THE PEARL FISHERY OF VENEZUELA Marine Biological Lafi'ir-toiy X.I B K. A. R TT JUN 2 41950 WOODS HOLE, MASS. SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT: FISHERIES No. 26 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Explanatory Ifote The series embodies restilts of investigations, usiially of restricted scope, intended to aid or direct management or utilization practices and as guides for adminl- str.itive or legislative action. It is issued in limited auantities for the official use of Federal, State or cooperating agencies and in processed form for econony and to avoid del.oy in publication. Washington, 0. C. May 1950 United States Department of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, Secretary Pish and Wildlife Service Albert M. Day, Director Special Scientific Report - Fisheries Ho. 26 THE PEARL FISHERY OF VENEZUELA Paul S. Galtsoff Fishery Research Biologist COMTEHTS Page Introduction 2 Brief history of the pearl fishery 2 Present condition of pearl fishery »•.. ••*............ 7 1. Location of pearl oyster banks 7 2. Method of fishing 10 3« Season of fishing ............ . 10 U, Shucking of oysters ^... 11 5. Division of the proceeds ,. 12 6. Selling of pearls ..... . ........... 13 7. Market for pearls , 1^ 8. Economic importance of pearl fishery I7 Biology fud conservation of pearl oyster I9 Sugf^ested plan of biological sttidies 20 Bibliography 23 lETEODUCTION At the invitation of the Venezuelan Governnent the euthor had an opportimity to visit in March-April I9U8 the principal pecxl oyster gro-unds in the vicinity of Margarita Island. Ihjring this trip it was possible to inspect in detail the methods of fishing, to observe the a-onraisal and sale of pearls in Porlamar, and to obtain an understanding of the ver:-' efficient system of government management of the fishery by the Ministerio de Agricul- tura y Crfa. The accomplishment of this task in a relatively short time v;as possible only through very friendly end effective cooperation by the Sr. Ricardo Montilla, Ministro de Af^ricultura y Cria in Caracas. Mr. Robert 0. Smith of the Tish and Wildlife Service, United States Depprtnent of the Interior, serving as Chief of the United States Fishery Mission to Venezuela, made travel arrangements, arranged for the cooperation of Venecuelan agencies, and otheri\fise rendered valuable assistance. Sr. Julian Verois L. , Jefe de Seccion de Pes- oueria de la Ministerio de Agricultura y Crfa, Sr. Jose Maria Velaso^uez, Encargado de la Jefatur? de la Zona Pescuera de Oriente y Cap. Jos^ M. Mosq.ueira Manso, del Cuerpo General de Servicios Marftimos, -orovided all the necessary facilities for field work, gave detailed information regarding the various aspects of the pearl industry and the biology of the pearl oyster and, tlirough their kind hospitality, made my sojourn in Venezuela both profitable and -oleasant. It is my privilege to acknowledge here my indebtedness and express my thanks to ail these gentlemen for their kind efforts and many courtesies. BRIEF HISTORY OF TEE PEABL TI SHEET The Atlantic pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, found in several places along the coast of Venezuela, is especially abundant around the Islands of Margarita, Cubagua, and Coch^, located from 10 to 15 miles off the mainland. The area of distribution of this species extends over the entire Caribbean Sea, but only in a few locations is the popula^- tion of -oearl oysters dense enough for commercial exploitation. Long before the discovery of the New World, pearls were known to the Indians of Central fnd South America. In many instances the Spaniards, who first landed on the islands and on the mainland of South and Central America, found the savages wearing necklaces and bracelets studded with pearls. Archaelogical explorations show that pearls were in vogae among the civilized ueoples of Mexico and Peru, who used them to adorn their garments. It is doubtfvil, however, that organized pearl fishery existed in these countries during the tire-Columbian tine. So far as I know, no large accumulation of pearl oyster shells has been found in shell deposits of the ancient time. For instance, the excavations made on Margarita Island (De Booy, I916) show that the largest shell deposits near the village of San JosI de Paraguschi, known as Giri-Giri, consist of various species of local mollusks, such as Mytilus achat inus, Tivela mactroides, Fissuridea virescens, Murex rosarium. Purpura floridana., P. patula, P. haemastoma, Fasciolaria tulipa, Strombus gigas, Cypraea exanthema, Livona pica, and others. The deposit contains, also, a number of fragnents of human bones, sTilit as if to extract the marrow, occasional shards and other artefacts, but the shells of the pearl oysters v;hich abound in the v;aters around the island are absent. There is no evidence that sixy pearls were discovered by Columbus during his first and second voyages, but his interest in pearls undoubtedly existed, even when he first con- ceived the xilan of his expedition. In the contract granted by the rulers of Spain on April 17, 1U92, Columbus was given "right to keep for himself one-tenth of all the pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, etc." (Mosk, 1938). It appears significant that among different valuables the pearls are listed in the first place. On the third voyage, after' touching the northern coast of South America at the Gulf of Paria, Columbus sailed west, and on July 3I, 1U89 passed the three islands and, strangely enough, named the largest of them "Margarita," which, in Spanish, signifies "pearl." According to Gonzalo de Oviedo (1535) » Columbus was not aware at this time that v/aters around Margarita a.boxmded in pearls. The next day, an Indian who v/as found in •oossession of pearls, created great excitement and a search for pearls that ensued resulted in the accumulation ^oy the crew of six marks (US ounces) of assorted pearls which were obtained in exchange for buttons, needles, scissors, and fragments of earthenvrare. The snail island between Margarita and the mainland, later known as Cubagua, v;as called by Coltunbiis "Isla de Perlas." Upon returning to Spain, Colum'bus tried to keep secret the source of the newly discovered wealth, but the pearls displayed hy his sailors aroused such great interest that several groups were immediately organised and departed to America. One of the pearl-trading ventures v/as organized hy Luis Gxierra, who placed in charge of the expedition an adventurer hy the name of Peralonso Uino. His expedition was a success. According to Gomara (17^9) t ^iSo hrou^t hack 96 pounds of pearls, among them were many gems of five and more carats. A more conservative estimate is given, hov/ever, hy Oviedo, who states NiHo's lot consisted of 50 marks (UOO ounces or 25 pounds), and that no pearl weighed more than five carats, althou^ msny of them v;ere of excellent shape and lustre. Unfortunately for Nino, upon his return early in 15OI he quarreled with his men, was im- prisoned, and his pearls and vessels were confiscated. The second expedition, headed hy Luis Guerra himself, soon reached Margarita for the purpose of trading v/ith Indians. It yielded nearly a "costal" (sackful) of pearls hut the vessel containing the treasure was wrecked. Trading in pearls soon led to a more profit- able business of pearl fishing, and establishment of permanent settlements in the vicinity of pearl oyster grounds. About I5OO, fifty adventurers sailed from Hispaniola and founded the first settlement on Cubagua for the purpose of exploiting the pearl fishery (Dalton, 1912). This settlement, known as Hueva Cadiz, was apparently a success, for in I52I it was granted by the Crovm the privilege of self-government. At the begiiming of the exploitation of pearl grounds, natives were employed as divers. The practice was soon discontinued, and instead of using local labor, the Spaniards began to import Lucayan Indians from the Bahamas, who were particularly skillful in diving. Pearl fishing must have been at that time a very lucrative business, as the Spanp- iards sometimes paid as much as I50 ducats each for a skillful diver. The description of the method of fishing used at this time at Cubagua is given by Oviedo (i.e.). Usually seven divers v;ere sent out in a small boat under the supervision of an overseer. Each diver had a net tied to his v;aist or neck, in which he placed oysters. To expedite his descent, the diver weired himself dovm with heavy rocks. The net was emptied after each dive, while the diver rested on deck. After a sufficient supply had been gatheredi oysters were stored ashore in sheds, then, under the watchful eyes of supervisors, •rere opened and the peairls collected and sorted. Indian slave divers were treated harshly. They were permitted but very short respite between the dives, worked long hours, and conse- quently suffered hemorrhages and intestinal disorders. Many were killed by sharks. To replenish the supply of divers, systematic raids were made on the neighboring islands and coast. According to Las Casas (l6th Cent., ed. 1875) t this practice and cruel treatment of divers proved as destructive to human life as were the infamous mines of Espanola and Cuba. The difficulties in obtaining Indian divers gradually increased. Some of the tribes, like those of Margarita Island, determiaed and skillful enough in defending them- selves v;ith v/eapons, successfully resisted capture and eventually v/ere left alone. Others moved to the interior and conseq^uently the local supply of available slave labor was es- hausted. Gradually the Indian divers v/ere replaced by Uegroes. Hoyal Decree of June 25, 1558 definitely prohibited the use of Indians in pearl fishing and prescribed that only Segroes be used for this purpose. So intensive was the fishing that signs of depletion of pearl oyster grounds became noticeable early in the l6th Century, and toward the end of the century shallow grounds were stripped clear of oysters, v/hile deeper banks could not be worked with naked divers. Oviedo writes that through experience the organizers of pearl fishing expeditions were av;are of the fact that an exhausted oyster bed would restore itself if not exploited for a time. He adds^ rather, pathetically, that "even thoTi^ this be the case, the Christ- ians hfve been so hasty to earch for these pearls that they have not contented themselves with divers in getting themj they have discovered other devices, such as rakes and nets, and they have extracted such a quantity that scarcity began to set in and they are no longer found in abundance, as at first " (Oviedo, 1. c. I, 60S, quoted from Mosk). It is of interest that in 15^3 a Sicilean inventor, Gulsep^e Bruno, submitted to the Spanish GovernF- ment a sketch of a diving bell which he intended to employ for gathering pearl oysters. He tried to obtain official authorization of his venture but apparently without success since in the "Brpedieate de la Archivo General de Indias" in Sevilla, where his sketch can "be fo-ond, nothinc is shov/n that the license for this invention v/as granted. The e-xp.cl mmber of Indian or ITegro divers employed hy Spaniards is not know. It is reasonahle to expect, however, that it v;as ouite large, prohably not less than several hiiidred. In l621, when only I30 Negro divers v/ere left on Margarita, it was recommended that 300 slaves 'be imported to revive the pearl fishery. After a period of rapid exploitation following Coltinbus* discovery of the New "orld, the -Dearl fishery along the northern coast of South America continued on a gradually diminishing scale, and completely ceased hy the end of the lyth Century. Severe and prob- ahly final "blows were dealt "by frequent pirate rsids, which completely ruined the pearl fisheries of Margarita, Cuhagua, and Coch^. It would be, of course, of great interest to obtain some records of the value of x>earls taken at this time from Venezuelan pearl oyster grounds. Although no satisfactory records of peaxl trade are available, some idea of the relative importance and value of ■oearl fishery to Spanish treasure in the l6th Century can be gained from the data assembled oy Alexander v. Humboldt (ISI9-IS29, II p. 273). In liis travels in Venezuela, Humboldt, '.,'ith his indefatigable energjr, was able to gather old records of the number and value of •oearls shiTroed from South America to Spain. Since the King's treasiiry collected "one-fifth" of the pearls found in these v;aters, the shipments vfere very carefully recorded and entered in Treasury's book. From this source we learn that in the earlier years of the l6th Century UT to 1530* ^i^^ value of pearls sent to Europe averaged more than 800,000 piastres (pesos) annually. It is interesting to note that at that time the value of all the products mined every year in America and exported to Europe did not exceed 2,000,000 pesos. The richness of the pearl grounds off the Venezuelan coast can be judged by the follo'.'in.!; recordsi In one month of January I529 morj/than 1,500 marks (12,000 ounces) of ■oearls, or the equivalent of over 17 million carats, were taken from the pearl beds of the Islsjid of Coch^. This quantity far exceeds the best annual catch of the present years. Further information may be obtained from a sttidy of the accovmts of shipments made by the offici=ls of the Royal Treasury at Hispanola to the Casa Contrataci^n in Spain— a special agency set up by the government to collect the tax on gold, pearls, precious stones and other goods brought from America (Haring, I9I8). Tor instance, on January 2U, 1533t the Captain of the Vessel Trinidad received from the royal officials at Cubagua several boxes of -oearls, one of them containing 90 pearls of good size, and the others holding more than 10 narks of rough pearls. Other shipments contained large number of pearls. The "Nicolas," v/hich sailed for Spain in June 1533» carried more than 200 marks (l,600 ounces) of pearls. In July 153^, the Captain of the Santa Maria de Begonia received for shipment two boxes of pearls from Cubagua, one containing 200 marks (l,600 ounces) of "common" peajls, while another contained 1,000 marks (S,000 ounces) of small pearls. Other records refer to the shipments, varying from 93 to lUo marks, of pearls nsjde in Jvne 1535 sni June I536. In 153S, the squadron, under the command of Blasco Nunez de Vela, transported peaxls valued at 208 ducats. The largest shipment, worth 9»000 ducats, WPS made in 15^3* Oviedo stated (l. c. lib. XIX, caps 28, q.uoted from Haring, I9I8) that the royal "cuinto" or one-fifth from the pearl fisheries amounted to 15,000 ducats and more a year. Ee himself possessed a round pearl v/eighing 26 carats and secured another one in 1529 which he sold for U50 "pesos de ord. " A pear-shaped pearl from Darien, Panama, weighing 3I carats and of very fine color './as sold in 1515 for 1,200 pesos and later found its way into the possession of the Queen. These scattered records give some idea of the value of pearls during the first half of the 16th Cent-ory. 1/ metric caxat = 0.2 gram; cne avoirdupois ounce a lUl.7'^-7 carats The largest end best pearls came, however, not from the Atlantic Coast hut from the Pacific Islands off the coast of Pan.-^ma. Pearls from the Carihhean Sea were relatively- small, weiring at most from 2 to 5 carats. They v/ere foxmd, hpvrever, in greater ouantities and Ciihagua pearls were v/ell known at Sevilla, Toledo, at the great fairs of Augshurg and Surges, and throughout Italy. Pearl fishing continued on a very small scale until the end of the lyth Century, when it practically ceased in I683. Laet (quoted from Eumholdt, I.e.) described this de- cline in the following wordst "Insularmn Cuhaguae et Coches q.uondam magna fuit dignitas, oxnim unionum captura florerett n\mc, ilia deficiente, ohscuram admodum fama." Discussing the ill effects of overfishing, Humboldt mentions that pearl oyster or the "pearla ronde" as he calls it, is "of much more delicate constitution than the greater part of the other acephalous molluscae" and therefore cannot be transpleted. He states that pearl oysters became scarce because their propagation had been prevented "from the imprudent destruction of the shells by the thousands" and not "as it is believed from p popular tradition, because these animals, frightened by the noise of the oars, conveyed themselves elsewhere" (H\aiiboldt, 1799— ISOU, V'ol. II). In support of his reference to over- fishing, Humboldt wrote as follows. "To form an idea of the destruction of the species caused by divers, we must remember that a boat sometines collects in two or three weeks more than 35»0O0 oysters. The animal lives but nine to ten years and it is only in its fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves. In ten thousand shells there is often not a single pearl of value." Other factors besides depletion contributed to the downfall of the Venezuelan pearl fishery in the lyth Century. The most important ones were the development of mining in Mexico and Peru which attracted capital and adventurersi pirate raids on the islands of Margarita, Cubagua, and Coch^; discovery of rich pearl grounds on the west coast of Panama, and in California, and decrease in value of pearls on the European market caused by the manufacture of good artificial pearls in Venice en.d change in fashion due to the greater demand for cut diamonds. Although the cutting of diamonds was invented in the middle of the the 15th Century, the gems became popular only in the following centinry. When Humboldt visited Venezuela about the beginning of the 19th Century, he found that "on the shoals that surround Cubagua, Coch^, and Island of Margarita the pearl fishery is as much neglected as on the coast of California." In 1812, according to his observations, some attempts were made to resume pearl fishing at Margarita but the pearls that v;ere found v/ere small and had little brilliancy. Humboldt speculates that this may have been due to the changes in marine environment caused by earthquakes. He remarked also that it is believed at Cumaria that the pearl oysters have greatly multiplied after two centuries of repose. Depletion of pearl grounds and scarcity of divers v;ere the pria- cipal factors in the decline of the pearl fisheries, which, in the lyth Century lost its former icrportance. According to Landaeta Rosales (IS89) no significant pearl fishery was conducted until 1828, when an English businessman secured from the government of Colombia a fishing monopoly along the shores and islands of Matrgarita. He imported small hand dredges of the type used in the Mediterranean, and locally known as "Arrastra." Apparently the results of pearl fishing v;ere insi^ificant. Por the period from 1833 to I8U5 the yield of pearls v/as so low that no tax, which at that time was rather heavy, was collected by the ■orovincial government. The values varied from I50 to 5OO bolivars per ounce of best quality pearls, to SO-100 bolivars for poorer lots (Qulevreux, I9OO). Another interruption in ex- ploitation occurred shortly after I85O. At this time a new tax was imposed of I6 bolivars per boat per month. In 1853» this source of revenue gave only Ug bolivars. Prom I85H to I857. a pearl fishery v/as conducted by a merchant from Hamburg, Germany. The undertaking v/as discontinued in 1857» the annual yield amounted to only 1400 ounces, a quantity not sufficient to cover the operating expenses. According to Quievreuz (I9OO) there was no regular exploitation between 1857 ?^d 1895. During the latter year, the use of scaphander was tried near Margarita by a French- man, H. Eoisselier. According to the article which appeared in Primer Annuario Estadistico de Venezuela for 1877» P» 201, the average anTinfll yield of pearls in I8U5 and for several follov/ing years vas 1,600 ounces. The value of the best pearls varied from Uo to 100 venosalanos, and pearls of inferior quality v/ere sold at I6 to 20 venozalanos per ounce. In 1857» the yield v/as only 1K)0 ounces. There v/as aiSparently a revival of pearl fishing toward the end of the nineteenth oenttiry, v;hen 300 'boats with 5 to 6 men in each, were operating from the hases at Juan Griego, Porlamar, Cumana, and Canipano. Oysters v;ere gathered hy skin divers and hy dredges which the fishermen preferred to scaphanders. They ■believed that hy dredging the oysters were spread over the 'bottom and the area of pearl ■bank v;as thus enlarged, v;hile scaphander diving was destructive. In 1S99 there v;ere seven pearl huyers operating at Porlamar. Pearls were ex- loorted tirimarily to Paris. The value of the catch v/as about tv/o million French frpncs. In 1900, exclusive rights for pearl fishing around Margarita pjid adjacent islands were granted for 2^ years to Sebastian Cipriani (Gaceta Oficial, July 30, I9OO, No. 7990 Ministerio de Tomento). The monopoly, which included also sponges and other Tjroducts, ex- clusive of fish, gave permission to the contractor to use underwater gear. Local fishermen were guarenteed the right to use their ovm methods of fishing. Contractor had to pay 10 percent net of the proceeds of fishery hut was free of other tax. The state of pearl fishery in more recent years ma^j' he judged from the official statistical data (Ta.hle 1) which I was able to obtain from the office of the SecciiJn de Peaoueria, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, and from official publications available in the Librer;.' of Congress in Washington and the Pan American Union. Table 1 Production of Pearl Oysters in Venezuela from 1919 to 1947 Tear Carat Values in bolivars Source of information 1919 1921-22 1J29.1403-^ 313,000 Velos Goiticoa, I92U do. 1932 2.IS5.505 1,7^3.212 Memoria y Cuenta de Agricultura y Crfa, Toma 1 - I9UI1 193^ 517.172 630,1^7 do. 1937 Ul2,207 lj-gl,181 do. 19^ i,359.S7^ 879.172 do. I9U3 u, 99s. 257 2,368,656 do. I9U5 1,^400, 21U 1,050,160 Memoria, Ministerio de Agricult-ora y Crfa, 19^*^ 19^ l,2gl,S99 1,666,1+68 do. I9U7 i,7Si+.S57 U,l6U,9l9 do. 1/ According to Lopez (I9IK)) total yield of pearls during the ig-year period from 1921 to I9I40 v/as 7,069,630 carats, valued at 18,386,377 bolivars. It Is clear from this iDrief and incomplete historical sketch that from the very TDeginning of exploitation up to present the pearl fishery was subject to wide fluctua^ tions. Tears of high yield were folloi/ed ty protracted periods of relative inactivity, pre- suma"bly 13608X136 of the e^diaustion of T)earl grounds and scarcity of divers. It ia interesting that the necessity of protecting the pearl resources and preseinring the life of divers was recocjiized even in the olden times. During the rule of Charles 7, a Royal Decree v/as issued hy the Government of Spain which limited the pearl fishing to the summer months. Several humanitarian measures issued at the same time limited the v7ork of divers to ^ hours a day. at a depth not exceeding 8 fathoms. The decree forbade the oiimers of slave divers to force them to work more than U hours a day at the depth from 5 to g fathoms. It v/as prohibited to demand then to perform other v/ork. The decree also specified t}iat the divers should receive good food and a pint of wine a day, and be provided v;ith clothing and hammocks for sleeping. Another decree forbade, under penalty of death, to force a free person to dive for pearls. These well-meaning but illusory measures re- mained on paper only since not the slightest attempt v/as made to enforce them. Exhaustion of pearl grounds below the point of profitable exploitation acted as a conservation measure. The oyster banks were left undisturbed for indefinite periods, and the exhausted population of oysters gradually recovered by natural propagation. The sarae tirinciple of conservation is being used at present. As one can see from table 1, from 1932 to 19^ pearl fishery v/as conducted at intervals of 2 or 3 years to permit the recovery of pearl groTxnds. By decreasing the season from 6 to U months (in 19^5) it was possible to carry out pearl fishing operations for 3 consecutive years. Even with the present brief open season, the reseeding of grounds may not be conpleted in 1 year. Because of the scar- city of oysters, the pearl grounds v;ere closed during the year of 19^8. The beneficial effects of the flexibility of a^inistrative control are obvious, for they protect the natural resource from being completely wiped out by excessive fishing; the industry suffers, however, from such irregolarity and uncertainty. EEESEIW COroiTIOKS OF PEAHL TISHERY 1. Location of pearl oyster banks Pearl fishing in Venezuela has lost the glamour and adventure it had in former days, but under intelligent management by the government, has become a better estab- lished occuTsation which provides livelihood to a large number of people. The pearl oyster grounds around the Margarita, Cubagua, and Coch^ Islands have not been ad.eouately surveyed, and therefore the totaJ. area occupied by pearl oyster banks and the density of their population have not been determined. The location of pearl oyster is, hov/ever, well kno\rti to the fishermen. Most of the pearl beds are found in a canal bet-zeen the Peninsula de Araya and the southern shore of the Margarita Island, in depths varying from 2 to 11 fathoms. lev groijnds are located along the northern and eastern shores of l-largarita. Bach ground is known by the special name given in table 2. Central points of the grounds determined by Captain Jos^ M. Moso^ueira (l9'+3) are plotted on a sketch map reproduced in figure 1. Inq^iiiries made in the office of Pearl Pisheriee in Porlamar and among the divers revealed that the areas occupied by pearl banks greatly vary in size, some of them extending in length for more than 1 l/2 miles. Pearl oysters are not confined to a single type of bottom. With the excep- tion of mud, in which they are rarely found, they seem to thrive eq^ually well on a great variety of substrata, such as gravel, stones, broken shells, and other materials firm enough to supoort the weight of the adult, and sufficiently hard and clean to permit the attachment of the larvae. The best bank, known as IToche y Dfa, is located along the east coast of Coch^ Island. Its bottom consists of small shells. (t rH <0 -p •rf « O 3 ^^ 5« ^ s &&&:&: S > ?.- S: s ^ ^S:&S:^^S^^:2&S::SS:£: cvjx OLi^5oc!OirNoi^oi^QoojKMo.o '--: m o f^ o r^ o i^ 0.1 o ''-. rH,zr Qr^>0.IOJ-CMCUOrH^ Lr>OJ OlX^OJ-J- Oi^OJ- O l^^ rH ro 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 O CT'. 1 — r— toto o^^lf^r-— CM o o vr\^ r^r<-\rHtocjO r— cncM [~-r^w3 cr. j- Lr^ J- ^Ji-J-^ irMrMrMrMrMrMr\LrMrMrMXMX~\0 O O O rH rH rH rHCM rH 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 oo ooooo oooo ooooooooooooooo oo (J) t.-; ti5 M bO ti) M M tj) III) to tj ta hi) '\3 M M U W Ml M M M W) W) ij) M M oocooooooooooooooooooooooooo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^rHOOHOlJ^fP> Lr^^ O O J- rH rH hO J" l^rHOr^rHOOCMint^rH 1 I 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ooooooo ooooooooooooooooooo oo rHrHOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrH rHrHrHrHrHiHrHi-HrHrHrHrHrHrHrHHrHrHrHHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH -P4^4J-P-P+^4^-P-P-P4^-P4^+34^-P4J+>-P-P4.>4^4^+i434J4-54J 333aS3cc33cd33tdcijci.'c\i333cdtdcjaicdc\3cd33o3 Character of Bottom Gravel Stones Stones Stones Gravel Stones Gravel Gravel Sand and stones Sand and stones Mvid and stones Sand and stones Sand and stones Sand and stones Stones Sand and stones Sand and stones Stones Snail shells Small shells Sand rnd stones Gravel Gravel Gravel Small shells Sand and stones Stones Ssmd and stones Depth in Fathoms 1^ i^u3 u^ r~- J- ir\^ t^vjD 03 r- r— lr^ j- t^ ir\ ru i-^ r^^ r^ cm rH ^ CM irMCv ITfine of Ho. Oyster Groimd • • o ^< •H EH l-t c i :^ ^ ^ > c < a ■ ir 1 CI ^ ^ 7 La Rama 9 La Isleta 11 Gutierrez 12 Rama Colorada 17 T./M, UoA^n i > a ,^ > c 4 c 1 H- • CI ) P i J ) c - u ^ r- 16 Caleta del Coco .... 17 Pledras llegras IS Cuspe 19 Hoche y Dia 20 Los Barriles 22 Yeinl 23 Cirial de Cut)aq.ua . . . 2U Cardon de Araya .... 25 Caracolito 26 Vapor 27 Cirial de Macanao . . . 2g El Tigre Pearl oysters undou'btedly grow in water deeper than 11 fathoms, the maximum depths of the present exploitation. Several years ago, divers attempted to work at a depth of lU fathoms, hut these grounds were soon ahandoned because the men suffered from cramps and severe hemorrhages. Diving hoats are not eo_uipped with decompression chambers and no precautions are exercised for gradiial ascent to the surface after several hours of v;orking at considerable depth. It is therefore natural that there were many casualties. Not know- ing the true cause of cramps, the divers attributed them to lov; temperature of water. 2. Method of fishing Three different methods are used for the gathering of oysters; dredging, diving in scaTDhanders, and naked diving. The dredge (rastra) consists of a light, cast iron freme of rectangular shape, with a scraping plate about three inches wide, mounted at the lower edge of the frame. A bag of netting is attached to the frame. To prevent the tearing of netting by rocks and corals the bag is kept sli^tly off the bottom by four or five v;ooden sticks attached to its lower side. Three arras of the dredge's frame are joined by a ring 5 to 6 inches in diameter, to which the rope is tied. As a rule, the dreftges are small and light. Several of them in^ sxiected by the author were only 2.k inches wide and weighed from 20 to 30 pounds. According to the present law (Art. 17, Chapter III, Ley de Pesca de Perlas, IS'A)* the maxinrom size of a dredge should not exceed 100 by SO centimeters. The crew of a dredging boat consists of a master, U sailors (marineros) , and 2 shuckdrs (rancheros). There are usually 2 dredges to each fishing boat. Boats used in diving operations are usually equipped with hand-operated, two- cylinder piston pumps, scaphanders, and several htindred feet of rubber hose. No power-driven ■Dumps are being used at present. The law specifies that the working crew of each vessel intending to use scaphanders shall consist of not less than the following a master (un patron) , and for each scaphander employed one diver (buzo titular) , one apprentice diver (un aprendiz de buzo), one line tender (un cabo de vida) , and four seamen (marineros). The naked or head diver (buzo de cabeza) fishes by himself from a small boat, and is sometimes assisted by one or two men. At present, scaphander divers work at a depth not exceeding 9 fathoms. The boat slowly follov/s the movement of the diver as he walks on the bottom, while the line tender watches for signals, consisting of a system of jerks and pulls on the life-line (fig. 2). The diver usually remains in water from four to five hours without coming Up for rest. 3« Season of fishing Pearl fishing is conducted during the h months of each year from January 1 to April 30. It is required by law that each year a Resolution of the Ministry of Agricul- ture announcing the opening of the season be published 60 days prior to the opening date (Article 5, Chapter II, Ley de Pesca de Perlas). The pearling in any area or in a part of it may be completely closed to fishing by the order of the Ministry of Agriculture. This action may be -oromulgated upon the information received by the Minister from the Administra^ tor of Pisheries, and only after a thorough examination of the existing conditions. Whenever the Minister of Agriculture consi?Lers it necessary he may limit the number of diving boats operating during the open season, or he may temporarily prohibit their use (Article 8, Clmpter II). He also has the ri^t to limit the number of dredges used on each boat but he is re- quired by law to reconcile the interests of the various classes of applicants (Article 9t Chapter II). The important conservation measure of the present law is the clause (Article 10, Chapter II) requiring an Immediate return to the bottom of small, undeveloped oysters, coninonly called "conchas en flor" or "shells in flower." The law does not establish a definite size limit, but in practice the Administrator of Fisheries considers oysters less than 5 centimeters long as not fully developed, and therefore prohibits their taking. 10 Pigure 2. Diving "boat working in waters aroiand. Margarita Island. Notice life line tender standing on stern and holding air hose in the right har\e^ and signal line in the left one. U. Shucking of oysters All oysters gathered hy divers, or taken hy dredgers, axe hrotight ashore and o-oened on land (Article 10, par. 1, Ley de Pesca, 19^). Several well-sheltered places are used for opening the oysters. The largest is found on Isla Caxihe, en tminhahited, rocky island southeast of Isla Cochl« The place I visited was a well-protected cove. There were 18 primitive huts, used as temporary dwellings hy the fishermen (rancheros), .and one concrete platform for salting and drying the fish. Large shell heaps, some of them nearly 20 feet high, represented the results of many years of pearling (fig. 3)» Iii places, there were deep holes or trenches in the accumulated shell material. Those v;ere made hy women and chil- dren v;ho come after the men have finished opening the oysters and search through the discarded material. It is said that in this \:ay a sulDstantial munTDer of pearls are heing recovered. The shell heaps and grovinds of the cove v/ere greatly infested v;ith 'blejdk flies, and at the time of my visit the stench of decomposing oyster meat v/as very strong in spite of a fresh "breeze of atout 25 or 30 miles per hour. It was diffictilt to imagine a more desolate spot than the shores of this cove, where the many generations of fishermen opened their catch in, search of -oearls which later on served for no other purpose but the edornment of human beings. The contrast betv/een the beauty of the product of the fishery and the conditions imder which the flahapmen work is striking. Some of the pearl oysters are opened at San Pedro de Coch^. The Island is entirely devoid of v/ater. The annual precipitation is almost zero, and local supply of v/ater is vranting. The soil is dry, with a spaxee growth of cactus. Due to excessive wind erosion, the red rocks of the island ha.ve aco^uired fantastic, odd. shapes, creating an illusion of castles fend tov.-ers. In spite of acute dryness, the town of San Pedro, with a population of several thousand, is an important fishing center. All the v/ater for human 11 Plgare 3. — AccTinralation of pearl oyster shells at the place where oysters are shucked on the Isla Carilje. consTonption is hroii^t here hy "barge from the mainland. The effect of lack of water is particularly noticeahle on the few domestic animals, - dogs, cats, and goats, which show ohrious symptoms of severe dehydration. The Venezuelan Government is studying the possi- bility of laying a pipe across the ocean floor to supply the island with fresh v/ater from the mainland. It is evident that a successful solution of water supply prohlen would he of enormous "benefit to the progress of this communityt and should open an era of prosperity to this small island. Pearl oysters are edible and local fishermen use them in preparing their simple meals. Althou^ it lacks the flavor and soft consistency of the edible oysters, the meat of a pearl oyster is quite palatable, and v/hen cooked in boiled water has a pleasant taste. A vast supply of this wholesome food, v;hich is now being wasted, can be utilized by establishing a processing plant on one of the Islands, or in Porlamar. It is also sT:ig- gested that a chemical study be made of pearl oyster meat as a possible source of vitamins that may be extracted from it. 5. Division of the proceeds With the exception of naked divers, v/ho usually v/ork independently and make personal arrangements with their helpers, fishermen engaged in the pearl fishery operate on shares. A rather complex method of dividing the proceeds of the catch is governed by local tradition and customs. Tor a diving boat, the follov;ing scheme is customarily used: 50 percent of the money realized from the sale of pearls goes to the "enpresario," i.e., the person who ovms or outfits the boat? of this amount, the empresario pays one-half of the license fee and gives one-third of the balance to the diver. The rest is his. The remain^ ing 50 percent is divided among the crew, in the follov/ing manner! first, the cost of food and half of the license fee are deducted; then the balmce is divided into 1^ shares, of v/hich 6 shares are paid to the diver, and 8 shares are eo_ually divided among the crew. The latter distribution may be slightly modified by special agreements. 12 In cs.se of a aredging "boat, the division is different! 1 1/2 shares go to the ov.Tier of the boat; ^ shares to the owner of the dredges (2 for each dredge); 1 1/2 shares to the naster (patron) who is responsible for selecting end finding the oyster grovmdsj U shares to the U sailors (l to each); and 2 shares to the 2 shuckers or rajicheros (l to each) . 6. Selling of pearls Inrnediately after they are collected the pearls are sold in the tovm of Porlanar on Ke.rgarita Island, which is the principal local market. During the fishing season, several licensed Ijuyers open their offices here in which they appraise, sort, and ■btiy pearls in lots "broToght Isy the fishermen (fig. ^). Some pearls, hov/ever, are sold directly to the tourists and visitors to Porlamar. As a matter of fact, one can hardly v/slk half a block in the town without being stopped by a pedlar who offers to sell a pearl (fig. 5) ■ Taking advantage of the generel ignorance of the public of the correct value of pearls, the prices asked are sometimes higher than one vrould pay in a legitimate jev/eler's store in JTew York or in London. Those who knov; hov; to evaluate pearls may acojiire them, hov/ever, at a very reasonable price. There is also a certain sentimental value to a visitor in Porlamar in buying a pearl as a souvenir directly from a fisherman, and in the place where the pearls are produced. The wholesale buyers are reauired to obtain special license before they are allowed to open their business. The office of the buyer usually consists of a small room with a table covered v/ith smooth woolen cloth, scales for v/eighing the pearls, and a set of sieves to sort them according to their size. One or two assistants, usually girls, help in sorting out the pearls. In the season of 19^8, there were 9 licensed buyers operating in Porlamar, only one of them from Hew York. Figure U. — Office of a wholesale bi^rer of pearls in Porlamar. 13 Figure 5. Common street scene in Porlamar; pedlar trying to sell pearls to visitors from Caracas. Because of sentimental value of a pearl acquired hy a tourist directly from a fisherman the price asked is usually very high. ih The pearls Tsrought to the 'b'uyer's office 'by a group of fishermen are usiially carried, in a handkerchief or in a piece of cloth which is untied, and the lot is spread on the tahle. The hest pearls are islcked out first and set aside.' Using a small and shallow silver scooper, the Iruyer puts tha remaining pearls in a set of copper cups, three to four inches (7 to 10 cm;) in diameter with perforated discs fitting to the hottom of each cup. A complete set usually consists of 60 discs with holes varying from 1 to 6.5 nnn* in diameter, and ntimhered from 1 to 60. The largest holes (Ho. 60 sieve) would retain the pearls of more than eight grains (ahout 2 l/2 carats). Tor preliminary sorting, the "buyers use only three or four sieves, preferably the Nos. 27, 18, 12 and 10. If the htiyer is satisfied with the preliminary inspection, he weighs separately the pearls of different sizes and q.uotes his price. In April 19^^!, one of the buyers was paying an average of about three bolivars per carat for fairly good pearls— this, of course, did not include pearls of tmusiial size and Quality, nor the baroque pearls. The price of the latter was only 13 cents per carat. If the fishermentMnk that the price q.uoted is too low, they visit other b-uyers until they re- ceive an ax:ceptable offer. The b-uyers work independently of each other and there is apparently no collusion among them; althotigh they are, of course, well informed about the prices and demands of the principal markets in India, London, and New 7ork and consequently there is but little difference in their quotations. If the price offered by private bt^ers is not acceptable to the fishermen, they can turn over their lots to the Administrator of Fisheries at Porlamar for official appraisal and disposal of the pearls throu^ the Government Bank (Banco Agrieola y Pecuario). The bank pays the value determined by the official appraisers (Pigioradores oficiales) minus 10 percent commission. Ujwn completion of the transaction, the pearls become government property and may be sold by the bank when market conditions are favorable, but the fishermen retain right to claim them back within 30 days. The stabilization of prices by the govern- ment is obvious benefit to pearl fishermen and protects their interest. This system, auth- orized by law of 19l4^, comes -under a general scope of activities of the bank in supporting and developing agriculture, stock-raising, and fisheries (see Articles lU and kS, Eeforma Parcial de la Ley Del Banco Agrieola y Pecuario IX - k, p. 726-773 IX - 4 p. 726-773, Compi- laciefn Legislativa de Venezuela, 19^) . The bank has a working capital of 60 millions bolivars. In I9U7, the bank advanced a credit to the fishermen in the amount of 72,100 bolivars for outfitting of boats and purchase of equipment, and p-urchased g31»^3^ bolivars' worth of pearls. The method of appraisal used by government appraisers is essentially the same as that -used by private buyers (fig. 6). The appraisers are appointed each year by the govern- ment for a foiir-month period, and work only during the duration of the pearling season, from Jan-uary to the end of April. 7. Market for pearls Only a small number of pearls are sold locally to visitors and tourists? the bulk is exported to India, China, and England. Eelatively small number of pearls, and only of the highest q.uality, are distributed in the United States through the wholesalers in New York. Market requirements in each of these countries are very specific. Tor instance, Nev7 Tork demands white pearls of highest lustre. Pink pearls, which are predominant in Ven- ezuelan v/aters, are more in demand in Europe, while India and China import large quantities of seed pearls. At present the trade in pearls is suffering from genersilly unstable condi- tions in the world markets, and restrictions imposed by various countries on the export of their currency. India still remains the largest pearl market of the world. Contrary to one's expectation, however, this country brjys not the largest or best pearls to adorn the dresses of her fabulously rich maharajahs, but Imports vast q^uantities of seed pearls of inferior a_uality. Most of these pearls are consumed internally in an entirely unjustifiable belief that they produce a stimulating and generally beneficial effect on the human organism. It is of interest that customers in India prefer round seed pearls and are willing to pay hi^er prices for them because of their naive faith that the medicinal effect of round -pearls is better than that of irregularly shaped seed. Large q,uantities of minute seed pearls are also used in India for "treatment" of children's eyes. Every day one or two 15 rigure 6. Official appraiser of pearls in Porlamar. seeds are placed, for several minutes, -under the lids of a baby In the belief that this will make his eyes darker and shiny. One of the b-uyers in Porlama.r told me that about half of the volume of his business in India has been selling seed pesirls for this purpose. Pearls, purchased by a wholesale buyer, must be very carefully sorted before they are offered to various dealers or are shipped to different coimtries. Tron I5 to 20 sortings are sometimes reo^uired before the original lot purchased from the fishermen is divided according to various sizes, shapes, color, and other grades recognized by trade. Sorting is usually done by the girls, who assist the buyer and work under his immediate supervision. When the sorting is completed, the pearls are poured in small, cotton bags, or are wrapped in brown paper and stored in boxes. Por export, the pearls are classified according to their o_uallty asl First o.uality (De Vista), round (redondas) , baroq^ue (barruecas) , and seed (mostacilla). As can be seen from table 3» seed pearls comprise the largest part of the total quantity exported, while the greatest monetary return is derived from baroques. Some of the dealers ship their stock to India for matching and drilling and, after the pearls are made into necklaces and other articles, import them to New York. This is done because of much lower prices for this type of v/ork in India than in the United States or Europe. Pearls exported from Venezuela must be accompanied by a certificate issued by the Minister of Agriculture or the Administrator of Fisheries ascertaining their legiti- mate origin. This certificate must be submitted to the custom officials (Article 19, Chapter IV, ley de Pesca de Perlas) to clear the shipment through the Custom House. The importation and trade in arti'ficial and cultured pearls is prohibited by lavf (Article 21, Chapter IV, Ley de Pesca de Perlas). 16 Table 3 Export of yarious Classes of Pearls in 19>4-6 Grade of Pearls Quantity in Carats Value in Bolivars Seed. ••••••••••• 812,97^ 595, S09 132,225 lK),U91 259,297 (Mostacllla) 823,919 2U5,50g 321,975 (Barniecas) (Redondas) First Quality (De Vista) All grades ....•••• 1.581,199 1,710,699 8. Economic importance of pearl fishery Economic importance of the pearl fishery may he estimated hy comparing the total value of pearls obtained annually with the value of all other fishery products for the same years. As can be seen from table h, during the last three years, 19'+5 to 19^7, the relative value of the pearl fishery gradually increased from 6.S to lU.l percent of the total value of all fisheries. Table 1+ Production and Value of Fishes and Pearls in Venezuela from'. 19^5 to I9U7 Fishes Pearls Tear Yield in thousands kilos Value in thousands B's. Yield in thousands carats Value in B's. Percent of value 19U5 19U6 19U7 36,509 Uo,g62 15,U1H 21,9^+5 29,^5 l,l400 1,232 1,785 1,050 1,666 1+,165 6.8 7.6 11;. 1 In comparison with other products of export, such as oil and minerals, the pearl industry is smeill pri+5 I9U6 I9U7 Sacks of oysters . . . Carats of pearls . . . Carats per sack . . . 2U2,572 l,l+51,2lU 5.70 33O.03U 1,032,730 3.12 279.^71 1,284,858 U.6O Each sack contains from 35 'to H5 kilograms of oysters. Since there are from 25 to 30 oysters to each kilogram, or from 875 *o 1»350 oysters per sack, and the average yield (for three years, 13^5-^'''7). is 1^.5 carats per sack, we may conclude that one should expect to open from 200 to 3OO oysters to find 1 carat of pearls. In recent years, the greatest portion of the oyster catch has been obtained "by dredges (table 7). This, hov/ever, was not true in the previous years. Thus, during the season of I939-I9U0 the total yield of pearls was almost eo_uslly divided between the dredges and scaphanders. Lopez (19^) states that during this year the scaphander divers obtained ^96,^-00 carats, while the dredgers contributed U.56,800 carats of pearls. Unfortunately, the number of sacks of oysters gathered by each group is not given in the paper from which these figures are a_uoted. It is, ho\/ever, interesting that the present yield of pearls in the oysters obtained by divers is almost twice the yield in oysters gathered by dredgers. This probably was not the case in previous years. The present relatively higher yield obtained by divers may be purely accidental, or it may be attributed to their ability to select better stock. The problem req^uires further study. BIOLOGY Aim CONSERVATION OP PEARL OYSTERS Knowledge of the biolosr of the pearl oyster is essential for the effective conservation and exploitation of the STjecies. Unfortunately, biological data concerning the time of spawning, setting, and growth of Venezuelan pearl oysters are scarce. Jos^ M. Mosoueira Kanso, who for several years observed the oyster population around Margarita Island, states (19U3, p. 36) that spavming of oysters in these waters begins at the end of April and terminates during the last days of August. According to Mosoueira (p. Ul), about 10 nercent of the xiearl oysters around Margarita Island spawn by the middle of May. The percentage of spavming molliisks increases to 20 by the middle of Jxme, and to 55 "by the middle of July. A.bout 5 percent of the oysters may be found spawning in September. During 19 Table 7 Catch of Pearl Oysters (in sacks) "hy Gear and the Yield of Pearls in Carats Type of Cear Used I9U5 Ssx:ks of Carats of Oysters Pearls 191^6 Sacks of Carats of Oysters Pearls Eredge Scaphpjider .... Skin divers . . . Percentage taken ■by sca-Dh?nder divers 236,851 5.721 2,h. i,3gi;,U62 66,752 U.6 330,031^ 29,003 100 8.8 877,^7 155.003 300 15.0 the latter month the oysters that have already spa\im.ed are usually in poor condition. Detailed observations on setting are not available. It is knov/n that young oysters would set on any hard object with a clean surface. Grov;th is apparently raT)id. risfcemen and pdninistrative officers concerned v;ith the pearl fisheries s,t Porlamar maintain that within 6 months young pearl oysters are already fully developed and may he fished. Hosoueira "believes that growth of pearls is also rapid, for about 85 percent of all the pearls taken in one season are obtained from young oysters. He thinks the oyster discards the old pearls by ejecting them from the mantle cavity. This interesting point desei-ves further study as it is very important, from the point of view of management, to knov/ more definitely hov; long the oysters retain the pearls. Frequent closings of grounds constitute serious handicaps for the development of the industry on a more sound ba.sis. At present, pearl fishermen do not knov; until 60 days ■orior to the openinc date of the season v;hether the grounds will be open to pearling. Con- seouently, pearl fishing cannot be depended upon for a livelihood and becomes a secondary occupation. Likewise, it is difficult to expect that anyone will invest money in improve- tients of boats and gear without any ass\irance that he will have a chance to use them. SUGGESTED PLM OP BIOLOGICAL STUDIES Present law (Article 27, Cha.pter VII, Ley de Pesca de Perlas) authorizes the conduct of investigations to determine the possibility of enlarging existing oyster grounds and estrblishing new ones. Particular mention is made of the required participation in this v/ork of -oearl fishermen who are obligated to contribute for this purpose 25 percent of the shells. Inasmuch as no systematic v;ork of this type is being conducted at present, it is ny suggestion that careftil consideration be given to the organization of such biological -and ecologica!'- studies as are needed for the development of new pearl oyster grounds. The present system is essentially that of an exDloitation of a natural resource, without any attempt to atrply oyster cultural methods. We know, from the esperience in cultivation of edible and pearl oysters in other countries, that an oyster population can be materially increased by oyster farming technique. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect that the same beneficial results ;naj'- be obtained in Venezuelan waters. As a first step in this direction, it is necessary to obtain more detailed knowledge and understanding of local biological factors. First, more precise information is needed of the time and intensity of spav/n- ing. Experience \iith other species of oysters shows that during the reproductive season there are several periods of more intense spawning. Factors controlling the occurrence of these periods sho^lld be carefully determined in order to be able to predict time of spawning with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Like\irise, the attachaent of young oysters (setting), 20 which na^ continue throughout the suamer, voxies in intensity end may have several pro- nounced maxima. The occurrence of these periods is of great practical significance, "because the production of seed can he naterially increased hy providing suitable clutch at the right time and in the right places. The studj' of setting may he easily undertaken "by a competent marine hiologist hy usins: vrire hag collectors (snail hags made of chicken v/ire, filled v/ith clean oyster shells) placed at various stations or suspended at different levels from floats anchored in selected locations. Ea,ch hag should he replaced at leapt once a week and its contents e3renined. In this \-iair the intensity of setting, its exact time, and the optimum zone of setting at various depths can he accurately established. If such experiments are sxiccessful and a sufficient number of young pearl oysters are obtained on collectors, they can be transplanted to different experimental grounds to determine the rate of growth of oysters and to study the factors controlling the prod\iction of pearls. The formation of pearls has been the subject of many investigations, and various factors responsible for the development of a pearl, such as mechanical irritation or presence of parasites, are more or less understood. We do not know, however, why oysters on certain grounds abound in pearls, while on others the pearls are almost lacking. For instance, there are many places in Venezuelan waters which abound in pearl oysters, but the latter contain no pearls. Detailed ecological studies are necessary for the understanding of local factors v;hich favor the formation of pearls on certain grounds. Critical study of ecological factors responsible for the production of pearls maj' lead to considerable improvement in the quality of natural pearls and to the increase in their abundance. The aim of the proposed plan should be the finding of practical methods to increase the poptilation of pearl oysters by facilitating their natural propagation, and to encourage the production of pearls by selecting the grounds most suitable for this purpose. The apT5lication of such a method may greatly increase the yield of the fishery and decrease the fishing effort because oysters will be taken from more densely populated areas and only from the grounds known to be highly productive in pearls. In planning this type of vrork, it is essential that certain grounds be closed to the fishery and set aside for experimental purposes to determine the rate of growth of young oysters, to carry out experiments with transplantation of seed oysters, and to deter- mine their mortality rate. Studies 'of the rate of development of pearls, and of the percent- age of oysters containing them, as well as the investigation of other factors, such as diseases, effects of parasites, and attacks of various enemies, can be conducted simultaneously v;ith the observations of oyster biology. Experimental grounds should not be large, so that their ests.blishment v/ould not materisilly interfere with fishing operations. It is, hov/ever, in^. portant that the selected grounds be v/ell patrolled to prevent unauthorized fishing, which may ruin the experiments. Under the present system of management, and barring unforeseen circumstances, the pearl oyster fishery around Margarita Island is expected to continue with occasional interruptions v/ithout danger of serious depletion. But as long as the fishery is based on the ex-oloitation of natiiral oyster ground s and depends entirely on natural repopulation of oyster banks, it cazinot keep pace v/ith the increased intensity of fishing. In order to mini- mize the effects of frequent interruptions, caused by insufficient supplies of oysters, and to assure greater stability of the fishery, the present system of adjustment of fishery efforts to the existing supply should be gradually changed to a system of cultivation of pearl oysters, or oyster farming. Before such steps are undertaken by the Administrator of Fisheries, several important phases of pearl oyster biology and ecology, discussed above, itiu«t be elucidated by competent biological investigations. The program of such studies may be briefly outlined as follov/st 1. Survey of the principal pearl oyster grounds. Determination of the areas ajid density of oyster population of each zone. a. Ecological characteristics - depth, character of bottom and sea v;ater, currents, organisms associated with pearl oyster, and enemies of pearl oyster. 21 2. Survey of non-productive or 'barren grounds with the view of determining their suitability for establishing new oyster "beds by planting young pearl oysters. 3. Observation on time and intensity of spawning and setting on selected grotmds aroimd Margarita Island. a» Weekly observations at several selected stations. Spawning may be determined by examining the oysters and by taking T)lankton sam"oles and identifying the larvae. b. Study of setting by placing a series of collectors (v;ire bags filled v;ith shells or other type) which are replaced at least once a week and examined in the laboratory. c. Additional observations on the intensity and rate of setting on shellsi rocks» and other bottom material. U. Biological studies on the rate of growth of oysters. a. Determination of the exact time of their maturity and of the sex ratio. 5, Studies of the ecological factors responsible for the for- mation of pearls. Effect of parasites, commensals, and of mechanical irritation. (Elucidation of this point will be very valuable in governing the selection of ne\-r pearl grounds.) 6, Studies of the diseases and of the life histories of parasites and enemies of the pearl oyster. 7, Technological studies for developing methods of utilizing pearl oyster meats. The -orogram nay be undertaken as a v/hole, or in part. Its execution requires the establishment of a marine laboratory in Poriamar, continuous use of a motor boat (about U2-U8 ft. long) eo^uipxied with dredges, and occasional services of scaphander divers. Personnel needed for carrying out the program should consist of one marine biologist, trained in shell- fishery work, one assi=tant marine biologist, and two laboratory aides. The organization of the outlined program should be considered as a long-term project, lasting for at least 5 years. The present system of administrative management of the pearl oyster resources of Venezuela is based on sound principles of conservation. It consists of controlling the intensity of fishing in relation to the available supnly of adult oysters. Practical appli- cation of these administrative methods is both effective in conserving the natural resources end fair to the fishermen. Guided by his long experience and londerstanding of the conditions existing on Tjearl oyster grounds, the present administrator of the pearl fishery is able to manage the fishery in such a vfay as to reconcile the interests of local pearl fishermen and the needs of conservation. Barring unforeseen circumstances, the yield of the fishery, with minor fluctuations and occasional interruptions, nay be expected to continue for years. Expansion and development of the fishery, by using more effective methods of harvesting, and by increasing the abundance of the pearl oyster by planting, may be attained only by gradual adaTstation of the methods of oyster farming. The initiation of this program should be based on extensive biological and technical studies which, in general, are discussed in this rerjort. 22 ESTADOS UHIDOS de TOHEZUEIiA. IS9U, 19O8-I912. Armario Estadistico. Caracas. IjUU. Ley de reforma parcial, de la Ley Del Banco Aericola y Pecuario, IX - k, w, 726-773. Compilacion Legislativa de Venezuela, 19^^. ESTADOS mriDOS de VEIIEZIELA. MIITISTERIO de AGRICULTURA y CRfA. I9U5, Ley de Pesca de Perlas. Gaceta oficial de los Estados Unldos de Venezuela, Ho. 21, Ug3 del lU de agosto de I9UU, ih p., Caracas. FE^ffiES, J, Vi'ALTER. I91U. Prehistoric objects from a shell heap at Erin Bay, Trinidad. American Anthro- pologist U.. S. , Vol. XVI. GOMARA, FRAITCISCO Ld!PEZ, de. I7U9. Historia de las Indias. Madrid. (1st ed. 1552-53» 2 parts) HARIHG, CLARENCE H. I9I8. Tr?de and navigation between Spain and the Indies in the time of the Hapshurgs. Canbridge, d. I65. HARVARD UlIIVERSITY. 1935. The economic literature of Latin America. A tentative hihliography compiled hy the staff of the Bureau for Economic Research in Latin America, Harvard Un-ty Press. 315 PP» HEEDMAN, W. A. 1905. Report on the pearl oyster fisheries of the Gulf of Manarr, Part II. Re-oort to the Government of Ceylon on the -Dearl oyster fisheries of the Gulf of Uanaar. 76 pp. , IX plates. Published by Royal Society, London. HUMBOLDT, von, ALEXAfTDER, and AIMS? BOUPLAilD. 1S22. Personal narrative of travels to the eo_uinoctial regions of the New Continent during the years 1799-180U. 3d edition. Vols. I, II, London. JIMfflilEZ, CARLOS RODRIGDBZ. 1933* Venezuela, I9O8-I933. Libro de informaci(Jn general sobre Venezuela. Tokio, 303 P?« KOTZ, GEEORGE FREDERICK and STEVENSON, CHARLES HUGH. 1908. The Book of the Pearl, 5U-S pp.. New York. LMDAETA ROSALES, MANUEL. lgS9. Gran recopilacion geograf ica, estadistica e historica de Venezuela. Vol. 1 and 2. Caracas. LAS CASAS, BARTOLON? de 1875-1876. Historia de las Indias. 3 volumes, ed. by M. Agiiilar, Madrid. LIDDLE, RALPH ALEXANDER. 1928. The Geology of Venezuela and Trinidad. XXXIX, 552 pp., J. P. MacGowan, Fort V/orth, Texas. 2k BIBIIOSIAPHY A1L3N, GLOVER M. 1902. The mammals of Margarita Island, Venezuela. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. 17, pp. 91-97. SJIJTGS, cunuiM. 1SS8, A nev/ marine oppostm from Margarita Island. Proc, Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XII, Tjp. 95. 96* 5ARALT, RAPAEL MARIA. 18UU. Resiimen de la Historia de Venezuela. Paris, UU2 x>^t A BOOT, TH. De. 1913. Certain Kltchen-niddens in Jamaika. American Antropologist H. S. , Vol. XV, No. 3. 1916. Hotes on the archeology of Margarita Island, Venezuela. Contributions from the Museiim of the American Indian Heye Poundation, Vol. II, No. 5, pp. 1-P.S, Ne\-f York. BRICEli'O, M. de. 1825* Historia de la Isla de Margarita. Segunda edici