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STCRAGfi ITEJi
FROCESSING-CNE

U.B.C. LIBRARY

Clarence M. Weed

THE LIBRARY

The University of British Columbia
Ace No

Cat. No. ..L....:±>.. J:LiL_

Spraying Crops

r

Sprayed. Unsf rayed.

Plate I. — Prar Lkaf-I5lioht Experimknt.

SPRAYING CROPS

Why, When, and How

I'.V

CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc.

Professor of Zoology and Botany, New Hampshire College of Agriculture
and the Mechanic Arts

ILLUSTRATED

Third (Revised) Edition

New York

The Orange Judd Company

1895

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES

A Practical Manual Concerning Noxious Insects
and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. Illus-
trated. Price ^1.25.

FUNGI AND FUNGICIDES

A Practical Manual Concerning the Fungous Dis-
eases of Cul ivated Plants and the Methods of Pre-
venting their Ravages. Illustrated. Price $1.00.

Orange Judd Co., New York, N. Y.

TEN NEW ENGLAND BLOSSOMS AND
THEIR INSECT VISITORS

Illustrated.
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York.

Copyright, 1891

by

Clarence M. Weei:)

Printed by
Repuhlican Press Association
Concord, N. 11.

PREFACE.

This little manual has been prepared for the purpose of
aiding owners of spraying-machines to use them to best
advantage. The practical results of the most recent inves-
tigations and experiments have been embodied in it ; and
technical terms, so far as possible, have been excluded.

The development of the practice of spraying crops fur-
nishes a striking illustration of the practical results agricul-
ture may derive from scientific investigation and accurate
experimentation. Little more than a decade has passed
since Professor A. J. Cook, then of the Michigan Agricul-
tural College, began his experiments in spraying apples to
prevent the injuries caused by the Codling Moth — experi-
ments which first proved to the horticultural public that the
remedy was safe and sure — and to his enthusiastic advocacy
of the process American fruit-growers are largely indebted
for the introduction of spraying machinery. The success
which followed spraying for the Codling Moth naturally led
to experiments in spraying for other insects, and later for
fungous diseases ; our early knowledge of remedies for the
latter being largely due to the eflforts of Messrs. Scribner and
Galloway, of the United States Department of Agriculture.
The establishment of the state experiment stations has

6 Preface.

greatly aided the acquisition and diffusion of information
upon the whole subject.

The sources of those illustrations on the following pages
which are not original with the author, are indicated in the
list below: After Riley, Plates II, IV, V, and figures i, 3,
14, 21, 23, 26-28, 30-31, 31, 35-38, 40; after Bailey,
figures 9, 10, 17 ; after Slingerland, figures 19, 24, 25 ; after
Popenoe, figure 15 ; after Galloway, Plate I and figures 7,
29 ; after Chester, figure 8 ; after f^arlow, figure 4 ; after
Garman, Plate III and figure 22; after Jones, figure 34;
after Osborn, figure 39; after Saunders, figures 18, '^i-

C. M. W.

Neiv HampsJiire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts.
Durham, March, 1895.

NOTE CONCERNING BORDEAUX MIXTURE.

t
Since the main part of this book was printed, Prof. L. H. Bailey

has called attention to a " russeting " of apples and pears, appar-
ently due to the application of Bordeaux Mixture. It was most
serious when there was not an excess of lime in the Mixture, espe-
cially that made with the ferrocyanide of potassium test. On ac-
count of this, it is advised that the Mixture be made by formulas
giving precise quantities, or at any rate that there be added a
sufficient (juantity of lime.

C O N T P: N T S .

PAGE

Introduction 9

PART I

Spraying the Larger Fri'its

Apple 55 Pear 69

Plum 63 Cherry T})

l^each 67 Orange 75

PART II

Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock

Strawberry 81 Grape 91

Currant and Gooseberry. . . 86 Raspberry 94

Nursery Stock 96

PART III.

Spraying Shade-Trees, Ornamental Plants, and
Flowers

Shade-Trees 104 Rose no

Flowers 112

PART IV

Spraying Vegetables, Field-Crops, and Domestic
Animals

Potato 117 Grain Crops 126

Cabbage 122 Domestic Animals 129

// is certain that spraying for insects and fungous troubles has
come to be a necessary labor. — L. H. Bailey.

Spray I Spray I Spray ! Spray for insects and for fungous
diseases. This is one of the secrets of successful fruit-grotving. —
Delaware Farm and Home.

/ believe ift spraying, for I have tried and proven it. In many
portions of oicr country to-day it is just as tnuch a necessity as is
underdraining, or fertilizing, or killing potato-bugs. — Mortimer
Whitehead.

The most important accession to recent horticidtural practice is the
sprayijig of fruit-trees with arsenical poisons for the destructio7i of
various insects. — American Cultivator.

The spraying of trees with ar seniles is no longer an experiment,
but takes its recognized place in the regular routine work of the
fruit-farm. — Orchard and Garden.

Old of thirty-six tons of grapes last seasoji I did not lose five
pounds by rot, but I shall spray, rot or no rot. Spraying adds
greatly to the health of the vines, and consequently to the size and
beauty of thefrjiit. — John Burroughs.

SI^RAYING CROPS

INTRODUCTION

^V ROWING plants are liable to injury from two
1 -J- classes of organisms, — namely, noxious insects
^ and parastic fungi. Although these tiny foes
are often considered too insignificant to merit serious
attention, they annually destroy about $500,000,000
worth of crops in the United States. By an intelli-
gent use of the spraying machine — a simple apparatus
by which certain substances that destroy insect and
fungous life may be distributed over the surfaces of
plants — a large proportion of this loss can be prevented
at comparatively slight expense. The object of this
little manual is to indicate why, when, and how to
spray, to get the best results.

The philosophy of spraying will be better under-
stood if one has a general knowledge of the habits and
methods of development of the insect and fungous
pests against which the spraying-machine is used.
Nearly all of these organisms are weaker and easier to
destroy at some one period of their existence than at
any other ; consequently, a knowledge of their habits
11

lo

Sprayiii!^ Crops

and history is often necessary to success. In the fol-
lowing introductory pages, I have attempted briefly to
indicate some of the more important general facts con-
cerning their development.

Spraying Against Insects

The insect against which the spraying-machine has
been most generally used in the northern United
States is the Codling Moth or Apple Worm — the
little white worm that one too often finds near the core

of the dessert ap-
ple. The parent
of this little pest
is a small choco-
late-colored moth
(represented at /
and g, Fig. i),
which appears in
spring, and depos-
its eggs in the ca-
lyx ends of the
young apples,
from the time they
are as large as
peas, until they at-
tain the size of
small hickory nuts. These eggs are placed on the out-
side of the fruit, and each soon hatches into a little
worm, which nibbles at the skin, finally biting through,
and eatins: its way toward the core. Once inside it

Fig. I.

Codling Moth : <7, injured apple ; b,
place where egg is laid ; e^ larva ; d, pupa ;
2, cocoon ; ^, /, moth ; /?, head of larva.

continues feeding as the apple develops, constantly
increasing in size, until, at the end of three or four
weeks, it is about three fourths of an inch long, and
appears as represented in c. It has now finished its
caterpillar growth, and, leaving the apple, it finds
some crevice in the rough bark, where it spins a slight
cocoon, in which it changes to the pupa or chrysalis
state. A fortnight later it emerges from the cocoon as
a full-fiedged moth, like the one which laid the original
egg. Thus the curious life-cycle is completed. There
are two broods of the worms each season.

By means of the spraying-machine the fruit-grower
is able to place in the calyx ends of the young apples
a few particles of poison, so that when the newly-
hatched worm nibbles at the skin, the chances are that
it will eat one of these particles, and thus cut short at
the outset its own career. To do this the fruit-grower
usually mixes a quarter of a pound of London purple
or Paris green with a barrel of water, and then, having
the barrel in a wagon, he drives along the rows of
apple trees just after the blossoms have fallen off, and
sprays them. The little particles of poison are thus
distributed over the tree in a fine mist, and when the
water in which they are suspended evaporates, they
are left high and dry upon the leaves and fruit, where
they remain for several weeks a menace to insect ene-
mies, until the combined action of rain and dew, wind
and sunshine, dissipates their poisonous properties.
The first brood of worms being thus destroyed, there is
no necessity, usually, to spray for the second brood ;

12

Spraying Crops

because their would-be parents having died in infancy,
the worms of the second brood do not appear upon
the scene.

Another insect against which the spraying machine
is often used is the Plum Curculio. This pest has
been, in years past, the worst enemy of the plum-
grower, and is the cause of the worminess and prema-
ture dropping of the fruit, with which so many owners
of plum trees are familiar. The adult Curculio is a
small, hard beetle (shown magnified at Fig. 2, r), which

appears in the plum orch-
ard early in spring, and
feeds upon the foliage
and flowers until the
fruit is well formed. It
then attacks the young
plums, gnawing at them
to satisfy its hunger, and
cutting crescent-shaped
marks in the skin to de-

FiG. 2. Plum Curculio: '«, larva; posit itS CggS (^/). In a
b, pupa; c, beetle, magnified; ^, ghort time thesC CggS
plum, showing crescent mark. . t i

hatch into little grubs
that feed upon the pulp of the fruit, gradually working
toward the pit. In a few weeks they become full-grown
(rtt), by which time the infested plums have generally
fallen to the ground. The larvae then leave the fruit,
and, entering the soil a short distance, change to pupae
(J)). A little while later they again change and come
forth as perfect beetles. There is but one brood in
the season.

Sprayifii^ Ai^aitis/ Insects

13

As tlio eg^s of this insect arc deposited beneath the
skin of the fruit, it is manifestly impossible to reach
the larviv by spraying. lUit by coating the young fruit
and foliage with particles of Paris green we can kill
the parent beetle before it inserts the ^^^^ and thus the
plums will escape. And this is done by many of the
leading orchardists of America.

Besides these two insects affecting the fruit of
orchard trees, against which the spraying machine is
especially used, there are many enemies of the foliage
which are open to destruction by similar means. One
of the worst of these pests is the Canker Worm,
which at more or less frequent intervals during the last
century has scourged both orchard and shade trees in
many parts of the United States and Canada. It is
represented in its different stages in Fig. 3. The
worm or larva hatches from masses of small cylindrical
eggs {e) deposited upon the bark of the tree. It feeds
upon the parenchyma
of the leaves, causing
a badly infested tree
to appear brown and
seared, as if scorched
by fire. These worms
continue feeding for
several weeks before
becoming full grown ; h

they then descend to Fig. 3. Canker Worm : <?, eggs ; /, larva ;
the o-round burrow S^ P»Pa ; "^ "i^l^ moth ; b, female moth.

into the soil a short distance, and spin silken cocoons

T4 Sp^'aying Crops

within which they change to the pupa or chrysalis
state and later emerge as moths. The two sexes of
the moths differ greatly : the male {ci) has large, well
developed wings, while the female (/^) is wingless.
The latter is of an ash-gray color. On emerging
from the chrysalis, she crawls to the base of the tree,
and ascending the trunk deposits eggs on the twigs
or branches of the tree.

The Canker Worm, with nearly all other leaf-eating
caterpillars, falls an easy victim to the spraying-machine.

Feeding Habits of Insects

Insects take their food in two ways : some bite and
others suck. The three species mentioned under the
last heading are examples of those insects which take
their food by biting, piece by piece, the tissues of
leaf, stem, or fruit of their host-plant. Because of this
they may be destroyed by placing particles of poison
upon the surface of the plant, A large proportion of
the injurious insects have such biting mouth-parts ; but
there is also an important class which have instead of
jaws a pointed beak that they push into the cells of the
plant, and suck out the sap. Insects of this kind can
not be destroyed by coating the food-plant with par-
ticles of poison, for such particles will not enter
their alimentary system; consequently, one must use
against them some insecticide which kills by contact.
There are several such insecticides in common use, the
most important, perhaps, being insect powder and
kerosene emulsion.

FuHi^ous J)iseases \$

Development of Parasitic Fungi

Many oilier instances of the usefulness of the spray-
inii-niachine in controlling noxious insects will be found
on the later pages of this little book. To illustrate the
theory of its use against the fungous enemies of crops,
as well as the life-history of the parasitic fungi them-
selves, we may instance the Downy Mildew, which
causes the Brown Rot of grapes.

The Brown Rot of grapes is a fungous disease —
that is, it is a diseased condition of the foliage or fruit
due to the presence of a fungus. This fungus is a
minute, parasitic plant that develops at the expense of
the tissues of the grape, thus causing blighting of the
leaf and decay of the fruit. It attacks all the green
parts of the vine, including the young shoots, as well
as the leaves and berries ; and, like other fungi, repro-
duces by means of spores — minute bodies correspond-
ing in function to the seeds of flowering plants.

When one of these spores falls upon a moist leaf its
contents divide into a number of distinct particles
which escape through an opening in the spore-w^all.
Each of these particles moves about in the drop of
water on the leaf for a few minutes, then comes to a
standstill and germinates by sending out a little tube —
somew^hat as a kernel of corn in moist soil sends out
its germinating radicie — and this tube penetrates the
epidermis or skin of the leaf. Once inside, the tube
continues to grow, pushing about betw^een the cells of
the leaf, and forming what is called the myceliHin, or

i6

spraying Crops

vegetative portion of the fungus, which may be likened
to the roots of the higher plants. As there is little
nourishment to be obtained between the cells, this myce-
lium develops minute
processes which push
through the cell walls
and absorb the cell
contents. A small sec-
tion of an affected leaf,
greatly magnified, is

Fig. 4. Section of leaf showing mycel" represented in Fi2" d.
Hum of fungus. Magnified,

the unshaded double-
walled spaces representing the leaf cells, the shaded
part between the walls the mycelium of the fungus,
and the projections marked a, a, the processes or
suckers that penetrate the cells.

After this mycelium has developed in the leaf for
some time, it is ready to produce its spores. Conse-
quently it sends out through the breathing pores or
stomata of the leaf its fruiting branches. These bear
upon their tips small oval bodies which are the spores.
Some of these fruiting branches are shown in Fig. 5.
The "mildew" visible to the naked eye is composed
of these fruiting branches and their spores. It only
develops under certain atmospheric conditions ; so
that the mycelium may exist in the affected parts of
the vine for some time before this outward manifesta-
tion of its presence occurs. Besides the spores above
described, which are produced during the summer sea-
son, and consequently are called summer spores, there

/■'inii^(>ifs Disrnses

n

is flcvclo|)ccl in autumn a dilTercnt class of spores, by
which the fungus |)asscs throu<;h the winter. Hence,
these hatter are called the winter spores.

It is evident from the above account of this fungous
parasite, that remedial or
preventive measures are
useless after the enemy has
become established within
the tissues of the plant.
But its ingress may be pre-
vented by coating the green
parts of the vine with some
substance having a destruct-
ive effect upon fungous
spores. The salts of copper
have such an effect, and in
consequence have come into
general use as fungicides.

From the foregoing illus-
trations the reader will have
learned that spraying is
simply an easy and practical fig.
method of distributing cer- magnified.
tain substances having a destructive effect upon in-
sect and fungous life over the outer surfaces of trees,
shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants. These sub-
stances are usually applied in a finely powdered condi-
tion, and the tiny particles stand guard over the
plants, killing with remorseless certainty any insect
or fungous pest that attempts to pass through their

Fruiting branches. Greatly

iS spraying Crops

lines to reach the plant. The particles themselves do
not enter the plant, but remain on the outside until
driven off by the combined action of wind, rain, dew,
and sunshine. This is not true, however, of the con-
tact-killing insecticides, which are applied directly to
the offending insects, and do not remain on the plant
in an effective condition.

Substances used to destroy insects are called insec-
ticides ; those used to destroy fungi are called fungi-
cides.

Insecticides used in Spraying

The insecticides used in spraying may be broadly
divided into two classes : (i) internal poisons, or
those which take effect by being eaten along with the
ordinary food of the insect ; and (2) external irritants,
or those which act from the outside, — closing the
breathing pores, or causing death by irritation of the
skin. The most important insecticides are the poisons.
Of these the most popular are the combinations of
arsenic, known as Paris green and London purple.

Paris green is a chemical combination of arsenic
and copper, containing about 55 or 60 per cent, of
arsenic. It is almost insoluble in water ; but there is
often a small percentage of it soluble, and to prevent
the injury this may do to foliage it pays to add a little
fresh lime water (made by slaking fresh lime in water)
to the spraying mixture. It may be used in spraying
potatoes, apple trees, and most shade trees, at the rate

Afi.vhii^ ivHli Stock Sol lit ions 1 9

of 4 ounces to 50 gjallons of water. On stone fruits,
especially peach, use half this stren<;th, unless lime
is added. Paris green is a heavy powder, and does
not stay long in suspension ; hence it must be kept
constantly stirred to prevent its settling to the bottom
of the vessel. Buy Paris green in as finely powdered
condition as possible, and get it of a reliable dealer.

London purple generally contains nearly the same
percentage of arsenic as Paris green ; but the arsenic
is often in a more soluble form, and consequently
London purple is more likely to injure foliage than
Paris green, unless lime is added. It is a finer powder
than the green, and remains in suspension in water
longer. It is also cheaper. Before using, the soluble
arsenic should be made insoluble by the addition of
lime water. One of the best ways to do this is to add
three fourths of a pound of lime to a pound of London
purple, and thoroughly mix them in a gallon of hot
water, allowing the mixture to stand two hours and
keeping it hot during this time if it can be conveniently
done. In this way the soluble arsenic w^ill be rendered
insoluble, and the London purple may be used at the
rate of 4 or 5 ounces to a barrel of water. Or the
London purple may be added to the water as usual,
and about 2 gallons of fresh milk of lime (made by
slaking lime in water) strained into the barrel. If
allowed to stand an hour, all the soluble arsenic is
more likely to be rendered insoluble than if used at
once. After London purple has been thus treated
with lime it can safely be applied to tender foliage at

20 spraying Crops

a strength of 4 ounces to 50 gallons of water. Both
London purple and Paris green may be added to the
Bordeaux mixture (4 ozs. poison to 50 gallons mixture),
as described more fully on page 2>Z^ and then the
treatment with lime is not necessary.

Hellebore is a vegetable poison, and kills both by
contact and by being eaten. It may be applied in
water, i ounce to 3 gallons, or i lb. to a barrel. It is
especially excellent in destroying the imported currant
worm.

Pyrethric77t, or Insect Powder, is made from the
powdered flowers of plants of the genus Pyrethrum.
The greatest obstacle to the use of Pyrethrum has
been the difficulty in obtaining the pure, fresh article.
After long exposure to the air it loses much of its
insecticidal value. It is used mainly as a dry powder
or in water ( I ounce to 3 gallons); but may also be
used in the form of a tea, or a decoction, a fume, or
an alcoholic extract diluted.

Kerosene Emulsion. — There are two methods of pre-
paring this in common use, — one originating with
Messrs. Riley and Hubbard, and the other with Prof.
A. J. Cook. Both have their advocates. According
to the former it is prepared by adding 2 gallons of
kerosene to i gallon of a solution made by dissolving
Yz pound of hard soap in i gallon of boiling water,
and churning the mixture by forcing it back into the
same vessel through a force-pump with a rather small
nozzle until the whole forms a creamy mass, which
will thicken into a jelly-like substance on cooling.

I'ht' h'cnoiyanidc Test 2'

Tlic soap solution should be hot when the kerosene is
added, but of course must not be near a fire. The
emulsion thus made is to be diluted before using, with
nine or ten parts of water to one part of emulsion.
The amount of dilution varies with different insects.
Soft water or rain water should be used in diluting.
If this cannot be obtained add a little lye or bicarbo-
nate of soda ; or prepare according to one of the
following methods.

Professor Cook has two formulas, — one where soft
soap is used and the other for hard soap. He describes
them as follows :

Cook's Soft Soap Emulsion. — " Dissolve i qt. of soft
soap in 2 qts. of boiling water. Remove from fire
and, w^hile still boiling hot, add i pint of kerosene and
immediately agitate with the pump as described above.
In two or three minutes the emulsion will be perfect.
This should be diluted by adding an equal amount of
water, when it is ready for use. This always emulsifies
readily with hard or soft water; always remains perma-
nent, for years, even, and is very easily diluted, even
in the coldest weather and without any heating. In
this last respect it has no equal, so far as we have
experimented. The objections to it are, — We cannot
always procure the soft soap, though many farmers
make it, and it is generally to be found in our markets.
It occasionally injures the foliage, probably owing to
the caustic properties of the soap. We have used this
freely for years, and never saw any injury till the past
season. In case of any such trouble, use only one

22 Spraying Crops

half the amount of soap — one pint instead of one
quart. It works just as well."

Cook's Hard Soap Emulsion. — " Dissolve ^^ lb. of
hard soap, — Ivory, Babbitt, Jackson, or whale oil, etc., —
in 2 quarts of water; add, as before, i pint of kero-
sene, and pump the mixture back into itself while hot.
This always emulsifies at once, and is permanent with
hard as well as soft water. This is diluted with twice
its bulk of water before use. The objection to a large
amount of water sinks before the fact that this secures
a sure and permanent emulsion even though diluted
with hard water. This also becomes, with certain
soaps, lumpy or stringy when cold, so that it cannot
be readily diluted with cold water unless first heated.
Yet this is true with all hard soap emulsions in case of
certain soaps. We can, however, always dilute easily
if we do so at once before our emulsion is cold, and
we can also do the same either by heating our emul-
sion or diluent, no matter how long we wait."

When the undiluted emulsion, however made, is to
be kept for future use, store it in a cool, dark place.
When desired for use measure out the required amount
and mix it with three or four parts of boiling water.
Then add cold water to fill out the dilution.

Py rethro-Kerosene Emulsion. — A combination of
kerosene and Pyrethrum has lately proven very
effective in destroying plant-lice and similar pests. It
may be made by mixing i^y^ lbs. Pyrethrum powder
with three quarts of kerosene in a light vessel. Allow
this to stand four days : then add to 3 gallons of boil-

/n.si\(i\i(it's I'scti in S/ndyiiii^ 23

in<; soap-suds (made by dissolving i lb. of soap in 3
gallons of water), and pump forcibly into the same ves-
sel for ten minutes. This makes an emulsion that
maybe diluted with 150 parts of water, and yet be
effective as an aphis destroyer.

Fish-oil Soap. — Professor J. B. Smith and others
report excellent results in the use of this substance
against plant-lice and similar insects. The soap is on
the market at about 12 cents a pound, but, according
to Professor Smith, it can be made much more cheaply
by the following formula :

Hirsh's crj'stal potash lye . . . i pound.

Fish oil 3 pints.

Soft water 3 gallons.

Dissolve the lye in the water, heat to boiling, and
then add the oil. It should be boiled about two
hours, and when done water can be added to make up
for the loss by evaporation. For use as an insecticide
it is made into a dilute suds by dissolving i lb. of soap
in 8 gallons of water. It is less liable to injure foliage
than kerosene emulsion.

Litne Spray is made by slaking a half-peck or a peck
of fresh lime in water, and pouring into a barrel
nearly full of water, straining the lumps out as it
enters the barrel. By means of this and the spray
pump, trees and vines may be literally whitewashed.
It is useful in mechanically coating plants so that cer-
tain insects will not molest them.

Tobacco Decoction. — This is made by boiling refuse

24 spraying Crops

tobacco stems or dust in water, or pouring boiling
water over them. This gives a concentrated liquid,
which is to be diluted with cold water, until there are
two gallons of water for each pound of tobacco used.
It is a good remedy for plant-lice. A stronger formula,
recommended by Mr. M. V. Slingerland, is to steep
5 pounds of tobacco stems in 3 gallons of water for 3
hours ; then strain and dilute with enough water to
make 7 gallons, when the decoction is ready to use.

Whale Oil Soap. — Dissolve in water at the rate of
two ounces soap to one gallon water. This is good to
destroy plant-lice, rose slugs, etc.

Fungicides used in Spraying

The principal fungicides used in spraying are cer-
tain salts of copper, especially the sulphate of copper
and the carbonate of copper. These substances were
first experimented with on a large scale in France, and
gave such satisfactory results that they were adopted
in a practical way by many vineyardists. In America
they have been used for this purpose only about a
decade ; yet, thanks to numerous investigations and
experiments, their efficacy is well attested, and they
are in practical use over a large territory. Their prin-
cipal combinations are indicated below :

Bordeaux Mixture. — This fungicide originated in
France, and has become one of the leading combina-
tions of copper salts. Since its introduction into
America there has been a constant tendency to dilute
the mixture more and more. The results from the

Inseciicides I set/ in S/)nn'/;/!^ 25

diluted mixtures have been apparently as good as from
those of full strength, and of course the cost has been
proportionately lessened. The different formulas are
indicated below :

Standard or 22-Galhm Formi(/a. — Dissolve 6 pounds
copper sulphate in i gallon hot water in an earthern
or wooden vessel. In another vessel slake 3 pounds
fresh lime in one gallon water. Strain the latter, and
add to 20 gallons water. Now pour in the dissolved
copper sulphate and mix thoroughly. Keep the mix-
ture stirred while using. This strong mixture is now
seldom used.

Fifty-Gallon Formula. — In 1889, while at the Ohio
Experiment Station, I experimented with potato blight
by diluting this mixture a little more than half, using
6 pounds copper sulphate and 4 pounds lime to 50
gallons water, instead of 22 gallons. This was applied
to a number of plants besides potatoes, and apparently
gave as good results as undiluted mixtures. The same
formula was also successfully used in 1890, and has
been quite generally adopted since, although the fol-
lowing dilute formula is probably better for general
use, except early in the season.

Seventyfive- Gallon or Dilute Formula. — In 189 1, Mr.
W. J. Green of the Ohio Experiment Station, used on
apples, plums, pears, cherries, raspberries, etc., a still
more dilute mixture, viz., 4 pounds copper sulphate
and 4 pounds fresh lime to 50 gallons water, and
obtained very good results. The cost of the copper
sulphate in a barrel of this mixture is less than one
III

26 SprayiJiQ Crops

third the cost of that in a barrel prepared according to
the original formula. Successful results have been
obtained with even weaker mixtures.

Mr. Green recommends the following method of
making the mixture : " Dissolve the copper sulphate in
2 gallons of hot water, and pour into the barrel or
tank used in spraying, after which fill the tank nearly
half full of cold water. Slake the lime in another ves-
sel and pour into the copper sulphate solution, strain-
ing through a brass wire strainer with about 30 meshes
to the inch. The lime will not dissolve readily; hence,
after pouring off each time, more water is to be added
to the lime and poured off as before, until nearly all
the lime is dissolved, or taken up in suspension, which
is really the case. Water to make 40 or 50 gallons in
all is then to be added.

Granulated copper sulphate should be purchased as
it is much easier to dissolve than the crystalline form.
Be sure to use freshly burned stone lime, which will
slake into fine particles, without coarse granules.
Wooden vessels should always be used in preparing
the mixture.

The Bordeaux mixture begins to deteriorate within
a few hours after being made, and should therefore be
applied as soon as possible. It should never be
allowed to stand as long as twenty-four hours before
using.

Mixing 7vit/i Stock Solutions. — In cases where large
areas are to be sprayed several practical experts
recommend the use of stock solutions in making the

Fuffiinidt's (/sf(/ ill S/tniyifii; 27

Hordeaux mixture. Mr. M. H. Waitc ;;ives tlie follow-
ing directions conccrnin<; this method : "A barrel
holding 50 gallons should be selected and 100 pounds
of copper sulphate (large crystals may be used) sus-
pended in a basket or piece of coarse sacking in the
upper part of it. The barrel is then filled with water.
In a day or two all the copper will be dissolved. The
basket is then removed and more water is added until
the barrel is again full. This second addition of
water is necessary to fill the space which was occupied
by the copper before it was dissolved. Each gallon
of this solution will contain tw^o pounds of the copper
salt.

" The lime may also be kept ready mixed for use.
It should be slaked and run off as a paste, and should
then be stored in barrels buried in the ground. A
tight barrel should be placed beside the copper sul-
phate barrel, and filled about one fourth full of the
lime paste, and then water should be added until the
barrel is nearly full.

" In making up the Bordeaux mixture it is only nec-
essary to draw off the required amount of copper solu-
tion and pour it into the tank while it is being filled
with water. When the tank is nearly full add several
pailfuls of the milk of lime, obtained by stirring the
lime paste and water together, allowing it to settle a
few minutes and then dipping it off. By using the yel-
low prussiate of potash test it is easy to determine when
sufficient lime has been added. The operator soon
learns the correct color of the mixture, and this serves

28 spraying Crops

as a guide as to when to make the test. All the
material which goes into the tank should be strained
through a sieve."

The Ferrocyanide Test. — Several authorities have
recommended the use of a solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium to determine when the proper quantity of
lime water has been added to the copper sulphate
solution. A half ounce of the ferrocyanide of potas-
sium is dissolved in two or three ounces of water ; a
few drops of this solution is then added to the mix-
ture. As long as this addition causes a brownish
color more lime is needed. When sufficient lime has
been added a bluish precipitate is formed.

" One of the best tests for the mixture is simply to
notice the color. If too little lime is added it turns a
greenish blue ; if a slight excess is used the color is a
beautiful sky blue, and this is the color the mixture
should show. If a great excess of lime is added the
mixture takes on a slightly purplish shade of color,
especially after standing a few hours." ^

A special advantage of the Bordeaux mixture is,
that London purple or Paris green can be added to it,
making a combined insecticide and fungicide.

Care should be taken not to use the Bordeaux mix-
ture on fruit crops too late in the season. Traces of
it remain for some time, notwithstanding numerous
rains, and are liable to cause unnecessary suspicions
when on marketed fruit. When a fruit crop requires
treatment within a month of the time of picking, it is

iW. T. Swingle

belter to substitute some fungicide like eau celeste or
carbonate of copper, but it is doubtful if even these
combinations should be applied so near the time of
the fruit harvest. With nearly, if not quite all our
fruit diseases, treatment should begin early and not
continue too late. ^

The experience of many orchardists during the sum-
mer of 1894, indicates that there is danger in using of
Bordeaux mixture on apples after the fruit turns down
on the stem, because of its apparently causing a
" russeting " of the fruit. It is possible that this was
partially due to frosts.

It sometimes happens that traces of Bordeaux mix-
ture remain upon the fruit, even when a considerable
interval elapses between the last application and the
ripening of the fruit. Such traces may be easily
removed by dipping in a solution made by adding two
gallons cider vinegar to ten gallons water. A good
way is to have three tubs, one holding the vinegar
mixture and the other two pure water. Then place
the grapes or other fruit in wire baskets holding fifteen
to twenty pounds, dip them in the vinegar tub for five
minutes and then rinse in the two tubs of clear water,
afterwards spreading the fruit on frames or shelves,
something like those used in the fruit evaporators.
Grapes can be treated in this way on a large scale for
six cents a hundred pounds.

£{7u Celeste. — This is made by dissolving 2 pounds

'Any one desiring' further information concerning' the Bordeaux
mixture is referred to Bulletin No. 6, Division of Vegetable Pathol-
ogy. U. S. Department of Agriculture.

30 Spraying Crops

copper sulphate in 2 or 3 gallons of hot water in an
earthen or wooden vessel (such as the large crocks
used for butter, or wooden pails or tubs), then adding
I quart of ammonia and mixing with 50 or 60 gallons
of water. This fungicide has been quite generally
replaced by the Bordeaux mixture. It is liable to
injure foliage.

Modified Eaii Celeste. — Dissolve i pound sulphate
of copper in hot water; in another vessel dissolve i)^
pounds sal soda in hot water; when cool mix the two
solutions thoroughly, then add i quart ammonia and
dilute to 25 gallons water.

Carbonate of Copper. — This is commonly used in
the form of an ammoniacal solution made by dissolving
4 ounces carbonate of copper in 2 quarts of ammonia,
and then adding to a barrel (50 gal.) of water. To
prevent loss from evaporation of ammonia, the dis-
solved carbonate should be added to the water imme-
diately before spraying. It is a simple fungicide, easy
to make and apply, and as it is a clear solution, there is
no trouble with its clogging nozzles. It has been suc-
cessfully used to prevent apple scab and various mil-
dews.

A combination of carbonate of copper and carbonate
of ammonia, recommended by Prof. F. D. Chester as
superior to the above, is made as follows: "Mix
together 3 ounces carbonate of copper and i pound
pulverized carbonate of ammonia. Dissolve this mix-
ture in 2 quarts hot water and add to 50 gallons water."
A barrel of this mixture costs 12 cents.

Professor Chester also reports good results from
copper carbonate prepared as follows: "Thoroii«;hly
mix in half a pail of water, 1 pound of carbonate of
copper, to which is added 3 ounces of common glue
dissolved in hot water, then dilute to 25 gallons." It
would probably be better to dilute to 50 gallons.

Sulphate of Coppc?'. — Besides its use in combination
with other substances, copper sulphate is often applied
to vines and trees early in spring to destroy the winter
spores of fungi. For this purpose it is used in a
simple solution made by dissolving 2 pounds copper
sulphate in 50 gallons water.

Extremely dilute solutions — one part of copper sul-
phate to T,ooo parts of water — have been used to
advantage in greenhouses to check such diseases as
carnation rust.

Potassium Sulphide. — Dissolve ^ ounce of potassium
sulphide (liver of sulphur) in i gallop of hot water.
When cold apply in a spray. Used to prevent goose-
berry mildew and similar diseases.

Soda Hyposulphite. — Dissolve ^ ounce or i ounce
soda hyposulphite in 10 gallons water. This is recom-
mended by some for gooseberry mildew and apple
scab, but it is not in general use.

Lye Solution. — Professor Wm. B. Alwood recom-
mends a solution of 8 cans of concentrated lye in 50
gallons water for spraying on trees and vines early in
spring, befoj-e the buds a?-e sta?'ted, to kill fungous spores.
If applied after buds are started much damage might
result.

32 spraying Crops

Caution. — Most of these copper compounds corrode
tin and iron. Consequently, in preparing them for
use, earthen, wooden, or brass vessels should be
employed ; and in applying them the parts of the pump
which come in contact with the liquid should be made
of brass.

Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides

Soon after fungicides came into prominence in this
country, the writer called attention^ to the advantages
of so combining them with insecticides that both may
be applied at the same time and in the same mixture.
Before then, entomologists had worked out remedies
for insects, and botanists remedies for plant diseases,
but very little had been done in so combining the
treatment that the practical man might, so to speak,
" kill two birds with one stone." In the article referred
to I said : — " The necessity of treatment for both
classes of injuries is at once apparent to all who have
experienced the serious losses due to these agents.
Obviously, it is of little use to save a plum crop from
the curculio, if it is to be destroyed by the fungous
disease known as fruit rot ; to save raspberries from
the slug if they are to be ruined by anthracnose ; to
save the grape buds from the flea beetle if the berries
are to be destroyed by black rot ; or to save a pear
crop from the ravages of the codling moth and curculio
if it is to be distorted and disfigured by the scab ; or,
to take an example which will strike home to a large
proportion of American farmers, it is scarcely worth

'Agricultural Science, 1889.

Combined I nsccticidcs aiui /'iini^iiiiics 33

while to save the potatoes from the Colorado beetle if
they are to be ruined by a more serious enemy — the
potato blight. While the necessity for preventing, so
far as possible, injuries to both these classes of organ-
isms is obvious, it is almost equally evident that there
will be a great loss of time and labor if each is treated
separately. Kor instance, the farmer who sprays his
potatoes with the arsenites two or three times for the
beetles, and then goes over them again with solutions
of copper sulphate for the blight, would have accom-
plished the same end in half the time by mixing the
copper sulphate and London purple or Paris green in
one solution and applying them together. The same
is true of the treatment of apples, pears, plums, and, in
fact, of a large proportion of the crops liable to injury
by both insects and fungi."

Since the above was written a great many experi-
ments along the lines indicated have been made, and
we now have a number of satisfactory combinations.
Chief among these are the following :

Bordeaux Mixture and Arsenites. — Add 4 ounces
London purple or Paris green to 50 gallons of dilute
Bordeaux mixture. This is one of the very best com-
bined insecticides and fungicides. It can be used
safely and effectively upon a great variety of crops,
— such as potatoes for Colorado beetles and blight,
apples and pears for insects and scab, and plums for
curculio and leaf or fruit diseases. The remarks on
page 26 concerning late applications of the Bordeaux
mixture are equally applicable to this combination.

Arsenites and Copper Carbofiate. — The Ohio Experi-

34

Spraying Crops

ment Station recommends the following combination :
Paris green 2 ounces, carbonate of copper 2 ounces,
dissolve in 3 pints of ammonia, add \ pound lime and
I barrel of water. It is advised that this be substi-
tuted for the arsenite and Bordeaux combination for
the later sprayings of apples, pears, plums, etc., so as
to avoid the lime coating on the fruit.

Care must be taken in combining the arsenites with
other fungicide solutions, as one is liable thus to pro-
duce a compound very injurious to foliage. Paris
green or London purple added to simple solutions of
copper sulphate, or to ammonia compounds wdthout
lime, injures foliage vastly more than in simple water
mixture.

Cost of Spraying Materials

The average retail and wholesale prices of the vari-
ous materials used in the spraying mixtures above
described are approximately indicated in the following
table :

Ammonia (22-' l>aume) .

Carbonate of copper (precipitated)

Carbonate of ammonia

London purple

Paris green

Pyrethrum

Soda hypo-sulphite

Sal soda .

Sulphate of copper (granulate

White hellebore

Whale oil soap

I e sale.

Retail.

'er lb.

Per lb.

0 07

$0 25

35

60

10

30

06-07

10-15

18

30

22-40

40-70

09

20

oiX

05

05-07

10-15

1 2

25

08-10

15-20

rrcjuditt- A'^iiinst Sfttoyiu^ 35

Prejudice Against Spraying

It is quite natural that when most people first learn
that the fruit they eat has at some time in its history
been sprayed with poison they should object on
hygienic grounds. Both in Europe and America the
development of the practice of spraying has been
accompanied by occasional scares, the last one on this
side of the water occurring in September, 1891, when
the people of New York, Boston, and other eastern
cities were agitated by an exaggerated "grape scare,"
due to the finding of particles of Bordeaux mixture on
some of the grapes in the New York market. But
when the spraying, either with the insecticides or
fungicides now commonly in use, is done with proper
reference to the time, methods, and conditions of treat-
ment, there is no danger to the consumer. Both practi-
cal experience and chemical tests have demonstrated
that apples sprayed early in the season with Paris
green or London purple retain none of the poison at
the time of ripening. The most recent demonstration
of this appears in the last report of the experimental
farms of Canada. A peck of Rhode Island Greening
apples that had been sprayed twice with Paris green
(one pound to two hundred gallons of water) were
carefully gathered, without rubbing, and tested for
arsenic. " The process to which they were submitted
is one that affords extremely accurate results, and is
considered the most delicate of all for the detection of
arsenic. It is capable of revealing the presence of one

36 spraying Crops

fifty-thousanth part of a grain of arsenic. If twenty-
three thousand bushels of apples contained two and a
half grains of arsenic, the minimum fatal dose for an
adult, the poison could have been detected by this
method." Notwithstanding the most careful analysis
no traces of poison were found ; and, in conclusion, the
chemist states, — " I am of the opinion that further
experiments of this nature would only serve to corrob-
orate this negative result, and to prove that there are
no grounds on which to base a suspicion that our
sprayed apples are poisonous. The insoluble character
of this poison precluding its assimilation by the apple,
if such were possible, the infinitesimal part of Paris
green that can remain on the apple, the frequent rains
subsequent to the spraying, — all go to substantiate
the argument that there is not the slightest danger of
poisoning in using sprayed apples."

There is abundant evidence of a similar nature con-
cerning the use of copper salts on grapes. In France,
where a large proportion of the grape crop is converted
into wine, elaborate investigations have shown that
practically none of the copper salts are present in wine
from sprayed vineyards. Prof. B. Fallot, of the School
of Agriculture at Montpelier, in recording the results
of one of these investigations, says, — "The figures
obtained have proved once more that wines, after the
grapes have received numerous treatments with large
quantities of salts of copper, contain scarcely a trace
of this substance, and are entirely harmless."

S/>n7ytfij^ Apparatus

37

Spraying Apparatus

The chief requisites of a j;ood spraying-machine are
that it be durable, easily worked, not too expensive for
the purpose desired, that it throw a fine spray and
have a good-sized cylinder, and that the reservoir
holding the liquid be large enough for the purpose in-
tended. For fungicides the parts touching the liquid
should be made of brass. Although ten years ago
there was scarcely an implement for this purpose upon
the market, there
are scores of them
to-day, and several
manufacturers han-
dle them exclusive-
ly. They may be
had in all shapes,
styles, and sizes,
from the small
hand-spray pump
to be used with a
bucket, and costing
a dollar or two, up
to the large horse-
power geared ma-

FiG. 6. Bucket Pump.

chine costing fifty times as much.

There are four general styles of spraying-machines
upon the market. First, we have the small bucket
pumps (Fig. 6) that serve a useful purpose where only
a comparatively small amount of spraying is to be

38

Sp7'aying Crops

done ; then come the knapsack sprayers, one of which
is illustrated by Hg. 7, which are especially useful in
spraying small vineyards and crops where a horse can-
not well be driven ;
third, we have what
may be called the bar-
rel class of sprayers,
being good-sized
pumps to be attached
to barrels mounted in
various ways ; and,
finally, there are the
large geared machines
working automatically
' — r --^'^'^'^"~ by horse-power. For

Fig 7. The Knapsack Sprayer. ^he general purposes

of the average farmer or fruit-grower the barrel
machines are much the most useful. They are also
of moderate cost, ranging from $8 to $16. They can
be used in spraying all sorts of crops, and may well
be mounted on separate wheels, as in the Chester
sprayer shown below, or the barrel may be placed in a
wagon when in use.

A cheap and efficient home-made spraying cart,
designed by Prof. F. D. Chester, is illustrated in Fig.
8. According to Professor Chester, "It can be made
by any wheelwright, and consists of a truck mounted
upon a pair of carriage wheels. Upon this is placed
a barrel holding fifty gallons, held in place by a strap,
which surrounds the same and which is tied in front

Sprnyifii^ . \pparntus

39

at eitlier trace. The barrel has a tight-fitting cover,
lirinly strapped in place ; upon this is seated the pump.
In the large cover is an opening, covered by a lid for
filling. Any good force-pump can be used upon the

Fig. 8. The Chester Sprayer.

barrel, but it is important that it should be good, and
the cheapest are in the long run the dearest. The
cheaper iron pumps are excellent at first, but will soon
corrode where caustic fungicides are used, even with
the best of care. All metallic parts that have con-
tact with the fungicides should be of brass. The
pump should have a double discharge, one for the
spray and another to return a portion of the fluid back
to the barrel to keep the same agitated." The pump
should have a hose attached, 15 to 20 feet long, with
a good spray-nozzle at the end.

For work in the nursery as well as many other

40

Sp7-aying Crops

places an excellent spraying outfit " can be made by
firmly fastening a barrel, end up, on a sled made of
heavy durable timber. Mount upon the barrel a good
strong, double-acting force-pump provided with two-
hose attachments, to each end of which fasten 25 feet
of ^ inch hose. To the end of each hose attach a
Vermorel nozzle ; then with the necessary gearing for
hitching the horse, the outfit is complete. For oper-

FiG. 9. Spraying Grapes.

ating the machine two men and a horse are required.
One man does the pumping and attends to the horse,
while the other walks behind and directs the spray
over two rows at a time." 1

A good outfit for use in the vineyard, recommended
1 Galloway.

Sf>rayifiQ Apparaiua

41

by Professor IJailey, is illustrated in Fig. 9. A barrel
with pump is mounted crosswise on the wagon, "and
the driver rides and pumps. Another man walks
behind and throws the spray up under the vines and
on to all the clusters by means of a Vermorel nozzle
attached to a half inch gas pipe. This gas pipe has
somewhat the form of a slim letter S, the nozzle being
attached to one terminal crook, the other crook resting
over the man's left arm. The hose is attached near
the shoulder. The pipe is so long that the operator is
not obliged to stoop, and he can direct the spray in
any direction, while the apparatus hangs easily upon

Fig. 10. Method of Spraying Bushes.

the arm. A globe valve just below the arm enables
the operator to shut off the stream at will."

A handy, home-made, wheelbarrow spraying outfit,

IV

42 Sprayi7ig Crops

gotten up by Professor Bailey, is illustrated in Fig. lo.

It is useful in garden work, especially in spraying small

bushes. A Cyclone, Vermorel, or Bordeaux nozzle is

used to underspray the foliage.

The nozzle forms an important part of the spraying

outfit. There are many varieties of these upon the

market ; some of them are better adapted to certain
kinds of work than others, so that it
pays to have several forms on hand
where there is a variety of spraying to
be done. Some of the best forms are
the Vermorel, Bordeaux, Climax, Cy-
clone, Graduating Spray, Deming, Eu-
reka, and McGowan. For spraying

Fig. II. Pole at- j^rge trees, some method of raising the

tachment.

nozzle nearly to the top is generally
necessary. The commonest way of doing this is to
fasten the nozzle and hose to a long pole ; some
dealers make a special device for inserting the
pole (Fig. ii); but a better way is to use a half
inch gas pipe or a brass tube, 12 or 14 feet long, at-
taching the hose at one end and the nozzle at the
other, or one of the bamboo extensions manufactured
^

Fig. 12. Spray Pipe Extension.

by some spraying firms. One can also get a handy
arrangement for underspraying low bushes, one form
of which is shown in Fig. 13.

Cn^t of spraying 43

Cost of Spraying

The cost of spraying depends, of course, upon vari-
ous conditions, such as the crop sprayed, number of
applications, apparatus, and mixture used, etc. It is
usually estimated that full-grown orchard trees can be

bL

Fig. 13. Underspraying Attachment.

sprayed at a cost of 15 to 25 cents per tree per season^
while nursery trees can be treated with Bordeaux mix-
ture the first two seasons for about 25 cents per thou-
sand trees per season.

Professor L. R. Jones, of the Vermont Station, has
summarized several seasons' experience of the expense
of spraying potatoes as follows : " It is impossible to
give a general estimate that will suit all cases, as there
are so many varying conditions. The amount of the
mixture necessary to cover an acre will vary all the
way from 50 to 300 gallons, according to the amount
of foliage and the methods of application. Where we
have covered an acre with 50 gallons in the middle of
July, we have used 100 or 150 gallons per acre on the
same piece in August. Again, in the latter part of
August, we have sprayed a poor piece of half-blighted
plants with 100 gallons per acre, and on the same day,
on another piece where the ground was covered with
a mass of luxuriant leaves, we have found it neces-

44 Sp7'aying Crops

sary to use fully 250 gallons per acre. Again, ^ * ^
the number of applications varies with seasons. In
1891, a single application, made August 20, was suf-
ficient on a piece of late potatoes, while in 1892 three
applications were necessary. In general, we should
plan for making three applications on all except very
early or very late potatoes. These three applications
will require from 200 to 500 gallons of the mixture —
on the average 400 gallons — used (in Vermont) as
follows: 100 gallons per acre the last of July, 150
gallons per acre the middle of August, 150 gallons per
acre the last of August. This estimate is for a field
planted about May 15 to May 20, and which will yield
200 bushels per acre. In our work it has taken (for
three applications) about 2 gallons of mixture per
bushel of yield. On early potatoes a fourth application
may sometimes be necessary to keep off the early
blight, the first application being made the first week
in July; in this case it will take about 2^ gallons per
bushel of yield. The mixture costs us about ^ cent
per gallon, as follows :

5 pounds blue vitriol at 7 cents, • • • • 35 cents.
5 " lime at ^ cent, 2^ cents.

Total cost of 50 gallons weak mixture, . . ZlY^ cents.

"As most potato growers have to pay a little more
than this for blue vitriol, one cent per gallon is about
the average cost. The cost of applying also varies
much, depending upon luxuriance of growth of plants,
and upon apparatus used. In our work, with a barrel
pump, three men and one horse have sprayed an acre

rrojits of Spray iiii^ 45

well in two hours, when water was convenient, or at

the rate of five acres per day, making the expense of

labor about %\ per acre. Others with similar apparatus

have said they could cover ten acres a day."

The cost of spraying one acre of potatoes three

times is summarized thus :

Minimum. Maximum. Average.
200 to 500 gallons at I cent each, $2.00 $500 $4.00

Labor, 1.50 375 3.00

.^3.50 $8.75 $7.00

"When we consider our gain of an average of 113
bushels per acre, worth last fall 80 cents per bushel,
or $90.40, the profit is great even at the maximum
expense."

Profits of Spraying

The profit of spraying has been abundantly dem-
onstrated in nearly all parts of the United States.
The benefit derived is usually so marked that the man
who tries the method becomes its enthusiastic advo-
cate. In most cases there is not only a greatly in-
creased crop, but the quality of the crop is so improved
that it commands a higher price ; and in the case of
vines, or any plants living more than one year, the
plant is kept in a vigorous condition that enables it to
store up vitality for the following crop. In Ohio it
has been demonstrated that spraying can easily advance
the value of the apple crop $20 per acre; and in many
states it has been shown that spraying is the salvation
of the grape-grower. In Vermont it has been demon-

46 spraying Crops

strated that the potato crop can be increased more than
100 bushels per acre by spraying, while in New York
it proves equally profitable to the nurseryman. In
California, fruit-growers generally have adopted it with
very gratifying results. Mr. D. W. Coquillett records
an instance where a pear-grower actually lost $2,000
one season because he neglected to spray to prevent
codling moth attack. At the Cornell Experiment
Station an increase in cash value of %\ a barrel on
sprayed over unsprayed apples was obtained. There
are many secondary profits in spraying besides the
prevention of actual damage. The fruit becomes
much larger in size ; consequently the yield is greatly
increased, as is also the market value of the product.
The same is true of potatoes. The keeping qualities
are also very much improved — an item of great practi-
cal importance. And according to Mr. B. T. Galloway,
the application of Bordeaux mixture has on many
plants the effect of a tonic, irrespective of its fungi-
cidal value.

Spraying and the Weather

According to Professor J. B. Smith, spraying with
the arsenites alone " should not be done in the middle
of a very hot day, nor, if it can be avoided, on a very
hot sultry day. A hot sun on recently sprayed foliage
will bring out all the caustic property in the poison
applied, and will cause injury. After the moisture has
evaporated, and only the thin film of dry poison re-
mains, the sun does not act further on it. On a cool

/'rnm'tii^ Trees 47

day spray at any hour. On a liot clay spray during
the early morning or late in the afternoon."

Frequent rains often occur during the spraying
season, and fruit-growers are sometimes tempted to
defer operations till dry weather, but according to the
experience of Mr. W. J. Green, it is better, in the case
of the Bordeaux mixture at least, " to keep the work
going than to wait for dry weather. Of course it would
be impracticable to spray during a rain-storm, nor
would it be best to spray immediately before, but if
the mixture has two or three hours in which to dry
before a rain, it will adhere so closely that but little of
it will be washed off. Much of it will remain for
weeks, even during rainy weather."

Spraying Trees in Blossom

It is commonly believed that spraying trees in blos-
som, in case the arsenites are used, endangers the lives
of the bees visiting the blossoms. In some regions
laws to prevent this have been enacted. Spraying at
such times seems unnecessary, and intelligent fruit-
growers would not practise it. The bees are essential
to the production of fruit, and there is no excuse for
destroying them.

Pruning Trees

To use the spraying machine to best advantage the

orchard should be carefully and intelligently pruned.

On this point Mr. E. G. Lodeman writes : ^ " The

pruning and spraying of fruit trees are two subjects

1 Cornell University Experiment Station, Bulletin 48.

48 spraying Crops

which are closely related. This is especially true in
the case of the apple. Moisture is favorable to the
development of the apple-scab fungus. When the tops
of trees consist of a tangled mass of large and small
branches, they are much longer in dying out than
when they are open. Not only is a shelter given to
fungi, but their growth is encouraged, and each tree
becomes the distributing centre of some disease. The
mischief is also aggravated by the fact that it is as dif-
ficult for any remedies to gain an entrance, as it is for
the light and air. It is impossible to spray such trees
to advantage, even granting that the fruit borne by
them would warrant the expense. The head of the
tree should be open, so that all parts may be reached
easily with the spray." The presence of these useless
branches also requires the application of much more
of the spraying compound than is otherwise necessary,
thus involving a decided waste of time and material.
By all means prune your orchards properly before you
spray them.

In planting new orchards, the trees should be set so
far apart that when full-grown they may easily be
sprayed. They should not be nearer together than
40 or 42 feet each way.

A Spraying Calendar

Dr. Wm. C. Sturgis, of the Connecticut Experiment
Station, has published the following provisional calen-
dar of the spraying operations for the year. As the
author says, it is, of course, impossible to give accurate

.1 SftrttyiH^ Calciuinr 49

dates for various sprayings, on account of the difference
in latitudes and seasons. But the dates are approxi-
mate, and the calendar has a decided value.

yanuary ami February. But little can be done
during these midwinter months in the way of spraying,
though a great deal by way of preparation. If it has
not already been done at the proper time, cut out and
burn the black knot of plum and cherry now, and
destroy all neighboring wild cherry trees which are
knotty. In the latter part of February do all necessary
trimming of vines and fruit trees, unless this has been
done in the autumn. Where anthracnose has previously
attacked grapevines, raspberries, or blackberries, prune
severely, cut out every trace of diseased wood or cane
and burn it. . . . In open winters, February is
none too early to go over the orchard carefully and col-
lect and burn all leaves and fruit from diseased trees,
such as mummified cherries, plums, and peaches,
scabby or rotted pears and quinces, and all blighted
leaves. Remember that on the first warm day the air
will be full of the germs of plant diseases from these
fruits and leaves, if they are not destroyed. Do not
use them for bedding or mulch, and do not throw them
into the pig-pen.

March. — The middle or end of this month will see
everything ready for winter treatment (copper sulphate,
I lb. to 25 gals, of water). Select a warm day, or, if
possible, several days of warm, melting weather. In
some seasons winter treatment can hardly be made
before April. This treatment is especially good for

50 Sprayifig Crops

diseases of apple, pear, and quince, for anthracnose
and for the black rot of grapes. Where the latter has
occurred the previous year, ploughing between the
rows, in order to cover up diseased berries, will be
found of great advantage.

April. — Put all spraying apparatus in thorough order.
Clean and rinse pumps, oil all bearings, see that the
valves work well, and test the tubing for leaks. If the
winter treatment has been deferred until this month,
see that it is finished before the middle of the month.

May. — This is usually the flowering month for vines
and fruit trees, and the first application of Bordeaux
mixture or other fungicide should immediately precede
the opening of the flowers. Use your own judgment.
Apples are generally in bloom by the second week in
May; quinces, pears, and grapes usually not until
somewhat later. The importance of these early treat-
ments can hardly be over-estimated. Watch to see
when the petals begin to fall ; and make a second
application within a few days of that date.

yiuie. — The first part of June usually marks the fall
of the flowers of most fruit trees. Never spray while
trees and vines are in full bloom. Make the second
application as soon as the petals have fallen. This will
be late in May or early in June, for apples ; a week or
ten days later for other fruit trees and grapes. Make
the June treatment thorough. ... A good general
rule to follow after the second spraying is to let each
additional treatment be made from ten days to three
weeks after the preceding one ; the shorter interval if

k

1 spray itn:^ Calendar 5 1

there are heavy washing rains ; the longer if the weather
is comparatively dry.

yuly. — This month will close the treatment for most
diseases. To avoid the spotting of grapes by the Bor-
deaux mixture, the two applications during the latter
part of this month should consist of the ammoniacal
solution of copper carbonate. Early in the month
spray for black rot of quinces, and continue treatment
every two weeks until the last of August.

August. — The spraying season closes this month.
For leaf-blight of strawberries, mow the leaves late in
July or early in August, and after allowing them to dry
where they lie, set fire to them and burn the bed over.
Thoroughly clean and oil all spraying apparatus, and
see that it is carefully stored.

September., October., and JVoz'ember. — The months of
harvest. When picking fruit let one or two boys follow
and clean the trees of all diseased and mummified fruit,
collecting it in baskets to burn. At the same time
gather and burn, as far as possible, all diseased fruit
which has fallen. In November clean the orchard
thoroughly of fallen leaves, especially if disease has
been prevalent, and burn them. Better to destroy them
now than in the spring, when the fungous fruit will
have come to maturity in and on the leaves.

Decefnber. — The black knot fungus matures during
December and January ; attack it early in the former
month. Use the pruning knife unsparingly, cutting
out two or three inches above and below each knot.
Burn every knot and paint the wound over at once.

52 spraying Crops

Spraying Precautions

The man who uses a spraying-machine assumes a
responsibility which he has no right to neglect. Some
precautions to be taken are indicated below.

Always label all poisonous preparations i?i plain large
letters, POISON. Never leave poisonous compounds
within the reach of children, ignorant persons, or domestic
animals. Never spray trees in blossom,

Ifi using a compound with which you have had no
experience, and which is reported as at all liable to injure
foliage, use only weak mixtures, and, if possible, try its
effects first on a small scale.

If possible own a spraying-pump yourself. If you
have to ivait to borrow your neighbor'' s , the chances are
that you will begin too late.

Spray in time ; begin early ; do ?iot wait until the
horse is stolen and the7t try to lock the door by spraying.

Do 7iot spray indiscriminately, afiything and everything.
Adapt your jneans to your e?ids. Study the enemies of
your crops and then fight thetn intelligently .

Of two mixtures equally effective, choose the one least
liable to injure foliage. Take the trouble to add a little
lime to arsenite mixtures.

Never spray ripening fruit.

Always remember that spraying requires the exercise
of skill, judgment, and knowledge, to get the best results.

PART I

SPRAYING THE LARGER FRUITS

I

Plate it. — Transformations of the Tent Caterpillar,

THE APPLE

Insect Enemies of the Trunk and Branches

A piece of bark covered with the scales of the
Oyster-shell Bark-lousc is represented in Fig. 14.
If one of these scales be raised early in the spring,
there will be found beneath it a mass of yellowish or
whitish eggs, which hatch about the middle of May
into small lice, that appear as mere specks to the

Fig. 14. 05'ster-shell Bark-louse.

naked eye. These move about over the bark a few
days, when they fix themselves upon it, inserting their
tiny beaks far enough to reach the sap. Here they
continue to increase in size, and by the end of the
season have secreted scaly coverings.

Remedies. — During the winter and early spring
scrape the trunk and larger branches with a hoe, and
then thoroughly scrub with a scrub-brush dipped in a
solution made by adding one part of crude carbolic
acid to seven parts of a solution made by dissolving
one quart of soft soap, or one fourth of a pound of

56 Spj'aymg C?'ops

I

hard soap, in two quarts of boiling water. Then in
May or June, soon after the young lice have hatched,
spray with kerosene emulsion. When the lice are
young they are very readily destroyed by this sub-
stance.

There are frequently found on the limbs and trunks
of young apple trees, masses of a white, woolly sub-
stance, beneath which are small, yellowish plant-lice.
This is the Woolly Aphis. There are two forms of
the insect, one attacking the roots, the presence of
which may be easily detected by the knotty appearance
of the infested rootlets, and one attacking the limbs
and trunk. Like other aphides, these insects multiply
rapidly during the summer months, by giving birth to
living young. They injure the tree by sucking out its
sap through their tiny beaks. They are especially liable
to infest young trees, or those which are unhealthy.

Remedies. — When on the trunk and limbs spray
with kerosene emulsion ; on roots apply hot water, or
kerosene emulsion, or dig in refuse tobacco powder
and stems.

Insect Enemies of the Fruit

The insects affecting the fruit of the apple, which
may be fought by spraying, are the Codling Moth, and
the Plum and Apple Curculios. Of these, the Codling
Moth or Apple Worm is the most destructive, and is,
in fact, the most generally injurious apple insect. Its
life history has already been described in the Intro-
duction (page 10).

The Apple 57

The Ai'i'i.K CuRCUMO is a small, dull-brown, hard
shelled bettle, with a long snout and four peculiar
warts on its back. The beetles drill holes in young
apples, both for food and the deposition of eggs. The
latter are laid at the bottom of the cavity, and soon
hatch into grubs or larvae that feed upon the pulp of
the fruit. They usually penetrate to the core, where
they continue feeding four or five weeks, when they
become full grown and pupate within the cavity of the
apple. Two or three weeks later they emerge as per-
fect beetles, which pass the winter under boards or
rubbish. The fruit attacked by this pest becomes
dwarfed, gnarly, and ill-shapen. Apples are often
seriously injured by the Plum Curculio, which works
in a way similar to the apple curculio. Its life history
is described on page 12.

Remedies. — The injuries of these three insects, as
well as of several others of minor importance, may be
prevented by spraying with London purple or Paris
green. Spray first as soon as the blossoms have all
fallen, and again about ten days later. In localities
where the curculios are very injurious, one or two
more sprayings may often be made to advantage at
intervals of two weeks, especially on late varieties. It
will pay to add lime to the spraying solution (see p. 20),
unless the arsenite is combined with Bordeaux mix-
ture, which has the same saving effect.

The poison is supposed to take effect in the case of
the codling moth by destroying the young larvae just
after hatching, and while attempting to nibble through

58 Spraying Crops

the skin ; while with the curculios it takes effect upon
the parent beetles, thus preventing the deposition of
eggs.

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

A large variety of insects feed upon apple foliage.
Many of them are caterpillars of moths, and are easily
destroyed by spraying. Among the most injurious of
these are the Canker Worms, of which we have two
distinct species — the Fall Canker Worm and the
Spring Canker Worm. The different stages of the
former pest are illustrated in Fig. 4, page 14, where a
resume of its life-history will be found.

The Tent Caterpillar is another insect that is
often extremely destructive to apple foliage. This is
the creature that constructs the silken tent-like nests
so often seen in spring on the branching limbs of apple
and wild cherry trees. Its life-history is as follows :
The eggs are deposited during July in compact masses
of 200 or 300 each upon the twigs (Plate II., ^, ^), and
are covered with varnish (e). The following spring
they hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the tender
foliage and make a silken tent in a fork of the twigs.
They become full grown in about six weeks (tz, ^,).
They then leave the tree and crawl about in search of
a suitable shelter to pupate in. Having found this —
beneath a board, or in the cracks of a fence — they spin
an oval, silken cocoon (^), yellow when completed,
within which they change to pupae. In two or three
weeks the reddish-brown moths (/) come forth. These

rhc Apple

59

deposit the clusters of eggs, after which they soon die.
There are a number of other caterpillars which feed
upon apple foliage, notably several species of Leaf-
rollers, the Yel-
low-necked Cat-
E R P I L L A R, the
Leaf-crumpler,
the Leaf-skele-
ton izER, etc., all
of which are treat-
ed of in the au-
thor's Insects and
Insecticides^ and
all of which can
be destroyed by
spraying. The
Apple-tree Flea.

BEETLE (Fig. 15)

is a small shin- Fig. 15. Apple Tree Flea-Beetle.

ing beetle that is often destructive in the West.
Spraying with the arsenites checks it.

Remedies. — As a rule, none of these insects will be
injurious in an orchard that is regularly sprayed for the
Codling Moth, because such spraying destroys them as
well. It occasionally becomes necessary in unsprayed
orchards infested by Canker Worms to spray very early,
even before the trees blossom, to destroy the young
worms. In case of serious outbreaks of leaf-eating
caterpillars it is sometimes well to increase the propor-
tion of poison, but it should never be less than one

6o

Spraying Crops

pound to 125 gallons of water, and even then lime
should be added.

The Apple Aphis — During spring the leaves and
tender twigs of apple are often covered with small
green lice or aphides. These are the Apple Aphis.
They injure the trees by sucking the sap through their

tiny beaks. The lice
hatch from eggs in spring
as soon as the leaf-buds
begin to expand, and they
increase with marvelous
rapidity, so that almost
as fast as the leaves de-
velop there are colonies
of the plant-lice to occu-
py them. They breed on
apple until July, when
they largely leave the
trees, and migrate apparently to the roots of grasses.
Here they continue breeding until autumn, when they
return to apple, and the winged females establish
colonies of the wingless, egg-laying form upon the
leaves. The small, oval eggs are now laid on the
twigs and buds, and the cycle for the year is complete.
Remedy. — Spray with kerosene emulsion as soon in
spring as the eggs hatch — usually before the leaves
expand.

The opening buds of apples are sometimes seriously
injured by the larva of the Eye-spotted Bud-moth.
This is a small cylindrical worm, three fourths of an

Fig. t6. Apple Aphis.
Much magnified.

The AppU 61

inch long, which lives in a rude case made by fastening
particles of dead leaves together with silk. It attacks
the buds, blossoms, and newly-formed fruit as well as
the leaves, and becomes full-grown early in June.
The larviv then pupate within their cases, and in a few
weeks emerge as small gray moths, with two little eye-
spots on each of the front wings.

Remedies. — This is a difficult pest to contend with,
and the most promising remedy is to spray early,
when the buds are opening, with a combination of
Paris green and the Bordeaux mixture, continuing the
treatment later as recommended below.

Fungous Enemies

Probably no fungous disease of fruit is more familiar
to the general public than the Apple Scab, or, as it is
occasionally called, the Black Spot. This is due to a
fungus which produces the well-known scabby spots
upon the fruit, and also attacks the leaves and green
shoots. It first appears on the leaves in the shape of
smoky, greenish spots, more or less circular in outline.
These gradually enlarge, and frequently several of
them run together, so as to form good-sized blotches ;
and as they grow older their color darkens, finally
becoming almost black. The upper surface of the
leaf is generally the one infested. Immense numbers
of spores are produced on these blackened spots of the
leaf and fruit, forming most abundantly during cool,
wet weather. By means of these spores the fungus
reproduces itself ; they are carried from leaf to leaf

62 Spj'ayhig Crops

and fruit to fruit by wind and rain, and germinating,
start the disease in a new situation. The spores pass
the winter on stored fruit, fallen leaves, etc., and in
spring start the disease again.

Remedies. — In spring, just before the leaf-buds
open, spray thoroughly with the dilute Bordeaux mix-
ture (75-gallon formula); repeat the application a little
later just before the blossoms open, adding Paris green
if the bud-worm is present ; spray for the third time
just after the blossoms have fallen, adding four ounces
of London purple or Paris green to every barrel of
Bordeaux mixture, in order to destroy the codling moth
larvae, and other insects as well as the scab ; ten days
after this third application, spray again with the com-
bination of Bordeaux mixture and London purple or
Paris green. Do not apply the Bordeaux mixture late
in the season ; it is liable to injure the skin of the
apple by giving it a rough and russet appearance.
Fruit sprayed in this way is much larger and finer than
that not sprayed.

In southerly latitudes, orchardists are greatly troubled
by another fungous disease, the Apple Rot, which
attacks the maturing fruit, rotting it and causing serious
losses. Experiments in Kentucky by Professor Gar-
man have shown that this disease may be prevented
by treatment with Bordeaux mixture similar to that
indicated above.

THE PLUM

Insect Enemies of the Fruit

The Plum Curculio is by far the worst insect foe
of the plum. It is the cause of most of the common
worminess and premature dropping of the fruit. An
account of its life-history will be found on page 12.

Remedies. — The evidence in hand indicates that
spraying with the arsenites is the best way to fight this
pest, especially in orchards of considerable size. This
remedy acts by destroying the adult beetles rather than
the larvae. The trees should be sprayed three or four
times, at intervals often days or two weeks, beginning,
as soon as the blossoms have fallen, with Paris green
mixed with water in the proportion of three ounces to
forty or fifty gallons. These sprayings will also
destroy certain other insects affecting the fruit,
although it is generally supposed that they will not kill
the Plum Gouger — an insect related to the curculios
— which is very injurious in some of the Western
States. The best way will probably be to combine
Paris green or London purple with the Bordeaux mix-
ture as described under the next heading, and so fight
both the insect and fungous pests at the same time.
This is especially desirable because the arsenites alone
are liable to injure the foliage when a series of appli-
cations are made.

64 spraying Crops

Fungous Enemies

The Brown Rot of Stone-fruits is the most serious
enemy under this heading. Fruit affected by this dis-
ease turns brown and rots, and generally develops on
the skin, a velvety or powdery brown coating. This
coating consists of a great number of minute spores
fastened together, end to end. If one of these velvety
masses be shaken over a glass slide and the slide then
put under a microscope, it will be seen that a great
many of the spores have separated and fallen off.
When one of these spores lights upon a green plum,
peach, or cherry, and a drop of water happens to form
over it, it sends out a germinating tube which pene-
trates the skin of the fruit, and once inside develops a
mass of mycelium, disorganizing the tissues and caus-
ing rot. Then this mycelium develops a new mass of
spores, and thus the fungus propagates itself. After
the development of the spores, the plums or peaches
dry up and hang on the limbs until the following sea-
son, when they start the disease again. Even the blos-
soms are often attacked.

The first step towards preventing this disease is to
pick off and burn the dry and mummied plums that
hang on the trees over winter. These carry the dis-
ease through cold weather and start it again in the
spring. Rotting plums during the ripening period
should also be promptly removed.

During summer the leaves of plums and cherries are
often injured by the Plum Lkaf-i'.ltcht or Shot-hole

The riun,

^'5

FuNcus, which first appears in the shape of small dark
purple spots scattered over the leaf. These spots
soon become brown, and tiic leaf tissue composing
them is dead. This
dead tissue generally
drops out of the leaf in
course of a few weeks,
circular holes

leaving

resembling shot holes.
A microscopic examina-
tion of the under sur-
face of these spots gen-
erally reveals one or
more blackish points
consisting of the fruiting
spores of the fungus.
It is by means of these
that it passes the win-
ter, and propagates it-
self. The affected
leaves often turn yellow
and fall off.

Remedies. — It has
been definitely proven
that these diseases can
largely be prevented by
spraying. A treatment
similar to that recom-
mended for apple-scab, one spraying with dilute Bor-
deaux mixture before blossoms open, then three spray-

FiG. 17. Diseased Plum Leaf.

66 Spraying Crops

ings with Bordeaux mixture and London purple after
the fruit forms, is the most promising treatment for
both insect and fungous pests. It may be necessary
to make one or two late sprayings with a carbonate of
copper solution in case rot sets in. The mummied
plums should be picked off and burned in the winter;
and an early spring spraying with simple solution of
copper sulphate, applied before the buds swell, is very
beneficial.

During recent years trouble has been experienced in
some localities because of the Fruit-bark Borer, an
insect that burrows channels beneath the bark. There
is some evidence to show that spraying the trunks and
larger branches with the combination of Bordeaux mix-
ture and Paris green will prevent such injury. The
first application should be made early in the spring,
and others follow at occasional intervals until July.

THE PEACH

Insect Enemies of the Fruit

The Plum Curculio, whose life-history has already
been treated of on page 12, breeds in peaches, as well
as in plums, cherries, apples, and other fruits. It is
especially liable to injure peaches when there is a
failure of the apple crop. It is more difficult to pre-
vent its injuries on this crop than on the apple or plum,
because ordinarily it is impracticable to jar peach
trees, and their foliage is so easily injured by the ar-
senites that spraying must be done with great caution.
In using either Paris green or London purple on this
fruit, lime should always be added to prevent injury to
the foliage, or the arsenite may be used in combina-
tion with Bordeaux mixture.

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

Peach foliage is occasionally attacked by the Red-
legged Flea-beetle, a small jumping beetle which
can be destroyed by spraying with the Paris green
and lime mixture.

There are two distinct species of aphides or plant-
lice attacking the peach. One is called the Peach
Aphis, and the other the Black Peach Aphis. The
latter infests the roots and twigs as well as the leaves.

68 Spraying Crops

Both species are soft, blackish little creatures that
crowd together on the foliage and twigs. During the
summer they reproduce viviparously. Spraying with
kerosene emulsion, fish-oil soap, or tobacco decoction,
as early as possible after the pests appear in spring, is
the best remedy. The time to reach them easiest is
when the buds are swelling, and the newly hatched
lice are on the bare twigs.

Fungous Enemies

The Brown Rot, already discussed as a plum dis-
ease (page 64), is often extremely destructive to
peaches. It sometimes attacks the trees early in
spring, causing an injury to the twigs and blossoms
called blight, and again infests the fruit up to the
time of ripening, and even after it is gathered.

The most promising remedial measures are those
of picking off all the dry peaches hanging on the tree
during winter, and then spraying early in the spring,
before the buds begin to swell, with a dilute Bor-
deaux mixture, which may often be repeated to advan-
tage just before the blossoms open. Then after the
blossom petals have fallen spray twice with an inter-
val of two weeks between. Peach foliage is very
easily injured, and care should be taken in spraying
it. There is reason to hope that these early sprayings
will also prevent the troublesome Peach Leaf Curl.

THE PEAR

Insect Enemies of the Fruit

The fruit of the pear is attacked by both the Cod-
ling Moth and Plum Curculio. The injury of the
latter causes it to be knotty, gnarly, and one-sided,
ruining it for market purposes. Fortunately the in-
juries of both may be prevented by two or three spray-
ings with Paris green mixed with water at the rate of
one ounce to twelve gallons. The first application
should be made as soon as the petals have fallen, and
the others at intervals of ten days or two weeks. Add
lime to the mixture, unless the Bordeaux mixture com-
bination is used.

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The leaves of pear, cherry, quince, and plum trees
are frequently attacked during June and July by a

Fig. 1 8. Pear-tree Slug.

greenish-black, slimy slug that eats the upper surface.
This is the Pear-tree Slug. The adult is a four-

70

Sprayinf^ Crops

winged black fly that deposits eggs in the leaf early in
the summer. The eggs soon hatch into larvae which
become full-grown (Fig. i8) in four or five weeks.
They then shed their slimy skin, appearing in a clean
yellow one, and soon descend to the ground which
they enter two or three inches, and pupate in oval
cocoons. A fortnight later the fly emerges. These
larvae are easily destroyed by spraying with hellebore
or the arsenites.

In a number of the Eastern states a small insect,
the Pear Psylla, has recently caus-
ed serious damage by sucking the
sap from the leaves. The insects
pass the winter as adults, and in
early spring deposit eggs on the bark
especially about the buds. About
a fortnight later they hatch into
young — called nymphs — which suck
the sap from the petioles of the

leaves and stems of the young fruit. „ ^ Z n u

^ ° Fig. 19. Pear Psylla.

Recent experiments have shown that Magnified,

the young nymphs may easily be destroyed by spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion.

Fungous Enemies

The Pear Leaf-blight is the most destructive
fungous disease of the pear for which the spraying-
machine may be successfull}r used. It occurs both on
the foliage and fruit; on the former causing small*

rih- /\iir 71

discolored spots, and on the latter producing a very
injurious cracking of the skin. It appears soon after
the leaves develop, in the shape of small dull-red spots
on the upper surface ; then the lower surface becomes
spotted, and the spots gradually change to a dark brown
color with black specks in the middle. The affected
portions enlarge, and finally the whole leaf becomes
diseased and falls off (Plate i). The red spots also
appear upon the fruit ; the skin becomes much rough-
ened and finally splits open in long cracks.

Remedies. — Spray twice with the 50 or 60 gallon
formula of the Bordeaux mixture, applying first about
one month after the blossoms fall, and again a month
later. If more than two applications of the Bordeaux
mixture are made after blooming, there is danger of
giving the fruit a russet appearance. In case of early
pears only one application should be made after bloom-
ing. If late applications are made the copper carbonate
or some similar fungicide should be used. The effect
of treatment with the Bordeaux mixture, as shown in
one of Mr. Galloway's experiments, is illustrated in
Plate I (Frontispiece).

By adding Paris green to the Bordeaux mixture, both
insects and fungous injuries will be prevented.

The Pear Scab is a disease very similar to apple
scab, the fungus, in fact, being believed by many bot-
anists to be the same species. At any rate, the chief
points in the life-history and remedial treatment are the
same as for the apple disease. Spray with dilute
Bordeaux mixture, first as soon as fruit buds open

72

spraying Crops

second just before blooming ; third as soon as blossoms
fall, and fourth about three weeks later.

Care should be taken not to apply the Bordeaux
mixture too late in the season. Early varieties should
have but one spraying with this mixture after the fruit
" sets," and late varieties but two. Where additional
applications are needed, use the copper carbonate so-
lution.

Pear trees, especially older ones in southern latitudes,
as well as apple trees, are often largely covered with
Lichens of various kinds. Recent experiments by
Mr. M. B. Waite show that these are destroyed by
spraying with the Bordeaux mixture.

Fig. 20. Quince Leaf Blight.

The Quince is subject to the leaf-blight above
discussed as a pear pest, and to various other diseases.
As a general rule, it should receive treatment similar
to that given the pear, although a larger number of
sprayings seem to be necessary.

THE CHERRY

Insect Enemies of the Fruit

The Plum Curculio, which has already been dis-
cussed under The Plum (p. 63), is also exceedingly
injurious to cherries. The latter, however, usually do
not fall off when infested by the curculio larvae, but
remain on the tree until the fruit ripens. The remedial
measures suggested in connection with the plum are
equally applicable to this fruit.

Some varieties of cherries, especially the early ones,
are very susceptible to injury by arsenites, and London
purple should not be used upon them unless lime is
added to the solution. If Paris green alone is used
apply at the rate of 2 ounces to 50 gallons of water.
Do not spray early varieties more than twice, or late
ones more than three times.

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The twigs and under surface of the leaves of cherry
trees are frequently thickly infested during May and
June by small, shining black plant-lice, that suck out the
sap and deform the leaves. This insect is the Cherry
Aphis. It winters over on the twigs in the egg state.
Early in spring the eggs hatch into young aphides that
insert their tiny sap-sucking beaks into the unfolding

VI

74 Spraying Crops

leaves. In a week or ten days they become full-grown,
and give birth to young lice, which soon develop and
repeat the process. In this way they increase with
marvelous rapidity. Late in June or early in July they
leave the cherry, migrating to some other plant. Here
they develop through the summer, and in autumn a
winged brood again appears and migrates back to
the cherry. These migrants give birth to young that
develop into egg-laying females, which deposit small,
oval, shining black eggs upon the twigs.

Remedy. — Spray with kerosene emulsion. This can
be done most easily and effectively early in spring,
when the newly-hatched lice are crowded upon the
bursting buds.

The Pear-tree Slug, which has already been dis-
cussed as a pear insect, is probably as destructive to
cherry foliage as to that of the pear. Its life-history
on the two fruits is similar, and the remedies are the
same in both cases.

Fungous Enemies

The cherry is subject to much the same fungous
diseases that the plum is. The leaves are attacked by
the Cherry-leaf Blight, and the fruit by Brown Rot.
The remedial measures already suggested for these
diseases are applicable here.

THE ORANGE AND OTHER CITROUS

FRUITS

Insect Enemies

The scale insects are among the most destructive
insect enemies of citrous fruits. Recent researches
have shown the " resin washes " to be satisfactory
remedies to use against them, and Dr. C. V. Riley has
published the following instructions for their prepara-
tion and use :

The Resin Washes. — "These insecticides act by
contact, and also in the case of scale-insects, by form-
ing an impervious coating which effectually smothers
the insects treated. These resin washes vary in effi-
cacy, according to the insect treated. Experience has
shown that the best formula for the red scale
{Aspidiotus aurantii Maskell) and its yellow variety
{A. citrmus Coquillet) is as follows :

Resin .......

Caustic soda (70 per cent, strength)

Fish oil

Water to make

" The necessary ingredients are placed in a kettle,
and a sufficient quantity of cold water is added to
cover them. They are then boiled until dissolved,
being occasionally stirred in the meantime, and after
the materials are dissolved the boiling should be con-

pounds

. 18

do

5

pints

■ 2I/2

gallons

. 100

76 . - spraying Crops

tinued for about an hour, and a considerable degree of
heat should be employed, so as to keep the prepara-
tion in a brisk state of ebullition, cold water being
added in small quantities whenever there are indica-
tions of the preparation boiling over. Too much cold
water, however, should not be added at one time, or
the boiling process will be arrested and thereby de-
layed, but by a little practice the operator will learn
how much water to add so as to keep the preparation
boiling actively. Stirring the preparation is quite
necessary during this stage of the work. When boiled
sufficiently it will assimilate perfectly with water, and
should then be diluted with the proper quantity of
cold water, adding it slowly at first and stirring occa-
sionally during the process. The undiluted prepara-
tion is pale yellowish in color, but by the addition of
water it becomes a very dark brown. Before being
sprayed on the trees it should be strained through a
fine wire sieve, or through a piece of Swiss muslin, and
this is usually accomplished when pouring the liquid
into the spraying tank, by means of a strainer placed
over the opening through which the preparation is
introduced into the tank.

'■'• The preparing of this compound will be greatly
accelerated if the resin and caustic soda are first pul-
verized before being placed in the boiler, but this is
quite a difficult task to perform. Both of these sub-
stances are put up in large cakes for the wholesale
trade, the resin being in wooden barrels, each barrel
containing a single cake, weighing about 375 pounds,

Ihc Orange 77

while the caustic soda is put up in iron drums contain-
ing a single cake each, weighing about 800 pounds.
The soda is the most difficult to dissolve, but this
could doubtless be obviated by first dissolving it in
cold water and then using the solution as required.
This insecticide may be applied at any time during the
growing season.

" A stronger wash is required for the San Jose scale
{Aspidiotus peniiciosus Comstock), and the following
formula gives the best results :

Resin

. pounds

■ 30

Caustic soda (70 per cent)

do

• 9

Fish oil

. pints

■ aVz

Water enough to make

. gallons

. 100

" Place all the ingredients in a kettle and cover with
water to a depth of four or five inches ; boil briskly
for about two hours, or until the compound can be
perfectly dissolved with water. When this stage is
reached the kettle should be filled up with water, care
being taken not to chill the wash by adding large
quantities of cold water at once. It may be thus
diluted to about 40 gallons, the additional water being
added from time to time as it is used.

" This preparation should only be applied during
winter or during the dormant period; applied in the
growing season, it will cause the loss of foliage and
fruit."

Apply by means of a coarse spray.

PART II

SPRAYING SMALL FRUITS AND
NURSERY STOCK

Plate III.— Strawberry Leaf Affected with Bli

GHT.

THE STRAWBERRY

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The transformations of the Strawberry Slug have
been well represented by Dr. Riley in Fig. 21. The
four-winged fly (3) appears in spring, and deposits its
eggs within the tissues of the leaf or stem. The lar-
vae feed upon the leaf, gnawing small, circular holes at

Fig. 21. Strawberry Slug : 1,2, pupa; 3, 3, fly; 4,6,
larvae ; 7, cocoon ; 8, antenna ; 9, egg, magnified.

first. They develop in five or six weeks into pale
green worms (4, 6) about three fourths of an inch long.
The larva" now go slightly beneath the surface, and

82 spraying C7'ops

there they form cocoons (7) within which they change
to the pupa state (i, 2), and later emerge as flies. In
the southern states there are two broods each season,
while at the North there appears to be but one.

Remedies. — On the non-fruiting plantations it may
be destroyed by spraying or dusting with hellebore or
Paris green. On fruiting plantations this method may
be used in localities where a second brood of larvae
appears after the fruit is gathered. Pyrethrum or in-
sect-powder may be used in such cases on the first
brood.

The Strawberry Leaf-roller is a small, brownish
caterpillar that folds the leaflets of the strawberry by
bringing the upper surfaces together and fastening
them by silken cords (Fig. 22), and feeds upon their
substance till they look brown and scorched. It
hatches from eggs laid in spring upon the strawberry
plants by a small reddish-brown moth. The larva
attains its full growth in June, when it is nearly half an
inch long, of a brown or greenish color, with a shining
yellowish-brown head. It pupates within the rolled
leaf, and about midsummer emerges as a moth. These
moths deposit eggs for a second brood, that feed upon
the leaves late in summer, changing to pupae early in
autumn ; and, passing the winter in that condition,
emerge as moths the following spring.

Remedies. — Mow the field soon after the crop is gath-
ered, and after leaving it a day or two to become dry,
burn it over. This destroys the leaf-rollers as well as
several other kinds of insects, and the spores of fun-

TJie Sfraivberry

83

gous diseases. Scatter a little straw over the field
where the leaves are not thick enough to burn well.
The plants will not be damaged, but will soon send up
a new lot of leaves that will grow rapidly, and be free
from insect and fungous attack. If for any reason this

Fig. 22. Strawberry leaf folded by Leaf-roller.

method is not desirable, the insects of the second
brood may be destroyed by spraying or dusting the
plants in August with some poisonous insecticide.

The foliage of strawberries is also attacked by cer-
tain Strawberry Leaf-beetles, the parents of the
Strawberry Root-worms. On young non-fruiting
plantations, and on fruiting plantations after the crop

84 spraying Crops

is gathered, these insects may be destroyed by spray-
ing with Paris green or London purple.

Fungous Enemies

The Strawberry Leaf-blight is the most destruc-
tive fungous enemy of this fruit. '' The presence of
the blight fungus," says Professor H. Garman, " is first
marked by the appearance of small brown spots,
varying from one sixteenth to one eighth inch. As they
become abundant the spots fuse, forming extensive
brown areas, and finally occupy the whole leaf. Event-
ually most spots show at the upper side of the leaves a
rim of dull purple of varying width. Towards fall this
change in the color of the leaf is more prevalent. If
one of the spots be cut through with a pair of fine
scissors, the leaf will be found, at the point where the
spot is formed, much thinner than elsewhere, because
of the killing and drying out of its substance. Ex-
amined under a microscope, the fungus may now be
found to have pushed through the tissues of the leaf,
and to have formed all over the brown central region
of the spot, but most abundantly at its margins, small
whitish tufts, looking like microscopic shrubs. These
are the fruiting parts of the parasite, and are made up
of numerous threads, each bearing at its summit a long
jointed spore. As these latter ripen they are set free,
and are scattered upon fresh leaves by winds and
rains, to germinate there, push into the leaves, and
form new spots." The fungus is propagated by these
long spores throughout the summer, but in autumn the

I

The Sinra'bcrry 85

threads of mycelium "form solid tissue-like masses in
the dead parts of the spots," which finally appear at
the surface as small black dots. liy means of these
dots or nodules the fungus passes the winter. A leaf
affected by this disease is represented in Plate III.

Remedies. — During July and August spray with Bor-
deaux mixture or ammonical solution of copper car-
bonate, at intervals of two weeks. Try mowing and
burning foliage soon after the fruit is gathered, and then
spray as just directed. Mowing and burning at this
time, without subsequent spraying, is believed to increase
rather than diminish the blight, at least southward ; but
mowdng and burning may often be done to good advan-
tage, at least in southerly latitudes, in autumn.

THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The worst enemy of currant foliage is the Imported
Currant Worm. Early in spring four-winged flies
deposit rows of small, whitish, glassy eggs on the
principal veins of the under sides of the lower leaves.

In about ten days
the small worms
hatch and eat cir-
cular holes in
the leaf. At first
these larvae are
whitish in color;
they soon change
to green, then to
green with nu-
merous black
spots, and at last
back again to a
plain light green,
with a tinge of
yellow at the
sides and ends (Fig. 23). The full-grown larvae spin
tough brown cocoons, beneath the leaves and rubbish
on the ground, within which they change to pupae. From

Fig. 23, Currant Worms Eating Leaves.

The Currant nitd l Gooseberry

87

these cocoons the flies emerge early in summer, to
lay eggs for a second brood, which passes the winter
within the cocoons.

Remedy. — Spray with hellebore — one ounce to three
gallons water — as soon as holes appear in lower leaves.
Spray again ten days later.

Currant leaves are often specked with white by the
Currant Leaf-hopper, a small, pale-green insect, one-
tenth inch long, that lives on the under side and sucks
the sap. The chief damage is done by the first brood,

Fig. 24. Four-lined Leaf-Bug.

I the insects leaving the bushes in early summer, prob-
[ ably preferring at this time the more succulent foliage
t of other plants.

Remedies. — Spray forcibly with pyrethrum or insect-
t powder — one ounce to three gallons water ; or with
t tobacco decoction. Begin early, before the insects
jget their wings.

88

Spraying Crops

The foliage on the tips of currant and gooseberry
stems is often blighted in spring by the Four-lined
Leaf-bug, a small insect represented natural size and
magnified in Fig. 21. The young appear early in
spring and suck the sap from the unfolding leaves,
causing them to wilt and appear blighted as in Fig.

25-

Fig.

Currant leaves killed by the insect.

Mr. M. V. Slingerland, who has studied this pest
thoroughly, finds that its eggs are laid in currant stems
and pass the winter there. Consequently pruning the
stems between September and April — ^burning the por-
tions cut off — will be a partial preventive ; and spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion early in the season, when
the insects are immature, will destroy many of them.

llic Currant au<1 Gooseberry 89

The only other remedy sugc^ested is that of jarrint; the
pests into pans containing kerosene and water.

The Currant Aphis is a small, yellowish insect
found on the under sides of curled and blistered
currant leaves early in summer. Such leaves are
generally tinged with reddish above. The insects
apparently migrate to some other plant during the
summer, returning to the currant in autumn, and
depositing small, black eggs upon the stems, especially
about the buds.

Remedies. — On account of the deformed leaves,
these insects are difficult to reach with insecticides.
Spraying with kerosene emulsion quite early in the
season, before the foliage has expanded, is the best
remedy.

Fungous Enemies

For many years it has been impracticable to grow
foreign varieties of gooseberries in the United States,
on account of the attacks of the Gooseberry Mildew.
According to Dr. B. D. Halsted, this mildew "first
makes its appearance upon the young half-grown
leaves, and the unfolding terminal bud of the shoot.
In its early stage it has a cobwebby appearance, which
soon becomes white and powdery from the develop-
ment of the light summer spores. Soon after this,
thin patches of the same character may be found
upon the forming berries. Usually one side is more
attacked than the other, and as the berry continues
to grow it becomes one-sided or curved, because the

VII

90 spraying Crops

fungus retards the development upon the infested
side. If the berry is entirely covered, its further
development is generally checked. Later in the sea-
son the leaves, and especially their petioies, and the
young stems bearing them, turn to a rusty-brown color,
and become thickly coated with the fungus. The
berries at the same time are covered with brown
patches of mycelium, which may readily be peeled off
from the smooth skin of the fruit."

Remedies. — Spray with a solution of potassium sul-
phide (liver of sulphur) at the rate of one half ounce
to one gallon water. Begin as soon as the leaves
commence unfolding, and repeat the application at
intervals of eighteen to twenty days. The sulphide
dissolves more readily in hot than in cold water.
This treatment has proven entirely efficacious for a
number of years at the New York experiment station.
Early in the season the Bordeaux mixture may be
used instead of the sulphide if more convenient, and
it is desirable to spray with Bordeaux mixture after
the fruit is gathered, to prevent the various spot-dis-
eases, that often cause the foliage to drop off late in
summer.

THE GRAPE

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The Grape-vine Flea-beetle is a small, steel-blue
beetle that is often very destructive to grape-vines.
As soon in spring as the buds swell the beetles attack
them, and continue feeding for three or four weeks,
during the latter part of the time depositing small,
orange-yellow eggs in clusters on the under sides of
the leaves. The eggs hatch into small, dark-colored
larvae that gnaw irregular holes in the leaves. When
fully grown (three or four weeks after hatching), they
are about 3-10 inch long, brown in color, with six legs,
and four or five black dots on the back of each ring
or segment of the body. The head is black, and there
are numerous hairs on the body. They now enter the
soil, pupate, and a few weeks later emerge as beetles,
which feed upon the foliage and lay eggs for a second
brood of larvse.

Remedy. — Spray with Paris green or London purple

(having a little lime added) at a strength of three or

four ounces to fifty gallons water, as soon as beetles

appear in spring ; or else with the arsenited Bordeaux

mixture.

Fungous Enemies

I.'

The Black Rot of grapes has long been recognized
as the most destructive fungous disease which Ameri-

92 Sp7'aymg Crops

can vineyardists have encountered. Generally the
fungus first appears in the shape of round, reddish-
brown spots on the grape leaves. About a fortnight
later the attack on the berries will be noticed. The
effect on these is most disastrous; as the mycelium
develops among the cells of the fruit the berries stop
growing, and finally become disorganized, shapeless,
juiceless masses, shriveled to one half their proper
size and fit only to develop the spores of the destroy-
ing fungus. And they do produce these spores, which
are massed together in little black pustules scattered
over the surface of the withered skin.

This Black Rot fungus is most destructive in south-
ern latitudes. As far north as northern Ohio and
western New York it is much less virulent than in
Tennessee or the Carolinas. Like most fungous dis-
eases it develops with greatest rapidity during damp,
hot weather, or when nights with heavy dews alternate
with hot days.

Remedies. — Spray with the Bordeaux mixture, four
to seven times, making the first application just before
the buds swell ; the second, when the leaves are one
third grown ; the third, just before the blossoms open,
repeating the later sprayings at intervals of about
fifteen days. In case Bordeaux mixture is used, sub-
stitute the ammonical solution of copper carbonate for
the last one or two sprayings, to avoid spotting the
fruit.

An account of the development of the Downy Mil-
dew or Brown Rot of grapes has already been given

The (irii/>c 93

ill tlic Introduction (pp. 16-18). This disease has
l)ecn, in years past, extremely destructive over a wide
area ; and it attacks disastrously both the foliage and
fruit. In southern latitudes it is said to be most
injurious to the former.

Remedies. — The Bordeaux mixture is a practical
and efficient preventive of this disease. Spray first a
week or ten days before the vines blossom ; second,
as soon as the berries are well set ; and third, about
three weeks later? In the very wet seasons it may be
desirable to spray a fourth time, but this is seldom
done. Eau Celeste is sometimes used for this disease,
but the Bordeaux mixture seems preferable.

THE RASPBERRY

Insect Eneraies of the Foliage

The Raspberry Slug is the larva of a four-winged
black fly with a reddish abdomen, which deposits eggs
during spring in the leaf. They hatch into small,
whitish worms that feed upon the tender foliage, and
in a few weeks become full-grown. They are then ^-
inch long, of a dark green color, and have the body
thickly covered with spinose tubercles. The slugs
now descend to the ground, and construct rather firm
cocoons slightly beneath the soil surface. They remain
in these cocoons until spring, when they come forth as
flies.

Remedy. — Spray the infested bushes with powdered
hellebore. Use from one half to one pound of hellebore
to fifty gallons of water, and apply forcibly, as soon as
the worms appear.

Fungous Enemies

The Anthracnose or Cane-rust of the raspberry
is one of the most vexatious diseases with which the
fruit-grower has to contend. Infested canes are char-
acterized by having numbers of peculiar, grayish,
depressed spots upon the surface, the spots usually
having a dark purple margin. This injury is accom-
panied by a splitting or cracking of the bark, which

The Raspberry 95

becomes deeper as the cane ripens, and finally extends
nearly to the pith. The spores are developed usually
in the central portions of the spots, appearing to the
unaided eye as yellowish elevations. Canes so attacked
become dwarfed and worthless.

Remedy. — The raspberry is very sensitive to the
corrosive action of fungicides, and it must be sprayed
with care. Recent experiments at the Ohio Station
indicate that the dilute Bordeaux mixture may be used
to advantage against this disease, although it is not a
complete remedy. Apply once before the leaves come
out, and two or three times afterward, though not after
the blossoms open. "Care should be taken to direct
the spray to the young growth, and avoid the old canes
after the first application."

NURSERY STOCK

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The leaves of young apple trees are frequently rolled
together at the tips of the terminal twigs by a greenish
yellow, slightly hairy worm about half an inch long-
This is the Lesser Apple Leaf-roller. Its life-
history is as follows : The eggs are laid in spring on
the leaves of apple and other plants, the larvae soon
hatching to devour the foliage, some of which they

roll into a protective
covering. Here they
feed for about a month,
when they pupate with-
in the folded leaves, and
a week or so later
emerge as small orange-
yellow moths ; these
moths lay eggs for an-
other brood of larvae,
the imagos from which
appear in August, being
also of the same orange color. These in turn lay eggs
for a third brood of worms, which develop during
September, and emerge during October as glistening
reddish-gray moths, which pass the winter in rubbish
heaps and fence corners and deposit eggs the follow-
ing spring.

Fig. 26. Lesser Leaf-roller : a, larva ;
b^ pupa ; e^ moth ; d^ rolled leaf.

A^urscry Siotk

97

One often finds during winter, upon the twigs of
nursery trees, masses of dry brown leaves, that, when
pulled apart, are seen to surround a long, tubular,
horn-like case. These cases contain a brownish worm
or caterpillar, about half an inch long. This is the
Leaf-crumpler, and it often becomes one of the most
injurious of nursery pests. The parent is a small
grayish moth (Fig. 27, ^) that deposits its eggs during
June and July on
apple, quince, and
other trees. These
eggs soon hatch
into small brown-
ish worms that con-
struct tubular, silk-
en cases (a) within
which they remain
concealed when
not eating. As
they grow larger
they draw about
the openings of
their abodes many
partially eaten a^ b

leaves, so that by Fig- ^I- Leat-crumpler : a, larval case ; b,
autumn there is '^^^'^^ case with dead leaves ; c^ front part of

larva ; d^ moth, magnified.

quite a bunch sur-
rounding each case (/;). At the approach of cold
weather the cases are attached to twigs by silken
threads, and thus the wdnter is passed. As soon as

98

Spraying Crops

the leaves appear the larvae attack them, frequently
eating out the flower buds as well. They feed until
June, when they pupate within the cases. A fort-
night later the moths emerge.

The Apple Leaf-skeletonizer is a brownish or
greenish larva, which spins a web upon the upper sur-
face of the leaf, and eats the parenchyma, giving the
foliage a scorched appearance. The larvae hatch from

eggs laid late in spring
by a little moth, and as
they grow older they
spin a slight protective
silken web on the upper
surface of the leaf, be-
neath which they feed.
When full grown {a)
they vary from an olive
or pale green color to
brown, are about half
^ an inch long, and have

Fig. 28. Leaf-skeletonizer : a, larva ; ^^^^ black shining tU-
b^ part of back, magnified to show bcrclcs on the back,
markings ; ^, head and front part of -g^ behind the head.
larva, magnified , d^ moth, magnified.

About midsummer they
pupate in slight cocoons, and two weeks later the
moths emerge. Eggs are laid by these moths for the
second brood of larvae, which when full-grown hiber-
nate in thin cocoons.

Remedies. — All three of these pests are open to
destruction by spraying with arsenites. In regions

r

Nursery Stock 99

whore the Powdery Mildew is injurious as well as
these, a combination treatment may be employed,
adding live or six ounces of London purple or Paris
green to each barrel of Bordeaux mixture. Where
fungicide treatment is not necessary, spray with arsen-
ites and lime (adding the lime to prevent injury to the
young and tender foliage, as explained in the introduc-
tion, p. 20) whenever either of the insects threaten
injury, — the earlier the better.

k Fungous Enemies

There are at least three fungous diseases of young
nursery trees to prevent which spraying pays. They
are : (i) the Pear Leaf-blight, which affects a quince
as well as pear stocks ; (2) the Powdery Mildew,
which occurs upon apple and cherry, and (3) the Leaf-
blight or Leaf-spot of the plum and cherry.
h According to Mr. B. T. Galloway, the body or vege-
tative system of the Pear Leaf-blight consists of
very minute, short, colorless filaments, which grow
betw^een and through the delicate cells of the leaf,
"destroying all the latter with which it comes in con-
tact, and using their nourishment for building up its
own structure. As a result of this process, the leaf
shows, here and there on the surface, small, more or
less circular, dark brown spots ; these spots rapidly
enlarge, and by running together soon cause the entire
leaf to turn brown and then fall off. Before the latter
takes place, however, a close examination of the dis-

loo spraying Crops

eased spots will reveal numerous little black specks ;
these contain the spores or reproductive bodies of the
fungus, which escape by rupturing the cuticle of the
leaf with which they are covered. Under proper con-
ditions of moisture and heat the spores germinate, and
if this takes place on a pear leaf, the germ tube bores
its way into the tissues, soon develops into colorless
filaments, like those already described, and these in
turn give rise to more spores." The fungus passes
the winter by means of the late summer spores which
remain attached to the fallen leaves.

Remedy.^ — "Spray first with the Bordeaux mixture
when the leaves are about two-thirds grown ; then fol-
low with other applications of the same preparation at
intervals of about twelve days, until five or six spray-
ings in all have been made." (Galloway.)

The fungus of the Apple Powdery Mildew differs
materially from the species affecting pear leaves just
discussed. "Its vegetative system," says Mr. Gallo-
way, "instead of growing on the inside of the host is
almost wholly external, and obtains its nourishment by
means of suckers which it sends into the cells of the
leaf or stem as the case may be. It covers the various
parts of the plant with a grayish, powdery, meal-like
growth — hence the name Powdery Mildew."

Remedies. — " Spray the seedlings with the ^ammoni-
acal solution or copper carbonate, first when the
leaves are about half grown, and thereafter at inter-
vals of 1 2 days. P'ollowing this plan three sprayings
will usually be made before budding, and at least two

Nursery Stock

lOI

after this operation, making; five in all." (Galloway.)
(^r the Hordeaux mixture may be used.

The Leaf-iu,ight of the plum and cherry may be

/ ■«-/./ I MVrf.

Fig. 29. Spraying for Plum Leaf-blight, w

prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux mixture.
Apply first when the leaves are one third grown.
" Between this date and the time for budding three

102 Spraying Crops

more applications should be made at as nearly regular
intervals as possible. Ten days or two weeks after
the buds are inserted make the fifth application, then
follow with the sixth two weeks later." The effect of
spraying plum stocks is well shown in Fig. 29, repro-
duced from the journal of Mycology.

PART III

SPRAYING SHADE TREES, ORNA-
MENTAL PLANTS, AND FLOWERS

I

Plate IV. Transformations of the Elm-Leaf Ijeetle

SHADE TREES

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The Woolly Maple Bark-louse is often one of the
most destructive shade-tree pests. Its presence is
manifested in spring and early summer by the occur-
rence upon the twigs of a brown, circular, leathery
scale about ^ inch in diameter, beneath which is a
peculiar white, fluffy, cottony mass. In the spring
there may be found, in each of these masses, great
numbers (from 700 to 1,000) of small, white, spherical
eggs. Early in summer these eggs hatch into young
lice, which scatter over the trees, wandering about on
the twigs and leaves for a few days, and, finally, fixing
themselves upon the lower leaf surface, insert their tiny
beaks and suck out the sap. They remain in this posi-
tion several weeks, when a few of them become fully
developed winged males. These mate with the remain-
der, which are females, and soon die. But the females
remain upon the leaves until nearly time for them to
fall in autumn, when they desert them and migrate to
the twigs, attaching themselves by inserting their beaks
into the bark. Here they remain until spring, the eggs
gradually developing.

Remedy. — Spray infested trees in June, w^hen the
lice have just hatched, with kerosene emulsion.

VIII

io6

Spraying Crops

The twigs of deciduous and coniferous trees are often
infested during winter by small bags or sacs (Fig. 30,
e) suspended to the leaves or branches. If one of the
larger of these bags be cut open, there will be found
within it a brown, membranous shell (the pupa-case of

Fig. 30. Bag-worm ; a^ larva ; b^ male pupa ; c^ female moth ; </, male
moth ; e, bag and pupa-case cut open to show eggs ; /, full-grown larva
with bag ; g^ young larvae with their conical coverings.

the moth) filled with many small, yellow eggs (e). In
this condition the Bag-worm or Basket-worm passes
the winter. Late in spring the larvae hatch, and form
little cases of fragments of leaves fastened together by
silken threads. Beneath these cases {g) they feed
upon the foliage, enlarging them as the larvae develop,
and during later life using bits of twigs or stems in
their construction. When fully developed, the worms

S/indr Trees

107

descend to the earth by means of silken threads, and
crawl about until they reach the bases of other trees,
which they ascend. This is the way the species
migrates. The larvx' pupate within the cases, and
about three weeks later change to moths. The two
sexes of the moths differ greatly, the male {(i) having
well developed wings, while the female (<r) is wingless.
The latter deposits her eggs in the empty pupa-case
from which she has emerged, falls to the ground, and
dies.

Remedies. — Spray with London purple or Paris green
early in summer when the worms are young.

The larva of the White-marked Tussock-moth is
one of the most beautiful of our caterpillars. If the
trunks or larger limbs of maple, apple, elm, or any
other of the trees infested by this insect, be examined
in autumn or winter, one may find, scattered here and

Fig. 31. White-marked Tussock-moth : a, female moth on cocoon; b,
young larva hanging by thread ; c, female pupa ; r/, male pupa ; e,
male moth.

there upon the bark, thin gray cocoons, many of them
being covered wath large bunches of spherical white
eggs fastened together by a protecting froth-like mass.

io8 Spraying Crops

In May, soon after the leaves come out, these eggs
hatch into small caterpillars, which feed upon the
foliage, becoming full-grown in six or seven weeks.
Their general color is bright yellow, with head and
tubercles on rear of back red, and four cream-colored
tufts on back. About the middle of July the cater-
pillars spin thin, whitish cocoons upon the bark, and
a fortnight later come forth as moths. These lay eggs
for a second brood, which complete their transforma-
tions before winter sets in. The male moth differs
greatly from the female moth, the former being winged
(Fig. 31, e), while the latter is wingless {a). The
female crawls upon the top of the cocoon (a) as soon
she emerges from the pupa state, where, after mating,
she deposits her eggs in a single mass and dies.

Remedies. — Spray trees as soon as caterpillars are
noticed, with Paris green or London purple.

The work of few insects is more universally known
than that of the Fall Web-worm. Late in summer
and early in autumn the conspicuous, unsightly webs
of this pest may be seen in nearly every orchard and
hedgerow over a large portion of the United States.
The adult is a pretty, white moth (Fig. 31^^), which
deposits eggs on the leaves of various trees early in
summer. These soon hatch into young caterpillars
that begin at once to spin a protective web. They
feed upon the parenchyma of the foliage, leaving the
network of veins, and grow quite rapidly, enlarging
the web as they develop. The full-grown larvae are
a little more than an inch long, with the body densely

S/uu/r J'fi'i's

109

Fig. 3 1 A". Fall Web-worm : a, larva ; b, pupa
c, moth.

clothed with yellowish hair.s. They now leave their
nests and descend to the ground, where they spin

slijrht silken co-
coons w i t h i n
w h i c h they
change to pupx\
Remedies. —
It is an easy
matter to cut
the webs off and
burn or crush
the larva.'. The
pests may also
be destroyed by
spraying with London purple or Paris green when the
larvae are young.

During recent years the Imported Elm Leaf-beetle
has been exceedingly destructive in many cities of the
Eastern States, to that loveliest of shade-trees, the elm.
The eggs (Plate IV., a) are laid on the under side of
the leaf in two or three rows. In about a week the
larvae hatch and begin eating the leaves, causing them
to look as if riddled with fine shot. They become
fully grown (^) in two or three weeks, when they
descend to the ground, and change to pupce (/). Ten
days later the perfect beetles (r, natural size ; k, mag-
nified) come forth and eat the leaves, although the
damage done by the insect in this state is less than
that done bv larvae. There are three or four broods

1 1 0 spraying Crops

each season, and the beetles pass the winter in hollow
trees and under old leaves.

Remedies. — Spray with London purple or Paris
green (4 ozs. to 50 gallons water) when the eggs are
being laid, in order to kill the larvae before they have
done any damage. The addition of a little flour to
the poison mixture seems to render it more effective.
To reach the tops of high trees a pump of considerable
power is required.

k

THE ROSE

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The Rose Slug is the young or larva of a four-
winged saw-fly. It eats the pulp of the leaves, giving
the foliage a scorched appearance. The eggs are laid
singly in the skin of the leaf, and the larvae hatch in
about a fortnight. They become full-grown in three
weeks ; they have a small, round, yellowish head, and
a green body, which is soft and nearly transparent.
Leaving the bushes they burrow into the soil an inch
or two and make oval cocoons of silk mixed with par-
ticles of earth. They remain in these until the follow-
ing season, when they emerge as flies.

Remedies. — Spray with hellebore
or insect powder.

The Rose Leaf-
hopper is a small
whitish insect, found
on the lower surface
of rose leaves, suck- yr
ing out the cell con-
tents and giving the
upper surface a
white-spotted a p -
pearance. The adult
(Fig. 32, a) is a little more than i-io inch long, with a
yellowish-white body, and white semi-transparent wing

Fig.

pupa.

Rose Leaf-hopper
Magnified.

a, adult ; b.

1 1 2 spraying Crops

covers. It has long hind legs, by means of which it
is enabled to make tremendous leaps when disturbed.

Remedies. — These little pests are much easier to
destroy before they are fully developed than after-
wards. Spraying or dusting with pyrethrum, or insect-
powder, is a simple and efficient remedy. Tobacco, in
the form either of a powder or a decoction, is also
good ; and kerosene emulsion will destroy the pests.

Flowers and Potted Plants

Greenhouse plants are often seriously injured by
minute, reddish mites that congregate on the lower
leaf surface, spinning a fine protective web and suck-
ing out the juices of the plants through their tiny
beaks. These are Red Spiders. They multiply be-
neath their silken webs, where one may find colonies
of individuals (so small as to be scarcely visible to the
naked eye) in all stages of existence. The infested
leaves assume a yellowish hue, and many of them
finally fall off.

Remedies. — The Red Spider flourishes best in a
dry atmosphere. It is seldom troublesome in green-
houses where the air is kept saturated with moisture
and the plants are sprayed with water every day. In
window-gardens the plants should be sprayed with
soap-suds, tobacco decoction, or kerosene emulsion,
or dusted with fine tobacco or insect powder, as soon
as they show signs of the presence of this pest.

There are many different species of Aphides, Plant-
lice, or "Greenflies," affecting various flowering-

The Rose

113

plants. But all are quite similar in life-history and

habits, and the same remedies apply to each. They

all multiply with marvellous rapidity, on account of

their habit of

giving birth to

living young

without the

presence of

male aphides

They mature

rapidly, and ob.

tain food by in.

serting their

pointed beaks ^^^- 33- AP^"^' "^ wingless form, magnified;
h^ winged form, magnified ; c^ same, natural size.

into the stem or

leaf and sucking out the sap. There are generally
two forms of them, one being winged (Fig. ^iZ-f ^A ^)
and the other wingless {a). These insects are the
commonest pests of the flowering-plants.

Remedies. — Spray with kerosene emulsion, fish-oil
soap, or tobacco decoction.

/^

PART IV

SPRAYING VEGETABLES, FIELD-
CROPS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

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THE POTATO

Insect Enemies of the Foliage

The Colorado Potato-beetle (Plate V) deposits
its orange-colored eggs (a) in masses, varying in num-
ber from a dozen to fifty or more, on the under surface
of the potato-leaf, and occasionally also upon the leaves
of grass, smart-weed, or other plants in the potato field.
They hatch about a week later into peculiar little grubs
(/^) that feed upon the foliage a few weeks. They then
descend to the ground, where just beneath the soil
surface, or under the rubbish above it, they change to
pupse (<r). About ten days later they emerge as perfect
beetles. There are from two to four annual broods,
the number varying with the latitude ; and the insect
hibernates in the beetle state.

Remedies. — Spray with six or seven ounces of Lon-
don purple or Paris green to 50 gallons of water. For
this purpose London purple seems preferable, on ac-
count of its cheapness and finely-powdered condition.
The application should be made as soon as the beetles
appear, in order to kill off the first brood, and it must
be repeated as often during the season as is necessary
to keep the pests in check.

Fungous Enemies

There are at least two distinct diseases which are
called the Potato Rot or Potato Blight. One of
these is the Late Blight or Downy Mildew, due to

1 1 8 spraying Crops

the fungus Fhytophora infestans ; and the other is the
Early Blight or Leaf-spot Disease, due apparently
to a fungus called Macrosporium solani. They may
usually be distinguished by the fact that leaves
affected by the former have on their under surface a
white, velvety mould, visible to the naked eye, but
more readily seen through the microscope : with the
early blight no such mildew is present. With both
the foliage of plants attacked becomes spotted with
brown, and the spots gradually enlarge, finally involv-
ing the whole leaf, and then cause the stems to wilt
and wither.

According to Prof. F. L. Scribner, the life-history of
the Downy Mildew Potato Rot Fungus may be
summarized as follows: "The spores lighting upon
the leaves of the potato germinate in drops of dew or
rain, and the product of germination — the zoospores —
penetrate to the interior tissues of the plant, and after
growing for a time through these tissues, the mycelium
sends out, chiefly from the under surface of the leaves,
slender fruiting branches, whereon are produced a new
crop of spores. These may carry the disease to the
other plants in the field, or to the other parts of the
same plant ; that is, they may serve to spread the dis-
ease in the tops, which we term blight, over the entire
field, or by being washed into the ground they may
reach the tubers and cause the rot. The fungus once
having gained entrance to the tubers, may or may not
vegetate rapidly. Its presence, however, is soon made
evident by a browning of the flesh underlying the skin,

Ihc Potato I 1 9

and b}- more or less extensive discoloration and de-
pression of the latter." When such affected tubers
are planted, the disease is very likely to develop in the
plants from them.

The Early I^light appears early in summer in the
shape of small brown, brittle spots, scattered over the
leaf. Careful inspection shows that their upper sur-
faces are more or less roughened by darker areas
rising above the dead gray tissue. The spots grad-
ually enlarge, and finally run together to form large
brown patches, the intermediate tissues becoming yel-
lowish or sickly green in color. The entire plant
finally withers, and dies long before the proper period,
the tubers being small — generally less than half full
size. But the tubers do not rot and are of good
quality. This fungus has proven difficult to study in
the field, the spores being produced only on part of the
affected plants. It winters over in the spore stage on
the dead vines.

Besides the two maladies already discussed, there is
a potato disease due to Bacteria, although it is proba-
ble that the Macrosporium blight has frequently been
attributed to these organisms. Bacteria often develop
in tissues invaded by the fungus just named ; but
there are good reasons for believing that a genuine
bacterial trouble frequently develops in all parts of
the plant. It generally starts from the seed planted,
which becomes rotten. The vines die prematurely^
often wilting rather suddenly, and the young tubers

120

Spraying Crops

decay. This disease is more troublesome in southern
latitudes than at the north.

Remedies. — A number of experiments have shown
that these diseases may be prevented by spraying with
the Bordeaux mixture, provided the seed potatoes used
are free from infection. To be sure of this, seed
should be obtained from regions where blight and rot
do not occur upon potatoes, or potatoes which were
sprayed the year before. Then spray three or four
times with the Bordeaux mixture, making the first ap-
plication when the vines are about one third grown, or
earlier if signs of the disease appear, and repeat the

Fig. 34. {a) Yield of unsprayed plot ; {b) of sprayed plot.

application when it is washed off — in about a fortnight
usually. Add half a pound of London purple or Paris
green to each barrel of the mixture whenever the Col-

The Potatiy 1 21

orado Beetles threaten injury. While the best results
are most likely to be reached when the seed is not in-
fected, very satisfactory ones are obtained from spray-
ing crops from ordinary seed.

The beneficial effect of treatment with Bordeaux
mixture, as it resulted in some experiments by Profes-
sor Jones, of Vermont, is shown in Figure 34. The
treated vines yielded marketable tubers at the rate of
291 bushels per acre, while those untreated yielded
only at the rate of 99^ bushels per acre.

IX

THE CABBAGE

Insect Enemies of the Leaves

The transformations of the Imported Cabbage-
Worm — the most destructive insect affecting cab-
bage— are illustrated in Fig. 35. The adult is a com-
mon white butterfly, which deposits, singly or in
clusters of two or three each, small, yellowish eggs

Fig. 35. Imported Cabbage-worm ; a, larva ; b, chrysalis ;
c, female butterfly ;

upon the cabbage. The eggs soon hatch into little,
green larvae that feed upon the leaves. In about two
weeks they become full-grown (a), when they desert
the cabbage plants, and finding some suitable shelter
— beneath a board or under the coping of a fence —

The Cabbage 123

change to chrysalids (/»). They remain in this condi-
tion about ten days, when they emerge as butterHies,
to lay eggs for another brood of worms. The winter is
passed in the chrysalis state.

Remedies. — Pyrethrum (insect-powder or buhach),
hot water, and kerosene emulsion are the best reme-
dies. The insect powder may be mixed with water, in
the proportion of one ounce to four or five gallons of
water, and sprayed upon the plants. Dr. Riley states
that " every worm visible upon the cabbages may be
killed by the use of hot water at the temperature of
130° Fahrenheit. The water may be boiling hot when
put in the watering-can, but it will not be too hot
when it reaches the cabbage leaves." Kerosene emul-
sion can advantageously be used when the plants are
young, though there would appear to be danger of
tainting the heads if applied to the fully developed
plants. Whichever method of treatment is adopted, it
should be carried into practice at frequent intervals,
thus keeping the worms well in check. If the plants
are sprayed with insect-powder once a week during the
time the worms are present, they will cause little or no
trouble. Young cabbages which have not begun to
form heads may be sprayed with Paris green or Lon-
don purple and water, but this should not be done
under any circumstances after the heads are formed.

There are several other caterpillars affecting cab-
bage— especially the Cabbage Plusia and the Zebra
Caterpillar — which sometimes necessitate a spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion or insect-powder.

124 spraying Crops

The Cabbage Aphis is a small, greenish insect,
generally covered with a whitish, mealy coating, that
occurs in great numbers on the leaves and in the
heads of cabbage. During the summer months it re-
produces viviparously, but in autumn true males and
females are developed, eggs being deposited by the
latter upon the cabbage leaves.

Remedy. — Kerosene emulsion and fish-oil soap are
the most effective liquid insecticides that can be used
against this insect.

Young cabbages are often attacked by flea-beetles,
especially the Wavy-striped Flea-Beetle. It is a
small, shining black beetle, i-io inch long, with a
broad, yellow, wavy stripe on each wing-cover. It
feeds upon the surface of the leaf, gnawing out little
pits. The females deposit minute whitish eggs upon
the roots of cruciferous plants, such as radish, cabbage,
turnip, etc., and the larvae feed upon these roots,
sometimes doing serious damage. The full-grown
larva {a) is about y^ inch long, with a yellowish-
white body, and brown head.

Remedies. — Spray the plants with a strong tobacco
decoction, or dust on powdered tobacco.

In the Southern states the Harlequin Cabbage-
bug is a very troublesome pest. It feeds upon a
variety of cruciferous plants, such as cabbage, radish,
mustard, and turnip ; and passes the winter in the
adult state. Early in spring eggs are deposited upon
mustard or radish plants, upon which the resulting
bugs develop. The second brood attacks the cabbage

I'lie Cabba^^c

125

and the insects continue to develop upon this crop until
autumn. According to Mr. Howard Evarts Weed of

the Mississipi ex-
periment station,
" there is but one
efficient remedy for
this insect, which
is, to destroy the
brood which lives
over winter, when
they congregate
upon the mustard
or radish plants.
Here they can be
very
easily by the ap-
plication of kerosene (not emulsified) by means of a
hand force-pump or common watering bucket. If
the insects are thus destroyed early in the season,
it will almost wholly prevent injury later. The in-
sects fly but little, and are thus not apt to come
from a neighboring field." Those bugs or eggs
which may be seen on cabbage, should be picked off
and destroyed.

Fig. 36. Harlequin Cabbage-bug : a, b,
nymphs ; c, eggs ; /, adult ; g, adult with
wings extended — all natural size ; d. eggs,
side view ; ^, eggs, view from above — d^e, (^ecfroved
enlarged.

GRAIN CROPS

Insect Enemies

The Chinch Bug has long been recognized as one
of the arch-enemies of American agriculture. The
adult (Fig. 37,//) is a small blackish insect, slightly less
than 1-5 inch long, with the legs dark yellow, and their
tips black. The females deposit eggs about the roots
of grass and grain. From these hatch young bugs (c)

Fig. 27- Chinch Bug ; a, I?, eggs ; c, ^,/, young ; g, nymph or pupa ;
h, adult. Magnified.

that do not differ in general form from the adults.
They suck the sap from various plants of the grass
family, gradually increasing in size, and moulting at
intervals. In a few weeks they become nearly full-
grown, but instead of changing to a quiet chrysalis

«l

Grain Crops

127

state, they simply moult again and continue feeding as
before. In these early stages, which correspond to the
larva and chrysalis, they are called nymphs. The
older nymphs (^g) are nearly as large as the full-grown
bugs, differing mainly in the absence of wings. In
about a week they again moult and come forth as
adult bugs.

Remedies. — Chinch bugs are easily killed by kero-
sene emulsion, and by means of improved spraying-
machines this substance can be used against them to
good advantage. The best time to choose in which
to kill them is when they are migrating from field to
field.

Corn, oats and other field and garden crops suffer
greatly from the attacks of Cut-worms, of which there

are many species.
They are larvae of me-
dium-sized, night-flying
moths, and are thick,
naked worms that curl
up when disturbed.
Most of them feed upon
grass or clover when
young, becoming about
half grown by winter
time, when they seek
the shelter of some log
or stone, or burrow into
the soil. Here they hi-
bernate, and in spring come forth in search of food.
They now attack a variety of young plants, biting off

Fig. 38. Variegated Cut-worm
larva : b. moth.

128 spraying Crops

the stems and feeding upon the leaves. They become
full-grown in spring or in early summer, and pupate
beneath the soil surface, and three or four weeks later
emerge as moths. The larva {a) and moth {b) of the
Variegated Cut-worm {Agrotis saucia) are represented?
natural size, in Fig. 38. Some species have two or
more broods each season, while others have but one.
Cut-worms are especially likely to do damage in fields
and gardens close to grass-lands, and to crops immedi-
ately following grass.

Remedies.— Spray a small plat of clover with Paris
green, and then cut it late in the afternoon and strew in
bunches over the field to be protected. The worms
prowling about at night eat of the poisonous baits and
are killed.

The Army-worm hatches from eggs laid by a hand-
some brown moth between the sheaths of grass
blades. The larvai are at first green, but later be-
come ornamented with longitudinal stripes of yellow,
gray, and black. They feed upon the leaves of grass
wheat, oats, rye, etc., and become full-grown in about
a month. Occasionally they become so numerous that
they exhaust their food-supplies, and then are forced
to seek other feeding-grounds. At such times the " ar-
mies " appear, and moving in solid masses sweep all
grasses and cereals before them. The larvae pupate
in earthen cells, emerging a fortnight later as moths.

Remedies. — One of the most promising methods of
combating this insect is that of thoroughly spraying
strips of grass or other crops in front of the advancing
host with mixtures of London purple and water.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Insect Enemies

Our various domestic animals frequently suffer from
the attacks of Lice. Three of the commoner species
affecting horses and cattle are shown in Fig. 39.
Animals affected by them lose flesh and are weakened.
The lice generally deposit their eggs or " nits " on the
hairs.

Remedy. — The best method of destroying lice is to
spray or wash the infested animals with a well-
prepared kerosene emul-
sion. If this is well made
it can be applied to cattle
and horses, hogs and
'I sheep, with no danger of
injury to them, while it will
, , . destroy all the lice with

tie. 39. Lice : a, a, sucking ox- -^ _

lice : c, biting horse-louse. Mag- which it COmeS in COn-

"ified. tact. Prof. C. p. Gillette,

who first gave this method a thorough trial, recom-
mends applying it with a force-pump and spray noz-
zle, rubbing it in thoroughly with the finger-tips at
the same time. It kills the lice, and leaves the hair
of the animal in good condition. The lice may also
be destroyed by treating with a strong tobacco de-

130

spraying Crops

coction — a pound of tobacco being boiled in two gal-
lons of water — or a wash of carbolic-acid soap. But
the first-named remedy is best. The stalls and wood-
work of the quarters occupied by the infested animals
should also be treated.

The Horn Fly is a recently imported insect that
often annoys cattle by sucking their blood and lighting
upon their horns (Fig. 40.). The eggs are deposited

Fig. 40. a, Horn Fly, magnified ; b^ cow-horn, with band of
resting flies, reduced.

in freshly dropped cow-dung, in which the larvae
develop, and pupate in the soil beneath. There are
four or five broods each season. During hot weather
the transformations of the insect — from egg to imago —
may be completed within two weeks.

Remedies. — Spray cattle twice a week, either with
kerosene emulsion, to which a little tobacco decoction
has been added, or fish-oil to which a little carbolic
acid has been added. Or rub on by means of a brush
or cloth.

INDEX.

Page

Aphides 112

Aphis ....... 60

Apple, The 55

curculio 57

flea-beetle .... 59

leaf-roller .... 96

rot 62

scab 61

skeletonizer ... 98

worm 56

Army-worm 128

Arsenites and copper car-
bonate 33

Bag-worm 106

Basket-worm 106

Black-spot 61

peach aphis .... 67

rot 91

Bordeaux mixture ... 24

and arsenites ... 33
Brown-rot of stone fruits,

64,68

grapes 1 5, 92

Bud-moth 60

Cabbage, The .... 122

aphis 124

plusia 123

worm 122

Canker-worm. ... 13, 58

Carbonate of copper . . 30

Cherry, The 73

aphis 73

leaf-blight .... 74

Chester-sprayer, The . . 39

Chinch-bug 126

Codling-moth . . 10, 56, 68

Colorado potato-beetle . 115
Combining insecticides

and fungicides ... 32

Page

Copper carbonate ... 30

sulphate 31

Cost of spraying materi-
als 34

Currant, The 86

aphis 89

bug 88

leaf-hopper .... 87

worm 86

Cut-worms 127

Development of parasitic

fungi ....... 15

Domestic animals . . . 129
Downy mildew of grapes, 15,92

potato 118

Eau celeste 29

modified 30

Elm leaf-beetle .... 109

Eye-spotted bud-moth . 60

Fall web-worm .... 108

Feeding-habits of insects 14

Fish-oil soap 23

Fruit-bark borer .... 66

Fungi, parasitic .... 15

Fungicides 18

used in spraying . . 24

Gooseberry, The ... 86

mildew 89

Grain-crops 126

Grape, The 91

flea-beetle .... 91

Harlequin cabbage-bug . 124

Hellebore 20

Horn-fly 130

Hyposulphite of soda. . 31

Imported cabbage-worm . 122

Insecticides 18

Insect-powder .... 20

Insects, feeding-habits of, 14

132

Index

Page

spraying against . . lo

Kerosene emulsion . . 20

Leaf-crumpler .... 97

skeletonizer ... 98

Lice 129

Lichens 72

Lime-spray 23

and London purple . 19

Liver of sulphur ... 31

London purple .... 19

and lime 19

Lye solution ..... 31

Maple bark-louse . . . 105

Modified eau celeste . . 30

Mycelium 16

Nursery stock .... 96

Oyster-shell bark-louse . 55

Orange 75

Parasitic fungi, develop-
ment of 15

Paris green 18

Peach 67

aphis 67

rot ...... . 68

Pear, The 69

slug ..... 69, 74
leaf-blight ... 70,99

Pear psylla 70

Pear scab 71

Philosophy of spraying . 18

Plum, The 67

curculio, 12, 57, 63,

^1^ 69, 73

gouger 63

leaf-blight . . . 64, 99

rot 64

Potassium sulphide . . 31

Potato, The 117

beetle 117

rot 117

Powdery mildew ... 99
I'recautions in spraying . 52
Prejudice against spray-
ing 35

Pruning trees .... 47

Pyrethrum . .
Pyrethro-kerosene
sion ....

emul

Quince, The .
Raspberry, The
anthracnose

cane-rust ....

slug

Red-legged flea-beetle .
Red-spider ....
Resin washes ....
Rose leaf-hopper . .

slug

Shot-hole fungus . .
Soda hyposulphite . .
Spraying against insects

and the weather .

apparatus . . .

cost of ....

calendar ....

materials, cost of .

nozzles ....

philosophy of . .

precautions . . .

prejudice against .

profits of ... .

trees in blossom .
Strawberry, The . .

leaf-blight . . .

leaf-beetles . . .

leaf-roller . . .

root-worms . . .

slug

Sulphate of copper
Tent caterpillar . . .
Tobacco decoction . .
Variegated cut-worm .
Wavy-striped flea-beetle
Whale-oil soap . . .
White-marked tussock

moth

Woolly aphis . . .

bark-louse . . .
Zebra caterpillar . .

miifd

ADVERTISEMENTS

Al the present time every gardener, farmer, and fruit-groover
should own a spraying-machine of some kind. — B. T. Galloway.

v^

OUR SPRAYING OUTFITS ARE CHEAPEST
AND BEST.

THE PEEFECTIOlSr OUTFIT

stirs the liquid automatically, and will SPRAY 100 trees per hour.
Has ten feet of discharge hose, and a graduating spray nozzle, and
suction-pipe ready to mount on a barrel. Can be fitted with brass
cylinder, plunger, and rod when so ordered.

Don't buy an inferior machine
when you can get a Perfection
for less money.

We also manufacture the

Victor Improved

Horse-Power

Spraying Machine.

It is especially adapted for
spraying Vineyards and Or-
chards.

Our Machines are guaranteed first-class in every
respect.

FIELD FORCE PUMP COMPANY.

Write for Circulars.

Lock TOUT, Nkw York.

The Garfield Knapsack Sprayer,

von

Vinejfards, Niir series^ Fruit Orchardi^^ and
Potato Fields,

The only Knapsaclc that is Concaved to Fit tlie

Baclv.

This machine consists of a copper tank holding five gallons. The
pump is made entirely of brass and copper, and cannot corrode or
rust. There is a large air-chamber placed inside the tank for con-
venience, which has sufficient capacity to keep up the pressure and
continue to discharge the spray for nearly one minute after the
operator stops pumping. The tank, having rounded ends, is
stronger and less liable to leak. It has handles for lifting, thus add-
ing greatlj- to the convenience of " loading " upon the back. There

^,;#; is a large opening on top for the
■*Ss^ reception of liquid, with a fine
strainer set inside. A brass
pipe, fifteen inches long, with a
stop-cock, is furnished with
each machine. The nozzle is our
combination Vermorel, so high-
ly recommended by Prof. Riley,
and gives universal' satisfaction.
The Vermorel attachment throws
a fine misty vapor spray, but on
account of its fineness cannot
be thrown more than fifteen
feet. More force applied only
serves to make the spray finer;
but by means of the combina-
tion, the Vermorel attachment
can be unscrewed, leaving a
solid-stream nozzle, which will
throw to a distance of 40 or 50
feet. Weight, emptv, 14 lbs.;
full, 60 lbs.

MANUFACTLTED BY

FIELD FORCE PUMP COMPANY,

LOCKPORT, NEW YORK.

To Farmers, Fruit Growers, &c. :

London Purple has been used for
a period exceeding fifteen years
by farmers, fruit-growers, and
all sorts of people for destroy-
ing insect pests.

Applied as a spray, 4 oz. to a
barrel of water (to which a small
quantity of lime should be added)
it protects the tree against
caterpillars and all leaf-eating
insects, bringing it to that
point of hardiness and healthi-
ness which allows of the largest
yield of the finest fruit.

London Purple can be obtained
generally throughout the country,
or direct from the manufacturers.

HEMINGWAY'S LONDON PURPLE CO. LD.

N. Y.

A BOOK FOR NATURE LOVERS

TEN NEW ENGLAND BLOSSOMS AND THKIR INSECT

VISITORS

By clarence MOORES WEED.

This beautifully il-
lustrated book con-
sists of of ten popu-
lar essays upon the
relations of flowers
and insects — one of
the most interesting
subjects in natural
history. The curi-
ous contrivances by
which flowers in-
duce insects to car-
ry the pollen from
blossom to blossom,
are described, and
the adaptations of
insects for this work
are also discussed

The book contains
half-tone plates of
nearlj' all the flow-
ers treated of, as
well as illustrations
of many insects.

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,

Boston and New York.

AMEEICAN GARDENING,

A PRACTICAL JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE

Published on behalf of all engaged in the cultivation of fruits,
flowers and vegetables, whether for pleasure or for profit.

Combining the experience of experts in every branch, unbiased
and independent, AMERICAN GARDENING stands in the front
ranks, and no one should be without it.

ONE DOLLAR A YEAR. SPECIMEN FREE ON APPLICATION.

AMERICAN GARDENING,

Rhinelander Building, New York.

DEMillSTG

SPRAY PUMPS AND NOZZLES.

Received Highest World's Fair Awards.

The best line of

*'UP TO DATE" SPRAYING OUTFITS

in the world.

Sold by the hardware, farm implement and seed trade generally.
Recommended by agricultural experiment stations and leading
horticulturists.

The

^' World's

Best "

Spray

Pumps

and
Nozzles.

Received
Highest
Awards

at

World's

Fair,

1893.

We manufacture the "Success" and "Gem" bucket pumps;
■*' Deming," "Ideal," and "Peerless" barrel pumps; "Perfected
Galloway" knapsack sprayer, with or without Weed Kerosene At-
tachment, (dispenses with Kerosene Emulsion); "Bordeaux" and
"' Deming-Vermorel" nozzles, spraying appliances, etc.

Our 1895 illustrated catalogue contains latest recipes for Insecti-
•cides and Fungicides with directions for using our spray pumps
and nozzles. May be had for the asking. Address

THE DEMING COMPANY,

Manufacturers of

Hand, Wind Mill, and Power Pumps, Hydrau-
lic Rams, etc.

^ALEM, - - - - - - Ohio.

Western Agents: HENION & HUBBELL, Chicago.
I^ew England Agents: JOSEPH BRECK & SONS, Boston,

THE IDEAL"

DOUBLE-ACTING BRASS SPRAY PUMP, ("CLOCK PUMP">

With Brass Wing Piston, Valves and Valve Box.

Fig. 963. F'K- 57"- F'K- 9*5-

' Deming Vermo-
rel " Spray Nozzle,

list $1.25.

'Ideal' Clock Pump.

" Bordeaux " Combi-
nation Spray Nozzle

list $1.25.

DESCRIPTION, SIZES AND PRICES OF FIG. 571.

Pump Only. Fig. 571. With 212 foot of 1-inch suction pipe and
strainer and double discharge "Y" connection, Fig. 364, with
tight cap and hose connection. Prices:

No. I, $14.00; No. 2, $18.50.

Outfit B. B. Fig. 571, Spray Pump with 21/2 feet of 1-inch suction
pipe and strainer. Double discharge " Y " connection with tight
cap, 12V2 feet of 1/2 -inch hose, " Deming Vermorel " nozzle and pole
connection. Prices: No. 1, $18.50; No. 2, $23.00.

Outfit C. C. Fig. 571. Spray Pump with 2I/2 feet of 1-inch .suction,
pipe and strainer, 12 V2 feet of 1 2 -inch discharge hose and " Deming
Vermorel " nozzle and pole connection, also 5 feet of Agitator hose.
A Stop Cock is provided to shut off Agitator. The Agitator dis-
charge may also be used for spraying. Prices:

No. I, $23.00; No. 2, $27.50.

The above prices are for Pumps with Iron Air Chamber; furnished
with Brass Air Chamber at $3.00 extra list. The base does not come
in contact with the liquid and is always furnished of iron.

Manufactured by THE DEMING COMPANY, Salem. Ohio.

For sale by the Hardware, Farm Implement and Seed trade gen-
erally. Send for 24-page illu.strated catalogue, and special prices
of Spray Pumps, Nozzles and appliances. The largest line and the
' World's " best. See other pages containing our advertisement.

y!ai'<;^.d4Sr

^

^'^

With

feMt^

/

Fig.
pack<

Sev^
for ••£-

TI

For
erally
for Sp-

See description and Price List of Galloway Sprayer on another
page.

2
>

FORESTRY
.GRI CULTURE

! ?