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urination, which is painful, and the urine ver}- dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxj^sms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back maj' be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finalh', the hind limbs become paralyzed, breathing ver3- dif- ficult, and convulsions supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequenc}' from the outset of the attack. Rabies maj' possibly be mistiiken for tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very earh' in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron ma}^ possibh^ destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habit- ually drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form near smelting works, where, bj^ the fumes arising from such works, lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or suli)hate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. Symjjtoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the functions of digestion and locomotion or it may affect the lungs principally. In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difiicult and the animal gets out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring, also, is very fre- quently a symptom of lead poisoning. When it affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky sjnnptoms develop. When the deposit is prin- cipall}^ in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symp- toms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is seldom an}'^ increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 223 and the breath assumes a peculiarl}^ offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of potassa three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the system, which is rapidl}'^ excreted by the kidne3^s. If much muscular weak- ness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses and strychnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the sup- ply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of soluble lead. If it occurs near leadworks, great care must be given to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc. Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- nuria, or when, from an}'^ cause, the functions of the kidneys become impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no long'er elim- inated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the svstem and give rise to uremic poisoning. Sym-ptoms. — Uremic poisoning is usuall}^ preceded b}^ dropsy of the limbs or abdomen; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed; then drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Suddenly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and intermit- ting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the brain or respira- tor}" organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circula- tion. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. Treatinent. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recoveiy is pos- sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediatel}^ fatal the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp- ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera- ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominating sj^mptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. 224 BUREAU OF AmMAL INPUSTEY. Treatment.— Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, and consciousness returns. Stunulating injections per rectum may also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or ammonia water may be used. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By M. R. Teumbower, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone-shaped, with the base upward; the apex points downward, backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels, and held in posi- tion below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a thin translucent liquid — is present constantly. The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side; each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavi- ties— the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles; the inferior, or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the outside by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are generally filled with fat. The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and are connected with the great veins — the vense cavee and pulmonary veins — through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aperture, the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood from the 14384—03 15 . 225 226 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. auricles into the A-entricles, but preventing- a reverse course. The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated bv a partition, and are connected with the great arteries — the pulmonary artery and the aorta — b}- which they send blood to all parts of the bod3\ At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary artery is an ari-angement of valves in each case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo- ventricular valves in the left side are composed of two ilaps, hence it is called the hicus])id valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps, and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles; and each flap of the auriculo- ventricular valves is supplied with tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under-surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed — a condition which is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and on the left side, are providecl with three-flapped semilunar-shaped valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles contract. The veins emptying into the auricles arc not capable of closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. The inner surface of the heart is lined b}" a serous membrane, the endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the valves. The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior vense cavie. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle, thence through the pvdmonary artery to the lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmonar}^, or lesser, being performed Iw the right side, and the sj^stemic, or greater, by the left side. As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs; this takes j)lace in regular rhythmical order during health. The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo- gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves); it is the inhibitory nerve of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 227 nerve is cut, the heart-beats increase rapidl}-, and in fact the organ works without control. When the nerve is undulj" irritated the hold- back, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonar}" veins, and the aorta, or S3^stemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to cir- culate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the vena? cava^, or sj^stemic veins, and pulmonary artery, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted through the kings for renovation. The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. Their branches mostl}^ come off at acute angles, and are commonly of uniform diameter in each case, but successive!}^ diminish after and in consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood move more slowly along their branches to the capillar}^ vessels, and the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the blood as it returns from the capillar}' vessels to the venous trunks. In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis^ occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of blood, and must tend to promote equabilit}' of distribution and of pres- sure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. During life thej" are also contractile, being provided with muscular tissue. When cut across the}' present, although empty, an open orifice; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually described as being formed of three coats, named, from their relative positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their structure so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, or tunica intiina^ is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers— an inner, consisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and becoming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adven- titia, is composed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective tissue, Avhich chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the 228 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa va-sorum, form a cap- illary network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat. The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which suppl}' both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic sj^stem. The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels, known as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter is about one three-thousandth of an inch. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so thick, that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses; the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in cfiseases of the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer during life, and are so diflacult to diagnose with any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as maj^ serve to lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, care, etc. Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms l)y causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en- couragement for medical treatment. Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is witnessed most frequently in j^oung horses, which, when being trained for fast work, are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Nervous or timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequentl}" than those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent or sudden change in the circulation ma}^ result in injur}' to the heart. Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are diffi- cult breatiiing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual -v, C\| CV5 •* l/^- to tsT Qc- ft ^ •M ? .? N kT'I .V . <; vs -;< S5 r^ .§> ?^ 5, ? ^ -S § ^ 5 :;• 5 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 229 coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting- attacks, irmbility to stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength and ability, etc. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THp HEART. This will embrace m3"ocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. MYOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATIOX OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases. Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed by myocarditis. By extension of inflammation for the endocardium or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Over- exertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause this muscle to become inflamed. Symptoms. — Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inability to contract forcibly; this results in a rapid but weak, soft pulse and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is great gen- eral weakness, shortness of breath, and rapid respiratory movements^ In some cases, where the muscle is very much softened and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly from paralysis or rupture of the heart. Alterations. — The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easil3^ There may be a spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in struc- ture in small areas; these small areas may be due to suppuration, in which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall. Treatment. — In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care, and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat such foods as he will take; he should be kept in an airy box stall; his legs should be well rubbed as often as necessaiy to keep them warm and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally, the horse may have strychnia in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisk}^ in 4-ounce doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture m doses of 1 dram eveiy three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in heap- ing tab'espoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and fihould be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete. 230 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. EXDOCARDiriS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LINIXG MEMBRANE OF THE HEART, USUALLY INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. Endocarditis frequenth' occurs as a complication of rheumatism, some of the specific or zymotic fevers, septic poisoning, etc. This is a more frequent disease among- horses than is generally known, and often gives rise to symptoms which, at first, are obscure and unnoticed. In influenza we mav find the heart becoming involved in the disease, in consequence of the morbid material conve3^ed through the heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections, in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a primarj'' endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special attention to this disease. Endocarditis maj' be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute iutlam- mation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endo- cardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be followed b}"" a coagulation of fibrin upon the inliamed surface, which adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy- like granular elevations; this may lead to a formation of fibrinous clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or third da}'. Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to suspect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which it gen- eralh' occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the valves are much involved. When coagula or vegetations form upon the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when forma- tion of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these mate- rials ma\' be carried from the cavit}' of the heart by the blood current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are lia])le to suddenly" plug vessels and thereb}^ interrupt important functions. In the great major- ity of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming s\'mptoms disappear in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the interior lining or va'vular structures as to cause impairment in the circulation for a umch longer period of time. These changes usually consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary changes which take place DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 231 slowlj^ at first, but ultimately seriously impair the animal's usefulness. What was but a slight olxstruction to the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much increased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of the heart, constituting hypertrophy^ of the walls of the ventricles, more particularly of the left, with corre- sponding fullness of the left auricle and pulmonarj- veins, thereby pro- ducing fullness of the capillaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difiicult or asthmatic breathing — greatl}" increased in attempts to work — until in a few months many of these cases become entirely dis- abled for work. Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of the body result from the irregular and deficient circula- tion. Derangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestipn of the kidneys, ma}^ also appear. Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes the beginning of valvular disease. Symjytonis. — Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sud- den and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less tumultuously. In the earl}' stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is com- pelled to'trot; very often difficult}' in breathing, or shortness of breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. When the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visible mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored, and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated.- When the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart contracts more frequently than the j)ulse beats — that is, there may be twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse waves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest wall will not pro- duce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs is cold — rarely exces- sively hot — and frequently the body of the animal is in a subdued tre- mor. In nearly all cases there is partial suppression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven days, witliout any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form in the heart the change will be 232 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. sudden and quickl}' prove fatal unless the}- become loosened and are carried awdj in the circulation; then apoplex}- may result from the plugging- of arteries too small to give further transmission. If the animal manifests symptoms of improvement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels apparently as well as ever, eats Avell, and moves freely in his stall or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, the breathing becomes quickened with a dou- ble flank movement as in heaves, and all the former symptoms reap- pear in a modified degree. An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufRcicncy, cardiac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of the circulation. Endocarditis ma}- be suspected in all cases where plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals affected with influenza, rheuniiitism, or any disease in which the blood may convey septic matter. Acute endocardial inflammation ma}- be distinguished from pleuritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the chest wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on percussion. Treatment. — The objects to be attained by treatment will be to remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart with- out weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action exist- ing in the cardiac structures, and, as long as any evidence of inflamma- tory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a tendency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent treatment and complete rest. The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary secre- tion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should be avoided. They serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible good. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 233 drinking water every four hours for tlie first five or six da3^s, and then be superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in half-ounce doses, for the following week, or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram doses of salic3date of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of potassa. To guard against chronic iuduration of the valves, the iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three times a da}^ for several weeks. When chronic efi'ects remain after the acute stage has passed this drug becomes indispensable. When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circulation or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much weak- ness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the iodide of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a da}^, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated with diffi- cult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, become necessar}^, and freedom from work should be allowed for along time after all symptoms have disappeared. . PERICARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. Causes. —Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma- tism, plcuritis, etc. Si/m^toms. — Usuall}^ the disease manifests itself abruptly by a brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a double or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, corresponding to the fre- quency of the hea,rt-beat. This is known as a friction sound. Between the second and fourth daj^s this sound may disappear, due to a disten- sion of the pericardium by an exudate or serous eflfusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium, percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over the region of the heart, the heart-beats become less perceptible than in health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become audible. If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs for a short time; this friction mQ.y often be felt by appljdng the hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal ma^^ die in a few days or recovery 234 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTET. ma}' begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases the effu- sion may .slowl}' become augmented until the pressure upon the lungs and interference with the circulation becomes so great that death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, the charac- teristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases of peri- cardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism, some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. When pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the distinction ma}^ not l^e very clearly definable, neither will many recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost invariably proves fatal. Pathology. — Pericarditis ma}' at all times be regarded as a ver}' seri- ous affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accumula- tion of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed by an exudation of sero -fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardial sac, and may ultimately form a imion of the opposing surfaces. Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is absorbed, the dis- tinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. When the serous effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its action, and may pro- duce death soon; when it is not so great, it may cause dropsies of other portions of the body. When the adhesions of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, the}- generally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or Avithout dilatation of its cavities; when they are but slight, they may not cause any inconvenience. Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi- talis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to promote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10 grains of morphine may be given by the mouth once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be substituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease may give narked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes chronic, DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 235 iodide of iron and gentian to support the strengtli will be indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping b}- an expert veterinarian ma}^ save the animal. VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocardial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject — the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derangement may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of the valves may become covered by the organization of the exudation, thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions may occur or the tendinous cords ma}^ be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of blood. In protracted cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in ulceration, rup- ture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become covered b}^ fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and shrinking of the valves. Si/mj)to)ns. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; constant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difiiculty of breathing when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a fast trot; attacks of vertigo; congestion of the brain; dropsical. swelling of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur \nsi\ sometimes be heard \>y placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the chest. Hj^pcrtrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these symptoms abate. As the disease nearlj^ alwa3's is the result of endo- carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes sthnu- lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. Fibrous^ cartilaginous., and hony formations have been observed in some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses 236 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous coagula ^n(\.j)oly2)Ous concretions may be found in the cavities of the heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the mass of blood, of a whitish or j^ellowish white color, translucent, of a jelly-like con- sistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the surface of the cavit}^, from which they can easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably result from an excess of coagulabilit}^ of fibrin, which is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. The}'- are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. Polypous concretions are firmer than the preceding, more opaque, of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usuall}' white, but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firm!}- adhere to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear- ance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. The}^ cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious valvular disease. Symptoms. — These are frequently uncertain; they may, however, be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embar- rassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difliculty of breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect artcriali- zation of the blood. Treatment. — Stimulants, whisk}^, or carbonate of ammonia may be of service. PALPITATION OF THE HEART. This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See "Thumps," pp. 140, 205.) Symptoms. — The heart may act with such violence that each beat may jar the whole body of the animal; very commonly it may be heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usuall}^ be traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to avoid or overcome in the futui'e and thereby obviate subsequent attacks. Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digi- DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 237 talis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a sjmiptom, not as a matter of primar}^ specific treatment. SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING. Actual fainting rarel}^ occurs among horses. It may, however, be induced bj^ a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. Symptoms. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though there may bo premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated pupil, staggering-, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap- idly sinking pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirelv unconscious. This state is uncertain in duration — generally it lasts only a few minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more distinct, and consciousness and muscular strengl;h return. In cases attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient occur- rence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by the absence of stertorous breathing and lividit}^ of the visible nuicous membranes. Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimulant — 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. Pre- vent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may immedi- ately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. H3^pertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its muscu- lar substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In valvular disease or valvular insufiicienc}^, hypertrophy frequently results as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. The difficul- ties with which it is most frequently connected are dilatation and ossi- fication of the valv^es. It may also occur in connection with atrophied kidnej^s, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an increased determi- nation of blood to the organ or from a latent form of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened its cavity may retain its normal size 238 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. {sinqyle hypertrophy) or be dilated {eccentric hypeiirophy) or it ma}' be contracted {co7iccntric hypertrophy). H^pcrtroph}- of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of the heart. Hypertropliy of the left ventricle alone increases its length, of the right ventricle alone increases its })readth toward the right side. HA'pertrophy with dilata- tion may affect the chambers of the heart conjointh' or separately. This form is by far the most frequent Aarietv of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is affected it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may become three or four times greater than the average heart. S'ymptoras. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a power- ful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflammation, active hemorrhage, ej:c. If the pulse is small and feeble at the jaw we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to the hj'pertro- phy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the impulse is not only powerful and healing, but it is diffused over the whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area of dullness, while the impulse is usualh' much stronger than normal. Drops}' of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dullness, l)ut the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon concomitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and it becomes useless and incurable. Treatment. — If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it should be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thickening, ma}- be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or more. The tincture of digitalis ma}' be given, in cases where the pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonf uls three times daily. This remedy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular. General tonics, freedom from excite- ment or fatigue, avoidance of bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. DILATATION OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilatation may be mentioned — mm2>le dilatation, where there is normal thickness DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 239 of the walls, and passive, or attenuated^ dilatation, where the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition of substance. Causes. — Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most frequent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxation of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart Walls, serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degeneration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all lead to dilatation. Symptoms. — The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slightest excitement. Treatment. — General tonics, rich food, and rest. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. Fatty degeneration ma}' involve the whole organ, or ma}- be limited to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in extreme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies of oil glol)ules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other morbid conditions of the heai-t, such as obesit}^, dilatation, rupture, aneurism, etc. It ma}' be connected with fatty diseases of other organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. When it exists alone its presence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, excessive hemorrhages, etc. , or to poisoning with arsenic and phosphorus. Siimptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other dis- eases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden death from rupture of the ventricular walls. Treatment. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink- ing water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants as they may be indicated. 2i0 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. KUI^UKE OF THE HEART. This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls, etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pressure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture very quicklv, though an animal may live for some time when the rent is not very large. WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. This ma}^ arise from general debilit}^, the result of exhausting disease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. Treatment. — This should be directed to support and increase the strength of the animal b}^ tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Carbonate of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and to pre- vent the formation of heart clot. CONGESTION OF THE HEART. Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocarditis or as a result of excessive muscular exertion. Symj^toms. — Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequentlj^ accompanied by a gen- eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually results in death ver}^ quickl3^ CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after birth, and is due to nonclosure of ihQ foramen ovale, which allows a mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and general feebleness. Foals thus affected general^ live only a few hours after birth. DISEASES OF ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a primary affection. Direct injuries, such as bloAvs, may produce a contusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery; severe muscu- lar strain ma}^ involve an arterial trunk; hypertroph}^ of the heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflammation in the vicinitv of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, whatever the DISEASES OB^ THE HORSE. 241 cause may be, often leads to veiy serious results in the development of secondai\v changes in their walls. Arteritis may be acute, sub- -acute, or chronic; when the inner coat alone is affected it is known as endarteritis. Symptoms. — Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind limbs. Pathology. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls; a roughness and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may afl'ect onl}^ the outer coat {periarteritis)., both the outer and middle coat, or the inner coat alone {endarteritis)', and by weakening the respective coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It ma}^ also lead to sclerosis or increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidne3^s, when it may result in the condition known as arterlo-capUlary fihrosls. Chronic endarteritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. Arteritis may be limited to single trunks, or it may affect, more or less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consisting chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down of the degenei-ated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcer-like openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi are apt to form upon the roughened sur- face of the inner coat or upon the surface of the erosions. Fatt}' degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon which thrombi may form or maj^ exist in connection with atheroma of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of new tissue in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. Treatment. — Carbonate of potassa in 1-dram doses, to be given in 4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran suffi- cient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; exter- nall}', applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. ATHEROMA. Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater 14384—03 16 242 BUKEAU Oi' ANIMAL INDUSTRY. or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any source of prolonged irritation. Athei'oma may effect arteries in any. part of the body; in some instances almost ever}' vessel is diseased, in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which Ave find perhaps the most frequent scat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its nat- ural strength, and in consequence of its inability to sustain its accus- tomed internal pressure, undergoes, in manv cases, dilatation at the seat of disease, constituting aneurhm. In an atheromatous vessel, cal- careous deposits soon occ;ur, which render it rigid, brittle, and subject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility' is destroyed, the middle coat atrophied and be3'ond repair. Atheroma in the ves- sels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No symp- toms are manifested bv which we can recognize this condition during life. COXSTRICTTOX OF AN AIJTEEY. This is usually the result of arteritis, and ma}' partly or wholly be impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, col- lateral circulation will ])e esta])lished to nourish the parts previously supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of the aorta has produced death. ANEURISM. Aneurism is usually dcscrilied as true •aw^ false. True aneurism is a dilatation of tlie coats of an artery over a larger or smaller pai't of its course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a liml) it appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn- chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the w hole tumor were enlarging under the hand. Aneurisms seated internally may occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the first, little is known during life, for all the symptons which they pro- duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 243 tumor ma}^ encroach upon tne windpipe and produce difficulty in ])reathing, or it may produce pressure upon the vens^ cavas or the thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymi^h. In fact, what- ever parts the aneurism may reach or sul)ject to its pressure, ma}^ have their fvmctions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the chest is large, we generally lind much irregularit}- in the action of the heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There may be a very troublesome cough Vv^thout anj- evidence of lung affec- tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor ma}" be felt at the lower part of the neck where it joins the chest. When the aneurism occurs in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable; when it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will reveal it. There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequently overlooked, affecting the anterior mesenteric arterj^, primarily induced bj^ a worm — the Strongyhis annafiis. This worm produces an arteritis, with athe- roma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, asso- ciated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, which appears periodically in a very violent and often persistent type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the anterior mesen- teric artery ma}" be suspected. Pathology.- — ^ Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneurism is atheromatous, or calcified; the middle coat maj" be atrophied. The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dilatation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or with la^^ers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is produced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with adjoining organs or b}^ rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the arter}^, which some- times plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of this thrombus, or clot, may be washed aAva}^ and produce embolism of a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colick}^ symptoms. Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate the tumor above and below. 244 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is the primar}' cause of rupture in the majorit}^ of instances. The rup- ture may be partial, involving onlj^ one or two coats, and will then form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it involves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large cavities per- mitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be produced by mechanical violence or accident. Sym^^toms. — In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may not become noticeable; if it is near the surface of the bodj" a round or diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding arter}- should be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an arter}- we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. Treatment. — When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contraction of the blood vessels. Taimin and iron are also useful. The animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. Afterwards stimu- lants and nourishing food are indicated. THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. B}^ thromhosis is generall}^ understood the partial or complete closure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the obstruc- tion. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as a throm- hus. The term emholism designates an obstruction caused b}^ anj' body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injuiy to the wall of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation; they ma}^ result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel b}^ disease or by the retardation of the circulation. These formations ma}^ occur during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal S3'stem'. When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is carried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the capillaries, if not before; when in the veins it may not be stopped until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system the capillaries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruction, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming detached from their end, and by being carried along b}^ the circulation of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum becoming softened and DISEASES OF THE HOKSE, 245 converted into pus, constituting- suppurative phlebitis. These sub- stances occur most frequent!}" in those affections characterized by f^reat exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, purpura hemor- rhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, hemorrhages, etc. These concretions ma}- form suddenl}- and produce instantaneous death by retarding' the blood current, or they may arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and fragments of them (emboli) may be carried awa3\ The small, wart-like excrescences occurring some- times in endocarditis ma}- occasionally form a foundation on which a thrombi maj' develop. Symjytoms. — When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side the return of blood from the bod}^ and the aeration in the lungs is impeded, and if death occurs it is owing to S3'ncope rather than to strangulation in pulmonar}" respiration. There will be hurried and gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the bod}", a feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary arter}" from the right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration of the lungs and pulmonar}' apoplex}". When the clot is situated in the left cavities of the heart or in the aprta, death, if it occurs, takes place either suddenl}^ or at the end of a few hours from coma. Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may become a question whether it was formed during life or after death. The loose, dark coagula so often found after death are polypi. If the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the muscles of the papillae and tendinous cords, the deposition has occurred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally^ the fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to contain a pus-like substance. If this softening has extended considerably an outer shell, or cyst, only m:iy remain. The sources of danger exist not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous elements with the blood. Treatment. — The urgent s3'niptoms should be relieved by rest, stim- ulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the fibrinous clots. Alkalies are specially useful for this purpose. Carbonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, and should be continued for a long time in small doses several times a da}'. Incases 246 KLRKAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. of great debility a.ssooiated with a low grade of fever, stimulants and tonics, and nitro-muriatic acid as an antiseptic, nia\' be l>eneticial. DISEASES OF VEINS. OR rULEBITIS. Inflammation of veins may K^ simple or diffuse. In simple phlebitis the disease of the vein is contincd to a circumscri))ed or limited portion of a vein; in diffuse it involves the vein for a lonir distance: it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. CaMses. — Phlebitis may be induced b^' contusions or direct injuries, an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is oftt^n due to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood-letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous phlebitis. >Sf/i)tj)hwis. — The symptoms vary according to the extent and sever- ity of the inflanunation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thickened, and indurated to such a degree as to rescml)le an arterv. A diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the affected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptonoi^ connected with acute fever and general functional distur])ance. PatJiology. — The disease is only serious when large veins are aflected. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots of blood and h'mph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory process con- tinues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the vessel and pro- duces a deep abscess; or it may be carried away in tlie circulation and produce met-astatic abscess in the lungs or other remote organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel restored to health. Phlebitis in the coui*se of the veins of the limbs frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for farcy ulcera- tions. A very common result of phlebitis is an obliteration of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateml circulation is readily estal>- lished this is seldom of any material inconvenience. Treatment. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a smart blister along the coui-se of the inflamed vessel; early opening of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. When the fever runs high, half-omice doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the drink- ing water, which may be changed in two or three days for 1-draiu doses of the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes debilitated, carbonate of ammonbi, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 drams, may be given every six hours. VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX. OK DILATATION OF VEINS. This ma}' be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory disease and degeneration. It may also be due to meclianical obstruc- tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the DISEASED OF THE IIOESE. 247 vein which lies supoilicial over the inside of the hock joint, and may be due to the pressure of a spavin. OccasionuU}' it nia\' be observed in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation of the veins of the testicular cord. Ilcraorrhoidal veins, or piles, arc occasionall}' met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. Varicose veins ma}^ ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding tissues, or the}- ma}' rupture from internal blood pressure and the blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. Treatment. — Stallions which manifest a tendenc}' to varicocele should wear suspensor}- bags when the}' are exercised. Piles may often l>e icduccd by astringent washes — tea made from white-oak bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce inc)tful, unless great quantities were forced into a large vein by artificial means. PUKPUEA HEMOREHAGICA. Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating dis- eases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so much upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the dis- turbance or diminished action or the vaso-motor centers. Sijmjdonts. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark- edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf- focation. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of 248 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTEY. the nostrils and month show more or less dark-red or purple spots. There ma}' be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostrils; the tongue ma}'' be swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty- eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the swollen parts, and finall}' large gangrenous sloughs may form. The tempera- ture is never very high, the pulse is frequent and compressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and Avhen the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the disease, the lungs may beconie edematous, extravasation may occur in the intesti- nal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or four days; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe cases septic poisoning- is liable to occur, which soon brings the case to a fatal issue. Pathology. — On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connective tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Extensive extravasa- tions of blood may be found embedded between the coats of the intes- tines, or excessive effusion into the substance of the lungs. Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cin- chona bark, 2 drams, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half a pint of water; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by drenching. If the horse has difiiculty in getting the head up and swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-ounce doses, may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may l)c administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to 12 grains. Washings with lead and alum water are useful and may be repeated several times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised freely and the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily with a warm 3 per cent solution of creolin or other good antiseptic. Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise, must be treated with proper circumspection. DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood- vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 249 glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right Ij-mphatic vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous sj^stem near the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the fluid part of the blood transudes, to nourish the tissues outside the capillaries; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the Ijmiph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of the surplus of this Ij-mpli passes into the Ijnuph vessels, which in their commencement can hardlj be treated as independent structures, since their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph glands. These Ijnnph glands are structures so placed that the lymph flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a short of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands are sul)ject to inflammator}^ diseases in the vicinit}^ of diseased structures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph strea,m lodges in the glands and produces irritation. LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. Acute inflammation of the 13'mph glands usually occurs in connec- tion with some inflammatory process in the region from which its lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased or ulcerated teeth, the Ij^mph glands between the branches of the lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to sup- puration or induration. Similar results obtained in other portions of the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in pharyngitis, the postpharyngeal glands h^ing above the trachea become affected, etc. Si/mptoms. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflamma- tion is of a milder type, resolution ma}^ take place and the swelling recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning. Treatment. — Fomentation with hot water and the application of camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revul- sive action and prevent suppuration. If there is an}^ indication of abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt a free opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus. The 250 BUREAU OF ANIMAL IIN^DUSTHY. wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chloride of zinc. 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day. lA'MPHAlsGITIS. specific inflammation of the h'mphatic structures usually affects the hind leg; very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature and great general disturbance. CauMS. — Horses of lymphatic, or sluggish, temperament are pre- disposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in. such cases ma}' be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the aniuiul may induce an attack. Symptam^. — lX is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lameness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling gradu- ally^ surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, and the temperature may reach 106° F. The bowels earl}' become constipated and the urine scanty. The symptoms usuallj- are on the increase for about two days, then they remain stationary- for the same length of time; the fever then abates; the swelling recedes and becomes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the inguinal lym- phatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb becomes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of ch-j>Ji!s. Treatment. — The parts should be bathed freelv and frequently with water as hot as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassa for each gallon. This should be applied frequenth', after the hot water for the first da}'. Afterwards, the leg may l>e dried with a woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Internally, administer artilicial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three times daih'. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, if instituted early in the attack, very frequentlj- brings about a remarkable change within twenty-four hours. DISEASES OF THE BYE. By James Law, F. R. C. A\ 8., Prof elisor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell UniverffUy. [Revised in 1903 bj- tlie author.] We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, and hence all diseases and injuries which serioush" interfere with vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should they prove peraianent the}" invariably depreciate the selling price to a considerable extent. A blind horse is alwa3'S dangerous in the saddle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially impaired vision, he sees things imperfecth', in a distorted form or in a wrong place, and Avhen he shies or avoids objects which are commonplace or familiar. When we add to this that certain diseases of the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitually transmitted from parent to ofl'spring, we can realize still more full}" the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must always add a high value to our equine friends and servants. THE EYEBALL. * A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essen- tial to the clear understanding of what is to follow. The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous mem- brane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more delicate friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and pigment cells (the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the extremely deli- cate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thiLS forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect trauslucency from which it has derived the name of transjmrent cornea. This transparent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces, and it is to the condi- tion of these and their condensation and compression that the trans- lucency is largely due. This may be shown by compressing with the 251 252 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. fingers the e3'e of an ox which has just been killed, when the clear transparent cornea w^ill suddenly become clouded over with a whitish blue opacit}', and this will remain until the compression is interrupted. The interior of the e3^e contains three transparent media for the refrac- tion of the rays of light, on their waj' from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the anterior one (aqueous humor) is liqtiid, the posterior (vitreous humor) is semisolid, and {he internrediate one (crj'stalline lens) is solid. The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly to the portion of the eye covered by the trans- parent cornea. It is, however, divided into two chambers, anterior and posterior, hj the iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the cen- ter (the pupil), and which maj' be looked on as in some sense a projec- tion inward of the vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with the cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abundance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid, and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view, while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the raj^s of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several minute black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving to some,extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are often mistaken for the products of disease or injury, in place of the normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are. They may, like all other parts, become the seat of disease, but so long as the}^ and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, without any tints of brown or j^ellow, they may be held to be healthy. The vitreous or semisolid refi'acting medium occupies the posterior part of the eye — the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and retina — and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of an Q^g^ and a power of refraction of the light rays correspondingh^ greater than the aqueous humor. The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its convexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depression in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corre- sponds to the opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering (capsule), and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory ligament) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the sclerotic at the point of junction of the choroid and DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 253 iris. This lig-ament is, in its turn, furnished with radiating muscular fibers, which change the form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with equal clearness objects at a distance or close by. Another point which strikes the obserA'cr of the horse's eye is that in the darkness a bright bluish tinge is reflected from the widely dilated pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment in the choroid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables the animal to see and advance with security in darkness where the human eye would be of little use. The lower part of the cavit}^ of the horse's eye., into which the dazzling- raj^s fail from the sky, is furnished with an intensely black lining, by which the rays penetrating the inner nervous layer are instantly absorbed. MUSCLES OF THE EYE. These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique and one retractor. The straight muscles pass from the depth of the orbit forward on the inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball, and are fixed to the anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat, so that in contract- ing singly the}" respectiveh" turn the eye inward, outward, upward, and downward. When all act together the}' draw the eyeball deeply into its socket. The retractor muscle also consists of four muscular slips, repeating the straight muscles on a smaller scale, but as they are only attached on the back part of the eyeball they are less adapted to roll the eye than to draw it down into its socket. The two oblique muscles rotate the eye on ite own axis, the upper one turning its outer surface upward and inward, and the lower one turning it downward and inward. THE HAW (the WINKING CARTILAGE, OK CARTILAGO NICTITANS). This is a structure, which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in the eye of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in remov- ing foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the horse, of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and pos- teriorly where it is intimately connected Avith the muscles of the eye- ball and the fatty material around them, and expanded and flattened anteriorly where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, molded on the lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally it is cov^- ered by the mucous membrane which line's the eyelids and extends over the front of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the edge of this cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane at the inner angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into the orbit the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion of the cartilage, so as to cover the eye, may be induced in the healthy 254 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUcsTllY. eye bv pressing the finger and thum)) on the upper and lower lids, so as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the socket. When foreign bodies, such as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants have fallen on the eyeball or eyelids, it is similarly projected to push them off', their expulsiqn being further favored by a profuse flow of tears. This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful inflammations oi^ the e3'e, and to a very marked degree in lockjavr, when the sj^asm of the muscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and pro- jects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice of cutting off this appai*atus, whenever it is projected, necessitates this explanation which, it is hoped, may save to many a faithful serv- ant a most valuable appendage. That tlie cartilage and membrane may become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge is thin and even, and its surface smooth and regular, the mere fact of its projection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence of disease in its substance, nor an^' warrant for its removal. It is usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part of the eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself, see "Encephaloid cancer." LACiraTMAL APPAEATUS. This consists, firs-t, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous tears into the cavity of the nose. The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are there directed bj^ a small conical papilla (lachrymal caruncle) into two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lachrymal) to a small pouch (lachrymal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones of the face into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on the floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the skin which lines the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the nose. In the ass and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead of the floor of the nose, but still close to the external opening. EXAMINATION OF THE EYE. To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are given for the examination of the e5'e: The eye, and to a certain extent, the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may" be exposed to view by gently parting the ej-elids with the thumb and forefinger pressed on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner part of the eye, but bj- gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure this DISEASES OF THE nOKSE. 255 may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the loAver one. In cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid farther than is possil)le b}^ the above means, the upper lid may lie drawn down by the e3^elashes with the one hand and then everted ov(>r the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid flat against the middle of the lid. Where the interior of the eye must be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be placed so that the light shall fall on the eye from the front and side. Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive the reflected rays from the cornea, the front of the lens and the back, and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, opacity or lack of transparenc3^ The examination can be made much more satisfactory by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by a lamp placed forward and outward from the e3"e which is to be exam- ined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be resolved b}'' moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be passed in succession over the whole surface of the transparent cornea and of the cr3"stalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen, the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye; a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens; and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens. So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they will be clear and perfect in outline, but, as soon as one strikes on an area of opacit3", it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus, if the large upright image becomes haz3^ and imperfect over a particular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease and opacit3^ Should the large image remain clear, but the small upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indicates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both upright images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in the posterior part of its capsule. If in a given case the pupil remains so closeh^ contracted that the deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the e3"elids ma3^ be rubbed with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found widel3^ dilated. DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. Congenital disorders. — Some fault3'^ conditions of the e3'elids are congenital, as division of an eyelid in two, after the manner of harelip. 256 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. dbnormally small oj^ening between the lids, often connected with imper- fect development of the eje, and closure of the lids hy adhesion. The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and then bringing them together, as in torn lids. The last two, if remediable at all, require separation by the knife, and subsequent treatment with a cooling astringent e^^ewash. Nervous disorders. — Sjyasm of the eyelids may be owing to constitu- tional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects, chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in the ej'-e, to wounds or inflammation of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to local irritation, it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few drops of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine into the eye, when the true cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitutional disease must be treated according to its nature. Droojying eyelids, or ptosis. — This is usually present in the upper lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a symptom of paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear, lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and inactive, and even the half of the tongue maj' partake of the palsy. If the same condition exists on both sides there is difficult snuflling breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspira- tion, and all food is taken in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during masti- cation. This paralysis is a frequent result of injury, by a poke, to the seventh nerve, as it passes over the back of the lower jaw. In some cases the paral3^sis is confined to the lid, the injury having been sustained hy the muscles which raise it, or by the supraorbital nerve which emerges from the bone just above the eye. Such injur}- to the nerve may have resulted from fracture of the orbital process of the frontal bone above the eyeball. The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter muscle, which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid, usually a result of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run a slow course with chronic thickening of the lid. The paralj'sis due to the poke may be often remedied, first, b}- the removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn beneath the ear and kept in place by a bandage; second, when all inflannnation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or b}'- rubbing it daily with a mixture in equal proportions of olive oil and strong aqua ammonia. Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months before complete recovery ensues. In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be applied to that part. Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of iodine, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical strip of the skin from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together. PI.ATF: XIX. Theoretical Section ol'tlie Horse's Eye. (t, Optic /verve; b, Sclerotic ; c,(^ioroid ; d,Hetirva ; e. Cornea,- f.Iros; g,h, Ciliary circle, (orUgcunerU J and processcA- ffivcn ofCby the choroixi , thouffh represented a^ isolcUed fronh U,in order to indicaie their- lirnits morc clearly; i , In^-eriixw of the, ciliary proce^se^'i on tlie crystalline I c/os; /.Crystalline lens ; k, Crystalline capsule; I, Vitreous body; rrh,n,,Antetio/- and posterior chnnibers; o,Th£oreticcd iruiication oCt/i.e membrane of the ac/aeous humour; p,p,Tarsi ; q,(f, Fibrous Tnemhra/ie of the eyelids ; nElevaJor muscle of the upper eyelid ; s,s.Orbicularuv muscle of the eyelids; t,t,Skin of the eyelids; u,Conju/ieti\-a ; v, Epidervtuc layer of this me/nbrcuie coverinff the Corneo ; :jc, Posterior rectus mitscle ; y, Superior r^ecfus muscle ; x,In/erior r^ectzcs nuiscle ; w, Ftbrous sheath of the orbit (or orbital memhrraie ) . Maix.del.filterllArbovTil.i) 3/ 1. juuus bien & . DIxVGRAA'L\TIC \'ERTrCAI, SE("nON 'ITIROIJCtH EYE. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 257 INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease some- times starts in the litis and at other times is exclusively confined to them, it deserves independent mention. Among the causes may be named: Exposure to drafts of cold air^ or to cold rain or snowstorms; the bites or stings of moscjuitoes, flies^ and other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or club; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especiallj'^ during the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as- of erysipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as especially prevalent among horses kept on low^ marshy pastures. Finall}^, the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barlej" and seeds of the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant chemical powders, liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factor\', chlorine, strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of combustion, etc.) may start the inflammation. The eyelids often undergo extreme inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettlerash, surfeit) and in the general inflammator}" dropsy known as purpura hemorrhagica. The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflamma- tions due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury, mechanical or chemical; and (.S) such as are due to inoculation with infecting material. (1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished by the absence of any local wound, and the histor}^ of a low damp pas- ture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome food, or the presence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general doughy swellings of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened, it may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be seen. If the lid can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This grad- uall}" decreases to the natural amount, and the redness and congested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening, and stiff- ness of the lids may continue for a length of time. There may be more or less fever according to the violence of the inflammation, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the eye or of other vital organ this is usuall}^ moderate. The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar of 14384—03 17 258 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonful?;, rain water — boiled and cooled — 1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion, and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the two sides. If the mucous membrane lining the lids is the seat of little red granular elevations, a drop of a solution of 2 grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water should be applied with the soft end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. • The patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faultj^ food, exposure, etc.) as maj^have caused or aggravated the disease, and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from a manger high enough to favor the return of blood from the head, and shoidd be kept from work, especially in a tight collar, which w^ould prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. His diet should be laxa- tive and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and an}" costivcness should be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1} pints). In cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel bandages to the limbs, and heat should never be sought at the expense of pure air. (2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a noninfective kind, a careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first step must be their removal with a pair of blunt forceps or the point of a lead pencil. Subsequent treatment v,ill be in the main the local treatment advised above. (3) In case of infective inflammation, there will often be found a prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case the inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A round or conical swelling round an insect bite is especially characteristic. A snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two teeth and bj^ the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Erysipelas is attended w4th much svrelling, extending beyond the lids, and causing the mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of the eyelid (chemosis). This is characterized by a bright, uniform, rosy red, dis- appearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation, and less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Little vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended by high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. Anthrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted by a blister, with bloody serou- contcnts, which tends to burst and dry up into a slough, while the sur rounding parts become involved in the same way. Or it may show as a diffuse dropsical swelling, with less of the hard central sloughing nodule, but like that tending to spread quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if white, assume a dusky brown or yellowish brown hue, Avhich is largely characteristic. This may pass DISEASES O'^ THE HOKSE. 259 into a black color by reason of extravasation of blood. There appears early great constitutional disturbance, with much prostration and weakness and generalized anthrax sjnuptoms. Treatment. — The treatment of these will vary according- to the sever- ity. Insect bites maj'^ be touched with a solution of equal parts of glycerine and aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid in wat^r. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonf uls in a quart of water. Or alcohol ma}" be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size of tHe animal. In erysipelas the skin rnay be painted with tincture of muriate of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodine in an ounce of carbolic acid, and one-half an ounce of tincture of muriate of iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the swelling should be painted with tincture of iodine, or of the mixture of iodine and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the tincture of iodine injected into the swelling with a hypodermic syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally iodide of potassium may be given in doses of 2 di-ams thrice a day, or tincture of the muriate of iron every four hours. STY, OK FUKUNCLE (bOIL) OF THE EYELID. This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the formation of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural tissue of the eyelid. It forms a lirm, rounded swelling, usually near the margin of the lid, which suppurates and bursts in four or five da3's. Its course may be hastened by a poultice of chamomile flowers, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open after having become j^ellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet, the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid. EXTKOI'ION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID. These are respectively caused hj wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of the lid and of the skin on the outside; also of tumors, skin diseases, or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of tiie eyelid. As a rule, they require a surgical operation, with removal of an ellip- tical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case ma}'- be, but which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon. TRICHIASIS. This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scis- sors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root v/ith a OILS. 260 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numei the treatment ma}' be as for entropion, bj excising an elliptical portion of skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point. WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. The ej'elids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hj-pertrophy) of the surface layers of the skin. If small, these may be snipped off with scissors or tied around the neck with a stout waxed thread and left to drop off, the destruction being completed, if necessary, b}^ the daily application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread the wart ma}^ still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the caustic thoroughly applied day by day. A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is best removed bj^ constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rub))er band, or if too broad for this it may be transfixed through its base 1)}' a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still broader the armed needle may be carried through the base of the tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moderate!}' sized sections. In gray and white horses ])lack pigmentar}- tumors (melanotic) are common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are to be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the horse these do not usuall}^ tend to recur when thoroughly removed, but at times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then they tend to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it ma}- be, fatal effect. Encj'sted, honey-like (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of the lids all require removal with the knife. TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the teeth, or b}' getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wire fences, and on other pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as promptly as possible, so as to secure union without the formation of matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care is necessaiy to bring the two edges together evenl}^ without twisting or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals of not over a third of an inch, and held together ])y a thread twisted DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 261 around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely from pin to pin in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be cut off with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak solution of carbolic acid. TUMOR OF THE HAAV, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE. Though cruelly excised for alleged "hooks," when itself perfectly health}^ in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat of actual disease. The pigmentary black tumors of white horses and soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend lo it from the eyeball or eyelids; hairs have been found growing from its surface; and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflamma- tions are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple pro- jection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed apart with the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarit}^, that in the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal having been thrown and properl}" fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids apart while the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and care- fully dissects it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then cov- ered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external ophthalmia, OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE. The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of extor- nal inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease of the lachiymal apparatus which interferes with the normal progress of the tears to the nose. Hence, in all cases when this sj^mptom is not attended by special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well to examine the lachrymal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of the lachrymal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its anterior outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry muco-puru- lent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This implies an inflammation of the canal, which may be helped by occa sional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the application of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water vapor may be secured. 262 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The two lachrymal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye, ma}' fail to admit the tears by reason of their.deviation outward in connection with eversion of the lower lid, or b}'- reason of their con- striction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lachrymal sac, into which the lachrymal ducts open, may fail to discharge its contents bj- reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle of the eye. The duct leading from the sac to the nose maj^ be com- pressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities). The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine silver probe passed down to the lachrymal sac, and any existing inflam- mation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steaming mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face, and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the injection of similar liquids into the lachrymal canal from its nasal opening. The ordinary eyewash maj' be used for this purpose, or it may be injected after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands when, if the canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered useful. EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA, OK CONJUNXTIVITIS. In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vas- cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lachrym.al apparatus, is usually the most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti- tutes a phase of external ophthalmia which demands a special notice. These have accordingly been already treated of. Causes. — The causes of external ophthalmia are mainly those that act locally— blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of for- eign bodies like hay seed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snufl", pollen of plants;, flics attracted by the brilliancy of the ej* e, wounds of the bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the ej^e, smoke, ammonia rising from the excretions, irritant emanations from drying marshes, etc. Iload dust containing infecting microbes is a common factor. A very dry air is alleged to act injuriously by drying the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust; and the undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, is undoubtedl}^ injurious. The unpro- tected exposure of the eyes to sunshine through the use of a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of the horse in a very dark stall from which it is habitually led into the glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white limestone DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 263 dust, must be set down among the local]}' acting causes. But exposure to cold and wet, to rain and snow storms, to cold drafts and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the general disorder which the}' produce affecting the eye, if that happens to bo the weak- est and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases, or excess of light. Again, external ophthalmia is a constant concomitant of injElammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous membi-anes, as those of the nose and throat. Hence the red, watery eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles, nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the primary and predominating disease. Syrnptoim. — The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the lids — it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching red- ness, or it may be a deep dark red, as from effusion of blood- — and a bluish opacity of the cornea which is normally clear and translucent. But except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of blood, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is con- lined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aque- ous humor behind is seen to be still clear and limpid. The fever is always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and only runs high in the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball retracted, and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but thi>s is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as shovvu by the comparatively Avideh^ dilated pupil. In internal oph- thalmia, on the contrary, the narroY/ contracted pupil is the measure of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive optic nerve (retina) and choroid. If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only is tliat the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy cloud, but too often blood vessels begin to extend from the adjacent A'ascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that portion of the cornea is rendered permanent]}^ opaque. Again, if the AYOund has been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior layers of the cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration that may pene- trate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if filled up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes a yelloAvish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable to extend as an ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of the cornea at that point (staphyloma). This inflammation of the con- junctiva may be simpl}^ catarrhal, with profuse muco-purulent dis- charge; it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane (diphtheria). 264 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Treatment. — In treating external ophthalmia the fir.st object is the removal of the cause. Remove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other foreign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads, and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attend- ant cloud of dust; remove from pasture and feed from a rack which is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to favor the accumulation of blood in the head; avoid equally excess of light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of the adjacent mucous membranes or skin. If the irritant has been of a caustic nature remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of ^%g, or a glass filled with the liquid may be inverted over the e3"e so that its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the suffering is very severe a lotion with a few grains of extract of belladonna or of morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, o'r if it is available, a low drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into the eye. In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a laxative, such as 2 tablespoonfuls of Glauber's salts daily, and if the fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As local applications astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30 grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be applied constantly on a cloth, as advised, under inflammation of the eyelids. In the absence of anything better cold water may serve every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar, fats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of suggesting agents that may l)e used with good effect, salt and sulphate of soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of zinc, or Y grains of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of distilled water, and will be found especially applicable in granular conjunctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides blister (1 part of Spanish fly to 4 parts lard) may be rubbed on the side of the face 3 inches below the eye, and washed off' next morning with soapsuds and oiled daily till the scabs are dropped. WHITE SrECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. As a result of external opthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or hazi- ness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution .of 3 grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old thick scar following an ulcer nor with an opacity having red blood vessels run- ning across it. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 265 ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice tlie strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and sulphate of iron, one-fourth ounce daily, may improve the general health and increase the reparatory power. INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (iRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS). Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina, the inner, vascular, and nervous coats of the eye, occur to a certain extent inde- pendently of each other, 3^et one usuallj^ supervenes upon the other, and, as the s^^mptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for our present purposes to treat the three as one disease. Causes. — The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more suscep- tible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the penetration of foreign bodies into the qjq (thorns, splinters of iron, etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse of the overdraw check-rein, vivid lightning flashes, drarfts of cold, damp air; above all, when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold rain and snowstoims, swimming cold rivers, also certain general diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the digestive organs, maj' become complicated by this affection. From the close relation between the brain and eye — alike in the blood ves- sels and nerves — disorders of the first lead to affections of the second, and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to which the jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last agency that we dread a recurrence of opthalmia so long as dentition is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye. Symptoms. — The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If the attack is due to direct ph3'sical injury the inflammation of the ej^elids and superficial structures may be quite as marked as that of the interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as a compli- cation of some distant disease, the affection may be largely confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and tenderness of the superficial structures will be less marked. When the external coats thus comparatively escape the extreme anterior edge of the white, or sclerotic, coat where it overlaps the border of the transparent cornea is in a measure free from congestion, and, in the absence of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring around the cornea. This is parth^ due to the fact that a series of arteries (ciliary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a marked difference in color 266 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. between the jreneral sclerotic occupied octween these congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they are absent. Unfortunatel}', the pigment is often so abundant in the anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to a zone around the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze rather than a deep fleecy white. In consequence it l)ecomes possible to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor and the condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually turbid, and has numerous yellowish white flakes floating on its substance or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut off the view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of the iris has lost its natural, clear dark luster, which is replaced by a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in proportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflammation is confined to the choroid. The amount of floccu- lent deposit in the chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflammation of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ophthalmia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in an obscured stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effusion has overfilled the globe of the eye, and by pressure on the retina has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into the substance of the retina itself has similarl}- led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may be dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular ovoid outline and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it has contracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exudations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is apt to result. With such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavil}" clouded or entirely lost; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be approached to the eye without the animal becoming conscious of it until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the" affected side is gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes no effort to evade it. Sometimes the .edges of the contracted pupil become adlierent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation, and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflamma- tions pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping i)ito the cavity of the acpieous humor show as a yellowish white stratum below. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white fleecy mass behind a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to bo recognized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique side light, DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 2(37 as described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts that appear as a simple liaze or indefinite fleecy cloud are usually on the capsule (capsular), while those that show a radiating arrangement are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so contracted that it is impossible to sec the lens, it may be dilatc-d hy applying to the front of the eye with a feather some drops of a solution of 4 grains of atropia in an ounce of water. Treatmin the last it may be thickened. The best treatment is by excision of a portion of the iris so as to relieve the intraocvdar pressure. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 273^ PARASITES IX THE EYE. Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflamma- tion of the lids. Filaria ])alpehralis is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, whicb inhabits the lachr^^mal duct and the underside of the e3'elids and haw in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step- in treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, theiii treat as for external inflammation. Filaria equina is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which 1 have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches: has been reported). It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is fre- quontl}' exhibited as a "snake in the eye." It is found also in other- internal cavities of the horse, to which it undoubtedly makes its way from the food, and especiall}" the water swallowed, and its prevention, is therefore to be sought mainly in the supply of pure water from closed, deep wells. When present in the eye it causes inflammation:, and has to be removed through an incision made with the lancet im the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the point of the, instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury to the iris.. Then apply cold water or astringent antiseptic lotions. Filaria conjunctivds., resembling Filaria equina very much in size-. and general appearance, is another roundworm which has been found. in the eye of the horse. The echinococcus^ the cj'stic, or larval, stage of the echinococcus-. tapeworm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse and a, cysticercus {Cysticercusjistularisf) is also reported. 14384—03 18 LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. By A. LiAUTAKD, M. D., V. M., Principal of the American Veterinary College, Neiv Yorlc. [Revised in 1903 by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse, camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and consequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally resolves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special portion of their organism which controls their function of locomotion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine family, the most numerous and valual)le of all the beasts of burden, and it nat- urally follows that with the horse for a subject of discussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry will, by an easy lapse, become an inquest into the condition and efficienc}" of his power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a large amount of abstract interest in the stud}^ of that endowment of the animal econ- omy which enables its possessor to change his place at will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may incline him; but how much greater the interest that attaches to the subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and includes within its purview the various related topics which belong to the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire round of scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a subject for medical and surgical consideration — in a word, of actual disease and its treat- ment! It is not surprising that the intricate and complicated appa- ratus of locoriiotion, with its symmetry and harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details and adjuncts, should, by students of creative design and attentive observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations, be admiringly denominated a livioig inacldne. The horse in a state of domesticity is of all the animal tribe the largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dan- gers which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his expo- sure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in 274 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 275 danger of incurring injuries which for their repair may demand the best skill of the veterinary practitioner. And this is true not alone of casualties which belong- to the class of external and traumatic cases, but includes as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which may result in lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and obscure of all in their nature and effects. The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the world to justify any indifference to his needs and physical comfort or neglect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for usefulness. In entering somewhat largely, therefore, upon a review of the subject, and treating in detail of the causes, the s^'mptoms, the progress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no v/ord of apology or justifi- cation. The subject explains and justifies itself, and is its own vindi- cation and illustration, if any are needed. The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two prin- cipal systems of organs, known in anatomical and phj^siological termi- nology as passive and active., the muscles performing the active and the ho7ies the 2y<-issive portion of the movement. The necessary connection between the cooperating parts of the organism is effected b}^ means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached to ttie bone at cer- tain determinate points on the surface of the latter. These points of attachment appear sometimes as an eminence, sometimes a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a mere roughness,.but each perfectly fulfilling its purpose; while the necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Ever}^ motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the muscles, which, as it acts upon the bonj' levers, gives rise to a movement of extension or flexion, abduc- tion or adduction, rotation or circumduction. The movement of abduction is that which passes from and that of adduction that which passes toward the median line, or the center of the body. The move- ments of flexion and extension are too well understood to need defin- ing. It is the combination and rapid alternations of these movements which produce the different postures and various gaits of the living animal, and it is their interruption and derangement, from whatsoever cause, which constitutes the pathological condition of lameness. A concise examination of the general anatom}^ of these organs, how- ever, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions per- taining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given, con- taining only the briefest hint of matters which, though not necessarily in their ultimate scientific minutiae, must be clearly comprehended in order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory^ view of the tlieme as a practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed, applied, and utilized. 276 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. It was the j^rcat Bacon Avho wrote: "The human body may he com- pared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical instru- ment of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable to derangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to the equine bod}', and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its har- monious action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the relations of its parts and the mode of their cooperation. The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and totality constitute the skeleton of an animal. They are of various forms, three of which — the long, the flat, and the small — arc recog- nized in the extremities. These are more or less regular in their form, but present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in turn, according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth surface, variousl}^ marked with grooves, crests, eminences, and depres- sions, for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before men- tioned, are connected b}^ articulations and joints, of wdiich some are immo\able and others of a movable kind. The substance of the bones is composed of a mass of combined earthy and animal matter, surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping membrane (the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the external surface of the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of the bony structure. The bony tissue proper is of two consistencies, the external, portion being hard and "compact," and called by the latter term, while the internal, known as the "spongy," or "areolar tissue," corresponds with these descriptive terms. Those of the bones which possess this latter consistency contain also, in their spongy portion, the medullary substance known as marroio, which is deposited in large quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where a central cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity. The nourishment of the bones is eft'ected by means of what is known as the nutrient foramen^ an opening established for the passage of the blood vessels which convey the necessary nourishment to the interior of the organ. There are other minutire concerning the nourishment of the skeleton, such as the venous arrangement and the classification of their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest as an abstract stud}', are not of sufficient practical value to refer to here. The active organs of locomotion, the vuiscles, form, speaking gen- erally, the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and surround the bones of the extremities. They var}' greatly in shape and size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are variously and capriciously named, some from their shape, some from their situa- tion, and others from their use, and thus we have abductors and adduc- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 277 tors, the pyramidal and orbicular, the digastricus, the vastus, and so on. Those which are under the control of the will, known arj the vol- untary muscles, appear in the form of fleshy structures, red in color, and with fibers of various degrees of fineness, and are composed of fascicuU., or bundles of fibers, united by connective or cellular tis- sue, each fasciculus being composed of smaller ones, less in size, but united in a similar manner to compose the larger formations, each of which is enveloped bv a structure of similar nature known as the mr- colemma. jVIan}- of the muscles are united to the bones b}' the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but, in other instances, the bod}^ of the muscle is more or less gradually transformed into a cordy or mem- branous structure known as the tendon or sinew, and the attachment is m.ade by very short fibrous threads through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, passing from a single one to several other of the bones, effects its object at a point far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another, these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to glide, either upon the bones them- selves or formed at their articulations, and this need is supplied b}^ the secretion of the synovial fluid, a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendinous synovial sac, designed for the purpose. Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their vari- ous forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the arm, at the posterior part of the kneejoint, and also at the fetlocks, on their posterior part. As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass over these natural puller's they are retained in place b}- strong fibrous bands or sheaths, which are by no means exempt from danger of injury, as will be readily inferred from a consideration of their impor- tant special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons them- selves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of whatever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either. We have referred to that special formation of the external surface of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place. These are formed generally by the extremities of the long, or ma}' exist on the surfaces of the short, bones. The points or regions where the contact occurs is denominated the articular surface, which assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and form, being in one case comparative!}- flat and another elevated; or as forming a protrud- ing head or knob, with a distinct convexity; and again presenting a corresponding depression or cavit}', accurately adapted to complete, 278 BUREAU OF AmMAL INDUSTEY. hj their coaptation, the ball and socket joint. The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first kind, Avhile that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition of the latter. The structure whose office is to retain the articulating surfaces in place is the ligament. This is usually a white, llbrous, inelastic tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and 3-elloM'ish. In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind more firmlj'^ together the bones to which its extremities are attached; in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially surrounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the protection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. This latter form, known as capsular^ is usually found in connection with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the capsular appearing as a membranous sac whollj^ or partipJly inclosing the joint; the funic- ular, here known as an interariicidarWgd^nianU occup34ng the interior, and thus securing the union of the several bones more tirmly and effectively than would be possible for the capsular ligament unassisted. The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect work- ing of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature has con- sequently^ provided for obviating the evils of attrition and friction, and insuring the eas.y play and smooth movement of its parts, by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia^ the vital lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or rather glairy secre- tion, which performs the indispensable ofHce of facilitating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given points of the bones. This fluid, which is deposited in a containing sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting organ, is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, is attached only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon their length, or between the laj'ers of cartilage which lie between the bones and their articular surfaces. Our object in thus partially and conciseh'^ reviewing the structure and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather to outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the gen- eral features of the subject than to offer a minute description of the parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive due attentior as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the matters which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The foundation of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessar\' to insure a read\' comprehension of the essential matters which are to follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 279 have said touching these elementaiy truths will probabh^ be sufBcient to facilitate a clear understanding of the requirements essential to the perfection and regularity which characterize the normal perform- ance of the various movements which result in the accomplishment of' the action of locomotion. So long as the bones, the muscles and their tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments and their S3'novial structure; the nerves and the controlling influences which the}^ exercise over all, with the blood vessels which distribute to every part, however minute, the vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole fabric in being and activity — so long as these various constituents and adjuncts of animal life preserve their normal exemption from disease, traumatism, and pathological change, the function of locomotion will continue to be performed with perfection and efliciency. But, on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change or irregularity of form, dimensions, location, or action occur in any portion of the apparatus — any obstruction or misdirection of vital power take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be betraj^ed, and we have in the result the condition of lameness. DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. Physiology. — Comprehensively and universally considered, then, the term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the function of locomotion irrespective of the cause which produced it or the degree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may be exhibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be demanded for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly trained powers of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases where the animal is said to be fainting, tend£}\ or to go sore. On the contrary, the i^atient may be so far afl'ected as to refuse utterly to use an injured leg, and under compulsory motion keep it raised from the ground, and prefer to travel on three legs rather than to bear any por- tion of his weight upon the afilicted member. In these two extremes, and in all the intermediate degrees, the patient is simply lame — pathognomonic minutiae being considered and settled in a place of their own. This last condition of disabled function — lameness on three legs — and many of the lower degrees of simple lameness are yqvj easy of detection, but the first or mere tenderness, or soreness, may be very difiicult to identifj', and at times very serious results have followed from the obscurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malad}''. For it may easily occur that in the absence of the treatment Avhich an early correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment may so take advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply into 280 EUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the economy to bo subverted, and become transformed into a disabling chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal. Hence the impolicy of depreciating early symptoms because they are unaccompa- nied by distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from a lack of threatening appearances inferring the absence of danger. The possi- bilities of an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra caution costs nothing, even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first duty of a practitioner, when introduced to a case, is not always an eas}' task, though it is too frequently expected that the; diagnosis or "what is the matter" verdict will be reached by the quickest and surest kind of an "instantaneous process,'"' and a sure prognosis, or "how will it end,'' guessed at instanter. Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is compar- atively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a person will readil}- note the changes of movements which will have taken place in the animal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they are indeed slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not ahvaj's easy is the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing irregularit}', of the locality of its point of origin, and whether its seat be in the near or off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the bod}'. These are questions too often wrongly answered, notwith- standing the fact that with a little careful scrutin}- the point may be easily settled. The error, which is too often committed, of pronounc- iug the leg upon which the animal travels soundly as the seat of the lameness, is the result of a misinterpretation of the physiolog}^ of locomotion in the crippled animal. Much depends upon the gait with which the animal moves while under examination. The act of walk- ing is unfavorable for accurate observation, though, if the animal walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. The action of gallop- ing will often, by the rapiditj^ of the muscidar movements and their quick succession, interfere with a nice study of their rhythm, and it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the examination can be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that gait. It is while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made with the best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving with that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which must form the elements of the diagnosis. Our first consideration should be the physiologj' of normal or health}^ locomotion, that from thence we may the. more easily reach our con- clusions touching lameness, or that which is abnormal, and by this process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution of the first problem, to wit, in which leg is the seat of the lameness? A word of definition is here necessary, in order to render that Avhich follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each two of the legs, as referred to in pairs, is denominated a biped. Of the four DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 281 points occupied hy the feet of the animal while standing at rest, form- ing- a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior biped; the two hinder, the posterior; the two on one side, the lateral; and one of either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of the hind or front biped will form the diagonal l>ij)ed. Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of the weight of the bod}-, it will be readil}- appreciated that the result of this distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth displacement of the bod}'- thus supported by the four legs, and that therefore, according to the rapidit}^ of the motion in different gaits, each single leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped may be called upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite biped while also in the air in the act of moving. To simplify the matter b}^ an illustration, the weight of an animal may be placed at 1,000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and healthy condition, supports while at rest 250 pounds. "When one of the fore legs is in action, or in the air, and carr3^ing no weight, its 250 pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or part- ner, to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and raised from the ground, their congeners still resting in inaction, will carry the total weight of the other two, or 600 pounds. And as the succession of movements continues, and the change from one log to another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait, proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one biped to another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with an interesting example of the play of vital mechanics in a healthy organization. Much may be learned from the accurate stud}^ of the action of a single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or failure. When at rest it will easil}' sustain the weight assigned to it, without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate, it will perform the act in such a manner that when it is again placed upon the ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it upon the ground or raising it up again for the forward movement while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each movement will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the act be that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the regular play of every part of the apparatus will testify to the existence of that con- dition of orderly soundness and efficient activity eloquentl}- suggestive 282 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. of the condition of vital integrit}', which is simply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and soimdness. But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the elements of the case; some invisible agency of evil intrude among the harmonizing processes going forward; any disorder occur in the rela- tions of cooperating parts; anything appear to neutralize the efficiency of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept and to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs to it to sustain — present itself, whether as the effect of tra,umatic accidents or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus, at once we are confronted hy that which may be looked upon as a cause of lameness. Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that- it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discord- ance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by the sound one, and must be searched for in that as well as the halting member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will vary greatl}^ from that which it exhibited when in a health}' condition, and the sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished. Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exertion by the sound one, and lack of facility or disposition to rest the lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of that action on the sound 'side. Changes in the act of elevating the leg, or of carrj'ing it forward, or in both, will present entirely opposite conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated rapidl}', moved carefully forward, and returned to the ground with caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the ground, move boldly and rapidly forward, and strike the ground promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the sound member carries more than its normal, health}^ share of the weight of the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 250 pounds, and thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500 pounds, all depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkward- ness of traveling on three legs. That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact ma}" be established by observing the manifestations attending a single alteration in the balancing of the body. In health the support and equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs is equalized, and passes by regular alternations from the right to the DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 283 left side, and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled, relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes, consequently, practically heavier, and the mass of the body will incline or settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore, means dropping or settling on the right, and vice versa. We emphasize this statement and insist upon it, the more from the frequency of the instances of error which have come under our notice, in which parties have insisted upon their view that the leg which is the seat of the lameness is that upon which lie drops, and which the animal is usually supposed to favor. HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. Properl}' appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lame- ness, but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the question as to which side of the animal ths lameness is seated, except to examine the patient while in action. We have already stated our reasons for preferring the movement of trotting for this purpose. In conducting such an examination the animal should be unblanketed, and held b}^ a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to manage his paces, and the trial should always be made over a firm, hard road whenever such is available. He is to be examined from various positions — from before, from behind, and from each side. Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by, and as he recedes, the observer should carefully study that important action which we have spoken of as the dropping of the tody upon one extremity or the other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same side on which the mass of the bodj^ will fall, dropping toward the right when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in pos- terior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions, of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the ani- mal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, and this irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness is on the off side. But in a majority of •cases the answer to the first question relating to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it becomes necessary- to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what 284 BUKEAU OI ANIMAL INDUSTRY. region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over, and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion of the investigation has commenced — except, of course, in cases of which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of error. It is true that bj^ carefull}' noting the manner in which a lame log is performing its functions, and closeh^ scrutinizing the motions of the whole extremit}^, and especialh' of the various joints which enter into its structure; by minutely examining ever}^ part of the liml); by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in temperature and the state of the sensibility — all these investigations ma}' guide the surgeon to a correct localization of the seat of trouble, but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and, above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts which compose the suffering extremity. The greater liability of the foot than of an}' other part of the extremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use, should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have an apparent location elsewhere when that is the true seat of the trouble, and the surgeon who, while examining his lame patient, discovers a ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect and inadvertence at a later day, when regrets will avail nothing toward remedying the irreparable injury which has ensued upon his partial method of exploration. But, as in human pathological experience, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and classified, so it will happen that in the humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecognizable ailments will at times baffle the most skilled veteri- narian, and leave our burden-bearing servants to succumb to the inevitable, and suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. DISEASES OF BONES. PERIOSTITIS, OSTITIS, AND EXOSTOSIS. From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has supervened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily affected, and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the body of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the fact is often of the first importance, in order to secure a favorable result DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 285 from the treatment to bo instituted. It is, however, quite evident that in a majorit}' of instances the bon}?^ growths which so frequently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation of the periosteum, or enveloping- membrane, and known as periostitis. How- ever this maA^ be, we hav^c as a frequent result, sometimes on the bodj^ of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involving the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known otherwise by the term splint., 7'inghone, and sj?avin, all of which, in an important sense, may be finally referred to the periosteum as their nutrient source and support, at least after their formation, if not for their incipient existence. Cansc. — It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is fre- quently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the result is uniforml}' seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting dis- tinctl}" from the surface from which it springs, -as so commonly pre- sented in the ringbone and the spavin. Symptoms. — This condition of periostitis is often diflicult to deter- mine. The signs of* inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the parts so insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to locate the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, in discovering the fact of the lameness, while the second and third remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their pal- pable revelation to the senses. Treatment. — When, by careful scrutiny, the ailment has been located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to pre- vent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structure and increase of the exostotic growth. With this view the application of water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The tendency to the form- ation of the bon}" growth, and the jncrease of its development after its actual formation, may often be checked b}^ the application of a severe blister of Spanish fl3^ The failure of these means and the establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic perios- titis cause various changes in the bone covered by the disordered membrane, and the result ma}^ be softening, degeneration, or necro- sis, but more usuall}^ it is followed b}^ the formation of the bony growths referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. 286 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. AVc first turn our attention to the splint, as ce'-taiu bony enlarge- ments which are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. They are found on the inside of the leg, from the knee, near to which they are frequently found, downward to about the lower third of the princii^al cannon bone. The}' are of various dimensions, and are readily perceptil)le both to the 03-0 and to the touch. They vary considerably in size, ranging from that of a large nut downward to very small proportions. In searching for them they ma}' ])e readily detected by the hand if they have attained sufficient development in their usual situation, but must be distinguished from a small bony enlargement which may be felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the button-like enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint bone. We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, and they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that the}" appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the case, and they may at times be found on both the inside and outside of the hind legs. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a single bony growth, wath a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this invari- ably the case. In some instances they assume more important dimen- sions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on its pos- terior face, between that and the suspensory ligament. This form is termed the pegged sjplint^ and constitutes a serious and permanent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play of the fibrous cord which passes behind it, becoming thus a source of con- tinual irritation and consequently of permanent lameness. Sym-ptoms. — A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lame- ness though not necessarily in every instance; but it is a lameness pos- sessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous, but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked when the animal is warm than when lie is cool. If the lameness is near the knee- joint, it is very apt to become aggravated when the animal is put to work, and the gait acquires then a peculiar character, arising from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from the knees down- wards, which is done by a kind of abduction of the lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, may be looked for in the same connec- tion as those which have been mentioned as pertaining to certain evi- dences of periostitis, in the increase of the temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pressure. This last symptom is DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 287 of no little importance, since its presence or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in deciding- a question of difficult diagnosis. Cause. — A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturallj^ follows that the parts which are most exposed to blows and collisions will be those on which the splint will most commonlj^ be found, and it may not bo improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be produc- tive of the evil, and among these may be mentioned the overstraining of an immature organism b}^ the imposition of excessive labor upon a young animal at a too earlv period of his life. The bones which enter into the formation of the cannon are three in number, one large and two smaller, which, during the j^outh of the animal, are more or less articulated, with a limited amount of mobility, but which become in maturity firmly joined by a rigid uniou and ossification of their inter- articular surface. If the immature animal is compelled, then, to per- form exacting tasks bej'ond his strength, the inevitable result will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing asunder of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it is diffi- cult to understand how inflammation or periostitis can fail to develop as the natural consequence of such local irritation. If the result were deiibcrateh' and intelligently designed, it could hardly be more effec- tuallj' accomplished. The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence — so common, indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness, and its discoverj'^ and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewdest and most experienced veterinarians, yet as a source of vital danger to the general equine organization, or even of functional disturbance, or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional cases which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that attaches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among ej^esores and contin- ues indeiinitel}" to be that and nothing different. The inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either subsides or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a permanence — more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm and not hinder- ing the animal from continuing his daily routine of labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh access of acute sjmiptoms may be followed by a new pathological activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappearance of the lameness. Treatment. — It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative 288 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non- interfer^mce, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And a more positive argument for such noninterference consists in the fact tliat any active and irritating treatment ma}- so excite the parts as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result in a roduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our faith, is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded on an experience of man}- years, during which our practice has been that of abstention. Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occa- sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications.' But our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the oper- ative kind is usually useless, it not dangerous. We have little faith in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions, among which that of diminutive size has been named, which seems in itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. But even in such a case a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justifi- cation, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of haz- ard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly negative in an}^ question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary use of the knife. If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discov- ered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different qualit}', the alter- ative consisting of tincture of iodine applied to the inflamed spot several times dail3^ If the lameness persists under this mild course of treatment it must, of course, be attacked bj^ other methods, and we must resort to the cantharides ointment or Spanish-fly blister, as we have before recommended. Besides this, and producing an analogous effect, the compounds of biniodide of mercury are favored b}'- some. It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the biniodide to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent blistering and alterative application, and is of special advantage in newly formed or recentl}" discovered exostosis. It remains a pertinent quer3% however, and one Avhich seems to be easily answered, whether a tumor so diminutive in size that it can onl}' be detected b}^ diligent search, and which is neither a disfigure- ment nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive an}^ recognition whatever. Other modes of treatment for spliufs are rec- ommended and practiced which belong strictly to the domain of oper- r-^^^^^ /^P V DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 289* ative veterinaiT surg'ei\v. Among- these are to be reckoned actual cauterization, or the application of tlie fire iron and the operation of periosteotomy. These are frequently indicated in the treatment of splints which have resisted milder means. The mode of the development of their growth; their intimacjv greater or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones; the-- possibility of their extending to the back of these bones under the sus- pensory ligament; the dangerous complications which ma}^ follow the- rough handling of the parts, with also a possibility, and indeed a, probability, of their return after removal — these are the consideration* which have influenced our judgment in discarding from our practice? and our approval the method of removal by the saw or the chisel, as- recommended by certain European veterinarians. RIXGBONES. This term forms the designation of the exostosis which is found ore the coronet and in the digital and phalangeal regions. The name is- appropriate, because the growth extends quite around the coronety Avhich it encircles in the manner of a ring, or perhaps because it oftea forms upon the back of that bone a regular osseous arch, through which the back tendons obtain a passage. The places where these growths are usual W developed have caused their subdivision and classi- fication into three varieties, with the designations of high, middle^ and lou\ though much can not be said as to the importance of suck distinction. It is true that the ringbone or phalangeal exostosis may be found at various points on the foot, in one case forming a large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the fetlock joint; in another around the upper border of the hoof, or perhaps on the extreme front or on the very back of the coronet. The shape in which they com- monly appear is favorable to their easy discovery, their form when near the fetlock usualh^ varying too much from the natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the opposite side to admit of error in the matter. A ringbone when on the front of the foot, even when not very largel}' developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof; when found oa the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous growth somewhat project- ing, sometimes on the inside and sometimes on the outside of the coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation. Came. — As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in early life, before the process of ossification has been full}^ perfected;, or they may be referred to bruises,' blows, sprains, or other violencei or injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints ma}^ be among the account- able causes. 14884—03 19 290 EUKEAU OF ANIMAL i:>rDUSTRY. It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reasonably anticipated among the sequelae of an abscess of the coronet; or the cause ma}^ be a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a deep- punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon any hard object of sufficient!}^ irregular form to penetrate the sole. Moreover, a ringbone may originate in hereditA^ This is a fact of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser. That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be absurd to claim, but wc do claim that a predisposition to contract ringbone due to faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone. The importance of this point when considered in reference to the policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the owners and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked transmission of ringbones from one equine generation to another shall be allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first, and the inference from such a fact which would exclude ever}'- animal of doubtful sound- ness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list and the Ijrood farm is too plain for argument. Symjjtoms. — Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is quite likely to result in a ringbone of which lameness is the result. The mode of its manifestation varies according to the state of development of the diseased growth as affected by the circumstances of its location and dimensions. It is commonly of the kind which, in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness when cool^ having the peculiarity of exhibiting itself when the animal starts from the stable and of diminishing, if not entirely disappearing, after some distance of travel, to return to its original degree, if not indeed a severer one, when he has again cooled off in his stable. The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree to which it cripples the patient, but the position may, especially when it interferes with the free movement of the tendons which pass l^ehind and in front of the foot. While a large ringbone will often interfere but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth, if situated under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and continued pain. A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 291 location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the influence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavor- able cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the importance and the value of an earl}^ discovery of its presence and possible growth. Even when the discovery has been made, it is often the case that the truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment. Months may have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lameness before a dis- covery has been made of the lesion from which it has originated, and there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by the uncompromising seriousness of the discouraging prognosis must the energy and severity of the treatment and the promptness of its administration be meas- ured. The periostitis has been overlooked; any chance that might have existed for preventing its advance to the chronic stage has been lost; the osseous formation is established; the ringbone is a fixed fact, and the indications are urgent and pressing. Treatment. — ^The preventive treatment consists in keeping colts well nourished and in trimming the hoof and shoeing to properly bal- ance the foot, and thus prevent an abnormal strain on the ligaments. Even after the ringbone has developed, a cure may sometimes be occa- sioned by proper shoeing directed toward straightening the axis of the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from the coronet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front of the pastern. As long as inflammation of the periosteum and ligaments remains, a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury and cantharides may do good if the animal is allowed to rest for four or five weeks. If this fails, some success may be accomplished Xix point firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good. When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as indicated by the seat of the lesion. SIDEBOXES. On each side of the bone of the hoof — the coffinbone — there are normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the coffinbone. Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contrac- tion of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect per- formance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, however, liable to undergo a process' of disease which results in an entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they 292 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. acquire a character of hardness resulting- from the deposit of earthy substance in the intimate structure of the cartihiire, and it is this change, when its consummation has been effected, that l)rings to our cognizance the diseased growth which lias received the designation of sidehones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly scpiare in shape and unyield- ing under the pressure of the fingers. Cause. — Sidebones maj^ be the result of a low inflammatory condi- tion or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused l^y sprains, bruises, or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or cjuittor. The deposit of calcareous matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its substance, the size and prominence of the grovvth varying much in consequence. Symptoms. — It would naturally be inferred that the amount of inter- ference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of the tumor, and that as the dimensions increased, the resulting lameness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact. A small tumor, while in a condition of acute inflammation during the formative stage, ma}^ cripple a patient more severelj^ than a much larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usualU^ be detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The class of animals in which this feature of the disease is most frequently wit- nessed is that of the heavy draft horse, and others similarly empIoA'cd. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to the degrees of severity which may characterize different cases of sidebone. While one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, another ma}' develop elements of danger which may involve the necessity of severe sui'gical interference. Treatment. — The curative treatment should be similar to the pro- ph3iactic, and such means should l)e used as would tend to prevent the deposit of bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which causes it. The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath; frequent soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with iodine, either b}- painting the surface with the tincture several tmies daih% or by applj^ng an ointment made b}' mixing 1 dram of the crystals with 2 ounces of A^aseline, rubbed in once a da}' for several days. If this proves to be ineffective, a Spanish -fly blister, to which a few grains of biniodide of mercury have been added, will, in a majority of cases, effect the desired result and remove the lameness. If, finally, this treatment is ineffectual, the case must be relegated to DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 293 the surgeon for the operation of nourectom}', or the free and deep application of the firing- iron. This affection, popularly termed hone spavin., is an exostosis of the hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the bon}" growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute a spavin in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargement ma}" appear on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little below the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, form- ing what is known as a Idgli spavvti; or, again, the growth ma}^ form just on the outside of the hock and become an outside,, or external., spavin. And, finall}", the entire under surface may become the seat of the osseous deposit, and involve the articular face of all the bones of the hock, and this again is a Tjone spavin. There would seem, then, to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar affec- tions which might confuse one if the diagnosis is not ver}^ carefully made. But the hock ma}" be "spavined," vv'hile to all outward observation it still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement perceptible to sight or touch the animal may yet be disabled by an occult spavin., an anchy- losis in fact, which has resulted from a union of several of the bones of the joint, and it is only those who are able to realize the importance of its action to the perfect fulfillment of the function of locomotion by the hind leg who can comprehend the gravity of the only prognosis which can be justified by the facts of the case — a prognosis which is essentially a sentence of serious import in respect to the future useful- ness and value of the animal. For no disease, if we except those acute inflammatory attacks upon vital organs to whi(5h the patient succumbs at once, is more destructive to the usefulness and value of a horse than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its inceDtion, serious in its progress, it is an ailment which, when once established, becomes a fixed condition which there is no known means of dislodging. Cause. — The periostitis, of which it is nearly always a termination, is usually the effect of a traumatic cause operating' upon the.compli- cated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a liga- mentous insertion and lacerated some of its fibers; or a violent effort in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been com- pelled by the torture of whip and spur v/hile in use as a gambling implement by a sporting owner, under the pretext of "improving his breed;" or the extra exertion of starting an inordinately heavy load; or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep; or slipping upon an icy surface; or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and 204 BUHEAU OF ANIMAL US^DUSTEY. other kindred causes. And we can repeat here what we have before said concerning bones, in respect to heredity as a cause. From our own experience we know of equine families in which this condition has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals otherwise of excellent conformation rendered valueless by the misfortune of a congenital spavin. Sym2?tams. — The evil is one of the most serious character for other reasons, among which may be specified the slowness of its develop- ment and the insidiousness of its growth. Certain indefinite phenom- ena and alarming changes and incidents furnish usually the only portents of approaching trouble. Among these signs may be men- tioned a peculiar posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and becon^ng at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the action of some hidden disorder. The posture is due to the action of the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried inward, and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel, but stifll}^, and with a sort of sidelong gait between the shafts, and after finishing his task and resting again in his stall will pose with the toe pointing for- ward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Some little heat and a considerable amount of inflammation soon appear. The slight lame- ness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be notice- able after a short distance of travel. A minute examination of the hock ma}^ then reveal the existence of a bon}' enlargement which may be detected just at the junction of the hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement, or hone sjMvin^ grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which render it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. Once established, its development continues under conditions of prog- ress similar to those to which we have before alluded in speaking of other like affections. The argument advanced by some that because these bony deposits are frequently found on both hocks they are not spavins is fallacious. If they are discovered on both hocks, it proves merely that they are not confined to a single joint. The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is most pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at work. The first is characterized by the fact that when the animal travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more slowl}', the motion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and accompanied by a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the other case the peculiarit}'^ is that the lameness increases as the horse travels; that when he stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when DISEASES OF THE HOSSE. 295 he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the first variety. As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the dimensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem to bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at times accompanying a very diminutive growth. But the distinction between the two varieties of cool and warm may easily be determined b}'^ remembering the fact that in a majorit}^ of cases the first, or cool, is due to a simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular surface — a condition which, as we proceed further_j will meet our attention when we reach the subject of stringhalt. An excellent test for sj^avin lameness, which raaj^ be readily applied, consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two min- utes and holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. An assist- ant, with the halter strap in his hand, quickl}' starts the animal off in a trot, when, if the hock joint is affected, the lameness will be so greatly intensified as to readily lead to a diagnosis. Prognosis. — Having thus full}' considered the historj- of bone spavin, we are prepared to give due weight to the reasons which exist for the adverse prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to pronounce when encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the importance of early discovery. It is but seldom, however, that the necessary advantage of this early knowledge can be secured, and when the true nature of the trouble has become apparent it is usually too late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, a skillful practitioner might have emploj^ed. We are fully persuaded that but for the loss of the time wasted in the treatment of purely imaginary ailments very many cases of bone spavin might be arrested in their incipiency and their victims preserved for years of comfort for them- selves and valuable labor to their owners. Treatment. — To consider a hypothetical case: An earl}- discovery of lameness has been made; that is, the existence of an acute inflamma- tion— of periostitis— has been detected. The increased temperature of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the charac- teristic pose of the limb, and the question is proposed for solution. What is to be done? Even with only these comparatively doubtful S5"mptoms — doubtful with the nonexpert — we should direct our treat- ment to the hock in preference to any other joint, since of all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and function. And in answer to the query. What is the first treatment indicated? we should answer rest — emphaticall}', and as an essential condition, 7'est. Whether only threatened, suspected, or positively diseased, the ani- mal must be wholly released from labor, and it must be no partial or 296 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. temporaiy cjuict of a few days. In all stages and conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than a simple exostosis, or whether accompanied by the complication of arthritis, there must be a total suspension of effort until the danger is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of — the longer the better. Good results ma^^ also be expected from local applications. The various lotions which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the tension of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate the circulation in the engorged capillaries, the liniments of various composition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative prepa- rations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine — all these are recommended and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counter- irritants, for the simple reason, among many others, that they tend by the promptness of their action to prevent the formation of the bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alter- ative preparations of iodine or mercurj'. And if the owner of a "spavined" horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for; beyond this let him be well persuaded that a "cure" is impossible. For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against the patented "cures "which the traveling horse doctor may urge upon him, and v>athhold his faith from the circular of the agent who will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that nostrums ma}" in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but the greater number of them are capable of producing only injuri- ous effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished b}' any such means, and if a ti'ial of these unknown compounds should be followed by complications no worse than the establishment of one or more ugh', hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and his owner. Rest and counterirritation, with the proper medicaments, consti- tute, then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies and methods referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce satisfactory results. Either the rest has been prematureh' inter- rupted or the blisters have failed to rightly modify the serous infil- tration, or the case in hand has some undiscernible characteristics which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the agencies employed against it. An indication of more energetic means is then presented, and free cauterization with the firing iron becomes necessary. At this point a word of explanation in reference to this operation of firing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our readers who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and possible cruelty. DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 297 The operation is one of .simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occa- sions of which onh' the best knowledge and highest discretion should be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a given part of the bod}- which constitutes the operation of firing. It is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure with a view to a given effect upon a diseased organ or tissue by an expert surgeon. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation which should be committed exclusively to the practiced hand of the veter- inary surgeon. Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy for the relief of lameness from bone sj^avin. Failure to produce relief after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient interval of rest should be followed by a second, or, if needed, a third firing. In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special oper- ations which have been tried and recommended, among which those of cunean tenotom}-, periosteotomj^, the division of nervous branches, etc., may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar domain of the veterinar}^ practitioner, and need not now engage our attention. FRACTURES. In technical language a fracture is a "solution of continuit}^ in the structure or substance of a bone." It ranks among the most serious of the lesions to which the horse — or an}" animal — can be subject. It is a subject of special interest to veterinarians and horse owners in view of the fact that it occurs in such a variet}^ of forms and it sub- jects the patient to much loss of time, resulting in the suspension of his earning capacity. Though of less serious consequence in the horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is always slow and tedious in healing, and is frequently of doubtful and unsatisfactory result. This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways. In the most numeit)us instances it includes the total thickness of the bone and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves a portion onl}^ of the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as tncomjdete. If the bone is divided into two separate portions, and the soft parts have received no injury, the fracture is a simjyJe one; or it becomes compound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and com- minuted if the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments, many or few. The direction of the break also determines its further classification. Broken at a right angle it is tranftverse; at a different angle it becomes oblique^ and it may be longitudinal or lengthwise. In a complete fracture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a con- dition of great importance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate 298 BUREAU OF ANLMAL INDUSTRY. result of the treatment iu the fact that from various causes, such as muscular contractions or excessive motion, the bony fragments do not maintain their mutual coaptation, but become separated at the ends, which makes it necessary to add another descriptive term — icith dixj^Iacement. And these words again suggest the negative, and introduce the term vntliout dis place m-ent^ when the facts justify that description. Furthermore, a fracture may be intraartlcxdar or extra- articidar, as it extends into a joint or otlierwise, and once more, intra- j)e)'e'ofife(d, when the periosteum remains intact. Finall}", there is no absolute limit to the xvie of descriptive terminology in the case. The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining the question of treatment, and as affecting the final result of a case of fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether its seat be in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its breadth, its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture may also be either simple or comminuted. In the latter case the frag- ments are held together by the periosteum when it is intact, and the fracture in that case belongs to the intraperiosteal class. At times, also, there is onlj- a simple fissure or split in the bone, making a con- dition of much difficulty of diagnosis. Causes. — Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in cases of fracture. The}^ are the predts'poslng and the occasional. As to the first, different species of animals differ in the degree of their liability. That of the dog is greater than tliat of the horse, and in horses the various questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of the year, the portion of the body most exposed, and the existence of ailments, local and general, are all to l)e taken into account. Among horses, those emploj^ed in heavy draft work or that are driven over bad roads are more exposed than light-draft or saddle horses, and aniumls of different ages are not equally lial)le. Dogs and young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for their bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are more liable than those which have not exceeded the time of their adult prime. The season of the 3'ear is undoubtedly, though in an incidental v/aj', an important factor in the problem of the ctiolog}^ of these accidents, for though the}'- may be observed at all times, it is during the months when the slippery condition of the icy roads renders it difficult for both men and beasts to keep their feet that thej^ occur most frequently'. The long bones, those especially which belong to the extremities, are most frequentl}' the seat of fractures, from the circumstance of their superficial position, their exposure to contact and collision, and the violent muscular efforts involved both in their constant rapid movement and their labor iu the shafts or at the pole of heavy and heavily laden carriages. The relation between sundrv idiosvncrasies and diatheses and a lia- DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 209 bility to fractures is too constant and well-established a pathological fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis, of melanosis, and of osteoporosis, as related to an abnormal frangi- bility of the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge. There are few persons who have not known of cases among their friends of frequent and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of such as seem to be produced by the slightest and most inadequate vio- lence, and there is no tangible reason for doubting an analogous con- dition in individuals of the equine race. Among local predisposing causes mention must not be omitted of such bon}^ diseases as caries, tuberculosis, and others of the same class. Exciting, occasional, or "efficient" causes of fracture are in most instances external traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls, etc., or sudden muscular contractions. These external accidents are various in their character, and are usually associated with quick mus- cular exertion. A violent, ineffectual effort to move 'too heav}^ a load; a semispasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pres- sure; a quick jump to escape a blow; stopping too suddenly after speeding; struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be thrown in the effort — all these are familiar and easy examples of acci- dents happening hourl}^ l)y which our equine servants become suffer- ers. We may add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebrro, occurring w^hen casting a patient for the purpose of undergoing a surgical operation, quite as much the result of muscular contraction as of a preexisting diseased condition of the bones. A fracture occurring under these circumstances may be called with propriety indirect, while one which has resulted from a blow or a fall differently caused is of the direct kind. Symptoms. — We now return to the first items in our classification of the varieties of fractures for the purpose of bringing them in turn under an orderly review, and our first examination will include those which belong to the first category, or the complete kind. Irregularity in the performance of the functions of the apparatus to which the fractured bone belongs is a necessary consequence of the existing lesion, and this is lameness. If the broken bone belongs to one of the extremities, the impossibilit}^ of the performance of its natural func- tion, in sustaining the weight of the body and contributing to the act of locomotion, is usually complete, though the deg-ree of disability will vary according to the kind of fracture and the bone which is injured. For example, a fracture of the cannon bone without displacement, or of one of the phalanges which are surrounded and sustained by a com- plex fibrous .structure, is, in a certain degree, not incompatible with some amount of resting on the foot. But, on the contrary, if the shank bone, or that of the forearm be the implicated member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exercise any agency whatever in the 300 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. support of the body. And in a fracture of the lower jaw it would be obviously unrcasonal)lc to expect it to contribute materially to the mastication of food. A fracture seldom occurs which is not accompanied with a degree of deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This is due to the exudation of the blood into the meshes of the surround- ing tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the frag- ments of the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the inflammation of the surrounding tissues. The character of the deformity will mainly depend upon the manner in which the displace- ment occurs. In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with the joints as their onh' centers or bases of action, with no participa- tion of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and motion which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most strongly characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that when the shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints, with the lower portion swinging f reel3', that the leg is broken. But there are still some conditions where the excessive mobilitv is not eas}' to detect with certainty. Such are the cases where the fracture exii^ts in a short bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region where several short and small bones are united in a group, or even in a long bone where its situation is such that the muscular covering prevents the visible manifestation of the symptom. If the situation of a fracture precludes its discoveiy by means of this abnormal flexibility, other modes of detection remain. There is one method which is absolute and positive and which can be applied in by far the most, though not in all cases. Tins is crepitation., or the peculiar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured sur- faces one against another. Though discerned by the organs of hear- ing it can scarcely be called a sound, for the grating of the parts as the rubbing takes place is more felt than heard; however, there is no mistaking its import in cases favorable for the application of the test. The conditions in which it is not available are those of incomplete fracture, in which the mobility of the parts is lacking, and those in which the whole array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain the benefit of this pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful, and gentle manipulation. Sometimes the slightest of movements will be sufficient for its development, after much rougher handling has failed to discover it. Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to a sort of defensive spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting from the rude interference. More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture. Ecchj-moses in the parts is but a natural occurrence, and is more easily DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 301 discovered in animals possessing- a light colored and delicate skin than in those of the opposite character. There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete fracture, ev^en sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the function of locomotion, with evidences of pain and swelling- at the seat of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evi- dences of a blow or other violence sufficient to account for the fracture, though very often a suspicion of its existence can only be converted into a certainty bj^ a minute history of the patient if it can be obtained up to the moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diagnosis ought not to be hastily pronounced, and where good ground for suspicion exists it ought not to be rejected upon any evidence less than the best. Serious and fatal complications are too often recorded of the results following- careless conclusions in similar cases, among- which we may refer to one instance of a complete fracture manifesting itself in an animal during- the act of rising up in his stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had no fracture at all. Fractures are of course liable to complications, especially those which are of a traumatic character, such as extensive lacerations, tear- ing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. Unless these are in com- munication with the fracture itself the indication is to treat them sim- pl}^ as independent lesions upon other parts of the body. A traumatic emphj^sema will at times cause trouble, and abscesses, more or less deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases small bony fragments from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose and acting as foreign bodies, give rise to troublesome fistulous tracts. A frequent compli- cation is hemorrhage, which often becomes of serious consequence. A fracture in close proximity to a joint ma}^ be accompanied by dan- gerous inflammations of important organs, and induce an attack of pneumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., especially if situated near the chest; it may also cause luxations, or dislocations. Gangrene^ as a conse- quence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an impediment to the circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must not be over- looked among the occasional incidents; nor must locljaiv, which is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder, or laminitis has been met with as the result of forced and long continued immobility of the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of unavoidably protracted treatment. When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation, one of two things will occur. Either — and this is the more common event — there will be a union of the two ends b}^ a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the ends will continue separated or become only partially united b}' an intermediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the -fracture is 802 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. consolidated, or united; in the second there is u false articulation, or 2)scudarthrosls. The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a frac- ture will vary with the character of the bone affected, the age and constitution of the patient, and the general conditions of the case. The union will be perfected earlier in a 3'oung than in an adult ani- nnil, and sooner in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy condition is, of course, in every respect, an advantage. The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the bones, has been a subject of much study among investigators in I)athology, and has elicited various expressions of opinion from those high in authority. But the weight of evidence and preponderance of opinion are about settled in favor of the theory that the law of repa- ration is the same for both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case a simple exudation of material, with the proper organization of newly formed tissue, will bring about a union by the first intention, and in another the work will be accompanied by suppuration, or union by the second intention, a process so familiar in the impair of the soft struc- tures bv^ gi'anulation. Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result it ma}^ probabh' be correctly described in this wise: On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place be- tween the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon fol- lows, and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then an excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon spreads to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the compact tissue of the bone becomes tlie seat of a new vascular organi- zation, and of a certain exudation of plastic h^mph, appearing between the periosteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as on the inner side of the medullary cavitj'. After a few da3's the ends of the bono thus surrounded by this exudate become involved in it, and the h'mph, becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilaginous, and in due time into bony tissue. Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured seg- ments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are sur- rounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed by a bon}' plug or stopper, constituting the period of iha provisional callus. This is followed by the period of vermancnt callus, during which the process is going forward of converting the cartilaginous into the osseous form. The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than in the her])ivorous tribes. In the former the temporary- callus may attain sufiiwent lineness of consistency^ for the careful use of the limb within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 303 two months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting apparatus from the limb. This, in general terms, represents the fact when the resources of nature have not been thwarted l)}^ untoward accidents, such as a want of vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the part of the practitioner, and especially when, from any cause, the bony fragments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility and the constant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two portions. Failures and misfortunes are always more than possible, and instead of a solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the accident is sometimes a false joint^ composed of mere flexible cartilage, a poor pseudarthrosis. The explanation of this appears to be that, first, the sharp edges of the ends of the bone disappear by becoming rounded at their extremities by friction and polishing against each other. Then follows an exudation of a plastic nature which becomes trans- formed into a cartilaginous layer of a rough articular aspect. •In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the lymph secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of becoming truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibro-cartilaginous pouch, or capsular sac, in which a some- what albuminous secretion, or pseudosynovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonh^ however, in our animals, the union of the bon}^ fragments is obtained wholl}^ through the medium of a la^^er of fibrous tissue, and it is because the union has been accomplished b}' a ligamentous formation only that motion becomes j)racticable. Prognosis. — The prognosis in a case of facture in an animal is one of the gravest vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious pecuniary concern to his owner. The period has not long elapsed when to have received such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing a sentence of death for the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a similar verdict is pronounced in many cases in which the exercise of a little mechanical ingenuity, with a due amount of careful nursing, might secure a contrary result and insure the return of the patient to his former condition of soundness and usefulness. Treatment. — Considered, ijer se.^ a fracture in an animal is in fact no less amenable to treatment than the same description of injury in any other living being. But the question of the propriety and expedienc}' of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of collateral consideration. First. The nature of the lesion itself is a point of paramount importance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends can be firmly secured in coaptation presents the most favorable con- ditions for successful treatment. If it be that of a long bone it will be the less serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than if it were in close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect 304 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. iniinobility can rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring tl^c risk of subsequent rigidity of the joint. A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A com- minuted is always more dangerous than a simple, and a transverse break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious are those which are situated on parts of the body in which it is diffi- cult to secure perfect immobility, and especially those which are accompanied by severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts; the protrusion of fragments through the skin; the division of blood vessels by the broken ends of the bone; the existence of an articula- tion near the point to which inflammation is likely to extend; the luxation of a fragment of the bone; laceration of the periosteum; the ■ rcftt^uce of a large number of bony particles, the result of the crush- ii"^' of tne bo'ie — all these are circumstances which discourage a favor- able r ,,;.'uosis, and weigh against the hope of saving the patient for ^uruvo i^sofuliness. Fractures which may be accounied curable are those which are not conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are eitlicr ver}^ limited or do not occur, the parts being kept In situ by the nature of their position, the shape of the bones, the articulations they form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolonga- tion; those of transv^erse processes of the lumbar vertebra; those of the bones of the face; those of the ilium; and that of the coffinbones. To continue the category, the following are evidently curable when their position and the character of the patient contribute to aid the treatment: Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions: those of the jaws; of the ribs, with displacement; of the hip; and those of the bone of the leg in movable regions, but where their vertical position admits of perfect coaptation. On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted fracture, in whatever region it may be situated, may be counted incurable. In treating fractures time is an important element and "delay's are dangerous." Those of recent occurrence unite more easilj' and more regular!}^ than older ones. Second. As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of the smaller species than in those of more bulkv dimensions. This influence of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that the difficulties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly any existence in connection with the former. The difference in weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the neces- sary applications of dressings and other appliances for the purpose of securing the indispensable immobility of the parts, and usuall}' a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients are considera- tions in this connection of great weight. y/. ^1 ^ a rr i > =Q-^ DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 305 Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during- treat- ment— certainl}-^ for a considerable period of time; perhaps perma- nentl3^ For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extremities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it is exceed- ingl}" difScult to treat a fracture in such a manner as to restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not necessarily impair their value as breeders. Other specifications under this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be omitted. Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young, growing, robust patient whose vis vltm is active is amenable to treat- ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies would be unable to endure; and a docile, quiet disposition will act cooperatively with remedial measures which would bo neutralized hy the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer. ' The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures. The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly as possible in their normal position. The second is their letention in that position for a period sufficient for the- formation of the provisional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscarriage which might disturb the curative process. In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two ways present themselves — he must either walk or be carried. If the first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order to obviate- additional pain for the suffering animal and to avoid any aggravation of the injury. Led slowl}^ and with partial support, if practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If he is carried it must be b}^ means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambulance; the latter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would, of course, be the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should never be overlooked, a temporar}^ dressing should first be applied. This may be so done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the permanent adjustment and Imndaging. Without thus securing the patient, a 14384—03 20 306 BUllEAU OF ANIilAL INDUSTRY. fracture of an inferior degree maj^ be transformed to one of the sever- est kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable injury. We recall a case in which a fast trotting horse, after running away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and walked with comparative case some 2 miles to a stable before being seen by a sur- geon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down, and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well-marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a comparatively good recovery and though with a large bony deposit, a ringbone, was able to" trot among the forties. The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or replacement, and retention. In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the neces sity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place by ar intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the uninjured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there is no disloca- tion to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions alone, or by the resist- ance arising from muscular contraction. This is illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding difiiculty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus together, the mus- cular contraction being even in these animals sufficiently forcible to renew the displacement. It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be considered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the more superfi- cial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations and appliances for their retention in their normal positions, hence the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same. The methods of accomplishing reduction var}^ with the features of each case, the manipulations being necessaril}' modified to meet differ- ent circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction consists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces. If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treatment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the fragments are DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 307 pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to which thej' give insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accomplished by effecting the movements of extension, counteQ^-extension, and coaptation. Exten- sion is accomplished by making traction upon the lower portion of the limb. Counter-extension consists in firmly holding or confining the upper or body portion in such a manner that it shall not be aft'ected by the traction applied to the lower part. In other words, the oper- ator, grasping the limb below the fracture, draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw away, but simply to hold still the upper portion until the broken ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent by the proper dressihgs to perfect the reduction. In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode, the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage- ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of both hands for the further manipulation of the case. But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose mus- cular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In such a case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference to the mode of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first to be carefully cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad leather strap about 18 feet long, passed under and around his body and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point oppo- site to the animal and toward his back. This will form the mechanical means of counter-extension. Another rope will then be placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of fracture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be furnished with a block and pulle3\s, in order to aug-ment the power when necessary; and there is, in fact, alwa3'S an advantage in their use, on the side of steadiness and uniformit}', as well as of increased power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, or, what is better, above the knee and nearer the point o± fracture, and is committed to assistants. The trac- tion on this should be firm, uniform, and slow, without relaxing or 308 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. jerking, while the operator carefully watches the process. If the ])one is superticially situated he is able to judge by the eye of an^^ changes that may occur in the form or length of the parts under trac- tion, and discovering, at the moment of its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region, he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant of restoration are indicated b}- a peculiar sound, or "click," as the ends of the bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the restorative procedure. The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick nuiscular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties, from the fact that the tingcr must be substituted for the eye, and the taxis must take the place of the sight. It frequenth^ happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the interposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small fragment of detached bone or a clot of bloody and sometimes the extreme obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, b}- permitting the })ones to slip out of place. These arc difficulties which can not always be overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be by a deformed callus, the union will leave a shortened, crooked, or angular limb and a disabled animal. If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accomplished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the best time for it. But if it can not be attended to until inilanmiation has become established and the parts have become swollen and painful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms before attempting the operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore, cause an}^ loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome by the use of sedatives and antiphlogistic remedies. The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the problem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been restored to their natural position must be kept there, without disturbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuit}' and skill by the sur- geon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus. One of the most important of the conditions which arc available b}^ the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian in the manage- ment of those which belong to the animal tribes. This is j)osition. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with the instructions of the surgeon, but with the animal sufferer there is a continual antag- onism between the parties, and the forced extension and fatiguing DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 309 position which must for a considerable period be maintained as a con- dition of restoration require special and ctiective appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immobilit}^ is scarceh^ possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the restraint of patients in ver}^ narrow stalls is much to be preferred to the practice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary- and movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness to submit quietlj^ to the changing of the dressings render it obligatory to have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolidation is complete. The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum, bandages, and splints, wuth an agglutinating compound which forms a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed. A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recom- mended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and burnt alnm with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula is spirits of camphor, Goulard's extract, and albumen. Another recom- mendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive solution formed with gum arable, dextrine, flour paste, or starch. This is advised particularly for small animals, as is also the silicate of soda. Dextrine mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and alcohol cools and solidities into a ston}^ consistency, and is preferable to plaster of paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and plaster of Paris form another good compound. In applying the dressing the leg is usualh^ padded w4th a cushion of oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is,. variously, pasteboard, thin v>^ood, bark, laths, gutta percha, strips of thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient length not onl^^ to cover the region of the fracture, but to extend sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more complete than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with cloth bandages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous mixture. These bandages are to be carefullv applied, with a perfect condition of lightness. The}- are usually made to embrace the entire length of 310 BUREAU OF ANDIAL INDUSTRY. the leg, in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the cir- culation of the extremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing. They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward, and carcfull}" secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory bandages are recommended, but excepting for small animals our experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation. These permanent dressings always need careful watching with ref- erence to their immediate effect upon the region the}" cover, especially during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani- festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or any odor suggestive of sui)puration should excite suspicion, and a thorough investigation sliould follow without delaj". The removal of the dressing shoidd be performed with great care, and especially so if time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any points of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there need be no haste for removal or change except under such special con- ditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge that solidiiicaiion has become perfect, or for the comfort of the ani- mal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb from want of use. Owners of animals are often tempted to remove a splint or bandage permaturely at the risk of producing a second frac- ture in consequence of the failure of the callus properh" to consolidate. The method of applying the splints which we have described refers to the simple variety onh'. In a compound case the same rules must be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the applica- tion of treatment. FKACTUIIE OF DIFFERENT BONES. CRANIAL BOXl-S. Causes. — Fractures of these bones in large animals are comparatively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being usuall}- run- aways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree or other obstruction; or it may occur in those which in pulling upon the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward, as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and the incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of the fiat bones, and they DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 311 arc liable to be c-oinplic.atod with lacerations of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under observation. But when the fact is otherwise and tlie skin is intact, the diaj^nosis becomes difficult. Symptoms. — The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied by any special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bon}- plates may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with suffi- cient force to produce serious nervous complications. When the injury occurs at the Inise of the cranium, hemoriliage may be looked for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual termination is death. It may happen, however, that the symptoms of an apparently ver}^ severe concussion may disappear, resulting in an early and com- plete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In fractures of the orbital or the zygomatic l^ones the danger is less pressing than with injui-ics otherwise located about the head. Treatment. — The treatment of (ti-anial fractures is simple, though involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. When incomplete, hardly any interference is needed; even plain bandaging may usually be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be combated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations, collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the ])rain substance must be carefully cleansed away, and a simple bandage so applied as to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings, KRACrCKKH (W THE BOXK.S OF THE FACE. In respect to their origin — usually traumatic — these injuries rank with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety. They ma}' easily be overlooked and ma}' ev^en sometimes escape recog- nition until the reparative process has been well established and the discovery of the wound becomes due to the prominence caused by the presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. When the fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and in- flammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restora- tion of the depressed bones as nearly as possible to their normal position, and their retention in place by protecting splints, which should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should be observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rub- bing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, the 312 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the sinuses, and if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out the}' should be removed. If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated. FRACTURES OF THE PREMAXILLAKY BONE. These are mentioned by continental authors. They are usually encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and ma}'- take place either in the width or the length of the bone. The deformit}' of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnoi-mal mobility and the crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing examination, are concurrent s^-mptoms. Looseness of the teeth, abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they' are of difficult application. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the union of the bones b}' means of metaliit". sutures. FRACTVRES OF THE I-<)\VEK JAW. A fracture here is not an injur}' of infrequent occurrence. It involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forAvard, or at the posterior part near the temporo-maxillary articulation, at the coronoid process. Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powei-ful muscular con- tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and mas- tication of food become impossible; there is an abundant escape of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been wounded; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone; and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip. Although an animal suflFering with a complete and often compound and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and recovery is usually only a question of time. The severity of the lesion corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it is due, also with the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It is simple when at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important prin-' DISEJkSES OF THE HORSE. -^ 313 cipally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as osteoporosis, or the like. The particular seat of the injur}', with its special features, will, of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient; but when there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accom- plished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of the sjanphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of the head being then covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During the entire course of treatment a special method of feeding becomes necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation, of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the necessary food into his stomach, and it is accomplished by forcing between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance, until the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of food of a more solid consistenc3^ The callus will usually be suffi- ciently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication. FRACTURES OP VERTEBRA. These are not very common, but when thc}^ do occur the bones most fi-equently injured are those of the back and loins. Causes. — The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while conveying heav}' loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, some- times result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the acci- dental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy fall when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it is quite as likely to be caused by the violent resistance and the con- sequent powerful muscular contraction by the frightened patient. The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with excessive pressure against it from the intestinal mass, owing to the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without 314 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior lumbar vertebra. When , the transverse processes of the last-named bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concus- sion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying displacement. Sijmj)toms. — There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet; the movement of a sharp instrument, which at first excited his resistance, fails to give rise to any further evidence of sensation; perhaps a general trem- bling, lasting for a few minutes, w'ill follow, succeeded b}' a cold, pro- fuse perspiration, particular!}' between the hind legs, and frequently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examination of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminution or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, while the anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the hobbles, onl}^ the fpre part of the body will respond to the effort, a degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs w^ill remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and probabl}'" may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete kind, either through the exer- tion of walking or by a renewed attempt to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time the paralj'sis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has become established, is a consummation soon reached. To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is always serious is to speak very mildl}'. It would be better, perhaps, to sa}'^ that occasloQially a case may recover. Fractures of the trans- verse processes are less serious. Treatment. — Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question naturally would be: Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our opin- ion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time and to act accordingl3\ If there is displacement, and the existence of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanit}', and science at once unite DISEASES OF THE HOilSE. 315 If, however, it is fairh-^ evident that no displacement exists; tliat pressure upon the spinal cord is not j^et present; that the animal with a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis- tance— it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may be accomplished by securing immobility of the whole bod}' as much as possible, and especially of the suspected region, b}' placing the patient in slings, in a stall sufScienth' narrow to preclude lateral motion, and covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Watch and wait for developments. FRACTURE OF THE RIBS. The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the vio- lence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and they are therefore either more common or more easily discovered during life at some points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended b}- the shoulder. A -single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a number may be involved, and there maj' be injuries on both sides of the chest at the same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part of the boiie, though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequentl}' hurt. Incomplete fractures are usuall}^ lengtlnvise, involving a por- tion onlj" of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. The com- plete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most commonly denticulated. The fracture may be commiriuted, and a single bone rca}' show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at dif- ferent points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liabilit}^ of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external Anolence. Symjytoins. — In man}^ instances fractures of these bones continue undiscovered, especially the incomplete variety, without displacement, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling, and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the exam- ination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence. Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even when present, and they are not always present. When there is dis- placement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and when such an injury exists the surgeon will, of course, become vigilant, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic trouble, and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of traumatio-pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are recorded. Subcutane- ous emph3'sema is a common accompaniment of broken ribs, and I recall the death from this cause of a patiefit of my own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the withers, under the 316 EUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. cartilages of the ^^bouklc^, and of which the diagnosis was only made after the fatal ending of the case. These hurts arc not often of a ver}- serious character, though the union is never as solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus ])eing usuallj' imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar- throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart gravit}' to the prognosis. Treatment. — Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blistering nature as a preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to aid in the support and innnobilization of the parts. At times, hoAvever, a l)etter eflect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed firmh' around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the ribs, it is apt to render the respiration more labored. If there is disjjlacement, with much accompanying pain and evident irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay. The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displace- ment is outward or inward. In the first case the bone ma}'^ be straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of the bone must be raised b}^ a lever, for the introduction of which a small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be necessar3\ When coaptation has been effected it must be retained b}" the external application of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages around the chest. FRACTURES OF THE BOXES OP THE PELVIS. These fractures will be considered under their separate denomina- tions, as those of the mcrum and the on innominatiun^ or hip, which includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the ischium. The sacrum. — Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among solipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, l)eing attributed not onl}^ to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and other external hurts, but to the act of coition and to violent efforts in parturition* It is generally of the transverse kind and maj- be recog- nized bj^ the deformity which it occasions. This is due to the drop- ping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural and spontaneous relief which usually interposes in these cases has doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West, and their practice and example fully establish the inutilit}^ of inter- ference. Still, cases maA^ occur in which reduction may be indicirted, and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is efi'ected by the introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon another DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 317 as a fulcrum placed undci" it outside. The bone, having been thus returned, ma}' be kept in place b}" the ordinary external means in use. Theoi Innomimduin. — Fractures of the iliiuii maybe observed either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone; those of the pubes ma}' take place at the S3'mphysis, or in the bod}' of the bone; those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior external angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articular cavity — the acetabulum by which it joins the fenmr or thigh bone. Symptoms. — Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which char- acterizes a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indicating- the existence of the condition expressed by the term "hipped." But an incomplete fracture, or one that is complete without diplacement, oi even one with displacement, often demands the closest scrutiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an animal may show but little appearance of it while walking, but upon being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until presently he will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and perform his traveling entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lameness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and the leg is dragged; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclusion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case, and while in some instances that will be but a report of the common etiology of frac- tures, such as blows, hurts, and other external violence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satisfactory solution of the whole matter. With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of tis- sues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are no very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not fail — it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external and internal examination — by manipulation of the gluteal- surface and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct — a slight sensation of grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of muscle which covers the bone — and the sensation may not only be felt, Ijut to the ear of the expert may even become audible. This external mani- festation is, however, not always sufficient in itself, and should always be associated with the rectal taxis for corroboration. It is true that 318 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. this ma\' fail to add to the evidence of fracture, but till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepitation from the surface, thouf»-h a .strong confirmator}^ point, is scarceh' sufEciently absolute to e^;tabli8ll more than a reasonable probability or strong suspicion in the case. In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the explor- ing hand of the surgeon into near proximit}' to the desired point of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts, l)oth pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advantage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assistant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while the sur- geon himself is making explorations and studying the effect from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will "see" what is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of tliat bone; to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what locationon the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. We have frequentl}^ by this method been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination, could only have been guessed at. Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bonj' ends the surgeon may discern the crepitation without it. Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, ma}^ be associ- ated with fractures of the hip bone. Prognosis. — The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily var}- con- siderably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of the ilium or of the ischium, especially where there is little displacement, will unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often quite free from subsequent lameness. But if there is much displacement, oxAy a ligamentous union will take place, with much deforraitj'- and more or less irregularih' in the gait. Other fractures may be fol- lowed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which may, with the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently observed DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 819 "I when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the obtu- rator nerve. Treatment. — The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should, in our estimation, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is, to place the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best measure, as we consider it, is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width to admit him, and to appl}"" a set of slings, snugly, but comf ortabl v. This will fulfill the essential conditions of recover}- — rest and immobilit3^ Blistering applications would be injurious, though the adhesive mix- ture might prove in some degree beneficial. The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which that was too short a time. As we have before said, there maj^ be cases in Avhich the treatment for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms of partial paralysis, the animal, when l^^ing down, being unable to regain his feet, but moving f reeh' when placed in an upright position. This condition is due to the interference of the callus with the func- tions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. I feel warranted b}^ my experience in similar cases in cautioning owners of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants; they are not all irrecoverablj- paralytic. With alternations of moder- ate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time vfhile the natural process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other ele- ments of change that may be so operating, the horse may in due time become able to once more earn his subsistence and serve his master. FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superim- posed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller animals are the subjects. Cause. — The causes are heavy blovN^s or kicks and violent collisions with unyielding objects. Those which are occasioned by falls are gen- erally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and comminuted varieties. Symptoms. — The diagnosis is not always easy. The S3'mptom3 are inabilitj^ to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests 320 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. upon the toe and seem.s shortened, and locomotion is performed by jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear. Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the log is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone, overlapping of the fragments and displacement Avill be considerable. The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious accidents, though cases may occur which are followed b}- recovery without verj^ serious ultimate results, especiall}^ Avhen the seat of the injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acro- mion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, com- plications are apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal for life. Treatment. — If there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing, to strengthen and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treat- ment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings. Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impos- sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained b}^ bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat; and this may be advan- tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the parts are retained b}^ figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and cov- ered with a coating of adhesive mixture. FRACTURKS OF THE HUMERUS. These are more common in small than in large animals, and are always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and col- lisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and though more usuall}' involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases extend to the upper end and into the articular head. Sijmjytoms. — There is ordinaril}^ considerable displacement in conse- quence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this, of course, causes more or less shortening of the limb. There will also be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be easy of detection. This fracture is alwaj^s a serious damage to the patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incurable, life- long lameness. Treatment. — If treatment is determined on it will consist in the reduc- tion of the fracture by means of extension and counter extension, and in order to accomplish this the animal must be thrown. If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjustment of the apparatus of retention, which must needs be of the most perfect and efficient kind. And finally, this, however skillfully contrived and care- fully adapted, will often fail to effect any good purpose whatever. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 321 FRACTURE OF THE FOREARM. A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna^ the latter being broken at times in its upper portion aboA'e the radio- ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there intimately united. Cause. — Besides having the same etiology with most of the fractures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large num- bers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that, under these circumstances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region almost entirely subcutaneous, while those of the complete class are either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal, in the long axis of the bone. Symptoms,- — This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility below the injury; the ready detection of crepitation — in a word, the; assemblage of all the signs and symptoms which have been already considered as associated with the history of broken bones. The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual wa^^ Displacement is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the ole- cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that case likely to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis, especiall}^ if the elboy>" joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con- ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to treatment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union. Treatraent. — Considering all the various conditions involving the nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and- counter extension; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments; the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oaKum, and agglutinative mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however, 14384—03 21 322 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of metal, wood, or other material, the}- should reach from the elbow joint to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properl}- con- structed box as to preclude all possibilit}' of motion, while yet it must sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint (represented in Plate XXVII) recommended by Bourgelat is designed for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and will prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the entire leg. A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when suffi- ciently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly hardened b}^ the application of cold water forms a complete casing sufRcientl}'- rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after softening it by immersing the leg in a warm bath. FRACTCRE OF THE KNEE. This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes place is of a severe character, and alwaj^s accompanied by synovitis, with disease of the joint. Cause. — It may be caused b}^ falling upon a hard surface, and is usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis. Symptoms. — As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis, or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of the knee, but crepitation is usually absent. Prognosis. — Healing is hard to obtain, as one part of the knee is drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the lower part. Tbe callus which forms is largely fibrous, and if the animal is put to work too quickl}^ this callus is apt to rupture. In favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop sole in the sound leg, as a result of pressure due to continuous standing, Treatment. — Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight plaster of Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fetlock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall v:ell provided with bedding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 323 FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR. The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with immunity in regard to fractures. Cause. — It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and some- times as the result of muscular contraction; sometimes it takes place at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; some- times at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture maj^ be of any of the ordinarj^ forms, simple or compound, complete or incom- plete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted and removed. The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepi- tation test is readih' available, even when the swelling is considerable, and which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hem- orrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of the region involved. Symptoms. — If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some cases be discerned b}'^ rectal examination, with one hand resting over the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, ma}' be identified by the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always accompanied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting- it down, very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the dis- covery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty, though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to turn a suspicion into a certainty. Treatment. — The question as to treatment in fractures of this descrip- tion resolves itself into the query whether anj^ treatment can be sug- gested that will avail anything practically as a curative measure; whether, upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is within the 324 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were successfully per- formed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any known means at our disposal? At the best the most favorable result that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments, with a con- siderable shortening of the bone, and a helpless, limping, crippled animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a "thus far and no farther." In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable, and Ave are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the application of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition of undis- turbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for "treatment" as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundu?n artem doctoring known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her "treatment" consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks she was running in the streets, limping very slight!}^, and nothing the worse for her accident. FRACTURE OF THE PATELLA. This, fortunatel}", is a rare accident and can onh" result from direct violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inabilitj'^ to bear weight upon the foot, and, finally, disease of the articulation. Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction being the only termination of this incurable and very painfid injury. Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis. FRACTURES OF THE TIHIA. Of all fractures these are probably more f requenth^ encountered than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete or incomplete; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The incom- plete kind are more common in this bone than in any other. .Sym-ptoms. — Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with or without displacement. The animal is verj^ lame, and the leg is either dragged or held up clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle, while the lower part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving backward is impossible. There is excessive mobilit}" below the frac- ture, and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 325 While incomplete fractures can not be recojynized in the tibia with any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified. The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration: An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. Being then taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and again a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the rule. The leg being now carefull}^ examined, a local periostitis is readily discovered at the point of the injur}^, the part being warm, swollen, and painful. What further proof is necessary? Is it not evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial — a mere split in the bonj" structure, which, fortunately, has been discovered before some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of the complete kind, possiblj^ with complications? What other inference can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish? The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule, be unfavorable. Treatment. — The difiiculty of obtaining a union without shortening, and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordinary attempts at treatment. But though this may be true in respect to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessaril}^ so with the incom- plete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the slings is all that is necessary to secure consolidation. A few weeks of this confinement will be sufiicient. Witli dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully applied and retained, a cure will follow. FRACTURES OF THE HOCK. Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded which had a fatal ter- mination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery have, as miglit have been anticipated, proved futile. FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES. Whether those occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in the body or near their extremities. If in the bodj^, as a rule the three metacarpal or metatarsal bones are affected, and the fracture is gen- erally transverse and oblique. On account of the absence of soft tis- sue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and render the fracture'a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all 326 IJUilEAL' OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture can onlj'- be suspected. Symptoms. — There is no displacement, but excessive molality, crep- itation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg- is kept off the ground by the flexion of the upper joint. No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable. We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under excep- tional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and ulti- mately caused his death. Treatment. — The general form of treatment for these lesions will not differ from that which has been already indicated for other frac- tures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient; coaptation, comparatively easy hy reason of the subcutaneous situation of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages — applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as in fractures of the forearm — these are always indicated. We have obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha, composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part of the leg as in an inflexible case. FRACTURE OF THE FIRST PHALANX. The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or twist- ing of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper articular surface down to the center of the bone, and generally oblique and often comminuted. The sjmptoms are the swelling and tenderness of the region, possibly crepitation ; a certain abnormal mobility; an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a dropping back of the fet- lock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condition of the pastern. The diflicidty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness, are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis. The treatment is that which has been recommended for all frac- tures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the frac- ture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our knowledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject the animal to treatment, the postmortem revealing only a simple frac- ture with very slight displacement. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 327 FRACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONETJ. Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often conditions associated with them which justify the surgeon in attempt- ing their treatment. Though crepitation is not always easy to detect, the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest, as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet, with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is j^et, hj rea- son of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is b}'' its structure and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis. Only a slight manipulation will be needed in the treatment of this lesion. To render the immobilit}'' of the region more fixed, to support the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced immo- bility of the entire body with the slings is usuall}'- all that is required. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process, must receive due attention subsequenth'. One of the severest complications likely to be encountered is an immobile joint (anch3^1osis). Neurectomy of the median nerve ma}^ relieve lameness after a fracture of the phalanges. FRACTURES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (oS PEDIS.) These lesions maj^ result from a penetrating street nail, or follow plantar or median neurectom3^ In the latter instance it is caused by the animal setting the foot down carelesslj^ and too violently, and partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving. Though these fractures are not of very rare occurrence, their recog- nition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of cer- tainty pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is verj'^ lame and spares the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the toe alone and sometimes holding it suspended in the air. The foot is verj'" tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon causes much pain. During the first twenty-four hours there is no increased pulsation in the digital and plantar arteries, but on the second day this symptom is apparent. There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone or the coronet. No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per- forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths, and fomentations will do the rest. It ma}- be months before there is any mitigation of the lameness. An ultimate recovery depends to a great extent upon whether the other foot can support the weight during the healing process without causing a drop sole in the supporting foot. 328 13UKEAU OF A>:iMAL IXDUSIRY. FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BOXES. This lesion hits been considered by veterinarians, erroneoasl}', we think, one of rare occurrence. We believe it to be more frequent than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have often been mistaken for specific lesions of the numerous ligaments that are implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have been described as a "giving way" or "breaking down "of these lio-aments. In my post-mortem examinations I have always noted the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also sepa- rated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance. Cause. — From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the spongy consistencj^ of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one, and the suddenness with which different feet are successively attacked, at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation in each of the four seasons. Symptoms. — The general fact is reported in the history of a majority of cases that it makes its appearance without premonition in animals wdiich, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case, in illustra- tion, will explain our theory: An animal which has been at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, without any of his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony structure takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon coming to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes turned up; he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground. The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of which may have remained intact DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 329 or may have been more or less extensively lacerated. It seldom hap- pens that more than one toe at a time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its occurrence in another. Commonl}^ two feet, either the anterior or posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The accident, however, is quite as likel}^ to happen while the horse is at rest in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occurring in my own experience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease of the fetlocks, the nature of which had not been made out, when, apparently, improved by the treatment which he had undergone, the patient was taken out of the stable to be walked a short distance into the country, but had little more than started when he was called to a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both fore legs. While there are no positive premonitor}^ symptoms known of these fractures, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come but little. short of being ho, and the appearance of which will always justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short mincing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and definable. Prognosis. — These injuries can never be accounted less than seri- ous, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our the- or}^ of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the lesions is trul}^ the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible. Treatment. — In respect to the treatment to be recommended and instituted it can only be emplo3^ed with any rational hope of benefit during the incubation, and with the anticipator}^ purpose of preven- tion. It must be suggested hj a suspicion of the verities of the case, and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastrophe — the elevfition of the toes — resort must be had to the slings and to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of Paris, with a high shoe, as about the only indications which science and nature are able to ofier. When the fracture is an occurred event, and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treatment will be futile. DISEASES OF JOINTS, Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These are, affections of the .synovial sacs; those of the joint structures, or of 330 BUREAU OF AUniAh II^DUSTlii. the bones and their articukr surfaces, and those forms of solution of continuity known as dislocations or luxations. DISEASES OF THE SYKOVIAL R.VCS. Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition of the sac without an}" acute inflammatory action, while the other is charac- terized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modilications, constituting s^^novitis. SY^•OVIAL DROPSIES. AVe have already considered in a general way the presence of these peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs wdiere the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous bursiB, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both. WINDGALL9. This name is given to the dilated bursw found at the posterior part of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition of the bursse of the joint itself, and also of the tendon which slides behind it, and are therefore further known l\v the designations of articular and tendinovis windgalls, or puffs. They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors, of varying dimensions, and generallj'^ well defined in their circumfer- ence. They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secre- tion the}" contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again when they have undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is among their tendencies. Cause. — Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as severe labor or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or jumping, or they may be among the sequelce of internal disorders, such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack. An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect- ing these growths, w-ith much questioning touching the expediency of their removal, all of which might bo spared, for while they constitute a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the ani- mal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily amena- ble to treatment. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 331 T'vpatment. — When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical condition is not excessive, the inflammatiom may be checked during the day ]>y continuous cold water irngation b}' means of a hose or soaking tub and at night b}- applying a moderately tight roller bandage. Later absorption may l^e promoted by a Priossnitz bandage," pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if necessary by a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury. This treatment should sub- due the inflammation, abort the soreness, absorb the excess of secre- tion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the vvdndgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quicklv returned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them at fi.rst. But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of onlj^ a tran- sient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again subjected to labor, and it will boa fortunate circumstance if inflammation has not supervened. But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and disable the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated, especially'" if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms. Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life has received a new lease as the result of this operation timeh^ performed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the sac by means of punc- tures through and through, made with a red-hot needle or wire, and the subsequent injection into the cavity of certain irritating and alter- ative compounds, designed to efl:ect its closure by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodine, may be commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects and require too much special attention and intelligent management to be trusted to an}'- hands other than those of an expert veterinarian. BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIX, AND THOROUGHPIN. The blood sjjavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It occurs directl}'^ over the point where the bog* spavin is found, and has thus been frequently confused with the latter. The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the « This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in -warm -water or a dripping bandage laid around the diseased jiart, then covered by several layers of woolen blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or other imper- vious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure is obtained by such a bandage if -water is poured upon it several times daily. 332 EUllEAU VF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astra- galus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself and extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular S3"no- vial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and it is to the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that tlic term blood spavin is applied. The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock in that part known as the "hollows," immediately behind the shank bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside. In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms, pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which will, of course, justify its classification b}' itself as a severer fornfof a single type of disease. We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means employed — 7'est, of course — with liniments, blisters, etc, and what we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, earlij, deep^ and well- jperforined cauterhat'wn. There are, besides, commendatory reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads and pecul- iar bandages upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the removal of the tumors has been effected b}- their use. But our experience with this apparatus has not been accompanied by such favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf. OPEN JOINTS, BROKEN KNEES, SYNOVITIS, AND ARTHRITIS. The close relationship which exists among these several afi'cctions, their apparcntlj'' possible connection as successive developments of a similar, if not an essentially identical, origin, together with the advan- tage gained by avoiding frequent repetitions in the details of symp- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 333 toms, treatment, etc., are our reasons for treating under a single head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section. Cause.- — The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is external traumatism. Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence, falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures — we may add compulsorj^ speed in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals — cover the entire ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now receiving our consideration. In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and full- ing on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abra- sion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough, mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages. In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the kneejoint is induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a perios- titis of the bones of the knee; later as bon}^ deposits, then lameness, and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequels of chronic inflammation of the kneejoint. In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild-look- ing, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet causing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it maj^ be only after a few days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entirQ joint swells, presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as a climax. The S3'mptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the degrees of the hurt, but in the nature of the lesion. Or the condition of oroken hnees^ resulting as we have said, ma}^ have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin — a scratch, apparently, which disappears without a gesulting scar. The injury ma}^, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggra- vated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough object, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may remain. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice. Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibl}- as a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs" may be opened, with the escape of the synovia; or worse, the tendons which pass in front of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg are swollen, the animal is becoming ver}^ lame; synovitis has set in. With this the danger becomes ver^^ great, for soon suppuration v;ill be 384 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in the presence of an ojfenjomt with suppurative synovitis — that is, witli the worst among the conditions of diseased' processes, because of the liabilit}' of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular surface — or the lesion of vlcerative cuiJiritis^ one of the gravest among all the disorders known to the animal econom}-. But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be developed otherwise than in connection with open joints; the simplest and apparentlj^ most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient. For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot; he is put to work, apparently free from pain or lameness, and per- forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there i«j some stiff- ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg, and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is severe, and, finally, there is an oozing, at the spot where the kick impinged, of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration. The miscliief is done; a simple, harmless, punctured wound has expanded. into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis. Prognosis. — From ever so brief and succinct description of this trau- matism of the articulations, the serious and important chai'acter of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is aft'ected, will be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications in the prognosis in different cases, in accordance Avith the peculiarities of structure in the joint specially involved, as for example, it is obvious that a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single joint, with only its plain articular surfaces, is the place of injury, than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character and at length subsid- ing, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves the animal with a com- paratively sound and useful joint. There are cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylosis, which is scarcely a condition to justif}^ a high degree of satisfaction, since it insures a per- manent lameness with very little capacity for usefulness. Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articu- lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 335 their progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon their discovery and diagnosis. Treatment.— ^ov simple bruises, like those which appear in the form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm fomen- tations or cold water applications and compresses of astringent mix- tures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as those of the carbolic acid order. The escape of synovia should suggest the prompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and prevent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in practice the "expectant" method with warm fomentations, repeatedly applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions — that is, in a practical sense — is to abstain from "doing" entirely, and yet we are firmly con- vinced that noninterference in the cases we are considering is the best and wisest polic}^. In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will by degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside, and the convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and presentl}^ to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedi- ous process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and normal condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating (he absorption of the exudation will be of great service. But if, on the contrarj', there is no amelioration of s^^mptoms and the progress of the disease resists every attempt to check it; if the discharge continues to flow, not onh^ without abatement, but in an increased volume, and not alone by a single opening, but b}^ a number of fistulous tracts which have succes- sively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidlj- and painfull}^ sapping the suffering animal's vitalit}^ and a deficient vh vltse fails to cooperate with the means of cure — all rational hope of recovery ma}^ be finally abandoned. Anj^ further waiting for chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelt}" and there need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is under sen- tence of death, and every consideration of interest and of humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident intent in the quick and easy execution of the sentence. One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable condition when recover}^ is in any wise attainable, is the suspension of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them as long as he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint. 336 BUllEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTP.Y, DISLOCATIONS. Dislocations and luxations are interchangeable terms, meaning the separation and disphicemcnt of the articulating surfaces of the bones entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely encount- ered in our large animals on account of the combination of strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller animals are more often the sufferers. Cause. — The accident of a luxation is less often encountered in the animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less sub- ject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions, or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the coopera- tion of conditions — anatomical, phj^siological, and perhaps mechani- cal—present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, however, can not in every case be clcarlj' defined. Perhaps the greater relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may con- stitute a cause of the difference. Among the predisposing causes in aiiimals ma}' be enumerated caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive laxity of the soft structures. Symptotns and diagnosis. — Three signs of dislocation must usually be taken into consideration. The}^ are: (1) An alteration in the shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shortening or lengthening; (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint, usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be relied upon as essential. Luxations are not alwaj's complete; the}' may ho, partial^ that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced but not separated. In such cases several sym.ptoms might not be present. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury- has been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments. In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized by pain, swelling, hemorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or rup- tured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are pressed on by the displaced bones. Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint. The knowledge of this fact requires that we shall be able to diagnose between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generall}^ have three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture; (2) in a dislocation there is no true aypitus — that peculiar grating sen- sation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of --i \ r- .\ i- 1- \x\- ^' — , m\ -^ ! ^s .S/>/7 1 'in Haines, dpi Xos 1, 2 ami 3, On^inal.No. 4, after PercKTil . BONE SPAVIN I ' 1 . .\I 1- X .\\ J Brace /hr dcsfocaMon oTUie e.lboM appitc.d to the lujf.se. la. The sttme brace seen alone. 2, Brrtce for disJocation. of fetlock 2u, The name brace- applied f/y tlw, h,>i\sr. '/^^ ^A ^ i •i,Brax:e for' sprained or d isfx>eated .v/ion lde/\ ■ 'J a, The .fame brajie applied to Ihje shoulder. Huuifs.del.adptl'ciickajicl iousscuiil DISLOCATION OF SIIOtTLDKR AND I'-LlUnV Bovirg'elaf's ay)pi.u-aiUH DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 337 fractured bones; however, it must be remeuibered that in a dislocation- two or three days old the inflanimator}- changes around the joint may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3) as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamenous and muscular tissues about the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced^ does not recitr. Prognosis. — The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less serious than that of a fracture, though at times the indications of treatment maj^ prove to be so difficult to apply that complications may arise of a very severe character. Treatment. — The treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar to that of fractuj-cs. Keduction, naturally, will be the first indicatiort in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow. The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter exten- sion, performed in the same manner, with the patient subdued by anesthetics. The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus necessary afterwards to keep them In. situ being similar to that which is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to h& retained for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to- perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be employed bj^ the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing-, rotating, and indeed whatever movement may be necessar}^, until the bones are forced into such relative positions that the muscular con- traction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite matched ends together in true coaptation — a head into a cavity, an articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case ma}^ be. The "setting"" is accompanied by a peculiar snapping sound, audible and significant,, as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal S3'mmetr3\ Special dislocations. — While all the articulations of the body are liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals which may claim a special consideration, viz: THE SHOULDER JOINT. We mention this displacement without intending to imply the prac- ticability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a victim to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It nvdj escape from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects- it— outward, inward, backward, or forward — and the deformity which 14384—03 22 338 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. results and the effects which follow will corrcspondinolv differ. We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may l)e added that the difficulties which interpose in the wa^- of reduction are nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible. The i:)rognosis is sufficiently grave from any point of view for the luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder. TnE nip JOINT. This joint partakes ver}^ much of the characteristics of the humero- scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The head of the thigh ])one is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and the cup-like cavit}^, or socket, into which it tits is much deeper, form- ing together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover, reenforced b}^ two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite them together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an accident of comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its cavity and assume various positions — inward, outward, forward, or backward. The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation. When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised of the fact b}- the peculiar snapping sound usualh' heard on such occasions. PSEUDOLt'XATIONS OF THE PATELLA. This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are of suffi- cient strength to resist the causes which usuall}- give rise to luxations. Yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar pathological state in the hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the manifestation of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This peculiar pathological condition originates in muscular cramps, the action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibi- tion of a sudden and alarming series of s3'mptoms which have sug- gested the phrase of "stifle out" as a descriptive term. Symjytows. — The animal so affected stands quietly and flrmly in his stall, or perhaps with one of his hind legs extended backward, and resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move forward he will either refuse or compl}- with a jump, with the toe of the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a second effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 339 appears to be much longer than the other, owing to the straightened position of the thigh bone, which forms ahiiost a straight line with the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with. External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifle bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper part of the joint. This state of things ma}^ continue for some length of time and until treatment is applied, or it may spontaneousl}' and suddenly terminate, leaving everj-thing in its normal condition, but perhaps to return again. Cause. — Pseudodislocation of the patella is likel}^ to occur under many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and j-et it ma)^ often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slip- ping when endeavoring to rise; sometimes to weakness in convalescing patien ts ; sometimes to lack of to!iicity of structure and general debility ; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use. A straight leg, sloping croup, and the 3^oung are predisposed to this dislocation. Treatment. — The reduction of these displacements of the patella is not usually attended with diflicult}-. A sudden jerk or spasmodic action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into place, w^hen the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the time. But this is not always sufiicient, and a true reduction may still be indicated. To effect this the leg niust be drawn well forward by a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone sudden]}^ slips into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of lameness. But though this may end the trouble for the time, and the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the loss of some pro- portion of tensile power which would naturall}^ follow the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might become a habitual weakness. Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often promote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field will in man}" cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled shoe is recommended b}" European veterinarians. The use of stimulating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, ma}" be resorted to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by strengthening and toning up the parts. 340 BLTREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS. This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding and supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence, such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following s^'uip- toms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function. Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and com- monly fibrinous exudation difiicult to remove. None of tlie muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to l)ecome their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined b}' a consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely to arise. Treatment. — The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating lini- ments, counter irrita.tion by blistering, and in some cases even firing. Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, y>'ill be of advantage bv promoting the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or absorption may be stimulated by the careful and persevering applica- tion of iodine in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength. There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and ten- dinous structures proper are affected by a strain, but, by contiguity of parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved, with a complication of periostitis and its sequehe. LAMENESS OF THE SIIOULDEK. The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category. For, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region, become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactor}' precision and facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm, but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerf ulh' strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it. Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacerations of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. "Slip of the shoulder-' is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions. The identification of the particular structures involved in these lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the question of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of the spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 341 trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to treat- ment, or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the condition is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii, or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, occurs, or, what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent. Causes. — The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not diffi- cult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of the part, and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which in fact it performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preemi- nently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would it materiall}' avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which the shoulder may be crippled. A fall, accompanied by powerful con- cussion; a violent muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded vehicle from a standstill; a misstep following a quick muscular effort; a jump accompanied b}' miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a smooth, icy road; balling the feet with snow; colliding with another horse or other object — indeed, the list might be indefinitely extended, but it would be without profit or utility. Symptoms. — Some of the S3miptoms of shoulder lameness are pecu- liar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequently mistaken for other affections — navicular disease more often than any other. The fact that in both affections there are instances when the external symptoms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them especially is very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or inexperi- enced observers, and to occasion the error which is sometimes com- mitted of applying to one disease the name of the other, erring both ways in the interchange. The true designation of pathological lesions is very far, at times, from being of certain and easy accomplishment, and, owing to the massive structure of the parts we are considering, this is especially true in the present connection. And still there are many cases in which there is really no reasonable excuse for an error in diagnosis by an average practitioner. Shoulder lameness Vv^ill of course manifest itself b}^ signs and appearances more or less distinct and pronounced, according to the nature of the degree and the extent of the originating cause. We summarize some of these signs and appearances: The lameness is not intermittent but continued, the disturbance of motion gauging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are affected. When in motion the two upper bony levers — the shoulder blade and the bone of the upper arm— are reduced to nearly complete immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displace- ment of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either 342 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. flexion or extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural con- sequence, is limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a cer- tain amount of swelling at the point of injur}- — at the joint, or more commonly in front of it, or on the surface of the spinatus muscle. Again, instead of swelling there will be muscular atroph}', though while this condition of loss of muscular power may interfere with per- fect locomotion, it is not in itself usually a cause of shoulder lameness. "Sweenied" shoulders are more often due to disease below^ the fetlock than to affections above the elbow. During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat analogous to the "pointing" position of navicular disease, though in some cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semiflexed position. The backing is sometimes tj'pical, the animal when per- forming it, instead of flexing his shoulder, dragging "the whole leg without motion .in the upper segment of the extremit}-. The peculiar manner in which the leg is brought forward in the air for another step in the act of walking or trotting is in some instances characteristic of injuries of the shoulder. The lameness also mani- fests itself in bringing the leg forward with a circumflex swinging motion and a shortening in the extension of the step. The foot is car- ried close to the ground and stumbling is frequent, especially on an uneven road. With the 'utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty of the sjmiptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of aggravating the symptoms b}- way of intensifying their significance, and thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by requiring the patient to travel on a hard or verj- soft ground and com- pelling him to turn on the sound leg as a pivot, with other motions calculated to betray the locality of the pain. Treatment. — It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will in many cases disappear with no other prescription than that of rest. Provided the lesions occasioning it are not too severe, time is all that is required. But the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as a means of doing good, in the place of the active and the positive forms of treatment. This is in accordance with a trait of human nature which is universal, and is unlimited in its applications. Hence there must be something done. In mild cases of shoulder lameness, then, the indications are water, either in the cold douche or by showering, or by warm fomentations. Warm wet blankets are of great service; and in addition, or as alternative, anod3'ne liniments, camphor, bella- donna, either in the form of tincture or the oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating friction with suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering compounds, subcutaneous injections over the region of the muscle of 1^ grains of veratrin (the variety insoluble in DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 343 water) mixed in 2 drams of water, etc., will find their place, and finally, when necessity demands it, the firing iron and the seton. The duration of the treatment must be determined by its; eflfects and the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and the one without which the possibility of relap.se will always remain as •a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, rest, imperativel}'- rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which it may be associated. SPRAIN OF THE ELBOW MUSCLES. Causes. — This injury, which fortunately is not very common, is mostly encountered in cities, among heavy draft horses or rapidly driven animals which are obliged to travel, often smooth shod, upon slippery, ic}", or greasy pavements, where they are easily liable to lose their foothold. . The region of the strain is the posterior part of the shoulder, and the muscles which are affected are those which occupy the space between the posterior Vjorder of the scapula and the posterior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon which give way. Symptoins. — The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when the animal is in action. While at rest the attitude may be normal, or by close scrutin}' a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may seem to drop; the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with the knee and lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on the toe, with the heel raised. Su(*h an attitude, however, may be occasionally assumed by an animal without having anj' special signifi- cance. But when it becomes more pronounced on putting him in motion the fact acquires a symptomatic value, and this is the case in the present instance. A rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the walk, as in some few other diseases, becomes sufficiently characteristic to warrant a diagnosis even when observed from a distance. An entire dropping of the anterior part of the trunk becomes manifest, and no weight is carried on the disabled side, in consequence of the loss of action in the suspensor}^ muscles. There are often heat, pain, and swelling in the muscular mass at the elbow, though at times a hollow, or depression, may be observed near the posterior border of the scapula, which is probabl}^ the seat of injur3^ These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varjdng from mere minor casualties of quick recover}^ to lesions which are of suffi- cient severity to render an animal useless and valueless for life. Treatment. — The prime elements of treatment, which should be strictly observed, are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of all kinds, of course, have their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform, camphor, alcoholic frictions, warm fomentations, .blisters, setons, etc. But unless the conclusions of experience are to be ignored, my own 344 BUREAU OF A:?iIMAL INDUSTRY. judgment is decisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied; and my view of what constitutes a judicious application of rest has been more than once presented in these pages. There are degrees of this rest. One contemplates simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another means the enforced mobility of the slings and a narrow stall as well. Another a box stall, with ample latitude as to posture and space, and option to stand up or lie down. As wide as this range maj- appear to be, radical recovery has occurred under all of these modified forms of letting our patients alone. The etiolog}" of injuries and diseases of the hip is one and the same with that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and the same results follow. The onh' essential change, with an important excep- tion, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the other in a description of its anatomy, its phvsiolog}', and its pathology, would be a substitution of anatomical names in reference to certain bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes concerned in thQ injuries and diseases described. It would be only a useless repeti- tion to cover again the ground over which we have so recently passed in recital of the manner in which certain forms of external violence (falls, blows, kicks, etc.) result in other certain forms of lesion (luxa- tion, fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to recapitulate the items of treatment and the names of the medicaments proper to use. The sames rules of diagnosis and the same indications and prognosis are applicable equallj' to every portion of the organism, with only such modifications in applying dressings and apparatus as may be required by differences of conformation and other minor circumstances, which must suggest themselves to the judgment of every experienced observer when the occasion arrives for its exercise. There is an exception to be made, while considering the subject in connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the formidable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip-joint disease; and leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other heads, that relating to the shoulder, for instance, we turn to the hip joint and its ailments as the chief subject of our present consideration. fS'i/mj)fo)/is. — In investigating for morbus coxarius, let the observer firsts examine the lame animal b}^ scanning critically the outlines of the joint and the region adjacent for any difference of size or disturbance of sj-mmetry in the parts, any prominence or rotundity, and on both sides. The lame side will probably be warmer, more developed and fuller, both to the touch and to the eye. Let him then grasp the lower part of the leg (as he would in examining a case of shoulder lameness) and endeavor to produce excessive passive motion. This will probably cause pain when the leg is made to assume a given DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 345 position. Let him push the thigh forcibly against the hip bone, and the contact will again probably cause a manifestation of pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited action of the hip joint proper and the excessive dropping and rising of the hip of the opposite side will be easily recognized. Usuall}^ the animal does not extend the foot as far as customarily and picks it up much sooner. The abducdve or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness is also present in hip lameness, but under special conditions, and the test of the difficult}-, either by traveling on soft ground or in turning the horse in a circle, nia}' here also contribute to the diagnosis, as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremit3^ PrognoHia. — The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite serious, not only on account of the long duration of treatment required to effect good results, and because of the character which ma}^ be assumed by the disease, but of the permanence of the disability result- ing from it. Exostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelae which often resist every form of treatment. Treatment. — As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition of the remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifi- cations occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip, and we are limited to the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages of rest must be reaffirmed, with local applications, of which, however, it may be said that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be more effective in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be more freely emplo}' ed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters (singly or repeated), tiring, or setoning. SPRAINS OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS AND OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR THEIR SHEATH. The fibrous structure situated behind the cannon bones, both in the fore and hind legs, is often the seat of lacerations or sprains resulting from violent efforts or sudden jerks. Cause. — The injury'ma}'^ be considered serious or trifling, according to the circumstances of each case as judged by its own histor3^ Among the predisposing causes are a long thin fetlock and a narrow knee or hock as viewed from the side, with the flexor muscles tied in just below the joint. The longer and more oblique the pastern the greater is the strain on the flexor tendons and suspensory ligaments, hence a low quarter, a toe calk, and no heel calks, or a thin calk placed at the tip under the toe, and leaving the quarters long abnormally stretches the back tendons and causes a great strain upon them just before the weight is shifted from the foot in locomotion. In runners and hunters the disease is apt to be periodic. In driving horses it is most common in well-bred animals of nervous temperament. Draft horses suffer most frequently in the hind legs. Symptoms. — The injur}- is readil}- recognized b}^ the changed aspect 346 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDU8TKY. of the region and the aceompanying local s^'mptoms. The parts, which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the tendons and ligaments well marked, become the seat of a swelling, more or less developed, from a small spot on the middle of the back of the tendon to a tumefaction reaching from the knee down to and even invohing the fetlock itself. It is always 'characterized b}' heat, and it is vari- ousl}' sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of the lameness varies, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, sometimes showing only a slight halting and at others the extreme of lameness on three legs, with intermediate degrees. The lameness is always worse when the weight is thrown on the foot, and is most marked toward the end of the phase of contact with the ground. Either passive irritation of the leg or turning the animal in a circle causes pain as in diseases of the joints. Sometimes the horse likes to get the heels on a stone or some elevation so as to relieve the weight from the flexor tendons. Finally, in cases of long standing, a shortening of the tendons occurs, resulting in the abnormal flexion of the foot known by horsemen as ''broken down,"' or a more upright position of the foot may follow, producing perhaps knuckling or the so-called club foot. Prognosis. — It may be safeh' assumed on general principles that a leg which has received such injuries very seldom returns to a perfect condition of efficiency and soundness, and that as a fact a certain abso- lute amount of thickening and deformity will remain permanent, even when the lameness has entirely disappeared. Treatment. — The injured member should receive the earliest attention possible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present, but when it is subsiding and there is onlv the thickening of the ligaments, the tendons, or the sheath. The most important remedy is rest, and the shoes should always be removed. During the first three days cold in the form of immersion or continuous irrigation is indicated. Then warm moisture and con- tinuous pressure are advised. The latter is best applied by placing two padded splints about the thickness of the thumb along the two .sides of the tendon and binding them in place with even pressure by bandage. Frequent bathing with warm soap suds is also l)eneficial. The absorp- tion of the exudate may be promoted and the work of restoration effected by frictions with alcohol, tincture of soap, spirits of camphor, mild liniments, strong sweating liniments, and blisters. An excellent ointment to apply with massage consists of equal parts of blue oint- ment and green soap, with double the quantity of vaseline. The action of blisters in these cases depends chiefly upon the massage used in applying them and upon the continuous pressure of the swollen skin on the inflamed tendons. In old cases more beneficial results will fol- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 347 low line firing'. In these cases shoeing- is veiy important. Leave the quarters long, shorten the toe, give the shoe rolling motion, and either put short heel calks on the branches or thicken the branches. Although this line of treatment is efficacious in many cases, there are others in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to yield and the changed tissues remain firml}^ organized, leaving them in the form of a thick mass resting upon the back part of the cannon bone. KXrCKLIXG OF FETLOCK. As a consequence of the last-mentioned lesion of the tendons a new condition presents itself in the articular disposition, constituting the deformity known as the hnucMing fetlocl-. By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the nat- ural angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articu- lation. The lirst pastern or suffraginis loses its oblique direction and assumes another, which varies from the upright to the oblique, from before backwards, and from above downwards; in other words, form- ing an angle with its apex in front. Causes. — This condition, as we have seen, may 1)6 the result of chronic disease producing structural changes in the tendons, and it maj" also occur as the result of other affections or some peculiarity independent of this and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones, sidebones, or traumatic disease of the foot proper. Animals are sometimes predisposed to knuckling, such, for example, as are natur- ally straight in their pasterns, or animals which are compelled to labor when too j^oung. The hind legs are more predisposed than the fore to this deformitv, in consequence of the greater amount of labor they are required to perform as the propelling levers of the body. Symptoms. — The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized. The changes in the direction of the bones vary more or less with the degree of the lesion, sometimes assuming such a direction that it almost becomes a true dislocation of the pastern. The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according- to the degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening of the leg affect the motion of the fetlock the lameness may be very slight or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is such a change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come in contact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the final result of this is soon witnessed in the development of a ciuhfoot. Treatment. — To whatever cause the knuckling ma}^ be ascribed it is always a severe infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to overcome it unless it be during the very first stages of the trouble, and the hope dwindles to still smaller dimensions when it is secondary to other diseases below the fetlock. If it is caused b}^ overworking the animal, the first indication will, of course, be rest. Line firing has 348 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. proved vcr}- efficacious in these cases. The animal must be turned loose and left unemployed. Careful attention should be given to the condition of his feet and to the manner of shoeing, while time is allowed for the tendons to become restored to their normal state and the irritation caused by excessive stretching has subsided. A shoe with a thick heel will contribute to this. But if no improvement can be obtained and the tendons though retracted have yet been relieved of much of their thickening, the case is not a desperate one, and may yet be benefited by the operation of tenotomy, single or double — an operative expedient which must be committed to the experienced sur- geon for its performance. SPRUN'G KNEES. Though not positively the result of diseases of the tendons acting upon the knees, we venture to consider tliis deformity in connection with that which we have just described. It consists in such an alter- ation in the' direction and articulation of the bones which form the various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from the lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone thej^ are so united that the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition due to the retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon bone is flexed. Cause. — This flexion of the knee may be a congenital deformity and have continued from the foaling of the animal; or, like clubfoot, it may be the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled to perform at too early an age. It may also be due to other diseases existing in parts below the kneejoint. SyiJiptonis. — This change of direction largely influences the move- ment of the animal by detracting from its firmness and practically weakening the entire frame, even to the extent of rendering him inse- cure on his feet and liable to fall. This condition of weakness is some- times so pronounced that he is exposed to fall even when standing at rest and unmolested, the knees being unable even to bear the portion of the aiere weight of the frame which belongs to them. This results in another trouble — that of being unable to keep permanently upright. He is apt to fall on his knees, and by this act becomes presently a sufferer from the lesion known by the term of hrol'en knees. Treatment. — Whatever may be the originating cause of this imper- fection, it detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him for service under the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his rider. If, however, the trouble is known from the start, and is not the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the kneejoint, or secondary to other diseases, rest, with fortifying frictions, may some- times aid in strengthening the joints; and the application of blisters DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 349 on the posterior part of the knee, from a short distance above to a point a little below the joint, may be followed by some satisfactory results; but with this trouble, as with knuckling fetlocks, the danger of relapse must be kept in mind as a contingency always liable to occur. This lesion is the bulging backward of the posterior part of the hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, extend- ing from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fetlock. Cause. — The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on the posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong ligament situated on the posterior border of the os caJcis. Hocks of a certain conformation seem to possess a greater liability to curb than others. They are overbent, coarse, and thick in appear- ance, or ma}'^ be too narrow from front to back across the lower por- tion. This condition may therefore result as a sequence to congeni- tal malformation, as in the case of horses that are saber-legged. It often occurs, also, as the result of violent etforts, of heavy pulling, of high jumping, or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of the causes heretofore considered as instrumental in producing lacerations of muscular, tendinous, or ligamentous structure. Symjytoms. — A. hock afi'ected with curb will, at the outset, present a swelling more or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying degrees of heat and soreness, and these will be accompanied by lame- ness of a permanent character. At a later period, however, the swell- ing will become better defined, the deformity more characteristic, the prominent curved line readil}'^ detected, and the thickness of the infil- trated tissue easilj^ determined by the fingers. At this time, also, there ma}^ be a condition of lameness, varying in degree, while at others, again, the irregularity of action at the hock will be so slight as to escape detection, the animal betraying no appearance of its existence. A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an "unsound- ness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. And 3^et the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, since it gen- erall}" yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the bulging will always constitute a blemish. Treatment. — On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits the signs of an acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue this by the use of cold applications as intermittent or constant irrigation or an ice poultice; but when these have exhausted their effect and the swelling has assumed better defined boundaries, and the infiltration of the tendons or of the ligaments is all that remains of a morbid state, then every effort must be directed to the object of effecting its absorption 350 liUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. and reducing its dimensions l)y pressure and other methods. The medieaments most to be trusted are blisters of canthurides and frictions with ointments of iodine, or, preferably. })iniodide of mercury. Mer- curial agents alone, by their therapeutic properties or b}' means of the artificial bandages which they furnish ))}- tlicir incrustations when their vesicator}' effects are exhausted, will give good results in some instances b}' a single application, and often bj' repeated applications. The use of the firing iron must, however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness or to stimulate the absorption. We believe that its early a|)plication ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation is firmly organized. Firing in dull points or in lines will prove as beneficial in curb as in an}' other disease of a similar nature LACEIt.VTEB TENDONS. This form of injurv, whether of a simple or of a compound character, mux become a lesion of a very serious nature, and will usually require long and careful treatment, which may yet prove unavailing in conse- quence either of the intrinsically fatal character of the wound itself or the complications which have rendered it incurable. Cause. — Like all similar injuries, these are the result of traumatic violence, such as contact with objects both blunt and sharp; a curb- stone in the city; in the countr}-, a tree stump or a fence, especially one of wire. It may easilj" occur to a runawaj' horse when he is "whipped"- with fragments of harness or "flogged" by fragments of splintered shafts ''thrashing" his legs, or bj^ the contact of his legs with the wagon he has overturned and shattered with his heels while disengaging himself from its wreck. Symptoms. — It is not always necessary that the skin should be involved in this form of injury. On the contrary, the tegument is frequently left entirely intact, especially when the injury follows infec- tious diseases or occurs during light exercise after long periods of rest in the stable. Yet, again, the skin may be cut through and the ten- dons nearl}^ severed. A point a little above the fetlock is usually the seat of the injury. But irrespective of this, and whether the skin is or is not implicated, the symptoms ver}^ much resemble those of a fracture. There is excessive mobility, at least more than in a normal state, with more or less inability to carry weight. There ma}' be swelling of the parts, and on passing the hands carefull}^ along the tendon to the point of division the stumps of the divided structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps wholly divided. The position of the animal while at rest and standing is peculiar and characteristic. While the heels are well placed on the ground, the toe is correspond- ingly elevated, with a tendency to turn up — a form of breaking down which was described when speaking of the fracture of the sesa- moids. Carrying weight is done onh' with considerable difficulty, but DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 851 with comparative!}^ little pain, and the animal will unconsciously con- tinue to move the leg as if in great suffering, notwithstanding the fact that hi§ general condition may be very good and his appetite unimpaired. The effect upon the general organism of compound lacerated wounds of tendinous structures, or those which are associated with injuries of the skin, are different. The wound becomes in a short time the seat of a high degree of inflammation with abundant suppuration, filling it from the bottom; and the tendon, whether as the result of the bruise or of the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated pus, under- goes a process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing ensue. This complicates the case, and probably some form of tendinous synovitis follows, running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if close to a joint, with a fatal result. Prognosis. — The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be ver}^ con- servative. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from six weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before the formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm union between the tendinous stumps. Treatment. — As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the necessity is imperative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to secure as perfect a state of immobilitj^ as can be obtained compatibly with the disposition of the patient; the natural opposition of the animal, some- times ill-tempered and fractious at best, under the necessarj^ restraint, causing at times much embarrassment to the practitioner in applving the necessarj" treatment. Without the necessary immobility no close connection of the ends of the tendons can be secured. To fulfill this necessary condition the posterior part of the foot and the fetlock must be supported and the traction performed b}^ them relieved, an object which can be obtained by the use of the high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly better accomplished with a shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 2i inches back of the heels. The perfect immobilit}^ of the legs is obtained in the same wa}^ as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, bandages, iron apparatus, plasters of adhesive mixtures, and similar means. So long as the dressings remain in place undisturbed, and no chafing or other evidence of pain is present, the dressings ma}^ be continued without changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a period sufficient to insure the perfect union of the tendons. But for a compound lesion, when there is laceration of the skin, some spe- cial care is necessary. The wound must be carefulh' watched and the dressings removed at intervals of a few daj^s, or as often as may be needful, all of which additional manipulation and extra nursing, how- ever indispensable, still adds to the gravity of the case and renders the prognosis more and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed in threads of various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of 352 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. mortification health}' gfi'^nulations .should form and fill up the wound, still ver}' careful attention will be required, the g-ranulating ends of the tendons having a tendenc}- to bulge between the edges of the skin and to assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a wart}' or cauliflower appearance, the removal of which becomes a troublesome matter. The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of varying degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which becomes an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but which may be promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alterative and absorb- ent mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with heels somewhat higher than usual will prove a comfort to the animal and aid in mod- erating and relieving the tension of the tendons. KCPTURE OF THE FLEXOR METATARSI. This is a muscle of the anterior part of the shank. It is situated in front of the tibia, and is of peculiar formation, being composed of a muscular portion with a very powerful tendon, which are at first dis- tinct and separate, to be intimately united lower down, and terminat- ing at the lower end by a division into four tendinous bands. It is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, and also acts as a strong means of support for the stifle joint, that is, of the articulation of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of which it passes. Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe stretching and strain- ing, and a rupture of some of its fibers is sometimes the consequence. Caitse. — This injury may be the result of a violent effort of the ani- mal in leaping over a high obstacle; in missing his foothold and sud- denly slipping backward while powerfully grasping the ground with the feet in striving to start a heavily loaded vehicle; or in making a violent eflort to prevent a probable fall; or in attempting to lift the feet from miry ground. S(/mj.)tonis. — The accident is immediately followed by disability which will vary according to the true seat of the injury and the period of its duration. This rupture will not prevent the horse from stand- ing perfectly and firmly on his feet when kept at rest, and while no muscular efforts are required from him there is no appearance of any lesion or unsoundness. An attempt to move him backwards, however, will cause him to throw all his weight upon his hind quarters, and he Avill refuse to raise his foot from the ground. If compelled to do so, or required to move forward, the hock being no longer capable of flexion, the muscle which effects that movement being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the extensors, acting freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock down, will be suddenly, with a jerk, extended on the tibia or shank bone, and simultaneously with this the tendo-Achillis, the cord of the hock, the tendons of the exten- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 35S' sors of the hock will be put in a wrinkled and relaxed condition. The leg is behind the animal and the toe rests on the ground. Examina- tion of the fore part of the shank from the stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some swelling- and heat at the seat; of the lesion. Treatineiit. — Our experience with injuries of this form satisfies us- that, generally speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Very few instances have come to our knowledge in which radical recovery has not been obtained, provided a sufficient time has been allowed for union to take place. The more flexed the leg can be kept, the quicker will it heal. In these cases, as in those alread}^ considered of simple laceration of tendons, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment, of fractures; as near a coaptation of the lacerated ends as possible,, with immobility, being the necessary conditions to secure. The first is a matter of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and some have recommended instead the application of charges or blisters in order to compel the animal to keep more quiet. " To secure the necessary immobilitj^ the animal should be placed in' slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be tied short, and restrained from any backward movement bj^ ropes or boards, and he should moreover be kept in as quiet a temper as pos- sible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks-- must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight,, before he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his- labor, which should for a time be light and easy, and gradually, if ever, increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong ani- mal. If he is used too soon the newly formed tissue between the ends- of the muscle will be apt to stretch and leave the flexor muscle toa long and permanently displaced. SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. Among these there are three which will principally occupy our atten- tion, and these may be considered as forming a single group. In some- parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures of a sac-like formation, containing an oil_y substance designed for the lubri- cation of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose of facilitating the movements of the tendons which pass over them. These little sacs or muco-synovial capsules are liable under peculiar conditions of traumatism to become subject to a diseased process,, which consists principally in a hyper-secretion of their contents and' an increase in dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar pathological changes of such a character as to disable an animal, and in many instances to cause serious blemishes which can not but depreciate his value. These growths, which are known as hygromata, may result 14384—03 23 354 IJUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDU3TKY. from external violence, as l>lows or l)ruises, and maj' appear in the form of small, soft tumors, painless and not intiammator}- in character, but, by a repetition of the cause or renewal of violence, likely to acquire increased severity. Severe intlammation, with suppuration, may follow, which, iilling up the cavity, the walls will become thick- ened and hard, resulting- in the formation of a tumor. The elbow, the knee, and the hock aie the parts of the body where these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their peculiar shape and the position they occupy they have received the denomina- tion of '^ capped.^'' They will be considered in their peculiar aspect. CAPPED ELUOW. Capped elbow, or "shoe lx)il," is a term applied to an enlargement often found at the point of the elbow. Cause, — This lesion is due to injury or pressure of the part while it is resting on the ground. The horse, unlike the cow, does not rest directly on the under surface of the sternum or breastbone on account of its sharp ridge-like formation. He rests more on the side of the breastbone and chest and consequently the leg which is flexed under the body is subject to considerable pressure. If the leg is flexed under the body so that the hoof or shoe is directly in contact with the elbow, which may occur in horses having an extremely long cannon bone or excessive length in the shoes, the greater part of the weight of the chest is concentrated at this point and the pressure may cause a bruise or an inflammation. Symptoms. — Under these conditions the point of the elbow ma}' become swollen and tender and exhibit heat and pain. This swelling may not only cover the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaches the axilla and assumes such proportions that there is great difficulty in using the leg, the animal showing signs of lameness even to the extent of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This edematous condition, however, does not remain stationary. It may b}^ degrees subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become more distincth' defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is reduced to a soft, round, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or pain. There is then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent collection, and following the puncture of its walls with the knife there will be an escape of blood, of serum, or of pus, as the case ma}' be, in variable quantities. In either case, but principally in that of the C3'stic form, the tumor will be found to be subdivided b}' septa, or bands running in various directions. Various changes will follow the opening of the tumor and the esca.pe of its contents. In a majority of cases the process of cica- trization will take place, and the cavit}' fill up by granulation, the discharge, at first a))uiidant, graduall}^ diminishing and the wound DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 355 closing. usiiall_y without leaviug- anj" mark. At times, however, and especiallj^ if the disease has several times repeated its course, there may remain a pendulous sac, partly- obliterated, which a sufficient amount of excitement or irritation ma}' soon restore to its previous dimensions and condition. In other cases an entirely different process takes place. The walls of the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the granulations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and fill up the cavit}', and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back of the elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the skin. It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined in its contour, and may vary in size from that of a small apple to that of a child's head. This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only. The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large edematous swelling which interferes with the work of the animal, may justify a much milder prognosis, and, aside from their liability to recur, may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections. Treatment. — So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal bad feature of capped elbow the most important consideration is that of devising a means for its prevention. To prevent the animal from h'ing down is evidently the simplest method of keeping the heels and the elbow apart; but the impracticabilit}- of this prescription is apparent, since a majority of animals are obliged to lie dowii when they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on their feet. The ques- tion of shoeing here enters into the discussion. The shortening of the inside branch of the shoe, which is the one with which the pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the truncated end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possibility of pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the skin of the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, or by bandaging the heel with bags or covering it with boots, is considered by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage to be secured by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number of horses which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is intermitted is con- sidered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening a piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall or manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive, perhaps, but nevertheless practical and followed by good results. The therapeutic treatment is also important. The edematous swell- ing, when recognized by its external appearance and the existmg inflammation, should be treated without delay. Warm fomentations, repeated several times daily, are then indicated, the degree of warmth 35(3 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. being as high as can be borne comfortal)h'. The}" are easih' applied and often yield decided relief in a few hours. In some cases, however, astringents are used in preference, in the form of poultices or pastes, which are made to cover the entire swelling and allowed to remain, drying after a short time, it is true, and perhaps falling ofl", but easily renewed and reapplied. An excellent astringent for these cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar (acetate of lime), and the whole swelling is then covered with a thick coating of soft clay made into a mass with water. These simple remedies are often all that is rec^uired. Under their use the swelling passes off by degrees and after a short interval the animal is fit for work again; but not uncommonly, instead of this a swelling develops, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a sensation of crepitation when pressure is applied with the finger. It is soft and evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened, with a good- sized incision, discharges a certain amount of blood, partly liquid and parth^ coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow. The cavity should then be well washed out and a plug of oakum intro- duced, leaving a small portion protruding through the cut to prevent it from closing prematurely. It may be taken off the next daj-, and a daily cleansing will then be all that is necessar}'. In another case the tumor becomes very soft in its whole extent, with evident fluctua- tion and a well-defined form. The discharge of the fluid is then indi- cated, and a free incision will be followed by the escape of a quantity of thin, 3"ellowish liquid from a single sac. The wound should be kept clean and dressed frequently in order to insure prompt healing. But if the cavitj^ is found to be subdivided in its interior by numerous bands, and the cyst proves to be multilocular, the partitions should be torn out with the fingers, and the cavity then treated in the same manner as the unilocular sac. In still another case the swelling may be warm and painful with indistinct fluctuation, or fluctuation onl}' at a certain point. This indicates an abscess, and necessitates an incision to drain the pus, followed by the careful cleansing and dressing of the wound. But cases occur in which all the treatment that has been described fails to effect a full recover}^, and instead a fil)rous tumor begins to develop. A change of treatment is, of course, then in order. The inflammation being chronic will necessitate stimidating treatment of the part in order to increase the process of absorption. We must again draw upon the resources of experience in the form of blisters, the fomentations, the iodine, and the mercurial ointments as hereto- fore mentioned. Good results may always be insured from their judicious and timel}' administration. In applying the powerful min- eral inunctions much patience and wisdom are required. It should be done b}^ carefully and perse veringly rubbing in small quantities daily; DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 357 it should be done softly and gentl}^, not with force of arms, nor with the expectation of producing an astonishing effect by heavy dosing and main strength in a few hours; it should be after the manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The object is to induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the entire mass is penetrated. Of course, cases will be encountered which resist all forms of medical treatment. The tumor remains as a fixed fact; it continues to grow; it is large and pendulous at the elbow; its weight is estimated in pounds; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfortable, burden- some mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and being itself excoriated in turn; mild treatment has failed and is no longer to be relied on. Resort must now be made to surgical methods, and here again we must choose between the ligature, the cautery, and the knife. Each has its advocates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one of the difficulties arises in connection with the application and retention of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been per- formed. It is a somewhat ditScult problem, owing to the conformation and proportions of the body of the patient, and involves the exercise of a consideraljle amount of practical ingenuity to adjust and retain the appliances necessary to insure a good final result. In the long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped elbow I have thus far omitted any mention of one method which is practiced and commended by not a few. I refer to the use of setons, introduced through the tumor. My OTyn experience and the observa- tion of many failures from this method led me to abandon it. CAPPED KNEE. The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of the cannon, as it glides in front of the knee joint, is assisted by one of the little bursas before mentioned, and when this becomes the seat of a dropsical col- lection a hj^groma is formed and the knee is " capped." Though some- what analogous in its history to the capped elbow, there are points of difference between them. Their development may prove a source of great annoyance from the fact of the blemish which they constitute. Cause. — The capped knee presents itself under various conditions. It is sometimes the result of a bruise or contusion, often repeated, inflicted upon himself by a horse addicted to the habit of pawing while in the stable and striking the front of the stall with his knees. Another class of patients is formed of those weak-kneed animals which are sub- ject to falling and l)ruising the front of the joint against the ground, the results not being alwaj's of the same character. Symptoms. — The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a severe contusion with swelling, edema, heat, and pain. The joint becomes so stiff and rigid that it interferes with locomotion and yet under careful simple treatment the trouble may disappear. 358 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Or, aijain, instead of altogether passing- off, the edema may diminish in extent, becoming more defined in form and remain as a swelling on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the crushing of small blood vessels, this is necessarily full of blood. The swelling is some- what soft, diffuse, not painful, more or less fluctuating, and after a few days becomes crepitant under the pressure of the hand. Instead of being filled with blood the swelling may l)e full of serum, as often occurs when violence, though perhaps slight, has been fre- quently repeated. In that case the swelling is generalh' well defined, soft, and painless, with more or less fluctuation, and it may even become pendulous. In other cases the swelling may be of an acute inflammatory nature with heat and pain, accompanied by stiffness of the joint. This leads to the formation of an abscess. Whatever the nature of these swellings may be, either full of blood, serum, or pus, some blemish usually remains after treatment. Pt'ogiiosis. — Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive lesions are usually of trifling account, a different prognosis must be pronounced when the lesion assumes niQre important dimensions; and though a capped knee may be comparatively an affair of little impor- tance we have seen cases where not only extensive blemishes were left to disfigure the patient, but where the animals had become worthless in consequence of the extension of the diseased process to the various elements of structure composing the joint, and giving rise to the most complicated cases of carpitis. Treatment. — Usually the finst symptoms of trouble is the edematous swelling on the front of the "knee." The prevention of the inflam- mation, and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object in view, and it may be realized h\ the use of warm water fomentations or com- presses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in a simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract, alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if the abscess is in process of formation, by the active excretion of pus. If an abscess forms in spite of these precautions it may be treated surgically in several ways. In one it should be done b}' a careful incision, which will allow the escape of the blood or the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in the sac; in another it may be b}- means of a seton, in order that the discharge may be maintained and allowed to escape; and for another the more cautious mode ma}' be adopted of emptying the cavity b}' means of punctures with small trochars or aspirators. The danger attending this last method arises from the possible sloughing of large portions of the skin, while that attending the first is the hazard of the DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 359 possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the capsular liga- ment of the knee, with the possibilit}^ of an open joint in prospect. As we have remarked, the cavity, after being emptied, may rapidly close and leave in a sliort time but slight traces of its previous exist- ence. But in many, if not in a majority, of cases there will remain after the cicatrization is complete a thickening or organized exuda- tion, at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a diffused infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate attention, from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and permanent body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased structure blisters are recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promoting the process of absorption. If this treatment fails the use of iodine and mercurial preparations is recommended. Plain mercurial or plain iodine ointment, or both in combination as iodide of mercury, are commonl}^ used, and may either be applied moderately and by gentle degrees, as we have suggested, or more freely and vigorously with a view to more immediate effects, which, however, will also be more superficial. The use of the firing iron applied deeply with fine points is then to be strongl}- recommended, to be followed by blisters and various liniments. This course may gen- erally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by satisfactory results. While the treatment is in progress it will, of course, be necessary to secure the animal in such a manner that a recurrence of the injury will be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously responsible. CAPPED HOCK. A bad habit prevails among some horses of rubbing or striking the partitions of their stalls with their hocks, with the result of an injuiy which shows itself on the upper point of that bone, the summit of the 08 calcis. From its analogy to the condition of capped elbow the designation of capped hock has been applied to this condition. Symj>toms. — A capped hock is therefore but the development of a bruise at the point of the hock, Avhich if many times repeated may excite an inflammatory process, with all its usual external symptoms of swelling, heat, soreness, and the rest of the now familiar phenomena. The swelling is at first diffused, extending more or less on the exterior part of the hock, and in a few instances running up along the tendons and muscles of the back of the shank. Soon, however, unless the irri- tating causes are continued and repeated, the edema diminishes, and, becoming more defined in its external outlines, leaves the hock capped with a hj^groma. The hj^groma, at the ver}- beginning of the trouble, contains a bloody serosity which soon becomes strictly serum, and this, through the influence of an acute inflammator}^ action, is liable to 360 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. undergo a change which converts it into the usual purulent product of suppuration. The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the diagnosis, but there arc a few signs which ma.y contribute toward a nicer identitication of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under the a])pearance of an acute edematous swelling, or as a bloody serous col- lection, or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remark- able local manifestation other than such as have already passed under our survey in considering similar cases, nor will it be likel}' to inter- fere with the functions which belong to the member in question, unless it assumes very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as well as on the summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite high, if suppuration is developing, if there is a true abscess, or — and this is a common complication — especiall}' when the kicking or rub- bing of the animal is frequentl}^ recurring, then, besides the local trouble of the cyst or of the abscess, the bones become diseased and the periosteum inflamed; perhaps the superior ends of the bone and its fibro-cartilage become affected, and a simple lesion or bruise, whatever it may have been, becomes complicated with periostitis and ostitis, and is naturally accompanied with lameness, developed in a greater or less degree, which in some cases may be permanent and in others increased by work. But these complications are not common or frequent. Treatment. — Capped hocks are in many cases amenable to treatment, and yet they often become the opprobrium of the practitioner by remaining, as they frequently do, an e3"esore on the top of the hock; not interfering, it is true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon him the stigma of what, in human estimation, and especially in that of the tribe of ''practical politicians," is a most unreliable and objection- able reputation, to wit, that of being an habitual "kicker," and, worse than all, one that kicks where he receives his provender. The maxim that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" fits the present case very neatl3^ A horse whose hocks have a some- what puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of his addictedness to this bad habit. But he may easily be either convicted or exonerated— a little watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict is one of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted against a continuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the stall with straw mats or mattresses and covering the posts with similar material, in such a manner that no hard surface shall be exposed with which to come in contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. He may jar his frame when he kicks, but even then there will be less force in the concussion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and cuts and abrasions can not be inflicted by a properl}' made cushion. Hobbles are also rightly recommended with a view to the required DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 361 restraint of motion, so applied as to secure the leg with which the kicking is performed, or even both hind legs, in such a manner as shall not interfere with the movements of lying down and rising again and 3'et preventing that of kicking backward. Boots similar in jDattern to those which are us^d for the prevention of shoe boil are also prescribed. These are placed above the hock and retained by straps tightly fastened. But we apprehend that the difficulty of retaining them in the proper place without the danger of chafing from the tightness of the straps might form an objection to their use. Notwithstanding all precautions, hocks will be capped in the future as in the past, and the studj^ of their treatment will alwa3's be in order. The mode of dealing with them will, of course, be greatl}' influenced by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is excessive and the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the application of warm water will be very beneficial. The leg should be well fomented several times a da}^, for from fifteen to twenty minutes each time, a strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to the water, and after each application swathed with flannel bandages soaked in the same warm mixture. A few days of this treatment will usually effect a resolution of the inflammation, if not complete, at least sufliciently so to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and exhibit its peculiar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its removal and the method of accomplishing it are then to be considered, with the question of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the fluid is of a purulent character the indication is in favor of its imme- diate discharge — no time should be lost, and it should be by means of a small opening made with a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid is a serosity, we prefer to remove it by punctures with a very small trochar. Our reason for special caution in these cases is our fear of the possibility of the existence of diseased conditions of a severe character in the pseudo-joint. For the same reason we prefer the treatment of those growths by external applications. In the first stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister, such as the cantharidate of collodium, entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not j^et completely formed, when the inflammation has subsided, will be of great benefit by its stimulating effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure which when dry it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the thickening of the growth fails to diminish, it should be treated with some of the iodine preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in combination with potassium, mercury, etc., of various strengths and in various proportions. My opinion of setons is not favorable, but the actual cautery, by deep and fine firing, in points — needle cauteri- zation— I believe to be the best mode of treatment, and especially when applied earh^, A \evy satisfactory way to treat these cases is to burst the swelling 362 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. by pressure from without. A strap or strong linen bandage is placed about the hock pressing on the bursa while the affected leg is on the ground, the other hind foot being lifted up. When the bandage is in place release the leg and the horse will violently flex the bandaged limb and produce pressure on the bur.^a with consequent bursting and discharging of its contents. Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience must be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow and the skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condition, if effected at all, will only take place after weeks added to other weeks of medical treatment and patient waiting. IXTERFEraXG AXB SPEEDY CUTS. These designations belong to certain special injuries of the extremi-. ties, produced by similar causes, giving rise to kindred pathological lesions with allied phenomena, requiring about the same treatment and often followed by the same results, to wit, a blemish which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of unsoundness, but in some special circumstances interfere with his abilit}'^ to labor. It is known as "interfering" when the location of the trouble is the inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is called " speedy cut" when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon. It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity, and giving rise to various lesions. Symptoms. — At times the injury is too slight to be seriously noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. At other times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholl}-, and it ma}' for the time cause a sufficient amount of pain to check the motion of the animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability to use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will become much swol- len, hot, and so painful to the touch that the motion of the knee or the fetlock will be suflicicntly disturbed to cause lameness of a degree of severity corresponding with that of the lesion. Following the subsid- ence of this diff'used and edematous swelling is sometimes the forma- tion of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock. This may be soft at first or become so by degrees, with ffuctuation, its contents being at first extravasated blood, and later a serosity; or, if there has been a sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become suppurative. The result of the fault of interfering may thus be exhibited, whether at the knee or at the fetlock', as characterized by all the pathological con- ditions which have appeared as accompaniments of capped knee or capped hock. If, in consequence of the force of the blow or blows, DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 363 the inflammation has been unusuall}' severe, a mortification of the skin may become one of the consequences, a .slougli talking place, succeeded by a cutaneous ulcer on the inside of the fetlock or "svhere the greater number of the original wounds are inflicted. If the interfering has been often repeated it may be followed b}^ another condition, which has been considered in our remarks upon other affections. It is a plastic exudation or thickening of the parts, which are commonly said to have become "callous," and the effect of it is to destroy the regu- larity of the outlines of the joint to an extent which constitutes a serious blemish, which will be permanent, and according to the degree of the aberration from the natural and symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the commercial value of the animal. An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms which, from the simplest form of a mere " touching," may successively assume the serious characters of an ugl}^ cicatrix, a hard, plastic swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis with its sequelae. If a single and constantly recurring cause — a blow — be the starting point in interfering, we ma}-^ now consider the subject of the predispo- sition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal, and the conditions which lead to and accompanj^ it. These are numerous, but the tirst in frequency' and importance is peculiarit}- of conformation in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include horses whose chests are narrow and whose legs do not stand straight and upright, but are crooked and pigeon-toed in and out. The second class includes those whose legs are weak, either from 3'outh or hard labor, or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up of those having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly shod with unnecessaril}' wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists of those that are affected with swoUen fetlocks or chronic edematous swelling of the leg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar action, as those whose knee action is ver}^ high, and it is these that furnish most of the cases of speedy cut. Prognosis. — The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious one. However violent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent complications of a troublesome nature occur. The principal evil attending it is a liability' to be followed by a thickened or callous deposit wdiich is not only an eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a new and increased predisposition. The remark that "an animal wdiich has interfered once is alwa3's liable to interfere," is often con- firmed and sanctioned by a recurrence of the trouble. Treatment. — Another point in w^hich there is a resemblance between this lesion and others which we have considered is in its responsiveness to the same treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of warm 364 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. fomentations, .soothinj^ applications, and astringent and resolvent mix- tures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through the list. If the swelling- assumes the character of a serous collection, pressure, cold water, and bandages will contribute to its removal. If suppura- tion seems to be established, and the swelling assumes the character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of boiled vegetables and the embrocations of sedative ointments, those of basilicon, or vaseline, impregnated with preparations of opium or belladonna — all these recommend themselves b}^ their general adap- tation and the beneficial results which have followed their admin- istration, not less in one case than in another. When an abscess has formed and is fluctuating, it should be carefullj^ but tuWy opened to evacuate the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is necessarj^ in emptying it, and the possibilitj' of the extension of the inflammation to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations, or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there remains in either case a plastic exudation and a tendency to the callous organi- ;5ation that may yet exist, blisters under their various forms, including those of cantharides, of mercur}^, and of iodine are then indicated, principalh" in the early stages, as it is then that their effects wnll prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cauter}^, with fine points, penetrating deeph^ throughout the enlargement, has in our hands, when employed in the very earl}^ stages of its formation, nearly always brought on a radical recover}^ with complete absorption of the thickening. 8TKIXGIIALT. This is an involuntar}^ movement of one or both hind legs, in which the foot is suddenly and spasmodically lifted from the ground much higher than it is normally carried, with excessi^'c flexion of one bone upon the other. This peculiarity is usuallj^ prominent, although it ma}^ disappear with work, only to reappear after a short rest. Some- times it is most apparent at a trot, sometimes at a walk, and other times only when turned around; or it may not be affected bj' the gait of the horse. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age, 3'oung and old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are some- times very slight. It has been noticed as occurring to an aninal when backing out of his stalde and ceasing immediately after. In some animals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the affected leg, and it is not noticed when he moves straight forward. That this peculiar action interferes with facility of locomotion and detracts from a horse's claim to soundness can not for a moment be denied. Cause. — Veterinarians and pathologists arc 3'ct in doul)t in respect to DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 365 the cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature. AVhether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative character; whether it springs from a malformation; whether it is a shortening of the liga- ments, a chronic inflammation of the sciatic nerve, or a disease of the spinal cord; whether it is purely a muscular or purely a nervous lesion, or a compound of both — it still continues, if an etiologist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of his special studies, to be his opprobrium and his puzzle. Treatment. — When there is a known or suspected cause the treat- ment should be directed toward this factor. If due to local inflamma- tion of the hock or foot, only this local lesion should be treated. If it remains after the local lesion has healed, or if we have no assignable cause, the best results have followed the sectioning of the lateral extensor of the foot. A competent veterinarian alone should under- take this operation. THROMBOSIS. There are certain forms of lameness which are ver}^ peculiar in their manifestation, and'which to the nonprofessional mind must appear to belong to the domain of mystery or theory instead of occupying a well- established position among the subjects of equine pathology. Yet they are no less susceptible of actual demonstration and of positive com- prehension than many facts which, plain and familiar to the general understanding now, were once ranked among things occult and unsearchable. A thrombus, considered as a cause of lameness, may find a place among these understood mysteries. Cause. — Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the blood vessels, and also in aneurisms, clots of blood are sometimes formed in the arteries and find their way in the general circulation. At first, while very small, or sufficiently so to pass from one vessel to another, the}^ move from a small vessel to a larger, and from that to one still larger, constanth^ increasing in size until at some given point, from their inability to enter smaller vessels, their movement is finally arrested. The arter}^ is thus effectuall}^ dammed, and the clot in a short time cuts off completely the supply of blood from the parts bej^ond. This is thrombosis, and it often gives rise to sudden and excessive lameness of a ver}^ painful character. Symptoms. — Thrombi may form in any of the arteries of the bod}^, and doubtless have been the cause of many cases of lameness which could never be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their diagnosis will probably fail to be made out with certainty, but when situated in the larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may be excited. In some cases they may even be recognized with positive accuracy, as when the vessels which supply the posterior extremities are affected by the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its ramifications. The existence of thrombosis of the arteries of the hind leg may 366 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. always be suspected when the following history is known: The gen- eral health of the animal is good, but symptoms of lameness in one of the legs have been developed, becoming more marked as he is worked, and especially when driven at a fast gait. But the disturbance is not per- manent, and the lameness disappears almost immediately upon his being permitted to rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, however, and, though he may walk normally, he will, when made to trot, ver}^ soon begin to slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble, and if urged to increase his speed will become lamer and lamer; an aV)andant perspiration will break out; he will refuse to go, and if forced he shows weakness behind, seems ready to fall, and perhaps does fall. While on his feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up and down, and is kept from the ground as if the contact was too painful to bear. If undisturbed this series of sjmiptoms will gradually subside, some- times very soon, and occasionally after a few hours he will return to an apparently perfect condition. A return to labor will lead to a renewal of the same incidents. A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of a thrombus in an artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed b}' the external symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of any other disease which might account for the lameness, and a mani- fest diminution of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity, when compared with the opposite side or with anj^ other portion of the bod}'; a sensation of cold attendant on the pain, but gradualh' subsiding as the pain subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the rest, has been reestablished throughout the extremity; all these are confirmator}^ circumstances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and absolute certainty is 3'et wanting. To establish the truth of the case the rectal exploration must be resorted to. The hands then, well prepared and carefully introduced into the rectum, must explore for the truth, first feeling for the large blood vessels which, divided at the aorta, separate to supph^ the right and left legs. These must be compared in respect to the pulsation and other particulars. The artery which is health}^ will, of course, exhibit all the proper conditions of that state. On the other hand, if the vessel appears to the feel hard, more or less cord)', and pulseless, or giving a sensation of fluttering, as of a small volume of blood with a trickling motion passing through a confined space, the difference between the sides will make the case plain. The first will be the full flow of the circulation through an unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage of the fluid between the thrombus and the coats of the arter}'. In such a case the prognosis is necessaril}' a grave one and the disease is more liable to grow^ worse than better. Treatment. — No form of treatment can be advised; and the suffering of a helpless and useless animal can onl}' be terminated by that which ends all. DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 367 Cases occur, however, where this condition of the blood vessels exists in a much less degree, and the diseased condition is not sufficiently pro- nounced for final condemnation. There may even be a possibility of the absorption of the clot, or that an increase of the collateral circula- tion may be sufficient to supply the parts with blood. In such cases spontaueous recovery ma}^ follow moderate exercise in the pasture, field, or stable, or continuous light work ma}' be given, but too much hope should not be placed in such treatment. SPRAIXS OF THE LOIN'S. This is an affection which suggests to the mind the idea of muscular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many similar cases. If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or pinching of the spine in the region of the loins, he is by many pronounced to be "lame in the loins," or "sprained in the loins," or "weak in the kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle yielding to such a pres- sure is not a pathological sign, but is normal and significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which the definition of "sprains of the loins" may apply which are not strictly normal. Cause. — The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as the psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a rheumatic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the bones of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circula- tion, may give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms. Sym2)toms. — The symptoms are characteristic of a loss of rigidity or firmness of the vertebral column, both when the animal is at rest and in action. In the former condition, or when at rest, there is an arched condition of the back and a constrained posture in standing, with the hind legs separated. In the latter there is a lateral, balancing movement at the loins, principall}^ noticeable while the animal is in the act of trotting — a peculiar motion, sometimes referred to as a "crick in the back," or what the French call a tour dehateau. If, while in action, the animal is suddenh' made to halt, the act is accom- panied with much pain, the back suddenl}- arching or bending laterally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, as if unable to per- form their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is only accom- plished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This manifestation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when a repeti- tion of the same symptoms will also occur. If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed bv a mod- erate yielding of the animal, it is, as before remarked, a good sign of health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful, and will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less, according to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even heavy harnessing, will develop this tenderness. In lying down he 368 BUKEAU UF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. seems to suffer much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with groaning, and when compelled to rise does so only with groat difficulty and seldom succeeds without repeated efforts. Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accompanied bj' this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhi})ition, with an excessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree of swell- ing, will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion; and especiall3' so if accompanied b^^ a historx' of violent efforts, powerful muscular strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with the case. But if the sj-mptoms have been of slow development and gradual increase, it becomes a more difficult task to determine whether the diagnosis points to pathological changes in the structure of the muscles or of the bones, the nervous centers, or the blood vessels of the region. And yet it is important to decide as to which particular structure is affected in reference to the question of prognosis, since the degree of the gravity of the lesion will depend largeh^ upon whether the disabled condition of the animal is due to an acute or a chronic disease. Treatment. — The prescription which will necessarih' first of all sug- gest itself for sprains of the loins is rest. An animal so affected should be immediately placed in slings and none of his efforts to release himself should be allowed to succeed. Hot compresses, cold water douches, sweating applications, stimulating frictions, strength- ening charges, blistering ointments of cantharides and the actual cau- tery, all have their advocates; but in no case can the immobility obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In man}^ cases electricity has also yielded good results, where the weakness of the hind quarters was caused bv disease of the nervous centers. • DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. By A. A. HoLcoMBE, D. V. S., Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. [Revised in 1903 by the author.] ANATOMICAL REVIEV/' OF THE FOOT. In a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to include- only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down. The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of the animal, in so far as veterinarj^ surgery is concerned, for the reason that this member is subject to so many injuries and diseases, which., in part or in whole, render the patient unfit for the labor demanded of him. The old aphorism, "no foot no horse," is as true to-day as"- when first expressed; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multi- plied uses to which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction^ of hereditary defects and tendencies, have largely transformed the-- ancient "companion of the wind" into a very common piece of machiner}^ which is often out of repair, and, at best, is but short-liv^cd. in its usefulness. Since the value of the horse depends largely, or even entirely, upon his abilit}^ to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion should be kept sound; and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only tc- know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable, but. better still, how to prevent them. An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a. knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may be involved in the diseased process; hence, first of all, the anatomical, structures must be understood. The hones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which; the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the can- non bone (the metacarpus in the fore leg, the metatarsus in the hind leg), the two sesamoids, the large pastern or suflfraginis, the small pas- tern or coronet, the coffinbone, or os pedis, and the small sesamoid.^, or navicular bone. (Plate XXXII, fig. 3.) The cannon lone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, i& cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite perpendicular. 14384—03 24 369 370 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The sesa7)u)/(7s occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three-faced P3'ramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the ^uffraginis, with the base of the pyramid down. The svffragmis is a verj'- compact bone, set in an oblicuie direction downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the coronet. The cm'Miet is a short, cube-shaped })one, set between the suffraginis and coffinbone, in the same oblique direction. The co-ffinhone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the horny box in which it is enclosed. The iiavieuhir ho7ie is short, flattened above and below, and is attached to the coffinbone behind. All of these bones are covered on the surfaces which go to make up the joints, with a cartilage of incrustation, while the portions between arc covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any inter- ference with their function yg,yj largely impairs the value of the animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to injury and disease. There are three of these joints — the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick,viscid fluid, called synovia, which is secreted by a special mem))rane inclosing the joints. The fetlock joint is made by the union of the lower end of the can- non and the upper end of the largo pastern bones, supplemented by the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the i^astern that the joint is capable of a verj- extensive motion. Those bones are held together b}' ligaments, only one of which — the suspensory — demands special mention. The susjpensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, extends down behind the cannon, lying behind the two splint bones, until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either side of the joint, downward and foi-ward, to become attached on the sides of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As it crosses the sesamoids, on the posterior borders of the fetlock, it throws out fi])ors which hold it fast to those bones. .(i*late XXXII, fig. 2.) The i^astern joint is made b}" the imion of the two pastern bones. The coffin joint is made hy tlye union of the small pastern, coffin, and small sesamoid, or navicular, bone, the latter being set behind and beneath the joint surface of the coffinbone in such a way as to receive largely the weight of the small pastern. Three tend/ms serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. Two of these flex, or bend, the joints, while the other extends, or straightens, the column of bones. (Plate XXX, fig. 5.) DISEASES OF TUE HORSE. 37 1 The flexor pedis jx^'^'foTans^ or deep flexor of the foot, passes down behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffinbone, after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is the function of this tendon to flex the coflinbone and, with it, the horny box. The flexor 2^erforatu8^ or superficial flexor of the foot, follows the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middle of the ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the fetlock. The extenmr j)edls runs dow^i in' front of the leg, is attached on the most prominent point of the coflinbono, and has for function the straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered b}' a loose connect- ive tissue, which gives a synmietry to the parts by filling up and rounding off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof. The slx'ui of the fetlock and ankle is general!}^ characterized 'by its thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most important part of this envelope is that known as the coronar}^ band. The coronary land is that portion of the skin which secretes tlie horn of which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resem- bles the nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is com- posed of cylindrical tubes, which are held together by a tenacious opaque matter. The horn extends from the coronary band to the lower border of the hoof. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) The hoof'is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and contains, besides the coflin, navicular, and part of the small pastern bones, the sensitive lamina?, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages. (Plate XXX, fig. 4.) The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped like the circumference of the foot, except that a V-shaped opening is left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin- bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall, in that its tubes are not straight and from the fact that it scales off in pieces over the whole surface. The, frog is a triangular-shaped body, divided into two equal parts by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It fills the triangular space in the sole to which it is intimatel}^ attached by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner as the sole; but it differs from both the wall and sole in that the horn is soft, moist, and clastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function of the frog to destroy shock and to prevent slipping. 372 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The sensitive laminse, are thin plates of soft tissue, covering the entire anterior surface of the coffinbone. They are present in great numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner sur face of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horn}^ tissues is made complete. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) The i^lantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue placed behind and under the navicular and cofiinbones, and resting on the sole and frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the column of bones and to destroy shock. (Plate XXIX, fig. 4.) The lateral cartilages are attached, one on either side, to the wings of the coffinbone by their inferio*!' borders. Thcj" are thin plates of fibro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced b}' the weight of the bod}^ while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate XXIX, fig. 2.) FAULTS OF CONFORMATION. A large percentage of horses have feet which are not f)erfect in conformation, and, as a consequence of these imperfections, they are especially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases. Flatfoot is that condition in which the sole has little or no con- vexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especiallj^ heavy, lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the fore feet, which are generally broad, low heeled, and with a wall less upright than is seen in the perfect foot. In flatfoot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received on the entire plantar surface, as it rests upon the ground instead of on the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the process is once established. Horses with flatfoot should be shod with a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the wall only; while the heels and frog are never to be pared. Flatfoot generally has weak walls, and, as a consequence, the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and the shoe cast. Clubfoot is a term applied to such feet as have the wall set nearl}^ perpendicular. When this condition is present the heels are high, the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of the animal is received on the toes. Manj^ mules are clubfootcd, especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. Clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases; but, as a rule, special shoeing is the oxAy measure of relief that can be adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered as much as possible, and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe piece, slightly turned up, while the heels of the shoe are to be made thin. ^^ f pr.A'rt-: xxxii after Stojielujn^e NavLcaJx/^Dijra.' H I N C V H ( ) N K . VN D X A\'I C U L^R D I S K A S J<: . DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 373 Orookedfoot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the toes close together. Animals with this deformity are "pigeon-toed," and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center plane. When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equal- ize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks from interfering. INTEKFERIXG. An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied b}^ an abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening of the injured parts. Causes. — Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of interfer- ing. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot turns in (pigeontoed), or when the fetlock joints are close together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from defective shoe- ing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of labor or sick- ness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work, and because the chest or hips are too narrow. Si/mptoms. — Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But very often, especiallj^ in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the ani- mal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. Treat^nent. — When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty confor- mation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect. 374 BUJREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the fetlock, or ankle, boot must be used. In many instances interfering may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change the relative position of the fetlock joint, ])y bringing it further away from the center plane of the bod}', thereby permitting the other foot to pass b}^ without striking. A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. When the cause has been removed, cold water bandages to the injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its natural condition. KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES. Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the relative position of the pastern ))one to the cannon and coronet bones is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsound ness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. Causes. — Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed; and time is required, after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them- selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the bod}'. Horses with erect pasterns are ver}' prone to knuckle as the}' grow old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu- larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom- paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high — a condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the hind feet. Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory liga-" ment, or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fetlock joints. Treatment. — In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- ference in the course of a few Aveeks. When knuckling has com- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 875 menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and lig-aments by proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten- ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high; or if the foot is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with calks seems to do Ijest. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck- ling are to be removed; but since this can not alwa3^s be done, the time may come when the patient can no longer perform anj^ service, particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it becomes necessary either to destroj' the animal or secure relief bj' surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing- temporary relief. Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling ma}^ in some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling simply appears as a sequel. V.'INDGALL. Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, the}^ are called windgalls. Thej^ form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut; and are most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt- hood has passed. Causes. — Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters with excessive knee- action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most cow-ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs. Symptoms. — The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when ihe, foot is off the ground. In old horses, windgalls generallj^ develop slowl}^ and cause no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint the tumor develops rapidh^, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal ^s exceedinglv lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside 6f the leg it may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac. Rest generalh' causes the tumor to diminish in size, onh' to 376 BUREAU OF ANIMAL IXDUSTRY. fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are hard- ened, and may become converted into bone bj^ a de^wsit of the lime salts. Treatment. — The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, require no treatment; for, as the animal gro-ws older the parts clean up, and, after a time, the swelling entirel}- disappears. When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured b}' the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages, until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a blister is to be applied. In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic bobts, or the red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs^ as recommended b}^ some authors, is of doubtful utilitj^, and should be adopted only b}' the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced rest until complete recovery is effected should alwaj's be insisted upon, since a too earh' return to work is sure to be followed b}- relapse. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, runners, steeple-chasers, hunters, cow-ponies, and those that interfere, are particularly liable to this injury. Causes. — Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis- eases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum- bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, hole in abridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or struggles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up inflammation of the joint. Symjptoms. — The s3'mptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the severity of the injur}'. If slight there may be no lameness, but simply a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, is hot and puff}^, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. Treatment. — If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few clays' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. Where there is an intense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. W^hen the inflammation has subsided a blister to the joint should be applied. DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 377 In some cases, especiall}^ in old horses long accustomed to fast work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint should be kept completely at rest; and this condition is best secured by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If they are dis- posed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be secured,, the patient must be kept in slings. In the majorit}'^ of instances the plaster bandage should remain on from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage is removed, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the firing iron and blisters. A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition of the injury. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe- cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this injury; and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected. When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great, one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones; one or both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga- ment may rupture above the point of division. 8ym2?toms. — The most common injury to the suspensory ligament is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend- ing oblique!}^ downward and forward to the front o£ the ankle. If the whole ligament is involved the swelling comes on gradually, and is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa- moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and y78 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. swelling of the parts at the point of injuiy, will enable un3'one to make a diagnosis. Treatment. — Sprain of the suspcnsorj' ligament, no matter how mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages, firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessar3\ When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness; but it is useless to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain. . In old cases of sprain the firing-iron may often be used with good results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensorj- ligament inca- pacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work. OVERREACH. An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rareh" happens except when the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and running horses. In trotters the accident gcnerall}" happens when the animal Ijreaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters are most liable to the injury. Symjytoms. — The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, the injurj^ in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot — an accident known among horsemen as "grabbing" — the shoe may be torn from the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed to over- reaching are often "bad breakers," for the reason that the pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readih' be brought back to the ti'otting gait. Treatment. — If the injury is but a slight bruise cold-water bandages applied for a few daxys will remove all of the soreness. If the parts are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and a roller bandage. When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching he should never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made for the protection of the heels and quarters. If there is a disposition to "grab" the forward shoes, tlie trouble may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 379 possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the hind shoe. When circumstances will permit of their use the fore feet may be shod with the " tips" instead of the common shoe, as described in treatment for contracted heels. CALK WOU^"DS. Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the coronary region, either from tlampling on themselves or on each other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses, especially on rough roads and slipper}- streets. The fore feet are more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the ani- mal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of the other. In these cases the injury is generall}^ close to the horn, and often involves the coronar}- band, the sensitive laminae, the extensor tendon, and even the coffinbone. Treatment. — Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro- tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep, and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc., active measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be used, fol- lowed by poultices if it is necessaiy to hasten the cleansing of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should l>e cut away so that the injured tissues may be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks. FROSTBITES. Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only part of the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most comraonlj^ seen are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at large. Symptoms. — AVhen the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and swell- 380 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. ing. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, l)ut the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an increased sensitiv^eness to cold remains. In cases mon —^'-e, irregular patches of skin are destroyed and after a few daj '• ..^h away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow, the coronary band is the part most often affected. In man}^ instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and the heels and quarters arc less often involved than the front part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is occasion- ally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. Treatment. — Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil. When portions of the skin are destroyed, their earlj- separation should be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence, unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is involved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulating the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and new horn, no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this accident hap- pens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury. QUITTOR. Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that results in the formation of a slough followed by the elimination of the diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quittor, which is known DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 381 also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coronet; (2) tendinous quittor; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilaginous quittor, CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub- cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals b}^ suppuration. It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which accompanies inflammation alwaj^s produces intense pressure. This pressure not onl}- adds to the patienfs sufl'ering, but may at the same time endanger the life of the aflfected parts by strangulating the blood vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often met with in the hind feet, but in m}^ experience more than two- thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters are undoubtedly most liable. Causes. — Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often ihQ cause of cutaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in the great majorit}^ of cases the disease develops without any known cause. For some reason, not je,i satisfactorily explained, most cases happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injurious action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country the most mud, accompanied b}" freezing and thawing weather, is seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of quittor. Fur- thermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the w^eather is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons, when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other seasons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to conclude that under certain cir- cumstances mud maj^ become an important factor in the production pf quittor.^ «A recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the author's observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water by wind- mills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and October. In these fifty cases all forms of the disease and all possible complications were presented. During 3b2 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTEY. While this disease attticks an}' and all classes of horses, it is the large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in stahlos seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circum- stances. S ipnptom 8.— JMineness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly alwaj^s precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours the ankle or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock becomes much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move. As a consequence the opposite leg is required to do the work of both^ and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so intense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generall}^ the tumor shows signs of suppuration within fortj^-eight to seventy-two hours after its first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt beneath the skin, which soon ulcerates completel}' through, causing the dis- charge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, aiid with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of skin, varying from 1 to 2^- inches in diameter, slough away at once, leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, suppu- rate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirel}^ removed. When suppuration is fully established the lameness and general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper treatment, maybe effected in from two to three weeks; but when two or more tumors are developed at once, or where the formation of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the suf- ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and sul)horny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. the rain J- season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks of quittor are common, and the dia- eaye is so virulent that it has long been known as the " Leadville foot rot." The soil being rich in mineral matters is no doubt the cause of the outbreak.-'. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are muddy from the melting snow and ice. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 383 Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quittor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likel}' to happen from trampling, especially among unl)roken range horses, must be avoided as much as possible. Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is large!}* impreg- nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre- ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleaiising of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quittor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for treatment. If the case is seen early — that is, before anj^ of the signs of suppuration have developed — the affected foot is to be placed under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this, put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Band- age the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with flan- nel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of sufiicient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bottom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of water should be quite small, and is to be continued imtil the inflammation has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced the process should ))e aided b}' the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free incision of the parts. The incision should l)e vertical and deep into the tumor, care being taken not to entirel}' divide the coronary band. If the tumor is large, more than one incision ma}" l>e necessary. The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon gives relief to the overtension of the parts. In other cases it will bo found that suppuration is well under way, so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre- sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor of pas whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated, and the foot poulticed. B}' surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by 384 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in place bj^ a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches wide, made of common bcdticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process are manj^, and, as a rule, they arc applied in the form of solutions or tinctures. In mj' own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1 part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before thej' are applied to the wound. Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water; chloride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; and creolin, pure or diluted. If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to chani^e the remedies every few days. If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of camphor rasij do best. When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all that is needed. If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed nuist be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup- purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every twenty- four or forty-eight hours; if the discharge is small in quantity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for several da^'s; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better, in so long as the healing process is health}-. When the sore commences to skin over, the edges should belightlj- touched with lunar caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little exercise daily; but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is entirely healed. TENDINOUS QUITTOR. This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 385^ dons of the leg, the lig-Jiments of the joints, and, in many cases, the> bones of the foot as well. Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preceding;: yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may, at any time during its course, become complicated by the death of some part of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coronar}^ band,, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of the synoviaF sacs and joints, thereby converting a sim.ple quittor into one which- will, in all probabilit}^, either destroy the patient's life or maim him for all time. Causes.- — Tendinous quittor is caused b}^ the same injuries and intlu- ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, anct that they are much more likely to make a good recovery. Symptoms. — When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the- tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in the- severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack pri- marily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest S3^mptom seen is a well-- marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than injuries- this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no more in- trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the next forty- eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made during the- first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness; it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the seat of the- trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as the fifth, a. doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms increase in- intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing quick; the tem- perature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite Is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is carried in the air- if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the disease the patient" generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side, with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat, and every respiration- is accompanied h\ a moan. The leg soon swells to the fetlock; later- this swelling gradually extends to the knee or hock, and in some cases- reaches tire body. As a rule, several days elapse before the disease- develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the suppui*ative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily collecting in a mass. Recently I made a postmortem examination on a typical case of this disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being; 14384—03 25 386 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense; yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed- ding of the hoof from the right forefoot and a limited swelling of the log to the knee. The sloughing of tlie hoof took place two or tlirec hours before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu- ration and no hemorrhage. The skin from the knee to the foot was thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The soft tissues covering the coffiubone were loosened in patches.by col- lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive laminte. The coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu- lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffinbone had become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti- lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon near its point of attachment on the coffinlwne. Several small collec- tions of pus were found deep in the connectiv^e tissue of the coronary region; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments; in the sheath of the flexor tendons; under the tendon just ])elow the fetlock joint in front, and in the coffin joint. But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and after a few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis- charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to the sensitive laminai and plantar cushion, when the suffering is intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape Iw separating the hoof from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in the hollow of the heel; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint; although in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing of the deeper parts follows. Treatment. — The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to prevent suppuration; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 387 irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the swelling. Whenever openings appear from which pus escapes, the}^ should be carefully probed; in all instances the^e listulous tracts lead down to dead tissue which nature is trj'ing to remove b}- the process of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which w^ill enable a more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once; for instance, if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble. Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated b}' the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus Avhich accumulates in the deeper parts, especialh' along the tendons, around the joints, and in the hoof, is to be removed b}" pressure and injections made with a small syringe, repeated two or three times a day. As soon as the discharge assumes a health}- character and dmiinishes in quantit\', stim- ulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong solu- tion of carbolic acid — 1 to -i — should be used at first. Or strong solu- tions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic; after which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor arc to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to heal it is often necessar}^ to l)urn them out with a saturated solution of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot. But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where the entire hoof sloughs awa}-, the growth of a new, but soft and imper- fect, hoof ma}' be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep slough- ing, recovery m^aj^ eventually take place, but the joint remains immov- able ever after. If caries of a small part of the cofEnbone takes place, it may be removed by an operation; but if much of the bone is affected, or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc- ess, the onh' hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recover}-, the patient's suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in its absence, repeated ]>listering with the biniodide of mercury oint- ment may largely accomplish the same result. 388 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. srniioRXY QfirniH. This Is the most coiiiiiion form of the disease. It is gencnilly seen in but one foot at a. time, and more often in the fore than in the hind feet. It nearl}' always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the outside quarter, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the coronary band and adjacent skin, folloAved by sloughing- and suppura- tion, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive lamiivv. C(n(Sc'S. — Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. Still, cases occur in whicli there appears to be no exciting cause, just as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that subhorn}' quittor may also be produced by internal causes. S(/inj}toms\ — At the outset the lameness is alwa3's severe, and the patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof separates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the heel. From this opening, w^herever it may be, a thin, watery, offensive dis- charge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus. l'rol)ing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottoiu of the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive laminie until the sole is reached, and even a portion of this may ])e undermined. As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and, if the case receives early and proper trciitment, complications are generally avoided; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, the latei-al cartilage, or the coffinbone and joint as well are involved. In all cases, of subhorny quittor, much relief is experienced when the slough comes awa}', and rapid recovery is made. If, however, after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of the foot. In Zundel's opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course of development. Tnatinent. — Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres- ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened W'ith a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 389 has come awa}'- and the discharge is diminished, when dressings recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis- eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec- tion to the operation is that the patient is prevent ■^ (liKirter rrarT,- wiJJi r/-o.ss ru/i 'ITie claJiip cuid miil n/iuidii's K/ifilirf/ . Toe crack. iVallremoved /rj show cubsorptCoii of coffi7i bonr. ■» > y Ql ' Al ri' Y. H - (^ H . V( ■ K AX 1 ) H V. \\ K D T K S . I, ATI-; x.w.n ' am/ 3, Soil II _j/t>m/«. — Septicemia and pyemia are unusual com- plications and are seen only in the most severe cases, where bed sores are present or suppuration of the laminas results. They die, as a rule, within three days after showing signs of the complication. Pnewnonia — the so-called metastatic — needs no special considera- tion, for in its lesions and s^aiiptoms it does not differ from ordinary pneumonia, although it may be overlooked cntirel}^ by the practitioner. Examinations of the chest should be made ever}'" da}', so as to detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid. Sidebones. — A rapid development of sidebones is one of the compli- cations, or, perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral carti- lages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of the lime salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the " bones" are developed in a few weeks; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of, the laminitis, so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the cartilages may commence as early as the first week of the laminitis; and although the trouble in the lamina? is removed in the course of a fortnight the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal retains the shuffling- gait, the sidebones continue to grow and the patient usually remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally prevents the patient recovering his natural gait, and the practitioner receives luijust censure for a condition of affairs he could neither forsee nor prevent. The laminitic process occasionally extends to the covering of the coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis the development of "low ringbone" is seen, and it is apparently dependent upon the disease of the lamina? for its exciting cause. The impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less marked DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 423 here than in siclebones. The coronet remains hot and sensitive and somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little lameness is present. This lameness persists and the deposits of new bone may readily be detected. Sujppu7xi.tion of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common com- plication, and even when present in its most limited form, is always a serious matter; but when it becomes extensive, and especially where the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results are apt to ])e fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not appear to be excessive. It is rich in leucocytes and seems to have caused detachment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the forma- tion of pus in some instances; in others the tissues are still attached to the horn and the suppuration takes place in the deeper tissues. Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive tissues of the foot during- laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed instead of being discharged upon the surface, but g'enerally the process begins in the neighborhood of the toe and spreads backward and upward towards the coronet, finally separating the horn from the coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it spreads over the sole and eventually the entire hoof is loosened and sloughs awaj-, leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. In other instances, and these are generally the cases not considered unusuall}^ severe, the suppura- tion begins at the coronary band; it extends hut a short distance into the tissues, yet destroys the patient by separating the hoof from the coronary band, upon which it depends for support and growth. This form of the suppurative process usuall}' begins in front; for it is this part of the coronary band that is always most actively affected with inflammation, and consequentl}' it is here that impairments first occur. Suppuration of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensi- tive lamina3 and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases where there is a dropping of the coffinbone, and in other instances where the effusion at this point is so great as to arrest the production of horn and uncover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of injury it begins at the toe and spreads backward, and, if not relieved by opening the sole, escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is much less serious than in other parts of the foot. If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from sloughing of the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of ver}^ imperfect horn may be developed after a time; but unless the animal is to be kept for breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and death should relieve the suffering. When only the sole sloughs recovery takes place with proper treatment. Peditis. — This is the term that Williams applies to that serious complication of laminitis where not only the lamina?, but the perios- teum and the coffinbone also are subjects of the inflammator}- process. 42i BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. Neither is this nil; for in some of these cases of pcditis acute inflam- mation of the coflin joint is present, and occasionally suppuration of the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in the outer layer of the periosteuni onh', is a more common condition than is recoy;nized by practitioners generally. Intimate contiguity of structures is the predisposing cause, for the disease either spreads from the original seat or the complication occurs as one of the primary results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases where the exudate separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gangrene, and superlicial caries are common results. If intiltration of the bone tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by pressure upon the vessels and death of the collinbone follows. Grave constitutional S3''mptoms mark these changes, which soon prove fatal. In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it ma}' be distinguished from pure laminitis. In a majority' of acute cases, though, which show no signs of improvement bj^ the fifth to seventh daj^, it is safe to suspect periostitis, particularly if the coro- nets are very hot, the pulse full and hard, and the lameness acute. In the fortunately rare cases ^vhere the bone is affected W'ith inflam- mation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense; he occu- pies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for more than a few minutes at a time; suffers from the most careful handling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these cases the patient continualh' grows worse, and the appearance of sup- puration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception of the disease proves the inefficiency of any treatment which may have been used and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually between the tenth and tAventieth days either from exhaustion or P3^emic infection. Gangrene OQQ\Ui> in the periosteum as the result of excessive detach- ment from the bone and compression due to excessive exudation. Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject to the same fate occa- sionally, and at times large territories Avill be found dead. Pumiced sole is that condition in which the liorny sole in the neigh- borhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive tissues more or less exposed. It is not a complication of laminitis only, for it is seen under other conditions. Williams has described the horny tissue of pumiced sole as " weak, cheesy, or spongy, like macer- ated horn, or even grumous." This crumbling horn, when criticall}'' examined, shows almost an entire absence of the cohesive matter which unites the healthy libers, while the fibers themselves are irregular and granular in appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon an impairment DISEASES OE THE HOKSE. 425 of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole, or upon a separation of the horny from the soft tissues which maintain its vitality. Punctured wounds of the foot, accompanied by any considerable destruction of the soft tissues, present the same peculiarities of horn in the immediate neighborhood of the injury. Bruises of the sole are followed by this change when the exudation has been excessive and has separated the horn from the living tissues. True, in these cases we rarely see the soft tissues laid bare, for the reason that new horn is constantly secreted and replaces that undergoing disintegration. Laminitis presents three dilferent conditions under which pumiced sole may appear: First, where free exudation separates the horn from the other tissues, or where the process of inflammation arrests the production of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting membrane; secondly, where depression of the coffin bone causes pres- sure upon and arrests the formation of horn; and, thirdl}^, where the elevation of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone and induces the same condition. Pumiced sole, from simple exudation and separation of tissues, is of little importance, for the reason given above in connection with bruises; but when suppuration occurs in restricted portions of the foot in conjunction with laminitis, it always la3^s bare the tissues beneath and impairs the animaPs value temporarily. Recovery takes place after a few weeks b}'^ the tissues horning over, as in injuries attended b}' the same process. Depression of the coffinbone is not sufficient within itself to cause pumiced sole; for, if the relative change in the bone takes place slowl^', or if the horn is thin, the sole becomes convex from gradual pressure, and the soft tissues adapt themselves to the change without having their function materially impaired. But when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues are destroyed, the horn rapidl}^ crumbles away and the toe of the bone com.es through. In many of these cases the soft tissues remain uncov- ered for months. When they are eventually covered it is A7ith a thin, slightl}^ adherent horn that stands but little or no wear. The sole being now convex, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight by coming in contact with the ground, and hence it is that these animals are gen- erally incurable cripples. In the majority of cases where the sole is raised to meet the pedal bone and pumiced sole occurs, it is due, not to pressure of the bone from within (for the tissues are capable of adapting themselves to the gradual change), ])ut to impaired vitality of the sensitive tissues from the inflammation, and to the constant concussion and pressure applied from without during progression. To this is to be added the paring away of the horn b}'^ the smith when apx^lying the shoe, thereb}^ keep- ing the sole at this point too thin. 426 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Turning up of the toe. — In man}^ cases of laminitis which have become chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up; that the heels are longer than natural; while the hoof near the coronary band is i-ircled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in cases where recover}'- has taken place, and in other diseases than laminitis, these ridges may be found, in the wall of the foot. But in such cases the ridges are equally distant from each other all around the foot, while in turning up of the toe the ridges are wide apart at the heels and close together in front, as seen in the figure (Plate XXXI, fig. 4). These ridges are produced by periods of interference with the growth of horn alternat- ing with periods during which a normal or ncarlj' normal growth takes place. When the toe turns up it is because the coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels it grows much faster, causing marked deformity. Animals so affected alvvaj^s place the abnormally long heel first upon the ground, not alone because the heel is too long, nor as in acute or subacute laminitis to relieve the pain, but for the simple reason that the toe is too short and lifted away from its natural position. To bring the toe to the ground the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. The pain and impairment of function in these cases always result in marked atroplu' of the muscles of the forearm and shoulder, and to some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore legs advances the shoulder joints so far forward as to cause a sunken appearance of the breast, which the lait}^ recognize as "chest founder." The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are the most interesting pathologicall}' of all the complications of laminitis. Treatment. — The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied than in any other disease, and yet a large number of cases recover for even the poorest practitioner. Prevention. — To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result from the simplest causes, especially when the soundest judgment may not be able to determine the extent of the disease-resisting powers of the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall in every instance constitute an overexcitement, it is not strange that horse owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional transgression. If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, some measures might be instituted that woul(i prove generally preventive. But the predisposing causes are common conditions and often can not be remedied. That which is gentle work in one instance may incite disease in another. That which is food to-day may to-morrow prove disastrous to health, Finalh", necessar}^ medical interference, no mat- ter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint than that which DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 427 was being treated. Notwithstanding- these difficulties there are sonic general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the development of an unusual number of cases. First of all the predis- posing causes must be removed where possible; when this is impossi- ble unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard Avork. If the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great, all horses should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to it, the tissues hardened and their excitability reduced to a minimum. Green horses should have moderate work, particularl}" when taken from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements; for increased concussion, changed hygienic conditions, and artificial living readily become active causes of the disease under these circumstances. Army horses just cut of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient preparation, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring are among the most suscep- tible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, the incumbrances must be as light as possible and the journey interspersed with frequent rests, for this allows the laminae to regain their impaired functional activity and to withstand much more work without danger. Furthermore, it permits earl}'^ detection of an attack, and prevents working after the disease begins, which renders svibsequcnt medication more effective by cutting the process short at the stage of congestion. All animals when resting immediately after work should be pro- tected from cold air or drafts. If placed in a stable that is warm and without draft, no covering is necessary; under opposite conditions blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of labor have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming in warm from work be "cooled out" by slow walking until the per- spiration has dried and the circulation and respiration are again normal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should always be protected from rapid change of temperature by appropriate clothing. If it can be avoided, horses that are working should never be driven or ridden through water. If unavoidable, they should be cooled off before passing through, and then kept moving until com- pletel}^ dried. The same care is to be practiced vath washing the legs in cold water when just in from work, for occasionally it proves the cause of a most acute attack of this disease. Unusual changes in the manner of applying the shoe should not be hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must not be substituted at once; but the change, if necessary, should gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves to the altered conditions. If radical changes are imperative, as is sometimes the case, the work must be so reduced in quantity and quality that it can not excite the disease. 428 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Laminitis from the effects of purgatives can scarcely be guarded against. I can not determine from the cases in wbicli 1 have seen this result that there arc any conditions present that would warn us of danger. The trouble does not seem to depend upon the size of the purgative, the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity and severity with which the remedy acts. Medicines known to have unusual irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used only when necessity demands it and then in moderate doses. Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer from this disease through the use of foods. When an attack can be ascribed to any particular food it should be withheld, unless in small quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should receive but a little of it at a time, mixed with bran, oats, or other food, until it has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is less safe in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be fed with caution during spring and summer months. When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the shoe of the oppo- site member should be removed, and cold water frequently applied to the well foot. At the same time use the slings if the subject remains standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked; to guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, and various other influences must be carefully considered. Watering while warm is a pernicious habit, and, unless the animal is accustomed to it, is apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis. Curative measures. — In cases of simple congestion of the lamina^ the body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks administered. The feet should be placed in a warm bath to increase the return flow of blood. In course of an hour the feet may be changed to cold water and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses of saltpeter, three times a day in the water, answer the purpose. In cases of active congestion the warm footbaths should be omitted and cold ones used from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands the same treatment, with laxatives if there is constipation, and the addi- tion of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be. continued for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute laminitis, what has been called the "American treatment" is simple and efficient. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold water. Three to 4 ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every six hours, is the proper dose. The laminitis frequently subsides within a week. These large doses may be continued for a week with- out danger; under no circumstances have I seen the kidneys irritated to excess or other unfavorable effects produced. The feet should be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 45'-* DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 429 to 50° F., unless the animal is lying- clown, when swabs are to be used and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water keeps the horn soft and moist and acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by reducing the temperature. Cold maintains the vitality and disease- resisting qualities of the soft tissues, tones up the coats of the blood vessels, diminishes the supply of blood, and limits the exudation. Furthermore, cold has an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues and relieves the pain. Aconite may be given in conjunction with the niter where the heart is greatly excited and beats strongly. Ten-drop doses, repeated every two hours for twenty-four hours, are sufficient. ' The use of cathartics is dangerous for they may excite superpurgation. Usuall}^ the niter will relieve the constipation, yet if it should prove obstinate, laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both general and local, should be guarded against. The shoes must be earl}" removed and the soles left unpared. Paring of the soles presents two objections: First, while it ma}'- temporarih' relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it favors greater exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects. Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when con- valescence sets in and the animal is read}" to take exercise. Exercise should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided; for although it temporaril}^ relieves the pain and soreness, it maintains the irritation, increases the exudation, and postpones recovery. If at the end of the fifth or sixth day prominent symptoms of recovery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around the coronet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. When the blister is well set, the feet may again receive wet sv/abs. If one blister does not remove the soreness it may be repeated, or the actual cautery applied. The same treatment should be adopted v.here side- bones form or inflammation of the coronet bone follows. "When the sole breaks through, exposing the soft tissues, the feet must be care- fully shod with thin heels and thick toes where there is a tendency to walk on the heels, and the sole must be well protected v/ith appro- priate dressings and pressure over the exposed parts. When there is turning up of the toe, blistering of the coronet, myront only, some- tiraes stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the only treatment that will enable the animal to do light, slow work. Where suppuration of the laminae is profuse, it is better to destroy your patient at once and relieve his suffering; but if the suppuration is limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment, as in acute cases, may induce recovery and should always be tried. If from bed sores or other causes septicemia or pyemia is feared, the bisulphite of soda, in half -ounce doses, m.ay be given in conjunction with tonics and such other treatment as is indicated in these diseases. 430 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. As to enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it in the majority of cases, for I think the patient usually assumes what- ever position g-ives most comfort. No doubt recumbency diminishes the amount of blood sent to the feet, and may greatly relieve the pain, so that forcing the patient to lie down ma}"- be tried, 3'et should not be renewed if he thereafter persists in standing. AVhcre the animal persistently stands, or where constant lying indi- cates it (to prevent extensive sores), the patient should be placed in slings. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his weight and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must not be returned to work too early, else permanent recover}^ ma}^ never be effected. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. By James Law, F. R. C. S. V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. [Revised in 1903 by the author.] As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all points, so that shades of dilference in inflammator}' and other diseased processes are easily seen and distinguished from one another. In the horse the hairy covering serves to some extent to mask the sj'mptoms, and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the terra "mange" to all alike, and it is only a step further to appl}^ the same treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet CA^en in the hair}^ quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not be done in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the skin — the mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digestive organs, the urinarj'- and generative apparatus. Diseased processes, therefore, which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to distinguish from one another, can usually be separated and recognized when appearing in the skin. Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering presents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales, hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympath3^ of different points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain skin disorders causative of internal disease and cei'tain internal diseases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the skin with an impermeable coating of glue is speedil}'^ fatal; a cold draft striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura; a skin eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the liver, the kidneys, or even the lungs; simple burns of the skin cause inflammations of internal organs, and inflammations of such organs cause in their turn eruptions on the skin. The relations — nervous, secretor}^, and absorptive — between the skin and internal organs are most extensive and varied, and therefore a visible disorder in the skin may point at once and specificall}^ to a particular fault in diet, to an 431 432 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. iujudicious use of cold water when the system is heated, to a fault in drainage, ventilation, or lighting of the stables, to indigestion, to liver disease, to urinar}^ disorder, etc. STKUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1) The superficial non- vascidar (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle, or epidermis; and (2) the deep vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium, dermis, or true skin. The cuticle is made up of cells placed side b}' side and more or less modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evapo- ration and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried in the form of scales, which fall off continuall}^ and form dandruff. The deep stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numer- ous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations, or branches, b}^ which they communicate with one another and with the superficial layer of cells in the true skin beneath. Through these prolongations thc-y receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and pass on liquids absorbed by the skin into the vessels of the true skin beneath. The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective power on what the}^ .shall take up for their own nourishment and on what they shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, certain agents, like iodine and belladonna, are readil}?^ admitted, whereas others, like arsenic, are excluded by the sound, unbroken epidermis. Between the deep and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a thin translucent layer (septum lucidum) consisting of a double stratum of cells, and forming a medium of transition from the deep spheroidal to the superficial scaly cuticle. The true skhi, or dermis^ has a framework of interlacing bundles of white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and fine in the superficial, where they approach the cuticle. Between the fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become finer as they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute conical elevations, or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent membrane. This papillary layer is veiy richly supplied with capil- lary blood vessels and nerves, and is at once the scat of acute sensa- tion and the point from which the nutrient lic^uid is supplied to the cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active changes of inflammation arc especiall}^ concentrated; it is the immedi- ately superposed cell layers (mucous) that become morbidly increased in the early stages of inflammation; it is on the surface of the papillary DISEASES OV THE HORSE. 43S- layer that the liquid is thrown out which raises the cuticle in the- form of a blister, and it is at this point mainly that pus forms iit the ordinary pustule. The fibrous bundles of the true skin contain plain muscular fibers., which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin dis- eases and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening-,^ or corrugation of the skin, contributing to produce the "hidebound"'" of the horseman. Other minute muscular filaments are extended' from the surface of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which- the hair is inclined, and under the same stimulating influences pro- duce that erection of the hair which is familiarl}^ known as "staring- coat." Besides these, the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion of red voluntarj^ muscle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and' by which the animal can not only dislodge insects and other irritants^ but even shake off the harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides of the trunk and the lower portions of the neck and head, the parts unprotected b\^ the mane and tail, and serves to throw the skin of these parts into puckers, or ridges, in certain irritating skin diseases.. The hairs are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla lodged in the depth of a follicle or sac, hollowed out in the skin and extending to its deepest la3^ers. The hair follicle is lined b}- cells of epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of cells firmly adherent to each other by a tough intercellular substance,. and overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction towards^ the free end. The sebaceous glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacs- and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous network representing the dermis, and an internal laj^er of cells repre- . senting the mucous layer of the cuticle. The oily secretion gives gloss to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the- skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated sebaceous glands, opening directl}' on the surface of the skin, produc- ing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. These are found in large numbers in the folds of the skin, where chafing would be likely if the surface were dr}", as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary glands, and inner side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the- hollow of the heel, beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side of the elbow, on the lips, nostrils, and eyelids. When closed by dried secretion or otherwise these glands ma}'' become distended so as to form various-sized swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they may 14384—0?, 28 434 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. throw out offensive liquid discharj^es, as in "grease," or produce red, tender fungus growths ("'grapes"). The .sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deejx^r layer of the true skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste products out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin, and the entire economj'of the animal through the evaporation of their waterj- secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment, as besides regulating the animal heat and excreting impurities, they iiiiluence largeh" the internal organs through the intimate sympathy maintained between them and the skin. Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their most marked features, into — (1) Those in which congestion and inflannnat Ion are the most marked features, varying according to the grade or form into {a) congestion with simple redness, dryness, and heat, but no eruption {erythema)^ (b) injlarmnation with red-pointed elevations, but no blisters {paj)ules\) (c) infiaimnat'ion with fine conical elevations, each surmounted by a minute blister {vesicle)', (cl) {nfla}nmation with a similar eruption but with larger blisters, like half a pea and upwards (hulla?); (^ith vaseline for some hours, then wash with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoriations are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic, 2 grains to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costiveness and remove intestinal irritants bj^ the same means as in eczema, and fol- low this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may often be bene- fited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or arsenic. In all, the greatest care must be taken with regard to food, feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold seasons predisposed animals should, so far as possible, be protected from wet, mud, snow, and melted snow — above all, from that which has been melted by salt. BOILS, OR FURUNCLES. These ma\* appear on any part of the skin, but are especially com- mon on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back where the skin is irritated by accmnulated secretion and chafing with the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended by unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and condition. Thej' also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles, in which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of poisons and effete matters during fever, and imperfect elimination. There is also the presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the disease may be maintained and propagated. While boils are pus-producing, they differ from simple pustule in afl'ecting the deepest la3'ers of the true skin, and even the superficial laj-ers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and slough- ing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth of the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this central mass or cor% which is bathed in pus and slowly separated from sur- rounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the pustule, from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess. Treatment.— To treat very painful boils a free incision with a lancet in two directions, f ollov.ed b}- a dressing with one-half an ounce carbolic acid in a pint of water, l)ound on with cotton wool or lint, may cut them short. The more common course is to apply a warm poultice of lin- seed meal or wheat bran, and renew daily until the center of the boil softens, when it should be lanced and the core pressed out. If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies and 440 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. a poultice put over it, the formation of matter and separation of the core is often hastened. A mixture of sugar and soap hiid on the boil is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicar- bonate of soda onco or twice a day "will sometimes assist in Marding off a new crop. XETTLERASH (sURFEIT, OR URTICARIA). This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from a hazelnut to a hickory nut, transient, with little disposition to the formation of either blister or pustule, and usuall}'^ connected with shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesome- ness or sudden change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring and in young and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swell- ing eml) races the entire thickness of the skin and terminates b}'- an abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When the individual swellings run together there are formed extensive patches of thickened integument. These may appear on an}' part of the bod}', and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing becomes difficult and snuffling. It may be attended by constipation or diarrhea or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear with equal rapidity or persist for six or eight days. Treatment. — This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drams Barbados aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1 ounce Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to the swellings. SCALY SKIX DISEASE, OR PITYRIASIS. This affection is characterized by an excessive production and detach- ment of dry scales from the surface of tlie skin (dandruff). It is usually dependent on some fault in digestion and an imperfect secretion from the sebaceous glands, and is most common in old horses with spare habit of body. Williams attributes it to food rich in saccftarine matter (carrots, turnips) and to the excretion by the skin of oxalic acid. He has found it in horses irregularly worked and w^ell fed, and advises the administration of pitch for a length of time, and the avoidance of sac- charine food. Otherwise the horse may take a laxative followed by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the affected parts may be bathed with soft tepid water and smeared with an ointment made with vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate cases sulphur may be given daily in the food. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 441 NERYOUS IRRITATIOX OF THE SKIN, OR TRURITUS. This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close stables, and worked irreg-ularl}'. Though most common in summer it is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles, and abrasions maj^ result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching mereh\ It is especially' common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and tail. Ti-eatment consists in a purgative (Glauber's salts, 1 pound), restricted, laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of vitriol and rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give dail}^ 1 ounce of sulphur and 20 grains nux vomica. If the acid lotion fails, 2 drams carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanide of potassium in a quart of water will sometimes benefit. If due to pinworms in the rectum, the itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional injection of a quart of water in which chips of quassia wood have been steeped for tA^elve hours. HERPES. This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an erup- tion of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little tend- ency to burst but rather to dry up into fine scabs. If the vesicles break they exude a slight gummy discharge which concretes into a small, hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably connected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accom- panies or follows specific fevers, and is, on the whole, most frequent at the seasons of changing the coat — spring and autumn. It is seen on the lips and pastern, but may appear on an}' part of the hody. The duration of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency being to spontaneous recover3^ The affected part is very irritable, causing a sensitiveness and a disposition to rub out of proportion to the extent of the eruption. Treatment. — It may be treated b}' oxide of zinc ointment, and to relieve the irritation a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of sugar of lead or oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an ounce Peruvian bark daih' for a week) may be serviceable in ])raeing the sj'stem and producing an indisposition to the eruption. BLEEDING SKIN ERUrTIONS, OR DERMATORRHAOIA RAKASITICA. In China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently suffer from the presence of a threadworm {Filar ia hmmorrhagica, Railliet: F. multijmjyillosa.^ Condamine & Drouilly) in the subcuta- neous connective tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf skin and incrustations of dried blood on the surface. The eruptions, which appear mainly on the sides of the trunk, but ma}- cover any 4^2 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL liN^DUSTEY. part of the ])od3% are rounded elevations alx)ut the size of a small pea, containing 1)lood which bursts through the scurf skin and concretes like a reddish scab around the erect, rigid hairs. These swellings appear in groups, which remain out for several days, gradually diminishing in size; new groups appear after an interval of three or four weeks, the manifestation being confined to three or four months of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse will suffer for several 3-ears in succession, and then permanently recover. A fatal issue is not unknown. To find the worm the hair is shaved from the part where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a bleeding point is shown the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, when the parasite will be seen drawing itself back into the parts beneath. The worm is about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker towai-ds the head than towards the tail, and with numerous little conical elevations (papilhr) around the head. The young worms are numerous in the body of the adult female worm. The worm has become conmion in given localities, and probably enters the sj'stem with food or water. Treatment is not satisfactory, but the affected surface should be kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of harness on any affected part must be avoided. Thus rest may become essential. The part may be frequently washed with a strong solution of sulphide of potassium. SUMMER SOEES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS. The summer sores of horses [Dermatitis granulosa^ boils) have been traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 millimeters in length and extremely attenuated {Filaria irrltans Railliet). The sores may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently the size of a pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may appear on any point, but arc especially obnoxious where the harness presses or on the lower |>art of the limbs. They cause intense and insupport- able itching, and the victim rubs and bites the part until extensive raw surfaces are produced. Aside from such friction the, sore is covered by a brownish red, soft, pulpy material with -cracks or furrows filled with serous pus. In the midst of the softened mass are small, firm, rounded granulations, fibrinous, and even caseated, and when the soft pultaceous material has been scraped off, the surface bears a resem- blance to the fine yellow points of miliar}' tuberculosis in the lung. The worm or its debris is found in the center of such masses. These sores are very obstinate, resisting treatment for months in summer, and even after apparent recovery during the cold season they may appear anew the following summer. In bad cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial sacs and tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, however, when the diseased process seems arrested, there remains the hard, firm, resistant patches DISExiSES OF THE HORSE. 443 of the skin with points in which the diseased product has become soft- ened like cheese. The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in sum- mer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell growth, inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rub- bing the part the irritation is persistentlj^ increased. The hotter the climate the more troublesome the disease. The life histor}^ of the parasite is unknown, ])ut it probably enters the system with the food or water. Treatment consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and showering the surface with cold water. The parasite m^y be destro^^ed hj rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform and covering it with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications e^-ery twenty- four hours for fifteen daj's, or until the sores heal up. Ether or chlo- roform may bo used in place of iodoform, being poured on cotton wool and applied to the sore for two minutes before painting it with collodion. CRACKED HEELS (SCRATCHES, OR CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCK). This usuall}' sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hollow of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white skins), with stiif ness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable horses. Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and ma}" gain in depth and width, and may even suppurate. More frequent!}^ they become cov- ered at the edges or throughout by firm incrustations resulting from the dr3^ing of the liquids thrown out, and the skin becomes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs behind the knee and in front of the hock (raalanders and salanders), and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. Causes. — Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, unwholesome fodder, close, hot, dirt}^ stables, constant contact with dung and urine and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in limestone districts, irritation hy dry limestone or sandy dust in dry weather on dirt roads, also cold drafts, snow and freezing mud, washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure air, lack of sunshine, chronic, exhausting, or debilitating diseases, or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys. These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), w'eaken the parts,.and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexisting crack, v/eak, rigid. 444 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. and unyielding-, is liable to reopen under any severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heav}^ draft are active causes. Treatment. — In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove the cause vrhenever possible. If there is much local heat and inflam- mation, a laxative (.5 drams aloes or 1 pound Glauber's salts) ma}' be given, and for the pampered animal the 'grain should be reduced or replaced altogether bj' bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non- stimulating food. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5 grains arsenic with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda 4^11}^). When the legs swell, exercise on dry roads, hand rubbing, and evenly applied bandages are good, and mild astringents, like extract of witchhazel, may be applied and the part subsequently rubbed dry and bandaged. If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar of lead to 1 quart of water ma}^ be applied on a thin bandage, covered in cold weather with a dry one. The same ma}- be used after the cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid 1 part, gl3'cerin 1 part, and water 1 part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part may be smeared with vaseline 1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and carbolic acid 10 drops. INri.AM]VIATIOX OF THK HEELS WITH SEBACEOUS SECRETION (gREASE, OR canker). This is a specific affection of the heels of horses usually associated with the growth of a parasitic fungus, an offensive discharge from the numerous sebaceous glands, and, in bad cases, the formation of red, raw excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is to be distinguished (1) from simple inflammation in which the special fetid discharge and the tendencj^to the formation of " grapes" are absent; (2) from horsepox, in which the abundant exudate forms a firmycllov>^ incrustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at intervals in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there is no vascular excrescence; (3) from foot scabies (mange), in which the presence of an acarus is distinctive; (4) from lymphangitis, in which the swelling appears sud- denly extending around the entire limb as high as the hock, and on the inner side of the thigh along the line of the vein to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) from erysipelas, in which there is active fever (wanting in grease), the implication of the deeper layers of the skin and of the parts beneath giving a boggy feeling to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy discharge, and finally a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues without any limiting membrane as in abscess. Another distinctive feature of grease is its tendency to impli- cate the skin which secretes the bulbs or heels of the horny frog and in the cleft of the frog, constituting the disease known as canker. Causes. — The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 445 as those of simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may consult the preceding article, and though a specific fungus and bacteria of diiierent kinds are present, they tend mainly to aggravation of the disease, and are not proved to he essential factors in causation. Symj)toms. — The s^'mptoms vary according to whether the disease comes on suddenly or m.ore tardily. In the first case there is a sudden swelling of the skin in the heel, with heat, tenderness, itching, and stiffness, which is lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there is only seen a slight svv^elling after rest, and. with little heat or inflam- mation for a week or more. Even at this earlj- stage a slight serous oozing may be detected. As the swelling increases, extending up toward the hock or knees, the hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by moisture no longer clear and odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid. The fetor of the discharge draws attention to the part whenever one enters the stable, and the swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on the heel draw attention to the precise seat of the malady. If actively treated, the disease may not advance further, but if neglected the tense, tender skin cracks open, leaving open sores from which vascular bleeding growths grow up, constituting the "grapes." The hair is shed, and the heel may appear but as one mass of rounded, red, angry excrescences which bleed on handling and are covered with the now repulsively fetid decomposing discharge. During this time there is little or no fever, the animal feeds v>^ell, and but for its local troul^le it might continue at work. When the malad}^ extends to the frog, there is a fetid discharge from its cleft or from the depressions at its sides, and this gradualh^ extends to its whole surface and upon the adjacent parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile becomes soft, whitish, and flesh}' in aspect, its constituent tubes being greatly enlarged and losing their natural cohesion; it grows rapidlj^ above the level of the sur- rounding horn, and when pared is found to be penetrated to an unusual depth b}' the secreting papilla, and that at intervals these have bulged out into a vascular fungous mass comparable to the "grapes." Treatment. — In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank, but are in themselves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and general conditions which favor the production and persistence of the disease must be guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity of the stable and air must be secured; also nourishing diet, regular exer- cise, and the avoidance of local irritants — septic, muddy, chilling, etc. At the outset benzoated oxide of zinc ointment may be used with advantage. A still better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2 drams oxide of zinc, and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is much swollen and tender,' a flaxseed poultice may be applied over the surface of which has been poured some of the following lotion: Sugar of lead, one-half ounce; carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All the astringents of the pharmacopeia have been employed with more 446 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. or less advantage, and some particular one seems to suit particular cases or patients. To destroy the grapes, they may he rubbi'd daily with strong caustics (copperas, bluestone, lunar caustic), or each may be tied round its neck by a stout waxed thread, or finally and more speedil}' they may l)e cut off by a blacksmith's shovel heated to red- ness and applied with its sharp edge toward the neck of the excres- cence, over a cold shovel held between it and the skin to protect the skin from the heat. The cold shovel must be kept cool by frequent dipping in water. After the removal of the grapes the astringent dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. When the frog is affected, it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry caustic powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone) or carbolic acid and subjected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every daj^ at least. EllTSIPELAS. This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading dropsical inflammation of the skin and subcuUincous tissues, attended by general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence of a definite period of incubation, a regular (^ourse and duration, and a conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the con- trary, one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubt- less, by the loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also, perhaps, because of the survival of the infecting germ. Cause. — It is no longer to be doubted that the microbes found in the inflammatory product are the true cause of erysipelas, as the disease can be successfully transferred from man to animals and from one ani- mal to another by their means. This transition may be direct or through the medium of infected buildings or other articles. Yet from the varying severity of erysipelas in different outbreaks and localities it has been surmised that various different microbes are operative in this disease, and a perfect knowledge of these might perhaps enable us to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct aifcctions. At present we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due to a bacterial poison and closely allied to septicemia. Erysipelas was formerh* known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which the germ had gained access) and medical., or idiapnthic., when it started independently of any recognizable lesion. Depending as it does, however, upon a germ distinct from the body, the disease must be looked upon as such, no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance. Erysipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than the other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the lowered vitality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and septic changes which are invited on the raw, exposed surface. As apparently idiopathic cases may be due to infection through bites of insects, the small amount of poison inserted maj^ serve to moderate the violence. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 447 This affection may attack a wound on any part of the horse's body, while apart from wounds it is most frequent about the head and the hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary intlammations by its gradual extension from the point first attacked, b}- the abun- dant liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the skin over the affected part, by its soft boggy feeling, allowing it to be deeply indented by the linger, by the abrupt line of limitation betwieen the diseased and healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the healthy level instead of shading off slowly toward it, by the tendency of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues and into the muscles and other structures, b}'- the great tendency to death and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, by the formation of pus at various different points throughout the diseased parts without an}' surrounding sac to protect the surround- ing structures from its destructive action, and without the usual dis- position of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape; and, tinalh', by a low prostrating type of fever, with elevated tem- perature of the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of appetite. The pus when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish, brownish, or reddish, with a heav}' or fetid odor, and intermixed with shreds of broken-down tissues. The most destructive form, however, is that in which pus is deficient and gangrene and sloughing more speedy and extensive. Treatment resolves itself mainh' into the elimination from the system of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and diuretics, the sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimulants, above all those of the nature of antiferments, and the local application of astringent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment ma}^ consist in 4 drams tincture of muriate of iron and one-half dram muriate of ammonia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water every two hours. To this maj^ be added, liberall}-, whisk}^ or Ijrand}- when the prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of iron, alum, or of sulphate of iron and laudanum ma}^ be used; or the affected part ma}' be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with iodized phenol. In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and 2 ounces laudanum in a quart of water may be applied. It is desirable to avoid the for- mation of wounds and the consequent septic action, yet when pus has formed and is felt by fluctuation under the finger to be approaching the surface it should ])e freely opened with a clean, sharp lancet, and the wound thereafter disinfected dail}' with carbolic acid 1 part to water 10 parts, with a saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda, or with powders of iodoform or salol. HORSEi'OX, ANTHR^VX, AND CUTANEOUS GLANDERS (fARCY). These subjects will come more properly under the head of conta- gious diseases. 448 BUREAU OF ANIMAL I2iDUSTBY. CALLOSITIES. These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason of continued pressure, notably in lying down on a hard surface. Being devoid of hair, they cause blemishes; hence smooth floors and good bedding should be secured as preventives. HORNY SLOUr.HS (siTFASTs), OR SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES. These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the result of pressure by bad!}' fitting harness or by irritating masses of dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. The}" are most common under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irri- tation. The horn-like slough may thus involve the superficial part of the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irri- tant by disjecting it oft' with a sharp knife, after which the sore maj'' be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic acid lotion, like a common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the opera- tor. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous the dead portion must be removed with the horn-like skin. During and after treat- ment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted that no pressure can come near the affected parts. These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papil- lary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, ej^elids, cheeks, ears, beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. The smaller ones ma}' be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface cauterized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cau- terized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a wax thread or cord tied around their necks, at least three turns being made round and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding turn of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they slacken by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be trans- fixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be tied in sections. Very broad warts that can not be treated in this way may be burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a soldering bolt at a red heat, and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth kept down bv bluestone. .ATI': WW i^ia^-aNj ^ :#s?S' lliui dt.sra.scl by Achorion -Sc lioiitcun .dl.M M. .J„,n I I, HI ,li-.cj)Ji \ Ion /on sii III I lit. 1 \\< .,Mnn Mi<-ro\/M>itiii .lilciiiiiii /'ri>m JULIUS BIEts i)IS}-;as 1';s oi- i-im-: ski x IM^A'l'l-. XXXX'I. ^^fh^ f // \ I i><(rco/>(t's .s{ VI />//•( ^ \ai. Kqui . Clioriojilcs sjnttturcrui. P.\i>ri>/ih-\ I itiu/i iiKst ri.s , \iir lu/iii Dfriiiahyssu.s ^^^ lacerated \SQ\n\(Sii demands cleansing and antiseptic applications as for an incised wound, but as 458 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. primary adhesion i.s next to impossible, the same accurate apposition of the lips by stitching is not so essential. If portions of skin or other tissue are so detached or crushed that they can not possibly live, they may be cut off, but if there is any doubt on this matter the injured portion should be left and ever}'- attempt should be made to preserve it. Such portions of the wound as are free from such fatally injured parts may be disinfected by the carbolic lotion referred to above, and stitched up like a clean wound. The severely'- injured parts may be left open to discharge, and the whole may be dressed daily with the carbolized oil or with a solution of 1 part of mercuric chloride in 1,000 of water. Granulating wounds may be irrigated with the mercuric chloride solution, and if the granulations become inflamed (soft, flabby, exu- berant, rising above the edges of the wound), thej'^ may be touched lightly with a stick of lunar caustic, so as to leave them covered with a white film. In all wounds that fail to heal by primarj' union an elaborate anti- septic treatment is desirable, but the difficult}^ of applying this suc- cessfully to the horse in an ordinary stable would seem to forbid a lengthy description in a book of this kind. WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. By Cn. B. Michener, V. S. . [Revised in 1903 by John R. Mohlcr, V. M. D., A. M.] DESCRIPTION OF WOUNDS. A wound is an injurj^ to anj^ part of the body, involving a solu- tion of continuity or disruption of the affected parts and is caused, by violence, with or without laceration of the skin. In accordance with this definition we have the following varieties of wounds: Incised, punctured, contused, lacerated, gunshot, and poisoned. They may further be classified as superficial, deep, or penetrating, and also as unclean, if hair, dirt, or splinters of wood are present; as infected, when contaminated with germs; and as aseptic, if the wound does not contain germs. An incised wound is a simple cut made with a sharp body, like a knife, producing merely a division of the tissues. The duller the bod}'', the more force is required, the more tissues destroyed, and a greater time will be required for healing. In a cut wound the edges are even and definite, while those of a lacerated wound are irregular and torn. Three conditions are present as a result of an incised wound: (1) Pain, (2) hemorrhage, (3) gaping of the wound. The first pain is due to the crushing and tearing of the nerve fibers. In using a sharp knife and by cutting quickly, the animal suffers less pain and healing occurs more rapidly. The secondary pain is usuall}^ due to the action of the air and inflammatory processes. When air is kept from the wound pain ceases soon after the lesion is produced. Hemorrhage is absent only in wounds of nonvascular tissues, as the cornea of the eye, the carti- lage of joints, and other similar structures. Bleeding may be from the arteries, veins, or capillaries. In the latter form of bleeding the blood oozes from the part in drops. Hemorrhage from the veins is dark red and issues in a steadj^ stream without spurting. In arterial bleeding the blood is bright red and spurts with each heart beat. This latter variety of hemorrhage is the most dangerous, and should be stopped at once before attempting any further treatment. Bleeding from small veins and capillaries ceases in a short time spontaneoush^, while larger vessels, especiall}^ arteries, require some form of treat- ment to cause complete stoppage of the hemorrhage. 459 460 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. HEMOSTASIA. B}^ this term is meant the checking of the flow of blood. It may be accomplished by several methods, such as compress bandages, torsion, hot iron, and ligatures. The heat from a hot iron will cause the immediate clotting of the blood in the vessels, and this clot is further supported by the production of a scab, or crust, over the portion seared. The iron should be at a red heat. If at a white heat the tissue is charred, which makes it brittle and the bleeding is apt to be renewed. If the iron is at a black heat the tissue will stick to the iron and will pull away from the surface of the wound. Cold water and ice bags quickly stop capillary bleeding, while hot water is preferable in more excess- ive hemorrhages. Some drugs, called styptics, possess the power of contracting the w^alls of blood vessels and also of clotting the blood. A solution of the chloride of iron placed on a wound alone ov by means of cotton drenched in the liquid produces a rapid and hard clot. Tannic acid, alum, acetic acid, alcohol, and oil of turpentine are all more or less active in this respect. To check bleeding from large vessels compression may be adopted. When it is rapid and dangerous and from an arter}-, the fingers may be used for pressing between the wound and the heart (digital compression), but if from a vein, the pressure should be exerted on the other side of the wound. Tour- niquet may also be used by passing a strap around the part and tight- ening after placing a pad over the hemorrhage. The rubber ligature has now replaced the tourniquet and is bound tightl}^ around the limb to arrest the bleeding. Tampons, such as cotton, tow, or oakum, may be packed tightly in the wound and then sewed up. After remaining there for twenty -four or forty-eight hours they are removed. Bleed- ing may sometimes be easily checked by passing a pin under the vessel and by taking a horse hair and forming a figure 8 by running it above and below the pin, thus causing pressure on the vessel. Tor- sion is the twisting of the blood vessel until the walls come together and form a barrier to the flow of blood. It may be accomplished by the fingers, forceps, or by running a pin through the vessel, turning it several times, and then running the point into the tissue to keep it in a fixed position. Ligation is the third method for stopping a hemorrhage. Seize the blood vessel with the artery forceps, pass a clean thread of silk around it, and tie about one-half inch from its end. The silk should be steril- ized by placing it in an antiseptic solution so as not to impede the healing process or cause blood poisoning or lockjaw, which often fol- lows the ligation of a vein with unsterilized material. Sometimes it will be impossible to reach the bleeding vessel, so it is necessary to pass the ligature around a mass of tissue which includes the blood vessel. Ligation is the most useful method of arresting hemorrhage, DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 461 since it disturbs healing least and gives the greatest security against secondary hemorrhage. SUTURES. After the bleeding has been controlled and all foreign bodies removed from the wound, the gaping of the wound is noticeable. It is caused b}^ the contraction of the muscles and elastic fibers, and its degree depends on the extent, direction, and nature of the cut. This gaping will hinder the healing process so that it must be overcome by bringing the edges together b}^ some sort of sutures or pins, or by a bandage applied from below upwards. As suture material, ordinary cotton thread is good if well sterilized, as is also horse hair, cat gut, silk, and various kinds of wire. If the suture is made too tight, the subse- quent swelling may cause the stitch to tear out. In order to make a firm suture the depth of the stitch should be the same as the distance the stitch is from the edge of the wound. The deeper the suture the more tissue is embraced and the fewer the number of stitches required. In tying a suture use the square or reef knot. Closure of wounds by means of adhesive plaster, collodion, and metal clamps is not practiced to any great extent in veterinary practice. PROCESS OF HEALING. In those cases where perfect stoppage of bleeding, perfect coapta- tion of the edges of the wound, and perfect cleanliness are obtained, healing occurs within three days, without the formation of granula- tions, pus, or proud flesh by what is termed Jirsi intention. If wounds do not heal in this manner they will gap somewhat and become warm and painful. Healing then occurs by granulation or suppuration, which is termed healing by second intention. The sides of the wound become covered with granulation tissue which may fill the wound and sometimes overlap the lips forming a fungoid growth called proud flesh. Under favorable conditions the edges of the wound appear to grow together by the end of the first week, and the whole surface gradually becomes dry, and finally covered with pigmented skin, when the wound is healed. The cause of pus formation in wounds is usually due to the presence of germs. For this reason the utmost care should be adopted to keep clean wounds aseptic, or free from germs, and to make unclean wounds antiseptic by using antiseptic fluids to kill the microbes present in the wound. The less the injurious action of this fluid on the wound, and the greater its power to kill germs, the more valuable it becomes. All antiseptics are not equall}^ destructive, and some germs are more susceptible to one antiseptic than to another. The most important are (1) bichloride of mercury, which is to be pre- ferred on horses. It becomes weakened in its action if placed in a. wooden pail or on an oily or greasy surface. It is used in the strength 4G2 BUKEAU OF A^'IMAL INDUSTRY. of 1 part of bichloride to 1,000 to 5,000 parts of water, according to the delicacy of the tissue to which it is applied. (2) Carbolic acid in from 2 to 5 per cent solution is used on infected wounds and for clean- ing instruments, dressings, and sponges. It unites well with oil and is preferred to the bichloride of merciay on a greasj' surface. A 5 per cent solution in oil is often used under the name of carbolized oil. (3) Aluminum acetate is an efficient and cheap antiseptic, and is com- posed of 1 part alum and 5 parts acetate of load, mixed in 20 parts of water. (4) Boracic acid is good in a 2 to -i per cent solution to cleansi^ wounds and wash cj-es. Creolin and Ij'sol maj^ be used in a 2 to 5 per cent solution in water. Iodoform is one of the most used of the anti- septics and it also acts as an anodj-ne, stimulates granulation, and checks wound secretion. A ver}^ efficacious and inexpensive powder is made bj' taking\5 parts of iodoform and 05 i:>arts of sugar, making what is called iodoform sugar. Tannic acid is a useful drug in the treatment of wounds, in that it arrests hemorrhage, checks secre- tion, and favors the formation of a scab. A mixture of 1 part tannic acid and 3 parts iodoform is good in suppurating wounds. lodol, white sugar, ground and roasted coffee, and powdered charcoal are all used as protectives and absorbents on suppurating surfaces. More depends on the care and the method of application of the drug than on the drug itself. On aseptic wounds use onl}" those antiseptics that do not irritate the tissue. If care is used in the application of the anti- septic, corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid is to be recommended, but in the hands of irresponsible parties lysol or creolin is safer. In order to keep air from the wound and to absorb all wound secretions rapidly, a dressing should be applied. If the wound is aseptic, the dressing should be likewise, such as cotton gauze, sterile cotton, oakum, or tow. This dressing should be applied with uniform pres- sure at all times and secured by a bandage. Allow it to remain for a week or ten days if the wound is aseptic or if the dressing does not become loose or misplaced or become drenched with secretions from the wound, or if pain, fever, or loss of appetite does not develop. The dressing should then be removed, the wound treated antiseptically, and a sterilized dressing applied. HEALING UNDER A SCAB. This often occurs in small superficial wounds that have been kept aseptic. In order for a scab to form, the wound must not gap, secrete freely, or become infected with germs. The formation of scab is favored by astringents and styptics, such as tannic acid, iodoform, and 5 per cent solution of zinc chloride. In case of large hollow wounds that can not be dressed, such as fistulous withers, open joints, etc., antisepsis ma}' be obtained by warm water irrigation with or without an antiseptic fluid. It should continue day and night, and DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 463 never be interrupted for more than eight hours, for germs will then have gained headway and will be difficult to remove. Four or five days of irrigation will be sufficient, for granulations will then have formed and pus will remain on the outside if it forms. For perma- nent irrigation the stream should be very small, or drop by drop, but should play over the entire surface of the wound. It is alwaj^s better to heal an infected wound under a scab, or treat it as an open wound, than it is to suture the wound, thus favoring the growth of the inclosed germs and retarding ultimate healing. In the latter case pus may develop in the wound, form pockets by sinking into the tissues, and cause various complications. Such pockets should be well drained, either through incisions at the bottom or b}^ drainage tubes or setons. They should then be frequently syringed out or continuousl}" irrigated. In case proud flesh appears it should be kept down either b}^ pressure or by caustics, as powdered bluestone, silver nitrate, chloride of antimony, or by astringents, such as burnt alum. If they prove resistant to this treatment they may be removed b}^ scissors or the knife or b}^ searing with the hot iron. The following rules for the treatment of wounds should be followed: (1) See that the wound is clean, removing all foreign bodies. (2) For this purpose use a clean finger rather than a probe. (3) Arrest all hemorrhage before closing the wound. (4) Antiseptics should only be used if you suspect the wound to be infected. (5) When pus is present treat without closing the wound. (6) This may be accomplished by drainage tubes, absorb- ent dressings, setons, or continuous irrigations. (7) Protect the Avound against infection while healing. LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together, although there is, of course, this difference, that in contused wounds there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, however, are,- as a rule, also contused — the surrounding tissues are bruised to a greater or lesser extent. While such wounds may not appear at first sight to be as serious as incised wounds, they are commonly very much more so. Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are alwa^^s to be regarded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic infection or mortification as a result of these injuries. We find in severe contu- sions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues; disorgani- zation and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper seated structures. Abscesses, single or multiple, maj^ also result and call for special treatment. In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly inconsiderable; even very large blood vessels may be torn apart with- out inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and uneven. These wounds are produced by barbed wire or some blunt 464 BUREAU OF AI^IMAL INDUSTRY. object, as where a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners of buildings, or where he is struck hj the pole or shafts of another team, falling on rough irregular stones, etc. Contused wounds are caused by blunt instruments moving with suf- ficient velocity to bruise and crush the tissues, as running against objects, kicks, or falling on large, hard masses. Treatment. — In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exer- cised in examining or probing to the ver}^ bottom of the rent or tear, to see if an}^ foreign body be present. Ver}' often splinters of wood or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent the wound from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens again, discharging a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the presence of some object in the parts. After a thorough exploration these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with Avarm water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part to 100 of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened in vitality and structure by the contusions that stitches will not hold; they onl}^ irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coap- tation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in the treatment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if pus is found to be bur- rowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and afterwards injected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as chloride of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A dependant opening must be main- tained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated hot fomenta- tions over the region of lacerated wounds afford much relief and should be persisted in. Bruises are nothing but contused wounds, where the skin has not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity of the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, etc.; which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of the bruised parts. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, many cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four hours. The water should be allowed about this time to gradually become cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughl}" and quickly, and bathe them freely with camphor 1 ounce, sweet oil 8 ounces, or with equal parts of lead water and laudanum. A dry^, light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed to rest, and if necessary the treatment may be repeated each da}^ for two or three days. If, however, the wound DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 465 is SO severe that sloughing must ensue, we should encourage this by- poultices made of linseed meal, wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is bad smelling. After the sl(>igh has fallen off the wound is to be dressed with warm antiseptic washes of carbolic acid, chloride of zinc, permanganate of potash, etc. If granulating (filling up) too fast, use burnt alum or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment, we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A physic of Barbados aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible after the accident. Sedatives, such as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops three times a day, or ounce doses of saltpeter every four hours, may also be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of the patient must be supported by good food and tonics. One of the best tonics is as follows: Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gentian, and pow- dered ginger, of each 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly and give a heaping tablespoonf ul twice a day, on the feed or as a drench. PUNCTURED WOUNDS. Punctured wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or blunt-pointed substance, such as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the orifice of these wounds is always small in proportion to their depth. In veterinary practice punctured wounds are much more common than the others. They^ involve the feet most frequently, next the legs, and often the head and face from nails protruding through the stalls and trough. They are not only the most frequent, but they are also the most serious, owing to the difficulty of obtaining thorough disin- fection. Another circumstance rendering them so is the lack of attention that they at first receive. The external wound is so small that but little or no importance is attached to it, yet in a short time swelling, pain, and acute inflammation, often of a serious character, are manifested. Considering the most common of the punctured wounds, we must give precedence to those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about iron works, around building places, etc., are most likely to receive "nails in the feet." The animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron or screws, and forces them into the soles of the feet. If the nail, or whatever it is that has punctured the foot, is fast in some large or heavy body, and is withdrawn as the horse lifts his foot, lameness may last for only a few steps; but unless properly attended to at once he will be found in a day or two to be very lame in the injured mem- ber. If the foreign bod}- remains in the foot, he gradually grows worse from the time of puncture until the cause is discovered and 1-1384—03 30 466 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUbTRY. removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven into the "quick" (sensi- tive laminte) and allowed to remain, the horse gradually evinces more pain I'j-om day to day; but if the nail has at once been removed b}' the smith, lamenofes does not, as a rule, show itself for some days; or, if the nail is simply driven "too close," not actually pricking the horse, he may not show any lameness for a week or even much longer. At this point it is due the blacksmith to sa}' that, considering how thin the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many horses Avhile shoe- ing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its course by striking an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail itself splitting, the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or nails driven "too close," but rather that man}'^ more are not so injured. It is not always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith, by any means, that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless shoers we do meet •with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of these accidents points rather to the general care and attention given b}^ these much- abused mechanics. From the construction of the horse's foot (being incased in an imper- meable horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive of lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded by swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this matter must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive parts within it until it generally opens "between hair and hoof." "We can thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus (lockjaw) more frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the extensive, or at times complete, separation and "casting" of the hoof, these wounds must alwaj^s be regarded with grave apprehension. Symptoms and treatment. — A practice which, if never deviated from — that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly examining the foot each and every time the horse comes into the stable — will enable us to reduce the serious consequences of punctured wounds of the feet to the minimum. If the wound has resulted from pricking, lameness follows soon after shoeing; if from the nails being driven too close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week after receiving the shoe. We should always inquire as to the time of shoeing, examine the shoe carefully, and see whether it has been par- tially pulled and the horse stepped back upon some of the nails or the clip. The pain from these wounds is lancinating; the horse is seen to raise and lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether; often ho points the foot, flexes the leg, and knuckles at the fetlock. Swell- ing of the fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and is apt to mislead us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this can not be properl}^ done without removing the shoe. The nails should be drawn separately- and carefull}' examined. If there is no escape of DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 467 pus from the nail holes, or if the nails themselves are not moist, we must continue our examination of the foot by carefully pinching or tapping it at all parts. With a little practice we can detect the spot where pain is the greatest or discover the delicate line or scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign body. The entire sole is then to be thinned, after which we are to carefully cut down upon the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, and, final!}', through the sole at this spot. When the matter has escaped, the sole, so far as it was undermined by pus, is to be removed. The foot must now be poulticed for one or two days and afterwards dressed with a compress of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other antiseptic dressing. If we discover a nail or other object in the foot, the principal direc- tion, after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the sole, in a funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is imperative, and if a good free opening has been made and is main- tained for a few days, hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings applied, the cure is mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. In some instances nails m.ay puncture the fiexor tendons, the coffin- bone, or enter the cofiin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult that the services of a veterinarian will be necessarj-. PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS. These wounds are more or less frequent. The}^ are always serious, and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp- toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com- mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways. At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and paj's but little attention to it. In a few daj^s, however, the pain and lameness become excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pressure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance — quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103^ to 106^ F., the appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie down, though mostl}^ he persists in standing, and the opposite limb becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignificant, is now constantly 468 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid — joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling somewhat the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at different places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon assumes the character above described. Treatment of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory. We can do much to prevent this array of S3^mptoms if the case is seen early — within the first twenty-four or fort3'-eight hours after the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairl}- established the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punctured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but small moment, we should, without the least delaj-, appl}^ a strong canthar- ides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways — first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completelv closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all deep-seated inflammation. In the great majorit}^ of instances, if pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later in the joint have alread}^ taken place, we must then treat by cooling lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc, 10 grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum. A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms demand it. In the treat- ment of open joints our chief aim must be to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated probing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an open joint that is to l>e sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after removing them the prol)e must not again be used. The medicines used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simpl}' applied to the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should administer a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses tv,-o or three times a day. WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS. Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there is an escape of synovial fluid, "sinew water." Where the tendons are simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough DISEASES OF THE HOESE, 469 exploration of the wound for an}^ remaining foreign substance, treat with the flour and alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious and often, incurable. There is alwaj^s a large bed of granulations (proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro- nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg arc severed we should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually lowered as healing advances) and bandage firml}^ with a compress moistened Avith a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. When proud flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless. GUNSHOT V/OUNDS. These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them seems unnecessary. If a wound has been made hj a bullet a careful examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed through or ©ut of the body. If it has not we must then probe for the ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do so. Often- times a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed, and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving rise to any inconvenience. It is often difBcult to locate a bullet, as it is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the body. The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the bullet's exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue. Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone without splintering it. Leaden bullets ma}^ split, producing two exit wounds. Spent bullets may oul}" produce a bruise. Should bones be struck b}' a^ ball the}" are sometimes shattered and splintered to such an extent as to warrant us in having' the animal destroj^ed. A gun- shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be treated the same as punctured wounds, ^. e., stop the hemorrhage, remove the foreign body if possible, and appl}^ hot fomentations or poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti- septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend- ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the 470 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTIIY. animal arc serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a distance the}' stick in the skin or onl}- go through it. The shot grains must be picked out, but as a rule this "peppering" of the skin amounts to but little. rOISONKD WOUNDS. These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos- sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the legs, paral^^sis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem- perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours. Treatment. — Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi- sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept "alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison from enter- ing the general circulation. Wash out the wound thoroughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver nitrate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the wound is also benefi- cial. Cold water may be applied to the wound to combat the inflam- mation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughl}^ with 10 per cent solution of zinc chloride, and then appl}^ caustics or the actual cauter3^ HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS). * Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting Harness or saddles. When a horse has been resting from steady work for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a scant.y allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and poorly fitted. This chafing is likel}' to cause abrasions of the skin, and thus pave the DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 471 way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity. This may be superficial, involving onlj^ the skin, or it may be deep-seated, involv- ing the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which is both incon- venient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are commonly called "sitfasts" and, while thej^ occur in other places, are most frequently found under the saddle. Treatment. — Abrasions are best prevented \>^ bringing the animal gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable. Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on the spine, and the saddle blankets should be clean and dry. Parts of the horse where chafing is likely to occur," as on the back under the saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt. The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites of two eggs; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost with- out end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will efl:ect a cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction. If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care- fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics. During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the abraded or wounded surface b}^ padding the harness so that chafing can not occur. BURNS AXD SCALDS. These wounds of domestic animals are fortunatel}' of rare occur- rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree, where there is a simple reddening of the skin; second degree, where there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters; third degree, where there is a com- plete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escaping steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other causa- tive agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), lightning stroke, and occasionalh^ the broken trolley wires of electric railways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the animal (if 472 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of fever — shivering-, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness, quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which agent is a ' factoi- in the production of burns, the lesions are practically of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts where there is much movement of the tissues arc grave, and, if at all extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree, where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue, even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trollej" wires are likely to occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not likely to prove serious. Treatment.— Tvcatment should be prompt and effective. If the burns are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonium carbonate, strychnine, caffein, and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treatment, to alleviate pain, the application of cold water in some form and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended. In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflammation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy, but a modification of it known as Stahl's liniment is perhaps better; this liniment is com- posed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts, bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should be applied freely to the scorched surface and covered with a layer of borated gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Renew the application frcqucntl}'. Carbolated vaseline may be used in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the following solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts, water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughl}^ cleansed with this solution used on absorb- ent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear, should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain. Strips of gauze or absorb- ent cotton saturated with the solution should now be applied and renewed onh'^ occasionally. In burns of the second and third degrees more satisfactory results maj^ be obtained with uonpoisonous drj-- dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When sloughing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue removed, and either a DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 473 dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue (proud flesh) should be con- trolled by the application of silver nitrate in the form of a caustic psncil. Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the parts with a copious quantity of cold water or by the application of whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar should be the first application. StahPs liniment is probably the best general application for all burns for the first week; then this should be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings. GANGRENE. Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part, and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pressure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gangrene — dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses from con- tinuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of some por- tion of the harness. Symjytoms. — There is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves. In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan- grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis- turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes covered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch is usuall}^ inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the case of divj gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic sjnio- vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its virulence. Treatment. — The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following decubitus ma}^ be prevented b}^ using soft bedding and frequently turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize it with a pair of pincers and draw it awa3^ After this treat the patch as an open wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughl}^ disinfected with creo- 474 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. lin, h'sol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of camphor. Continu- ous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accumulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry gangrene. ULCERATION. An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin or mucous membrane and covered with graiuilation tissue. It is a process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer. When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer pro- jects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or bloodv-whito liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard connec- tive tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer. Ccmses. — As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors. Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders. Treatment. — This consists in removing at once the exciting cause. The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu- tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antiseptic 'salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dressings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, w^arm lead water or .lead water and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best removed b}' a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided. ABSCESSES. These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold, or chronic, abscesses. When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the for- mation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is called a carbuncle. ACUTK ABSCEtiSES. Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, muscular tissue, or even bones. They are ver^^ common in the two DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 475 former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, occurring- during the existence of "strangles," or "colt distemper." The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while becomes soft — fluctuating— at some portion, mostly in the center. From this time on the abscess is said to be "pointing," or "coming to a head," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting promi- nence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity graduall}^ fills up — heals by granulations. Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the ripening process b}^ frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When they are ver}^ tardy in their development a blister over their surface is advisable. It is a common rule Avith surgeons to open an abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminatel3% since this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat- om3% It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera- tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots — inspissated pus — but after this the orifice iy simply to be kept open by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com- plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. The cavit}^ should be thoroughlj- washed with stimulating antiseptic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per cent permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul and bad smelling, their cavities should first be syringed with 1 part of hydro- gen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics. COLD ABSCESSES. Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often 476 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast ])oil. The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightl}- hotter than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur- rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif- fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani- mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi- tion, which after a few days' rest disappears, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we ma}^ discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the mass. The quantit}'^ of matter so contained is verj^ small — often not more than a tablespoonful — and for this reason it can not, in all cases, be detected. Cold abscesses are mostlj", if not always, caused by the long-con- tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partiall}' organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble. Treatment. — The means recommended to bring the acute abscess *' to a head" are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful, too uuich time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor (to its verj^ bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we ma}' pack the inc-ision with pow^dered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must bo kept open, and should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 477 incision and thoroug-hly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the walls remain thickened and indurated. It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, and properl}^ fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass. FISTULAS. Definition. — The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon the external surface of the body which is connected b}^ ducts, or pas- sages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymousl}^ with the word fis- tula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. The descrip- tion of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil equalh^ well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the foot. Fistu- lous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the mouth, and are called salivary fistulne. A dental fistula may arise from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition. Fistulas m&j arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts, and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas. Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane and show no disposition to heal. The}^ constantly afford means of exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occup}^ and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tendenc}'^ to farther extension, because the vertical and laminated formation of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures and also favors its retention among them. Causes. — Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more common causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse striking his head 4<» J3UKEAU OF AXIMAL IXDUSTKY. against the haj'rack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, etc. Fistulous ■withers are seen mostly in those horses that have thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or, among saddle horses, those that are verj'^ low on the withers, the saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either of these locations, ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not properly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes onl}' when the sinus becomes sur- charged or when, during motion of the parts, the matter is forced to the surface. Symptoms. — These, of course, will vary according to the progress made by the fistula. Following an injur}' we may often notice sore- ness or stifi'riess of the front legs, and upon careful examination of the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of the dorsal vertebrae, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging. The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling remains and continues to enlarge. A fistulous ulcer of the poll ma}^ be first indicated by the opposition which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle. At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ- ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running ulcer, or its contents ma}'^ dry up and leave a tumor which gradually develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the enlarge- ment has opened we should caref ulh^ examine its cavity, as upon its con- dition will wholly depend our treatment. Treatmsnt. — In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frecjuently be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of pow- dered saltpeter three times a day in his Avater or feed. If the fever runs high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 479 often proved very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient. Cooling- lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water; sedative washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform liniment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should this treat- ment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation of i)us should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its loioest jpoint. In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues, the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory. Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful examination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sinuses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape. Rarely is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the essential and rational treatment. If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of puru- lent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes, there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such a case, we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to replace that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash (fused) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the caustic plug 480 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. has been in iiIslcg for twenty-four hours, it ma}^ be removed and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open 1)}^ the introduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the vertebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of caustic solutions carefull}^ injected into all parts of the suppurating sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ou.nce of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionall3'' injected. Injections of Villate's solution or alcoholic solution of corrosive subli- mate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below, and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom. Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a single la^^er of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will often produce a sloughing of the afl'ccted parts in a week or ten days, after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested. Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires time and patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be opened at their lowest extremitj^ and kept open. Caustic applications must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached. It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deei:)ly or in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes imprac- ticable. In other cases the bones may become attacked in some inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases it is often best to destroy the horse at once. The reappearance of the fistula after it has ayjparently healed is not uncommon. The secoudar}^ attack in these cases is seldom serious. The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, everj^ second or third day until a cure is effected. In fistula of the foot we see the same tendenc}^ toward the burrow- ing of pus downward to lower structures, or in some cases upward toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is alwaj^s swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain. Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an abscess at the point of injur3\ Wounds caused b}^ nails, gravel, or any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of the foot DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 481 should be opened at once from below so as to allow free exit to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient in preventing the formation of an abscess. When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated pre- cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body; that is, the sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be trimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic wash, the whole foot ma}" be carefully covered with clean bandages, which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by excluding all dirt from the affected part. 11384—03 31 GENERAL DISEASES. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper, M. D., Yet. [Re\'ised in li)03 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] ANI.ALVL TISSUES. The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which are suhjcct to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as similar, simple, and fixed in their org-anization as the joists and boards which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure arc thus simple, for the general understanding In' the student who begins their study, the com- plete appreciation of the shades of variation, which differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or a ligament from a fibrous band — the result of disease filling in an old lesion and tying one organ with another — is as complicated as the nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight. All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar elements which are governed bj" the same rules of life, though they maj' appear at first glance to be widely different. These are {a) amorphous sub- stances, (b) fibers, and (c) cells. {a) Amorphous substances ma}' be in liquid form, as in the iluid of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matt\ hand rubbing or active friction and the appli- cation of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of warm water, or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not, will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to inflammatory troubles in the air passages. Local hleeding. — This treatment frequently affords immediate relief by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood- letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or the leg when acutely swelled. Counter ipvitants are used for deep inflammations. They act by bringing the blood to the surface and consequenth" lessening the blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid in its action in reliexing a congested lung or liver. The most com- mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the sides where the skin is comparativelj' soft and vascular. Colds in the throat or inflanmiations at an}" point demand the treatment applied in the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are used in a similar wa\\ Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis- eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general effects of the trouble in the S3^stem, and to favor the neutralization or elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of — Bed action of Wood. — This is obtained in various ways. The diminu- tion of the quantit}^ of blood lessens the amount of pressure on the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the point of inflammation; it diminishes the bodj^ temperature or fever; it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a conductor of irritation in diseases. BJood-lettmg is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a charm in relieving a commencing inflammatorj^ trouble. One must remember^ however, that the strength of the body and repair depend 492 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full- blooded, well-nourished animals and in the earh' stages of the disease. Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantitN' of fluid from the blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last remed}" of removing only the watery and not the formed elements from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu- lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material which may be acting as a poison in the blood. Diuretics operate through the kidne3\s in the same way. DiajyTioretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the discharge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect on the blood pressure. Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be accomplished b}^ depressing the center in the brain that controls heat production. Some coal-tar products are ver}^ effective in this way but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with knowledge of this fact and it is well to give heart tonics or stimulants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most usefid pro- cedure in many diseases. Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. The}' slow or weaken the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur- rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used much less than formerly. Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera- tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against the exhausting drain of the disease. The diet of an animal suffering from acute iuitlannnation is a factor of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved to a reduced quantity and to a les^ rich quality of blood by reducing the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easj^ digestion do not tire the alread}- fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges- tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totallj^ refused if offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing b}" the weakened muscles of the jaws and throat. Tonics and stiimdants are remedies which are used to meet special indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 493 after treatment of inflammator}" troubles as well as into the acute stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; the}'" stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory process; they regulate the action of a weakened heart; they promote healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. [Synonyms: Fehrls, Latin; pyrexia, Greek; fievrc, French; ficher, German; fehhre, Italian; calcntura, Spanish.] The etymolog}^ of the word "fever," from the Ijntin fevere, to boil or to burn, and of injrexla^ from the Greek word nvp^ fire, defines in a general way the meaning of the term. Fever is a general condition of the animal bod}^ in which there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which maj^ be only a degree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied b}^ an acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces- sive work, or they ma}^ be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usuallv pre- ceded by chills as an essential symptom. Fevers are divided into ess.ential fevei^s and symptomatic fevers. In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory char- acter, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are the result of the primary point of combustion, irritating the whole body, either through the nervous s}' stem or directly by means of the waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the blood ves- sels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, there- fore, to the class of infectious diseases. Essential fevers are subdivided \\A,o epliemerali^xox^., which last but a short time and terminate b}^ critical phenomena; intermittent i^\Q.v^., in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile symptoms and remissions, in which the bod}^ returns to its normal condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the functions of life are but badly performed; and continued iQYQVs, which include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, such as variola, etc. Whether the cause of the fever has been an injurj^ to the tissues, 494 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work, which has surcharged the ])lood with the waste products of the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating material, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or tuberculosis — the general train of s^-mptoms are much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or when some special quality in them "has a specific action on one or another tissue. There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the current of the blood. There is, then, an deviation of the peripheral tempemture, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the In-ain from the eflects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. There are times when it is diflicult to distinguish between the exist- ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition v hich is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than tem- porary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the temperature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees, so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recogniz- able lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflam- mations which will cause disease, as an animal in tliis conditioji is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phenomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, b}- the fami- lies which form groups of the races, and by certain conditions in indi- viduals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydes- dale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever produces the following sj^mptoms: The normal body temperature, which varies from 99^ to 100- F., is elevated from 1^ to 9°. A temperature of 102'^ or 103° F. is moderate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 100° F. and over is excessive. The DISEASES OE THE HOKSE. 495 temperature is accurately me8,3ured })y means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum. This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nostrils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and irregular distribu- tion of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy horse is felt beating about -1:2 to 48 times in the minute, is increased to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast difference among horses in this regard. With the same amount of elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while others, usuallj^ of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires onlj^ a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an outbreak of warm sweat is often a most favor- able symptom. The mucous membranes, wliich are most easily exam- ined in the conjunctivse of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflammatory troubles, the mucous mem- branes are tinged with yellow, which may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposition of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glmds are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brown- ish, bad-smelling deposit. The excretion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces an inactivit}'" of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material acts as an irritant, and later Ave may have it followed by an inflammatory process, producing a severe diarrhea. The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is I)assed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and 496 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excretion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste products and usuall}^ indicates an amelioration of the fever. While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are usuallj^ found hot, they may f requentl}^ alternate from hot to cold, or be much cooler than they normall}^ are. This latter condition usuallj' indicates great weakness on the part of the circulator}- system. It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the horse. In certain cases, in ver}^ nervous animals, in which fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even onh' quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be yufficient to dimin- ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When fever is the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma- tion, it usuallj- lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constanth^ have exacerbations of fever due to secondar}^ inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary bronchitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irritation, usuall}^ lasting for a specific period, during which the tem- perature can be but slightly diminished by any remed}". In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two, is therefore frequentl3^a difficut matter but an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become complications of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing through, the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active con- gestion and acute inflammation. These conditions become still more distinct when the fever is accompanied b}' a decided deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, and at the termina- tion of severe pneumonias. Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 497' the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions^ etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance. This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; alterations of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of heat stroke.-, injury to the brain, etc. The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the impor- tant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained by- placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of air,.. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipjn-etics^ simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists in the blood in most cases of fever, any remed}^ which will favor the excre- tion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We there- fore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions from.' the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the kidneysp; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver and intes- tines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste materiaF- which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood' vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the out- set of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength; on the-- contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart that will soor?- weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress the heart by; the use of such di-ugs as aconite. It is better to strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance that is irritating it. The - increased blood pressure throughout the body may be diminished hy lessening the quantity of blood. This is obtained in some cases with, advantage where the disease is but starting and the animal is plethoric- by direct abstraction of blood, as in bleeding from the jugular or other- veins; or by derivatives, such as mustard, turpentine, or blisterg> applied. to the skin; or by setons, which draw to the surface the fluid;; of the blood, thereby lessening its volume, without having the disad- vantage of impoverishing the elements of the blood found in bleeding... Antip^a-etics given by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most, useful in many cases. When the irritation Avhichis the cause of fever is a specific one, either- in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, tuberculosis^, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of- nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various^ diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, antipyrine,.. mercury, iodine, the empyreumaticoils, tars, resins, aromatics, sulphur,. and a host of other drugs, some of which are ad hoc and others of whick- 14384—03 32 498 EUIiEAU OF ANIMAL IXDUSTKY. are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which are household remedi'^s, are always useful, because the}'' act on the excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the disease. INFLUENZA. [Synonyms: Pinlceye, typhoid fever, epizooty, epihippic fever, hepatic fever, hilbjus fever, etc.; fibre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdcstanbe, German; gaslro-enterifis of Vatel and d' Arho\a.\; fchris erysipelatodcs, Zundel; <(/;j/(WS of Delafond.] Definition. — Influenza is a contagious and infectious specific fever of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefaction of the brain and nervous S3'stem, great depression of the vital forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and lamiiueof the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete recovery is sometimes followed b}' serious sequelae of the nervous and blood-vessel S3'stems. The dis- ease is ver}' apt, under certain conditions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epizootic form, with tendenc}' to compli- cations of especial organs, as, at one period the lungs, at another the intestines, etc. The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius llusius, in 1301, A. D., when it spread over a considerable portion' of Ital}^, caus- ing great loss among the war horses of Rome and its surroundings. In 16-18, A. D., an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711, A. D. , under the name of ' ' epidemica eguorum^-^ it followed the tracks of the great armies all over Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinderpest was scourging the cattle of the same regions. The two diseases were con- founded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the da}', allied to the ty]:>hus, which was a plague to the human race at the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British Islands in an epi- zootic among the horses of London and the southern counties of Eng- land, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758, Robert Whytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century a number of epizo- otics occurred in Hanover and other portions of Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 499 eastward to the Atlantic and westward to California. It is now a per- manent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its virulence }' oung or especiall}^ susceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and uncleaned stables of dealers and assumes, from time to time, an enzootic form, when from some reason its viru- lence increases. It assumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and commerce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are exposed to its contagion. Etiology. — As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five years of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to pass through the stables of the countr}^ taverns, the dirty, infected railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp stables of dealers in our large cities. Want of trainmg is a predisposing cause. Overfed, fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a few months of steady work. Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a "stall miasm." The atmosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick animals to healthy ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable distance. The conta- gion will remain in the straw bedding and droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a distance. The studies of Dieckerhofl', in ISSl, in regard to the contagion of influenza Avere especially interest- ing. He found that during a local enzootic, produced b}' the introduc- tion of horses suffering from influenza into an extensive stable other- wise perfectly healthy, the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular manner, but which was shown later to be depend- ent on the ventilation and currents of air through the various build ings. His experiments showed that the virus of influenza is exces- sivelj^ diffusible, and that it will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack animals on the opposite side before others even in the 500 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. same stable T^'C^c affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four- year-old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40 feet from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings, and in six da3's developed the disease. On the morning when the trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had contracted the disease. Symj)toms. — After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection a period of incubation of from four to seven da3^s elapses, during which the animal seems in perfect health, before any S3^mptom is visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they nvAj be intense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter con- dition frequentl}^ exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The disease mav run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations only of the blood, or it ma}' become at any period complicated b}' local inflammatory'- troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative functions. The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes dejected and inattentive to surrounding ol)jccts; stands with its head down, and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirt}' minutes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dr}^ and rough and stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and 105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands inunobile with its head hang- ing, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with excessive lachryma- tion, so that the tears run from the internal canthus of the e3"e over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The respiration becomes accelerated to twent3'-five or thirty in a minute, and the pulse is quick- ened to seventy, eight3'', or even one hundred, moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of muscular force; the animal DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 501 stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of tlie skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention of the animal. On move- ment, the horse staggers and shows a want of coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as the pinkeye, and the mouth and the natural openings become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it becomes of a dark color and less coagu- lable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in man}" cases in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares are apt to abort. We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the subcu- taneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. This infiltration is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals after exposure to cold. In ordinarj^ cases the temperature has reached its maximum of 105° or 100° F. in from twent5^-four to forty-eight hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period of from three to four days without so much variation between morn- ing and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other serious diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of the disease, which is generall}^ from six to ten days, the fever abates, the swelling of legs and under surface of bell}'^ diminishes, the appetite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the mucous membranes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the commence- ment of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly to its ordi- nar}^ good condition and health, and rapidly regains the large amount of weight which it lost in the earlv part of the disease, a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each twent^^-four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is a great ten- dency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea. Terminations. — The termination of simple influenza may be death by extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action; from excessive coma, 502 liUiiEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poisonous effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by su1)sidence of the fever, return of the appe- tite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid convalescence; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local inilammator}' troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic diseases. Complications. — The complications are congestions, followed by in- flammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular lam- ina? of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the determina- tion of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the 3'ear, and in certain epizootics, we find -iO and 50 per cent or even a greater percentage of the (-ases rendered more serious by complication of the intestines; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find the same per- centage of cases complicated by inflammation of the lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are complicated b}^ troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of the l)rain, of the lamina?, more rarely commence in epizootic form, but are to be found in a cer- tain small percentage of cases in all epizootics. Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzootics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon than ordinar}^ healthy animals. With a temperature already elevated, with the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity into the dis- tended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their contractility, w'ith a congestion of all of the vascular organs alread}'^ established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the congestion one step further and produce inflammation. Complication of the intestines. — When an}^ cause acts as an irritant to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it maj^ pro- duce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause ma}' be constipation, which can find i-elief only in a congestion which offers to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by a temporary cessation of activit}^; or irritant medicines, especially any increased use of antimon}*, turpentine, or the more active remedies; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities, or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; the swal- lowing of too cold water; or an}' other irritant ma}' cause congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly ; it looks with the DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 503 head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectl}^ protecting the surface of the belly from any \dolence. At first we lind a decided constipation; the drop- pings if passed are small and hard, coated with a viscous varnish or even with false men^branes. In from thirty-six to forty hours the constipa- tion is followed b}^ diarrhea. The alimentary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is followed bj!- a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal becomes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes graduallv more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher. If a fatal result is not pro- duced b}^ the extensive diarrhea the discharge becomes arrested in from five to ten da3^s and a rapid recovery takes place. Complication of the luvgs. — If at any time daring the course of the fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or in any other way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs ma}^ become affected. In the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo- nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilation of the nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady bod3^ The res- pirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid, and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneumonia. On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubular mur- mur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of pneumonia arc heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is periphei'al, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions are fre- quently disseminated in islands of variable size and are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms are some- times wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe by occur- ring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is discharge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or hemorrhagic. As in simple pneu- monia, in the outset this discharge may be "rusty," due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the blood is thoroughly mixed with the SO'l ^ BUHEAU OF ANJMAL INDUSTRY. matter, staining it evenly instead of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of the complication the animal ma}' be subject to chills, which mav again occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfavorable termination by gangrene ma^r be looked for. If gangrene occurs it is shown by preiiminarj' chills, a rapid elevation of temperature, a tumultuous heart, a flakj' discharge from the nostrils, and a fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene complicating other diseases. Complication of the Irain. — At any time during the course of the disease congestion of the brain may occur; at an early period if the fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases, more fre- quently after three or four days. The animal, which has been stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it becomes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes, rubbing along until it reaches the corner and again fastens itself. It ma}^ become more violent, and rear and plunge. If disturbed bj^ the entrance of the attendant or an}' loud noise or bright light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but is not detinite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fastened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle at the end of the rope. It wanders almost Invariably in one direction. The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the opposite in the other. The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur- rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin- ished, the coma lasts for A'ariable time, to be followed by excesses of violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungovernable attacks of violence. Comjjlication of tlie feet. — The feet are the organs which are next in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place in the lamlnie (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet alone are affected they arc carried forward until they rest on the heels, and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as possible. DISEASES OF THE HOIiSE. 505 In soniG cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the animal is notice- able. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized. Pleurisy. — This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is ushSred in b}^ the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on cither side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one-fourth to one-third of the thoracic cavit}" in from thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Perl€(Ardlt(S is an occasional complication of infiuenza. It is ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature; the pulse becomes rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become indistinct or can not bo heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the jugular veins along the neck; Respiration becomes more diflicult and rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked, or it may drop suddenl}^ dead from heart failure. Peritonitis., or inflanmiation of the membranes lining the belly and covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen- eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis. The local sA'mptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side of the flanks and belh^; distention of the latter, and sometimes the formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation. Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflammation of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses. Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma; the rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, ^^ellowish discoloration of the mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni- tals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis of a local complication is based ui:>on the same symptoms that are produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza the local s3"mptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible to- pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed b}^ diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or diflicult}^ of respi- ration points to a complication of the lungs, but, as we have seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions are fre- quentl}^ hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of the feet, or founder, complicating influenza is frequentl}^ not shown on account of the insensibilit}^ to pain on the part of the animal, which indicates the importance of running the hand dail}^ over the hoofs to detect any- sudden elevation of temperature on their surface. 506 BUREAU OF AI7IMAL INDUSTKY. The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this complication. Severe cases of influenza maj' simulate anthrax in the horse. Jn both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous membranes of the e3-es, and a certain amount of swelling of the'legs and under surface of the bellv. The diagnosis here can be made onlj- by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola, and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe cases which have lasted for some da3's. In influenza we have no evi- dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctivae of the eyes. In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma, dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of the under surface of the belly and logs; but in pneumonia we have the history of the difliculty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for several days; while in influenza we have the liistor}" of characteristic svmp- toms for several days l>efore the rapid breathing and difficulty of res- piration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without the history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of sev- eral days' standing complicated by pneumonia, from a case of severe pneumonia of five to six days' standing, but from a prognostic point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have influ- enza may aid in the diagnosis. Prognosis. — Influenza is a serious disease chiefl}' on account of its numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a comparatively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases. In some outbreaks, how^ever, complications of one kind or another pre- ponderate; in such instances the rate of mortality is much increased. Alteratlo7is. — The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the digest- ive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of the mucous membrane, and especially of the Pej-ers' patches near the ileo- cecal A^alve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained, and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a congested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in the con- gested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues. Other alterations are dependent entirel}^ upon the complications. If the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their intimate nature with fhose of simple pneumonia, but they differ some- what in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed in DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 507 their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lamiiiitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and iniiamniation of the brain. Treatment. — While the appetite remains the patient should have a moderate quantity of sound ha}^, good oats, and bran; or even a little fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick horse slioukl be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished, allowed freeh'. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple plan is to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene may be used with alcohol or strj^clmia. Derivatives in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, Imths of alcohol, turpentine and hot water, after which the animal must be immediately dried and blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stupor and relieve the conges- tion of the internal organs. This treatment is especiall}^ indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or of tie brain is threatened. Quinine and salicylic acid in 1-dram doses wil. lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash reduces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby reduces the tempera- ture; again, this drug in moderate quantities is a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber's salts and bicarbon- ate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart, digitalis can be used with adv^antage. At the end of the fever, and when con- valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in 1-pint doses maj^ be given as stimulants; to these may be added 1-dram doses of turpentine. In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are njost frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics; diarrhea is also relieved b}^ the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small doses of laudanum. In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most frequentl}^ indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease itself. Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat. It is, unfortunatel}^, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani- 508 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. mal Avill permit, are most useful, but in the majorit}' of cases the stupefied animal is unable to )>e moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in lo«il bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices. During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing tlic animal with plent}' of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to over- load the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose the animal to cold. SEQUEL.K OK IXFLIEXZA. Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica. — A previous attack of inllu- enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease which appears most frequentl}^ a few weeks after convalescence is established. It occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid convalesccncG and are apparentl}^ perfectly well than it does in those which have made a slower recovery. Anasarca commences by sjnnptoms which are excessively variable. The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the aaimal's bod}' and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and gra\'ity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca- tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complications ma}' completel}' mask the original trouble. In the simplest form the first sjniiptom noticed is a swelling, or sev- eral swellings, occurring on the surface of the bod}' — on the forearm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head. The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg; not hot, little sensitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the surrounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and belly, or the bead, to an enormous size; they have always the characteristic con- stricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechise, which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color. Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the f ra^num. If the external swelling has been on the head, the petechine of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined to the legs. The animal may be rendered stifl" by the swelling of the legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may be so enormous as to resemble that of a hip- popotamus rather than that of a horse. During this period the tem- perature remains normal; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker; the respiration is only hurried if the swelling of the head DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 509 infringes on the caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, apparently in perfect health. In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of som.e cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots which arc suppurating. In the nasal fossse the hemorrhagic spots have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh. We may now find, some enlargement and peripheral edema of the lymphatic glands, which are fed. from the affected part. The thermometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usually remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F. Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, but a simple secondar}^ fever produced b}' the dead material from the surface or superficial suppuration, and b}'^ the oxidization and absorp- tion of the colloid mass contained, in the tissues. The skin may sup- purate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about the head ninj by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath- ing. Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines. Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may result from anasarca. Terrninatlons. — The simple form of the disease most frequently terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth diiy by resolution or absorp- tion of the effusion, with usuall}^ a profuse diuresis, and with or with- out diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times capricious. Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost invariably fatal, causing death b^^ asphj'-xia. Metastasis to the intes- tines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again produced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swellmg of the head. ^ Peritonitis ma}^ arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora- tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. Alterations.— Tha essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly simple; the capillaries arc dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable portion of the blood presents a j^ellowish or citrine mass, jelly-like in consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a 510 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other like those of a hog's head by the masses of fat. The surface of the skin is desquamated and f requenti}' denuded of the hair. Frequently there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous membrane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots, sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with each other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish zone, the prod- uct of irritation. If edema of the intestines has occurred, the membrane is found four or live times its normal thickness, reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions of iisphyxia; exter- nally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis. Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered in anasarca. Dlagnon'ts. — The diagnosis of anasarca i^mst principally be made from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, while sensi- tive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard, and pellet-like. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of excessive swelling of the head in anasarca, there may occur an extensive serofibrinous exu- dation from the mucous membranes of the nose, poured out as a semi- fluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fossfc, never having the appearance or t3'pical oily character, which it has in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated character which is found in farcy. Prognosis. — While anasarca is not an excessively fatal disease, the prognosis must alwa}' s be guarded. The majority of cases run a simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten da3^s, or pos- sibly after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia. Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especial!}" dangerous on account of the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotom}". Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual gravity existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject. Treatment. — The treatment of anasai'ca may be as variable as are the lesions. The indii-ations are at once shown by the alterations and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. lij'giene comes into pla}'^ as the most important factor. Oats, oat DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 511 and haj tea, milk, eggs — an5^thmg which the stomach or rectum can be coaxed to take care of — must be employed to give the nutriment vrhich is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues, and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their proper caliber. Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate the emuncTtories so that thc}^ shall carry off the large amount of the prod- ucts of decomposition, which result from the stagnated effusions of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses, and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantit}- , and the chlorate of potash in single large doses, will be found useful. Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful warm diu- retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of iron, copper, etc., are use- ful as digestive tonics; I doubt if they have any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid, etc., have not proved efficacious in m}^ hands. Iodide of potash in small doses serves the triple pur- pose of digestive tonic, denutritive for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treatment are diluted Lugol's solution injected into the trachea, antistreptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the circulation. No one but a qualified veteri- narian would be competent to appl}" these remedies. Externally. — Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an extreme of temperature — either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be added as an astringent. When we have excessivel}^ denuded surfaces, suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the wash. \x\ cases of excessive swelling, especiall}' of the head, mechanical relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with the hot iron even in country' practice, as no other disease so predis- poses to septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threat- ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of dyspnea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a nuistard plaster 512 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. should be applied over the whole belh" and chest. The sinapism will draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; the local inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica- tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with little hope of a good result. After recovery the animal regains its ordinary hcaltli, and there is no predisposition to a return of the disease. STRANGLES. [Synonyms: Distemi>er, colt-ill, catarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever, Fchris pyogenica.l Definition. — Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, and ass; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and frequently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the bod}^, both near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was before, l)ut sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the development ci deep-seated abscesses which may prove fatal. Causes. — The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with an animal sufltering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an immu- nity from previous attacks. At 3, 4, or 5 years of age the colt, Avhich has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and driven to the market town or count}' fairs to be exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway cars, to dealers' stables, equally unclean, where it meets manj^^ opportunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, with numer- DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 518" ous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and at last it succumbs. The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be excessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the contraction- of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts- are very susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are- much less susceptible and are bvit rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain analogy between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infection there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. Sxjmptoms. — The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when* placed in its stable, is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten- tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is takei> at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allowing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters, or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the muscles and dryness of the skin. If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- dened to a bright ros}^ color. The pulse is quickened and the breathing may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a couf;b is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis- charge is at first watery; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish va color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and increases greatly in quantity. At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this maj^ be only a catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the wind- pipe, or the air tube^ of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. According to the organ affected the sj'mptoms and character of cough will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused by ordinary cold. Shortl}'^ after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first pufiy, swollen^ 14384—03 33 514 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appe- tite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the function of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has re- gained its usual condition. Old and strong horses maj- have the disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may continue to eat and perform their ordinar}" work as usual and no sj'mptom may be seen beyond a slight, discharge from the nose and a rare cough, ■which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particular owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malignant form or become complicated so as to l^ecome a most serious disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of discharge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the nostrils, the front of the animal, manger and surrounding objects become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the lung itself {lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe heavilv, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condition marked symptoms of fever are seen; the appetite is lost, the coat is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing. This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some time with a severe cough, or the animal mav die from choking up of the lungs (asphyxia). The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoj'ing fistulas at the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may occur cither during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing w ith the head wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung S3'mptoms, without previous dis- charge, ix)int to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma- DISEASES OF THE HOliSE. 515 tion of an abscess in some part of tlie abdominal cavit}^, usually in the mesenteiy. Pathology. — The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of the mucous membranes, essential!}^ of the respirator}^ system and in the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, and consist of acute inflammator}^ changes, tending to the formation of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if the animal has died of asphj'xia it is found dark colored and uncoagulatcd when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while suifering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood, are found. Treatment. — Ordinar}" light cases require but little treatment beyond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and protection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgentl}^ called for, as lung com- plications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive the horse may receive small quantities of Glauber's salts (handful three times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in 1-dram doses every few hours, and small doses of antimon}', iodide of potash, aconite, or qui- nine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatl}' ease the cough. The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri- tating liniments should oiot be applied to the throat. When lung com- plications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied to the bell}' and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its strength. The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a com- paratively recent date, has been so slow and so tardil}- accepted b}^ the niajorit}' of practitioners that wc have been subjected to constantly seeing announced and heralded as news iii the daily papers the appear- ance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace and of the. empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease. There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which 516 BUHEAU OV ANIMAL INDUSTRY. has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis- ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the name given bj^ Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, Avho first described it in the Adams Wochenschrift, XXIX, in 1885. Etymology. — The term "scalma" is derived from the old German word sccdmo., scelmo, schelm., which indicates roguishness, or knavish- ness, as great nervous irritability, especialh^ of the temper, is one of the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The term '''■HeimtucMsche Krankheit.:'' signifying malicious, treacherous, or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. 1 am not aware of any name in English or French which has been applied to it. As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine anj^ of the nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases, I will not offer the term " whooping cough" as a name, but I will sug- gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma in the horse. Definition. — Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx, which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in enzootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibility of the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from complications. Incubation. — The period of incubation is from six to seven days, but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may delay its appearance for ten AajB. It spreads through a stable slowly, develop- ing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously sick one had stood, or it ma}^ ])ass next to an animal several stalls away. One attack is usually protective. Symjytoins. — The symptoms are ushered in b}" fever, in which the acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute both in its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the nasal fosste. In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short, rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character. The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse, purulent, or even "rusty," if the bronchitis has extended to the neighboring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The respiration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing, or in com- DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 51 T plicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening. The temperature rises rapidly to 102.2°, 104°, and in some cases even to 107.5° F. The latter temperature usuall}^, but not alwaj^s, indicates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature drops in two or three daj's after the appearance of the cough. The skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears as an ani- mal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderatel}' reddened. The appe- tite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglutition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause of spasms of coughing, and these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts at swal- lowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rales are heard, with at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under the com- plications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Throughout the course of the disease we have still one constant and characteristic 83-mptom — nervous irritability. With temperature of 101° to 107° F., the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands frequently with the head up, and is on the alert for the entrance of any one to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall.* The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem- perature. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months, as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influenza. The termination is hy resolution and recovery or hj complications. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no sign is left of the disease except the fever mark on the hoof. Complications. — The complications are excessive spasms and pleurisy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the whole animal, the legs are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the muscles tense. The cough comes out b}^ rapidly succeeding efforts, or with the first sound the larjmx seems to close for a moment before the rest can follow. In two cases of my own the spasm has been so great that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the respira- tion becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the attack. In the case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the first I believed that he had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a long inspiration, 518 BUKEAU OF A2s'IMAL INDUSTRY. the animal regained his feet, the respiration became almost normal and the tubular nuirmur had disappeared. I have seen no fatal ter- mination from this spasm of the pneumogastric, but can readil}^ believe that traumatisms resulting from sueh attaclcs might prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce asphj'xia. The fatiil complication is pleurisy. This occurs when the horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific, but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The additional symptoms are those of an ordinary' pleurisv. Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tempera- ture without corresponding acceleration* of the pulse and of the respira- tions; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature, and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis with but trifling discharge. The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less continu- ous high temperature; from influenza by the absence of edema, of the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles b}' want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent discharge and abscesses; from variola h\ the nonappearance of pustules and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied hy profuse discharge; from rheumatic pleu- risy and pleurodvnia by the history in these of repeated attacks and great temporar}' pain; from surgical fever b}- tlic absence of cause. Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease entails only the loss of ten da3's' to three weeks' use of the animal, and leaves the subject with no complicating sequelae. In some cases I have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in ever}- case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent spasms might prove fatal. Pleuris}" would render the prognosis serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes. Tre^itmenf. — The treatment of a stable should be at once prophylactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disinfection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treatment is sim- ple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air without drafts, frequent rul)bing, and tempting food should be thorough. The diges- tive tract is to be regulated b}" small doses of bicarbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to be stimu- lated hy drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow's milk. Antispasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with turpentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions of alco- hol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also afford relief. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 519 Quinine and salicj^lic acid uiay 1x3 used during the elevation of tem- perature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal injections in 1-ouncc doses of the following solution: Acetate of aluminum, 1 per cent; alum, one-half of 1 to 1 per cent; bromide of potash, 1 to 2 per cent; water, 100 per cent. EDEMATOUS rNEUMOlvIA. [Synonyms: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic iineumonia; hospital, or stable, pneumonia; equine pleuropneumonia; influenza; pedoralla cquorum; pleuropneu- monia; contagiosa equorum; hriistsmche, German.] Definition. — This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older veterinarians who did not recognize any essential difference in its nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the pro- found sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the stag- gering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the ani- mal caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can b.e separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its whole course. Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom- panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro- found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to cause death. It is sometimes attended b}' pleurisy, inflammation of the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal. Etiology. — "While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any influences that lessen the general vigor. Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badlj^ drained and ventilated stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion, which may be retained for over a year. The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather to follov»' the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct cur- rents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoff found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible throughout an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but he also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not transmissi- ble at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the atmosphere. A brick wall 8 feet in height served, in one instance, to prevent the infection of other animals placed on the opposite side from a horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the same side and separated 520 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. from the focus of contagion only by open bars in the stall Avcre infected and developed the disease in its tj^pical form. Si/i/tptoms. — The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank, fibrinous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new symptoms as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of local lesions which are found in the latter disease. All of the pneu- monias throughout the whole course of the trouble are less marked and less clearl}^ defined. The symptoms may develop slowh' or rapidly. If slowly, there is fever and the animal gives a rare cough which veseiubles that of a heavy horse affected with a slight chronic bronchitLs; it becomes some- what dejected and dull, at times somnolent, and has a diminished appetite. This condition lasts for several days, or the disease may begin with high fever, and the symptoms described below are severe, and develop in rapid sequence. The respiration increases to 2-1, 30, or 30 to the minute, and a small, running, soft pulse attains a rhythm of 50, 70, or even more beats in the sixty seconds. The heart, how- ever, contrary to the debilitated condition of the pulse, is found beating violentl}' and tumultuously, like it does in anthrax and septic intoxi- cation. The mucous membranes of -the eyes and mouth and of the genital organs are found somewhat edematous, and they rapidl}'^ assume a dirt}", saffron color, at times approaching an ochcr, but distin- guishable from the similar coloration in influenza by the want of the luster belonging to the latter and by the muddy, dull tint, which is characteristic throughout the disease. Suddenl}', without the preliminary rales wliich precede grave lesions of the lungs in other diseases, the blowing murmur of pneumonia is heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however, much more distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and directly behind the shoulder on either side of the chest. In some cases the evidence of lung lesion can onlj^ be detected over the trachea. The lesions of the lungs may be scattered through both lungs, involving numerous small areas, or they may be confined to and more or less fully occup}^ one or two lobes. Occasionally there is a general involvement of both lungs. The body temperature has now reached 104° or 105° F., or in extreme cases even a degree higher. The debility of the animal is great without the stupefaction or evidence of cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave constitutional phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonias. The animal is subject to occasional chills, and on movement staggers in its gait. The j'ellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse ma.j become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement and sounds being at the same time exaggerated. Tlie animal loses flesh rapidh', and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of the bell}', or of the internal organs may show themselves. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 521 Terminations. — These symptoms may gradually subside after five to eight days, with an improved appetite the inanition may cease and the animal commence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues; the pulse becomes stronger and the heart more regular and less tumul- tuous; the mucous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct color; the difficult}^ of respiration is removed, and the animal may make a recovery. When death occurs it is usuall}^ directly due to heart failure; in some cases it is caused b}^ asphyxia, owing to the great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, rendering its further function impossible. Complications. — The pulmonary complications of edematous pneu- monia are secondary inllammator}^ or necrotic changes in the lungs themselves. Suppuration at times takes place in the bronchi and may extend to the lung tissue. In this case mucous rales develop which are most distinctly heard over the trachea and on the sides of .the chest directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous rales, to be heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or subacute bronchitis. If the inflammation has been of some standing, cavernous rales may be heard indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung tissue arid the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute inflamma- tor}'- process are not appreciable in the general condition of the animal, except to still further weaken it and add to its debilitated and emaciated cachexia. Gangrene sometimes occurs. A sudden rise of the body temperature of 1° or 2", with a more enfeebled pulse and a still more tumultuous heart, develop simultaneously with the appearance of a discharge from the nostrils. This discharge is gray in color, serous or water}' in consistenc}^, mixed with the detritus of broken-down lung tissue, and sometimes contains clots of blood, or in more serious cases may be marked by a quantity of fluid blood from a hemorrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge is fetid to the smell. The animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the lungs mucous rales are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities maj' be found at any part of these organs, and points of lobular pneumonia ma}- be detected. A verj' serious complication is an inflammation of the heart mus- cle. This is shown by a very weak and rapid pulse, great prostration, some filling of the lungs. This complication nearly alwaj'S terminates in death. Other complications which may be mentioned are inflam- mation of the kidneys, blood poisoning, congestion of the brain, and inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons of the legs. Diagnosis. — As fever is the first symptom of edematous pneumonia, it is useful during an outbreak of this disease to make daily tempera- ture measurements of the exposed horses, so that the first indication of disease may be discovered and the horse removed from contact with those that are sound. 522 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Prognosis. — The mortality in thi.s disease may ))e as high as 25 per cent, but it is usuall}^ not more than 10 per cent. If there is a special tendency to complications of some sort, the mortality is increased. Altei'atloits. — At the time of death from edematous pneumonia we frequently find septic changes and the evidences of putrefaction. The solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high up around the root of the lungs and around the large bronchi, and is gen- erally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the lungs are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of a gv».y yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readih'. Matter is found in the air tubes which form gutters through the jell}' -like mass of the diseased lung. Abscesses from the size of a nut to larger masses may be found disseminated through the lungs. The blood is dark in color, fluid, or only clotted into soft, jelly-like masses. Masses of gangre- nous or dead black tissue ma}^ be present. Treatment. — Bleeding is not to be used Ix'cause it would only still further weaken an already enfeebled animal; antimony or the alterants would increase the depression of a too depraved constitution. There is in this disease no acute congestion of a particular organ to draw off b}'^ depletive measures, nor any violent blood current to be retarded, for fear of hypernutrition of any special part. Revulsives do good, as thej^ excite the nervous s3'Stem and awaken the torpor of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablish- ment of the functions. Mustard poultices may be applied over the belly and sides of the chest, as in other diseases, but caution must be used in the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers ma}^ result from their action on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous from the great tendency in this disease to septic complications. Repeated friction of the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by banda- ging and b}" rubl)ing the surface of the body with turpentine and alcohol, which is immediatelv to be dried by rough towels, will excite the circulation and stimulate the emunctories of the skin. Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease. Tur- pentine in 1-dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kidneys to carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may disturl) the alread}^ delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the latter danger, and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive system, if given with care in small doses. It is an antiputrid, and is especiall}' indi- cated when septic complications and gangrene are present. The aro- matics and bitter tonics are useful; gentian and tea in warm decoction form a useful menstruum for other remedies. Digitalis is a useful remed}'. Strichnine and quinine may be given throughout almost the whole course of the disease. The various preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive system. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid which is of marked benefit in edematous pneumonia; it should be given in small doses diluted in alcohol. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 523 Salicylic acid ma}^ be g-iven in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours. It is much used for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the tem- perature, and is of value in this disease in preventing- the exudation into the tissue of the lungs. The alkalines, as the sulphate and bicar- bonate of soda, the nitrate of potash, and verj^ small doses of the iodide of potash, should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kid- nej'S, and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of the waste matter. Serums and antitoxins have been used in the treatment of this dis- ease, especially in Germany. The results appear to show some benefit in some instances, but none in others; altogether they are not especially encouraging. The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many of the fevers the food has to be diminished in quantity and regulated in the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part of the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the inflamed organs. In edematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the food that can possibl}" be digested and assimilated must be given. Choice must be made of the richest material which can be handled by the vreakened stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good, sound ha}" should be chopped short and dampened or parth^ boiled; in the latter case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats may be preferred dr}" or in other cases will be taken better scalded; in most cases, hov/ever, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which can be added a little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat flour. Pure cow's milk, not too rich in fatty matter, can be given alone or with ])eaten eggs; frequentlj^the horse will have to be coaxed with the milk diluted with several parts of water at first, but will soon learn to drink the pure milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or boiled are useful, and fresh clover in small quantities will frequenth^ stimulate the ajDpetite. In other words, tr}^ various foods and combinations and give the horse what he will eat. Throughout the course of the disease and during convalescence the greatest attention must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as to keep the glands of the skin in working order, and light, warm covering must be used to protect the animal from cold or drafts of air. HORSEPOX, OR EQUINE VARIOLA. [Synonyms: Variola equina; pustular grease; ^>/(/)/dt'Ho/cZ herpes.'\ Dcfin'dlon. — Horsepox is a specific infectious fever of the horse attended by an eruption of pustules, or pocks, over any part of the skin or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the body, but chiefly, and often exclusively, upon the pasterns and fetlocks. The eruption may commence upon the lips, or about the nostrils or eyes. 524 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. This disease was described b}^ the earl}^ Roman agricultural writers and by the veterinarians of the last century. It received its first im- portant notice from the great Jenner, who confounded it with grease in horses, since animals with this disease are very apt to have the eruption of variola appear on the fetlocks. He saw these cases transmit the disease to cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and milkmaids who attended them, and furnish the latter with immunity from small- pox, which led to the discovery of vaccination. Horsepox is also frequently mistaken for the exanthemata attendin!,»- some forms of venereal disease in horses. Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general course, complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a disease of the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of variola to anj^ other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal transmissible to the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case of horsepox, develop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals is not so readily reinoculated into the horse with success. If it does develop, it pro- duces the original disease. Causes. — The direct cause of horsepox is infection. A large num- ber of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease, as in the case of strangles, and this trouble, like almost all contagious diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune. The chief predisposing cause is young age. Old horses which have not been affected are less apt to become infected when exposed than younger ones. The exposure incident to shipment, through public stjibles, cars, etc., acts as a predisposing cause, as in the other infectious diseases. The period of final dentition is a moment of the animal's life which renders it peculiarl}' susceptible. Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the atmos- phere for several hundred j-ards. The more common means of con- tagion is by direct contact or b}" means of fomites. Feed boxes and bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are probabl}' the most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in the majority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips Jind nostrils. Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this disease ma}^ be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits it to a number of brood m.ares and the}" in turn return to the farms where t\\e,j are surrounded by young animals to whom they convey the contagion. The saddle and croup straps are frequent agents of infection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of the disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments or spongt^. Trasbot recites a case in which a set of hol)bles, which had been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on a horse for a quittor operation and transmitted the disease, which developed on the edges of the wound. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 525 Symjytoms. — There is a period of incubation, after an animal has been exposed, of from live to eight daj^s, during which there is no appreciable alteration in the health. This period is shorter in summer than in winter. At the end of this time small nodes develop at the point of inoculation and the animal becomes feverish. The horse is dull and dejected, loses its appetite, and has a rough dry coat with the hairs on end. There is moderate thirst. The respirations are some- what quickened and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The body temperature is elevated, frequently reaching 104° or 105° F. within thirty-six or forty-eight hours from the appearance of the first symptoms. The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctivae, are of a bright rosy red. In the lymphatic, cold-blooded, and more common horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a compara- ti^'el}" high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and even work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and overheated, are apt to develop serious complications. At the end of from three and a half to four days the eruption breaks out, the fever abates, and the general sj'mptoms improve. The erup- tion in severe cases may be generalized; it may be confined to the softer skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the inside of the thighs, or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a wound or in the irritated skin of a pair of greasy heels. It consists of a vary- ing number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane, as in the nostrils or vagina, or on soft unpigmented skin, appear red and feel at first like shot under the epidermis. These nodes soften and show a yellowish spot in the center when they become pustules. The epider- mis is dissolved and the matter escapes as a viscid fluid at first citrine and later cloudy and purulent, which dries rapidl}', forming scabs; if those fall off or are removed they leave a little shallow concave ulcer wliicli heals in the course of five or six days. In the softer skin if pigmented the cicatrices are white and frequently remain so for about a 3'ear, when the pigment returns. The lips or genital organs of a colored horse, if covered with a number of small white spots about the size of a pea, will usuall}^ indicate that the animal has been affected with the horsepox. At times the pustules may become confluent and produce large super- ficial serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around the lips or e3'elids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heels; in this case the part becomes swollen, hot, painful, and is covered with a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there is f requentl}^ a sec- ondar}^ fever lasting for a day or two. In severe cases there may be a suppurative adenitis, or inflammation of the lymphatic glands which are fed from the affected part. If the eruption is around the nostrils and lips, the glands between the jaws 52(5 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. (suhmaxillarv) form abscesses as in a case of strangles; if the eruption is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses ma}' form in the fold of the groin (inguinal). There ma}^ be so much tumefaction of the nostrils as to produce difficulty in breathing. Complications. — A case of horsepox ma}' be attended witli ^arious complications of varying degrees of importance. Adenitis, or sup- puration of the glands, has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions irritate the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part against the manger or scratch it in other ways, and thus produce troublesome ulcers, which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the mucous mem- brane of the nose causes severe corj^za with purulent discharge. The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the lungs, developing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. If the animal is exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge the lungs with blood at the termi- nation of the specific fever, just when the eruption is about to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In this case we have a short, dry cough, labored breathing, the development of a secondar}- fever of some gravity, and all of the external s3'mptoms of a pneumonia. This pneumonia difi'ers, however, from an ordinar}' pneumonia in the sj-mptoms furnished by the examination of the lungs themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue being affected the inflamma- tion is disseminated in smaller spots over the entire lung. Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of horsepox is to be based on the pres- ence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several days, and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the erup- tion is in the nasal cavities, marked b}^ a considerable discharge and attended by submaxillary abscesses, it maj' be confounded with stran- gles. If the throat is affected it ma}' be confounded with an angina (laryngitis or pharyngitis), but in the latter the local trouble precedes or is concomitant with the fever, while in the former the fever pre- cedes the local trouble bj- several days. Vaiiola maj" be confounded with bronchitis or pneumonia if complicated with these troul)les and the eruption is absent from the exterior, but it is of little moment, as the treatment for both will be much the same. When the eruption is in the neighborhood of the genital organs this disease has been mistaken for the dourine. In variola the eruption is a temporary one; the nodes and pustules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid cicatrization unless continued in the vagina or on the penis by the rubbing of the walls and filth which accumulates; there are apt to be pustules at other parts of the body. In the venereal disease the local trouble commences as a papule and breaks into an ulcer without having formed a pustule. The ulcer has not the convex ros}- appearance of that of the less serious discharge; the symptoms last for a longer period, by which time others aid in differentiating the two. In glanders the tubercle is hard, and, after breaking into an ulcer, the indurated bottom remains, grayish or DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 527 dirty white in color, ragged, and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. There is no disposition to suppuration of the neighboring glands. In variola the ros}" shallow ulcer and healthy pus, with the acutely tumi- fied glands, should not be mistaken, at least after a day. I have seen acute glanders in mules which required a dnj^s delay to differentiate from strangles; at that time the farcy buds appeared. Prognosis. — The average case of horsepox runs a course of dejec- tion, loss of appetite, and more or less fever for about four days, fol- lowed by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and as sound as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent, the ulcerations ma}'^ act as irritants and render the animal unfit for use for several weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia in this disease are not of greater gravity than they are when occurring from other causes. The spots denuded of pigment left by the pustules on the lips and genitals may temporaril}^ depreciate the value of the animal to a slight degree. Treatment. — As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic tvpe, active remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed on a low diet (little or no oats) — bran mashes, a moderate quantit}" of good, sound hay, a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxatives, and slop feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than bran or oatmeal. Water ma}^ be given as the animal desires it, but it should not be cold; if a half bucketful of water is kept in the manger the hoi'se will take but a few swallows at a time. One-dram doses of nitrate of potfish or 1-ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter are useful in the drinking water. If the fever is high the antip\'retics are indi- cated: Sulphate of quinine in 1-dram doses; iodide of potash in 1-dram doses; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves, of the aromatic herbs, or (;f English breakfast tea are useful in the later stages. If compli- cations of the air passages or lungs are threatened, a large mustard poultice should be applied to the belh' and sides of the chest. Oxide of zinc ointment should be used on confluent eruptions, and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to be touched with caustic. Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold drafts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be used on the bod}^ and bandages on the legs. After convalescence is established, nutritious food of easy digestion and walking exercise are all that is needed, except perhaps a little Glauber's salts to prevent constipation. P/'oj)hyI.actic treatment. — ^Vhen horsepox breaks out among a large number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a num- ber of colts, it may be assumed that the greater majoritj' will contract the disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be through v.'ith it at once. If the weather is moderate all the animals which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce the 528 BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election, and render the danj^er of complication a minimum one. For inoculation the discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected and inoculated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of the neck. AXTHEAX. [Synonyms: Carbuncle, splenic fever, splenic apojAexy, hraxi/ (in sheep), etc.; sneer ignis, pustula maligna, anthrax, Latin; charbon, sang de rate, Frencli; miltzbrand, German; carbone, carhoncMo, fiioco de St. Antonio, Italian; jasim, siberskaji jas^ra, Russian. ] Dcfinitloii. — Anthrax is a severe and usuall}' fatal contagious disease, characterized b}" chills, great depression and stupor of the animal, and a profound alteration of the blood, ^.i is caused \)y the entrance into the animal's body of a bacterium, known as the BaciUns anthracir,^ or its spores. Practically all animals are susceptible to anthrax. The hcrbiv^- ora are especially susceptible, in the following order: The sheep, tlie ox, and the horse. The guinea jjig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other animals die cptickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omnivora and carnivora may be attacked b}^ it in a constitutional form as fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunate!}', in many cases, develop from it only local trouble, followed by recovery. Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world since the first written history we have of any of their diseases. In 1709-1712 A. D. extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in German}', Hungary, and Poland. In the first half of the present century it had become an extensively spread disease in Russia, Holland, and Eng- land, and for the last century has been gradually spreading in the Americas — more so in South America than here. In 1864, in the five governments of Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaroslaw, in Russia, over 10,000 horses and nearly 1,000 persons perished from the disease. Causes. — The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed entirely to climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and they are still recognized as predisposing factors in the development of the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks over any number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries during the warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy lands dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with light rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nourishing and preserving the virus. The direct cause of anthrax is always infection of a previously sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of a previously infected animal. .1 u 0 ? in J II I i. I I X $ .1 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 529 The specific virus of anthrax was first discovered b}' Davaine in 1851. He recognized in the blood of animals suffering from anthrax microscopic bodies in the form of little rods. It was not, however, till a quarter of a century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature of the bacillus, the mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship to anthrax as the sole cause of the disease. In the animal body the bacilli have a tendency to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and else- where, so that these organs are much more virulent than the muscles or less vascular tissues. When eliminated from the animal in the excretions, or when exposed to outside influences by the death of the animal and the disintegration of the tissues, the body of the rod is destroj^ed and the spores onl}^ remain. These spores, which may be called the seeds of the bacilli, retain their vitality for a long period; the}^ resist ordinary putrefaction; they are unchanged by moisture; and they are not affected by moderate heat. If scattered with the debris of a dead animal on the surface of the ground, the}^ ma^^ remain around the roots of the grass in a pasture or ma}" be washed to the nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in the body of an ani- mal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep into the ground, and in later jenvs (in one proven case 17 years) be brought to the surface and infect other animals. They are frequentlj^ brought to the 'surface of the earth, having been swallowed b}" earthworms, in the bodies of which they have been found. This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a dr}^ season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground in search of moisture; it finds the spore which has been washed there in past years, swallows it, and afterwards brings it to the surface. The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the work- ing of the harness maker or the cobbler, and after the oiling of the completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from anj- of these products may be carried by the atmosphere. Infection of an animal takes place througli inoculation or contact of the bacillus or its spores with an abraded surface or mucous membrane on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat the rich pasturage of. spring and early summer with impunity, but when grass becomes low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots around which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions the animals are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by contact witii dried stubble and the dirt on the roots, which favors the introduction of the germs into the system. The virus may be introduced with food and enter the blood-vessel S3^stem from the stomach and intestines. If contained in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched pasture of late 14384—03 34 530 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. summer, the virus ma}' be inhaled and be absorbed from the lining of the lungs. If contained in harness leather, it needs but an abrasion of the skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer the spore from the leather to the circulation of the animal. The wi"iter saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from thg use of a new horse-brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first fingei", and in twelve hours a "pustule" had formed and the arm had become infected. Symptoms. — The S3^mptoms of anthrax usuall}" develop with extreme rapidity. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of profound stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble, indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe chills, agitation of the muscles, sjanptoms of vertigo, and at times colicky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ocher or bluish red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104'^ or lOo'^ F. The breathing is increased to thirty or fort}' respirations in the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but while the arteries arc soft and almost imperceptible, the heart beats can be felt and heard, violent and tumultuous. In some cases, when inoculation is through the skin, large subcutaneous swellings appear; these may involve a leg, a shoul- der, one side of the body, or the neck or head. The swelling is at first hot and painful, but afterwards it becomes necrotic and sensation is lost. The symptoms last but two, three, or four days at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which will not clot, and which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the bodies putrify rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with gases, and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and frequently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the latter. The haii-s detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs and tissues is found, with intersti- tial hemorrhages. The muscles are frial)le and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is specially marked in the heart. The black, uncoagulated, and incoagulable blood shows an iridescent scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dissolved by the ammonia produced by the decomposed tissues. The serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, which, when examined microscopically, is found to have the red globules crenated and the leucocytes granular. A ligh power of the microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rod-like bodies of homoge- neous texture with their brilliant spores. The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is found teem- ing with the virus. This organ is nmch enlarged and is quite friable. The mucous membranes of the intestines are congested and reddish DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 531 brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places denuded of its lining- membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic spots. The liver has a cooked appearance; Ihe kidneys are congested and friable; the urine is red; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are congested; and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. Treatment. — The treatment of anthrax has little in it to encourage one. The curative treatment, for which almost every drug in the pharmacopeia has been used, is practiealh' without avail. The j)roph3dactic treatment formerlj^ consisted in the avoidance of certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated dur- ing the months of August and September and had been occupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It underwent, how- ever, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of a prophylactic inoculation or vaccination which granted immunity from future attacks of the disease similar to that granted b}^ the recov- ery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease. This treatment consists in the use of a vaccine which is made by the artificial cuiltivation of the virus of anthrax in broth and in the treat- ment of it bj^ means of continued exposure to a high temperature for a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent that it is onlj^ capable of producing a verj^ mild and not dangerous attack of anthrax in the animal in which it is inoculated, and thus pro- tects the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The production of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this countrj' is made in private laboratories onh\ GLANDERS ANI> FARCY. [Synonyms: Glanders, farcy, one form of nasal gleet; Malleus liwnidus, Equina nasalis, Equina aposiematos, Latin; rotz, rotzkrankheit, German; snot, verroting, Dutch; moccio, cidiiwrro, Italian; viuervw, Spanish; morre, farcin, French.] Definition. — Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and in.YQ.y are one and the same disease, differing only in that the first term is applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in the internal organs, especially in the nostrils, lungs, and air tubes; and that the second term is applied to it w^hen the principal manifestation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms, while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external trouble onl}^; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist, although they may not be evident. Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Equus (the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog, the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diffi- 532 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be eutirel}' unmiinc. It runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms, or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers from which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied bj^ a variable amount of fever, according to the rapidit}'^ of its course. It is subject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous connective tissue. Histoi'y. — Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absj'rtus, the Greek veterinarian in the arm}^ of Constantine the Great, described this dis- ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who lived in the time of Thcodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the name of Malleus humldus, a disease of the horse characterized by a nasal dis- charge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recognized the con- tagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, and recom- mended that all animals sick with the disease should be separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should be pastured in separate fields for fear the other animals should become afi'ected. In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closel}^ related to each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the medium of contagion. He divided glanders into two forms— one malignant and contagious and the other benign — and he stated that there was alwa^'s danger of infection. Garsault, in ITtiG, said "that as this disease is comnmnicatcd ver}- easily, and can infect in a verj^ short time a prodigious number of horses by means of the discharges which may l)e licked up, animals infected with glanders should be destroyed." Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his ''Elements of Hippiatary," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent disease. Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries. Glanders was imported into America at the close of the last century, and before the end of the first half of the present century had spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immedi- atel}^ adjoining Southern States. This disease Avas unknown in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of the present cen- DISEASES- OF THE HORSE. 533 tary n large body of veterinarians and medical men protested against the contagious character of this disease, and prevailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion that several of the gov- ernments of Europe undertook a series of experiments to determine the right between the contesting parties. At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound had placed among them glandered horses under various conditions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the contagious character of the disease. In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, assisted bj" Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experiments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. They after- ward continued their experiments with matter taken from horses and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loeffler and Schuetz in German}". When we come to study the eliology of glanders, the difference of suscoptibilit}' en the part of different species of animals, or even on the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of countr}^ containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to contract and develop the disease without having ajDparently been exposed to contagion. Causes. — The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog- nize but one cau^e for all cases, and that is contagion hy means of the specific virus of the disease. In studjang the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the disease, we find a large number of predisj)osing causes assigned as fac- tors in the development of the malad3\ While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of the genus Equus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast difference in the contagious activity" of different cases of glanders. We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the development of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is much more apt to be carried to sound anim.als under certain circumstances than it is under others. Onl}^ certain species of animals are suscepti- ble of contracting the disease, and while some of these contract it as a general constitutional malad}", in others it only develops as a local sore. In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form. 534 BUREAU OF AI^IMAL INDUSTRY. as is shown bj' the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inocu- lated Avitli the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent glanders and fare}' may at times be inoculated with a negative result; again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater quantity of A'irus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborliood of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glandcred horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers which have been impregnated b^' the saliva and soiled by the discharge of sick ani- mals. Transmission occurs b}^ direct contact of the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with food into the digestive tract or when dried and inhaled as dust. The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the halter, and are thus carried to other animals. An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse and then with another, and ma}'^ be an active agent in the spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized. Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may affect a harse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family u^e with good care and light work for a period of eight years, during which tiiHe other horses in the ta\ern stal^le were from time to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whoso only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster who placed her at hard w^ork. Want of feed and overwork and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old nodules which had undoubtedly existed for j^ears. In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse was examined for soundness and passed aw sound by a prominent veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards it came into the hands of the w^-iter, hidebound, with a slight cough and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 535 rubbing of the harness, but which bad nothing* suspicious in its char- acter. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. Farcy ^buds developed on the surface of the bod}^ and the animal died. The autops}^ showed the existence of a number of old glanderous nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase, more than a year before. Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recipients fcjr the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several months before. While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease from which the virus was derived. The animals of the genus E<2uu>i — the horse, the ass, and the mule — are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character of the disease; in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary temperament, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the l^'mphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease usuall}^ assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the latent form. Inocu- lation on the lips or the exterior of the animal is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often followed b}^ the trouble in the chronic latent form. In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more frequently the virus pullulates onl}^ at the point of inoculation, remain- ing for some tune as a local sore, which ma^^ then heal, leaving a per- fectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of contagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivit}- to glanders than in the 536 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. (log, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire sj'stem and destroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemorrhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form onl}^ not infecting the constitution and terminat- ing in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inoculation ulcerates rapidly and the entire S3''stem becomes infected. While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan- dcred meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules.* A litter of kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandcred horse on which an autops}^ was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod- ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a glandercd horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are specially sus- ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven- ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the glanders in other animals by the resiilts of successful inoculations. The primary lesions in any form is a local point in which occurs a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding- together of the elements until their own pressure on each other cuts off the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot, which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory phenomena or the specific virus. The primaly symptoms are the result of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has its DISEASES OE THE HOESE. 537 lungs and respirator}' tract gorged vrith blood from the extreme use of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the disease in the respiratory tract. The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for convenience of study v;e may divide glanders into three classes — chronic farc}^, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or without farcy. CUEONIC FARCY. Si/)nj)coms. — In farcy the sjaiiptoms commence by formation of little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as farcy "buds" and farcy "buttons," are from the size of a bullet to the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and infringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a graj^-, dirt}^ bottom and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either case it is mixed with a viscous, stick}^, yellowish material like the white of an egg in con- sistency and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge which we have in greas}^ heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The discharge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable time — days or even weeks; but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in character and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced b}'' rosy granulations, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. The farc}^ buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on an}^ part of the body. We have next an irritation of the 13'mphatic vessels in the neighbor- hood of the chancres. These become swollen and then indurated and 538 BUREAU OF AJslMAL IJfDUSTRY. appear like great ridges underneatb the skin; thej are hot to the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and then graduall}' disappear, or the}^ may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself, form- inj>- elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscous, oih' discharge like the chancres themselves. The essential s^nnptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button, the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symptoms a certain number of accessory s3^mptom8, which, while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers are not characteristic. Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glan- ders, and such a hemorrhage from the. nostrils should always be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farc}^ frequently develops a cough, resembling much that which w^e find in heaves — a short, drj^, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscul- tation of the lungs w^e find sibilant or at times a few mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and scrum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing w^hich we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the stocking in Ij'mphatic horses or the edema which we have in chroni<; heart or in kidne}" trouble, as in the last the sw^elling is cool and not painful and the pitting on pressure remains for some time after the latter is withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease commences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends up the leg, rarelv passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length in a single night or within a ver}'^ short period. When greasy heels are complicated b}' lymphan- gitis we have a condition very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently followed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface. In the entire horse the testicles are frcquentl}'^ swollen and hot and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. The acute inflammation is rapidl}^ fol- lowed by the specific induration, which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 539 Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, but sometimes occurs. CHKOXIC GLANDERS. Symptoms. — -In chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam- matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic farc}^ onl}^ b}^ the difference of the tissues in which the}^ are located. In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nostrils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the other and be easily detected, or it ma}' be higher in the nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the surface of the trachea or deep in the. lungs. The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new connect- ive tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the j-ellow spots break and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpen- tine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers we may have them caus- ing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which va^j mark the specific discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases. The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for the first few da^'s may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidlj' becomes confined to the glands, these being- from the size of an almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is not to be confounded with the puff}', edematous swelling, which is not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple iuflammator}^ troubles. These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses; but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel which the}' have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together. The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre, 540 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount cf eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles. On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlargement of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that thej^ are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute attacks, with a mini- mum Ciuantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and becomes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, hut is not diagnostic, although it has in it certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal suspicious to the eye of the expert veterinarian, while without the presence of local lesions he ■v^'ould be unable to state on what he has based his opinion. ACUTE GLAXDKKS. Symptoms. — In the acute form of glanders we find the symp- toms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glan- ders in a more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into chan- cres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and site of tiie local eruption. Over the surface of the bod}^ swellings occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lymphatics. Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, and the swelling of the testicles arc apt to precede an acute eruption of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has diffi- cult}^ of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F. With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance and station of the animal is that of one sufi'ering from an acute pneu- monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur- murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu- DISEASES OF THE HOESEo 541 lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. Where there is doubt as to the diagnosis the mallein or the inocula- tion test may be emploj^ed. The mallein test is made by injecting; mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture of glanders bacilli) beneath the skin. If the horse has glanders there results a febrile reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If the horse does not have glan- ders the mallein has no effect or, at most, it produces a slight swelling only at the point of injection. The inoculation test consists in the inoc- ulation of a susceptible animal (usually a guinea pig) with some of the suspected discharge from the nose or a farcy ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it contains bacilli of glanders, the experimental animal will develop the disease. Neither of these tests should be put into use excepting by a competent veterinarian. The postmortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneumonia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through the lungs and caused b}^ the specific inflammator}^ process taking place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules ma}^ so irritate the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific character of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, the submax- illary space ma}" for a few daj's so swell as to resemble the edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or larjmgiiis. This con- dition is cspeciall}" apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of glanders in a drove of mules. Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a depraved condition until the minimal dies from general emaciation and anemia, but in the majoritj^ of cases, from some sudden exposure to cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammator}^ trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute glanders. In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses, acute glanders usually termi- nates b}^ lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general sj^mptoms may subside. The S3miptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving small indurated cicatrices, and the animal m.ay return to apparent health, or ma}" at least be able to do a small amount of work with but 'a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities fre- quently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic 542 liUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUtiTKY. gliindors and chronic fare}', are apt to bo affected with eniphy.sema of the Unions or the heaves, and to have a chronic cou<;h. In this condi- tion they may continue for a loni^ period, serving as dangerous sources of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in the more acute cases. At the postmortem examination of an animal which has been de- stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, we lind nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior through- out the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflammation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive alterations in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of these con- ditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. In one case Avhich came under the observation of the writer, a lame horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the animal has made an apparent recover}' from acute glanders, and in cases of chronic fare}' and chronic glanders no matter how f')\v the external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of nodules — small, hard, indurated nodes of new connective tissue to be found in the lungs. "When these have existed for some time we may find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefinite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that is, an inflanunatory process wakens up their vitalit\' and produces a reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but during the attack of acute glanders, Avhile the animal has fever, the blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days. Trtxdinenf. — Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopeia has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good h3'gienic sur- roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio- rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound animal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs, which are invariably there, maj^ be so few as not to cause sufficient disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the examiner, the}'^ exist, and will remain there almost indefinitcl}' with the constant pos- sibility of a return of acute sj'mptoms. It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the LHWEASES OF THE HOKSE. 513 infection is slight, but it will not j^ct do to depend upon this excepting under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good care, good food, and good surroundings and little 'work, an animal atfected Avith glanders ma}' live for months or even 3'cars in an apparent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food, with a few daj'S of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with the attack of a simple fever or inflamatory trouble from other causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again in an acute form. In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected Avith glanders have been known to work for j^ears and die from other causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but, allowing that these cases may occur, they are fso few and far between, and the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallcin tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders. In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veterinarian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow indenuiit}' for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destro3'ed and the articles with which it has been in contact are thoroughl^^ disin- fected. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence of the disease in a comnmnit\', punishment is meted to the owner, attend- ing veterinarian, or other responsible parties. Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but these laws are not alwaj'S carried out with the rigidity with which they should be. Tlie disease is verv prevalent in Massachusetts, in New York Cit}', and in some of the Western States. It has been almost completely eradicated from Pennsylvania and several other States. RABIES IN THK HORSE. [SvxoxYiis: Hydrophobia, madness; lysaa, Greek; rage, French; vmthkrankhelt, Ger- man.] Definition. — Rabies is a contagious disease which is asuallv trans- mitted by a bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways. It is characterized b}' sj^mptoms of aberration of the nervous system, and invariabh' terminates fatally. It is accompanied by lesions, inflammation, and degenei"ation in the central nervous s^'stem. It is a disease that is most common in the dog, but is transmitted to the horse, either from dogs or from an}^ other animal affected with it. As a disease of the horse it is\iseless to enter into the etiology* fur- ther than to state that in this animal it is invariably the result of the bite of a rabid animal, usually' a dog. 54-1 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of move contro- versy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have even doubted the existence ' of the disease. Many medical men have claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of cases, and, l)y analog}' with other contagious diseases, we maj'^ onl}' believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of a case from which the virus has been transmitted. M. Pasteur has further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, espe- cially in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the anterior part of the spinal column. M. Pasteur has further shown that that portion of the nervous S5^stem which contains the virus, the exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur- rounded b}^ carbonic acid; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by substances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradualh' lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen daj's. He has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will pre- vent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has formu- lated his method of proph3^1actic treatment. This treatment consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter contain- ing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four days, until the virulent mattor which will produce rabies in any unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunit}'^. A curious result of the experiments of M. Pasteur is that an animal which has first been inocu- lated with a virus of full strength can be protected by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of increasing strength. Symjjtoms. — From the moment of inoculation l)y the bite of a rabid dog or other rabid animal or b}' otiier means, a variable time elapses before the development of anj^ symjjtoms. This time may be eight days or it may be several months; it is usuall}^ about four weeks. The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This wound, which mav have healed completely, commences to itch until the horse rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes irritable and vicious. It is especially susceptible to moving objects; excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis- turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threaten- ing.violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal, espe- cially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 545 moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering- from mojiiuo-itis or an}^ other trouble of the brain. But in rabies there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which tha animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between the attacks of fury the animal ma,j become calm for a variable period. The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour, the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked ten miles and only developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable. In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original wound; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings; it will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If the iinimal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there is an excessive sensibility of the skin which, if irritated by the touch, will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act impossible. This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after being bitten on the forearm by a rabid dog, developed local irritation in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This was healed by local treatment in ten days and the horse was kept under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac- titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. Diagnosis, — The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first, by the history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other means; second, b}' the evident volition and consciousness on the part of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, animals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopening of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor in diagnosis. Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor- rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal. Treatment. — No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All of the anodj^nes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromide of potash, ether, chloroform, ctc.^ have been used without avail. The prophy- lactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on human beings, and has experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite exceptional. 14:38-1—03 35 SURRA." By Ch. Wardell Stiles, Ph. D., Consulting Zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry; Zoologist, United States Public Jlealth and Marine-Hospital Service. Surra is not known to occur in the United States.; but it is more or less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoina Evann't., 20 to 30 yw long by 1 to 2 ;< broad, which liv^ es in the blood and destro\'s the rod-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly disease, or nagana, of xVfrica and mal de caderas of South America. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. Surra is a wet weather disease, occurring chiefly during or imn)e- diately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations. ANIMALS AFFKCTED. Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been transmitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and mon- keys. No birds, reptiles, amphil)ia (frogs, etc.), or fish are known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals, young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds and color. LETHALITY— DURATION. Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariabh^ fatal disease, but cattle occasionall}' recover from it. There is no histoiy of a definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some- what; in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-five (usually six to eight) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with tlio species of animal attacked, their age, and general condition. Th. average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months, though some cases may terminate fatalh"" 'n less than one to two weeks. « For a more detailed discussion of this disease see Salmon & Stiles, 1902, Emer- gency report on surra ., , Professor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department, University of Prnr^ylvania. Bad and indifferent .shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the feet and to irregularities of gait, which may render a horse unservice- able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs. In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious consequences of improper shoeing. Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some- thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor- mal and to apply the proper corrective. GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. The hones of the foot are four in number, three of which — the long pastern, short pastern, and coffinbone, placed end to end — form a con- tinuous straight column passing downward and forward from the fet- lock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or "shuttle," bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the coffinbone and forms part of the joint surface of the latter. The short pastern projects about 1^ inches above the hoof and extends about an equal distance into it. The pasterns and the coffinbone are held together by strong fibrous cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones. The joints are therefore hliKje joints^ though imperfect, because while the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible. The bones are still further bound together and supported by three long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe, passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffinbone just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof 552 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 553 flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the pasterns and are caWedjiexors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns and coflinbone backward. One of these tendons is attached to the upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and attaches itself to the under surface of the cofSnbone. These two ten- dons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground, during motion, but at rest assist the suspensor}^ ligament in support- ing the fetlock joint. The foot-axhi is an iniagiaarjf line passing from the fetlock joint through the long axes of the two pasterns and cofiinbone. This imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coflan- l)one, should always be straight — that is, never broken, either forward or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly at the middle of the toe. Raising the heels or shortening the toe not onl}" tilts the cofiinbone forvs'ard and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the tendon that attaches to the under surface of the cofiinbone (perforans tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken for- ward; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels are cither too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not only tilts the coffinbone backward and renders the toe more nearly horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet- lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. • The foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward — an indication that the toe is relativelv too long or that the heels are relativelv too low. The elastic tissues of the fooz are preeminent!}^ the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the cofiinbone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readih' to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes may undergo ossification, in which condition the}^ are hard and unyielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fattj^ tissue filling all the space between the lateral car- tilages, forming the fleshj^ heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a 554 BUKEAU OF AI^IMAL INJDUSTKY. buffer to disperye sbock when the foot i.s set to the ground. It extends forward underneath the navicuhir bone and perforans tendon, and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground before other parts of the foot — conclusive proof that the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground. The horn-producing rnemhrane^ or "quick," as it is commonly termed, is merel}' a downward prolongation of the '"derm," or true skin, and ma}" be conveniently called the 2^ododerm (foot skin). The pododerm closely invests the coflSnbone, lateral cartilages, and plantar cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm of the hair skin produces upon its outer surface laj'er upon layer of horny cells (epiderm), wdiich protect the sensitive and vascular derm, so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath, lose mois- ture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having manv of the qualities possessed b}' such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, claws, etc. The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite it firmly to the foot. There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when tlje hoof has been removed, namely: (1) T\\q, pey^iopUc hand^ a narroAV ridge from one- sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This band produces the perloplic horn^ the thin varnish-like layer of glis- tening horn, which forms the surface of the Avail, or "crust," and whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from the wall. (2) Tie coronary hand^ a prominent fleshy cornice encir- cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshj^ frog to become lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro- duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce the "bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded mereh' as a turning forward of the w^all. (3) TXiq fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in number, par- allel to one another, running downward and forward from the lower edge of the coronarj- band to the margin of the fleshy sole. They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they dovetail. (4) The fleshy sole, which covers the entire under surface of the foot, DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 555 excepting the flesh}^ frog and bars. The horny sole is produced by the fleshy sole. (5) Th&feshyfi^og, which covers the under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog. The horny hox^ or hoof^ consists of wall and bars, sole and frog. The wall is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is on the ground (see fig. 8). As alread}^ stated, it consists of three layers — the perioplo, the middle layer, and the leaf}^ la3'er. The hars (see fig\ Ic) are forward prolongations of the wall, and are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the wall and a bar is called the ."buttress." Each bar lies against the horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, so that the least expansion or contraction of the horn}^ frog separates or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the "bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The "heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters. The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed, is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, uneven, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into which are received the bars and horn}' frog. This opening divides the sole into a body and two wings. The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall and bars through the medium of the vjhite line, which is the cross- section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the white line all nails should be driven. The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow depression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as the}^ pass backward into the horn}' bulbs of the heel. In front of the middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should rest on the 556 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing- edge of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the under surface of the hoof is perfecth^ flat, and each of these structures assists in bearing the body weight. With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely. The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn structures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not, under natural conditions, become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic, absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard, brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine-grained and tough, while bad horn is coarse-grained, and either mellow and friable or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and the harder (dryer) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes of temperature. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne b)^ a foot is continualh' changing, and the relations of internal pressure are continuously varying, a foot is, from a phj'siological viewpoint, never at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when the foot bears the greatest weight, namcl}^, at the time of the greatest descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the coronet to the lo\\er edge of the quarters. This expansion varies between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. The changes of form occur in the following order: When the foot is set to the ground the body weight is transmitted through the bones and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coflinboue and navi- cular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti- lages and presses the perf orans tendon upon the plantar cushion. This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to expand down- ward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the resilient horny DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 557 frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when the lateral carti- lag-es are ossified not only is no expansion of the quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compression of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pressure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossified cartilages). Under the descent of the coffinbone the horny sole sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs. The movement of the diflierent structures within the foot and the changes of form that occur at ever}^ step are indispensable to the health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by regu- lar exercise, with protection against dr^ung out of the hoof. Long continued rest in the stable, drjung out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the ph3'siological movements of the hoof and some- times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil, albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses continuously serviceable on hard artificial roads. However, if in shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface, so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac- tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason- able work and his hoofs proper care. GROWTH OF THE HOOF. All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal rapidit}', the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm, or " quick." Abundant and reg- ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot, plent}' of good food, and at proper intervals removing the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas- ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good qualit}^; while lack of exercise, drj^ness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. The average rate of growth is about one- third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn grows down . 558 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in yix to eight months, and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with tolerable accurac}^ the time required for the disappearance of such defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof — that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of excessive length. The long toe becomes '* dished " — that is, concave . from the coronet to the ground — the long quarters curl forwa\rd and inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu- lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure to regulate the length and beariner of the hoof may make a straight leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb. If breeders were more generalh' cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury' to the limbs, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, " splaj'-footed." "pigeon-toed,"' cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses. If in shortening the hoof one side-wall is, from ignorance, left too long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper level (length) b}- the increased wear which will take place at this point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidl}' worn away beneath the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is worn out the tread of the shoe ma}^ be flat. If this mistake be repeated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is relativeh' anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the hoof, and the ultimate result will be a "wry," or crooked foot. THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS. The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs will then wear graduall}^ and it will only be necessar}' from time to time to regulate an}" uneven wear with the rasp and to round ofl' the sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent l)reaking a'^ay of the wall. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 559 Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofsj^so that cveiy four to six weeks the}^ should be rasped down and the lower edge of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts of the frog should be picked out ever}^ few daj's and the entire hoof washed clean, Plent}- of clean straw litter should be provided. Hoofs that are becoming "awry" should have the wall shortened in such a man- ner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF. A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equalh' warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression with pincers. The coronet is soft and elastic at aU points and ]^ u does not project beyond the ■ —L . surface of the wall. The wall (fig. 8) is straight from coronet to ground, so that a straight- edge laid against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the horn tubes will touch at every point. The wall should be covered with the outer varnish-like layer (periople) and should show no cracks or clefts. Everv hoof shows "ring-formation,'' but the rings should not bo strongl}^ marked and should alwaj's run parallel to the coronary band. Strongly marked ring-forma- tion over the entire wall is an evidence of a weak hoof, but when limited to a part of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole (fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The lateral cartilages should j'ield readih' to finger pressure. '■^ Fig. 1.— Ground purfaoe of a right fore lioof of the regu lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toe; a-b, the side walls; b-d, the quarters; c, c, the bars; d, d, the buttresses; e, lateral cleft of the frog; /, body of the sole: ri. a', g". leafy layer (white line) of the toe and bars; h, body of the frog; i, i, branches of the frog; Ar, k, horny Iiulbs y the impervious rubber till decom- position takes place with the for- mation of irritating fatty acids; but there is no basis for an analogy in the hoof of a horse. Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with interfeiing" and "forging," are given herewith. the inner toe indicates the edge of the wall wliicli was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof along the striking section. Note the in- ward bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped crease, the distribution of the nails, the long "full" inner branch, and the short "close" outer branch. 572 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, Fig. 13.— Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side-wall, and the narrowness and bend of the inner branch. Pig. 14.— Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters of the hoof are equidistant from the ground. DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 573 ^!'h„ 16.— Side view of a fore lioof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" (quicken the action) in a " forger." Note the short shoei Uecl calks iucUded forward, and tlie rolled toe. Fig. 16.— Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to prevent injury to the fore hecLs by the toe of the hind shoe. Note tlie elevation of the short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When .such a hoof has grown more toe the toe calk can ho dispensed with and the shoe set fartlier forward. 574 BUKEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Fig. 17.— a toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are placed too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly placed. te. Fig. 18.— Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet. The profile of the shoe shows a " roll " at the toe and "swelkd " heels. The weight is well placed, but "rolling" the tec and rnising the hrcls Imrcr action. The shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe. IJ^TDEX Abdomen — Page. dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172 dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 159 sheath, and pepis, swelling, cause and treatment 1 50 Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 161 Abscess — and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- ment 249 in lung and suppuration, symptoms 135 Abscesses — acute, description and treatment 474 cold, description and treatment 475 description and treatment 474 in throat, treatment 46 Acariasis, or mange, note 450 Acari, parasites of eye - 273 Achorion schonleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description 450 Adams, John W., chapter on " Shoeing " 552-574 Air embolism, or air in Aeins, note 247 Albumoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre- vention, and treatment 82 Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment 210, 272 Amnion, dropsy, descrijition and treatment — 158 Anasarca, or jmrpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 508, 510 Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system 190 Anemia — spinal, symptoms and treatment 213 of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 202 Aneurism — description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 242 one form caused by Strongylu>i armatus 243 Anidian monsters, or moles, description 157 Animal parasites, description of kinds 450 Ankle — and fetlock, skin, note 371 fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369, 430 Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 Anthrax — definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 528-531 horsepox, and cutaneous glanders, reference 447 Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat- ment 200 Arteries- description 227 diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 240 Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, or endarteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 240 575 5 i b INDEX. Artery— Page, constriction, description 242 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cautc and treatment 332 Ascaris equorum, intestinal worm, note GO Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment 71, 172 Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and tr^tment 136 Atheroma, description 241 Autumn mange, description and treatment 452 Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82 Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82 Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering 28 Bar shoe, uses ,-69 Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment 454 Beets as feed 41 Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and treatment ] 03 Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment 449 Bladder- calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting 1()9 diseased growths, symptoms and treatment 92 eversion, description and treatment 93 inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment ViO irritable, cause and treatment 91 neck, spasms affecting, causes,, symptoms, and treatment 87, 205 paralysis, description and cause 210 paralysis, symptoiHS and treatment 89 stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptom^, and treatment 100 worms of kidney 87 Bleeding — after castration, treatment ] 49 from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 135 from nose, causes and treatment Ill or flooding from womb, treatment 184 skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia jxxrasitica, description and treatment... 441 Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment 437 Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 Blood- circulation of heart, description 226 clots in walls of vagina 187 medicines administered into veins 33 of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment 145 spavin, bog spavin, and thorough pin, description and treatment 331 Blood vessels — and heart, diseases, remarks 228 heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 225-250 physiology and anatomy 225 Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82 Blowing, high, description 118 Bluebottle {Lucilia cxsar), note 453 Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331 INDEX. 577 Page._ Boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259 ■ Boils— or Dermatitis granulosa 442 • or furuncles, description and treatment 439^' Bone — laip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 317" " premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment 312 : spavin. ((&e Spavin.) Bones — cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325'» cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310» diseases, description 284 dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336:. of face, fractures, description and treatment „ 311 of fetlock and foot, description - 369' of hip, fractures, causes 166.v one system of locomotion 275, 27r sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 328.- Botfly, treatment 01 Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 . Brain — and membranes, inflammation, description 192, 193 ' and nervous system, anatomy and physiology 190 ■ anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 202 ' compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 . concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 201 congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treattnent, and prevention 197 description 191 dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 :. Bran, value as feed 40 - Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat- ment '. 332; Broken M'ind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 13C>; Bronchitis — and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 128' chronic, description and treatment 119 Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia, description 135 ■ Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment .. 128 Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399' Bruises, description and treatment 464 Burns and scalds, treatment 455, 471. Calculi- biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment • 55 - or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 54 renal, description, symptoms, and treatment 98 uretral, description and treatment 99-. urinary, classification 98 . urinary, stone, or gravel 94, 9Z^ Calculus — in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treatment 102:; 14384— r>3 37 578 ixDEX. Calculus — Continued. Page. or stone, and tumor in bladder 169 urethral, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment 102 vesical, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment 100 Calk wounds, description and treatment 379 Callosities — description 448 sloughing, horny sloughs, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448 Cancer, epithelial, or epithelioma, description and treatment 449 Canker — of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 or grease (inflammation of heels with sebaceous secretion), description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 Cannon bone — description 369 fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325 Capped elbow, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354 Capped hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 Capped knee, description, cause, treatment, etc 357 Cardiac enlargement, or hypertrophy of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment 237 Caries of cartilage, or tumor of haw, description and treatment 261 Carrots, value as feed 41 Cartilaginous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 389 Cartilago uictitans, or winking cartilage (the haw), description 253 Castration — bleeding after operation, treatment 149 by covered operation, method 151 of cryptorchids, or ridglings, method 148 of mare, method 151 of staUions, methods 147 pain after operation, treatment 149 successfvil method _ 148 Cataract, remarks 271 Catarrh — chronic, nasal gleet, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, anil treat- ment .'. 108 gastro-intestinal, or indigestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 61 . nasal, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107 Cerebral hemorrhage, or apoplexy, causes, symptoms, and treatment 200 Cerebri tis. causes, symptoms, and treatment 1 93 Cerebro-spinal meningitis, or so-called forage poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment 216, 218 Cervical choke, description 47, 48 Chaff for feeding 39 Chai)s on knee and hock, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, unci treatment 443 Chest walls, wounds penetrating, description and treatment 139 Cheyletus, or Gamarus pterojAokles, animal parasites 452 Chicken acari, or Dermanyssus gcdlin.r, animal parasite of skin 452 Chigoe, or jigger — larvfc of Trombidium, Leptus americamis, animal parasite of skin 452 {Pulex j^enetrans), bite, treatment 454 INDEX. 579 Choke — Page, cervical, description 47, 48 pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, symptoms and treatment 47 Chorea, or St. Vitus dance, description and treatment 206 Chorioples — bovis {Symbiotes cqui, Dermatophagus equi), animal parasite of skin 452 spathiferm, animal parasite of skin 452 Choroiditis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 265 Chronic bronchitis, description and treatment 119 Circinate ringworm, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symi)toms, treatment ... 449 Circulation organs, methods of examination 15 Clubfoot, description 372 Clysters, or enemas, description and manner of administering 32 Cocked ankles, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 Coffinbone, description 370 Coffin joint, description 370 Cold in head, or nasal catarrh, symptoms and treatment 107 Colic- bloat, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 cramp, or spasmodic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 flatulent, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 obstruction, caused by impaction of large intestine, symptoms and treat- ment 52 specific forms 50 wind, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 worm, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 tympanitic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 Compression of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 Concussion of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 Conformation — ' of foot, faults 372 of horse 12 Congenital scrotal hernia, description and treatment 67 Congestion — • active, causes 485 and inflammation of skin, description of kinds 434 and inflammation of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treat- ment - 142 description 484 of brain, or megrims, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 197 of heart, description and symptoms 240 of lungs, description and treatment 120 of skin, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 of skin, with small pimples, or papules, description and treatment 436 of spine, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213 passive, causes 486 Conjunctivitis, or external ophthalmia, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 262 Constipation, or costiveness, cause and treatment 54, 160 Constitution of horse 12 Consumption, or tuberculosis, note 136 Convulsions, description and treatment 206 Cord- spermatic, strangulated, cause and treatment 149 spermatic, tumors, causes and treatment 150 spinal, description 192 580 INDEX. Cornea— rage, ulcers, treatment 265 white specks and cloudiness, cause and treatment 264 Corn, or maize, how to feed 40 Corns, description, causes, symptoms and treatment 394 Coronary band, description 371 Coronet — description 370 fractures, symptoms and treatment 327 Costivcness, or constipation, cause and treatment 54, 160 Cough, chronic, description 139 Cracked heels, or scratches, causes and treatment 443 Cramp — of hind limb, or spasm of thigh, description and treatment 205 or spasmodic, colic, cause, symptoms and treatment 58 Cramps — of hind limbs, cause and treatment 159 or spasms, causes 204 Cranial bones, fractures, causes, symptoms and treatment 310 Cranium, tumor within, description of kinds 204 Crookedfoot, description 373 Croup and diphtheria, mistakes in diagnosis 116 Curb of hock, cause, symptoms and treatment 349 Cutaneous glanders, or farcy, reference 447 Cutaneous quittor, description, causes, symptoms and treatment 381 Cuticle, description 432 Cryptorchids, or ridglings, castration, method *. 148 Cyanosis of newborn foals, description 240 Cystic calculus, or stone in bladder, description, symptoms and treatment 100 Cystic disease of wall of womb, or vesicular mole, description and treatment. . 158 Ojsticercus fistularis— parasite of bladder 87 ? parasite of eye 273 Cystitis, inflammation of bladder, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 Dermamjssus galUnx, or chicken acari, animal parasite of skin 452 Dermatitis granulosa, or boils 442 Bermatocoptes equi, animal parasite of skin 451 Dermatodictes equi, animal parasite of skin 451 Dermatophagus equi, animal parasite of skin 452 Dermatorrhagia parasitica, or bleeding skin eruptions, description and treatment. 441 Dermis, or true skin, description 432 Diabetes — insipidus, diuresis, polyuria, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symp- toms and treatment 79 mellitus, saccharine diabetes, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, and treatment 80 Diaphragmatic hernia, description 70 Diaphragm — rupture, cause and symptoms 141 spasm, or thumps, description and treatment 1 40, 205 Diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 62 Digestive organs, diseases, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 34-74 Digestive tract, examination 21 Dilatation — of heart, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 238 of veins, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 246 INDEX. 581 Page. Diociophyvie renale, roundworm of kidney ^' Diphtheria and croup, mistakes in diagnosis - 1^6 Diseases, general, chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper 482-545 Dislocations and luxations of bones, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 33G Diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symptoms, and treatment '^ Douche, nasal, in administering medicines ^1 Dourine, or maladie du coit, description and treatment 146 Drench, methods Dropsies, synovial, remarks Dropsy— general, of fetus, description and treatment ^'J^ of abdomen in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172 of abdomen, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 of amnion, .description and treatment 158 of brain, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 of Umbs, perineum, and abdomen, description and treatment 159 of scrotum, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144 of womb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158 Dysentery, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 64 Echinococcus — parasite of eye "' parasite of kidney - Ectropion and entropion, or eversion and inversion of eyelid, causes and treatment " Eczema, or inflammation with blisters, description and treatment 4c57 Edematous pneumonia, definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 519-523 Elbow— capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment "^oi muscles, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 Electric shock, causes, description, and treatment 223 Electuries, or pastes, description and manner of atlministering 29 Embolism— air, or air in veins, note - ' and thrombus, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 Emphysema, or swelling of fetus with gas, description and treatment 173 Encephalitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 193 Endarteritis, and diseases of arteries, or arteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment Endocarditis, or inflammation of lining membrane of heart, cause, symptoms, and treatment ; " Enemas, or clysters, description and manner of administenng rf- Engorgement colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 50 Enteritis, definition - - ■ Entropion and ectropion, or inversion and eversion of eyelid, causes and ^^^ treatment __ Epilepsy, or falling fits, symptoms and treatment ^"^ Epithelial cancer, or epithelioma, description and treatment 44y Epithelioma — ^.^ degeneration of penis, or papillioma or epithelial cancer, description and treatment - 449 Equine variola, or horse pox, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc - - 5..W// Eruptions, bleeding skin, or Dermalorrhagiaparasilica, description and treat- ^^^ ment 582 INDEX. Paga Erysipelas, description, cause, and treatment 446 Krytliema, congestion of skin, or red efflorescence, description and treatment. 434 Efeophagns — dilatation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 49 or gullet, treatment for foreign bodies 46 stricture, description and treatment 49 Eversion — and inversion of eyelid, or ectropion and entropion, causes and treatment. 259 of bladder, description and treatment 93 Exostosis, cause, descrii>tion, and treatment 284 Extravasation of blood of penis, causes and treatment 145 Eye — diseases, chapter by James Law 251-273 examination 254 muscles, description 253 palsy of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 272 parasites affecting, description of different kinds 273 watering, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedies 261 Eyeball, descrii>tion; tumors affecting 251,272 Eyelid- diseases, description of different kinds 255 inflammation, causes and treatment 257 inversion and eversion, or entropion and ectropion, causes and treatment. 259 sty, or furuncle (boil), affecting, description and treatment 259 torn, or wounds affecting, description and treatment 260 warts and tumors affecting, description and treatment 260 Face bones, fractures, description and treatment 311 Facial paralysis, cause and symptoms 209 Fainting, or syncope, symptoms and treatment 237 Farcy — and glanders, definition, causes, etc 531-537 chronic, symptoms 537 or cutaneous glanders, horsepox, and anthrax, reference 447 Fatty degeneration of heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 Favus, or honeycomb ringworm, description and treatment 450 Feces, impaction of rectum 1G9 Feet, interfering, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373 Femur, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 323 Fetlock— and ankle skin, note 371 and foot bones, description 369 ankle, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holconibe 3(39-430 joint, description 370 knuckling, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347 sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376 Fetus- adherent to walls of womb, description, cause, and treatment 171 excessi ve size 1 171 general dropsy, description and treatment 173 or foal, prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 swelling with gas, or em{)hysema, description and treatment 173 tumors, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment ] 73 Fever, description, causes, and treatment 4^)3-408 Fibrous bands constricting and crossing neck of womb, description and treat- ment -. 170 INDEX. 583 Page. Fibrous constriction of vagina or vulva, cause and treatment 170 F'daria — conjunctiva, parasite of eye 273 equina, parasite of ej^e 273 hemorrhagica, threadworm causing skin disease 441 irritans, parasite causing summer sores, description and treatment 442 muttipapillosa, threadworm causing bleeding skin eruptions 441 palpehralis, parasite of eye 273 Fistulas, causes, symptoms, and treatment 477-481 Fits, falling, or epilepsy, symptoms and treatment 207 Flatfoot, description '. 372 Flatulent colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 Flea, or pulex, prevention and treatment of bite 454 Flesh fiy {Sarcophaga camaria), note 453 Flexor — metatarsis, rupture, description, cause, sj'miitoms, and treatment 352 pedis pei'forans, description 371 pedis perforatus, description 371 tendons or their sheath, and suspensory ligaments, sprains, cause, symp- toms, and treatment 345 Flies, method of attacking horses, prevention and treatment for bite 453 Flooding, or bleeding from womb, treatment 184 Flyblow, or grubs in skin, description and treatment 453 Foal- contractions of muscles, description and treatment 173 monstrosities, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 174 natural presentation 1G4 prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 water in head, or hydrocephalus, description and treatment 171 Foals, newborn, cyanosis affecting, description 240 Food- kinds to give 36 musty and moldy, effect on digestive organs 38 preparation 41 Foot. {See also Hoof. ) anatomical review 369 and fetlock bones, description 369 canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 conformation, faults 372 fetlock, and ankle, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430 gross anatomy 552 mange, description and treatment 452 punctured wounds, description, symptoms, and treatment 400 sand-cracks, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405 sole, description 371 Forage poisoning, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, symptoms and treatment 216-218 Forearm, fracture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 321 Founder, or laminitis — acute, subacute, and chronic, description 421 complications 422 curative measures 428 description and causes 414 following parturition, cause 188 seque.l t superpurgatiou 64 584 INDEX. Founder — Continued. p.^gg symptoms 417 treatment and prevention 426 Fractures — causes and symptoms 297 description of different kinds 297 of different bones, description 310 prognosis and treatment 303 Frog- bruises, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399 description -. 371 Frostbites, description, symptoms, and treatment 379 Furuncle — or boil, description and treatment 439 or sty ( boil ) , of eyelid, description and treatment 259 Galls, harness, or sitfasts, description and treatment 470 Gallstones, or biliary calculi, symptoms and treatment 74 Gamarus pteroptoides and cheylefus, animal parasites of skin 452 Gangrene — or mortification, causes 135 or mortification, description, symptoms, and treatment 473 Gas, swelling of fetus, or emphysema, description and treatment 173 Gastritis, definition 50 G astro-enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment G5 Gastro-intestinal catarrh, or indigestion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 61 Generative organs, diseases affecting, chapter by James Law 142-189 Genito-urinary passages, method of medication 33 Gestation, extra-uterine, description, symptoms, and treatment 157 Glanders — acute, symptoms 540 and farcy, definition, causes, etc 531-537 chronic, symptoms 539 cutaneous, or farcy, reference 447 treatment 542 Glands- lymphatic, description, symptoms, and treatment 249 sebaceous, description 433 sweat, description 434 Gleet- inflammation of urethra, of urethritis, symptoms and treatment 93 nasal, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treatment 108 Glossitis, description and treatment 45 Glottis, spasm, description and treatment 205 Glycosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or inosuria, causes, symp- toms, and treatment 80 Grains for feeding 39 Grasses, important feed 41 Gravel — urinary calculi, or stone, causes 97 urinary calculi, or stone, description 94 Grease, or canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 Grubs— or flyblow, description and treatment 453 under the skin, description and treatment 453 INDEX. 585 Page. Grunting, testing 118- Gullet, or esophagug, treatment for foreign bodies 46 Gunshot wounds, description and treatment 469- Gut-tie, volvulus, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56- Guttural pouches, description and treatment 128 Hairs on skin, description 433- Harbaugh, W. H., chapter on " Diseases of respiratory organs " 104-141 Harness galls, or sitfasts, description and treatment 470 Harvest bug, larvee of Troinhkllum, Leplus americanus, jigger (chigeo), animal parasite of skin 452' Haw- tumor, or caries of cartilage, description and treatment 261 winking cartilage, or cartilago nictitans, description 253^ Hay, kinds for feeding 38- Heart- adventitious growths, description, symptoms, and treatment 235 anatomy and physiology 225 and blood vessels, diseases, remarks 228 blood vessels, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower.. 225-250 circulation of blood, description 226- congestion, description and symptoms 240 dilatation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 238 fatty degeneration, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239- hypertrophy, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treat- ment 237 inflammation of lining membrane, or endocarditis, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment 230- inflammation of muscular structure, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, and treatment 229 inflammation of sac inclosing, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, and treat- ment 233 inflammatory diseases, description and treatment 229 palpitation, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 rupture, description and cause 240' valvular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment 235 weakness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 240 Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, or heat stroke, symptoms, pathology, treatment, and prevention 199' Heaves, broken wind, or asthma, definitions, symptoms, and treatment 136 Heels- contracted, or hoof-bound, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 403^ cracked, scratcheSf or chaps on knee and hock, description, causes, and treatment 443 inflammation, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment . .'. 444 Hematuria, or bloody urine, cause and treatment 82 Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half the body, description and symp- toms --.- 208 Hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82 Hemoptysis, or bleeding from lungs, causes, description, and treatment 135 Hemorrhage — process of healing and method of treatment 461 spinal, symptoms and treatment 214 586 INDEX. Page. Hemorrhoids, or piles, description and treatment 66 Hemostasia, description and treatment 460 Hepatitis, or inflammation of liver, symptoms, causes, and treatment 12 Hernia — congenital scrotal, description and treatment 67 diaphragmatic, description 70 inguinal, description, symptoms, and treatment 67 of womb, description and treatment 167 or rupture, description of different kinds 67 scrotal, cause 67 umbilical, description and treatment 69 ventral, description and treatment 68 Herpes, description and treatment 441 High blowing, description 118 Hip- bone, or OS innominatum, description, symptoms, and treatment 317 bones, fractured, causes 167 joint, luxation, description and treatment 338 lameness, description, symptoms, and treatment 344 Hock— and knee, chaps or scratches, description, causes, and treatment 443 capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 curb cause, symptoms, and treatment 349 fractures, note 325 Holcombe, A. A., chapter on "Diseases of ankle, fetlock, and foot" 369—130 Honeycomb ringworm, or favus, description and treatment 450 Hoof. {See also Foot. ) -bound, or contracted heels, description, causes, symptoms, and treat- ment *. 403 description 371 growth 557 healthy, characteristics 559 physiological movements 556 preparation for the shoe 565 Hoofs — unshod, care 558 various forms 560 Hornets, bees, and wasps, treatment for stings 454 Horny sloughs (sitfasts), or sloughing callosities, description and treatment.. 448 Horsepox — or equine variola, causes, symptoms, and treatment 523-527 reference 447 Horses, anatomy, description 276 Horseshoe. (*St'tion and treatment 158 walls, fetus adherent, description, cause, and treatment 171 Worm, intestinal, or Ascaris equorum, note 60 Worms^ bladder, affecting kidneys 87 colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 Wounds — and their treatment, chapter l>y Ch. B. Michener 459-481 descrij)tion 459 gunshot, description and treatment 469 healing under a scab, treatment 462 in nostrils, cause and treatment 106 lacerated and contused, description and treatment 463 of joints, punctured, or open joints, description and treatment 467 of skin, description of different kinds and treatment 456 of tendon sheaths, description and treatment 468 penetrating walls of chest, description and treatment 139 poisoned, description and treatment 470 punctured, description, symptoms, and treatment 465 punctured, of foot, description, symptoms, and treatment 400 Yellows, jaundice, or icterus, descriiition and treatment .. ............... 73 ♦'e FEB 2 5 2002 JAN 14 2003 JUL 3 i 2003 SF951 United States. Bureau of U53 Animal Industry. 1903 Special report on diseases of the horse ISSUED TO SF95I United States. Bureau of Ani>;ial U53 Industry. IQO'^' Special report on diseases of the horse ^ JUL 82 N. MANCHESTER, INDIANA 46962