POISONOUS FISHES OF THE SOUTH SEAS SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT: FISHERIES No. 25 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE POISONOUS FISHES OF THE SOUTH SEAS SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT: FISHERIES No. 25 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Explanatory Note The series embodies results of Investigations, usually of restricted scope, intended to aid or direct managonent or utilisation practices and as guides for administrative or legislative action. It is issued in limited quantities for the official use of Federal, State or cooperating agencies and in prooessed fonn for economy and to avoid delay in publications. Washington, D. Ci May 1960 United States Departaent of the Interior Oscar L* Chapnan, Secretary Pish and Wildlife Service Albert M. Day, Director Special Scientific Report - Fisheries No. 25 POISONOUS FISHES OF THE SOUTH SEAS Translated frcm the Japanese language by W» G. Van Campen Pacific Oceanic Fishery Investigations CONTENTS Page 1« Report of an investigation of poisonous fishes of South Seas, By Yoshio Hiyama l/ Preface* • ••••••1 Chapter I. Introductory 3 Section 1 Introduction •• ••S Section 2 Past Studies of Poisonous Fish . • • • 4 Section 3 Methods of Investigation and Testing© 9 Section 4 Relation of Freshness to Toxicity. • .13 Chapter II. Species of Poisonous Fish and their Toxicity* •*. 16 Section 1 General* ..•***..•***•• *16 Section 2 Genus Gymno thorax* **•*•*..* .21 Section 3 Genus Sphyraena. * **..**.*• •2 5 Section 4 Genus (^ranx . 27 Section 5 Genus Lutjanus and Genus Apr ion* . . .30 Section 6 Genus Lethrinus 35 Section 7 Family~Sparidae. .*• 37 Section 8 Families Labridae and Callyodontidae .39 Section 9 Family Serranldaa* *** 41 Section 10 Family Eepatidae 46 Section 11 Families Monacanthidae , Balistidae, eind others *49 Section 12 Family Tetraodontidae* *•***•• *51 1^ Nissan Fisheries Experiment Station Odawara Branch Preface Page Section 13 Addenda 53 Section 14 Fishes Whose Bite is Poisonous, Fishes with Poisonous Spines, and Shellfish with Poisonous Spines v'SS Chapter III. Fish Poisoning Symptoms and Treatment . . . • • 55 Section 1 Symptoms. ..... ..SB Section 2 Treatment 59 Chapter IV. Toxic Substances and Methods of Eliminating them ...•• 61 Section 1 Toxic Substanoes. .••... .61 Section 2 Location of Poison and Changes Resulting frcBi preparation for the table • ... 61 Section S Methods of Extraction •••62 Section 4 Preservation of Toxio Substances* .... 64 Section 5 Elimination of Toxio Elements ...••• 73 Chapter T. Conclusions and Observations •••. •*80 Section 1 Popular Theories ....SO Section 2 On variations in Toxicity 82 Section 3 On the Distribution of Poisonous Fishes • 83 Tables • ......85 2. Report of an Investigation of Poisonous Fishes within the Jurlsdlotion of the Saipan Branch of the Govenment-General, By Takashl Yasukawa ZJ Foreword ...•.........•• ••••• .189 Introduction and literature. 190 Fishermen's reports. 191 Ecology and distribution of poisonous fishes 192 Views on the dissection of poisonous fishes 193 Bacteriological Investigation of poisonous fishes 194 Chemical studies of poisonous fishes 195 Effects of the occurrence of poisonous fishes on the fisheries and counter-measures to be taken ........ .195 Conclusions 196 Zj Contagious Disease Research Institute Tokyo Imperial TJhlvwrslty Preface Page 8* Report on the Physiologioal Action of Balloonfish Poison, By Tasuo Suehiro zf Materials and Methods. 198 Results of the Experiments •....•••....... igg 4. Oases of Poisoning by the reef fish LtJTJA.NUS VAIGIENSIS, By Hasao Watanabe 4/ Description of the speoies 209 Poisoning oases 210 Causes of poisoning ....••• , , 2is 5* On the Structure of the Poison Spines of the Aigo (lEUTHIS (SYN, SIGANUS) FITSCESCENS), By IkusaKu AmemTya S/ 218 Z/ From Suisan Gakkai HO, Vol. 10, No. 12. 1948 ^ Short Report No» 6 of the Research Institute for National Resources, Tokyo. 1946 y From Suisan Gakkai Ho, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 196-P.04. July 25, 1921 { Page la PRBFACE In June of 1941 I compiled An Illustrated Guide to the Edible Fishes of the South Seas, wlilch was dedicated to the Im^^rlal armed forces by the •Nippon Suisan Kabushlkl Kalsha as a contribution to the nntlon bv the fish- ing Industry, "^ow, with the situation becoming; more and more serious, I am convinced that it cannot be useless to make even a sli<^ht contribution to the solution of the marine food problem in the South by studyin** the poisonous fishes as well as the edible varieties, and, since T kno ; that the military authorities have been ur^in» preparations alon"; the sa^ie lines, I have not been able to resist the desire to comply with their wishes, 'Then we were entrusted with this investigation by the naval authorities, our pride and emotion were inexpressible, "e immediately made all prepara- tions, obtained the cooperation of the !)epartment of Af»riculture of Tokyo Imperial University and the Fisheries Experiment Station of the South Seas Office, and despatched Yoshio Hiyama (on leave from his assistant professor- ship at Tokyo Imperial University), Tanzo Mishisawa (technician ot the Fisheries Qcperlment Station of the South Seas Office), Tomoharu ''urofushi (temporarily assigned), and Shif^ru Arita (temporarily assirjned) to conduct the investigation in the field from July to December, 1941. Our research teara, overcominfT unforeseen difficulties and inconveniences, visited various South Sea Islands insofar as available transportation facilities permitted, and after in general attaininrr their objectives all returned safely on December 4 with the precious material which they had assembled. Only four days later the war broke out and the declaration of war was oromulgated, which can only be regarded as a miracle of divine provi- dence. Thereafter we busied ourselves in or'^anizinir and compiling: our data, and were able to gain a knonled«^e of the general situation ivlth regard to poisonous fishes of the South Seas. In June of the followinf^ year (1942) we compiled an illustrated guide to poisonous fishes to be used as a ready reference in the South Seas, particularly in the areas in which the Imperial forces were operating, "r. Toshlo Hiyama had further advanced the iiork of compilation to assemble the present detailed report of the vihole picture of the investigation of poisonous fishes of the South Seas. Feeling that this report was timely and should have a wide circulation, we have obtained the I Page 2aj permission of the authorities to publish it. The work of con^ilatlon and editing has been greatly assisted by the ardent labors' of "essrs, Shigeru T'uraraatsu, Tadashi Kumada, Takeo Funada, Fukuzo Katano, and ?Tesdames Kikue Tomita and Ilatsue Sasaki. This report is, of course, not to be considered as final, and we expect to carry on further researches at present and in the future. - 1- Finally, we wish to acknowled(»e with gratitude the onfailinT support and guidance of the naval authorities, the South Seas Office, the Department of Af»riculture of '^okyo Imperial University, and various persons in the areas visited. If this report makes our sli?»ht efforts of any value to persons active in the South, it can only be due to the aforementioned understanding support and Tiise (guidance. .'ebruary 28, 1943 Toshiro Kumada Page 1| GHAPTER I Introductory Section 1 Introduction Hitherto the poisonous fishes of the South Seas have been little known, probabXy because those seas are remarkably rich in useful marine resources which could fill the need for food without the necessity of trying to bring every different species to the table. For this reason fisheries research or^fanizations and researchers both in the South Seas and in Japan have concentrated on studies of the useful species. As a result many advances have been made in this field, but on the other hand there have naturally not been any worthwhile studies made of the so-ws : Native name 1. ael 2. aujbak 5. deb 4. ho S« hoi eke tern bub 6. ikbij 7. ikuit 8. illinno 9. Jab 10. jalia 11. Jarenrod 12. Jaire elik Scientific name Hepatus olivaceus SynoduB variegatus Gymno thorax sp. Pterois voli'tene Balistes sp. Caranx le'ss'onii Eplnephelus leopardus Serranus micTbdon Lut Janus' sp. Lethrinus miniatus Lut Janus sp. Japanese name montsukihagi akaeso a kind of utsubo minokasago a kind of mongarahagi niramihiraajl hlodoshihata iw&hata f ue doku ta rumi ki ts unekuohibi a kind of fuedai a kind of hata ♦Yasukawa, Ibikashi : Report of an Investigation of Poisonous Fish of the South Seas, South Seas Office, 1934. Mimeographed. **Matsuo, Ryuichi, Report of an Investigation of Poisonous Fishes at Jaluit I., in Collected Medical Reports on Endemic Diseases of the South Sea Islands. Second Edition, p. 309-326, July 1934. Published by the South Seas Office. 13» Jebeb pako 14. jldjidbeiu 15, Jollol 16* Jonuue 17. jone pako 18. Jujukeb 19. jula [Page 8] 20. Jurre 21. katok 22. klelolan 23. kolaolap 24. labbo ellk 25* lane 26. lemejne 27. mameni 28. manld 29. no 30. pan inar 31. petvretak 32. poraxi 33. tlebedo 34. tinad 35. weo elap 36. wat Sph; ma zygaena 'inus sp. LetV Chelllnus fasolatus Sphyraena pi cuda Plectropomus ollgacanthus Sphyraena forsterl Lethrlnus sp. Monotaxie grandoculia Chelllnus sp. Carapjc me lampygus Lethrlnus sp, Lethrlnus sp. Scorpaenopsis diabolus Lutjanus bohar Lutjanus fulviflamma Ctenoohaetus strlgosus Gna thoden tex aurollneatus Lethrlnus sp. Te traodon sp. shvEaokuzame a kind of kuphibltai yashabera a kind of hlmejl a kind of same dokukamasu amadaredokuhata omek&jnasu a kind of kuchlbltal dokudai a kind of hata hanabibera dokuhlraajl usugvmokuchibl usugumokuchlbl hata family seppariokoze f uta tsubos hidokugyo nlse kur ohoe hi taruml a kind of el sazanamlhagi nokogiridal oakakuchibi a kind of fugu Of these thlrty-slx species over half have been caught and tested by the author, ajid some observations have been made concerning the others (chapter II, Section 12). Ifr. Hlsatoshl Marukawa has also abstracted the above two papers in Fisheries of the South Sea Islands from the Oceanographlcal Point of View in the eighth edition of South Seas> Fisheries Papers published by the South Seas Fisheries Association, May 1940. Mr. Takeo Otani has also published extracts from them in The Science of Conchology. — — — There are many studies of poisonous tetraodonts of Japan proper by iMcahashi, the Idas, %hara, Fukuda, Inoue, the Kinoshitas, Ishihara, Iwa- gawa, the Kimuras, and others. There are also soaie studies by Prof. Jun Tamakawa and others on species of fish which oontain protamine. The abore are the studies of species which cause poisoning when eateni on fish with poisonous spines there is a Japanese paper by Prof. Ikusaku iJUBilya on the poison gland of the aigo [siganus fusees eens (Houttuyn) ] and irous other foreign papers.'*' 4AB«Biya, Ikosakni On the Structure of the Poison Spines of the Aigo. Suisan Qaktai Ho, Vol. 3, p. 196. [Page 9] Section 3 T^ethods of Imrestif^ation and Testing The author's Investigations and experiments are concerned with the 7!iarianas and I!arshalls areas. The investij^ation touched upon other areas, but experiments involvini* collecting were Limited to Saipan in the Tlarianas and Jaluit in the !!arshalls. Broad inquiries were made concerning poisonous fish amons fishermen, natives, and fisheries technologists in the£;e areas. Testimony was taken from those who had had experience with cnses of fish poisoaln']: r^rji fron medical officers in the areas. In addition efforts were made to collect fishes by various methods. The chief method used was driving fish into a nefc, but angllno:, long lines, trawls, and underwater spearing were also resorted to. Great numbers of fish were taken by the use of 6aq>lo8ivea. Since the nuniber of species taken was so very great, it was impossible to test them all, so from them we chose for our experiments those which had been reported either by informants or in the literature as poisonous and those which so closely resembled this reportedly poisonous species as to be easily mistaken for th«n. Tests were also made on all species which appeared pronising^food fish by reason of their large size and the large nuriA>ers taken. The fish caught were taken immediately to the laboratory where the fresh coloration was recorded in drawings as rapidly as possible. The fish were then preserved in formalin and later taken to Japan v^here photographs were made. The plates for this book were made by taking the outline of the fish from the photographs, and adding the coloration recorded in the sketches made in the field. On fish intended for experimentation, an effort was made to record accurately the time of capture in order to indicate the degree of freshness. Materials used in experiments with animals were, in order to simulate real conditions, prepared as if actually for table use, as described below. A knife was inserted in the belly of the fish and the flesh was re- moved from one side, taking care not to damage the viscera, and this fillet was divided so as to give representation to all parts insofar as possible. The blood, liver, ovaries, testes, and other viscera were likewise divided. Portions of fresh muscle tissues were set aside for testing, and cooked portions were prepared. These are referred to hereafter as "fresh tissue" and "cooked tissue". In cooking,the tissue was placed in a covered alumlte cooker with an equal quantity of water and heated over an alcohol la/rp for from 5 to 20 minutes until the fluid in the vessel was almost gone after which it was removed from the fire. Then test portions of approximately equal weight with the test portions of fresh tissue were prepared. In one or two cases salted and dried test portions were also prepared. Blood was [Page 10] mixed with starch (tapioca starch) or refined fishmeal in a milk bowl and weighed. - 9 - T'lce were chiefly used as experimental animals. Cats were also used as much as pcssiblo, and some puppies were used. The test material was given by mouth in almost all cases. The mice were kept without food for approximately % hours before the test. The test material, prepared as described above, was presented to the animal in a watch glass. After several hours it was removed and the leftover portion was measured. Feces and other extraneous materials were removed and portions of the fish which had been scattered about by the animal's feet were carefully gathered up. In addition, portions of the same material were left for the same period of time and the loss by evaporation was measured in order to provide data for correcting the weights of material vinder similar conditions. In the tables of animal experiments, "amount eaten" represents the difference between the amount given and the remainder, "aterials added (blood, liver) and the amount of evaporation should be sub- tracted from this figure. In the case of the cats and puppies it was not as necessary to starve them befrirehand as it was with the mice, and they readily consumed up to 50 grams of material. The mice were ordinarily kept on a diet consisting chiefly of polished rice and cracked rice with vegetables added, 'Then vegetables were unob- tainable, leaves of the ginnemu and fresh copra vuere substituted. The cats were kept in baskets at first but it proved difficult to keep them and many died so finally a cage enclosing about six and one-half square meters of ground was constructed and about 30 cats were kept in it. About 500 mice were transported by air to the scene of operations. Ten cats were flown in but only about one-third of them arrived in a healthy condition. At Jaluit local cats were obtained whenever possible, about 50 being utilized. In evaluating the effect of a feeding on the mice, in case they did not die, it was found to be difficult to determine a light degree or the early stages of poisoning. For this reason the early experiments produced no trustworthy data. As experience was gained it \vas found possible to determine a slight degree of sensory impairment by lightly pricking the . paws, lips, and back with a dissecting needle and observing the reaction. In the case of the cat the same technique had to be employed with animals affected to only a very slight degree, but with those somewhat more strongly affected, it was generally possible to detect the condition inme- diately by making them walk. Animals which were poisoned began to stagger right away, and if the poisoning was a little more severe, they could not hold their bodies in position to walk and fell frequently. In the most severe cases they only tried to lie down and maae no attempt to raise them- selves, "Je tried insofar as possible to follow a policy of not using the same animal twice for experiments, but because of the shorta«»e of animals [Page llj some of the cats which recovered were used again after two or three days. Because the author was requested to make the animal experiments simu- late real conditionsi thev were all made by feeding the test materials to the animals, howeveri this method depends on the amount eaten bv the animal and therefore, as is shown in a later section of this report, it is - 10 - not possible in many caa'ss to det.ermiR'2 as: sccui'ately as cue would Like the strength of the poisori. If anyone nii'^ht vilsh to carry on further experi- ments of this sort, the author recommends the use of injections by the ejctraction method described in a later c/iapter„ TJie followin,<» facts should be noted with regard to the tables of animal eocperltnents inserted in the various sections of this report: (1) I5xperiraental animal. M is the abbreviation for'^iouse". No. is the number of the cage. The cages were di\n.ded into tv?o co/npartments and the animal used in an experiment is desio;nated as "right" or "left". The mice were not given individual serial numbosrs and for this reason when the two mice in one cage v;era used in different experirients the caf,e namber is the same. The cats 'sero not given serial numbers except for temjjorary ones assigned when a large number of animals were being kept at one time. Animals for which no body weights are recorded are these for vshich the data werf lost, and for these the weights run about 10-20 grams for the mice and 500 grams — 1 kilogram for the cats. (2) The figure on the line below the individual serial number of a fish indicates the total length, (3) The ratios of mixtures where fishmeal, starch, and so forth were mixed with the test material is shown as 1:1 or as * '^4.^-^ , The true quantity should be determined by subtracting the amount of material added, (4) "Flesh", "head", "tail", and so forth indicate muscle tissue taken from those parts. (5) "Fresh" (or "raw") or "cooked" indicate respectively unpre- pai^d material and material prepared as described above, (6) Amount of evaporation has not been subtracted from the amount eaten. As a standard for determining this connection the time at which the remaining food was weighed lias been recorded. Time was lackinrr to make these calculations for each experiment, but the following examples are given to serve as a reference for evaluating the data of all the experiments. These measurements were made in the laboratory at Salpan, -11- — ri o u u u U U Fi h s ? 3 Vt C b3 bO b£l tn M 6C fee M> >o o t» CM CM «/^ goo 1 & ? • • f o r4 ?' • ^ • • C • 10 » ^ e c %% c e s k £ ,2}?:^ S o H S r> CM h 1 -S u U ti »4 CO b U 55 ^ 60 to g o t-\ cH O o o o o O «H &, b e • e >4 bO iH ^ |2 (0 •H H V< H ^ O fH Vl Vi oij «a E- « •o c •o ^ JB o JC o ^. ■o M CO J^ <0 J« © o ? o «> o > o u o u o •H H Ct- o fr. o wl CQ Is £ -p '§ ■P CM |§ 0) 1 sx •H O a s: 'JS'E ■p ts C C3 o c — r: j; (U m o 1 (^ !« se 1 1 9 o h (ii'-p e N C 4) o r-< o o o i CO ^ O 3> >H^J^ 1 t >iL' £*- 1^.1 'd ^ ..... .. > to « t-H tH 4> a i c < = r ^ 1 o 0-- C^ O^ 12 JFage 12J Section 4 Relation of Freshness to Toxicity The author while in Japan had heard of cases of fish poisoning and had wondered wliether, in view of the high temperatures prevailing in the South Seas and the insufficient refrigeration facilities available there, they might net be due to putrefaction. For this reason it was deemed neces- sary to begin by clarifying the relationship between putrefaction and toxicity« Six species generally considered poisonous were chosen and tested by being fed to mce after having been left for some time at atmos- pheric temperature. The results were as follows: T. Species - dokxihiraajl, Garanx melampygus Cuvier & Valenciennes, Time caught - August 25 at 0900 (1) 10 hrs. 15 min. at 28° c TTuscle tissue softened, pH 6.1. Blood (0,6-0.3 gr), liver (0.6-O.Ogr), ovary (lo 5-0,0 gr), and muscle (l.2-0.0gr) were each fed to 10 mice, a total of 40 animals (body weight 15 gr). In no case was there any observable effect. (2) 15 hrs. Omin Muscle tissue softened, no odor of putrefaction, pH 6,3, One cat was fed 44 gr of cooked muscle tissue, and another was given 52.5 gr of raw flesh (body weight of cats about 1.5 kg ). The cat which ate the raw flesh showed no ill effects. The cat which ate the cooked flesh regurgitated almost all of it but showed no other ill effects, (3) 19 hrs. 30 min. at 27° C 'Tuscle tissue softened, slight odor of putrefaction, pH 6.2. T'uscle tissue (2.0-0.6 gr) was fed to ten micoo No ill effects observed. The viscera stank badly and the mice would not eat them. II. Species - kitsunekuchibi ( Lethrinus miniatus Schneider) Time caught - August 25 at 0900 (1) Tested at 1108 Muscle tissues in rigor wortis. pH 6,2, Blood (0.5 gr, 0.4 gr, 0.4 gr, 0.3 gr, one did not eat), gall (0.6 gr, 0.6 gr, 0.5 gr, 0.5 gr, 0.4 gr, 0.4 gr, [slcQ , liver (0.4 gr, 0.4 gr, 0.3 '^r, 0.1 gr, one did not eat), ovary (1.2 gr, 1.0 gr, 0.5 gr, 0.4 gr, 0.2 gr), and muscle tissue (2.5, 2.4, 2.1, one did not eat) were each fed to five mice with no ill effects noted. (2) 15 hrs. at 28° C jPage 13] Tftiscles softened. No putrefactive odor, pH 6.4. One cat was fed 37.2 gr of raw flesh and another was fed 54.1 gr of cooked flesh (body weight of cats 1.5 kg). The raw flesh caused no 111 effects, the cooked flesh was all regurgitated but caused no other ill effects. - 13 - (3) 19 hrs. 30 min. at 27° C TTuscles softsned, sliffht odor of putrefaction. pK 6.2. Seven nice (body vseight 15 f;r) vuere fed muscle tissue (2.6 gr, 2,3 gr, 1.8 gr, 1.8 gr, 1.7 gr, 1.6 gr, 1.0 gr). One developed diarrhsa, no other ill effects were observed. III. Species - akadokutarumi, Lut.lanus vaigiensis Time caught - August 26 at 0910 (1) Tested at 1118 Tliiscles soft, pR 6.6. Blood (0,5 gr, 0.3 gr, 0.3 gr), liver (0.5 gr, 0.5 gr, 0,4 gr), raw muscle tissue (0.9 gr, 0.2 gr, 0.2 gr), and cooked muscle tissue (2.7, 2.7, 2,0) were each fed to three mice (15 gr). No ill effects were seen. (2) Tested at 1938 Tfuscles soft, slight odor. !law muscle tissue (2;4 gr, 1.8 gr. 1.8 gr) and cooked muscle tissue (5.0 gr, 4,7 gr, 4.4 gr) were each fed to three mice (15 gr). No ill effects. The above are the results of the experiments. In all experiments with mice, no symptoms of poisoning were found, regardless of the degree of freshness of the fish. In each experiment with cats the cooked test material was regurgitated, but the raw flesh was eaten without ill effects. However, at the time of these experiments, we did not have sufficient background knowledge of the effects produced by fish poisoning and did not suspect that it might give rise to sensory impairment, and so unfortu- nately we did not test to detennine the presence of such impairment. It is also to be regretted that the species used w§re not strongly toxic ones. It can be said, nevertheless, that none of the animals died as they did in some later experiments, and that the poison therefore does not result from deconposition. An examination of examples of fish poisoning in humans shows that of 11 cases reported at Saipan, two occurred about two hours after the fish were caught, one about three hours after, and the other eif^ht within one hour of the time of capture. Two cases reported from the I.!arshalls both occurred directly after the fish were taken. The species were dokuhj- raaji, dokufued^i^ dokuutsubo, akaganmo, and dokukamasu. (For the Japanese common names, see the following chapter^ [Page 24] In regard to the freshness of market fish, it is necessary to con- sider the fish supply situation in the area studied. Ordinarily, early in the morning a fleet of canoes goes to the nearby outer reef where they operate driving-in nets (olkomiamijj returning around noon or in the evening. The catch is immediately sold at a maricet near the beach or at the fishermen's homes. Fish brought in around noon are eaten at the noon meal while those brought in late in the afternoon are used for the evening meal, Tfhere there are proper facilities, any remaining fish are made into fishcake [kamaboko or qh^ktiwJ , Fish are never held overnight for sale -14- the next day. The towns which are oenters of fish oonsianption are every- where near the ooast, and even when the fish are sent to another plaoe, little time is required for transportation beoause the islands are small. Even in islands where refrigeration facilities are limited or entirely lacking, it is difficult to see how many oases of poisoning could result from putrefaction beoause the fish are used in a fresh condition. •These facts baok up the results of the experiments recorded above^ and cases of poisoning resulting from putrefaction in the high temperatures of the South Seas must be considered as a separate phenooaenon* 15 [Page 15] CHA-PIER II Species of Prisonous Fish and Their Toxicity Section 1 Geneiral This chapter Is an attempt to record not only all of the poisonous and nonpoisonous varieties tested by the author In person, but also all whloh have been recorded in the literature or whloh were reported by fishermen and natives to be poisonous but which could not be caught or which were taken when conditions prevented testing them. Many of the varieties reported on oould not be identified with cer- tainty because specimens could not be obtained and the local names and inadequate descriptions were all we had to go on. Also, some of them could only be considered as fish with poisonous spines and these are all taken up in Section 12. In the case of varieties which were acoxirately identified either by descriptions or by catching specimens but which could not be tested, we have recorded In this chapter all testimony received regarding their toxi- city. In order to serve as a basis for judging its comparative strength. The following table gives all the speoies which can be considered poisonous as a result of this study. The taxonomic relationships between these many speoies are interesting. They fall into a n«aber of taxonomlo groupings and are not scattered at random teuconomically. In other words, poisonous fish only occur in certain families and certain genera. This is Just the same situation that is foxmd in Japan where the poisonous fishes are limited to the Tetraodontldae and even to the genus Tstraodon. Looking at the Class Pleoes as a whole, we find that of its hundreds of families, only twelve Include poisonous fish. Considered from the point of view of species, authorities differ, but the number of speoies In the Class Is between ten and thirty thousand, and the nianber of poisonous species, including not only those considered in this investiga- tion but also those found In foreign countries, does not come up to one hundred. Pish which cause poisoning when eaten are only a very few species, considering fish as a whole, and they belong to a very few taxo- nomlo divisions. [Paget 16 and 17] Reference table of poisonous fish (46 species, cetraodonts omitted) [Page 18] It should be noted that this is not to say that all of the fish in these families and genera are poisonous. They also contain edible apeoies which are completely nonpoisonous. The following sections are organised aooording to the taxonomio divisions. 16 ;!| a o h +» iS a p. E o o to o (3 A rH O 8 a o ♦» (3 a o a a "R Q S o •> o .5 43 a u ^ "8 O ■♦» 4» ado Q> a o T3 — ' JS 5 5U a a S. a ^5 s-s •a CO 23- u s a o| o rH i! iD (4 SI « ai £ 5 2 S 17 1 ^& 5 o M 3 3^ TS 1-1 5 a G [Q g (T ft. (3 c9 a <^ S3 0) O CO O &> (D Q> P. n OS 3 4» 5 ■5 o "»< 0 o o V( ^ TJ © 3 P a> n M §3 •H Si J4 J4 •rl nS U -p o IS -H p ( <-t iH <\ IN * H •P i-l fH rS ■p s a •rl p J* n CO n ca a ^ DJ g o a> • ca fl a s -S, 5 ^5 6 «M.V e «B ■"-J Q) ^ '©" « &-? 5 j .,^ n o «^-^ n 11 CB C9 e 01 ^■^ ^1 55 Is g (D S • <-• _. O e e i-» o i-i >- o ■9 "-* "rf (0 0) 1-1 ?:^ C^ 1 1 » ;5 ■S| r^ 5 5 &5 2cS rH a E 5 2 5 •H CO 1 5 2 5^_ lt„ J3 2 5 e rH 5 J3 >i o • 0 « a a S s ^ I'b J4 % f-i el -O 1 r-t 'i •HO,* i S 8)2 5-3 J5 o • a 53 o « S g 5 o e •^ 1 K ■ c C s s s :3 g; g M § JS Q e o CO s 1 ;3 Ql 1 3 3 1 3 o 1 p s s s o o o 'a o « 1 •p 3 (4 Ol 1 •H i f-4 1 o -3 p. a •E a t T 8 n s •H a T f- o »4 1 (B 3 .3 rH n 5 •0 O < 1 o 1 2" 5 1 1 o o H r 1 as a 1 s 1 s «> 1 1 ^ 2 o o S E^ 1 5 ;^ OQ O (H TJ2 5 cu o o 5 O 9 ^ s^ o ol ol o d SJ ^ •H g 5 5 g 5 g ? ■§ n -ri u •3 Si 4) U g p p a T^ •ri J3 O x> ^ 5 S $4 a J g 1 o s 5 CO TJ 3 go yi "o 1 tj § o a ^ ^ ■si 1 t j ;ed bj heating at 100® for IX) minutes. [Page 22] 22 2. Shironon dokuutsubo (Plate 1, Pig. 2) Scientific naroe - Gyinnothorax meleafn^is Shaw Local name - dreb (T.Tarshallese). ,^aunafyi, or hanabiutsubo (Japanese) Distribution - East Africa, Indian Ocean, South Seas, Philippines > Hawaii. ITorpholo/^cal characteristics - two rows of teeth in upper Jaw, gape large, from snout to corner of mouth is somewhat more than l/3 of head length. Head is long, going 1.7 to 2,9 times in trunk length. Coloration varies; the plate represents one type, but in some the white markings are further reduced to fine dots. In others the area of the white markings is Increased and the dark brown ground color is decreased until it is hard to say whether it is a reticulated pattern of dark brown on a white ground or an imbricated pattern of white markings. Although there are scientists who treat these forms as different species, it is thought that they are all variations or varieties. In all of those which were tested the white spots were distinct, as shown in the figure, and for this reason it was unfortunately impossible 'to gain any knowledge of the toxicity of the other varieties, however, from what the natives say, it is presumed that their toxicity is probably the same. Fewer of this species were taken than of the preceding. [Table 41 llie above results show that of two animals eating the raw flesh, one whloh had taken 0,8 grams died. One which ate 0,8 jsic] grams of liver had diarrhea, its coat was ruffled, and it appeared weakened but it re- covered the following day. The natives say that this species is not as virulent as the preceding, but that there have been deaths caused by it. This species is also considered violently toxic, 3, Naraiutsubo (Plate 1, Fig. 3) Scientific name - Gymnothorax nndulatus (Lacepede) Local name - dreb (TTarehallesej. .jaunagj (Japanese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, E, Indies, South Seas, Philippines, Hawaii, T'orpho logical charncterlstics - one row of teeth in uoper jnw. Head length goes 6| to 8 times in body lea'^h, 6.2 to 7.2 in trunk. Length from snout to comer of mouth i^oes 2 to 2| times in head length. !.Iark- ings extraordinarily variable; Those with a dark ground color, as shown in the plate, are most common, but there are those in which a white ground color merely forma a reticulated pattern and others '.Mhich, like the variety isingteenus (Fig, 4) described in the next section, have dark markings on a white background. It is difficult to distinguish the varieties other than by their coloration. This species is also widely: distributed and is one of the eels comp- monly seen in the South Seas. [Table 5j Toxicity. The tabulated results of the animal experiments show that one mouse which consumed 1 gram of cooked flesh showed some ill effects. Another which ate 0.6 gram of flesh , salted and dried in the sun (not completely dried, should be called half<-dried) also suffered some ill effects. Since sensory reactions were not tested on any of these eight 23 specimens, no conclusion can be reached on this points All natives who viere asked about this species said that it nas poisonous « This species is probably somewhat less poisonous than the preceding fines. [Page 24] U» Amadareatsubo (Plate 2, Fig. 4) Scientific name - (^nnnothorax f avaid-neus var. ielngteenus (Richardson) Local name - mB^] (llarshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, East Indies, Marshalls, Morphological characteristics - Generally identical with the species des- cribed above, but the coloration is entirely different. 'Various scientists hare recognized it as a variety of the preceding species, and since large specimens are never seen, ones measuring from 40 to 50 cm bein^; abundant in the coral reefs, it is possibly an immature form. Toxicity. Although this is merely a color variation of the preceding species, the natives say that it is not poisonous. Since the results of our e9q>eriments have shown that the preceding species is pretty clearly poisonous, it is vexy interesting; that such similar varieties can differ completely in toxicity. 5. Aseutsubo (Plate 2, Fig. 5) Scientific name - Gymnothorax pictua Ahl Local name - ma.'^ ( llarshallese} Distribution - Indian Ocean, E, Indies, South Seas, Philippines, Hawaii. Morphological characteristics - The canine teeth in the snout In this species are not slanting fang-shaped hinged teeth, but are coniform. They are not especially large and do not differ in any xnay from the other teeth. The markings change markedly with age. Figure 5 represents an old specimen. In young ones the dark spots are larger and fewer. In a young specimen about lb cm long the white ground color was divided into about three rows and in each row there were only about 50 dark brown spots. This species attains a length of 70 cm, but those commonly taken run about 50 em. Abundant in coral reefs. [Page 25] •^oxicity. This species was taken Just before our departure so we could not test it. According to the natives this species, like the preceding one, is edible and well-flavored. They do not distinguish it from the preceding species, give it no special name-, and accordingly have the same notion as tc its edibility. 24 6. Shiroutaubo (Plate 2, Fig. 6) Scientific name - Gyinnothorax thyrsoideus (Richardson) OTarshallese) Local name - ma/ Distribution - Burma, E. Indies, South Seas, W, Australia, Hawaii. Morphological characteristics - Coniform teeth like the preceding species but differs in havlnf? a double rather than a sln/»lB row of teeth in the upper Jaw, Ground color brownish with' minute spots scattered over the whole body. Body len?»th loaches 70 cm, a small size for a moray. Tcodcity. Not tested, Jaluit natives do not distinc^uish it from the two foregoin/» species and say that it is .iust as nonpoisonous as they are. [Page 26J Section 3 Genus Sphyraena The genus Sphyraena of the family Sphyraenidae, Order Acanthopterygi, includes many useful edible fishes. The sphyraenids of Japan such as the akakamasu ( Sphyraena pinf^uis). the aokamasa (S_. nigriplnais) and others are generally prized as delicious edible fish, and we have heard of no case, of poisoning attributed to them. In the tropical and subtropical areas of America the sphyraenids are called barracuda, and since they attain a large size, they are well known as food and game fish. The species are Sphyraena picuda . S, becuna. S, barracuda, as well as others, and it has long been known that in America they sometimes cause poisoning. There are various theories about this, one being that they are only poisonous during the annual spawning season. At the island of St, Domingo, they are supposed to be poisonous from llay to October. Poey* has stated that in Cuba only old fish of 3 pounds weight and over are poisonous. Giinther** has stated that the barracuda is poisonous only when it is feeding on poisonous sardines. Of the two species of poisonous sphyraenids of the South Seas known to the author, one is also found in American waters. This is S. picuda , which has previously been known to be poisonous, and it is worthy of note as an evidence of the fact that among the poisonous fishes are to be found some widely distributed species. 1. DokvJcamasu (Plate 3 figure 8) Scientific name - Sphyraena picuda Rloch & Schneider Local names - karaasu, kamasa. shiklrukamasa (Japanese), ,1u.1ukob ('larshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, tropical Pacific, America, tropical and sub- tropical Atlantic coast. TTorphological characteristics - Dorsal V, 9? and II, 7. Scales in lateral line 80. ;!outh extends to a point vertically below anterior edge of the •''Poey: Ciguatera, "emorla sobre la enfermedad. Report fislco-nat. de la Isla de Cuba, II p. 1-24. 1867 (from Pawlowsky) fr^tfunther:- wandbuch der lehthvoloffle, '.71en, 1886. 25 pupilo Attains a length of more than oris metsro Occurs in cur.fijce water;; all ovsT the South Ser,s„ Easily caught on trollin'^ i^ear ond Icn-^ linea„ C Tables 6, 7, 8j [Page 28] Toxicity . As showh in the table, of two cats tested, the one '.vhich took 7,2 ^ams of cooked flesh died after 20 hours. Of 4 mice \iihich ate the liver, one vjhich took 1 n;ram sho^ved some ill effects, and of 10 which ate muscle tissue, 2 which ate cooked tissue were affected, A case was described at Jaluit in which a ship's crew of more than ten men were all poisoned to such an extent that the functioninr; of the limbs and of the mouth nas imptiired in some of them, while others were un- able to stand up. The fish was said to have been over one meter in length. In another case at Saipan sixteen fishermen ate -the fish and only one of them was poisonedo Accordln': to this man's story, a short tiioe after eating (about 5 minutes) he vomited. After that he be5;an to feel a numb- ness spreadin/T from around his mouth. He felt as if his body were floating In space, his feet would not hold the oround, and he became as if drunk on sake. After stayinr* in bed for 2 or 3 days he recovered. The Jaluit natives say that the larger fish are violently poisonous. They also say that they do not know of any particular season for eating this fish. The specimens caught by the author were all of about 90 cm, and it was unfortunately not possible to test small fish, however, the large ones were, as shown above, very clearly poisonous. It is interesting that the natives' statement that only the large fish are poisonous is in agreement with Poey's observations in Cuba. Although it is certain that the larger barracuda of which the natives speak belong to this species, it may be that the small ones are not the young of this species but rather that they belong to the species described in the next section. There is room for further study on this ooint. These two species of barracuda are not differentiated by the Japanese except as to size; they only know that some of the "arshallese consider them separate species. There is doubt on this point, but the dokuhiraa.U described later in this report presents the same phenomenon, that is to say, only the large ones are poisonous. The settlement of the question of whether Poey was right about this species or whether it is a mntter'of con- fusion with a different species must be left to a later time. Also, in i^gard to the problem of whether these fish are especially poisonous during an annual spawning season, we have not made a year-round investigation and consequently have no data, even the spawning season being unknown, [Page 29] 9, Omeka/nasu (Plate 3 Figure 9) Scientific name - Sphyraena forsteri Cuvier & Valenciennes Local name - .jure (?fershallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, South Seas, Fiji ?'orphology - Very similar to the above species, differing principally in that the mouth is smaller with the corner of the mouth not reaching -as far as the anterior rim of the eye. Scales small, 12? on the lateral line. Eye large, going about 6 times in the head length (in the preceding species it goes about 9,3 times )• Does not become as large as the 26 precadirip^ species, those coinmonly taken beirvT about 40 to 60 cm in length YJith none reachiv; 1 meter. Plentiful cutside the encircling reefs and fringing reefs, they are easily taken on angling and trolling lines. (Tables 9, lOj fPage 30] Toadcity. Of the 4 cats used in the experiment, 2 which ate cooked flesh and one which ate raw flesh showed extremely slight sensory and locomotory Impairment, Of 9 mice only one showed functional impairment of the hind legs. Judging by these results this species may be said to be slightly poisonous. Tfetsuo's paper is the only known example in the literature which cites this species as being as poisonous as the preceding species. According to some ^!arshallese, only the fish taken at Jabor island in the Jaluit atoll are slightly poisonous while those taken at the other islands are nonpoisonous . The toxicity of specimens from Jabor was of the degree described' above. The natives appeared to have no qualms about eating this fish, and, while informing the author that it was poisonous, went right on eating it. The llarshallese distinguish this species by a separate name from the preceding species, which th^ do not eat. TTost of Japanese apparently make no distinction between these two species of barracuda. [Page 3lj Section 4 Genus Caranx T!ost of the many species of the genus Caranx. family Carangidae, are useful foodflsh and are handled as a high-grade article in fish markets in Japan and all over the world, A very few of these species have been considered poisonous for many years. According to Pellegrln*, Caranx' f allax is poisonous at Havana, He also records C. plume ri as poisonous, specimens containing poison be- ing said to have red bones. Poey (op. cit. p, 25) also records Seriola glgas and Seriola lalandi of the closely related Serlolidae as being poisonous in Cuban waters, Althou^ these species are very sLnilar to the seriollds and earangids of Japan, we have heard of no cases of poisoning caused by these fish in this country. The' species of earangids inhabiting the South Seas area are vexy numerous, probably over 100, and it was impossible to collect and test them all in the short time at our disposal so we omitted those species which are commonly used for food and investigated only the following two species, which have frequently caused cases of poisoning. ♦Pellegrim- Ls§ poiasons v4neneux. These de Paris. 1889 (from Pawlowsky) 27 1, Dokuhlrasji (Plate 4 Flgare 10) Scientific narr.o^- Caranx melamoyfrus Cuvier & Valenciennes Local name - lane (Ilarshallese;, gara (Okinavnan fishermen), generally called hiraa.ji by Japanese Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, tropical Pacific, taken rarely in Ryukyus. Morphology - First dorsal VIII, second dorsal I, 24. Anal II / I, 19 - 20. Scutfes on straight portion of lateral line 36 - 38. Eye very small, pos- terior end of maxillary extends to a point directly beneath the anterior edge of the pupil. Attains lar^e sizej specimens over one meter in length are not unusual. fPage 32j [Tables 11, 12, 13 1 (?age 335 [Tables 14, 15 J (Page 34] Toxicity. Results of exTDeriments with animals were as shown in tables 11 - 19. The two cats eatin^ raw flesh, two eating cooked flesh, and one eating liver showed marked symptoms of poisoning (except for one which ate raw flesh without ill effects), and one which ate 10 rnr of liver died. In the 62 experiments with mice- the technique for detecting symptoms was unsatis- factory in most cases, and only the 13 animals recorded in tables 18' and 19 showed any reaction. In these cases those which ate cooked flesh, raw flesh, blood, or liver all exhibited fairly clear signs of poisoning, [Tables 16, 17j [Page 35J The two fish tested were 90 and 71 centimeters long, Coraparinf: the two, the 90 cm one produced a clearer reaction in both the cats and the mice. Considering the various organs, it appears that the blood and the liver are of marked toxicity. The popular opinion (especially at Saipan) is that this species is one of those most frequently responsible for cases of poisoning. Judging from the results of inquiries among fishermen, doctors, and natives, poison in this species is limited to the large individuals and most cases seem to have resulted from eating cooked flesh from the head, i'Page 36j In the four animal experiments in which we especialXv tried to use flesh from the hend region, it was difficult to detect any more narked toxicity than in the other cases, although cases of poisoning in human beings show that tendency. Of the two fish tested, the toxicity of the 71 cm specimen was inferior to that of the 90 cm one, which agrees with the tenden<5r reported In cases involving human beings. Small fish (around 30-40 cm) are widely sold for food, but those of one meter or more in length appear not to be eaten. Most cases of poison- ing seem to occur when, occasionally, one of a medium size is eaten, ^e ourselves were served this fish prepared as sliced raw fish, the length of the fish being unknown to us, and no poisoning resulted. According to fishermen, persons- who fear poisoning if large specimens are eaten in an unprepared condition, soak the fish overnight in ice water and the next day prepare fishcake from it for sale; no cases of poisoning as a result of this procedure have been reported. It is wondered whether this is because the toxic element can be washed out in water. (See Section 5 of Chapter IV on elirrlnating the poison), 28 V Cases of polconliv! reported for Vu-lS spec-es are all li'^ht, involving slight Impairment of the sensory or locomotory functions even where rather large quantities have been consumed. The save est cases recover in three or four days and no deaths were reported. The followinp; conclusions are drawn from the above information: Fish under 40' cm in length are nonpoisonous , Fish over 70 cm long are mildly poisonous. Those In between are slightly poisonous, however, it is thou^t that there must be considerable variation depending on the indi- vidual fish and on the Individual eating the fish so, except for those which are only slightly poisonous (those which may be eaten without serious trouble), it would be safest to eat only fish under 40 cm long. 2. Wlramlhlraa.1i (Plate 4 Figure U) Scientific name - Caranx leseonll ' Cuvier f- Valenciennes Local name - ndnd^nagara (Okinawan). lkubu.1 (old fish, ?larshallese), kubkub (Immature fish, !Iarshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, tropical Pacific, Formosa "orpholcgy - Eye much larger than preceding species, enslly distinguishable. Mouth also large, posterior end of maxillary extending as far as posterior edge of eye. First dorsal VIII; second dorsal II, 20-21; anal II / I, ^.6-17. [Page 373 [Tables 20, 21, 22] Scutes on straight portion of lateral line, 30. loes not reach a large size, the largest seen by the author being about 20 cm [siej . Can be readily distinguished from the preceding species by the characteristics listed above. Toxicity. Three specimens (51 cm, 49 cm, and 23 cm in length) ^ere tested. Toxicity was marked in all but the 23 cm one, 17.5 gr of flesh pro- ducing conspicuous symptoms of poisoning in a cat neighing 0.8 kg. "/ith the specimen 23 cm long, 37 gr of flesh caused no ill effects in a cat ;\ieighing 0.3 kg, and although" only one test was made with this specimen, it appears that In this species, as In the preceding one, only large fish are poisonous. The Marshallese draw a strict distinction between large and small fish of this species, believing them to be different species. They call large ones lkubu.1 and small ones kubkub. Ikubu.i are considered poisonous, while kubkub are a staple food fish. As the plate shows, the coloration of the (Page 38] IkubuJ is darker than that of the kubkub and it looks .like an altogether different species. Nevertheless, not only can no important morphological difference be detected (slight differences in body depth and eye diameter are probably due to age difference^, but specimens of an in- termediate size show an intermediate coloration, anc^ so they ar^ considered to be the same species. Natives, when shown fish of various sizes, identified as kubkub those below 30 cm In length. According to the results of experiments with animals, specimens less than 30 cm in length may be eaten, but those of around 50 cm must be con- sidered strongly toxic. Besides the kubkub the natives say that two other species of caranglds, the rewa and the aron. are eaten, but xie were unable to collect them. It 29 appears that thore are no po.isonous caranFjids besides these t-.ifo specie: in the Harianas, "arshalls, and Carolines, [Paf^e 39] Section 5 Cfenera Lut.janus and Aprion The genera Lut.janus and Aprion belon?» to the family Lutjanidae, These fish are abundant throughout the tropical Pacific, and the number of species is lar^e. Some are a].so found in Japanese -waters, but in com- parison with the South Seas the^' are very few. The genus Lut.janus includes many useful food-fish;, and also numerous kinds of poisonous fish. Very few of them have been previously reported as poisonous. These fishes are cauf»ht with driving-in nets and by angling, and, because poisonous species are taken mixed in with edible species, caution is necessary. 1. Akadokutarumi (Plate 5 Figure 13-1) Scientific name - Lut.janus vaigiensis (Quoy ^- Gaimard) Local name - nkamasu. akanaT~akadai (Saipan Japanese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, "alaya. South Seas, N. Australia T^orphology and taxonomic information - This species very closely resembles in form and coloration the okifuedai (Plate 5 Figure 13-2) (called dokugyo or dokutarumi) of Japan, however, there is a definite difference between the two. In the okifuedai the rows of scales above the lateral' line on' the caudal peduncle are horizontal and run parallel to the lateral line, while in this species these ro;ifs slant upward caudad and cross the lateral line at an angle instead of running parallel to it. The pored scales of the lateral line in this species are 56-57, while in the okifuedai they are not more than 4^-50, Generally in this species the scales are smaller with 18 scales in a diagonal row counting from the origin of the anal fin, vihereas a similar count on the okifuedai gives lA (10 in Jordan's figure). Although it is a character which may v^ry with age and so be unsuitable for comparison, in specimens of approximately the same length the pectoral fins of this species were longer. On a specimen of about 50 cm the tip of the fin extended to a point vertically under the last spine of the dorsal. In the okifuedai it extends only as far as the eighth spine. In this species the caudal fin is deeply notched in the middle forming a forked outline while in the okifuedai the posterior edge Is either nearly straight [Page hO; Tables 23, 24, 25J [Page 41, Tables 26, 27] CPage U2, Tables 28^ 29, 30j CPage 43, Tables 31, 32j [Page 433 and truncate or is only slightly indented. These differences cannot be considered local variations, and they are therefore judged to be separate species. Fowler (1931) considered the direction of the rows of scales above the lateral line important and set up several subgenera of Lut.janus based on this difference,* ♦Fowler 1931. U. S. Nat. Hist. ?iis. Bull. 100, Vol. 11. p. 190 30 According; to bis classification, the okifuedai belongs to the sub;»enus Ralzaro Jordan fr Fesler, and this species belonf»s to the subgenus Weomaensla Glrard. The scientific name Lut.lanus vaictiensls (luoy & (Talmard) has in the past been applied to the okifuedai,. however, although we have not been able to see the original citation and cannot tell which species Is meant In other older citations, it seems proper to give the name Lut.lanus valglensis to this species, since it agrees with Fowler's description, and to consider the okifuedai a different species. Furthermorei this species is, as shown (jPage A4] belowi poisonous while the okifuedai. although called dokugyo "poisonous flshj, is said to be nonpoisonous by the people of Jdnolke -.^> vtS> J^" ^^^ ®"^ ^s eaten l^ thera. It is an interesting question how ' e fish got the name dokugyo. & Toxicity. Cats i*iich ate 47.1 gr of raw flesh, 40.7 gr of cooked flesh, and 15.2 gr of liver all showed marked reactions and died. One which ate 34.7 gr of cooked flesh showed no ill effects. In the experi- ments with mice there was very little reaction noted. Mot a few cases of poisoning In human beings have been caused by this species. It is one of trie most common lutjanlds and large numbers are caught. The following account was given by flshamen at Saipan who had ex- perleneed poisoning from this fish. "They went fishing at Laulau Bay and could catch nothing but akamasu. An old man warned them, but they cooked the fish and ate it. All fourteen rf them were .^trfcl'en, some of them havir.'^ raten hamasoki ( (ibrshallese), akamasu (Japanese) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Philippines, South Seas, Hawaii T^orphology - At first glance this species is very similar to the preceding, but it can be distinguished by its flatter and deeper body. Examining more detailed characters, the alignment of the scales on the caudal peduncle is horizontal in this species, there are about 60 scales on the lateral line, the diameter of the eye is greater, and the notching of the preoperculum is slighter. The coloration of this species is quite similar to that of fPage 45] the preceding species and it is difficult to distinguish between them on that point alone. Past citations have described two white spots on the back as a characteristic of this species, and Bleeker* in his ♦Bleeker, P . » - Atlas iehthyolopilQue des Indes Orientalgs. 31 figure shovTod vjell-defined white spots, however, the authorfe experience has been that these small white spots can hardly be observed in freshly-caught specimens. T'^elther the author nor the artist noticed them in the field. It was only when the specimens were re-examined after haviaJT been preserved in formalin for about two months that these spots could be clearly seen, and vie could iresolve our doubts as to the identity of the specieso In the fi,<;ure the two spots have been somewhat exa'^^erated in order to show their location. This species has lonn: been knov;n to be poisonous. Jordan and Geale (1906)** reported it from ^amoa with the local name of mumea as the only fish other th^n monacanthids and tetraodonts which is alviays poisonous there, 't. Shif^eho Tanakrf^ has also described the species. [Table 33] 'toxicity. Tests with this species were unsatisfactory because the amount of material available was too snail. Cats consumed 17 gr. without any ill effect, an' nice showed no reaction, Accoislinfr to the ''arshalJ-ese, this species is poisonous at Jaluit but is eate at Sbon Island, Local residents also say that if kept in tide pools, these fish lose their toxicity. Be that as it '^ay, in fish v,'hich show such variations in toxicity, the variation as between individual specimens is often very great. The experiments with animals described above vjere made with only one specimen and con- sequently were inconclusive. The toxicity of this species is considered to be mild or slight, jPar^ 46l 3= Fuedokutarumi (Plate 6 Fitrure 15) Scientific name - Lut.lanus (Loxolut.ianua) sp. Local name - .lab ("arshallese) , fuena, nilmi.la (Okinawan) Distribution - 'jaipan, '^arshalls '^orpholopy - This species closely resemJoles lut.ianus gibbus, there bein'^ almost no difference on morphclcyically important points. Only the coloration .Tives an impression of marked difference at first glance. In L, Ribbus it is a vivid red while in this species it looks just as if it had faded out to a 11 ^ht pink. The colorin/^ of the figure does not convey this inpression satisfactorily, but it is a coloration which is difficult to sho\j in a drawing. It resembles the color of freshly-polished conper but is lif^hter. This is the coloration even when the fish is first token from the wateri Since it would be out of place to take "p detailed morpholorrlcal differences here, they will be left for another time. The author has seen L, f>ibbua taken in lar'^e numbers and used for food at Palao, Toxicity, In experiments with cats one animal exhibited a strong deniree of Impairment of sensory and locomotory functions. Of lU mice tested, 5 shwjed some effects, (Table 34] [Pa'Te 47] [Tables 35, 36J Natives both at Saipan nnd in the "arshalls consider this fish strongly toxic ■»**Jordan and Seale:- (1906) Fishes of Samoa. * to detect. The body of the .ialia is lirrhter colored and the cloud-like pattern is plain, resemblim; clouds trailing horizontally. Several v.iavy blue lines can be clearly seen on the cheeks. These two varieties can hardljr be considered local variations o (Both occua? in the Tiarshalls, but the ronet variety was not collected, at Saipan.; Neither can they be definitely said to be variations duo to sex or I age, however, in general it appears that the .^alia variety predon3.nates anon<3 small fish -v^hile the ronet tjrpe appears more frequently among Isr-^er ones. The usugumokuchibi shown in figure 23 is called mameni and is pretty clearly distinguished in the Tfershalla. It very closely resembles the t\io varieties described above, the main points of' difference being that the cloud pattern on the sides is very faint and obscure, and the blue lines on the cheeks are not clear. It also has a longer snout and a longer caudal peduncle than the foregoing [Table 43] ^ t [Page 55 J [Tables 44, 45, 46 J two varieties. It is thought that the mameni sho-ld be recognized as a distinct species, but only the major points of difference have been recorded here, lecving the details for another time. Toxicity. As shown in the tables, of the two varieties of kitsunekuchib^ the .jalia had no effect on two cats, and only the two mice which ate cooked flesh shovied any ill effects. The fish tested was 42 cm long. The natives say that large fish of t^is species are strongly toxic. The author recalls seeing specimens over 60 cm in length. ,In tests with the ronet vnriety of kitsunekuchibi using a specinen of appro- ^l»n^tely the same length, two cats showed definite symptoms of poisoning. Accord- ing to residents of the "arshalls, this variety is the most poisonrus and often causes death when eaten. This species shruld be considered violently or strongly toxic. , [Page 56J '• No effect was perceived on the cat which ate 20 gr of usu.TU'noki.''.chi.bi ( nn meni) It appears to be' less poisonrus than the ronet variety of kitsunckuchibi. The natives, however, say that this species Js poisonrus. Perhaps it should be con- sidered mildly toxic, 2. Muneakakuchibi (Plate 9 Figure 24) Scientific narje - Lethrinus vrrieTatus Valenciennes Local name - net (? 'Marsha llese) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, 3puth Seas, Philippines "orphology - The vcmilion spot at the base of the pectoral is characteristic. There is a faint cloud pattern on the body. Blackish spots and lines on the choehi Similar black spots ore sc-.ttered alon"' the sides. Resembles in ':enercil ap^ar- ance the hoakakuchibi described in the next section, but if attention is paid to the points detailed above they can cosily be distinguished. Toxicity . As shown in the table, two cats and two mice shovied narked syrsp- toras of poisoning. This species is .iudged to be strongly toxic. 36 f-Pable 47] [Page 57] S» H^kalmohlbi (Plata 9 Figure 25) Soientifio name - Lethrinns sp* Local name - woeo (Marshallese) Distribution - Marehalls Morphology - Easily mistaken for the preoeding apociea, even the nativea sometlHes confusing the two species. Nevertheless, If examined carefully they can easily be told apart. In this species the vermilion spot is on the oper ole, and there are no dark spots on the head emd sides as in the species described above* Toxicity* The resutls of the experiment recorded in the table indicate that this species is nonpolsonous. The natives eat it. He were careful to cite it here for purposes of comparison because it is oooasionally confused with the preceding species and considered poisonous. [Table 48] 4. Aiukuohlbl (Plate 9 Figure 26) Scientific name - Lethrinus kalloptems Bleeker Local name - pelak (IfeirshafleBe) Distribution - Indian Ocean, South Seas, Philippines Morphology - This species is deep-bodied, the snout Is short, the fins are red (although this 1b overemphasised in the drscwlng), and it Is easily identifiable* Large quantities are caught for food. [Page 58] [Tfeble 49] 5* Matokuohibl (Plate 10 Figure 27) Scientific name - Lethrinus harak (Forskal) Local name - No special name' I"klnd of omonaga (Salpan Japanese) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, South Seas, Philippines Morphology - Body deep, snout short, large black spot with Indistinct outline on the sides. Tbla species is in general use as a food fish. [page 59] Section 7 Family Sparidae Fishes of this family are generally edible, but the two speoles cited here are poisonous. There have been few references to these fish In the literature. (The kle lo Ian of Mr. Matsuo Is probably a dokudal*) 1* Dokudal (Plate 11 Flgtire Si) Scientific name - Mono taxis grtoidoeulls (Forskal) Local name - kle ^Harshallese) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, South Seas, N* Australia, Philippines, Hawaii area Morphology - Eye large, body deep, eolor blaokish, fins red. The body Is allver with the head and back blackish. (The figure Is not an aoourate representation)* Toxicity. The results of the animal exiwrlBents shown In the table Indicate 37 that its poison is one of the most virulent. In the cat which ate 14 gr, it produced violent aymptons ending in death. Small fish of this species (about Table 50 Page 60 20 cm long) would each be about right for a sei-ving for one person, but if the amount of flesh were around 300 gr, eating one fish would be fatal. The Marshallese fear this species and do not eat it. NOTE: Caution is necessary because in outer appearance this fish looks thoroughly edible, and since it is plentiful around atolls, it is easily oaught and the opportunities for ob- taining it are many. 2. Nokogiridai (Plate 11 Figure 32) Scientific name - Gnathodentex aurolineattxB lacepede Local name - tunar (Marshallese) Distribution - East Indies, South Seas, Hawaii area Morphology - Mouth small, eye large, scales small. Since this species also looks like an edible fish, care is required. Small, generally around 20-30 cm. Toxicity. Only one specimen was tested. A oat which ate 15 gr showed sym- tons of looomotory impairment milder than those caused by the preceding species. This species is thought to fall within the strongly toxic category. NOTE: There is an edible fish called kul by the Marshallese which closely resembles this species ajid may be mistaken for it. It is said to have a short spine on the Tables 51, 52 Page 61 opercle and the body is slimmer. We were unable to catch one and do not know what fish it is, but note it here anyway. Supplementary-Edible Fish of the Family Sparidae and Closely Related Fishes 1. Mejidai (Plate 11 Figure 30) Scientific name - Gyiunocranius microdon (Bleeker) Local name - mejmej (Marshalles'e) Distribution - Celebes area. Inner South Seas Characteristics - Body thick, obscure brown line on head running through eye onto cheek. Body silvery, vriLth a faint pinkish tinge. NOTE: This species is nonpoisonous . It is taken abundantly at Jaluit and sold for food. The author has eaten it and fovmd it delicious. (See animal experiment table 52, preceding paragraph) Table 53 2. Urokosagi (Plate 10 Figure 28) Scientific name - Gerres baconensis (Evermann & Seale) Local name - lllmek (Marshallese) Distribution - Philippines, Inner South Seas Morphology- Characterized by the long projecting snout. Toxicity. We heard of no cases of poisoning ascribed to fishes of this genus. This species is caught and sold as a food fish. An experiment was made for purposes of comparison and the results, as shown in the tables, were negative. Page 62 Tables 54, 55 38 : 3. liBtiJihimeJi (Plate 10 Figure 29) neone - Mwlloldlohthy erythrlnus (Klunringer) - jome (Barshall***) Em - Indian Ooean to Hamiii Soientlfio neone - Mwlloldlohth^ Local name Distribution -- Morphology- TWo barbels on the' lower Jaw are characteristic of this group of fishes* This species is easily Identified by its oharaoteristio coloring* Toxicity* Sinoe it was reported that there had been a case of a group of people poisoned by this fish at Jabor in Jalult atoll, we tested it in an ex- perinent with animals. We were imable to detect any toxicity even in speoiBons caught only four hours previously. It is suspected that the poisoning say havo been due to putrefaction in stale fish* The author was not able to exaaine the material in question and so wishes to reserre Judgment, but in the two speoimens which he tested, at least, no toxicity oould be detected* It is not clear whether [page 6S] or not the jomme which Mr. Hatsuo lists as poisonous is the speeies* A blue species resembling this one is c ailed Jo by the Marshallese and f unqfl by the Oklnawans) it is an edible fish and is aoTS In the markets* [page 64] Section 8 Families Labridae and Callyodontldae Fishes of these families occur abundantly in tropical waters, and many of them are beautifully colored* Quite a few species are found in Japanese waters also, especially in southern Japan* The rnanber of species which occur in the South Seas is extremely large, the majority of them being Just as edible as the Japanese species. Only a few are poisonous, and most of these very mildly so. Apparently little has been known hitherto of the poisonous fishes of these fEunilies. Family Labridae 1. Yashabera (Plate 12 Figure 34) Scientific name - Cheilinus fasoiatus (Blooh) Local name - Joll^l (Marshallese) Distribution - Africa, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, B* Indies,^ Inner South Seas* Morphology - Easily identified by its characteristio coloration. Toxicity. Almost no effect oould be detected in an experiment in which a cat ate 15.8 gr of cooked flesh. This species lives in the coral reefs and is difficult to catch. We were able, by the use of dynamite, to collect only one specimen, and so could only perform one experiment. The chances of catching this species should generally be slight. Some Jaluit residents said that this fish is nonpoisonous while others claimed that at times it causes mild poisoning* There appears to have been no [Table 56] [Page 66] case of serious poisoning asoribable to this species* Judging from the above data, we cannot call this species nonpoisonous, but consider that it is probably slightly, or at times mildly, toxlo* [Table 57] 39 2. Hanabibera (Plate 12 Figvire 33) Scientific neme - Cheilinus sp. Local name - labbo (Marshallese), hirosa (Saipan Japanese) Distribution - Inner South Seas Morphology - The coloration of this species is characteristic, with vermilion spots and lines scattered over the head. Each of the scales on the sides of the body bears one vermilion line, and there are two vennilion lines on the dorsal and anal fins. Some individuals of this species have the posterior ends of the dorsal end anal fins, the dorsal and ventral edges and the central ray of the caudal, and the ventral fins elongated. (Figure 33-2) This is perhaps a sexual difference. Toxicity. A cat which ate 19.5 gr showed no ill effects. Of the three mice used in the experiments, one which ate 0.3 gr of liver was unaffected while the other two showed mild to strong effects. There was £,sid to have been a case of poisoning at Saipan caused by a speci- cnen of about 3.75 kg v;ei^;;ht hooked outside of the outer reef. In the Marshalls the species was said to be poisonous at Jaluit but nonpoisonous at Me Jit. Because few specimens were available for experimentation, it was not possible to determine whether toxicity varied with the size of the fish or with the locality, but it is thought that small specimens are slightly or mildly toxic* [Page 66] Judging from the symptoms produced, it may be said that in large specimens the toxicity is no greater than the degree described in this report as "mild". 3. Kuraadoribera (Plate 13 Figure 37) Scientific neme - Coris gaimardi (Quoy 5; Gaimard) Local name - lukobiiiatS't'^ small ones called lukub (Mai^hallese) Distribution - Indian Ucean, E. Indies, South Seas Morphology - Body extremely thin and flattened laterally. Body color glossy black in life, with an indigo spot on each scale. Indistinct dark green lines on the head. Toxicity. This species is the most strongly toxic of the labrids. Of three mice used in testing it, only the one which ate raw flesh was not affected. IVro cats were used, the one which ate cooked flesh showing strong symptoms of poisoning. The cat which ate only raw flesh was not affected, perhaps because the amount consumed was too small or perhaps for some other reason. [Tables 58, 59] [Page 67] "Rie people of Jaluit consider this species poisonous and do not eat it. It is thought to be of a strong degree of toxicity. 4. Giohibera (Plate 14 Fig\ire 39) Solentifio name - Epibulus insidiator (Pallas) Local name - mo (Marshallese) Distribution "^Africa, Indian Ocean, South Seas, Hawaii area Morphology -» Readily identified by its large, protrusiblo mouth. Ground color of body is a brownish black. 40 Toxicity. Only one speciinsn ncs tested, but it nrod'aced mild symptoms in 30th the cat and mouse. Should be considered poisonous. The three species cited below are edible. Family Callyodontidae No poisonous species, 1. Aobabudai (Plate 13 Firure 35) Scientific na/ne - Callyodon nlcrorhinos (nioeker) Local name - alowor (!1arshallese) Distribution - E, Indies to South Seas, Hawaii area "ornholof^y - Teeth form a beak and are f^reen. Scales on sides of body each uith red spot. Natives sav that there are individuals,, called mao. which lack the red spot.s. Perhaps another species closely I^^serablin": this one. Toxicity . This species is taken by drivin/^-in nets and by an^linr; near the coral reefs, and large numbers are nariceted. The natives use it as an article of daily diet. No ill effects could be observed in an experiment vjith a cat. [Pa":e 68] 2. Toroibudai (Plate 13 Fi«rure 36) Scientific name - Callyodon pulchellus (Ruppell) Local name - bellbilikio (T'arshallese) [Plates 60, 6l] listribution - Hed Sea, Inf^ian Ccean, South Seas "orpholofty - Can be identified at a 'glance by the characteristic colorin;». Toxicity. No effect on experimental animals. One of the nrincinal market fish. Some persons hesitate tr ct it because it looks very poisonous in its •reneral appearance, but the flavor is delicious, 3. Fujiirobu'lai (Plate 14 Figure 3P) Scientific name - Pseudosearus sp. Tocal name - llonou.1 (Marshallese) distribution - "arshalls area Toxicity. Nonpoisonous (not tented on animals). Sold in the mrrket cs a food fish. [Pa-'e 69] Section 9 Familv Serranidae The fishes of this family occur in the South Seas in '^reat abundance and in many species. They arc also Talrly plentiful in the v;aters of so'-thern Japan '.vhere they are all rerjardod as delicious food fish. In the South 3ers frenernllyi the ma.^ority of them are edible. In an nrea vjhere most of the fish are non-oily, these fishes, with their A^hite oily flesh, i^race the tables of the Japanese resi- dents under the name of tamakal . 41 Plentiful around coral reefs, they are mostly- taken by emgllng. Some of the 5I1 attain a very large site. «5 There are a number of poisonous speoies in this faoily which are often eates by mistake because of the large nuaber of speoies irtiich resemble than. 1. Ohagurohata (Plate 14 Figure 40) Soientifio name - Cephalopholis argus Schneider Local name - kaleaej (Marshallese)^ ^^p6f™9. (Saipan Okinawan) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Philippines, Australia, South Seas, Hawaii area Morphology - Body comparatively flat laterally. Coloration is characteristic, th dark blackish sides having scattered small bright indigo spots with black borders The posterior half of the body also has black stripes which, although indistinct in life, show clearly in presejrved specimens. Toxicity. Experiments at Saipan with three fresh specimens produced no poisoning, the only effects noted being caused by the cooked flesh of fish which had been left for 16 hours and which had developed a stench of putrefaction. It was noted that in the latter case most of the experimental ajiimals developed diarrhea. At Jaluit two specimens were tested, one of which produced symptoms of poisoning. On the whole, few experiments indicated strong toxicity and only one animal died. This species should be considered mildly poisonous. This species is abundant in coral reef areas and is easily hooked. There have been many cases of poisoning in human beings, [page 70] [Tables 62, 63, 64] [Page 71] [Tables 65, 66] [Page 72] [Tables 67, 68, 69] [page 73] [Tfcble 70] In rare oases, when large quantities have been eaten, the poisoning has been ■c severe that the victim could not stand up, but the majority of cases are of a mild degree. One person reported a case of poisoning as a result of eating the head, viscera, and flesh of a specimen of this species weighing 250 monme [937.5 gr]. Those who ate the flesh sliced raw were mildly poisonecH IFKeir hands and feet stung when placed in water. !niey also ate the stomach, which con- tained some crabs which they thought caused the poisoning. Numbness spread gra- dually, beginning in the extremities. After this experience one victim was cured of nervous trouble and rheumatism. According to fishermen from Okinawa, this fish is also found there and has been responsible for cases of poisoning. 2. Akajin (Plate 15 Figure 41) Scientific name - Pleotropomus truncatus Fowler Local name - akajin, kurobanlakajln ^Salpan Okinawan) 42 iW listribution - Philippines, Borneo, Celebes, Inner South Seas lorphology - Body a dark red-brown with small scattered dark blue spots. These ire rather indistinct in large specimens. Grows very large, ordinarily about 1 neter, occasionally close to 2 meters in length. Toxicity* Tfaree out of 10 mice used were affected to some degree, and one died. (The animals were not tested for mild sensory impairment.) This species also caused some diarrhea. A case iras reported of poisoning in human beings in which the fish was stewed Ln soy sauce amd one slice was eaten for supper. Dtiring the night vomiting and liarrbea began. The next moring the victim's Joints were stiff and he experienced iifficulty in walking. In another case the tongue and the area around the mouth became ntimb and stiffened. A person irtio had been poisoned by this species at Okinawa recalled that it caused vomiting and diarrhea and that he felt numb for [p. 74] about a week afterward. No case iras reported in which the poison was fatal [Tables 71, 72, 73] This species is thought to be of a mild degree of toxicity, only rare cases being reported of a strong degree. The following very similar edible fish is cited for purposes of identifi- cation* [Page 75] 3. Yogorehata (Plate 15 Figure 42) Scientific name - Plectropomus sp. Local name - joanuron (a variety of jowe or joie), tamakai (Japanese) Characteristics - Very similar to the preceding species; it can be distinguished by its larger spots. The groxmd color is brighter in this species. It is sold Ln the markets as an edible fish and is nonpoisonous . The Japanese call it tamakai and prize it &8 food. The flesh is white and is very good sliced and served paw or stewed in soy sauce, since it is quite oily. The word jowe or joie is used irery broadly at Jaluit, being equivalent to hata or tamakai [general teins for serranids], and includes both poisonous and nonpoisonous species. [Table 74] 4. Amadaredokuhata (Plate 16 Figure 43) Scientific name - Plectropomus oligacanldius Bleeker Local name - Julae'~i(^rshalle8e) , Distribution - Indism Ocean, E. Indies, Philippines, Inner South Seas Morphology - Uie markings are distinctive, blue lines and spots on a blaokish- ji Drown grovind color. On the head and back the blue lines run roughly horizontally. The spots are either scattered over the sides of the body, or form vertical rows (treuiaversely across the body) posterior to the pectoral fin. There are hori- zontal lines on the soft parts of the dorsal and anal fins. Toxicity. Judging from the results of all the experiments on animals, except Ln the case of a mouse which ate the liver, this species is violently poisonous. The Jaluit natives consider this fish deadly and do not eat it. It is readily taken on hook and line and abovmds near the encircling reefs, but no cases jPage 76] [Table 75] of poisoning were reported, probably because its coloring is so distinotive. 43 5. Parahata (PLite 16 Fi'^ure A4) Scientific nan© - Variola louti (Forskal) Local nnne - kaikbet C'arshallese) . akaganno. akadei (Okinavjans and Gainan Japanese' CTable 763 CPaTe 771 X^ahles 77, 7^ Distribution - '?ed Sea, Indian Ocean, South Sens Characteristics - 'Readily identifiable by its coloration Toxicity, Of four mice used in the experiment, two \?hich ate cooked flesh showed srinptoms of poisonin*^. The cat ref»ur!;itated half of the amount eaten, and anpeared to be poisonedo The toxicity shonll be crnsldered to be cf a nild or stron'» de'pree. '■Je !cnovJ of no exanples of hu-^an beinr^s poisoned b-* this species. Another species is described below ."hlch '^reatly rer^embles this one but uhich is nonpolsonous o 6» Azuki":anmo (Plate 16 Fip;ure 45) Scientific name - Vqriola spo Local nam© - not known distribution - " arshallc area "ornholoTy - Very similar to precedin'* species, but the coloration is different. The nrecedinT species has vermilion markings on a red bnck'rround, v.hile in this species the ^Tound color Is a reddish dusky brown and the spots ore bri-^ht red, Tn preserved specimens the markin'^s are white. The spots are larr»er than in the nrecedlnT species. Toxicity . ^^bcperlents with animals s?^owed it to be ncnnoisonous. fPa'^e 7fi| 7. "adarnhata (PLite 17 FjTure 46) Scientific name - Serranus fuscor^ittatus (Forskal) local name - kuro (^^arshallese) . Ishi^ranno (Saipan Jananese) Distribution - led Sea, Persian '^ulf, Indian Ocean, PhiTlr-'ines, "Z. Indies, Outer South Seas, T'av;ail area "or'^holo'ry - The coloration Is complex and resembles a rock. Tliere Is some variation denendln/; on the hnbitot, but the most notable char?cteristic is o lar-'e black sad'ile-shaped spot occupyin" 2/3 of the length of the caudal peduncle. It is especially clear In nrescnred specimens due to the fao'lnr of the Tound colrr, but it can tie seen in fresh specimens. ^TOcicitv. Animal exnerlnents stoned mild toxicity, Accordin": to fishermen at Saipan this species also occurs in Okina.Jc and has been responsible for poi3onln":s there. Larr«:e fish (over l,r75 gr) are sold to be poisonous . (Table 79] 8. Yodarehata (Plate 17 Fl^rure 47) LPa/5^ 79l Scientific nnr» - Serranus spo Local name - yudayamlhal ( Saipan Okinawa ns) 44 .distribution - Marianas, Mars halls korphology - The preceding species very closely resembles this species. In this species the body depths is less and the head is smaller* It also has a black spot on the oaudal pedxincle, but It is not as large a^ in the preceding species* Toxloity. Mildly toxic* According to Saipan fishermen this species is mildly poisonous, causing numbness in the mouth and inability to swallow the saliva* The name yudaya is said to mean "yodare drivel"* The fish has never proved lethal and is oonmionly made into fishcake and eaten, with few oases of poisoning resulting, it is said* [Tables 80, 81, 82] [page 80] [Table 85] 9* Iwahata (Plate 17 Figure 48) Scientific name - Serranus miorodon Sleeker Local name - illino ^Marshallese) Morphology - Resembles the preceding species, but the snout is shorter and the spots are smaller* Toxicity* This species has been reported as poisonous under the name irinno by Iifatsuo (op* pit*)* The writer tried to collect this fish but was unable to, so Matsuo'sT^ish is here identified with this species and recorded as a strongly poisonous fish according to the natives* The figure is not drawn from life, but is based on the previously cited works of Matsuo and Bleeker* 10* Tsuchihozeri (Plate 18 Figure 49) [Page 81] Scientific name - Serranus f lavocaeruleus (Lacepede) Local name - booklm (Marshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, South Seas, E. Indies, Formosa, S* Japan Morphology - Body deep, head large, comparatively flat laterally* The ground color is pale with irregular large and small spots* It is edible and is taken for the market* It appears to suit the Japanese taste, and is high-priced. This species is also called temakai. 11. TBuohilrohata (Plate 18 Figure 50) Scientific name - Serranus albofasciatus (Lacepede) Local name - lejebjeb (Marshallese) Distribution - Mars halls area Toxicity* Judging from the results of experiments with animals, and also from the fact that the fish is sold in the markets as an edible species without any cases of poisoning reported, this species is considered nonpoisonous * It is called tamakai by the Japanese* [Tables 84, 85] [Page 82] 12* Nffliiinokuchi (Plate 80 Figure 51) Scientific name- Serraaus fario (Bwenberg) 45 Local name - le.1eb.1eb ('-arshallese), tamakal (Japanese distribution - E. Africa, India, China, Inner South Seas, Philippines, Japan "orpholofsr - Resembles the precedln'^ species, but has three black spots on the dorsal part of the posterior half of the body. Toxicity. This species is also nonpoisonous . It is handled in the markets as a food fish. This fish is taken in f^reat quantities at Jaluit in the winter. The name le.1eb.1eb belon?;s proper Iv to this species, and the precedin'^ species is snid to be a variety of it. At Jaluit this fish is vjell-flavored and is esteemed by the Japanese, who call it also tamakai . ["Pa^e 833 Section 10 Family ITepatidae The fishes treated in this section belon'r to the family Hepatidae. Only a very few species of this family occur in Japan. They are snail fish nith tou(»h skins and because of this, together vjith their strans^e anpearance, there Is apparently no place in Japan where they are used as food, '^or this reason there is- little chance that Japanese Roin-T to the South Seas will catch and eat these fish, however, the number of species occurrin» in the South Seas area is extraordinarily *^eat, and it can be naid that the na.lority of the fish taken by drivinf»-in nets near coral reefs are of this family, "e therefore considered it necessary to acquire some accurate knov.ledf»e in the fieldl concernin«» their edibility. The natives distim^uish many different species of these fish. Since these fish live araon'^ the coral reefs, their teeth are snail and numerous, beinc; adapted to eatin.** coral polyps. 1. Sazanamihagi (Plate 19 Firrure 52) Scientific name - Ctenochaetus strifrosua (Bennett) local name - kushiku. kuchiku . kusaku, kusaba (Okinnvjan dialect used by Saipan Japanese) i diebdro ("arshallese) Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, E, Indies, South Seas, I'hilipnines , '^'awaii area, Formosa, China Sea, Okinavja. "omholo'^y - A characteristic of this genus is that the comb-like teeth are movable. The individual teeth are spoon-shaped vjith round tips. This snecles has numerous fine blue horizontal lines on the sides of the body. There are indistinct yellow-bronn soots on the hca i, and several blue lines on the dorsal and anal fins. Tt is a small fish ornuni 20 en lone;. Toxicity. This species vjas taken in lar^e numbers in drivin«»-in nets. Seventeen specimens were tested in order to ascertain nhether toxicity varied as betneen Indivldtials. Results are shown belovj in tables P6-104. [Papje P4] Of the 17 specimens, three produced no noticeable effects. Only two (Mo. 5 and '^0. 7) produced stronr^ symptoms, and the rest -'ere rcte-i -s mildly nr sli''htl3( toxic. Fish were collected at four stations to test the natives ' strtonent that the toxicity varies dependin^^'on the locality, but no definite variation could be demonstrated. Various orr;ans, blood, liver, and muscle tissue .ere tested 4)6 i separatelj', and the muscle tissue was fed both ravj and cooked. Cooked tissues anrearei to produce more cases of rather evident poisoninf», but it \vas li»» possible to perceive any especially morked effect from the blood and liver. Persons who had been noisoned by this species said that nt first their mouths be«^an to burn as i^ they had eaten red peppers. There was diarrhea » but no vomltinfj and their bodily novements inere not affected. Both the experiments on animals and the symptoms reported in human beings Indicate a nild deo^ee of toxicity for this species. In the narkcto they soak this fish in ice water overnight and make it Into fishcake for snle the following day, no cases of poisonin'^ resulting from this practice bnv1n<^ been reported. £Table 863 Caffe 85 1 Cables 87, 88, 893 [Pa;;e 86 J CTables 90, 911 [Pase 87 3 pables 92, 93^ [Page 88 2 C^ablea 94, 953 [Va^e 89 3 [Tables 96, 97, 98] pa(?e 90 J [Tables 99, 100, 1013 QPa^ 91 3 [rabies 102, 1033 [Pa.Te 92 3 [Table 10^3 2. Kawarisazananihagi (Fljite 19 Figure 53) [Table 105j [Pa're 93] [Tables 106, 107, 108^ [Pa-e 93] Scientific name - Ctenochaetus sn. Local name - teo ("arshallese) distribution - "arshalls area "ornholosr - Teeth and other characteristics sane as in the preceding species, but coloration differs, v;ith snail blue spots scattered over sides md hend. There nre about txiice as many blue-brown lines on the dorsal nnd anal fins as in the preceding species. This species ^ons somenhat lar^.er. Toxicity . Of four specimens tested, one nroduced no 111 effects. The other three caused s^/mptoms of poisonln<» of about the sane det^'ee of severity as the precedinr* species. Should be considered mildly toxle. The natives consider this a poisonous species. fpcje 94) 3. Nlsesazanamiha<»l (Palate 19 FlTure 54) •5cientific name - Hepatus bleekeri (Gbnther) Distribution - led Sea, Indian Ocean, '3. Indies, Phillpnines, South Seas, Hawaii area '^orpho]ofj7 - Coloration and form closely resemble the sazanamiha.^. This species 47 differs in that the tenth, althrun;h ctenoid, are solidly fixed in the ,1anbones and do not move. Their tips also are not especially thick. The blue lines on the sides are fewer in this species, an'^) the body is thicker (the breadth of the body is o.reater). Toxicity, This is an important food fish, (Animal experiments were not per- fomedTJ This fish is sold in the markets, ond does not cause poisoninf;. It is cited for comDarison v.'ith C_„ strl^^'osus, 4. "ontsukiha";! (Plate 20 Fin;ure 55) Scientific name - TTepatus oliyaceus (Schneider) Local name - ael ("arshallese) 'distribution ~ Indian Ocean, ", Australia, Philippines, Formosa, Ckinar.'a, South Seas, Havjaii area "orpholo.^ - There are barbs ^on the caudal peduncle. The teeth arc like those of the DrecedinT species. There is a flame-colored horizontal nark above the pec- toral fin. Toxicity, According to the natives this species at times causes mild cases of poisonin'^, but.it is said to be used as an article of daily iiet, "r. "atsuo listed it ac a poisonous fish. By his account it appears to be sli^jhtly toxic, varyin*^ vdth the individual specimen, but at most of a mild degree of toxicity. This species is taken in larTe numbers in drivin(»-in nets, and is a common article of the natives' diet. Circumstances prevented our testinr^ it. 5. Katakiarokanran (Plate 20 Fifrure 56) Scientific name - Hepatus njpprofuscus (Forskal) local name - a variety of die'->dro ('tarshallese) _ distribution - ''.ed Sea, Indian Ocean, ^. Indies, Philippines, Formosa, Tyukyus, ^ Fa ere 95 j South Seas "orriholony - Resembles the precedinir species, ^ut has b''nck lon-itudinal stripes above the nectorals and around the barbs on the caudal pedimcle. Toxicity. Circtimstances prevented our testin,;; this sr»ecics. It is commonly used in the native diet, but is said to cause mild poisonin'» at times, 6, Shimahaf;i (Plate 20 Fimre 57) Scientific name - TIepatus trioste'^us (Tinne) Local nanie - ioiban (""arshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, I., Indies, "', Australia, Philippines, South Seas, "a'.vaii area "orpholor^ - This species can be readily identified by its characteristic colcr- ationo Toxicity. This too is a f codfish which is sold in the market. There have 48 iaen no cases of even mild poisoning causei by it, as there hnve ..ith the tvjo >recedinc species, and it has never been cited as a poisonous fish. The flavor Ls f^ood, its only defect bein-^ that it spoils easily and is inedible after 5 - 6 lours at tbe atmospheric tenperatures of the South Seas, 7. Raidenhafii (Plate 21 Pi^rure 58) Jcientific name -Zebrasoraa veliferum (Bloch) j5cal name - laid, means "li^^htnin,?^" (Harshallese), iftorrasa (Saipan Japanese, OklnaMan dialect, means "itching leaf")» hirena":ahap:i (Japanese nickname) ' )istribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, ^.. Indies, Philippines, South Seas, Ilavjaii area Jharacteristics - Coloration aJld lonjr^ dorsal and anal fins . Toxicity. Of four specimens (one from Jaluit, three from Salnah) tested, three appeared to be sli^ht2,y poisonous. Some Okinavjan fishermen residinr* at Saipan sav that eatin^r the sldln of this species makes the mouth itch, but that the flesh may be eaten vjithout any ill effects. Others say that eatinf» the flesh also nakes the mouth itch, but \iithout any other effect on the body. They snv that Pao^e 961 this fish nroduces the sane renction at Ckinavja. Accordinf» to the natives oT Jaluit, this fish does net poison but only makes the nouth burn. "Translator's note: The word "kayui" properly means "itchin.^", but it is suspected"! that as used in this connection by Okinav.ans it nay mean "stinging" or "burning", J In any' case, this fish is probably slightly poisonous. Tables 109, IIOJ Page 97 Tables 111, 112, 113 J 8. Tsumaritengu (Plate 21 Figure 59) Scientific name - Naso brevirostris (Valenciennes) iPage 983 Local name - batokla.1 ('Tarshallcse) Distribution - "^ed Sea, Indian Ocean, E, Indies, Philippines, South Sees, Hawaii area f'orphology - TTas a protruding horn on the nose almost on a level '.lith the eyes. Toxicity. This is a useful foodfish. It is seen in larje numbers in the markets, and forms a large part of driving-in net catches. [page 99 3 Section 11 Fajrilies '^onacanthldnc and Palistidae and Others The fishes treated of in this section belong to the fariillcs "onacanthidae and Dalistldae. Several species of both of these families occur in Japanese viaters, but ex- cept for some of the monacanthids th^ are rarely taken and there are fevj areas nhere they are used for food. In the South Seas numerous species occur, including some poisonous ones, 49 Balistidae 1. /ikahanongara (Plate 22 Figure 60) Scientific norae - Cdonas nl^er (Ruppell) Local name - bub or bub frgj_ (Marshallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, tropical '".'estern Pacific Qrables ll^^, 115j fPa^e 100] Characteristics - Body black, dorsal and anal fins slightly bluish. The red teeth are characteristic. Toxicity » Tlesults of experiments indicate strong toxicity. Some residents of the T'arshalls said it vjas poisonous, some said it was nonpoisoncus, and some did not know. This species anpears to be rarely taken and there seems to be no certain knowledge concerning its toxicity. The name bub is a general term for the Balistidae and also Includes edible fishes, 2, Kiberimongara (Plate 22 Figure 61) Scientific name - Balistes flavimarginatus Ruppell Local name - lele Cfershallese) Distribution - Indian Ocean, tropical and subtropical "', Pacific Characteristics - Easily recognized by the coloration. Toxicity. This species is nonpoisoncus, and is treated as a foodfish in the ' farshalls area . CTable ll6l £Page lOlI [Tables 117, 118] 3. ''ongarahagi (Plate 22 Figure 62) Scientific name - Balistes conspicillum Bloch ft Schneider [Page 1023 Local name - bub Distribution - Roughly the same as the preceding species Characteristics - The coloration is unique. Toxicity. Tlatsuo (on, cit. ) has recorded this species as poisonous '.lith the name holeketem bub. The natives say that in 'Marshallese holeketem means "fish- poisoning", ^'atsuo classed it vdth the fatally poisonous species. This writer had no opportunity to test it on animals, and merely cites it here. ^ ?Tonacanthidae Iloshinamihagi (Plate 23 Figure 63) Scientific name - Aleuteres scrintus 6sbeck Local name - sensuru ( 3aipan Japanesej Okinawan dialect) Distribution - ". Indies, Indian Ocean, E, Indies, Inner South Seas 50 ' orphclo^y - The coloration and oiarlcings are chsracteristic. In life it is colored os shewn in the uprx^r fif^ure, but after death and as seen in the market g it looks like the lov;er figure. They are drawn side by side for comparison. Toxicity. This species f»ave no indication of toxicity in eocperinents, Saipan fishermen say thnt the flesh of this species may be eoten, but that if the intestines are fed to T3in;s, the pi/i;s die. In our exneriments the animals •would not eat the intestinal contents and consequently It was impossible to determine their effect. Choetodontidae rihachijo (Plate 25 Fir^ure 69) Scientific name - Holacanthua diacanthus (^ther Local name - .jonir (llarshalls area) Distribution - Indian Ccean, 13. Indies, South Seas, TTawaii area Toxicity. This species beloni^s to the family Chaetodontidae and is not taken in lar";e quantities. Residents of the t'ars halls apparently do not know whether or not it can be [jPage lD3]Jeaten, Results of experiments indicate that it may be slightly poi- sonous (Table 121). Pomacentridae Kobansuzunedai (Plate 25 Fi^re 70) Scientific name - Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lacepede) Local name - b^e,1 (TTarshallese) . Another slimmer-bodied species Is called urel. Distribution - Red Sea, Indian Ocean, South Seas, E. Indies Toxicity. From results of experiments vdth animals, this species appears to be very slii^htly poisonous. Residents of the Marshalls have no certain knowledf^e concerninir the toxicity of this species because it is a small fish (about 5 en) and is not eaten. This is a variety of the fish called aobiki. which is used as live bait in ths skipjack fishery. ^Tables 119, 120J ['Pai'e 104} Section 12 Family Tetraodontidae The toxicity of the tetraodonts has long been known, and many studies have been made of them. Those which up to the present have been kncrm to be poisonous are, according; to Fokuda (o^. cit. p. 18), the raafngu. hirjanfogu, mefumi. komonfu'ru. shosaifunu. akamefuf^. kusafuCTi. tcrafu^u, shinafurru. nnd Roraafugu. 61 There are seYoral reports fron the Philippines among the past literature of South Seas tetraodonts. Herre* has, for example, reported Tatraodon immacu* latus Bloch & Schneider, T. reticularis Eloch & Schneider, and T» fluvia tills BucKanan -Hamilton as poisonous in the Philippines, Seale *♦ has described the , poisonous fisli called tinga-tinga (''oro di&lect) or botete, and identified it ^ as Spheroides scelere.tus (Torster). He has further recorded three species of the Diontidae, called Toco (in Tagalog ho ti ting laot), of the Philippines as poiEcnous, and seven species of the Balis tidae (colled pt..paco) and sorae species | of the Monacanthidae (called pacol) as suspected of being poisonous. The author, thinking that the possibility of poison vrould probrbly be taken into consideration vjhenever tetraodonts w^re eaten, did not try in the course i of this investigation to collect and test them to as great an extent as he did ! in the case of the species which resemble other edible fishes. Conseouently, he can only deal with a very few species. 1. Yokoshimafugu (Plate 2 3 Figure 64) | Scientific name - Tetraodon hispidus Linne , ^ Locel name - wat (Marshallese^ Distribution (Red Sea in the west, Indian Ccean, throughout South Seas, Okinawa in the north, east froir: Hawaii to Panama. Morphology - Longitudinal stripes consisting of alternate black and white lines. on the belly. Some have the area around the ventral fin and opercle black surrounded by white stripes forming incomplete rings. On the dorsal surface of the body and on the caudal fin are small white spots scattered over a black ground. [Page 105] Toxicity. No poison was detected in the muscle tissue. The liver appeared to be slightly poisonous. [Table 121] 2. Mizorefugu (Plate 24 Figure 66) Scientific name - Tetroaodon meleagris Bloch & Schneider [Table 122] [page 106] Local name - not known Distribution - tropical Pacific Morphology - Body dusky brown, small white spots scattered over whole body, sor.iewhat sm.aller on the hack than on the belly. Spots also on all fins except the pectorals. Toxicity. Only the livor was tested, and only a slight toxicity could be detected. 3. Yogorefugu (Plate 2 3 Figxare 65) Scientific name - Te traodon nigropvmctatus Bloch & Schneider Local name - wat (Mars halls area) Distribution - E. Africa to Samoa Herre 1 Philippine Journal of Science. Vol. 25, No. 4. p. 416-510. 1924 Sealei ibid. Vol. 7, No. 4, p. 289-291, Some poisonous Philippine fishes. 52 i"orpholof»y - Coloi-at ion 'varies widely. 5omo specimens are yellon (as in Fifr, 65 )» and some are browi, both varieties having snail irregular black spots scattered over the body. The posterior ed.'^es of all fins are white, CTable 1233 LPafre 107] LTable 12/^ Toxicity . The liver appears to contain poison. [VsLRe loej Section 13 Addenda In the foregoin^T sections the author has been able to record a total of 46 species of poisonous fish, including three species of tetraodonts, but it may easily be imagined that this does not exliaust t'le number of poisonous fishes occurring in the Marianas and T'^rshallSo Those clearly identified Species w'lich have in the past been reported as poisonous either in the literature or in popular tradition have all been re- corded in the precedini^ sections, regai^iless of whether or not \ie collected and tested them, however, there remain a number of' poisonous fishes i^hich vje vjere unable to take and whose identity is uncertain, or which ne were unable to test and concerninr^ the toxicity of nhich suspicion exists. B^/ citing them here we intend to supplement the various sections of this chapter and con^lete the mention of all of the poisonous fishes of the South Seris area. For the poisonous fishes of the ^arshalls area, as noted in Section 2 of Chapter I, Tiatsuo has made a detailed report, recordint^ the names of 36 poisonous species as ^iven hy the natives. Of these, 23 have been definitely recognised as included in the present report. Amont^ the rest there are proba- bly some which are included under different names. (In the 'larshalls the names differ in the Ralik and !latak chains, and it is hard to identify the species vjhen it is not known which name has been usedO This group will be taken up first. Tentative identifications have been made of two or three by reference to the accompanying photcpraphs. In the case of two or three others '.le asked nany natives, osinT: the names !?;iven, an' they ^lere unl-rnown to them. In other cases, however, they -.vere able to give uc a general account of the appearance of the fish. There are some other species commonly oai' to be ooisonous '.vhich were not listed by '^atsuo, and they are recorded in this section as follows: 1. au.jbak Judging by the accompanying photograph this is thought to be the akaeso, Synodus variegatus . Natives interviewed by the author did not know that this was a poisonous species, "atsuo gives it as violently and fatally toxic. Ve were not able to collect it and so could not test it. It is recorded here as doubtful. 2, ikuit "?hen Ilarshallese natives were shown natural color plates, they identified this with the hiodoshihata . Eoinephelus leopard us . The fish reported by Matsuo has several alternate yellow and black lines on the scales, differing in this respect from the hiodoshihata identified by the nritives. The hiodoshiliata is 53 nonpoisonouG at Jaluit, and ne have not heard of its beinf» CPrc;e 109^ poisonous else^'jhere. The writer has himself eaten a rather larr;e_^Dunt (about 300 <^) of this fish stened in soy sauce, and found it tasty and vjith no bad effects, ''atsuo rates it as moderately poisonous. 3. .larevjod !Ione of the nntives questioned by the '.-.Titer kne;ii what kind of a fish this was. "atsuo says that it is a small- pan inar (akamasu). The pan inar is the f utat suboshidokuCT-o . but it is not clear vjhether we are dealinf; here with the youn^; of this species or xiiith a different species. Perhaps it is a lut.lanid. h> .lavie elik Elik means "small". Jane is a general nane for the Serranidae, correspondin'^ to the Japanese hata or tamakai. It is consenuently not clear nhat species is meant, but the natives say that it is the same as the lemc.ine mentioned below. How- ever, they say that this species is edible. Others said that they knew nothinr^ of the toxicity of the leme.ine because it is rarely caup;ht, ''atsuo says that this fish is a small leme.ine and has three black transverse stripes. He rates it as mildly toxic and the leme.ine as moderately so. It is not clear -.vhef-er or not these are the same srvscies under different ns.-'.es, but in aav case it is certain thn*- they are serranids. 5. .1ebeb pako Pako is a general term for sharks. From ■.•:hat the natives say, V^is is clear l." the hammerhead shark, "'hen asked whether it was poisonous, the" nsi 1 that they did not know because they never ate it. ''atsuo spys that it is traditionally considered poisonous, but that it is rarely taken, 6. .1id.1idbein The natives say that t'-is is a variety of .julae and a rare fish. The .julae is Plectropomus oliptacanthus Blceker, Matsuo describes it as reddish vdth three lon^^itudinal lines on the head and several such lines on the body. It is difficult to imai^ine ^ivhat kind of n fish this mit^ht be, but it is cer- tainly a serranid. It is rated as moderately poisonous, [Fafje llOJ 7. .lomne From !Iatsuo's description this must be one of the '^llidae. The species could not be determined, but the fishes of the family '^ullidae studied by the writer .vere nonpoisonous. !'atsuo sa.vs that it is mildly toxic. ?. .1ohe pako According to ^^atsuo, "a shark without teeth and with red spots as bi-^ as the ball of the thumb." The natives '-now nothinn; of it, Saii to be mildly toxic. Species not known. 9. katok The natives say that this is a kind of .ialia (Lethrinus 54 mlniatus) « T'^atsuo says that it iresenbles the mameni ILet hrlnus sp,;| but the head is shorter, and rates it as moderately toxic. The natives also say that this fish is poisonous. The species is unidentified, but it probably belongs to the genus Lethrinus. 10, Kalaolap According to '^atsuo this fish is like the illino ( Serranus microdon. Section 9), but has black spots on the _ caudal fin and on the middle section of the back,' He*ratesT^ as moderately toxic. The natives say that it resembles the fcuro r Serranus fuseoprattatus 1 , but that it is not poisonous. It is certainly a serranid, but the species is unidentified, 11, leme.lne A serranid, .iud^yin^ by Ttatsuo's photograph but the species is unknown, I^e rates it as moderately toxic, 12, poran Said to be a kind of ray fvith a poison snine on the tail. Probably should be classed as a poison-spined fish. The followins: definitely fall into this category, [Pa,«?e ml Ho ( hanaminokasago » see the following section) .^nd r^ (seprariokoze. see tha f ollcwTng section) . Tasukama (otj. cit.) reported nine species from Saipan under their native names. These have all been co'lected and tested, and the results have been set forth in r^eceding sections for th's chapter. Popular legeni also includes the isomaguro. the isoboamo. r:nd others among the poisonous fishes. At Saipan, Ponape, and Jaluit we heard that these species, although commonly used as foodfish, are sometimes poisonous, 'e did not collect nor test them, but cite them here, urgin?^ caution. Sadanosuke ?'J.ura* says that a fish called the hoshimaguro. which resembles the bachi FParathunnus sibl (Temrainck & Schlegel) 3 and which has beautiful stars on its sides, is taken nixed vdth skipjack. Kishinouye'** has reported that Gvmnosarda nuda (rSinther) is called isomaguro in Ogasawara and tokakin in the RyfTkyHs, It is presumed that the fish generally called isomaguro by Japanese in the South Seas is probably this species. [Page 125 Section 14 Venomous Fishes, Poison-spined Fishes, and Polsoi*-spined Shellfish As explained in the introduction, the distinction between fishes which are poisonous when eaten and those which poison by biting or niercing has not always ■•faura, Sadanosuke, Fishes of the" South Seas [N^nkai flg Sqkanal , Seba [l^'ti] shoten, 1941. ««Ki8hinouye, Kamakichl, Proceedings of the College of Agriculture, Tokyo Inperial TTniversity, p. 426. 1923. 55 been maintained. They have, as previously noted, sometimes been confused in the literature. Since in actual practice it is sometimes necessary to have some practical knowledpje of venomous and poison-spined fishes, the follorain'' notes ore added here as a waminf? to the reader, Painlowsky (o£, cit;) cited the mora'-'s as venomous and reported that their teeth contain a poison, but no later' authorities app<^ar to have detected it. The teeth of these fishes are hin/^ed, as described in Section 1, and their points are sharp, ''hen a person is bitten, he instinctively pulls his hand away and as a result in most cases the wounds are not merely the toothprints but are usually enlarged in the form of linear gashes. It is thoup^ht that either the size of the wounds, or the fact that the form of the fish and the structure of its teeth resemble those of a snake has <»iven rise to the theory that it is venomous. In the past many species have been reported to have poisonous spines, but onlv those which are liable to cause trouble in the South Se-s area are cited here, 1. "any species of scorpaenids have a stroa^ spine on the dorsal vjith a poison gland at its base. These fishes often burrow into the sand in shallow naters near shore, ani there have been many cases in which persons have stepped on them v;ith bare feet, the wound often bein:^ fatal. The seppariokaze . Scorpaenopsis diabolixs Rleeker, (rjo in ^Tarshallese) (Pig, 67) is one of the most violently toxic and also one of the most cormonly occurring species of this group. The hananikasago, Pteroia volitaris (Linnaeus) (hfl in f'arshallese) is a fish which is found svjimmin"; around the coral reefs. It has a strong venom on the spines of all of its fins. (Fig. 68) 2. The fishes of the aigo family LSiganidaeJ are not pp toxic ar, the species rentioned above but they are more commonly encountered. These too have poison glands on the spines, the structure of vihich has been studied by Professor Ilcusaku Amenlya (on, cit. p. 8). The specier cited here, the ma.Hriaigo. Sin-anus nuellus ( Schlegel) , is one '.vhich occurs abundantly in the ^outh Seas, pigTTl] . This is one of the most common foodfishes. It is called ai!titoker (jage 1131 (T%rshallese, '^odak) and annan (T'arshallese, '^lik), rnd is taken in largo numbers in driving-in nets and sold in the markets. Care must be taken in handling it. The following concerns poison-spined shellfish, All of those listed below belong to the genus Conus . and are abundant in shallcnv vjater near ohora. Since their appearance is attractive, people often pick up the llvin" animals v;ith their hands ond in so doin" get stung. The piercing mechanism is not clearly understood, but the poison is violent. The sting leaves a hole like that pierced b^' a needle, and a space around it as largo as a conper penny turns purple. The venom spreads through the body rather rapidly, ani cases are l^nown in '.vhich death resulted less than an hour after being stung. The follovilng list is 56 I arranged according to the presumed strength of the venon. 1. shlroanboina. Conus tuliiPo (Llnne) (Pig. 7ii.) 2. amboina, Conus teo'^ranhus (Linne) (Fl^. 73) 3. ta^ayasanminashl, Coaug textile (Linne) (Picj. 75) U, tsubolmo. Conus aulleus (Linnd? (Pig. 76) 5, nishikiminnshi . Conus striatus (Linne; (Fig. 77) LPage U4] 57 Chapter III Symptoms and Trea-tanents Section 1 Symptoms The sym:ptoms of poisoning which appear when the toxio material is adminis- tered by mouth have been generally observed in the results of the various experiments and in the popular accounts of cases of accidental poisoning de- tailed above, hov?ever, although we heard of such cases we had little opportunity to see them ourselves. Consequently we have interviewed doctors in the area studied and have personally questioned victims of fish poisoning to assemble the information presented below. Of course all of the 46 species described above do not produce the same symptoms, nor is it assvnned that the toxic agent is the same in all of them, but there are certain effects generally common to all. In most oases the following symptoms are encountered. Directly after eating, the stomach feels upset and the patient vomits. In experiments with animals many of the cats showed this symptom. Even when the flavor is good and no ill effects are felt while the fish is in the mouth, after from 30 minutes to 2 hours the inside of the mouth, the lips, and the stomach feel abnormal. The lips and mouth either feel hot, as if red peppers had been eaten, or they itch, and the stomach feels oppressed. After a little more time has passed, numbness sets in, generally around the lips, tongue, inside of the mouth, anus, etc. Many persons also say that the skin of their hands and feet had no feeling. Others say that their h^nds and feet hurt when placed in water. In the experiments, animals affected to this degree did not react by with- drawing their feet when they were pricked with a dissecting needle. We were able to detect a mild degree of poisoning by observing the reactions to pricking of various degrees of severity. More strongly affected cases generally suffer impairment of their movements, and in some the hearing is affected, while others drivel, unable to sv/allow their saliva. In severe cases the patient is unable to stand or walk, and in the most serious oases respiration becomes difficult, the pulse is erratic, and death results. Most deaths occur after from 5 to 24 hours. Impairment of the ability to walk was clearly perceived in the experiments with cats. In cases of severe poisoning the cat's hind quarters gave way and the aniiial could not stand up even when lifted onto its feet (photograph 3). In milder cases the animal, when forced to walk, would stagger erratically. [Page 115] These observations were used to evaluate the symptoms of poison- ing (photographs 1 and 2). Mice similarly affected crawled on their bellies (photograph 4) . In many cases these symptoms were accompained by diarrhea. Some persons reported being cured of roundworms and feeling better than ever afterwards. This occurred with the akadokutarumi [Lutjanus vaiguensis] and the dokuutsubo [Oymnothorex^f lavimarginatus J 58 Cases were also reported in ^rtiioh headaohes, dizziness, and so forth were Hexperienoed. There were oases in which the patient, before dying, suffered a neinrous disturbance, as if he were going mad, and threshed around in the bed (in several examples where the dokuutsubo [Gymnothorax flavimarginatus] was eaten). No cats or mice were observed behaving in this way when they died, most of them cfying stretched out on their sides (photograph 3 and 5). Mild cases recover completely in frcm 10 to 24 hours. In those which have eaten strongly toxic fish with grave symptoms resulting, sensory impairment sometimes persists for a week or 10 days. Some persons who had eaten dokuhi raa ji [Caranx melampygus] and ohagurohata [Cephalopholis argus ] reported that rheumatism and nervous diseases, which they~ had had previously, were cured by the experience. [page 116] Section 2 Treatment The best treatment is an emetic administered Immediately after eating. Washing out the stomach is also effective. Where some time has passed, a lax- ative should give good results, and, as a treateient for paralysis, stimulants emd drugs which stinulate the heart will probably be effective. The following are some popular remedies. In these areas where many species of poisonous fish occur, the residents always have antidotes ready, and the most commonly used one is a plant called monpanoki , the scientific name of which is Messersohmidia argentea Linne'^ (Fig. 72). The areas in the Marianas and Marshalls where the writer made this study are separated by thousands of kilometers of ocean, yet, in spite of the fact that the natives do not travel back and forth betwreen the that the languages are altogether different, and that Japanese fishermen do not operate in the area and consequently could not have taught them its use, the same parts of the same plant are used in the same way in both areas. In Okinawa, also, the identical plant, there called hamasoki or meganenoki (because the wood is used for the frames of diving goggles), grows wild along the shore, and the custom exists of roasting the fried leaves and the bark of the trunk and using them as an antidote for fish-poisoning. Fishermen from Okinawa operating in the South Seas area are said always to carry in their boats a bundle of the stems of this plant, which grows wild everywhere in the area, cut into about one foot lengths and bound together like firewood. The Marshallese natives call this plant gannatto. In this area, too, it grows wild along the shore and is easy to obtain, ^ese people pound up the raw leaves with coral and eat them without further preparation. On some islands they are said to gnaw the bark off the stems. Some of the Japanese fishermen roast the leaves before using them. The monpanoki grows abundantly everywhere around the shores of the islands, and there is probably no area in the South Seas where poisonous fish occur 59 where this plant la not found. It is a shrub, attaininf* a hei«3;ht of about two meters. The leaves are thick and covered with hair, giving them a velvety tex- ture. It is shaped like a loquat tree, and the flowers are so inconspicuous that the writer did not notice them. See figure 70. (The color of the leaves is taken from a pressed specimen.) The writer tried to feed this herb to animals which showed symptoms of poisoning, but. they refused to eat any of it. [Facte 117J Some Okinawan fishermen also say that chewing raw eggplant has a medicinal effect. They also recommend taking chestnuts which have been ground in a mortar an'i nixed with Tvater to cause diarrhea. The Juice pressed 'from pounded leaves of the kamschiri* plant is likevidse said to cause diarrhea, thus lessening the effect of the poison. These Okinawan fishermen n Is o recommend licking lard and drinking grease. *kamachiri! The name kamachlri is generally used throughout the South Seas, but '"r. '^aoshi Tsuyama informs me that this -.■lord is of Snnnish origin, the Japanese name being kinkimoku. scientific name Plthecolo'^um dulce. This tree has compoun'^ leaves and thorny branches and is abundant in the South Seas. 60 [Page 118] Chapter IV Toxio Substances and Methods of Eliminating Them Seotion 1 TOxic Substances The following is a discussion of what we were able to learn concerning the toxio substances in the various poisonous fishes recorded in preceding sections. Previously Yasukawa (op. cit.) experimented on the assumption that the poison was bacterial in nature, and reported negative results. Matsuo expressed the opinion that it was similar to the poison found in betraodonts * In the various experiments with animals reported in Chapter III of this paper, the strength of the poison was not in most cases affected by heating at 100 C for 20 minutes. Furthennore, in the experiments with extracts reported below it was clear that the poison persisted in preparations made with absolute iloohol. From these facts it is not difficult to deduce that the poisons in the various species discussed in this paper are chemical in nature. Since the chemical analysis of this poison was not the main objective of the present study, the author, as explained below, merely experimented to find a uethod of making extracts of the poison, as necessary in eliminating it, and also to discover methods of transporting material from the field for later study. Facilities and supplies for chemical experiments were almost unobtainable In the field, and our preparations were inadequate, consequently, except in a very few cases, we preserved the materials and performed our experiments in Japan. [BsLge 119] Seotion 2 Location of the Poison and Changes Resulting from Preparation for the Table Let us consider the localisation of the poison in the body of the fish. In feeding experiments with animals the author tested each organ, insofar as they could be divided. The muscle tissues, t^o, were tested in various sections and an attempt was made to compare their effect. No definite results were obtained from these experiments, that is, we could not detect anything like the limitation of the poison to any particular organ. In Idle case of the blood, ovaries, liver, and so forth, because the materials were given by mouth, the amounts eaten varied, and consequently the effect also varied. Comparing these organs with the mviscle tissue, in most cases the latter was eaten in larger quantities and, contrary to expectation, produced more clearly marked poisoning. It should also be noted that most of the reported cases of accidental poisoning resulted from eating muscle tissues. From this it is clear that muscle tissues taken from the fish and prepared for the table in the most ordinary manner vdll contain poison. It may be imagined that such material will still have blood remaining in the capillaries. If the 61 blood contains a concentrated poisonous substance, it is only natural that such muscle tissues will cause poisoning. The author made many experiments, cooking the fish just as if it were being prepared for ordinary table use, in order to find out whether the toxicity would be affected. The results are shown in the various animal experiments in Chapter III. As explained in the introduction, the method used was a very simple way of applying heat to the fish. It not only showed no signs of diminishing the toxicity, but rather increased the incidence of poisoning. This agrees with the accounts of accidental poisoning in human beings, most of the cases having been caused by cooked fish. The greatest nvonber of poisonings appear to have r e- sulted from such preparations as fish soup, while eating the fish raw produced the fewest oases. In one family which ate fish soup, those who drank the soup were poisoned while those who only ate the pieces of fish from the soup were not. These facts perliaps indicate that the poison is resistant to heat but soluble in water. In not a few cases experimental animals ate the raw flesh without exhibiting any ill effects, but began vomiting immediately after eating flesh cooked in water and fed to them together with its Juices. Frcxn all of this it is clear that poisonous fish should not be eaten even when cooked. ^ [page 120] l Several specimens which were broiled directly over the fire also showed no lessenings of toxicity. Although there are comparatively few cases of accidental poisonings caused by broiled fish, this is probably due to sonie other reason. Fish suspected of being poisonous should not be eaten broiled either. Specimens prepared as dried fish, as explained in a later section, also showed no loss of toxicity. As shown above, not one of the fishes prepared by various ordinary methods shovred any loss of toxicity when tested on experimental animals. Methods of eliminating the posion will be taken up again in a later section. [Page 121] Section 3 Methods of Extraction The following experiments on methods of extracting the posion were performed by the author in the field. Ten gr of raw muscle tissue from the fish to be tested was left for 72 hours in ICX) CO of absolute alcohol. After filtering, the solution was heated and con- centrated over an alcohol lamp until the odor of alcohol disappeared. Distilled water was added to make 100 co and the extract was injected subcutaneous ly *• The results are shown in the following table. In no case was there any effect. Attempts were made to prepare a more concentrated fluid, but circiimstances made this impossible and we were consequently unable to determine the lethal amount. *In addition 10 gr of the same raw flesh with 100 cc of water added was cooked over an alcohol lamp, cooled, filtered, the filtrate thinned to 100 cc with distilled water, and the resulting extract was injected subcutaneous ly into mice. In no case did it have any effect. 62 Tliese results -Indicate that the ar.ounr, of noisnri in tho ti.spuGs of the fish tersSr^d -.as very slif^hto It is regrettable that -•'.ere V3.rulent species v;erc5 not selecstedo Mouse Date Fish Used Arab, Iijected 'tesult red-tar;'»ed spotted Sept. 19 vodarehata flesh 0.2 cc no apparent effect ti n II (1 II spotted, unta/^jjed ti ohafnirohata flesh ri n « n If II II red-ta-jf^ed white n fuodokutarumi flesh 11 II It ?i u II II whHe, untagRed n vodarehata liver II II n ft II II • 11 ■'"detracts ^lere prepared for comnarison as follovjs usin?; salted dried specimens o The sa'ne ^est material was used in all cases. (1) 200 cc of water T7nR added to 10 p;r of pulverize 1 dried salted tissues and the mixture was heated at 100° C for about two h6urs<, After filtering it was con- centrated to 15 cc (0.66 gr of dried tissue to 1 cc of fluid 3n,1'?cted). The re- sults of this experinnent (iTonarntion No. 1) indicates thnt 0.33 tr of flesh is a lethrl dose (calculated for a nouse of 15 '^r bodyivei'^ht) . (2) 10 (^ of the same tissue \ias placed in 200 cc of absolute alcohol and left for about 15 hours at room temperature (30° - 32*^ C). "ftor filtering, 15 cc of distilled water vias added, it -..nl;? heated at 100^ C to eycnorate the alcohol, and after two hours was concentrated to 2.7 cc (3»7 V^ of drier) srlted tissue to [Pa'^e I22j Ice). Results of these experiments (Preparations "c. 1, 2, and 4) indicated a lethal dosage of 0,2 ^x of flesh for Preparation ''o. 2 and of 1,0 gr for Preparation 'To, U (calculated for a nouse wei^hinc^ 15 tt)* (3) 200 cc of water was added to 10 ";r of the sa/ie tissue and it v.as left in a refri'^arotor at / 10° C for 15 hours, ^^^fter filterin-^, the filtrate was heated rt 100° C for about 4 hours and concentrated to 13 cc (0,77 f?r of tissue to 1 cc). The results of this experiment (Freparation Ho. 3) did not indicate the lethal dosa'»e but it appeared to be rrrenter than 0„23 T of tissue, and, .ludf^in^^ by the symptoms exhibited, it is probably more than tv.lce that anoimt. CTables for Preparations Tlos, 1 and 2 J [Pape 123] [Tables for Preparations Mos. 2', 3, 43 LPa^e 124] [Tables for Preparations Nos. 5, 6, and 7] [Paf^e 125] [Tables for Preparations 'los. 8, 9, and 10 J [Pa*^e 126] [Two tables of experiments on cats] 63 The tissues remaining: after filtration of these various preparations were fed to cots with no ill effects, as shown in the above tables, indicatin?» that the amount of poison remaining in the tissues was small. The symptoms of poisoning obseirved in these injection experiments v;ere very similar to those seen in the experiments in which the toxic materials were administered by mouth. As explained in the followln* section on "preservation", dried barracuda and lampreys from Japan were used as controls (Preparations !Ios, 6 nnd 7). The lethal quantity, as indicated by these tests, differed by 200 to 300 percent from that of the dried salted specimens. The aka.jin f Fleet ropomus truncatusj was shown by the feeding; experiments re9 ported in Chapter II to fall in the nildXy toxic category. Injection experiments using stron,!;ly or violently toxic species would probably show even greater differences . The experiments reported above indicate that for extracting the poison Vethod *Io. 2, employing alcohol, is the best, [Pa,":© 127) Section 4 Preservation of Toxic Substances Since the investigation of these poisons must be carried on in distant tropi- cal areas where facilities an'- supplies for chemical tests are hard to obtain, the best thing to do is, if possible, to preserve the toxicity of the materials and transport them back to Japan, Several methods of accorr^sHshlng this were tried, and they are introduced here for the information of those who may study these poisons at a later time, 1. Cannigg and bottling Since the poison resists a temperature of 100° C, sterilization by heating is possible. If, therefore, facilities are available, preservation by canning or bottling will be convenient. The author tried this, but the technique was faulty and the material became useless through putrefaction, 2. Salting and drying "fuscle tissues were sprinkled with salt and dried in the sun, the dicing bein" continued for several days in strong sunlight. These materials were taken back to Japan where after about nine months they -"ere used in experiments Tvith the results shown in the tables (Preparations "os. 1, 2, 3, end 4). It was not possible to tell how much their toxicity had been diminished by preser- vation because there weire no records of tests nado with the row flesh, but comparison "'ith the controls indicrted that some of the toxicity at least was retained. 3. Preservation in alcohol T'resh tissues '.vere placed in absolute alcohol in a tightly covered wide-mouthed jar, and were kept for nine months after v.'hich they rere used in experiments vith the results shown in the table (see Preparation Ho. 10). The 64 ■*» 4> ^ •g v4 •sa ILj a •ri ^ h -p ■P CO "8 s. •§2' a to ■p •a e ■P 0 -S' c (D ^ 0 C -p 0 ^ CD ■P rS 0) 0 0 IS ^ U rH g Vi c c ^ e Vi « rH p Vi 0 «H a Vl -rl R S^ 43 as Sh +» 0 0 ■p 4» • IB « 0] U 3 V ■P 0 m 0 0 'Q 43 c u 3 0 <^ 4^ c ^ 1 a bo U) 0 0) Vi c 55^ Vi (4 0 «D •0 •0 £ s •H ,0 V4 c '^•g -nt-^ gl-g ^^^ rH B (4 8 (D 49 gf-g 0 -rt 0 T3 0 0 •H 0 Q T> i:3 gg^ 000^ B to a "O e 0 g -H to e -o m -P ;d •3 •t» m^ ^S^ ::1^ ::1?ia ;^S?i?^ ^^ a?i::j CQ 0 43 « .* >» >. >» >» >, t>. I>» >»>»>. >»>>>»>» >»o >»>»>> OS ^-3 rS nH r-H 3 3 ^ ■3^ ■3 -3 '3 rH rH rH rH 3 3 3 3 rH e 3 4h I-l H rH 3 3 3 0 •-» f^ •-»'-> "-a ►-> •-» ^» »-» >-» >-» >-9 *-» >-» 0) •-» •-9 ^^ 0 (3 g§ 88§ 88 0 Q Q rH 0 rH H Q 0 0 a Q 0 T* 0 5 oj 0 rH H ese^ iH 0 rH 0 i-H 0 rH 1-1 0 rH rH bD 5v. 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The name .lowe is a general term for the Serranldae, and thtro are many other similar examples such as bub (Balistidae), .julae (genus Pie ctropomus ) . snd diebdro (iTepatidae). The same thing is true of Japanese common nar es, nhich rarely make fine distinctions between species. For this reason any stt dy vjhich is based only on names is bound to result in confusiono A comparison of replies to requests for the names of poisonous fishes addressed to various areas Tave no useable results, the situation vith regard to Japanese common names beinT even more confused than in the case of the native names. For example, the name akamasu is applied to so many different species that it is useless for exact identification. The fish called aomasu, an alto- gether distinct species from those .just mentioned, is also called susulti at Jaluit and aomachi. omachi. or omasu at Saipan, 'giving one the impression of dealing with several different species. This confusion in nomenclature makes accurate identification impossible, and even though a fish may be eiible at rne islan-l an-i a fish viith the same nrne may be shovm to be poisonous at another island, no confidence can be placed in this as an evidence of local variation in toxicity, Tt should be notei that the results of experiments nith animals reported in the varion? sections of Chapter II shov; that ia many species the toxicity varies as between individual specimens. Although the toxicity of a species may not [Page 133] vary within a limitei are.-^,'it should be reccnlzed that some varia- tion exists in widely senarated regions, as set forth in the follovjing Section 3» [Page 134] Section 2 Cn Individual and Seasonal Variations in Toxicity At the end of the preceding section it wan stated th.-^t the toxicity of mildly poisonrus species varies with the locality. Furthermore, the results of experiments reported in the various sectirns of Chapter II shov; that v.ithin the sane species individuals vary greatlv in toxicity. This has -^iven rise to various theories, as reported in the preceding section, but at present the reason for these varia- tions is unknown and it can only be said that they are duo to some physioloirical causes, luite a few authorities, including Pawlovusky and Poey (op. cit.), have thought that one of these physiological causes is probably related to spawning. The writer regrets thrt he was unrhle in the short period of time which this in- vestigation covered to confirm this liypothesis. It has also been pointed out in Chapter II that in a number of soecies a variation in toxicity depending on age can be observed. This is true, for example, of Caranx nelampvgua among others, and Pawlowsky has reported the same 82 phenomenon for Lethrinus rostra tus . It is not '^nc;-3n 't nresent whether such a variation exists in all species of poisonous fish or only in certain species, but it should be noted that it occurs In a f^ood many. It appears that there is no discernible variation in toxicity due to sex. [Pa»e 135! Section 3 On the Distribution of Poisonous Fishes A comparison of the !brianas, Carolines, and T^rshalls areas of the South Seas shows that poisonous fish occur in the greatest abundance, vjith the lar^i^est number of species, mi \^ith the stronf^est toxicity in the Ilarshalls. The number of species found in the ?Tarianas is much smaller and few of them are strcn,<»ly toxic. This investigation did not extend to the Carolines area, howevcri it anpears that althou<^ quite a few species occur in the nestem Carolines, they are almost unknown in the eastern part of the "Troup. "aAy of the species re- corded as poisonous in this paper are distributed throu/^hout this area. A point which should be noted concerning the distribution of poisonous fishes is that since nost of them are taken near the outer reefs by the natives fishing •1th hook an-l line or bv Japanese usim drivin^-in nets, they are no problem in areas jhcre they are not taken because driving-in nets are not used or vjhere they are taken but not eaten because of local dietary habits. Consequent Iv there may be places where they occur but where they have never been recorded nor reported. Mpst of the species treated in Chapter HI occur in the "arshalls but only in rare cases are they limited to that area. The majority of them have a vjide distribntion, nanv of them occurring* in the coastal v;aters of 'inst .frier, the led '^ea, the Indian Ocean, the ?-rGt Indies, "avjaii, and Ilorth Australia. A nore detailed examination sho-)S that the coastal waters of Southeast 'sia, that is tTalaya, French Indo-Chinai Thailand, and the Ch-ina Sea, have few species in common vdth the 'Tarshalls, and there seem to have been no reports of poisonous fish occurring; in those waters. Althou(»h the ^ast Indies (Sundn, Borneo, Celebes, etc^ "rea has a <^ood many species in common v.'ith the riars'^alls, " e have not been able to find any mention of poisonous fish amon'^ the nu-nerous papers published there. This may be because they occur rarelv there, or because thev are not taken by the fishinpj methods in use there and so do not appear in the market, or because the natives are not, like the Japanese, a fish-eating people. Not havin': investi- gated this situation in person, all the writer can soy is that Judr;in^ from the literature published hitherto there are probably no poisonous fishes occurring in the '^ast Indies and the Indian Ocean. The areas which have the deepest connection with the poisonous fishes of the Marshalls and "arianas cited in this report are Hav.-aii (includin;^ "/ake I.) and the so-called Polynesian islands (Fiji, Samoa, Society, TTew Caledonia, t'ew ^'ebrides,^nd so forth). The ichthyfauna of the ?tarshalls is, as stated by Ilerre^-', [Pa^e 136j most closely related to that of the Hawaiian Islands and the various Polynesian groups. They have many species in common, the majority of those recorded in this paper beinf^ also found in those islands, and it is not difficult to imae^ine that *Herre: The Fishes of the T^erre Philipnine "expedition. Ilongkon;^, 193^. 83 they nust have other poisonous fishes besides the ones which je have cited. It is thou<»ht that these islands must have the nost nanerous and the most violently toxic fishes of finy place in the Pacific. It is si^aificant thnt in the pre- vious literature oven Americans, ^'jho custonnrily do not eat much fish, have noted the occurrence of poisonous fish in '3amoa. Itany of the poisonous species occur in northern Australia, but. apparently only tetraodonts are f oimd in the southern part. In the Atlantic many species of poisonous fish have been reported from the "^est Indies and surrcundinT waters, Poey and many others have -ritten of them. They are perhaps nore numerous than those of the Pacific. A nxap has been inserted 5n this renort shovjlnrr the iistribution of poison- ous fishes throu'^hout the world. It shows that these fishes are confined almost entirely to the tropic seas, and they are most numerous around isolated islands far from continentai shores. The ^later in these areas is little affected by drainai^e from the L-tnd, it is poor in plankton, extraordinarily clear, and coral reefs are well developed in it. Poisonous fish seem to be especiallv abuninnt around coral atolls. because of the parallels between the distribution of coral reefs and that of poisonous fishes, the vjriter is moved to advance the bold hynothesis th^t there is a connection, indirect if not direct, betrjeen the nematocysts of the coral polyps and the poisonous fishes. In -lapan the onlv poisonous fishes arc a few species of tetraodonts, \'?Hich seem to represent the northern limit of distri- bution. It is interestin-^ to note that in Okinavja Prefecture, where coral reefs are found, quite a fevj of the poisonous species cited in this re^iort occur. It is thcu'^ht that the absence of poisonrus fishes from the Indian Ccean, Red Sea, and ?.ast Indies, where quite a fewi of then should be expected to occur, is due to the fact that in many of these areas the coral does not rjrovj ivell because of the effect of runoff water from the Lnnd. The east coast of -sia is a ^ood example, v.ith a great deal of drainage from the land, an ichthy fauna very different from that of the area covered in this investi,<»ation, and no poisonous fishes, (end) 84 1 1 .« to to w «v a c^ ^ ^ 3 H^S . <0 o a cio a tm a t-t Tt '-^ 1 as «« .8 1 •* ; (0 tiO • *^ o n • ^ +> E;'§-' 9 W ^g (0 O X) 5g^ m 9 56 Vt p> O iH O CO Si B 9 s E^H toot's «lr a o (3 O ES-S s a c> a o b gS"g ■p e -H H 4» w ■P © -H >-< -p ..jj 01 a C3 CO a a t$ &) b, & &> •TV • • P< 9 0-— 0 252 ■ B ■ ca a a 238 5 Bm — rH O ^'S'S « C B e o 1-1 Cm SS Xt ^ B n 00 CO ^4 O « 0) s:°53 Ji ja r-l r' a 5 H ^si "i • oJ Vt 4» '^ ® ■< •> o < « CO e>- a C^ ■♦» • tM •^ 5 §gs> CB O to ■3 ■ g^fl . B B m B E 6 g a o *» <§ B >*o « •H Vl •P 1-4 ^ ^8ga*S O -H rrN Vl as t»fH « S 0 « 43 i "a sE| & & & & ^ & b «r\ «\ «n «r» »r» O o •S S "5 ©ci ONH iH H ^rf •-*!:::< vO is S TiS 13^ !0 • O • O • O • O • O • o •HOI O CM o* cv tv cv to cv CM CiJ C\J CM 1. 3 q 1 q ■r B o (V reehne tine 8 caotur to B CM -4- c B US B E L6^ '-•^ tn Time of Feedln B o 2 B E B E Si jb , 0 CQ n *H o 8^ 0) •H O •H rH B E J3 B o S E ^ H B B B » •H -ri ^ >J ti M O ca E B • „ OU o u a. « •8 n J3 O o g 3 2J • , , • • , B H 5 . O -P O B o O -P o 1 *i5 ==■& K «-a s «r • C a'-t: > s • -H •n a rH a ;s ft a vi Si a 1 g •P H aj NO boo E E B c B B B a Sh 3a 2 a 1- S^ •rt » B B B E B B C i^^ B B 09 O b o B lA c e — C C T* 'J . *r» o v£) O e •<) o OVCJJ OSOJ « ^ ^' & c c -o ■-> o rH •rt ^ (D O O CO U II 1^1 ^ r~ »< <> a •H rH -P O o +3 CO « « •r( rH z w O D] p. >H e rH a bO (D t>0 G •p c o 4-t ® iS •3 O rH 0) >k CO CO m O 'O •O rH a 0) n -p Q) O c rH a -P C3 J3 ;rf 3 OS <-i !H ^ 2 tuj feb-^-^^ •H >3 Q) +» +> ^ O 4H rH (n 3 ^. -H CV J3 -P P & & bH •P O n ▼< M « » "O ri (4 S »< a »H CD (U o 0) d. <8 A e-< •8 rH^- a_ CO . U) ."m C3 *<-~^ O AS O A! t>^ M S5 s rH O.^ •TV kf\ 1 &CV 4» . <0 rH •p • CO rH 0-^ O — O^-* ^ •s !>• « (3 (D O • « i > 4> -r) a O K c CO t-< e tz: a ->3 w a ■H u o> 3 0) ^ i-» e c ja « a * Eh »-» o ja S5 -p j: • bO 8 C 'VO 87 ^ 2 88 • ll 1 ^ 1 1- s no .P ■p o gs^s B CD • •rt 0 g 9 p n « 8 0 0 B B as CO h a -p a X CO fa a -P 1 0 a 0 a •TV 3 ■♦» . 'O a -p 'd * 0 a CO 8 0 « -p §>. ^S8 •p 0 Tt 0:5 n H fl SB ^ s ^ 1 ji u .il 60 O *< -O |2| & DO fe & & e o S «n -p 0 «0c to c • iH B •Sl-B • • o ■H 0 i-H A 0 rH f-4 rH III CO ess slnoe a 1 d 1 »fk m 5«5 ■<♦ m -' >» ^ ITk u a ir* «f\ 1^5 1-4 s B 1 B H O f-t Bx r^ S^§ g ? rt of f Uethod eoaratl £ E 1 0 B Ml ►J Tb crV4 B j3 ^ ^-i* 0 «5 B B B a ^ 4» -H CO ^8 s c B s E Q cS?i 0 ss & « M ^ m e B c C ^5 5 • O XI ==ft^ a CO S |a« >o 0 >r\ e c B c C tH hJ \0 tX) U «H o\^ O 08 C ti3 I ui 1 a o no •♦* S 8 O « E 8 B C B B £ OT »« a -p 1 ^ ? U TJ u •8 5 o o •H « iH 13 § 8 B s B B ^2S • p tT-p e b ID a « H « ^ •O «-t rH i 10 •^ a •Q q 4» 5\ o • E B NO >*• S e rH o • o • (D CO •p e bi ^3a a n a b (B s »f\ •n time capt CM S s <^ B 6 B B ^ ^ tt— ' pi^ Ol Ol w CO « 5 CM J2 a <»4 03 •H O (D H © Gm i-l B B H B B ® 1-4 CO S A j3 a ig a %4 0 « 5 v4 O O Ji H •^ art of f Method reuarati S B iA. B B •8 B 8 % 0. <( a. •8 S O a 1-4 ;:l r-l ?2 r->. • o 43 , •P '^X ■P ?1^ •g *$: - -a S£ " -8. •p E-a ^? . -& 1 •H o 1-1 t o e » 1-4 •d >§.? t •a o § a rS O . i:3^ W) a iH d -H (d o (14 •rt H» h U( to 89 90 a . to -P 3 -H c Listless, no movements Recovered no unusual activity noted Afflt. eaten & time of weigh- ing remainder 40.$gr offered 33*3gr remained 7.2gr eaten o • ->* rA B & o • cv 0^ d Freshness (time since capture) a ■H m \0 c G i-l \0 E B B Time of Feeding o O r-i O CM e e E Part of Fish & Method of Preparation « o r-l O c-i a c = B CO ■P CO o it a r-J ■P E -8, U Si o^ i& • © P B 00 Date and Time Taken 5;^ c c c c B c s. •H CO CO E E E B B ierial No. 5t Length of Fish sO o o = r S = © M o q fi oi Vl ^ P-tM m U © -p fl-:3 ■P o Cf)i >. o w 0) U •.-. O COO c • Ifei ^ 13 On rH — i 1 ■H O * ■P s u 5 O +> © 0) ce 2 5 •3 a o 11 c c «8 « © 0] »4 B Bf (0 o 01 © 3 a © - yl 1 § S^ ^1 S-l © O -H O •H © o O -P ^ r-i a (3 - Xi u .8 ttf « +> « (DO® (4 CO f^ • o O rH • CV c CV •sf c C O • o (D •X3 4» 5 M 5 V -ri c 2 o CO at 0 «H ^ T3 V ji o VI O ee ea : ^ B si CO r-t K •8 B « CO (- 4-1 xt -S 0^ •» a •d •s r- CO 9 g: o r^ f-4 **£ ■ I ^.& ■P VI •a CD 1 ai <-• O © t • © ■E CO a> o ^ s ^S e C S e s 01 ^ 5:4 c 1 B B B ID M ^ c ija (3 o 3 H CO 1=^ O .G CM U3 "m . S G) M fl<»H ^ " P )S B " B W CD 05 Ct. Q _. CI 1 1 itr H OB ^ OB e ^ rH "^ ® gg. m o n o 2sl a "9 CO |4 Vl O CB "5 •p o ■p o c ■3 ID -P o •rt o 2 n -8 ■ag? zn «-i vi Vl o c •rt O o B o o fH se iH -P CO Q ^8 rH 2-1 QU • O ■rt P» O I-l c s :;1 :A 1 §5 9 O o rH O O o o > i-l a (0 Z r-l a o «8 "3) « •T? •H 73 ^ a ten f we main •a & ^ & &> ^ 0) o a> • c*- fH (M to oJ -P B W ;► o (»% Oi > C- ^ -p ^ o O O ss 2 o a B q n -H « 0) (0 ^ Ja 0) -p O 9 m c E B r^ B B B o a o 9 -rl CO h ^ t< -P O fc.^- tr\ ««> tK e O -H Q s ^'S'S ^ B E B E E B ti O o o P^ J] J3 « VI a BO v4 O O o (4 a a> c m J3 s •8 C S ^ u cl •g » > B » E as i-t t -a i-t a o a c»^ «^5 • o B E B B B - B ■P EH ffl ■P o « £-• O c^ a o o ■p 0) fl »4 0 •3 « ^ rH C c E B C E S ;C Q CD S EH »-s ^t^ B ba a cy o B B s c E C B « 0(k4 •H ^ O VTv U Vl • •MO 93 eg cv o a 94 II CO 4h Q. °5 §K a ?^ 1 O a s 1 m B 1 4> « s s 1 & & & & & ir> • • • o S o I :| P; OJ OJ CM • • lai • O ^"^ II S ^•^ 1 1 B B B B s38 *.>- iJ 1 ■ S B B i-t o h ■* flt ^ J3 a Vi C n •HOC o «k « « ■^•B^ C J3 a •g ^ o|E 1^ US m ^3 ■as -^5 (?«£ i s s s 1! to o^ g i o O 4> si- •*> 1 4> ■»» «-8. .€ c ^ c a a o ■ t :g5 u t© and Tim© Taken O bO IS8 B B 8 B & S8 •♦» B B B B IS •^ *t-s vo8 i^t S^ « B B m «••« 1 NO 0 0 •0 u a 0 11 ■p ■a 1 0 «4 1^1 a> ^ e -p § ll§ t & &> gs^ 0 »f\ a •P q • » ID u •H ■p i u |3^ u a © t-i o tS CO a a> a H-i ^^ ana q B « 5 0) D 0 •h E 0 ■H «a a 00 25" 5 D ftt,^ "O O ca ^ > B . id Q g ^•g-s ^ B o H 01 H r-i 6m « Bi A JS r ^•ss & '"•s53 € 53 5 o|2 4* • S a •8 •H M a 1 s t>4 4 P4 ** 1 •g o a <«> •«♦ •o 9 »j^^ • <"^ e-l 0 ta 0 M ?1 S M S » J5 4»rH •♦» rH « c a*-" 01 —^ t-i ^ 0 U ^ a ■H »rv a a CM 9 c e B ^ • s ■f T{ K 3" O JH gH Q •< sg 1- 51S 1- B S H ■s- =■5 B r-t box Cl « « CO C ce 2 e bi) •H (D -r- ^fl 09 ti .^ fc e J 95 s ^ 96 (0 •p m e pi: a o 8 § CO +> o ^ OvO ^ . s E B 1 E B B B 1 -^^^ Sog III o8 ol O & §' CM • B CM • B rH • B «4 bO fc. n 0> W Tt 4^ q f^ O r^ o CJ f-l >o c^ o O/-^ 1 <« o q » o a 9 »4 *f» 0) •H 5 U 1-4 c C B C B c e B B B a> s f-4 K j3 O cs s JA CO iH a 1 = CSl 'A\ %% c B B B B B B B B a it (H a < o fl II CO CO B B B B B B E B * » ti ^ «"t^ ng t a ) 0 J B B B B B B B B B 97 a •p CO o fH ■P CO ■P o ,® o c B B C B B B B B Amt. eaten & time of weigh- ing remainder rH r^ O S • B o I B r-t rH» rH rH* r4" Freshness (time since capture^ a ■ri a :| rH e c B B s B s B B Time of Feeding r-i K B S B s B B B C Part of Fish & Method of Preparation 38.1 gr of ova- ry / 10 gr of fishmeal in 10 equal portions c E B B E B B 6 E Cfl ai c i B "O s • e 1 • • 1 • B Date and Time Taken il E E B B B S S B B B B E E B B B B B E •vO rH K B B B B B B B B •"9 jAj) s ^•Is till — o « ^ rH 1 B $ • M ■P O ■ B B B B B r 1 B ' 8 eaten & of weigb- remainder & & & & &> o o B o'" UN d" ■ B m d* B • • c 551 88 ince ure) I* «a ♦» ^ reahn time cap B B B B B B B B ^ Pm-^ H a-l R ■ B B B B c ■ B s Pm Fiah d of tion fe*^t »s15 art of Matho rapara ■ B B • B B B B CU 4 04 SJS^S:;! t a Si r-l ■ • o JJ B to B > e ! m B • • • •r ( < M S' .g & & yi •fk •«8 CV ^^i ll B B B B C « m B mt^t* r» < o SS 1" V B 03 CO B B B B s iSx a w ■ ■H O K c T-i a-r 'D S B C E B 0 * 9 Vf^ •H 1-3 >0 r-l 99 %4 4- 4 a oS c CO ) 100 ^a H - 0 H ^& a a 0 tU « ■ • « B B « B • Q> tB Q ggg -SI SS-S & &, ti & & & & I3> b S o « 0 CJ 0 >o to O^ NO CO •H • K • s • c • B • B • B B • B • B 0 r-l rH iH 0 0 0 0 0 >-t • o 4> e u ts a • a 0 a 9 Pm J3 ^ a « Vl 0 r* o • 0 e C B m B S t: ■ « t-> e-i 9 ON Q < 0 * cs ■ 5-3 ^ • c c B B S E B B " ^ S fcH Ji CO »'£^ a* l-^ a th «n e - s r - X ^ «: S u. . ■••^ CO e -a & 2e Aat. eaten & time of weigh- ing remainder u to cv 4 & e^ ^ Freshness (time since capture) a a o i-l c e Time of Feeding o S E e Part of Fish ft Method of Preoa ration ■g m s •8 o o f4 o 1-1 •8 m H 9 ft ■p • CO CM 5^ Date and Time Taken •5h B c O ^ (3 s. o1 C e Serial No. & Length of Flah a S e 101 O H a H jO tiD 102 1 i m n il s Is V. S o • • !3 a II 5 1 4» 8 m o, 11 5 13 i S5i 331 8 1 1 «H B B t B «4si •HTJ 1*1 "lo & &H & &> fen &, & ^-^o & 1^1 Nt-PJK «^ «.^-^ f-i e>t 0«" •O O^ to -* ♦ K o °F • s • s • B .4» * IfV vO o 0^ O^ O^ O^ •P H • * « jS » • a o B o B «s B tb o B o • ' 1 BS R •Jj s B "i • „ .H M , , M a m a a a ri te and Time Taken B B B s B B B s S «d 1 a <3 ss 1 2-iJ tI • B B • B B B B B ££ (S o jg 1 e a o pm it* TJ^^ B • B B B B B S B «««o 103 o § 104 ! j .„ j i •0 r>< i e >H n-s t)0 (3 -s •p 0 u Vl 0 U "8 U) * » 0 s 1 0 (4 ^ «> 1 1 1 115 § n » m4» ill & &> & & & •P IB • C^ • C»N J^ rt C«> «M • • • O'-^ S5S «> «a 9 M^t 1 e B B B -* »i a rt "8 i 0 «0 f ••g! ^►•rl t • B>i< • rt ? ■ B 6 c f *» «n «8» ► »4 C £3 SS8 •** S8 •3 s B B K €> J^ •H ^ 0 J3 X ■*> M • bo o s -t CI -H >rt 0 5 ^ ^ 00 B C B E ■ri ^ C- r-( V< (m a «r» « aa 0, CO 1 i ! •8 ■p o 5 if •p • O H ^8 4-1 rH m *-• ^ «' .8 •a 3° 1* ^ o « rH © -p "^•S a a a S o © ■P ■d Q X) 1 ID J3 m a ©no o i-H '-' fi rH « C cc: •a o ■a -JS a 43 to 1'^ 38 'H:j3 :^i l5:S «'S>o a irt -O fc. o 1^1 & 60 & •H 9^1 Sop J^ • S< U rH a • >» o.— u o f-l o o g5& > © n -p 5 ^.S O m B % m a o si 5 o Ik,--' H n 0 l-t . 1 O ■ B CB 0E< O •H ■•-» n VI c •8 (D •ri O O M s s o t^i •» •§* a u fl •a S^ttS •p "** '*' fH CM •8 o rH CM «»% C ;d :^ f^ O ^ .'So O ^ O^ a 2 s a -^ El S CO «0 . t^ *r4 •P • ■p • ■p • 2 « o a o « o •5 o^-* o^^ o^ — •o a S e ^ o o o e a: ■p ^ a • o c B > Q a El t^ ©95 Q X o +» £S •3 c ^ r-l s B J3 a ^ * H •-» lF"l O A <»%' Z -P ^ a V rH C T i O O U> 01 « 6c « rH ' E e 03 •H J t- O^ ' 1±J O »» C CO 1 a^-< & I «Tn « 105 I 3 t i I |£3 «D •P O • «4 ■ ^ •«> • -A 4» o o • B m c ar>- s Vl Ot VirH a m * ^- -, :5^g ^ll 9 B B tsf ti a*« a. 1 o Q 9 H t-t fH • • 8 S B -« • • ^ a a»-< • O II B B «Ht. (3 es &- IS C S • « iStx 8 •H ?«- Q>0 •Jo -J ^-t B la-' 106 '5 o 1 a •o >:*» . •s ■38 8^2 :d 83 »r\ o 0 1-1^ •, •.■*» ^ o. ta«H a «B a p 0) 0) ««g la •g-s n T) o (4 -H bo o o « o at T) o «•• a •H CO ^ a i-i fS -H •O •o • ♦» > a O.r-1 ■3 « «k^«^- •> o * S> bD (0 ^-^ M bO . ^M-"B 58 d -p •♦* p w e ■*» U » Xi s^ > X< Vi w ^P~ 5 +» ^Sg ^ • en & walgh- Inder & &> & c^ >o Ol •*> a • • • 8*^1 ^ ^ ^31 g-. s|3 ^ reabn tiae cap B B B B«»«-^ S^ B S 5^1 ^ H « »t, •o ja o a Vi a M v4 o o » o vt 5 a s o o & ^ O ^ (4 •k •t •H •pop ji jO rH a » m u pH r-i * ITk >o o .'3 • w • M i-l o ^ M"* ^1 3 to to O •3 *» • •p • P • g « o 53 (B O < Ow OO- • 1 c ^ sll • tlO B B «(-«£-• 3 Q •< es d & IS 3 B B 'S't- 'o' bp B Ti ft fl»i &) 1^: c B B JS*" . s^ •« s s 4» • C •> a ■f 1 O K * • K 1 B £ si «1 a •tC&o ill • & & & & & & %4 ^C ■i'Q C^ >o «* o tn irv M O r;» ri* ■ • d* c>' rt" r;* ill • • il| q a 1 o 1 sl^ o cv o c m B B Jg J^ ^ fi-^ ft iH iH 1^1 «4 o e g ■ m = B 1 B H • 5 t-l r-t ^ ia J3 5^g n 9 rt of F Method eoaratl "^•^ O B ^ M B iH B » •r\ ■ •H v\m ^ 9 U e • iH • Pk « o. rH ** iH •8 o t~ 1-4 2> 9 to to to to ^ • 8 • • B ( B a & :g :S & "a • • • • ^ a a a a ?.8 St |22 II » • * B B B II 1 • « B B B « • op 1 7 «-• Bt' |fQ. ik ■ K • B B B B eg**" 107 I CM 5" 108 § •Ti t-« 4» a CO 43 4> 4» •3 0 0 OS 9 9 r-l ca M ^• (S 4h «-l • 0 B E B B B B s « H •d a Vi a •ri •s-g «H 0 c 0 J3 V4 0 a •g*. ^«H 0 0 ^■s 0 ^^\. >»"^ 0 £ ^ d 0 •0 8 9 iH •d 43 e S »4 ai 0 E B B « B B B B B irt •I 5 •ss 5 a i4 Sw 0 ca Nh^ ^.^ a< <« (L, 0— " •8 C~ «0 ir\ vO cs 0 0 1-1 H 0 H l-l iH iH M l-« • , • • ^ 0 e 0 B 0 B 0 J » ss as as 43 • Q • • • • «•-< •^ a a a a O-' "S « s 9 ^ a 9 9 • B B B B B B B 0 i > 43 ^ « 43 0 Q ti E-i 0 c^ a CO CM •> 0 0 ^ £§ 0 "O g 8L CO vi 43 3 •rt 43 «> (4 43 B B E B B B B l§ o 8 s "89 •8 •A H I. «e II I 109 t i s I a 5 & 110 7B -3 CO « c B B « PEi S 1 •H 79 & & & &> s^i <»> «n •>♦ M »4 • « 0 0 0 0 a3l • 0-^ m a 0 s^^ l.^ Sh— ' • tot — > l»1 c B tf W tH CO rH ja n «-t a jO - •ri 0 0 a &u -H a> rt of Uethod eparat H Vi m B B •8 ■H CS h Fh Oi a» PU, •0 •8 0^ 0- 0 S «0 a d JO 1 BB ■ s B a a ^.g ?J ;ij| ■P K ■ B « H t4 &• Q o 6 iK So • B B o^r- • •MO CO 49 O 9 5 •3 ^ ■ ■ B 8 B 8 B B B 1 £ o "&& OS o &> & & {!> b> & &> & &> ONB «0 B • 0^8 • OB • «*>B • CM 8 • O^B • Ob . « H 4»t-» iH fH O O B <«> rH »H o ol U3 s* (0 • o^-* "•1 Vl « ** S- e -p o K B E 8 B B B B B • 3 8 q 04T4 H 3 uj Pk— ' t» loe of edlng 0.rH » B »-| C B 8 § 8 H « e Cm CO ^ ^_^ •8 J3 rt of Flsl Kethod of operation ■ Jfl B f-«'-x 8 88 8 B '-^ B 8 II 1- :;1 5 -88 -35 8 • »4 Ok •» »4 35 ^& W •«-» o o 1 S g 51 81 rH • • « • • m o • O 'P B ■** o B £ B o 8 i « *^ •& s a X 1 a • r-l a t liT CM f ■ B B B B B B B B ^HH II « B B s B « C B B • H^ 8 H 12 ■ • B B B • B B B 'C'j*4 0^ UN ,J5*« 1 111 4 rp? 112 4» O 5 9 -^ • B B B m & s ja u qM bo o eaten of wei enalnd fe^ & & & t»\ • s QO B CM B C<\E u • +» o • • • • i-l O.I-I H f-l CM 49 a tlO o CO • O'-^ B a 9 a -H H 0 0 9 J§ (D p. B B B a i «a »4 4» liM— ' c* M l -P B b:;^ B 49 e SL 5 S»2 O r-l i <9 i B ^a. B • 1.S •P H El 49 B B B CU « o Q CO 1 a a ss S.5 0) J<) •rt C C B S j3 a m a> a i-. CO E^ ^ o ^ a » -P jQ o tiu e i-t c ^ O vO r t^: >OnO C B O «rv 0) 0^ o w ^ 1 1 +» ■p o o « O t- • Q t- C-i to CJ *-i Q eg Oh tCl ^ w » rH • « c 9 <-* » m 9 bO bC O -P D O 4» 3 fl Ol <; fl « << 10 ■p l-t 3 CO ■p +» o o c- o a 9 O 4h «0 (D O ^ i-H c c O OK o +» C (3 81 j:: u, 43 U) V ^ ^ -a c «> c (D ^ -H •P "^ (U u a> o 0) fe b ^O & tb t. t- O • c O • « • lO r-t t- •-* ::::! O • 1-4 c -p i bo -H • • • lO • iH o .-H <-• i-t 1-1 ® o a • 03 C /-v a W -H C t- •H U U U lO a 5 «> -P (0 g O. i K c o • e s t, -P O iH i fc^-' CSJ bO a «> <« -H e 0 -o (O o B «) o 1-1 ■ c 1-1 r-l t c t-H iH iH X (0 %-i C .H O O [O a. .^^ • •* -d -p CO c« O aJ rH •O r-l O X tn o r-l +:> 05 + (o o « s h B B ■P £ 4 0^ CO • f-l 1-4 ri -O « «a CO lO 3 O n ^ fH <-H iH i-< rH -P ■P rH 1-1 44 E O bC • s o « O rH fc ^ P » &B is u s ^ ol «D C CM V V (C O •p a j«! • iH a-fj^ hocn 3 O a e e c s ^^ ■H • d -P 1 to to c « e • • O X ^ f.-c S ho a o rH C »4 O! (D Ix. rl O c •H ►-; O • « c s 9 I-. Vl lO 05 (a <^, O CJ> t- CO 1 11.3 114 1JKJ ^15 4> • •♦» • s? 8gp t:^ iJ'* 8?? • ■ 8 B B 4* ■*» 1 l§ m • Is B B s^ SIS «!1 Z o 8 & b & & &> & r^S o t- W\B «0 B • i«f ^ B B 3 B B H J> in S^g <-* art of F Method raparatl 1 •a 9 ■ • 1 • B a*tttfi^ Pm 1 3 f" 3 H • •*• • B 1 :8 * ^2 sa £ T , • ^ « ai "8 fi a a a CM Date Tin Tak if a ss i'^ a ^ ■rt • XI a a "H K El CO to «S« g r-i C .H rHO ^«^ Ro^ ■ 8 E B C »4 ^4 a 00 o CO «« 5 i •f 4* ■** 5 1 i ii 0 1 ^ « 'g ^ 1 § g a as s 1 «-S>j J1l lb & & <«! • • >o CM CO ^-1^ CM c- • • • l-i c r-i iH t* iH ^1 «3h -ri •-• 1 & H • "•■^ •o s •ri a s 1 1 — 1 B m « ■ ■ • &4^-' 4» 0 •J 9> « 0 1 34 H B • a ■« 3 H • J4 >M 0 1 1 ^ 4* ■s 1 a £0 s. • 5 c 2 Hj, S • • :3 © «*» "S <*\ •»» 1 8 /-«» S^ i^ H s s% H 54 CM • » H •»»H -•« 4»H M 5^ 5^ • ^." 01 ^11 4* e B « a 9 H H 0 0 0 <*> ss t 5-3 c e 8 ■ ZB H >■» • o • • H • O O B • H • • ihs I H H aa inoe are) 1 1 1 reahne tiae a eapt »5 s s B B B ■ « ^ B r^ >o ^O TiM of Feeding S B K s C B H ■ § B L e Part of Fia & Method of preparation OUT) S g o K 3 B ^3 1** B 1 B B 1 c^ iS ♦J SJ^ *c 4* H ■♦» ;$t 1 ^1 't £S ■4» ii ■? «•' ■t • i8 te and TlM Taken ^ il B = B B s B B 8 1 1 s CO S^ g 2. 2-3 •H S s e E E C B B ■ « H rial No. Length f Flah 8 tf\«0 ??J S c s C E S B B B IJS'^*^' ! • 1 t 1 116 f 1 3=" 8ll b s • o O^ ^ oi • Q.IA O • H CO f3» O i d 9«K « o 8* 1 ^ jl S6 m t* •A J3 • ■5! lisl •¥ (• 8 0 M •o o di-- NO » 117 Ufi 1 1 . . • 1 ^ o ^■nt ^iiH !i 5 1 O -P Ma's S 4» 1 r a £ ^^•^ o « o « O -O i-< M 8 e iH s*4& $n NO & & & t fsl • J?^ * r-l :j • Us CM ©-— . u o s^d o ca -p to p^^^ a «r> 9 ais-s ;^ = |> ■ s ■*> e-t • iH fl P>4 r-l g J3 a ■H O O >-' ■^ . '^ 1 3 S Pi 'A II B 1 >♦ VN f\ nA 5 3 1 «0 (V «0 i c! c f-i ■PH 5^ •p • a *o "^.^ c^ ty 0 m 9 \ "i • & e o ff> ^ o l| s s s C 1 , » 1 I ! 1 1 1 ! i 1 : 1 j EMS ! ! i 85 t g^ "8 • t 1 1 ■P • i 1 p 8§ j 4j S? ' E s • s • 8g «4t; $n Sk^o & & & ^ to «%i -ia r^' 1-1 H* H* d" ^' all • CO q ■ 1 1 •1 = 1 o •A . »/. o a p I-* iH CM 1 -^ s- ^ ~ 1 fl 1 ^ I 9 J^ a ! <^ ~~1 •H O 1 "o « «> c r-l s H 'P • &• fO 3^^ •g • Sea JO v< o> « «H ^ •^9 2 8v ■ -p •p •♦» '5 11 w^ -P *^ O ^ rH C^ o 8i CM 121 1 1 > 1 It li! 5l sill 5 4* 1 38 4ii 1 8 ■ B • • ■ II V) • 8 iff -SI jsl & & & & 1 1 i & & »^| • • • • 1 1 1 1 i • • H o « B Ui 1 i • reahness tine since capture) O * B B B B 3 s B a 1 lA B ^ 5 l4 JO fc.— ' "O >D nO g B •A W\ a°l ^ B e B m g B 3 B ^ £ CM tv •rl O O col of F ;hod irati • -1 J B •t» • a «0 i-l K B B 8 tt o B a e S*8 <»s d c P< m Cu, % »r> vT B § o O o H s H iH • B • o B m 1-4 a •r f 4 • ai ■ • B £ K 4> a ate and TiM Taken 9. .8 14 C B B B B B B B B o •4 ss 2 J4 »r B C B S S B e B B J3 a cS i^M § U) n i-l O -H qS O w 1 1 *> o « «4 VI a a •3 4» a o 4» 5 s Is a trt t> e B B r 8 a m B 1 S a ?1 ^i\i sll &> & & b & &> & 9 o B B S B CO B d sO B d d Sf B rH r-I • o 11^ ess since tuie) a fl a o iH q a o ^.S* ■ B u B ^ c o o J3 5 •1" «»> «r\ r-i E 5 ^ 4» iH P«4--' r-i 1 Time of Feeding ^ o O ^ s B C ° B 5 B £ B jt mu a •rt O O B-^ Ik. Ti ,-^* ja t of ethod pa rat r-l »^ >.5 B ^•8 "^ o B a 0) 8 -a a a a c a M o ■H r-l ^CJ 2 * P a o o iH rH hS » a t4 a. «» IV, 5J5 B o o •8 cv H « rt Q 00 g at On iH & ts _, , , , 9 O B O B o E O c E 4» ■p z: S5 s; ^ a a 3 o o a a a* a' •a iH « a • O o • 4» O 5^13 P. 00 e c a o S B B c E E c «H^ w a a Sg 9 ** ^ 5"S| 2 -^ e « B B S 2 B E t: g^ SI a • § +» H H a M n 10 &> •8 & S;:J o o a vi Vl •0 o ja »4 »i^ bo CB *04 . O ti •»» S w ^ 87 (0 -P 2I 5 ■p • s eg f4 a< ■» (I4 o S £§ o ^ t- a r-i a -ri i't a> <« o •0 •a a &> a 5 ni^ t? 5 M tj G O 5 •♦» a « »4 i O § ,i -si ♦» Ji4 o fl •H 9 o • a •«3 * ^a ^^ 49 ^ ^ f'g a u Is: Eg.. 1 ^ s ^ •ss, e o o a o ts & § a $5 5S 555 ji u «» U) « •ri 13 (3 S C ^ & & & &> CO ^ S o • o o^ o o o o o « • ff r^ • c • s • s • e ti CV O t~ iH (NJ «f\ «A • « z o ««> <»\ •»> a «>o e ^ c •^ H -H __^ « « CB •H 49 l"l 'o •H o ca o< .W, 3 V o • , — ' c c s s 09 B * o cr\ ><■ » CO rH r-l . -p 4> , O o s O VI Z 9 . -a O -P z z i-l S3 9 ' r-i ■p •p CO ;s S o o "S ■"t 1 a a r^ a a> o .a-s ■p +3 £-, ti t) r S c B (0 O a •P « c •H h « 3 J3 o bo m i-l C -H C- -St OS 0 ^ • a •> (w-p ^ ' 0 tJ a -P 0 a c •»» 0 z ^^ -r* 0 tt» (9 M c a u a - Q> r-J C 0 Wl CI Tl 3 ~t 5» 0 0 n. fl)^ •O C 0 9 ^ 0 ■ • i •H u tlO 0 «: • > S e t o « a a »< o n «> m a o 0 B c c 3 1 S B c C e c .-3 i 1 1 J3 w <^ e ■^ o c •p • 3. CU «il PL. • g 1 .•8 Is s 1 .■8 Si 1 «• r -8 a 3 a B < e fl CB 0 4> e ^ • -rt (0 4» t- H a a 0 "S) 1 ♦> ■ V( 0 a> S5 (H •a 0 9B ■»» a 0 0 "SB, • 0 e c E « :« t- 1-1 c c r I a a V p>4 (D ot) 0 CO 0 t^ ^- = ', c Results o « e s • Amt. eaten * Time of Weighing remainder • 5 Freshness (time since captured) « Time of Feeding i « part of Fish & Method of Preparation a) M 28 o 3£. ID 1 a •p 6 ■p 5 Date and Time Taken • 1 s 8 ^ . o 4> a bo • -^ o o s^g • a -P ^ o S* s a e o S:3 fe-' Time of eeding ^ s B f** SI -— » ^%.g s "S ■'?> of F od o rati ^il £S Part Prepa till "8 o a o^ H o . H o o a as s •p ■p < <3 5 te and Tine Taken a »^ o s a BB o 4» S8 •3 O Jkt rH B es »? n^ § C9 « Ch iH O 0\ . s 1J^^ C^O c^■o^ «.»o 127 128 1 sensation 'e except died h ment In , mild palment i 1 1 a • 5^§ 38- o o •a no* 3 sis •fi O C 4* ill B ||5 |p| 1 l1§ III hi pis. 4'&& 0] & o o «0 & • • • o • o d «0 • o ^ q T a l-l o c '3 s^^ a « a -p <*\ 14 o ^•S* o B B e B B B &J, ■ BO 23 5 Om'-' r^ o s ^ r^ a g 5'^'g s C C B B B B .1«£^ H n J3 t •H o o 1-1 .•8 58 5*^ •H 5 fl •1 eu •» a. ^ R 1! a 9 • o • H 4» r- f-1 •P •P 3p 1 s o • V4 J3 • 4h ^ d 9 z o « B M O • E M . M 3 4» •p Z iH •a Z rH •C O -n Z h 1?! ^ 5 a o S ae •S a ?S moo •P 6-« H ^3 c e B B B B a Q o sg •p "3 51S c e B B C B s en •-» fo^ »r» i^^ § a> bO 10 «a ^^ C -rt !> 00 _g«^ ^ (^ E B C C e C tH V4 O^ OJ 1 © oa o to Oh \© o 5 — I u o ^' JOhI (4 c « • « -t^ 14^ Sis «d CD ^ o a 4> o 5 S'SS 1 l^s & ^i\i ■H -tf eaten of we remain & r-l •P 8 M •.^> g ^ & o a ■*> reshn time cap tn-^ ? 1^1 § en • O Cm d 4*^ cs vt a « •HOC rH t of F ethod pa rati a^ .« •o o h a o •rl O «8 >< PL. •« ». "8 a O C3 H O i ts •»» c a ^ o •O a a S « « CO .)S13 • *» H H > a o a s ■♦» £S •3 fl> ,M rH A CO a S E-> •-J • :g:S^ B o bO n rH fl -H t^H „^^ (4 U4 ONOi (U aH O (0 5 a - I 5^a O CD 4> a B o e ^ &, & o (3 o - fi CB • 0 a M ♦» t< t-« a O V4 35 » o ^ S5 O fl o o o i3 O - fl U o» O •4» 3 •^ • O 5 fi R? '3 • O J K K B B a o •♦» • o c- o Bi BOO ^ »4 •8 60 • tH •Q S«l & & »4 & &> a «H 6 0)0 0 t>- >* to 0^ tr> »< • • • • o o i-t o c« f^ 'p a u> B -^ B < t-> -ri »-t • — ^ » e S ST35 n 1 o ^ B s B B e ^ ><• »4 4S Ch'-' M e -H Q a^S 3 C B B B H e rH Ei4 n 44 B •Sh'S ^ •HOC » • •^•s^ ^8*5 8 s H rH o|8 ^ ••8 a. ■P o S. 5 c :;J« il h a o ^S fr. C« pL, s •H n "S r-i Ct CN CD «0 CO CO o • • ■*» • • 4» o 1-4 O 4* A O -P :S^ s fl Z Vi X. M S «4 .»- 1 « • iH •a « t c a o ss •d C M <-i E B S B d a 9 K Fi •-» *l,-g rH 0 nH § C c = ■ h ^ O^ O aSJ O W ^1 a +> 8 O ^ •< cl O '3 a 5 X •ri J ^ ^ € 9 3 e o ♦» H 6-« « M ^5 ^ o ja z; +» JO ..8 CO OJ 131 I e 132 • 1 ■g .o s 3 §a> 1 "^ .1 s ml !«^ *> wo • II a V p2 E?^ 8 1 i^ §1 s 1 sU 33 ^^ 1 212 t -SI H eaten of we enaln bi o • ■ • B • • 4> •+»>OQ H Ol 2l m MoV ®^-» u e S^3 e a -P time cap *.^ u to ""S Q II i B B B B 11 Ik« •fl. 5^§ of F hod rati s fS « » •■8 Part & Met Prepa c^s ^■ fS as t^J-g ::5 3 ^ o 5 58 1 3 • 49 4»ni;t 4 2 < ^2 a •p'&S a o 8 J^ ■p B B B B « o a o ss ♦3 •H 5^ 5 C B B S * f4 ^ • 0-4 "^•g rH a*J3 ■«» Serla & Le of P g S B B C I & sai Ms* ^u a •H o o •POO. 0. a» a. 8 • S o ^ ■ a H a -H CO Q h « a» O W cn H »4 ^ 8 e^ o 13E &) 5 .•8 S § 3 ^'t 133 114 1 1 O "O 0 O X 0 5 " B, o a o a> rH Vl 2 B rH ^i g .^ 5 1 I|1 B -P X3 s 6 s o o o s O Q a> O -P rH «4& ** tj ss^ b, & ■^9 8*81 • o • u nO C>i i-t 43 I tlO 5^5 'm a o n -p u ^ « « K Si jr b>^ U 1 fen . 4 1 ^ e §1 A ^'^g i vi 5 a •POO. Wl •o o H » « 01 o o o Ss & fe»2 ja ^ (L, <>3 a< u •g CD c^ H C3 O^ o^ » «f\ r-l o • -P a s O Vi o E a e H •H ■p rH X> Q a ^ "* u 53 •o B a ir. a «> «> e >; 9 « -H «9 P* c +» e< t-> o a s o ■p o a tI b • y S -^ iH c g^ ^ ^ o ^ S5 +» ^ § & tU) IS O^vO a 03 - CM 1 CO t 4f a to I- vO o in 43 ^ '"t-i CO 4-1 B ^ o q 43 © p. us p a fri &• 4 Ck a a a (D o 43 E-i t-i 0 fl (h O ^ a O jC Z -P X! (to a rH C -rH hH hJ ;^ vi O jij o «S o (D O JO O en s I »r? • c- n^ S) iH O -H ? .*li ist a> a2i o 135 § r^ s o « 136 <■ 4» O fi^?5 Vl cr> ® '-' ^ bO s e B B O -P 9 c «•< 43 O 5 ^ ^ S o B B B B OS a 1 <«'9i« eaten of «el remaind o ° & & & & iAb H B • US 81? a 1 reshness time sin captor ?^ o c B o B ^•^ I-) ft M) sO vO S5 - a ~J^ «^ •R O « «a s B uoi 8 E-i O 0 0 H ^ < "< M rH CO vt a a vt ja *H O O a o a of F hod rati o si B Part & Met Prepa 5i e B 1 o •8 CM <»% to m o O o E3 1-1 .5 tH rS i-i • , s o bo o 6 o e i •r »=^"C Si as ^ a a a •O NO 3 4> S Ci iS^« too B B B B •P (-• El Q 5S Q a ss & S -'^ ■rt e B B B £d ^ i^^ g —^-^^■^— — bo a r^ a Ti tOvO ^r^ c E B E 14 fn O r^ O oit o CI ? ! ! i f ^ , ! . 1 w^ i ;t ■p a ■p u suits s ? s c B E S S s ^,4^ *4 IJ gS| K ti, & 23 &, ^ &> &> d tOc d «0b • rH rH rH B d rHB d ••> a 00 • — » •ri o • 1 o CO s^& a 9 m ■*» q S i^ c B E •3" e B o a 3 O^ rH U *«*-- Pi 4 CB td) r^ • 5 O^ o -<• i ^^•8 g c B g B B S E P E-« O H rH r-i c f*4 1 ji a V4 a o ^ o o ol of F hod rati to • >o • 5 -^8 ^E? °l 5 ■P o S. ^:: e E ■^ a B « B CO r-4 • \X> o •0:^ &> pLi e8 0, rH -* o 1 "g «a vO r- »r» NO 00 3 £3 ~4» co 00 to ou rH •4 o « • -p B o s 3 O t)0 o B o E O Vl o B t-i 5 s s a* s a ■a fi vO a 0) « CM Q S M ® Ti a o O B B B B B B E •»' H El OS g)r^ Q «< a sg s. 2 •« •H e C B e B B B MS cS •o* , c^ :g:3^ g a> ds ea tX) H C -H to vO fi «8 ® frj O • B C B E B B E ,au 137 diarrhea Vl o o c B 1 a ca B o (D O c B B B B Ant. eaten & Tine of weigh- ing remaixKler ON . o d c o d* • e r~B • o O B d" o • B Freshness (time since capture) •7? c B B B E B B c B Tine of Feeding N ■ e o ITS B iH S B H B Part of Fiah & Method of Preparation r-l U r-i 1-1 B raw flesh (from dorsal side of head) C 11 (from dorsal side of tail) B cooked flesh (from dorsal side of tail) E (from dorsal side of head) B •8 10 I < O O bD a o o • -a t ST. a B U) CM • -P O Vi E "S) CM O V( T a«J5 4» ■a " t • -p .2 "is Date and Time Taken •P O CO c e B E c B B B B Whore Taken a a. •H (3 B B B E B B B B B 55 a o Ti .J u in ) u •r-\ o g o a =3 B B B B = = E B •= CO i CO a> rH ■p •t -r' n §^ 1 < s ■p ■3 (1) B C C •g-^ h 5 t t w 41 « a & g •a S 5 «H 13 r^ gg5 fe^ &> |4 & & sf B • O B B B «%E r^ B O^ o Q> O r, • • B • B ^ »4 * O •» O w 1 139 J 1 1 1 1 1 •♦» o m a> 4» t^ •3 ^ c C e B B E c n § .M*^* eaten of wel emalnl &, |4 b &> t)0 •»* o O »rN o u • arH m K • e B • B O^ <• 9 rH O CM 1-t B • B CM B ^ a DO W H ^S5 • --^ en ^ O 1 a> o -p tine cap B tt B B a E B B li.^' o a^ Time of eedlng CM •H *iS ^St? g-s C ^^A B B «= B ■ fo CO (0 U-( *€ ^ a ▼4 o o ■^^TJ XJ ^-- ja ^^^ n «H na © o— » ,>-^ •o t of etho para (D o at ^•1 4h r-l J3 vi a e C © Ti B •Q XI O 11 WO a B 'O Q O © O © J3 B ^ "O • 5^ ,>4 >H © s-s » -H 3 r< "O 8'^S 83 CJi O M •H Oi oil Oi S 09 o n ' — — ' •8 v\ >o tr\ >* n s S S 1^ •J o c o • c> B o' B i X as s a 1 a a a 91 0^ •o r-l c a m -H (0 tufn c B B c C e C •P t-< E-i 0) CJ CB w Q « (0 jB •owe 2 -^ c B B B B B B J3 a 3 O eg 1^ a » t< o ^ sa eo M O jO a -p J3 bo «a s ■^ a -H «n o (0 O fc, ^ ^ B B B B B c E O^ CM V o<) o w 3^ 1 m •S15 •d rH e e a> B ■f» 0 ta^ TJo K "Ori •0 1 ? • B B 1 0 a «4g wi'O S%A &> & fiL ut iH rH OJ e d d d • « 49 1 M u • 5? o'J 1 S59 a> 10 -p ^ o*J Jia,S- a s u • B B 0I 0^ ^ i B B B P fr4 0 0 c fcl CO i A s 5^§ X! 0 ■^•s^ 0 5 o|S d 2 •«> 0 S. 1 C B B JS Ci oH (V, 0 •8 0 s ca 0 21 «0 f-^ • • ♦ g i («• *^ a H «l 25 1 li »x 0 «-i o a 4* c «-i • o • >» •H rH 1 a • ■P Sg-8 t) o « « -1 p. II 4* 1 •P 5 1 •p 1 & :Ssr^ § s (S § •>*$l 1 1 41 "€) 0 gsl 1^1 & & & b & g8| 8^1 & ^ CV . U V ^ V • § * ft J^ 1 B q S « n -p ^ o a B B B B CO Map 1 1 sr c»\ 1 |Sm«— 1 &«'-' u> "t t» Time of 'eedlx B B m e 1 1^ or- 1 M 0 Pt. r-l ^ . »H xi 5"S§ 1 % 9 :5^g Part of F & Hethod Preparati ft g 0 0 1 tH 5 ^ ■P €) 8. 4H 5 •0 1 vi ^ 1 i-tfH s |U ■8 0 "S Q C3 fH CM • 0^ to g g B • B C • o ri 9 S 4» « C B 4» o , .2 D H fl & B B to « Ills 4» . . t R 5 1 1 B o u C •o h Vi ssl-g 4» B s ''iiir « « ^ 9 •rj •H g i-t •o rH a n g^ «4i; 5!l NO • o • • B • B OJ P.H B rv • Hb CM Oi o* rH o* 43 i as ^ »^-. o • o n -p rp C9 la 5 B «4 t!2j B B B B B B s 2:3 Dm*-' 9 r » J3 o • ^ • o • o • o ■3eS ^;^ B B B 4» »r» B B +> o ^ 1 c?^ «'^ &^ ■S VI a ja ja w4 O O « m Part of F & Method Prepare ti ja M 5 9 8g t^ d^ C- N r^ ?l B «1 B 2l B '3 S X CM P e B^ 8^ o O "^ n § 1 3 s s 8 C3 H rH H iH H H , • , , , , j £ & £ B £ B O K £ 1 aa* • a ■' • ai M 1 te and Taken 1 1 2? i B ■ • B B ■ B • 9 o to ss & e M •H B B B B B B c ss cS n^ a ) (-1 C -H ChO « W Pm % • B C B B e B c 1 IJ-^M ON o e oti o : to 143 ' 8 144 o o ^ (D a 9 u a ^ o o o|E PU e8 CU "H s a e S o>S IS ■♦» t-i H (0 Q MS =5 -d-*! bo a rH C ^H CO O h CO \«J 8 8 to 4» U 5 45 •3 ^ B n S5§ , a> a -p lis" K S3S fc.'-' 00 (D 1* "8 5 o "8 Ufl e E-i «> 0 Cu CO xi mtno ^ o o Ik4 "rt t Of ethod pa rat ^ •88 B Ti5J usa 9 a u TJ Pki 00 a. •8 a C3 ^ H , « 0 B I tB 4 a ^sl ^ a> Ti m •p B *» (H fr. £• «o 0) Q CO S8 1 « M •H B £S cS -'ts s 0 r-t a Ti go B Ih V) ov c^ ^cao 145 fczn a • an, 146 41 OB V J?! 11 8? hi £8 a 0%) o CO 4> J tOH • I O M g ■** OvO 5 . "SI • m CM 2 I I -■ ■Sg' •H VtO 5 9> o NO I i J 1^- i i i \ 1 no effect ■ li a rH O 5 5 • O fl •8 . **»o »T1 iH 0 B ■»» 3 rH «H r 'i --■-■-— 1 f ■- -.■■■■ -- ■- — — \ 4-8)& :; t. eaten ■e of wei g reoalnd 2.0 gr b fe &> & o ft • H en • H 5^ 5S5 • -N O 9 " R a 1 reshn tiae cap X* « B B B 1 ^- 1 Time of eeding •-I K C " B Pm A ID ^ 0 •H O O ■^•s^i 1 ^1 8 1 •8-g art Met ropa B M O B B ; PL. Jk •r*. t: s t. s ^^ i! '-« No. th JS H M « -^g •n OvO c Cx *€> • B 1 • t-* , >0 tsj j v< O »r\ a> aS o t w ; 147 0) T3 43 Isg a vt a ^ o o o|e -POP. P4 •» IV, •8 a « o •»» H fr« »4 e \^ 148 CO O Ox 0) oil o •g;:! vO O 5 •5 1 1 a 1 111 ill Freshness (tise since capture) Time of Feeding • 1 Part of Fish & Method of Preparation • m o 1 •8 a H t 4 i 4> « Date and Time Taken i it 1 .s-* D m o g SRvO 5 -a : s •p a c is --s^ 4* a 1 ■ ■ ■ B |3 HI? 1 1 a 3 B ^ 8 J at s «ii ; sn fee «^ & & & & & b & £2) i s^l . 0>Q f, , Os • <^. •0- • •^.^ l-lB « >Or ^* ! CVi-f i r-J «»\ o CM M o o rl r^ * i III ! s i ---'■■ 1 1 I •'-s { i r^. -„. ...- " O • 1 t 1 |ll| 1 1 ;■ 1 • t ■ « • • e . m « N^ |4 § B B B 8 B B K H 8 rt f-< r-t Iki S^g 1 a ID "^^^3 ll C^ 5^ Part of Prepare .3 B •si B 1 S; B «3 B •r £ .M XI «^ ;:i r 1 *^ — _ a ^U S; ^ » fil P • B • B , B , B H S o o o o O B SB SB » i "3 ai i te and Tine Taken a • B B B B B B B 1 o to S8 8. IS B 6 B B B B B c o jq B -P J3 § tap a f-l W-rt S *^ S B B B B B B E <^t^» (t> <« o 01 ? o $ I a s I 150 3 & is 1 • 5 1 B 1 |13 Sop • O (M • Freshness (time sinoe capture) Tine of Feeding 8 CO K Part of Fish & Method of Preparation B "8 m i 1 • si ■ Date and Tine Taken • CO C II B Serial Ho. & Length of Flah O^ ITS B •3 to « ^ ja au a •H o o o S 4> e 8. O4 itj cu 5 II P 5t a> aS O CO . o a •s o 153 4» ■p o o • • u c M u 1 0) 9 9 8 s i 1 B ■ ■ ■ B B B B i 4. *4 •8^0 |1| 6„ & b & b b & &. & t 1^1 rs5 d3 d» d- OH • O d' o r4' H Us 688 since ture) ^ 3 ^oS* >r> B « o B iH B B B Er -* WN ^ »M>-' rH «-• M O 0 2 -O S S Q ??; ^1 S B e S C H B B S B ii Bc« j3 B^ a ? •H O O art of P Method reparati Olf fH X B B 0 o Jl B CM >Q H E B B s CM 11 rH J3 J • a CO bo 8 PLi as ». °^ ^t^ "c = -c t O >o ^ «3 a> "P 0^ 4» 0^ •*> 0^ 4> ^ 1 • 4» ^2 -:§ ■? • 4» ■t ^:§ B^ o^ 'I t ^ ai a :a a a n < • S! 1" |g «S CO B B B B B B B B B O J3 B -P XI bO ■ S] fH O *» fl 7 a o r- vi CM Vl pS a m ■ B «*\jb o r^ *» B %4 O --P 5 i-i H CVVl a d a B C C n a a * s 8? S5§ q a a a o Q a a -p (^ ^ a B o 5 « 5 • 2:3 o o fr."-' ri r-l ^ td) S '2 ^ ^ e a 00 a o o o O H -"^ 4> fH • • J3 • v« 9 O C O bO o a 5 s '^t a rH ^ , , ai a a >£> •o cv fl c a a a • ro»o -, s -^ f -HO 9 -H n ■»* e-« H g-fiig C c s CO ss a s-a S: . B c e £d oS « *!)■§ =1^ rial Len f Fi i o 6 ss C c B ! cS* ° 1 1 155 1*^.1 156 1 •P 13 O OD -® O tj ^ ® n . o i-t ■P •p fl •P o o U •> <2 4l *• ,s ^^ oo o^o t-i H »H ■H rH ■>ii ill ^t> & & & & & 1^1 Oi o « ''^ "^ o •>* • e ^.g * B d MrH O o O O rH rH • o S •p a bo •^ fl a o a S^^ a a o a 4^ »f\ ^o o S.i •Tk Vf\ r^ t c B •r S 5 5 fe^-- N Ol C^ ^g* v4 M> sO o n e c ^ B i-l r-l rH t-> (^ A «)«4 c •HOC &u -H irf •O H ,*-^ of thod arat d g| J3 ■M. <\ »< ^ c CQ c ca j>^ o o B ■POP. 0) (0 M r-i O »4 a « «n > -rt (k-l Cm O O »4 ^ vO f-l .n o o o o r^ r-i l-t iH • , , fl o e O c o C E a s B5 1 < ■ a a •O e^ fl C Ol (0 o o o .^•g iS e c B B E •P H H 3 rH -• a &, ^ (^ •H .^ (H 3 p t. o o ^ : 1 8 U S \^ •s • •*> 'SR S 4» |Si 9 O O *» 9 1 *>* m^ s o ■*» a o 5 5S 1 - K c B \S?J c 1 s^ ^i\s |?l & &> H, &) & s^i •§ ■ • B ^1 OfH O o o J^ o 4^5 •^-^ q a 688 Slno ture 5 1 time oap cr\ K irv B rH B ^ 5 •mw o i a S 8 8 D H l-t f^ i-H « , , e tf O B o B o J K B s •^ ai a ai ■a c cvg (D « • «;1 e e c B c ■P f4 H 0 o 4> O ss a II ^d e B B B B -'Is H O -H r\ « Clk, U^.^ o 1 • ^C 1 as I 157 158 irj g o^ • 1 „ o « ^ .s S'l^SJ f^ §P 1 ^:;j §P.« §p5 4-1 r ^ a ^8 4^ t5^ Sg^:g s SJC SR?8 sg; SR? S8? 43 ■♦» •p -p 4> JS ^2 §2 So ■ §2 o S2 l§ ■ 1 St; St; ^ a 8^ §t; St; 1 Tt TS gs^ fe. & ^ & & & & & ■P g * o r4" •TV d' •A in 6^ d* • O O B -p ^ a> a E -^o):;^ B d u • o B W »4 h C ^ P B h »4 f4 ^ 5; ^ fz*-^ H 2 r-l 4> rH « ^ Xi •° «^ s 'Q ^ III C S C s B s B H £k4 ^ ^-N T< o o •g t Cm (NJ o j§^« bOtO c c c e B E B ■p H e^ d o C9 <{ £§ 0 s -^ •H ■> B B E tt e c B .a a ce -p SB H CO w 25 ^ J3 00 m -SI ^ O -H ^ kn O O (x< ^ ■H .-? JS « »M Vh c o otao 03 ^, ~ ( ( 159 •:n a ( CO o i4 • (D » J3 A fl^ a^ t) g':;^ bo (4 a 9 t< ca S n (D B 58 B •< o «< o ® B K53 ja o •O X 8 ^^ S=^53 B fcl^i-g B B ■ t;i S8? B >t to 55 a B <*s B • 5 a ■ B 4* «H 5 s 1 5 j 1 B l2 m m .1 3 • B 1 & & ^ &> & & & 8 c S ".S NO >n o t^ O H o H iH iH iH .H* o' B B •P S bO 88 ince ure) If ^ o ® O ■♦' 0) B u% u reshn time cap J3 » IB r-i m >rt Fa e B U -P (4 O »4 B k Bm«— r-l tj 1-1 2 a x> «M bO l^ g fc r-t §'S r-\ B H e O r-i C B iH 0) t-i h* ca vi a ■§ nH o o ,s of r hod rati H »4 9 o ^^ • O • 8 •♦J (D "^ ■H B 03 c • CM a C •V o n 5J* S C^ iH t-i f> (D 00 Ol, eO Ol, H ^ £i d :3C •g O^ ca 1-1 •< «r> >0 p> r-l o 0^ ON H • , , , 9 O e o e o S o i BS ss SB ac c 4 S* a 39 a IgS CO cv o • ^•3 K e e K •P H H i^ sg ^•s •H • c CD -P C c c c e S ii W CO O J3 s -p jd . bfi a ^ H a -rt vO eg 0) Cm ^ T^ -' X c h Cm U o i ffi -a O •-* 2S CI M 1 1 i / r 1 s HFl Results 1505 1030 Aug, diarrhea 29 listless, hair fell from head " 1030 Aug, 29 diarrhea listless, hair fell from head, dead at 1530 1030 Aug. 29 1510 diarrhea, hair fell from head B 1 q h 1515 1030 Augc no effect 29 dead u B gll ■P B « •p e bo O H 1 OH to d* r-i r-H B Freshnosa (tiae since capture) c l: 1 hr 15 minj before rigor mortis Time of Feeding B 9. B r: Part of Fish & Method of Preparation r-i m i-t e flesh, not mixed with fishmeal e e 1 CO — ♦ C-) JB CS. B lis ■ 1^ B 1 ■♦» 4» 4» 4> 5 12 M ^1 1 ■ s s c O •3 SA^ B R* 5i ^-^ § (D &lg ■ lis §g ?1 §3 s Jtu 111 fe^ & fe ^ &. &> & & ill CO ^° °R3» • B • B NUT* • O B B H CMg^ o HH r-l O^ :^3 1 • a ■•> o O reshn time cap f^ ^ ^ B ^ B B B B B Bt.*-" rH 1-1 II s B S B B B ^-^ B iH H '^IWJ HBm ja . /— s of Fia thod of anition to H 11 1 d Id >«. M »« J B B o B "H. B Part & Me Pp«P CO • 5c d liS •8 a C» 'tf w> ^0 o o <^ 0^ a» ^ * , , • M o B o B o B o B 3 K R BB R < aa a* a ai te and Tine Taken ^ i^ B ■ B B B B B m < Q S6 i« s -^ •H • B E B B e B c X3 a CB ■*» R H CO CO CO |4 VI O o «<* o ^ i 1 1 s u 00 |0< . 4> ►k •) o rH a «> e ■^ 2 e ui K ■ *5 r-1 CO f-4 a • o •«* a Tt iH a ^43 1 r-i B s B s a rt oS S & s B »«4g •H TJ S8^^ ^O & u>o & QOO & . eat e of rena NO B • O B c^ h' US x» (« !? b ~> f4 41 a -H a «t. • n ■»:> «n ^ ^2t J 2 « *^2t B B B ca S o 5£i 5^1 ^Z ,m5 cv * 4h to •TV l^ & B 8 trt II rH f-i B f^ Cx XI a Vi a ^.^ H i ^•g Part of Fi & Kethod o Prepa ratio » J ^ B H H 5*2 B n *<> »4 B «- » «4 5ul c iH P;M €-41 r-4 "8 CO C3 a 00 H , , , n o B O o B J ta ss » ^ a a a* ■O n S3 o te a Tim© Take rrs ei^ B B B B H « fl a h o ^•s r C B E a: E-< ,S5 »t« 3 O 9> Ee, :A o^ tH J J3 «4 (H o o © c« O Ci ^ 1 163 •»» o • V« Vt « ■ 5 s s ^ 53 B B Q B o a •H & ;^ S ku « M • sll & & & & 1^1 o^ c^ o >o • • • B • o • B o CM fr*^ ja 1 ,^ 044 0 «5J 1 iri o o cu t of F ethod pa rati 1 ^8 A .M '^o.'*'^ CD B 3 B »c u H X] s»s «^ a 5 (L, ctl (L, •H f-t d "8 n C3 Nf >* CO iH • • • • a O O o o B 1 s es s s C a* a «* a 1.S «o • a-s tCf\ B B » B •t?fr« H S"-" •< S8 a • M ^ • C c B B fg5 JS w o Jd »t;,-g d o H O -H ^ '-< 1": o o © oa o CO 5 = I 9 O Q & f^ • a « a o l-i Pm Pk at) a. 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CO d 5« » O Vt E2° S^ •8 Nf •TV vO 9 1-4 S a r-l . , • . 9 o C O o B £ B i ss as as as T m • a! ai t> "a fl i-t • CO • o .^•3 ■P Q C c B B B e •P M H e o 9 CO a o fl £ S ^ Vl 4-) S. © M a e «•« nH B B B B B e &s C ffi O CO ox: rial R Lengt f Fish o OvO O B C c B E c «<« o d Z OOJ 1 CO 1 » o e 1 "8 11 4* ••* s 4» A |1 II 1 4» IfS o 1 .3 a § 1 •>ii 1^2 • o b b & b 2 IS CM H B B lis M a^-N sli i:i ^ B B a a o iH K • O -H h -p Pm^-* 2 "S s S K B B as i-» H Vi< jQ ja • a a vt d ID (Q •o O •HOC • -H ■H'-. -o »-^tj '^"i •a •fi^H art of Hetbo repara •ssl c: .t' ^3 A« »4 ■*» u B '1% §3^ 8 ^ 0. 4 a. ^ 3 s i o ^ e> H H H 1 i « i B • I ai m » p- ■ -B a rM ta a Time Take B c B m S CO SS 13 s B B C 1 No. ngth ish ;:? a i'Z o '3" c e B c O a8 O CO 5 a O^CV 169 s A t: • . - ^^ 1 ; V* . 5 "O ! 8 4» 4> Vl 1 1 B B B V4 8 » s P to « «> P^ , , , , M £ B o o o 8 J fis ts SQ K < a* ai ai :• t«- l.s H sii il B ■ B 8 a •P S-. 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C vH OS (D (X( ^ •?! a) c« o s •P o 8 *H I 13 O o >« o sal* .8 1934 Report of an Investigation of Poisonous Fishes within the Jurisdiction of the Saipcm Branch of the Go'vemment-General Foreword I was recently ordered by the South Seas GoveimTnent-General to undertake a study of about one month's duration of the poisonous fi^es within the area under the juxisdiction of the Saipan Branch of the Government-General, I was not competent to undertake such a task, and of course it hardly need be said that it was Impossible to settle such a great problem by an investigation covering such a limited period of time, however, I did as I was ordered without considering my lack of qualifications. On September 17, 193/ ? I sailed from Yokohama for Saipan, and I returned to Tokyo on October H of the eama year. About two weeks passed between the A*ecoipt of my ordora and my departuro and during that tiir.3 I endeavored to as- semble reference material concerning the investigation, but all I could find was the "Report of a Study of the Poisonous Fishes of Jaluit" by Dr. Ryuichi Hatsuo of the South Seas Government-General's Clinic, Perhaps it may be said that there T?as no other literature on the subject, My investigations were mainly centered at Saipan for the reason that at Tinian and Rota the facilitioa for such a study were lacking. The period of the investigation was during the rainy season and day after day there were in- numerable rain squalls,, The sea was rough and the collection of materials and other phases of the work did not go as expected. That I was consequently un- able to execute fully the task assigned to me is a matter for deep regret. I hope that it will be understood at the start that in the preparation of this manuscript it w£s unavoidable that many parts of it should be incomplete and iffiperfectc. If I am fortunate enough to be granted the opportunity I would like to make up for these shortcomings in a later study, March, 1935 Tokyo Imperial University Contagious Disease ?le search Institute Department of Immunology Takashi Tasukawa 189 Introduction and Literature As coEznonly used the term "poisonous fish" has a veiy broad meaning and there is no apparent agreement among the various interpretations of it. I consider it proper to interpret the term as having a general application to all species vAiich have poisonous substances contained in their bodies and which directly harm the human body, rtiether by the contact of their bodies or by the eating of their flesh or viscera either fresh or some time after their death. These fishes f«ill naturally into two categories depending on the loca- tion of the poisonous substances in their bodies. The first type includes those species which take some positive protective action. Their poison is con- tained in special spaces at the bases of the fin spines and is injected into the victim by the action of muscles when the spines are touched. Poisons of this type may be veiy violent, but the flesh of such fishes causes no reaction irtiatever. The second type are fishes in irtiich the protective function is passive. These are the species which are comTsonly called "poisonous fish". If the flesh of these fishes is eaten, poisoning results and in many cases it is fatal. The location of the poisonous element varies somewhat in different species, but it is chiefly found in the gonads, particularlir in the ovaries, or some- times in the liver. For this reason if sufficient care is taken in preparing the fish for the table, the flesh may be eaten without any ill effects. The poison in these fishes is not produced until the fish reaches maturity and is most violent in its action during the spawning season, % orders were to Investigate the fishes in the latter category. Present- day organic chemistry cannot provide any satisfactory answers regarding the poisonous elements in these fishes. None of the characteristics of their com- position have been made clear. Among past studies of poisonous fishes are the following on the balloonfish, which has been known in Japan since ancient times: in 1889 Takahashl and Inoko studied the symptoms of poisoning in animals and investigated methods of isolating the poison. Later Dr. Naruml Inoue studied the curative properties of the poison, end in recent years Dr, Fusao Ishihara made a physiological study of balloonfish poison. Dr, Ryojun Tahara succeeded in refining balloonfish poison and it is employed as a nediclne at present under the name of "Tetrodotoxin." It is not very widely known that among the fishes of the tropics, parti- cularly among salt-water fishes, there are many that are poisonous. The only study of ffich fishes of which we have any knowledge is the 1925 import try Ryuichl Matsuo from Jaluit I. irtilch »a8 mentioned above. For seven months be- ginning in August, 19ZA, ISatsuo utilized his leisure from his medical duties to make a detailed study, but he did not succeed in clarifying the problem. In the report of marine biological researches aboard the special duty vessel KBfshu in the South Sea Islands in 1933 it was noted that "In the Caro- line Islands there are no poisonous fishes except the balloonfish. Fish taken by angling from the ship were eaten, after being identified by the Fisheries Experiment Station of the Government-General, and no cases of poisoning re- sulted, " Dr, Amemlya (1921) has repoz>ted on fishes with poisonous spines. Thinking that the only way I could operate would be to observe the actual conditions in the field and then bring back with me the snterials for ny ex- periments, I took along with me some of the instruments and chemicals which would be needed in the expeidaents. C^N I 1 In the tropics it is particularly essential that dissections of fishes be carried out with the utaost expedition, 190 but because of the lack of asaistance I waa unable to make fully detailed ob= earvatlons. As for chemical investigations of the poison, these could not be done in the field and nat^jralDy changes took place in the materials. This was the most difficult p>oint in the investigation. I wish to express my thanks to Governor-General Hayashi for the oppor- tunity to make this study, and to Mr. Pushida, Chief of the Saipan Branch, and Administrative Officer Kurushlma for the facilities which they placed at my disposal. Sincere thanks are olso due to Technician Yamanaka, Chief of the Productive Industries Section, for taking time from his many duties to give mo guidance and assistance. I wish also to thank Technician Warukawa of the Fisheries Experiment Station of the Wlirdalry of Agriculture and Forestry and Dr. Jfakiya, former Chief of the Korean Governnsnt-Ceneral Fisheries ExperlTient Station, for their valuable advice and assistance in locating the literature on the subject, and Mr. Miyaka?7a, head of the Contagious Disease Research In- stitute, and Dr. Toj-Bma, head of the Immunology Section, for their kind con- sideration, as well as Dr. Hosotani for his advica on the poison experiments. 1, Fisherrnen's Reports In beginning the investigation I thought that it would be a good idea to get the opinions of the fishermen, trtio are in direct and intimate touch with the problem, and then to use the information gained firom them ns a basis for my studies. Throu^ the good offices of Technician Yamanaka I was able to talk with fishermen, ask them various questions, and obtain material for my study. The following are their replies to tuy inquiries: (1) Kinds of poisonous fish akamasu (resembles the sea-bream), omachi. ohiraa.U fCaranx sp.j unagi (utsubo) [moray eel], okamasu (^barracuda], omebarit kuchiku (resembles a black monacanthid) , balloonfish The moray eel is very dangerous and from time to time people die of eat- ing it. There -flere also said to be other dangerous speciea the natrea of which were not known. (2) Habitats of poisonous fish In general fish which live outside the reefs are d&n<;erous. In the cass of the kuchiku. those taken in the vicinity of the government pier and south toward Charankanoa are dangerous, but those taken near the breakwater are safe to eat, it was reported. At Tinian also the fish from outside the reef are dangerous, it was said. (3) Distinctions based on form and coloration It is difficult to distinguish poisonous fishes by their form and colora- tion, but they ar« generally large. It is said that even in a poisonous species the small specimens may be nonpoisonouSo (a) Relationship of toxicity to food It is said that the fish become poisonous throng eating crabs, and some 191 also say through eating poisonous seaTieeds. Some ascribe the toxicity to a weed which grows on the reef rocks. There is no agreement on these points and these beliefs appear to be without any foundation. (5) Relationship of toxicity to spawning Completely unknown (6) Seasonal toxicity There is no seasonal Tariatlon with such species as the akamasu and the mora/ eels. Nothing is known regarding other species. (7) Effect of cooking Eating the fish rav7 is said to produce a comparatively milder degree of poisoning. (8) Differences in toxicity from island to island The akamasu is said to be safe to eat at Tap, Truk, and Palau, where it is the most hi^ly prized of foodflsh. The fishermen say that fish taken In- side the harbor are safe while those taken outside the harbor are dangerous. Administrative Officer Kurushima said that at Palau, Tap, Ponape, Truk, and Kusaie there are no poisonous fish, and that Jaluit has the greatest number pf poisonous species. I began my work with the above' facts as a general basis, however, these were all reports picked up at random ftrom various persona and their origins were unknown. According to Matsuo's report, of all the South Sea Islands Jaluit has the greatest abundance of poisonous fish. Out of about 180 species occurring in the waters around Jaluit approximately 36, or one in five, are poisonous. It is not known, however, why these fishes contain poison. The majority of cases of poisoning result from absorption of poison through the digestive organs. The ^/raptoms are in general like those produced by bal- loonflsh poisoning in Japan. These symptoms vary in severity, but in serious oases there is sensory and locomotory paralysis and death often results. Ihe symptoms produced in dogs, cats, and pigs are milder than those seen in humans, and in chickens they are even less severe, it is said. 2. Ecology and Distribution of Poisonotis Fishes Poisonous fii^es generally live in aohools. They are not found in coastal waters where there is no seaweed on the bottom, and they do not occur far from the coast. South of the governmeat pier along the coast of South Garapan there is a great deal of weed resembling akamo. and north of the Nank7 Fishing Company's pier along the coast of Pontamuchau there is a profuse growth of a seaweed resembling the aoea. The bottom is almost all covered with broken fragments of coral and is white so that it reflects the light and makes the water appear a beautiful blue colore There are coral ridges here and there irtiich have a considerable growth of weed. The fish assemble around these places and eat . No other type of food is apparent in these areas. As for the distribution of the fish, large individuals of such large species 192 as the akamaeu, Q^li-aa.il. and pmachl are almost always found outside the reef, although from time to time they come inside in pursuit of reef- fishes. The moray eels, mebaru. kuchiku. and balloonfish occur in large numbers inside the reef, Morays e^-e more abundant in the northern half of the area while the kuchiku occurs more abundantly in the southern half<, The east coast of the island has a high surf and is dangerous so the investigations had to be confined to the western shores. 3. VieTfB on the Dissection of Poisonous Fishes Method of cpllection. The fish were collected in depths of several fathoms and were all taken with a spear. Consequently the heads or bellies were damaged and this made it difficult to exainine the organs properly when the fish were dissected. (1) Ipachiku Stomach contents ... gravel (coral fragments) only, slight indications that seaweed had been eaten. Gonads iimnatiire. (2) akamasu Stomach contents ... Miscellaneous small fish which were almost completely digested and therefore shapeless. Gonads immature. (3) Balloonfish Stomach contents ... gravel only Gonads ... immature (il) Moray eel Stomach contents . . . Small fish had been eaten but they war© unrecognizable Gonads . . . Some specimens were seen which had rather ripe gonads. In addition to these species some foodfishes such as the muro and the o.liaan (a goatfish) Eerc dissected for purposes of comparison, Huroa.1 i rPecaoterus sp,} Stomach contents ... In most cases the stomach ?ras almost empty. Gonads . . , Immature CUsan (Goatfish) Stomach contents ... f^scellaneous small fish Gonads . . . Some specimens had rather ripe gonads. In general the examination of the ston^ach contents of these fishes showed almost nothing which could be thought to be food. Most of the stomachs were filled with broken fragments of coral and small fish were encountered only rarely. Observations of the sea bottom showed that it was as clean swept as a park and as bare as a desert with nothing in sight which conld serve as food. The relationship between the fishes and the plankton could not be in- vestigated because of the lack of facilities. The season for thn ripening of the gonsds differs, of course, between different species, but in most of* the poisonous species the gonads were immature. 193 J^. Bacteriological Imrestlgatlons of Poiaonoas Flahea The toxicity of poisonous fishes is not due to bacteria. It was, of course, hardly necessary for me to confirm the fact that the poiaon result- ing from putrefaction after death is due to bacterial action, but as I was ordered to do so I performed the following experiment. The materials used were eight kuchiku. three morays, and three balloonfish. As controls three goatflsh and thi^e Pecapterus op. were used, making a total of twenty fish employed in the experiment. The fish Tiers first opened up with a sterilized scalpel and scissors and all of the viscera were removed. A platinum wire was then used to plant cul'=' tures on both Endo plates and agar plates. The cultures were left at room temperature (26° average) for twenty-four hours. Almost no bact'firial colonies were seen in the cultures from the livers, gonads, kidneys, and muscles. The colonies which were seen developed on the cultures from the inside of the intestines. In general definite colonies were formed, ttoen a microscopic examination was made of colonies which were thought to differ, twenty- five stocks were distinguished!?]. These bacteria were in general glossy bacilli which did not turn the Endo medium red. They were Gram-negative and most of them possessed mobility. Few of them broke dovm lactose, and although they broke down grape sugar they did not generate gas. Seven strains broke down glucose. Few of them coagu- lated milk, eight strains liquefied gelatine, and none of them formed indole Prom these results it was not possible to detect any strains of bacteria peculiar to poisonous fishes. After the bacteria were isolated they were cultiMced through fo'ir — five generations (transplanted once every three weeks) on agar slopes. These cultures were used in experiments on representative experimental animals. The fluid used in the innoculations was prepared by floating the requisite ' amount of bacteria from a culture gi^jwn on an agar slope for 20 hours at 37**C. in a physiological salire solution, and 0.5 ml of this preparation was injected into the body cavity of a mouse weiring 12-13 grams. The toxicity was Judged by whether or not the animal was alive at the end of 4.8 hours, i'he fol- lowing table shows the results; Species of Fish kuchiku moray balloonfish No, of Strain 1 6 9 10 13 u Platinum W.re wealc (large) weak (small) weak (large) died died 1 weak (large) i weak (small) lived lived weak (small) weak (small) lived \ all lived 1 10 all lived 1 20 aU lived 194 Thle means that mice died of the effects of the amount of bacteria picked up on one platlnuni wire. There was no detectable difference in the virulence of the various species. 5. Chemical Studies of the Poison It was unfortunately Impossible to obtain the results desired in the im- portant chemical re8esa*ches because of insufficient help in dissecting and handling the specimens, an insufflcieacy of instruments and vessels, and the lack of refrigeration. Pish obtained by the method described above were dissected and the muscle tissue, liver, gonads, and blood were put into separate vessels. Each organ and the muscle tissue were ground up finely in a mllk-bovrl, three parts of pure Tiater were added, the blood was collected in a sterile test tube, chlo- ]«)form and toluol were added to prevent docomposition, and the specimens were stored in a dark cool place until they were brought bacV to Japan, It is not known whether or not this method of preservation was a suitable one. Be- cause of the method by which the fish were taken, they quickly died and their blood coagulated. Consequently only a very small amount of blood coild bo collected. Experiments with this material were begun immediately upon ny return to the Institute, but a period of at least two weeks had passed since the collec- tion of the test materials. Although these were stored at low temperaturns, on the way home the vessel encountered a typhoon and as a result thp refrigera- tion equipment did not function perfectly. Also I was unfortunately not able to bring back a large amount of material because of the dangsr of breakage to glass containers aboard ship and bocause of the necessity of selecting only as much as was convenient to carry back Ttith me. I also brought back speci- mens of crabs, coral, and sea-weeds, I first filtejred the test materials, removed the chloroform and toluol, and then Injected 0,5 ml of the fl'iid into the body cavity of a mouse weigh- ing 13-15 grams. The resrilts were observfid with controls (edible fish) for comparison. There were no effects and none of the animals died. Even when the test material was concentrated at a Ioto pressure and injected into the bo^y cavities of mice, no effects could be observed. I wonder whether this may have been entirely due to the unsuitable manner in wliich I transported the test materials? And in the case of a study carried on in a tropical area and requiring a considerable period of time, is it not senseless not to per- form the experiments in the ri.eld? 6. Effect of the Occurrence of Poisonous Fishes on Fisheries in General and Countermeasures to be Tsiken The principal fisheries of the South Sea Islands are those for the 8kip= jack and the tuna. The question of whether the poisonous fishes are shore species or deepsea species has a direct and important bearing on- the main fisheries of the South Seas, The poisonous fishes are mostly large species which occur outside of the reefs, but at least at present there have been no reports of cases of poisoning caused by skipjack and tuna (when eaten as raw fish). In general the consumers of these fishes hold the belief that they are never poisonous, and so there is no particular problem, however, if someone should on some occasion feel sotrewhat unwell for some other reason and this condition should coincide with his having eaten some skipjack or tuna, the report that these fishes are also poisonous would spread rapidly through the 195 Islands. An incident of this sort could reduce the South Seos fishery, with its vast and limitless resources, overnight from the flourishing condition to which it has been built by past endeavors to complete destruction. It would require a many times greater effort to recover from such a situation than it did to build up the industry in the first place. In actual fishing poisonous fishes are always taken in large numbers along with the useful fishes. Since the poisonous fishes are completely lacking in commercial value, they are released again. This has the effect of protecting the poisonous fishes and gives them a greater power of propagation in comparison ».lth the useful fishes, the ultimate effect of which will be to enable them to drive out the useful species. Particularly in the case of fishes like the akamaau. when they are taken in great numbers, the large fish, whj.ch are over 2 feet in length, often damage the nets. Furthermore these fish are voracious and they eat useful fishes, thus causing great damage. Hhen a fish like the akamasu. which is highly valued at other islands, is treated as a poisonous fish the economic effects are great. Countermeasures against this situation might be to catch these fish at a certain season, say before the spawning season, and thus almost stop their propagation, or if their toxicity originates in their food, they night be held in ponds for a certain period of time until the toxicity was lost and in such a fashion poisonous fishes could be made nonpoisonous, 7. Conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn from this study: (1) Large fishes which inhabit the waters beyond the reefs are likely to be poisonous. It is thought that the toxicity may be peculiar to fully matured fish or that it may be related to the gonads. It may be that because of the water temperature (surface temperature 27 - 28°) these fish contain ripe eggs more often than do fish in Japanese waters end that therefore they can produce poisoning at apy time. Since the same species may or may not be toxic at different islands or even at different places within the same reef, it may perhaps come down to a question of a particular type of food found only in particular places, (2) Since people differ individually in their physical makeup, it may be that in some cases where poisoning was caused by something else the story was passed along that a certain fish was toxic » (3) It is also thought possible that some of these poisonings may be ptomaine poisoning. In this area the fish peddlers carry their wares on their heads in boxes (about 3 feet long by 2 feet wide by 6 inches deep) with 2 to ^-inch squares of wire screen in each side (for ventilation). The fish in the shops iu:e so covered wi.th flies that it is hard to tell what species they are. Ice is never put on the fish as it is in Japan and consequently the fish are dried out, the color of the rkin is faded, thp elasticity of the muscles is lost, and the fish looks almost as if it had been exposed directly to the rays of the burning sun. Under such circumstances the protein of the flesh is decomposed and one feels deeply that eating such fish may give rise to so-called ptomaine poisoning. In making this study I took the reports of fishermen as a fo\indation. I am very much ashamed of the fact that I was unable fully to carry out the task assigned me because of the siiort duration of oy stay in the field and the continuous unfavorable ^^ather. As for the character of the toxic element, at present we are limited to the conjectures set forth above, and our knowledge on the subject is extremely 196 vague. We must not stop our work until the Tollowing have been accomplished: 1. Investigation of the spawning seasons of poisonous fishes 2» Investigation of the food of poisonous fishes 3. Animal feeding teots with each of the organs of raw poisonous fishes 4„ Tests on experimental animals with poison from the various organs of poisonous fishes without using cheraical techniques 5. Serological studies of poisonous fishes Such studies should reveal where the toxic element is located and its relation to the gonads and to the food habits of the fish. Once this has been accomplished, if the toxin is sought bv chemlcp.l techniques, it will be pos- sible to clarify its pharmacological significance and it vdll not be difficult to find its clinical applications. The essential point Is that the work should be done in the field with fresh material to ascertain the presence of poison by means of experiments on animal So These investigations are truly difficult and they will not, of course, be accomplished in a day, but on the other hand I believe that they are im- portant problems which should be clarified. 197 On the Physiological action of Balloonfish poison It appears that in China and Japan, where balloonfish are used as food, the fact that the balloonfish is poisonous has been known since very ancient times. In the Shan Kai Ching written by Po Ti, Minister to Ti Shun, it is noted that "eating this kills people". In 1645 Shigeyorl Ifatsue published his Mokvuso in i^ch is found the famous old saying "I would like to eat the bal- loonfish, but ray life is precious to ne." TJiere are Tiiany other notes on balloonfish poison in ancient books, and in quite a few instances the writers even made more detailed reports to the effect that the poison was contained in the liver and the gonads. These, however, were all mere records of experience and there was not one person viho sought the balloonfish poison scientifically. The study by Mateuhara (1883)-'- is regarded as the first attempt at a scienti- fic handling of this natter,, He fed balloonfish ovaries to dogs, injected fluids from the ovaries, and ascertained that these methods produced symptoins of poisoning. Later there was a continuous series of reports by Takahashi and Inoko (1889, 1892, l893}2»3,/i, Ishihara (1917, 1924)5»6, and Yano (1937)7, all of ;;^iom made pharmacological studies of the toxic action of balloonfish poison, by Tahara (189A, 1909, 1910, 1912)°»9»10tll and Xaneyama (1943)^2^ ^o made detailed studies of the chemistry of the poison, and. by Tani (19-40, 194.5)^3^ a pupil of Professor PXikuda of Kyushu University, ttoo made detailed studies on the toxicity of various organs of all species of balloonfish at various seasons. Since the author has ali^ady (I9i4.7)^ discussed the results of all of these studies in an earlier article, they will be omitted here. Among this great abundance of reports is that of Ishihara (1917)5, who ad- ministered balloonfish poison to various animals and Investigated their reac<' tions and particularly the lethal dosage. The present author has, however, experimented with the poison on an even greater number of animals from the human at the top taxonomic level down to the lowly protozoans — accepting the results reported hy other researchers for those animals such as the human and the rabbit on v?hich h© ^^o not able to experiment himself — and he has reached some interesting conclusions ^ich are reported herein. Staterials and Methods As a source of balloonfish poison the entrails of the komon fUgu fSghaeroidee alboplumbeus (Richardson) j were fed to animals, and a 0.01$ solu- tion of SanlcylT's Tetrodotoxln (T) or a solution extracted by Tahara "s method from the viscera of S. alboplumbeua were employed. These solutions ware in- jected subcutaneously into vertebrates and were injected or dropped into suitable places such as the body cavity in ascidians, the mouth, eye, or legs of insects and crustaceans, the body cavity or gills sf oollusks, and the body cavity of echinoderms and coelsnterates, and their- reactions were observed. As is shown in the tables, these expeidments were performed upon a large number of species of experimental animals. The heading "reaction time" means the length of time required befora any reaction to the balloonfish poison was exhibited. For example with the tonosamagaeru [Re.na nigromaeulata HallowellJ it ie the period of time from directly after the injection until the frog began to roll its eyes and to breathe in a fashion reeembling the Cheyne-Stokes res- piration. The "lethal time" is the period until respiration and all mo\'oment cease. A peculiarity of balloonfish poison, however, is that even after res- piration ceases the heart continues to beat. *A continuation of work done at the Tokyo University Natural Science Labora- tory 198 ■?(»<»? .•>'.;. Results of the Experiments As the table shows, balloonfish poison is fatal (by paralysis of the cen- tral nervous system) to all kinds of, animals below the human level. The balloonfish is not, however, eiffected by the poison of other membora of ita family (the Tetrodontidae ) , although one kind cf poisonous spider, the koeane- ESS2. [Argiope sp.J is harmed by this poison. When a solution of balloonfish poison was poured into a shell inhabited by a hermit crab, the crab cane out of the shell. When the poison was injected into their chelipeds, some ishigani [Chary bdis 6»dentata Herbst] spontaneously cast off these appendages. The poison had, however, already circulated in their bodies and they died. As the result of a very carefully performed experiment an octopus «as affected by balloonfish poison and died. But an extremely noteworthy point is that al- though mollusks other than the octopus and other animals of lower levels of developTBent showed more or less inaction to the poison - for example enaila were paralyzed for fairly long periods of time l^ large injections of poison - none of them ever died of its effects, raiy is it that the balloonfish and the other lower animals with the excep- tion of the octopus are immune to balloonfish poison? Do the balloonfish, like other poisonous aniasals euch as the poisonous snakes, have antitoxins to their own poison? Is it perhaps that these lower animals lack the type of nervous eystem which could be affected by the poison? The answers to these questions will probably have to await further study. Finally I wish to report one fact and that is that balloonfish poison does not pass along the nerves but is spiread throughout the body in the blood vessels. The author ascertained this fact by the experiment of tying a string around the proximal portion of the hiiKi leg of a frog [R, nigromaciiilata 1 ao that pressure was applied only to the blood vessels. Injecting the poison near the distal end of the log, and then untying the string after the passage of a definite period of time. In closing I wish to express my thanks to Pr'ofessor Tsiiyoshi Inoue of Kanazawa Medical College for facilitating this study in various ways. Literature 1) Ketsubara, Shinnosuke: f&gazin® of Far Eastern Art and Learning fToyo Gakugei Zaasbi], 1883, 18, 253=255. 2) Takahashi, Juntaro and Toshito Inoko: Arch. Exp. Ffathol, u. Pham. , 1839, 26. 401-^il8o 3) " Mitth, Itedic. Fakult. Kaiserl. Univ. Tokio, 1892, 1, 5, 375-A02. A) " Zoological BSagaaine [Dobutsugaku Zaashi], 1893, 5, 56, 227-230; 5, 57, 260-273? 5, 60, 363-372. 5) Ishihara, Fueaos Tokyo Btedical Society Bagaaine [Tokyo Igakkal Zaeshi], 1917, 31, 5, 276-279; 12, 717-757; 23, U93-1530, 6) " Arch, exp. Pathol, u. Pharm., 192^, 103, 17, 209-222c 7) Jano, Takeshi » Pukuoka Medical College JSagazino fFukuoka Idai Zasishij, 1937, 30, 9, 1-36; 10, 1823-18/^8. 8) Tahara, Hyojun: Zeitschr. BSed. Ges. Tokio, 1894.» 8. -C,R. Cong, Intornat, Hgg. Domog, 1894, Budapest, 1896, 8, pt.A, 193-207. 9) " Magazine of Pharmacology Yakugaku Zasshi , 1909, 328, 587-6521 Tokyo Chemical Society Journal [Toicyo Kagakkai ShiJ, 1909, 30» 121-173« 10) " Biochem. Zeitschr. Berlin, 1910, 30, 255-275; 506. 11) " La Nature, 1912, AO, 2, 238. 199 12) Kaneyama, Shinto: F\ilcuoka Medical Magasine [PViJcuoka Igaku Zaashil 19A1 36, U» 395-^lo ' * 13) Tani, Iwao: Japanese Pharmacological Kagazine [Hippon Takubutsu Zasshll 19^, 29, U3-L15; Toxioological Studies of Japanese Balloonfish, 19A5, 103. U) Suehiro, Yasuo: Facte About the Physiology of Pishes, Balloonfish Poison 19^7. * 200 OS ^ f^ "? "P r-l i-l iH ~ ca ^ Pi .£> * 01 OS • CM 1-4 0 o O et fr« I bO bO « >rt o • • • ?J S! a a (3> 3 a ■(•s •f* v^ 3 «S T) #2 •a (1917) re- the large f ig< U5 oc aa the quantity for «ahebl fSatrlx i r— 1 IshihnT ported ure of lethal the rax s greatly weakened after injection o u s o s 5 9^ ^ ^ I 4> O bo Q Q t«- o iH rH 0^ H (^ vO ffi •>i- B. o 09 l-i ?< tj) a) E 1 j= •d 00 f^ •fl o :^ 0 U :3 c •S _ -p vi -p o ce a -V -^ o e o-p •> x: u a >k •P O « O <8 > iH O H •P O cH tH ^ iri To >» •P bOr •g5 O "H .g O 5h o J5. 95 pS o c\» a ■i ui o r-! 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C h :S c •H •H n © til f-l a 'i 1 •rt 6 ^1 E ®f O 207 5 ^ ,D -P T^ 3 o « S n 5^8 n S -d rH q « — «a ■P C tH O O 'O (D -H (0 E ■rl a .^ c 01 o o o u o o o o u O O CM iH o o •rt 'O o ti? o o o u ir> (M o o X o £" ir> a.rl o a ca H f-1 f3 O to to o 3 s M CO t)0 tia O tut u> o o »r\ o CM rH CV CM < ^ ca o 3 o ■3 o o J3 Q u ag •H ■^ ■P (A ^ 0) t S e g fH ^ ^ ^ a •r4 «B ca U t< O 3 208 Cases of poioonlnp by tho Reof Flah LUTJAmiS V/.IGlF'.'lilS While engaged In otudloo on tho reef fisheo of Okinawa Prefecture, I recorded a ecore or more of polFoninK caoea cauood by aHnna (Liitjemin ya!lrJ-^n8ia (Uuoy and Gaimard). A few roporto'^'^»^»5 of caoeo of huTnans boing poloonod by this and related apocloa in tho South S«ao have already been publlahod. Hownvpi; since poisoning caoea are not yot known from this area, I wish to preoont thin report. Touching upon the preparation of thlo manuacrlpt, I would llko to px- press my deep appreciation to Viscount K0I20 Stiibuaawa, who aldnd in thlo study, and to ray kind teacher. Dr. Y«lchlro Okadu, for his constant (j.ilduncp and review. In addition, thankc are dvie to Isamu Nngal, D.M. (Vlt Bnnholor of Medicine) for hie many suggestiona, to Kllchl Sato, Dopnrtmont Urnd of the Okinawa Prefectural Higher (formal School, for making faollltl<»a available for this study, and to Technician Hlrotaka Yashiro. 1. Descrlptioa of tho Spociea The fish which cauees poioonlng la Lttt.1aim9 valKJongla (Quoy and Galrnnrd) and Is called akor>o and al;aaubl in this region. Doocrlbing a sln^:!© male specimen, 335 millimeters in total length, caught at Kutnkajlma on July 3, 19A2J Akana; l;ut-1anun vftlirrionols (Quoy and Gaimard) Morphology: body length:body depth, /* 3A} body length:head length, 2 3/5| head length: onout length, 2 2/5; head length: dinme tor o<" oye, /♦ 3/A; nnout length: diameter of eye, 1 3A. Body fusiform, dorsal profile oomewhat arched. Eye placed high, onout conical vrt.th pointed tip. Gapo 'jomftwhat Blfint*«d, Up- per and lower jaw roughly of thfi aamo length, tho end of tho upper Jaw reaching a point directly beneath the ventral margin of the eye. Tho pontorlor edge of tho opercle projects. Dorsal fin, 10 spineo, 1/, noTt mya; anal fin, 3 spinos, 8 soft rays; 57 pored scales along tho lateral lino; dorsal spim-a and royo stiff; IV Is longest dorsal opine; III la longest anal spine; pfctoral fino long and falcate w^lth slender tips reaciiinfj to the anuo. Caudal fin broad, the posterior margin deeply split and bifurcate. The lat/jral linr runn high •long the body, following th« dorsal profile; tho scale rowa doroal to tlio lateral lino run at an angle to tho lateral line. Coloration: Back and doreal sideo of body reddiah-brov/n, abdomlnn] aides of body rose-colored, abdomen wfiito. Dluioh-green parts benouth the eyen and posterior margin of thw opercle tinged with brownish-gro»n. F'octom)!, dorsal, and caudal fins light reddish-brown in color, pelvic and anal fino graylah-red, Roto3: This doscription agrees with okl^uedaj. L\itjan;iti vaio/zioriilH (Quoy and Gaimard) of Okada and Katsubara". Purthermoro, it agrefni with Hiyatna' n' de- Bcrlption of akadokiitarumi. Ipit.lqnno valeirlenslB (Quoy nnu Gnlmard) r-* ported from Salpan and Tinian. On the othor hand, it dlffern froTi flnh reported from Japan as okifiwcjai. Lut^anua yalenlenpia (Quoy and Gaimard) by ohl^oho Tanaka in tho shape of the body, the relative diameter of the eye, numlxir of pored scales along the lateral line, the anglo of tho dc«i1o rowu /ibovc the lntor»il line, relative length of tho dorsal opines, relative longth of the nnal apinon, the shape of tho caudal fin, and coloration of the body. Since I wbb unaV)l<" to consult Quoy and Gaimard 's original doscription, i compared It with oth'^r doBcrlptions and found that it ugroec very well with I!. W„ Kowler^'f*^'^ ljxt^\Hm\n ▼algleneis (Quoy and Gaimard) reported from tho Philippino InlanrJn. Ki.-re, I have adopted Lut■1an^a yaienlensis (Quoy and Gaimard) na the oclcntlflc name and without using either of the two Japanese names, have rnforred to tliia fish by its local name, akana. 209 2. Baisonlng Cases Species of poisonous fishes found in this i^gion arc extrerely liirited in number and because of the clear distinctions, there is no danger of confusing this species with other species. Although the body lengths of the fish used are not known, the body weights are recorded because they were determined by examining the quoted prices of the fish. All wsre large, mature fish weighing more than one kin (1.32 lb.) and less than 15 kin. One k^n in this region is equivalent to 160 moijmne (.132 oz.) The amount of fish ingested is only that amount remembered by the person effected and is approxinate. None of the pa- tients were examined by doctors or treated with home remedies. Example No. 1 Locality: Shlmajiri-gun, Chinen-mura, Oaza Yaraazato Date: Karch 20, 193A Fishing ground: Depths between Chinen-mura and Kutakajima, araiinnu. Although the meaning of ara.1 innu is not clear, it probably refers to "deep waters". Fishing method: One fish, 7 kin in weight, was caught by pole and line at about 10 fathoms (TN: one fathom equals 5 ft. ) Case No. 1 Raka— , Chi— age 40 husband (TN: personal names deleted in part in original paper) Case No. 2 Haka— ', To — age AO wife farmer large quantity of fish meat; three bowls of fish soup small amount of fish meat; two bowls of fish soup poisoned no effects Since sugar making had been completed on the date specified, Case No. 1 took leave of hio household work, went fishing, and caught one akana. He im- mediately returned home and dressed the fish about 5 p.m. The bones, meat, and viscera were chopped up and the entire fish was used in making soup which was eaten about 7 p,m. From 10 p.m., fatigue was felt in the lower parts of the legs and this gradually extended to the uppei- body partSc About midnight, lassitude was felt over the entire body with sensory and locomotory irapairraent„ Recovery started about 6 a.m. the following morning and after one day of rest, the pat3.ent was restored to health. Although the fish was prepared in the same way as for Case Ro. 1, Case Ko. 2 ate only a small amount of fish meat and fish soup. No effects were felt. Example No. 2 Locality: Shlmajiri-gun, Chinen-mura, Oaza Shikiya Date: June 10, 19AZ Fishing ground: ara.i innu Fishing method: A drive-in not was used in about 10 fathoms of water at Kutakajima and at about 1 p.m. 78 fish were caught around a coral head. 210 Case No. 3 — yama, — nnn Case No. U — yaaia,«=»ko Case No, 5 «»-yama,T-shi Case Ko* 6 — yaina,"-o Case Noo 7 — yaffia, — yoohi age ^0 huaband farmer age 29 wife age 11 eldest dau^ter U borf.E of soup made with fish »^eat and viscera 3 bowls " poisoned age 5 age 8 eldest son nephew 3 bowls " 1 bowl " 2 bowls Because Caoe No, 3 had been informed by a fisherman in the neighborhood that the viscera is especially delicious, he mado fish soup using a 15 kin fish without discarding the viscera. The soup was eaten about 3 p.m. He awoka at 4:30 a.m. the following morning because of a headache. Fatigue was felt in the legs and pain in the joints. The nerves of his arms and legs became paralyzed and movement was impaired. The following 30 minutes R©re spent in great pain„ Afterwards, the pain gradually eas«d and by 7 a.m., suffering has practicdly ceased. Although the effects dlsappeered after three days in bed, two addi- tional days were spent in rest because of a weakened condition. The symptoms felt by Case Ko. U were identical to those of Case Mo. 3, but no rest was re- quired because the effects were light. Case No. 5 complained of a headache with, apparent ireariness of the arms end legs. Case Ho. 6 exhibited symptoms aimildr to seasickness. Although Case No, 7 complained of fatigue in the arms and legs, he left for school at 8 a.m. After going about 1000 metres from the house, his legs wouldn't move and not being able to walk, the boy started to cry. Fortunately, a roan with a horsecart was passing by and he loaded the boy into the cart and brought him home. Altiiough h^ was breathing feebly when brought home, he was able to attend school after three days in bed. Case No. 8 '—kawa,~zo Case No. 9 — kawa, — ki age 39 husband part-time farmer and fisherman I, bowls of soup made vriLth fish meat poisoned age Al wife Fish soup was made Tdth an 8 kin fish after discarding the viscera. Ihe soup was partaken at supper at 6 p.m. At about 6 a.m. the following morning. Case No. 8 felt tired all over and at the same time, felt pain in the joints of his arms and legs. He states, however, that there was no need of resting 211 from work or for staying in bed. Case No. 9 had aymptotne oimilar to those of Case No. 8 but being raore sevarSf she rested in bed for three days. An addi- tiona3. three days of rest nere spent thereafter. Case Ho. 10 — nen, — yu age A7 husband pert-time farmer and fisherman 1 serving of boiled fish, 1 serving of ravf fish poisoned Case No. 11 —nen, — ko age 47 wife Case No. 12 —nen, — ko age 19 eldest daughter Case Wo. 13 —nen, — yo age 11 second dau^ter Case No. 14 — nen,--ahi age 2 third daughter 1 serving of raw fish no effects 2 slices of " raw fish One fish weighing 12 kin was eaten during supper at S p.m. of the speci- fied date. Case Wo. 10 ate boiled parts of the head, gills, and a part of the viscera, in addition to the raw fish. Frora 4. a.m. the following morning, he felt fatigue in the arms and legs, A dayi's rest was taken. After three days, the effects disappeared and he recovered on the 10th day. Case No. 15 Ari— , Puku— age 23 husband fisherman 3 ssirvings of boiled fish meat Tsoisoned The viscera of a 6 kin fish was discarded, and the meat alono was boiled and eaten at 7 p.m. Effects were felt from 5 a.m. the following morning, and these mere practically identical to those of Case No, 10, Three days of rest were taken. Case No, 16 Ari—, Kai~ age 26 husband fisherman 2 seiT^ngs of boiled fish meat poisoned A 6 kin fish was boiled and partaken for supper at 7 p,m. Prom 11 p.m. pain was felt in the vertebral joints and joints of the arms and legs. Suf- fering did not cease until noon the following day. Three days of rest were taken. 212 Cass No. 17 — ahlro, — Ichi Case Ro. 18 — ehiro,— rcl Case No. 19 — shiroj—hisa Case No. 20 --shiro,~salcu age 70 grandfather 1 serving of raw fish, no effects 3 bowls of Bonp made with fish meat age A3 husband age 24 eluebt son age 15 second son The viscera of a 12 kin fish was discarded and the meat alone was prepared at 6 p.m. and served at 8 p.m. Case No. 21 Tama— ,— toku age 56 husband part-time farmer and fisherman 1 serving of raw fish, 2 bowls of fish soup no effects Case No. 22 Tama— ,~y3 ago 55 wife Case No. 23 Tama— ,~-ko age 22 eldest deu^ter Case No. 2U Tama— ',— ko age 16 second daughter Case No. 25 age 6 third caiighter 3 bowls of fish soup 2 bowls of fish soup and meat 2 bowls of fish soup 1 serving of raw fish, 2 bowls of soup A H kin fish was preparpd at 7 p.m. and served at 8 p.m. The fish eaten by the above-listed cases was hung in a cool, shady place from the time it was caught until it was dressed. Case No. 26 Sfata— , YoBhi— age 35 husband part-time fisherman and farmer 2 servings of boiled dried fish no affects 213 Caae No. 27 Wata— , Ka— ago 33 wife 2 servings no effects of boiled dried fish < Case No. 28 lata—, Ta— age 8 eldest " " daughter Case No, 29 lata--. Ma— age 6 second " " daughter Case No, 30 Wata— , Ki— age U third " " daughter A 10 kin fiah was used which, after removal of the viscera, had been dried in the hot sun for 5 days. Case No. 31 Shin—, Ei-" age 58 husband public 2 servings no effects official of boiled dried fish Case No. 32 Shin-*, To=« age 5U wife " •• Case No. 33 Shin—, Hasa-- age 29 eldest " " son Two 8 kin fish tjhich had been dried for U days in the sun after removal of the head, viscera, and bones were eaten for supper on the fifth day. The 31 cases in Example 2 all used fish from the same catch. According to the fiahemen, many fish of this species were mixed in with the day's catch. The fishermen, knowing this species to be poisonous separated them from the catoh and instead of sending them to market, brought several home for use and distributed a share to the village. Those that ate the fish out of curiosity and daring suffered the described effects. Several reoidanto of the same village who had received the fish escaped harm because they heeded the warn- ings of old men and thre^ away the fish. Example No. 3 Locality: Shitaajiri-gun, Zamami, Oaza Zamami Datet August 16, 19A3 Pishing ground! 100 metres from the tip of Kurigaklnoshima off Zakammi- gakya; water depth approximately 7 fathoms PishLig method: One fish was cau^t by pole and line during high tide about 9 p.m. 214 C&se No. 3U — har=i, — ri age A2 husband public 2 servings of poisoned official raw fish Case No. 35 — hara,— ko age 39 wife 1 serving of no effects ran fish Case No. 36 — 'hara,— yo age 12 eldest " " daughter Case No. 37 "-haraj-^ji age 11 eldest " " son Case Noo 38 •»hara,°-ahi age 9 second daughter " •» Case No, 39 — hara, ~taka age 8 second son " " The fish was brought hone and prepeured as raw fish the following morning at 6 a.m. and was eaten for breakfast at 7 a.«. Case No. 3U fe3-t badly from noon as trom seasickness and fatigue was gradually felt in the legs together with a headache and pain in the Joints of the arms and legs. As a i*esult, he went to bed. From 9 p.m., pain subsided and by the time he awoke at 5 a.m. the next morning, only a feeling of tiredness remained. He recovered after 2 days of rest. 3. Causes of Poisoning Types of viscera causing poisoning: Those serving fresh fish poisoned no effects viscera 6 1 meat 6 18 Those servitg dried fish meat 0 8 Although there was no great difference in the degree of poisoning caused by fish viscera and fish meat, there wore a decidedly grwatly number of poison' Ing cases resulting from the use of viscera from freah fish. Twenty-five pcr^ cent of the cases were from fish meat. There are as yet no cases of poisoning from dried fish meat. Serving methods; The fish were not handled by special cooks but were all pre- pared at home. Fish were served raw, boiled, and as soup. Of these three, raw fish and boiled fish did not differ greatly in preparation from methods used locally, but the soup was prepared unlike ordinary soup. The method of preparation may be said to fall between that used for boiling fish and that 215 uBed for making soup. The meat alone Is uead with a small amount of liquid, and bean past© is usually added as a flavoring agent. Percentage of poisoning cases according to method of preparation (fresh fiah only) : No. poisoned No effects Raw fish 2 15 Boiled fish 3 0 Soup i, 5 Although the proportion is as above, one case listed under raw fish can- not be said to have resulted from raw fish alone because both soup and raw fish were eaten at the same time. Progress of poisoning: Headache 4.-6 hours after ingestion; lassitude in the arms and legs followed by locoraotory and sensory impairment; pain in the j Joints of the vertebi^e and limbs. Improvement after 12-20 hours. Effects disappear after 2''3 days, leaving a feeling of tiredness. Recovery 2'=5 days later. No vomiting or diarrhea* Symptoms differ in this respect with Yoshio Hiyama's report and puffer poisoning symptoms. H Since the village was an isolated one and did not have facilities for measuring body temperatures, I was unable to investigate fever formation. I have not yet been informed of any cases of death. Addenda: I. Tradition: According to local fishermen, the poison of this fish originates from two causes. 1. Only those fish which feed on bottom-dwelling, poisonous crabs, chingani. become poisonous. (However, no one has seen or caught any of these crabs) 2o Only those fish which feed on poisonous seaweed become poisonous. (No one has seen this poisonous seaweed) Therefore, only those fish living in areas where poisonous crabs and sea- weed are to be found are poisonous and the others are non-poisonous. Also, for this reason eating viscera will result in poisoning while eating the meat alone will have no effect. Furthermore, those fish Inhabiting shallow places where the currents are weak are non-poisonous irtiile those living in deep lo- calities within swift currents are poisonous. Young fish are non- poisonous but mature fish which are lean and are colored red are poisonous. Although these statements have been made, they are hard to believe. II. General observations: Since the foregoing poisoning oaaes nxinber only 39 and the poison was not administered experimentally, I cannot draw any con- clusions about these facts. If some observations aT« made with this data as a basis, they would be as follows: The number of poison cases resulting from eating meat was less than 25 percent. However, practically all who ate viscera were poisoned. From this, it may be firmly established that the poison lies within the viscera-, Fur- thermore, all poison cases from this species resulted from mature fish. If young fish are non-poisonous and mature fish are poisonous, as stated by fishermen, it may be that the fish become poioonoua with the development of 216 the gonads. And, If fish caught in one locality are found to be extrenely poisonous, it may be inferred that these are mature fish uhlch have schooled for spanning with the spawning season, and that the poison has become virulent with the maturity of the gonads o Although these points cannot be immediately confirmed, these are interesting phenomena which suggest the truth. On the other hand, in regards to the cause of poisoning by the meat, was poison from the viscera included through careless preparation of the meat i^ich was non- poisonous? Or does the meat contain a small amount of poison which, if taken in large amounts, shows symptoms of poisoning? Although it is not known irtiich of these two possibilities are responsible, poisoning ctises which have resulted from eating meat are as described. Moreover, there were no deaths among these patients, but several days of rest were required because of con- aiderable suffering. Because of these points, to use this fish iomediately as a sovirce of food is dangerous and may result in reasonable ham. The future use of this fish will depend upon whether or not the various internal organs are poisonous. If only a part of the viscera is toxic, the meat can be utilized. If the neat is also poisonous, it may be possible to render the meat non-poisonous by determining the nature of the poison and applying this knowl- edge to developing special methods of preparation, such as dry^.ng the fish. In this way, this abvxndant and easily caught fish can be used as a source of food. I am at present studying poisonous viscera and the composition of the poison, and plan to publish my results at a later date. References 1. Research Institute for Natural Resources No. 2, Research Results No. 55 2. Seals, A., 1912. Some poisonous Philippine fishes. Philip. Jour. Sci. Vol. 7, No. A, pp. 289-291 3. lasukawB, I^, 193^: Report of the Investigation of Pbisonous Fishes of the South Seas. South Seas Govemment^General. 4.. ftetsuo, Rikuichi. 193A: Studies on the Poisonous Fishes of Jaluit. Collected Papers on the Investigation of Endemic Diseases in the South Sea Islands. Second edition, pp. 309-326. South Seas Government-General 5. Kawakubo and Kibichi, 19A2: Animal Experiments on the Fish Poisons from the South Seas and an Example of Poisoning Symptoms. Navy Ifedical Journal Vol. 31, No. 8, pp. 0'^5 6. Okada, Yaichiro and Kiyornat>su Matsubara. 1931: Keys to the Fishes and Fish- like Animals of Japan, p. 219 7. Hiyaaa, Yoehio, 19/^3: Report of the Investigation of Poisonous Fishes of the South Sea5, Nissan. 8. Jordan, D.S., S. Tanaka, and C.J.O. Snyder. 1913: Catalogue of the Fishes of Japan, Jur. Col. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Uni., Vol. 33, Art. 1, p. 164. Fig. 120 9. Quoy, J.R.C. and P. Gaimard, 182^^: Voy. Uranie, Zool., pt. 7., Dec. 18, p. 307. 10, Fowler, H.W. 1931: Fishes of the Philippine Islands and Adjacent Seas. U.S. Nat, Mu3. Bull. 100, Vol. 11, p. 115. 11. Pukuda, Tokushi, and Iwao Tani. 19iU.: Investigation of Puffers. Japanese Medical Magazine, No. 3253, pp. 7-13 217 On the structure of the poison spines of the Aigo (TEUTHIS (SYN. SIGANUS) FUSCESCENS) "" The aigo belongs to the family Teuthidae, which according to Boulenger comprises only the one genus Teuthis in which thirty species are included. They are all herbivorous fishes which occur in the Indian Ocean and the West- ern Pacific. They are all warm water fish and are distributed from the tem- perate zone to the tropics. The aigo of Japan is distributed from the Tokyo area south. It is of course herbivorous and commonly feeds on brown algae. It occurs in shallow places where algae grow well. These fish are often seen feeding on algae in small groups of up to fourteen individuals. Fishermen are very well acquainted with the fact that these fish have poisonous spines, and they never handle the fish with their bare hands be- cause of their fear of the painful wounds caused by being stuck by them. Bottard was the first to reveal to the scientific world the presence of poison in this fish. He cited this fish along with a large number of other poisonous species. In recent years the Russian, Pawlowsky, has studied the anatomy and histology of many poisonous fishes, particularly of such Japanese members of the family Scorpaenidae as the okoze and kasago, various specimens of which were sent to him by Mr. Shlgeho Tanaka of the Science Department. These studies have been published, but as he had no specimens of the aigo he did not study it. In my study of the poison gland of the aigo I have found that its construction closely resembles that shown by Pawlowsky for fishes of the family Scorpaenidae. The poison of the aigo is in the stiff spines of the fins. The fin ray formula of the aigo is DTlcii or Xiii - 10, A. VII - 9, P. 16, V. I - 3 - I. This means that there are 12 or 13 spines in the dorsal fin, 7 in the anal, none in the pectorals, and two in each of the ventrals. These stiff spines are all equipped with poison glands. This being the case, because of the lack of spines in the pectoral fins the fish has these protective mechanisms only on the back and belly and is not equipped with any defenses toward attacks from the sides. In outward appearance most of the spines show an extremely sharp tip protruding from the fin membrane, but in some cases the first two or three spines of the dorsal, the spines of the ventrals, and the first one or two spines of the anal are occasionally completely hidden and covered with skin to their tips. Although the tips of the spines are originally naturally covered completely, for some reason, perhaps because the poison spines have once been used or because of contact with some foreign object, the soft skin has in some cases retreated, exposing the tips of the spines. Even when they are completely covered by the skin the tips of the spines are very sharp so that if they are touched they immediately come through the skin and pierce the object which touches them. A cross-section of one of the spines is shown in Figure 1. In the center there is the cross-section of the hard keratose spine (sp) with grooves in its right and left sides. These grooves lie longitudinally along both sides of the spine. These long concavities are occupied by the poison glands (pg)« The poison glands are completely surrounded by connective tissue with a dermal and an epidermal layer on the outside. Under the epi- dermal layer are chroma tophores (pgm) and in the epidermis are large single cells which are mucus glands (eg). The connective tissue and the dermal and epidermal layers continue on to form the fin membrane (fin) and connect with the next spine. There is no muscular tissue visible aroiuid the spines. With regard to the question of the length of the poison glands, in the aigo, as described above, they lie along the sides of tlie spines, and on all of them they disappear a short distance from the insertion of the spine. Con- seouently the length of the poison gland varies according to the length of the spine, the gland covering a rather long area on the longer spines. At the base 218 of each spine Is attached a well-developed nniscle for erecting the spine, A detailed examination of the construction of the poison gland was madec The poison glands, situated as described above, are made up of only one homogeneous type of cells. Small protective cells can be recognized around the circumference of the gland but there are none to be seen between the ceils of the gland. The glandular cells are much larger than those around the out- side of the gland, some of them having a long axis of 26 microns and a short axis of 6 microns. The long axes of the cells are parallel to each other and lie at right angles to the body of the spine. As Figures 1, 2, and /; show, in most cases each cell (pg) extends from one side to the other of the body of the gland. This extension of the cells completely across the body of the gland is not seen in the poison glands of other fishes such as Trachinus and the okoze and kasago. Synanceia. Scorpaena. Pterois. Pelor. Sebastodes^ and so forth. The poison glands of these fish as described by Pawlowsky closely re- semble in other points of their structure those of the aigo which I have studied, but they differ in having smaller glandular cells which are all sup- ported by supporting cells (Stutzzellen) . A consideration of the individual cells of the glands shows that their nuclei (n) (Figures 2, 3, and l) are very small in proportion to the bodies of the cells. As is usual with the nuclei of glandular cells, their p>rotoplasm is coarser in texture than that of other types of tissue and therefore their color absorptive power Is weak, staining only slightly with hematoxylin^ The protoplasm is abundant and presents a densely granular appearance. It Is extraordinarily eo sin- positive and stains a bright red with this dye. It should be noted here that there are occasionally present within the proto* plasm large round globules of nonstructural ch«iract3ro Those are also eosin- positive and appear to be a colloid which is quite viscous. Even after paraf^ fin embedding, staining, and washing with water they maintain their outline clearly, I interpret these as drops of poison. An examination of the cells of the gland also reveals the presence of a comparatively large number of vacuoles in the protoplasm. These vacuol«?s are rather numerous in some cases and comparatively few in others. Figure 3 shows an example in which they are comparatively numerous. The significance of these vacuoles is not clear, but it cannot be thought that they existed as vacuoles at the time when the fish was fresh. They must have been filled with some fluid which was lost d'oring the microtechnique process and which is thought to have probably been i*elated to the poisonous secretion. Similar vacuoles also appear abundantly around the periphery of the globules. The body of the gland is as described above, but if we consider the question of whether or not there is a secretory duct attached to the gland, we must say that there is nothing which resembles such a duct. The body of the gland is made up of completely homogeneous cells, and even if we assume that the secretion which fills the space between the longitudinal grooves of the spine and the connective tissue issues Into the inner part of the spine, there is no sort of a structure provided to conduct it to the outer part of the tip of the spine. Furthermore, since there is no muscle tissue around the spine there is no mechanism for compressing the body of the gland internally. With the body of the gland limited to the location described above, what one would like to know is how the aieo makes any use of the poison which it stores up. An attempt was made to examine a living aieo. YRien held for Inspection the fish appeared to be frightened and spread ell of its fins so that the 219 spines all stood up stiffly. Thus the spines presented a condition such that anything which touched them would easily impale itself on them. If at s>ich times the spines were touched vdth a piece of cloth or a cork, the spines im- mediately pierced the material and the fin membrane covering the spines was seen to tear very easily. Ordinarily aieo which are brought in by fishermen have the fin membranes all torn to shreds. This shows that while the fisherman was handling the fish something came in contact with the spines from time to time. The ease with which this skin tears is highly significant. When the spines pierce something, the membrane tears simultaneously, the poison gland is also ruptured, and its poisonous contents for the first time obtain passage to the outside to be transmitted along the concavities of the spine and In- jected into the -'round. This ir the only possible method, for the spine to fulfill its function where there are no muscles to apply pressure, no ducts to convey the secretion, and no grooves to conduct it. Figure U shows a cross-section of a spine the skin of which has been torn. The part where the body of the spine and the gland join is ruptured and it can be clearly seen how the colls of the gland release their contents from this portion. It can also be seen that the glandular cells near this ruptured portion contain a comparatively large number of globules. It is clear that with the rupture of the cells these too find their way out and are injected into the wound caused by the spine. To sum up, the poison of the ^j.go is injected passively by the tearing of the skin and the rupture of the poison gland when the spines pierce sowe object, Pawlowsky made no mention of this method of injection, but the poison glands of the fishes which he studied, all of which are listed below, vrore of the sanie general category which he called Drtisen yon def kompakten. mehrzelligen. I would like to place the poison glands of the aieo in this category. The species whose poison glands belong to this type are as follows: Family Scorpaenldae daruma okoge oni okoze mino kasaga (kasago) fusa kasago (mebaru) takenoko mebaru kasago Synanceja grqsa Pelor .-^snonicum Pteroic lunuj.ata Scorpaena porous S. fimbriata Se bastes norwegicus Sebaatodes .loyneri . . . Sebasticus marmoratus Puwlowslcy (hatahata) &i£o Family Trachinidae Trachinus draco Family Teuthldao Teuthis fusee scans . . . . Family Slluridae Amemiya (gonzjJJk namazu) (gonzui nanazu) Schibeodes 220 Of course thnse are not the only fishes which have poison spines. The Japanese names gifen are taken from Tanaka's paper in the Proceedings of the College of Scienf;e, and in the preparation of this manuscript Mr. Shigeho Tanaka assisted che vrriter by the loan of valuable source material and by checking the norrsnclature used. Thanks are hereby expressed for these kind- nesses. Literature ♦Bottard, A., Les poissons veniraeux. Contribution a I'hygiene navale. Paris 1889 Boulenger, Fishes Ascidians Etc. 1910 »Coutiere, Poissons •senimeux et poifsons veneneux Paris 1899 Gunther, Study of fishes 1880 Parker, '.M., Poison gland of Trachinus draco. P.Z.S. 1888 Pawlowf•