te.
oes:
es

toy » B Algo oe
* Ls iaheh ”*
ak or on)

Teergay>

ar

-

Leth ote ee
- adn diy nae
Fi seme
.

wa on
ve og
awed

eh peer =< *
Fascertners
orn e
i

’ ~ ad pone he
ene polenet o-¢ ree yene,

Shape pee cd Arty lated
wat seat

“er

‘yeictew rp -er@ep seh eevas ravi
SITS aS aber +4

DhiMeareca i$
' 5 ae We

SPOLIA ZHYLANICA.

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of the
Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the inform-
ation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement of
Science.

It will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,
Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic
knowledge of the natural resources (Zoology, Anthropology, Topo-
graphy, Geology) of the Island and of the surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts, -the size of which will
depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to
the quarter days as possible.

The Journal will be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks,
and lithographic plates.

Authors will receive 25 copies of their contributions gratis, or
50 copies if desired.

Subscription, Rs. 5 per annum ; single copies, Re. 1:25 ; post free.

Communications should be addressed to the Director, Colombo
Museum.

Complete sets of this Journal may also be obtained from Messrs.
R. Friedlander and Sohn, 11, Carlstrasse, Berlin, N.W.; from
Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, London ; and from Messrs.
Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.C.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

ISSUED BY

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM...
[es = mh
| - CEYLON. po

,'

ae

Vou. VII. Part XXV. SEPTEMBER, 1910.

CONTENTS.

a COLOMBO:
5D? H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

| 1. Punnett, R. C., M.A.— a
| **Mimicry ” in Ceylon Butterflies, with a suggestion
| as to the nature of Polymorphism Ea =4 |
2. Duncker, G.—
| On some Syngnathids (‘‘ Pipe Fish”’) from Ceylon. . 25
3. Wall, Major F., I.M.S.—
Remarks on some recently acquired Ceylon Snakes. . 35
4. Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc.—
Notes on Kandyan Art ae oe 39
5. Gravely, F. H.—
Pedipalpi of Ceylon Ke es 43
6. Notes.—E. G. Reeves, A. Willey, E. E. Green,
C. Drieberg fe us an 48
With Five Plates, and Figures in the Text.
[For Rate of Subscription and other Information see back of Cover.]}
|

| C pox 1910. at

Ber

:

EDITORIAL NOTICE.

In consequence ot the departure of Dr. A. Willey from Ceylon
the editorship of this journal has been taken over for the time being,
in accordance with Government approval, by the Government

Entomologist.
EK. ERNEST GREEN,

Government Entomologist,
August, 1910. Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya.

Crown 8vo., 1,242 pages, 14 coloured plates and 373 text figures.
Price 21s, nett,

MANUAL OF TROPICAL MEDICINE,

BY

ALDO CASTELLANTI, M.D. (Florence),

Director of the Clinique for Tropical Diseases, Ceylon ; Professor of Tropical
Medicine and Lecturer on Dermatology, Ceylon Medical College ;
Member of the Royal Society’s Commission on Sleeping
Sickness in Uganda (1902-1903).

AND

ALBERT J. CHALMERS, M.D. (Victoria and
Liverpool), F.R.C.S. (Eng.), D.P.H. (Cam.),

Registrar and Lecturer on Pathology and Animal Parisitology, Ceylon
Medical College ; Holt Fellow, University College, Liverpool
(1890) ; Medical Officer, Gold Coast Colony (1897-1901).

LONDON:

BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & Cox,
8, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1910.

CONTENTS.

Part I.—Intrropuorory. History of Tropical Medicine; Tropical
Climatology; Effects of Tropical Climates on Man ;
Incidence of Disease in the Tropics.

Part IT.—CavsatTion or DISEASE IN THE TROPICS.
Section A.—Physical Causes of Disease.
Section B.—Chemical Causes of Disease.
Section C.—Biological Causes of Disease.

Parr III.—TuHeE DISEASES OF THE TROPICS.
Section A.—Fevers.
Section B.—General Diseases.
Section C.—Systemic Diseases.

SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of the
Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the inform-
ation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement of
Science. ;

It will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,
Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic
knowledge of the natural resources (Zoology, Anthropology, Topo-.
graphy, Geology) of the Island and of the surrounding seas, _

Kach Volume will consist of four Parts, the size of which will
depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to
the quarter days as possible.

The Journal will.be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks,
and lithographic plates. .

Authors will receive 25 copies of their contributions gratis, or
50 copies if desired.

Subscription, Rs. 5 per annum ; single copies, Re. 1:25 ; post free.

Communications should be addressed to the Director, Colombo
Museum.

Complete sets of this Journal may also be obtained from Messrs.
R. Friedlander and Sohn, 11, Carlstrasse, Berlin, N.W.; from
Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, London ; and from Messrs.
Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.C.

tos

| SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THH COLOMBO MUSEUM,
CEYLON. ae

Y 2

EDITED BY

} ;

JOSEPH PEARSON, D.Sc., F.LS., >

Director of the Colombo Museum.

Vou. VII.—Partr XXVI. DECEMBER, 1910.

CONTENTS.
1. Annandale; N., D.Sc., F.A.S.B.— PAGE
‘¢ Sand-flies”’ (Phlebotomus) from Peradeniya i 57

Note on a Fresh-water Sponge and Polyzoon from

Ceylon os ae a 63
3. Dobell, C. Clifford, M.A.—
On some Parasitic Protozoa from Ceylon af 65
4. Willey, A., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.—
Notes on the Fresh-water Fisheries of Ceylon iY 88
5. Notes.—E. E. Green, J. Pearson, F. H. Gravely = 106

With Plates and Text Figures,

[For Rate of Subscription and other Information see back of Cover.]

COLOMBO:
H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

2. Annandale, N., D.Sc., F.A.S.B.—

Crown 8vo., 1,242 pages, 14 coloured plates and 373 text figures.
Price 21s. nett.

MANUAL OF TROPICAL MEDICINE,

BY

ALDO CASTELLANI, M.D. (Florence),

Director of the Clinique for Tropical Diseases, Ceylon ; Professor of Tropical
Medicine and Lecturer on Dermatology, Ceylon Medical College ;
Member of the Royal Society’s Commission on Sleeping
Sickness in Uganda (1902-1903).

AND

ALBERT J. CHALMERS, M.D. (Victoria and
Liverpool), F.R.C.S. (Eng.), D.P.H. (Cam.),

Registrar and Lecturer on Pathology and Animal Parisitology, Ceylon
Medical College ; Holt Fellow, University College, Liverpool
(1890) ; Medical Officer, Gold Coast Colony (1897-1901).

LONDON:

BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & Cox,
8, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1910.

CONTENTS.

Part I.—IntTRoDuctroryY. History of Tropical Medicine; Tropical
Climatology; Effects of Tropical Climates on Man ;
Incidence of Disease in the Tropics.

Part II.—CAauSATION OF DISEASE IN THE TROPICS.

Section A.—Physical Causes of Disease.
Section B.—Chemical Causes of Disease.
Section C.—Biological Causes of Disease.

Part IIJ.—TuHE DISEASES OF THE TROPICS.

Section A.—Fevers.
Section B.—General Diseases. °
Section C.—Systemic Diseases.

ea)

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

4

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knoe eas

Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the infor-

mation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement

of Science.

It will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,

Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic —

knowledge of the natural resources (Zoology, Anthropology, Topo-
graphy, Geology) of the Island and of the surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts’, the size of which will
depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to

the quarter days as possible.

The Journal will be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks? |

and lithographic plates.

Authors will receive 25 copies of their a ee gratis, or

50 copies if desired.
Subscription, Rs. 5 per annum ; single copies, Re. 1:25 ; post free.

Communications should be addressed to the Director, Colombo
Museum.

Complete sets of this Journal may also be obtained from Messrs.

R. Friedlander and Sohn, 11, Carlstrasse, Berlin, N.W.; from
Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, London ; and from Messrs.
Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.C.

-—

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

ISSUED FROM

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM,
CEYLON.

JOSEPH PEARSON, D.S8c., F.L.S.,

Director of the Colombo Museum.

Vou. VII.—Part XXVII. May, 1911.
CONTENTS.
1. Ikeda, Dr. Iwaji— PAGE
Notes on a New Land Planarian from Ceylon ae nes

2. Southwell, T.—

Some Notes on-the Ceylon Pearl-inducing Worm .. 124

3. Gravely, F. H.—

The Species of Ceylon Pedipalpi .. are 135

4. Turner, Rowland E.—

New Hymenoptera from Ceylon .. S 141

5. Meade-Waldo, Geoftrey—

A New Mason Wasp wa ahd 155

Ge Wall, EF.
The Egg-tooth in the Ceylon Krait, or Karawella

(Bungarus ceylonicus) : 157
7. Notes.—N. Annandale, J. L1. Thomas, P. E. Pieris,
A. A. Perera, E. E. Green aa De tag

With Plates and Text Figures,

[For Rate of Subscription and other Information see back of Cover. |

COLOMBO:
H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1911.

Crown 8vo., 1,242 pages, 14 coloured plates and 373 text figures.
Price 21s. nett.

MANUAL OF TROPICAL MEDICINE,

BY

ALDO CASTELLANI, M.D. (Florence),

Director of the Clinique for Tropical Diseases, Ceylon ; Professor of Tropical
Medicine and Lecturer on Dermatology, Ceylon Medical College ;
Member of the Royal Society's Commission on Sleeping
Sickness in Uganda (1902-1903).

AND

ALBERT J. CHALMERS, M.D. (Victoria and
Liverpool), F.R.C.S. (Eng.), D.P.H. (Cam.),

Registrar and Lecturer on Pathology and Animal Parisitology, Ceylon
Medical College ; Holt Fellow, University College, Liverpool
(1890) ; Medical Officer, Gold Coast Colony (1897-1901).

LONDON:

BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & Cox,
8, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1910.

CONTENTS.

Part I.—InTRopvctory. History of Tropical Medicine; Tropical
Climatology; Effects of Tropical Climates on Man;
Incidence of Disease in the Tropics.

Parr II.—CausaTIOoN oF DISEASE IN THE TROPICS.

Section A.—Physical Causes of Disease.
Section B.—Chemical Causes of Disease.
Section C.—Biological Causes of Disease.

Part III.—TuHE DiIsEkaAses or THE TROPICS.

Section A.—Fevers.
Section B.—General Diseases.
Section C.—Systemic Diseases.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of the
Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the infor-
mation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement
of Science.

Tt will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,
Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic
knowledge of the natural resources (Zoology, Anthropology,
Archeology, Topography, Geology) of the Island and of the
surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts, the size of which will
depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to
the quarter days as possible.

The Journal will be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks,
and lithographic plates.

Authors will receive 25 copies of their contributions gratis, or
50 copies if desired.

Subscription, Rs. 5 per annum ; single copies, Re. 1-25 ; post free.

Communications should be addressed to the Director, Colombo
Museum.

Complete sets of this Journal may also be obtained from Messrs.
R. Friedlander and Sohn, 11, Carlstrasse, Berlin, N.W.; from

Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 15, Piccadilly, London ; and from Messrs.
Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.C.

ISSUED FROM

Pr COLOMBO MUSEUM, ;
CEYLON.

EDITED BY

JOSEPH PEARSON, D.Sc., F.L.S.,

Director of the Colombo Museum.

Vou. Vil.—Parr XXVIII. Aveust, 1911.

CONTENTS.

1, Pearson, J.—
Ceylon Crustacea, Part I., Notes on the Alpheide. . 169

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

to

Annandale, N.—
A new Genus of Short-beaked Gnats from Ceylon .. 187

3. Southwell, T.—

Some remarks on the occurrence of Cestodes in Ceylon 194
4, Hartley, C.—

An exploration of the Beligal-ge, near Balangoda .. 197
5. Review.—C. Hartley . 201

6. Notes.—N. Adinstdele. N. Manders, re EF. pen etonaber.

J. Pearson, A. H. ee E. E. Green, J. C. F.

Fryer : oe 203
7. Index of Vol. VII.

With Plates and Text Figures.

[For Rate of Subscription and other Information see back of Cover.]

COLOMBO:
H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

L91T.

Pages xix. + 463, 61 Plates, and a Map of Ceylon, price 15s. nett.

THE VEDDAS:

BY

C. G. SELIGMANN, M.D.

Lecturer in Ethnology in the University of London,
AND

BRENDA Z. SELIGMANN.

WITH A CHAPTER BY

C. 8S. MYERS, M.D., D.Sc.

AND AN APPENDIX BY

A. MENDIS GUNASEKERA, Mudaliyar.

CAMBRIDGE:
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

1911.

ae

-
ee
=»
er
—
~~
-_—T

at
7

=e

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of the
Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the infor-
mation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement
of Science.

Tt will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,
Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic
knowledge of the natura! resources (Zoology, Anthropology,
Archeology, Topography, Geology) of the Is!and and of the
surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts, the size of which will
depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to
the quarter days as possible.

The Journal will be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks,
and lithographic plates.

Authors will receive 25 copies of their contributions gratis, or
50 copies if desired.

Subscription, Rs. 5 per volume; single copies, Re. 1:25; post free.

Communications should be addressed to the Director, Colombo
Museum.

SPOLIA ZKYLANICA,

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM,

CHY LON.

VOLUME VII.

COLOMBO:
H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

ISLE

CONTENTS OF VOLUME VII.

Part XXV.—SEPTEMBER, 1910.

PAGE
._l. Punnett, R. C., M.A.—
‘““Mimicry ”’ in Ceylon Butterflies, with a suggestion as to
the nature of Polymorphism Se aa 1

2. Duncker, G.—
On some Syngnathids (‘‘ Pipe Fish ’’) from Ceylon ie 25

3. Wall, Major F., I.M.S.—
Remarks on some recently acquired Ceylon Snakes = 35

4, Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Se.—

Notes on Kandyan Art. . £2 5 39
5. Gravely, F. H.—
Pedipalpi of Ceylon... Sif ot 43
6. Notes.—
1. Bee-eaters as Fish-eaters. E.G. Reeves, A. eaeee
E. E. Green : 48
2. (a) A Blood-sucking Bug. KE. E. Green a0 50
(b) The Colombo Lake Fly. E. E. Green ats 50
3. Crows as Fishers. C. Drieberg and A. Willey ic 51
4, Rambling Notes. E. E. Green—
(a) Life-history of a common Ceylon Butterfly .. 51
(b) Curious minatory action of a harmless Snake. . 53
(c) A living chain of Ants vt a 53
(d) A case of Snake-bite 54
(e) Reproduction of Leaf- insects by Par theno-
genesis OW 54
(f) Homoptera infested by Stylops me 55
(g) Hare attacked by Crow ee 5h 55
(h) An effective Butterfly Trap .. Ae 55
(¢) Characteristic odour of Leaf-cutting Bees... 55
(j) Food of the Reduviid Bug, Physorhynchus
linnet feo heels
(k) The Call of the Green Gr asshopper 56
(l) Sudden appearance of an African Snail in
Ceylon bt I el bs 56

Part XXVI.—DeEcEMBER, 1910.
1. Annandale, N., D.Sc., F.A.8.B.—
‘* Sand-flies ’’ (Phlebotomus) from Peradeniya af bil

2. Annandale, N., D.Sc., F.A.S.B.—

Note on a Fresh-water Sponge and Polyzoon from Ceylon 63

(alae)

PAGE
Dobell, C. Clifford, M.A.—
On some Parasitic Protozoa from Ceylon sy 65
4, Willey, A., M.A., D.Se.,.F.R.S.—
Notes on the Fresh-water Fisheries of Ceylon 22 88
5. Notes.—
5. Rambling Notes. E. EK. Green—
Life of the Leaf Insect as Sn 106
A Cannibal Bat .. 7. Ba 106
A Large Green Viper zis ae 106
A Passenger-carrying Beetle i ae 107
Palm Squirrel and Butterfly he oe, TOT
Crows and their Ways a5 a 107
6. The Ceylon Giant Tortoise. J. Pearson st) S08
7. An interesting Frog. J. Pearson .. sts 110
8. The African Land Snailin Ceylon. J. Pearson at 110
9. Symphyla of Ceylon. F. H. Gravely aaa
Part XXVII.—May, 1911.
1. Ikeda, Dr. Iwaji—
Notes on a New Land Planarian from Ceylon ah 113
2. Southwell, T.—
Some Notes on the Ceylon Pearl-inducing Worm - 124
3. Gravely, F. H.—
The Species of Ceylon Pedipalpi the 2 SS
4. Turner, Rowland E.—
New Hymenoptera from Ceylon BI Se 141
5. Meade-Waldo, Geoffrey—
A new Mason Wasp _... th ss 155
6. Wall, F.—
The Egg-tooth in the Ceylon Krait, or Karawella bei
garus ceylonicus) se : : 157
7. Notes.—
10. Correction as regards the Ceylon Species of Phle-
botomus. N. Annandale 159
ll. The Ceylon Jungle Fowl in Captivity. [pao
Thomas 159
12. Pelenda Nuwara. Pp. Ey Pieris) 92% Se 161
13. Child’s Play. A. A. Perera 163
14. A convenient method of storing Butterflies in Paper
Envelopes. K. E. Green 164
15. On a curious Scolopendriform Caterpillar (Homodes
fulva, Hampson). E. E. Green .. 166

16. On the Larva of Panilla pts cee Wilk. E. E.
Green ; 168

Gavan)

Part XXVIII.—Aveusrt, 1911.

Pearson, J.—
Ceylon Crustacea: Part I., Notes on the Alpheide

Annandale, N.—
A new Genus of Short-beaked Gnats from Ceylon
Southwell, T.—
Some remarks on the occurrence of Cestodes in Ceylon . .
Hartley, C.—
An exploration of Beligal-ge, near Balangoda
Hartley, C.—
Review. .
Notes.—
17. Further Note on Flies of the Genus Philebotomus.
N. Annandale
18. Contest between a Mynah (Acr idotheres tristis) and
@ Locust (Acridiwm violascens). N.Manders ..
19. The Effects of the Bite of Ancistrodon eee
A. F. Abercromby
20. Notes on Ceylon Snakes. A. F. Abereromby
21. Abnormal Chicken with Four Legs. J. Pearson
22. Sun-fish caught near Jaffna. J. Pearson
23. The Giant Tortoise at Galle. J. Pearson
24. The Gourami. J. Pearson
25. Proposed further attempt to introduce the Gourami
(Osphromenus olfax) into Ceylon, with notes on a
suitable locality. A. H. Pertwee
26. On the Occasional Luminosity of the Beetle Harma-
telia bilinea. E. E. Green
27. On the probable occurrence of Field Mice in Ceylon.
EK. E. Green :
28. On some Butterflies of the Horton Plains. E. E.
Green
29. On an interesting aberration of Vanessa (Pyrameis)
indica. E. E. Green
30. On Megaderma lyra, its Habits and Parasites,
E. E. Green ae
31. Capture of a Mouse by a large Spider. EK. E. Green
32. On the Employment of a Snake-stone in a case of
Centipede-bite. E. E. Green :
33. Notes on the Larve of Papilio polytes, P. demoleus,
P, helenus (race mooreanus), and P. polymmestor
(race parinda). J. C. F. Fryer . ee
34. Filodes mirificalis, a good species. J. C. F. Fryer..

PAGE

169

187

194

(

INDEX TO VOLUME VII.

vii

)

SUBJECT

Aberration (of Vanessa indica), 215

Abnormal chicken, 207, 208

African snail, 56, 110

Alpheidz, 169-186

Amphibia, 67, 73

Anguluwa, 97, 99

Ankutta, 91, 92

Ants, 53

Anuradhapura,‘ 217

Ara, 94

Aristolochize—form (of Papilio polytes),
5 Wa Up a ally

Arthropods, 73

Artificial fertilization, 101

Asilid flies, 11, 13, 14, 15

Atanguwa, 90

Barawe fishery, 89, 90

Baru-dela, 90, 97

Batakola-telliya, 89, 92

Bats, 106, 216

Beads, 40

Bee-eaters, 48

Beetles, 107, 217

Beligal-ge, 197-200

Birds, 10.15, 71

Blood-suckers, 11

Bo-leaf ornaments, 41

Bug, blood-sucking, 50

Butter-fish, 91

Butterflies, 1-24, 51, 55,107,164, 215-
217

Butterfly trap, 55

Call of grasshopper, 56
Carnivorous bat, 106, 216
Caterpillars, 166, 168, 217-222
Cat-fishes, 91

Caudal tubercles, 219

Cave exploration, 197-200
Centipede bite, 217

Cestodes, 124-134, 194-196
Ceylon crustacea, 169-186
hymenoptera, 141-156
jungle fowl, 159
——— krait, 157

——— pedipalpi, 43, 135
——— snakes, 35-38, 205-207
——— symphyla, 110

Chank, 39

Chicken (abnormal), 207, 208
Child’s play, 163

Climbing perch, 91
Cockroaches, 217
Colombo harbour, 175, 182
Crocodiles, 68, 79, 83
Crows, 10, 51, 55, 107, 108

Dandiya, 94
Delft, 185
Diyatalawa, 187, 215

INDEX.

| Egg-tooth, 157

Enemies of butterflies, 9, 10, 11, 12,
130 L4e15

Eswattiya, 89

Field mice, 214

Filigree beads, 40

Fish-eating bee-eaters, 48, 49, 50
Fisheries, 88—104

Fishes, 66, 89, 104, 130, 208, 209-212
Fish-traps, 89, 90, 98

Flight (butterflies), 7
Flycatchers, 49

Food (butterflies as), 10

——-— (larve), 4

——- (lizards), 11

——~ (fish), 131

——- (reduviid bug), 55
Fresh-water fisheries, 88-104
polyzoon

Benth 63-64
————-— tortoise 212

Frog, 110

Ganga-anda, 91

Gar-fish (fresh-water), 91

Garstin hill, 208, 209

Gecko, 217

Genitalia (sand-flies), 61

Giant tortoise, 108, 208, 209

Gnats, 187-193

Gobies, 91

Gourami, 95, 96, 104, 209, 210, 21],
212

Grasshopper, 56, 217

Green viper, 106

Habits (alpheide), 169
= (locast), 204

——— (Megaderma lyra), 106, 216
——— (mynah), 204
Hemogregarine, 79

Hal-kula, 92

Hanwella, 89, 90

Hare, 55

Harmless snakes, 53

| Hesperids, 22

Hiri-kanaya, 90
Hirimbura, 208, 209
Homoptera, 55
Horton plains, 214
Hunga, 92, 103
Hymenoptera, 141

Thivetiya-ela, 89
lliya, 98

| India, 220

India swiftlet, 50
Indian otter, 212

| Jafina, 208

Dragon-flies, 22, 23
Dung beetles, 107

Ja-kotu, 90

| Jungle fowl, 159

( viii )

Kaduwa, 94

Kana-magura, 98

Kandyan art, 39-42

Kandy waterworks reservoir, 211
Karakgediya, 89 :
Karawella, 37, 157

Kavaiya, 91, 92, 102, 103

Kayts harbour, 208

Kemina, 89

Kendeya, 103

Kingfishers, 48, 49

Koraliya, 91, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 102
Krait, 157, 206

Kudupuwa, 91

Kurunegala, 206

Labelling fish, 104

Lake fly, 50

Land planarian, 113-123

Land snail, 110

Larva, 168

Leaf-cutting bees, 55

Leaf insects, 54, 106

Lela, 90

Life histories, 51

Lizards, 11, 12, 13, 15, 68, 69, 70, 73,
Wily ZANy

Locust, 204

Lula, 89, 92, 103

Luminosity, 212

Madaya, 92, 101
Madras langur, 200
Magpie robin, 10
Magura, 92, 103
Mahseer, 104
Maguruwaka, 94
Maldives, 171
Malta, 203
Malu-bana, 93
Mammals, 71, 73
Mas-ge or mas-kotuwa, 90
Maskeliya, 213
Mason wasp, 155
Mimicry, 1-24
Moda, 89, 99
Molkawa fishery, 94
Molluses, 73
Monkeys, 15
Moralla, 26

Mouse, 217

Mouse deer, 200
Mynahs, 11, 204

Night lines, 93

Padduwa caste, 89

Pala-dela, 90

Palm squirrel, 107

Parasitic protozoa, 65

Parasites (frogs and toads), 74

——_——— (lizards), 77.

———-— (Megaderma lyra), 216

—_———— (Tropidonotus stolatus), 77

———_— (white ants), 80

Parrot, 108

Parthenogenesis, 54

Pearl banks, 170, 1738, 174, 175, 177,
178, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185

Pearl-inducing worm, 124-134, 195

Pedipalpi, 43, 135

Pelenda Nuwara, 161

Peradeniya, 210,212, 213, 214,215, 222
Petiya, 94

Phlebotomus, 57-62, 159, 203, 204
Pipe fish, 25-34

Pisciculture, 100, 101, 209-212
Planarian, 113-123

Play, 163

Polymorphism, 1, 15, 16, 17
Polyzoon, 63-64

Powder horn, 39

Protozoa, 65

Pusweli-ganga, 89, 93

Rangalla,

Red ants, 53

Reduviid bugs, 50, 55
Reptiles, 68

Rhopalocera of Ceylon, 1-24
Rhopaloceran diet, 10

River fishing, 89, 93
Royston crow, 51

Saliya, 89

Sand-flies, 57

Scolopendriform caterpillar, 166

Scorpion spiders, 43, 44, 46, 47

Snail, 56, 110

Snail cave, 197-200

Snail shells, 197, 198, 200

Snake bite, 54, 107, 205

Snakes, 35, 53, 70, 71, 73, 77,°78, 83,
205, 206, 207

Snake stone, 217

Snapping shrimps, 169

South America, 217

Spider, 217

——— bird-eating, 217

Sponge, 63

Stock-drill weight, 39

Storing butterflies, 164

Stylops 55

Sun-fish, 208

Symphyla, 110

Syngnathids, 25-34

Tambalaya, 96

Tamblegam, 181, 185
Tarantula, 217

Tartarids, 46, 47, 135, 136
Telliya, 89

Termites, 80, 83

Tick-flies, 216

Tora-anguluwa, 97

Tortoises, 68, 108
Trincomalee, 170, 172, 179, 182

Veddas, 200, 201, 202
Vetiya or veta, 89
Viper, 107

Wakwella, 90

Wala fishery, 91, 92, 93
Walapota, 91

Walaya, 89

Water rat, 214
Wel-anguluwa, 97
Weligama, 177, 185
Weligowa, 91, 103
Wellawaya, 222

Whip scorpions, 44, 45, 46, 47
White ants, 80

Zostera, 26

NAME INDEX.

Abercromby, A. F., 205-207

Abeysingha, F. D., 209

Abrew, A. de, 163

Aitken, 219

Allen, Grant, 49

Alwis, A. D., 24

Andre, 142

Annandale, N., 57, 63, 159, 187-193,
203, 204

Apstein, 64

Bailey, 201

Bamber, M. Kelway, 96, 211

Barton, Capt. F. R., 163

Bates, 5

Bate, Spence, 182

Bateson, 18

Bell, 219

Berestneffi, N., 67, 68, 69

Beylié, Gen., 41

Bezzenberger, E., 72, 74, 75, 77

Billet, A., 77

Bingham, Lieut.-Col., 141, 142, 149,
156

Black, J., 208, 209

Blandford, 106

Bliss, G. E., 161

Blyth, 49, 106

Borner, C., 79

Boulenger, G. A., 35, 37, 38, 106, 110,
207

Bourgeois, J., 214

Briscoe, P. C., 54

Buckland, F., 51

Butschli, O., 80

Cameron, 141, 142, 152

Casse Lebbe, A. B., 39

Castellani, Dr. A., 66, 67, 69, 70, 71

Chalmers, Dr. A. J., 195

Conroy, J., 95

Coomaraswamy, A. K., 39

Coutiére, H., 171, 172, 177, 182, 183,
184, 185

Darwin, C., 50

Davidson, 219

Distant, 4

Dobellk Cy Cx ls. 145237, 65,72
Doerr, 57

Doflein, F., 10, 80, 84
Doneaster, L., 18

Drieberg, C., 51

Duncker, G., 25

Ferdinandus, 136, 137

Finn, F., 13

Fletcher, T. B., 141

Fowler, G. M., 211

Frantz, 57

Frenzel, J., 80

Fryer, J. C. F., 21, 214, 217-222

Gadow, 109

Gahan, C. J., 213
Gamble, 129

Garstin, Dr. N., 209
de Grandpré, A. D., 96
Grassi, 57

b

|

Grassi, B., 80

Grassi, J. B., 80

Gravely, F. H., 43, 58, 111, 135

Gray, A. C. H., 79

Green, E. E., 1, 7, 21, 24, 35, 44, 45,
46, 47, 49, 50, 56, 58, 65, 96, 108,
110, 157, 158, 167,168, 187, 2Q1,
203, 210, 212-217, 220

Giinther, A., 110

de Haan, 182, 183

Haase, 5

Haly, 37

Hankey, A. A., 209

Hansen, Dr. H. J., 111, 135, 136,137,
139

Harbord, G., 217

Harrison, A., 20

Hartley, C., 197-200, 201, 202

Hartshorne, B. L., 201

Henry, G., 169

Herdman, Prof. W. A., 124, 126,
128, 170

Holdsworth, 49

Holland, W. D., 197

Hopkins, Dr. F. G., 23

Hornell, J., 129, 131, 132, 194

Imms, A. D., 111
Iwaji Ikeda, Dr., 113

Johnson, C., 160

Kelaart, 124
Kent, W. Saville, 80

| Keppitipola, T. B., 41, 42

Kknox, 201
Kraepelin, K., 135

Lacombe, Rev. L., 54
Lamb, C., 14
Laveran, 71

Lederer, 220

Legge, 49

Leidy, J., 80, 81, 82
Lespes, 80

Lock, R. H., 1, 65
Lydekker, 109

Macbride, 10, 11

MacDougall, Major, 187, 188, 192, 215
Mackwood, Hon. F., 1

Main, H., 20

| Manders, Col. N., 1, 3, 8, 204. 205

Marchoux, 79

| Marshall, 10
| Meade-Waldo, G., 155

Meijere, Dr. J. C. H. de, 21, 62
Metcalf, M. M., 76
Milne-Edwards, 177

| Minchin, Prof. E, A., 15, 69, 79
| Moore, 4, 220

Neresheimer, E., 68
Nevill, H., 201
Newstead, B., 203, 204

| Parker, H., 40, 202

Parsons, J., 39, 197, 198
Patton, W. 8., 67, 71

6(11)11

(ney

Pearson, Dr. J., 109, 110, 169-186, S6rensen, W., 135

200, 207-210, 211 Southwell, T., 124, 194-198
Perera, A. A., 163 Spence, Bate, 182
Pertwee, A. H., 210-212 Still, J., 49
Petch, T., 53 Tevtac dee
Pieris, P. E., 109, 163 aussig,

Plant, G. F., 162 Tennent, E., 201
Pocock, R. L, 46, 135, 136 Theobald, 187
Pole, J., 201, 212, 213 Thomas, H.8., 101
Poulton, Prof. E. B., 1, 14, 20 | Thomas, Dr. J. L., 161
Pritchett, Miss A. H., 13 ae eats =

Poe ean ’ :
Se Tulloch, F. M. G., 79
Randall, 177 Turner, R. E., 141
Raynor, Rev. G. H., 18 ;
Reeves, Col. E. G., 48, 49, 50, 100 Vigors, C. T. D., 110

NT , 70, 71, Virchow, 201
eee ewan ae 70,°71, 13 | von Graff, 114, 115, 116, Piscine

121, 122
Sandias, A5 80 Wallace, 4, 5
Sh Ee Wall, Major F., 35, 62, 157
Sarasin, P., 199, 200, 201 | Watkins & Doncaster, Messrs., 166
Saussure, 149, 151, 154 Weber, Prof. Max, 63
Sauzier, Ee : Wenyon, C. M., 69
Aira gee | Wickwar, O. S., 89, 141, 156
Son eee ee | Willey, Dr. A., 1, 23, 35, 37, 49, 50, 6,
Seligmann, C. G., 201, 02 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 88,
Shipley, A., 129, 132, 194 | 113. 128. 209, 210. 211
Simond, P. L., 71, 79 , z , §
Skeen, F., 40 | Yerbury, 141
Smith, 151 | Young, 161

LATIN INDEX.

Abraxas grossulariata, 18 | Aphanobothrium catenatum, 195
Acanthoteznia shipleyi, 195 Appias paulina, 14
Achatina fulica, 56, 110 Archigetes, 125
Acridium violascens, 204 Argynnis hyperbius, 2, 3, 16
Acridotheres tristis, 204 —-_——- paphia, 16

Agama tuberculata, 69 | Arius falearius, 97, 99

Alligator mississippiensis, 79 Artiocotylus speciosus, 119, 120, 121
Alpheide, 169-186 | Ascaris lumbricoides, 196

Alpheus, 169, 176, 177 Asilide, 13

———-— aculeipes, 171, 180 Auxomitia mirificalis, 220

—_—__— audouini, 171, 184, 185, 186 | Aviculariine, 217

—___——— his-incisus, 171, 182, 183 |

|
Aigialitis mongolica, 195 | Aristolochia, 5
|

ae ee bucephalus, Wirfibs Wey) | Badhamia exclamationis, 22
———_— frontalis, 171, 180, 186 | Balantidium, 72, 74, 83
——_—— idiocheles, 171 | —--——— — duodeni, 75
—~—— macrodactylus, 171 | ——--——-— gracilis, 75
—————— miersl, 171 | ——-—--—-— helene, 74, 75
—_—— paraculeipes, 17! | ————-—=-— hyalinum, 75
—__—— paralcyone, 171 | ———-- ovale, 74, 75
——~—— pareucheirus, 171 | —-——-—-—_— rotundum, 75
ea — phrygianus, 171, 178 Balistes, 126, 132, 133
——_—— — rapax, 171, 181 —-—-— mitis, 132

—— spongiarum, 171 © = || — -—- — stellatus, 132
__——. gtrenuus, 171, 184, 185, 186 | ——---— undulatus, 132
———— — ventrosus, 171, 176. 186 | Barbus dorsalis, 103
Amblypharyngodon melletina, 89 | —---— mahecola, 212
Amblyplana heeckeli, 122 | —---—— pinnauratus, 94, 212
—_—_-—___—. teres, 122 —— — tor, 90

Amphibia, 72 | Belone cancila, 91

Anabas scandens, 66, 91, 102, 103 | ____— strongylura, 99
Ancistrodon hypnale, 54, 70, 205 | Bilinea (Harmatelia), 213
Anguilla bengalensis, 91 Boa constrictor, 73, 83

Apatura parisatis, 2 | Borborus, 107

(

Bothridium pythonis, 195
Bothriocephalus latus, 125, 127, 128
Brochocephalus paradoxus, 195

Bufo melanostictus, 67, 72,75, 76, 77
Bulimus albizonatus, 198

Bungarus ceruleus, 206

—--———. ceylonicus, 37, 157, 206

Cacopus globulosus, 110
——-——. systoma, 110
Callichrous bimaculatus, 91
Callophis, 38, 107

Callophis trimaculatus, 37
Callotermes flavicollis, 82
— militaris, 74, 80
Calotes ophiomachus, 11, 69
— versicolor, 11, 69, 70
Cardui (Vanessa), 215
Catopsilia pyranthe, 14
Ceratophora stoddartii, 69
Ceratopogon, 57

Cerberus rhynchops, 70 %
Cervus axis, 195

Chalcosia venosa, 23
Chanos salmoneus, 99
Chaoborus, 187, 188
SS ASIA ICUSE) LOS
—_—_—-— pallida, 192

— plumicornis, 192
Chatcesus nasus, 99
Chironomus ceylonicus, 50
Chromides, 94

Chrysopelea ornata, 71
Chrysophrys berda, 99
Cimex lectularius, 50
Cinnyris zeylanica, 106, 216
Citrus, 218

Citto-tzenia bursaria, 195
Clarias magur, 66, 92, 103
Colias edusa, 16, 20
Conorhinus rubrofasciatus, 50
—-—_—— sanguisugus, 50
Coprini, 107

Corethra, 187

—-——— (Mochlonyx) velutina, 192
Corethride, 187, 188

Corone macrorhyncha, 108
Corvus macrorhynchus, 71, 195
— splendens, 71
Corythroichthys conspicillatus, 29
Cotyloplanide, 113, 119
Crateropus striatus, 71
Crocodilus frontatus, 79
—_—-——— porosus, 68, 79
Crotali, 207

Culex, 187, 192

Culicide, 187, 188, 192
Cursorius europzus, 128
Cyaniris lanka, 215

——_—— singalensis, 215
Cyprinide, 89, 94

Cysticercus, 195

—_—-—- —— acanthotrias, 195
SS cellulos5.1:25,-195

Danais aglea, 55

——_— chrysippus, 2, 3, 13
—_—— plexippus, 2, 3, 13, 16
—_—_— septentrionis, 3
—_——= vulgaris, 2, 3, 12
Davainea polyealcaria, 195

sry}

Delias eucharis, 2, 11, 12
Dendrelophis tristis, 35, 36, 70
Dendroecygna javanica, 194
Dendrophis, ’07
Dendrophis bifrenalis, 205, 207
———-—--- pictus, 207
Dielis, 154
—-—— rubromaculata, 154
Diorchis occlusa, 195
Diplochetes volvulus, 195
Diplydium caninum, 195, 196
Dipsas barnesii, 206
——— ceylonensis, 53, 205, 207
= forsteni, 206
Dipsadomorphus ceylonensis, 70, 71
a forstenii, 70, 71
Diptera, 13
Discalis (Harmatelia), 213
Dolichoplana, 114, 118, 121
ee LONG Ory alone
—-— neitneri, 122
Doryichthys cunculus, 25, 27
——__-_____ ocellatus, 25, 28
Dryophis mycterizans, 70, 71, 73, 205,
207
Duthiersia fimbriata, 195

Echinococcus, 125, 194 :

——--—_____— granulosus, 194

Elenchus, 55

Eleotris fusca, 91

Elops saurus, 99

Elymnias fraterna, 2, 3, 16

—--——-—_ singhala, 2

Emyda vittata, 68

Entameeba, 72, 83

———— ranarum, 72

Ergolis, 2

Etroplus suratensis, 66, 91, 94, 97, 99,
102

Eupleea asela, 55

a COLe pa ela ees

—-—— spp., 2, 3, 10

Euschema maculata, 12

Felis pardus, 195

Filariz, 70

Filodes bilinealis, 222

——— — fulvidorsalis, 220, 221
—_—— mirificalis, 220, 221
Funambulus palmarum, 71

Gadus, 134

Gastrotokeus, 25

——______—_— biaculeatus, 25

Gerres limbatus, 99

——-— lucidus, 99

Ginglymostoma concolor, 129, 130, 131

Girardinia heterophylla, var. palmata,
215

Gobius giuris, 66, 67, 91, 103

Gymnonympha zeylanica, 80, 81

Hemocystidium simondi, 68, 69
Hemogregarina berestneffi, 67, 74
= — crocoullunorum, 09

| ————--—— hankini, 79

See Se a fate mirabilis, 71

| —_______---__ nicoriz, 68
ant HOMSO NI 109

Hxemoproteus, 71

( x)

Haliastur indus, 195
Hansenia glanea, 22
Haplogeusis coylanica, 214
Harmatelia, 212, 213
ee SS pilines, 212, 213, 214
a = discalis; 214
Hebotomus minutus, 62
Helicops schistosus, 70
Hemidactylus depressus, 69
——_— ——_— —— frenatus, 69
——_—$ —__—_— leschenaultii, 68, 69, 73,
TITS
——_—_—_——_— triedrus, 69, 78
Hemiramphus xanthopterus, 99
Hippobosca, 216
Hippocampus brevirostris, 33
—— — — —— guttatus, 33, 34
—_——_——_——_—_— kuda, 33, 34
Hipposideris speoris, 195
Homodes crocea, 166
ss fulva. 6G, Vor
Se VV as OO
Hydrus platyurus, 70
Hyla arborea, 76
Hymenolepis clausa, 194
—_—--—-— —murina, 125
——_--—_—__— nana, 125
——--——— septarai, 194
——--——_— spinosa, 194
Hypolimnas bolina, 2, 15
—-— misippus, 2, 3

Ichthyotznia cryptobothrium, 199
Indica (Vanessa), 216

Ixalus leucorrhinus, 67, 72

Ixias, 11

Jenia, 80

Junonia almana, 12
paiva) 12, co
———— lemonias, 14

Labeo dussumieri, 90
Labochirus proboscideus, 45
Lampyride, 212, 213
Lankesterella, 68

Lates calearifer, 89, 97, 99
Leidyonella, 80

Lepus nigricollis, 71, 195
Lethe daretis, 215

Lobipluvia malabarica, 195
Lophoceros gingalensis, 195
Lophomonas, 80

Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 132
—_——— jahngarah, 96
Lycodon, 205

a MICUS ais ils 200
JS prAvUs LOO
Lygosoma punctatum, 69, 73
Lyriocephalus, 13
—--<——__-____ scutatus, 69, 73

Mabuia carinata, 69, 73, 77
Macrones, 91

Se NCAMASIUS O07
—_——— gulio, 97
Mastacembelus armatus, 89
Megachile, 55

Megaderma lyra, 106, 216
Megalops cyprinoides, 98
Meropide, 49

Merops, 10

Merops philippinus, 49
—-—--_ swinhom, 49

SS VIIOISaEAS)

Methoca, 152

SS DicGlor mas
——__— rugosa, 152
Microhierax, 10

Microphis brachyurus, 25, 26
Mugil olivaceus, 99

Musca, 187

Mutillide, 141

Mutilla, 142

= — acidalia, Loo
—-—_—— bainbriggei, 142, 144
eS blandan ta.

——__—— cotesil, 142

—___-—. desiderata, 143, 148
—-—--= fumigata, 142, 147
pe EES fletchertas| tas) eles
—~__— hexaops, 143, 149, 150
—__—% ianthis, 142, 144
aS mMelanovan+o.elou
eS Mobilis Lol

———— oedipus, 142
——_— ocellata, 143
—____—— pectinospinata, 144
—_—-—— pinguicula, 142, 145, 146
———-— pondicherensis, 143
—_-——— porcella, 142, 145
—_—___—— pulla, 148

______-— recondita, 145
—_——— rothneyi, 142
= Tunbarsis. 143
______— sexmaculata, 150
____— thermopila, 142, 146
—____—. wickwari, 143, 148
Mycalesis mineus, 12

atnia, 12
Myliobatis nieuhofii, 132
Myzine claripennis, 152

Nacaduba sp., 14

Naia tripudians, 70, 71
Nematodemus lumbricoides, 122
Nepheronia ceylanica, 215
Neurothemis tullia, 23

Nicoria trijuga, 68

Nycteribia, 216

Nyctotherus, 72, 74, 75, 83
——--——— macropharyngeus, 72, 75
Se — ovalis, 81
—_—---—-—— pappillatus, 76
SS = POPU TISe OL

Octomitus, 72, 83

Odynerus diffinis, 156

Se wickwarlssl bo
(cophylla smaragdina, 13, 53
Oligodon, sublineatus, 37, 71
Opalina, 72, 76, 77, 83

—--—— virgula, 76

—-—— obtrigona, 76
Ophiocephalus marulius, 94, 100
—-—_——_—_—_— punctatus, 66, 92, 101
——_-___—__ striatus, 66, 67, 89
Ophiusa mezentia, 22
Ophryocotyle ceylonica, 195
Ornithoptera darsius, 55
Orthagoriscus truncatus, 208
Osphromenus olfax, 95, 210, 211

| Oxyuris, 73

( Xir +)

Palamnezus indus, 73

Paludomus dilatata, 198

gardneri, 198

Panilla albopunctata, 168

Papilio, 220

Papilio agamemnon, 10

ambrax, 19

———— aristolochiz, 2, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 12,
B35 WSs. Ta ale

——— clytia, 2,3

— (var. dissimilis), 2, 3

—— erino, 14

———— dardanus, 20

———— demoleus, 11, 217, 219, 220

a HOCLOM Ae Ieee LOs 1 O 7

——— helenus, 278.) 219, 220

(race mooreanus), 217,

218, 219

a yea, Ins Yl

——— ormenus, 16

parinda, 55

——— polymnestor (race parinda),
217, 218, 219, 220

——— polytes, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14,
i>, 6s LOS 21. 225 55, Oz,

217, 219, 220

— (var. romulus), 2

theseus, 19

Papilionide, 7

Parata butleri, 22

Pareronia ceylonica, 2, 4, 15

Patsemonide, 169

Pectinatella, 63, 64

burmanica, 63, 64
—---———. gelatinosa, ‘64

Pedipalpi, 43-47, 135-140

Pelorempis, 188

Phengodini, 213

Philematomyia, 187

Philopotamis globulosa, 198

Phlebotomus, 57-64, 159, 187

——— argentipes, 59, 159

—_—_——__-—__—_—__---_—_— var. margi-

natus, 203

augustipennis, 62

babu, 59, 61, 62, 159

marginatus, 59, 62, 159

minutus, 208, 204

papatasi, 57, 62

zeylanicus, 59, 60, 159

Phcenicopterus roseus, 195

Phrynichide, 43

Phrynichus lunatus, 43

—_—___——— pusillus, 44, 135

(s. str.), 140

var. gracillibra-
chiatus, 140

Phrysorhynchus linnei, 55, 56

Placuna placenta, 128

Plasmodium vivax, 85

Platycephalus insidiator, 99

Platydemus, 115, 121

grandis, 118

thwaitesi, 122

— — - —— —_

a ee

Plesia, 152
—--— petiolata, 152
Plotosus canius, 98, 99
Plumatella emarginata, 64
princeps, 64

Peecilotheria, 217

Polycercus, 128

Polycladus gayi, 115
Polydesmidz, 56
Polydesmus sausuril, 73
Polynemus plebius, 99
tetradactylus, 99
Prioneris sita, 2

Pristis cuspidatus, 132
Promecilla, 151

cyanosoma, 151
hesitata, 151
——— prestabilis, 151
Protozoa, 65, 86
Pseudartiocotylus ceylonicus, 113, 121
Pteroplatea micrura, 132
Pteropus medius, 71
Pulehriphyllium, crurifolium, 54, 106
Pupipara, 216

Pyrale, 220

Python molurus, 206
Python reticulatus, 71

Rahinda hordonia, 23
Ramcia, 187, 188

Ramcia inepta, 189, 193
Rana cyanophlyctis, 75, 77
—-— esculenta, 75

SS ee var. chinensis, 75, 77
| —-— hexadactyla, 67, 75, 77
| —-— limnocharis, 75, 77
—-— temporaria, 72, 75
—-— tigrina, 67, 72, 74, 75, 76
Rasbora daniconius, 94, 212
Rhacophorus maculatus, 67, 72, 75,
76
Rhinoptera javanica, 126, 129, 131,
132
Rhynchobatus djeddensis, 130, 131,

132
Rhynchodemide, 113, 118, 120, 121
Rhynchodemus, 118, 121
ceylonicus, 122
nematoides, 122
terrestris, 115
Rhyncobdella aculeata, 89
Rhyothemus variegata, 22
Rostratula capensis, 194
Rutacee, 218

Saccobranchus fossilis, 66, 92, 103
Scarabeus gangeticus, 107
Schizomus, 135, 136

————— crassicaudatus, 46, 47, 136,

137
se (s. str.) —--—— 136, 139
—-———— (Trithyreus), modestus,139
—_—--—____________—__ peradeniyen-

SIS; od l39
procerus, 139
suboculatus,

46, 136
vittatus, 138,

139

Sciurus palmarum, 107
Scoliide, 141

Scolia, 154

—-—— (Discolia) indica, 154
—-——— histrionica, 154
—-—— vivida, 154

Scops bakkameena, 71

(xy)

Scutigerella orientalis, 111
— subunguiculata, 111
————— unguiculata, 111
(indica), 111
Semnopithecus priamus, 200
Serranus undulosus, 130, 132, 133
Sillago sihama, 99
Simotes, 37
Simulium, 57
Sitana ponticeriana, 69
Soletellina acuminata, 73
Spirocheta buccalis, 82
— duttoni, 79
—————-— termitis, 81, 82
tropidonoti, 78
Spiulomutilla, 141, 142
eltola, 141
ocdipus, 142
Spirostreptus lunelii, 74
Spongilla carteri, 63
—— cinerea, 63
———— lacustris, 63
proliferens, 63
Stegomyia, 190
Stenomutilla, 151
egregia, 151
Sterna bergil, 195
Stomoxys, 187
Stylopyga orientalis, 80, 81, 83
Symphyla, 110
Synalpheus, 169, 171, 172
————-— hiunguiculatus, 171
——-—-————— var. exilipes, 17], |
174
comatulorum, 171
- carinatus, 171
————-—-— gravieri, 171, 173
laticeps, 171
neomeris, 171, 173, 174
—— var. streptodacty- |
ibs cise U7 y c=)
tumido-manus, 171, 175
Synaptura orientalis, 99
Syngnathus argyrostictus, 32
————— spicifer, 32
var. djarong,
31, 32, 33
Se ane var. gastrotenia,
32, 33

25,

Synura, 101

Tenia acanthotrias, 125

——--— cucumerina, 129, 194

—--— elliptica, 194

—--— meander, 195

—--— mediocancellata, 194

—--— nilotica, 128

—--— polycalcarea, 195

—--— saginata, 194, 195

—--— serrata, 125, 195

—--— solium, 125, 133, 194, 195

—--— sp., 195, 196

Teniura melanospilos, 126, 129, 130,
131

Tagiades atticus, 22

Tarantulide, 140

Telchinia viol, 11 |

Teracolus, 1] |

Terias sp., 11, 12, 14

—--— hecabe, 215

Terias libythea, 215

——-- venata, 215

Termes flavipes, 82

—--—— lucifugus, 82

Terminalia catappa, 167

Tetrabothrius erostris, 195

Tetrarhynchus he1dmani, 130

rubromaculatus, 127

——-———-—— unionifactor, 126, 127,
129, 130, 132, 133, 195

Testudo elegans, 68

———— elephantina, 109

———— gigantea, 109, 208, 209

| —_——— hololissa, 109

ponderosa, 109
sumeirei, 109
Tetrodon, 132

stellatus, 130
Thelyphonide, 43
Thelyphonus sepiaris, 45
Thompsoniella arcuata, 55
Thurbergia allata, 222
—— coccinea, 222
fragrans, 222

Tiphia, 152
—--—— oswini, 152
Trachyramphus serratus, 30
Tragulus meminna, 71, 72
Trichomonas, 72, 73, 77, 83, 84
——— batrachorum, 72, 77
—____________ mabuiz, 77

| Trichomastix, 72, 73, 77, 83, 84

butrachorum, 72, 77

Se OID, 7/'7/

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus,
206, 207

Trithyreus, 46, 135, 136, 137

Tropidonotus asperrimus, 35, 71, 206

——-———— piscator, 35

——-———_— plumbicolor, 206

stolatus, 70, 77, 78, 206,
207

Trygon kuhhli, 127

—--—— walga, 130

Trypanosoma erythrolampri, 78

———— leschenaultii, 69

naiz, 78

pertenue, 69, 78

rotatorium, 74

saccobranchi, 66

————_—-— sp., 74

tropidonoti, 77, 78

106,

Tubifex, 125

Upupa csylonensis, 194
Urocampus southwelli, 30

Vanessa indica, 215
Varanus bengalensis, 69, 195
salvator, 195
Venus casta, 73

Vipera russellii, 71

Wallago-attu, 89

Ypthima ceylonica, 51, 52, 215
———— singala, 215

| Zamenis mucosus, 70, 71, 73

Zostera. 26

oh » A
Bia ps a
nl
/
°

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

““MIMICRY”’ IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES, WITH A
SUGGESTION AS TO THE NATURE OF POLYMORPHISM.

By R. C. Punnett, M.A.,

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Professor oj Biology in the
University of Cambridge.

(With two coloured Plates. )

EING interested in the striking resemblances in colour and
pattern which are to be found between butterflies belonging
to different genera and families, I took advantage of a visit to
Ceylon during the past summer (1909) to observe as many as
possible of these cases in the living state. Though my stay on the
Island was a short one—two months only—it was mainly devoted
to the study of these phenomena, and as I have arrived at definite
conclusions on some points, I have thought it worth while to place
on record my observations, together with the ‘few experiments that
I was able to undertake.

Before , however, proceeding to my subject-matter, [ wish to make
certain acknowledgments. To my friends, Dr. Willey and Mr. R.
H. Lock, I am grateful for unwearying kindness and for generously
giving me all the assistance that was in their power. I owe also a
debt of gratitude to Mr. E. E. Green for placing freely at my
service his encyclopedic knowledge of the insects of Ceylon, and for
a consignment of butterflies which arrived shortly after my return.
To Col. Manders and to the Hon. Mr. F. Mackwood I am indebted
for information ; to the latter also for several specimens. Lastly, I
wish to acknowledge the kindness of Prof. Poulton, who was good
enough before my departure to give me some duplicate specimens
illustrating the most conspicuous cases of mimicry in Ceylon
butterflies, thereby materially lightening my task of becoming
familiar with a strange fauna.

The Principal Cases of Mimicry in Ceylon Butterflies.
Though the Rhopaloceran fauna of Ceylon is not a rich one in
comparison with that of most tropical countries, several cases have
B 9(6)10

2 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

nevertheless made their way into the literature of mimicry. These
cases I have put together in the following list :—

Mimic. Model. *
Hypolimnas bolina, & Sa .. Huplea (several species)

Mo misippus, 2 .. .. Danais chrysippus j
Elymnias fraterna, 2 ue an », plexippus
Argynnis hyperbius, & 45 a 43 —

Pareronia ceylonica, ¢ a i », vulgaris (and allies)
Prioneris sita,é and? .. .. Delias eucharis, 6 and 2
Papilio clytia, 6 and ¢ : .. Huplea (several species)

3 (var. dissimilis) 6 and? .. Danais vulgaris (and allies)
Papilio polytes, 2 iS .. Papilio aristolochic

5 (var. romulus) 2 oR >> hector

With the exception of Argynnis hyperbius and Prioneris sita
I have had frequent opportunities of observing all these cases, and
in every one it has appeared to me that the resemblance is far less
striking when the insects are seen alive than when they are exhibited
pinned out in the orthodox way on cork. I have found that with
very little experience the eye comes to distinguish the “mimic”
from the model without hesitation. As a rule, it is in mode of flight
that they differ from one another. By this character the dissimélis
variety of P. clytia can at once be distinguished from Danais vulgaris
and its allies, and by it the normal form of P. clytia or the female
of Hypolimnas bolina (PI. II., fig. 6) can be readily differentiated from
any of the Hupleas. Or again, it may be a difference in the pattern
of the under surface of the wings which leads to dissimilarity in the
general appearance of the living insects. The female of Pareronia
ceylonica (P\. II., fig. 1 B) with outspread wings is exceedingly like
Danais vulgaris and the other closely allied species of this genus.
But as soon as it flies off the difference of under surface at once
becomes apparent (cf. Pl. II., figs. 1 C and 2 B), and in this parti-
cular instance there is also a marked difference in the manner of
flight, so that these forms, although so extraordinarily similar when
viewed from the upper surface and at rest, could certainly not be
confused when flying. And when at rest, of course with the wings
closed, they could not possibly be mistaken for one another.

One of the best known of the Ceylon models is Danais chrysippus,
together with its ally D. plexippus (Pl. II., figs. 9 A and 9 B), and
the three principal mimics of these two forms are the females of
Hypolimnas misippus, Argynnis hyperbius, and the Satyrid , Hlymnias
fraterna. Of these three, the last-named was the one I had most
opportunity of observing. It was common in Colombo during July,

* | have also seen it suggested that Hlymnias singhala mimics Euplea core,
and that Hrgolis serves as a model for the female of Apatura parisatis. In
neither case does the resemblance seem to me sufficiently close to require
further notice,

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 3

flying in places where both the models were also abundant. The
colour pattern of E. fraterna (P1. IT., fig. 8 B) is less sharply cut than
in either of the models, and this feature, combined with a somewhat
different mode of flight and an entirely different scheme of colour-
ation on the under surface (PI. IT., figs. 8 C and 9 B) is, for any
but a quite unpractised eye, sufficient to identify this species at a
distance of 20 feet or more away.

The case of Hypolimnas misippus female and Danas chrysippus
is now so well known that it is unnecessary to dwell upon the
extraordinary resemblance between these two insects as regards
the upper surface of their wings. H. misippus I only met with
occasionally, and never flying with the ubiquitous D. chrysippus.
Its mode of flight is quite distinct, and had I seen them flying
together my impression is that I should not have had much
difficulty in picking it out from among the Danaids.

The relation of Argynnis hyperbius female to Danas plexippus
is an interesting one. As the plate shows (PI. IT., figs. 9 A and
10 B), the two insects are quite distinct in appearance when set out
in the ordinary way. But when flying, I am told by Col. Manders
that they are extraordinarily alike. Now, A. hyperbius is a typical
up-country insect, and is very rare below 4,000 feet. D. plexippus,
on the other hand, is very rarely to be met with above 4,000 feet.
The two forms only come into contact over a narrow zone on the
confines of their respective territories, and for the most part their
distribution is entirely separate. Under these circumstances it is
difficult to believe that the presence of a distasteful species in
another part of the Island, which looks like the Fritillary only
during flight, can in any way benefit the latter by serving as a
model.

Papilio clytia is a tailless form, dimorphic in both sexes. The
brown form with orange-yellow spots on the margin of the hind
wings (PI. II., fig. 3 B) bears some resemblance to a Huplea (P1. II.,
fig. 11), while the other form [var. dissimilis (Pl. II., fig. 3 A)] is
striped somewhat after the fashion of Danais septentrionis (P1. IT.,
fig. 2 A) and D. vulgaris. The ground-colour of the Papilio how-
ever is yellowish, while that of the Danaids is blue with a slight
greenish tinge. The brown form I only met with once at close
quarters, in the jungle just outside Trincomalee. Hupleas were
very abundant at the time, but as the Papilio approached me I at
once recognized that it was something different, and when caught
it turned out to be P. clytia. Subsequently I saw several speci-
mens in the open at Dambulla, and although I was unable to
catch them there was no question of comparing them with Huplea,
owing to their general appearance and their stronger and bolder
mode of flight. P. clytia var. dissimilis I saw first in the jungle
near Sigiriya, and had no difficulty in recognizing it, though I could

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

not get near enough to catch it among the trees. Later on I took
it at Dambulla, where it was not unplentiful on the top of the rock.
Danaids were also flying there, but there was no question of
confusing the Papilio with them.

Putting aside for a moment the case of Papilio polytes, to which I
shall refer later, my impression of all these so-called cases of mimicry,
which I have been able to see, is that the resemblances are certainly
not sufficiently close to deceive the eye of a civilized man with little
experience of them. For that reason I am inclined to doubt whether
they would systematically deceive an enemy brought up among
them, whose means of earning a livelihood depended largely upon
the readiness with which he could distinguish between mimic
and model. I do not wish to deny that in some cases, and upon
occasion, the resemblance may be of service. It is quite conceivable
that an insectivorous animal with a distaste for Danaids would,
when confronted with a choice between Pareronia ceylonica and a
non-mimetic species, choose the latter so long as it only saw the
upper surface of the former. And when the mimetic resemblance
is already established, I see no difficulty in the supposition that the
form which exhibits it is placed at an advantage with respect to
natural selection compared with the non-mimetic form, provided that
such resemblance to a distasteful model is a close one. But I feel
that there are insuperable difficulties in the way of conceiving such
resemblance to have arisen through the operation of natural selection.
To this subject, however, I shall have occasion to refer later.

The Case of Papilio polytes.

Since 1865, when Wallace’s well known memoir on ‘“‘ The Papi-
lionidz of the Malayan Region ”’ appeared, this striking case has
been regarded as one of the classic instances of mimicry. Excellent
coloured representations of this species were given by that author,
and more recently by Moore in his “‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon.” It is
also figured by Distant in his ‘‘ Indo-Malayan Rhopalocera,”’ but as
these memoirs are not always readily accessible I have had prepared
the coloured plate which will be found at the end of this paper.
It has been made directly from the actual specimens (which were all
fresh and perfect) by the four-colour process, and gives on the
whole an excellent representation of the different forms shown.

P. polytes is a fly which is abundant throughout India and Ceylon,
occurring both on the plains and on the hills wherever are to be
found the citronaceous plants on which the larva (PI. I., fig. 7) feeds.
Throughout this region the male (PI. I., fig. 1) is accompanied by
three forms of female (Pl. I., figs. 4-6), of which two are so different
from him as to have each been regarded at some former time as a
distinct species, and it was not until Wallace studied them that
the polymorphic nature of these females was understood. From

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 5)
Wallace came also an interpretation of this peculiar case in terms
of the theory of’mimicry then just suggested by Bates. Briefly,
that interpretation is as follows :—

P. polytes is a palatable insect. The larva feeds on citronaceous
shrubs and trees and, in its later stages, is inconspicuous upon its food
plant (cf. Pl. I., fig. 7). The chrysalis may be regarded as protec-
tively coloured (PI. I., figs. 8, 9).* Yet in this presumably palatable
insect there exist two additional forms of female, which are character-
ized not only by marked divergence from the normal type, but by the
conspicuous form which that divergence takes. So far as can be
seen there is no suggestion of ordinary protective colouration here.
Now, living side by side with ‘this species are two other species of
Papilionid butterflies, Papilio aristolochic (Pl. I., fig. 5) and Papiho
hector (P1. 1., fig. 6), each of which bears a strong resemblance to one
of the two aberrant forms of female of P. polytes.t Both of these
forms have conspicuously coloured red and black larvee, which both
feed upon the poisonous Aristolochia plants. Both are common
species, and both consequently fulfil the conditions of abundance and
distastefulness which the theory of mimicry exacts from qualified
models. By their resemblance to these two unpalatable species
the “ mimicking” forms of P. polytes have been enabled to cheat
their enemies and to preserve their species. And the case is the
more striking in that while P. hector and the hector form of P.
polytes are confined to India and Ceylon, both P. aristolochie and
the aristolochiz form of P. polytes have a wider range eastward.

For the upholders of the mimicry interpretation the resemblance
between the model and its mimic would appear to have been brought
about by the piling up of minute variations in the required direction
through a process of survival of those most like the model. Upon
the adequacy of this conception I do not wish to dwell, until I have
offered some criticisms derived from personal experience with
reference to the resemblance obtaining between the “ mimics ”
and their “ models.”

* The colour is very variable, though whether this is in relation to the
surfaces on which it pupates is at present unknown. The two specimens
figured here were bred by me under conditions which in so far as could be
seen were exactly similar, though the one became clear green and the other
a darkish brown.

+ In the account which follows I have used the terms ‘‘ male form, aristo-
lochiz form,” and “* hector form,” respectively, for these three females, terms
which indicate sufficiently which form is meant for the reader who is not
familiar with this species. Technically these three forms are respectively the
pammon, polytes, and romulus forms of the species P. polytes (cf. ** Fauna of
British India, Butterflies,’ vol. II., pp. 61, 62).

{ Though placed in the same genus as P. polytes these two species differ
from it in many structural points, and will doubtless eventually find their way
into another genus when the classification of the family has been placed
on a more satisfactory basis. They are closely allied to each other and come
into Haase’s group of Pharmacophagus or “‘ Poison-eaters.’’—(** Bibliotheca
Zoologica,’ 1891.)

29 66

6 SPOLIA ZBEYLANICA.

First, as regards the likeness between model and mimic in either
case. As seen pinned out in a cabinet the resemblance between
P. aristolochic and the aristolochize form of P. polytes is, as far as
general wing pattern goes, remarkably close, especially for the fore
wings. Yet one cannot help feeling that one has to do with a
different insect, and J think this is because of the difference in
quality of the white patch on the hind wing. This patch is rather
smoky in P. aristolochie, whereas in the polytes mimic it has a cleaner
and brighter look. The other point of marked difference lies in the
colour of the body, which, except for a dark stripe dorsally, is of a
bright vermilion colour in P. aristolochie. This feature is not so
well shown as it might be on the plate, owing to the fact that the
body of the specimen had been laterally compressed in the paper to
which it was transferred when caught. In the living insect, with its
wings spread out at rest, the scarlet body is a most noticeable feature
and at once arrests attention. In the aristolochie form of P.
polytes, as the plate shows, the body is uniformly black, and this
gives the resting insect quite a different appearance when its wings
are expanded. In the absence of the bright vermilion colour, it
lacks for the human observer the dangerous look of P. aristolochie.

The resemblance between P. hector and the hector form of P.
polytes is not so striking as in the preceding case. The markings on
the fore wings are remarkably similar, but the general ground colour,
except in worn specimens, has a somewhat different appearance in
the two species. In P. hector it is deeper in shade and has a distinct
steely sheen, which is entirely wanting in P. polytes. In the hind
wings there is a very distinct difference in the quality of the red.
In P. hector it is a bright rich scarlet, while in P. polytes the red is
much pinker, and its effect is further softened by a sparse powdering
of blue scales. Perhaps the impressions which these two insects
convey may be expressed by saying that the red of P. hector looks as
ifit had been got by an aniline dye, while that of P. polytes appears
to have been put on with a more delicate water-colour. But in this
case again, as in the preceding, it is the brilliant scarlet head and
body of P. hector which at once makes it apparent that one has to
do with a different insect. This feature immediately strikes the
observer and, when the insects are at rest, makes it impossible to
mistake P. hector even at a distance of several yards.

The insects, however, may be at rest with closed wings, and I have
therefore represented in figs. 1 A-6 A the under surfaces of the hind
wings of the ‘same specimens used in figs. 1-6. A comparison of
fig. 3 A with fig. 5 A at once brings out the great difference in the
quality of the red in the two cases. The suggestion of aniline dye
in P. aristolochie is very marked, and the striking difference in
quality in model and mimic is even more marked in the actual —
insect than it appears to be on the plate. In P. hector (fig. 6 A)

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. (i

and the hector form of P. polytes (fig. 4 A) the under surface of the
hind wing is very like the upper one, and what was written of the
difference there applies here equally.

But it may be objected that though model and mimic may be
readily distinguished at rest, whether with wings expanded or
closed, yet the resemblance between them may be sufficient to
deceive such enemies as attack them when flying. Such, however,
is certainly not the case. The mode of flight of P. polytes is
similar for all three forms, and is totally distinct from that of P.
hector and P. aristolochie. In these two last species the flight is
very peculiar. The insect steers a very even course for a butterfly,
and looks as if it were flying mainly by means of its fore wings,
which vibrate very rapidly. In P. polytes, on the other hand, the
flight is of the somewhat lumbering up and down type, which is
characteristic of many of the Papilionide. Though not easy to
express in words, the difference is exceedingly marked, and the
practised eye has no difficulty in distinguishing between P. polytes
and P. hector or P. aristolochie at a distance of 40 to 50 yards.

During the time I was in Ceylon I spent many hours catching and
watching these three species, where and whenever the opportunity
presented itself, and I have come to be strongly of opinion that in
the natural state the differences between these so-called models and
mimics, whether resting or flying, are so distinct that they are little
likely to be confounded by an enemy with any appreciation of colour
or form.

And here I would draw attention to certain points in connection
with the distribution of these species in Ceylon. During my stay
on the Island I managed, with some assistance, to catch nearly
50 specimens of females of P. polytes, and I subsequently received
10 more specimens from Mr. E. E. Green, of which 4 (1 male form,
1 aristolochiz form, and 2 hector form) were from Kandy or Pera-
deniya, and 6 (2 aristolochiz form and 4 hector form) were from
higher up-country, either at Pundaluoya or Hakgala. Ihave included
these specimens in the following table, with the idea of comparing
the distribution of these forms with that of the supposed models :—

: | z ay Oe
| 2 2 a sider | o Sp
= ~ ai tt | ~
as} 4s x a Leal =) 2G
a 2 ca = Bo be As
S 2 = 5p as | tq
2 = Site” | PRe Seentp Riees cihe en ae eee
5c GS a E Ma| ae
a S) <A) pe ee y
is vies) IE | AT
|
Male form .. at. 14 ) — == ht ] as
[4
Aristolochise form A Gran 2 — 1 i Pe
!
}
Hector form Seat aie | 5 1 | 3 | 4 4.
| |

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

From this it appears that in the low-country, especially at Trinco-
malee, the male form is, generally speaking, not less abundant than
either of the other two. At Colombo both P. aristolochie and P.
hector are common, the former being exceedingly so. Most of the
Trincomalee specimens came from close to the shore, between Forts
Frederick and Ostenberg. The ground here is moderately open and
dotted about with patches of scrub. P. polytes was abundant in
September, but the female insect is difficult to catch, as it keeps
flying rapidly across the open and diving into the heart of one
thorny scrub patch after another, doubtless in search of the food
plant. I managed to catch but a very small percentage of those
I saw. Of the females (which were less numerous than the males),
that resembling the male was far the most abundant, and was
distinctly more numerous than the other two female forms together.
Of these two, I caught more of the hector form than of the aristo-
ochize form, because the former is more easily distinguished from —
the male. Wherever there were several flies to chase I gave the
preference to the female, and I have no doubt that I sometimes
mistook the aristolochiz form for a male polytes, with which it can
be easily confused at a short distance away. On the whole, after
many hours spent on this collecting ground, I came to the conclusion
that, though the hector form may have been slightly more common,
these two forms occurred in almost equal numbers. The relative
abundance of these forms is of interest in connection with the .
occurrence of the models P. hector and P. aristolochie. The former
is a common insect in this locality, though at the time I was
there it was certainly not nearly so common as P. polytes. Of P.
aristolochie, I never saw a single specimen during the whole of the
time I was in Trincomalee, though I was always on the look out
for it. |

In Colombo, P. aristolochie is very abundant, and P. hector is not
uncommon, though not nearly so abundant as its relative. One may
see a dozen or more of the former to one of the latter. My experience
of this locality as regards P. polytes was that the male form and the
hector forms were about equally abundant, and that the aristolochic
form was distinctly scarcer. Col. Manders, to whom I mentioned
this, expressed himself of the same opinion.

Higher up, at Kandy and Peradeniya, P. hector becomes very
scarce, while P. aristolochie is exceedingly abundant. Nevertheless,
the hector form of P. polytes is certainly more numerous than the
aristolochize form. During the month I spent in this part of the
country [ never saw either the aristolochiz form of P. polytes or
P. hector. Higher up-country, at Hakgala and Pundaluoya, P.
hector is no longer found. Yet if one may judge by the samples
procured from these parts, the hector form is distinctly the commonest
form of polytes female.

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 9

Summing up such evidence as exists in connection with the
distribution of our three species, the following statements may be
taken as a fair presentation of the facts :—

(1) In the low-country the male form of polytes female is at
least as numerous as either of the other forms, and may
be the most abundant of the three.

(2) In the north-east of the Island, in the ‘‘ hector” country,
the aristolochiz form of polytesis nearly as abundant as
the hector form, though its model is at any rate exceed-
ingly scarce.

(3) Higher up-country, where P. hector is rare or absent and
P. aristolochie is common, the hector form of polytes is
more abundant than the aristolochize form.

It is obvious that these statements are not in harmony with the
ideas of those who look to the theory of mimicry for an explanation
of the polymorphism that exists among the females of P. polytes.
For if the hector form derives an advantage where P. polytes is
found associated with P, hector (e.g., at Trincomalee), why is it not
far more numerous than the other two forms in such places? And
if the co-existence of P. aristolochic in any locality confers a benefit
of selection value upon the aristolochie form of P. polytes, how are
we to reconcile this with the fact that where P. aristolochie is
exceedingly abundant (e.g., Kandy and Peradeniya) its supposed
mimic is the scarcest of the three polytes females? And, again, if
the selection has been so stringent as to give rise to two new forms
of female in P. polytes, how comes it that the male form is in some
places still the commonest of the three? It certainly cannot be
due to “ the atavistic influence of the male,” for, as is well known,
there are localities in which all the females are of the aristolochie
form, while the male is of the normal type.

Whatever the true explanation may be, the facts connected with
the distribution of these species in the Island of Ceylon are far
from lending support to the view that the polymorphic females of
P. polytes have owed their origin to natural selection in the way that
the upholders of the theory of mimicry would lead us to suppose.

Some further criticism of the theory as applied to P. polytes will
be offered in connection with the enemies of butterflies in Ceylon. *

The Enemies of Butterflies in Ceylon.

Those who maintain that the resemblances which occur between
butterflies of distinct species have arisen gradually through the
operation of natural selection on minute variations have several
difficulties to encounter. Apart from the question whether a minute
variation can in many cases be conceived as having any sensible
selection value, there is the further question of the nature of the
enemies which give it this presumed value. In other words, what are

0 9(6)10

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the chief enemies of butterflies in the imago stage, and what evidence
is there that they exercise discrimination in their Rhopaloceran diet ?
Information of this sort is notoriously difficult to obtain, and I have
therefore not hesitated to put on record the following observations,
meagre though they be, which appear to bear upon the point.

(A) Birds.—To what extent butterflies are preyed upon by birds
is a question which has excited much controversy in recent years,
and such information as exists upon the subject has lately been
brought together by Marshall.* Many birds will undoubtedly
devour butterflies upon occasion, though it seems unlikely, except
in a few cases such as those of Merops and Microhierax, that they
make a regular practice of it. From a nutritive point of view, there
is a good deal of waste material in a butterfly. At the same time
it is rather a cumbrous mouthful, and it is not unnatural to suppose
that with insect life of other kinds abounding the bird would devote
its attention to more succulent species. But a hungry bird will
probably take what it can get, without inquiring very closely whether
the insect belongs to what are termed unpalatable groups or not.
Marshall, for instance, quotes observations of Doflein to show that
P. hector may be captured by Merops in Ceylon.

During my ten weeks’ stay in Ceylon and S. India, I endeavoured
to keep my eyes open as far as possible to any evidence of butterflies
being attacked by birds. Only on one occasion did I observe a
bird directly attacking a butterfly. Im Peradeniya, one day, at the
edge of some jungle, I was cautiously stalking a specimen of Papilio
agamemnon. When within about 6 feet of it, and in hopes of trans-
ferring a desirable specimen to my pocket, a magpie robin suddenly
swooped down upon it. It completely missed the butterfly, which,
however, to my regret, was scared away. Upon another occasion
I noticed near Trincomalee a butterfly flutterg in the middle of
the road. On examination it turned out to be a specimen of
P. agamemnon, with the wings of the right side clean shorn away
near the base. The specimen was otherwise uninjured. Though
there is no direct evidence, it seems not unlikely that in this case a
bird may have been responsible for the damage. This was all the
evidence in favour of birds attacking butterflies that I was able to
collect from personal observation, but my friend Mr. MacBride, of
the Public Works Department at Trincomalee, told me that he had
once seen crows catching butterflies as they swarmed round a
flowering tree. Unfortunately he was unable to say for certain
what the butterfly was, but from his description I am inclined to
think that it was a species of Huplea (probably H. core).

On the other hand, I have frequently watched birds hawking
insects on some flowering tree where butterflies abounded, but have
never seen them even offer to attack. Close to the verandah of a

* Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1909.

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 11

bungalow in which I stayed near Tanjore was a tree with a little
greenish flower which was very attractive to insects. It was not
more than 30 yards from where I sat, and I was able with a pair of
glasses to see very clearly what was going on. During the earlier
part of the day the tree swarmed with butterflies, among which
Telchinia viole, Delias eucharis, Papilio demoleus, and several
species of Jxias, Terias, and Teracolus were most noticeable. On it
several minahs were generally hawking insects, and though butterflies
were all round them, and sometimes even settled within a few inches
of them, they never once offered to attack them while I was watching,
but confined their attentions to flies and other insects. Though it
may be granted that some of these species, notably Telchinia and
Delias, are distasteful to birds, yet this can hardly be maintained of
P. demoleus, which is a fairly close ally of the presumedly palatable
P. polytes, the larva feeding on the same food plants and being in
appearance practically indistinguishable from that of the latter
species.

The general impression that I got from collecting in this part of
the world is, that as serious enemies of butterflies in the imago state
birds may be left out of account. When driven by stress of hunger
they will no doubt attack them, but in such cases it is exceedingly
improbable that they would exercise that discrimination between
the so-called palatable and unpalatable species which is postulated
by the supporters of the theory of mimicry. .

So far as one can judge by observation the chief enemies of
butterflies in Ceylon are lizards and Asilid flies, and it will be
convenient to consider them apart.

(B) Lizards.—Two of the commonest species of Ceylon lizards are
the “‘ blood suckers,” Calotes versicolor and C. ophiomachus. Both
species have considerable power of changing their colour, which may
range from a dull sooty brown to a bright green that is particularly
brilliant in the latter species. Apparently they derive their popular
name from the fact that the head and neck may assume a bright
red hue, and it is conceivable that this may serve as a lure for
insects. Both species commonly attain a length of 15-18 inches,
inclusive of the long tail, though larger specimens are not infrequent.
Both are bold, active animals, fond of the sun, and not easily
frightened by man. The staple food of both species is insects of all
sorts, and-an examination of the contents of a number of stomachs
shows that they will devour ants, cockroaches, earwigs, beetles,
caterpillars, &c. In several cases I have been able to find the
remains of butterflies, the characteristic heads of which resist the
digestive juices of the reptile as well as the subsequent boiling in
potash. Though I have never personally seen Calotes catch a
butterfly under natural conditions, Mr. McBride and his wife
assured me that they have not infrequently seen them doing so,

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and other observers have told me the same. I think there can be
little doubt that Calotes, owing to its great abundance and arboreal
habits, is one of the chief enemies of butterflies in Ceylon. And mn
support of this view may be cited the numerous instances in which
one catches butterflies damaged in such a way that it is impossible
to resist the deduction that something with a wide mouth has taken
a bite out of the wings when they were closely apposed at rest.
In such cases the shape of the injuries as well as their clean cut
nature (cf. Pl. II., fig. 7) both point to their being the work of
lizards rather than of birds.

Accepting then the lizard as being responsible for an appreciable
share in the mortality of butterflies, the question arises as to whether
he shows any preference for or dislike to this or that species. In
order to obtain evidence on this point I kept a couple of lizards in
large cages and introduced various butterflies at intervals. Owing
to the wetness of the season while I was at Peradeniya, and the
consequent difficulty of procuring butterflies of some of the species
which I wanted during the time at my disposal, the experiments
are not nearly so full as I could have wished. Nevertheless they
are not without interest, and I give the record of a week’s experi-
ments with one of the lizards (“‘ Sambo ’’).

Aug. 20.—Sambo was given three P. aristolochie this evening just
before dark. One was damaged, and was found dead at the bottom
of the cage next morning. The other two had been eaten.

Aug. 22.—Sambo ate another P. aristolochie which was given
to him.

Aug. 23.—Sambo given four Danais vulgaris and a large diurnal
moth (Huschema maculata), which might be regarded as a possible
rough mimic of a Danaid. He at once went for the insects and ate
two of the Danaids in the first 15 minutes. Eventually he ate
all five.

Aug. 24.—Sambo was given a mixed lot, viz., one J'ertas sp., one
_D. vulgaris, one Junonia almana, one Mycalesis mineus, and one
Mycalesis patnia. He started by eating the Terias (a brilliant yellow
Pierid) and the Danais in the first half hour. About 13 hour later
the others had also been devoured.

Aug. 25.—Sambo given a Hesperid, one D. vulgaris, and one Delias
eucharis. He ate all without hesitation and with much apparent
relish.

Aug. 26.—Sambo given in the afternoon one Luplea core and
one Junonia uphita (both are dark brown flies, the former being
presumably distasteful). After a few hours he ate the Huplea,
while the ¢phita was eaten about 10 a.m. next morning.

From this record it is obvious that Sambo cannot be said to have
exercised any discrimination in his choice of food. 'The presumedly
distasteful Danais was eaten before the presumedly palatable
Euschema or Mycalesis, and the so-called distasteful Huplea was

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 13

taken before the supposedly palatable Junonia iphita of not very

‘dissimilar colouration. Nor was any hesitation manifested towards
Papilio aristolochie with its postulated evil taste and marked
warning colouration.

As P. aristolochie has been regarded from the nature of its food
‘plant as one of the most unpalatable of all the Ceylon butterflies,
I may mention another experiment which was made in connection
with its larva. In a cage containing two specimens of the lizard
Lyriocephalus I placed four full-grown larvee of P. artstolochie, an
imago each of Danais chrysippus and D. plexippus, together with
some twenty grasshoppers. They were all introduced one evening,
and on examining the contents of the cage next morning | found
that the lizards had eaten several of the grasshoppers, the specimen
of D. plexippus, and two of the P. aristolochie larve, and this in
spite of the marked black, white, and red warning colouration of
the latter. The remaining two larve had crawled to the top of the
cage out of harm’s way. |

From such experiments as these one can hardly fail to draw the
conclusion that Calotes as well as Lyriocephalus will readily eat
anything in the way of butterflies that they come across. Nor is

“this surprising, in view of the fact that such noxious creatures as
the large red ant (Hcophylla smargdina) and hairy caterpillars
constitute a considerable proportion of the contents of their
stomachs. They certainly do not appear to exercise that nice
discrimination with regard to butterflies, which is necessary for the
establishment of mimicking forms on the theory of natural selection.
And here I may call attention to the series of experiments by Finn,
as the result of which that author was led to a similar conclusion.
The experiments were made both with lizards in captivity and with
lizards at liberty, and the author sums up his impressions in the
following sentence: ‘‘The behaviour of these reptiles certainly
does not appear to afford support to the belief that the butterflies,
at any rate, usually considered nauseous, are distasteful to them.*

(C) Diptera.—The large predaceous flies of the family Asilidz are
among the chief enemies of butterflies in Ceylon, and in places
where they are numerous it is a common sight to see one of them
carrying some butterfly whose juices it is busily engaged in sucking.
To my friend Mr. C. C. Dobell I owe the first instance with which I
met of one of these flies attacking a butterfly. At Anuradhapura

* Finn, F.—Contributions to the Theory of Warning Colours and Mimicry,
No. II. Experiments with a lizard (Calotes versicolor).—Journ. Roy. Asiat.
Soc., Bengal, vol. LXV., 1897.

In a paper published in the Biological Bulletin, 1903, Miss A. H. Pritchett
gives an account of some experiments with the lizard Sceloporus floridanus.
This species took the so-called distasteful models Anosia plexippus and Papilio
philenor ‘‘ with evident relish,” and other brightly coloured forms were also
eaten readily. As the result of her experiments Miss Pritchett concludes that
lizards show no preference, but eat Lepidoptera indiscriminately.

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

one day, while standing a few yards away from me, he netted a
male specimen of Appias paulina. Just as he caught it a large fly
darted upon it, and on examining his capture he found an Asilid
astride of the butterfly, with its piercing mouth parts buried in the
thorax. The butterfly was apparently killed immediately, and it
seems possible that these flies inject some poisonous fluid into their
prey, which at once renders them inert. Subsequently at Trinco-
malee I captured, within a few days, Asilids* carrying and devouring
the following species, all of which were abundant at that time—
Appias paulina, Catopsilia pyranthe, Junonia lemonias, Terias sp.,+
Nacaduba sp. Generally the butterfly was carried with its wings
apposed, while the Asilid sucked its juices from the side of the
thorax. From the following evidence I am inclined to believe that
even the larger and more powerful species are not exempt upon
occasion from the attacks of these ferocious flies. One afternoon,
on the road between Trincomalee and Tamblegam, I picked up a
fresh specimen of Papilio crino, a species of larger size than P. polytes.
All the juices had been drained out of its body, and this had evidently
been done quite recently, for it had not had time to get stiff when I
found it. Moreover, the scales of the fore wing were rubbed sym-
metrically in a little patch on either side, just where the feet of the
Asilid would have come had it captured the Papilio in the position
in which Mr. Dobell’s Appias was captured. The butterfly was
picked up just at the time when the males of various species,
including P. crino, were settling on moist or otherwise attractive
patches by the roadside, and in my own mind I have no doubt but
that this specimen had been suddenly killed by an Asilid as it
settled on such a patch, and that, after being sucked dry, it had been
dropped on the road where I found it.

Whether Asilids exercise any discrimination with regard to the
butterflies that they attack is a question which is not easy to answer
with the little knowledge at present at our disposal. Such evidence
as exists has recently been brought together by Poulton,{ and even
among the few cases hitherto recorded there are two in which the
Asilid preyed upon distasteful species.

After having repeatedly watched these flies hawking along roads
and jungle paths near Trincomalee and.elsewhere, I am inclined to
believe that they swoop at the first butterfly that comes near enough
to give them a chance of catching it. As they sit watching, as a rule
on or close to the ground in a sunny place, itis obvious that such
butterflies as habitually fly high or keep for the most part in the
jungle are unlikely to be attacked. Since the females of most of

* The commonest species was Scleropogon piceus (PI. II., fig. 16). For this
identification I am indebted to my friend Mr. C. Lamb.

t I took only one Asilid carrying a Lycenid, and this belonged to a smaller
species than that usually met with.

{ Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1906.

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 15

the so-called mimics, which were flying when I was at Trincomalee,
were jungle lovers and generally avoided open spaces, e.g., Papilio
polytes, Hypolimnas bolina, Pareronia ceylonica, &c., 1 cannot think
it probable that, even if Asilids were discriminating in their attacks
upon these butterflies, they would be afforded much opportunity
of exercising that discrimination.

In these three forms, viz., birds, lizards, and Asilids, I am inclined
to think that we have the most serious enemies of butterflies in
Ceylon. But my friend Professor E. A. Minchin, from observations
that he made in Africa, has suggested to me that monkeys may
also be a factor in the establishing of mimetic likeness. As to the
possibility of this I can say nothing, for [had no opportunities of
making any observations myself, neither do I know of any records
which bear upon the point. In the case of P. polytes, however, I
feel doubts as to their exerting much influence, for in the northern
part of the Island, where these animals occur in plenty, the male form
of P. polytes female is the most abundant, whereas the ‘‘ mimetic ”
forms are more common higher up, where monkeys are very much
searcer. But I would call attention to the suggestion here, in case
others may have better opportunities of making observations.

Formation of Polymorphic Forms.

Those who regard natural selection as an adequate explanation
of the formation of polymorphic forms hold that they have gradually
arisen by the accumulation of small variations over a long series
of generations ; and from this standpoint we may consider how the
different female forms of P. polytes may conceivably have arisen.
And in doing so, we shall assume that the form of the male is the
ancestral one, and that the hector and the aristolochize forms have
arisen from this. In other words, we shall assume that at some
former epoch the species polytes existed only in what we now term
the male form. And for our present purpose we may confine our
attention to the evolution of the aristolochize form. Now, on the
hypothesis we are considering, this may have come about in either
one of two ways, according as we admit that P. aristolochie at that
time existed as the form we now know, or was different. If
P. aristolochiew was then as it is to-day, we must suppose that the
aristolochiz form of polytes @ arose by gradual limitation of the
white area on the hind wing, by gradual extension of the red lunules,
and by gradual thinning of the scales between the nervures of the
fore wing. The great stumbling-block to this view is the difficulty
of attributing any selection value to the initial stages of variation.

On the alternative view we may suppose the P. aristolochie bore
a strong resemblance to P. polytes to start with, and that it gradually
evolved into its present state because it was of advantage to it that
the nauseous properties with which it was originally endowed should
be advertised as conspicuously as possible. Meanwhile a parallel

16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

process of variation occurred in a portion of the species polytes, and
those variations which kept pace with P. aristolochie survived and
eventually formed the ‘‘ aristolochiz form” of female in polytes.
Considerable powers of discrimination being granted to the hypothe-
tical enemies of the species, this view minimises the difficulty of the
selection value of the initial small variations. On the other hand,
it has serious drawbacks. In the first place, it does not explain,
any more than does the other view, the continued existence of the
unchanged polytes living under the same conditions. And secondly,
it involves the proposition that the ancestral form of the model is
similar to that of the unaltered male of the mimic—a proposition
which the consideration of cases where the same species serves as a
model for more than one mimic at once shows to be untenable. For
it is obvious that the male of Argynnis hyperbius (P1. IT., fig. 10 A) as
well as that of Elymnias fraterna (P1.II., fig. 8 A) cannot both be made
to serve as the ancestral form of Danais plexippus (P1. IT., fig. 9 A).

We are therefore forced back upon the former view that model
and mimic were in the beginning widely different, with its attendant
difficulty of attributing selection value to minute variations. For,
this they are bound to do who desire to regard natural selection as
a factor in the formation of these mimetic forms.

And here we may draw attention to certain other difficulties which
this view involves. If the mimic has arisen by a series of transitional
forms, why do these forms never occur in nature? In P. polytes,
for example, we have a species in which some of the females remain
unchanged, and we should naturally expect to find transitional
forms numerous on this view of the formation of the mimetic forms.
Yet they have never been known to occur, and their absence cannot
but cast a doubt upon the adequacy of this view as an explanation
of the facts.

The difficulty of males so seldom becoming mimetic has already
been alluded to. There is yet another difficulty with regard to
polymorphism among females. There are species where the females
are markedly polymorphic, but cannot be regarded by any stretch
of imagination as mimicking distasteful forms. No one, I think,
would venture to match all the different forms of Papilio ormenus
or P. memnon with appropriate models. ~ And I doubt whether any
one could find a model for the helice variety of Colias edusa, or the
valesina form of Argynnis paphia. Yet a scheme which offers an
explanation of the occurrence of polymorphism among the females of
Lepidoptera should cover such cases, as well as those in which the
polymorphic forms bear a resemblance to some distasteful species.

Apart then from the questions whether the resemblances in many
cases of mimicry are sufficiently close to be of effective service to the
mimic, and whether the action of natural selection can be regarded.
as sufficiently stringent to have brought these resemblances into
being, there are still the following difficulties in the way of the

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 1974

acceptance of the hypothesis of those who look to natural seleetion
as an explanation of polymorphic forms in Lepidoptera :—

(1) The attribution of selection value to minute variation.
(2) The absence of transitional forms.
(3) The frequent absence of mimicry in the male sex.
(4) The inability to offer an explanation of polymorphism, where
the polymorphic forms cannot be regarded: as mimics of
a distasteful species.
Moreover, the hypothesis assumes that minute variations of all
sorts can be inherited, a position which at present is lacking in
experimental proof.

There is, however, another point of view, which not only avoids
these difficulties, but is at the same time more in harmony with 'the
facts of variation and heredity as we are coming to know them. On
this view natural selection plays no part in the formation of these
polymorphic forms, but they are regarded as having arisen by sudden
mutation, and series of transitional forms do not exist because such
series are not biologically possible. Polymorphic forms may arise
and may persist, provided that they are not harmful to the species,
and it is possible to look upon their existence as due to the absence
of natural selection rather than to the operation of this factor.
Nevertheless, natural selection, though unconcerned with their
formation, may play a part in their conservation. To take a definite
example in illustration. The ‘‘aristolochiz form” of female must
be supposed to have arisen from the type form as a sudden mutation,
entirely independently of natural selection. But it is not unlikely
that the action of natural selection may have aided it in becoming
established, whether from its resemblance to P. aristolochic, or for
some other reason. For once in being it is conceivable that even .
a very slight advantage over the normal form might enable it to
hold its own with, and even replace, the latter (cf. p. 19, note). But
whether this is so or not must for the present, in the absence of
decisive evidence, remain doubtful. Though natural selection may
operate in the conservation of the polymorphic form, it cannot on this
view be supposed to play any part in its formation.

A Suggestion as to the Nature of Polymorphism.

That polymorphism in a species should so frequently be confined
to the female sex has long been remarked upon by those who study
these matters, and the explanation most favoured is that the female,
burdened as she is with the next generation, is more exposed to the
action of natural selection and in greater need of some protective
adaptation. The weak point of such a view is that it does not explain
why the male is not similarly protected. In. connection with this
problem recent Mendelian research on sex-limited inheritance is highly
suggestive. It has been shown that certain types of. inheritance
receive their simplest explanation on the assumption thatthe

D 9(6)10

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

female is heterozygous for a sex factor not contained in the male,
and that this sex factor may, on segregation of the gametes, repel
the factor for some other character for which the female is also
heterozygous. From the beautiful experiments of Doncaster and
Rayner* it has been inferred that inheritance of this type occurs in
the common currant moth (Abraxas grossulariata), where a distinct
colour variety, var. lacticolor, occurs. The factor for the grossula-
riata pattern appears to segregate against the female sex factor,
with the consequence that in only one type of mating, and that a
necessarily rare one, is the lacticolor pattern transmitted to the male
sex.t Itis not difficult to conceive of an extension of these principles
to cover cases of polymorphism among the females of a species, and
the next few paragraphs are devoted to the consideration of an
imaginary scheme of this nature. In the absence of experimental
evidence such a scheme can of course have only a suggestive value,
and I have ventured upon these speculations, after some hesitation,
with the idea that they may attract the attention of some who have
opportunities for breeding from species with polymorphic females. If
any such are led to regard the problem from a rather different stand-
point to that which has hitherto been customary, these speculations
will not have failed of their purpose.

Let us then suppose our imaginary case to be a species in which
there are three distinct forms of female, «, 8, and y, of which the
first (? «) is like the male. Let us suppose also that the forms
@ and y have arisen from the original form @ by the elimination of
factors through some mutational process, and that 6 and y are each
heterozygous for a factor (A) for which ¥ « and the male are homo-
zygous. Further, let it be assumed that the factor A segregates
against the factor for femaleness in the way that the grossulariata
factor behaves in the female of the currant moth (Abraxas). Lastly,
let it be supposed that the difference between ¢ g and ? y depends
upon the presence or absence of the factor B, which is not affected
by the sex factor in segregation. Then we may represent the various
individuals of our imaginary species as having one or other of the
following zygotic constitutions :-—

6 Fa 2 gy
66 AA BB 6? AA BB 6? Aa BB 62 Aa bb
or or or
ég AA Bb 62 AA Bb 62 Aa Bb
or or :
66 AA bb 62 AA bb

* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1906.

+ In addition to the above instance this peculiar sex-limited form of inherit-
ance has now been worked out in canaries and fowls. Inheritance of this
form is certainly to be found in man also, while analogous phenomena have
been met with in sweet peas. For a general account the reader may be referred
to Bateson’s work on ‘‘ Mendels’ Principles of Heredity,’ Cambridge, 1909,
chap. X.

'
MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERILIES. 19

We are now in a position to work out the results of the various
possible matings between these different individuals.

(1) 6 x ¢ @—Since both the male and ¢ g are in every
case homozygous for the factor A such matings can only
give gg and 99 of the male type. ,
(2) 6 xX °g @-—Since there are three possible kinds of male
differing in constitution, though not necessarily in
appearance, and since 9 @ may also be either homo-
zygous or heterozygous for B, it follows that there are
six possible types of mating between these two forms,
viz. :—
(i.) 66 AA BB Xx ¢¢ Aa BB j
(.) 66 AA Bb x 96 Aa BB...
(ui.) 6 AAbb xX 9g Aa BB , giving gg and 99 6 only.
(iv.) gg AA BB x 9g Aa Bb |
(v.) gg AA Bb xX 96 Aa BD, giving 66, 22 @ (75 per cent.).
and 99 y (25 per cent.).
(vi.) 6 AAbb x 96 Aa BD, giving 6g, 92 @ (59 per cent.)
and ¢? y (50 per cent.).

.

(3) 6 x 2 y.—Since ¥ y is on our hypothesis always of the
same constitution, it follows that the only three possible
matings here are :—

(i.) 66 AA BB x 96 Aa bb, giving éé and £% @ only.

Gi. ) 6 AABL x 96 Aa db, giving 6, 99 6 (50 per cent.), and
22 ¥ (50 per cent.).

(iii.) gg AAbb x 96 Aa bb, giving éé and 2 y only.

The experimental test of the correctness of such a scheme would
lie in substantiating the following propositions :—

(1) The form of female which is like the male in pattern breeds
true, and does not throw either of the other two forms of
female.

(2) Neither of the other two forms of female can give the female
of the male pattern.*

* Should this be confirmed by experimental evidence, it would offer a simple
explanation of the complete disappearance of the ‘‘ male form” of female
which seems to have taken place in most polymorphic species. Thus the
Malayan Papilio theseus and P. ambraz, near allies of P. polytes, have only
the ‘‘ aristolochie form” of female, a condition which could rapidly come
about on the above scheme if the ‘‘ aristolochis form” were already in
existence and received some slight advantage over the normal form through
the operation of natural selection. For if neither female could throw the other,
even a small advantage possessed by the one would lead rapidly to the other’s
elimination. On this view cases of sexual dimorphism in the colour patterns
of Lepidoptera are cases of advanced polymorphism in which one form of female,
viz., that like the male, has been eliminated, either in the history of the
species itself or of its precursors.

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(3) Either of the two forms of female which ave unlike the male
may give both forms, or may breed true.

(4) Of the two forms of female which are unlike the male, one
may give females which are all of the same form and
unlike herself, while the other must always throw some

- females like herself. (Thus, 2? y mated with an appro-
priate male can give only 99 0» but 2 @ must always
give some at any rate of her own type of £).

It is assumed here that any given female is fertilized by a single
male. Where a female can be fertilized by more than one male the
working out of such a case would become more difficult. Compli-
cations of this nature would however not affect (1) and (2), where |
the: expectation would remain the same whatever male or series
of males was introduced.

So far as I am aware the only breeding experiments with poly-
morphic females which have been recorded are with Papilio dardanus*
and Colias edusa,} and in either case the records are very scanty. In
the dardanus experiments six families were raised, two from each
of the three ¥ forms cenea, trophonius, and hippocoon, and the
results, though of course too few for definite opinion, appear to me
not discordant with an explanation on the lines suggested above.
Of especial interest are the two families from hippocoon ??. In
one of these there were 14 99, viz., 8 cenea, 3 trophonius, and 3
hippocoon, while in the other all the 13 22 produced were of the
hippocoon form. Such a result seems to point to a difference of
constitution of the parents of one sex certainly, and possibly of
both. Each of these eventualities is allowed for in such a scheme
as that outlined above, while in harmony also with it is the fact that
none of these polymorphic females appears to be capable of producing
afemale of the male type. The case is of course more complicated by
reason of the greater number of polymorphic forms, and it is to be
hoped that further experiments will be made on the breeding of this
interesting species.

The single family in the case of Colias edusa mentioned above was
bred from the pale helice variety which, as is well known, is confined
to the ¢ sex. The eggs laid by this specimen gave 79 éé, 19
edusa 29, and 52 helice 92. The fact that edusa 22 can come
from helice appears to be inconsistent with the scheme suggested
above, and it is not unlikely that this particular scheme may here
break down. Nevertheless it should be pointed out that in edusa,
as In many other species, the common type of ? is not of the male
pattern, and we may be dealing here with two forms of female of
the is and y typ pes, the « ee in this species being unknown. And

* Poulton, E. B., Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1909.
+ Main. H., and Harmison. A., Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1905, p. vi.

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 2h

here the matter may be left until more experimental evidence is
forthecoming.*

It has been suggested above that the males of a species with poly-
morphic females may be of different constitution with regard to the
factors they contain, and with this in mind I have examined the
series of males of P. polytes which I collected. There is considerable
variation in the amount of the red marking and of the lunules of the
hind wing. Two distinct forms can be readily picked out, viz., that
in which the red is entirely absent and the lunules are much reduced
(P1. 1., figs. 11 and 11 A) and that in which the lunules are relatively
large and the red markings very distinct (P1.1.. figs. 10 and 10 A).
Between these two extremes are found intermediate forms which
cannot be sorted with the same certainty. Generally speaking,
however, the intermediates fall into two groups: (a) those in which
the lunules are large and in the hindermost at any rate furnished
with some red scales, and (b) those in which the lunules are small and
the red is confined to the spot by the tail. These I have called
respectively Int. I. and Int. II. Inthe appended table I have, with
the help of my friend Mr. J. C. F. Fryer, classified the available males
according to their markings and the locality from which they came :-—

Taste JT.
— nnn
| 3 3 a f
me E Las] 4 Par)
a Ts aS | 5 Fe allies
= as ° = | [oF Pe °
& So te) a rs) pee =
=| oe SS | ate:| 3804
S > eS S| ao bans 5 wwe
i, oH S) oS rs o8 So
| as, fr) nal a et er= =
5 2 35 | 5 | 2D 95
= i oe § |B oe
Red ats — 9 1 Fh - i
iGaire ip oe 17 7 6 2 1 es 4
Int. I. sis 15 a — 2) — 6
No red aA 32 1 1 J _ Be
| \ |

Several points of interest may be made out from this table. Very
noticeable is the absence of really ‘‘ red’ 66 at Trincomalee, as
well as the great preponderance here of 66 which show no red.
While the hotter and drier climate of these parts may possibly
lead to a general diminution of the red scales, this cannot be the

* Since the above was written Mr. E. E. Green has succeeded in raising
a brood of P. polytes from the ‘‘ male form” of female. All the females of
this brood, 37 in number, were of the ‘‘male form,” a fact which is in
harmony with the scheme suggested above. And here attention may be
called to an important paper by J. C. H. de Meijere on Papilis memnon,
which has recently been the subject of breeding experiments in Java. It is
suggested that the data from the three forms of female are consistent with a
Mendelian interpretation of this case. (Zeitschrift fur induktive Abstammungs
und Vererbungslehre, 3 Heft, 1910.) It should be mentioned that all the
three forms of female here are different to the male.

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sole cause of the non-red 66 being so greatly in excess. For such
males may occur, though in a smaller proportion, in the higher parts
of the Island, e.g., Kandy and Pundaluoya. I am inclined to
consider that there exists a connection within certain limits between
the amount of red and the constitution of the male, and to regard
the ‘‘ red ” males (and probably those of Group Int. I. also) as being
more intimately connected with the hector form of female, in which
the lunules are larger than in the other forms. But whether this
is really so can only be determined by breeding experiments, and
breeding experiments we must have before we can hope to understand
more of the nature of the various forms of Papilio polytes.

APPENDIX.

In addition to the instances already given of resemblance more
or less marked between different species of Lepidoptera, I met with
the following cases which seem of sufficient interest to place on
record :—

While at Trincomalee in September I was struck with the scarcity
of Hesperids. Parata butleri was abundant and Badhamia excla-
mationis was found occasionally, but outside these two species neither
my boy nor myself took a single Hesperid. Accordingly, when I
one day saw in sparse jungle an insect which looked like a Hesperid
other than the above two species, I devoted my attention to capturing
it. After some minutes of stalking I succeeded, and found, rather
to my surprise, that the putative Hesperid was a moth (Ophiusa
mezentia). In size and general appearance it is not unlike J'agiades
atticus (Pl. II., figs. 4 and 5). I prefer to leave to others the
decision as to which in this case is the mimic and which the model.

On PI. IT., fig. 13, is figured an insect which I took one day in Kandy,
at the bottom of Lady Horton’s Drive. I netted it as it flew across
the road, inwardly congratulating myself upon the acquisition of a
hitherto uncaptured Lycenid. On extracting it from the net my
first impression was that the antennz were missing. But on looking
more closely I discovered that it was not a butterfly at all, but a bug
belonging to the species Hansenia glauca. Here again I will leave
it to those wlio are more expert than I to pronounce upon which
is mimic and which is model.

While hunting P. polytes one day at the edge of the jungle at
Trincomalee I caught a small dragon fly (Rhyothemis variegata),
which I took to be a butterfly until I had actually got it within my
net. In this small species (PI. IT., fig. 17) the proximal parts of both
fore and hind wings are black, the distal part of either being

MIMICRY IN CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 293

transparent. Between the transparent and the dark part is a narrow
opaque white area. During its fluttering flight the outer transparent
portion of the wings is invisible, and even at close quarters this little
dragon fly looks very like a butterfly. I subsequently met the insect
again at Pannipitiya near Colombo, and my friends Dr. Willey and
Mr. Dobell, who happened to be with me at the time, were both
struck by its Lepidopteran appearance. I am doubtful whether to
invoke Pseudaposematism or Pseudepisematism for the interpretation
of this case.

Another dragon fly which is interesting in this connection is
Neurothemis tullia (Pl. I1., fig. 15). The general yellow-brown and
black colouration of this insect, coupled with its peculiar sharp and
jerky yet soft flight, so unlike that of most of its relatives, results in a
distinct resemblance to the butterfly Rahinda hordonia (PI. IT., fig. 14)
when on the wing. There may perhaps be some who would be
tempted to argue that the dragon fly has developed its peculiar colour
and flight in adaptation for deceiving and preying upon the butterfly.
For their sake it may be pointed out that the dragon fly hawks insects
in the bright sun, and I never met it in the shady localities frequented
by R. hordonia. Whenever I saw it, moreover, it was in company
with many dragon flies of larger and more powerful species, among
whom it could hardly be regarded as judicious to masquerade in
Lepidopteran guise. At the same time I may add that, though I
frequently watched these groups of dragon flies, and though butter-
flies of the genera Catopsilia, Appias, and Junonia abounded here,
I never saw a dragon fly attack any of them.

Lastly, I would draw attention to a small Chalcosid moth, Chalcosta
venosa (P1. II., fig. 12), which was abundant along Lady Horton’s
Drive during August. It has a remarkably Pierid-like appearance.*
There is, however, no Pierid here with which it could possibly be
confounded.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Note.—With the exception of figures 7, 8, and 9 on Plate I. all the
figures were made directly from the actual specimens by the four-colour
process.

Puate I.

Fig. 1.—Male of Papilio polytes.

Fig. 2.—Female (male form) of P. polytes.

Fig. 3.—Female (aristolochize form) of P. polyies.

Fig. 4.—Female (hector form) of P. polytes.

Fig. 5.—Male of Papilio aristclochie. Tn this species the colouration
of the two sexes is similar.

a The white of the wings of this moth is, however, not due to the presence of
uric acid derivatives, as in the Pieride. For this fact I am indebted to Dr. F.
Vigan Ms very kindly made the requisite test (c/. Hopkins, Phil. Trans.,

95;ip:

“94 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Fig. 6.—Male of Papilio hector. The female of this species is very
similar to the male, though the red has. a more orange
shade. *

Figs. 1 A-6 A.—Under surface of léft hind wings of the above. The
wing was taken from the same specimens as those figuréd
in figs. 1-5. For fig. 6: A a separate specimen was used,
since the left hind wing of that figured as fig. 6 was
damaged. There is practically no difference in these
two, except that 6 A has a rather shorter tail.

Fig. 7.—Caterpillar of P. polytes, full-fed.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9:
Note.—For these three figures I'am indebted to Mr. Green, who had

them prepared for me by Mr. A. D. Alwis, the artist: at the Royal
Botanie Gardens, Peradeniya.

Fig. 10, 10 A.—Under surface of hind wings of males of P.. polytes,
showing variation in colour pattern.

Fig. 11, 11 A.—Upper surface of hind wings of males of P. polytes,
showing variation in colour pattern.

: Chrysalis of P. polytes.

Poare, II.
All specimens * about ¢.
Figs. 1 A-C.—Pareronia ceylonica (Pieride) ; 1 A, male; 1 B, upper
surface of female ; 1 C, under surface of female.
Figs. 2 A~B.—Danais septentrionis (Danaidz) ; 2 A, upper surface ;
2 B, under surface.
Figs. 3 A-B.—Papilio clytia (Papilionide) ; 3-A, var..dissimilis.
Fig. 4.—Ophiusa mezentia, Cram. (Heterocera).

tos nek Sdalib FO Se ee ee eee

Fig. 5.—Tagiades atticus (Hesperide). zh

Fig. 6.—Hypolimnas bolina (Nymphalide), female. ;

Fig. 7.—Elymnias fraterna (Satyride). Specimen of female with r
wings bitten, probably by a lizard. 4

Figs. 8 A-C.—Elymnias fraterna (Satyride). 8A, male; 8B, upper |
surface of female ; 8 C, under surface of female.

Figs. 9 A-B.—Danais plexippus(Danaide). 9 A,upper surface ; 9B,
under surface. -

Figs. 10 A-B.—Argynnis hyperbius (Nymphalidz). 10A,male; 10B, j

female.
Fig. 11.—Huplea core (Danaide).
Fig. 12.—Chalcosia venosa (Heterocera)
Fig. 13.—Hansenia glauca (Rhynechota).
Fig. 14.—Rahinda hordonia (Nymphalidz).

Fig. 15.—Neurothems tullia, Dru. In the actual “specimen the
brown near the basis of the wings is brighter and more
conspicuous.

Fig. 16.—Scleropogon piceus (Asilidz), female.
Fig. 17.—Rhyothemis variegata, Joh.

P. polytes, 9
(‘ male form”’)

n
P. polytes, 6

Ta
2a
. 5a
P. polytes, 2

(“aristolochiae
form")

IP. aristolochiae, a
'

o}

P. polytes, ¢
(‘hector form’’)

P

SYNGNATHIDS FROM CEYLON. 25

ON SOME SYNGNATHIDS (“PIPE FISH’’) FROM CEYLON.

By Georce DunckEeR (Hamburg).

(With one Plate.)

YNGNATHIDS or pipe fishes are known to inhabit the fresh
waters of East Africa as well as of continenta! India, but,
strange to say, not as yeb from Ceylon. Last summer (1909) 1
determined to investigate some Ceylon rivers with reference to the
occurrence of Syngnathids, with the result of finding four species,
viz., Microphis brachyurus, Bleeker, Doryichthys cunculus, Ham.-
Buch., Doryichthys ocellatus, n. sp., and Syngnathus spicifer, Rupp.,
var. djarong, Bleeker. :
A review of all Syngnathids hitherto observed in Ceylon may be
combined with the description of the species mentioned above ;
further investigation certainly will lead to the discovery of many
more. especially marine species.

Gastrotokeus, Kp.

Brood organ of male abdominal, nob covered by cutaneous folds.
Eggs isolated in open cutaneous cells. Upper as well as lower
lateral edges of trunk and tail continuous ; middle lateral edges of
trunk nearly or entirely reaching upper ones of tail behind the
dorsal fin. Interstitial scutella and lateral line absent. Dorsal,
anal, and pectoral fins (referred to as D, A, and P) present, caudal
fin (C) absent ; tail prehensile. Trunk much depressed, its ventral
surface bordered by middle lateral edges.

1. Gastrotokeus biaculeatus, BI.

Kaup, 1856, p. 19; Duméril, 1870, p. 528 ; Giinther, 1870, p. 194;
Day, 1878, p. 681, Pl. 174, fig. 5 ; Day, 1889, p. 467, fig. 167.

Syngnathus blochii, Bleeker, 1853, p. 24.

Truncal annuli (abdcminal plus caudal) 15-18 plus 40-55. Annuli
below dorsal fin (annuli subdorsales) 0-2 plus 8-10. Dorsal rays
(D) 37-47. Anal rays (A) 4-5. Pectoral rays (P) 19-23. Fre-
quently with numerous short immovable cutaneous appendages,
similar to alge. Chin with two simple or little ramified short
movable tentacles of reddish-brown colour. Anus papilliferous.
Eggs rather large, ovoid, generally in 8 longitudinal and 23-28
transverse rows. Total length up to 25-7 cm. Mature males 164
to 25:7 cm.

i 9(6)10

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Colour during life grayish to sea-green; edges of body with
indistinct reddish blotches. Small round dark blue dots, becoming
brown in spirit, ventrally along the middle lateral edges of trunk.

Living between the weeds of a Zostera, sp., the leaves of which
equal in breadth that of the animal, attached to their stems by
means of the prehensile tail, the head erect, and therefore not
easily visible. The decaying leaves of the Zostera are covered with
small mucous gray alge, which are strikingly similar to the cuta-
neous appendages of the fish. Slowly and clumsily swimming.

Distribution.—From East Africa to Polynesia. In the Colombo
Museum there are several specimens, without details of locality.

Sinhalese name.—Moralla (Colombo).

Microphis, mihi.

Brood organ of male abdominal, not covered by cutaneous folds,
laterally protected by plates which correspond to the lower lateral
edges of trunk and are ventrally divergent. Eggs small, numerous,
isolated in open cutaneous cells, Upper as well as lower lateral
edges of trunk and tail discontinuous ; middle lateral edges of trunk
continuous with lower ones of tail; keels of the several rings
terminating in a free spine posteriorly. Scutella and lateral line.
present ; D, A, C, and P present; A situated behind middle of
total length.

2. Microphis brachyurus, Bleeker. Dumeéril, 1870, p. 595.

Syngnathus brachyurus, Bleeker, 1853, p. 16.

Doryichthys brachyurus, Giinther, 1870, p. 184.

Doryichthys Hasselti, Kaup, 1856, p. 57.

Doryichthys auronitens, Kaup, 1856, p. 59; Giinther,
1870, p. 182.

Microphis auronitens, Dumeéril, 1870, p. 597.

Doryichthys millepunctatus, Kaup, 1856, p. 60;
Gunther, 1870, p. 183.

Microphis Bleekeri (Day), Duméril, 1870, p. 599.

Doryichthys Bleekeri, Giinther, 1870, p. 182; Day, 1878,
p. 680, Pl. 174, fig. 3; Day, 1889, p. 465.

Microphis douanii, Duméril, 1870, p. 592.

Ann. 20-22 plus 21-23; ann. subdors.“1-2 plus 6-8; D 37-438,
A 3-5, C 9, P 18-23. Operculum longitudinally keeled, with 1-8
radiating elevated ridges below the keel. Middle ray of C enlarged
and somewhat elongate. Eggs small, in 4-13 longitudinal and 60-
110 transverse rows. Total length up to 18:2 em.; mature males
12:2-16°7 cm.

Ground colour dark, with numerous fine white dots. Operculum
sometimes with black spots. Orange coloured and black spots at
the corners of the mouth. Lower side of rostrum with light dark-
edged transverse fascize. Caudal fin orange coloured at dorsal and

SYNGNATHIDS FROM CEYLON. 27

ventral margin. Male with a blood-red vertical stripe on the opercle
near its hind edge ; a longitudinal stripe of the same colour imme-
diately beneath the anterior half of the middle lateral edge, both
these stripes disappearing in spirit. Iris brown, with golden lustre.

In fresh and brackish waters ; numerous amongst grassy weeds ;
quickly and skilfully swimming.

Distribution.—From Kast Africa to Polynesia. Several specimens
in the Colombo Museum, from the Panadure river at Horetuduwa,
near Moratuwa, 4 miles upstream. In the Hamburg Museum
(No. 11,557) 10 males, 34 females and young from the Gin-ganga
and Opata-ela at Wakwella (Duncker), (No. 11,558) 3 males and
8 females from the Mahaweli-ganga, below Thalavai estate, near
Trincomalee (Duncker).

Sinhalese.—Loku ela theliya (Wakwella); vetakeyiya moralla
(Panadure) ; mudha aspaya (Negombo).

Doryichthys, raihi.

Brood organ of male abdominal, entirely covered, when filled
with eggs, by broad, not coalescent, lateral protective plates, which
sometimes have a narrow cutaneous fold along their free margin.
Eggs large, isolated in cutaneous cells. Upper lateral edges of
trunk and tail discontinuous, lower either continuous or discon-
tinuous ; in the latter case middle lateral edges of trunk continuous
with lower ones of tail. All the body edges smooth in the adult.
Scutella and lateral line present.. D, A, C, and P present; A
situated anterior to middle of total legth. Fresh and brackish
water fishes.

3. Doryichthys cunculus, H.B. Ginther, 1870, p. 181; Day,
1878, p. 679, PI. 174, fig. 4; Day, 1889, p. 465, fig. 166.

Microphis cunculus, Kaup, 1856, p. 64; Dumeril, 1870, p. 591.

Ann. 17-18 plus 25-28 ; ann. subdors. 3 plus 7-8 ; D 50-53, A 3,
C 9, P 18-20. Lower lateral edges of trunk and tail continuous ;
middle lateral edges of trunk subcontinuous with lower ones of tail.
Anal fin just in front of middle of total length. Protective plates
of brood organ well developed ; no cutaneous folds found (pouch
empty). Eggs rather large, according to the remnants of cells in
3—4 longitudinal and about 50—55 transverse rows. Opercle with a
single longitudinal keel. Total length 13:9 cm.

Colouration grayish-brown ; severat indistinct narrow dark longi-
tudinal stripes on the side of the trunk. Diffuse dark spots on
the upper lateral edges of trunk, most distinct on the ring borders.
A dark stripe on each side from tip of snout through the eye over
opercle, above its keel, to base of P ; ventral half of opercle silvery.
Tris reddish-brown.

Distribution.—I\ndia (Malabar, mouth of Ganges, Bengal, Orissa),
Ceylon,

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Colombo Museum :‘ one male from Panadure river at Horetuduwa.
Sinhalese.—Vetakeyiya moralla.

4. Doryichthys ocellatus, n. sp. , Plate, fig. A,

Ann. 15-16 plus 31-32; ann. subdors. 1-2 plus 7-8; D 37-40,
A 4, C 9, small, P 17-19. Lower lateral edges of trunk and tail
discontinuous ; middle lateral edges of trunk continuous with lower
ones of tail. Opercle with a straight keel; beneath and parallel to
the latter one, rarely two weaker ones, more distinctly visible in
posterior half of opercle. Abdominal edge very prominent in
females. Anal fin in front of middle of total length. Rings of
adults smooth, of young ones spiny behind, as in Microphis.
Caudal fin of young individuals comparatively large. Brood organ
from second body ring to first. caudal ring, with large, completely
closing, but not coalescent protective plates ; no cutaneous folds.
Protecting plates much deeper than dorsal wings of inferior lateral
scutes. Eggs large, in 4 longitudinal and about 30 transverse rows.
Total length up to 13 cm. ; mature males 9:5 to 13 em. :

On the middle lateral edges of the trunk, on each border of its
rings, one black white-bordered ocellated spot, the white contour of
which disappears in spirit. Back light reddish-brown, sides yellow-
gray; protective plates of brood pouch darker. A dark longitudinal
stripe on each side from tip of snout through the eye to the opercle,
behind which, more or less distinct, it passes on to the trunk between
upper and middle lateral edge. Caudal with yellow dorsal and
ventral margins. Iris yellowish-red.

The only two females of our material happen to be regenerated
specimens ; in the one of 10-1 cm. length there are 24 caudal rings and
7 caudal fin rays (fin enlarged) ; in the other one of 9°5 cm. length
there are 25 caudal rings and 8 caudal rays (fin enlarged).
Evidently they have accidentally lost 6-8 caudal rings and yet been
able to regenerate a caudal fin.

Distribution.—Ceylon.

Col. Mus.: one male from Kalu-ganga, near Galatura tea estate,
32 miles up river (H. Drummond Hay).

Hbg. Mus. 11,559: one female, five young, from Mahaweli-ganga,
below Thalavai estate, near Trincomalee (Duncker).

Hbg. Mus. 11,560 : five males, one female, four young, from Gin-
ganga, at Wakwella (Duncker).

Nearly related to Doryichthys caudatus, Peters.

Sinhalese.—Punchi-ela theliya (Wakwella), mudha aspaya
(Negombo).

Corythroichthys, Duncker.

Brood organ of male subcaudal, not covered, without lateral
protective plates, bordered by narrow longitudinal posteriorly

SYNGNATHIDS FROM OEYLON. 29

divergent cutaneous folds. Eggs small, numerous, incompletely
isolated in very shallow cutaneous cells, cake-like, sticking to each
other. Upper lateral edges of trunk and tail discontinuous ; lower
lateral edges of trunk and tail continuous ; middle lateral edges of
trunk subcontinuous with upper ones of tail. Scutella and lateral
line present. .D, A, C, and P present.

5. Corythroichthys conspicillatus.
Syngnathus conspicillatus , Duméril, 1870, p. 544;
a Giinther, 1870, p. 174; Day, 1888, p. 808 ; Day, 1889,
p. 463.
Syngnathus hemalopterus, Bleeker, 1853, p. 20.
Corythroichthys fasciatus, Gray ; Kaup, 1856, p. 25.
Syngnathus fasciatus, Duméril, 1870, p. 543.

Ann, 16-18 plus 33-38; ann. subdors. 0-1 plus 5-7; D 25-32,
A 3-4, C 9-10, P 14-18, annuli or rings in the region of the brood
pouch (referred to as B R) 10-16. Middle lateral edges of trunk
and upper ones of tail terminating near to each other, as a rule on
the border between last ring of trunk and first of tail. Opercle with
a straight keel in its entire length. Forehead and eyes prominent.
Eggs small, numerous, in 6-11 longitudinal and 28-37 transverse
rows. Total length up to 17-3 cm. ; mature males 9°7—-17°3 cm.

Ventral surface of head and opercles with dark longitudinal, of
rostrum with dark transverse, fascia. A black transverse fascla
ventrally on each of the first three body rings, frequently resolved
into spots. All the rings with fine black reticulated lines.

During life the three black bands on the throat as well as the
posterior margin of the anal opening seamed by orange colour. In
the males light bluish-silvery stripes between the dark bands at the
throat, missing or little developed in the females. Ground colour
of ventral surface of head brassy-yellow to coral-red. Rostrum,
upper edges of trunk, and subdorsal region wine-red, the latter with
coral-red blotches. When not disturbed this fish moves snake-like
on the bottom, but swims rapidly if disturbed. Frequent on coral
sands.

Distribution.—From East Africa to Polynesia.

Col. Mus.: males and females, from Jaffna (Day-Haly, 1888).

Hbg. Mus. 11,563: two males, three females, from Trincomalee
harbour (Duncker).

Tamil.—Kudira.

Trachyrrhamphus, Kp.
Brood organ of male subcaudal, without lateral protective plates,
not covered, bordered by narrow longitudinal cutaneous folds,
diverging posteriorly. Upper lateral edges of trunk and _ tail

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

discontinuous ; lower lateral edges of trunk and tail discontinuous :
middle lateral edges of trunk continuous with lower ones of tail.
Scutella and lateral line present. D, A, C, and P present; ©
small; base of D elevated.

6. Trachyrrhamphus serratus, Schleg.

Kaup, 1856, p. 23; Dumeril, 1870, p. 538.

Syngnathus serratus, Schlegel ; Giinther, 1870, p. 167 ;
Day, 1878, p. 677, Pl. 173, fig. 4; Day, 1889, p. 461,
fig. 164.

Trachyrrhamphus cultrirostris, Peters, 1870, p. 710;
Duméeril, 1870, p. 539.

Trachyrrhamphus intermedius, Kaup, 1856, p. 24;
Duméril, 1870, p. 538.

Syngnathus intermedius, Gtinther, 1870, p. 168; Day,
1878, p. 678, Pl. 173, fig. 6; Day, 1889, p. 462.

Syngnathus ceylonensis, Giinther, 1870, p. 168.

Ann, 22-24 plus 44-49 ; ann. subdors. 2-4. plus 2-3; D 25-29,
A 4, C 9-10, rudimentary, P 14-19, B R 20-22. Generally
with short cutaneous appendages, similar to alge, on the surface
of the body, especially on the dorsal ‘surface. Opercle with a very
short basal keel and fine radiating strie. Dorsal median line of
rostrum with a serrated crest. Forehead and eyes prominent.
Eggs very small and numerous, in 8-10 longitudinal series. Total
length up to 26:8 cm. Uniformly brown coloured.

Distribution.—From Zanzibar to Japan.

Col. Mus.: 1 6, Ceylon.

Urocampus, Gunth.

Brood organ of male subcaudal, with or without weak lateral
protective plates, with broad longitudinal cutaneous folds, con-
verging posteriorly and coalescent during the breeding period.
Upper lateral edges of trunk and tail continuous ; ‘lower lateral
edges of trunk and tail discontinuous ; middle lateral edges of trunk
continuous with lower ones of tail. Scutella and lateral line
present. D, C, and P present, A (always ?) absent ; D commencing
for more than its own length behind anal ring.

7. Urocampus southwelli, n. sp. Plate, figs. B (6) and C (*).

Ann. 8 plus 49-50; ann. subdors. 7 plus 12; D 14, A 0, C 10,
well developed, P 8-10, B R 8, without protective plates. Opercle
keeled in anterior two-thirds of its length. Body-edges very
indistinct. Subdorsal tail-rings somewhat elevated. No cutaneous
appendages. Rostrum longer than postorbital region of head.
Eggs comparatively very large, biserial, 8-10, longitudinally
arranged in seven anterior rings of B R—é 45 mm., ? 40 mm.
Uniformly yellowish-brown.

SYNGNATHIDS FROM CEYLON. 31

From U. guntheri, mihi (W. Australia), with similar numbers of
rings, distinct through the absence of cutaneous appendages, the
greater length of D, and the shorter opercular keel.

Distribution.—Ceylon.

Col. Mus.: 1 6, 1 ¥, from Marichchukkaddi aie in 24 fathoms,
in tow-net. (T. Southwell.)

Syngnathus, L.

Brood organ of male subcaudal, generally with lateral protective
plates, always with broad longitudinal cutaneous folds, converging
and coalescent during the breeding period. Upper lateral edges of
trunk and tail discontinuous ; lower lateral edges of trunk and tail
continuous ; middle lateral edges of trunk subcontinuous with upper
or with lower edges of tail.

8. Syngnathus spicifer, Rupp. ; var. djarong, Bleek.

Distribution.—Madagascar, India, Ceylon, Borneo, Java, Philip-
pines, New Guinea.

Hbg. Mus. 11,561: 3 é¢ from Opatha-ela, near Wakwella
(Duncker).

Hbg. Mus. 11,562: 11 66, 16 99, 21 juv. from Mahaweli-ganga,
below Thalanai estate, near Trincomalee (Duncker).

Sinhalese.—Kta theliya (Wakwella).

Among the forms united by Giinther under the name of Syngnathus
spicifer there are at least three to be distinguished, two of which
may be considered salt and fresh water varieties of the same species,
while the third one represents a separate species. They are :—

(a) Syngnathus spicifer, Riipp. ; var. gastrotznia, Bleek.
Syngnathus spicifer, Ripp.—Kaup, 1856, p. 36 partim ;
Duméril, 1870, p. 546 part ; Gimther, 1870, p. 172
part ; Day, 1878, p. 662 part, and Pl. 174, fig. 1 ;
Day, 1889, p. 462 part ; Peters, 1869, p. 276.
Syngnathus gastrotaenia, Bleeker, 1853, p. 22.
Syngnathus Kummii, Bleeker ; Duméril, 1870, p. 548 ;
Ginther, 1870, p. 172.
Salt and brackish water.
(6) Syngnathus spicifer, Ripp.; var. djarong, Bleek.
Syngnathus spicifer, Riipp. Synonyms see above, except
Day ais7o, Ph 174) fio. 1:
Syngnathus djarong, Bleeker, 1853, p. 22; Dumeéril,
1870, p. 545.
? Syngnathus Helfrichii, Bleeker ; Duméril, 1870, p. 547.
Syngnathus spicifer, Riipp.; var. rivalis, Peters, 1869,
p. 276.
Brackish and fresh water,

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

(c) Syngnathus argyrostictus, Kuhl et Van Hasselt ; Kaup,
1856, p. 33; Duméril, 1870, p. 545.
Syngnathus spicifer, Ginther, 1870, p. 172 part.
? Syngnathus biserialis, Gray; Kaup, 1856, p. 33.

Diagnoses of the two Species.

Syngnathus spicifer, Rupp.

Ann. 14-16 plus 38-43 ; ann. subdors. — 2-0 plus 6-9; D 23-30,
A 2-3, © 10, P 13-18, B R 14-21. Middle lateral edges of trunk
subcontinuous with lower ones of tail. Opercle keeled in its entire
length. Sides of trunk without ocellated spots. Total length up
to 15:4 cm. k

Distribution,—From East Africa to Polynesia:

Syngnathus argyrostictus, Kuhl] et Van Hasselt.

Ann. 15-16 plus 33-41 ; ann. subdors. — 1-0 plus 6-8; D 25-29,
A 3, C 10, P 15-17, B R 16-19. Middle lateral edges of trunk
subcontinuous with upper ones of tail. Opercle keeled in its entire
length. Length of rostrum equal to distance of preorbital margin
from base of P. Sides of trunk with numerous small white black-
bordered ocellated spots in 3-7 longitudinal series. Total length
up to 13-6 cm.

Distribution.—Malay Peninsula, China, Japan.

Diagnoses of the Varieties of Syngnathus spicifer, Rupp.

(a) Var. gastrotenia, Bleek.

Rostrum longer than the remaining part of the head. Trunk
rather deep, but without a particularly prominent abdominal edge.
Abdomen with about 14 dark cross bars. Total length up to 15:4
cm. Mature males 10°0-15:4 cm.

(b) Var. djarong, Bleek.

Rostrum about as long as the postorbital length of the head.
Trunk deep; abdominal edge very prominent. Abdomen uni-
coloured, lighter than the bluish-black abdominal edge. Total
length up to 14-1 cm. ; mature males 8-3-12-°6 cm.

The formule of numbers of rings, &c., taken from 44 specimens
of the first and 29 of the second variety are :—

(a) Ann. 14-15 plus 38-42; ann. subdors. — 2 ~ 1 plus 7-9;

D 25-30, P 14-18, B R 15-21.
(b) Ann. 14-16 plus 39-43; ann. subdors. — 2-0 plus 6-7;
D 23-29, P 13-16, B R 14-17.

More distinctly these differences will come out from the corre-

sponding average values :—

(a) Ann. 14~—73 plus 39-81; ann. subdors. — 1-32 plus 7-41 ;
D 27-61, P 16-37, B R 18-26.

SYNGNATHIDS FROM CEYLON. ” 38

(6) Ann. 14-79 plus 40-63; ann. subdors. — 0-53 plus 6-31 ;
D 26-28, P 14-76, B R 15-06.

The dorsal fin of var. djarong therefore stands somewhat more
forward and is shorter than that of var. gastrotenia, which latter
has more pectoral rays and a larger brood pouch than the former.
In both varieties the protective plates of the brood organ are very
small, scarcely developed. Eggs of var. djarong small, in 4
longitudinal and about 60 transverse series.

Colouration of var. djarong during life :—Abdomen of male
purplish-red, of female grayish-green, with blue-black abdominal
edge. Ventral surface of rostrum and opercles silvery or brass-
coloured, with blackish spots and stripes more or less irregularly
arranged. C brown, with lighter dorsal and ventral margins. D
with dark spots. Some specimens from the Mahaweli-ganga had
the lip of the rostrum orange-coloured. Ivis brass-coloured.

In New Guinea andthe Bismarck Archipelago I collected: var.
gastrotenia at ten, and var. djarong at four localities, but once
only found the two varieties together at the mouth of a draining
ditch of a coconut plantation at the seashore ; everywhere else the
var. gastrotenia preferred the water more saline than the var.
djarong.

Hippocampus, L.

Brood organ of male subcaudal, without protective plates ; its two
cutaneous folds entirely united, forming a bag-like brood pouch,
which has a small muscular orifice anteriorly, immediately behind
the anal ring. Upper lateral edges of trunk and tail discontinuous ;
lower lateral edges of trunk and tail discontinuous ; middle lateral
edges of trunk continuous with lower ones of tail. Trunk com-
pressed, generally deep. Head in an angular position to the
longitudinal axis of trunk. No scutella ; lateral line present. Scutes
of body rings with narrow elongated wings and_ shortened
keel. D, A, and P present, C absent; tail prehensile. Base of D
elevated.

Of Hippocampus I have seen only three specimens from Ceylon,
which seem to belong to two different species. It is impossible,
however, at the present state of our knowledge to safely distinguish
between the South Asiatic species of Hippocampus, with the single
exception of H. kuda, Bleek. Characters traditionally applied,

such as shape of the corona, of the spines of the body, colour, size
’ of cutaneous appendages, are useless for the distinction of species ;
they vary considerably according to age and individuality, as I
have convinced myself on larger series of the two European forms,
H. guttatus, Cuv., and H. brevirostris, Cuv.

E 9(6) 10

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Description of the three specimens :—

Col. Mus. : 6, ann. 11 plus 40; ann. subdors. 2 plus 1; D 18, A ?,
P 19-18, BR 8. Rings subequal. Head and trunk with
numerous fine white dots arranged in reticulated lines.
Ceylon.

Col. Mus. : 9, ann. 11 plus 38; ann. subdors. 2 plus 1; D 17, A 5,
P16. Rings subequal. Uniformly dark brown. Ceylon.

Hbg. Mus. : 2, ann. 11 plus 37; ann. subdors. 2 plus 1; D 18, A 4,
P16. Ringssubequal. Headand body with numerous fine
white dots arranged in reticulated lines. Gulf of Mannar.

According to the number of caudal rings and of pectoral fin rays,
which are systematically important, the two latter specimens may
belong to the same, ‘the former one to a different species ; they
certainly are not Hippocampus kuda, Bleeker. Hippocampus
guttatus, Cuv. (cf. Giinther, 1870, p. 202; Day, 1878, p. 682), is
exclusively a European species, which is found from the Mediter-
ranean to the North Sea. The synonym in the places cited above
therefore is erroneous.

LITERATURE.

1853. Bleeker, P., Bijdrage tot de Kenniss van de Troskienwize
visschen van den Indischen Archipel. Verhandel. Batav.
Genoot. Kunst. Wetensch. T. 25.

1878. Day, F., The Fishes of India. 2 vols.

1888. Day, F., Supplement to the former.

1898. Day, F., The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
Burma (ed. by T. Blandford). Fishes, Vol. IT.

1870. Duméril, A., Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, ou Ichthyologie
Generale. Vol. II.

1870. Ginther, A., Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum.
Vol. VIIT.

1856. Kaup, T. P., Catalogue of Lophobranchiate Fishes in the
Collection of the British Museum.

1869. Peters, W., Ueber die von Herrn Dr. F. Tagor in dem
Ostindischen Archipel. gesammelten und dem Kel.
Zoologischen Museum ubergebenen Fische. Monatsber.
Kel. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1868), pp. 254-81.

1870. Peters, W., Ueber neue oder weniger bekannte Fische
des Berliner Zoologischen Museums. Jbid. (1869),
pp. 703-11.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
A.—Doryichthys ocellatus.
B.—Urocampus southwelli, 6.
C.—Urocampus southwelli, ¥.

Spolia Zeylanica.

Dan eeemene:

aie

2 A

yngnathids of Ceylon.

5

ioe Ts}
eas aig ia
=e - ~ .
> Sos 0 Ve

: _ z

Yr 4

é ]

a k D:

‘

ie

ts

“>

tx re oe ae A

24

REMARKS ON RECENTLY ACQUIRED CEYLON SNAKES. 35

REMARKS ON SOME RECENTLY ACQUIRED
CEYLON SNAKES.

By Major F. Watt, I.M.S.

O Dr. Willey I am indebted for a specimen of the Ceylon water-
snake T'ropidonotus asperrimus, and to Mr. E. EK. Green for
six other snakes, all of which are worthy of special remarks.

Tropidonotus asperrimus, Boulenger.

The specimen sent convinces me that this snake is not entitled. to
rank as a species, but is better considered as merely an insular colour
variety of 7’. piscator, Schneider, comparable to the Andaman variety
tytlert of the same species. Its markings accord well with the figure
in Mr. Boulenger’s Catalogue (Vol. I., Plate XV., fig. 2), but the last
two costal rows are quite smooth, so that it is evident that some
specimens perfectly agree with typical forms of piscator in the only
character, excepting colour, upon which it is separated from that
species. Mr. Boulenger claims that only the last row is without
keels.

I prepared the skull, and this and the dentition perfectly accord
with those of typical forms of piscator from India. The teeth are as
follows: maxillary, 21 left, 22 right; palatine, 11 left, 12 right ;
pterygoid, 22 left, 24 right; mandibular, 22 left, ? right (broken).
The dentition of four other skulls of Indian piscator in my collections
is: maxillary, 21 to 25; palatine, 11 to 15; pterygoid, 24 to 27;
mandibular, 23 to 27.

Dendrelophis tristis, Daudin.

Two specimens were received, one head and neck only, the other
a gravid 2, measuring 3 ft. 114 in., killed at Peradeniya at the end of
December, 1909, and containing 7 nearly mature eggs.

The Ceylon form of this snake appears to be an insular variety,
at least I cannot remember ever having seen it in any part of India.
It differs from the Indian form in (1) the absence of a light round
spot on the back of the head in the interparietal suture ; (2) the
light vertebral stripe is very conspicuous, being bright yellow, and
limited to a small extent of the forepart of the spine ; (3) there is
no black line between the dark brown dorsal colouration and the
buff flank stripe ; (4) all the scales, including the vertebral, are
heavily bordered with black basally and apically. The variety
is very nicely shown in Plate XII. of the Bombay Natural History
Journal, Vol. X1X., Part 4, whieh accompanies my article on this

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

snake, and which should be called Dendrelophis tristis, not Dendro-
phis pictus. I have little doubt now that the British Museum
artist painted this from a Ceylon specimen. This variety, which
may be called taprobanensis, agrees with the Indian form in the
following ways: (1) the narrew vertebral row of scales, which,
though enlarged, are considerably longer than broad ; (2) having
only two supralabials, the fifth and sixth normally touching the
eye ; (3) narrow black posterior borders to the second, third,
and fourth supralabials (and first, too, sometimes) ; (4) a narrow,
short, and rather obscure postocular black stripe.

[have prepared and examined the skull of one of these specimens,
and find the nasal bones, the ridges on the parietal bones for mus-
cular attachment, and the maxillary dentition—in that the posterior
teeth are shorter than the anterior—all agree with the Indian form,
figures of which appear in the diagram accompanying my article in
the Bombay Journal (A, a to g). The only difference isin the

number of the maxillary and pterygoid teeth, which exceed those
in the usual Indian form.

The dentition of this is herewith given with that of all my Indian
skulls for comparison :—
Teeth.

o.of Side of <il- : ery- Mandi- i
Mariel Hosd nae Ge ae bulars. Habitat.
i$ Left Any Gara epee) ware sel Ee) ‘ Eastern Hima-
GeRiehe ke wk ee dg ee, a layas (Parhok)
9 { Left Ait 7 stuart Wha aig a
Uke Poa ay: Sea bp Ales
34 Left AB nc 1293 BO. 207 ‘ ab
Right! (celalSe.. vol (ihe 2d? ee
a} Left PAP Sas ee PAs Wiener Lok, cei, ‘
Right =... 17. WE. 22. vail
of Left NeslO mm eran mi Osis. N23 ihe jay nai (Gare
Right Ae pel its} Be tell Syed eee Le, or ee
Left de De eee 1 hs 22. cea PARES ; ,
64 Right Sse bettie 8] LOA Me 9 Josten yi aera Uy
7f Left LMI race OM. | Een PAS, 22 ‘ MEAs
Right \ wae’) oad 2 eb Uae
Left GPa cldaweke eoaecerr ae, ‘ South India
8} Righta yo Mop aun hoo al ane (Madras ?)
Left nae Omir raen Wicsitmueeicut Ob maine te Western Ghats
0} Right eae eval: Us Sob ae en 4: Bat hia 44 ‘ (Matheran)
Left | RTOS 1 Se LN DOR see Nilgiri Hills
104 Right QD ont ik. 29 ae Oe ; (Kotagiri)
Left SED ee cw Opie HOOF se dO ; Ceylon (Pera-
un} PRCRE LL gs) 18 sma eed deniya)

It will be seen that the dentition agrees with that of a specimen
from the Nilgiri Hills, collected many years ago, in which I omitted
to note the distinctions in colour and markings given above, so that
it is possible that the Ceylon form may, as in many other cases, be
found also in the South Indian Hills.

REMARKS ON. RECENTLY ACQUIRED CEYLON SNAKES. oT

Oligodon sublineatus , Dum et Bib.

A single 6 specimen of this snake from Matale, measuring 83 in.,
was specially interesting, in that the scale rows were aberrant,
numbering 13 instead of 15. Studying this specimen, it was
observed that the sixth and seventh rows above the ventrals
coalesced, reducing the normal 15 to 13 rows, and in several places
the row so formed divided to bring the number to the normal 15 and
then fused again. I have seen a similar aberration arising in the
same manner in other species of Oligodon and its nearly allied genus
Simotes. The. ventrals numbered 140, and the subcaudals 32.
The general appearance of this snake is remarkably like that of its
poisonous relative, Callophis trimaculatus. There are the same
black spots in a single costal series down each side of the back, and
the same head marks, but the dark collar is broken in the median
line, unlike trimaculatus. The median row of ventral spots was
absent in this specimen.

An examination of the skull I prepared from this specimen is
interesting. There is an edentulous interval that would take at
least two teeth in the front of the maxillary and mandibular bones,
the palatine bone is edentulous, and a long edentulous interval is
seen in the front of the pterygoid bone, so that the few teeth in
this are situated in the middle. It is to be noted that Boulenger
(Cat., Vol. II., p. 233) states that the pterygoid teeth are wanting
in this genus, but I find them present in all the species of which I
have skulls, viz., venustus, dorsalis, subgriseus, erythrogaster, as well
as this species.

The maxillary teeth in this specimen number 7, the pterygoid
5 or 6, and the mandibular 10.

Bungarus ceylonicus, Gunther.

Two well-grown specimens of the ‘“ Karawella” killed at Pera-
deniya were sent to me, a 6 measuring 2 ft. 2} in., with 233 ventrals
and 32 subcaudals, and a 6? measuring 2 ft. 5} in., with 223
ventrals and 37 subcaudals.

I prepared both skulls, and find the dentition as follows:
the maxille are provided with 3 small grooved teeth behind the
paired fangs. There are from 11 to 12 palatine, 8 to 10 pterygoid,
and 15 to 17 mandibular teeth.

Callophis trimaculatus, Daudin.

One specimen of this very rare snake was sent to me, killed at
Matale, an adult measuring 1 ft. 3} in. The species has only twice
before been recorded from Ceylon, once by Haly (First Report,
Snakes, Colombo Museum, 1886, p. 16), from Tissamaharama, 20
miles north-east of Hambantota, and once by Dr. Willey (Spol.
Zeylan., Vol. V., Part XX., p. 186), from Niroddumunai, near
Trincomalee.

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The ventrals in the Matale specimen are 228 and subcaudals 28.

I have prepared the skull, and find the dentition as follows :
maxillary, 2 to 3 small grooved teeth behind the paired fangs ;
palatine, 6 to 7; pterygoid, 6; mandibular, 8 to 9.

Reference to Boulenger’s Catalogue (Vol. III., p. 396) shows
that the genus Callophis has no maxillary teeth behind the fangs.
It is obvious from this that the characters made use of by this
authority to differentiate this genus must be altered, or this species
removed therefrom ; and in this connection I may mention that in a
specimen of the species Maculiceps lately received from Tenasserim
(Kawkariek, Amherst District) I find three grooved teeth in the
maxilla behind the paired fangs.

NOTES ON KANDYAN ART, 39

NOTES ON KANDYAN ART.
By Ananpa K. Coomaraswamy, D.Sc.

(With two Plates.)

CHANK IN THE MusEuMm at Kanpy.

4 ea Kandy Museum has lately acquired a very beautiful chank,

mounted in damascened brass, and comparable with the fine
specimen which is figured in ‘‘ Medizeval Sinhalese Art,’’ Pl. XLI., I.
As in that case, the termination is in the form of a serapendiya head,
and a continuation of the metal work runs round the mouth of the
chank. The foliar scrolls proceeding from the animal’s mouth are
partly broken. The chank itself is plain, and not inlaid as in the
other example. Like the other, it comes from Uda Nuwara ; in this
case, from the Dewale at Lankatilaka. The other example was given
by Narendra Sinha to a Dewale at Eldeniya (or Aludeniya ?), and
it may be assumed that this specimen also is at least as old as the
earlier part of the eighteenth century. It measures 102 inches in
full length.

CARVED PowDER Horn.

Mr. A. B. Casse Lebbe possesses a very fine carved Kandyan
powder horn. The material is buffalo horn, and the delicate carving
a fine example of liya pata work.

WEIGHT OF A STOCK-DRILL.

When last in Ceylon I obtained a beautifully carved stock-drill
(torapanaya) weight, elaborately carved in serpentine. This
material is probably derived from the exposure near Ragalla, which
was examined by Mr. Parsons, and is described in the Administra-
tion Report of the Mineralogical Survey for 1906. It is interesting
to note that the carved weight shows signs of local abrasion, where
it has evidently been rubbed down in recent times for medicinal
purposes, as described in the report referred to.

Seen from above, the weight has a pentagonal section ; there is a
ring of pala peti ornament round the bore, and below this are the
five angular ornaments of naga bandha form ; below this again is a
simpler form of pala peti, followed by several delicate mouldings.
The total height of the weight is 3} in., the diameter of the
bore is ? in. above and { in. below. Other illustrations of

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

stock-drill weights from Ceylon will be found in ‘ Medizval
Sinhalese Art,” fig. 91, and in Mr. Parker’s ‘‘ Ancient Ceylon,”
figs. 240, 241.

The present specimen is said to have belonged to Devendra
Mulacariya, and was obtained from one of his descendants.

PHOTOGRAPH OF A KANDYAN KENDTIYA.

The accompanying photograph of a kendiya was taken some
years ago by Messrs. Skeen & Co., and lately given to me by Mr.
F. Skeen ; the present whereabouts of the original is unknown. It
represents a fine specimen, probably made in silver, and no doubt
formerly the property of a Buddhist temple. It is scarcely dis-
tinguished in form from an ordinary kotalaya, except by the presence
of a lid.

FILIGREE AND OTHER BREADS.

The great variety of beautiful gold beads found in Kandyan
jewellery, whether of local or Tamil origin, is very remarkable, and
I illustrate here a selection, which should not, however, be regarded
as exhausting all the varieties obtainable. All the principal types
are known by name. Any filigree bead is wayiramuni ; one with
stars (No. 1) is called taruka wayiramuni, ‘ star filigree bead”; one
with dots (No. 16) is called arimbu wayiramuni ,‘‘ dot filigree bead ”’ ;
one chased like No. 4 arimbu surulu wayiramuni (but this appears to
be an error, as this is not actually a filigree bead, but belongs to the
other class).

Beads other than filigree are called bubul. Ribbed varieties
(Nos. 14, 19, and 21) are called reli bubul, ‘‘ waved beads,” or ‘‘ un-
dulated ”’ ; those with a sharp angle, diamond-shaped in section, are
called dippatan, ‘‘ two-facetted”’; those chased (Nos. 3 and 7) are
called ketayan bubul, ‘‘ chased beads,” or ‘‘ cut beads” ; those covered
with dots, arimbu bubul, ‘‘ dotted beads”? (No. 5). All these are
made in two halves, and soldered along the median line. They are,
of course, hollow, and very light and delicate.

Another small Kandyan bead, not shown here, is the gotamunt,
resembling a grain of rice in size and shape ; these are made, not in
two halves, but by rolling round a piece of thin gold of the requisite
size upon itself.

The following are some names of gold necklaces, additional to those
given in my ‘‘ Medizeval Sinhalese Art.’ I should have been glad to
illustrate some, but could not obtain permission to take the photo-
graphs of the jewellery at the Dalada Maligawa, from a list of which
the names are taken. The names are: muna-mal malaya, pusu-
vandan malaya, hunu-vel malaya, dan-vel malaya, arimbu surul
malaya, mohana malaya, sakra malaya, torapat sangili malaya,
sinamuni malaya. The previously recorded names, peti malaya,

SPOLIA ZHYLANICA, PLATEH A,

KENDIYA.

POWDER HORN.

KANDYAN ART (A. K. Goomaraswamy).

Bem*rose, Collo., Derby.

NOTES ON KANDYAN ART. 41

polmal malaya, and gedi malaya, also occur in the list.* It would be
exceedingly interesting, and to local and European art students_a
very valuable thing, if the Ceylon Government would arrange to
publish an adequately illustrated account of the Maligawa treasure,
in co-operation with the temple authorities; it is a work which
could hardly be accomplished in any other way.

I am indebted to Mr. T. B. Keppitipola for some of the above
information ; he is one of the few Kandyan chiefs who, at the
present time, take ar interest in the arts and legends of the
Kandyans.

Bo-LEAF AS A DECORATIVE MorTIF.

The well-known Sinhalese bo-leaf ornament, considered as a
Buddhist symbol or decorative motif, is certainly of considerable
antiquity in India and Ceylon. It appears probable, however,
that the form belongs to that large class of ornamental motifs which,
like the classical ‘‘ acanthus,” owe their name and later significance
to an accidental resemblance in a form of quite different origin.
General Beylié writes as follows on the bo-leaf of India :-—

‘“Lanceolate ornament, or, more exactly, conventional leaf
ornament, has had its own special history in each country, but
particularly in Egypt, where we constantly meet with it on the
tombs of Antinoe. It formed later the foundation of the decorative
system of Musulman art (13th century) and by reaction of the
figured work of Louis XIII. It is not impossible that the lanceolate
ornament of the Musulman style, although of Assyrian and Egyp-
tian origin, was only adopted in its ordinary form after having
undergone a final transformation in the Indies. The leaf of Ficus
religiosa appears as a nimbus in many statues of Buddha in memory
of the sacred bo-tree under which he attained wisdom. We may
anyhow regard it as certain that the temples of Cambodia (9th-
12th centuries) and the palace of Angkor-Vat ...... have never felt
any other than Hindu and Chinese influence.

“ We may add that the principal of the lanceolate or conventional
leaf is not Indian, but Oriental, while the multi-lobed ornament,
evidently of a leafy character, which appears to originate in Musul-
man art in the 13th century, on the belly of the vases of Mossul, is
very probably of Hindu origin.”

In other words, the bo-leaf form is of Assyrian or Egyptian
origin—like the majority of motifs in decorative art, traced to their
ultimate source—and was adopted as a Buddhist symbol in India,

* Another *well-known form is the siri-bo-malaya, erroneously described as
Sri-bo-malaya in the index to my ‘‘ Medixval Sinhalese Art,” where it is illus-
trated (Plate XLIX., 5). This form comes mainly from the Galle District,
and does not appear to be Kandyan.

Other necklace names which I have heard are kalamediri malaya and
patteya malaya. Another kind of bead is called karawila eta. It would be
very advantageous if examples of all these named varieties could be exhibited
in the Colombo Museum.

@ 9(6)10

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

and then more deliberately based on the actual bo-leaf outline; and

this Indian type again influenced Musulman, and through Musulman,

European types of ornaments.

Since writing the above, Mr. Keppitipola has kindly sent me.a full
list of the names of the beads illustrated. The names are as follows :—

1, Arimbupeti wayiramuni ; 2, Arimbu wayiramuni ; 3, 4, 7,
Ketayan bubul ; 5, Arimbu bubul ; 6, Silamuni ; 8, Murukasa wayira-
muni; 9, Surulu silamuni ; 10,15, Murukasa arimbu wayiramune ;
11, Wayiramunst ; 12, 13, Pattan arimbu bubul ; 14, 18, 20, Arimbu
palakka ; 16, Surulu palakka ; 17, Dipattan bubul ; 19, 21, 22, Rel
palakka.

It will be seen that wayiramuni is the term applied to a filigree
bead, bubul to a bead not of pierced or trellis work ; an ovoid or
elongated bead is called palakka. The term pattan is used, as in
gemming phraseology, to signify ‘‘ facetted.’ Arimbu signifies a

grain or dot.

er
+E

SPOLIA ZHYLANICA. PLATH, B,

BRASS MOUNTED CHANK.

GOLD BEADS.

1 2 is) 4 5

(Inch scale for beads only.)

KANDYAN ART (A. K. Coomaraswamy).

Bentrose, Collo , Derby.

ray at { Pa AS ie f j yi
ra try ae oA ee oe re
AA 5 pe wae f
oe \ v Py) +s) »
- sy ee, at Ce
6 iT at .
bers Mar
5 ]
1 4 Pat
4 : » ie ue
=" Aart 7
4 VA pou
RAN 4 Th 5 lA il te,
' ; \ , ‘A
. ? ‘ &
1 ; ou
+ ‘
fee 7 - : h ‘ ea .
- i c~ »
: ‘
i
’ ¢ Pi i 3
f .*
% ad
. i
a ‘
_ ‘
* : . ; \ o
a P ~
x =
.
, ‘
‘
'
.
»
7
}
+

5 PEDIPALPI OF CEYLON. 43

PEDIPALPI OF CEYLON.
By F. H. GRAVELY.

(With three Text Figures.)

HE Pedipalpi are a group of Arachnids, or spider-like creatures,
which have as yet been very imperfectly studied, as specimens

are scarce in the museums of Europe. They include the whip-
scorpions (Thelyphonide) and scorpion-spiders (Phrynichide), of
which the latter at least must be familiar to many residents in
Ceylon, as one species (Phrynichus lunatus) is not uncommonly
met with in bungalows. It is somewhat like a large and very

)

f

Fic, A.—‘* Scorpion Spider” (Phrynichus lunatus), 6, natural size.

much flattened spider, having an almost disc-shaped body and
long legs, which spread out from it close against the wall on
which it rests and over which it darts, usually sideways like a crab,
with quite startling rapidity when disturbed. But instead of the
four pairs of walking legs found in the spider there are only three
pairs, as the first is enorniously lengthened and many-jointed,
resembling both in form and in function the antenne of an insect ;
for with these the creature feels its way about. And in front there
is a pair of long arms, corresponding to the claws of a scorpion,
terminated by a small claw and some stout curved spines ; as a rule,
these arms project straight outwards as far as the elbow, where
they bend straight inwards again, the forearm being in contact

44 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA .

(or almost in contact) with the upper arm throughout its entire
length, as shown in the accompanying figure ; but when in a hungry
state the creature sees a juicy cockroach or cricket near by, these
arms are extended forwards, thus enabling it to catch its prey
without approaching it too closely. The arms vary considerably
in length and are usually shorter, often much shorter than in the
specimen figured, the abdomen, moreover, being frequently larger.
The female carries her eggs about with her in a capsule attached to
the lower surface of the abdomen.

Another and somewhat smaller and more moisture-loving species
of scorpion-spider (Phrynichus pusillus) is fairly abundant under
stones in the jungles of the Kandy District, and is known to
extend to a considerably higher elevation than this ; but further
information as to the distribution of this, and indeed of all the

Fria. B.—‘* Whip Scorpion” (Labochirus proboscideus), 6. natural size.

Pedipalpi in the Island, is very much to be desired, and specimens
from any part would be much appreciated both by Mr. Green
(Peradeniya Gardens) and myself (Indian Museum, Calcutta) for
the elucidation of this matter. It is possible that there may be
two distinct species of the small form found in the jungle : one with
very long arms and commonest, like the larger species, in the
low-country (up to 1,000 feet); and another with shorter arms,
which is the commonest at higher levels. But this, too, is a matter
which cannot be settled until more material is available.
Whip-scorpions, as the name implies, resemble scorpions rather
than spiders; indeed, at first sight the only noticeable difference
between whip-scorpions and scorpions lies in the slender whip-like
‘tail’? of the former, which, moreover, lacks the much-dreaded
sting of the latter. But in these creatures, as in the scorpion-
spiders, the appendages corresponding to the first pair of walking

PEDIPALPI OF CEYLON. 45

legs of other Arachnids are modified so as to form teelers, though not
such extraordinarily long and slender ones.

In the Kandy District I have only met with one species of whip-
scorpion (Labochirus proboscideus), a creature of about the size of
the small brown scorpions often seen about the verandahs of
bungalows, but black and of a stouter build ; a much larger species
(Thelyphonus sepiaris) is, however, recorded from the low-country.
The small species is to be found under stones and logs of decaying
wood in the neighbourhood of water-courses—but not on marshy
ground—and in other parts of the jungle when the ground is
thoroughly moistened by the rains. This species digs a burrow

‘ ie

Fie. C.—** Tartarid”’ (Schizomus crassicaudatus), 2. Magnified 6 diameters,
and small figure natural size.

for itself beneath the stones under which it lives; and when its
surroundings become dry, it appears to retire underground and
remain there ; but on this point also further evidence is wanted.
Moreover, males (with long arms) appear to be three or four times
as common as females (with shorter arms), a condition which again
needs explaining.* Mr. Green tells me that the larger low-country

* Further observations have proved this statement to be erroneous, or at
least that it only holds good at a definite season of the year. My first
specimens (all males) were obtained on May 5, before the break of the
monsoon. The first female was obtained on July 20, a day or two after
the commencement of the second period of wet weather this season. from
that date to the present time—August 3—females have been much more
and males much less frequently found. As the total number of specimens
found, however, is little more than a dozen, and as my observations have
been confined to a visit of three months, it is impossible to state with
certainty that this apparent seasonal appearance of the sexes separately is an
actual fact without further evidence; but if so, it is a very remarkable one.

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

species is probably much less dependent on moisture than
the small species ; and like the large species of szorpion-spider it
sometimes gets into bungalows. On one occasion, indeed, a friend
of his found a fine specimen occupying his bed in a resthouse on the
Trincomalee road.

But, beside these large and conspicuous kinds of Pedipalpi, there
is yet another family, the Tartarides, which contains only very
small and inconspicuous forms, characterized by the presence of a
very short tail (flattened into a plate in the only species of male
definitely known), and a form otherwise resembling that of the
whip-scorpions. ‘This family is confined, so far as has been ascer-
tained, to Ceylon and Burma, and scarcely anything is known about
it, aS Specimens are very rarely seen. This is not due to their being
scarce, however, for they are quite abundant in the thick deposit
of dead leaves in certain parts of the shrubberies of Peradeniya
Gardens, and not at all uncommon under stones among grass
sheltered by trees or bushes, both at Peradeniya and above Lady
Blake’s Drive between there and Kandy. Mr. Green tells me that
he obtained a specimen at an altitude of about 4,000 ft., and no
doubt they are in reality very widely distributed in the Island.
But they require very careful looking for in suitable places, and
when found they bear such a close superficial resemblance to a
largish ant—the sensory legs being directed forwards so as to assume
very much the appearance and position of the antennz of an ant—
that their true nature may easily be overlooked. The body of these
creatures, however, is somewhat more cylindrical than that of most
ants, the “‘ waist’ being less distinct ; their jaws work vertically
side by side as in spiders, instead of horizontally as in ants, and so
are quite inconspicuous ; and their spasmodic darting movements
as they search for a hiding-place are also very characteristic ; once
a specimen has been seen and recognized there will be no difficulty
in recognizing others.

Two species are recorded froni Ceylon : the common pale brownish
or olivaceous one, 3-1 in. in length, exclusive of the appendages,
when (apparently) mature (Schizomus crassicaudatus) ; and a scarcer
and more inconspicuous one of a dark olive-green colour, never more
than 35 in. in length (S. swboculatus). Pocock, in the Arachnid
“Fauna of British India,’ places this species in the Burmese genus
Trithyreus ; but an examination of living specimens shows that it
really ‘belongs to the purely Ceylonese genus Schizomus. Only in
the former is the male known; it is much scarcer than the female,
and easily recognizable by the flattened and expanded tail. A
curious fact about this species, which T am quite unable to explain,
is that males and females of a fairly definite and approximately
equal size (3% in.) are found under stones, whilst apparently
only females, and these of a larger size, occur among dead
leaves.

PEDIPALPI OF CEYLON. 47

Apparently none of the Pedipalpi are poisonous. If a whip-
scorpion be molested with a finger bearing a cut or raw scratch,
this cut or scratch will probably begin to smart violently with the
acetic acid ejected by the whip-scorpion from near the base of the
tail ; but this is the worst they can do.

Specimens of all these forms of Pedipalpi may be readily kept
in captivity and great interest derived from the study of their
habits. The larger species of scorpion-spider and whip-scorpion
will live comfortably in a bare insect breeding cage, feeding on
insects, &c., cockroaches and crickets (not too large) being much
appreciated. The smaller species of both forms require a layer of
light soil—which must never be allowed to get very dry-—on the floor
of the.cage, and will feed on similar insects. Even the largest species
like to have water sprinkled in occasionally, so that they may suck
up the drops ; and they all prefer to have some shelter—a piece of
stone or rotten wood or bark of a tree—under which they may hide
by day, their wanderings in search of food being entirely nocturnal.

The common Tartarid Schizomus crassicaudatus will live in
quite a small glass collecting tube. I have kept one now for several
weeks with a little soil and a few of the tiny white. insects (Podurids)
often found among decaying leaves or under old coconut husks.
I presume that it eats these insects, for it has had no other food,
and is still perfectly healthy ; but I am by no means sure, as its
small size makes its habits in captivity much less easy to study
than are those of the scorpion-spiders and whip-scorpions.
Probably all the Pedipalpi will turn cannibal in an emergency.

The large scorpion-spider when seen upon a flat wall is
most easily captured by lowering a broad glass tumbler over it
and then slipping a piece of stout paper or thin card in beneath.
The smaller form when met with in the jungle is easily managed
by holding him down by the tip of a finger placed on the body,
whilst the thumb secures him from beneath. Whip-scorpions I
usually seize suddenly in the middle of the body with a pair of
forceps. ‘Tartarids are too small to pick up in this way, and too
shiny to be easily secured with a camel hair brush. I usually
scoop them and some of the surrounding soil with the blade of a
penknife into a glass tube, emptying each specimen out into a
second tube as I secure it, thus always leaving the first free for
another catch. But the extraordinary facility with which they
completely conceal themselves in the soil when once they have hit
upon a suitable place makes it practically impossible to secure
every specimen found.

T have to thank Mr. Green for the very useful figures (all of
which have been drawn from life) accompanying this note. These
are probably the first published figures drawn direct from the living
animals, and they present them in one of their most characteristic
attitudes.

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES.

. lL. Bee-eaters as Fish-eaters—The following correspondence
appeared in the columns of the “‘ Ceylon Observer ” between May 4
and May 11, 1910 :—

I shall be glad to hear if any of your readers have noticed bee-
eaters fishing. There are a pair of chestnut-headed bee-eaters,
which nest pretty regularly in a steep bank on a road below my
bungalow, and about 150 yards distant from my pond. Almost any
bright afternoon, between 2 and 3 P.M., they may be seen fishing in
the pond. They come down from a dead tree, which stands on a
knoll some 50 yards away ; sometimes hovering for a moment over
the water to locate their prey, but more commonly marking it in
their swoop, and dashing headlong into the water like a kingfisher,
and very rarely missing their fish. I have seen the pair account
for a dozen fish in as many minutes ; all quite small fry.

When there is a flight of white butterflies on, these birds devote |
most of their attention to them throughout the day, but on warm
bright days nearly always have a go at fishing in the afternoon.

T have heard one or two Tamils call these birds Min kottu kuruvi,
but this was after I had pointed out the birds dipping the water ; it
is possible they mistook them for kingfishers, though not likely, as
most of the Tamils here seem to have a very fair knowledge of birds.
‘ql have always hitherto associated bee-eaters with the one diet of
insects ; and I could not quite trust the accuracy of my eyesight
until I brought a strong pair of field glasses to bear on the actors
at the short range of 15 to 20 yards. I think it probable that many
so-called insectivorous birds change their diet when some chance
has put them up to the taste of a new article which happens to suit
them.

E. GORDON REEVES.

Wiltshire, Matale, May 2, 1910.

With reference to the interesting observation recorded by Colonel
Gordon Reeves, as to the occasional fish-eating or rather fry-eating
habits of the chestnut-headed bee-eater, I may point out that it
very rarely happens that an opportunity for making such an obser-
vation presents itself under ordinary circumstances. There is no
reason whatever to doubt the accuracy of the observation. Other
cases of birds varying their diet are known, although the change
from an insectivorous to a piscivorous diet is perhaps rather
abrupter than usual. The opposite change from fish-eating to
insect-eating habits is to be noted in the kingfisher family, to —

NOTES. 49

which the bee-eaters are somewhat distantly related. I remember
being much surprised, many years ago, to find a kingtisher’s stomach
full of insect remains. |

The different kinds of food consumed by omnivorous birds, such
as the crow, do not, of course, afford such striking examples of
discontinuous dietary as do those of more eclectic birds.

In Spolia Zeylanica for March, 1909, Mr. John Still states that he
saw a paradise. flycatcher plunge from its station on a tree and
capture something in the water, just like a kingfisher. I have seen
the same species catching butterflies on the wing. So that here we
have an exact parallel to Colonel Reeves’s observation.

Flycatchers are not related to kingfishers, but they are distantly
related to the shrikes or butcher-birds. One might put it that
bee-eaters are to kingfishers what flycatchers are to shrikes. All
these birds have the habit of sitting on a perch, swooping down from
it to their prey, and afterwards returning to it. The late Grant Allen
stated positively that among the animals which he had seen in
butcher-birds’ larders were mice, shrews, lizards, robins, tomtits,
and sparrows; but he added that, in spite of its occasional carnivorous
tastes, the shrike is at heart an insect-eater. In this variation of
diet, on the part of the shrike, we may perceive another parallel to
the cases mentioned above.

A. WILLEY.
Colombo, May 4, 1910. iy

Colonel Gordon Reeves’s observation is a most interesting one. [
have never noticed these birds fishing, but as they are known to
take insects from the surface of water there is no reason why they
should not learn to pick up small fry in the same manner.

The ‘‘ bee-eaters” (Meropide) are closely allied to the “ king-
fishers.” The two families come next each other in Legge’s
‘Classification of the Birds of Ceylon.” Speaking of the habits of the
‘« blue-tailed bee-eater ’ (IZ. Philippinus), Legge remarks :—‘“ I
have seen it dash on to the surface of ponds and rivers and seize:
insects which were passing over the water. Mr. Holdsworth has
observed it hunting close to the surface of the sea, at a distance of a
quarter of a mile from the shore.”

Again, under Merops viridis (the green bee-eater) is a note to the
effect. that “ Blyth has seen them assembled round a small tank
seizing objects from the surface of the water, after the manner of a
kingfisher.” But in his description of the habits of the ‘‘ chestnut-
headed bee-eater ”’ (M. Swinhoii), no such custom is noted, though
he remarks upon its habit of frequenting ‘‘ the topmost or most —
outstretching branches of high trees overhanging water.’

E. ERNEST GREEN.

Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, May 5, 1910.
H 9(6)10

50 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

{ must thank Dr. Willey and Mr. EK. E. Green for their interesting
replies to my query re the fish-eating bee-eater. Since the pair,
which I convicted of fishing, hatched out their young, they have
abandoned their fishing expedition, and may be seen sitting on the
tree facing their burrows catching insects (chiefly white butterflies)
to feed their nestlings.

By the end of the month they will have departed north. Thrush
species have been abnormally common here this year, and migratory
Raptores, such as harriers, equally scarce. Not long agoI noticed
an India swiftlet with a large white ‘‘ yoke” or collar. It was very
conspicuous amongst its “ all dark ” associates, and remained in the
same locality for some weeks.

EK. GORDON REEVES.

Wiltshire, Matale, May 7, 1910.

2. Extracts from ‘‘ Entomological Notes”? by the Government
Entomologist, from the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist,” Vol. XXXIV.,
April, 1910 :—

A Blood-sucking Bug.—A correspondent has sent me specimens
of an evil-looking bug which had been gorging itself at his expense.
It is quite distinct from the notorious ‘‘ B-flat’ (or bed-bug,
Cimex lectularius), though it has acquired the same objectionable
tastes and habits. The examples first received were small and
immature, but their bodies were fully distended with blood. My
correspondent reports that he was disturbed at night by the bites of
these creatures, and found several of them crawling about the bed.
The consequent irritation was severe. Subsequently the adult insect
(probably the parent of the troublesome brood) was discovered in
the same situation. It proves to be a Reduviid bug (Conorhinus
rubrofasciatus), an insect of quite formidable size, measuring over an
inch in length.

Bugs of this family normally prey upon other insects ; but several
species of Conorhinus have gained an evil reputation,as systematic
blood suckers. C. sanguisugus is a troublesome domestic pest in
parts of the United States ; Darwin, in his ‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle,”
describes a species of Conorhinus that attacks travellers when:
camping out on the Pampas of South America. As far as I know
the present record is the first of the kind from Ceylon. The insects -
frequent outhouses, hiding amongst the rafters during the day-
time and sallying out to feed at night. .

The Colombo Lake Fly.—I have at last received the scientific
name of the notorious ‘‘ Lake Fly.” It can now be definitely labelled
as Chironomus ceylanicus. I fear, however, that this knowledge
will not appreciably mitigate the inconvenience occasioned by the

pest.
K. E. GREEN.

NOTES. ‘Bl

3. Crows as fishers,—I lately had an opportunity of watching a

flock of crows doing a bit of “fishing” on their own account
just after dusk, as they wended their homeward way, along the
Bentota coast. Every time the waves receded they swarmed on
the shore, picking up whatever was left in the track of the water.
As the waves broke again they rose in air, all the time travelling
along the shore in the direction of their flight home.

Colombo, May 20, 1910. C. DRIEBERG.

* Crows as fishers.’—In the second volume of his entertaining
“ Curiosities of Natural History ” (reprinted in 1903 from the fifth
edition : Macmillan, London), Mr. Frank Buckland has the follow-
ing remarks on crows, which will be of interest apropos of Mr.
Drieberg’s note. The passage occurs in the chapter entitled ‘‘'The
Gamekeeper’s Museum ” (see p. 95) :-—

“ As the museum was situated near the sea coast, | was therefore
not surprised to see in the collection a Royston, or hooded crow.
This bird’s proper home is the seashore, where his business is to
follow the retiring tide, and to eat what is left thereby. Nor does
he object to small crabs and those curious sea-anemones which the
good folk of Guernsey so aptly call ‘ bloody-fingers.” Having
capital wings, he often takes a look at the rocks, where the gulls and
other sea-birds build their nests and place their eggs. When these
fail him, he will take an inland journey, and very naturally mistakes
a game bird’s egg for a gull’s egg. The keeper, in his turn, very
naturally seeing what he is after, mistakes him for a carrion crow,
shoots and gibbets him—hence his appearance in the museum. The
Keeper calls him the saddle-back crow ; a good name again, for his
head, tail, and wings are black, and the rest of his body of a fine
ash-gray colour, so that he looks very like a common crow with a
saddle on his back. Our French neighbours too, whose shores he
also visits, have evidently, with the same idea, christened him
Corneille mantelée, or crow with a cloak on. These crows are very
quick in finding out dead or wounded birds. A great sportsman
tells me that he has often gone at daylight to pick up wild fowl
which he had shot the previous evening, and found that these saddle-
back crows had anticipated him and made a meal of his wild duck
and teal.”

At Sea, June 14, 1910. A. WILLEY.
4. Rambling Notes :—

(a) Life-history of a eommon Ceylon Butterfly.—Y pthima ceyloniea.
s—I should say without exception—the commonest of our Ceylon
butterflies. It occurs throughout the year, and is a familiar object

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

in every compound, wayside hedge, or grassy field, up to an eleva-
tion of about 4,000 feet. And yet, to the best of my belief, no
published description of its early stages or transformations has -yet
appeared. Y. ceylonica is now considered to be a local race of the
Indian form huebneri, Kirby, of which the larva and pupa are
‘known ; but our Island race of the insect has not apparently been
bred up to the present time.

Having taken a pair of the butterflies in cottu on November 23
last, [ placed them under a glass shade with some living grass
plants in hopes of obtaining ova. The male insect died on the 25th.
No eggs had then been deposited, though the female was still active.
On the following morning I found two small globular eggs, laid side
by side, near the base of a blade of grass; two more eggs were
attached to the extreme tip of another blade, and three others on
the under-surface of a broad leaf of ribbon-grass. When magnified
it is seen that the egg is not truly globular, but has a slightly longer
vertical diameter. It is wider towards the base, and very slightly
flattened above and below. The surface is closely pitted with
irregular polygonal depressions. The longer diameter is approxi-
mately 0°75 mm. :

The eggs hatched on December 3. The young larve are of a
very pale pinkish white tint, with a reddish median-longitudinal
line and a similar dorso-lateral line on each side. The sides are
more or less completely suffused with rosy red. Every segment,
including the head, has a transverse series of colourless tubercles,
each supporting a longish obtuse white hair. Head large, fully
twice the width of the following segments.

December 10.—The young larve are undergoing their first
moult. At the end of the first stage the pink colour of the newly
hatched larva has entirely disappeared, being replaced by whitish
green ; the body has thickened until it has exceeded the width of
the head ; the tubercles have become less prominent and conspi-
cuous ; the dorsal, subdorsal, and lateral lines are dull green.
After the moult the most marked difference is the appearance of a
pair of pointed, conical, divergent processes on the terminal segment.

December 18.—The larve have moulted for the second time.
There is no marked change in their appearance.

December 24.—The larve are preparing to moult for the third
time. They are now of a uniform whitish green tint above, with a
conspicuously paler lateral line, below which the underparts are of
a clear grass-green colour. Upper parts with fine longitudinal
darker stripes ; the derm roughened with minute spicules, some of
which carry a fine blackish hair.

Absence from headquarters prevented observation of subsequent
moults; but on January 7 the larve appeared to be fully
grown, and one of them had suspended itself preparatory to
pupation. ,

NOTES. 53

The full-fed larva is of a uniform grass-green colour. Vertex of
head with a very minute conicle tubercle on each side; terminal
segment with two longer tapering pointed processes directed
backwards. Under a lens the derm is seen to be roughened with
numerous minute white or colourless specules, some of which give
rise to fine short hairs—those on the dorsum black, the others
colourless. The points of the posterior processes are tinged with
BE, Spiracles minute, black.

- During development the caterpillars fed only at night. They
retired towards the roots of the plant at daylight.

January 8.—Two of the larve have pupated. The chrysalis is
of robust form ; the dorsum of the thorax strongly convex ; four
prominent transverse ridges across dorsum of abdomen. The two
pupe are dissimilar in colour: One is pale grayish-brown, faintly
streaked and mottled with darker brown and purplish markings ;
the abdominal ridges pale ochreous, bordered in front with dark
brown ; a pale ochreous lateral stripe. The second is of a grass-
green colour, mottled with blackish streaks and spots.

January 19.—The butterflies have emerged, the total develop-
mental period having occupied fifty-four days, of which seven were
passed in the egg, thirty-six in the larval, and eleven in the pupal
stages.

(6) Curious minatory action of a harmless Snake.—A young
example of Dipsas ceylonensis, in my vivarium, exhibits a curious
action when handled or disturbed. The terminal 2 inches of its tail
are vibrated rapidly in short spasms. This is probably a minatory
action, and is suggestive of the vibration of the tail of the rattle
snake of the Western Hemisphere. The genus Dipsas (or Dipsado-
morphus) contains several species of tree snakes, all of which have
a distinctly viperine appearance both in form and colouration,
though they are really quite harmless. The fact that they have
grooved fangs (though destitute of poison gland) suggests that they
may have descended from a venomous ancestor ; and the habit of
vibrating the tail noticed above rather strengthens this idea.

(c) A living chain of Ants.—(January 8.)—Mr. T. Petch has just
drawn my attention to a living chain of ‘‘red ants’? (Acophylla
smaragdina) spanning a gap 3 inches in extent between the leaf
of a shrub occupied by the insects and a plant immediately below.
When first observed the chain was some 3 insects thick and bifur-
cated above, being supported at the upper extremity by two ants
to each branch of the chain. These supports held on to the leaf by
their feet, and each firmly held in its jaws the foot of one of the
next links in the chain. These, in their turn, were gripped by
the members below, and so on, until the base of the chain or
column was held taut by the lowest members on the leaf below.
This living chain was being utilized as a bridge, or rather ladder,

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

‘and other members of the colony were passing up and down over
the bodies of their devoted comrades. Owing to a strong breeze,
which swayed the branches of the shrub, the chain was kept under
great tension. After about ten minutes it weakened, by the defection
of some of its members, until it consisted of a series of six links,
each represented by a single ant. These six insects held on pluckily
for some minutes in spite of the increasing strength of the breeze.
One member was held by the foot of the middle leg on each side ;
another was gripped by one anterior and one posterior foot ; these
two insects appeared to be in imminent danger of being torn
asunder. The rupture finally occurred by the failure of the lowest
members to retain their hold of the supporting leaf; the chain
swung up, and the component members scrambled over each other
up to the leaf above. This chain must have been let down—lnk
by link—from above, and indicates a remarkable degree of organi-
zation amongst the members of the colony,,some of whom must
have been deliberately told off for the purpose.

(d) A ease of Snake-bite.—Mr. P. C. Briscoe, of Columbia estate,
Hewaheta, sends me particulars of a case of snake-bite. The
snake, which was sent for identification, proved to be the small
viper Ancistrodon hypnale, the bite of which has never been known
to prove fatal to man.

It appears that the cooly was bitten at 8.30 a.m. on the second *
finger of the right hand. His comrades tied a ligature above the
elbow and sent the man down to the factory, where he was seen by
the superintendent ten minutes later. He was very frightened, and
was crying and trembling. There were two distinct punctures
from which blood was oozing. The hand was bathed in a strong
solution of permanganate of potash, the punctures were lanced
with a penknife, and crystals of permanganate rubbed into the
cuts, The man was then sent to the local dispenser, who again
lanced the place and dressed it with boric acid. About three
quarters of an hour after the infliction of the bite the cooly was
given a wine-glassful of neat brandy. At 4 p.m. the hand and
forearm were swollen, but the man was suffering no pain and
complained of no other symptoms. By the next day he had
apparently recovered completely.

(¢) Reproduction of Leaf-insects by Parthenogenesis.—I have long
suspected that our common leaf-insect (Pulehriphyllium crurifohum)
can on occasion produce fertile eggs asexually. I have now
proof of the fact.

The Rev. L. Lacombe, of St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, tells
me that three years ago he obtained eggs of the leaf-insect from
Ceylon and reared them at Trichinopoly. The eggs produced
females only, and these females laid fertile eggs, from which a second

NOTES. 55

generation of fertile females was raised. The third generation
proved to be sterile. No males appeared at all.

({) Homoptera infested by Stylops.—A small Jassid (Thompsont-
ella arcuata), abundant in the short grass outside my laboratory,
is very commonly parasitized by a Stylopid insect, probably a
species of Hlenchus. I have been unable to breed out the adult
male insect, but have extracted fairly perfect specimens by boiling
the dead pupz in liquor potasse. I have seen as many as five of
the parasites projecting from between the abdominal rings of the
living Homopteron. The same parasite occasionally occurs upon
other species of Jasside in the same locality.

(g) Hare attacked by Crow.—A curious incident was observed in
these Gardens afew weeks ago. A full-grown hare was seen racing
across the lawns, closely followed by a crow. The hare repeatedly
dodged and doubled, but the crow—flying quite low—kept up with
it, making repeated dabs at it with its beak. Eventually the
pursued and pursuer disappeared round a corner, and the finish of
the hunt was not observed.

(2) An effective Butterfly Trap.—A large wire netting enclosure—
originally designed as an aviary, but now unoccupied—is proving
itself a very effective butterfly trap. For a few weeks, during the
migrating season, many different kinds of butterflies entered through
the open door and seemed incapable of finding their way out again.
Kach day fresh arrivals appeared, and remained there until captured
and liberated. The most constant tenants have been Huplea
asela, Danais aglea, Ornithoptera darsius, Papilio parinda, and P.
polites. Smaller species also enter, but are able to make their way
through the wire mesh. The height of the trapping season was at
the end of May and early in June. Since the middle of June no.
further captures have been effected. The door was open towards
the south-west, and the opposite side of ghe enclosure was occupied
by a blank whitewashed wall.

(«) Characteristic odour of Leaf-cutting Bees.—I do not know if
the peculiar odour of many species of Megachile (leaf-cutting bees)
has ever been noticed or recorded in print. It is so distinctive that
I could guarantee to recognize a freshly caught Megachile though
blindfolded. It is a decidedly unpleasant smell, suggestive—more
than anything else—of sour bile.

(j) Food of the Reduviid Bug, Physorhynchus linnei.—In Vol.
TIT. (p. 159) of this Journal I gave an account of the slaughter of
a large millipede by a comparatively small Reduviid bug. I have
since had repeated evidence that this bug (Physorhynchus linnei)
preys habitually upon millepedes. I have on several occasions
seen the Reduviid perched upon the top of its recently vanquished
victim, and its body distended with the blood of its prey. On

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANTIOA.

turning over a large stone I found a full-grown’ Physorhynchus
surrounded by a perfect charnel-house of the remains of Polydes-
mide, upon which it had been feeding. I have now in captivity
two nymphs of this species, which attack, without hesitation, the
largest sized millepedes that may be placed in their cage. The
millipede is very quickly overcome, the poison injected by the bug
having a rapidly paralysing action. I have just measured a 53 in.
millipede that had been killed by a bug only three-quarters of an
inch long.

(k) The Call of the Green Grasshopper.—(June 24.)—I have just
been watching a common green Locustariid emitting its call. The
insect had flown into my room, attracted by the lamps, and was
perched upon some cut flowers in a vase. I was able to approach
quite close without disturbing it. The call note may be written
phonetically as “‘ Tic-a-tic-tic-tic-tic-tic-tic-tic-zzeett,’’ the final
note drawn out, while the others were produced in a rapid staccato.
At the commencement of the call the wings and elytra are a little
raised and partially separated ; at each sharp note there is a slight
downward movement, and the final drawn-out “‘ zzeett”’ is emitted
as the wings are returned to their normal position.

(/) Sudden appearance of an African Snail in Ceylon.—The Kast
African snail, Achatina fulica, seems destined, before long, to be
distributed throughout the Oriental region. It has been established
for many years in Mauritius; and the progeny of a single pair
known to have been introduced into Calcutta about fifty years
ago are now said to have overrun the whole of Northern Bengal.
This same snail has recently attracted attention in the neighbour-
hood of Beruwala, in the Kalutara District. The fact that they are
present in millions shows that the introduction must date back
for a considerable number of years, and it is extraordinary that a
snail with a shell measuring 5 inches in length has not been noticed
before. The recent heav¥ rains have probably excited unusual
activity amongst the snails, but they must have been in evidence
on many previous occasions.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

z 4 5 A

SAND-FLIES FROM PERADENTYA, \ OT

“SAND-FLIES ’”’ (PHLEBOTOMUS) FROM PERADENIYA.

By N. ANNANDALE, D.Sc., F.A.S.B.,

Superintendent, Indian Museum.

(With seven Text Figures.)

LIES of at least three families are commonly known in the
East as sand-flies, viz., of the Chironomid or true midges
(Ceratopogon and its allies), the Simuliide (Simulium, known as the
“potu”’ fly in the Himalayas), and the Psychodide, which are
commonly called moth-flies on account of their relatively large hairy
or scaly wings. The only genus of moth-flies that habitually sucks
blood has received the appropriate name Phlebotomus, and includes
the species most frequently called sand-flies, at any rate in the
plains of India.

Much evidence has lately been obtained by Grassi* and by the
Austrian doctors Doerr, Franz, and Taussig + that fever of a type
common in the Kast,{ and known by various local names, is trans-
mitted from man to man in the countries round the Mediterranean
by Phlebotomus papatasi, a species which occurs in northern India,
and also probably in Java. It is therefore important, not only
from an entomological point of view, that the distribution of flies
of the genus should be carefully studied. They may easily be
recognized by their narrow, pointed, hairy wings, which are held in
a Semi-erect position when the animal is at rest, by their silvery
sheen, and long slender legs. In general appearance and structure
they are not unlike minute mosquitoes. The adults fly to light at
night and rest during the day in dark corners in damp places, often
in bathrooms. They have the unpleasant habit of biting one’s
ankles under the dinner table in the evening, and are said to crawl
through mosquito nets and under bed clothes for a similar purpose.
The larve§ are peculiar little maggots with four very long bristles
at their posterior extremity, and are found on the walls of latrines,
among damp moss on stones, in damp earth, and probably in other
situations abounding in moisture, but not actually aquatic.

Specimens of the flies are best preserved in small tubes of spirit,
but dried specimens packed not too tightly with tissue paper (nof

* Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. (iii.), XTV., p. 353 (1907).

+ Das Pappatacifieber (Leipzig and Vienna, 1909).

{ See Wimberley, Ind. Med. Gazette, XLV., No. 8, p. 281 (1910).

§ See Howlett’s figure in Maxwell-Lefroy’s ‘‘ Indian Insect Life,” p. 559
(fig. 158).

: 6(22)10

58 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

cotton wool) in pill boxes or match boxes are useful. I shall be glad
to examine specimens sent to the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

&nd =

Fig.

Fre. 1.—Wing of Culex (after Theobald). Fie. 2.—Wing of Phlebotomus argentipes.

c., costal vein; s.c., sub-costal; lst to 6th, first to sixth longitudinal veins; a, a’,
and a", incrassations (a’ called by Austen the 6th vein, a" the 8th); y., supernumerary
cross-vein; Z., mid cross-vein; P., posterior cross-vein; A., costal cell; B., subcostal
cell; C., marginal cell; D., first submarginal cell; E., second submarginal cell; F.,
first posterior cell; G., second posterior cell; J., third posterior cell; K., anal cell;
H,, first basal cell; I., second basal cell; L., auxiliary; M., spurious cell,

The most important specific characters reside in the venation of
the wings, the structure and proportions of the male genitalia, and
the proportions of the various joints of the legs. Diagrams of the
wing and of the external male genitalia are here produced by
permission of the Trustees of the Indian Museum. Further parti-
culars will be found in the ‘“‘ Records of the Indian Museum,”
Vol. IV., No. IT. (1910).

It has long been known that Phlebotomus occurred in Ceylon, but
no specimens appear to have been identified specifically. In a
small collection made at Peradeniya by Mr. E. E. Green and Mr.
F. H. Gravely four species are represented, two of them already

SAND-FLIES FROM PERADENTYA.

59

+

known from many localities in India and two new to science. The

four species may be distinguished as follows :—

(1) The tip of the first longitudinal vein of the wing
but little in advance of the anterior fork of
the second longitudinal vein.

(a) Colour silvery brown; the area of the
wing paler than the anterior border ; the
cox yellowish; the anterior branch of
the second vein about twice as long as
the distance between the two forks of

the vein .. P. marginatus.

(2) The tip of the first longitudinal vein far in
advance of the anterior fork of the second.

(a) Dorsal surface of the thorax dark brown,

the sides yellow. The anterior branch

of the second vein slightly longer than

the distance between the two forks .. P. argentipes.

(b) Thorax brown; coxe yellowish; the
whole of the wings paler than the
abdomen. The anterior branch of the
second vein about five times as long as
the distance between the two forks

(c) Colour uniform, dull yellowish gray.
Wings very narrow; the anterior
branch of the second vein shorter than
the distance between the two forks ..

U e
Pe

9 a

EE ps eee ey
SIE Re SE OL SE ) LSS RE,

Figg 3 sh

. P. zeylanicue,

P. babu.

° Diagram of the external male genitalia of Phlebotomus: u., upper or
superior appendage; ch., chet; f., genital filament; i., intermediate append-
age; P., intromittent organ; s.l., subgenital lamella: L., lower or inferior

appendage,

Phlebotomus argentipes, Annandale and Brunetti.

Rec. Ind. Mus., IV., p. 44, Pl. IV., fig. 3; Pl. VI., fig. 6.
Several specimens of this common Indian species were taken at

Peradeniya in March, June, and July.

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Phlebotomus zeylanicus, sp. nov.

0,0. Sizeand Proportions.—Total length of dried specimen about
3mm. Length of wing 3mm. _ Hind leg more than two and a half
times as long as the thorax and abdomen; its femur less than
three-quarters, but more than half as long as its tibia, slightly
longer than the first joint of the tarsus, which is distinctly shorter
than the three distal joints together.

f
J

SS
—~S =
= ———
—s——

Fic. 4.—Ph. zeylanicus 2 (enlarged).

Colour.—Head, thorax, and abdomen brown, paler in the female
than in the male; cox yellowish ; femora, tibiz, and tarsi silvery
gray ; wings pale brownish-gray, uniform in colour.

Fic. 5.—Wing of Ph. zeylanicus (enlarged).

Wings.—Lanceolate, not very broad, with the two borders not
unlike in curvature. The first longitudinal vein extends far forwards,
overlapping the anterior branch of the second vein by more than
three-quarters of its length. This branch is nearly five times as long
as the distance between the two forks, which is much shorter than

SAND-FLIES FROM PERADENTIYA. 61 .

the distance between the posterior fork and the point at which the
vein joins the third vein. The fork of the fourth vein is almost on a
level with the posterior fork of the second. The course of the sixth
vein, which bends down almost at an angle at the tip, is sinuous.

Male Genitalia.—The distal joint of the superior appendage is
slightly shorter, and much more slender than the proximal joint ;
its outlines are somewhat sinuous, and it bears five long, stout,
curved, sharp chetz, which are arranged as follows :—A pair at the
tip of the appendage, a pair on the outer margin at about half the
length of the joint, and a single cheta on the inner margin nearer
the base. The chetz are equal or subequal. The intermediate
appendage (morphologically the lower branch of the superior one)
is slender, pointed, and turned upwards at the tip. It bears. a
minute, pointed, naked lobe on its ventral surface, and a similar one
on its external lateral surface. The inferior appendage is much
longer than the proximal joint of the upper one ; it is slender as
viewed from the side, and of almost uniform width; the tip is
narrowly obliquely truncate, and bears a brush of very long and
slender hairs ; the rest of the appendage is sparsely covered with
rather shorter hairs, but there are no spines.

SS

Ny! |

LLL

Fic. 6.—Male genitalia of Ph. zeylanicus from the right side, x 175.

The genitalia of this species closely resembles those of P. argentipes,
from which it is distinguished among other characters by the
venation of the wing. The venation closely resembles that of
P. malabaricus (from Travancore) and P. himalayensis, but the
insect is paler than the former and darker than the latter species.
Its genitalia are also very different from those of either.

Several specimens of both sexes were taken at Peradeniya in May,
June, July, and August.

Phlebotomus babu, Annandale.

? Hebotomus minutus, Rondani, Ann. Soc. Ent., France, 1843 (1.),
p. 265, Pl. X., fig. 4.

Phlebotomus, sp., Howlett in Maxwell-Lefroy’s ‘‘ Indian Insect
Life, “p. 559, fig. 358.

Phlebotomus babu, Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus., IV., p. 49, PLIV.,
fig. 1; Pl. VI., figs. 3, 3a (1910).

-

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. -

This species, which is easily recognized by its small size (length-
about 1°5 mm.), narrow pointed wings, and pale grayish-yellow
colour, is common all over the plains of India; specimens have been
taken recently by Major F. Wall, I.M.S., in Chitral in the Hindu
Kush mountains. <A specimen was obtained at Peradeniya in May.

I have little doubt that my P. babu will ultimately prove synony-
mous with ‘‘ Hebotomus”’ minutus, Rondani, but the original descrip-
tion of the latter is very short and the figure clearly incorrect, and
it is impossible, without examining European specimens, to be sure
of the identity of the two “ species.’ P. minutus was found in
Italy on the banks of the river Po.

Phlehotomus marginatus, sp. nov.

o. Size and Proportions.—Total length of dried specimen about
2°5mm. Length of wing 2°5 mm. Hind leg less than two and a
half times the length of the thorax and abdomen ; its femur about
half as long as its tibia, of the same length as the first joint of the
tarsus, which is equal in length to the three distal joints together.

Colour.—Rather darker than that of P. zeylanicus, the costal
border of the wings distinctly darker than their area.

Fic. 7.—Wing of Ph. marginatus (enlarged).

Wings.—Resembling those of P. zeylanicus in shape, but longer.
The first longitudinal vein only reaching forward for a short distance
beyond the anterior fork of the second vein. The anterior branch
of the latter about twice as long as the distance between the two
forks, and approximately equal to the distance between the posterior
fork and the point at which the vein joins the third. The fork of
the fourth vein distinctly nearer the tip of the vein than the posterior
fork of the second.

Unfortunately I have only been able to examine a single female,
which was taken at Peradeniya in May, but the venation is so
characteristic that the species must be distinct. The wing resembles
that of P. angustipennis, Meijere,* from Java, which may be a form
of P. papatasi, but the tip of the first longitudinal vein is nearer that
of the anterior branch of the second, and the fly is larger, the latter
not a point of much importance. Dr. de Meijere’s description is
unfortunately very short.

* Tijd. v. Ent., LI., p. 202., Pl. XIL., fig. 14 (1909).

FRESH-WATER SPONGE AND POLYZOON. 65

NOTE ON A FRESH-WATER SPONGE AND
POLYZOON FROM CEYLON.

By N: Annanpate, D.Sc., F.A.8.B.,

Superintendent, Indian Museum.

(With Plate I.)

QHORTLY before leaving Colombo Dr. A. Willey was kind
Ke enough to send me a fresh-water polyzoon that he had
obtained from a pool on the roadside between Maradankadawala
and Galapitagala, in the North-Central Province of Ceylon, on
February 18, 1909.

At the base of the polyzoon is a minute sponge which represents
a species widely distributed in the East, but only recognized as
distinct in 1907, viz., my Spongilla proliferens.* This sponge was
originally described from Bengal, but is now known to occur in most
parts of India and Burma, and has been found in Yunnan. The
specimens recorded by Prof. Max Weber t from the Malay Archi-
pelago as Spongilla cinerea, Carter, also belong to this species. The
only fresh-water sponge hitherto recorded from Ceylon is Spongilla
cartert,{ from which S. proliferens may easily be distinguished by
the fact that there are numerous little pointed and spiny spicules
free in its substance, and by the structure of the gemmule, which is
covered with what appears to be a granular coat instead of the
layers of cellular air spaces in which the gemmule of S. carteri
is enclosed, and is armed with numerous little spined spicules.
The sponge is of a brilliant green colour, and always small and very
soft. S. proliferens may be distinguished from WS. lacustris, a race
of which is common in Madras, by the fact that the aperture of its
gemmule is provided with a small chitinous tube.

The polyzoon itself, as Dr. Willey suggests, appears to be identical
with the species I recently described as Pectinatella burmanica,§
but differs from that species in several features, probably due to
environment. The genus Pectinatella consists of Phylactolematous
Polyzoa with horseshoe-shaped tentacular crowns and statoblasts
(resting reproductive bodies) of large size, and entirely surrounded
by little hooked processes. The individual colonies (zoaria) have a

Journ Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1907, p. 15, fig. 1.
Zool. Eregeb. Niederl. Ost-Ind., Vol. I., p. 35.
Willey, Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IV., p. 184.

§ Rec, Ind, Mus., Vol. IV., p. 56 (1910).

++—- %

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

strongly developed gelatinous investment or synoecium, and are
bound together when fully adult in a gelatinous investing membrane.
In this way gigantic compound colonies are sometimes formed. In
a form allied to P. burmanica, namely, the Japanese P. gelatinosa,
these compound colonies sometimes reach six feet in length, while
those of P. burmanica, as it grows in the Sur lake in Orissa, are often
more than two feet long and several inches thick. The statoblast
of this species is nearly round, and its hooked processes are very
short, only being visible under a high power of the microscope.
‘Dr. Willey’s specimens are peculiar, on account of their small size
and of the relatively poor development of the synecia. The
compound colonies consist of only two or three zoaria each, and no
zoarilum measures more than 10 mm. in greatest diameter ; but
compound colonies from Orissa often contain hundreds of zoaria,
some of which measure over 20 mm. in diameter. The polyps of
the Ceylon specimens are correspondingly small, and their zocecia
(the cases in which the individual polyps reside) are much more
distinct from one another than they are in Indian examples of the
species. Probably these differences are due to differences in
nutrition.

The only fresh-water polyzoon hitherto recorded from Ceylonis a
Plumatella from Colombo, identified by Apstein* as P. princeps,
Krepelin (? P. emarginata, Allman), a cosmopolitan species or
rather group of species common in India.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

Fig. 1—Gemmule of Spongilla cartert, « 140.
Fig. 2—Gemmule of S. proliferens, < 140.

Fig. 3.—Statoblast of Pectinatella burmanica, X 70. 3a.—Part of
the edge of the same, x 240.

Fig. 4.—Free statoblast of Plumatella, sp., x 70.

* Zool, Jahrb. (Systematic Part), p. 233, 1907.

SEOLITA-ZEYEANICAY Vol; VII, Pt. XXVI- ela de

yyy

eae

ns

04 yey sh
Fr :

3AX240.
ARIGy Chowdhary, del, Engraved & printed at the Offices of the Survey of India, Calcutta, 1910.

Freshwater Sponges & Polyzoa of Ceylon.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 65

ON SOME PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON.

By C. CrirrorD DOoBELL,

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridje ; Lecturer in Protistology and Cytology
at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, S.W.

(With Plate IT.)

CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Record of Animals examined, with Results and Comments
Descriptions of some new Forms. {4
Concluding Remarks. ee
Literature References. )
Description of Plate.

INTRODUCTION.

NHE following pages are the outcome of a recent visit which I
made to Ceylon whilst holding the Balfour Studentship of
Cambridge University. During my stay in the Island, which
dated from the beginning of July until the end of September, I
examined a number of animals from various parts of the country,
with a view to discovering parasitic Protozoa. A good deal of my
work was attended with entirely negative results, though a certain
number of new forms were found, which are here recorded. Both
negative and positive results, however, are given in the following
pages, in order to assist future workers who may take up the
investigation of Ceylon Protozoa.

The work was carried out chiefly in the laboratory attached to
the Museum at Colombo, in the laboratory at the Botanic Gardens,
Peradeniya, and in the resthouse at Trincomalee.

I wish here to offer my warmest thanks to those who have helped
me, in one way or another, in my work—especially to Mr. E. E.
Green, Government Entomologist, and to Mr. R. H. Lock, Acting
Director of the Botanic Gardens, for their assistance during my stay
in Peradeniya; and to Dr. Willey, the late Director of the Colombo
Museum, for his unfailing aid and kindness throughout my visit.
Though the results of my work here recorded are inconsiderable,
they would have been far less but for Dr. Willey’s assistance. His
extensive knowledge of the fauna of Ceylon, and his untiring zeal
in obtaining material for me, proved of incalculable value. What-
ever merit attaches to the results here set forth is due in a large

K 6(22)10

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

measure to Dr. Willey’s enthusiastic collaboration. I am glad
to have this opportunity of thanking him once more, and of
acknowledging my great indebtedness to him. ‘
This paper was completed, after working through a part of the
material which t brought back to England, at the Imperial College
of Science and Technology, London, 8.W.
I have divided the account of my work into two main parts :—

(1) A record, with notes, of the animals examined ; and
(2) A description of some new forms which I found in the
course of examining these animals.

I—RECORD OF ANIMALS EXAMINED, WITH
RESULTS AND COMMENTS.

A.—Record of Animals whose Blood was examined for Protozoa.

FISHES.

With the exception of Saccobranchus fossilis, all the seven species
of fresh-water fish, whose blood I was able to examine, proved
negative.

A.— Infected.

1. Saccobranchus fossilis—The record of the examination of the
blood of this species is as follows :—

One individual from Colombo lake (part not recorded) (July).
Blood negative. Twelve specimens from Colombo lake (Hunu-
pitiya and Kollupitiya) (Sept.). Blood of all negative.

Four specimens from Nugegoda (Sept.). Blood negative.

Two specimens from Fort side of Colombo lake (Sept.). Both
infected with trypanosomes. (See comments below.)

B.—Not infected.

Anabas scandens.—-One individual, Colombo (July).

Clarias magur.—One individual, Colombo (Sept.).

Etroplus suratensis.—Two individuals, Colombo lake (Sept.).
Gobius giuris.—Four specimens, Colombo lake (Sept.).
Ophvocephalus punctatus.—Two specimens, Colombo (Sept.). |
Ophiocephalus striatus.—A single individual, Colombo (Sept.).

pers Se Sv eke

Comments.—The trypanosome found in Saccobranchus is that
already described by Castellani and Willey (1904) under the name
Trypanosoma saccobranchi. For the benefit of future workers who
may seek this trypanosome, I would call attention to the curious
distribution which it seems to have in the fishes of the Colombo
lake. My experience indicates that only those fish taken from
the Fort side of the lake are infected,

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 67

Castellani and Willey also failed to find trypanosomes in the
blood of Ophiocephalus striatus, though they note that Lingard
found trypanosomes in this species in India.

The same observers also record a trypanosome as occurring in
the blood of Gobius giuris, although—as recorded above—the four
individuals of this species which I examined proved negative.

Castellani and Willey also record a trypanosome from Macrones
cavasius, a Silurid.

AMPHIBIANS.

The common frog, Rana tigrina, is the only amphibian in which

I have found blood parasites.

A.—I nfected.

1. Rana tugrina.—My records are as follows :—Two individuals
(Colombo, July), both infected with trypanosomes and hemo-
gregarines. One individual (Colombo, July) infected with hemo-
gregarines only.. ‘Two individuals (Colombo, Aug.), blood negative.
One very young specimen (Peradeniya, Aug.), blood negative.
Two individuals (Colombo, Sept.), blood of both negative.

B.—Not infected.

2. Bufo melanostictus. — Three individuals (Colombo, .July).
One young individual (Peradeniya, Aug.).

3. Izalus leucorrhinus—A single specimen from Peradeniya
(Aug.).

4. Rhacophorus maculatus—One individual from Peradeniya
(Aug.) and one from Trincomalee (Sept.).

Comments —Castellani and Willey examined R. tigrina, with
negative results. The parasites which I encountered are therefore
recorded for the first time from Ceylon frogs. I have little doubt
that the hamogregarine which I found in R. tigrina is the same as
that described from this species in Bombay by Berestneff (1903),
and named Hemogregarina berestneffi by Castellani and Willey
(1905).* I encountered intracorpuscular individuals of various
forms and sizes, many of them showing the characteristic pink-
staining sheath described by Berestneff. In addition to these forms,
there were also many free gregariniform individuals in the blood
‘plasma. These were actively motile. I several times observed
small forms enter red blood corpuscles. They did this by boring
directly into the corpuscle, very much in the way described by
Schaudinn (1903) in the case of the sporozoites of Plasmodium
vivax, but the time taken was very different, as entry was effected
in a few minutes. Occasionally, the animal, after reaching the
inside of the corpuscle, rested for a few minutes and then wriggled

* Patton (1908) states that he has ‘‘ had the opportunity of studying no
less than five hemogregarines in Rana tigrina and Rana hexadactyla, not only
in the frogs, but in the leech which transmits them.”

68 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

its way out again into the blood plasma. The curious method of
entry by being engulfed by the corpuscle—recently described in
detail by Neresheimer (1909) in Lankesterella—I never saw.

. Figures of some of the forms of the hemogregarine encountered
are given in Plate II., figs. 3-8.

Berestneff also eeorted a trypanosome from the Indian frogs.
No name was given to it, and as I believe other observers have also
seen this same parasite, which is probably the same as the one I
found in Ceylon, I have contented myself with a brief description
and figure of the organism, without bestowing a new name upon it.
(See p. 74.)

REPTILES.

I had opportunities of examining the blood of a number of
different reptiles, including crocodiles, tortoises, lizards, and snakes.
The results obtained are as follows :—

CROCODILES.

I was able to examine the blood of two crocodiles, Crocodilus
porosus. The first, a small specimen from Dadugan-oya, Veyangoda
(July), contained a hemogregarine. (See p.79.) The second, a very
young individual from Ja-ela, near Colombo (Sept.), was negative.

No hemogregarines have been described from Ceylon crocodiles
before, though several other crocodiles from other parts of the
world have been found to harbour these parasites. (See p. 79.)

TORTOISES.
The three following species of tortoise were examined :—

1. Emyda vittata. — Of five specimens examined in Colombo (July),
the presence of trypanosomes could be demonstrated in only one
individual, and in very small numbers.

2. Nicoria trijuga.—Three individuals from Colombo lake (July) :
one heavily infected with hzmogregarines, one slightly infected,
and one in which no parasites could be detected. :

3. Testudo elegans ——Two individuals from Sigiriya (Sept.)
showed no blood parasites.

Comments —The trypanosome found in Hmyda vittata is that
already described by Miss Robertson under the name 7’. vittate
[Robertson (1908) and (1909) ]. The hemogregarine from Nicoria is
H. nicorie (Castellani and Willey, 1904).

LIZARDS.

Examination of the blood of twelve species of Lacertilia gave the
following results :—
A.—Infected.

1. Hemidactylus leschenaultiti—At Trincomalee (Sept.) nearly
every individual examined was infected with Hamocystidium

=

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 69

simondi, Castellani and Willey. Some individuals harboured try-
panosomes and hemogregarines in addition. A single specimen
from Habsrana (Aug.) was infected with trypanosomes. (See
remarks below.)

B.—Not infected.

2. Calotes ophiomachus.—Kight individuals (Colombo, July).

3. Calotes versicolor —Twenty-five specimens from Colombo
(July) and one from Peradeniya (Aug.).

4. Ceratophora stoddartii.—Three individuals (Peradeniya, Sept. ).

5. Hemidactylus depressus. — Six individuals (Trincomalee,
Sept.).

6. Hemidactylus frenatus. — A single specimen (Trincomalee,
Sept.).

7. Hemidactylus triedrus.—One individual from Colombo (Aug.),
one from Peradeniya (Aug.), and two from Trincomalee (Sept.).

8. Lygosoma punctatum.—Five specimens (Peradeniya, Aug.).

9. Lyriocephalus scutatus.—Three specimens (Peradeniya, Aug.).

10. Mabuia carinata—Three individuals from Colombo (July),
two from Peradeniya (Aug.), one from Colombo (Sept.), and one
from Peradeniya (Sept.).

11. Sitana ponticeriana.—One individual (Trincomalee, Sept.).

12. Varanus bengalensis—A_ single specimen (Trincomalee,
Sept.).

Comments.—It is curious to find that all the lizards—geckoes
excepted—harbour no blood Protozoa. In Europe and in Africa
(cf., for example, Wenyon’s recent work, 1908a) the lizards are
frequently infected with hemogregarines, but Asiatic lizards appear
to be much less frequently so. The absence of Protozoa in the blood
of Indian lizards was remarked by Berestneff (1903). Since then
Minchin (1907) has described a hemogregarine (H. thomsoni) from
a Himalayan. lizard (Agama tuberculaia), but facts with regard to the
infection of other Asiatic lizards are extremely scanty.

Hemocystidium simondi, which I found in the Trincomalee
specimens of Hemidactylus leschenaultii, was discovered and described
by Castellani and Willey (1904), and has since been observed by
Miss Robertson (1908). I was fortunate enough to be able to work
out a part of the life-cycle of this organism. the description of
which I shall publish elsewhere.

The trypanosomes which I found were those described by Miss
Robertson (1908) as 7’. leschenaultit. Another form which she
observed in H. leschenaultii and H. triedrus, and named by her
T’. pertenue, I never encountered.

It is perhaps worthy of comment that I have—in common with
previous workers—never found Protozoa in the blood of Hemiz-,
dactylus depressus, although it lives in the jungle in company with
the infected geckoes.

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA,

Filarie were found in the blood of several Calotes versicolor.
These have already been described by Castellani and Willey. I found
a similar Filaria in the blood of the Varanus from Trincomalee.

Miss Robertson (1908) apparently also found no Protozoa in the
blood of most Ceylon lizards, for she says: “The common Calotes
and the beautiful Brahminy lizard ...... and the skink and the
horned up-country lizard were all negative, so also the common
little house gecko who lives on the wall and eats flies.”

SNAKES.

I have been able to examine sixteen different species of snakes.
As I hope shortly to describe in detail the results of my investigations
into the life-histories of the hemogregarines of Ceylon snakes, I
will here give merely a brief record of my observations :—

A.—I nfected.

1. Dipsadomorphus forstenit.—Blood containing hemogregarines
in large numbers. A single individual (Colombo, Aug.).

2. Dipsadomorphus ceylonensis.—One individual, slightly in-
fected with hemogregarines (Peradeniya, Aug.). ;

3. Dryophis mycterizans—The green whip snake was found to
harbour a hgmogregarine (though not invariably) at Colombo
(Aug.) and Peradeniya (Sept.). A single individual examined at
Trincomalee (Sept.) was negative.

4. Naia tripudians.—A single cobra (Peradeniya, Sept.) was
infected with hemogregarines.

5. Tropidonotus stolatus —Out of four individuals examined, two
showed no blood parasites (Peradeniya, Aug. ; Trincomadee, Sept.).
One individual (Colombo, July) had spirochets in its blood. (See
p- 77.) One individual (Peradeniya, Aug.) was infected with
trypanosomes (see p. 77) and hemogregarines.

6. Zamenis mucosus.—Rat snakes were always infected with
hemogregarines at Colombo (Aug.) and Peradeniya (Aug.). One
individual examined at Trincomalee (Sept.) was not infected.

B.—Not infected.

7. Ancistrodon hypnale—Two individuals from Hakgala (Sept.)
and one from Kandy (Sept.).

8. Cerberus rhynchops.—One individual from Negombo (Sept.)
and two from Colombo (Sept.).

9. Dendrelaphis tristis (= Dendrophis pictus).—-Two from Sigiriya
(Sept.), one from Trincomalee (Sept.), and one from Peradeniya
(Sept.).

» 10. Helicops schistosus—Two specimens: one small (Colombo,
Aug.), the other very large (Colombo, Sept.).
11. Hydrus platurus.—A single specimen (Colombo, July).

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 71

12. Lycodon aulicus.—A single young individual (Colombo,
Aug.).

13. Oligodon sublineatus——Four individuals from Peradeniya
(Aug. and Sept.).

14. Python reticulatus.*—A single snake caught in Colombo
(July).

15. Tropidonotus asperrimus (= 7. piscator)—One individual
from Colombo (Aug.), five from Trincomalee (Sept.), and four from
Colombo (Sept.).

16. Viper russelliiA single young specimen (Peradeniya,
Sept.).

Comments.—Hemogregarines have not been previously recorded
from Dipsadomorphus forstenit or from D. ceylonensis. Heemogre-
garines are recorded already from Zemanis mucosus and Dryophis
mycterizans in India by Patton (1908), and from Z. mucosus in Ceylon
by Miss Robertson (1908). The latter also found hemogregarines
in three other Ceylon snakes: Chrysopelea ornata, Naia tripudians,
and “a large python.”

A hemogregarine has been described from Naia tripudians by
Simond (1901), Laveran (1902), and Patton (1908). Patton (1908)
gives a list of eleven Indian species of snake which harbour hemo-
gregarines.

I did not succeed in finding Hemogregarina mirabilis (Castellani
and Willey) in Tropidonotus asperrimus.

Birps.

The only bird I examined was a kingfisher shot at Peradeniya.
No Protozoa were found in its blood. Castellani and Willey (1905)
record Hemoproteus (Halteridium) from the blood of crows (Corvus
splendens and C. macrorhynchus), from the babbler (Crateropus
striatus), and from the owl (Scops bakkamena).

MAMMALS.

I examined very few mammals. None showed Protozoa in the
blood.

Uninfected.

1. Funambulus palmarum.—A single individual (Colombo, July).

2. Lepus nigricollis—One young individual (Peradeniya, Sept.).

3. Pteropus medius.—A single specimen (Peradeniya, Sept.).

4. Tragulus meminna.—Two individuals (Colombo, Aug.). A
peculiarity in the blood corpuscles of these animals seems worthy of
record. It was found that, although the leucocytes are large, the
red corpuscles are extremely small. In fact, I have never encoun-
tered such small erythrocytes in any animal before. In 7’. meminna
they have a diameter of only about 2°5 u.

* This, of course, is not a native Ceylon snake, It is not known how it
came to be in Colombo,

72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Record of Animals examined for Intestinal Protozoa.

An examination of the alimentary canal of various animals was
undertaken, in addition to the examination of the blood just recorded.
Below are the results. The animals examined were few compared
with those in which a blood examination was made.

AMPHIBIA.

1. Bufo melanostictus—I examined the contents of the large
intestine in a few individuals both at Colombo and at Peradeniya.
In all the animals examined both Trichomonas and Trichomastix
were found. These animals were indistinguishable from Tricho-
monas batrachorum and Trichomastix batrachorum which occur in the
European frogs and toads. As I have given a detailed description
of these forms elsewhere (Dobell, 1909), I will say no more about
them here.

A flagellate, which appeared to be identical with the Octomitus of
the English frog, was also found (cf. Dobell, 1909).

In one B. melanostictus from Peradeniya a new species of Nycto-
therus was present. (See p. 75.)

2. Lxalus leucorhinus.—A single individual examined in Pera-
deniya appeared to have absolutely no Protozoa of any sort in its gut.

3. Rana tigrina.—Individuals were examined both in Colombo
and in Peradeniya. The following Protozoa were found :—

In the large intestine :—An Hntameba, indistinguishable from
EB. ranarum, Grassi (cf. Dobell, 1909); three flagellates—T'richo-
monas, Trichomastix, and Octomitus—which appear to be identical
with the corresponding organisms in Rana temporaria in Europe
(cf. Dobell, 1909); the following Ciliata :—Opalina, a small
multinucleati species, which was not examined in stained prepara-
tions ; large and small Balantidium (see p. 74); and Nyctotherus
macropharyngeus (Bezzenberger, 1904). At Peradeniya the oocysts
of a coccidian (?) were found. (An examination of the epithelium
of the small intestine proved negative.)

In the duodenum :—Balantidium, sp. (See p. 74.)

4. Rhacophorus maculatus.— This animal was found (Peradeniya)
to harbour an Opalina and a Nyctotherus, both apparently new.
(See pp. 76 and 75.) The latter appears to be the same as that
found in Bufo melanostictus from the same locality.’

Remarks.—No intestinal Protozoa seem to have been described
from Ceylon frogs and toads hitherto, though Bezzenberger (1904)
has described a number of ciliates from various “ Asiatic ” Anura
(localities not given). Further remarks upon the intestinal Protozoa
of Amphibia will be found on p. 74.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 73

LIzARDS.

1. Hemidactylus leschenaultii—One specimen (Habarana) had
Trichomonads, and another undetermined flagellate in the large
intestine. These were not studied further.

2. Lygosoma punctatum.—Several animals were examined at
Peradeniya, but no Protozoa were found in the gut.

3. Lyriocephalus scutatus—One individual examined at Pera-
deniya. Beyond the spores of a coccidian (?) nothing was found.
(Epithelium of small intestine negative.) :

4. Mabuia carinata.—All the individuals examined were found
to harbour both Trichomastiz and Trichomonas. (See p. 77.)

SNAKES.

I examined only three snakes for intestinal Protozoa :—Zamenis
mucosus and Lycodon aulicus were both negative ; Dryophis
mycterizans, however, contained T'richomonas and a Trichomastix,
which closely resembled the organism which I have already described
from Boa constrictor (Dobell, 1907). I did not make a careful study
of these organisms.

MAMMALS.

At the instigation of Dr. Willey I made an examination of the
contents of the stomach of the two mouse deer (Tragulus meminna),
which came into my hands at Colombo. In both animals the
stomach was literally seething with oligotrichous ciliates, belonging
to the family Ophryoscolecidz, Stein.

These ciliates were discovered by Dr. Willey, but have not as yet
been described. At his suggestion I preserved a quantity of the
organisms, of which I hope to publish a full description shortly.

MOoLuvscs.

Whilst at Trincomalee, in September, I examined eight species
of lamellibranchs, in order to find out whether they harboured
spirochets. These organisms were found in the crystalline style of
only two species: Venus (Meretrix) casta and Soletellina acuminata.

Dr. Willey had previously noticed spirochets in these two species,
but had not described them. I hope to publish a full account of
my observations on these organisms shortly.

ARTHROPODS.

I examined several specimens of the large scorpion, Palamneus
indus, in Colombo (July), all with negative results so far as Protozoa
were concerned.

Six individuals of the common myriopod, Polydesmus saussurii,
Humb., collected at Avisawella in July, also showed no Protozoa,
though all were infected with a nematode worm, an Oazyuris or
allied genus.

E 6(22)10

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Another myriopod, Spirostreptus lunelii, Humb., from Avisawella
(July), also proved negative.

Some white ants, Calotermes militaris, from Peradeniya (August),
were more interesting. They contained Trichonymphids, a Nycto-
herus, and a spirochet, all apparently new. (See p. 89.)

II.—DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW FORMS.

In this part of the paper some of the new, or hitherto undescribed,
forms which are recorded in the preceding section are described in
greater detail.

The Parasites of Frogs and Toads.

I have already noted the presence of a hemogregarine in the
blood of Rana tigrina (p. 67). As I have already remarked, it seems
to be identical with H. berestneffi of the Indian frog. There is only
one other blood parasite which I have to describe.

(1) Trypanosoma, sp., of Rana tigrina.

This organism resembles the more slender forms of 7’. rotatorium
of the European frog. When living the posterior end is bluntly
pointed, and the animal usually has a ribbed appearance like that
of T. rotatorium, but the ribs are only one or two in number
(cf. fig. 12). There is a well-developed undulating membrane
extending about halfway along the organism and ending in a free
flagellum of moderate length (cf. fig. 12). The trophic nucleus
is ovoid, and situated near the anterior end. The kinetic nucleus is
a small deeply-staining granule about midway between the trophic
nucleus and the extreme posterior end.

Like 7’. rotatorium, this trypanosome is difficult to fix in blood
smears. Most of the stained specimens which I obiaincd were
badly distorted. Fig. 12 is drawn from one of the most favourable
fixed and stained animals which I encountered, but it makes the
animal appear a good deal stouter than it appears when alive.

The average length of the trypanosome, so far as I have been able
to determine from the few well-preserved specimens which I obtained
in my preparations, is between 30 y and 40 uw, including the free
flagellum.

BALANTIDIUM.

As already recorded; I found species of Balantidium inhabiting

the duodenum and the large intestine of Rana tigrina.

(2) Balantidium ovale, n. sp.

This name I propose for the common species of Balantidium which
occurs in the large intestine of R. tigrina. The animal is very like
several other species already described. It differs from B. helene,
Bezzenberger, only in size. Bezzenberger describes this species as

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 75

occurring in R. tigrina, R. cyanophlyctis, R. limnocharis, and, R.
hexadactyla, but he does not state from what parts of Asia the frogs
came. He gives 110 y xX 60 wu as the average dimensions. The
average size of my forms, however, is about 80 wu x 50y. Apart
from this, Bezzenberger’s description of B. helene applics equally
well to B. ovale. The peristome has the same form, the meganucleus
is kidney-shaped, lying posteriorly, with the micronucleus in the
hollow. I have omitted to figure the organism, as Bezzenberger’s
figure of B. helene is almost identical.

I found numerous animals undergoing division, and also found
encysting and encysted forms. These present no essential differ-
ences from what has already been described in other members of
the genus. The cysts are ovoid, and measure ca. 54 x 44 u.

In addition to the large forms just described, I found numerous
smaller forms—also dividing actively—which were identical in every
way except in size. They were only about two-thirds the size of
the larger animals. Whether these represcnt another species or not,
I am unable to decide.

(3) Balantidium hyalinem, n. sp.

I propose this name for the organism which occurs in the duode-
num of &. tagrina. It does not differ markedly from other duodenal
forms, namely, B. duodeni, Stein (in Rana esculenta and R. tempo-
raria), and B. rolundum, Bezzenberger (in R. esculenta, var. chinensis).
It is often present in large numbers in the small intestine, and when
alive its protoplasm is more hyaline than that of any other Balan-
tidium which I have seen.

The organism (fig. 19) is oval, with a straight mouth extending
almost to the middle of the body. The meganucleus is posteriorly
placed, and is ovoid. The micronucleus can nearly always be scen
at one end of the meganucleus, not in the middle (cf. fig. 19).
There is one contractile vacuole. In the anterior region the curious
striated or granular triangular area, which is characteristic of
B. duodent and B. rotundum, is usually clearly scen (sce fig. 19).
As in these forms also, the cilia are long and well developed over
the whole body. The average dimensions are ca. 74 4 X 56 wu.

(A curiously long and slender form has been described by Bezzen-
berger—under the name B. gracilis—from the small intestine of
Rana hexadactyla and R. cyanophlyctis.)

NYCTOTHERUS.

In addition to Nyctotherus macropharyngeus, Bezzenberger,*
which I found in R. tegrina in Colombo, I found a species of
Nyctotherus in Bufo melanosticius and Rhacophorus maculatus at
Peradeniya. It appears to be the same species in both hosts, and
I propose to name it—

* This is a very large species. Its most striking feature is its very long and
spirally wound pharynx.

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(4) Nyciotherus papillatus, n. sp

The animal has the usual reniform appearance characteristic of
the genus. Those taken from the large intestine of B. melanostictus
measured ca. 120 vu. in length, whilst those from R. maculatus were
distinctly larger, the largest attaining a length of 170 yu. In other
respects they were identical.

The pharynx extends to the median line, is sharply curved into an
almost perfect semi-circle, and has a well-marked spiral twist. The
anus opens just dorsally to a well-marked papilla at the extreme
posterior end of the animal. There is one contractile vacuole,
situated close to the anus. The meganucleus is in the usual position
anteriorly, but appears to be reniform or horseshoe-shaped, with
the ends directed ventrally, so that it appears to be ovoid when
seen from the side. A micronucleus was not always seen, but
was sometimes visible lying on the meganucleus.

A curious little diverticulum of the pharynx just at its point of
junction with the mouth was nearly always observable. It passes
dorso-posteriorly for a very short distance, and then appears to end
blindly. I have never seen this curious little structure in other
species of the genus.

OPALINA.

Rana tigrina, as I have already noted, was found to harbour a
multinucleate species of Opalina, which I observed in the living
state only. A pretty species of Opalina was found in Rhacophorus
maculatus at Peradeniya, and I was able to study it more carefully.
As it seems to be new I propose the name—

(5) Opalina virgula, n. sp..

for the organism. Its characteristics are as follows. The general
shape of the body is that of a large flattened comma; that is to say,
there is a large bulge on one side anteriorly (see fig. 17). It thus
resembles O. obtrigona (parasitic in the European tree frog Hyla
arborea) more closely than any other of the dozen or so species of
Opalina hitherto described.* Some of the individuals are long and
slender, and others are stouter and more rounded, but all have this
general appearance. The body is flattened, 7.e., elliptical in trans-
verse section, and the cilia are distributed over the body in lines, as
in other species. Large individuals may measure 170 wu, or rather
over, in length, and 50 yu in breadth at the broadest part of the
anterior end.

The animal is multinucleate. All the nuclei in my preparations
(picro-acetic acid, Delafield’s haematoxylin) appear as rather loose
masses of chromatin granules (see fig. 17). Other slightly stained
bodies are also present in the endoplasm. They appear to be the

bodies which Metcalf calls ‘““endosare spherules,” and which occur
in other Cae

is Ge Motoalf’s 8 (1909) recent monograph on on 1 the genus,

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 77

In company with these larger forms were a number of smaller
forms. These I take to be young forms. They are the shape of a
flattened spindle, and contain few nuclei (see fig. 18). Possibly
they are organisms which are on their way to encystment. The
small form figured (fig. 18) measured 38 v. x 13 wu.

Bezzenberger (1904) has described Opaline from Bufo melanos-
tictus, Rana cyanophlyctis, R. limnocharis, R. hexadactyla, and
R. esculenta, var. chinensis, but he does not state from what part of
Asia these animals came.

Intestinal Parasites of Lizards.

Parasitic flagellates were found in the gut in only two lizards:
Hemidactylus leschenaultit and Mabuia carinata. Both these hosts
contained both Trichomonas and. Trichomastiz, but a careful study
was made of those in Mabuia only.

( Trichomonas mabuice, n. sp.
( Trichomastix mabuie, n. sp.

I have elsewhere described (Dobell, 1909) in detail the structure
of Trichomonas and Trichomastix batrachorum. The two organisms
from Mabuia have a structure which is exactly similar. My chief
reason for noting these organisms here is that they furnish a striking
confirmation of what I have already described in the structure of
the frog and toad parasites.

Trichomonas mabuie (fig. 11) attains a length of 30 u, and it is
quite easy to observe in the living animal, under an oil immersion,
all the details of structure which I have already described in the
much smaller 7. batrachorum. Structures which, in the latter,
were frequently only made out in stained preparations, and with
considerable difficulty, can be seen in 7. mabwie with the greatest
clearness. The relations of the nucleus, axostyle, blepharoplast,
and undulating membrane are exactly as I have already described
them. To describe the forms from Mabuia would be merely
to repeat what I have already written. I will therefore content
myself with figuring Trichomonas mabuic, and would refer any one
interested in the structure of these organisms to my earlier paper.

The Parasites of Tropidonotus stolatus.

As recorded on p. 70, I found three parasites in. the blood of this
snake: a hemogregarine, a spirochet, and a trypanosome. The
last two are new; the first is probably the same as the “ Danilew-
skya” described in 7’. stolatus from Tonkin by Billet (1895). [Cf.
also Dobell (1908).]

(1) Trypanosoma tropidonoti, n. sp.

I propose to give this name to the new trypanosome which I
found in the blood of a 7’. stolatus at Peradeniya (see figs. 13, 14).

78 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

When observed in the fresh blood of the snake the organism
exhibited no characteristics which would distinguish it readily from
many other trypanosomes. It was actively motile, with a short free
flagellum terminating the undulating membrane, which extended
along about half the length of the body. The posterior (aflagellar)
half of the body was drawn out to a sharp point. Though the
trophic nucleus was easily visible in the living animal, the kinetic
nucleus was observed only after staining. The cytoplasm was finely
granular in appearance and uniform throughout.

In smears stained by Giemsa’s method, the following structure
was observable (see figs. 13, 14) :—

The body is sharply pointed at both ends, with the trophic
nucleus lying near the middle as a homogeneous pink mass of
granules. The flagellum and undulating membrane appeared the
same as in the fresh preparations, but the kinetic nucleus, with the
origin of the membrane, &c., could now be made out accurately.
The kinetic nucleus itself is a small granule staining a deep purple
with Giemsa’s stain. It is remarkable on account of its position.
Sometimes it was situated well behind the trophic nucleus (fig. 13),
but at other times it was placed actually in contact with it (fig. 14).
Intermediate positions were also seen. The latter arrangement, 7.c.,
in contact with the trophic nucleus, gives the animal an appearance
suggesting an organism which is halfway between a Crithidia and a
Trypanosoma. The average length of the organism (including the
free flagellum) is 30 u.-40 up.

So far as I am aware, only two trypanosomes have been recorded
from snakes hitherto: 7’. erythrolampri (Wenyon, 1908) from
Erythrolamprus esculapii (tropical America), and 7’. naice (Wenyon,
1908a) from Naia nigricollis (Africa). Only one of these was satis-
factorily investigated as regards its nuclear apparatus (7'. erythro-
lampri), and it is a curious fact that it shows the same peculiarity
which I have pointed out above in the case of 7. tropidonoti. The
two organisms are, in fact, very closely similar in other respects
also.

Another trypanosome in which the kinetic and trophic nuclei are
in close proximity has recently been described—under the name
T. pertenwe—by Miss Robertson (1908) from the blood of the Ceylon
geckoes, Hemidactylus triedrus and H. leschenaultit.

(2) Spirocheta tropidonote, n. sp.

This is the first record of a spirochet from the blood of a snake.
It is therefore much to be regretted that my observations on it are
exceedingly scanty.

Only a single 7’. stolatus was found harbouring the organism. In
the fresh blood preparations the spirochets were rare, and in the
stained smears made from the same blood they were still more
difficult to find. Through a most unfortunate accident most of

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 79

my stained preparations were lost before they had been carefully
examined.

No ticks were found on the snake, but one is tempted to suggest
that these animals, which are common on many snakes, are the
carriers of the spirochet. .

The living spirochets (fig. 15) appeared as slender, flexible,
corkscrew-like organisms, actively motile, and closely resembling
S. duttoni in general form. In length they measure ca. 15 vu, and
their breadth is probably about 0°5 u., though I have not been able
to obtain sufficiently accurate measurements of the latter.

In the films stained by Giemsa’s method the organisms were
coloured a uniform pink.

In a single instance (fig. 16) I observed an organism which
appeared to be on the point of dividing into two. But whether
division had been longitudinal or transverse it was impossible to
decide. The thickness of the organism certainly suggests the latter
mode of division.

The Hemogregarine from Crocodilus porosus.

Hemogregarines have already been described from crocodiles
in various parts of the world. Simond (190la) appears to have
been the first to record hemogregarines from Crocodilia. He
described (1901, 1901a) a form, under the name A. hankini, from
the Indian gavial; and he further noted (1901, p. 320) that the
same organism occurred in Crocodilus porosus (?), and stated that
Marchoux had found a similar parasite in a Senegal crocodile.

Borner (1901) almost simultaneously described a hemogregarine
from Crocodilus frontatus and Alligator mississippiensis, and gave it
the name H. crocodilinorum. If these prove to be the same species,
then the priority of name rests with H. hankini; for, as Simond
points out, his account was published a month before that of Borner.
It is probable, therefore, that the Ceylon form from C. porosus is
Hemogregarina hankini, Simond.

Minchin, Gray, and Tulloch (1906) figure a hemogregarine from
a Central African crocodile, and this organism is repeatedly men-
tioned in subsequent reports of various'sleeping sickness commissions.

The form which I found in the Ceylon crocodile bears a close
resemblance to many of the figures of Simond and Borner.

All the individuals which I examined were in red blood corpuscles
from the circulating blood. ‘They all presented the appearance
shown in figs. 9, 10; that is to say, they were all large, doubled-up
individuals. Sometimes the two halves were approximately equal
in thickness (fig. 9), but sometimes one was considerably thicker
than the other (fig. 10). In preparations stained by Giemsa’s
method the nucleus always appeared as a compact mass of deep
purple granules (figs. 9, 10). In length the animals (doubled up)
measured from 12 u to 15 uy.

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In the absence of more material, I can do little more here than
record and figure the organism.

The Parasites of White Ants.
(1) Gymnonympha zeylanica, n. g., 0. 8p.

As already recorded (p. 74), I found the termites* (Calotermes
militaris) which I examined at Peradeniya infected with a protozoon
belonging to the family Trichonymphide.

The Trichonymphids are characterized by possessing a large
number of flagella, which originally gave rise to their inclusion
among the Ciliata. [See Butschli (1887), 8. Kent (1882), &c.] I
have ‘little doubt, however, that they are really referable to the
Mastigophora (cf. Doflein, 1909). It is curious to note that Leidy
(1877), who first gave us an accurate description of these organisms,
remarks—speaking of T'richonympha—that they are “of obscure
affinity, but probably related with the Turbellaria on the one hand,
and by evolution with the Ciliate Infusoria on the other.”

The organisms which I found in Ceylon do not appear to belong
to any of the genera ltitherto described. [See Leidy (1881), Grassi
(1888), Grassi and Sandias (1893), Frenzel (1891).] Leidyonella
(Frenzel, 1891) is the form which appears to approximate most
nearly to my organisms.

As far as I am aware, no Trichonymphids have been described
from Asiatic white ants before, but it seems highly probable that
these parasites occur in white ants throughout the world. They
were apparently discovered by Lespes in Europe in 1856, and were
subsequently described in North America (Leidy), in the Argentine
(Frenzel), and in Europe (Grassi and others). The closely allied
form Lophomonassis a frequent parasite of the common cockroach,
Stylopyga orientalis.

Gymnonympha zeylanica, as | propose to name the new organism,
is distinguished by possessing comparatively few flagella, which are
confined entirely to the anterior end of the body, as in Je@nia and
Lophomonas, but there is no axostyle present.

The general form of the animal (see fig. 1) is roughly ovoid or
pyriform, but the body is so plastic that its shape is constantly
undergoing change during life. At the extreme anterior end the
body is drawn out into a small conical process surrounded by a
curious vesicular cap (fig. 1). Where the cap unites, by its edges,
with the conical process, the flagella arise, apparently in a single
ring round the base of the cone. The length of the largest forms is
about 150 vu. The flagella measure only about one-half of the length
of the body. Running backwards from the point of origin of the
flagella, a series of striations can be seen extending for about one-
third of the length of the organism. These striations appear to be
situated in the investing cuticle.

* All the individuals examined were workers,

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON, 81

The nucleus is round, and measures about 15 win diameter. It is
composed of a mass of small chromatin granules surrounded by a
clear achromatic membrane. It usually lies at the anterior end of
the animal.

Inside the body, especially in the posterior region, a number of
particles of wood can usually be seen. How they are ingested I am
unable to say, as I have never observed an animal in the act of taking
them up, nor is a mouth present, as far as I have been able to
make out.

In addition to these larger forms just described, I always found
smaller animals possessing a somewhat different structure. The
anterior end and arrangement of the flagella was different, and the
nucleus was situated posteriorly (fig. 2). I think these small forms
probably represent young stages in the life-history of Gymnonympha,
but in the absence of any very definite intermediate forms, I must
leave this an open question for the present. These small forms
were usually about 30-40 vu, in length.

No animals in division, or at different stages in the life-cycle, have
I been able to find.

(2) Nyctotherus termitis, n. sp.

I propose this name for the new species of ciliate which I found in
the termite. Hitherto no Nyctotherus has, I believe, been recorded
from. white ants. ;

N. termitis differs but slightly from several other members of the
genus. It resembles N. ovalis, Leidy, of the common cockroach
(Stylopyga orientalis) closely in general structure. The body is
roughly ovoid, with the gullet situated near the middle, and running
in obliquely with a very slight curvature (see fig. 21). It does
not extend more than about halfway across the animal. There is a
well-marked, though narrow, anus, near to which—on the ventral
side—the single contractile vacuole is situated (see fig. 21). The
meganucleus is ovoid or slightly horseshoe-shaped, and a micro-
nucleus can sometimes be seen lying in close contact with it. At
the level of the meganucleus the body shows a more or less strongly
marked constriction. Another similar constriction can be seen about
halfway between this and the extreme anterior end. (Cf. fig. 21.)

The animal attains a length of 60-70 u., and a maximum breadth
of rather more than 40 yu.

It is rather a striking fact that the white ant should harbour a
Nyctotherus so closely resembling that of the cockroach, when it is
remembered that the Trichonymphids are also confined to these
two hosts.

(3) Spirocheta termitis, n. sp.
Some of the termites which I examined proved to be heavily infect-

ed with spirochets. As these have not been previously described—
so far as I am aware—lI propose the name S. termitis for them.

M 6(22)10

82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is of interest to note that Leidy (1877) found “a Spirillum ”’
present in the gut of Termes flavipes (North America); and Grassi
and Sandias (1893) also record “‘Spirilla”” in the European termites
which they investigated (Calotermes flavicollis and Termes lucifugus).
It seems to me highly probable that reinvestigation of these organ-
isms would show them to be really spirochets.*

When alive, S. termitis is a long, slender, and very active organism.
It moves rapidly backwards and forwards with the wriggling,
flexible motion characteristic of the spirochets. A well-marked
bending and rolling up of the body may frequently be seen.

The organisms which I observed (fig. 20) varied considerably in
size, both as regards length and breadth. The longest individuals
measured rather over 60 yu, but the breadth was never more than
1 yu, and often less.

The ends are pointed, and do not appear to bear free flagellar
processes, such as are said to occur in some spirochets (e.g., S.
buccalis). Neither in the living organism nor in stained prepara-_
tions have I seen an undulating membrane.

In films stained by Giemsa’s method the organisms stained a

uniform pink, or occasionally showed an indistinct granular structure.
Owing to their slenderness it is exceedingly difficult to make out
their internal structure.
_ I found no forms which could be regarded with certainty as
showing stages in division, though some of the longest organisms—
in stained preparations—occasionally exhibited a break towards
the middle of the body (fig. 20, longest individual), which suggested
that transverse division takes place.

Concluding Remarks.

I wish, in conclusion, to summarize some of the more interesting
points which the observations recorded in the foregoing pages have
brought to light.

In the first place, I would emphasize the fact that my investiga-
tions are not, and do not pretend to be, in any way exhaustive.
I have merely examined such animals as chance allotted to me.
Also in no case did I examine more than a small number of indivi-
duals of any one species. Many animals, moreovér, were examined
with entirely negative results, and I am fully sensible of the fact
that no definite deductions can be drawn from these few negative
instances. The record of these cases has been given solely for the
use of subsequent workers along similar lines. Nevertheless, apart

* Since writing the above, I have been able to consult the full account of
these organisms by Leidy (1881). His description and figures leave no doubt
in my mind that his organisms were really spirochets. Curiously enough,
he has named the organisms Vibrio termitis. If mine _are the same as the
North American forms, the correct name is therefore Spirocheta termitis,
Leidy emend. Dobell (non Sp. termitis, Dobell).

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 83

from these inconclusive negative results, I have obtained a few
positive records, which appear to me to justify a few general remarks
before I conclude.

A point of some interest is in connection with the distribution of
the protozoan parasites is frogs. I have found, as recorded in
previous pages, that the Ceylon frogs harbour a set of Protozoa
exactly parallel to the set which one finds in European frogs. In
both one tinds two kinds of blood Protozoa: Hemogregarines and
Trypanosomes. In both one finds three genera of flagellates in the
large intestine : Trichomonas, Trichomastix, and Octomitus (Hexa-
mitus). In both one finds an Hntameba in the large intestine. In
both one finds ciliates—belonging to the three genera: Opalina,
Balantidium, and Nyctotherus—in the large intestine. In both,
finally, one finds a ciliate of the genus Balantidiwm inhabiting the
duodenum. The three flagellates and the ameeba correspond in
general appearance so closely in the Ceylonese and European frogs
that I cannot distinguish them from one another. |

Again, the Ceylon crocodile has been found to harbour a hemogre-
garine, which resembles not only that described from the Indian
gavial, but also those found in African crocodiles and the Mississippi
all gator.

Then in the snakes. Apart from the new spirochet which was
found, one finds hemogregarines which resemble not only those
found in snakes from other parts of Asia (India, Tonkin, China,
Java, &c.), but also those in snakes from Europe, from Africa, from
North and South America, and from Australia. The only snake
trypanosome which I found is closely similar to another previously
described from a tropical American snake. Furiher, one Ceylon
snake was found to possess a T'richomastia very like that which I
have already described from a South American Boa constrictor. A
similar organism occurs in all probability in European snakes.

Then, in the case of the white ants, similar interesting finds have
been recorded. Ceylon termites harbour a flagellate belonging to
the remarkable family Trichonymphide. These parasites have
previously been found in termites in Europe, North America, and
South America. The only other host of trichonymphids is the
cockroach. It is therefore of interest to find that the Ceylon termite
harbours a ciliate of the genus Nyctotherws, which very closely
resembles that of the common cockroach, Stylopyga orientalis. This
is a fact not without interest for the systematic entomologist.
Lastly, the Ceylon termite possesses a spirochet, and there are
indications that the North American and European termites harbour
a similar parasite.

Some further parallels could be added to this list, but it is perhaps
unnecessary to develop this theme any further. Yet it seems to me
that these facts are of something more than purely protozoological
interest.

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

' It will not perhaps be superfiuous to point out once more that
I have, in company with other workers on Indian and Ceylon
forms, found that lizards do not appear to be infected with blood
Protozoa to anything like the same extent that European and
African lizards are.

One other point, in conclusion, appears to me worthy of comment.
Wherever I have found trichomonads, I have always found both
Trichomonas and Trichomastix associated together. This supports,
I think, to some extent the view of Doflein, who believes that these
two “genera” are in reality merely forms of one and the same
organism. For my own part, however, I prefer to consider them as
distinct genera for the present, mainly on the ground that no real
intermediate forms have ever been discovered. This is, however,
a matter of but small importance.

DTITHERATURE REFERENCES.

Berestneff, N. (1903), “ Uber einen neuen Blutparasiten der
indischen Frésche.” (Arch. Protistenk., II., p. 343.)

Bezzenberger, HE. (1904), ‘‘ Ueber Infusorien aus asiatischen
Anuren.” (Arch. Protistenk., III., p. 138.)

Billet, A. (1895), “ Sur les Hématozoaires des Ophidiens du Haut-
tonkin.”- (CC. R.Soc. Biol, X:+(2)~ pt 29.)

Borner, C, (1901), “ Untersuchung Uber Hamosporidien.”
(Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., LXIX., p. 398.)

Butschli, O. (1887-89), ‘“‘Infusoria”’ in Bronn’s “ Klassen u.
Ordnungen.” :

Castellani, A., and Willey, A. (1904), ‘‘ Observations on the
Hematozoa of Vertebrates in Ceylon.” (Spolia Zeylanica, I1.,
p. 78.)

Castellani, A., and Willey, A. (1905), ‘‘ Observations on
Hematozoain Ceylon.” (Quart. Journ. Micro, Sci., XLIX., p. 383.)

Dobell, C. C. (1907), ‘‘ Trichomastia serpentis, n. sp.” (Quart.
Journ. Micro. Sci., LI., p. 449.)

Dobell, C. C. (1908), “Some Notes on the Hemogregarines Para-
sitic in Snakes.”’ (Parasitology, I., p. 289.)

Dobell, C. C. (1909), ‘* Researches on the Intestinal Protozoa of
Frogs and Toads.”’ (Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci., LIIT,, p. 201.)

Dofiein, F. (1909), ‘* Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde.” Jena. —

Frenzel, J. (1891), ‘‘ Leidyonella cordubensis nov. gen. nov. spec.
Kine neue Trichonymphide.” (Arch. Mik. Anat., XXXVIII.,
p. 301.)

Grassi, B. (1888), ‘ Morfologia e Sistematica di alcuni Protozoi
parassiti.” (RC. R. Acead. Lineei., IV., p. 5.)

> PARASIPFIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON. 85

Grassi, J. B., and Sandias, A. (1893-94), ‘‘ The Constitution and
Development of the Society of Termites. Observations on their
Habits ; with Appendices on the Parasitic Protozoa of Termitide,
and on the Embiide.” (Translation, in Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci.,
XXXIX. and XL.)

Kent, W. Saville (1880-82), ‘““A Manual of the Infusoria.”’
London. |

Leidy, J. (1877), “On Intestinal Parasites of Termes flavipes.”
(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 146.)

Leidy, J. (1881), “ The Parasites of the Termites.” (Journ. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, VIII., p. 425.)

Metcalf, M. M. (1909), “‘ Opalina, its Anatomy and Reproduction,
&e.” (Arch. Protistenk., XIII.)

Minchin, H. A. (1907), “On a Hemogregarine from the Blood
of a Himalayan Lizard (Agama tuberculata).”’ (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
London, p. 1098.)

Minchin, EH. A., Gray, A.C. H., and Tulloch, F. M. G@. (1906),
“Glossina palpalis in its Relation to Trypanosoma gambiense and
other Trypanosomes.” (Proc. Roy. Soc., B. 78, p. 242.)

Neresheimer, E. (1909), ‘“‘ Uber das Eindringen von Lankesterella
spec. in die Froschblutkorperchen.”’ (Arch. Protistenk, XVI., p.
187.)

Patton, W. S. (1908), ““ The Hemogregarines of Mammals and
Reptiles.” (Parasitology, I., p. 319.)

Robertson, M. (1908), *“* A Preliminary Note on Hematozoa from
some Ceylon Reptiles.” (Spolia Zeylanica, V., p. 177.)

Robertson, M. (1909), “‘ Studies on Ceylon Heematozoa. No. 1.
The Life-cycle of Trypanosoma vittate.”” (Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci.,
LIII., p. 665.)

Schaudinn, F. (1903), “‘ Studien tber krankheitserregende Proto-
zoen: II., Plasmodium vivax, usw.” (Arb. kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte,
XIX.)

Simond, P. L. (1901), *‘ Contribution a l’étude des Hématozoaires
endoglobulaires des Reptiles.” (Ann. Inst. Pasteur., XV., p.
319.)

Simond, P. L. (1901a), *‘Sur un Hématozoaire endoglobulaire
Hemogregarina hankini, parasite du gavial.”’ (C. R. Soc. Biol.,
LIII., p. 183.)

Stein, F: (1867), ‘““Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere.” IL.,
Abtheilung.

Wenyon, C. M. (1908), ‘‘ A Trypanosome and Hemogregarine of
a Tropical American Snake.” (Parasitology, I., p. 315.)

Wenyon, C. M. (1908a), ‘‘ Report of Travelling Pathologist and
Protozoologist,”’ in ‘‘ Third Report of Wellcome Research Labora-
tories, Gordon College, Khartoum.” London.

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. x

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.

(The figures are not drawn to scale. The actual dimensions of

the various organisms depicted are givenin the text. Figs. 1,2, and

20 were drawn under Zeiss 3 mm. apochromatic oil immersion X<
comp.-oc. 12. Figs. 3-10 and 12-15 were drawn under Leitz 1/12
in. oil immersion. Figs. 11, 16-19, and 21 were drawn under Zeiss
2mm. apochromatic oil immersion, comp.—oc. 6.)

Fig. 1—Gymnonympha zeylanica, n. g., 0. sp., a trichonymphid
from the intestine of Calotermes militaris. (Picro-acetic
acid, Delafield’s hematoxylin and eosin.)

Fig. 2.—Small trichonymphid, from same preparation as preced-
ing. (Probably a young form ?)

Figs. 3-8.—Hemogregarina, sp., from Rana tigrina. (Osmic
vapour, Giemsa.)

Fig 3.—Large intracorpuscular form.
Figs. 4, 5, 6—Various free forms from the blood plasma.

Fig. 7—Encapsuled form in a red blood corpuscle. (Living
animal.) -

Fig. 8—Empty sheath of parasite lying in red corpuscle. (Dry
film ; absolute alcohol, Giemsa.)

Figs. 9, 10.—Hemogregarina, sp. (? H. hankini, Simond), from
blood of Crocodilus porosus. (Dry films; absolute
alcohol, Giemsa.)

Fig. 9.—Doubled-up organism, with limbs approximately equal
in thickness.

Fig. 10—Form with slender doubled-up “ tail.”

Fi

—

g. 11.—Trichomonas mabuie, n. sp., from the large intestine
of Mabuia carinata. Large individual. (Sublimate
alcohol, Delafield’s hematoxylin and eosin.)

Fig. 12.—Trypanosoma, sp., in blood of Rana tigrina. (Osmic
vapour, Giemsa.) A red~- corpuscle is shown in
outline.

Figs. 13 and 14.—T'rypanosoma tropidonoti, n. sp., from the blood
of Tropidonotus stolatus. (Osmic vapour, Giemsa.)
The body is stained blue, the trophic nucleus pink,
edge of membrane with flagellum red, the kinetic
nucleus deep purple.

Vig. 13.—A form in which the kinetic nucleus is situated some
distance posterior to the trophic nucleus. (Red
corpuscle in outline.)

Fig. 14.—Form in which the kinetic nucleus is in contact with the
trophic nucleus.

4 vg ris sat in i:

ji Athi. SFE} a pals oan i TAGS Oat. puree, 292%

i arg ew
Es 9 ere

4
2

Re: . ~~ ne E = z i 4 4 - ™ - |
oor fh Tt a7 rts Pi P) . AA ; : : | | x

3 ‘Sats 4.
OMT he iA es oc ie
vo es a © ‘ - v A
ae OC 1} Pe ILS ;
« t a ’
PGE THE Foes. & be tri Sy
¥ wey j Hy WH
Saati’! Fe |
: 7 . oeay (3 ®
; “eveasiaee O02 5 iti"): : ;
» ‘ » ¥ +

ey +
Rett my 1S : -
i
7 ae. - 7 ca
Swat. 4 ++ : hi
$e
¢
- . raz > f 3
4 antes. J 5m 3< @ , ¥
- *
ta
4 " <— > a . ’
322 o-Ps ‘;
; 3 : ’
©
¥ : . >
oe tae Ps Ps ty *! 2 > + ,
: a) ‘
oa

Spolia Zeylanica.—Vol. VII., Part XXVI.
Plate 11.

ee

DOBELL—PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM CEYLON.

veh my peat. See.
yl ae

~ | Te Ne i ay » ih

‘
\ P “J 5 .
‘ i = 4 i. ..
i wy ie rep.
| my se te Swe oe ae pd
Bad sa

; | : & kd

a v7 : 2 Le Dw rt

\

Figs.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FROM GEYLON. 87

15, 16.—Spirocheta tropidonoti, n. sp., in the blood of Tropi-
donotus stolatus.

15.—Living organism, beside a red corpuscle. Heart blood.

16.—Organism dividing into two. (Dry film; absolute
alcohol, Giemsa.)

- 17.—Opalina virgula, u. sp., from large intestine of Rhaco-

phorus maculatus. (Picro-acetic acid, Delafield’s
hematoxylin.)

- 18—Small Opalina, from same preparation as preceding.

Probably a young individual.

. 19.—Balantidium hyalinum, n. sp., from duodenum of

Rana tigrina. (Sublimate alcohol, Delafield’s hema-
toxylin.)

20.—Spirocheta termitis, n. sp., from the gut of Calotermes
militaris. Various forms are depicted. (Dry film ;
absolute alcohol, Giemsa.)

21.—Nyctotherus termitis, n. sp., from intestine of Calotermes
militaris. (Picro-acetic acid, Delafield’s hematoxylin
and eosin.)

88 SPOLIA ZEYDANIGA,

NOTES ON THE FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON.

By A. Wittny, M.A., D.So., F.RB.S.

Professor of Zoology in the McGill University, Montreal ; late Director
of the Colombo Museum.

(With one Plate and three Text Figures.)

[The following notes are taken from Dr. Willey’s preliminary
account of the Inland Fisheries of Ceylon in the Administration
Reports of 1908 and 1909.—Eb. |

HE object of the inquiry is to obtain biological and, as far as

may be possible, statistical information about the indigenous -

marketable fishes, to devise measures for arresting a decline of the
fisheries, and to introduce one or more useful species from abroad.
As no records have been kept in former years, it is impossible to
demonstrate that a progressive reduction in the amount of the
catches is in fact taking place. There seems to be a general
impression that this is the case ; and it is evident that the clearing
of forests for plantation purposes must re-act upon the water
systems of the cultivated districts by silting up the tributaries of
the rivers. The more the country is brought under cultivation, by
so much the more should attention be directed to the habits of the
food-fishes. And this is about all that can be, and perhaps all that
need be, said on the subject of the decline of the fisheries. The
illegal use of dynamite and narcotic poisons is not a danger which
threatens the entire fish-fauna ; and it may be assumed that the
steps which are already taken to prevent the application of these
objectionable methods of capturing fish are adequate.

The present investigation is mainly concerned with the fresh-water
fisheries of the Western and the North-Central Provinces, the former
being selected as typical of river fishing, the latter of tank fishing.
In this part I shall refer chiefly to certain aspects of the fishing
industry in the Western Province. In the first place, however, it
is necessary to note that for the understanding of this question it
is important to realize at once and for all the essential economic
difference which exists in Ceylon between sea fishing and estuarine
fishing on the one hand and inland fishing on the other. Speaking
generally, it may be said that there is no independent fresh-water
fishing industry in Ceylon. What takes place is merely a collateral
pursuit subservient to paddy cultivation and cattle raising. Sea
and estuarine fishing is a main industry of the maritime districts ;
river and tank fishing is a collateral industry of the interior,

wy _ Se
= es

Fie. 8.—Man holding a ‘‘ kemina”’ at Hanwella. The

narrow end is covered by a coconut cap.

FRESH-WATER FISHERTES OF CEYLON. CM ee

The Barawe Fishery—The Barawe reserve near Hanwella is a
low-lying wooded tract, through which the Pusweli-ganga flows into
the Kelani-ganga. After heavy rain the country is under water, and
T have myself been compelled, in the month of May, to travel by
boat for some distance down the high road from near the Hanwella
resthouse. Hanwella is a good type of inland fishing station, people
said to belong to the ‘“‘Padduwa”’ caste being more or less per-

‘manently engaged in fishing by various methods ; and the produce
is brought into the village bazaar for sale in improvized markets
at the roadside.

On the Pusweli-ganga, upwards of a mile from the resthouse, the
Barawe line-fishermen work singly from very small log boats called
*“ mas marana oruwa,”’ from which they catch excellent food-fishes,
such as the walaya (Wallago attu), telliya (Mastacembelus armatus),
and moda (Lates calcarifer), besides several species of the carp
family (Cyprinide). Fishes caught in the water-courses are called
“ela malu,” in contrast with “ weli malu,’’ which are taken from
inundated fields. Of the latter, the lula (Ophincephalus striatus)
is the most important, and the batakola-telliya (Rhynchobdella
aculeata)* one of the most interesting. They also capture in baskets
great quantities of a small cyprinoid fish called saliya (A mblypharyn-
godon melettina); females of this species, three inches in total
length, are ege-laden in December. In the lhivetiya-ela, an arm
of the Pusweli-ganga, a portion was fenced off at either end from
the main stream in December, 1907, and I saw about thirty men,
svomen, and children paddling about in the muddy water, each
provided with a large conical hand basket (“‘ eswattiya ”’), with which
they scooped up small fishes, transferring them to bags carried on
their backs, occasionally also capturing a large river prawn.

Stretching a wattle fence (vetiya or veta) across an ela is a frequent
practice. A narrow passage may be left at one end of it, and this
will be occupied by a long bamboo fish-trap, closed at the narrow
end by a half coconut shell. The fence is made of impenetrable,
close-set slips of bata-li or wild bamboo; the fish-trap (‘‘ kemina ’’)
(fig. 8),f about 7 feet long, is made of slips of una-li or plantation
bamboo. Strips of bamboo are steeped in water to season them,
and are kept soaking for eight days preparatory to the final splitting.

The “ karakgediya”’ is a basket open at both ends, shaped like
a truncated cone, about 25 inches high, made of Ixora sticks
(ratamvela) ; each stick is pointed below, and the whole bound
together above, leaving a hole just large enough to receive a man’s
arm. It is used in swampy fields ; the broad end with the pointed
sticks is presented to the bottom at a venture, and the hand inserted
through the arm-hole to grope for a possible catch.

*T recorded this species from Ceylon for the first time in ‘‘ Nature,”
Vol, 77, 1908, page 345.

{ For the three illustrations accompanying this report I am indebted to
Mr. O. 8. Wickwar, who accompanied me on one of my visits to Hanwella.

N 6(22)10

Oo) SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

They also construct elaborate fixed traps called “ mas-ge”’ or
‘““mas-kotuwa ”’; these are tall fish-mazes, about 20 feet high, made
of the same materials as the fences. They project high out of the
water when the latter is low, but during flood time they may be
entirely submerged. For example, May 9 was a day of great rain
at Hanwella, and the entrapped fishes could only be taken in the
early part of the day, before the waters had covered up the mas-kotu.
Up to the present I have not found an opportunity of seeing fish
taken out of a mas-kotuwa. When I visited Hanwella in Decem-
ber, 1907, they had fallen into temporary disuse, only being worked
during the rains ; and I was told that there had been a mas-kotu
fishery in the previous month of November; May and June are the
chief months for this fishery in the Kelani Valley. The mas-kotu
may thus be defined as flood kraals, in contrast with the ja-kotu,
which are fair weather kraals. An important carp, the hiri-kanaya
(Labeo dussumiert), is taken in the mas-kotu at Hanwella; and
occasionally, though not in my experience, the lela (Barbus tor).

Another piece of fishing gear employed by the Barawe fishermen is
the “ baru-dela ” or casting net, the manipulation of which requires
a great deal of skill. Other nets are the “ atanguwa ”’ or hand net ;
and the *‘ pala-dela,”’ a net stretched between two poles, terminating
in a small-meshed bag.

Being much impressed by the intensive character of the Barawe
fishery, I applied to the Mudaliyar of the Hewagam korale (Mr. H. A.
Pieris) for information as to whether it had ever been more productive
than it is now ; whether there had been any notable fluctuations ine
the annual catches ; and whether or not he considered the methods
of fishing unduly destructive of immature fish, leading to the
diminution of the local fish supply. The Mudaliyar replied that
the fishery had been more productive in times past owing to the
fact that “ the forest is now being gradually cleared of its timber,
which causes the streams to dry up faster than in former years ” ;
there had been no noticeable fluctuations ; and he did not think
that the present methods of fishing in his district were unduly
destructive. This, of course, is a matter of opinion, which should
be discussed by a competent local fishery committee. I would
point out here, however, that the fencing of natural water-courses
so as to hinder the normal migrations of fishes, and the ‘‘ muddying ”
of permanent waters so as to inhibit the normal respiration of fishes,
are practices which call for comment. The deliberate stirring up
of the mud in order to foul the water belongs to the same category
as the use of dynamite and vegetable poisons ; or at least modern
conditions of existence render it necessary to classify them together.
The stirring up of mud is done sometimes by men, sometimes by
buffaloes. Wakwella on the Gin-ganga, near Galle, seems a likely
enough place for a fishing station, but in fact is disappointing. In
August I tried to obtain a sample of the fishes frequenting those

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON. 9]

waters. The boatmen offered to put up a fence across the creek
opposite to the resthouse at midnight ; then they would place a
buffalo at some distance away towards the head of the creek, to
trample up the mud, thus causing the fish to collect at the fence in
their efforts to escape from the source of disturbance, where they
could be taken in the early morning in baskets. I decided, rightly
or wrongly, against it.

It should be added that, besides the species which I have men-
tioned above, several other first-rate food-fishes are habitually
caught by the Barawe fishermen, e.g., river-eels, ganga-anda
(Anguilla bengalensis), the butter-fish, walapota (Callichrous bima-
culatus), the eight-barbed three-spined catfishes, ankutta (several
species of Macrones), the fresh-water gobies, weligowa (Gobius giuris)
and kudupuwa (Eleotris fusca), the fresh-water garfish, moralla
(Belone cancila), the climbing perch, kavaiya (Anabas scandens),
and the koraliya (Htroplus suratensis). These are retained for
home consumption and for sale in the roadside market at Hanwella
opposite to the resthouse, although the neighbouring planters derive

their fish supply from Colombo through the Kelani Valley Railway.
When. there is a superabundance, some of the larger fishes may be
salted and kept for a few days.

The ‘ Wala” Fishery.—The floods of this country are a principal
factor in the inland fisheries, exercising as they do a beneficent,
protecting, and distributing influence. They afford natural close
seasons for river fishes; and they enable mud-loving and _ air-
breathing fishes to spread themselves over the surrounding lowlands.
A wala is a pit or depression in the ground in which flood water will
remain for a long time after the inundation which filled it has
subsided. They vary in extent from a few square yards to about
a quarter of an acre; the esteem in which they are held can be
gauged from the fact that each wala has its own distinctive name ;
the fishing of them requires co-operation, and the fishing rights are
therefore vested in a body of related families, the time of fishing
being decided by the able-bodied men. It would be possible to
register the recognized fishing walas of a district, but it has not
occurred to anybody to do so; such a return would be useful, and
might be advantageously ordered by Government.

As an example of primitive pond-culture the wala fishery is both
interesting and important, and should on no account be stigmatized
as “ puddling,” or mentioned disparagingly as one of those methods
which “ ought to be stopped.” On the contrary, it is the beginning
of systematic pisciculture, and is, or should be, capable of further
development.

The pits are left to be watered and stocked by floods, there being
little attempt to assist nature, except by slight excavation and
banking. At the proper time the water is baled out by means of
winnowing baskets (“‘ hal-kula’’), or by large, wooden, irrigating

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

scoops (yotu-kanda) suspended from crossed poles (figs. 9 and 10),
according to the size of the wala. Wala-fishing goes on in places
where no other fishing is available, and is one of the most prolific
sources of fish supply for villages throughout the low-country,
including the immediate environs of Colombo.

At Tebuwana on the Kalu-ganga there is no river fishing worth
mentioning, but a considerable wala-fishery takes place during the
dry weather which follows floods. The ponds contain stagnant
water, and by repeated baling out of muddy water deep pools are ~
formed in them, where fish accumulate sometimes in large numbers.
T inspected one such pond, and witnessed the operation of emptying
it ; it was called the Kohila-wala, because formerly an edible root
(kohila) grew where the pond now is, some still remaining on the
banks. The digging out of the yams and the subsequent flooding
and scooping out of fish from the mud at certain spots has made
three deep holes, in one of which there were signs of abundant fish.
The baling took place on January 25. They commenced by deepen-
ing an efferent channel and allowing the surface water to flow away
through it ; then they dammed it up and started baling the water
overthedam. In this case the baling was done by four men working
two “hal-kula,” each provided with two pairs of flexible ‘handles
held by a man on each side with both hands. The men swing the
baskets between them and work away for three hours or more. The
catch they said was not up to the average ; it consisted chiefly of
madaya (Ophiocephalus punctatus), kavaiya (some were egg-laden),
magura (Clarias magur), a few hunga (Saccobranchus fossilis), lula,
ankutta, and batakola-telliya. Hach hunga was knocked on the
head before being taken out, on account of the dangerous pectoral
spines. The total weight of fish caught was about 22 lb., and the
value in the local market was put at Re. 1°50 only, an absurdly low
figure ,* but then it was not going to be sold for cash. As it was, the
division of the spoil gave rise to much bickering, and one woman
apparently refused to be comforted.

The walas occur in places where shade is afforded by adjoining
vegetation ; an overhanging tree makes a difference to the inhabit-
ants of a pool. One of the symptoms of the decline of fisheries in
certain parts of late years is the failure of the old walas ; and this
is attributed to forest clearing in the neighbourhood, which has a
two-fold effect, removing shade and increasing silt, large quantities
of soil being washed down. from the adjacent clearings. The filling
up of walas by the deposition of sediment in consequence of forest
clearing has been noted by the Maha Mudaliyar in connection with
the Attanagala-oya, which flows past Henaratgoda. It may be
mentioned here that the alleged decline of inland fisheries as a whole

* Of course, this only applies to one small wala; the total value of the
wala catches in a given district would be something considerable; and the
same wala may be baled out three or four times in the year.

‘

Fic, 9.—A ‘+ wala” at Hanwella being baled out by means of an irrigation scoop

(** yotu-kanda’’) over a low bund.

aN AE

Fie, 10 —Another view of the same *«‘ wala.”’

Bie <A

*

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON. 93°

has been attributed to various causes from first to last, but not once
I believe publicly to what is perhaps the most deep-seated cause of
all, namely, forest clearing.

Undersized fishes are destroyed in the wala system of fishing, but
not to such a great extent as by netting ; and it should not be
forgotten that the capture of egg-laden females is as wasteful as the
netting and trapping of immature young. It would appear that
there is no practical method of stopping the waste ; if it is excessive,
the only way to counterbalance it is by establishing nurseries and
hatcheries ; and when one considers the small monetary value of the
inland fisheries at their best, the idea that hatcheries in connection
with the rivers of the Western Province would repay the expense of
their upkeep seems to be excluded, at least for many years to come.
There can be no doubt that they would be beneficial, and the
installation of one inland hatchery should be seriously contemplated.

Night-lines and River-fishing —As with the Kelani-ganga, so with
the Kalu-ganga, the main rivers do not yield the main fishery ; this
is found in their affluents, the Pusweli-ganga and the Kuda-ganga
respectively. The main rivers are, however, exploited to some
extent by means of night-lines. At Tebuwana, on the occasion
referred to in the preceding section, having taken a large number of
madaya from the wala, two men who were noted experts at moda-
fishing said they would go that evening between 7 p.m. and midnight
to fish for moda or other large fish with rod and line, using madaya
as live bait. Only one of them kept his courage to the sticking point,
and, after some persuasion, was induced to go; but there was a
deval-maduwa close by, and the noise of people crossing the river
to attend the festival was fatal to good fishing. The man said
afterwards that he had had two bites of “ guru-tambaya,” but had
failed to land the fish.

The rod employed is a strong inflexible bamboo rod, which is
supported over crossed or forked sticks from the shore. At several
points along the banks of the river when travelling by boat one may
notice a forked stick driven into the ground with a low semi-circular
rampart in front of it, an ambuscade for lying in wait for moda, &c.
The whole is called “‘ malu bana.”

There is no doubt of the fact that river fish as food are scarce in
Ceylon; a trivial indication of this state of things is to be found in
the circumstance that, as a rule, the last place in which to expect a
dish of fresh fish is at a riverside resthouse. At Tebuwana estuarine
fish from Kalutara are procurable ; at Badureliya and Anguruwatota
sardines are offered.

On February 12 I travelled from Badureliya to Anguruwatota on
an untented raft supported by three dug-outs, in order to ascertain
whether there might be any sign of an active fishery along the
tributaries of the Kalu-ganga. Gliding gently along the Magura-
ganga we passed deep pools in which large fish are known to lurk ;

94 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA.

and here and there are cylindrical fish-traps (kemina). A place
called Maguruwaka overlooks the confluence of the Kuda-ganga,
Pelen-ganga, and Magura-ganga. This is the likeliest looking
situation for a hatchery and fresh-water biological station that I
know of in the Western Province. Here there were fishing boats at
work, netting and angling, whipping the side deeps and catching
black-blotched, four-barbed petiya (Barbus pinnauratus) and black-
striped dandiya (Rasbora daniconius). This region is known as
Molkawa, and the fishery may be conveniently referred to as the
Molkawa fishery.

Farther down the Kuda-ganga I came upon a catch of fish made
by two canoes with pole net (pala-dela), pan-rena (a fish-guide or
trace of bleached coconut leaves),* and kalavel (poisonous creeper).
Small carp kept rising in a helpless floundering fashion to the surface,
whence they were lifted by hand and thrown ashore ; a great
quantity of frothy scum covered the surface of the water at this
point. In one of the boats there were two large walaya, 244 and
254 inches long respectively, with a combined weight of 44 1b. The
complete outfit for a Kuda-ganga fishing boat consists of a mass
of bleached coconut leaflets, a net between two stakes, and some
kalavel. A mile or so farther down the river I picked up a dead
petiya (Bb. pinnauratus), 8} inches long, weighing + lb., a male in an
immature condition.

A lethal weapon sometimes employed along these rivers is the
“ kaduwa,” consisting of a series of iron barbs riveted to an iron
shaft. One in use on the Magura-ganga had 19 barbs placed close
together, so as to form a toothed blade about a foot long; the handle,
2 feet long, was secured by a rope. The man who held it was
waiting near some rocks for an “ ara” (Ophiocephalus marulius) to
appear. If he should succeed in striking a large fish, it might swim
away with the implement were it not secured by a line after the
manner of a harpoon.

A Koraliya Nursery.—As I have indicated above, the native walas
are merely used as collectors. If anything is to be done for their
improvement and development, some scheme of protected walas
will have to be devised so that some of them can serve as nurseries.
The obvious difficulty, namely, the circumvention of floods, is one
which can only be met by concerted action based upon local
knowledge.

The carp family (Cyprinide), though numerically strong, does
not figure so prominently in the list of marketable fresh-water fishes
in Ceylon as it does elsewhere. Of the non-predaceous indigenous
low-country fishes which are amenable to cultivation, one of the
most important, numerically and dietetically, is the koraliya
(Htroplus suratensis), a member of the family Chromides. This

* For further remarks on pan-rena, reference may be made to my fishery
observations in Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. V., 1908, page 150.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON. 95

species is one of those which, like the lula, nurse their brood, standing
by to keep off the many enemies which prey upon spawn and fry.
Its habits are known to the fishermen. It is captured in nets and
in kraals, and unfortunately is netted on its spawning grounds.
I inspected some of the latter in February and saw a koraliya, as
it appeared, selecting a spot amongst aquatic roots in the river
at Kalutara, for the purpose of depositing its eggs, as early as
February 6. The spawning season is from the middle of February
to the middle of April, and again about November, according to the
statements of the fishermen. The aggressive pursuit of the spawning
and brood-nursing fishes, involving the destruction of the eggs by
the dragging of the nets, should be discouraged. Early in March
I suggested to the Assistant Government Agent (Mr. J. Conroy) a
method of protection of the breeding sites as an experiment. Three
weeks later when I went to Kalutara to see how the experiment
was working [ found the river in flood and the sites concealed. This
observation explains the assertion contained in an earlier part of
this report, that the floods provide natural close seasons for the
river fishes. The spawn is the most vulnerable part of the koraliya’s
economy ; and the systematic capture of fishes during the exercise
of their parental care cannot be defended.*

The koraliya is known to attain the length of a foot ; and as the
body is very high in proportion to the length, a full-sized fish is an
object worthy of attention. It is netted in large numbers at a very
tender age, 2 to 3 inches in total length (including the tail-fin), being
utilized at this stage as curry stuff. It is also netted in quantity
at a middle age, 5 to 7 inches, still immature.

Introduction of Gourami.—The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) is a
fresh-water fish belonging to Java, which has been introduced into
Europe as an aquarium fish, and into Mauritius, Cayenne, and
India as a food-fish. It is recorded as attaining a length of 2 feet
and a weight of 20 lb.; but it seems doubtful whether 20 lb. of
muscle can be concentrated into a length of 2 feet. However that
- may be, it has long been known to possess an “‘ exquisite flavour ”’ ;
and has quite recently been characterized in the Cambridge Natural
History as “ one of the best flavoured fishes of the Far East.”

Under these circumstances I had no hesitation in recommending
Government to communicate with the Government of Mauritius in
order to ascertain definitely whether the culture of the gourami is
carried on there with conspicuous success. This was done, and a
reply duly arrived, forwarding papers relating to this matter, and
adding “that if it is desired to introduce the gourami in Ceylon,
this Government will be glad to arrange for a supply of young fish
being sent.”” The gourami, it appears, is not made the object of
methodical cultivation in Mauritius, but, when desired, it is

* River fishermen throughout the Panadure and Kalutara Totamune have
been warned against the practice.

x

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

transplanted from one place to another. A gentleman who has
interested himself in acclimatization experiments in Mauritius,
Mr. A. Daruty de Grandpré, states that the rearing of the gourami
is very easy, as it will exist in any kind of fresh water, flowing
or stagnant ; its habits are herbivorous and insectivorous, and it is
therefore valuable as a consumer of mosquito-larve ; it constructs
a nest amongst aquatic herbs, where it deposits its eggs, which are
defended by the male.

About the middle of the year (1909), hearing that Mr. M. Kelway
Bamber, F.I.C., F.C.S., was leaving on a visit to Java, and would
be willing to secure some gourami for Ceylon, I wrote to him a letter
giving recommendations for dealing with the fish in transit, and
on September 15 Mr. Bamber returned to Colombo with a small
consignment of young gourami, from 6 to 8 inches in length. Soon
after their arrival in Colombo one or two died, and the remainder,
24 in number, were placed in a circular cement tank, 8 feet in
diameter, in the grounds of the Colombo Museum, in which top-
minnows had been kept for a long time previously. The tank was
covered over by a cadjan roof, but the heat was too great and the
light too intense, and in spite of all that was done for them they ~
did not thrive. Some of them were afflicted with a skin disease ; in
others: the eyeballs began to protrude, and this went on to such an
extent that half of the eyeball projected from the socket. The
symptoms of malaise finally became so distressing that I decided
to send 20 of them to Peradeniya in three tubs covered with
mosquito netting on October 14. The three remaining survivors,
with eyes starting out from their sockets in a pitiful manner, were
removed to a glass aquarium situated in a verandah and provided
with bamboo cylinders and tiles, into and under which they could
retreat ; here they have subsisted upon boiled rice, minced raw liver,
and worms; to my surprise, in course of time, the eyes gradually
worked back into the sockets. These three individuals have been
transferred once more to the Museum tank ; one of them blind in
one eye.

The score of gourami arrived in Peradeniya in good condition,
and were turned into thé large pond in the Gardens. As mentioned,
this happened in October last, and it will be interesting to ascertain,
in due time, whether the fishes have spawned; to encourage and
assist them to spawn, fascines or small bundles of twigs should be
placed here and there in the pond.*

Anguluwa.—The largest fishes taken in the Panadure river,
besides eels, are ““tambalaya” (Lautjanus jahngarah) and “ moda ”

[* On November 5, 1910, Mr. E. E. Green and I made an examination of the
pond at Peradeniya and found no signs of the gourami. Two native fishermen
were employed, and they used a vertical net somewhat like a Seine net. After
an exhaustive search they declared that there were no fish in the pond. The
pond overflows into the Mahaweli-ganga, and it is probable that the fish have
escaped to the river, although the ledge which guards the overflow would
render this difficult but not impossible.—ED.]

FRESH-WATER FISHERTES OF CEYLON. 97

(Lates calcarifer). Some of the most abundant fish caught in the
weir traps are called “ anguluwa,” of which there are two kinds :
“ tora-anguluwa ” (Arius falcarius) and “‘ wel-anguluwa ” (Macrones
gulio). The former species produces large yolky eggs ; the latter
produces the usual small eggs of bony fishes. After the female of
the “tora-anguluwa”’ has laid a batch of eggs, each measuring
about half an inch in diameter, enclosed in a transparent membrane ,
the male takes the soft eggs into his capacious mouth and keeps
them there for many days until they hatch out as large fry, retaining
the fry until the yolk is absorbed. The eggs which are thus carried
about in the mouth of the male are called “kate-viju,” as distin-
guished from the “ bade-viju”’ in the ovaries of the female ; the fry
in the mouth are the “ kate-petaw.” The actual process of ingesting
the eggs has not been observed.

When the mouth of an ovigerous male is examined, the cavity is
found to be stretched to its utmost capacity so as to hold 15 or more
eggs (see Plate, fig. 1). In this position the eggs are exposed to
the respiratory current of water as it passes through the gill clefts,
and at the same time they are protected from enemies. The
ceesophageal passage at the back of the pharynx is closed, and the
palatine teeth are usually found to be greatly reduced as compared
with those of females and of normal males (see Plate, fig. 7). The
palatine teeth attain their greatest development in the female, and
very rarely a small paired round group of vomerine teeth is to be
found (see Plate, fig. 6). The intestine of the ovigerous male is
generally shrunken to very narrow dimensions and devoid of contents.

The ovaries of an adult female contain a very great number of
eggs in different stages of growth, but of these only a few become
mature at a time, and there is a great contrast in size between the
mature and the immature ovarian ova. In one case there were only
10 large eggs in the right ovary and 8 in the left. In another there
were 21 large eggs in the right ovary, 24 in the left.

Anguluwa is also caught in the Angulu Eliya lake on leaded lines
baited with prawns, attached to kitul floats, resembling the “ thathe”’
used in Nuwarawewa, as described above.

Atukotuwa.—A very common and at the same time a very dainty
fish in the Panadure river is the “ koraliya ” (Htroplus suratensis).
Some time ago a statement appeared in the local press to the effect
that this species is a bony fish of no importance. As it is one of the
best of the estuarine fishes in Ceylon, the statement was probably
based upon a misunderstanding, perhaps a confusion with the
“ kavaiya,’’ which has the reputation of being bony and thick-
skinned, though a valuable agent in the destruction of mosquito
larvee.

In the Panadure lake it is captured in a wide-meshed “ baru-dela ”
in the following manner. Two men proceed in a boat on a pros-
pecting tour, carrying with them a quantity of leafy twigs, which

0 6(22)10

98 ' §POLIA ZEYLANICA.

they place upon the bottom, near the shore, in } to ? fathom,
marking the spot in the centre with a long branch surmounted by a
leafy crown which rises above the surface. They bait the ground
with a meal consisting of fried poonac mixed with plain kurakkan,
which they call “ koraliya-kema.” Then they retire to a distance for
about half an hour, and on returning cast the “ baru-dela”’ over the
central mark, picking out the “ koraliya,” if any happen to be caught,
‘from under the leaded edge of the net as it lies upon the bottom.

In the Angulu Eliya lake “ koraliya ” is caught in an ingenious
manner in artificial submerged thickets, called “‘ atu-kotu’’ (sin-
gular atu-kotuwa). Twigs and branches are piled up in a circular
area 8 or 10 feet across, surrounded by poles driven into the
bottom to mark it out and to keep the branches from drifting away
with the current. This is left for two or four weeks, until the sticks
exhibit a copious growth of alge, called “penda,” upon which the
koraliya feeds. When ripe for the catch, the whole is enclosed
within a close-set bamboo tat preparatory to the fishing. The
circumference of an “atu-kotuwa”’ measures about 60 feet ; the
tats or “ peleli ” rise 24 to 3 feet out of the water, in spite of which
some “koraliya” succeed in leaping over it and in making good
their escape.

If the arrangements are completed in the afternoon, the fishing
takes place early on the following morning. Two men get inside
the enclosure, where the water has a depth of 4 to 5 feet, and com-
mence handing out the larger branches to a third man outside, who
places them in another pile close by. When the place is clear, a
man takes a deep hand net (atanguwa) and carries it round the circle,
keeping close to the tat all the time. The other man is meanwhile
continuing the clearing and splashing in the centre to drive the
fishes to the circumference. When the net has collected a fair
number of fishes, it is emptied into a boat outside and returned for
a fresh supply. In this way about 150 “koraliya” of all sizes up
to 74 inches in total length were collected in my presence, and very
few fishes of other kinds besides. The larger sizes of “ koraliya ”
are worth about 6 cents each; the bulk of the catch was taken
immediately to Moratuwa ; they said the total value was Rs. 2, but
the value was probably under-estimated.

The custom of erecting “ atu-kotu ’? commences in the Panadure
lake abreast of Kaduruduwa, a coconut-planted islet about half a
mile long, opposite to the Durawa village of Gorakana.

Many other important and interesting food-fishes abound in
the Panadure river. I will only mention here another prominent
kraal fish, the ‘‘ ileya ” (called “ lilawa ’’? at Weligama), Megalops
cyprinoides, which also frequents the Kelani-ganga estuary ; and a
large line fish, the ‘“ kana-magura,”’ Plotosus canius. Both of these
species live for many hours out of water, rather an exceptional fact
in the herring family, to which Megalops belongs.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES ‘OF CEYLON. 99

‘ Mopa Fisnery at Katurara.

Koraliya, anguluwa, and other fishes are caught in quantity in the
Kalu-ganga estuary, but the chief speciality of this station is the
moda fishery. The moda (Lates calcarifer) is an estuarine perciform
fish of superior quality and large size, which so far as is known
spawns in the sea. It is captured at many other stations in the
Jow-country, including Elephant Pass, where it occurs in company
with another well-known game fish, Polynemus tetradactylus, which
is called kalawa in Sinhalese, kalemin in Tamil, bamin in Malayalam.

Other food-fishes observed at Elephant Pass in November, 1909,
may be mentioned here incidentally as showing an interesting
association of species at that station.

Arius falearius, 15 inches long; anguluwa Sinh., kelaru Tam.

Belone strongylura, 15 inches; the usual vernacular name for
species of Belone is morala. Also in Panadure river
under name habareliya. .

Chanos salmoneus, the milk fish; weka Sinh., palei Tam. Not
actually taken during my stay, but occurring during
flood time.

Chatcessus nasus; koiya Tam., katu-goiya Sinh. A Clupeoid
fish, remarkable in possessing a hard muscular gizzard
such as occurs in the gray mullets. It is also found in
lake Tamblegam and in the Panadure river, where it is
called katu-massa.

Chrysophrys berda, the calamara or black teralei.

Elops saurus; manna Tam., renawa Sinh. Also in the Pana--
dure river.

Etroplus suratensis; o0’ti Tam., koraliya Sinh.

Gerres limbatus; teralei Tam.

Gerres lucidus; teralei Tam.

Hemirhamphus xanthopterus.

Mugil olivaceus, a gray mullet; manalei Tam., godaya Sinh.

Platycephalus insidiator; eriyal Tam., mudu-weligowa Sinh.
Also frequents the Panadure river.

Plotosus canius.

Sillago sihama, the kalanda; common at Panadure and
Negombo.

Synaptura orientalis, a flat fish.

These are all common food-fishes, but I have not seen the bamin
elsewhere than at Elephant Pass. I have examined another species,
Polynemus plebeius, from the sea at Weligama.

The moda is frequently seen in the Kalutara fish market, and I
obtained some returns from a party appointed for the purpose
through the Kachcheri in order to ascertain the average quantity
and value of this particular species put upon the Kalutara market
within a limited period. It is caught mostly by angling near the
railway bridge, sometimes by netting near the mouth of the river,

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

presumably as the fishes are entering from the sea or descending
from the river. It is rather remarkable that, so far as I know, there
is no record at Kalutara of moda having been caught in the sea.
The weight ranges from 1 lb. to 20 lb., and the value from 30 cents
to Rs. 9.

Ophiocephalus marulius—This fish, which has been mentioned
above, attains a larger size than does its relative the lula, reaching
a weight of 12 to 15 lb. Colonel Gordon Reeves informs me that
some small fishes called ‘‘gunarow,” 3 to 4 inches long, were sent
to him in May from Rajjammaana on the Amban-ganga, which
he took to be the young of O. marulius. He liberated them into
his stew pond at ‘“ Wiltshire,” Matale. They are described as
having “large irregular blotches of claret colour on their upper
parts, more especially towards the tail.” The exact identification
of these young fishes would be interesting, as nothing is known
about the reproduction of O. marulius.

IMPROVEMENT OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Pisciculture means the preservation of the spawn and fry of fishes,
the stripping or expressing of ova from mature fishes and their
artificial fertilization, the prohibition of certain methods of fishing,
and the regulation of existing fisheries in tanks and rivers.

There are many instructive analogies between agriculture and
pisciculture sufficient to justify the conjunction of a Board of
Agriculture and of Fisheries. The variations in the growth of plants
according to quality and elevation of soil is comparable with the
growth of fishes in correlation with the size and latitude of rivers.
The quantity of fish which can be raised as food in a given bulk of
water depending upon the area and depth, but above all upon the
usually unknown richness or poverty of the primary food supply in
the water, is comparable with the quantity of vegetable food which
can be raised per acre of ground; and the liability of cultivated
fishes and plants to fungoid and other pests is another common
character. Besides these points of correspondence, there are other
contrasts which should not be lost sight of, ¢e.g., the difficulty of
transporting the ova of fish as contrasted with the ease with which
the seeds of plants can be carried about ; the expense of maintaining
a nursery of young fishes as compared with the automatic working
of a nursery of young plants; the migratory habits of grown fishes
as compared with the stationary habits of grown plants. When a
thousand selected plant seeds are put into the ground, a thousand
seedlings may germinate on the spot and be subsequently planted
out; but when a thousand fish fry are emptied into a river or tank,
they “swim gaily away,” and unless very particular attention is
paid to them they may never be heard of again.

Prohibition of certain methods of fishing and the establishment
of close seasons for certain fishes are difficult measures, which can

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON. 101

only be based upon a close familiarity with local conditions. Each
river system and each tank area have to be treated separately on
their own merits. Illegitimate fishing, such as the use of poison
and dynamite and the wholesale damming of water-courses, does
not usually take place in the vicinity of towns, but in more or less
remote tributaries. On the other hand, the destruction of young
fishes in paddy fields is a matter which calls for special attention,
and reference should be made on this subject to the Report on
Pisciculture in South Canara, by H. 8. Thomas, Collector of South
Canara, 1870, a copy of which has been procured through Govern-
ment at my recommendation for the Museum Library. The point
which requires comprehensive discussion is the destination of the
waste water from paddy fields. If this water flows back into a river,
or into an irrigation canal, the inundated paddy fields act as an
efficient nursery for young fishes, provided that they are allowed
free scope and are not trapped prematurely. Under such conditions
a system of paddy fields is the model for a combined hatchery,
nursery, and stock pond.

Artificial fertilization and hatching require hatcheries and stock
ponds which would be useful for re-stocking, with due discrimina-
tion, both village tanks and city tanks. Replenishing the supply of
fishes means turning immature fishes into fishable waters, where
they can continue to grow to a marketable size; unfortunately no
size is too small for curry. But if Government undertook this work, .
somebody would have to pay and be paid. Recourse to artificial
fertilization may be unnecessary in certain cases where the seasons
and localities of natural spawning are known. I have published in
Spolia Zeylanica, Part XXIII., December, 1909, an account of my
observations on the nesting habits of lula, the principal fresh-water
food-fish of Ceylon, though not the largest. I am now in a position
to add that an allied species of Ophiocephalus, also used extensively
as food and as bait for larger fishes, namely, O. punctatus, called
““madaya” or “mada-karaya,” makes its nest amongst inshore
rushes, though without the definite clearing that lula prepares, and
in such spots, where there is an abundance of microscopic food for
the ensuing fry, it deposits pale amber-coloured eggs with a single
glistening oil-globule, which float at the surface like the eggs of lula,
from which they could hardly be distinguished unless their parentage
was known. I had seen a shoal of very young fry of “* madaya ”
accompanied by their parents in a paddy field “* wala ” at Bellana,
near Matugama in the Kalutara District, in April, 1908 ; and on
October 29, 1909, I saw a nest of the floating eggs in the Hunupitiya
arm of the Colombo lake, behind Bishop’s College, close to the shore.
where there was a great quantity of the spherical aggregates of the
colonial infusorian, Synura. I brought away some of the eggs and
hatched them out, feeding the fry, after the yolk had been absorbed,
on lake plankton, which I collected myself.

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The ‘“‘kavaiya”’ (Anabas) and the “ koraliya” (Hiroplus sura-
tensis) occur almost entirely in the maritime districts, and are
therefore not suitable for stocking waters too far inland.* The eggs
of “‘koraliya” are attached to the lower surfaces of stones and logs
and are watched over by the male. On May 21, 1909, a koraliya
nest was found in the Wellawatta canal, in the part called Paman-
kada-ela, near the Spinning and Weaving Mills, beyond the Hilapane
palama on the road to Nugegoda. I went there about 11.30 a.m.
and saw the adults, both male and female, keeping guard. When
the man who was with me advanced his hand to the small stone
projecting from the bank of the canal under which the eggs were
attached, the smaller, male, with cross markings conspicuous over
fore body, approached and pecked at the man’s fingers. The
larger, female, kept a little in the background in deeper water. Hach
time the man touched the stone the male bit at his hand. The eggs
were attached contiguously in a single layer on the underside of the
stone, which was partially imbedded in the earth at the base of the
bank of the canal. Some of the eggs were white, indicating failure
and death. The living eggs were in an advanced stage of develop-
ment, the embryo being formed and the yolk pigmented. The yolk
is yellow, opaque, and darkly pigmented, but no pigment was
present in the eye. The circulation of the blood is active, and the
embryo can change its position within the egg membrane. In an
egg under observation the free end of the membrane was already
ruptured, and at one moment the head was partially extruded,
exposing the eyes and the heart, and was then withdrawn again. |
The surface of the egg appeared minutely rogulose. The length of
the egg, without the short stalk, is 2mm., the width 1 mm., slightly
narrower at the free end. Within 24 hours after finding the nest
one of the eggs hatched out, the top of the egg membrane lifting up
like a lid ; there is stillno pigment in the eyes, and no mouth ; Jength
5mm. On the second day after hatching pigment begins to appear
in the eyes, and on the third day, when the larva is 6 mm. long,
the mouth opens and respiratory movements commence; foreign
particles were noted adhering to what looked like a cement organ
at the front of the head. The eggs of koraliya are very difficult to
rear when removed from their proper habitat. On May 23, and
again on June 1, more eggs were found attached to coconut husks,
branches, and stones at Hunupitiya, Colombo, opposite the Bud-
dhist temple. On October 28, 1909, another series of koraliya eggs
containing formed embryos with pigmented yolk sac was found at
Hunupitiya, in the Colombo lake, attached to the outer surface
of a short length of water-logged bamboo stem. ‘This species is,
therefore, a perennial spawner.

On May 26 a native tile (uluketa) was brought to me from ,
Welikada with a large patch of green waving spawns attached in

* Kavaiya occurs in the great tanks, as at Kanthalai and Minneriya.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF CEYLON. 1038

contiguous clusters to the concave side of the tile on long transparent
stalks. Out of water the appearance was that of a growth of green
algve, or like a green scum. The egg tubes, each of which contains
a single egg at the slightly swollen distal free extremity, are
connected with a shapeless basal stolon which adheres to the tile
and is beset with débris, whereas the tubes are clear and separated
from the stolon by constrictions. The length of the egg tubes
varies from 3to8mm. The egg, as stated, lies in the distal dilated
extremity ; it has green yolk with many oil-globules, and a diameter
of about 0-5 mm. When the head of the embryo is formed and the
tail detached from the yolk, the embryo lies at full length with the
head pointing towards the base of attachment ; later, when the tail
begins to jerk, the embryo can change its orientation, but just
before hatching it is again found with head pointing to the base of
the egg tube. The latter is nothing more than the enormously
extended egg membrane ; a tube with its contained larva stretched
at full length measured 64 mm., the larva 2 mm.; at hatching the
total length of the larva is 2°25 mm. These remarkable eggs
proved to be the spawn of the fresh-water goby, Gobius giuris, called
“‘ weligowa,” an important food-fish ; they are, however, difficult to
rear without special appliances. On June 6 a fresh lot of weligowa
eggs was found in a piece of iron piping, together with the parent
fish, in the Hunupitiya division of the Colombo lake ; and on July
28 I saw another deposit of the spawn, attached to the underside
of a coconut leaf stalk in about 3 feet of water in the Colpetty arm
of the lake.

On August 31 a half-spent spawning “ kendeya” (Barbus dorsalis),
accompanied by a batch of adhesive eggs, was brought from the
Colombo lake. The eggs measured 0°75 mm. in diameter, with a
pale grayish translucent yolk nearly uniformly granular. The eggs
had been caught in the act of being laid, and were apparently
unfertilized.

The above notes, necessarily fragmentary, will be found useful as
giving indications of spawning seasons and habits, of which very
little has been previously known in Ceylon. It seems to be the rule
that solitary fishes or those that go about in pairs make nests and
guard them ; gregarious fishes or those that go about in shoals do
not generally make nests. The deposited eggs of such common
fishes as kavaiya (Anabas), hunga (Saccobranchus), and magura
(Clarias) are still unknown. :

Lula is a predatory fish with excellent qualities. As mentioned
above, it can be dried when obtained in superabundance ; a state-
ment to the effect that lula is unsuitable for salting or drying in
Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. V., 1908, p. 145, &c., requires to be modified ;
the practice of drying is carried out locally, but not generally.
Other fishes in Ceylon which are worth cultivating on account of
their value as nutriment are also predatory. There seems to be no

104 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

non-predatory, nest-building species in Ceylon of equal value with
the lula. The mahseer occurs in up-country rivers (Maskeliya), but
apparently is not very common in Ceylon; and it is unsuitable
for tank cultivation, being a migratory river fish of a pronounced
type.

It thus appears that there is a distmet scope in Ceylon for the
cultivation of a non-predatory food-fish, such as the gourami, which
would fill a gap in the fauna without displacing any native species.
The recognition of a natural deficiency in the fauna of the inland
waters of Ceylon is one of the chief practical results of this investi-
gation, and indicates clearly that the already attempted introduction
of the gourami should be persevered with. Whenever the fishes
arrive in Ceylon from abroad they should be carefully acclimatized
in a Government stock pond, and by no manner of means turned
loose indiscriminately. When in due course the time comes for
them to be distributed amongst selected public waters, it would be
useful to mark them by affixing to the base of the dorsal fin with
silver wire’ a small silver or aluminium label with a current number
impressed upon it, the fishes.so marked to be returned to the water
if by chance they are captured ; and every time they are taken to
be noted by some arrangement with local headmen. Whatever
method of marking and recording be adopted, the principle remains
the same, namely, to effect the introduction systematically and at
considerable pains.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

Arius falcarius from Angulu Eliya, August, 1909.

Fig. 1.—Frontal view of ovigerous male, with mouth agape,
exposing the eggs with their contained embryos in
the buccal cavity. Note the convexity of the gular
region.

Fig. 2.—Embryo lying upon the yellow yolk inside the egg
membrane, showing the paired efferent vessels of the
yolk sac. The distal end of the efferent vessel is seen
in front of the head, below which it enters the heart.
Very slightly enlarged.

Fig. 3.

Lower view of preceding, to show the unpaired efferent
vessel of the yolk sac.

Fig. 4.—Embryo (same stage as fig. 2) released from the tough
elastic egg membrane by puncturing the latter with a
needle. Total length of embryo about 21 mm.

SPOLIAMEYDANICAS = 8,

2 hog

— J . -

$ ite an ° * a 5 - “ “a a . % a
AAW det adits a ; ~. = ‘ lie. * West, Newman Hr, 7°

: . _* a2* * ' ~— - .

bal “eARINS SALCARIUS,. - ye ~L- - Pam.
: 5 Bhp 4 “ “ » Pr i ‘ ow ae =” ‘= %
p = : ‘ . S i “1 “as
ral b. * 3a Ea P?

FRESH-WATER TISHERIES OF CEYLON. 105

Fig. 5.—Ventral view of advanced mouth fry to show partial
enclosure of yolk sac by the larval parietes. Total
length 50 mm. ; tail-fin deeply forked, lobes rounded.
When alive there is a prominent white brow-spot
on the level of the hinder quarter of the eyes in
dorsal view.

Fig. 6.—View of palate of adult female 143 inches long. The
palatine tract on each side measures 25 x 12 mm.,
and the teeth are present in full strength; between
their anterior ends there is an exceptional pair of
round vomerine groups. a, angle of gape; a’, angle
of jaw, acetabulum formed by the quadrate; the
lower jaw has been removed.

Fig. 7.—View of palate of adult male 11 inches long: size of

palatine tract 17 X 8 mm.; no vomerine teeth;
palatine teeth weak and sparse.

p 6(22)10

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. E

NOTES.

5. Rambling Notes :—

Life of the Leaf Insect.—The development of the common ‘‘ Leaf
Insect ” (Pulchriphyllium crurifolium) is very slow. When kept in
captivity eggs are constantly hatching out, and it is difficult to keep
count of the separate broods. By isolating an insect, immediately
after its emergence from the egg, I have ascertained that it takes
about eight months to complete its development. This particular
insect was isolated on November 25, 1909, and appeared in its
mature form on July 26 of the present year. The actual time
occupied in its development has been 243 days. In its adult stage
the insect may live for a month or more. These figures are for the
female insect. The development and subsequent life of the male
will be much shorter.

A Cannibal Bat.— (August 7.)—I found the remains of a small bat
in my verandah this morning, together with the wings and feathers
of a “ sun-bird ” (Cinnyris zeylonicus), under circumstances plainly
indicating that it had fallen a victim to a carnivorous bat, probably
a species of Megaderma, of which we have two species (/yra and
spasma) in Ceylon. Of Megaderma lyra (the Indian Vampire Bat),
Blandford writes: “‘ During the day this bat hides in caves, old
buildings, roofs of houses, &c. The food may consist partly of
insects, but it is certain that Megaderma lyra feeds on smaller bats,
for one was detected and observed in the act by Blyth, and it
probably lives chiefly on small vertebrata.”

A large Green Viper.—(September 15.)—An unusually large speci-
men of the ‘‘ Green Viper” (Trimeresurus trigonocephalus) was
brought to me to-day. It had been suspended by the neck, and
was almost dead. However, it appeared to recover when the
ligature was removed.

September 16.—The recovery of the viper was only temporary.
It died this afternoon, after bringing up a half-digested rat. It
is quite the largest specimen that I have seen. Boulenger quotes
31 inches as the limit of size. This specimen has a total length of
40 inches, of which the tail occupied only 62. Its girth across the
middle of the body is 33 inches. The head, which is very evil-
looking, has a breadth of 1? inches. It is of a beautiful grass green
colour, with irregular elongate black dorsal patches, from which
branches are given off enclosing large rounded areas on each side ;
these enclosed areas are disposed asymmetrically.

NOTES. 107

This viper, in spite of its villainous physiognomy, is reputed to
be the least dangerous of any of our venomous snakes, with the
possible exception of the tiny Callophis, about the venom of which
little or nothing is known. There are no recorded cases of death
or of serious illness from the bite of the Green Viper. It is possible,
however, that the amount of venom that could be injected by such
a large specimen as that here described might result in more serious
consequences.

A Passenger-carrying Beetle-—The ‘Dung Beetles”? (Coprini)
are very generally infested by large numbers of parasitic mites,
which can scarcely be classed as passengers. But a specimen of
Scarabeus gangeticus recently flew into my room and—when
captured—was found to be carrying a number of small winged flies
. These flies appeared to be in no way inconvenienced by the somewhat

eomnlicated process of unfolding and furling of the wings of the
i 7d: but

ae flies

eed in

id. find

a store

ymmon

sidered

Nowing

sionally

reeding

tes (the

ooking

utterfly

yllowing

oued its

yutterfly

‘ound to

meet it, making repeated pounces av tne tuseeu av 1 uusesvd against

the wire gauze. This particular butterfly, by the way, is supposed

to mimic Papilio hector—a species that exhibits warning colours,

and is credited with distasteful properties. It is doubtful if a

squirrel would have much chance of capturing an uninjured butterfly
in the open.

Crows and their Ways.—-In the last number of Spolia I
described the chase of a full-grown hare by a crow. I have since
rescued a young leveret from the unwelcome attentions of a pair of
these omnivorous birds. When I came upon the scene the baby
hare had its back against a high bank and was pluckily fighting
the two crows, making feints at them with its front feet whenever
they tried to approach too close. The crows appeared to be
distinetly afraid of a front attack. They sidled about, just out of

106

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

NOTES.

5. Rambling Notes :—

Life of the Leaf Insect.—The development of the common “ Leaf
Insect ” (Pulchriphyllium crurifolium) is very slow. When kept in
captivity eggs are constantly hatching out, and it is difficult to keep
count of the separate broods. By isolating an insect, immediately
after its emergence from the egg, I have ascertained that it takes
about eight months to complete its development. This particular
insect was isolated an Navemher 24_ 1909. and anneared in its

matu)
occup
the in
femal
will b

AC
in my
olan
indice
a spe
spasm
Bland
buildi
insect
for o1
proba

A li

men OF wwe

SpouiA ZEYLANICA, Vol. VII., Part XXVI.,
December, 1910.

CORRECTION SLIP.

Since writing my note on ‘‘A Passenger-carrying
Beetle,” a note on the subject has appeared in ‘“‘ The
Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine ” for December, 1910
(p. 275), in which the fly has been described as a new
species, under the name of Limosina equitans, Collins
(Fam. Borboride).

E. E. GREEN.

UrLTOUI yipor (Bb Pune vows we en equ en poe y

brought to me to-day. It had been suspended by the neck, oa
was almost dead. However, it appeared to recover when the
ligature was removed.

September 16.—The recovery of the viper was only temporary.
It died this afternoon, after bringing up a half-digested rat. It
is quite the largest specimen that I have seen. Boulenger quotes
31 inches as the limit of size. This specimen has a total length of
40 inches, of which the tail occupied only 63. Its girth across the
middle of the body is 3} inches. The head, which is very evil-
looking, has a breadth of 1? inches. It is of a beautiful grass green
colour, with irregular elongate black dorsal patches, from which
branches are given off enclosing large rounded areas on each side ;
these enclosed areas are disposed asymmetrically.

NOTES. 107

This viper, in spite of its villainous physiognomy, is reputed to
be the least dangerous of any of our venomous snakes, with the
possible exception of the tiny Callophis, about the venom of which
little or nothing is known. There are no recorded cases of death
or of serious illness from the bite of the Green Viper. It is possible,
however, that the amount of venom that could be injected by such
a large specimen as that here described might result in more serious
consequences.

A Passenger-earrying Beetle.—The ‘“‘ Dung Beetles ’’ (Coprinz)
are very generally infested by large numbers of parasitic mites,
which can scarcely be classed as passengers. But a specimen of
Scarabeus gangeticus recently flew into my room and—when
- captured—was found to be carrying a number of small winged flies
_ These flies appeared to be in no way inconvenienced by the somewhat
complicated process of unfolding and furling of the wings of the
beetle. Nor did they willingly leave the insect when handled, but
accompanied it into the poison bottle. It is probable that the flies
(which have been determined as a species of Borborus) breed in
the store of dung laid up by the beetle for its own family, and find
this method of transport an easy way of obtaining access to a store
of suitable food.

Palm Squirrel and Butterfly.—I do not think that the common
little striped squirrel (Sciwrus palmarum) has ever been considered
in the light of a possible enemy to butterflies ; but the following
occurrence apparently shows that this animal may occasionally
indulge in an insect diet. I have some large open-air breeding
cages in front of my laboratory. A pair of Papilio polytes (the
female of the hector form) occupied one of these cages. Looking
across at the cage one morning I noticed the female butterfly
fluttering about in a rather excited manner, and a squirrel following
every movement—from the outside of the cage. It continued its
fruitless chase for at least a quarter of an hour. When the butterfly
flew off to the opposite side of the cage, the squirrel raced round to
meet it, making repeated pounces at the insect as it fluttered against
the wire gauze. This particular butterfly, by the way, is supposed
to mimic Papilio hector—a species that exhibits warning colours,
and is credited with distasteful properties. It is doubtful if a
squirrel would have much chance of capturing an uninjured butterfly
in the open.

Crows and their Ways.—-In the last number of Spolia I
described the chase of a full-grown hare by a crow. I have since
rescued a young leveret from the unwelcome attentions of a pair of
these omnivorous birds. When I came upon the scene the baby
hare had its back against a high bank and was pluckily fighting
the two crows, making feints at them with its front feet whenever
they tried to approach too close. The crows appeared to be
distinctly afraid of a front attack. They sidled about, just out of

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

striking distance, but showed their impatience by picking up bits of
sticks and biting them viciously. I am afraid that the defenceless
little animal would have had small chance of eventual escape if I
had not interfered. I drove the birds away and placed the hare in
a cage, liberating it the next day when the crows had found other
occupation.

Our local crow is the larger and more formidable hill species,
Corone macrorhyncha. They are most pertinaceous marauders of
the fowl yard. Newly-hatched chickens have to be confined within
coops where these birds abound. They are systematic robbers of
birds’ nests, and frequently kill other birds. I saw a pair of crows
single out a parrot from a small flock, drive it away from its
companions, and knock it to the ground. There the parrot showed
fight, and kept the crows at-bay until I came to the rescue. f
picked up the parrot (getting severely bitten for my kind intentions), —
drove off the crows, and liberated the victim, which appeared to be
uninjured. In a moment the crows reappeared and took up
the chase. The parrot was brought to earth again, and was rescued
a second time. On this occasion I thought it best to keep it in
confinement until the crows had lost sight of their anticipated prey.

The amusing manner in which a crow will bamboozle a dog out
of a bone has been described more than once, but may be repeated
again from personal experience, as I have seen the game played
with my own dog on my own lawn. The mancuvre is always
worked by a pair of the birds. The dog is happily engaged with a
bone on the grass. One of the conspirators quietly takes up his
position behind, while the other approaches the dog from in front.
The dog growls, but the crow gradually sidles nearer. Finally the
dog leaves his bone and drives off the intruder. Having easily -
effected this, he returns expecting to enjoy his meal in peace.
But, in the meantime, the second crow has seized his opportunity
and has removed the bone of contention to the branch of a neigh-
bouring tree, where he is joined by his comrade. I have seen the
same tactics employed against a domestic fowl that had secured a
savoury morsel.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

6. The Ceylon Giant Tortoise—The following letter was written
by me to the ‘‘ Indian Field ” in answer to a correspondent who had
confused the famous Colombo tortoise, which died in 1894, with
one which is supposed to be still living at Matara:—‘ I have had
my attention drawn to an article in the ‘ Indian Field,’ which speaks
of a giant tortoise at Matara. There is no doubt that if such a
tortoise exist at Matara, it is not the one which was found in Colombo
at the time of the British occupation in 1796. This famous tortoise
lived for many years in the grounds of a villa called * Uplands,’

NOTES. 109

in Mutwal, near Colombo. When ‘ Uplands’ was sold to the
Government in 1894, for the purpose of building a graving dock,
the animal was removed to Victoria Park, Colombo, where it
survived only a week. It must have been considerably over a
hundred years old at the time of its death. For nearly twenty
years before its death the tortoise was totally blind, but this
infirmity did not prevent it from roaming over the ‘ Uplands’ grounds.
‘Tt is stated that when the bell was rung for meals, the tortoise would
make its way to the bungalow to be fed. The shell and stuffed skin
of this famous old tortoise are now in the Colombo Museum, so that
I am able to supply the measurements of the animal. Total length
from snout to tip of tail, 5 feet ; highest point of carapace above the
ground, 2 feet; length of shell, 3 feet 4 inches; width of shell, 2 feet ;
circumference of shell, 10 feet. This ‘ Uplands’ tortoise was a
specimen of J'estudo elephantina, a species which is still to be found in
Aldabra, anisland to the north of Madagascar, where it is preserved
by the British Government. There appears to be no record of the
circumstances in which this interesting specimen was brought to
Ceylon.”

Since the above was written, the Librarian of the Museum has
directed my attention to an article by M. Sauzier on “ La tortue
terrestre gigantesque de Colombo” in ‘‘La Petite Revue.” The writer
throws doubt on the suggestion made by the ‘‘ Ceylon Observer ”
(April 25, 1870) that the tortoise was sent from Java as a present
to one of the Dutch Governors of Ceylon, since Java does not
possess any indigenous giant tortoise. He is disposed to believe
that the Colombo tortoise came from Mauritius, which was occupied
by the Dutch up to 1710. He agrees with the ‘‘ Observer”’ that
the tortoise was over two hundred years old at the time of its death.
There appears to be no reliable information on this point.

Lydekker in his book ‘“ Mostly Mammals” has erroneously
stated that the Colombo tortoise died in 1897, and was a specimen
of Testudo sumeiret, and Gadow in his volume of ‘‘ Amphibia and
Reptiles” in the Cambridge Natural History has repeated these
errors. The Colombo tortoise differs from 7’. swmetret in having
a small nuchal plate at the anterior end of the carapace.

There are four closely allied species of Testudo found in Aldabra,
and these are now grouped together as one species. These are
gigantea, elephantina, hololissa, and ponderosa, and as the name
gigantea is the oldest, it claims priority. So that the Colombo
tortoise now bears the name 7'estudo gigantea.

Since writing this note I have beeninformed by Mr. P. E. Pieris,
C.C.S., that there is a giant tortoise living at present near Galle.
This is probably the “ Matara tortoise ” referred to by the corre-
spondent of the ‘‘ Indian Field.” Mr. Pieris has promised to get
further information on this point.

JOSEPH PEARSON.

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

7. Aninteresting Frog—Mr. E. E. Green has handed over to me
a curious frog from Maha Illuppallama, which has been identified
as Cacopus globulosus, described by Giinther in “ The Reptiles of
British India.” Its chief interest lies in the fact that it is distended
in an extraordinary manner so as to look like a ball, from which the
head and limbs project. Giinther states that this distension is
caused by a fluid contained in the abdominal cavity. A _ brief
examination shows that this is not the case, and that the fluid-
containing cavity is none other than the subcutaneous lymph
sinuses which are greatly enlarged in this form. The dorsal sinus
is especially spacious, and has a height of 15 mm. from floor to roof.
(The length of the frog from mouth to vent is 75mm.) In Giinther’s
account he speaks of the distension of a female specimen being due
to the growth of the ovaries, and his description suggests that the
ovaries grow into the large cavity on the back. This is not possible,
as the subcutaneous lymph sinuses are separate from the ccelom.
There is only one other species in this genus, namely, Cacopus
systoma, which differs but slightly from C. globulosus, and which
resembles it in the robust appearance due to the enlargement of the
Subcutaneous lymph sinuses. This interesting character is not
given in the diagnosis of the genus either by Giinther or Boulenger.

JOSEPH PEARSON.

8. The African Land Snail in Ceylon.—A very large specimen of
Achatina fulica was sent to me in September by the Hon. Mr. C.T. D.
Vigors, Government Agent, Western Province, from a garden at
Moragalla, in Beruwalbadda of the Kalutara Totamune. The total
weight of the animaland shell was 13 ounces, and the length of the
shell from the apex to the base was 64 inches. This appears to be
the largest specimen of this species recorded from Ceylon.

JOSEPH PEARSON.

9. Symphyla of Ceylon.—When turning over stones and logs of
wood, both in the neighbourhood of Kandy (1,500—2,500 ft.) and
at Pattipola (6,000 ft.), a minute white centipede is frequently
found. The group—Symphyla—to which it belongs is one of
exceptional interest anatomically, as it helps us to bridge over the
wide gap between insects and the centipede-like ancestor, from
which they are commonly supposed to have been derived. In
spite of the interest of the group, however, hardly anything is
known of its embryology and little of its habits.

NOTES. 11]

The common species in Ceylon is identical with one found
abundantly during the rains, and more rarely in dry weather in
the compound of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. I have already
described it (1910) under the name Seutigerella unguiculata, Hansen,
sub sp. indica, and recorded its known distribution.

On going through my Ceylon material prior to incorporating it
in the general collection of the Indian Museum, two specimens of
another species of Symphyla—=Scutigerella orientalis, Hansen—
were discovered. Hansen records the species from Java, Sumatra,
Koh Chang Island (Gulf of Siam), and Bankok ; but I know of no
previous record from Ceylon. These two specimens were found
at Pattipola on July 2 or 3 of this year (1910), but I have no
recollection of the circumstances under which they were found.
It is, however, almost certain that they came from the jungle, as
almost the whole of my collecting was done there. S. orientalis
is both longer and stouter than S. wnguiculata (indica), this difference
being very evident even to the naked eye. The latter attains a
length of little (if at all) over 4 mm.; but my specimens of the
former are both about 6 mm. long. ;

The Symphyla are always minute, but when examined under a
strong hand lens they can at once be distinguished from the young
of other centipedes by the presence of a pair of (stout and unjointed)
cer¢ei, which project backwards from the last segment of the body.
Hansen (1904) gives tables, descriptions, and figures, from which it
is easy to identify any of the species known to him. Since he wrote,
Imms (1908) has described one additional Oriental species, Scuti-
gerella subunguiculata, found by himself in the Himalayas; and I
have described (1910) the common Ceylon and Calcutta form—
S. unguiculata (indica).

List of Works referred to.

1904. Hansen, H. J. .. ‘The Genera and Species of Symphyla,”
Q. J. M. S. (N. S.), XLVII., 1904,
pp. 1-101, Pl. I.-VII.

1908. Imms, A. D. .. “On a New Species of Symphyla from
the Himalayas,” Journ. Linn. Soc.,
Zool., XXX., 1909, pp. 252-255, Pl.
XXXII.

1910. Gravely, F. H. .. “On a Subspecies of Scutigerella ungui-
culata, Hansen, found in Calcutta,”
Rec. Ind. Mus., V., 1910, pp. 157-159,
text fig.

F. H. GRAVELY.

ia Sites BAS vahe | AEE de ivi Hd ee
ie Ae pont UFO. rites P fee fist hones
‘ Pa foray ek see ae an oui A salts ne
fe eeu figidi ag aa ge Pat OTM iate te une & af i? a7 cia: es : Mt

Chi ues ager as, 2 ES aR ny eels Pate Sa ay te BB:

*

a re ealC Ppa ae it Be es bite at Pe nes

yy

4 : bag er) 6 f +
Rey ATGQ ata Mg MA add oe Dy, PE
. 7 =

ey) cmyy All - t Tie UA S Dt EGU aate Sd Ke 1G

i i nee : bowers Lb T a8 u
Sei RCE NAS OIE ated Le anes aes
Y : 4 a ; ib ¥ Leena ri a
nuit a) hiv 4 AL “i
ae id b = —
' é “ :
oti “< e pray 1; pS? we 7 We
‘
A Uta A - Tika
y, Batts le | way Ay! £5 * \ ita j
Thy y \! bet B; «y) eb rece eT le Ga SA ROBY De we
+ eae he race ‘ bc) x
’
iE T¢ ‘4 Ta! par ti '
Z EF oa } jad ral '
' 4 : * '
'
7 \ i !
.
; } “ic z
; oa |
5 qe: Ht I >
= ; ‘ j
nak L y
be
hi wea Tol ae) KE f}
. 2
‘“ is f
a A &
n 1 Pay:
pel : } E
MZ
25 3 met
ri ‘
i ri. ‘
‘
“a
i
rd 4a aC]
'
} rache ; 7
4 ‘ “as a Yi
a
; ‘
;
,

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN, AE MUR

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN FROM CEYLON.
\ > sh a

By Dr. Iwast [kepDa. Xe

Ps
gaa w
e Ss :

hay

(With Plate TV. and one Text Figure.)

N March last Professor R. C. Punnett kindly handed me an
interesting animal which was caught at Namunukula, Ceylon,
by Dr. Willey, then the Director of the Museum at Colombo. At
first I took the animal to be a land nemertean, but it soon became
clear that I was dealing with a land planarian. Further examina-
tion has revealed the fact that the anima! is not only an undescribed
form of the Rhynchodemide, but it also possesses several remarkable
characters, some of which are quite new to the family. Moreover,
some of these peculiarities are similar to certain typical character-
istics of the family Cotyloplanide. The following is a_ brief
description of this curious land planarian, representing a new genus
and a new species. I wish to record my thanks to Professor Punnett,
who kindly gave me the valuable specimen in connection with my
studies.
Pseudartiocotylus ceylonicus, n. gen. et n. sp.

The single specimen (Plate IV., fig. 1) was preserved in formaline
and was in a fairly good condition, except that it was torn near the
posterior end. The body, which is nearly round in section, is about
28 mm. long and 2 mm. thick at its broadest part. The anterior end
is much broader than the posterior, which is pointed. Anteriorly
the bedy is conspicuously compressed dorso-ventrally so as to form a
distinct head-flap, which is turned upwards. On the ventral side
of the head-flap there is a small depression, which is shallow but
well defined, lying just in front of the anterior termination of the
sole. Anteriorly and laterally the depression is bordered by a
prominent ridge of a horseshoe shape, while posteriorly it becomes
shallower, and gradually merges into the general ventral surface.
By means of sections it has been ascertained that this ridge repre-
sents anterior portions of the so-called glandular margins (‘‘ Driisen-
Kante ’’), which are developed slightly below the lateral margins
of the body, and extend backwards to about 3°5 mm. from the head-
apex. Fuller description of this structure will be given later. At
the very tip of the head there is present a small colourless spot (see
Plate IV., figs. 1 and 3) measuring about 0°6 mm. in diameter, which
is, as I shall try to prove later, a sensory organ not hitherto d-scribed
in land planarians. Two small deeply-pigmented eye-spots (see
Plate IV., figs. 1 and 3) are situated slightly behind the above organ.

On the dorsal side the colour of the animal is dark brown mixed
with a light violet tint, both ends, especially the anterior, being

Q 6(2)1]

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

much more lightly coloured. There are three black dorsal stripes,
the medium one being narrower than the two others. On account
of the deep ground colour on the greater part of the body the stripes
are more Clearly defined at the two extremities, particularly at the
anterior end, where the ground colour is much lighter. The colour
of the ventral surface of the body is grayish, excepting a median
colourless band represents the sole, which is slightly elevated.

The sole extends almost the whole length of the body, but ends
abruptly behind the ventral depression of the head-flap. Near its
anterior end the sole is a little broader, so as to show a special area
(see Plate IV., fig. 4) about 0-4 mm. long. Close to both lateral
edges of this swollen area are two fine parallel ridges (see Plate IV.,
fig. 4). On examining the sections it is seen that these two ridges
are ciliated, as also is the shallow groove between them. The mouth
is a small elliptical slit near the middle of the sole. The genital
opening is about 5 mm. behind the mouth.

All three kinds of the “ Stabchen ” (von Graff) are met with in
the epidermal layer. Rhammites and chondrocysts generally occur
together, and are very widely distributed almost over the entire
body-surface, excepting the sole and that part of the head-surface
which lies above the brain and is dorsal to the horseshoe-shaped
glandular ridge. The chondrocyst (see Plate IV., fig. 5, ch) isa rela
tively large and oblong body, nearly homogeneous in structure, which
is lightly stained with hematoxylin. It is found almost always
surrounded by a number of long and slender rhammites (7m). The
latter are easily distinguished from other “‘Stabchen’”’ by their
thread-like shape and curled, pointed endings. In those narrow
regions which are hemmed in between the sole and the glandular
margins (inclusive of the ridge), the two ‘“‘ Staébchen ” are sparsely
scattered, and the chondrocysts are rather indistinctly outlined (see
Plate IV., fig. 8). The rhabdites are straight thick bodies pointed
at both ends (see Plate IV., fig. 8, rd), and are moderately stained by
hematoxylin, more lightly than the rhammites, but more deeply
than the chondrocysts, so that they are readily distinguished. The
rhabdites are remarkably scarce. They are only found in those
regions which lie between the sole and the glandular margins, and
extend posteriorly only as far as the ventral ciliated organs. They
are never found in company with chondrocysts or rhammites. The
presence of the three sorts of “‘ Stabchen”’ and the peculiar distri-
bution of the rhabdites mark definite, though not very important,
points of distinction between the present species and other members
of the Rhynchodemide, since the latter, according to von Graff,*
form a yroup in which the three “‘Stabchen” rarely occur together,
and the rhabdites, if present, are usually scattered over the whole
body-surface (as in Dolichoplana), or over both the dorsal and ventral

* Von Graff, Ludwig 7 Monographien der Turbellarien, IJ. Triclada Terri-
cola (Land Planarien). Liepzig, 1899.

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN. 115

surface of the head. Further description of the distribution of the
rhabdites in the horseshoe-shaped depression of the head will be
given later in connection with the sensory and the glandular margins.

Among the various epidermal glands, the erythrophile and the
marginal glands need only be referred to here, as the others have
less direct relation to the classification. The erythrophile glands
(Plate IV., fig. 5, ep) are in this species uniformly distributed over
the entire surface, though they are a little more densely aggregated
in the sole-epithelium. They are readily recognized by their
coarse granular contents, which have a strong affinity for eosin
stains. The presence of the erythrophile glands and the chondro-
cysts in the epidermis seems to preclude any direct generic
relationship of the present form to Platydemus, in which the two
structures art completely absent.

The marginal glands in this species are well developed, and have
their openings on the glandular ridges and on the glandular margins.
Their posterior limit is about on the same level as that of the
ovaries, being about 3°5 mm. from the head-tip. The glands are
very large and long, reaching nearly to the brain or the lateral
nerve cords and the gut (Plate IV., figs. 6 and 8, mg). They have
an extremely oblique course from behind forwards, except at the
head-apex, where they run directly downwards to open on the
prominent ridge of this region (see Plate IV., fig. 6). The present
species is peculiar in having both the erythrophile and the marginal
glands, since, according to von Graff, these two glands rarely occur
together in the land planarians. Hence he states that “im Allge-
meine en erythrophile Kornerdriisen der Haut und Kantendrtsen
einander ausschliessen scheinen, da es nur zwei Formen giebt, bei
welchen beide zusammengefunden werden. Es sind dies Dolicho-
plana feildent und Polycladus gayi, doch kann ich wenigstens von
letzter Species bestimmt angesehen, dass die Kantendriisen derselb-
en gar nicht den Charakter der Kantendriisen der iibrigen Land-
planarien an sich tragen, sondern sich mehr als eine lokale Anhauf-
ung von birnférmigen erythrophile Drisen darstellen. Es liegt
dem nach hier derselbe Fall vor wie bei Rhynchodemus terrestris, wo
in der Umgebung der Sinneskante—also an der Stelle pflegen—
eine dichtere Anhaufung erythrophile Kornerdriisen zu beobachten
ist.”’* It may be mentioned here that the present species is only
remotely related to the genus Dolichoplana, since it lacks the
important generic character of having the longitudinal parenchyme
muscles developed only on the ventral side of the body. Von
Graff’s view of the relation between the erythrephile and the mar-
ginal glands may explain the nature of another kind of marginal
glands which are found in the present species on the inner or ventral
border of the glandular ridge (see Plate IV., fig. 8, mg). These

* Von Graff, op. cit., p. 66.

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

secondary marginal glands, as they may be termed, appear to have
several characters which are intermediate between those of the
erythrophile glands and the true marginal glands; for instance,
they are larger than the first, but much smaller than the second ;
they are stained less intensely with eosin than the first, and are also
stained very lightly with hematoxylin. The erythrophile granules
are more minute than those of the true erythrophile gland. As fig. 8
represents, these secondary marginal glands form a thin layer (two
or three cells thick in section) immediately below the glandular
ridge. The two zones in which both sorts of marginal glands open
to the exterior are separated from each other by a narrow area of
the epidermis, which is characterized by containing a few closely-
set rhabdites (see Plate IV., fig. 8, rd). There is a similar distinct
layer of rhabdites more ventral to that just mentioned (see Plate IV.,
fig. 8,7d). Between the two rhabdite layers is interposed a narrow
clear space of the epidermis (see Plate IV., fig. 6 and 8, sm), probably
corresponding to the so-called sensory margin known in many land
planarians.

The structure, which may be compared with the ‘‘ Sinneskante,”’
is seen, in transverse sections through the glandular ridges, to be a
narrow clear space of the epidermis (about 0°02 mm. wide) lying
between the two rhabdite-layers. Its most characteristic features
are the total absence of nuclei in the epidermis of this region, and
also the absence (probably apparent) of the basement membrane
(see Plate IV., fig. 8, sm). The epidermis is here represented by a
group of faintly stained fine threads which frequently anastmoose.
These threads are directly continuous with a small, clear, and com-
pact mass of elongated cells, which are certainly nucleated. The cells
run parallel to each other and obliquely to the epidermal surface. I
have not been able to detect any distinct connection of the above
cells to the nerve-fibres, which abound in the neighbouring parenchy-
matous tissue. Nor have I found any ciliary appendages either on the
sensory margin or on the whole epidermis, excepting that of the sole.

Although there are still some points to be elucidated in the
histology of the sensory tissue described above, I cannot entertain
any doubt as to the homology of this structure with the “ Sinnes-
kante”” observed by von Graff in many land planarians. Three
chief points of homology may be noticed : (1) the absence of nuclei
in the external plasmic layer; (2) the direct connection of the
latter to the underlying nucleated spindle-shaped cells ; and (3) the
absence or imperfect formation of the basement membrane. If
the above homology be accepted, the species under examination
differs in a striking manner from other land planarians with regard
to the relative positions of the sensory and glandular margins. In
all previously known cases the former invariably lies to the latter,
while in the present case the relative positions are reversed. Lastly,
it must be added that that horseshoe-shaped depression which is

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN. hy

bordered by the glandular ridge of similar shape has nothing to do
with the so-called ‘‘ Sinnesgriibchen,” but seems rather to be an
artificial effect, due to the contraction of the radial parenchyme
muscles, which are specially well developed in this region, and extend
from the ventral side of the brain to the dermal layers forming the
roof of the depression (see Plate IV., figs. 6 and 8).

The structure of the single eye-like organ (see Plate IV., fig. 9, ao)
at the head-tip presents some points of interest. Fig. 9 represents
a median saggital section through a small portion of that region of
the head which contains the organ. Here it is represented by a
special clear part of the epithelium, which lies above a region of
parenchyme, which is peculiar in having none of the fine pigment
granules which are elsewhere present in great abundance. In this
region the epidermis (ao) contains neither nucleated cells nor any
sort of epidermal glands, but consists merely of a plasmic layer,
which takes the stain faintly, and which contains minute vacuoles
and irregular radial striations, as if to indicate cell boundaries. In
the parenchyme underlying this part of the epidermis there are
ordinary parenchyme-cells, together with a few muscle-fibres and
numerous nerve-fibres (npl). There is also a thin cell-layer
composed of slender nucleated cells, which lie vertically on the
basement membrane and the dermal musculature. Owing to the
inadequate fixation of the specimen, I have not been able to make
out what relations exist between the outer non-nucleated plasmic
layer and the inner nucleated layer. But from the close resemblance
to the similar structures already described on the sensory margin,
I am inclined to regard both layers as actually continuous with
each other through the basement membrane.

A striking feature of the present species is the presence of paired
ciliated organs on the sole. Seen in sections the groove itself (Plate
IV., figs. 7 and 10, co) is rather shallow, and is bordered on either
side by a comparatively prominent ridge. The cilia which cover
the surface of the organ as well as the sole (see Plate IV., fig. 10, s)
are longest on the ridges, shortest on the sole, and of an intermediate
length in the groove. The epithelium lining the groove and ridges
is formed of nucleated cells, which stain fairly, and have a coarsely
reticulated plasma. The nuclei are perceptibly smaller than those
of the neighbouring epithelial cells. The ciliated epithelium which
lines the groove and ridges does not contain any “ Stabchen” or
epidermal glands, and is sharply separated from the overlying
parenchyme by the distinct basement membrane and the two
dermal layers (dm). The parenchyme in this region is rich in fine
branches of the nerve fibres (see Plate IV., fig. 10, npl), which are
probably connected with the ciliated organ. When I detected these
curious organs, I supposed they might be something similar to the
suckers of the Cotyloplanide. But this is merely superficial, since
both organs are entirely different in their histological structure.

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

No particular mention need be made of the epithelial layer of the
sole, except to point out that the epithelium is composed of a single
layer of cubical ciliated cells, which are interrupted by numerous
erythrophile and cyanophile glands. The ‘“‘Stabchen” never
occur in this region, though a very few rhammites are often found
in that part of the epithelium which passes over from the sole
to the inner ridge of the ciliated organ (Plate IV., fig. 10, rm).
I have carefully examined the sections of the sole to ascertain
if there were any sinking of the sole-epithelial cells into the
parenchyme, as von Graff has observed in many species of the
genus Rhynchodemus. But I have not recognized this phenomenon
in a single case. This fact and the presence of the well-developed
marginal glands must be regarded as evidence against the direct
relationship of the present form to the genus Rhynchodemus.

The structure of two eyes is essentially the same as described
and figured by von Graff* in Platydemus grandis, Spencer. The
only point of difference is that the vitreous body filling the interior
of the eye-camera is represented in the present case by a homo-
geneous substance perforated by many irregular clear spaces ;
consequently there is no indication of any trace of the prismatic
structures, which are, according to von Graff, always present in the
so-called ** Retina-Augen.” But I fear that the deviation shown
in the present instance is not actual, but is probably due to the
improper fixation of the eye tissues.

As mentioned above, the longitudinal parenchyme muscles (see
Plate IV., fig. 7, lpm) are, as in all genera of the Rhynchodemide,
except Dolichoplana, developed all round in the parenchyme as a
thick and continuous sheet surrounding the gut and the central
nerve cords.

The two ovaries are situated about 3°5 mm. from the head end.
They give rise to two slender oviducts, which run straight backwards
along the dorso-lateral side of the two nerve cords. The testes are
numerous, roughly 50 to 60 on each side, and are arranged generally
in two irregular alternate rows. Their anterior extremities are
about 0°5 mm. behind the ovaries, and they extend posteriorly as
far asthe mouth. The two vasa deferentia run posteriorly along the
inner side of the oviducts. Tregretthat owing to my careless manipu-
lation while cutting the body with the scissors the connection of the
common duct of the vasa deferentia with the penis was destroyed.
Consequently I have not been able to determine how the common
male duct enters into the penis, and how the latter opens to the male
atrium. In the attached semi-diagrammatic figure representing
the copulatory organs the broken parts are indicated by dotted
lines. At the level of the common genital opening (go) the male
atrium (ma) communicates with the underlying female atrium (fa),

* Von Graff, op. cit., p. 144, figs. 1 and 2, in Taf. L.

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN. 119

which is about 0:2 mm. wide. This female atrium is connected
posteriorly with a long tubular cavity (ut), which is about 1 mm.
long and 0:1 to 0:15 mm. wide. The walls of the atrium and the
tubular cavity are of the same structure, that is, the inner columnar
ciliated cells, the outer thick muscular layer, and the outermost
thick covering of the tubular glands. The glandular duct (gd),
which is also invested with the tubular glands, opens into the female
atrium. by a small pore which lies on the left side and at the anterior
end of the tubular cavity. The short proximal portion (va) of
this duct is much narrower and less glandular than the greater distal
part; the former may probably be the so-called vagina. The
glandular duct gives off a slender canal, which swells abruptly into
a spacious cavity (sr) directed posteriorly and nearly horizontally.

eT

“Aree

Aoshi wiMVanany
<2 abst , My ae

Y nae hide - ene
Be x19 ts ibd

OUTTA ANO

VD
Tgave's Alp

A semi-diagrammatic figure showing the copulatory organs seen from the
left side: fa, female atrium ; gd, female glandular duct ; go, common genital
opening ; ma, male atrium ; od, oviduct on the left side; pn, penis; sr, seminal
receptacle ; ut, uterus ; va, vagina ; vd, vas deferens.

The latter cavity communicates in a peculiar manner with the
middle part of the tubular cavity (wt) through a broad aperture.
The walls of this cavity, too, are essentially of the same structure
as those of the atrium and the tubular cavity, so that we may admit
that these three cavities were originally derivatives of one cavity or
primary female atrium. It is, however, somewhat difficult to
clearly identify these different compartments with von Graft’s
diagrams illustrating the types of the copulatory organs. From
the point of view of some structural and topographical analogies,
I will call the three cavities respectively the female atrium, the
uterus (the tubular cavity), and the seminal receptacle. That the
uterus and the glandular duct communicate with each other by a
connecting passage is a remarkable fact, which has been known only
in Artiocotylus speciosus* (the Cotyloplanide). Von Graff states:

* Von Graff, op. cit., pp. 201 and 209. Text figs. 58 and 59.

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

‘¢ Die merkwiirdige Erscheinung an den weiblichen Copulationsorgan
der vorliegenden Art (A. speciosus) ist nun aber der Umstand, dass
von der Stelle, wo der unpaare Driisengang in die Vagina einmiindet,
ein kurzer Verbindungsgang zum Trichter des Uterusstieles abgeht
und dadurch eine Communication mit dem Uterus herstellt....”*
In that species, too, the connecting passage “ empfangt ebensowenig
als der Uterus Schalendriisen.” Then, the two structures in question
differ slightly from each other in their respective relative positions
and degrees of development ; that is, in Artiocotylus speciosus the
structure is a simple canal passage, which arises from the proximal
part of the uterus and ends in the vagina, while in the present
species it is a spacious thick-walled cavity connecting the middle
part of the uterus to the proximal end of the glandular duct. Thus,
the female genital ducts are compared in this manner, and also when
the probably superficial resemblance shown by the ventral ciliated
organs and the suckers is borne in mind, the two otherwise remotely
related forms may appear to exhibit a very close relationship. But
at present I am not in a position to decide whether this interesting
similarity has any phylogenetic significance.

From the description and some collations so far given with regard
to the principal specific characteristics, it will be manifest that the
present species belongs to the Rhynchodemide, and cannot be
legitimately attached to any of the seven genera composing this
family. In some external characters several of the seven genera
bear more or less close relationships to the present species. The
following table will make clear the comparison :—

X means that the animal possesses the character of the heading

under which it is placed. O means that the animal does not possess the
character of the heading under which it is placed.

Sole Ridge. | ae aet | Sree Body Form. a
on
Bs
So ae doe
ao Aye o
| | ae 22 Os
eg Bee ee ae eee eee
BS Ble seS aoe Sa) Beas = hal tae
go a ee ee a ae es
Rhynchodemus KO (Oly eee ONO Xa Xe OT Oy iO eee
Microplana O Ge Oy a ? XxX MONO TAOm pes
Amblyplana KEIO HOW SON PES TOUS SK 6 2ST ea anne
Nematodemus OO ex ? ? XO O21 Onan
Platydemus OMX GO ligase O} exe OL - Oye | Ope
Dolichoplana ye ee! BON RON SO” SOW IXeE EO)! OM meer (Ol. @ laeepye
Othelosoma tele oe Ome O 2 ? DG O Bee O ji heosties (0)
Present species Rie) Oa Oilhe Xe ON oe Ol eee On EO Omen

* Von Graff, op. cit., pp. 210-211.

NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN. Va

Thus, as regards the above-mentioned characters, Dolichoplana
seems to most resemble the present form, next Platydemus and
Rhynchodemus in order. Even Dolichoplana can hardly claim direct
relationship to the present species, when we take into consideration
those characters relating to the distribution of the longitudinal
parenchyme muscles and the structure of the female copulatory
organs. Platydemus is characterized by having a broad sole and by
lacking the erythrophile glands and the chondrocysts of the integu-
ment. Besides, the unpaired sensory organ, the paired ciliated
organs, and the reversed relative positions of the marginal and the
sensory margins are remarkable characters, all of which indicate
clear points of difference between the present species and the
established genera of the Rhynchodemide.

For these reasons I propose to establish a new genus and species
for the animal as follows :—

Pseudartiocotylus ceylonicus, n. 2. et n. sp.

The genus may be diagnosed as follows: The body is elongate
and rounded, and the anterior end is blunt and flattened on the
ventral side. The glandular margins are well developed in the
head region and lie dorsal to the sensory margins, which are poorly
developed. The sole is narrow but distinct, and in its anterior
part is modified into two-paired ciliated organs. Beside the two
a Retina-Augen,”’ a single unpaired sensory organ is present at the
head-apex.

As already referred to, Pseudartiocotylus ceylonicus bears a curious
resemblance to Artiocotylus speciosus in having similarly constructed
female genital organs. Whether this implies more than a chance
resemblance ought not to be hastily decided from the present
observations made on the single specimen. Similar hesitation
must be expressed with regard to the resemblance between the
ciliated organs of the present species and the suckers of Artiocotylus
speciosus. I hope to have in the future a further opportunity of
studying these interesting points. Here is von Graft’s view of the
origin of the suckers of the Cotyloplanide : “‘ Auch die Familie der
Cotyloplanide ist keine natiirliche Gruppe und die Gattungen
Cotyloplana und Artiocotylus weisen nach dem Baue ihres Nerven-
systems und ihrer Musculatur—von dem aberranten Typus der
Geschlechtsorgane bei Artiocotylus gang abgesehen——auf vollig
getrennte Urspriinge hin. Der fiir die praktische Systematik so
brauchbare Charakter der Saugniapfe diirfte also in jeder der beiden
Gruppen selbststandig erworben sein.” *

* Von Graff, op. cit., p. 286.
R 6(2)11

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ol

The following eight species of the Rhynchodemidze have been
described from Ceylon :—

(1) Rhynchodemus nematoides, Loman.
(2) Rhynchodemus ceylonicus, von Graft.
(3) A na teres, von Graft.
(4) Amblyplana Trcecheli, von Graff.
(5) Nematodemus lumbricoides, von Graft.
(6) Platydemus thwaitesi, Moseley.
(7) Dolichoplana feildeni, von Graff.
(8) Dolichoplana nietnert, Humbert.
All the above species have been found to be distinct from the
present species in their external characteristics. Some principal

points of difference may be mentioned as follows :—

(1) Rhynchodemus nematoides : yellow ground colour; four dorsal
stripes.

(2) Rhynchodemus ceylonicus.: yellow ground colour; three
dorsal stripes are distinct throughout the length of the
body.

(3) Amblyplana teres: body is relatively short and thick; a
deep reddish-brown colour ; no dorsal stripes.

(4) Amblyplana heckeli: yellow ground colour; four dorsal
stripes.

(5) Nematodemus lumbricoides: grayish-brown ground colour ;
one dorsal stripe.

(6) Platydemus thwaitesi : ground colour is nearly the same as
in the present species, but the three dorsal stripes are
distinct from the ground colour.

(7) Dolichoplana feildeni: the body is very large; six dorsal
stripes.

(8) Dolichoplana nietneri: body is very large; six dorsal stripes.

- Lastly, it may be added that I have examined some references*
dealing with a few species of the Rhynchodemide which appeared
later than von Graff’s Monograph, but no allied forms have been
found in them.

* Mell, C.—Die von Oscar Neumann in Nordost-Afrika gesammeltan Land
Planarien (4 n. sp. of Amblyplana, 3 sp. of Platydemus), Zool Jahrb., Abt.
Syst., Bd. 20, 1904.

“Laidlaw, F. F.—On a land planarian from Herule, Male Atoll, with a note
on Leptoplana pardalis, Laidlaw \ehymehed.euuns ceylonicus ?), Fauna and.
Geogr. Maldive Laccadive Archip., vol. 2, 1903.

Scharff, R. F.—New planarian ee Howest), Abstr. Journ. Roy.
Micro. Soe. ,» London, 1900.

f
re
HS
&
5
e
‘

Hi

ort
At
i uh

LY

E Wilson, Cambridge.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

‘NOTES ON A NEW LAND PLANARIAN. 123

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

1.—Coloured sketch of the animal in the preserved state,
seen from the dorsal side. 2.

2.—Ventral view of the animal ; the mouth and the genital
opening are represented at the middle and the hinder
part of the sole. x 2.

. 3.—Enlarged dorsal view of the head-end, to show the

glandular ridge, the eyes, and the apical (sensory)
organ. X 14.

. 4.—Enlarged ventral view of the head-end, to show the sole

and the paired ciliated organs on the sole. 14.

. 5.—Portion of the epidermal layer, taken from a lateral side

of the skin. x 400. ch chondrocysts, ep erythro-
phile glands, rm rhammites.

. 6.—One of the median sagittal sections of the head-end.

x 40. br brain, cp cyanophile glands, g anterior
termination of the gut, mg glandular margin and
marginal glands, npl nerve-plexus of the skin, rd!
rhabdites-layer below the sensory margin (sm).

7.—Cross-section through the: ciliated organs. x 40.
co ciliated organs, g gut, pm longitudinal paren-
chymatous muscles, mg marginal glands and
glandular margin, n nerve-cords, s sole in section.

8.—Portion of the ventral side of the head, taken from
a median saggittal section of the head. x 400.
mg marginal glands and glandular margin, mg ' second-
ary marginal glands, npl nerve-plexus, rd and rd‘.
outer and inner rhabdites-layers, sm sensory margin.

9.—Portion of the head-apex with the apical sense-organ,
taken from a median saggittal section of the head-end.
x 230. ao apical organ, mg marginal glands, npl
nerve-plexus.

10.—Ciliated organ in a cross-section. x 400. dm dermal
longitudinal muscles, rm rhammite, s sole-epithe-
lium.

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

SOME NOTES ON THE CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM.*
By T. Soutuwe uz, A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.8., F.Z.8.,

Scientific Adviser to the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers. Limited,
and Inspector of Pearl Banks.

THE present series of barren years on the Ceylon Pearl Banks
has provided opportunities for extensive scientific research,
which under other conditions would have been impossible. It is,
however, extremely unfortunate that during these blank years the
few oysters essential for scientific work have been almost unavailable.
The only bed which now exists is confined to an inshore area, and ©
the oysters found thereon only rarely contain the pearl-inducing
parasite. Consequently the investigations on this interesting worm
have been severely hampered by lack of material, and the research
work has had to be directed into other channels, such as the investi-
gation of the part played by currents with relation to exotic spat,
the examination of rays and sharks for Cestode parasites, &c.
Whereas normal oysters often each contain from 30 to 100 pearl-
inducing parasites, the scattered oysters now remaining rarely
contain a single one, and 200 to 300 oysters may commonly be
examined without finding a single larva. This condition is doubtless
due to the inshore position of the oysters.

Most people are familiar with the old ideas as to the nature of
pearls, viz., that they were the tears of Nereids, or mysteriously
consolidated drops of dew, or caused by lightning flashes. These
poetic beliefs were subsequently superseded by others, which attri-
buted the origin of pearls to grains of sand, abortive eggs, calculi,
and the like.

It was only in 1859 that the naturalist Kelaart, working on the
spot, made the discovery that the formation of pearls was intimately
connected with the occurrence in the oyster of “‘ worms,” and all
subsequent work by other naturalists has only further proved and
elucidated Kelaart’s statements and observations. In 1894 Thurston
confirmed Kelaart’s results, and further identified the worm as
the larva’ of some Platyhelminthian (flat worm). The extensive
investigations made by Professor Herdman in 1902 further showed
that the worm was a Cestode (Tape-worm), round the larve of
which pearls are formed.

* From the Ceylon Marine Biological Laboratory (Ceylon Company of Pearl
Fishers, Limited).

CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM. 125

_A pearl is therefore the sarcophagus of a parasite, whose nearest
relations include human and other animal tape-worms, all varieties
of human hydatids (or Echinococcus), as well as those parasites
which cause the ‘“‘ stagger disease ” in sheep and goats, &c.

The normal and typical life-history of Cestodes in general is toe
well known to require full repetition here. The adult worms occur
exclusively in vertebrates (with the exception of Archigetes, which
may become adult in the ccelom of 7'ubifex), where they inhabit the
internal organs. The larva or cysticercus may occur either in an
invertebrate or in a vertebrate. The transference of the larve to
the final host takes place quietly, during a meal. Thus, the larvee
of Tenia solium occur in the tissues of the pig. If present, and if
the flesh of this animal is eaten by man in an improperly cooked
condition, the larvee become adult tape-worms in the human intestine.
From these adults, eggs are passed out in the foeces, and the omni-
vorous habits of the pig lead to the re-infection of this animal, and
thus the cycle goes on. Homologous stages of T'enia serrata occur
between dogs and mice, and many other instances might be cited.

The life-history, however, is not always of this type. In Hymeno-
lepis murina both stages occur in the rat without the intervention
of a second host, the larve inhabiting the villi and the adult worm
the intestinal cavity of the same animal. Such a life-history is said
to occur in Hymenolepis nana found in man.

The larve of Bothriocephalus latus probably first enter some
invertebrate host, and are then eaten by a pike or trout. If the
infected fish are eaten by man, the parasites develop in the intestine
into adult worms, which often attain a length of 30 feet. There
are thus three hosts. With reference to this particular tape-worm,
it is interesting to note that the primary larve are the only larve in
the group Cestoda known to be ciliated. ;

Further complications in the life-history of Cestodes are also
known. Thus, 7'enia solium is found adult in man. “The danger of
its presence in the body of man, or in the flesh of the pig, lies in the
fact that the larva or bladder worm (known as Cysticercus cellulose)
can live in the most varied organs. Thus, if by accident a mature
proglottis be eaten, the embryos bore their way into the wall of the
stomach, and entering the portal vein may reach in time the muscles,
the brain, the eye, or even the heart itself, and attain the cystic
condition. Even more disastrous may be the result should some
ripe joints of a mature worm work their way from the intestine
back to the stomach. Should this happen (and though it has not
been directly proved, the possibility is to be reckoned with) the
result would be the release of vast numbers of embryos capable of
inflicting fatal injury on the host. An abnormal Cysticercus of
this species is probably Tenia (Cysticercus) acanthotrias, Weinl.*

* Gamble: ‘‘ The Cambridge Natural History.” Worms, Rotifers, and
Polyzoa, p. 79.

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The hydatids thus produced represent culs-de-sac in the life-history
of the parasite. It is to be noted that whilst the life-history of
a Cestode is usually—almost always—completed in two hosts, the
parasites may vary their hosts and occur adult in many genera.
Instances of this kind are too numerous to mention here. The
cysticercoid stages are in many instances equally adaptable with
reference to their hosts, but it is to be noted that should the
cysticercoid enter a primary host which is not eaten, or does not
form the food of the second host, the life-history is never completed,
and the larve eventually die.

The preceding details have been given in order to elucidate more
fully the life-history of the pearl-inducing parasite, and to facilitate
the understanding of what are obviously abnormal conditions and
situations which occasionally befall the larve found in the pearl
oyster.

Professor Herdman found that the globular cysts which normally
occur in the tissues of the oyster were the larve of a Cestode, which
was named T'etrarhynchus unionifactor, Shipley and Hornell. When
the infected oysters’ were eaten by the ray, Rhinoptera javanica, the
worm became adult in the latter fish. A further stage also occurred
in the oyster in the form of an encysted but young Tetrarhynchid
occurring on the intestinal wall, but no stage was found strictly
intermediate in development between the widely different globular
cyst in the oyster and the encysted but young Tetrarhynchid
occurring on the wall of the oyster’s gut.

Free-swimming Cestode larvee were found in the tow-net taken on
the banks, but, as Herdman says, “it is still uncertain whether the
free-swimming larve found on the Muttuvaratu Paar really belong
to the life-history.’’*

In addition to the two stages found in the oyster, and the adult
found originally in Rhinoptera javanica, and later in Taeniura
melanospilos (large rays), other megacestoid stages were found in
Balistes (a small file-fish). Since these file-fish were known to feed
on oysters, it was pointed out that, although the life-history was
probably direct from oyster to Rhinoptera, it might be found that
Balistes formed an intermediate host. “‘ A more minute examination.
however, renders the connection between the parasites of the pearl
oyster and those of the file-fish a doubtful one,’’+ and, again, * the
more advanced larve from the pearl oyster have arrived at a later
stage in development than the larvee found in Balistes.” ¢

The life-history of this interesting parasite was worked out thus
far as a result of Professor Herdman’s investigation. Since that
time the life-history has been further studied as time and material

* <¢ Ceylon Reports,” Vol. V. es
+ Shipley and Hornell. Vol. II., Herdman’s ‘‘ Ceylon Reports.
t Loc. cit.

CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM. 127

allowed, and the following notes indicate some of the results
obtained.
(1) The Free-swimming Stage.

Although the plankton, both superficial and deep, has been
collected and examined three times daily for two seasons, no Cestode
larve have ever been found. This negative result falls in line with
results obtained elsewhere. In any case it would be obviously
impossible to identify an adult specimen from a free-swimming larva,
even should such larve exist. So far as is known, only the larvee
of Bothriocephalus latus aie ciliated and free-swimming, although it
is possible that some larvee may be free-swimming without being
ciliated.

Little indeed is known regarding the earliest stages of many genera
of Cestodes.

Whilst examining the ripe proglottides from a specimen of Tetra-
rhynchus rubromaculatus (?) obtained from the spiral valve of Trygon
kuhli (which feeds exclusively on Polychetes and small bivalves),
Inoted that the segmenting eggs, issuing in immense numbers from
a rupture in a proglottis, were ciliated, a phenomenon I have not
seen noted elsewhere.

Up to the present nothing is known as to how the larve of T'etra-
rhynchus unionifactor enter the oyster, and the same may be said of
most marine species of Cestode larve. We do not know whether
the larva is free-swimming, or whether it bores its way into the
primary host, or whether it is ingested along with the food. In
pearl fishing this question is of little importance, but the exact
condition of affairs would be interesting as rounding off our
knowledge of this interesting parasite.

(2) The Globular Cyst in the Oyster.

Figures of these cysts are given in Vols. II. and V., ‘‘ Ceylon
Reports,” and they represent the earliest stages known of T'etrarhyn-
chus unionifactor. They are considered to be post-hexacanth stages.
They vary in size. Some are as large as a pin’s head, whilst others
are quite microscopic. There are all sizes intermediate between
them, but they are all exactly similar in structure and development,
and their only point of difference is purely that of size. It has been
shown that these larve multiply endogenously, that is to say,
daughter cysts may arise within the parent cyst, and become liberated
by a temporary rupture of the parental wall. Although the initial
infection of the oyster is but slight, it may become extensive merely
by endogenous reproduction of this kind, quite apart from a further
infection from outside sources. Thisendogenous multiplication also
accounts for the very varying sizes of larvee found in the oyster.*

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

These cysts are widely distributed in the tissues of the oyster,
and occur particularly in the liver, in the mantle, and along the base
of the gills. As many as 120 have been counted in a single oyster,
although the number varies very considerably.

The globular cysts which occur in Placuna placenta (the window-
pane oyster found in the backwaters of Trincomalee) are exactly
similar to those found in the pearl oyster. In the cystic stages found
in Placuna, Willey* also observed endogenous reproduction. In the
examples quoted and figured by him the reproduction was poly-
genetic, as several cysts were liberated at a time from the parent
cyst. In the globular cysts found in the pearl oyster the endogenous
reproduction has only as yet been observed to be monogenetic (one
cyst being born at a time from each parent cyst), but there can be
little doubt that, when more oyster material is available, this endo-
genous reproduction will be found to be polygenetic, as in the larve
inhabiting Placuna. A similar multiplication has also been noted
in Polycercus—bladder stage of Tenia nilotica from Cursorvus
europeus.t

It is round the cystic stages which occur in the pearl oyster that
the orient or cyst pearls are formed. Other pearls are also found
in the oyster, but they have no organic nucleus. Such pearls are
termed muscle or seed pearls. Their origin is obscure, but they
are always found near the muscle insertions, and are believed to be
formed round a calcospherule of excretory craw or by the sheer
of muscles moving in different planes.

The percentage of globular cysts in the oyster which ever become
the nucleus of a pearl is very insignificant indeed. Occasionally
several hundred oysters can be examined each containing 20 or 30
cysts, and not a single pearl is to be found. This fact lends colour
and probability to the belief that only such cysts which, for some
unaccountable reason, die in the tissues of the oyster become
nuclei of pearls.

Figures of sections of decalcified pearls showing a nucleus exactly
similar to the larva found in the tissues of the oyster are given
by Herdman in Vol. V., ‘‘ Ceylon Reports” (Pearl Production,
Plate II.), and there can be no doubt that this larva is the prime
factor in pearl production, although very rarely grains of sand have
been found in the centre of pearls.

It has already been observed that no stage in the life-history of
the pearl-inducing worm has as yet been obtained earlier than the
globular cyst occurring in the oyster. This globular cyst is in many
ways different from stages known to occur in the life-history of
other Cestodes, such as Bothriocephalus latus or Tenia nilotica.

ns — a ae

* «© Report on the Window-pane Oyster of the Eastern Province,” June,
1907. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. V., Part XVII.

+ Haswell and Hill: ‘* On Polycercus, a proliferating Cystic Parasite of
the Earthworms” (Proc, Lin, Soc. N. 8. Wales (2), Vol. VIIT., 1894.

CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM. 129

This fact was emphasized by Shipley and Hoarnell,.who_ remarked :
“Under slight pressure, as first seen it (the pearl-inducing larva)
exhibited:a striking resemblance to a tiny Trematode, or it might be
mistaken fora large Gregarine.” * The figure nearest approaching

that of the larva found in the pearl oyster is that of the onchosphere
of Tenia cucumerina given by Gamble in Vel. IT. ,‘‘ Cambridge Natural
History ” (after Grassi and Rovelli).t There can be no doubt,
however, that the larva is a Cestode. The possession of calcareous
corpuscles, of spines on the collar, and of the protrusible proscolex-
like head are all essentially Cestode characters, and doubt only arose
on account of the isolated and more or less unconnected state of
development of the globular cyst.

(3) Encysted Tetrarkynchids on the Wall of the Gut in the
Pearl Oyster.

These are by no means rare, and are in almost every case confined
to a particular part of the wall of the gut, about one inch from the
anus and on the terminal part of the gut. They often occur in
clusters of three or four. They are small (about 1 mm.), but appear
to be adult in every way, save that strobilization has not commenced.
This eneysted young Tetrarhynchid is quite dissimilar to the
globular cysts found in the same oyster. In the latter case the
larvee are so young that the Cestodian characters are but ill-defined.
In the former case a normal and full-grown Tetrarhynchid head is
present. No stage or stages have been found intermediate between
them, and the evidence that they are both stages in the life-history
of the same parasite rests on circumstantial evidence and on evidence
obtained by feeding experiments. We shall, however, refer to this
matter again later.

(4) The Adult Pearl-inducing Worm, ‘‘ Tetrarhynchus
umonifactor.”

‘The adult stage of the pearl-inducing worm was obtained by
Hornell from the stomach of Rhinoptera javanica—a gregarious ray—
and also later from the intestine of Ta@niura melanospilos. In spite
of the fact that hundreds of fish, including at least fifty large rays
of various genera and species, and also a large number of Carchariide,
have been repeatedly and carefully examined during the last five
years, the adult has never since been found, except in Ginglymostoma
concolor, during the feeding experiments of 1909 and 1910, described
in Parts IV. and V., ‘‘ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports.” This
is a most remarkable fact, especially as the research, having been
repeatedly fruitless, was carried on with increasing energy.

* Shipley and Hornell. Herdman’s ‘‘ Ceylon Reports,”’ Vol. II., p. 20.

+ And Herdman notes the resemblance in many ways to the larva of
Acrobothrium figured by Giard and to the “ figures idéales ”’ of early stages of
Tetrarhyuchids given by van Beneden.

8 6(2) 11

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Trawling has heen almost continuous during every season. The
fish caught have all been carefully examined, and although not less
than 8,000 Cestodes, distributed over 24 genera and 77 species, have

been collected, the adult T'etrarhynchus unionifactor has never been

obtained.

It would almost appear that this fact in itself is sufficient proof
that the adult of the pearl-inducing worm is not Tetrarhynchus
unionifactor. We have noted that (1) no larve have been found in
an earlier stage of development than the globular cysts found in
the oyster, (2) that although encysted Tetrarhynchids occur in the
oyster, no stage intermediate between the globular cyst and the
young Tetrarhynchid has been found to prove that both these
stages in the development belong to the same worm. Finally,
we have seen that the adult has never been found in any of the
Plagiostomi trawled on the banks during the last five years.

The evidence afforded by the feeding experiments, described in
Part IV., ‘‘ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports,” is important. An area
was isolated in the open sea by means of expanded metal having a
4-inch mesh. Into this area large specimens of the following fish
were placed: T'rygon walga, Teniura melanospilos, Ginglymostoma
concolor, Rhynchobatus djeddensis, Serranus undulosus (4 feet),
Tetrodon stellatus.

These fish were first medicated with male fern extract and castor
oil, and then fed exclusively on oysters for several weeks.

The results were roughly as follows :—

Tetrodon stellatus and Serranus undulosus lived in a healthy
state, but no adult Cestodes were found in them.

Rhynchobatus djeddensis.—These specimens all died within three
days. They are dwellers on mud, and I attribute their death to the
fact that they do not feed on oysters. No Cestodes found.

Ginglymostoma concolor.—Adductor muscle of oyster found in
stomach. Thirty-eight specimens of T'etrarhynchus unionifactor in
spiral valve (other Cestodes also found), and fifty-one T'etrarhynchus
unionifactor in another specimen.

Teniura melanospilos.—Tetrarhynchus herdmani only in spiral
valve.

These results are described fully elsewhere,* and the point that
immediately concerns us is the fact that Tetrarhynchus unioncfactor
was obtained in numbers on two separate occasions.

Since the adult worm was never obtained by me on any other
occasion, even though numbers of the same species of fish were
examined, it seems almost certain that these specimens were
developed from the larvz in the oysters eaten, and there are many
points which favour this view. ‘The mere fact that the adults were
obtained by feeding is in itself almost sufficient to prove that they

* «* Ceylon Marine Biological Reports,’ Parts IV. and V.

CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM. tou

are the adult of the pearl-inducing worm, for it is difficult to believe
that their occurrence in the Ginglymostoma was a mere coincidence
each year.

The line sketch given of this worm in Vol. V., ‘ Ceylon Reports,”
gives no details of the adult structure, which is somewhat unfortunate.
A figure is, however, given in Part V., ‘‘ Reports from the Ceylon
Marine Biological Laboratory.”

The absence of the adult worm in the fish caught during the
last five years is doubtless incident on the fact that oysters have
practically been absent from the banks over this period.

My own observations point to the fact that the fish found on the
banks have steadily decreased in number during the last few years.
It seems probable that the fish have migrated to other feeding
grounds, particularly those species which feed on molluscs. Whereas
the mollusean fauna of the banks is usually abundant, I have not
found more than six specimens during the last two years, even
though diving, trawling, and dredging has been carried on almost
daily. This fact serves to show that other molluscs suffer equally
with the oyster, and it seems natural to explain the absence of
predatory fish as due to the lack of food over the plateau.

We have seen that the adult pearl-inducing worm has up to the
present been found in three species of fish, viz., Rhinoptera javanica,
Hornell; Taniura melanospilos, Hornell; and Ginglymostoma
concolor, Southwell.

There seems to be no reason for associating the adult worm
exclusively with Rhinoptera javanica. In fact, it is somewhat
surprising to find that the adult worm has been found in this species,
since the fish has only as yet been caught on the muddy basins of
Dutch Bay, Portugal Bay, and near the Mannar channel. It seems
likely that the adult worm occurs in all Plagiostomes which eat
oysters, and I should not be surprised to find that subsequent
research proved this to be the case.

It is now well known that very many species of Cestodes occurring
in marine fishes in Ceylon have several hosts, and there is every
reason for believing that the same is true of T'etrarhynchus union-
factor.

Some species of fish, such as Rhynchobatus djeddensis, possess
tremendously powerful jaws with undulating, continuous. plate-like
rows of teeth. It seems natural to suppose that fish possessing a
powerful apparatus of this kind should feed on oysters and other
molluscs. I have, however. had numerous proofs that they do not.
Of ten specimens of Rhynchobatus djeddensis placed in the nursery
for feeding experiments, not one survived the third day. Their
normal habitat is on muddy and weedy basin in two to four fathoms,
where they feed almost exclusively on crabs. They will die of
starvation with oysters under their nose, and it may be taken as a
general rule that fish normally living on a muddy basin of this kind

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

do not eat oysters. Examples include Rhynchobatus djeddensis,
Myliobatis nieuhofi, Pteroplatea micrura, Pristis cuspidatus, and
possibly Rhinoptera javanica, all of which most probably have their
own particular article of food.

(5) Encysted Tetrarhynchids in Teleosts.

There are many Teleosts which feed on oysters. Amongst them
may be mentioned—

(1) All members of the genus T'etrodon.
(2) Balistes mitts, Balistes undulatus, and Balistes stellatus.
(3) Lutjanus argentimaculatus, and possibly other members of
this genus.
(4) Serranus undulosus, and possibly other members of this
genus.

The above list is not intended to be a complete one, but oysters
have been found in the stomachs of all the species named. Tetra-
rhynchid cysts only are in almost every case (and particularly in
Balistes, Lutjanus, and Serranus) found in numbers in the intestines.
Cysts have not been found in any species of the genus 7'etrodon.
These combined facts led to the original idea that Balistes might be
an intermediate host of the pearl-inducing worm, although later
Shipley and Hornell pointed out the difference between the Tetra-
rhynchids found encysted in the oyster and those encysted in the
intestines of Balistes. Several species of Tetrarhynchids occur
encysted in the intestines of the Teleosts previously named, and
they are undoubtedly derived from the cysticercoids present in the
different molluses eaten.

Encysted forms of Tetrarhynchus unionifactor also occur,
particularly in Balistes and Serranus. Recent work has shown that
the encysted form of Vetrarhynchus uniontfactor which occurs in
Serranus and Balisies is exactly similar to that encysted in the
oyster. Shipley and Hornell appear to have been wrong in stating
that ‘“‘ The more advanced larve from the pearl oyster have arrived
at a later stage in development than the larve found in Balistes.’’*
It is certain that my encysted Tetrarhynchus unionifactor from
Balistes is not the same species as those described by these
authors from Balistes. However, the fact remains that encysted
Tetrarhynchids have been obtained from Balistes and Serranus
which are exactly similar to the encysted Tetrarhynchid found in
the oyster. The spines and general appearance are exactly similar,
and the only difference noted was that those found encysted in
Teleosts were very slightly larger than those obtained from the
oyster.

* «« Ceylon Reports,” Vol. II., p. 78.

CEYLON PEARL-INDUCING WORM. , [32

It is to be noted here that we have been referring above to the
encysted Tetrarhynchid, and not to the globular cyst found in the
oyster.

What is the significance of the stage of T'etrarhynchus unionifactor
found in these Teleosts ?

There can be no shadow of doubt that they are derived from the
oyster. But in no case are the cysts further developed than those
normally found in the oyster. These fish are not intermediate hosts,
but carriers, and they illustrate the fact that the larvee of 7'etra-
rhynchus unionifactor can live in various hosts and in various organs,
just as we have seen to be the case in the cysticercus of Tenia
solium and other Cestodes. If oysters are eaten by Balistes (or
Serranus and Lutjanus), two things happen to the cysts in the
oyster :—

(i.) The encysted Tetrarhynchids in the oyster are transferred

to the Balistes, where they encyst in the mesenteries,
without developing any further.

(ii.) The globular cysts in the oyster are dissolved, and the larva
is liberated; it migrates, develops into a young Tetra:
rhynchid—the same stage is in (i.)—and encysts on the
mesenteries.

It might be argued from the preceding, that since the globular
cysts develop into young Tetrarhynchids in Balistes, that therefore
Balistes is a secondary host.

We would point out, however, that the globular cysts often
develop into young Tetrarhynchids in the oyster itself, and further,
that if oysters are eaten by certain Elasmobranch fish, both the
globular cyst and the young Tetrarhynchid become adult directly
in the Elasmobranch. Similarly, it is almost certain that should
Balisies be eaten by a suitable Elasmobranch, the young Tetra-
rhynchid would become adult. The stages occurring in Balistes and
in the oyster are the same. Balistes is not an intermediate host, but
merely a carrier. In this way it may be useful in the life-history of
the parasite, without being in the least necessary. If the species or
specimen of Balistes is small, the encysted larva has a favourable
chance of completing its life-cycle.

In the case of Serranus undulosus, which likewise contains encysted
and young Tetrarhynchids of many species, and including 'etra-
rhynchus unionifactor (but more rarely than in Salistes), specimens
often measure 43 feet in length and°10 to 12 inches in diameter. It
is difficult in these cases to postulate a Plagiostomous host large
enough to eat a fish of these dimensions. In these cases we can
but logically assume that the life-cycle of the various Tetrarhynchids
contained in these large Teleosts are never completed. They are
culs-de-sac in the life-history of the parasite, a circumstance simu-
lating the occurrence of hydatids in man, where the larve giving

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

rise to the disease have, owing to their adaptability within various
hosts, lost themselves in the maze of their own liberties, and where
the life-history is, of course, never completed.

It is a significant fact that in Ceylon no adult Cestodes have ever
been found in any Teleosts, even though larve are numerously
distributed within the order. This fact is most peculiar, but so far
as I know it is a usual and well-known phenomenon, except amongst
the family of Cestodes named Bothriocephalide, adult forms of
which occur in the salmon and in Gadus.

Possibly adult forms of Cestodes may be found later in Ceylon
Teleosts, but up to the present a most careful scrutiny has been
fruitless. .

Conclusion.—It will be obvious from the preceding that there still
remains much to be done before all the stages in the life-history
of the pearl-inducing worm are fully known. Work on the elucida-
tion of this problem has been seriously hampered during the last
few years by the lack of material.

There can be little doubt, I think, that the life-history of this
parasite is direct from the oyster to such fish of the group Plagiastomi
as feed on them, and that the stage found in various Teleosts is
accidental, not necessary, and may be useful or otherwise. It would
be interesting (1) to discover undoubted larve prior to their enter-
ing the oyster ; (2) to ascertain the exact way in which they enter the
oyster ; (3) to ascertain why certain cysts produce pearls and the
vast majority do not; (4) to find stages between the globular cyst
and the young Tetrarhynchid. These details are necessary to round
off our knowledge of this worm.

Although these questions remain unsolved, infection of the oyster
continues, and is never found faulty, except in such reef forms as
occur in very shallow water where one supposes that the necessary
fish seldom approach.

SPECIES OF CEYLON PEDIPALPT. 135

THE SPECIES OF CEYLON PEDIPALPI.

By F. H. Gravery, M.Sc.,
Assistant Superintendent in the Indian Museum. Calcutta.

(With one Text Figure.)

a a recent paper on the Pedipalpi of Ceylon (1910) I published
- some notes on the habits of these curious creatures. Since
this was written I have been able to inquire into their specific
characters more fully than was then possible, and have in conse-
quence to correct my identifications of some of the Tartarides.
And further specimens of the long-armed form of the small jungle
species of Phrynichus have now been obtained, which place beyond
doubt its claim to rank as at least a definite variety. The object
of the present paper is to supply correct identifications of the
Tartarides, referred to in my previous one, which will involve the
description of two new species, and to describe more completely
this long-armed variety of Phrynichus pusillus.

TARTARIDES.

Mr. Pocock, when writing the Arachnid volume of the “ Fauna
of British India and Ceylon,” was able to fit all the species there
referred to into two genera, Schizomus, Cook, and Trithyreus,
Kraep., following the classification adopted by Kraepelin in a
volume of “ Das Tierreich.” He distinguished the genera by the
width of the division of the posterior plate of the carapace, «
character which [ found to be greatly affected by the method of
preservation adopted.

In 1905, several years after Pocock’s volume in the “ Fauna ”
series was published, Hansen and Sorensen succeeded in getting
together for study a very representative collection of Tartarides of
both sexes from various localities in both hemispheres ; and together
they published a monograph, in which the classification and specific
characters of the tribe were dealt with by Dr. Hansen in a way
that had never been possible before. In this paper the number of
Species is extensively added to, but no additional genera are
recognized. Indeed, the distinction between the old genera Schizo-
mus and Trithyreus is regarded as of only sub-generic value. These
sub-genera, moreover, are re-defined, so that the distinction between
_ them comes to be not the actual width of the median suture of the

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

posterior thoracic plate, but, whether (in Schizomus) or not (in
Trithyreus) the reticulate markings of these plates are continued
across it.

Hansen records from Ceylon only the two species of Tartarides
referred to in the ‘“ Fauna” volume as having been found there :
Schizomus (s. str.) crassicaudatus, Cambr., from Peradeniya, where
they were found “ under dead leaves and rubbish by M. Ferdinandus
in the Royal Botanic Gardens,” and Schizomus (Trithyreus) subo-
culatus, Poc., from Pundalu-oya and Maturata.* With regard to
the latter species, he states that the type (and only) specimen
described by Pocock was immature—when full grown it is rather

Fie. 2.

Foot of first leg of female of each species of Tartarides known from
Ceylon. x 60.

A. Schizomus (s. str.) crassicaudatus , Cambr. (ecamera-lucida drawing).

B. Schizomus (Trithyreus) peradeniyensis, n. sp. (camera-lucida
drawing).

C. Schizomus (Trithyreus) vittatus, n. sp. (camera-lucida drawing).

D. Schizomus (Trithyreus) suboculatus, Poc. (after Hansen).

a large form; and he re-describes both species very fully. A
comparison of my specimens with these careful descriptions shows
that only the specimens found under bricks, &c., belong to the
species Schizomus (s. str.) crassicaudatus. This is in apparent

* The original label of the Maturata specimens bears the inscription
““Maturata. Galles”? according to Hansen. This, however, is unintelligible
as it stands, and I am indebted to Mr. Green for a suggestion that “‘ Galles ”
refers to the Sinhalese word “gala” (= a rock), and that what is probably
meant is “‘ Maturata hills,”

SPECIES OF CEYLON PEDIPALPT, 137

contradiction to the type of habitat recorded for the specimens
found by M. Ferdinandus, from which the species was originally
described ; but although the majority of my specimens were found
under bricks, a few came from under stones, &c., among the sticks
and dead leaves between the roots of the huge rubber trees near the
Curator’s office in the Gardens, and from small piles of stones mixed
with rubbish, but always on or bordering upon open ground ;
presumably, therefore, the rubbish from which M. Ferdinandus’s
specimens came had accumulated in some open situation.

The similar but larger form, the female of which was found so
abundantly in the shrubberies of the Gardens, and which in my
previous paper was confounded with Schizomus crassicaudatus,
proves to be distinct, and to belong to the sub-genus Trithyreus, as
defined by Hansen ; it is a new species allied to S. (7’.) suboculatus,
Poc. The small green form also belongs to this sub-genus, and is also
new. It is not, however, very closely allied to S. (7'.) suboculatus,
Poc., with which I identified it before seeing Hansen’s elaborate
description of mature specimens. These two new species may be
described as follows :-—

Genus Schizomus, Cook (Sub-genus Trithyreus, Kraep.).

Schizomus (T'rithyreus) peradeniyensis, n. sp.

S. crassicaudatus (part), Gravely, 1910.

6 Unknown.

¥ Resembles the female of S. (7'.) suboculatus, Poc., in all points
described by Hansen, except the following: Eye-spots wanting.*
In the first (antenniform) legs the femur is slightly longer than the
tibia, and the foot is barely two-thirds as long as the tibia and
about fourteen times as long as deep ; the second metatarsal joint
is only two-thirds as long as the tarsus, being slightly shorter than
the sum of the five proximal tarsal joints ; the second tarsal joint
is not unusually long, being scarcely as long as the third; the terminal
tarsal joint is somewhat longer than the sum of the two proximal
tarsal joints, and about two-fifths as long as the metatarsus. In
life the dorsal colour is greenish-gray or brownish (never dark olive-
green), varying considerably in different specimens, and passing
into a somewhat reddish tint at the anterior end of the carapace
and towards the extremities of the legs, the whole of the chelicerz
being reddish-brown; ventrally the colour is paler and more

* When specimens are seen from above, a pair of ill-defined whitish patches
will almost invariably be noticed in the position occupied by eye-spots in forms
which bear them ; but a careful examination of well-illuminated specimens
in different positions under a Zeiss binocular microscope leads me to believe
that these patches are in all cases due to the reflexion of light from the polished
sides of the head immediately above the bases of the chelicerz, the chelicer
being partially visible through the carapace,

ut 6(2)11

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

distinctly reddish at the anterior end. In spirit the ground colour
is brown.
Length.—Up to five and a half millimetres.

Schizomus (T'rithyreus) vittatus, n. sp.
S. suboculatus, Gravely, 1910.

é Unknown.

2 Cephalothorax.—Kye-spots present, whitish, in marked contrast
to the surrounding green colour. Cephalic sternum longer than
broad.

Arms.—Moderately slender, slightly less than half as long as the
body. Trochanter with its lower front angle (about 90°) incon-
spicuous and much rounded, anterior margin convex. Lower angle
of femur not very sharp, very slightly further from the basal than
from the distal end of the upper margin of the joint. Patella
almost three times as long as deep. Claw a little less than half as
long as the upper margin of the tarsus.

First legs —Rather slender, about equal to the body in length,
Coxa terminating alittle behind the anterior border of the gnatho-
base of the chelicera. Femur a little longer than tibia. Foot not
quite as long as tibia (about seven-eighths of its length), scarcely
nine times as long as deep, deepest at the end of the metatarsus ;
second metatarsus scarcely as long as the sum of the five proximal
joints of the tarsus ; terminal tarsal joint not quite as long as the
sum of the three proximal joints, and slightly more than half the
length of the whole metatarsus.

Fourth legs—About as long as body; femur rather more than
half as long as deep.

Tail.—Short and stout, scarcely four times as long as deep,
somewhat swollen in the middle; three jointed, the third joint
slightly longer than the sum of the other two.

Colour.—Dorsal sclerites dark olive-green, in striking contrast with
the pale integuments which connect them together, and which appear
on the abdomen as whitish or somewhat orange-coloured, inter-
segmental bands nearly one-fourth as broad as the dark green
tergites, the posterior ones being somewhat narrower than the
anterior. Abdomen with a large ventral dull ochraceus patch
bordered with green at the sides and behind. Cephalothoracic
sterna whicish; cox pale olive-green below, whitish above ; tro-
chanters and all connecting membranes of the appendages also
whitish ; the whole of the chelicerze, the terminal joint of the arms,
and all four feet reddish ; a crimson spot on the anterior surface of
each leg on the connecting membrane between the femur and
patella, these spots being most conspicuous on the last pair of legs.
Eye-spots whitish, one on each side of the rostrum. Colour scarcely
affected by spirit.

SPECIES OF CEYLON PEDIPALPT. 139

Length.—Up to three and. a half millimetres.

This species is very closely allied to S. (7'.) modestus, Hansen,
from New Guinea and New Britain. It differs chiefly in having the
anterior angle of the trochanter of the arms rounded and the
anterior margin convex ; in having the foot of the antenniform legs
proportionally shorter and stouter; and in the greater stoutness
of the tail, which is, moreover, always somewhat swollen at about
the middle of its length.

The colour of 8. (7'.) vittatus is very constant even in young speci-
mens, and quite distinct from that of S. (7’.) medestus, resembling
rather that of another allied species, S. (7'.) procerus, Hansen, from
Singapore. The sharply defined white and green segmental bands
of the abdomen are always present, and are distinctly visible to the
naked eye.

Sections show that the specimens here described include without
doubt many mature females.

The chief interest of these two new species lies in the abundance
in which they were obtained. Hansen had but a few specimens of
each of the species he described, and can have had little direct evidence
as to which points were likely to be constant and which were not. °
He found the proportions of different parts of the antenniform legs
to be among the most useful characters by which to distinguish
the species; especially in the female sex; and the value of this
selection is confirmed by the fact that in each of the long series of
Schizomus (s. str.) crassicaudatus, S. (Trithyreus) peradeniyensis,
and S. (7'.) vittatus which I have examined these characters remain
perfectly constant. Only in one instance have I noticed any
abnormality, and as this occurred on one side of the specimen only,
and affected the number of joints in the foot, it was presumably
a malformation caused by some accident to the appendage in
question.

The form of the lower anterior portion of the trochanter of the
arm is another useful character ; but this is less fixed, and should not be
relied upon unless a good series of specimens are available. Thus,
Hansen states that in Schizomus (s. str.) crassicaudatus “‘ the best
distinguishing mark between this species and all other forms
hitherto known is the presence of a process from the lower
front angle of the trochanter of the palps”’; this process, as they
point out, is smaller in the female than in the male, and in the
former I find it to be extremely variable in size, often minute, and
sometimes entirely absent. The distinctive proportions of the parts
of the foot of the antenniform legs being constant are of much
greater systematic value, and it may not be out of place here to
reiterate Hansen’s emphatic statement that “ measurement by the
eye of such parts is quite insufficient”; the use of an eye-piece
micrometer is absolutely necessary.

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

TARANTULIDA.
(= Phrynichid2. )

Genus Phrynichus, Karsch.

P. pusillus, var. gracillibrachiatus, n.

6 Resembles P. pusillus (s. str.) in all points, except the greater
length and slenderness ‘of the arms. In full-grown specimens the
femur of these appendages varies from 19°5 to 29°5 mm. in length
in the variety, and from 9:0 to 13:5 in the typical form, the “ mode ”
in both cases being intermediate between the two extreme
measurements.

? Body distinctly larger than in the male, arms proportionately
somewhat shorter and stouter. Second abdominal sternum as in
P. pusillus (s. str.), i.e., with the pair of semi-lunar lobes small or
absent.

As intimated in my previous paper, this appears to be chiefly a
low-country form, but I am very anxious to obtain if possible
further information as to its distribution in the Island before
committing myself to any more precise statement than this.

LIST OF PAPERS REFERRED TO.

1899. Kraepelin, K., ‘“‘Scorpiones und Pedipalpi” in “ Das
Tierreich.”’

1900. Pocock, R. I., ‘‘ Arachnida” in ‘‘ The Fauna of British
India, including Ceylon and Burma.”

1905. Hansen, H. J., and Sorensen, W., “‘ The Tartarides, a
Tribe of the Order Pedipalpi.”” Arkiv for Zool., vol. II., No. 8.

1910. Gravely, F. H., ‘ Pedipalpi of Ceylon.” ‘‘ Spolia
Zeylanica,” vol. VII., pp. 43-47.

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON. 141

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON.
Mutillidz and Scoliidz.

By Rowuanp E. Turner, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

rT\HE species described in this paper are mostly from the collec-

tion of Mr. O. S. Wickwar, who is generously depositing the
types in the British Museum. Most of the Mutillide were collected
by Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher at Hambantota; from him the
Museum has also received long series of some species. Most of the
larger species are identical with those collected by Yerbury at Trin-
comalee and described by Cameron, but few of the smaller species
are identical with those from Trincomalee. Most characteristic of
the Ceylon Mutillide is the abundance of species in which the
posterior margin of the thorax in the female is furnished with a row
of rather long teeth ; this group, though not confined to Ceylon,
seems to be much richer in species there than elsewhere. The
range of many of the species is probably extremely limited ; for
climatic conditions at Trincomalee and Hambantota are very
similar, and the difference of the species in the two localities is
not likely to be entirely due to insufficient collecting. The
means of locomotion in the female are so limited that local forms
are much more likely to be developed than in other families,
In the genus Tiphia I have observed that the part most affected
in local races is the median segment ; and in the female Mutillid
the shape of the thorax seems especially subject to local influence,
the median segment in the female sex being combined with the
thorax.

Mr. Wickwar has pointed out to me that the colour of the head
and thorax, used as the main points of recognition in Bingham’s Key,
is not a reliable character; in this I fully agree with him and with
other authorities.

Family MUTILLIDA.,
Genus Spilomutilla, Ashm.

Spilomutilla eltola (Cam.).
Mutilla eltola, Cam. Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
XLIT., p.3, 1898. *.

Spilomutilla eltola, André. Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr., p. 251
1907. 6 %,

142 SPOLDIA ZEYLANICA,

The male closely resembles S. ocdipus, Cam., but has no central
spine on the posterior margin of the median segment. The ocelli
are present though small, and are not absent as stated by M. André.
The genus Spilomutillais not rich in species, and seems to be confined
to Southern Asia. While agreeing with Bingham that M. ocdipus,
Cam., may well be regarded as the male of M. rothneyi, Cam., I
consider that his suggestion that the wings have been accidentally
lost is quite wild, as Cameron has pointed out. The name ocdipus
has priority over rothneyi, and should be used for the species.
Mutilla cotesit, Cam., which I have not seen, appears to belong
to Spilomutilla, but there is no mention in the description of spines
on the sides of the thorax. I consider that consolidata, Cam., 1s
a synonym of e/fola.

Hab.— Colombo (Wickwar) ; Hambantota (Fletcher).

Genus Mutilla, Linn.

Key to the Species of Mutilla described here.

1.—Posterior margin of the thorax with a row of acute spines :—

A. Second dorsal segment with a spot
of white pubescence on each side ;
third and fourth segments with
bands of white pubescence.

(a) The bands on the third and fourth
segments partly interrupted in

the middle ; head red .. M. ianthas.
(b) The bands on the third and fourth
segments continuous; head
usually black... .. M, bainbrigger.

Bb. Second dorsal segment immaculate .. M. porcella.

I1.—Posterior margin of the thorax without spines :—

A. Second dorsal segment of the abdo-
men immaculate.
(a) Second dorsal segment longitudinal-
ly rugose-striate ; thorax scarcely
broadened posteriorly.
a, Second dorsal segment almost as
broad in the middle as long .. MW. pinguicula.
b!. Second dorsal segment much
narrower in the middle than
long “* .. M. fumgatia.
(6) Second dorsal segment punctured ;
thorax much breadened pos-
teriorly <2 .. M. thermophila.

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON. 143

B. Second dorsal segment with one spot
or more of pubescence.
(a) A spot at the base and a band of
golden pubescence on the apex
of the second dorsal segment.
a’. Head and thorax red; sides of
the thorax slightly concave.. M. fletcheri.
6’. Head red, thorax black; sides
of thorax slightly rounded .. M. wickwari.
(6) Second dorsal segment marked with
spots of white pubescence.
a‘. The spots not lateral.
a®. A spot at the base and at the
apex of the second dorsal
segment.
a*, Third dorsal segment covered
with white pubescence .. J. pondicherensis, Rad.
6°. Third dorsal segment without
white pubescence .. M. ocellata, Sauss.
6°. A spot at the apex only of the
second dorsal segment .. WM. desiderata.
b’. The spots lateral; third and fourth
segments also with lateral
spots.
a*, Thorax strongly narrowed ante-
riorly ; a spot on each side
on the apex as well as on the
middle of the second dorsal
segment .. .. M. melanota.
6?. Thorax not much narrowed
anteriorly ; no spots on the
apex of the second dorsal
segment .. .. M. hexaops, Sauss.

Mutilla pondicherensis, Rad. and Sich.

Mutilla pondicherensis, Rad. and Sich. Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross.,
p. 204, 1869. 9.

Mutilla rufitarsis, Sm. Descr. New Spec. Hym., p. 199,
eS es

Hab.—Colombo (Wickwar) ; Hambantota (Fletcher).

I have not seen the type of pondicherensis, but rufitarsis agrees
well with the description, and I think there can be little doubt that
both names refer to one species. Many Ceylon specimens have the
head red, but I cannot see that the difference is specific. M. blanda

Sm., is very closely related.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Mutilla ianthis, sp. nov.

g. Ferruginea, abdomine nigro, secondo segmento maculis duabus
albopilosis lateralibus, segmento tertio quartoque albopilosis in
medio nigro-maculatis, area pygidiali longitudinaliter striata,
thorace postice pectinato.

Head and thorax strongly longitudinally rugose, pleura smooth
and shining, abdomen closely and rather finely punctured, the
pygidial area finely longitudinally striated. Eyes oval, situated
a little nearer to the posterior margin of the head than to the base
of the mandibles, the head rounded behind them, no broader than
the thorax. Mandibles acute at the apex, with one very small blunt
tooth on the inner margin. Scape shining and almost smooth, the
second joint of the flagellum distinctly longer than the third. Tho-
rax about one-third longer than the breadth on the posterior margin,
slightly rounded anteriorly and a little broadened posteriorly, the
sides crenulate and slightly concave, the posterior truncation
vertical, shining, and almost smooth, the margin above the base of
the truncation with ten strong teeth increasing in length towards
the middle, the row of teeth continued by two or three very small
ones on the sides of the truncation. No scutellar ridge. First
abdominal segment much narrower than the second, which is
broadest in the middle.

Ferruginous, the abdomen black; a large round spot of white
pubescence on each side of the second abdominal segment before
the middle, the third and fourth segments covered with white
pubescence with a large black spot on the middle of each. Flagel-
lum and the apex of the mandibles black.

Length, 7 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (fletcher) ; November.

In some specimens the pile on the abdomen is golden instead of

white. ‘
Somewhat allied to M. pectinospinata, Magr., but is a much smaller
species. In the serration of the posterior margin of the thorax it
approaches the group of serratula, Cam., but the markings on the
abdomen are very different.

Mutilla bainbrigget, sp.nov.

9. Nigra, thorace pedibusque ferrugineis, abdominis segmento
secundo maculis duabus lateralibus albopilosis, segmentis tertio
quartoque apice albopilosis, thorace postice pectinato.

Head and thorax coarsely rugose, abdomen finely punctured,
pygidial area elongate ovate, very finely longitudinally striated,
pleura concave, smooth. Eyes oval, situated nearer to the pos-
terior margin of the head than to the base of the mandibles, the head
rounded behind them, the scape shining and finely punctured, the
second joint of the flagellum distinctly longer than the third.
Thorax as wide as the head, very feebly rounded on the anterior

s

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON. 145

margin, broadened posteriorly, the sides slightly concave and
crenulate, about one-third longer than the breadth on the posterior
margin, vertically truncate posteriorly, the surface of the truncation
shining, with a few indistinct longitudinal striz, the margin above
the truncation pectinate, the four teeth near the middle long, the
others scarcely developed.

Black ; the thorax ferruginous ; legs, scape, and base of the flagel-
lum fusco-ferruginous; second abdominal segment with a small
round spot of white pubescence near the middle on each side, third
and fourth segments with a transverse band of white pubescence
at the apex; pygidium dark fusco-ferruginous. Ventral segments
with a sparse apical fringe of long whitish hairs.

Length, 4 to 5 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher) ; November to February.

Very similar to recondita, Cam., but differs in the sculpture of the
pygidium and in the presence of teeth on the posterior margin of
the thorax.

Mutilla porcella, sp. nov.

2 #F erruginea, rugosa, thorace arcuato, postice truncato, sex
dentato, abdomine nigro, tertio segmento albopiloso.

Head and thorax rugose, the posterior truncation of the thorax
coarsely longitudinally striated, abdomen finely punctured, the
second ventral segment strongly punctured, the second dorsal
segment longitudinally rugose-striate. Head scarcely broader than
the thorax, not rounded behind the eyes, the posterior margin
straight ; eyes oval, as near to the base of the mandibles as to the
posterior margin of the head. Scape finely punctured, the antennze
not very stout, the second joint of the flagellum twice as long as the
third, which is as broad as long. Thorax arched from the base to
the apex, moderately convex, the anterior and posterior margins
both very broadly rounded, more than half as long again as broad,
the sides nearly parallel, shightly broadened on the median segment,
the scutellar tubercle distinct but small, the posterior margin with
six well-defined teeth, the two median the longest, the posterior
truncation almost vertical. Pleura smooth and shining, very
slightly concave. Abdomen convex, the first segment much
narrower than the second, the pygidial area much longer than broad,
very narrowly truncate at the apex and finely punctured. Tibiz
with three or four well-developed spines on the outer margin. _

Ferruginous; the abdomen black; the third segment and the
ventral segments at the apex clothed with long whitish pubescence ;
calcaria white ; flagellum fuscous.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher); November.

Kasily distinguished from pinguicula, which is very similar in
size, colour, and sculpture, by the teeth on the apex of the median
segment.

U 6(2)11

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Mutilla pinguicula, sp. nov.

¥. Ferruginea, punctata, abdomine nigro, secundo segmento
longitudinaliter rugose strigato, segmentis 3to, 4to, quintoque in
medio sparse cinereo-pilosis.

Head and thorax punctured-rugose, more finely and closely on
the head than on the thorax, abdomen punctured, the second dorsal
segment longitudinally rugose-striate, pygidial area not defined.
Head rounded behind the eyes, very little broader than the thorax ;
the eyes broadly oval, situated a little nearer to the posterior
margin of the head than to the base of the mandibles. Antenne
stout, the scape very finely punctured, the second joint of the
flagellum nearly half as long again as the third. Thorax almost
twice as long as broad, the anterior margin straight, the sides
parallel, obliquely sloped posteriorly, the surface of the posterior
slope rugose, the scutellar tubercle absent, a faint longitudinal
carina on the median segment ; pleura shining and almost smooth,
not concave, the dorsal surface of the thorax convex. Abdomen
short and broad, strongly convex, the second segment less than half
as long again as the breadth at the apex. Tibi with only two or
three very feeble spines near the apex.

Ferruginous ; the abdomen black; the third, fourth, and fifth
segments sparsely clothed with gray pubescence in the middle ;
spines of the tibize white.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher) ; November.

Mutilla thermophila, sp. nov.

g. Ferruginea, tennessime punctata, abdomine nigro, subsessile.

Head, thorax, and abdomen finely and closely punctured, the
punctures on the second dorsal segment of the abdomen often con-
fluent longitudinally. Head not quite as broad as the thorax,
rounded behind the eyes, which are a little nearer to the posterior
margin of the head than to the base of the mandibles, oval and not
very prominent. Antenne moderately stout and rather short, the
second joint of the flagellum short, equal in length to the third.
Thorax convex, nearly half as broad again posteriorly as anteriorly,
about one-third longer than the breadth on the posterior margin,
the sides not emarginate or crenulate; the anterior margin
straight, very slightly prominent at the angles. Pleura finely
punctured, very slightly concave, the propleura almost smooth.
Abdomen subsessile, strongly convex, the first segment depressed,
the second very broad, nearly as broad in the middle as long,
sixth segment without a pygidial area. Second ventral segment
coarsely punctured, deeply depressed transversely at the base.
Tibiz almost smooth, with only one or two very slender spines near
the apex,

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON. 147

Ferruginous ; the abdomen black ; the pubescence sparse and.
whitish ; calcaria whitish.

Length, 4 mm.

Hab.__Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher); January.

Mutilla fumigata, sp. nov.

o. Ferruginea, abdomine nigro, segmento quinto in medio
albopiloso.

Head finely punctured-rugose, a little broader than the thorax,
the eyes separated from the posterior margin of the head by a
distance equal to about half their breadth ; antennal tubercles
rather large, smooth, and shining, scape shining, finely and sparsely
punctured, flagellum rather thick, the third joint as long as the
second. Thorax coarsely rugose longitudinally, about twice as
long as broad, the sides almost parallel, very slightly emarginate
in the middle, obliquely sloped posteriorly, a low transverse carina
a little before the apex. Pleura concave, shining, the metapleure
finely punctured. Abdomen closely punctured, the second dorsal
segment longitudinally rugose; pygidial area not very clearly
defined, much longer than broad, shining, very finely and. closely
punctured. Ventral segments finely punctured, the second very
coarsely and closely punctured. Ferruginous, the apical half of the
flagellum more or less fuscous ; the apex of the mandibles and the
whole of the abdomen black; a spot of white pubescence on the
fifth dorsal segment.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher) ; November.

Mutilla fletchert, sp. nov.

°. Ferruginea, rugose punctata, abdomine nigro, segmento
secundo basi macula magna aurea, apice aurea late fasciata.

Head and thorax coarsely rugose-punctate, more coarsely on the
thorax than on the head, pro- and meso-pleure rather indistinctly ,
metapleuree more distinctly punctured. Abdomen finely and
closely punctured, the second dorsal segment coarsely longitudinally
rugose. Pygidial area small, elongate, nearly twice as long as
broad, shining, very minutely punctured at the base. Head no
broader than the thorax, rounded behind the eyes, which are situated
much nearer to the posterior margin of the head than to the base of
the mandibles; the tubercles at the base of the antenne rather
large, scape shining, the second joint of the flagellum longer than
the third. Thorax nearly twice as long as broad, slightly rounded
anteriorly ; the sides almost parallel, very feebly emarginate before
the middle; the pleura slightly concave. The carina on the first
ventral segment of the abdomen is rounded at the apex.

Ferruginous ; the abdomen black ; the flagellum (except the basal
joint) fuscous ; a large spot of golden pubescence at the base of the

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA,

second dorsal abdominal segment, a broad band, broadest in the
middle at the apex of the second segment, and a narrow band at the
apex of the third and fifth segments.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher); November. Three speci-
mens,

This seems to be nearer to M, pulla, André, than to any other
species.

Mutilla wickwart, sp. nov.

?. Nigra, capite ferrugineo, pedibus testaceis, abdominis
segmento secondo basi macula magna, apice fascia lata transversa,
segmentoque tertio toto aureopilosis, area pygidiali nulla.

Head closely punctured, thorax punctured rugose, pleura
shining and almost smooth, abdomen finely and closely punctured,
the punctures on the second segment more or less confluent long!-
tudinally. Head no broader than the thorax, the eyes situated
rather nearer to the posterior margin of the head than to the base
of the mandibles, the head rounded behind the eyes. Antennal
tubercles rather small, the scape finely punctured, the second joint
of the flagellum half as long again as the third ; an indistinct longi-
tudinal carina on the front. Thorax half as long again as broad,
a little narrower posteriorly than anteriorly, the sides very slightly
convex, the pleura not concave. The carina on the first ventral
segment is rather broad, with a small tubercle at the apex. No
pygidial area.

Black ; head and prosternum ferruginous ; legs testaceous brown ;
a large spot at the base of the second segment, a transverse band,
broadest in the middle, on the apical margin, the whole of the third
segment and the fourth less densely convered with golden pubescence.
The two anal segments with long pale hairs on the sides. The
ventral segments narrowly fringed with golden hairs on the apical
margin. An obscure ferruginous spot on each side near the angles
of the median segment.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher) ; November. Two speci-
mens.

Easily distinguished from M. fletcheri by the absence of the’
pygidial area, the finer sculpture, especially on the second dorsal
segment, and the shape of the thorax, the sides of which are slightly
convex instead of concave.

Mutilla desiderata, sp. nov.

2. Ferruginea, punctata, abdomine nigro, segmento 2do, 4to,
quintoque macula albopilosa apice signatis, area pygidiali longi-
tudinaliter striata.

Head and thorax punctured-rugose, second dorsal segment
longitudinally rugose, pygidial area very finely longitudinally

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON, 149

striated, rounded at the apex. Eyes nearer to the posterior
margin of the head than to the base of the mandibles. Head orbi-
cular, no broader than the thorax, the second joint of the flagellum
a little longer than the third. Thorax nearly twice as long as broad,
very slightly rounded posteriorly, a little more strongly anteriorly,
the sides almost parallel, very feebly emarginate, the posterior
truncation almost vertical and coarsely rugose. Pleura concave,
almost smooth, with a few fine and shallow punctures. Ventral
abdominal segments very finely punctured, the second coarsely and
closely punctured. Tibize with two rows of spines.

Ferruginous ; antenne fuscous towards the apex ; legs rufotes
taceous ; abdomen black, a spot of white pubescence on the apical
margin of the second, fourth, and fifth segments ; calcaria whitish.
Pubescence white on the sides and ventral surface, black on the
dorsal surface of the abdomen, pale ferruginous on the head and
thorax.

Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Mletcher).

This seems to be allied to nagrigena, André, and rufiventris, Sm.,
neither of which are known to me except by the descriptions.

Mutilla hexaops, Sauss.
Mutilla hexaops, Sauss. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fn., p. 356, 1867.
Mutilla ceylanensis, Rad. and Sich. Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross., VI.,
p. 247, 1869. 9°.

I cannot see that these forms are distinct. Bingham’s distinctions
between the two are not accurate ; Saussure distinctly says of
hexaops “pedes ferruginei,’ and this corresponds with a specimen
named by him in the British Museum collection, but Bingham says
“legs black, antennz ferruginous.”’ The antennz in hexaops are
fuscous, the scape fusco-ferruginous.

6. Niger, abdomine rufo, segmento primo, apice excepto septimo-
que nigris ; alis flavo-hyalinis, scutello tuberculato.

Black; the pubescence gray ; segments 2 to 6 of the abdomen
and the apex of the first ferruginous with light ferruginous
pubescence. Wings hyaline, tinged with yellow, nervures pale
testaceous.

Clypeus shining in the middle and sparsely punctured, with a
median carina, the sides covered with long pubescence. Antenne
stout, the second joint of the flagellum scarcely longer than the
third. Head closely punctured, thorax rugosely punctured, a
shining median line on the anterior half of the mesonotum, the
posterior half more coarsely sculptured, with a deep longitudinal
sulcus on each side. Scutellum raised in the middle into a low
shining tubercle, with a deep, shining transverse depression at the
base. Pleura coarsely punctured, the metapleuree and median

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

segment coarsely reticulate, two narrowly separated longitudinal
carine at the base of the median segment converging towards the
middle. Abdomen shining and sparsely and finely punctured,
more closely at the apex of the segments than at the base, and with
a fringe of pubescence near the apex of the segments. The carina
on the first basal segment is very shallowly emarginate beneath.
Third abscissa of the radius equal in length to the first, the second
half as long again; first recurrent nervure received before two-thirds
from the base of the second cubital cell, second at three-quarters
from the base of the third cubital cell.

Length, 14 mm.

Hab.—Colombo, Ceylon (Wickwar). 6 2 in copula.

The male is near foreata, Cam., but differs in the distinct, though
low, tubercle on the scutellum, the shape of the carina on the first
ventral segment, the clypeus, and the proportions of the cubital
cells. M.acidalia, Cam., is doubtfully distinct. In most specimens
of hexaops the wings are fuscous at the apex.

Mutilla melanota, sp. nov.

?. Nigra, rugosa, abdomina delicatissime punctato, segmentis
3-4 albo bimaculatis, secundo quadrimaculato, pedibus fusco-
ferrugineis.

Head and thorax coarsely rugose, the mesopleure smooth and
concave, abdomen finely punctured, the sixth segment closely
punctured, flattened, the pygidial area not defined. Eyes large,
situated nearer to the posterior margin of the head than to the base
of the mandibles, separated from the posterior margin of the head
by a distance less than their greatest breadth. Scape shining and
almost smooth, the second joint of the flagellum more than half as
long again as the third. Thorax scarcely as wide as the head,
broadened. posteriorly, the anterior margin rounded, almost verti-
cally truncate posteriorly, the sides slightly crenulate, emarginate
before the middle, the sides of the posterior truncation with small
teeth, the thorax nearly twice as long as the breadth at the base of
the truncation.

Black ; the apex of the scape and the legs fusco-ferruginous ; the
second abdominal segment with an elongate ovate spot of dull white
pubescence on each side before the middle, another smaller and
transverse on each side on the apical margin, the third and fourth
segments with a large spot on each side, the sides of the abdomen
and the apex of the ventral segments with long whitish pubescence,
the apex of the second segment fusco-ferruginous.

Length, 7 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Iletcher) ; November.

Allied to M. sexmaculata, Swed., but the shape of the thorax is
different.

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM OEYLON. 151
Genus Promecilla, André.
Promecilla cyanosoma, sp. nov.

?. Ferruginea, abdomine cyaneo, segmentis 2-5 apice macula
parva albopilosa, thorace elongato, postice contracto.

Head and abdomen finely and closely punctured, thorax rather
more coarsely punctured, the posterior slope reticulate, the pleure
shining and sparsely punctured. Head scarcely broader than the
thorax, narrowed behind the eyes and rounded posteriorly, the
eyes nearer to the posterior margin of the head than to the base of
the mandibles. Thorax more than twice as long as the head,
rounded. anteriorly, arched to the middle and strongly sloped
posteriorly, nearly three times as long as the greatest breadth,
narrowed posteriorly. Second abdominal segment long, twice as
long as broad, apical segment shining, without a pygidial area.

Ferruginous, the abdomen dark shining blue. A small spot of
white pubescence on the middle of the anterior margin of the thorax,
and one in the middle of the apical margin of each dorsal abdominal
segment from the second to the fifth inclusive ; the first ventral
segment ferruginous.

As in most other species of the genus the second joint of the
flagellum is much longer than the third. There are only one or
two spines on the posterior tibia near the apex.

Length, 7 mm.

Hab.—Hambantota, Ceylon (Fletcher) ; February.

This species differs from ariel, Cam., in the colour of the legs
and antennz and the smaller size and different distribution of the
spots of white pubescence. In the latter point it also differs from
regia, Sm., and metallica, Cam. P. hesitata, Cam., has the head
much broader posteriorly, and P. prestabilis, André, has no spots of
white pupescence on the abdomen.

Genus Stenomutilla, André.
Stenomutilla egregia (Sauss.).

Mutilla egregia, Sauss. Ann. Soc. Ent. France (4), VIL, p. 351 ;
1867. . (nec Klug.)

Mutilla aureorubra, Sich. and Rad. Horae. Soc. Ent. Ross., VI.,
p. 304, 1869. 9°.

Mutilla placida, Sm. Descr. n. spce. Hym.,. p. 198, 1879. &.

Mutilla nobilis, Sm. (Cat. Hym. B. M., III., p. 33, 1855, 6), is
almost certainly the male of this species, but it is better to keep
them separate for the present. I have not seen Saussure’s type,
but Smith’s species, the type of which is from Bombay, answers
well to his description and figure.

152 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-family Mernocrn a.
Genus Methoca, Latr.

Methoca bicolor, Cam.

Methoca bicolor. Cam. Mem. Manch. Lit. & Phil. Soc., XLI.,
p. 52, 1897. &.

Hambantota, Ceylon (7. B. Fletcher). 1 9.

Not previously recorded from Ceylon. The specimen differs
from Cameron’s description in having the head finely and sparsely
punctured ; the tibize, as well as the tarsi, are testaceous, also the
mandibles and the six basal joints of the antenne. The thorax
is distinctly more slender than in Cameron’s figure, especially the
median segment ; but this may be an error in the figure. The size
as in Cameron’s description is 5 mm.

This seems to be the first authentic record of Methoca from Ceylon,
for M. rugosa, Cam.. does not belong to the genus. ;

Family SCOLIT DA.

Genus Plesia, Jur.

Plesia petiolata (Sm.).

Myzine petiolata, Sm. Cat. Hym. B. M., TII., p. 72,1855. 6.
Myzine ceylonica, Cam. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), V., p. 18,
1900. ¥.

Male specimens from Colombo taken in June are rather smaller
than the type, measuring only 9 mm. in length. The female varies
much both in the closeness of the puncturation and the colour of the
wings, and there is also much difference in the comparative length
of the abscisse of the radius. It is quite possible that two species
are represented in the series, but I can find no constant distinguish-
ing character. Some of the specimens are almost identical with
Myzne claripennis, Bingh. The differences do not appear to be
seasonal.

Genus Tiphia, Fabr.
Tiphia oswint, sp. nov.

?. Nigra, nitida, alis subhyalinis, ubique sparse punctata, seg-
menti mediani carina mediali subobsoleta, pro- et metapleuris
tenuiter oblique striatis. .

6. Niger, nitidus, alis subhyalinis, apice leviter violaceo
micantibus, clypeo apice inciso, sparse punctatus.

?. Clypeus transverse; head shining, sparsely punctured ; scape
and two basal joints of the flagellum shining, finely and closely

NEW HYMENOPTERA FROM CEYLON. 153

punctured, the second joint of the flagellum twice as long as the
first and about equal in length to the third, the flagellum from the
third joint opaque and very finely pubescent. Posterior ocelli more
than twice as far from the eyes as from each other. Pronotum
coarsely, but rather sparsely, punctured, the posterior margin very
broadly smooth; mesonotum very sparsely punctured; scutellum
sparsely punctured, very broadly rounded at the apex. Propleura
and metapleura finely and closely obliquely striated, mesopleura
finely and very sparsely punctured. Median segment as long as the
mesonotum and scutellum combined, subopaque, very minutely
punctured, the three carine near together, the median one almost
obsolete, the two lateral ones nearly parallel, a little nearer together
at the apex than at the base, the apex distinctly margined, the
posterior truncation almost vertical. Abdomen shining, very
sparsely punctured, most sparsely on the second segment, the first
segment rounded at the base, the second segment with a transverse
longitudinally striated groove at the base; the sixth segment
rounded at the apex, coarsely punctured, and with long sparse
pubescence at the base, smooth at the apex. Second recurrent
nervure received at about two-thirds from the base of the second
cubital cell.

Black, with whitish pubescence ; calcaria fusco-ferruginous ;
wings pale fusco-hyaline, nervures fuscous.

Length, 13 mm.

é. Differs from the female by the usual sexual characters; more
closely punctured, the clypeus incised at the apex ; posterior ocelli
only half as far again from the eyes as from each other; the second
joint of the flagellum distinctly shorter than the third, median
segment in the middle shorter than the mesonotum, very feebly and
broadly emarginate posteriorly, the three carine distinct, the two
outer ones a little nearer together at the apex than at the base.
Radial cell narrowly rounded at apex, extending beyond the apex
of the second cubital cell; stigma rather large, nearly three times
as long as broad. :

Black, wings subhyaline, tinged with fuscous on the apical half
and with violet reflections.

Length, 8 mm.
Hab.—Pattipola, Ceylon (Wickwar), 1 61%; Matale (Braine).

1 é.

This is a larger and more sparsely punctured species than consueta,
Sm., the sculpture of the propleura is different, and the first ab-
dominal segment is more strongly rounded at the base. The three
carine on the median segment are all clearly defined in consueta,
and the colour of the wings is different, though somewhat
variable.

x 6(2)11

154 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.
Genus Scolia, Fabr.
Scolia (Discolia) histrionica, Fabr.
Scolia histrionica, Fabr. Ent. Syst. suppl., 256, 1798. ¥.

Hab.—Colombo.
Scolia vivida, Sm., is almost certainly the male of this species,
as suggested by Saussure.

Genus Dielis, Sauss. and Sich.

Dielis rubromaculata (Sm.).

Scolia rubromaculata, Sm. Cat. Hym. B. M., III., p. 99,

1855. @.
Elis (Dielis) rubromaculata, Sauss. Spec. Gen. Scolia, p. 196,
1864. ¥.

Ceylon specimens, as far as I know, are without red markings
on the abdomen, and very closely resemble Scolia (Discolia) indica,
Sauss. The male of indica is almost certainly eliformis, Sauss. The
male of rubromaculata is smaller, 20 to 25 mm. in length, is clesely
punctured, black, the abdomen strongly glossed with blue, the three
apical segments with a fringe of long fulvous hairs. The wings are
fuscous, slightly glossed with purple.

Hab.—Kandy (Turner) ; Maskeliya (de Mowbray).

A NEW MASON WASP. 155

A NEW MASON WASP.

Odynerus wickwari, n. sp.

By Grorrrey Mreape-Wa po, B.A.

Description of Female.

|e eae : broadly at base and narrowly along the sides of

clypeus, scape of antenne beneath, narrow line running from
between base of antenne to the most anterior of the ocelli, sinus of
the eyes, the inner orbits bordered with a line which branches off
towards the ocelli above, the cheeks entirely, anterior margin of
pronotum broadening laterally ; two spots, the upper ovate, the
lower elongate ovate, on mesopleure, base of tegule, a line on
anterior margin of scutellum broader laterally, a narrow line inter-
rupted medially on the post-scutellum, two triangular marks on
medium segment yellow. Abdomen, apical margin of first abdomi-
nal segment above, second abdominal segment, both dorsally and
ventrally, much enlarged on ventral surface, two small spots about
the middle of first abdominal segment, four spots at even distances
apart placed transversely on segment 2, a series of three spots on
segments 3, 4, and 5, and the apical margin on ventral surface of
segments 3 and 4, yellow. Anterior and intermediate legs, except
the tarsi, posterior legs, with exception of femora, yellow. Apex
of mandibles, entire median segment (except where yellow), first
abdominal segment at base above and wholly on ventral surface,
red. Posterior femora red above, the tarsi ferruginous-red. Wings
hyaline, fuscous along the costa and in radial cell. Clypeus about
as broad as long, truncate, and narrowed towards apex. Pronotum
broad in front, median segment slightly depressed rounded at the
apex ; first abdominal segment not petiolate, rather narrower than
the second. Head and thorax coarsely and evenly punctured,
abdomen shining impunctate, clypeus and abdomen clothed with
a Sparse gray pile.

Length, 7} mm.

Description of Male.

The male differs from female in several points in colouration.
Clypeus yellow and slightly emarginate. Horseshoe mark on disc
of mesonotum yellow. The following yellow markings present in

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

female are not visible on the male, 7.e., the spots on the first and —
second abdominal segments, the lines bordering the inner orbits
and branching in above the ocelli.

Length, 74 mm.

Habitat: Female, Oddichudan, Ceylon, N. P., Nov., 1908 (O. S.
Wickwar). Male, Anuradhapura, Ceylon, N.C. P., Nov., 1908
(O. S. Wickwar).

This species would come next to O. diffinis in Bingham’s Key
(‘‘ Fauna of British India, Hymenoptera,” Vol.I.).

I have pleasure in naming this species after Mr. O. 8. Wickwar,
who has done so much to further the study of Aculeate Hymenoptera
in Ceylon.

THE EGG-TOOTH IN THE CEYLON KRAIT. 157

THE EGG-TOOTH IN THE CEYLON KRAIT, OR
KARAWELLA (BUNGARUS CEYLONICUS).

By Magsor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S.

‘Ty N this Journal* some time ago Mr. E. E. Green recorded a most

interesting discovery of Kraits (Bungarus ceylonicus) with
eggs and hatching young. In January, 1907, visiting Peradeniya,
I was able to examine the hatched young and three of the eggs, and
suggested to Mr. Green opening the eggs with a view to investi-
gating the egg-tooth. Accordingly the three eggs were incised, the
embryos extracted, and we searched for the egg-tooth with the aid
of a microscope, but were doomed to disappointment. I am fairly
certain, however, that we did not examine the jaws of the two
hatched young. At that time I had never seen the egg-tooth of
any snake, but since have been able to do so in several species. It
occurred to me the other day to re-examine these specimens in the
hope of success, now that I know what to look for, and the exact
site of this structure. Mr. Green very kindly presented me with the
specimens, five in all, and the eggs which we had despoiled of their
contents. I have re-examined these with the aid of a microscope,
with the following results. In the three young extracted by us,
which are (1) 6 measuring 52 inches, (2) 6 6% inches, and (3) ¥
62 inches, I failed to discover any rudiment of the foetal-tooth,
but in the smaller of the two hatchlings, which measures 9 inches, I
was successful. I dislodged the structure from the premaxilla,
and viewed it under the microscope, and find it is exactly like the .
foetal-tooth I recently alluded to in the ‘‘ Bombay Natural History
Journal,” which I extracted from the foetus of a pit viper. It
bears a striking resemblance in form to a duck’s head, the
convexity of the head filling the aperture in the front of the
mouth, through which the tongue in later life is exserted while the
jaws remain closed. The beak-like process projects forward slightly
beyond the snout and ends in a horizontal cutting edge, with which
the embryo is able to effect its freedom.

I think-it worth while drawing attention to the close resemblance
in shape of this egg-tooth in an oviparous colubrine snake and the
corresponding structure in the young of a viviparous viper. In the
one case a tough membranous investment has to be opened by the

* Part III., October, 1905.

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

young snake, and in the other a delicate diaphanous membrane.
I am puzzled to know the facts concerning the report given to
Mr. Green that the parents were in the ‘‘ nest’ with the eggs and
hatching young. There seems to be no doubt that there were two
adult snakes in attendance, but were these é and ¢, 7.e., the parents,
as supposed ? It appears to me that there were undoubtedly in
the “nest” two distinct broods of eggs. From one lot the young
were hatching, and two of these measured 9 and 10;; inches
respectively, the other were far less advanced in incubation, the
contained embryos being little more than half the length of hatch-
ings. These measurements have been already given. Now, if we
assume that the two adults were the parents as originally supposed,
then the existence of two broods must point to superfcetation, a
condition which I do not think has ever been established in the
breeding of snakes. Unfortunately the adult snakes were never
sent with the eggs, and the point cannot be cleared up, and there is
no proof of superfcetation. Another solution presents itself, and
that is that both the adults were females, in different stages of
impregnation. This seems to me the more likely explanation of the
two broods, though it appears to me remarkable that two snakes
should select and retire within the same hole to deposit and incubate
their eggs. I have had a considerable number of opportunities of
investigating the incubation of snake’s eggs in a state of nature,
and only once have I known aé in company with its mate after the
deposition of eggs. In this case the species was Shaw’s Wolfsnake
(Lycodon striatus).

NOTES. 159

NOTES.

10. Correction as regards the Ceylon Species of ‘‘ Phlebotomus.”’—
In my account of the species of Phlebotomus that occur in Ceylon
(Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Pt. XX VI.) I divided these species into
two groups, distinguished by the relative positions of the tip of
the first and the anterior fork of the second longitudinal vein of the
wing. In my key on page 59 P. argentipes was placed by some error
in the wrong group. The key may be amended as follows :—

(1) The tip of the first longitudinal vein of the wing
but little in advance of the anterior fork of
the second longitudinal vein.

(a) Colour silvery brown; the area of the

wing paler than the anterior border ; the

cox yellowish; the anterior branch

of the second vein about twice as long

as the distance between the two forks

of the vein a .. P. marginatus.
(6) Dorsal surface of the thorax dark brown,

the sides yellow. The anterior branch

of the second longitudinal vein less than

twice as long as the distance between

the two forks ee .. P. argentipes.

(2) The tip of the first longitudinal vein far in
advance of the anterior fork of the second.

(a) Thorax brown; coxe yellowish; the

whole of the wings paler than the

abdomen. The anterior branch of the

second vein about five times as long as

the distance between the two forks .. P. zeylanicus.
(6) Colour uniform, dull yellowish-gray.

Wings very narrow ; the anterior branch

of the second vein shorter than the

distance between the twe forks .. P. babu.

N. ANNANDALE.

ll. The Ceylon Jungle Fowl in Captivity—During the experi-
ments carried on by members of the Ceylon Poultry Club with the
Ceylon jungle fowl several interesting incidents occurred which are
worth recording. The following notes record some of these incidents.

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

They occurred mainly in the experimental run put up by Mr. Clement
Johnson, who was the only experimenter who succeeded in produc-
ing some thirty hybrid chicks from a mating of a jungle cock with a
-domestic hen.

At one time he secured two jungle hens, which he placed in a large
covered-in run with a jungle cock and two domestic hens. These
hens tamed down wonderfully quickly, and were great friends with
the cock. After a time one jungle hen developed gapes, so it was
caught and set at liberty. Writing of this hen, Mr. Johnson says :
‘“« The jungle hen that released interests me greatly. Its one object
is to get back into the pen. It walks round and round outside or
perches on the top. Any sudden or unusual noise alarms it, and it
flies or runs into cover. On the other hand, you can approach
within a few yards’ length of it, when it just calmly walks out of your
path like a very tame domestic fowl, no hurry or flurry about it at
all. It avoids fowls that cross its path. Since its release the jungle
cock inside the run calls more or less all day long, and is undoubtedly
distressed at seeing this hen at liberty outside his run. He gets
frantic when she makes a run and disappears from view. I will
give her a week or ten days’ liberty, and then drive her back into
the run again.”

This hen after haunting the scene of her captivity for many days
disappeared one night. It is presumed that she was destroyed by
one of the jungle cats that patrol the neighbourhood.

A little later the second jungle hen developed chickenpox. Fear-
ing that infection would spread, Mr. Johnson had this hen also
caught and liberated, but she likewise refused to depart from the
scene of her captivity. But as her removal was deemed necessary,
she was caught and taken away across a ravine and liberated in the
jungle some quarter of a mile away. Next day, however, she turned
up again, trying to get into the run. She was caught a second time
and taken further afield and liberated. After this, as she did not
return, it was thought she had gone for good. However, some days
later she was back again. She was now quite cured of the chicken-
pox, having evidently cured herself in the jungle, either by eating
some herb or. by living in surroundings natural to her. After this
she continued to live in the garden outside the run, and used to walk
about with some of the young hybrids which Mr. Johnson had bred,
roosting at nights in the branches of a tree along with the hybrids.
The fact of consorting with the wild hen rendered these hybrids a
little less tame than usual. This hen eventually made a nest in the
garden and laid three eggs and sat on them. As she was running
with immature hybrid cockerels and had always rejected their
advances, these eggs were not expected to be fertile. They were,
however, removed from the nest and set under a domestic hen, and,
as expected, all proved infertile. There is little doubt that, if
Mr. Johnson had not left for England at this period, this jungle hen

NOTES. 161

would shortly have produced fertile eggs by running with the more
matured hybrid cockerel in the garden, and he would have produced
the unique cross of hybrid cock and jungle hen.

When her own eggs were removed from the jungle hen’s nest,
they were replaced by three eggs laid by the domestic hen running
with the jungle cock, and these she incubated. Just at the time of
hatching one egg got broken in the nest; it was an addled one. This
attracted thousands of ants to the nest, which not only drove off the
sitting hen, but killed and partly devoured the two chicks just
hatched from the other two eggs. It would have been a strange
sight to have had a jungle hen strutting about the garden with some
hybrid chicks.

Jungle hens have never bred in captivity. Mr. Johnson’s opinion
is that this hen would never have bred with the hybrid cock or any
other cock if it had been confined within wire netting walls.

On the other hand, the late Mr. Young of Udabagie had two
jungle hens in captivity for considerably more than one year, and
they were mating up with a domestic cock, and Mr. Young was very
hopeful of producing hybrids from this mating, when his tragic
death by lightning put a stop to the experiment.

It was just at this period that Mr. Johnson left Ceylon for England.
Before he left this jungle hen was enticed into the run and caught,
and with the jungle cock was sent to Mr. G. C. Bliss at Atagalla.
The cock did not take kindly to the close confinement necessary
while his big run was being put up in the new locality, and began to
sicken; when turned into the big run he did not recover, so he was
let out and given his liberty. At night time, however, he returned
to this run (in which the jungle hen had been also placed) and was
allowed to go in. Next morning he was founddead. Thus, after
captivity of sixteen months, ended the life of a most interesting
bird—the progenitor of all the thirty hybrids that were produced
during the experiments. This jungle cock only mated with the one
domestic hen, and would have nothing to do with any other hen, in
fact he drove them all away. Even when his own particular hen
had been removed for a month owing to illness, he still would have
nothing to do with any other. After the death of this cock the
jungle hen became excited and wild, so she was given her liberty,
and flew away to be heard of no more. The history of this hen is
surely unique. She had lived either in the experimental run or in
the garden just outside it for eighteen months.

J. LLEWELLYN THOMAS.

12. Pelenda Nuwara.— A rampart of forest-clad mountains en-
circle the great plath, which forms the adjacent villages of Morapitiya
and Pelenda ; the earthworks which guarded the entrance can still

y 6(2)11

162 SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

be easily traced, while a raised Murapola of stone commands the
mountain path which leads across the Atweltota to Kukul korale.
Crowning a gentle eminence, which is surrounded by several thou-
sands of acres of owita lands, and close to the limpid waters of the
Pelen-ganga, are the plain squared stone columns of the palace of
Vidiye Bandara ; alongside them stands the house of the Colombo
Arachchige family, the descendants of some faithful follower of the
Prince. The position, intersected as it is by the numerous streams
which fall into the river, is one of great natural strength, while the
owita lands are capable of supporting a large population. Close by
there are two villages of Porowakarayas of the Karawe caste and two
of Chaliyas, no doubt the descendants of the Prince’s camp followers ;
while the Moorish villagers claim a similar ancestry. A _ stone
cannon ball was discovered by me among some of the ruins during
a recent visit, and there are numerous traces of ancient iron works.
The road taken by the Prince must have been the ancient path
through Badureliya, Boralugoda, Hewesse, and Hinidumkanda,
into the Galle korale. At the Saman Dewale at Latpandura, 2
miles from Pelenda, is still preserved a cloth which is said to have
been taken from a Portuguese elephant.”

The above is a footnote from page 40 of the second edition of
my translation of Ribeiro’s Ceilao (printed 1909). On June 4 last ~
Mr. G. F. Plant, the Assistant Agent at Kalutara, and I commenced
excavating the low mound which marked the site of the palace of the
brave father of ‘‘ Don Joaio, by the Grace of God, King of Ceilao,
Perea Bandar.” ‘Ten pillars of stone, some large and some small,
but only one in complete preservation, marked the outlines of the
original building. The upper couple of feet of the mound consisted
of broken flat tiles, nearly all ornamented or grooved. Below
appeared the cinders of the stout beams which had once supported
the roof. And under these lay the piles of earth, the walls which
had filled the spaces between the stone supports. Iron nails,
varying in length from 2 to 11 inches, were found in large numbers,
but the results were disappointing. The chief find was a plain
box of soft copper, 14 inches square and fitted with a tight cover.
Within, this was divided into 25 compartments, the central one
containing a fragment of gold. In the others were recognized a
pearl, still beautifully lustrous after 350 years underground, silver,
a ruby, sapphire, topaz, coral, &c. In fact, this was a miniature
Yantragala. One other object of interest there was, the quaint
tile shown in the illustration. What its purpose was it is difficult
to say. The circular hole in the forehead would seem to show that
it was meant to be secured by a nail to the end of a wooden beam.
With tender care the tile was carried under shelter in its bed of
clay, and dried by a fire of coconut branches. But the transport
to Kalutara in a hired Kalutara gharry proved too much for its
enfeebled powers of resistance. The fragments, carefully backed

Bigs 3:

i a

- ; a
o , ae \ pir4 ,
‘ f «
Pag, (hs | i >
faye . :
» et -s 7 »
hee
a Po ,
6%..3% p 4
: =
~ a a%h —— he
}
dl a 7
Fj
qm
De)" per a j
4 oe + "
- i. i"
, 1 ,, s 4
- i y : ’
1 iN ba at, s -
cAL Th ive. . ,
hip ms
an ee : m
f :
AL
4 Vs
me UN 5
: fe
, :
ins, ; ik?
v 7 < | z »
1, 4 ; :
, / ,
= P =
} f ‘
i fas rs
t ral tas #
- . a ; ‘ f hi
oN ty se -
¥ ‘ << d
: = 4 ag a
F e A
- aoe Mid = - ‘
4
. {
A .
. : b
- I ba x. a
a
i Le 4 \.
) i : Ae ‘
: } 7 As
® i | | a
3 3 oat * t
= . i
a) i i
> : ore a a
i 4 ie ~ “t
2 ae ; P j ty :
4 . bet .
< my + -* , t t
é 2 j ¥ ¥
= @ 4 i -
¢ ae : rom 4 7
i r i y me,
CS Zs a 1 . Sn eS ne eee eee Re i
: :
Wik i
ods eae) x
1
5
- ' >
7 7 4 $
ve <
r v v
’ i
\ if
=f S
‘< : C
Tis ° , |
4 Hi yi id ee
q =i P’ "
, ” A :
ra j > < te ‘
=f rel,

NOTES. 163

with cement, now repose in the dignified atmosphere of the Colombo
Museum. ‘That is the last relic of the refuge of “ Tuttarayakandan
Taniyanwallan Ekangaviran Madiyantramantran,”’* from where he
fled, leaving his standard and his book of war songs, before the
victorious arms of the boy of twelve, the Lion King of the future.
One word more. Sixty-two villagers assisted us in the work of
excavation. No one demanded payment. Their breakfast cost
us Rs. 10°69, and we were enabled to show Government a saving
of Rs. 39°31 on the sum which had been allowed us. (The
photograph is by Mr. A. de Abrew, Proctor, of Kalutara.)

P. EK. PIERIS.

13. Child’s Play—Capt. F’. R. Barton thus describes a children’s
game in British New Guinea [vide Journ. R. Anthrop. Inst. (Great
Britain), 1908, p. 273]. ‘‘ Four girls or more sit upon the ground
in a circle facing inwards. They then place their hands, each girl
nipping with forefingers and thumbs the skin on the back of the
hand next to her. They then move their collected hands up and
down in unison to the rhythm of the following song :—

Kinimala Kinimala
Lepa lepa maloa taitu
Kepa kepa anaurio
Melaule malare palaia.

The song finished they leave go of each other’s hands and drop
them limply in a heap.”

Sinhalese children play an identical game, and sway their flexed
hands up and down to the following jingle :—

Kaputu kak kak kak
Goraka dén dén dén
Umutu vav vav vav
Dorakada gahe puvak puvak
Batapanduré bulat bulat
Kaputage katé vela madulayi
Kaputige katé ran massayi
Magata kanta bat mallayi
Vekande kande udin yan yan
Peli doren usi kaputa usi.
ARTHUR A. PERERA.

* The honorific assumed by the Prince while at Pelenda, according to an
ancient ola copy of the Rajawaliya.

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. ?

14. A convenient method of storing Butterflies in Paper
Envelopes.*—Triangular paper envelopes have been employed by
travelling entomologists for the temporary storage of butterflies,
for many years. But it has been usual to lay these envelopes
haphazard in plain boxes, in such a manner that it is impossible
to find any particular specimen without turning over the whole
contents of the box. |

By the use of the special boxes here described the envelopes
occupy very much less space, the contents are less liable to damage,
and any individual specimen can be found and removed with the
greatest ease without disturbing the remainder.

“of

The boxes are made of tin plate, with partitions dividing them into
trough-shaped spaces. The envelopes rest edgeways in the troughs.
The boxes are fitted with two lids, above and below.

Fia. 4.

Fig. 4 shows a box with the upper lid removed and the lower one
in place. The box measures 9 in. by 6in. by 3in. The upper space
contains a single trough (a), and carries envelopes with a base of
5? inches.

* The above is abstracted, with some alterations, from the Proc. Ent. Soc.,
Feb., 1910, p. 3. The figures are reproduced through the kindness of the
Entomological Society of Tondon —HD.

NOTES.-

| SS =
SSS

i)
i

ig. 6 shows a box o oned for the smaller
lone, a Bae ing oughs (d, e, f, g).
MUTT G rT
ig. 7 18 a ga

fi

double the depth of the others,

i

e€

I)
i Bo in ., With a diagonal partition forming

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

a single trough above and below (h, 7), capable of carrying onvelopes
of a larger size.

(In figs. 5, 6, and 7 the two lids have been omitted for sake of
clearness.)

These boxes are designed for three sizes of envelopes, which gives
a sufficient range for butterflies of any size. Size 1 is made from a
rectangle 8in. by 5in. Size 2 from a rectangle 6 in. by 4in. Size
3 from a rectangle measuring 4 in. by 2? in.

It is found in practice that a box made according to fig. 4 will
carry, without overcrowding, from 100 to 130 full envelopes in the
larger trough, and from 175 to 200 in each of the two smaller spaces.
Design 2 will hold in each of the four spaces 225 Lycenide, making
a total of 900 insects. Design 3 will hold 75 or more filled envelopes
in each of the two spaces.

For convenience of examination the insects should be arranged
in families : the genera alphabetically in each family, and the species
alphabetically in each genus. Subsequent additions can be slipped
into their places without disturbing those already in position. To
keep the envelopes in place when the troughs are only partly
occupied, triangular blocks of cork about ?# inch thick can be
employed. For use as collecting boxes the troughs can be charged
with empty envelopes, and the cork triangles will serve as markers
to separate the unused envelopes as they are filled.

The boxes illustrated are of the simplest design, as made by a
local tinsmith in Ceylon. They can be improved by a coating of
black japan on the outside.

Messrs. Watkins & Doncaster have adopted this design, and are
turning out boxes (to suit, their special-sized envelopes) in stout
japanned zinc, with perforated partitions at the end of each trough
for the reception of naphthalene or camphor.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

15. On a curious Scolopendriform Caterpillar (‘* Homodes fulva,”
Hampson).—Three species of Homodes (crocea, Guen. ; vivida, Guen. ;
and fulva, Hampson) are recorded from the Indian region, but the
larva of none of these species has been described.

A small dull-coloured larva was recently found wandering about
in the verandah of my laboratory, Its form and movements were
so peculiar that I had to examine it with a lens to assure myself that
it was really the caterpillar of a Lepidopterous insect.

Fig. 8a shows a bird’s-eye view of the larva (natural size). The
lateral processes, which might at first sight be mistaken for the
limbs of a myriopod, are stout’spatulate hairs.

NOTES. 167

During the progression of the insect they are kept im constant
movement, being raised and lowered consecutively, simulating the
action of the legs of a Scolopendra, but at a much lower speed.
While at rest both the head and the posterior extremity are elevated,
and the latter is frequently jerked from side to side in a minatory
manner. On closer examination it is seen that the posterior
extremity simulates a second head. There is a pair of prominent
black chitinous spots on the dorsum of the terminal segment which
might readily be mistaken for eyes, and the spatulate hairs are
suggestive of an arrangement of antenne and palpi. Even the
terminal claspers lend to the deception, for they occupy the position
of a pair of mandibles, and are held distended, as though ready for

action (see fig. 8b),
\

Fic. 8a. Fie. 86.

This caterpillar pupated in a tightly rolled section of the leaf upon
which it had been feeding. It had fed up on Terminalia catappa,
which happened to be the first food plant with which it was presented.

The moth, which proved to be Homodes fulva, was disclosed on
December 20.

The fully-grown caterpillar measures 14 inches in length. It is of
a brownish-green colour, with inconspicuous maculations of a darker
shade. Head reddish-brown. ‘The first pair of abdominal claspers
are small and practically obsolete, the others normal. The second
segment carries ten long spatulate hairs directed forwards. There
are two similar hairs on each side of the third and fourth segments.
A single spatulate hair springs from each side of the fifth to the
eleventh segments. The twelfth has a pair on each side, and the
terminal segment has six of these hairs directed backwards, with
@ prominent black chitinous spot at the base of the outer hair on
each side.

E. ERNEST GREEN.

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

16. On the Larva oj ‘‘ Panilla albopunctata,’ Wlk.—The larva of
this Noctuid moth feeds commonly on the under surface of a large
Polyporid fungus that vegetates on decaying stumps of trees. It is
found more occasionally upon other woody fungi.

The caterpillar is of the normal form of Quadrifine larve, having
only two pairs of abdominal claspers, and, when young, may easily
be mistaken for that of a Geometrid moth.

Its colouration renders it very inconspicuous, being of a pale
translucent ochreous tint, usually with an irregular blackish blotch
on the dorsum of the fourth and fifth segments, and a similar mark
on the seventh and eighth segments. It is of a rather slender
cylindrical form, and carries a few colourless hairs.

Pupation takes place in a compact cocoon composed of pellets of
the excreta of the caterpillar, which vary in colour with that of the
fungus upon which it had been feeding. The cocoon is usually
attached to the under surface of the fungus. It may be suspended
by a short cord at one extremity, or may be attached at both
extremities.

The caterpillars were feeding during January and February.
The moths emerged during February and March.

E. ERNEST GREEN.

CEYLON ALPHEID &. 169

CEYLON CRUSTACEA.
Part 1.—Notes on the Alpheidez. |
By JosEpH PEARSON.

(With three Plates. ) \ OY. % BH
SL

| present report deals with a small collection of Alpheids
from the Colombo Museum. The members of the genera
Alpheus and Synalpheus, though numerous in individuals and
species, are but little known to any but the specialist in marine
carcinology. This is partly owing to their small size, but mainly
due to the fact that they generally take up their abode in the deep
recesses of some sponge or in the crevices of a fleshy alcyonarian,
and even, for want of more favourable shelter, in some friendly
hole in a coral. Thus the casual collector may be in the midst of
a rich Alpheid fauna without being aware of the fact. Often, how-
ever, when sponges are brought up in the dredge and are emptied
on deck, the Alpheids will emerge from their retreat.

These tiny creatures are characterized by having an asymmetrical
pair of chele, one of them being extremely large, perhaps half as
big as the body of the animal, while the other is of normal size.
The large chela does not appear to be restricted to one side of the
body in any particular species. It may be either on the left or on
the right side. It is hard to say along what lines this single large
chela has been evolved, and the exact meaning of its abnormal
development. The Alpheids live in holes, and it is conceivable
that, like the hermit crab, the single large claw may be used to block
the entrance to the shrimp’s retreat. But this does not afford a
satisfactory explanation, especially in view of the fact that an
Alpheid is much more independent of its place of shelter than is the
hermit crab. Moreover, many active Macrurans, such as some of
the Palemonide, often have asymmetrical chele.

These small crustaceans are sometimes known as “snapping
shrimps,” on account of an interesting habit they have of snapping
the fingers of their huge claw. When emptied on deck out of
the dredge, or when put into a dish of water, they frequently betray
their presence in this way, making a noise which may readily be
heard at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet.

I give here an interesting note on the habit of Alpheids, contri-
buted-by my assistant, Mr. George Henry. He says :—

“On one occasion I watched two Alpheids, male and female,
courting. They were in a pie-dish, full of sea water, with several
other* creatures, among which were some other Alpheids. The

Zz 6(11)11

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

larger specimen, which I took to be a male, was following the smaller
(female) slowly round the pie-dish, and evidently “ showing off,”
feeling her with his antenne, &c. The pair slowly crawled round
and round the pie-dish, the female first, followed by the male.
After a while a third Alpheid, presumably another male, became
interested in the proceedings and approached the pair. When he
was within a few inches of them, the first male discovered his
presence and smartly whisked round, at the same time vigorously
snapping his large chela. He did not attempt to attack the inter-
loper, but merely snapped a number of times in succession, and this
appeared to have the desired effect, because the intruder promptly
fled. I was unable to make any further observation as a large
cuttle-fish came scrambling round and crawled over the pair, much
to the indignation of the male, who snapped his disapproval of this
sreatment.”’

The knowledge of colour characters that one is able to derive
from specimens of Alpheids preserved in spirit is naturally not very
reliable. When living these tiny crustaceans are very daintily
and even brightly coloured, and the large chela is always most
conspicuous by reason of its well-defined colour, generally of a
uniform scarlet. Perhaps nowhere else in Nature are the colours
so vivid and so varied as those possessed by the coral fishes and
other creatures which frequent the brightly coloured sponge masses
and branching corals of tropical seas. The Alpheids form no
exception to this rule. Owing to the small size the colours are not
very noticeable, but their brilliancy harmonizes with the general
colour scheme of the coral reefs and sponge banks where the Alpheids
abound.

Our present knowledge of Ceylon Alpheids cannot be regarded as
being by any means extensive, as it is based upon two small collec-
tions—one made by Professor Herdman in 1902, and the other lying
in the Colombo Museum and forming the subject of the present
paper. As marine biological research in Ceylon has been mainly
concerned with the Pearl Banks, most of the Alpheids hitherto
described, and the majority of those dealt with in the present report,
have come from that locality. It is true that Professor Herdman
made collections all around the Ceylon coast, but those made on the
Pearl Banks were much more intensive than those taken elsewhere.
Consequently it is not surprising to find that of the eighteen species
of Alpheids collected by him fourteen were obtained between Chilaw
and Adam’s Bridge.

In January last I made a very careful examination of the fauna
of Trincomalee Harbour and I found it surprisingly rich in Alpheids.
Only six species were represented, but the number of individuals
was very large. The presence of so many Alpheids may be
accounted for by the abundant sponge fauna of Trincomalee Bay.

CEYLON ALPHEID 2. 171

The following is a list of the species described in the present
report :—

Synalpheus neomeris, var. streptodactylus, Coutiere.

Synalpheus graviert, Coutiére.

Synalpheus biunguiculatus, var. exilipes, Coutiére.

Synalpheus tumido-manus, Paulson.

Alpheus ventrosus, H. M.-Edwards.

Alpheus phrygianus, Coutiére.

Alpheus bucephalus, Coutiére.

Alpheus aculeipes, Coutiére.

Alpheus frontalis, H. M.-Edwards.

Alpheus rapax, Spence Bate.

Alpheus bis-incisus, de Haan.

Alpheus audowint, Coutiére.

Alpheus strenuus, Dana.

The following table gives a list of Alpheids which have been
described from Ceylon up to the present :—

Herdman’s Colombo

Collection. Museum. General Distribution.

Synalpheus neomeris Baty ey .. Indo-Pacific, Australia
var. streptodactylus .. .. ™& .. Maldives, Ceylon

Syn. graviert .. a2 & lt X &.' 6 Maldives; Ceylon

Syn. biunguiculatus Bot Weyer ray .. Indo-Pacific
var. exilipes a .. ™& .. Maldives, Ceylon

Syn. laticeps .. Tae es .. Maldives, Ceylon

Syn. tumido-manus 4! -. ™% .. Red Sea, Indian Ocean

Syn. comatulorum me Indo-Pacific, Australia

Syn. carinatus. . x Indian Ocean

Alpheus ventrosus x x Indo-Pacific, Australia

A. idiocheles x Maldives, Ceylon

A. phrygianus. . Bae ON eee ON Ge. ue MaIGLVes.: Coylorm

A, bucephalus . . a -. ™& .. Indian Ocean

A. aculeipes x Maldives, Ceylon

A. paraculeipes x Maldives, Ceylon

A, paralcyone . . Ai Ghee tae .. Maldives, Ceylon

A. frontalis .. a ve. 073% Indian’ Ocean

A. mers Soy ames .. Indo-Pacific

A. rapax ve pa wow «. 1. ndo-Pacitic

A. pareuchirus Xx Maldives, Ceylon

A. bis-incisus .. Xx Xx Indo-Pacific

A. audowint x Xx Indo-Pacific

A, strenuus Se nt Oe | om, Lndo-Pagific

A. macrodactylus sae eA ays .. Australia, Ceylon

A. spongiarum x Maldives, Ceylon

It is not surprising to find that of the twenty-five species and
varieties of the Alpheidz obtained from Ceylon, only three species
have not also been found in the Maldives, as one naturally expects
the Maldivian crustacean fauna to be similar to that of Ceylon.
Coutiére has described sixty-six species and varieties of Alpheids
from the Maldives, and there is every reason to believe that when
the Ceylon fauna has been thoroughly investigated a large number
of species will be added to the present list of Ceylon Alpheids.

172 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In giving the sizes of the various species I have used the following
symbols :—

a = Total length of carapace along the mid-dorsal line, com-
mencing at the base of the rostrum.

b! to b& = Lengths along the mid-dorsal line of abdominal
segments 1 to 6 respectively.

6? = Total length of telson.

e = Greatest length of propodite of large claw.

e! — Greatest height of propodite of large claw.

e> — Greatest length of dactylopodite of large claw.

I shall not follow Coutiére’s terms for the parts of the antennules
and antenne.

For “stylocerite”’ I shall use antennular scale ; for “‘ carpocerite,”
antennal peduncle ; instead of “scaphocerite,”’ antennal scale; and
I shall use. basal scale instead of Coutiere’s ‘‘ basicérite.”

The following is the literature which has been chiefly consulted
in the compilation of the present lists :—

1. Pearson.—Herdman’s Ceylon Pearl Oyster Report. Supple-
mentary Report No. XXIV. The Macrura.
1905.

2. Coutiére—Gardiner’s Fauna and Geography of the Maldive
and Laccadive Archipelagoes. Les Alpheide.
1906.

Genus Synalpheus, Spence Bate, 1888.

Cephalothorax laterally compressed. Abdomen well developed.
Rostrum small and extremely variable in shape and length. Eyes
covered by carapace. The orbital arches well defined and separated
from rostrum and antennal sulcus by more or less well-defined
grooves. Orbital spines in front of orbital arch always present and
well developed, often equal in length to rostrum. First antennular
article longer than the others. The antennular scale well developed.
Basal antennal scale well developed. Pereiopods without epipodites.
First two pairs chelate. First pair extremely large and asym-
metrical ; the propodite without upper and lower notches ; the
dactylopodite short. Carpopodite of second pair subdivided into
five parts ; the first part at least equal in Iength to the sum of the
three following parts. Dactylopodite of last three pairs either
bifid or trifid. .

SYNALPHEUS NEOMERIS, var. STREPTODACTYLUS, Coutiére.
Synalpheus neomeris, var. streptodactylus, Coutiére. Fauna of

Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Two specimens, from Trincomalee ; January, 1911.
The rostrum and orbital spines are equal in length and about
two-thirds the length of the first antenuulayr article.

CEHYLON ALPHEID 4. 173

The first antennular article is twice as long as the third and one
anda half times as long as the second. The antennular scale extends
to the middle of the median article.

The antennal peduncle extends beyond the antennular peduncle
by a distance equal to the third antennular article. The antennal
scale is slightly longer than the antennular peduncle, but the leaf-like
portion is considerably shorter. The basal scale bears two spines :
a larger ventral one which nearly reaches the middle of the median
antennular article, and a smaller dorsal spine which extends as far
forward as the orbital spine.

This variety only differs from de Man’s species neomerts in the
form of the dactylopodites of the third and following pereiopods,
The main spine of the dactylos is narrower than in de Man’s species,
and not so curved. The dorsal spine is longer than in neomeris,
and is about two-thirds as long as the main spine.

The two specimens are very small, and are, moreover, im a very
bad state of preservation, so that satisfactory measurements of the
body cannot be given. Measurements of the first three pereiopods
are appended, but I cannot say with any certainty that they all
belong to the same individual. The only value of these measure-
ments, therefore, is that they give the proportions of the parts of
the legs.

Large chela.
e = 5'0 mm. e2 == 1 mam:
ef ==) 1b ming.

Second pereiopod.*

1 = 1683; 3707 c4 = 165; 287
m = 2112; 363 | e — 429; 330
e=u— Iho; 280 | p = 1056; 363
oc? = 231; 280 | ad = 676; 148
c3 = 181; 277 |
Third perevopod.

m = 2310; 594 | p = 2046; 363
¢ = 1122; 429 | ad = 660; 214

General Distribution.—Maldives, Ceylon.

SYNALPHEUS GRAVIERI, Coutiére.
Synalpheus graviert, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Ten specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.
This form is closely allied to Synalpheus neomeris, but differs from
it in having a longer antennal scale and a slightly shorter basal scale.

* ; — ischiopodite ; m — meropodite ; c’ to c® = segments 1-5 of the carpo-
podite ; p = propodite; d = dactylopodite.

+ The first of these numbers refers to the length, and the second to the
width, of the segment in terms of .

a

—

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

The dactylos of the third and following pereiopods is also different,
the dorsal spine being extremely small. The propodite is pro-
portionately shorter in this species than in Syn. neomeris.

Dimensions of the body.

i= he DOM | b§ == 2°4 mm.
bi — 2-4 mim | b= be 2) mm,
oa An ota EW 65 11 -Samme
6? = 3:2 mm. e! = 4:9 mm.
bi — 13-2 im. e* = 3°65 mini.

b> = 2:4 mm;

Second pereiopod.

1 = 4356; 825 | ct = 627; 627
m = 5181; 825 | 5 = 1254; 660
Cu—larOee soot | p = 2145; 693
c’ = 792; 594 d = 1287; 244

Co = 627 594

Third pereiopod.
m = 4785; 1617 ig p = 3729; 825
6 = 2Sl0i) 957 | b = 1056

General Distribution.—Maldives, Ceylon.

SYNALPHEUS BIUNGUICULATUS, var. EXILIPES, Coutiére.

Synalpheus biunguiculatus, var. exilipes, Coutiére. Fauna of
Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Twelve specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; November, 1910.

The rostrum and the two orbital spines are about equal in length,
and the rostrum is much narrower than the orbital spines. The
rostrum extends beyond the middle of the first antennular article.

The first antennular article is one and a half times as long as the
median article and two and a half times as long as the third. The
scale reaches nearly to the middle of the median article.

The antennal peduncle is one-third longer than the antennular
peduncle ; its scale is only slightly longer than the latter, and the
leaf-like portion of the scale is poorly developed. The basal scale
consists of two parts : a longer ventral portion which extends to the
middle of the median antennular article, and a smaller dorsal piece
which extends as far forward as the tip of the orbital spine.

The following are the dimensions of a typical specimen :—

Gd. =i 0 mm. | 65 1b mime
b} = 1:8 mm. bY = 2°5 mm.
b> = 1-8 mm. @ = /9-b mm:
b* = 1:6 mm. | e! — 4 0 mm.
b* = 1-6 mm. | e> = 3:0 mm.
b> = 1:25 mm. |

CEYLON ALPHEID®. 175

The large claw differs somewhat from that of S. biwunguiculatus in
having the spine at the distal end of upper palmar surface upturned
so as to resemble the claw of Synalpheus apioceros.

The second pereiopod is richly clothed with sete near its distal end.
Its dimensions are as follows :—

i = 2046; 561 ct = 297; 379
m = 2706; 561 ce? = 627; 412
co} = 1617; 396 p = 1254; 429
c” = 363; 396 d = 759; 198
3 = 297; 379

The third pereiopod has a single spine at the distal end of the
posterior border of the carpopodite, and eight spines on the posterior
border of the propodite. The dactylopodite is biunguiculate, the
two parts being almost equal. The dimensions are as follows :—

I

i = 1089; 825 | » = 2079 ; 528
m = 3399; 1056 d = 396; 214
c = 1551; 627 |

General Distribution —Maldives and Ceylon.

SYNALPHEUS TUMIDO-MANUS, Paulson.

Synalpheus tumido-manus, Paulson. Red Sea Crustacea, 1875.

Synalpheus neptunus , Coutiére. Bull. Soc. Ent., France, 1898.

Synalpheus twmido-manus, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lace.,
1906.

One specimen, from the Pearl Banks ; November, 1910.

Six specimens, from bottom of ss. “ Violet,’? Colombo ; October,
1910. .

Twelve specimens, from Colombo Harbour ; September, 1907.

This species resembles Synalpheus biunguiculatus, but differs from
it in the antennal peduncle being comparatively shorter. There is
also a slight difference in the dactylopodite of the third pereiopod.
The chela is also slightly longer in proportion to the height.

The rostrum and orbital spines resemble those of Synalpheus
buinguiculatus, var. exilipes, except that the rostrum is slightly
longer.

The first antennular article is twice as long as the distal article and
slightly longer than the median. The scale extends past the middle
of the median article.

The antennal peduncle is only slightly longer than the antennal
and about the same length as the antennal scale. The ventral part
of the basal scale extends beyond the basal antennular article, and
the dorsal part is but feebly developed.

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The dimensions of the body are as follows :—

a = 8") mm: b° = 20 anm:
b= — 276 mm: b? = 3°2 mm.
b? = 3:4 mm. e = 10°6 mm.
b° = 2°56 mm. e§ = 4:5 mm.
b* = 2°25 mm. e2 = 3:2 mm.

b> = 1:9 mm.

The dimensions of the second pereiopod are as follows :—

4 = 2442; 660 | ct = 363; 429
m = 3217; 660 | co = 825; 462
cl = 1914; 403 p = 1485; 495
Caso ioe dle ike ceh a Wiehe
C—O oo

The dactylos of the third leg has the ventral part slightly shorter
and broader than the dorsal part. There are eight spines on the
propodite of the third leg. The distal end of the carpos bears a
blunt process on the dorsal side and a sharp spine on the ventral.
The dimensions are as follows :—

i = 1369; 891 | p = 3069; 561
m = 3679; 1056 d = 858; 264
c = 1914; 693 |

General Distribution.—Red Sea, Indian Ocean.

Genus Alpheus, Fabricius, 1798.

Cephalothorax laterally compressed. Abdomen well developed.
Rostrum small, rarely extending beyond first antennular article.
Eyes covered by carapace. The orbital arches well defined and
separated from rostrum and antennal sulcus by more or less well-
defined grooves. Orbital spines generally absent. First antennal
article shorter than the second. Antennular scale much reduced.
Basal antennal scale usually extremely small. Pereiopods with epi-
podites. First two pairs chelate. First pair of pereiopods extremely
large and show well-marked asymmetry. Propodite with or without
upper and lower notches. Carpus of second pair subdivided into
five parts, the proximal part being less than the sum of the three
following parts, the last three pairs of pereiopods ending in a simple
dactylopodite.

ALPHEUS vENTROSUS, H. M.-Edwards.
(Plate V., Fig. 2.)
Alpheus ventrosus, H. M.-Edwards. H. Nat. Crust., t. 2, p. 352,
1837.
Alpheus levis, Randall. J. Acad. Sci., Philadel., vol. VIIT., 1839,

and many others.
Alpheus ventrosus, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald, and Lacc., 1906.

CEYLON. ALPHEID2. Lr

Six specimens, from Weligama.

Three specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

According to Coutiére this is the commonest species of Alpheus,
and the most widely distributed.

I have followed Coutiére in including Randall’s species along with
that of Milne-Edwards.

This is one of the few examples of an Alpheus possessing orbital
spines.

The rostrum, which extends almost to the extremity of the first
antennular article, is well developed, and is separated from the orbits
by well-defined grooves.

The first and second antennular articles are almost equal and
nearly twice as long as the distal article. The antennular scale
reaches nearly to the middle of the second article.

The antennal peduncle and scale are about equal in length, and
extend beyond the antennular peduncle by a distance nearly equal to
the third antennular article. There is a basal scale present which is
nearly as long as the first antennular article.

This species is characterized by having the cephalothorax laterally
compressed to a marked degree. The carapace is very deep, and
its greatest depth is equal to its mid-dorsal length. Instead of the
lower edge of the carapace being rounded as in most species, there
are several sharp angles which give this form a very characteristic
appearance.

The following are the dimensions of a typical specimen :—

ar — 9 Ojmimn: | b4 = 3°5 mm. ; @ ==14-°9 mm.
b1 = 1:7 mm. — bd) = 2:8 mm. | el = 6:0 mm.
b2 = 4°25 mm. bf = 3-0 mm. | ve4==455 emo,
6? = 3:6 mm. | 6? = 5-0 mm.

The large claw is laterally compressed, and possesses no upper and
lower teeth on the palm. The hands of both the first pereiopods are
coloured bright orange in the living specimen and have a mottled
appearance. Some of the specimens have a setiferous ridge on the
movable finger of the smaller hand. The presence of this setiferous
ridge is doubtless a sexual difference, and is probably confined to
males. I cannot, however, give any proof of this, as in every
specimen the first pereiopods are detached and are lying loose at the
bottom of the bottle.

The second pereiopod is not so slender as in most Alpheids. The
hand is richly clothed with sete.

The following are the measurements of the second pereiopod :—

t = 2112; 825 | c? = 10238; 759 6 sesh2ZE 693
m = 4290; 990 c? = 858 ; 726 _ p = 1551; 693
G) 262310 5792, |. c* == 8255 726 lis dd. =="359% 297

2a 6(11)11

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The third pereiopod is fairly strongly made. The dactylopodite
is not nearly so slender as in most species of Alpheus. Dimensions
of third pereiopod :—

m = 4290; 1551 = 2706 ; 858
c = 2673; 1155 d = 1320; 660

Altogether this species is a very distinctive one, and in many ways
is different from a typical member of the genus.
General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

ALPHEUS PHRYGIANUS, Coutieére.
Alpheus phrygianus, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Three specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

The rostrum is represented by an extremely small projection.
It is continued back between the eyes as a well-defined ridge.

The antennular peduncle are comparatively long and slender.
The proximal article is shorter than the distal and the median is
twice as long as the distal. The antennular scale is rounded in front,
and is half the length of the proximal article.

The antennary peduncle is short and only extends to the end of
the median antennular article. Its scale is still shorter, and only
reaches to the middle of the median article.

The following are the dimensions of the body :—

a>—)/ 6mm? p22 mama

b= 1-0) mim: bi —— 2 69mm
p20 ram: ee = 5-1) mm

62 — +2 718 mm. et == 3 6m.
6* = 2-> mm, Crke— 22 ara

65 —= 2:0 mm:

The hand of the large claw is peculiar, and the dactylopodite has
a process directed backward, which makes the dactylos hammer-

shaped.
The second pereiopod is exceeding slender and has the following
proportions :—
1) =o 1 9693 Cu 7922528
m = 7326; 5181 ce? = 1221; 594
cl = 2772; 488 p = 2574; 693
c? = 2871; 528 d = 1154; 307
ce? = 693; 528

In the third and following legs the meros has a well-developed
process near the distal end. At the distal end of the carpos there is’
a blunt process on the dorsal side and a spine on the ventral side,

CEYLON ALPHEID. 179

The propodite has six spines, and the dactylos is well curved and
single. The dimensions of the third leg are as follows . —

i = 1386; 990 p = 2508; 581
m = 3993; 1221 | d = 792; 198
c = 3300; 726 |

This form undoubtedly belongs to the obeso-manus group.
General Distribution.—Maldives, Ceylon.

ALPHEUS BUCEPHALUS, Coutiére.

Alpheus crinitus, Coutiére. Bull. Soc. Entom., 1898.
Alpheus bucephalus,Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

One specimen, from Trincomalee ; January, 1911.

The rostrum is short and is not half as long as the first antennular
article. The rostrum is continued with a median ridge which extends
backwards between the orbits.

The first and third antennular articles are equal, and both are
slightly shorter than the median article. The scale is small, and
only half the length of the first article. The peduncle is only five-
sixths the length of the antennal peduncle, and equal in length to
the antennal scale.

The single specimen is small, and is too mutilated for accurate
measurement.

The dimensions of the chele are as follows :—

e = 7:0 mm.; e' = 3:15 mm.; e? = 2:7 mm.
The fingers are very short, and the palm is high in comparison to
its length. Both upper and lower palmar borders are smooth.

The second pereiopod possesses a long second segment to the
carpos. The dimensions are as follows :—

i = 2277; 462 | ot = 462; 346
m = 2970; 330 6 — 660; 363
ct = 643; 297 p == 1221; 429
c2 = 1840; 330 d = 627; 165
c3 = 462; 330

The third pereiopod is very broad. There is a well-developed
spine on the ischium. The meros broadens out distally into a very
prominent spine on the lower side. The carpos has a blunt spine at
the distal end of its lower border. The propodus is short and has
about eight spines irregularly arranged on the lower side. The
upper side is richly clothed with setz. The dactylos is strong and
curved. Dimensions :—

2310 ; 792 p = 990; 429
1155; 495 d = 528; 165

m
Cc

I

General Distribution.—Indian Ocean,

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ALPHEUS ACULEIPES, Coutiére.

Alpheus aculeipes, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Two specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

The rostrum is poorly developed.

The proximal antennular article is slightly shorter than the distal.
The median article is nearly twice as long as the proximal. The
scale is short, and does not reach to the end of the first article.

The antennal peduncle is one and a quarter times the length of the
antennular peduncle. The spine of the scale is nearly as long as the
antennal peduncle, but the leaf-like portion is shorter than the
antennular peduncle.

The dimensions of the body are as follows :—

a = 50mm. bt = 1:67 mm. | e =76mm
b} = 1-0 mm. 65 = 1:2 mm. e =3:3mm
62 = 1:2 mm. 6§ — 1:3 mm. e = 3-0 mm

63 = 1:2 mm. b7 = 2:0 mm.

The chela is exceedingly large in propoftion to the body, and is
probably about three-quarters as large as the rest of the body. The
fingers are short.

The dimensions of the second pair of pereiopods are as follows :—

i. — 22) 5300 c? = 1534; 238 ce? = 561; 264
m = 2442; 251 Cy 319) 247 p — lia 287
ch 4955 2al Cs soso on 5027 emily

The third pereiopod has a small spine on the ischium ; the meros
has numerous short spines on its ventral border ; near this border
is a longitudinal ridge which ends distally in a well-developed spine.
The short carpos has a similar ridge and spine. The propodite
has about a dozen spines more or less irregularly arranged. The
-dactylos is curved, and is characterized by the presence of a small
process on its ventral surface. The carpos and propodos are richly
clothed with sete. Dimensions :—

t = 792; 594 | oc = 1320; 462 | d = 373; 99
m = 2475; 660 | p= 1518; 363 |

General Distribution.—Maldives, Ceylon.

ALPHEUS FRONTALIS, H. M.-Edwards.

(Plate VI., Fig. 3.)

Alpheus frontalis, H. M.-Edwards. H. Nat. des Crust., 1834.

Alpheus latifrons, H. M.-Edwards. J. Mus., Godefroy, 1874.

—_——-—. de Man., Arch. f. Naturg., 1887.

Alpheus frontalis, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

GEYLON ALPHEID A). 181

One specimen, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

The frontal region of carapace has a very characteristic appear-
ance. There is no well-defined, sharply-pointed rostrum, but
instead there is a broad lobe covering the bases of both antennules.
This lobe is carinated in the mid-dorsal line. The region of the
carapace covering the eyes is greatly arched and bulges out
considerably. The proximal and distal antennular articles are
subequal, and together are equal in length to the median article.
From the anterior end of the proximal article there arises a well-
defined bunch of long setze which point anteriorly and extend beyond
the end of the peduncle. The antennular scale is poorly developed
and is merely a broad lobe about half as long as the proximal article.

The antennal peduncle is slightly longer than the antennular.
The scale is short and does not reach much beyond the end of the
median antennular article.

The dimensions of the specimen are as follows :—

a 10 Go mim: b§ = 3:0 mm.

b! = 3-0 mm. 6° =) 325 mame:
b? = 4-5 mm. é = 1075 mm:
b= SG nim e! = 4:4 mm.

b4 = 3:95 mm. e7 = 3-5 mm

b> = 3:0 mm.

The first pereiopods have no teeth on the palmar borders.

Dimensions of second pereiopod :—

m = 3960; 561 c* = 528; 462
ci = 2409; 330 c® = 858; 495
c? = 759; 396 jp = 1452; 528
et == 561 > 429 fe = Goo Zak

The third pereiopod has three spines on the posterior face of the
carpopodite, and the distal end of this face also ends in a spine.
There are seven spines on the propodite. The following are the
dimensions :—

m = 5082; 1221 p = 3531; 359
c = 2640; 858 d= $90)= 204

General Distribution.—Indian Ocean.

ALPHEUS RAPAX, Spence Bate.

(Plate VI., Fig. 4.)
Alpheus rapax, Spence Bate. ‘‘ Challenger,” Macrura, 1888.

One specimen, from Nachchikuda, Tamblegam.

The median antennular article is more than twice as long as the
distal. The proximal and distal articles are equal. The scale is
not so long as the first article.

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

The antennal peduncle and scale are about equal in length and
slightly longer than the antennular peduncle. Spence Bate figures
the antennal scale as being much longer than the peduncle, but this
appearance is due to the long setz on the front border of the scale.

The following are the dimensions of the body :—

af = 10-75 mm: 6§ = 3-5 mm.
b1 = 2°95 mm. b7 = 4-4 mm.
b? —'4°35 mm. 6 AG mam:
6? = 4-0 mm. e! == 3b mm:
b= 50 7 anne e2 = 4:35 mm.
U2 32 mn

The large claw is flattened laterally, and its length is two and a
half times the height. Both upper and lower palmar surfaces are
smooth.

There is nothing noteworthy about the second pereiopods. The
measurements are as follows :—

i = 4620; 462 ct = 792; 297
m = 3861; 429 co = 924; 330
cl = 2310; 297 p = 1386; 396
c2 = 1947; 280 d = 825; 165
c? = 792; 297

The third pair of pereiopods are characterized by having no
regular row of spines on the propodite and by the lanceolate nature
of the dactylopodite. The dimensions are as follows :—

m = 5610; 1023 = 3861; 594
6 j= lesb; 759 d = 2310; 363

Distribution.—Indo- Pacific.

ALPHEUS BIS-INCISuUS, de Haan.
Alpheus bis-incisus, de Haan. Fauna Japonica, 1839.

Six specimens, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

Three specimens, from Trincomalee ; January, 1911.

One specimen, from Colombo Harbour ; September, 1910.

I have had considerable difficulty in deciding whether to place
some of the above specimens in Coutiére’s varieties malensis and
stylirosiris. Minute investigation, however, has revealed the fact
that there appears to be no constancy in the proportions of the hands
of the first pereiopods and in the carpopodite of the second pereiopods
upon which Coutiére established his new varieties.

I have, in fact, several specimens which show intermediate condi-
tions between de Haan’s species and the variety malensis, both
regarding the proportions of the hands of the first pereiopods and
the relative lengths of the first and second articles of the carpos
of the second pereiopods.

CEYLON ALPHEID®. 183

With regard to the rostrum, [ have found that it shows consider-
able variation in this species, and consequently I do not consider that
Coutiére was justified in creating the new variety stylirostris upon
the form of the rostrum of a single specimen. A careful considera-
tion of the whole question makes me unwilling to separate any of
these specimens from de Haan’s species. Coutiére’s knowledge
of the Alpheide is unsurpassed, and gives him an authority which
one hesitates to question. But one cannot help feeling that
many of the characters upon which he has established new species
appear to be unimportant, and in some cases the material at his
disposal does not appear to have been sufficiently abundant to
enable him to say with any justification that these characters are
constant.

In establishing his two new varieties, Coutiére makes use of
certain characters, the chief of which are, (1) the relation between
the total length of the propodite of the first leg (p) and the length of
the dactylopodite (d) ; (2) the relation between the height of the
fingers (/1) and the height of the palm of the first pereiopod (h?) ;
(3) the relation between the lengths of the first (c') and second parts
(c?) of the carpopodite of the second pereiopod ; and (4) the relation
between the length of the triangular rostrum (/) and the base of the
triangle (5).

The following table gives Coutiére’s measurements for the three
species :—

P Les us y

d h? c? b
Synalpheus bis-incisus is, eet hD LG: ET. spout 1-5
S. bis-incisus, var. malensis .. 2°50 .. 1°34 .. 1°33 .. about 1°5
S. bis-incisus, var. stylirostris. . Not given 1°53 .. about 3°5

To illustrate how the Ceylon specimens differ from the above
measurements I append the following table, giving the characters of
six specimens belonging to the present collection :—

Pp h? ch l
Specimen. d h} eo b
A PAO ae 1°40 . 1°43 1-83
B 74a: 3 Nea 1°41 1-51 2°48
C Bo a. 1°59 1°56 2°72
D Dis) es 1°36 1°32 2°60
E Chela absent 1°53 rer iy |
F 2 BQ e8 1°56 1-60 2°50

It will be seen that specimen C is the only one which approaches
A. bis-incisus as diagnosed by Coutiére, except that the rostrum
is too long. Specimen E appears to be similar to stylirostris. None
appear to correspond to the variety malensis.

I have no hesitation in identifying the specimens under discussion
as Alpheus bis-incisus, and, as I have pointed out, my examination
indicates a considerable amount of variation in all those characters
upon which Coutiére formed the new varieties.

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

The rostrum is triangular, and is separated from the orbits by
deep depressions. The shape of the triangle is not constant, and
varies between the type figured by Coutiére as malensis and that of
stylirostris. The rostrum does not reach the end of the first an-
tennular article. The first antennular article is slightly longer than
the second and twice as long as the third. The antennular scale
reaches to the end of the first article. The antennal penduncle and
scale are about equal, and are slightly longer than the antennular

peduncle.
The dimensions of specimen A are as follows :—

a = 10:0 mm. b§ = 3°5 mm.
OY 92 pb min. DY = 4-3 mm:
02 — 2p mm on ¢ = 17 -0imunr
Do ==) 2 MT. e! = 0 mm:
G2 — 3 20 MT. é* = 6-D mm:
G26 Imm

The large claw is of the “edwardsi” type, and this form
undoubtedly belongs to that group of species.

The second péreiopod calls for no further comment. The follow-
ing are the dimensions in specimen A :—

i = 4455; 643 | ct = 693 ; 528
m = 4884; 561 co = 1254; 544
ce! = 2838 ; 528 p = 2376; 627
c? = 1848; 528 d = 1254; 247
C7 — 120; 028

The third pereiopod has about seven spines on the propodite.
The propodite is richly clothed with sete. The dactylopodite is
long and curved. Dimensions :—

4 S= 1746 «1653 p = 4092; 528
m = 5280; 726 d. = 1518; 231
c = 3184; 627

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

|

ALPHEUS AUDOUINI, Coutiére.
(Plate VII., Fig. 5.)

Alpheus edwardsi, Coutiére (not audowni). Bull. Soc. Ent.
France, 1898.

Alpheus audowim, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Five specimens, from the Pearl Banks; February, 1911.

This form is very similar to A. edwardsi (audouini), but differs
from it in the form of the palmar projections of the large claw. In
A. edwardsi they are spinous and in the present species rounded.

This species, although related to A. strenuus, differs from it by
well-marked characters. The second antennular article is only one
and a half times as long as the third,

CEYLON ALPHEID, 185

In A. strenuus a line joining the two palmar ridges of the large
claw divides the hand into two equal parts. In A. audowini the
distal portion of the hand is comparatively shorter, and such a line
divides the hand in the proportions of 6: 5.

The second pereiopod shows a difference in the proportions of
the first and second parts of the carpos in the two forms. In A.
strenuus the first segment is only slightly longer than the second
(1°12: 1). In A. audowin the proportion is 1°6: 1.

The third pereiopod of the present species is not so robust as in
A. strenuus, and the propodite does not bear so many spines.

The following are the dimensions of this form :—

Ot OO fry, (ih Meh) Games
bu] mm. b= 262; mm.
O22 olomm. Gy ==) Feb mia.
6? = 2:3 mm. e' = 4:0 mm.
b2 = 2 -62).mm. e2 = 3°5 mm.

b> — 1-6 mm. |

Dimensions of second pereiopod :—

t = 2541; 462 c* = 396; 363

m = 2640; 462 ce = 693; 396

G — 1584; 363 p = 1452; 429
c2 = 990; 363 d = 825; 198

c8 = 495; 363

Dimensions of third pereiopod :—

m = 3300; 627 | p = 2442; 363
c. = 1914; 396 | d = 1023; 165

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

ALPHEUS STRENUUS, Dana.
(Plate VII., Fig. 6.)

A. strenuus, Dana. U.S. Expl. Exped., 1852.
A. strenuus, Coutiére. Fauna of Mald. and Lacc., 1906.

Localities.—One specimen, from Weligama ; November, 1905.

One specimen, from the Pearl Banks ; February, 1911.

Five specimens, from Mandativu, Jafina; July, 1903.

One specimen, from Nachchikuda, Tamblegam ; September, 1908.

Six specimens, from Delft ; June, 1903.

Nine specimens, from Kapalturai, Tamblegam ; October, 1907.

This is a fairly common form, and is the largest of all the Ceylon
Alpheids. It is closely related to A. edwardsi and A. audouini,
but differs from them both in the relative lengths of the second and
third antennular articles. The second article is twice as long as the
third, and the first article is intermediate in size. The antennular
scale reaches to the extremity of the first article. The antennal
peduncle is longer than that of the antennule. The spine of the

2B 6(11)11

L860) SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

antennal scale does not reach the extremity of the peduncle, but is
longer than the antennular peduncle. The rostrum does not reach
to the extremity of the first antennular article.

The dimensions of the body are as follows :—

a = 18°25 mm. | be — Gr 0 ama é (= "24-0 amr
bi —.3?6imm: b= 94-0 mm: el 10" 5 mms
Pai 15 18 AE, 6§ = 4°8 mm. e?= 10:0 mm:
Dr Imm, (© OS 8b 4am: |

The large claw has been described and figured by Coutieére.
The second pereiopod has the following proportions :—

¢ = 7920; 1089 Cian LTE Qe ate VAS) c° = 2145; 858
m = 8151; 1056 Coy oobraceo p = 3465; 1023
c! = 3960; 858 Cc. — ws 20 rasee d = 1848; 429

The third pereiopod has the propodite provided with seven or
eight pairs of spines arranged more or less irregularly on the anterior
side. The dactylos is a strong slightly curved hook. The following
-are the proportions of the parts :—

t1— 297031815 cy =) 6006; 1419 d = 2475; 495
m = 8580; 2442 p = 6105; 1320 |

The above dimensions are taken from a typical form of this species. *

The rostrum varies in length. In one specimen it passes well
beyond the first antennular article, and in another it is as long as that
article. Normally the rostrum is only about two-thirds as long as
the first article.

General Distribution.—Pacific ; Maldives, Ceylon.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE V.
Fig. 1.—Synalpheus biunguiculatus, var. exilipes.
Fig. 2.—Alpheus ventrosus. 2a, frontal region of carapace, with
antenne and antennules x 8; 2b, second pereiopod x 9; 2c, third
pereiopod x 9; 2d, dactylopodite of third pereiopod x 21.

PLatEe VI.

Fig. 3.—Alpheus frontalis. 3a, frontal region of the carapace, the
antennules, and antenne x 6; 3b, second pereiopod x 8; 3c, third
pereiopod x 8.

Fig. 4.—Alpheus rapax. 4a, second pereiopod x 8; 4b, third
pereiopod x 8.

PuatEe VII.

Fig. 5.—Alpheus audouini. 5a, frontal region of carapace, the
antennules, and antenne x 9; 5b, second pereiopod xX 10; 5c, third
pereiopod x 10.

Fig. 6.—Alpheus strenuus. 6a, second pereiopod x 4; 6b, third
pereiopod x 4,

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. VII. Part XXVIIL Plate V.

G Henry, del E Wilson, Cambridge

Fic. 1. SYNALPHEUS BIUNGUICULATUS var EXILIPES.
Fic. 2. ALPHEUS VENTROSUS.

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol.VII. Part XXVIL Plate V1.

G_Henry, del. E Wilson, Cambridge
Fic. 3. ALPHEHUS FRONTALIS
Fig. 4. ALPHEUS RAPAX.

——

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. VII. Part. XXVIIL

G.Henny, del. Fic.5. ALPHEUS AUDOUINI
Fie. 6. ALPHERUS STRENUUS.

Plate VIL ~

E. Wilson, Cambridge

ee 4

Altes eet
eA’
S

GENUS OF SHORT-BEAKED GNATS. > 187

A NEW GENUS OF SHORT-BEAKED GNATS FROM CEYLON.

By N. AnnanpDALE, D.Sc., F.A.S.B., Indian Museum.
(With one Plate and one Text-figure. )

FTXHROUGH the kind offices of Mr. E. E. Green I have been

- entrusted with the examination of microscopic preparations
of the larva, pupa, and imago of a peculiar little gnat taken by Major
MacDougall, R.A.M.C., in a swamp at Diyatalawa in Ceylon (alt.
ca. 4,300 feet). The specimens are mounted in Canada balsam, and
unfortunately include only one imago, a male; but the structure of
the fly and its immature stages is of such interest from a systematic
point of view that I have ventured to describe the genus and species
as new. In so doing I have, I may say, found it very much easier
to give a description of the structure than if the specimen had been
mounted dry in the ordinary way.

It is a point worth considering whether more fixed and definite
‘standards of entomological classification might not be reached if
dried specimens were to be treated as of less account than those
carefully mounted in some liquid medium, which would prevent their
more delicate organs from becoming shrivelled out of all recognition.
Colour would, in some cases, have to go, but, if the preservation be
properly carried out, there is no reason why even the finest scales or
hairs should be lost in specimens kept in spirit or Canada balsam.

The main interest of the new genus here described as Ramcia lies
in the fact that it affords a complete link between the “ Culicids ”
of Theobald* and other recent authors, and the genera which these
authors, intent on finding new pretexts for rending asunder what
Nature has joined together, would separate as the family ‘‘ Core-
thride.” In this particular instance the excuse for dividing
families resides partly in the structure of the larva and partly in the
short proboscis of the imago and the absence of scales on the head,
body, legs, and veins of the wings. The larve of different “ Core-
thride,”’ however, differ considerably more one from another than
certain of them do from those of the “‘ Culicide”’ ; there is far more
difference in structure, to take parallel instances, between the
proboscis of Stomoxys or even Philematomyia and that of Musca
than there is between that of Culex and that of Corethra, although
even the most recent writers place Stomoxys and Philematomyia in
the same family as Musca, while Phlebotomus, although it un-
doubtedly belongs to a family (Psychodide) of which some species
have densely scaled wings, has actually fewer scales on the wing
dee Chaoborus. i) ees denies one ey of oe and

* Mon. Culicide, iv., p. 1s (1907).

+ As regards the synonymy of the genera allied to Corethr'a, see Brunetti,
Rec. Ind. Mus., iv., p. 317 (1911).

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Chaoborus, and even those authors who regard Corethra and its
allies as constituting a separate family are forced to ignore the fact
that Pelorempis has scales on its cross-veins, although they assign
this genus also to the Corethride. Aamcia is eccentric enough to
go further than Pelorempis in having at once a short proboscis,
scales on the longitudinal veins (but not on the head or body), and a
larva with several peculiar characters. I am not prepared to say
whether those who have made a special study of the group would
assign it to the Culicide (sensu suo) or the “ Corethride.” It
differs from both groups in certain venation-characters, more
especially as regards the position of the tip of the first longitudinal
vein ; but the larva on the whole resembles that of Corethra, and
if the sub-family Corethrine is to be maintained, I would assign
Ramceia to it.

I.—DESCRIPTION OF THE ADULT FLy.

Ramceia,* gen. nov.

The venation is culiciform in general disposition, but is charac-
terized by the fact that the first longitudinal vein, running almost
parallel to the subcostal, reaches the costal border at some distance
from the distal margin of the wing. The basal and marginal cells
are elongate and narrow, and the cross-veins are situated near the
centre of the wing.

5! é B

Venation of the two Corethrine as yet known to occur in Ceylon :—A,
Ramcia inepia, sp. nov. B, Chaoborus asiaticus (Giles), a species which occurs
at Peradeniya.

c = costal border ; s. c. = subcosta; 1 — first longitudinal ; 2 — anterior
branch of second longitudinal; 2’ = posterior branch of the same vein ;
3 = third longitudinal or median vein; 4= anterior branch of fourth
longitudinal ; 4’ — posterior branch of the same vein ; 5 = anterior branch of
a ee lengitudsaal ; 5’ = posterior branch of the same vein ; 6 = sixth longitu-

inal.

* Named, by special request of Major MacDougall, after the Royal Army
Medical Corps.

GENUS OF SHORT-BEAKED GNATS. 189

The wing-margin (except the anterior proximal part) and the
distal half of all the longitudinal veins are clothed with true scales,
the proximal half of some of the longitudinal as well as the whole of
the cross-veins bearing flattened hairs.

There are no scales on the head, body, or legs.

The eyes of the male as seen from the side consist of a transverse
basal and a narrow vertical portion. The proboscis is short and
feeble, much shorter than the palpi, which consist of four joints.
The antennz have fifteen joints, of which the first is minute, the
second large and globular, and the remaining thirteen (the flagellum)
almost cylindrical, but tapering slightly at the distal end, verticillate,
and clothed with fine hairs.

The legs are moderately slender. They are clothed with stiff
hairs and have simple, smooth-edged claws. ‘The first tarsal joint
is longer than the two succeeding joints together. The claws are
smooth-edged and simple.

The male claspers are of simple structure.

The venation of this genus approaches that of the Psychodide as
regards the position of the tip of the first longitudinal vein, but is
of a less simple character.

Ramcia inepta, sp. nov.

The abdomen is dark in colour, the thorax paler but probably
reticulated or mottled with some dark shade. The wings are pale,
except for an interrupted dark crossbar which embraces the extre-
mities of the subcostal and first longitudinal veins, includes the
petioles of the first submarginal and the second posterior cells, and
appears in the form of spots on the costal and posterior wing-fringes,
the anterior branch of the fifth and the distal end of the sixth
longitudinal vein, completely omitting the third longitudinal and
the main stem of the fifth. The spot on the posterior margin is
considerably in advance both of that on the anterior margin and
of that on the sixth vein. The tips of all the tibize and the three
distal joints of the tarsi of the first and second legs are dark.

The subcostal reaches the costal margin a little in front of the
middle of the wing, and the tip of the first longitudinal is not much
in advance of it. The second longitudinal vein is angulate at its
junction with the third, and its fork is a little in advance of that
of the fourth. The anterior cross-vein is extremely short. The
anterior branch of the fifth longitudinal arises only a short distance
behind the posterior cross-vein. There are no longitudinal in-
crassations or false veins, and the seventh longitudinal is entirely
absent.

The wing is moderately narrow, bluntly rounded at the tip, its
anterior border being nearly straight and its posterior border
regularly and not very strongly curved.

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Each joint of the flagellum of the antenna (of the male) bears a
circle of very long stiff hairs at its base, and is clothed for the
greater part of its length with shorter and softer hairs. The first
joint of the flagellum bears also several additional circles of long
stiff hairs. The first joint. of the antenna is very small and in-
conspicuous, the second nearly half as large as the head. The third
(z.e., the first of the flagellum) is of moderate length and practically
cylindrical. Joints 3 to 10 are subequal, joints 11 to 13 also sub-
equal, but distinctly shorter than 3 to 10.

The fourth joint of the palpi (of the male) is the longest, the
second the shortest, the first and third being subequal. The basal
joint is clavate, the others cylindrical ; all are clothed somewhat
sparsely with slender hairs.

The legs are not very long ; they are densely clothed with long
straight hairs, among which shorter hairs are dispersed. The hind
tibie are slightly incrassated at the tip. The femur and tibia of
each leg are subequal, and in the first two pairs either joint is
distinctly longer than the first tarsal joint, which in its turn is
longer than the next three joints together. In the hind leg, however,
which is longer than either of the other two, the tibia is only
slightly longer than the first tarsal joint, which is shorter than
the next three joints together. The claws are slender and strongly
curved.

There is a small bunch of stiff slender hairs on the vertex just
behind the eyes and another just in front of them. The thorax is
sparsely clad with longer and stouter hairs, most of which curve
backwards. The scutellum bears a very prominent bunch. The
hairs on the abdomen, which are also scattered somewhat sparsely,
are finer, more slender, and apparently softer.

The basal joint of the male claspers is cylindrical, about three
times as long as broad and of about the same length as the distal
joint, which is slender, not very strongly curved, narrowly blunt,
and a little irregular at the tip. This joint is naked, but the basal
joint is clothed in long hairs.

Length 2 mm. ; length of wing 1°3 mm.

II.—DEscrRIPTION OF THE LARVA AND PUPA.

The larva differs considerably from any that has previously been
described, but bears a certain purely superficial resemblance to that
of Stegomyia. Its most conspicuous features are its broad triangular
head, minute eyes, long jaw-like antenne, which arise close together
in front of the head, and the distinct segmentation of the thorax.
There are no palmate chetz on any part of the animal. When
fully adult it measures about 2-5 mm. in total length, its head
measuring 0°53 mm. by 0:72 mm.

The head is flattened as well as broad, triangular in outline,
pointed in front, but with the posterior lateral angles broadly

GENUS OF SHORT-BEAKED GNATS. 191

rounded. The antennez arise close together at the anterior end,
each on a small prominence. They are slender and somewhat
depressed, each bearing at the tip three stout and rather lengthy
chetz. Pressed backwards in their natural attitude of repose their
tips lie opposite the ocelli, which are dark, very minute, and circular
in outline. They are situated on the dorsal surface near the lateral
margin. There are no compound eyes. Fine sensory hairs are
arranged as follows on the dorsal surface of the head: one on each
side a short distance behind the base of each antenna, one just outside
each eye, and a row of about five parallel to the lateral margin, a short
distance in front ofeach eye. There is an S-shaped row of short, stout,
simple chetz on each side of the head, commencing on the dorsal
surface a short distance behind the eye and curving down on to the
ventral surface. Immediately posterior to the bases of the antenne,
on the middle line of the ventral surface, there is a bunch of slender
pectinate chetz which probably can be extended forwards, but in
my specimens is folded backwards. The mandibles bear at the
anterior end of their inner margin two stout rather blunt teeth, the
outermost of which is the smaller of the two. Below these and on
a different level six other teeth form an uninterrupted series, the
first being the largest, the sixth the smallest, and the others subequal.
Below the teeth there is a little T-shaped projection. The maxilla
is rather slender and deeply notched on its free margin. The whole
appendage is covered with minute chitinous projections. Two large
cheetz are borne above the notch (the uppermost béaring a short
subsidiary tooth on its upper margin) and two below it, the latter
pair being very unequal in size. The lower lip is rather narrow,
and the teeth on its anterior margin are slender, the central tooth
being larger than any of the others, which are arranged approximately
large and small alternately. There is a semi-circular row of stout
simple bristles at the base of each maxilla, and at each side of the
lower lip there are three sensory hairs, one situated near the end of
the lip, the other twe arising together some little distance posteriorly.

All the segments of the thorax are distinct and transverse. As
seen from above, they have an irregularly hexagonal outline, and are
produced to a point at each side, both the anterior and the posterior
margins being sinuous, or (in the case of the posterior margin of the
third segment) distinctly excavated in the middle. Each joint bears
on the lateral point a bunch of long simple bristles.

The first segment of the abdomen, which consists of nine true
segments, is broader than any of those of the thorax and more
markedly produced at the sides, but otherwise resembles them.
The succeeding joints are narrower and less distinctly hexagonal in
dorsal profile. With the exception of the ninth, they bear a bunch
of simple bristles at either side. The siphons are stout, of moderate
length, and closely welded. together ; apparently they lie almost
in the same line as the abdomen. They are provided round their

192 : SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

free margin with several little organs, probably of a sensory nature
and consisting of a minute chitinous structure shaped like a bird’s
mandible, from the base of which a slender cheta projects. <A
bunch of long simple bristles arises from the ventral surface of the
tip of the abdomen below the base of the siphons. There are no
‘* floats ”’ or “‘ fins.”

In general structure the larva is not unlike that of Corethra
(Mochlonyx) velutina, but the position of the antenne is different,
the head is much broader, the thoracic segments are not welded
together, the abdomen is shorter and broader, the siphons are much
stouter, and there are other differences.

The pupa of Ramcia is not so peculiar as the larva. The general
shape is an elongate ovoid, and there is no very clear distinction in
the outline between the thorax and the abdomen. The length is
about 2 mm. and the greatest breadth about 0°7 mm. The
breathing trumpets are long and slender. Their distal margin is
distinctly emarginate dorsally, and there is a minute projection in
the centre of the emargination. The antenne curve round entirely
outside the eyes. The wings extend to the ventral surface of the
abdomen and nearly meet in the mid-ventral line. The abdominal
segments decrease gradually in width from before backwards. The
tergites are produced laterally in a triangular form, and their free
margins are minutely denticulated. The anal lamelle are slender
and pointed ; they also are minutely denticulated round the edge.

This pupa differs from that of most Culicide in not having the
cephalo-thoracic mass distinctly separated from the abdomen. The
respiratory trumpets differ from those both of Culex and of Corethra,
but resemble the latter more nearly.

Unfortunately direct information as to the habits of the larva is
not forthcoming, but light on this subject may be obtained by a |
study of the structure. The structure of the thorax indicates great
freedom of movement, while that of the antennz suggests that these
organs are employed in seizing prey. There can, I think, be little
doubt, therefore, that the larva is actively predacious. The points in
which it differs anatomically from the larva of Corethra (Mochlonyz)
velutina are not so great as those which distinguish the latter from
the larve of Chaoborus plumicornis and Ch. pallida, and it is not
too much to assume that in each genus the larval peculiarities are
adaptive and due to differences in habits and environment rather
than genetic divergence.

The swamp in which the original larve were taken has been
drained, and neither Mr. Green nor Major MacDougall, both of
whom have been kind enough to search for further specimens,
have been able to obtain more. It is, however, desirable that dry
specimens of the imago should be examined, if only to satisfy those
entomologists who regard the superficial character of colour as the
most important.

Spol. Zeyl. Vol.VIl,

A 4
Nr
RNA
Mv lg
Ag
WV

WZ

— 4 X 250.

SS —~ ~ < & :
SSS rer SSS S5
SSeS SSE

=

O X250:.

es =

= Mo
SS aS
E== Soop r rrr = CO My 7G i)

= S27 FH
Bi = WOOT GI KfTe |
Zz a 5 fl” (jf | y
J ge

=< 7 0. re ae
A\ ie AS <The

D.Bagchi, del.et.lith.

GENUS OF SHORT-BEAKED GNATS. 193
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Ramcia inepta, nov. gen., Nov. sp.

1. Wing (x 75), with scales from different parts further enlarged.
Hind leg (x 30): 2a, claws further enlarged.

Probosvis and right palp of male (enlarged).

Pe ee” BS

Right maxilla and bunch of bristles at its base (x 250).
5. Right mandible (x 250).

6. Lower lip (Xx 75): 6a, pectinate cheta from bunch in front of
lower lip.

7. Clasper of male (x 250).
8. Larva from dorsal surface (x 36): 8a, antenna further enlarged.

9. Pupa from ventral surface (x 36): 9a, dorsal view of breathing
trumpet further enlarged.

20 6(LL)LI

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA,

SOME REMARKS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CESTODES
IN CEYLON.*

*

By T. SourHweti, A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S., F.Z.8.,

Scientific Adviser to the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, Limited, and
Inspector of Pearl Banks.

HERE are few groups of animals in Ceylon concerning which
a so little is known as the Cestoda. As far as I have been
able to ascertain, prior to 1902 only the following Cestodes were
recorded :—

Tenia soium, Rud., from man.

Tenia saginata (?), Goeze = Tania mediocancellata, Kuch.,
from man.
Dipylidium caninum, L. = Tenia elliptica, Batsch. = Tenia

cucumerina, Bloch., from dog.
Tenia saginata has since been definitely identified.

In consequence of the visit of Professor Herdman to the Pear]
Banks in 1902, fifty-two new species were described by Shipley and
Hornell in Herdman’s ‘‘ Ceylon Reports.” Since that time nine
other new species, also from marine fish, have been described in Part
V., ‘‘ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports,” and a further seventeen
new species from the same source are now being described by the
writer. ;

Castellani and Chalmers (‘‘ Manual of Tropical Medicine,” 1910)
report the occurrence of a single case of Hchinococcus granulosus,
Batsch., but this was probably imported from South Africa.

Twelve other species (eleven new) were recorded by Von Linstow
(Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. III., Part XI., 1906), and seven species
(including one Cysticercus) were recorded by Shipley (Spolia
Zeylanica, Vol. I., Part IIT., 1903).

The total number of Cestodes reported from Ceylon up to the
present is therefore 100, described as under :—

Seventy-eight species from marine fish (‘‘ Ceylon Reports” and
‘“ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports’); two species from man;
one species from dog; and the following list :—

Hymenolepis septarai, v. Lins., from Upupa ceylonensis.
——-——— clausa, v. Lins., from Dendrocygna javanica.
——_——— spinosa, v. Lins., from Rostratula capensis.

* From the Ceylon Marine Biological Laboratory (Ceylon Company of
) 7 . ~* ied . . »
Pearl Fishers, Limited)

OCCURRENCE OF CESTODES. 195

Tenia spec. (2), from Haliastur indus.

Diorchis occlusa, v. Lins., from Phenicopterus roseus.

Davainea polycolcaria, v. Lins., from Corvus macrorhynchus.

Diplochetes volvulus, v. Lins., from Lobipluvia malabariea.

Ophryocotyle ceylonica, v. Lins., from Lophoceros gingalensis .

Brochocephalus paradozus, v. Lins., from Agialitis mongolica.

Cittotenia bursaria, v. Lins., from Lepus nigricollis.

Ichthyoteenia cryptobothrium, v. Lins., from Chrysopelea ornata.

Aphanobothrium catenatum, v. Lins., from Phenicopterus
roseus.

Cysticercus, from Cervus axis.

Duthiersia fimbriata, Dies., from Varanus salvator and V.
bengalensis.

Bothridum pythonis, Blainv., from Python molurus.

Tetrabothrius erostris, Lonnbg., from Sterna bergii.

Tenia polycalcaria, v. Lins., from Felis pardus.

Tenia meander, v. Lins., from Hipposideris speoris.

Acanthotenia shipleyi, v. Lins., from Varanus salvator.

Of these 100 wieses the life-history of four only is definitely
known, viz.

Tenia solium, Rud.

Tenia saginaia, Goeze.

Dipylidium caninum, L.

Tetrarhynchus unionifactor, Shipley and Hornell (the pearl-
inducing worm).*

Through the kindness of Drs. Castellani and Chalmers I have
had the opportunity of examining some parasites from the patho-
logical laboratory of the Ceylon Medical College. The collection
contained the following :—

(a) Two fragmented specimens of Tenia solium, Rud., from
man. Heads and a considerable portion of the ‘“‘ anterior ” end of
the worms absent.

(b) Four specimens of J'enia serrata (?), Goeze, from dog. All
without heads.

(c) Eight specimens of Cysticercus cellulose, Rud. (= Cysticercus
acanthotrias, Wienl.) from man (described by Chalmers in Spolia
Zeylanica, Vol. II., Part VIII., 1905).

(2) One part specimen without head of Tenia saginata, Goeze,
from man. Only about the terminal half of the worm was obtained,
and this comprised 170 proglottides and measured 250 cms. (over
8 feet). Each segment was approximately 12 mm. broad and
from 18 mm. to 19 mm. long. The worm was markedly gelatinous
in consistency , gelesen and. pulley white in the fresh state.

* In addition to the foregoing, numerous Cysticercoids have been obtained
from, marine fishes, the adults of which are undetermined,

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(ec) Seven specimens of Dipylidium caninum, L., from a dog.

Average length of worm, 85 mm.
Length of largest segment, 6 mm.
Breadth of largest segment, 3 mm.
Total number of segments, 22.

(f) One specimen of Ascaris lumbricoides, Linn., from man. The
specimen was a female of a grayish-brown colour.

Length 230 cm., greatest breadth 7 mm.

In addition to the foregoing, there were several fragments of a
Cestode of the genus 7’enia, said to have been obtained from a rat.
No heads were present, and it was found impossible to identify the
fragments further.

It will be obvious from the foregoing that our knowledge of the
Cestodes found in the common Ceylon animals is very limited.

LITERATURE CITED.

Herdman, ‘‘ Ceylon Pearl Oyster Reports,” Vols. II., III., and V.
‘* Ceylon Marine’ Biological Reports,” Part V.
Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. I., Part III., November, 1903.

Do. Vol. I1., Part VIII., March, 1905.

Do. Vol. III., Part XI., January, 1906.

AN EXPLORATION OF THE BELIGAL-GE. 197

AN EXPLORATION OF THE BELIGAL-GE, NEAR BALANGODA.

By C. HARTLEY.

‘ie August, 1910, I undertook a partial exploration of the
; Beligal-ge, or Snail Cave, which is situated about twelve miles
north of Balangoda and close to the tea estate of Dikmukalana,
belonging to Mr. W. D. Holland.

On a preliminary survey I found the cave placed in a most
advantageous position, scooped out of a solid and almost perpendi-
cular cliff of gneiss and some 30 feet above a small rivulet, to which
there slopes steeply a bank or talus of earth overgrown with trees.
The front of the cave faces nearly due west; and at its southern
extremity it plunges almost at right angles 79 feet into the rock.
From this point it shallows rapidly, until after a considerable inward
bend, forming a second recess in the rock, it grows even narrower,
and finally tapers to nothing. The rock roof is lofty in the deeper
parts, and the floor of dust strewn with boulders slopes gently
downward to the northern end. Although no drip-ledge has been
cut, the cave seems absolutely dry within; a small wall of rough
stones and earth has been built from the southern end some little
distance northward ; and the drip from the cliff face falls entirely
clear of the interior. In fact no more comfortable cave for inhabi-
tation can well be imagined.

A considerable amount of water finds its way down the cliff face,
since a small patch of paddy land is situated immediately over the
cave ; and the constant drip cutting on the loose soil of the slope
at the mouth of the cave has laid bare and collected in pools an
immense quantity of quartz chips once embedded in the soil. I
carefully examined these fragments, and selected one or two which
appeared to be implements. They are immediately distinguishable
by their smooth waterworn faces from the sharply angular remains
recovered beneath the soil.

I found that the floor of earth inside the cave had been greatly
disturbed. Not only had the late Mr. Parsons carried out a small
excavation near the southern end, in the course of which he found
some human bones and other remains now in the Museum, but it
has also been the custom among the neighbouring peasants to dig
in the soil for the water-snail shells, from which the cave takes its
name, and which they burn for chunam to accompany their betel.

198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

During the whole time that I was engaged in digging a number of
women and children were hard at work sifting the earth for shells.
These consist principally of Paludomus gardneri, and more rarely
of Paludomus dilatata, Acavus phoenix, Bulimus albizonatus,
Aulopoma hoffmeisteri, and Philopotamis globulosa, which latter,
my workers assured me, were not to be found within fifteen miles.
I engaged six men, and started work on August 11 by digging a
trench leading from Mr. Parsons’s excavation northwards, and
incidentally clearing out the hole which he had dug and which
bad become partially choked. Near the surface we found traces
of recent civilization: fragments of pottery, at first stout and well
made, later thin and fragile, quantities of charred wood and bones
mingled with archaic chips of quartz and chert, buttons, and a short
length of cheap brass chain. Under similar circumstances in Europe
one might have reckoned confidently on unearthing a few coins;
but it is certain that none reached my hands. Between 2 and 3
feet below the surface modern traces disappeared, and nothing
came to light but fragments of quartz, chert, bone, and shells.
At four o’clock we knocked off for the day, at a depth of 4 feet
6 inches.

As the earth was dug out, it was loaded into baskets, carried
outside, and passed through a l-inch sieve. I selected whatever
struck my eye ; but it is likely that better work would have been
done with a smaller sieve. One or two well-shaped bone implements
were recovered by the women sifting the earth for snail shells.

Next day, August 12, we resumed digging at the same place, but
in less than an hour we found large boulders which barred our way,
and were forced to abandon the hole at a depth of 5 feet.

I thereupon selected a spot at the southern end of the recess in the
rock wall already mentioned, and started a trench 8 feet long by
5 feet in breadth. The digging, I may say, is extremely easy work,
the earth being light and dry, grayish-brown in colour, and largely
composed of sand, ashes, and bats’ droppings. We found pottery
down to 3 feet, with rare quartz chips ; below 3 feet the latter became
more numerous. Chert was comparatively scarce, which is all the
more surprising, as a boulder occurs in a*stream within half a mile
of the cave. I examined this later, and found it much splintered,
having no doubt been drawn upon for gun-flints and strike-a-lights.
In this second excavation some bones were recovered showing knife-
cuts and, at a considerable depth, a small waterworn fragment of
plumbago. At a depth of 7 feet 6 inches we were again stopped
by boulders ; but snail shells and quartz chips were withdrawn by
hand from under these.

A thickness of 7 feet of cave-earth would in Europe lead us to
assign a very remote antiquity to the bottom layer. Unless a cave
is exposed to floods, such earth can only be composed of wind-
borne dust and of particles adhering to the feet of beasts or men

AN EXPLORATION OF THE BELIGAL-GE. 199

who made the cave their home ; and it is unlikely that such fine
matter could be deposited at arate of more than 1 foot in a thousand
years. In the tropics, however, another agent of accumulation
must be reckoned with. All caves in Ceylon swarm with bats; and
their droppings even in a single year would add appreciably to the
earth, while in a century they might, if undisturbed, perhaps amount
to over a foot in thickness.

On the morning of August 13 I opened a trench outside the cave
in the sloping bank, heading at first uphill towards my second
excavation. The soil here, being exposed to the action of rain,
differed totally from the cave-earth from which it was derived.
I excavated a considerable area, and found a uniform surface layer
of black humus mixed with ashes, pottery, bones, shells, and chips
to a depth of 2 feet. Below this we found stiff reddish-brown soil
without ashes, but with quantities of quartz and chert chips, which
grew ever rarer; until at a depth of 3 feet in the brown earth, or
5 feet from the surface, all traces of human work came to an end.
In the brown earth I found neither pottery nor shells nor bones nor
any sign of fire. Yet it was in the soil immediately below the layer
of ashes that I found chips of quartz and chert most abundant.
After carrying my trench 12 feet towards the cave, and meeting
with more boulders, I dug another at right angles to the first for
a distance of 6 feet and found precisely similar conditions.

The Doctors Sarasin in their *“‘ Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher
Forschungen auf Ceylon,” published in 1908, describe on page 14
the excavation of a similar “talus”? in the Bintenna ; but they
appear not to have found the same sharp dividing line between the
black humus (which they do not record as containing ashes) and the
brown earth rich in quartz fragments. It seems to me however
that the brown deposit, which was evidently blown, kicked, or
swept out of the cave above, must have required a lengthy period,
perhaps some thousands of years, for its formation; that the
underlying layer free from chips was accumulated previously to
man’s appearance ; that the layer with chips and without ashes
points to a period when man lived without fire ; and that only the
uppermost layer proves his acquaintance therewith. Too much
stress must not be laid upon the results of a single excavation ; but
I look forward with interest to further researches.

This concluded my labours in the cave. I explored a few hill-tops
in the neighbourhood, found a moderate number of quartz chips,
and noted a large outcrop of good white quartz close to the cave.
There is a considerable deposit of hard and heavy titanic iron ore
within a few yards of the quartz ; but I could not find that any use
had been made of it by the cave-dwellers.

The harvest of implements which I reaped was a modest one.
I brought away over five hundred specimens, of which a little over
fifty have found their way into my collection. The best were a

200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

few bone needles or borers, two. good hammers, and a certain
number of blades, points, and scrapers. One waterworn pebble of
micaceous gneiss has plainly been used as a rubber, both ends being
much worn. But the conclusion is forced upon one, either that the
cave-dwellers were very indifferent workmen, or that they were
lacking in that quality so valuable to archeologists, of leaving their
tools about.

On comparing the results of my digging with those achieved by
the Doctors Sarasin, I find a general similarity, except in the case of
the talus already mentioned. The identifiable animal remains were
more numerous in their excavations in the Bintenna. It appeared
to me that bones were surprisingly scarce in the Beligal-ge, those of
the larger animals, such as deer and pig, being entirely wanting,
while the enormous number of water-snail shells proved that my
cave-dwellers were satisfied with the humblest fare. The imple-
ments of quartz, crystal, and chert were neither more nor less rude
in the one case than in the other. A distinguished archzologist in
England has favoured me with the following remarks: “ The
Veddas—if it be they who made them—must have been a very
degraded people, worse than the most degraded we find about here
of any period, except perhaps one lot who seem to have come for a
short time in a short interglacial period.” These scathing sentences
are absolutely justified by the roughness of the specimens—good
palzeolithic work is as far superior to them as it is inferior to good
neolithic work. The immense numbers of chips, cores, and refuse
prove that the makers had abundant practice. The Doctors
Sarasin note with justice the intractability of quartz as compared
with flint. But the same plea cannot be admitted in the case of
chert, and the chert implements recovered so far from caves are as
rude as those of quartz and crystal. It is notable that a far higher
level of workmanship and design is attained by implements found
on hill-tops, and on the evidence before us I am inclined to believe
that the cave-dwellers represent the oldest and rudest type, while
their descendants, armed with improved weapons and disdaining the
wretched fare of their ancestors, forsook the caves and led an ampler
and freer life on the hills, following the game in their seasonal
migrations.

Of animal remains discovered, the most important were the snails
already mentioned, which seem to have formed their principal food
supply. In addition, a fair number was found of the non-edible
Helia (Acavus) phenix, described by the Doctors Sarasin as the
‘ Hobelschnecke,” or Plane-snail, used for smoothing wood, of
which specimens are to be seen in the Museum. Bones of the follow-
ing animals have been identified by Dr. Pearson: Madras langur
(Semnopithecus priamus) and mouse deer (Tragulus meminna).

On the other hand, the list of things which one would have liked
to find, but did not, would fill several pages.

REVIEW, 201

REVIEW.

THe VeppaAs: by C. G. Seligmann, M.D., and Brenda Z. Seligmann.
Cambridge University Press. 1911.

if Sars handsome volume of over four hundred pages, with seventy-

one plates, thirty-four musical records, numerous songs, and a
vocabulary, may be taken as summing up all that we know or are
likely to discover of the history, the traditions, and the usages of
the fast vanishing race whose purest representatives are estimated
by Mr. Parker at less than one hundred persons. An average of
over four pages to each individual of a semi-savage tribe may seem
excessive to those who do not reflect that the lower the type,
the greater the interest ; and that, if a race could be discovered
living under palzolithic conditions, an allowance of pages’ twice
as generous as we have here would be eagerly demanded.

Dr. and Mrs. Seligmann have gone to the root of the matter.
They forsook civilization for a time to live intimately with the
Veddas. They have shared their meals and their primitive accom-
modation ; they have been near them in sickness and in health, in
festivity and in mourning ; and we may well believe the handsome
acknowledgment made in the preface to Mrs. Seligmann ; “I feel
convinced that the measure of success attained in gaining the
confidence of these shy and extremely jealous people was entirely
due to her presence and assistance.”’

A full but discriminating use has been made of previous writers
on this subject. The works of Knox, Tennent, and Parker are
widely known; but those of Virchow, Rutimeyer, and the Sarasins
are mostly in German ; while much important information is con-
tained in stray articles by Bailey, Nevill, Hartshorne, and others,
which is here conveniently summarized. The question of pre-
historic stone implements is dismissed with one plate and five pages.
We cannot but think that more use might have been made of the
researches of the Sarasins and of the collections of Messrs. Pole and
Green. For the matter as a whole we have nothing but praise.
The authors expressly state that “this volume will scarcely touch
on physical anthropology”; but a careful examination has been
made of the Veddas’ social and family life, religion, magic, cere-
monies, music, language, and senses. There is very little in the
book which will not be understood by any intelligent reader ; but
we think that the mode of testing for sight might have been
explained at greater length for the benefit of the uninitiated.

2D | 6(11)11

202 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Of the numerous illustrations, a few are partial failures owing
to the forest gloom, but have been skilfully doctored, or, as Dr.
Seligmann terms it, “faked.” The greater part, however, are vivid
presentments of wild life, and one, No. LV., “ Nila holding bow
while reciting invocation,” rises to the level of fine art.

The ‘‘ Conclusions ”’ form the shortest chapter, and the authors
agree in the main with Mr. Parker’s theory that the upper ranks
of the Veddas were absorbed by the conquering Sinhalese, who in
their turn were influenced by the customs of the vanquished ; while
the Veddas represent the untamed remnant who by accident or
choice resisted or escaped absorption.

A useful warning is given to tourists not to accept the Danigala
Veddas as the children of nature they pretend to be.

‘“These folk, who when we saw them wore their Vedda loin
cloths and were smeared with ashes, are reported to wear ordinary
Sinhalese cloths when not in their professional pose, and Mr. Bibile,
who has himself seen one or more of them in sarongs, points out
that the imposture is kept up for two main reasons: firstly, they
fear that their cultivation might be stopped, or that they might be
taxed if they did not appear to be poor fellows living on hardly-won
jungle produce ; secondly, their pose of poverty interests strangers
and procures them visitors, whose generosity is the greater, the
more primitive their mode of life appears to be.”

These gentlemen, under a more extended franchise, will vote solidly
for converting Ceylon into a great winter resort for passengers.

C. HARTLEY,

NOTES. 203

NOTES.

17. Further Note on Flies of the Genus ‘‘ Phlebotomus.” —Recent
additions to the collection in the India Museum, including a
number of specimens received from Mr. E, E. Green, enable me to
supplement, and in one or two points to correct, my former notes
issued in Vol. VIL. (pp. 57-62) of Spolia Zeylanica, while the
publication of detailed descriptions of the species found in the
Maltese islands by Mr. R. Newstead has made it possible to come to
a decision as regards the identity of P. minutus, Rondani, and my
own P. babu. In the first place, I may note that the examination
of a large series of specimens of P. argentipes from different parts
of India and from Peradeniya in Ceylon shows that the peculiarities
in venation exhibited by the form I described as P. marginatus,
great as they appeared to be, are not beyond the limitations of
variation found in the former species. I have, moreover, taken
specimens in Calcutta the colouration of which agrees closely with
that of the form marginatus. Iam therefore forced to the conclusion
that this form must be regarded merely as a variety of P. argentipes.
It should also be noted that the figure of P. zeylanicus printed in
my former paper (p. 60, fig. 4) gives, because of the angle at which
the wing was drawn, a somewhat incorrect idea of the venation
in that species; fig. 5 on the same page is more exact in this
respect.

As I suggested would prove to be the case, my P. babu is clearly
identical with Rondani’s P. minutus. Mr. Newstead’s careful
description and figures (Bull. Ent. Research, II., pp. 62, 69-70, 1911)
leave no doubt as to this, differences in proportions noted by him
being evidently due to nothing but the method of preparation and
examination of specimens. I can confirm his statements in every
particular from specimens of P. babu examined in a fresh condition
or preserved in spirit without further treatment.

The changes proposed in this note therefore are—

(1) that Phlebotomus marginatus should be known as P.
argentipes, var. marginatus ; and

(2) that the name Phlebotomus babu should be sunk in favour
of P. minutus.

As regards the former point, it is interesting to note that several,
perhaps all, species of the genus exhibit a curious colour-dimorphism
which is apparently not due to season or locality, and certainly
is not sexual. Thus, P. papatasi exists in Malta, according to

204 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

>

Newstead, both in a “typical pale form” and in a “‘ dark form,”
and the same is the case with P. minutus in Northern Bengal and
with P. major in the outer Himalayas (see Rec. Ind. Mus., IV.,
p. 340, 1911).

N. ANNANDALE.

18. Contest between a Mynah (‘‘ Acridotheres tristis”’) and a Locust
(‘‘ Acridium violascens”).—I was a witness a short time ago of a very
good instance of the method of defence in a locust when attacked
by a bird. The mynah in question was quite tame, and had the
run of the house and garden ; the locust flew on to the verandah,
and in its usual blundering flight hit against the wall and came to
the ground. It was immediately pounced on by the mynah, but
at the moment of seizure the insect rolled slowly on to its side,
drawing up the long hind leg and exposing to view the gray and
black ocellated spots surrounding the spiracles. They certainly
gave the insect a bizarre appearance, which was not without effect,
as the bird immédiately drew back obviously disconcerted. After
@ moment of hesitation it cautiously approached its beak within
two inches of the locust, when again the leg was slowly drawn back,
evidently also with the intention as a last resource of striking the
bird a smart blow with the sharply serrated ridge of the tarsus.
This had the effect of again postponing an attack, and two or three
times the same manceuvre was repeated on the approach of the
bird’s bill. It was very remarkable how the insect seemed to know
that the startling effect was more pronounced the more slowly
it moved over on to its side, and its apparent intelligence to be
aware that it had, so to speak, only one shot in its locker which was
to be used as a final resource. It was clear that once it had struck
out, and possibly missed its object, the bird would have been imme-
diately inside its guard, with disastrous consequences. Whether the
above comes under the heading pseudaposematic defence (false
warning colouration), 7.e., the assumption by a defenceless insect
of a terrifying attitude, or aposematic, or warning character of an
insect able to protect itself, is not quite certain, but probably the
latter ; which ever it was, it was quite clear to my mind that the
insect derived distinct advantage from its terrifying attitude, and
displayed an almost. human intelligence in its use.

[ may add that the bird eventually gave up the contest, and the
locust made good its escape.

N. MANDERS.

Note.—Since writing the above, it has occurred to me that an
objection may be made to this interpretation ; the argument being
that the bird’s natural food was locusts and grasshoppers, which it

NOTES. 205

caught in large numbers in the garden, and therefore it must have
been well aware of these terrifying marks, and knew that as a
practical defence they were useless, and further, that as it was
acquainted with the formidable hind leg, it purposely put its
beak within striking distance in order to draw its opponent's fire and
render it for the moment harmless.

It is somewhat doubtful in my judgment that the above objections
are correct ; in the first place, the bird quite likely may never have
seen these startling spiracles, as they are normally hidden by the
legs and wing covers and would not be visible under normal cir-
cumstances; and again, if the insect had not by some means been
aware that a certain amount of protection was obtained by them
it would not have rolled slowly on to its side, by which means a
greater effect was produced, but as quickly as possible in order to
draw up the hind leg, its only means of defence.

I mention these objections in order to show how two trained
observers might well draw different conclusions from the same facts.

N. M.

19. The Effects of the Bite of <‘ Ancistrodon hypnale.’—The other
day I was bitten on the ball of the thumb by one of my Ancistrodons
(I have been keeping a few in captivity). Although I had been
previously bitten without any effect, I washed my thumb in a strong
solution of permanganate of potash and applied a ligature of string
above the bite, as the latter was a bad one, the fang having been
broken off and left sticking in my thumb almost up to its base. My
thumb then turned blue (due I think to the ligature, and not to
the poison), and not wishing to take any chances I visited a native
““ Vedarala,’ who put on what he called a “ caustic,” though it
did not burn at all, and only caused a slight smarting. Upon
removal of the ligature my thumb returned to its normal colour
and became very stiff and swollen, as if it was going to burst ; there
was also a slight local tenderness and aching. About five hours
afterwards the swelling began to subside and the stiffness to go,
and the thumb became quite wellin about twelve hours. Personally,
I think that the effect of the poison on the blood was practically
nil, and that all the symptoms were entirely local, resulting from the
ligature, which I drew extremely tight. There was no sign of

mortification about the place bitten.
A. F. ABERCROMBY.

20. Notes on Ceylon Snakes.—The commonest of Ceylon snakes
are perhaps the following : Zamenis mucosus, Dryophis mycterizans,
Naia tripudians, Lycodon aulicus, Dipsas ceylonensis, Dendrophis

206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

bifrenalis, Oligodon sublineatus, Vipera russellii, Tropidonotus
stolatus, Tropidonotus asperrimus, and Helicops schistosus, though
the list may vary greatly in different localities, Ancistrodon hypnale
and Python molurus being both common in the northern jungles,
while Trimeresurus trigonocephalus, so often met with in the
Central Province, is rare in the north. I once encountered a
young python at Yala, in the Southern Province, during the dry
season, a most unlikely place to expect one, owing to the dry sandy
condition of the district. It had probably worked its way down
the river from the jungles further north.

Among the less common varieties I have found several specimens
of Dipsas forstenii and Dipsas barnesii round Anuradhapura,
though I have never come across these in the Central Province or
round Kurunegala, though at the latter place are some colonies of
Tropidonotus plumbicolor.

Snakes usually choose the type of country that suits their colour-
ation, which country also suits their habits. Of all Ceylon snakes,
the colour of Python molurus is the most inexplicable. It certainly
blends with the sun and shadow effects of the jungle in a way which
a uniform colouration would not do; but what is the reason for
this protection. It is not hunted sufficiently to render protection
from man necessary, and there are no other enemies to prey on it.
When young, a python might be attacked by a mongoose, but when
as small as all that a uniform colouration would not be conspicuous
and would serve as a protection. Allowing that the python is
“ ageressively ”’ coloured, it must be remembered that the latter is
usually nocturnal in its habits, waylaying its prey after or about
sunset, when its ‘‘sun and shadow ”’ colour would be of no avail.
The only conclusion is that the python is not as nocturnal as is
commonly supposed, and probably waylays its prey at about six
o’clock in the evening, when in the remote jungles the deer and
small game go down to the tanks and water-holes to drink, though
in more civilized and open country the game confine their drinking
to after dusk.

Another common Ceylon snake, Lycodon aulicus, causes much
needless alarm by its resemblance to Bungarus ceylonicus, and is
much feared by the natives on that account, who mistake it for the
deadly “krait,” as the Bungarus is called in India. Lycodon,
however, is very common, while Bungarus is rare in Ceylon; the
former being distinguished by its pear-shaped head and regular
scaling, and the latter by its enlarged hexagonal vertebra. If the
snake is over 26 inches long it is probably a Bungarus. Of the two
species of Bungarus found in Ceylon, Bungarus ceylonicus is rare,
while B. ceruleus is very rare indeed, and even of the former I have
only obtained two specimens, both from Rangalla, in the Kandy
District. Owing to their snake-eating propensities they probably
keep to the mountainous districts, where there are many

gl

}

Fia. 1.—Abnormal chicken, ventral view. }.

R? Normal right leg.
R? and R? ‘Abnormal right legs.
L. » Left leg.

Fia. 2.—Skeleton of pelvic girdle, showing attachment of the
three right legs.

RK! Femur of normal right leg.

R? and R38 Femurs of abnormal legs,
IL. ium.

IS. Ischium

PB. ‘Pubis,

IF, Tlio-sciatic foramen.

NOTES. 207

earth-snakes. In fact, at the Zoological Gardens in Regents park
it has been found impossible to make them eat anything but other
snakes.

The pretty whip-snake, Dryophis mycterizans, has a peculiar habit,
if caught and placed somewhere where it cannot escape, of raising
itself up, opening its mouth, and expanding the lower jaw into the
form of an oblong, which gives it a most ferocious appearance.
Although I have repeatedly noticed this habit in low-country
specimens, yet I have never seen one of the up-country snakes do it,
though I have kept many of them.

Very much the same aggressive behaviour is to be seen in Tropi-
donotus stolatus, which pufis out its body in resemblance of a viper,
while the rat-snake will often raise itself up and expand its neck
with air, in emulation of the cobra.

Considering how closely allied T'rimeresurus trigonocephalus is to
the American Crofali, its custom of vibrating its tail rapidly when
irritated is peculiar, but I do not think this habit is in any way due
to its relationship to the rattle-snake, as I have noticed the same
behaviour in Dipsas ceylonensis.

In view of the discussion which recently occurred as to the species
of Dendrophis commonly found in Ceylon, it may be of interest to
say that when last in England I asked Mr. G. Boulenger about it,
and he gave it as his opinion that D. bifrenalis was the common
variety, though there was very little distinction between it and

D. pictus. A. F. ABERCROMBY.

21. Abnormal Chicken with Four Legs.—Some months ago a newly-
hatched chick of the common domestic fowl was brought to me.
The bird was peculiar in having two supernumerary legs—both on
the right side of the body (see fig. 1). Such abnormalities in birds
appear to be by no means uncommon. I was interested to see how
the two additional legs were attached to the pelvic girdle, and for
this purpose a skeleton of the specimen was prepared. Owing
to the soft nature of the bones this process was by no means an
easy one.

The heads of the two additional femurs did not appear to be
fitted into sockets, but the two bones were plastered down flat on
the side wall of the right ischium (see fig. 2). The heads of,the two
femurs lay quite close together, and the two bones crossed over each
other. The interesting point about these two limbs was that there
was no tibio-tarsus present. Each femur was directly connected
with the tarso-metatarsus. The femur and tarso-metatarsus of
each supernumerary leg was the same size as the similar parts in the
normal legs, Each supernumerary leg had only three toes.

208 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Measurements taken.
Total length of chick from beak to tip of tail 125 mm.
Lengths of normal legs (R’ and L)—
Femur 21 mm.
Tibio-tarsus 33 mm.
Tarso-metatarsus 21 mm.
Foot with four toes, longest toe 24 mm.

Lengths of extra legs (R? and R8)—
Femur 21 mm.
Tarso-metatarsus 21 mm. .

JOSEPH PEARSON.

22. Sun-fish caught near Jaffna.—In May last I received word
from the Government Agent, Northern Province, of the capture of
a peculiar fish in Kayts harbour, near Jaffna. A photograph of the
fish was sent on to me, and is here reproduced. So far as I can make
out it is a specimen of Orthagoriscus truncatus, a fish which has a very
wide distribution throughout the Atlantic and Pacific. So far as
I am able to determine this is the first time this species has been
recorded from Ceylon waters. In 1885 a small sun-fish was caught
off Colombo and created a small sensation. The fish was exhibited
in the Pettah, and hundreds of natives paid a small fee to see it. It
is unfortunate that the fish was not identified nor obtained for the
Museum collections.

The present specimen agrees with O. truncatus in having small
hexagonal markings on the skin. In the original photograph these
markings were readily made out on the side of the body with the
aid of a hand lens. The size of the specimen was—

Greatest length 26 inches.
Greatest height 13 inches.
Greatest thickness 4 inches.

The photograph which is reproduced was sent by the Government

Agent, Northern Province. JOSEPH PEARSON.

23. The Giant Tortoise at Galle.—Rambling about the grounds of
Hirimbura, Garstin Hill, Galle, at present occupied by Mr. J. Black,
is a fine old giant tortoise belonging to the same species as the old
Colombo tortoise, viz., T’estudo gigantea. This is undoubtedly the
‘* Matara tortoise”? to which I have already referred in Spolia
Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part XXVI.,p.109. The history of this tortoise

7

Sun-fish caught near Jaffna.

NOTES. 209

is by no means clear, and previous to the year 1843 nothing seems to
be known about it. Mr. Black writes from Galle as follows: ‘“ He
has been at the Hill as long as the oldest inhabitant can remember.
Though quite active he is blind in one eye, and I do not think sees
very well with the other...... I wrote to America to Mrs. Garstin,
an old lady of ninety, the widow of the Rev. Norman Garstin, D.D.,
who lived many years at Hirimbura as far back as 1843. She could
not remember how the tortoise came to the Hill. Her son, also in
America, writes that he remembers riding the tortoise when a boy.
He left Ceylon about 1860.” Mr. Paul Pieris, C.C.S., writes as
follows: ‘‘ The Galle tortoise is at Garstin Hill, about three miles
from the fort, a spot which is very prominent as one sails past Galle.
This tortoise is said to be one of two brought to the spot by Dr.
Norman Garstin, Colonial Chaplain of Galle, certainly before 1846.
The animal is about four feet across, and is still in fairly good health.
It roams about the Hill, eating leaves and the very tender coconuts
which drop from trees, and any food that the servants at the house
throw to it. Garstin Hill was purchased by Dr. Garstin in part
from a clergyman who lives in local recollection as William and in
part from the neighbouring villagers. Garstin, I understand, built
the bungalow. His administrators sold the land to my kinsman,
the late Frederick Dias Abeysinha, Mudaliyar, who in a fit of spleen
has left it to the church. I remember the Mudaliyar had some
papers which he once showed to me, from which he proved to his own
satisfaction that the tortoise was over 120 years old. Where those
papers are I cannot say. Perhaps the Bishop may have them among
the title deeds. The Mudaliyar was also not unwilling to give the
animal to the Museum. Perhaps if the Bishop were informed of
this he might carry out his desire. I am sorry that I cannot give
you any further information, but you ought to have no trouble”
about securing a photo of the animal from Galle.”

In April last I paid a visit to Galle and saw the tortoise for myself.
He is a specimen of T'estudo gigantea, and is slightly larger than the
Colombo tortoise. He seemed perfectly happy, roaming at will
through the delightful grounds of Mr. Black’s residence, and was
quite active.

In addition to the Colombo and Galle giant tortoises, there was
still another specimen, which was the property of Mr. A. A. Hankey,
of Arncliffe, Colombo. This beast was brought from the Seychelles
twelve years ago, and has now been sent to the Trevandrum

Zoological Gardens in India. JOSEPH PEARSON.

24. The Gourami.—In his Administration Reports for 1908 and
1909 Dr. Willey describes the introduction of the gourami into
Ceylon. Eventually three were placed in the small tank at the

25 6(11)11

210 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

back of the Museum, and twenty were placed in the large pond in
Peradeniya Gardens. In a footnote to Dr. Willey’s paper on the
Fresh-water Fisheries of Ceylon (Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VIL.,
Part XXVI., p. 96) I wrote as follows: “‘On November 5, 1910,
Mr. Green and I made an examination of the pond at Peradeniya
and found no signs of the gourami. Two native fishermen were
employed, and they used a vertical net somewhat like a seive net.
After an exhaustive search they declared that there were no fish in
the pond. The pond overflows into the Mahaweli-ganga, and it is
probable that the fish have escaped to the river, although the ledge
which guards the overflow would render this difficult but not
impossible.” Since the above was written, Mr. Pertwee of Colombo
has seen some of the gourami in the Peradeniya pond, so that it is
not true that all the gourami have escaped to the river. I had the
small Museum tank emptied on May 16, 1911, and found the three
gourami in a flourishing condition.

No figures are available regarding the exact sizes of the fish when
first placed in the tank, but Dr. Willey, speaking in general terms
of all the fish imported, said that they measured from six to eight
inches in length. Those measurements refer to September, 1909.
The following are the measurements of the three fish in the Museum
tank taken in May, 1911 :—

(1). (2). (3).

Weightoftish ~—) dilb2 oz5 . ob 1007, oe dale
Total length .. 12 in. Bae ep to 7 LOJoans
Height of middle

of body eaai eo ih =f ip 0 al -< eeOstn

It is highly probable that a further stock of gourami will be
‘imported, and after being suitably labelled they will be deposited
in various tanks and ponds in different parts of the country. Here
they will be protected to some extent from their natural enemies
until they have become acclimatized and have fairly established
themselves. If spawning is successful, as undoubtedly it ought to
be, the young fry can be gradually transplanted either to other ponds
where they will be preserved or directly to the rivers.

JOSEPH PEARSON.

25. Proposed further attempt to introduce the Gourami (‘‘ Osphro-
menus olfax’’) into Ceylon, with notes on a suitable locality.—The
gourami is so well known and so highly prized as an article of
food throughout the Far East, that its absence from the rivers and
tanks of Ceylon constitutes one of the many mysteries of our local
domestic economy. True, several attempts to introduce gourami
into Ceylon waters have been made in the past, the earliest of which

NOTES. 211

I have traced any authentic record being that by Mr. G. M. Fowler
some ten or twelve years ago, but this, in common with other efforts
since made by private individuals, came to nothing, chiefly for want
of knowledge how to protect and propagate them and for lack of
observation as to what actually happened after they were liberated
in their new environment.

As many readers will remember, the most recent attempt to add
this species to our meagre show of palatable fresh-water fish was
made in September, 1909, when Mr. Kelway Bamber, at the instance
of Dr. A. Willey, brought up a consignment of about forty from
Java, most of which were landed in excellent condition. Unfortu-
nately lack of experience on the part of their custodians, or want of
time to give them adequate attention, has resulted in yet another
failure. The writer had several opportunities of observing a few
of the above specimens which were kept for a time in the cement
tank at the rear of the Museum, and in spite of their cramped
situation they appeared to be doing well, and certainly gained
considerably in size and weight. After a few months, however, they
developed a fungoid growth immediately above the eye, and this,
although apparently no inconvenience to the fish, was thought by
Dr. Willey to be a misfortune of sufficient gravity for special
investigation. Whether or not the learned Doctor ever determined
the cause I have been unable to learn. Probably the restricted
space, high temperature of the water, or other local condition was
accountable ; anyway the appearance of fungoid growths on the
eyes of fish is no new thing, particularly in the tropics, and need
not be taken into account when considering the advisability or
otherwise of introducing a new species.

Dr. Willey’s successor at the Museum, Dr. Joseph Pearson, has
recently looked into this question of introducing gourami into
Ceylon waters, and at his suggestion the writer recently made
an examination (or rather inspection) of the Kandy waterworks
reservoir with a view to determine its suitability or otherwise as a
permanent nursery for the propogation of Osphromenus olfax, and
possibly other tropical fresh-water fishes which are not at present
represented in our inland waters.

For reasons set forth below, I am of opinion that the water in
question is suitable in every way, and I strongly advocate the intro-
duction of gourami therein. This fish thrives best in still or gently
flowing water, a condition which is admirably filled in the above
situation. It is also largely herbiverous, and the water indicated
is well provided with subaquatic vegetation of a suitable nature.
Marginal feeding grounds, which is an exceedingly important factor
where breeding operations are to take place, could easily be pro-
vided ; at present the banks are kept strictly bare and free from
vegetation of any sort. Essentially a tropical species, the tempera-
ture of this water is suitable in every way for the propagation of

212 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

gourami, as I learn it seldom, if ever, drops below 70° F. At
the date of my inspection (June 17, 1911), after an unusually long
drought, there was 35 feet of water at the outlet, shelving up to
a few inches at the intake—an admirable condition for breeding
purposes.

There appear to be two natural enemies present, namely, the
Indian otter and the fresh-water tortoise, but I do not consider either
are sufficiently plentiful to constitute a serious menace, though unless
checked they may become so.

I am further of opinion that gourami, if allowed to reach the age
of 9 to 12 months, would thrive well in the large lake at Kandy,
but the great number of tortoises there renders successful breeding
problematical. At present the reservoir contains no fish beyond a
few small carp, probably Barbus mehecola (black spot), B. pinnau-
ratus, and Rasbora daniconius.

The fact that this water is close to Peradeniya is a further favour-
able circumstance, since any experiments that may be decided upon
can be supervised by the Government Entomologist or other member
of the Peradeniya staff. Further, the reservoir being enclosed and
in charge of watchers night and day, the danger of poaching or other
interference is reduced to a minimum.

A. H. PERTWEE.

26. On the Occasional Luminosity of the Beetle ‘‘ Harmatelia
bilinea.”—This small beetle (shown in the figure as magnified about
6 diameters) is extremely abundant, at certain times of the year,
in many parts of Ceylon. It may be found resting upon the leaves
of various shrubs in the jungle, and is often seen on the wing.
It is noticeable on account of its remarkable pectinated antenne,
and may be further distinguished by two conspicuous longitudinal
ochreous stripes (one on each elytron) on a black ground.

Although this beetle has been included by Olivier amongst the
Lampyridee (fireflies and glow worms), nothing appears to be known
about its luminous properties. I have frequently examined living
examples of Harmatelia, but have never observed the faintest trace
of luminosity, nor does the abdomen show any conspicuous photo-
genic organ such as is noticeable on the under surface of all the
typical fireflies. But that it can, on occasion, produce an appre-
ciable light is proved by the following observation of Mr. John Pole,
who, in sending me a specimen of the insect, asks if I am aware that
it “ gives light at night like a firefly.” He reports that, one evening,
at 7.30, in a mist and with a clouded moon, he “ caught the animal,
alight, on a tea bush, and boxed it as a small firefly.” He adds that
the light paled out before he reached home. The insect was kept

x0

Harmatelia bilinea.

NOTES. 213

alive, and Mr. Pole tells me that on the following night the animal
again became luminous, but that the light was rather more subdued,
and that at no time was it as bright as that of the common firefly.
Other examples of the same species, examined by Mr. Pole at the
same time, did not exhibit this phenomenon.

Wishing to find out what had been recorded on the subject, I
applied to Mr. C. J. Gahan, of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.), who
replied as follows: ‘‘ I believe nothing is known as to the luminous
properties or otherwise of Harmatelia. The mere fact that Olivier
included Harmatelia in Lampyride counts for little, as I believe the
genus was unknown to him until he paid us a visit here a short time
ago. Do you know the female of Harmatelia ? All our specimens
seem to be males ......... They (the females) might incidentally
throw some light upon the position of the genus. I suspect that
the female Harmatelia is like the male, except that it has simple
instead of pectinated antennz ; my reason for thinking so being
that we have one (apparently) female of a species (undetermined)
which seems referable to Harmatelia. Have you ever heard anything
of a glow worm in Ceylon which has a series of emerald green
lights along each side of the body? It is just possible that the
female of Harmatelia may be luminous after this fashion ; that it
may, in fact, be larviform like the female of the Phengodini, of
which the males have fine plumose antennze and are not very
different in structure from Harmatelia.”

An examination of the series in my collection shows that these
also are apparently all males—having elaborately peccinated
antenne. So the problem of the female of this insect still remains
to be solved. If any readers of Spolia should meet with a multi-
illuminated glow worm, as described in Mr. Gahan’s letter, I would
ask them to preserve it and send it to me, dead or alive, but
preferably the latter.

Though Mr. Gahan speaks of the single species Harmatelia bilinea,
Olivier (‘“* Genara Insectorum,” fasc. 53) records two species—bilinea
and discalis—from Ceylon, both described by Walker in 1858. A
study of my series, comprising specimens from Maskeliya (4,000 to
5,000 ft.) and from Peradeniya (approximately 1,600 ft.), convinces
me that we really have two distinct species ; but which is which
Iam not at present in a position to determine. The montane form
(from Maskeliya) is the darker of the two, and has the prothorax
proportionately smaller ; the head black and almost glabrous, with
strongly raised frontal ridges above the insertion of the antenne ;
the median area of the prothorax uniformly black ; the costal margin
of the elytra ochreous, and the whole under surface of the body of the
same pale tint. The Peradeniya form has the head and prothorax
ferruginous red, the latter with a black fascia on each side, which
in some examples tends to spread over the central area ; the head is
sulcate between the antennz and densely clothed with fulvous hair,

214 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and has no markedly prominent frontal ridges ; costal margin of
elytra black, and under surface of body distinctly fulvous. My
figure represents the species (or form) common at Peradeniya. The
luminous properties were observed in the up-country species ; but
the two, if really distinct, are so closely allied that they are unlikely
to differ in this respect.

Mr. J. Bourgeois, in a paper on ‘“‘ Malacodermes et Lymexylonides
de Ceylan ” (Ann. Soc. Ent. France, Vol. LX XVIII., 1909), has
described and figured our Peradeniya insect under the name of
Haplogeusis ceylanica, gen. et sp. nov. This is almost certainly a
synonym of either Harmatelia bilinea or H. discalis.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

27. On the probable occurrence of Field Mice in Ceylon.—Blanford,
in his volume on Mammalia (‘‘ Fauna of British India ”’), describes
nine distinct species of voles from the Indian region, but not a single
one of these is recorded from Ceylon. At present, so far as zoological
records are concerned, we have no voles in Ceylon. I am convinced
that this omission is not really justified.

During a recent visit to the Horton Plains I saw an animal in
the resthouse garden that could have been nothing but a vole.
And my companion (Mr. J. C. F. Fryer) observed another (probably
of a different species) in a swampy piece of ground near the jungle.
The latter individual appeared to be of the nature of a water rat,
as when disturbed it took to the water.*

The voles (or field mice and water rats) may be distinguished
superficially from the true rats and mice by their comparatively
short tails and blunt muzzles. The tail of a vole is never more than
one-third the length of its body, while rats and mice have tails that
are seldom less than half and sometimes equal in length to the body
of the animal.

Will any of our sporting friends help us to establish the occurrence
of voles in Ceylon? The Horton Plains are the happy hunting
grounds of sportsmen with rod, gun, and hounds, who must have
unique opportunities of observing the wild life of the locality. A
skin, accompanied by the skull, would settle the matter beyond
dispute.

E. ERNEST GREEN.

* Since sending in this note, I have had independent corroborative
evidence of the existence of voles in the higher parts of Ceylon. Mr. W.
Ormiston tells me that, while fishing at Ambawella, he has often seen small
reddish mice on the banks of the streams. He describes them as having the
appearance and attitudes of English field mice.—E. E. G.

NOTES. 215

28. On some Butterflies of the Horton Plains.—At the time of my
visit (in the middle of May) butterflies were neither abundant in
unmbers or variety. The commonest species in the jungle paths
were Lethe daretis, Cyaniris lanka, and C. singalensis. I was
somewhat surprised to find at this elevation (between 6,000 and
7,000 ft.) two species that are usually associated with the low-
country and the lower montane regions. I caught a single example
of Nepherona ceylanica in the resthouse garden, and found Y pthima
ceylonica frequenting the edges of the jungle. Ypthima singala,
which usually replaces ceylonica in the higher hills, was conspicuous
by its absence. Similarly, the typical up-country forms of Terias,
venata, and libythea were not seen, though hecabe was on the wing.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

29. On an interesting aberration of <‘‘ Vanessa (Pyrameis)
indica.” *—A curious aberration of this usually very constant
butterfly has occurred amongst examples bred at Peradeniya,
presumably consequent upon a stimulus induced by a sudden change
of temperature. This butterfly is a distinctly montane species,
seldom, if ever, occurring spontaneously below 3,000 ft. in Ceylon,
but more frequent at still higher elevations. In India the species is
said to range from 2,000 ft. upwards, but to be found more commonly
at and above 4,000 ft.

The food plant of Vanessa indica is Girardinia heterophylla vav.
palmata. According to Trimen, typical heterophylla is common on
waste land in the low-country up to 3,000 ft., above which elevation
it is replaced by its variety palmata, which differs from the type form
principally in having the leaves. hirsute beneath. From its distri-
bution V. indica appears to be restricted to the higher montane
variety of Girardima heterophylla.

In May last I received from Major A. J. MacDougall some pup
of V. indica collected at Diyatalawa (4,300 ft.), together with a
single full-fed larva. The pupz all disclosed butterflies of the
typical pattern, but the single larva, after pupating in the warmer
climate of Peradeniya (1,500 ft.), appeared in a strikingly different
form. .

* Since the preparation of my note on an aberration of Vanessa indica, I
have seen a description and coloured figure of what must be a closely similar
aberration from Southern India. This account is in a paper by Mr. P. J.
Lathy, ‘‘ On some aberrations of Lepidoptera from the collection of Herbert
J. Adams” (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1904, p. 65). The locality quoted
is merely ‘‘ Travancore, S. India.’’ The circumstances of the capture are
not given, nor the altitude at which it was taken. It would be interesting
to know whether this specimen was caught on the wing, or whether (like my
examples) it had been bred from larve taken at a higher elevation.—E. E. G.

216 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

The main characters of the aberration are as follows. On the
upper side the red area on the fore-wing is more widely extended,
obliterating the usual black patch in the middle of interspace 1, and
the submarginal red band on the hind-wing does not include the
black spots that are found in typical examples. On the under side
the differences are still more marked ; the red area on the fore-wing
is even more widely extended, and the subapical white streaks and
spots in the black area have disappeared ; the hind-wing is almost
entirely suffused with pale gray scales, leaving only a few
nebulous patches of brown. If this specimen had been captured on
the wing it might have suggested a natural hybrid between indica
and cardut.

From a subsequent batch of larve that pupated under similar
conditions I obtained two normal examples of the butterfly and one
aberration precisely similar to the first.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

30. On ‘* Megaderma lyra,” its Habits and Parasites.—In a
previous number of this Journal f have called attention to the
carnivorous habits of bats of the genus Megaderma. I have found
frequent signs of its depredations in the remains of birds and small
bats dropped in my verandah. I have since seen the fragments of a
_ mouse (consisting of the feet and part of the head, mingled with the
characteristic excreta of a bat) that had evidently been captured
and devoured by the same animal. But, until quite recently, I had
never come to close quarters with the bat itself. Examination of a
loft above the Royal Botanic Gardens Laboratory has, however,
revealed a stronghold of Megaderma lyra. They were found to be
swarming with a minute dipterous parasite, allied to the “ tick-flies ”
(Hippobosca). The common bat parasite (Nycteribia) belongs to the
same family (Pupipara), but is apterous. The parasite of Megaderma
has small but fully developed wings and is capable of flight.

The destruction of small birds, due to these vampire bats, must
be enormous. Day after day, for weeks together, I have found
my verandah strewn with the wings and feathers of small birds,
principally of the dainty little honey-sucker (Cinnyris zeylonicus).
It would be interesting to know how the bat effects its capture.
Though extremely agile on the wing, a bat is but a clumsy animal
when it has to rely upon progress by means of its feet and claws
alone. When the bat is abroad, the bird is snugly roosting in the
recesses of a bush. How does the bat discover the presence of its
prey ? Does it enter and explore bush after bush on the chance of
happening upon a sleeping bird, or does it scent them from a
distance and then hunt them down in their retreat ?

K. ERNEST GREEN,

NOTES. 2h

31. Capture of a Mouse by a large Spider.—The huge spiders of
South America, of the family Aviculariine, are known to capture
and devour small birds and mammals. Our so-called ‘* Tarantula ”’
of Ceylon (Pacilotheria) is nearly allied to these bird-eating spiders,
and may, perhaps, occasionally indulge in a similar diet, though no
such instance has been actually recorded. They are certainly strong
enough to overpower a small bird. Their principal food appears
to be cockroaches, grasshoppers, and large beetles, with perhaps an
occasional lizard ; one has been observed with a gecko in its clutches.
I am now able to record an instance of its capture of somewhat
bigger game. Mr. G. Harbord, of the Cotton Experiment Station,
found one of these spiders devouring a mouse on the wall of a room
in his bungalow near Anuradhapura.

K. ERNEST GREEN,

32. On the Employment of a Snake-stone in a Case of Centipede-
bite.—Any first-hand records of the bites or stings of venomous insects
are of interest. The following account was related by a friend who
had recently been bitten on the naked foot by a large centipede
(about 5inches long). He describes the pain having been very severe
at the time ; but after borrowing a ‘‘snake-stone’’ and applying it
to the place he obtained immediate and complete relief. The stone .
adhered tightly to the wound, and remained attached for about
an hour. There was no subsequent inconvenience from the bite,
though the spot was tender for a few days.

There is a very prevalent idea that the mere passage of a centi-
pede over the bare flesh is followed by severe inflammation. I
have always felt rather sceptical about this matter ; but the following
occurrence lends some support .to the idea. My informant tells me
that, while gardening a short time ago, a large centipede ran over
hishand. He did not feel any bite and shook the animal off quickly ;
but shortly afterwards the whole back of his hand swelled up.
There were no marks of punctures.

EK. ERNEST GREEN.

33. Notes on the Larve of ‘‘ Papilio polytes,” ‘* P. demoleus,”
*< P. helenus”’ (race mooreanus) , and ‘‘ P. polymnestor”’ (race parinda).—
In an attempt to obtain statistics as to the relative abundance of the
three forms of Papilio polytes, much trouble has been caused by a
complete ignorance of any points of distinction between the larvee of
this species and those of P.demoleus. A search through the literature

2F | 6(11)11

218 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

available has yielded no satisfactory information, while, on the other
hand, it has brought to light an apparent confusion between the
larve of P. parinda and P. mooreanus. There appears to be,
therefore, sufficient justification for a few notes on the four species,
though it must be confessed that the material of P..mooreanus
obtained up to the present has been very scanty.

Fie. 1.—Larva of Papilio mooreanus (2).
Fie. 2.—Larva of Papilio parinda.

Fig. 3.—Larva of Papilio polytes.

Fig. 4.—Larva of Papilio demoleus.

In habit the larvee all feed on members of the natural order
Rutacee, and are usually found on the cultivated species of Citrus.
The adult larva, those in their fourth skin, may be easily distin-
guished by the following key :—

A. 4th and 5th segments markedly swollen ;

much larger than succeeding seg-

ments of .. Section A.
B. 4th and 5th segments not markedly

swollen ; hardly larger than succeed-

ing segments ¥: .. Section B.

NOTES. 219

Section A. ‘(i.) Diagonal bands commencing
on segments 8 and 10
mainly brown and meeting
in the dorsal middle line.. P. mooreanus (fig. 1).
(ii.) Diagonal bands commenc-
ing on segments 8 and 10
mainly white ; not meeting

in dorsal middle line .. P. parinda (fig. 2).
Section B. (i.) Caudal tubercles white,
much reduced .. P. polytes (fig. 3).
(ii.) Caudal tubercles brown ;
size moderate .. P.demoleus (fig. 4).

By ‘caudal tubercles”? are meant the projecting points found
in most Papilio larvee on each side of the posterior portion of the
terminal segment. When young the larva usually has two pairs
of caudal tubercles; as it grows older the anterior pair are often
lost, and even the terminal pair may become much reduced, as in
polytes. ‘

Young larve of polytes and demoleus are extremely hard to
separate, and the following distinctions must not be too implicitly
relied upon. When newly hatched, polytes is usually yellowish-
brown, with an irregular yellow dorsal line; demoleus is blackish-
brown, with a yellow ‘‘ saddle ’’ limited to segments 7,8, 9. These
differences, however, only apply when both larve are in their first
skin ; they soon change, and polytes then resembles demoleus in the
characters enumerated above.

After the first moult the caudal tubercles show good distinctive
characters; during the second skin there are two pairs of tubercles,
of which the terminal pair are grayish-white, or white in polytes
and brown in demoleus ; in the third skin the anterior pair of tubercles
degenerates, but the posterior remain, and are always white in
polytes and brown in demoleus. After the third change of skin the
larvee attain their final scheme of colouration, and may then be
easily known by the characters given in the key ; in addition it may
be mentioned that in demoleus the ‘‘ ocellus ”’ mark on segment 4 is
connected by a brown line with the dark area surrounding the legs ;
in polytes there is no such connection.

The young stages of parinda and helenus have not been sufficiently
studied to give distinctive characters ; after the second moult,
however, parinda is easily known by the absence of dark markings
and the presence of minute blue spots, especially on segments 4
and 5. At all stages both species are larger than either polytes or
demoleus, if the comparison is made when the larve are in the
same skin. .

Pupal distinctions, as well as general descriptions, of the larve
can be found in various papers by Davidson, Bell, and Aitken in the

220 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

‘«¢ Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society” ; to avoid the
necessity of reference, it may be mentioned that the pupa of helenus
resembles that of polytes, but is slightly larger, and is bent back
at an angle of almost 90 per cent. Demoleus differs from polytes
in being comparatively narrow across the hind part of the thorax ;
polytes is very wide in this region, and as a rule is bent back
at a greater angle than demoleus. Parinda is, of course, easily
recognized by its superior size, as compared with any of the
other species.

Tn conclusion it should be noted that the above distinctions apply
in Ceylon only ; in India, where other orange-feeding Papilios occur,
considerable modification would probably be necessary.

My thanks are due to Mr. E. EK. Green, who has most kindly figured
the full-fed larva of each species. To avoid confusion, only the
salient characteristics of each are represented, small unimportant
markings being neglected.

J. @. F. FRYER.

?

34. ‘ Filodes mirificalis,” a good species.—This pyrale was first
described by Lederer in 1863 under the name Auxomitia mirificahs
(Led., Wien. Ent. Mon., 1868, p. 391); subsequently it was re-
described by Moore* as Filodes patruelis (Moore, Lep. Atk., p. 218),
but in the ‘‘ Fauna of British India’? (Moths, Vol. IV., p. 297)
it is reduced to the status of a variety of Filodes fulvidorsalis, Hubn.
Mr. E. E. Green has always expressed the opinion that the two forms
should rank as good species, and this view has now proved to be
correct. Both species have been bred at Peradeniya, marked
differences being found in the larve, while in every case the imagoes
proved true to the maternal type. For a general description of F.
fulvidorsalis the ‘‘ Fauna of British India ’’ must be consulted ; the
following table presents the essential differences between the two
species :—

FPilodes fulvidorsalis. Filodes mirificalis.
Wings .. No dark band or fascia A conspicuous dark
crossing fore- and hind- band always present.
wings. General colour, Colour black, usually
black with a steely re- without metallic re-
flection. flection, and often
with slight fuscous
suffusion.
Thorax and base Bright orange .. Usually reddish fus-
of fore-wings cous, but occasion-
ally orange.
Build .. Somewhat stout .. Slender.

* Moore also referred to it under its correct name in Lep. Ceylon, p. 331.

NOTES. Dor

As a whole the two species show a different fascies, the sum of
the distinguishing characters having a greater effect than their
consideration separately would suggest. No adequate descrip-
tion of the larva of fulvidorsalis has been found, and therefore a
detailed description is necessary to allow a comparison with that
of mirificalis.

When full fed the general ground colour of the larva is apple-green,
with the exception of the head (the Ist segment), which is yellowish-
brown, and the 2nd segment, which is green tinged with brown.
The markings are as follows: The 2nd segment with six black tuber-
cular spots, a pair being situate on each side of the middle line and a
single spot over each leg (fig. 3); the 3rd and 4th segments similar
to the second, but with an additional spot below the dorsal pair ;
the 5th-12th segments with three black spots on each side of the
middle line, one pair being situate towards the anterior margin of
the segment and the third behind, forming a triangle, the interior

pee ee OS
mer ee

e ) ~ - } ie
2 ~~ £ \
. ee

Ve
Fie. 1. Fig. 2. Fic. 3. : Fie. 4.

Fie. 1.—Head and second segment of the larva of Filodes mirificalis.
Fic. 2.—Seventh segment of the same.

Fic. 3.—Head and second segment of the larva of Filodes fulvidorsalis.
Fic. 4.—Seventh segment of the same.

of which is occupied by a shining white plate, while there is a small
white spot behind the apex of the triangle (fig. 4); in addition, on
these segments a subspiracular black spot and a spot over base of
prolegs on segments 7, 8, 9, 10; segment 12 with a pair of black
spots united in the middle line, the white plates obsolescent ; seg-
ment 13 much reduced, with a single dorsal spot and a pair
on each side; terminal segment with a black spot above anus and
a spot on the hinder part of each clasper. From each of the
tubercular spots arises a hair, those from the lateral spots being
longest. The general shape of the larva is short and stout.
Length 2°5 cm.

The larva of F. mirificalis resembles that just described in the
general system of markings, but may be easily distinguished by the
following points: It is more slender; the ground colour is a blue-
green (sage-green) instead of apple-green. The 2nd segment has a
larger number of spots, there being three on each side of the middle
line, and in addition an irregular composite lateral spot (fig. 1).

oo SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The white “‘ plates,” which give such a characteristic appearance to
the larva of fulvidorsalis, are much smaller, and are usually reduced
to small lobes near the inner angles of the triangles of black spots
(fig. 2). No differences have been observed between the pupe.
The food plant in each case is Thurbergia fragrans, but the larvee
will also eat 7’. allata and T. coccinea. Finally, it may be pointed
out that there is a further Ceylon species, Filodes bilinealis,
Hampsn., about the larva of which nothing as yet is known, though
it must be widely distributed, having been taken both at Peradeniya

and Wellawaya.
J. C. F. FRYER.

— = es = pb ee SS ee ee me ~

H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, COLOMBO, CEYLON.

ae a aa, ee ee

ele MY n
at 4; Ei

. “a

ir
eae
star a

fy SUA ead

ms ea
+e

sci
anna
oa ‘
, pease en iit ey aaah
yede ry 7
Mates e netyh
Hit ahaany hy

pia Boh eanutcscaeericistaet

(iste
relat

seam toCKth:
viet Hee be me
peal bat itea re
a

Mlel

athe ot
att = ee Sarat
pra he
asi bd ceca ae
wre ai
pains ata : .

teal
4 te tiie
== Btls

ae fits

ih

os
. bop cog
by tty

a
rte va tie
rete she

ne rise uf
sevath erat

peneas (thes

rate ' uae
ioe)

a Maer
(" a us

tn Wiad ed ac

uli “ary he Thon
oe Hes

egeuraset

Pisgas

ae

Rb utes
%

ps beeen tet
phar Sy)

ae

is meat oi} Sy et
sire

toot ite
r t
pes pfae sets

ae age (peop ed Met &

abot

Uys ret a

Pet. teas Pash y 3/6 cde
Pebetangpb one
thar]

‘
Herren ts ialtt
+ Wey hha

ve
bane poet ere
ee ¢

cee ie

ter ere

bh ink (diner "

ithe nest AE At hay m
'

1 pe Mibeaes

es}
athe breeiey tis tyt Wr |
+

bala

plensmerrate’

Lieriren 4 :
total

i]
itteu bee
Sera ”

0 bOMeras ts.12"
ur Shirt vite

verve iens aR
eth Weta a

;
Hoe “rt:
+ rede

Loa
teeny ree
Td Kap ae] binges

a Bak
:

rats
ate banat i

ee ede P
jromhs contig

ni

teat avled
igbiel desig
Uy a

ise lS

pid
Meee ra
‘ "

boar etirat 4
<Bvia} hie

Ftehe)
a

B heshstotated
tS frites

ite 8:4 20
hye

ree
A

;
3
tanta eats
reer Weieee :

be "
ees
fia she

ined ypetrrgs yn
i

eres

hs \
tasbiebe A.

Neurone
ay sai

#

ee BED he
i Saat

Ors

eyes tei

t
a bivee| be Wey wi}
mantels ea te
Seige i Tepes ;
cy in

ase Wirvecehi
‘
acute,
bata soo:
per heieteay
aie Lh %
PI
hf parlish

mitt ret appt
ast Ay Per
SLPS peesaitiess

W's

i Bests t