GJFT OF

ENTOMOLOGY
LIBRARY

je Eural Science Scries

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS

A. MILLARDET,

PROFESSOR IN THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, BORDEAUX, FRANCE.

(See page 26.)

THE

SPRAYING OF PLANTS

A SUCCINCT ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY, PRINCIPLES
AND PRACTICE OF THE APPLICATION OF
LIQUIDS AND POWDERS TO PLANTS
FOR THE PURPOSE OF DE-
STROYING INSECTS
AND FUNGI

BY

E. G. LODEMAN

INSTRUCTOR IN HORTICULTURE IN THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY

WITH A PREFACE BY

B. T. GALLOWAY

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION^OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY, UNITED STAI
DEPARTMEMT OF AGRICULTURE

gorfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1909

All right* reserved

C— JAUll

GIFT

COPYRIGHT, 1896,
BY MACMILLAN AND CO.

Set up and electrotyped January, 1896. Reprinted September,
1897; August, 1899 ; February, 1902; September, 1903; January, 1906;
February, December, 1908 ; June, 1909.

*** THK8I8 PRESENTED TO THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF SCIENCE.

Norton olr

J. S. Gushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mas*. U.S.A.

K/. flu J,r

TO

SEINER MUTTER
IN INNIGSTER LIEBE ZUGEEIGNET

DER VERFASSER

445104

PREFACE.

IN looking back over the past ten or twelve years, it is dif-
ficult to realize the rapid advance made in combating the
insects and fungi which attack our cultivated plants. It is not
going too far to say that the discoveries made within this
period have worked almost a revolution in certain lines of
agriculture. So phenomenal has been the progress in this
direction that we are sometimes led to think that we have gone
forward too fast, for in our intense desire to make the work
thoroughly practical we have in many cases merely skimmed
the surface, overlooking some of the most important funda-
mental questions involved. However this may be, the fact
remains that America to-day stands well to the front in the
discovery and application of practical methods of dealing with
the numerous insect and fungous enemies of cultivated plants.
The advance in this department has been so rapid that it has
hardly been possible for investigators to keep track of all that
has been written on the subject, nor has it, under the circum-
stances, been an easy matter to pause and consider what is to
be the final outcome of work of this kind. This seems to be a
fitting time, therefore, to take a broad survey of the subject in
order that we may see where we stand. Mr. Lodeman has
done this in the present volume, in which is given a clear, con-
cise statement of the existing condition of our knowledge on

ix

x Preface.

the spraying of plants and the fundamental principles under-
lying this operation.

As to the future, it can only be said that the prospect for
broadening the work so well begun is exceedingly promising.
As yet it cannot be stated that we have a well-defined science
of plant pathology, but gradually the investigations and thought
in this direction are being crystallized. It is now realized that
to truly understand and appreciate pathological phenomena we
must be familiar with physiology, the normal life processes of
plants. After all, the highest aim of the investigator in this
field of research is not to deal only with effects as he finds
them, but to study causes, as it is only by this means that
the true nature of many of the phenomena involved can be
obtained. Following this line, we shall in the future look for
a science capable of elucidating the problems which form the
very basis of agricultural and horticultural pursuits.

B. T. GALLOWAY.
WASHINGTON, D.C.

CONTENTS.

PART I.
THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING.

CHAPTER I.
EARLY HISTORY OF LIQUID APPLICATIONS.

First Applications to Plants — Present Distribution of Insect and
Fungous Parasites — Oceans as Barriers — Protective Applica-
tions the Most Effective Measures — Spraying Defined — Early
Recommendations — Vinegar — Rue — Urine — Dung — De-
struction of Plant Lice — Tobacco, Water, Powder — Soap —
Soot — Sage — Hyssop — Wormwood — Lime — Petroleum

— Turpentine — Tansy — Leek — Hellebore — Oils — Sul-
phur — Paints — Washes — Forsyth's Composition — Ashes —
Sand — Plaster — Burnt Bones — Decoction of Walnut Leaves

— Train-oil — Whale-oil — Flax Rubbish — Sea-weed — Sea-
shells — Sea-sand — Mortar Rubbish — Clay — Tanner's Bark —
Leather Scraps — Salt — .Corrosive Sublimate — Alcohol —
Potato Water — Decoctions of Elder — Bitter Herbs — Pepper
_ Lye — Pot and Pearl Ashes — Tar— Hot Water — Soft Soap

— Farmyard Drainage — Brimstone — Burdock Leaves —
White Hellebore — Nitre — Whale-oil Soap — Nux Vomica — '
Scotch Snuff — Cayenne Pepper — Aconite — Pigeon Dung —
Eau Grison — Quassia Chips — Copper Sulphate — Various
Formulas containing these Ingredients — Applications recom-
mended against Canker — Cantharides — Plant Lice — Me-
chanical Injuries — Canker-worms — Red Spider — Insects on

xi

xii Contents.

Melons — Scale Insects — Apple-tree Borer — Slugs — Cater-
pillars — Bed-bugs — Brown Turtle Insect — White Scaly Coc-
cus — Pine-bug — Peach Mildew — Woolly Aphis — Aphis —
Thrips — Wood-lice — Insects on Fruit Trees — Currant Worm

— Rose-bug — Mildew on Chrysanthemum, Grape, Gooseberry

— Curculio — Kose Mildew.

Pages 1-18

CHAPTER II.

SPRAYING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
IN FRANCE.

Discursive Trials of Fungicides (page 19). — Acetate of Potassium

— Sulphur — Downy Mildew of the Grape in France — Powdery
Mildew of Grape — Powders — Iron Sulphate — Plaster —
Fungivore — Pear Diseases — Sulphuric Acid — Copper Sul-
phate— Spores affected by Copper Sulphate — Treatment of
Grape Anthracnose — Copper Sulphate upon Posts, Tying
Materials, and Stocks — Phenic Acid Emulsion.

Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture (page 24). — An Accidental Dis-
covery — Early Experiments in its Use — Downy Mildew first
systematically treated with Bordeaux Mixture — Other Mate-
rials tested — First Published Formula for the Bordeaux Mix-
ture — Tomatoes sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture for Rot —
Recommendations for Treating Potatoes — Treatment of Beaune

— Treatment of Millardet — Spraying with Simple Solution of
Copper Sulphate — Spraying with Milk of Lime — Treatments
with Powders.

Origin of the Ammoniated Copper Fungicides and Various Com-
binations (page 30). — The Use of Eau Celeste — A Dilute
Bordeaux Mixture — Bouillies Bourguignonnes.

Powders (page 32). — Podechard's — David's — Sulphosteatite —
Sulfatine.

Perfection of Fungicides (page 34). — Stock Solutions for the
Bordeaux Mixture — Treatment of A. Bouchard — Modified Eau
Celeste — Bouillie Berrichonne — Treatments for Anthracnose of
Grapes — Tests of Fungicides — Grape Black Rot in France —
Bordeaux Mixture containing some Dissolved Copper — Bor-

Contents. xiii

deaux Mixture Celeste — Bordeaux Mixture and Molasses —
Tests of Fungicides — Bordeaux Mixture, Various Formulas
and Combinations — Treatments for Pear Diseases.
Insecticides (page 50). — Soap — Alcohol — Aloes — Oxalic Acid —
Fichet's Insecticide — Petroleum — Kerosene Emulsion — Sul-
phide of Potassium — Benzine — Glue — Salicylic Acid — Red
Oxide of Mercury — Carbonate of Soda — Carbon Bisulphide —
Pyrethrum.

IN ITALY (page 53).

Early Applications — Adoption of French Practices.

IN OTHER CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES (page 53).

Treatments for Oidium Tuckeri — Introduction of the Grape Downy
Mildew — Adoption of French Practices — Present Methods.

IN ENGLAND (page 54).

Slow Adoption of the French Methods — Potassium Sulphide —
Introduction of Copper Sulphate — French Journals quoted —
Insecticides.

IN AUSTRALASIA (page 57).

Experiments with Fungicides — Introduction of French and Ameri-
can Practices — Tasmanian Spraying Laws.

Pages 19-58

CHAPTER III.
SPRAYING IN AMERICA.
IN THE UNITED STATES.

Spraying for Leaf- eating Insects and the Codlin-moth (page 59).
— Appearance of the Potato Bug — First use of Paris Green —
First use of Paris Green for the Canker-worm — First use of
Paris Green for the Codlin-moth — First use of London Purple
— Introduction from England — Paris Green and London Pur-
ple compared.

Spraying for the Curculio (page 68) — The Arsenites and the
Curculio — Discussion of the Value of Spraying for Curculio —
New York Practices — Ohio Practices.

xiv Contents.

Other Arsenites (page 74). — Paris Purple — English Purple
Poison — White Arsenic — White Arsenic and Lime.

Caustic and Non-poisonous Insecticides (page 77). — Alkalies —
Quassia — Pyrethrum — Kerosene — Kerosene Emulsions —
Cook's Hard-soap Emulsion — Cook's Soft-soap Emulsion —
Hubbard-Riley Emulsion — Resin Soaps — Resin Washes and
Compounds.

History of the Fungicides (page 87). — First Materials tested —
Hyposulphite of Soda — Sulphide of Lime — Sulphur — Meas-
ures adopted against Grape Diseases before the Use of Copper
Compounds — Publication of the French Discoveries and Recom-
mendations.

The Warfare against the Various Fungous Diseases (page 92).

— First Formulas for the Copper Sulphate Solution, Milk of
Lime, Copper Mixture of Gironde, Podechard's Powder, Kero-
sene Emulsions — Early Treatments of Grapes with Copper
Fungicides — Tests of Fungicides — Spraying in 1887, Formulas
recommended and the Plants treated — Spraying in 1888 —
Spraying in 1889 — General Treatment of Fruit and Nursery
Stock — Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides — Lime
and Arsenites — Spraying Greenhouse Plants — Spraying during
1890 — Improvements in Fungicides — Treatments for Potatoes

— Spraying during 1891 — Dilution of the Bordeaux Mixture —
Tests of the Most Promising Fungicides — Spraying since 1891

— Control of Black Knot.

IN CANADA (page 112).

First Adoption of Methods recommended in the United States —
Spraying in Ontario — History of Spraying in Nova Scotia —
Canadian Publications.

Pages 59-114

CHAPTER IV.
THE MATERIALS AND FORMULAS USED IN SPRAYING.

An Alphabetical List of the Most Important Materials used in
Spraying, with Directions for their Preparation and Use.

Pages 115-180

Contents. xv

CHAPTER V.
SPRAYING DEVICES AND MACHINERY.

I. HISTORY OF SYRINGES AND PDMPS (page 181).

Heath Brooms — Watering-cans — Syringes — Fountain Pumps —
Garden Engines — Knapsack Tanks — French Knapsack Pumps
— American Knapsack Pumps — Introduction of Barrel Pumps
— Types of Barrel Pumps — Introduction of Power Sprayers —
Spraying with Steam — Spraying with Gas Power — Device for
Mixing Kerosene and Water.

ii. EVOLUTION OF NOZZLES (page 197).

Three Principles the Basis of all Spray Nozzles — The Groups of
Nozzles — History of Each Group — Value of the Nozzles of
Each Group.

III. BELLOWS AND POWDER GUNS (page 204).

Hand Bellows — Power Bellows.

IV. COMPARISON OF LIQUIDS AND POWDERS (page 205).

Advantages of Powders — Defects of Powders — Value of Liquids.

V. MERITS OF THE VARIOUS SPRAYING DEVICES (page 207).

Materials used for Making Spraying Machinery — Knapsack
Pumps — Hand Syringes — Bucket Pumps — Barrel Pumps —
Cylinders — Pistons — Handles — Air Chambers — Agitators —
Base-castings — Types of Barrel Pumps — Horizontal-acting
Pumps — Spraying Eigs and Outfits — Orchard Spray ing —
Power Machines — Spray Nozzles for Different Purposes —
Character of Sprays.

Pages 181-224

CHAPTER VL

THE ACTION OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES.

The Certainty of their Action — The Time to Spray — The Manner
to Spray — Insecticide defined — Fungicide defined.

xvi Contents.

i. UPON INSECTS (page 227).

Insecticides destroying by Contact — Insecticides destroying when
Eaten — Theoretical Treatment of Insect Enemies — Transfor-
mations of Insects.

ii. UPON FUNGI (page 228).

Some Characters of Fungi — Saprophytic Fungi — Parasitic Fungi

— Theoretical Treatment of Fungous Diseases.

III. UPON THE HOST-PLANT (page 231).

Not Poisoning the Fruit — Healthfulness of Sprayed Apples and
Grapes — Amounts of Copper upon Sprayed Grapes — Effect of
Arsenic upon Foliage — Pasturing Stock in Sprayed Orchards

— Analysis of Grass in Sprayed Orchards — Copper Compounds
upon Foliage — Upon the Roots of Plants.

. iv. UPON THE SOIL (page 235).

Analyses of Soils treated with Copper Compounds and the
Arsenites — Condition of the Arsenites in the Soil — Action of
Copper Solutions upon Soils and Plants.

V. UPON THE VALUE OF THE CROP (page 237).

Necessity of Applications upon Certain Crops — Keeping Qualities
of Sprayed Fruits — The Benefits derived from Spraying.

Pages 225-238

PART II.

SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING
CULTIVATED PLANTS.

DESCRIPTION AND TREATMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT INSECT
AND FUNGOUS DISEASES AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS.

Almond — Apple — Apricot — Asparagus — Aster — Balm of
Gilead — Barley — Bean — Bean, Lima — Beet — Blackberry

— Cabbage — Carnation — Catalpa — Cauliflower — Celery —

Contents. xvii

Cherry — Chrysanthemum — Corn — Cotton — Cottonwood —
Cranberry — Cucumber — Currant — Dahlia — Eggplant —
Elm — Gooseberry — Grape — Greenhouse Pests — Hollyhock

— Maple — Mignonette — Mosses and Lichens — Muskmelon —
Oats — Onion — Orange — Pansy — Parsley — Parsnip — Pea

— Peach — Pear — Plum — Potato — Privet — Pumpkin —
Quince — Radish — Raspberry — Rose — Shade Trees, Shrubs

— Spinach — Squash — Strawberry — Sweet Potato — Sycamore

— Tobacco — Tomato — Turnip — Verbena — Violet — Water-
melon — Weigelia — Wheat — Willow.

Pages £39-374

APPENDIX.

A. LAWS REGARDING THE SPRAYING OP PLANTS (page 375).

In California — In Canada — In Massachusetts — In Michigan —
In Oregon — In Utah.

B. METRIC SYSTEM (page 382).

Pages 375-383

INDEX (page 384).

THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS.

PART I.

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF
SPRAYING.

CHAPTER I.

EARLY HISTORY OF LIQUID APPLICATIONS.

MAN'S power over the organisms which injure cultivated
plants was never so great as it is at the present time. One by
one these enemies have been carefully studied, the history of
their lives determined, and their habits observed. Only by
understanding them thoroughly can proper steps be taken to
check their ravages in the most economical and efficient man-
ner ; yet it is within comparatively recent years that this first
step was taken to obtain the mastery over them. Formerly,
when a pest injured a plant, it was no uncommon practice to
apply any remedies or materials that came to hand, regardless
of their probable efficiency. It was not generally the weakest
point of the organism that was assailed. In many cases it was
not even the proper organism which was held responsible for
the injury. Nevertheless many valuable discoveries came from
these varied and desultory treatments, and some of the remedies
most highly prized to-day were discovered merely by chance,
not very many years ago.

Present knowledge and methods of investigation, largely
founded upon this experience, enable us to arrive at conclu-

B 1

^ The 'Spraying of Plants.

"siohS which^fromv the-diitset, are founded upon a sound and
logical basis. It is fortunate that this is the case. The number
of the enemies of cultivated plants is either now more numerous
than formerly, or the attacks are much more energetic. It is
undoubtedly true that the maladies of cultivated plants are
much more widespread. This fact is mostly due to the greater
food supply, and to the greater ease with which most of the
injurious forms can pass from one part of the country to an-
other, because the cultivated areas lie so close together. If a
plant is grown to any considerable extent, it is easy for its ene-
mies to spread over the entire region in which it is cultivated.
Physical barriers are almost without value in checking this
spreading of disease. The ocean is only a partial exception,
since such close means of communication have been established
between all parts of the globe that this obstacle is now of little
avail. Some diseases have not yet been able to overpass it, but
as it has proved of little hindrance in so many cases, it is probable
that ultimately the enemies and diseases of plants will be as
widespread as are the plants upon which they flourish. Weedy
plants, insects, and possibly also fungi, are frequently more
destructive in a new country than in their old home. They are
freed from the enemies or conditions which formerly kept them
in check, and in some cases they are the cause of very serious dis-
turbance, although originally they may not have been markedly
destructive.

Farmers and fruit growers cannot fence out the many forms
of insects and fungi which live upon their crops and which are
as anxious for a harvest as the grower is. It is a fight between
the grower and the pest, and it must be admitted that the latter
has generally had the best of the battle. The farmer has not
been properly equipped. He has often had invisible foes to
contend with, — foes which he did not understand, and which
he could not assail. It frequently occurred that an entire crop
was ruined in a day or two, and the cause remained unseen and
unknown ; and even if it was visible, almost the only remedy
upon which the grower could rely with certainty was mere
force, first catching the pest and then destroying it. As this
could be done with profit only in rare cases, it was little better
than no remedy, and the general result was that the insect or
the fungus obtained an ample supply of nourishment, and the

Early History of Liquid Applications. 3

grower took what was left. Indeed, this method is still fol-
lowed by many cultivators, but it is not the safest, nor is it the
most profitable one.

The best is generally the most profitable commodity, and the
poorest is the least so ; and the grower of to-day has it in his
power to produce the best. It rests entirely with him whether
his apples shall be wormy or not, whether his trees shall retain
their foliage or lose it from disease. There are few evils that
affect his crops which he cannot control, in many cases almost
absolutely. Only a few diseases remain which still refuse to
submit to treatment, but the number is rapidly decreasing, and
the time will come when these also will disclose some vulnerable
point which will allow of their destruction.

Foremost among the operations by means of which cultivated
plants are protected from their enemies, is spraying. This con-
sists in throwing upon plants any fluids, or semi-fluids, in the
form of a fine rain or mist. It rests upon the general principle
of covering the plants, or the parts of plants to be protected, with
a thin but uniform layer of some material that is poisonous,
caustic, or offensive to the organism which it is desired to de-
stroy. The word " spraying," as understood in this connection,
has not been in general use more than ten or fifteen years, for
the operation previous to this time was practiced only to a very
limited extent. It was then referred to as " syringing," from
the fact that hand syringes were generally used as a means of
making the applications. This term is still in common use
among florists and gardeners, whose daily duty it is to throw
water upon their plants either for the purpose of promoting
growth, or in order to keep them free from foreign matter,
such as insects or dust. It is essentially a term which, in this
country, is used in connection with plants grown wholly or
partially in a greenhouse or in some similar structure. Spray-
ing, on the other hand, is a term now used by farmers and
fruit-growers to designate a similar operation, but the plants
treated are grown entirely out of doors, and pure water is
rarely used. The operation of both syringing and spraying is,
however, the same ; namely, the throwing of liquids, more or
less finely divided, upon plants or other objects.

It is impossible to tell when plants were first syringed. It
is very probable that the value of the operation was understood

4 The Spraying of Plants.

as soon as the cultivation of plants began to attract serious
attention. The immediate causes which led to the practice
were undoubtedly the same as those now existing. Foliage
almost invariably looks brighter and fresher when wet, and one
instinctively feels that if the appearance of a plant is improved
by a certain operation, the general health of the plant is
improved to an equal degree. The removal of insects or any
injurious substances would have a similar effect, and all good
gardeners would feel a temptation to improve their plants in this
simple way.

Insects and diseases have unquestionably troubled cultivators
from the time plants were first grown. Remedies would natu-
rally be sought, and it appears that these older gardeners were
controlled by the same feeling which even to-day often mani-
fests itself in connection with the taking of medicine : the
worse the drug smells or tastes, the more good it is supposed to
do. Early in the seventeenth century Parkinson advised the use
of vinegar to prevent canker on trees, and the recommendation
was supposed to rest upon a very firm foundation.1 One old
record 2 giving instructions for making liquid applications of an
insecticide reads as follows: " Cantharides (Cantarides) are
flies which attach themselves to the branches near the upper parts
of trees, especially on the ash. They may be destroyed by
pouring or throwing on the tops of the trees, by means of a
small pump, water in which has been boiled some rue." Ruta
graveolens is probably meant. This herb has a strong, heavy,
and very disagreeable odor, and a sharp, bitter taste. If such
qualities make a plant a good insecticide, rue should be one of
our most valuable remedies. It seems very probable that the
idea of selecting materials which are offensive to the senses was
uppermost in the minds of those who first had occasion to use
them, for most of the earlier substances recommended are of

1 John Parkinson, " Paradisus," The Ordering of the Orchard, Chap. viii. 550.
1629 : " The canker is a shrewd disease when it happeneth to a tree ; for it will
eate the barke round, and so kill the very heart in a little space. It must be
looked into in time before it hath runne too farre ; most men doe wholly cut away
as much as is fretted with the canker, and then dresse it, or wet it with vinegar or
cowes pisse, or cowes dung and urine, &c. untill it be destroyed, and after healed
againe with your salve before appointed."

8 "La Theorie du Jardinage," 166, 1711. See also Deane, "The Newengland
Farmer," 1T7-184.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 5

this character. A great variety of materials must have been
tested again and again by various persons independently of each
other. Those materials which possessed real or imaginary reme-
dial values, or which from their very nature appeared to possess
them, remained in use until something that promised better
could be found. Thus it came that at the close of the eigh-
teenth century, and early in the nineteenth, the number of
things recommended against various diseases was large, and
some of the compounds possessed considerable insecticidal
value. The following examples may here be cited :

" In the year 1763, there appeared in the papers of Marseilles
a remedy for plant-lice. The applications should be made by
means of a small tin syringe having a nose pierced by about
one thousand holes. The instrument is filled with water in
which lime has been slaked, previously mixing with the clear
liquid some bad tobacco, finely powdered ; this should be used
at the rate of a handful to two liters of the liquid. The trees
are syringed with the mixture, and although the foliage remains
uninjured the pests are destroyed. But after four or five days
the trees should be again syringed, using clear water." *

" But many of the plant-lice may be destroyed by passing the
leaves upon which they are found between two sponges wet
with tobacco water. Ground tobacco powder spread upon the
insects will kill them instantly. One may also use with it the
water of slaked lime or of strong soap, soot, sage, hyssop, worm-
wood, and other bitter or strong-smelling herbs. Soot, lime,
and soap have the disadvantage of staining the leaves, fruits,
and the plants to which they are applied. Tobacco and worm-
wood leave small particles upon the portions treated. Other
materials are often without value. Tansy, hellebore, rue, leek,
bitter gourd, and long pepper have the disadvantages men-
tioned above. Petroleum, turpentine, and other oils are also
recommended ; but care must be taken in their use, since they
also act upon the plants, making them sick or even killing
them." 2

" First wet the trees infested with lice, then rub flowers of
sulphur upon the insects and it will cause them all to burst." 8

1 J. A. E. Goeze, " Geschichte einiger schadlichen Insecten." Leipzig, 1787,
166.

* Ibid. 164. » Ibid. 168.

6 The Spraying of Plants.

Forsyth in 179 1,1 gave directions for the preparation of a com-
pound which became generally known as " Forsyth's Composi-
tion." The ingredients were apparently standard remedies at
this time, and they persisted long after his composition went
out of use. It was made as follows :

"Take one bushel fresh cow dung, one-half bushel lime rub-
bish from old buildings, one-half bushel wood ashes, one-six-
teenth bushel pit or river sand. The last three are to be sifted
fine before they are mixed. Then work them well together with
a spade, and afterward with a wooden beater until the stuff is
very smooth, like fine plaster used for the ceilings of rooms."

Soap-suds or urine was used to make the composition of the
consistency of plaster or paint.

After being applied it was covered with a sifting of powder
made of " dry powder of wood ashes, mixed with the sixth part
of the same quantity of the ashes of burnt bones."

This composition was recommended to cure disease, defects,
and injuries of plants. It was held to be particularly valuable
in promoting the healing of wounds, and was commonly used to
fill cavities in trees.

Early in the history of the treatment of plant diseases, paints
and washes were in general use. They were applied by means
of brushes, or the plants were actually washed with a rag or
sponge, so that they were very thoroughly cleaned. This practice
is by no means out of date, for it is still one of the regular duties
in good greenhouse management to wash many of the plants in
order to keep the foliage clean and healthy. Soap or some
similar substance is still generally added to the water, as was
formerly done. This alkali could always be readily obtained,
and as it possesses decided merit as a destroyer of certain in-
sects, it was at a very early day regarded as a valuable remedy.

We have another interesting note in the following extract
in which the destruction of the canker-worm is desired : 2

" There are several experiments I could wish to have tried,
for subduing these insects : Such as burning brimstone under
the trees in a calm time ; — or piling dry ashes, or dry, loose

1 Oath regarding the correctness of the directions was made at the Land Eevenue
Office, in Scotland Yard, the eleventh day of May, 1791.

9 Samuel Deane, D.D. (vice-president of Bowdoin College), " The Newengland
Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary," second edition, 179T.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 1

sand round the roots of trees in the spring ; — or throwing
powdered quicklime, or soot, over the trees when they are wet ;
— or sprinkling them, about the beginning of June, with sea
water, or water in which wormwood, or walnut leaves, have
been boiled ; — or with an infusion of elder, from which I
should entertain some hope of success. The liquid may be
safely applied to all the parts of a tree by a large wooden syr-
inge, or squirt.

" I should suppose that the best time for making trial of these
methods would be soon after the worms are hatched: for at
that stage of their existence they are tender, and the more
easily killed. Sometimes a frost happening at this season has
destroyed them. This I am told was the case in some places
in the year 1794."

Forsyth 1 recommended the following mixture for the de-
struction of aphis :

Unslaked lime * peck.

Water 32 gallons.

Allow this to stand three or four days, stirring two or three
times per day. It wras applied by means of a syringe. He
recommended 2 the same mixture for the destruction of acarus,
or red spider, but said that pure water would also answer the
purpose. For plants in hothouses the use of pure water alone
was advised. Against insects on melons, however, he said 3 that
the plants should first be washed with water, and then again
washed with a mixture of urine and soap-suds, using a rag.
It is also stated 4 that several English nurserymen used train-
[whale-] oil against coccus, or scale insects on plants. It was
applied with a brush, but the author claims that it was not an
efficient remedy. Nevertheless it was extensively used in some
parts of England.

During the early years of this century a great many sub-
stances were recommended both in this country and in Europe
for the destruction of the enemies of cultivated plants.
Mention5 is made of the following articles which were to

1 William Forsyth, " A Treatise on Culture and Management of Fruit Trees,"
American edition edited by William Cobbett, 1802, 173.

2 Ibid. 174. « Ibid. 176. « Ibid. 179.
« J. Thacher, M.P., " American Orcbardist," 1822, 104.

8 The Spraying of Plants.

be used against the apple-tree borer, an insect that is desig-
nated as a " pernicious reptile " by the author. After digging
out the borer, fill the cavity about the base of the tree with
" flax rubbish, sea-weed, ashes, lime, sea-shells, sea-sand, mortar
rubbish, clay, tanner's bark, leather scraps, etc." I can find
no record of careful experiments having been made with these
articles, and it is not improbable that some of them were
recommended without actual trial, as is sometimes done even
to this day, simply on the ground that the remedy "ought"
to be of value. It is also stated,1 quoting from the " Massachu-
setts Agricultural Reports," that Josiah Knapp, of Boston, in
1814, used air-slaked lime with success against the canker-worm.
He applied it thickly about the base of the tree. Later experi-
ments have shown that this is of little benefit in checking the
ravages of the insect. The use of air-slaked lime is said 2 to
have been successful in the destruction of slugs found on the foli-
age of fruit trees, and this is still one of the best remedies we
possess. Tar water also proved to have the power of instantly
killing the slugs with which it came in contact. It was pre-
pared by pouring water on tar and allowing it to stand for
two or three days. This gave a strong infusion and was said
to be very effective.

Several remedies against caterpillars are also mentioned.8
" It is asserted " that spirits of turpentine, or common fish-oil,
has the power of penetrating through the web made by these
insects and they are killed when the liquid comes in contact
with their bodies. Mr. Yates, of Albany, N.Y., made a mix-
ture which well illustrates the variety of materials used during
this period :

Wormwood 1 handful.

Eue 1

Virginia tobacco 2 handfuls.

Water 2 pailfuls.

Boil the herbs in the water for half an hour, strain the
liquid, and it is then ready to be applied. Yates also said that
if sufficient tobacco is used alone, it will answer the same pur-
pose as the above, but not so well.

i J. Thacher, M.D., " American Orchardist," 1822, 92.
» Ibid. 107. » Ibid. 96.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 9

Reference is also made l to some experiments of E. Perley to
combat scale insects on trees. He found, after trying many sub-
stances, that the most effectual way of removing scale insects
from trees was to wash them with lye, or brine. Lime could be
used with the lye to advantage. The brine was made by using

Common salt 1 quart.

Water 2 gallons.

This could be applied as soon as the salt was entirely dissolved.

Thacher2 regarded train-oil as a very powerful insecticide
against lice, but discouraged its use on account of its glutinous
character, it being on this account harmful to trees.

Clay paint was perhaps one of the first remedies to be ap-
plied to plants. Several factors would encourage its use ; among
others may be mentioned the ease of its preparation, its cheap-
ness, and its adhesive properties. When properly used it forms
a thin, dense coating over the parts to which it is applied, and
it has the appearance of granting almost perfect protection to
the part covered. The Caledonian Horticultural Society, of
Scotland, recommended 3 its use, and, in fact, its application has
been very generally advised. It has also formed the basis of many
mixtures and only with the appearance of the remedies now in
common use has it fallen from favor. Only the purest clay
obtainable was selected, and it was generally strained so that
the coarser particles might be removed.

A solution which appears to have been in common use for
the destruction of bed-bugs was also said 4 to be valuable as a
remedy for canker. " Canker " is an indefinite term which was
employed to denote almost any disease of the stems or trunks
of plants, whose origin was not understood; the injury may
have been caused by insects or by fungi, or any of several other
causes. Whenever death and decay overtook any part of the
stem, it was generally termed canker. The solution which
would cure or check the disease was made by taking

Corrosive sublimate 1 drachm.

Spirits (alcohol) 1 gill.

Soft water 4 quarts.

1 J. Thacher, M.D., "American Orchardist," 1322, 109.

* Ibid. 108. » Ibid, second edition, 1825, 79.

* "Th« Practical American Gardener," Baltimore, 1822, 170.

10 The Spraying of Plants.

The corrosive sublimate was first dissolved in the spirits,
and then this solution was added to the water. It was said to
kill the eggs as well as the insects with which it came in con-
tact ; and although long in use it still stands as one of the
most valuable agents for the destruction of some insects which
are not closely connected with horticultural products. It also
possesses1 the power of destroying the "brown turtle [scale]
insect, white scaly coccus, pine bug [mealy-bug?], and red
spider." A decoction of tobacco was pronounced to be excel-
lent for the removal of aphis, thrips, and wood-lice.

Although fungous diseases are rarely mentioned in these early
writings, their suppression was nevertheless attempted. John
Robertson, in a paper read Nov. 20, 1821, before the London
Horticultural Society,2 said sulphur was the only specific remedy
that could be named for the treatment of mildew on peaches.
It should be mixed with soap-suds and then be applied by dash-
ing it violently against the trees by means of a rose syringe. It
was necessary to sprinkle all parts of the tree with the mixture
to be certain of success. Sulphur is to-day one of our standard
remedies against such mildews, and it seems that no other sub-
stance will soon supersede it.

William Cobbett mentions 3 some instructions for the treat-
ment of the cotton blight (woolly aphis) which, if well carried
out, would certainly dislodge the pest. He directs that where
these insects are found, to wash " the place well with some-
thing strong, such as tobacco juice. The potato, which some
people look upon as so nutritious, very nearly poisons the
water in which it is boiled; and an Irish gentleman once told
me that that water would cure the cotton blight. Rubbing
the part with mercurial ointment will certainly do it."

The idea that " something strong " was necessary to dislodge
the enemy was still, apparently, the leading thought, and
nearly everything that could be said to possess this desired
quality was probably given a chance to prove its merits at one
time or another. Thomas Fessenden gives 4 an interesting list
of a few of the materials which were supposed to possess the

1 " The Practical American Gardener," Baltimore, 1822, 397.

a Trans. London Hort. Soc., Vols. i.-v. 1824, 178.

8 Cobbett, "The English Gardener," 1829, first English edition, 289.

* Fessenden, "New American Gardener," sixth edition, 1832, 169.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 11

strength necessary to overcome the organism against which
they were applied. He writes as follows :

" Insects may be annoyed, and oftentimes their complete
destruction effected, by sprinkling over them, by means of
a syringe, watering-pot, or garden engine, simple water, soap-
suds, tobacco water, decoctions of elder, — especially the dwarf
kind, — of walnut leaves, bitter and acrid herbs, pepper, lye of
wood ashes, or solutions of pot and pearl ashes, water impreg-
nated with salt, tar, turpentine, etc.; or they may be dusted
with sulphur, quicklime, and other acrid substances." An-
other article, one mentioned by Lindley,1 is vinegar, and he
says that it is of considerable value for destroying insects.

With such a battery of powerful materials directed against
them, it is a wonder that so many insects we now have to con-
tend with should still exist. The very number of the materials
named is an indication of weakness ; for if any of them had
really possessed very decided merit, there would have been no
necessity for the existence of the rest. Some of them are really
valuable, and are in use at the present time, yet it is true that
we are still on the lookout for something which is superior to
the remedies now at hand.

The value of hot water as an insecticide has long been
known. Fessenden quotes2 Loudon as saying: "Saline sub-
stances mixed with water are injurious to most insects with
tender skins, as worms and slugs ; and hot water, when it can
be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more
powerfully, injurious. AVater heated to 120 or 130 degrees
will not injure plants whose leaves are expanded and in some
degree hardened ; and water at 200 degrees or upwards may be
poured over leafless plants." In a later work,3 Loudon says:
"Mr. Swainson advises for the destruction of the aphis 'the
application of warm water, sufficiently hot to destroy aphis
without injuring the trees : more will be thus destroyed than
either by repeated application of the syringe or by the use of
tobacco water. . . . Two or three applications of warm water
will destroy nearly all the insects.'" The remedy was also
frequently mentioned in horticultural journals.

1 Lindley, " Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden," 1831, 509.

2 Fessenden, "Xew American Gardener," sixth edition, 1S32, 169.
• "Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, 795.

12 The Spraying of Plants.

Dr. William Kenrick1 speaks of aloes and cayenne pepper,
among other materials, as being effective in the treatment of
aphis, but their use never became very general. He also gives 2
a formula for the destruction of a white, mealy insect :

Quicklime £ peck.

Flowers of sulphur £ pound.

Lampblack I "

Mix all in as much boiling water as will make a thick paste,
and apply warm. The lime and the sulphur are probably the
most active portions of the mixture. Although lampblack is
here mixed with them, these two substances, when used to-
gether in water, already formed one of the most important and
valuable remedies in use against the various mildews which
attack plants. The same writer gives 8 the following formula,
in which sulphur and quicklime are recommended for checking
mildew on grapes :

Sulphur \ pint.

Quicklime piece size of the fist.

Water (boiling) 2 gallons.

When cool, dilute with cold water, and allow the solid mate-
rial to settle. Then draw off the clear liquid, and pour it into
a barrel. The barrel is then filled with water, and the mixture
is ready for use. A modification of this formula eventuallv
came to be a standard preparation for the treatment of mil-
dews; but during this period the substances were used in
varying proportions, and generally other ingredients were
mixed with them.

John Mearns made a composition, which was suggested to
him by Thomas Andrew Knight, at that time president of the
London Horticultural Society.4 In a paper read in 1835, he
gave directions for making this preparation :

Strongest farmyard drainage 1 gallon.

Soft soap 1 pound.

Flowers of brimstone "

i William Kenrick, "The New American Orchardist," 1833. Introduction
xxxiii.

8 Ibid, xxxvi. s /j^. 323.

* Trans. London Hort. Soc. second series, 1842, Vol. ii. 89.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 13

These ingredients were well mixed together and were stirred
three or four times a day. This was done for several days, and
then some finely sifted quicklime was added, until the whole
assumed the consistency of paint. Mearns said the farmyard
drainage might be replaced by tobacco juice, and the lime by soot.
This mixture was recommended for the destruction of insects.

The use of pungent and acrid herbs long continued to be
recommended for the same purpose. T. Bridgeman, among
other remedies, speaks l of burdock leaves as being effective in
preventing injury from the attacks of the "turnip and cabbage
fly." He recommends preparing hogsheads full of the infusions
of this and other herbs, and then sprinkling the plants with
the liquor. For the annoyance or destruction of insects on fruit
trees he advises the use of decoctions made of walnut leaves, as
well as those of tobacco and elder; the use of pepper, soot,
sulphur, and similar substances are also mentioned as having
value, their action being perhaps more particularly the annoy-
ance of the pest than its destruction.

White hellebore was also commonly recommended as early
as 1842, although it did not prove of value in the hands of
all growers. It was used particularly to destroy worms on
gooseberry plants, and was applied in the form of a powder or
in pure water, or when mixed with soap-suds.2 It does not
appear to have been used to any considerable extent in America
until after the introduction of this gooseberry saw-fly, or as
it is here known, the imported currant worm, which occurred
sometime before 1858, at which time its presence was first
noticed. Joseph Harris is said to have been the first to recom-
mend the use of hellebore in America,3 after he had been using
it successfully for four years. P. Barry used it mixed with
water, and applied the liquid to his plants by means of a
syringe, one-half pound being used in a pail of water.

A rather unusual solution was used by J. Murray 4 against
mildew on peach trees. He applied

Sulphur 2 pounds.

Alcohol 1 quart.

1 Bridgeman, " The Young Gardener's Assistant," seventh edition, 1837, 11

* Gardener? Chronicle, 1S42, June 18, 397.
8 Country Gentleman, 1865, June 29, 413.

* Gardeners' Chronicle, 1841, Aug. 21, 550.

14 The Spraying of Plants.

The trees were thoroughly painted with this when the buds
were swelling. He asserts that he used the mixture for twenty
years, so it must have been very effective in his hands. Nitre
was also applied for mildew on roses.1 It was prepared by using

Nitre 1 ounce.

Water 1 gallon.

In December, 1844, its use on chrysanthemums for mildew
was also mentioned.

On June 13, 1840, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society
offered a premium for the most cheap and effective mode of
destroying the rose-bug. David Haggerston, of Watertown,
Mass., was awarded a premium of $120 on March 5, 1842, after
his remedy had been thoroughly tested by a committee. The
material which he employed was whale-oil soap, used at the
rate of

Whale-oil soap 2 pounds.

Water 15 gallons.

He said the strength of the soap varied and this would re-
quire a change in the above formula in certain cases. He con-
tended that this is an effectual remedy for other troublesome
insects ; as the thrips or vine f retter, the aphis or plant-louse,
the black fly that infests the young shoots of the cherry, the
red spider, and other insects. He also asserted that it would
destroy mildew on peaches, grapes, and gooseberries, if weak
solutions were used. Whale-oil soap is to-day so well known
and so generally used against insect enemies that it is scarcely
necessary to say that many of the statements of Haggerston are
just.2

London has recorded 8 several interesting recipes that show
how complex were many of the mixtures recommended. Some
of them contained so many ingredients that it would seem as
if any evil that plants are heir to would be reached by at least
one of them. NicoPs recipe was thought to be particularly

1 Gardeners' Chronicle, 1844, Jan. 27, 53.

a " Hist, of the Mass. Hort. Soc.," 1829-1878, 256. Country Gentleman, 1842,
134.

• " London's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, 785.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 15

valuable for the destruction of coccus, or scale insects ; it was
made as follows :

Soft soap 1 pound.

Flowers of sulphur 1 "

Tobacco I "

Nux vomica 1 ounce.

Soft water 4 gallons.

These materials were well mixed with the water and then
boiled until the amount of liquor was reduced to three gallons.
It was then allowed to cool, and was ready for use. Plants
which were not in active growth, and whose foliage was not too
tender, were dipped into the mixture. For overhead syringing,
the liquid was diluted one-third with water.

Hamilton's recipe is also given:1

Sulphur 8 ounces.

Scotch snuff 8 "

Hellebore powder 6 "

Nux vomica 6 "

Soft soap 6 "

Cayenne pepper 1 ounce.

Tobacco liquor 1 quart.

Water (boiling) 1 gallon.

Stir and render as fine as possible, and then strain through a
rough cloth. Hamilton did not appear to feel very confident of
the action of even this array of death-dealing matter, so he
advised in addition that the plants be washed with it, and the
insects removed while washing. When so used it would doubt-
less act as a specific. The recipe is also interesting from the
fact that it contains hellebore as one of the ingredients; for
at that time the use of this poison was probably somewhat
limited. The insecticidal value of decoctions made of the wood
of quassia was also known to a limited extent; but the material
has been more widely recommended than used.

Hemery, a French nurseryman, made a compound 2 which he
said would destroy mildew on peaches if only one application
were made. It contained some materials which unquestionably

1 " London's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, 785, quoted from Speechly,
"Treatise on the Pine," 1779, 60.

* Bevue HorticoU, 1849, Sept. 15, 360.

16 The Spraying of Plants.

possessed " strength," but whether best adapted for the purpose
designed may be open to doubt :

(a) Aconite branches and tubercles 1 kilogram.

Water 4 liters.

(6) Pigeon dung 25 "

Urine 1 hectoliter.

Mixture (6) was allowed to ferment forty-eight hours, and
infusion (a) was added only just before the mixture was used.
The applications should be made in April.

The most important and probably the most effective form in
which sulphur was used was the solution known as the " Grison
liquid " (eau Grison). It was also called the poly- or the hydro-
sulphur of Grison ; it is still in use, although not so commonly
as heretofore. Grison was head gardener of the vegetable
houses (serres du potager) at Versailles, France, and in 1851
he first made the solution. He used *

Flowers of sulphur , » . .500 grams.

Freshly slaked lime .,..500 "

Water ......... 3 liters.

Boil the above for ten minutes, allow the mixture to settle,
and then draw off the clear liquid. Keep this in bottles and
before using add one hundred parts of water to one part of the
liquid. Apply with a syringe. This solution is excellent for
all surface mildews, and three applications are sufficient to pro-
tect foliage. Later the quantity of sulphur and of lime was
reduced one-half and it is one of the few early fungicidal prepa-
rations still in use. An Englishman claims 2 to have used a
similar preparation as early as 1845, using one part of sulphur,
one part of lime, and one hundred parts of water. Grison,
however, appears to have been entirely independent in the
manufacture of his preparation, and it soon became much
better known than the other.

Lime wash was recommended in America against curculio of
plums in 1850. Lawrence Young, of Louisville, Ky., seems to
have been one of the first to try this remedy, and it was ap-
parently successful.3 " It consists simply of covering the young

i Revue Horticole, 1852, May 1, 168.

* Tuck, Gard. Chror 1852. July 27, 419. 3 Country Gentleman, 1850, 333.

Early History of Liquid Applications. 17

fruit, as soon as danger is apprehended, with a coating of thin
lime wash, considerably more dilute than the mixture em-
ployed in white-washing."

The use of quassia chips was adopted in America soon after
hellebore became known. In 1855 the material was recom-
mended as a remedy for aphis, being prepared by boiling

Quassia chips 1 pound.

Water 8 gallons.

The liquid was boiled until the decoction had been reduced
to six gallons.1

An interesting article by W. F. Radclyffe appeared in one
of the English journals2 in 1861. The writer, knowing the
value of copper sulphate when used upon smutty seed-wheat,
reasoned that the rose mildew, being also a fungous trouble,
should likewise yield to treatment by this chemical. He there-
fore applied a solution of two ounces of blue vitriol dissolved in
a " stable bucket " of water to live plants by means of a fine
spout, and entirely freed his plants from the disease. The
statement was also made that weaker solutions would be tried
the following year. A few weeks later a note appeared in the
same journal which warned growers against the use of the sul-
phate of copper, as it would kill roses if it came in contact with
their roots. No further mention of the remedy was made, and
even the following year brought no account of any experiments
made by Radclyffe. What millions might have been saved
had this important work been carried only a little further !
But the old remedies continued to be used until about 1870 ;
insects and fungi were treated practically the same in Europe
and in America, and changes of only minor importance were
made.

The Americans profited very largely from the experience of
European gardeners, but a few new methods of treatment also
arose in this country. It could not be otherwise, for different
enemies had to be dealt with, and these required different treat-
ments. But these variations were comparatively slight, and
the remedies used in the first half of the century were more or
less common as late as 1880. Sulphur in some form was every-

1 Michigan Farmer. Cited in Country Gentleman, 1855, April 12, 235.
* Gard. Chron. 1861, Nov. 2, 967.
C

18 The Spraying of Plants.

where the standard remedy for mildews, and when this failed,
growers were at a loss to apply anything more efficient. The
best insecticides were the various forms of soap, tobacco, quassia
chips, carbolic acid, and hellebore, although the last was a com-
paratively new remedy. Kerosene was also used in America to
a limited extent. With these materials gardeners and fruit
growers managed, as a rule, to produce good crops.

But a change was to come. In America it was brought about
by insects ; these became so abundant and began to do so much
damage in districts that before had not suffered seriously, that
new remedial measures were demanded. A new insect, the
potato beetle, was introduced from the far West, and this threat-
ened to be even more destructive than those which were in-
digenous to the East.

In Europe the revolution was brought about by fungi, but
not by the European types. They came from America, and
have shown, in southern Europe particularly, the same push
and energy which is everywhere recognized as characteristic of
the American. And so it came that while the growers in
France were combatting fungi, those in America were contend-
ing against insects, and a great difference soon arose in the
methods of treatment adopted. It was a veritable revolution ;
for old remedies were obliged to give way to new ones, and
established methods to those but little tried. Indeed, the
change marks an epoch in the history of the cultivation of
plants.

CHAPTER II.
SPRAYING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

I. IN FRANCE.
Discursive Trials of Fungicides.

No important changes took place in the materials used by
the French for the destruction of fungi and insects until about
the year 1882. The use of chemicals in place of the substances
which appeal strongly to the senses had increased, for an occa-
sional mention is made regarding the more or less successful
trial of some new material of this character. Gironard1 says
that in 1862 the idea occurred to him to use from two to four
grams of acetate of potassium in one liter of water for the pre-
vention of mildew on grapes. The results were very marked,
and in 1863 the vines were productive directly in proportion
to the amounts of the chemical applied. But this substance
did not come into general use, and it was not until the value of
the compounds of copper became known that any permanent
advances were made.

Soon after the appearance in France of the downy mildew
(Peronospora viticola) the necessity for a more energetic fungi-
cide than sulphur became evident. Sulphur as then used seemed
to be entirely without effect in checking the progress of this
disease. The mildew was first discovered in France in 1878. 2
Millardet saw it in September of that year upon some American
grape seedlings growing in the nursery of the Societe d' Agricul-
ture de la Gironde, and Plachon at the same time recognized it

1 Bulletin de la Societe d' Horticulture d ' Eure-et-Loirt 1863, No. 13, January,
270.

2 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1881, Feb. 10, 192.

19

20 The Spraying of Plants.

on the leaves of Jacquez grapes at Coutras and also received it
from various departments of Lot-et-Garonne, and of Rhone.
The disease spread rapidly and was so destructive that in 1882
the fruit in many vineyards was almost entirely destroyed. The
climate of France appears to be peculiarly adapted to the
growth of this mildew, which flourishes as well upon the varie-
ties of Vitis vinifera as upon our American species. In moist
seasons it is fully as energetic as in America, or even more so.
The leaves fall from the vines, and the grapes are thus prevented
from ripening properly. Even in cases in which the vines do
not lose all their foliage, a partial reduction is sufficient to de-
crease the amount of sugar in the grapes to such an extent that
their value for wine is very greatly lessened. Many growers
did not at first realize the seriousness of this disease. In some
vineyards it even obtained a firm foothold without being noticed,
for the portions of the fungus which are on the exterior of the
leaves are borne on the under side. When, however, it became
established in a certain district, all doubts regarding its serious-
ness vanished, and the vineyardists found themselves confronted
by a disease which not only threatened to destroy their vines,
but which gave unmistakable proof of its power to do so.

The remedies in general use for controlling the European
surface mildew (Oidium Tuckeri) proved to be of little value
against this new foe. Spraying with milk of lime was recom-
mended and very thoroughly tried, but it did not give such
good results in France as were reported from Italy. The milk
of lime was used with good results against the oidium of the
grape by Professor Keller even before 1852.1 In 1881 Professor
Garovaglio, director of the cryptogamic laboratory at Pavie,
used it with fairly good success against the peronospora, but his
statement of this work, although apparently of the greatest im-
portance, received no attention from Italian vineyardists. It
was not until 1883, when the work of the agricultural school at
Conegliano, Italy, became known, that the remedy was generally
adopted. Many growers in northern Italy, especially the Bel-
lussi Brothers, near Conegliano, were particularly successful,
and so much confidence was placed in their method of control-
ling the mildew that the minister of agriculture, in a circular
published in 1885 recommended its general adoption. During

1 Cerlettie Cuboni, Annali di Agricoltura, 1886, 20.

Spraying in Foreign Countries. 21

this same year Cerletti published l an important article in which
he announced that the peronospora could be effectually com-
bated by the use of the milk of lime. The mixture was made
by slaking 3 kilos of quicklime in 100 liters of water, first con-
verting the lime into a fine powder, by partially slaking it, and
then adding the remainder of the water.2

Powders were very extensively tried in France. Their use was
undoubtedly suggested by the fact that sulphur had been applied
in the form of a powder for a great many years. There was at
this time no apparatus particularly adapted to the application
of liquids, but such was not the case with powders. As early as
1881 3 Professor Millardet, of the Faculty of Sciences of Bor-
deaux, used the sulphate of iron in powdered form in connec-
tion with sulphur and also with plaster. He reported to Mme.
Ponsot (who suggested this practice, and with whom he carried
on the work) that 4 kilos4 of sulphate of iron mixed with
20 kilos of plaster had stopped the mildew.

J. Laure,5 an engineer at Apt (Vaucluse), had for several
years made a study of a certain ore of sulphur, called " Souf res
des Tapets." This mineral contained various substances besides
sulphur, and after having been treated so that it contained more
or less of the sulphate of iron it was sold under the name of
"Fungivore." It was highly recommended against attacks. of
anthracnose, and was also very effective in checking the oidium
of the vine. From three to six applications were necessary to
protect the plant well. It was used to a considerable extent,
but this powder, as well as the many others which were sold, did
not equal the liquid applications in efficiency. (See page 32 for
a more complete discussion of the powders which came into use
as fungicides.)

Other fungous diseases than those of the grape were now
attracting attention. Paul Oliver said6 that for several years
pears had suffered from the attacks of a fungus which pro-

1 Rirista di Viticoltura, 1885, Ang. 30.

2 Pinolini, " Le Crittogame," 1SSS, 30 et seq.

3 Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1SS3, April 19, 553.

4 One kilogram is equal to 2.2 pounds. Since the metric system is the one
used by the large majority of the experimenters of continental Europe, the system
will be retained in this portion of the work. For a complete scheme of the weights
and measures of the metric system, as well as their equivalents, see Appendix.

c Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1883," April 19, 554. o /j^. issi, July 7, 20.

22 The Spraying of Plants.

duced black, velvety spots upon the foliage, and in 1880 it also
deformed the fruit to a considerable extent. The cause of
the injury was attributed by Prillieux,1 the inspector-general
of Agricultural Education, to Fusicladium pyrinum ( Cladosporium
dendriticum, Walr.), and a description of the fungus was pub-
lished. Paul Oliver 2 made some experiments which were de-
signed to throw light upon the best method of destroying the
spores of the parasite. The materials used were, (1) pure water ;
(2) water acidulated with one-twentieth its amount of sulphuric
acid ; (3) a 33| per cent solution of the sulphate of iron ; (4) a
16f per cent solution of the sulphate of copper. He advised the
use of the last in rainy weather, but during dry weather either
the second or the third would prove effective. Oliver further
states that he succeeded in killing the spores of F. pyrinum with
an 8 per cent solution 8 of copper sulphate, and that he sprayed
his trees with a 10 per cent solution during the winter of 1882-3.

This discovery — that the salts of copper would prevent the
germination of the spores of fungi — was by no means new. As
early as 1807, Benedict Prevost gave 4 an account of the method
by which he prevented the germination of the spores of a fun-
gous disease commonly known as " Carie," or " Charbon "
(smut), of corn. His statement regarding the result of his
experiments is as follows : " The amount of sulphate of copper
really necessary to give to water the power of preventing the
germination of the spores in a low temperature does not
amount to ^oW of its weight, and TT^™ retards germina-
tion." Thus a discovery of immense practical importance has
long remained hidden and unappreciated, and it is not impos-
sible that other information equally valuable is at present
neglected in a similar manner.

The first general statement in regard to the value of chemi-
cal compounds for the destruction of grape mildew seems to
have been made by Millardet.5 He says : " Recent observa-

1 Comptes Rendus de VAcademie des Sciences, 1877, Nov. 12.

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1881, July 7, 20.

8 By an 8 per cent solution is meant a solution which contains 8 parts by
weight of the solid dissolved in 100 parts of the liquid.

4 " Memoire sur la cause immediate de la Carie ou Charbon des bles." Montau-
ban, 1807.

6 Zeitechrift in Wein-, Obnt-, und Garteribau fur Elsass-Lothringen, 18S3,
March 1 and 15.

Introduction of Copper Salts. 23

tions make me hope that perhaps the most satisfactory results
may be obtained by the use of certain mineral solutions, such as,
for example, the sulphate of iron or of copper." But no definite
experiment had been made up to this date to prove his assertion.

Prillieux x carried on experiments at Nerac for the destruc-
tion of the American grape mildew. He found lime to be of
little value. Borate of soda, used at the rate of five grams2
dissolved in a liter 3 of water, gave good results, but the various
toxics and antiseptics used by him were practically useless.

A concentrated solution of the sulphate of iron for the de-
struction of anthracnose was already regarded as a specific,4
for it had long been used with success in the treatment of
the disease. The practice appears to have originated with
Schnorf, of Rossbach-Meilen, Germany, for he writes as follows
regarding its early history : 5 " During twenty years, I have
successfully used the sulphate of iron for anthracnose of the
grape, in accordance with the following plan : During spring,
before the vines start, I dissolve 3 kilos of sulphate of iron
in 6 liters of boiling water. When the solution has cooled,
I pour it into earthen vessels. The workmen take these into
the vineyard and wash the vines with rags, which are dipped
into the liquid. This is done but once during the year, in
early spring, and the results are uniformly excellent. It has
occurred that during certain seasons before the treatments
were begun, I lost the entire crop if the weather was cold and
moist, while I have rarely failed to obtain a good yield since
the applications were made, and I feel well repaid for my
trouble. I repeat the washing every year, and other vine-
yardists have followed my example with equal success."

In France it became the common practice to cover the posts
and vines with this solution during winter or early spring, a
broom or brush being used for the purpose. In some cases the
entire post was soaked in the solution for several days.

P. de Lafitte states 6 that Sept. 20, 1884, Ricaud and also

i Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 1882, Jan. 19, 75.
s A gram is equal to 15.482 grains. See Appendix.
8 A liter is equal to 1.056 quarts.
« Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1883, April 19, 553.

6 Schweizer Monats-Schrift fur Ob*t- und Weinbau, 1878, ix. 155. See also
La Vigne Americaine, 1879, May, No. 5.
« Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Oct. 1, 479.

24 The Spraying of Plants.

Paulin published in the Journal de Beaune a note on the
good effects which followed the covering of posts with a con-
centrated solution of the sulphate of copper. The work had
been done in Burgundy. On the 23d of September the above
journal also contained an article on the same subject, written
by Montoy. Ad. Perrey mentions l a case in which the posts
that supported the vines were treated with a solution of sul-
phate of copper, and this caused all the leaves within a circle
20-25 cm. in diameter, the post being at the center, to remain
upon the vine. Untreated vines lost all their foliage. Several
other observers in various sections of France noted the same
fact, and all agreed that the beneficial action extended to
practically the same distance as mentioned above.2 The prac-
tice was consequently of value only for vines not more than
five or six years old, since larger vines carry so much foliage
outside of the protected belt. Nevertheless, many growers soon
made a practice of covering the posts, vines, and also the
tying material, with a strong solution of copper sulphate; and
some believed excellent protection followed the treatment. But
the method did not give uniformly good results, and some
more effective remedy was still sought.

In 1885 the French vineyardists were still apparently with-
out a good remedy for the mildew. P. Pichard, director of
the agricultural station at Vaucluse, proposed 3 a solution of
the liver of sulphur ; and Foe'x, director of the school of Viti-
culture at Montpellier, asserted 4 that, after making an appli-
cation of an emulsion of one part phenic acid in 100 parts
of soap water, all traces of mildew disappeared. He found it
advisable to add glycerine to this preparation, in order to pre-
vent it from drying too fast. V. Cambon advised the use of
a 2 per cent solution of bisulphate of soda.

Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture.

Such, in general, was the nature of the experimental work
which was done at this time. New chemicals were tried, as well

1 Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 1884, Oct. 16, 540. See also report of Van Tieghem to
Academy of Sciences, 1884, Sept. 29.

2 Bidault, Jour, de VAg. 1885, Oct. 81, 712.

3 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Feb. 5, 217.
« Jbid. loo. Git.

Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture. 25

as many different combinations of old ones. Some of these
proved to be fairly efficient, but the ideal remedy had by no means
been discovered. It was not until the fall of 1885 that there ap-
peared unmistakable evidence, based upon experiments, that a
substance had been found which promised to be a specific against
the grape mildew, and perhaps also against many other fungous
diseases. This substance was copper. Its history is all the
more interesting from the fact that the first use of its most
effective combination was not in any way connected with the
fungous diseases of the grape, but rather with the human
enemies of the vineyardist. Nevertheless, when the mildew-
appeared, this preparation rose to the occasion, and protected
the foliage, as well as it had done the fruit of the vines.

In southwestern France, in the maritime department of
Gironde, is situated the city of Bordeaux. It lies near the west-
ern border of a large horticultural district of wrhich the grape
is by far the most important fruit. These grapes are mostly
manufactured into wine, and it is particularly the clarets which
have made this district known throughout the world. It is
here that the downy mildew of America first made its appear-
ance in Europe, probably in 1878, and here also it first became
most serious. The summer of 1882 was particularly favorable
to its development; and as no steps had been taken to check
its progress, the injury done to vineyards was very great. The
foliage of the vines was destroyed, and fell to the ground during
the summer. This prevented the proper ripening of the grapes,
and the harvest was almost without value.

A few vines, however, escape this general attack. These
were situated along the highways, particularly about Margaux,
St. Julian, and Pauillac, in the Medoc. It was noticed by many
that in the fall of 1882 certain vines retained their foliage in an
almost perfect condition. Yineyardists in these localities had
suffered considerable losses from the stealing of their grapes
by children and travelers along the highways. It had for-
merly been the custom1 to sprinkle verdigris upon a few rows
of the vines nearest to the road for the purpose of giving the
fruit the appearance of having been poisoned. Several years
before the appearance of the downy mildew this substance was

1 Millardet, Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Oct. 8, 514. Prillieux, "Report to the
Minister of Agriculture," Oct. 22, 1885.

26 The Spraying of Plants.

replaced, from reasons of economy, by a mixture of the milk
of lime and some salt of copper, the sulphate being commonly
used, on account of its cheapness. This mixture was of the
consistency of cream, and was of a light blue color. It was
applied to the vines by means of brooms, or whisks of heath.
The design was to apply enough of the mixture to each vine
to give it the appearance of having been well poisoned, the
operation, of course, being delayed until the period of ripening
approached.

The vines thus treated were the ones which had retained
their foliage through the fall of 1882, while others growing
further from the road lost their leaves. The cause of the
beneficial action of the mixture was soon ascribed to the
copper, for lime used alone had proved unsatisfactory as a
remedy for mildew. Prillieux and Millardet were among the
first to note the effect of the mixture and to ascribe its action
to the proper cause ; but Millardet is the one who did the most
towards perfecting the mixture and testing its action upon
foliage, and upon the mildew. (See frontispiece.) He was
materially assisted by U. Gayon, professor of chemistry in the
Faculty of Sciences, of Bordeaux. These two may justly be
considered the leaders in the study and use of the preparation
which was destined to prove superior to all fungicides that
have been used to the present day, and which is now so well
known, in a modified form, under the name of the Bordeaux
mixture .

Although these men were the most energetic in conducting
the work, and the first to publish results, they apparently were
not the only ones working in this field. Prillieux asserted 1
that the treatments of Jouet and of E. Ferrand were made
simultaneously with those of Millardet, and independently of the
latter, and that they did not even know of Millardet's investiga-
tions. Their work, however, does not appear to have been
carried on systematically, nor were results published which go
to show that the experiments began so early as did those of
Millardet and Gayon. It is consequently to these two men that
the honor of having first experimented with the "bouillie
bordelaise," as it then began to be called, may be granted, and
to Millardet in particular may be given the credit of being the

1 8ociet4 Rationale d' Agriculture de France, session of Nov. 4, 1885, 590.

Trials of Copper Compounds. 27

first to plan and publish results which showed plainly the value
of the copper compounds in commercial work.1

The first systematic applications of copper compounds for the
prevention of the downy mildew were made 2 on the 18th of
August, 1883, or the year following the observation of the ap-
parent value of lime and copper sulphate when applied together.
The work was done on the grounds of the castle of Danzac in
the Medoc, by E. David, steward of the place, but under the
direction of Millardet. In these experiments the sulphates of
iron and of copper were used. They were applied in pure
solutions, and also mixed with lime in varying proportions.

In 1883 Millardet, believing that copper was the most effi-
cient agent in the destruction of the mildew, applied this metal
in other forms than the sulphate. He used.3 in addition, the
carbonate, phosphate, and sulphide of copper, and also the
corresponding salts of iron. Lime was also applied alone. In
1884 the same wTork was repeated, and although the mildew was
not very abundant, still he and Mr. David came to the conclu-
sion that the mixture of the sulphate of copper and the milk of
lime was the most promising of all the materials applied. They
decided to give up the use of the iron salts, as well as the sim-
ple solution of copper sulphate. It was found that the latter
burned the leaves when used stronger than one-half part of the
salt in 100 parts of water. This result, however, does not agree
with those obtained by Messrs. Ad. Perrey, P. de Lafitte, and
Maginen. On the estate of Salle de Pez, at St. Estephe, an
8 per cent solution of copper sulphate proved 4 to be nearly as
efficient as when lime was added.

During these two years the mildew was not very prevalent in
the treated vineyards, so that only partially satisfactory results
were obtained. These were, however, of sufficient value to
warrant the publication 5 of an article by Millardet, in which
were given the following directions for preparing and applying
the mixture :

" In 100 liters of water dissolve 8 kilos of commercial

1 Jour. d'Aff. et d'Hort. de la Gironde, Oct. 1. Cited in Jour. d?Ag. Prat.
1885, Dec. 3, 804.

* Jour. dJAg. Prat. 1885, Dec. 3, 804.
» Ibid. 708.

* Ibid. Nov. 5, 661, 662.

« Annales de la Societe d'Ag. de la Gironde, 1885, April 1, 73 et eeq.

28 The Spraying of Plants.

sulphate of copper. In another vessel make a milk of lime by
slaking 15 kilos of quicklime in 30 liters of water. This is
then added to the copper sulphate solution, causing a bluish
precipitate. The workman should stir the mixture well, and
then pour a part of it into a pail or watering pot. This is
carried in the left hand while with the right he sprinkles the
foliage by means of a small broom. Care should be taken
that none of the mixture shall strike the grapes." Such was
the first formula for making the Bordeaux mixture ; and the
first apparatus used for its application was a broom !

On Dec. 3, 1884, some time previous to this publication,
Baron Chatry de la Fosse had called the attention of the Agri-
cultural Society of Gironde to the good effects following the
use of the mixture of lime and copper sulphate, but he gave no
direction for its preparation nor for its use.

During 1885 the downy mildew developed with much inten-
sity. Many experiments were tried, and the year brought out a
number of facts regarding the various treatments. The value
of the " bouillie bordelaise " was proved beyond all doubt.
Wherever it had been properly used, the results were all
that could be wished. Untreated vines lost their leaves, and
those to which the mixture had been applied, retained them
in an almost perfect condition. These results are all the more
remarkable on account of the very crude method of applying
the mixture, a small broom being generally used for the pur-
pose. The most marked and promising results of the year
were probably obtained by de Ferrand, Johnston, and David.1

The original formula of the mixture was modified by various
vineyardists in 1885. De Ferrand used 2 successfully about
the same quantity of lime as of copper sulphate. David added3
glue to the mixture at the rate of 6 kilos strong glue dissolved
in 800 liters of the mixture. This first trial of the addition of
glue was apparently followed by beneficial results.

The first application of the Bordeaux mixture for the pre-
vention of other diseases than those of the vine seems also to
have been made this year. Prillieux, in his report to the
minister of agriculture, dated Oct. 22, 1885, says 4 that Jouet,
at Chateau-Langoa (Medoc), made an application to tomatoes

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, 699 et seq. 9 Ibid. 661.

2 Ibid. 701. * Ibid. 662.

The Fungicides of 1885. 29

which were apparently attacked by the same peronospora that
is found upon potatoes. He believed he had cured or stopped
the disease. Since this fungus is closely related to the peronos-
pora of the vine, it seemed very probable that the remedy would
prove equally valuable for all similar diseases. Prillieux even
went so far as to advise, for the first time, the use of the mix-
ture upon potatoes and tomatoes, and events have shown that
his advice was well worthy of being followed.

At the beginning of the year 1885 the general opinion ap-
pears to have been to wait until the appearance of the mildew
upon the vines before making an application ; and it was also
believed that one treatment was sufficient. But after the work
of the year Millardet thought 1 that in case of severe rains it
might be advisable to make a second.

At the close of the year Prosper de Lafitte summed 2 up the
methods then in use for checking the downy mildew of the
grape, as follows :

1. " The treatment of Beaune, which consists in covering the
posts and the tying material, rye straw being commonly used
for this purpose, with a five-tenths per cent solution of copper
sulphate. (Page 24.)

2. " The treatment of which Millardet is the promoter " con-
sists in protecting the vines by means of a mixture of the milk
of lime and a solution of copper sulphate. (Page 27.)

3. " Spraying the foliage with a simple solution of copper
sulphate. (Page 27.)

4. " Spraying the foliage with the milk of lime, using approx-
imately a 2 per cent mixture." (Page 20.)

To the above might have been added also :

5. The treatment which consists in the application of pow-
ders. (Page 32.)

The use of the " bouillie bordelaise " became more general in
1886 and many cases are reported in which its beneficial and
almost specific action was proved. The general opinion seemed
to be that it was superior to any of the other substances recom-
mended.

In accordance with the advice given by Prillieux in the fall
of 1885 Jouet, in the Medoc, made what appears to have been
the first application of the mixture to potatoes for the preven-

i Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1886, 734. 2 Ibid. 880 et seq.

30 The Spraying of Plants.

tion of the rot, a disease which was then very destructive. The
experiment is reported * by Prillieux, who says that the area
treated covered about three hectares.2 The application was
made as soon as the rot appeared, and no further injury resulted
from the disease. Jouet was equally successful with the blight
of tomatoes, both diseases being attributed to Phytophthora in-
festans, DeBary. Another tomato grower, at Scully, is likewise
reported to have been successful.

Origin of the Ammoniated Copper Fungicides, and
Various Combinations.

A new fungicide, one destined to become very well known,
was tried in 1885 for the first time. It was proposed 3 by
Professor Audoynaud of the agricultural school at Montpellier.
He gave the following directions for its preparation :

Copper sulphate 1 kilo.

Ammonia 1 liter.

Water, sufficient to spray 1 hectare.

The copper salt was dissolved in the ammonia and then this
solution was added to the water. Such a solution had already
been known to pharmacists under the name of "eau celeste,"
meaning " heavenly water," so called on account of its deep
blue color. It was used during the year by several experi-
menters.

In 1886 a great many men conducted experiments to test the
value of the compounds of copper, very few other substances
being used. Among the many who did valuable work during
the year may be named Millardet and David,4 Gaillot, and
Dr. G. Patrigeon.5 These experimenters planned the work so
thoroughly that their results embodied the most important of
those obtained by other workers.

In almost every instance the " bouillie bordelaise," or Bor-
deaux mixture, gave the most satisfactory results. Millardet

1 Socttte Nat. d'Ag. de France, session of Aug. 18, 1886, 465.
8 A hectare is 2.47 acres.

» Progres Agricole et Viticole, 1886, March 28. Cited by Viala et Ferrouillat,
"Traitment des Maladies de la Vigne," 1888, 30.

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1886, Nov. 25, 764 ; Dec. 9, 831.
« Ibid. Nov. 11, 696.

Liquid Fungicides of 1886. 31

found that the mixture could also be made with air-slaked
lime, but it then had the disadvantage of being more difficult
to apply. He came to the conclusion that the addition of glue
was of no particular value. Eau celeste proved to be a very
adhesive solution, and it also showed very efficient f imgicidal
propeH^.cf: , out it burned the foliage considerably and on that
account was open to objection. Simple solutions of the sul-
phate of copper, of varying strength, were applied, but although
the weakest contained only one-half per cent of the salt, the
foliage was in every case burned.

L. Gaillot, of Beaune (Cote d'Or), had difficulty in obtaining
apparatus for throwing the Bordeaux mixture when made
according to the original formula, and so searched for some
simpler preparation.1 It * ras at that time a common belief in
Burgundy that the first treatments need not be strong, for even
treating the posts was of benefit. After many trials, Gaillot
was led, in 1886, to make use of formulas which called for only
one or two kilos of copper sulphate, and only one kilo of lime,
these being applied in one hectoliter of water.

Gaillot appears also to have been the first to make a success-
ful preparation of sulphur and the Bordeaux mixture.2 He
used the following formula :

Copper sulphate 1 kilo.

Water 100 liters.

In another vessel he placed

Quicklime 5 kilos.

Water 5-6 liters.

When this was thoroughly slaked, he added

Flowers of sulphur 1 kilo.

This was thoroughly mixed with the lime paste, and to the
mixture he added small quantities of the copper sulphate solu-
tion, stirring well. When the number of additions caused the
material to be of a semi-fluid consistency, it was poured into
the barrel containing the copper sulphate solution. The con-

1 Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 1888, May 24, 782. See also "Compte Eendu du Congres
de Dijon," 1886; Vigne frangaise, 1886, Sept. 15, 276, over initials B. J.
* "Compte Eendu des Reunions Viticoles," Dijon, 1886, June 4 and 5, 65.

32 The Spraying of Plants.

tents of the barrel were well stirred before any of the mixture
was removed.

" Bouillies bourguignonnes " is the name which Galliot pro-
posed, in 1888,1 for the designation of the Bordeaux mixture
which contained only one or two kilos of copper sulphate. The
name never came into common use, for the term "bouillie bor-
delaise " was so well known that it could not be easily sup-
planted, however just the cause for dropping it may have been.
Millardet recommended a similar formula in 1887, as a modifi-
cation of the original.

Gaillot says that in 1886 he protected his grapes perfectly by
the use of the mixture of sulphur and the bouillie bourgui-
gnonne. He made the first application in April, using a mixture
containing two kilos copper sulphate ; about eight days after
flowering he applied the weaker mixture having only one kilo
of the sulphate. The third treatment was made late in the sea-
son, and the vines were injured neither by fungi nor by the
materials.

Powders.

During 1886 Millardet experimented extensively with pow-
ders. He used them upon the vines in the hope that they
would prove as valuable as the liquids then in use. Apparatus
for applying powders had already been manufactured and it
was very desirable that an efficient preparation might be
found. The one that appeared to be the most promising was
the Podechard powder.2 It was made by Louis Podechard, of
Gigny, according to the following formula :

Quicklime 100 kilos.

Sulphate of copper 20 "

Flowers of sulphur 10 "

Wood ashes 15 "

Water at 20° C 50 liters.

The sulphur should be added after the other ingredients
have been allowed to stand twenty-four hours. Then mix all
together, dry the mass, and force it through a fine sieve.

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1888, May 24, 733.

*Ibid. 1887, May 5, 642. See also bulletin du comite d' Agriculture de

V Arrondissement de £eaune, October, 1885, 4-10 ; Jowr. d'Ag. Prat. 1885,
Dec. 3, 808.

Powders in 1886. 83

This powder in a certain sense forms a link between the older
ones in which the ingredients " ought " to be of value, and the
later ones in which every material was known to possess a defi-
nite composition and also a more or less definite action as a
fungicide.

The David powder was used for the first time in these exper-
iments. It was named in honor of Mr. David, who rendered
such material assistance to Millardet. The powder was com-
posed of

Quicklime 30 kilos.

Copper sulphate 8 "

As small a quantity of water as possible was used to slake
the lime, and to dissolve the sulphate. The latter solution was
added to the milk of lime when it had cooled, and then the mix-
ture was dried in the sun. When perfectly dry it was ground
into very fine powder which was of a blue color.

Sulphosteatite was also used in these experiments. This sub-
stance was often called " steatite cuprique," and to many Ameri-
can readers it may be still more familiar under the name of
" fostite," a term first used in 1894. This substance was pro-
posed by Baron Chefdebien, of Perpignan.

Millardet used a powder known as " sulfatme," made by
Paul Esteve, of Montpellier. It was composed mainly of sul-
phur, lime, sulphate of copper, and plaster, and was first made
generally known in Progres Agricole et Viticole, Nov. 14, 1884.

Sulfatine gave the best results of any of the powders as
regards fungicidai action. Sulphosteatite proved to be the
most adhesive, but it burned the foliage of the vines, and for
that reason it required careful distribution. This powder had
previously been mentioned as possessing no value against the
oidium, and the Bordeaux mixture was spoken of in a similar
manner. l David's powder was not so active against the mildew
as was the Bordeaux mixture, and in addition it cost about
four times as much. More material was required to cover a
given area, and its use was not advised from a commercial
standpoint. Podechard's powder proved to be practically worth-
less, and other growers who used it came to the same conclu-
sion.

i Jvur. d'Ag. Prat. 1886, Nov. 4, 663.
D

34 The Spraying of Plants.

Perfection of the Fungicides, and further Experiments in
their Use.

Dr. Patrigeon tested the various methods of applying the
copper sulphate solutions. In 1886 he treated, in different
plots, the posts, the tying material, the plants themselves during
the winter, and the foliage. He also added 10 per cent of
plaster to a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and applied
this mixture with a broom. This last preparation possessed
some merit, as did also the application of the pure sulphate of
copper solution. But the Bordeaux mixture gave decidedly the
best results. Treating the posts, etc., with the copper solution,
in these experiments proved to be practically of no value.

Prillieux also mentions l a case in which the Bordeaux mixture
again gave the best results. Professor Fasquelle, of Jura, ap-
plied a 4 per cent solution of copper sulphate to potatoes, and the
foliage was plainly injured. Bordeaux mixture, containing an
equal amount of copper, was used at the same time and no inju-
rious effects could be perceived in consequence of the treatment.

The difficulty of applying the Bordeaux mixture when made
according to Millardet's formula induced several vineyardists to
vary the proportions considerably, and the general impression
at the close of the year 1886 seemed to be that there was no
necessity for using so much copper or lime to obtain equally good
results as followed the use of the original formula. This ques-
tion is not entirely settled even at the present day, and it is very
probable that some diseases require the use of more copper than
others, some being successfully treated with very small amounts.

It was early in 1887 that the idea was first advanced of using
a stock solution for the making of Bordeaux mixture.2 A cer-
tain amount of copper sulphate is dissolved in a given quantity
of water, and any desired amount of the salt can be obtained
by taking out the amount of water which holds it in solution.
The practice is now also in use, to a limited extent, for meas-
uring the lime.

The necessity of adding lime to the copper sulphate solution
was not generally conceded.3 Vautier made comparative tests

i Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 1886, Dec. 16, 886.

« Eicaud, J., Jour. <VAg. Prat. 18ST, Jan. 20, 90.

*Vignt Americaine, 1886, Sept. 290 et seq.

Copper Sulphate and Ammonia. 35

of the Bordeaux mixture, eau celeste, and of the treatment of
A. Bouchard. This last treatment consisted in the use of 300
grams sulphate of copper dissolved in one hectoliter of water. His
conculsions were that there is no particular difference between
the three fungicides as regards efficiency, but the last is to be
preferred on account of the ease with which applications can be
made, and the cheapness of the treatments. These opinions
were not generally accepted, unless it was in Burgundy, where
Bouchard's treatment v/as considered an excellent remedy.

The disadvantage of Audoyiiaud's eau celeste was that it
burned the foliage. On account of the ease with which this
solution could be applied, many attempts were made to render
it harmless. Michel Pcrret, of Tullius, said1 that the use of
one part of ammonia to two of copper sulphate would form
a perfectly safe solution. He said further2 that the following
formula was adopted in Isere, where it was known under the
name of " Bouillie dauphinoise " :

Copper sulphate 2 kilos.

Water 20 liters.

Ammonia 22° 1 liter.

Allow this to stand some hours and then draw off the liquid.
This contains the sulphate of ammonia, which is supposed to be
harmful to foliage.

To the precipitate formed above, add

Sulphur 2 kilos.

Water 100 liters.

The sulphur should first be mixed with the precipitate to
form a paste, and the water is then added. He favored this
mixture because the mutual action of the copper and the sul-
phur was such that neither affected the wine manufactured
from the grapes. Carnot advised 3 the use of five or six parts
of the sulphate of ammonia to one part of copper sulphate
crystals. G. de Capol said4 that it might be well to dissolve

i Jour d'Ag. Prat. 1887, March 10, 354.
» IMd. June 23, 878.

» Soc. Nat. d'Ag. 1887, March 16. Cited in Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1887, May 19.
714.

« Ibid. loc. cit.

36 The Spraying of Plants.

in ammonia the hydrates of copper deposited by the formula
given by Ferret. This would give a solution entirely free from
acid.

Another of the many new remedies proposed during the year
1887 was brought forward l by Emile Masson. He recommended
the use of the carbonate of soda and the sulphate of copper,
and used these two materials in proportions varying from one
kilo of copper sulphate to one or two of soda carbonate, or sal-
soda. These were used in one hectoliter2 of water. He said
that the fungicide did not burn foliage and that it spread evenly.

Dr. G. Patrigeon, of Chabris (Indre), France, is probably en-
titled to the credit of having first conceived and put into prac-
tice the remedy proposed by Masson. He describes 3 it as the
"treatment of mildew with the hydrocarbonate of copper."
The substance was prepared by using

Copper sulphate 4 kilos.

Carbonate of soda 6 "

Water 100 liters.

He said it adhered to foliage fully as well as the Bordeaux
mixture, and thought it could be used twice as strong as recom-
mended above.

A second preparation mentioned by Dr. Patrigeon was made
by dissolving with ammonia the precipitate formed in the pre-
ceding mixture. The proportions of the ingredients varied a
little as follows :

Copper sulphate 1 kilogram.

Carbonate of soda 1 "

Ammonia 22° 1 liter.

Water 100 liters.

The first two ingredients are each dissolved in four liters of
water in separate vessels. The soda carbonate solution is then
caref ully poured into the solution of copper sulphate, and when
all reaction has stopped the ammonia is added. As soon as the
precipitate is dissolved the solution may be diluted with the

* Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1887, June 9, 814.

8 A hectoliter is 26.416 U. S. gallons of 231 cu. in. ; or 22.009 Eng. Imp. gallons
of 277.26 cu. in.

» Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1887, June 23, 879.

Grape Anthracnose. 37

water. Practically this same solution is more or less used to-
day, but it is known as the "modified eau celeste." Patrigeon
at the time of its introduction, referred to it simply under the
name of the hydrocarbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia.

The " bouillie berrichonne" is a third preparation introduced
by Patrigeon. This was made like the preceding, with the
exception that only a portion of the copper precipitate was dis-
solved by ammonia, instead of all of it. He desired that only
one-third be dissolved. This portion would have an immediate
action upon fungi, while the remaining undissolved part would
act as a reserve supply. Later investigations have shown that
such preparations are unnecessary for the successful treatment
of fungous diseases.

The anthracnose of grapes was at this time receiving consider-
able attention. No reports of success in treating the disease
during the growing season are reported, but all recommenda-
tions are to the effect that applications should be made during
the winter. The following treatments appeared to be most
promising.2 The first formula was proposed by Michel Perret:

1. Copper sulphate 10 kilos.

Iron " 10 "

Water 100 liters.

2. The Schnorf 3 treatment (see page 23) consisted in applying

Iron sulphate 50 kilos.

Water 100 liters.

3. Ordinary Bordeaux mixture :

Copper sulphate 8 kilos.

Lime 15 "

Water 130 liters.

4. The same as 3, but 12 kilos of copper sulphate were
used instead of 8. This gave the best results, but numbers 2
and 3 follow closely. The first proved to be much less satis-
factory.

1 Jour. VAg. Prctf. 1887, May 5, 641.

* Millardet, " Nouvelles Recherches sur le D6v«loppement et le Traitement du
Mildew et de 1' Anthracnose," 18S7, 56.
« Ibid. loc. cit.

38 The Spraying of Plants.

Millardet believed that if one or two winter treatments were
made regularly for three years, the anthracnose could be entirely
cured; and at the present day this grape disease is well under
control in Europe.

Millardet's formula for making the Bordeaux mixture in 1887
was as follows : x

Copper sulphate 3 kilos.

Quicklime 1 kilo.

Water 100 liters.

He also proposed several others, but this is the one which
promised the best results both as regards its application and its
fungicidal value.

In a comparative trial of Bordeaux mixture and sulpho-
steatite on potatoes and tomatoes, the powder gave apparently
the best results.2 Its value consisted in the fact that it adhered
to the foliage better than the Bordeaux mixture, and that it
reached the under as well as the upper side of the leaves. This
is especially true for the tomato, and he advised the use of this
powder upon these two plants.

The formulas recommended for making the Bordeaux mix-
ture in 1888 all mentioned greatly reduced amounts of copper
sulphate and lime. Millardet and Gayon found 3 that by reduc-
ing the amount of lime the mixture was rendered more adher-
ent. In their experiments carried on at Dausac in 1887, a
careful study was made of the effects produced by the use of
different amounts of copper sulphate. The original formula
contained 6 kilos of this salt in 1 hectoliter of the mixture.
Millardet and David wrere so well convinced of the value of
these more dilute mixtures that the former advised4 the use
of only 1 kilo in a hectoliter of water ; but if a severe attack of
mildew was feared, the use of 2 kilos was thought to be safer.

Eau celeste was also used in this work, but it proved to be
inferior to the Bordeaux mixture. This was found to be true
even to a greater extent in the case of other preparations con-
taining ammonia.

i Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 188T, May 19, 704.

J Ibid. June 9, 807. See, also, " Peronospora de la Yigne et Sulpho steatite
cuprique," Dr. B. Nabias, 1887, Bordeaux.
3 Ibid. 1888, May 3, 623.
* Ibid. 624.

The Black Rot of Grapes. 39

As regards the number of treatments necessary for the best
and most economical protection of the vine, Millardet says 1 that
at least two must always be made, " but the earlier appearance
of the disease, its greater intensity, and rapid spreading may
render three or even four applications necessary." They were
made in 1887 as follows : June 10, or some days before flower-
ing, July 14, and August 8. This apparently was not sufficient
to protect the vines fully.

The conclusions reached by Dr. Patrigeon in his work of
1887 were that the price of applications of the hydrocarbonate
of copper dissolved in ammonia (modified eau celeste) was very
low ; that the formulas for the preparation of the solution are
remarkably simple and practicable ; that the material is equally
or perhaps even more efficient than any other fungicide in use ;
and that it is perfectly harmless to foliage. These claims for the
merit of the solution were indeed founded upon fact, for it has
been hard to decide, in regard to the comparative efficiency,
between the Bordeaux mixture and the ammoniacal solution of
the carbonate of copper, which is practically the same as the
modified eau celeste recommended by Dr. Patrigeon.

The American disease of grapes commonly known as black
rot was first discovered in the vineyards of France in August,
1885. Mr. Ricard, the steward of an estate situated at the
gates of the small town of Ganges at the borders of 1'Herault,
was the first to call attention to the presence of this fungus.2
He saw that his grapes turned brown, then black, while still
remaining upon the vine. He sent some of these diseased
grapes to the viticultural laboratory of I'Ecole de Montpellier,
where Messrs. Viala and Ravaz recognized the parasite. They
went to the affected vineyard, and saw that only about thirty
hectares in the plain of Ganges showed diseased grapes. In
these vineyards the harvest was reduced about one-half.

Immediate and energetic steps were taken to exterminate the
fungus, but in 1886 it again appeared. The season proved to
be dry, however, and very little damage was done. The area
of distribution was nevertheless considerably extended.

On July 25, 1887, Prillieux received diseased grapes from
Azen, in Lot-et-Garonne, and was directed by the minister
of agriculture to proceed to the infected district. He found

i Jour. VAg. Prat. 1888, May 17, 694. 2 Ibid. June 14, 84T.

40 The Spraying of Plants.

that black rot existed throughout the entire valley of the
Garonne as far as Aiguillon. In some vineyards it was so
well established that there appeared to be no doubt that the
disease had been present at least a year before its discovery
in 1'Herault ; it was consequently impossible to determine the
first place of infection in France. The disease was new, and
at the first not very serious, so that its presence had been over-
looked perhaps for more than one year. None of the copper
compounds had been tried to check the disease, and this was
the most encouraging feature of the situation in the fall of
1887. The outcome showed that this fact might indeed give
rise to a hope that this new disease could be controlled. It
was in truth suppressed with greater despatch and with less
trouble than the downy mildew had been, for on August 2 of
the following year there was published * a letter from Prillieux
in which he says: " When we see two rows of grapes, one en-
tirely devastated, the other preserved by treatment, we must
feel encouraged for the future." The following week the same
journal published 2 another letter from Prillieux, saying : " These
experiments demonstrate with complete certainty, as was sus-
pected, but without having been positively established either
in America, where the disease has ravaged vineyards for years,
nor in France, that cupric treatment can stop the invasion of
black rot as well as of mildew, provided applications arc made
early enough, and in a proper manner. The success in the
experimental treatments at Aiguillon in a year favorable to the
disease, as was proved by the complete destruction of the crop
on untreated plants, is a guarantee of success in the future. We
can now combat the black rot as effectually as the mildew."

No other events of much importance appear to have occurred
in France in 1887 or 1888. The use of more dilute Bordeaux
mixture was not followed by such uniformly good results as
was hoped. Several vineyardists recommended a mixture which
should contain not less than 3 kilos copper sulphate in 1 hecto-
liter of the mixture, and it was thought advisable to make
it even stronger for the first application. Many were also in
favor of using only 2 kilos. Burning of the foliage had resulted
from some applications, and this led to the advice of using at
least equal parts by weight of quicklime and copper sulphate.

i Jour. d'Ay. Prat, 1888, Aug. 2, 151. * Ibid. Aug. 9, 195.

Solutions of Copper in Fimgicides. 41

The Bordeaux mixture still retained its supremacy wherever
it was used in comparative trials. Prillieux made one of the
most satisfactory tests in this direction in his work on the
black rot in 1888.1 He used, in addition to the Bordeaux mix-
ture, eau celeste, pure solutions of copper sulphate, sulphostea-
tite, and Carrere powder. The relative value of these materials
was in the same order as they are here mentioned. The vines
treated with the powders were attacked by the disease appar-
ently as much as those which had received no treatment. The
dates of treatment apparently had some effect on the efficiency
of all the materials. The first applications seem to have been
made too late, for Frechou said2 he had obtained excellent
results from the use of sulphosteatite and also of the Carrere
powder. Lasserre controlled 3 the black rot well by applying
only 1 kilo copper sulphate and 1| liters ammonia in 1 hecto-
liter of water. His first treatments were made April 28, and
he ascribes his success to the timely beginning of the work.
He believed that the success of Prillieux might have been
even more complete if his applications had been made earlier
in the season.

During 1889 a new problem was occupying the minds of the
leading French experimenters. It was the general belief that
the Bordeaux mixture was too slow in its action, since practi-
cally none of the copper contained in it was soluble in pure
water. Another reason was advanced for this tardy action of
the Bordeaux mixture: Millardet and Gayon said4 that no cop-
per could be absorbed by foliage until all the excess of lime
had been formed into the carbonate. This process was- sup-
posed to require from a week to a week and a half. They
said 5 that the change took place faster during a fine rain, bufc
even then it appeared that the immediate action of the mixture
as soon as applied was, at the best, but very slight. The greater
the excess of lime, the longer appeared to be the time required
for the copper to enter into solution.

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1S83, Dec. 20, 898.

2 Ibid. Dec. 13, 851.

3 Ibid. loc. cit.

* Ibid. 1890, Feb. 20, -27-2.

5 " Nouvelles Recherches sur le Developpement et le Traitement du Mildiou et
de TAnthracnose," Millardet et Gayon, 1887, 8-18.

42 The Spraying of Plants.

Millardet and Gayon in 1887 conceived1 the idea of making
the Bordeaux mixture on a new plan. This consisted in leav-
ing about the tenth of one per cent of dissolved copper sulphate
in the mixture. As comparatively little was heard of this prep-
aration, it is probable that the difficulty of its preparation was
one reason why it was not more extensively used. But others
were at work upon the problem and it was eventually solved.

B. Pons, a chemist at Limoux (Aude), worked at it from a
chemical standpoint.2 He took advantage of the fact that when
concentrated solutions of sugar and of copper sulphate are
mixed with each other, there is eventually formed a precipitate
which is a true sulphosaccharate of copper. This precipitate,
when dry, is in the form of a very fine, bluish-white powder.
Pons modified it in such a manner that the amount of dis-
solved copper in the Bordeaux mixture could be regulated by
the varying amounts of the powder used. His directions for
preparing the mixture were as follows:

Dissolve 2 kilos of this powder in 90 liters of cold water.
Agitate for five to fifteen minutes. Add to this liquid, while
stirring well, 1 kilo of quicklime freshly slaked in 10 liters of
water. Stir the mixture for about five minutes and it is then
ready for use. At first it entirely resembles the Bordeaux mix-
ture as commonly prepared, but when this precipitate is allowed
to settle the liquid above the sediment is of a blue color, whereas
in the common Bordeaux it is clear. One-fourth of the copper
contained in the mixture is held in solution in this " Bordeaux
mixture celeste " ; the preparation was so called by Pons.

Pons sent some of this powder, which he called the sulpho-
saccharate of copper, to Millardet and Gayon in October, 1889,
for the purpose of having it tested.3 They described it as a
blue powder, as fine as ashes, but homogeneous in character.
When prepared, the mixture was very alkaline, and the pre-
cipitate was finer and more abundant than that found in the
Bordeaux mixture. On this account the solid matter settled

1 Millardet et Gayon, " Considerations raisonnees sur les divers Precedes de
Traitement du Mildiou par les composes cuivreux," 1887, 14. See, also, E. Mach,
" Bericht uber die Ergebnisse der im Jahr 1886 ausgefuhrten Versuche zur Bekamp-
fung der Peronospora," 1887, 20.

2 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1889, Dec. 12, 866. See, also, Barreswil, Jour, de Pharm,
acie et de Chemie, 3me serie, vii. 1846, 29.

» Ibid. 1890, Feb. 20, 269.

Sugar and the Bordeaux Mixture. 43

very slowly and the use of an agitator was almost unnecessary.
When applied to the leaves, the preparation was very similar
to the Bordeaux mixture in appearance. It adhered to the
foliage equally well, and although a large amount of copper
was in solution, — 240 grams per hectoliter, — the foliage was in
no case burned. These points appear to have been very thor-
oughly tested the same year, for the leaves often remain on the
vines until the end of November.

Michel Ferret was another who made use of this mutual
action of sugar and copper. He announced in a meeting of the
Societe Xationale d'Agriculture de France held Nov. 27, 1889
(page 604 of the proceedings), that in cases of rapid invasion
of the mildew the action of the Bordeaux mixture was too slow.
He maintained that some copper should always be in solution,
and said that he had obtained the desired result by means of
sugar or molasses. He used the following formula :

Copper sulphate 2 kilos.

Carbonate of soda 3 "

Water 15 liters.

The copper sulphate was dissolved in the water, and the soda
crystals were then added. When the precipitation of the copper
ceased, there was added to the above

Molasses 200-500 grams.

The mixture was then allowed to stand twelve hours, and
then Ferret added

Water 1 hectoliter.

The finished mixture is of a deep green color and is very ad-
hesive. His experiments of that year showed that this new
mixture preserved the vines better than any other in use at the
time. In a letter written later,1 Ferret says that it suffices to
use 200 grams of molasses, or one-tenth of the weight of copper
sulphate, to render soluble the amount of copper oxide necessary
for the rapid action desired. If a larger amount of molasses be
added, the effect is simply to increase the amount of dissolved
copper.

i Jour. d'Aff. Prat. 1S90, Jan. 30, 183.

44 The Spraying of Plants

It was stated l by Patrigeon that the addition of 500 grams
of dextrine per hectoliter of those fungicides having a solution
of copper carbonate for their principal ingredient, would render
them more adhesive. The dextrine should first be dissolved in
warm water, and then added to the copper solution.

George Bencker gives an account of the treatments for mil-
dew as carried on in 1890, at the School of Agriculture, at
Montpellier, France.2 The experiments were conducted by
Duchien. The list of substances used is interesting from the
fact that it shows which materials the French at that time con-
sidered as having value. The liquids tested were as follows :

Bordeaux mixture; Bordeaux mixture celeste, containing
copper sulphate, lime, sugar, and aluminum calcide ; Bordeaux
mixture and glue ; mixture of carbonate of soda and sulphate
of copper; gelatinous hydrocarbon ate of copper; verdet ; and
a mixture of chloride of calcium and alum. The powders :
Skawinski's powder; Skawinski's sulphur; cuprosteatite ; sul-
phosteatite ; sulphocyanide of copper ; sulpfaated verdet ; sulphur
with the hydrate of copper; sulphated sulphur; cuprophos-
phate ; 8 and sulphur and cuprophosphate.

Verdet was selected as being the most valuable of the above
materials, but later work has not substantiated this conclu-
sion. Verdet is an acetate of copper. There are many such
combinations, all being known under the general name of ver-
det, or verdigris. The form used by Bencker was that techni-
cally known as the dibasic acetate of copper. It requires to be
soaked in water three or four days before it is used, so that as
milch as possible will dissolve. It may be applied at the rate
of one or two kilos in a hectoliter of water.

De Capol prepared the hydrate of copper as follows:4 Dis-
solve 2 kilos of copper sulphate in 20 liters of water. To this
add 1 liter ammonia. The oxide of copper is precipitated, and
when it has settled to the bottom of the vessel the liquid above
is drawn off. This liquid contains sulphate of ammonia iu

1 RuUetin de la Societe des Agriculteurs de Fi ance, 1889, Oct. 15, 795. Also,
Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1890, May 15, 703.

2 Progres Agrieole, 1890, Dec. 7, 510; Annals Hort. 1890, 82.

3 This material is easily made by uniting solutions of sodium phosphate and
copper sulphate. It is thrown down as a precipitate, the other compounds remain-
ing in solution.

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1889, March 7, 367-

The Use of Sulphuric Acid. 45

solution, and should be used for fertilizing purposes. The pre-
cipitate is then treated with 10 liters of ammonia and there is
obtained a normal solution. Dilute forty times when applying.
De Capol believed this to be an excellent preventive against the
mildew, and he also said that it would not burn the foliage.
The preparation, however, never came into general use.

Messrs. Skawinski were among the first in France to use
Schnorf 's remedy for anthracnose. But their experience sug-
gested to them a change in the preparation, which led to a
general modification of the old formula. They remarked that
the action of the iron sulphate was stronger when sulphuric
acid was present in considerable quantities with the crystals.
They consequently adopted the following:

Iron sulphate 50 kilos.

Sulphuric acid, 53°i 1 liter.

Warm water 1 hectoliter.

The best method of making the solution is to pour the acid
upon the crystals of iron sulphate, and then slowly to add the
water. The amount to be used during the day is made in
the morning ; if the material is allowed to stand for twenty-
four hours or more the salt re-crystallizes, and the applications
will not be so efficacious. Skawinski washed the grape wood
once during the first days of February. The immediate effect
upon the wood is to blacken it, and if this color is not uni-
formly shown, a second application is made to those portions
which were not touched by the first treatment. The above
formula has not been uniformly adopted in France, for some
growers prefer to increase the amount of acid, and others de-
crease the amount of iron salt. But as the practice of spraying
with such a solution has been well established, and since good
results generally follow the treatment, it is safe to say that so
long as the plants are uninjured, the use of a definite formula
is of minor importance.

In 1890 Dr. G. Patrigeon gave the following directions re-
garding the treatment of grape mildew.2 He advised that the
first application be made about the middle of May in southern
France, and during the first week in June in the more northern

1 This grade of acid was used because it is less dangerous to handle.
* Jour. d"Ag. Prat, 1890, May 8, 660.

46 The Spraying of Plants.

parts of the country. The second treatment should be made
three weeks later, and a third again in three or four weeks. In
case of necessity a fourth should be made early in September.
He further advised that the material should be applied lavishly,
during the first treatment in particular, and that the leaves
should be thoroughly covered. He also said that it should be
made a point to cover the young grapes, a recommendation
which does not appear to have been made before. When the
Bordeaux mixture was first coming into use, Millardet said one
should be careful not to strike the grapes, and he also made the
statement that if only a small amount of the mixture fell upon
the leaf it would still afford ample protection. Experience evi-
dently had shown that the work cannot be done too thoroughly.

Patrigeon did not favor the use of powders for the following
reasons : they require moist foliage to adhere well ; they can be
applied only when the air is still ; more applications have to be
made ; and the vines are not so well protected.1

He considered as entirely unfit for use upon foliage the simple
solution of copper sulphate, and the eau celeste of Audoynaud,
because they burned the leaves. The materials which could be
advantageously applied were reduced to those mixtures or solu-
tions that contain copper in the form of the hydrate (hydrate
oxide) or of the hydrocarbon ate. There were several of these
already in use.

Patrigeon was the first to use and to advise the use of the
ferrocyanide of potassium as a test for determining the proper
amount of lime required in making the Bordeaux mixture.2
His directions were to add to the Bordeaux mixture a few
drops of a 20 per cent solution of this chemical. So long as
dissolved copper exists in the mixture, the addition of the
ferrocyanide of potassium causes a reddish brown precipitate
to appear. Lime should be added till no change takes place
when the reagent is added. Some vineyardists used blue
litmus paper for the same purpose.3

During these years the diseases which affect grapes received
by far the most attention. Jouet and Prillieux were among

1 Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1890, May 8, 660. See also, "Reunion publique des
Viticulteurs du Midi," held at Montpellier, March 4, 1890.
* Ibid. May 15, 701.
» A. Petit, Le Progrte Agricole, 1890, June 1, 441.

Adhesive Properties of Fungicides. 47

the first to use the remedies (see page 29) on other plants, and
some experimenters soon followed their example. Aime Girard 1
in 1888 and 1889 made some very conclusive experiments upon
the potato. Among the points emphasized by him may be
mentioned the fact that curative applications do not assure
complete immunity ; he also noticed that there was a great
difference in the varieties as regards their susceptibility to the
disease.

Chatrin applied the Bordeaux mixture to pears in 1890 2 for
a disease commonly known as " tavelure." It is caused by a
fungus, Fusicladium pyrinum, and his applications are said to
have been followed by good results. Another fungous disease
commonly known as " cloque," probably due to some species of
Taphrina or Exoascus, was receiving attention.8 The trouble
is mentioned as affecting peach trees. It causes the leaves to
curl in a manner similar to that which is only too frequently
seen in America. Lesne advised growers to spray their trees
with the Bordeaux mixture, but this recommendation does not
appear to have been founded upon successful work.

Aime Girard4 conducted some experiments to test upon
potato foliage the adhesive powers of various fungicides. His
conclusions are as follows :

" 1. Copper compounds adhere to foliage with different de-
grees of persistence.

" 2. Under the action of severe rains, copper disappears
largely on account of the mechanical action of the water.

" 3. Among these compositions the one which washes the most
is the Bordeaux mixture of various formulas. The diminution
of the proportion of lime augments a little the adhesive power ;
but the addition of aluminous materials does not produce any
sensible amelioration.

"4. The precipitated carbonate of copper (bouillie cupro-
sodique) on the one hand, and verdet on the other, have the
faculty of adhering almost twice as wrell as the Bordeaux mix-
ture. But above all others Ferret's mixture of copper, lime,
and sugar [see page 43] resists the action of rains remarkably
well. Therefore the last is to be preferred, other things being
equal, and its use is advised."

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1890, June 5, 803. » Ibid. 1891, May 21, 736.

* Ibid. Nov. 20, 755. * Ibid. 1892, Feb. 4, 177.

48 The Spraying of Plants.

In 1891 Millardet and Gayon also made a comparative test
of various fungicides.1 Their work, however, did not consider
mainly the adhesive power of the fungicides, but rather their
general efficiency. During 1890 they applied the sulphosaccha-
rate of copper of B. Pons (see page 42). The downy mildew was
not sufficiently severe to show the value of the fungicide and
no report could be made. In 1891 Pons sent another prepara-
tion to Millardet and Gayon, this being known under the con-
venient term " bouillie bordelaise celeste a poudre unique" It
was in the form of a very fine blue powder, and was composed
essentially of the powder of Bordeaux mixture celeste, sulphate
of copper, the carbonate and the bicarbonate of soda.

The amount of the powder used per hectoliter of water was
two kilos, this containing exactly one kilo of copper sulphate.
The powder was added to the water, was thoroughly stirred,
and then applied. The material is so fine that it settles very
slowly, probably not before twenty-four hours ; the liquid
above it is blue and contains a little more than one-tenth of
the total amount of copper in solution in the form of the bi-
carbonate.

The above preparation was used in comparison with the
following : the Bordeaux mixture as commonly made (see page
40), Bordeaux mixture celeste (see page 42), Bourguignonne
mixture (see page 32), Berrichone mixture of Dr. Patrigeon (see
page 37), Bordeaux mixture and the sulphate of ammonia, and
Bordeaux mixture and glue (see page 28). The results of these
applications were as follows :

" 1. All the mixtures, containing equal amounts of copper,
have shown an equal degree of efficiency, and the attack of
mildew was severe. The mixture containing the sulphate of
ammonia burned the foliage occasionally and is therefore more
uncertain in its action than are the others.

" 2. The mixtures which contain copper in a state of solution
do not appear to be more active than the common Bordeaux
mixture and the Bourguignonne mixture, each of which con-
tains none. In no case was there for some time a hard rain
after the applications, a circumstance which should diminish
the .efficiency of these two preparations, and augment compar-
atively the efficiency of the others.

1 Jour. tfAg. Prat. 1892, Feb. 18, 231.

Latest French Methods. 49

" 3. The bouillie bordelaise celeste a poudre unique is as
effective as the others. This is an important point, for the
mixture is easily prepared and it dispenses entirely with lime,
which is the main objection to the Bordeaux mixture.

" 4. The use of one kilo of copper sulphate in these mixtures
is not sufficient for obtaining the best results in treatments
similar to those just mentioned. If more of the sulphate is not
used, a larger number of applications must be made, or more
material used at each application."

A case is mentioned 1 in which applications of sulphosteatite
were followed by as good results as could be expected from the
use of the Bordeaux mixture. At Xorbonne, Cenon, and in
other portions of France near Bordeaux, this powder had
been regularly used for years in the prevention of mildew, and
it proved to be very efficient in preserving the fruit as well as
the foliage of the vine, even during seasons when untreated
plants lost all their leaves. At the estate of Andoque de
Seriege, near Xorbonne, the powder was applied throughout
the vineyards in connection with sulphur. In this manner
both the downy mildew and the oidiurn were simultaneously
treated. Some growers in this region used the Bordeaux mix-
ture early in the season, and sulphosteatite for later applications.

At present but little experimental work is being done with
fungicides in France. The Bordeaux mixture has become by
far the most popular fungicide, and there are now no indica-
tions of a superior article to replace it. Fungous diseases do
not appear to be so generally severe in Europe as in America,
and this accounts for the fact that grapes and potatoes, which
are the plants most seriously attacked, are the only ones gener-
ally treated. Applications are made upon other plants as well,
but only to a limited extent, and for less serious diseases.

The vineyards of France commonly receive the following
applications, the work being considered as a regular duty, co-
ordinate with cultivation or pruning. It is an established fact
that the vines must be sprayed, and the work is done essentially
as follows. Three or four applications, depending upon the
season, are considered sufficient :

1. The vines are sprayed wrhen in blossom, or soon after, with
the Bordeaux mixture.

i Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1892, Feb. 18, 231.

50 The Spraying of Plants.

2. The application is repeated in four or five weeks.

3. The mixture is applied within three to six weeks after the
second treatment. If the weather is inclined to be wet, a
shorter interval is allowed between the two.

4. A fourth application is not regularly made. In case of a
wet season it is made three or four weeks after the third. A
fifth treatment is rarely thought necessary.

Insecticides.

The insecticides in use in France during these years are, with
few exceptions, still of the same general character as those used
in the past. Black soap was very commonly employed. It
was recommended,1 in connection with amylic alcohol, for the
destruction of the "puceron lanigere" (woolly aphis). The
formula given is :

Black soap 35 grams.

Amylic alcohol 60 "

Water 1 liter.

Dissolve the soap in the water and then add the alcohol. The
material was applied by means of a broom or a syringe. The
alcohol was sometimes replaced by 10 percent of phenic acid, this
and the soap forming an emulsion.

Other recommendations for the destruction of the same insect
have also been made.2 In addition to the black soap wash are
mentioned :

Aloes 4 grams.

Water.. ..1 liter.

Also,

Oxalic acid 15 grams.

Water 1 liter.

And another, a commercial preparation :

Insecticide Fichet 250-300 grams.

Water 10 liters.

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1887, May 12, 680. * Ibid. June 30, 923.

Insecticides. 51

The most important additions to the list of insecticides made
in France were American remedies. During 1884, Professor
C. V. Riley of the Agricultural Department at Washington,
visited France, and in an address delivered before the Societe
Centrale d'Agriculture de 1'Herault, June 30, 1884, he spoke of
the emulsions of kerosene with milk or soap, of the arsenites
as used in America, and of pyrethrum.1 The formula for mak-
ing the first preparation was as follows :

Petroleum 8 liters.

Common soap 175 grams.

Water 4 liters.

Dilute with water as experience may suggest. The directions
were slightly modified in later years, but on the whole this
remedy was soon widely used in France.

Although the attention of experimenters was more particu-
larly directed towards the fungous diseases of plants, various
other insecticides were tested.

For large caterpillars, Leizour advised the use of

Water 25 liters.

Sulphide of potassium 100 grams.

Black soap , 250 "

The soap and the sulphide of potassium are separately dis-
solved in a few liters of water. The twTo are mixed, and the
remaining amount of water is added immediately before the
applications are made.

A remedy supposed to be particularly valuable for the de-
struction for the woolly aphis was made by taking,

"Water 100 grams.

Benzine '. 50 "

Strong glue 10 "

This was to be applied in March and April. A decoction of
datura plants, when used with the sulphate of iron, was also
recommended, as well as amylic alcohol and soap water.2

Another preparation of a more complicated character was
recommended for the same insects. Chemicals having proved

1 Messager Agricole, 1884, July 10, 255.
* Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1890, June 19, 901.

52 The Spraying of Plants.

so valuable in the destruction of fungi, it was probably sup-
posed that some material could be found which would bear
the same relation to insects that the copper compounds do to
the mildew. The idea was certainly a good one, but since no
such substance at that time in general use by the French has
remained as a leading remedy, their new introductions appear
to have been at least only partially successful. The use of the
following formula was advised :

Salicylic acid 2 grams.

Red oxide of mercury 2 "

Pyrolignic acid 1000 "

The above was diluted with 30 parts of water when applied.

The cochylis (Cochylis roserana) is an insect which often does
much damage in French vineyards, as it feeds upon the leaves
and the inner portions of the berries. One preparation which
was recommended1 for its destruction is made as follows:

Carbonate of soda 100 grams.

Rain water 1 hectoliter.

When dissolved add to the solution a mixture of

Carbon bisulphide 1 part.

Oil (Colsa, etc.) 1 "

The last two ingredients form an oleo-sulphide of carbon, 10
liters of which are poured into each hectoliter of the carbonate
of soda solution, thus forming an emulsion of carbon bisul-
phide. Quantin, director of the agricultural laboratory of Loiret,
said he had freed his vines of the cochylis by means of the
above remedy.

A. Lesne 2 tried experiments with eighty preparations for the
destruction of the cochylis. His work showed that a prepara-
tion of pyre thrum and soap gave the best results. He had it
tested by thirty-seven vineyardists and most of them reported
favorably regarding it. The ingredients used were

Black soap 3 kilos.

Warm water 10 liters.

Pyrethrum powder 1-1^ kilos.

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1891, Aug. 6, 209. 2 Ibid. 1892, May 5, 639.

Present Methods in Continental Europe. 53

The pyrethrum is added to the soap solution and the two are
well stirred ; 90 liters of cold water are then put in, and the
mixture is ready for use.

Many other preparations were made, but they were composed
principally of the ingredients mentioned above, although the
combinations and the proportions varied more or less ; petro-
leum, however, is very often mentioned in them.

The arsenites have not as yet been applied to any consider-
able extent, and the use of pyrethrum has been limited, yet the
time may come when the former will be applied as freely as is
now done in America.

II. IN ITALY.

Italian horticulturists have followed the French so closely that
little can be said concerning the discovery of new methods in
Italy. Milk of lime gave great promise during the first year of
the invasion of the downy mildew, as already mentioned on page
20. But this substance was soon replaced by the copper com-
pounds, and the French methods were adopted almost as early
as they were in France. At present, the Bordeaux mixture is
also the standard fungicide in Italy, and sprayed vines can
everywhere be seen during the summer months.

Italian chemists have$ however, taken the lead in the study of
the various materials used as fungicides, and the principal re-
sults of their work of this nature will be found in the chapter
treating of the materials and formulas used in spraying.

III. IN OTHER CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.

The European mildew of the grape (Oidium Tuckeri) is said1
to have been introduced from England into Germany about
forty years ago, and from there it spread to France, the Tyrol,
and Italy, causing much damage. The remedy generally adopted
was to apply flowers of sulphur upon the fruit and foliage, and
this proved effectual in preventing its ravages.

The downy mildew, however, was introduced into Europe by
way of southern France. Although it was rapidly disseminated,

i Held, " Weinbau," 1894, 125.

54 The Spraying of Plants.

the proper remedies for its control were soon found, and as the
disease became more widely distributed, the best remedies dis-
covered in the region first attacked were adopted by the newly
infected districts, with practically no modification. It has thus
been brought about that the Bordeaux mixture, the ammoniacal
solution of copper carbonate, the eau celeste, and solutions of
copper sulphate, have become standard remedies in those coun-
tries which have been last to suffer from the imported American
diseases. These fungicides are generally applied as in France.
In Germany, however, care is taken that no applications are made
during the blossoming period, and there seem to be good reasons
for the practice. Later applications are made often enough to
prevent injury from fungi, the numbers varying from two to
five, three being more commonly made. Anthracnose of the
vine is treated as in France, and appears to be held under con-
trol without much difficulty.

Confidence has thus again been restored where not more than
ten years ago there prevailed the greatest anxiety regarding
the future of the grape industry.

IV. IN ENGLAND.

The English have been slow to adopt new remedies for plant
diseases. While French growers were struggling to overcome the
downy mildew of the grape and the rot of potatoes, British gar-
deners were practically helpless in dealing with them. Even after
success had rewarded their southern neighbors, the new methods
were but slowly adopted in England. The horticultural jour-
nals of that country, on the contrary, were quick to see the value
of the work that was being done, and the French recommenda-
tions were repeatedly published. The first account appears to
have been given in The Gardeners' Chronicled This was a trans-
lation of a report made by Prillieux, inspector-general of agricul-
tural education, to the minister of agriculture of France, regarding
the value of a mixture of copper sulphate and lime against the
mildew of the vine. The account contains a brief history of the
work done in the Medoc, and also mentions the names of the
men who were most prominently connected with it.

1 Gard. Chron. 1885, Nov. 7, 594.

Spraying in England. 55

The sulphide of potassium was at one time very highly recom-
mended in England. It was first successfully applied by Ed-
mund Tonks.1 He used one-half ounce in a pint of water, and
it proved to be very effective in controlling the mildew of
roses. This soon became one of the best known remedies in
England, and may have been influential in delaying the adop-
tion of French practices.

A note published in 1887 2 says that " the sulphate of copper
is being used largely in America and France against mildew on
vines. It is even suggested as a remedy for potato mildew, but
as this grows in the interior of the plant it is difficult to see that
it can effect much good. Amongst several methods of apply-
ing the copper solution, the simplest is to dissolve 1 pound of
the pure sulphate in 25 gallons of water. Spray the vines
with a force-pump with a nozzle of fine aperture. The addi-
tion of 1 pint of ammonia to the above solution adds to the
effect. By ammonia we presume a solution of the carbonate is
intended."

The progress made in France was carefully watched by some
of the English journals. The results of the more important
experiments ere published, and English gardeners were not
wanting in information regarding the value of the copper com-
pounds. A few of the more important articles may here be
mentioned. The Gardeners' Chronicle was especially active in this
respect, and in 1888 3 it gave an account of the method of mak-
ing the Bordeaux mixture as recommended by Prillieux. Three
weeks later 4 it speaks of the experiments of Prillieux regarding
the treatment of potatoes for the blight. These experiments
were very successful, and if the methods had been adopted in
England great losses would have been prevented. During
January of the following year 5 there appeared a translation of
an article in the Revue Horticole regarding the proper manufact-
ure and use of the sulphate of copper and lime mixture. Sev-
eral such translations were made during 1890, but these were
apparently not heeded until 1891,6 when the Royal Agricultural
Society of England conducted some experiments for the preven-
tion of blight upon potatoes. These experiments are probably

i Gard . Chron. 1885, Feb. 28, 2T6. * Ibid. Sept. 22, 332.

» Ibid. 18ST, Aug. 6, 166. 6 Ibid. 1889. Jan. 12, 50.

a Ibid. 1888, Sept. 1, 244. c Ibid. 1891, Aug. 1, 13T.

56 The Spraying of Plants.

the first of any importance which were undertaken in England,
yet they were not begun until four years after the value of the
copper compounds had been known there. Messrs. Button and
Sons undertook a similar work. These first trials were not so
successful as had been hoped, and undoubtedly prevented, to a
certain extent, the more general adoption of the remedies.

The French authorities were almost exclusively quoted until
1891. By this time the work in America had assumed such
proportions that much information of a very varied character
was continually appearing. This was freely abstracted by the
English journals, and during 1890* and 1891, doubts regarding
the value of the copper compounds as fungicides were partially
removed from the minds of English gardeners. But faith came
slowly. The Highland and Agricultural Society made ex-
periments which were discouraging in their results,1 and as a
rule the first trials were not followed by such marked benefits
as were reported from continental Europe. As the methods of
making the application improved, however, the growers became
encouraged, and during the last two or three years potatoes have
been very generally treated with copper compounds for the
blight by the more progressive growers. The successful issue
of experiments made in the United States has, no doubt, ma-
terially assisted in bringing about this result.

The new insecticides have been adopted by English gardeners
even more slowly than were the fungicides. Although the value
of kerosene for the destruction of insect life has long2 been
known there, its use is still very limited. This, in all probabil-
ity, is due to the fact that the remedies already at hand are so
effective that little demand is felt for others, — a condition of
affairs upon which English gardeners are to be congratulated.

The arsenites also are very rarely applied, not only in England
but throughout Europe. Their use is not so imperatively de-
manded as in America, and as there is a certain amount of
danger in having them upon the premises, they have not been
looked upon with favor. The use of arsenic for the destruc-
tion of insects is by no means a novelty in England. Mr.
Gordon, the superintendent of the ornamental department of the

1 The Garden, 1892, Feb. 6, 133, based upon an article appearing in the
Morning Post.

> Oard. Chron. 1882, July 15, 85. Also known as Paraffine in England.

Spraying in Australasia. 57

garden of the London Horticultural Society, says that "small
brown ants are also very troublesome [to orchid growers], but
they may be destroyed by placing sugar and arsenic, ground to
an impalpable powder, on bits of card near the places they fre-
quent." 1 A fear of poisoned fruit following the use of arsenic
has also been expressed, and this, although perfectly groundless,
has worked against the introduction of such remedies. But
nevertheless, spraying has now become the rule and not the
exception in some parts of England.2 This applies particu-
larly to " the various fruit farms around Evesham and Pershore "
and may also be true of other localities. The benefits derived
from the practice are being appreciated, and eventually all
growers must see the necessity of its adoption.

V. IN AUSTRALASIA.

Plants suffer from disease wherever they may be grown.
If they are introduced into a new locality, the old diseases fol-
low them. Such has been the case in Australia and Tasmania.
These countries have recently taken a prominent position as
producers of fine fruit, but here, as elsewhere, the horticulturist
must be constantly on the alert to save his crop from some other
claimant. The spray evidently did not meet with much opposi-
tion in those far-away lands, but it was welcomed as an agent
which would assist in the production of more perfect crops. As
early as 1886, F. S. Crawford3 experimented with ferrous sul-
phate and later he recommended its use at the rate of one
pound to ten gallons. It was only to be applied to dormant
wood. The following compounds are also mentioned, all but
the first two being quoted from American publications : car-
bolic acid emulsion, copper sulphate, eau celeste (Audoynaud
process), eau celeste (modified formula), Bordeaux mixture,
sulphatine, sulphatine (Davenport's modification), and David's
powder.

1 George Gordon in a paper, " Notes on the Proper Treatment of Epiphytal
Orchids," Jour, of the London Hort. Soc. iv. 19, communicated in Nov. 1848.

* Jour, of the Royal Hort. Soc. 1895, Jan. 185.

8 Extract from a paper by F. S. Crawford, read at the Congress of the Central
Bureau of Agriculture of South Australia, held in Adelaide, 1S90, March 4-7. Cited
in Gard. Chron. 1890, July 19, 69.

58 The Spraying of Plants.

Tasmania has been remarkably vigorous in fighting insect
and fungous pests, and the government has passed a law (52
Viet. No. 16) which makes it a finable offense for a grower to
neglect cleaning his orchard :

" ' The Colony of Tasmania is divided into thirty " fruit dis-
tricts " to make better provision for the destruction of the
codlin-moth. Every person who sells, or offers for sale, any
fruit infected with the moth is liable to a penalty of five
pounds.

" < Bandages to be placed upon the trunks of the trees not
later than December in each year.

" « Farmers shall remove all rough and scaly bark from trees,
and burn or otherwise effectually destroy such bark as soon as
removed.'

" Similar methods are in use in Australia. There are persons
appointed by the Agricultural Bureau in each district (I believe
there are eighty odd districts in Australia, and over thirty in
Tasmania) to see that the law is not evaded." *

» Jour, of the Royal Hort. Soc. 1895, Jan. 185.

CHAPTER III.

SPRAYING IN AMERICA.

I. IN THE UNITED STATES.

Spraying for Leaf-eating Insects and the Codlin-moth.

IT was not until about 1860, when a ravenous [insect — the
currant worm — had been introduced into the Eastern States,
and another — the potato beetle — into the Western, that Amer-
ican farmers fully realized the necessity of discovering some
materials which would be more energetic in the destruction of
insect life than any at that time in common use. Hellebore
was only partially successful in treating the currant worm, as
the fresh article could not always be obtained, and it was of
little value after having been long exposed to the air. The
insecticidal value of kerosene had long been known, but the
use of the oil was not understood, so that it was only sparingly
applied. In the Eastern States, therefore, the progress of the
currant worm was not very seriously checked, and the majority
of the plants were defoliated year after year.

Since the insecticides then known were of so little value in
exterminating a soft-bodied, chewing insect like the currant
worm, how much less would be their effect upon such a vigor-
ous and well-protected individual as the potato beetle ! This
insect, a native of the Rocky Mountains, began to travel east-
ward when potato culture had extended so far to the west that
the plant was grown in the territory occupied by the beetle. It
then left the plants upon which it had been feeding, and at-
tacked the potato vines. The march to the east then followed.
In 1859 the insect had " reached a point one hundred miles to
the west of Omaha City, in Nebraska." 1 In 1868 it extended

» Biley, " Potato Pests," 1876, 12.
59

60 The Spraying of Plants.

to central Missouri and southern Illinois. In July, 1870, the
insect was found in Ontario, Canada ; and in 1872 it arrived
in central New York. Two years later, it reached the Atlantic
coast, having crossed nearly two-thirds of the continent in the
short space of fifteen years.

The insects ate as vigorously as they traveled. Potato
fields were stripped of every vestige of foliage; desolation
could everywhere be seen ; and as this increased, the yield of
tubers decreased. At first, it seemed as if nothing could stop
the ravages of the pest, and it threatened the entire potato
industry of the country. All known remedies failed, and the
future must have appeared dark to the Western planters, until
some remedy could be found that would destroy the beetles,
and save the foliage of the vines.

Fortunately, this remedy was not long in coming ; but who
first suggested it, and who first used it for the destruction of
the potato beetle, will perhaps never be told. Paris green
appeared upon the scene sometime between 1860 and 1870.
The use of this deadly poison may have originated with sev-
eral persons ; for some poison of this natufe~was"evT3ently
needed to destroy such a voracious feeder. The use of Paris
green as a standard insecticide undoubtedly began in the
Western States, and there the applications to the vines were
considered as of primary importance in securing a crop. The
use of the poison was, to a limited extent, checked by the
possible dangers connected with its careless handling. It is
also very injurious to foliage, when applied pure, especially in
large quantities, and this may have exerted a certain influence
in preventing its general adoption. But the weight of these
objections was soon overcome by the absolute necessity of
treating the vines in order to save them.

In 1868 the value of the poison appears to have been fairly
well known,1 one man going so far as to obtain a patent upon
a mixture of one part Paris green and two of mineral paint.2

1 American Entomologist, 1869, July, 219, citing from the Galena (Ills.)
Gazette. The editors of the Am. Ent. also carried on experiments in 1868. See,
also, an account of the experiments made by Saunders and Reed, in which were
tested Paris green, arsenious acid, copper sulphate, bichromate of potash, powdered
hellebore, carbonate of lime, and ashes mixed with air-slaked lime ; none of these,
except Paris green, were found to be of value. Canadian Entomologist, 1871,
July, 41. 2 Eiley, U. & Ent. Com. 1880, Bull. 3, 57.

Spraying with Paris Green. 61

In after years, several other patents were granted upon various
mixtures in which this poison held a prominent position.1 The
arsenite was most generally applied, however, by being mixed
with flour, plaster, or ashes, the proportions varying from two
to ten or twelve parts of the diluent to one of the poison.
The proportion of poison was greatly reduced in later years,
only one part to twenty-five or thirty being used.

Applications of Paris green, when mixed with water, do not
appear to have been commonly made during the first few years
following the introduction of the poison. The difficulty of
transporting the water appears to have been one of the main
objections to this method ; and another, perhaps an even more
serious one, was the imperfect distribution which resulted from
sprinkling the plants with the aid of only very unsatisfactory
appliances, watering-cans or brooms being at first used for this
purpose. It is only since the introduction of improved ma-
chinery that the poison has been generally applied in this
manner.

The success attending the use of Paris green in the destruc-
tion of the potato-beetle soon suggested its application to plants
that suffered from similar insect pests. In 1872 Riley sug-
gested the treatment of cotton plants with Paris green for
the destruction of the cotton worm.2 It was advised to use
from one-half to one pound of the poison in forty gallons of
water, this being considered as sufficient for a single treatment
of an acre. The poison is still extensively used, although the
proportions of the water and the arsenite have varied.

Le Baron, in 1872, made a suggestion which was followed
by consequences vastly more important than were probably
dreamed of by its originator. The spring canker-worm of the
apple was doing much damage in the West, and in spite of the
many devices invented for its capture or destruction, the pest
continued to spread, and serious losses were inflicted. The
recommendations made by Le Baron,3 at that time state entomol-
ogist of Illinois, were for the growers to place their main reli-
ance upon measures which prevented the insect from gaining
a foothold in the trees. In case such precautions should be

i Riley, U. S. Ent. Com. 1880, Bull. 3, 5T.

* Ibid. 56.

8 Second Ann. Kept, on the Noxious Insects of the State of Illinois, 18T2, 116.

62 The Spraying of Plants.

neglected, however, he says that " strong washes, such as Paris
green water, or suds made from the whale-oil soap, thrown
upon the trees with a garden syringe, will also materially check
their depredations." This is the first statement which I have
been able to find in which the syringing, or spraying, of apple
trees with Paris green is recommended, and it was adopted to a
limited extent in Illinois in 1873. l

This note attracted but little attention on the whole. It was
not until four years later that Cook advised the use of Paris
green for the destruction of canker-worms, and even at that
date its use was supposed to injure the tree at certain times, and
the total loss of fruit was not thought improbable.2 In 1878
many orchardists in Michigan sprayed their trees with a mix-
ture of Paris green and water, and from that time the use
of this poison has been considered, in that state, as the best
means of destroying the pest.3 Eastern growers, with scarcely
an exception, were slow to imitate the more progressive Western
pomologists. As late as 1877, H. T. Brooks still recommended
to the members of the Western New York Horticultural So-
ciety the use of bandages upon apple trees to prevent insects
from ascending the trunks ; and two years later a member of
the same society "had known them [the cankerworms] de-
stroyed by showering the trees with a solution of Paris
green."*

Paris green, or some other form of arsenic, was nevertheless
destined to play another important part in the destruction of
insects that were injurious to apples. The codlin-moth, which
in the larval stage causes apples to be " wormy," was flourishing
unchecked upon this fruit throughout the Central and Eastern
States. Several remedies were suggested, but none appeared to
possess much practical value. An effectual remedy was eventu-
ally found, not by entomologists, however, but by practical
growers. The first statement that attracted attention, and
which was followed by close investigation, appears to have
been made by Edward P. Haynes, in 1878. He was then living
near Hess Road, Niagara County, N.Y. In the spring of 1878 he

1 Third Bept. U. S. Ent. Com. 1880-82, 192.

2 Bept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 1876, 43.
s Ibid. 18T8, 236.

* Chapin, Bept. of West. HT. Y. Hort. Soc. 1879, 74.

Paris G-reen and the Oodlin-moth. 63

applied to J. S. Woodward, of Lockport, X.Y., for advice in
regard to the best method of treating the canker-worms which
were then ruining his apple trees. Mr. Woodward advised the
use of Paris green. I will here quote from a letter which Mr.
Woodward was so kind as to send me in May, 1894: "I ad-
vised him to spray with Paris green, and went with him to get
the necessary apparatus. He took it home and used it, and
when I saw him again the following fall, he told me of its hav-
ing not only rid the orchard of canker-worms, but that the
apples on the sprayed part were much less eaten by codlin-
moths. I was so much interested that I went to see the or-
chard and was convinced that the spraying had done what he
had said. This fact I reported at the following, January, meet-
ing of our society [West. X. Y. Hort. Soc.] and shall never for-
get this because of the way in which I was jumped upon as a
crank." J The record, which may be found in the report of the
society, is undoubtedly the first that gives an account of the
successful treatment of the codlin-moth by means of Paris
green. The same fact was also mentioned in a meeting of the
Michigan Pomological Society held in Hillsdale, Feb. 11-13,
1880.2 At the annual meeting of this society, held at Ann Ar-
bor, Dec. 6-8, 1880, Professor Cook reported having used the
remedy suggested by Mr. Woodward with the following
result: "I thoroughly sprayed some Siberian crab-apple trees
the 25th of May, and again the 20th of June ; but I used Lon-
don purple, 1 tablespoon to 2 gallons of water. The fruit
of these trees has been seriously injured whenever they have
borne during previous years. This year they were loaded with
fruit, but careful examination, made Aug. 19th, discovered not

1 Kept, of a meeting of the West. N. T. Hort. Soc., held in Rochester, 1879,
Jan. 22, 23, 20. It appears that the same discovery was also made at this time
in Iowa. According to Rural Life of May 30, 1895, 13. London purple was
used in 1878 to destroy canker-worms, and this is said to have saved the crop
from the codlin-moth : " Hon. John M. Dixon, of Oskaloosa, was then [1877]
trustee of the Iowa Agricultural College. He watched our work and concluded
he would try spraying on his big orchard to destroy the canker-worm. In doing
this he made a great discovery. The spraying was timely for destroying the
codlin-moth. He marketed, in 1878, carloads of apples in Minneapolis entirely
free from worms or wormholes. Mr. Dixon and the writer [Professor Budd] told
of these results in the horticultural reports and the press, yet so far as we know
others have been given the credit for this pioneer work."

2 Bept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 1880, 26.

64 The Spraying of Plants.

a single injured apple. Other apple trees, only a few rods dis-
tant, which were not treated with the poisonous liquid, are
bearing fruit, one-fourth to one-half of which is 'wormy.'"1
This is probably the first experiment made by an entomologist
for the control of the codlin-moth by the use of an arsenical
compound. Still, scientists were slow to recommend the use
of the poison. The year following, Cook said : "I have been
very successful in the use of Paris greon, and others have, and
for myself I would not hesitats to use it, but some of our best
entomologists consider there is great danger in the use of this
poison, and I prefer not to be put on record as recommending
it for others' use. I used the poison on my own trees, and shall
not hesitate to do so ar;r,in." 2 ~7oodward at the same time
said that the remedy was regularly used in western New York,
where " two men will spray one hundred trees in half a day,
. . . and I have yet to learn of a single instance where any one
has been injured by the use of the poison."

Notices of this work appeared in most of the leading agri-
cultural papers. Yet comparatively little was heard of the use
of Paris green for the destruction of the codlin-moth during
the next few years. Orchardists seemed to hesitate in apply-
ing the poison for this insect, although it was quite freely used
for the canker-worm. But very few of the most progressive
men adopted the method, with apparently satisfactory results.
After the establishment of the experiment stations, in fulfill-
ment of the requirements of the Hatch bill of 1887, a new
impetus was given to the adoption of the arsenites. As differ-
ent experimenters published the results of their work, the value
of the practice became more generally known, and gradually an
ever-increasing number of growers accepted the assistance of
the arsenites in the production of perfect fruit.

For several years after the discovery of the successful treat-
ment of the canker-worm, recommendations regarding the
destruction of other foliage-eating insects were more freely
made than adopted. In the report of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1878, C. V. Riley recommended the
use of Paris green for the destruction of the following insects :
Chapin's apple-leaf sewer, the thick-thighed walking stick, the
imported elm-leaf beetle, the juniper web-worm, and the apple

i Kept. Mich. Pom. Soo. 1880, 136. » Ibid. 1881, 130.

Introduction of London Purple. 65

coleophora. The first regular experiment station to publish
results of the use of Paris green for controlling the codlin-moth
was the New York State station ; 1 Goff had used it the pre-
ceding year also with apparently good results against the
squash vine borer.2 It was in this and the following decade
that Paris green and London purple established themselves
firmly as the most valuable agents for the destruction of chew-
ing insects.

London purple was early in the field as a rival of Paris green.
It is cheaper than the latter, contains large amounts of arsenic,
and can be more easily applied. But its composition is not so
uniform, and it is more apt to injure foliage, so that on the
whole Paris green has been preferred. London purple was
manufactured in England, and I have been fortunate in learn-
ing of the manner in which the poison was introduced into
this country. Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Lincoln, Neb., was the first
to use it for the destruction of the potato beetle, as a substitute
for Paris green, and his work and that of Professor Budd of
Ames, Iowa, first attracted public attention to the new insecti-
cide. The name "London purple" was suggested by Dr.
Bessey in 1878, and he has been so closely connected with the
introduction of the poison that a letter received from him
under date of Feb. 20, 1895, is here published in full :

" In my file of letters I find that on Sept. 7, 1877, the Lon-
don firm of Hemingway & Co., of 60 Mark Lane, wrote me
their first letter enclosing a small packet of London purple (not
so named then) and asking me to make a trial of it, offering to
send one or two casks of the material free of cost. My reply
was returned soon enough, so that on Dec. 18, 1877, they
wrote again as follows : ' In conformity with your favor of the
22d October we have done ourselves the pleasure of for-
warding to your address per steamer Holland to New York,
thence by express of Messrs. Baldwin Bros, of that city, three
kegs of the substance for poisoning the Colorado beetle, and
shall be much obliged by your sending us as early a report as
you can of the results of the trial experiments you may make
with it.'

i Goff, Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sta. 1885, 246.
s Ibid. 1884, 318.
F

66 The Spraying of Plants.

" The bill of lading shows that the kegs left New York City
on Feb. 2, 1878, but it was near the end of the month when
they reached me at Ames, Iowa.

" My next letter from Hemingway & Co. bears date of March
19, 1878, asking as to the arrival of the kegs. The next
letter from the firm I have temporarily mislaid, but on July
26, 1878, it wrote as follows : ' We have to thank you for
your favor of the 4th inst. and are of course pleased to find that
our expectations are correct as to the poisonous nature of the
" London purple " to the potato beetle. We anxiously await
the result of the further experiments promised in yours, and
shall in the meantime have prepared some few tons of the
material ready to be sent over.'

" On Nov. 28, 1878, it wrote as follows : * We are exceedingly
obliged for your favor of the 9th inst. and the Nos. 3 and 4
of your college gazette 1 (which came by same mail) containing
yours and Professor Budd's kind notice of our new poison
(London purple). Since last we had this pleasure, we have
been in correspondence with Messrs. Ward & Co., to whom we
intend sending our first consignment, and which we intend
shall leave hero immediately.'

" My letter, in which I suggested the name ' London purple,'

1 "A CHEAP AND VALUABLE POISON FOB THE POTATO BEETLE.— Last winter
the College received, for trial, a quantity of a material called by the manufacturers,
' London purple,' and designed to be used for killing the Colorado potato beetle
(the potato bugs of common parlance) . Upon trial it was found to be valuable,
killing the old as well as the young insects with great certainty. The virtue of Lon-
don purple lies in the arsenic which it contains, just as in the case of Paris green.
There are, however, several advantages possessed by the new poison over the old,
among which are, first, its extreme fineness, permitting it to be mixed with water ;
second, its adhesiveness ; when once applied it adheres tenaciously to the leaves, —
this is due, no doubt, to its finely divided condition ; third, its purple color enables
one always to detect its presence on leaves, even when it exists in but very small
quantities ; this will not only guard against accidents, but at the same time be of
considerable account in enabling one to always know when it is necessary to make
another application ; fourth, its cheapness as compared with Paris green ; it will be
impossible to say just what the cost per pound will be, until a considerable quantity
has been brought into our markets ; it will, however, in all probability not be more
than one-fourth that charged for Paris green. The London manufacturers are now
making arrangements for putting into the market a sufficient quantity for use upon
the crop of beetles in 1879. They propose to designate some firm in Des Moines to
take charge of the matter of introducing it. "When it becomes available it will be
well for our potato growers to give London purple the attention it deserves." — The
College Quarterly, Iowa Agric. College, Ames, Iowa, Vol. i. No. iii. Sept.
1878, 49.

Introduction of London Purple. 67

was in answer to theirs of March 19, 1878, so it was written
sometime early in April."

In another letter, Dr. Bessey has informed me that during a
visit which one of the Hemingway firm paid him in Iowa, the
statement was made that the three kegs sent to Iowa were the
first sent to America ; and the first small packet sent in a letter
was one of three which were mailed at the same time, the other
two packets being addressed to two gentlemen in the United
States. One of these was Professor A. J. Cook, then of Lans-
ing, Mich. The name of the other was forgotten, for no reply
had been received from him. Professor Cook's answer had
been delayed or had proved unsatisfactory, for all the kegs of
the first shipment went to Iowa, as above stated.

The United States Department of Agriculture has also been
active in bringing London purple to the attention of horticul-
turists. In the annual report of the Department for 1878, page
144, is given a chemical analysis of the poison, and its use
is suggested as a substitute for Paris green. The first direct
recommendation that is found in the government reports to
this effect was made by Riley on page 248 of the same publi-
cation. He advised the destruction of the juniper web-worm
by treating the parts infested with either Paris green or London
purple. The same was also made to apply to the apple coleo-
phora. Experiments to test the value of London purple were
carried on this year by Riley, and the work was so successful
that large quantities of the poison were distributed to various
cotton growers in Georgia, Alabama, and Texas, where it was
to be used in the destruction of the cotton worm, in 1879. The
result of these tests was so satisfactory that London purple
was even more strongly recommended than Paris green. When
applied in a dry state, the proportions which appeared most
promising to Dr. Riley were one-half pound of the poison to
eighteen of the diluent. When used with water, one-half pound
of the powder could be used to advantage in about fifty gal-
lons of water. During the spring of the same year, 1879, A. R.
Whitney, of Franklin Grove 111., "found it to be a perfect an-
tidote to the canker-worms.1 ..."

During this year, Trelease conducted some experiments for
J. H. Comstock, who at the time was chief of the Division of

1 Kiley, U. S. Ent. Com. 1880, Bull. 3, 60, 61.

68 The Spraying of Plants.

Entomology, in which London purple was used in comparison
with several other substances.1 In this test Paris green proved
the most satisfactory, then arsenious oxide, while London pur-
ple stood third on the list. The principal objection to the last
two materials was that they scorched the foliage of the cotton
plants to which they were applied. The conclusion was also
reached that it is more economical to apply the powders when
mixed with water than in the powder form, only about one-half
as much poison being required by the former method.

The value of London purple as an insecticide was recognized
with surprising rapidity. The experiments of Comstock and of
Riley were widely copied, and although there were some seri-
ous objections to the use of this arseuite, its cheapness and the
ease with which it could be applied were greatly in its favor.
Cook used it successfully in 1879 against the codlin-moth, and
with such recommendations it soon won public favor. The
principal objection to its use was the danger of scorching the
foliage of the plants, and this probably is the main reason why
it did not entirely supersede Paris green. It is also less uni-
form in its composition, which renders it of uncertain value.
Yet it was only about three years after its introduction that
the value of London purple was generally considered to be
nearly equal to that of Paris green, and it is so considered
to-day.

Spraying for the Curculio.

No subject connected with the spraying of plants, with per-
haps the exception of the best methods of making the kerosene
emulsion, has been the subject of such heated controversy as
the spraying of stone fruits with arsenites to protect theni
from the curculio. The value of the operation seems to have
been first noted by G. M. Smith, of Berlin, Wis. In 1870
Riley wrote an article on this practice in which he held it
up to ridicule,8 and the subject was again mentioned by the
same writer in an article which states that Smith recommended
it "to the Saint Joseph (Michigan) Horticultural Society, and
from that time on [the poison] has been occasionally suggested

» Ann. Rtpt. T. & Com. tfAffHc. 1879, 809.

* Third Kept. State Entomoioffist of Jfi**wrt, 18.

Spraying for the Curculio. 69

in the newspapers."1 The use of the remedy by J. Luther
Bowers, of Herndon, Va., in 1880, and by William Creed, of
Rochester, N.Y., in 1884, is also mentioned. In this report
the statement is made, on page 70, that " Riley, in an address
delivered before the Mississippi Valley Horticultural Society,
in the early spring of 1885, at New Orleans, in giving his
experience as to the feeding habits of the beetle, urged experi-
mentation with the arsenicals in this direction as promising
fair results," but I have been unable to find such an expression
in the record of the above meeting. In 1885, Forbes, of
Illinois, applied Paris green for the control of the codlin-moth,
and at the same time noted the severity of injuries caused by
the curculio upon the apples. These experiments are reported
by Howard,2 and in one of the conclusions he says : " Treat-
ment with Paris green had saved something more than two-
thirds of the apples which would otherwise have been damaged
by the codliu-moth, and something more than one-half of
those which would have been sacrificed to the curculio."

In 1887 the arsenites appear to have been tested for the first
time in the destruction of the plum curculio by an investigator
of recognized ability. Cook made some experiments which did
not, however, form a very firm basis for the drawing of con-
clusions. Four plum trees were thoroughly sprayed with Paris
green on May 18, the poison being used at the rate of one
tablespoonful to six gallons of water. Unfortunately no trees
of any of the varieties sprayed appear to have been left for
comparison, and the fruit of different trees was injured by the
insect to a very unequal extent. The two Wild Goose trees
dropped all their fruit. A yellow variety was loaded with fruit
of which only 15 per cent was affected while the fourth tree,
a purple variety, "had not less than 75 per cent of its fruit
badly stung." 8

During the same year, W. B. Alwood carried on some limited
experiments at the Ohio experiment station for the destruction
of the plum curculio, using a Paris green spray. His conclusion
was : " I am confident the curculios eat enough to make it pos-

* Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1888, 69. * Ibid. 1887, 105.

8 Rept. Mich. Bd. Agric. 18S7, 40. See also Ibid. 18S6, 141, where the same
writer expresses little hopes for the success of the arseiiites in the destruction of
the plum curculio ; and Saunders in Rept. Fruit Growers' Ass'n of Ont. 1887, 58.

70 The Spraying of Plants.

sible to poison some of them, but the benefit to be derived from
such is as yet unsettled."1

In 1888 Weed made the first report of an experiment planned
upon a large scale, in which the method could be apparently
well tested.2 London purple, used at the rate of one-half pound
to fifty gallons of water, was applied to seventy-five Early Rich-
mond cherry trees. Three applications were made. As a re-
sult, " it was found that 14.5 per cent of the unsprayed fruit
gave evidence of curculio attack, while 3.5 per cent of the
sprayed fruit was injured. There was consequently a percen-
tage of benefit of 75.8." The same year similar experiments
were made upon plums and pears, but, as stated in the record
{Seventh Ann. Rept. Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. 134-150), the oppor-
tunities for a satisfactory test were not so good as with the
cherries, so that although the fruit was saved, less stress was
laid upon the result.8

Professor Herbert Osborn, of Iowa, also tried to solve the
problem during this year. There was a trifling difference be-
tween the sprayed and unsprayed plots in favor of the former,
but it seems that two species of insects were at work, so that no
definite couclusions can be drawn regarding the value of the
treatment against the plum curculio alone.4

The experiments made by Professor Cook during 1888 were
somewhat more extended than those of preceding years, but
still rather limited. The trees, cherries and plums, were
sprayed three times, June 6, 12, and 20, and the results obtained
appeared to warrant the following conclusions : " From these
experiments, and those of former years, I conclude that while
one application will not save our plums and cherries, and pre-
vent apples from being stung, two or three applications may be
of signal advantage.5

In 1889, Cook repeated his former experiments. At the
close of the work his opinion was decidedly against the appli-
cation of arsenites. He says: "All the trees were severely
attacked and all the plums were lost. . . . The arsenites will

1 Ann. Rept. U. 8. Com. of Agric. 1888, 70. This is the first published state
ment of his work.

3 Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 4, second series, 39.
» Weed, American Naturalist, 1891, Jan. 70.

* Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1888, 72-75.

• Mich. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 39, 9.

Spraying for the Curculio. 71

protect against the plum curculio if they can be kept on the
tree or fruit. But in case of frequent rains, the jarring method
will not only be cheaper but much more effective." 1

Professor C. P. Gillette experimented this year apparently in
the same orchard formerly used by Osborn. Although the cur-
culio did but little injury, still " the indicated saving of fruit
that would have been injured in the absence of treatment was
44 per cent."2 In a report of the work, attention was called
to the fact that reliable results cannot be obtained unless solid
blocks of trees are treated.

The work done by Weed is by far the most valuable and
convincing of the year. A condensed account of his operations
during 1889 as well as 1890 is as follows : 3

" In 1889 the cherry experiment was duplicated, the parts of
the orchard being reversed to eliminate any possible effect upon
the results that might be due to the situation. In 1888 the
west half was sprayed, and the east half left as a check ; in 1889
the east half was sprayed, and the west left as a check. London
purple was applied three times, in the proportion of one pound
to 160 gallons of water. At time of ripening, 1000 cherries
were picked from each of twenty-four trees in each half of the
orchard — a total of 48,000 cherries — and examined for cur-
culio injuries. The percentage of injury on the untreated trees
was 6.17, while on the treated trees it was 1.5. This gives a
percentage of benefit of 75.6, — just .2 per cent less than in
1888. Plums sprayed with a combination of London purple
and the Bordeaux mixture matured a full crop, while unsprayed
trees a few rods distant lost all their fruit. The record of this
years' work will be found in the bulletin of the Ohio agricul-
tural experiment station for September, 1889 (Vol. ii. 133-143).

" While these experiments were made as complete and satis-
factory as circumstances would permit, and every essential de-
tail was inserted in the records, they were open to three objec-
tions, namely : First, that while the remedy might work in a
region like central Ohio, where fruit-growing forms only a
small proportion of the agricultural interests of the inhabitants,

1 Proe. Tenth Meeting Soe. Prom. Agric. Science, 1889, 28. Cited by Weed
in American Naturalist. 1891, Jan. 67.

* Iowa Agric. Exp. Sta., 1890, May, Bull. 9, 386.
8 American Naturalist, 1891, Jan. 70-72.

72 The Spraying of Plants.

and where the curculio, though abundant, is not so overwhelm-
ingly present as in a region almost exclusively devoted to fruit
production, it might be impracticable in the latter region ; sec-
ond, that the plum orchard was not sufficiently large to make a
test under the conditions of the commercial orchardist ; and third,
that the cherries upon which some of these experiments were
conducted ripened before the season of egg deposition of the
curculio was over. The force of these objections was fully
appreciated while the experiments were in progress, but the
work was done in the belief that results of value could be so
obtained, and with the expectation of giving the method a
thorough trial, from the standpoint of the commercial orchard-
ist, if the preliminary tests were sufficiently encouraging.

" The present season [1890] a plum orchard of 900 bearing
trees in Ottawa County, Ohio, right in the heart of a great fruit-
growing region, was selected for the experiment. In the north
half of it the method of catching the curculios by jarring on a
sort of inverted umbrella mounted on wheels was employed, while
the south half was sprayed four times with pure Paris green
mixed wTith water, in the proportion of 4 ounces to 50 gallons.

" The first application was made May 8, just after the blos-
soms had fallen from the late-blooming varieties. There was a
heavy rain the same night, and it rained almost continuously
until May 15, when there was a short cessation. The second
spraying was done on that day. The third spraying was made
May 26, and the fourth and last, June 2.

" On the jarred portion of the orchard a great many curculios
were caught, showing that they were present in numbers. A
careful examination of both parts of the orchard was made on
June 3. Between one and two per cent of the fruit on the
sprayed trees had been stung, while about three per cent of
plums on the jarred trees were injured. No damage to the
the trees was then perceptible.

" Early in July the orchard was again examined. Some of
the sprayed trees showed that the foliage had been damaged by
the spraying, but the injury was not very serious. Not over three
per cent of sprayed fruit was stung at that time, while about
four per cent of that on the jarred trees were injured. But on
both the fruit was so thick that artificial thinning was neces-
sary to prevent overbearing.

Spraying for the Curculio. 73

" A large crop of fruit was ripened on both parts of the or-
chard, and so far as could be judged from one field experiment,
it showed that spraying is as effective as jarring." 1

The above experiments are the most exhaustive yet made,
and they seem to indicate that spraying for curculio is prac-
ticable on a commercial scale. They are all founded upon
the fact that the curculio does eat, a question which has been
decided in the affirmative by several entomologists of undoubted
authority. But it still remains to be determined how ex-
tensively the beetles feed before the eggs are laid, and if the
character of the season may not to a certain extent modify
the results obtained by the use of the arsenites. In Xew York the
practice is not regarded as being so efficient as spraying against
the codlin-moth is, and the older method of jarring the trees
is still considered to be the safest. S. D. Willard of Geneva,
N.Y., who grows many plums and is in a position to be well
informed regarding the practices followed, writes me that " the
majority of plum growers in this State are jarring their trees
instead of using any of the arsenical preparations to prevent
the working of the curculio." He uses the jarring method
entirely, in his orchards, and in the spring of 1895 apparently
saved his crop by jarring the trees twice a day, when spraying
with arsenites utterly failed.

Professor W. J. Green, of the Ohio experiment station, has
been so kind as to inform me in regard to the attitude of
the plum growers of that State towards the use of arsenical
sprays : " I must say that opinions are divided on the subject.
The majority of those who have tried the method [spraying
with arsenites] on plum trees which were surrounded with other
kinds of fruit trees have failed, either wholly or partially. This
might be expected. ... On the other hand, those who have
sprayed orchards, leaving no trees, and doing the work
thoroughly, have generally been successful in saving the crops.
William Miller, Gypsum, Ohio, and T. S. Johnson, Port
Clinton, Ohio, will corroborate this, and I can name others
near them who have practiced the method several seasons, and
expect to continue. In my experience the curculio is more easily
controlled with the arsenites than the appleworm, but only in

1 This experiment is recorded in Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 8, Vol. iii. Sept
1890, 225-228.

74 The Spraying of Plants.

orchards where all the trees are sprayed. In practice we use
Paris green with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury to the
foliage. We must use the latter to keep the leaves from drop-
ping prematurely. Some jar the trees occasionally in addition to
spraying, in order to gather and burn all of the plums which
are stung. If it were not for the Bordeaux mixture I think
that only few would spray for the curculio, but as it is I think
that the majority of orchardists prefer spraying to jarring ! "

The question is evidently not yet fully settled, but apparently
much seems to depend upon the locality, and the time and
thoroughness with which the applications are made.1

Other Arsenites than Paris Green and London Purple.

Paris purple, another arsenical poison, has been on the
market to a limited extent since 1882 or 1883. Mr. A. Poirrier,
president of the St. Denis Dyestuff and Chemical Co. of Paris,
France, was the introducer of this material. The New York
agents of the firm, Sykes & Street, 85 Water Street, write me that
it is the refuse obtained from the manufacture of magenta, or
violet, or both. The Paris firm has apparently given up the
manufacture of the product, and the stock in this country is now
very limited. It is used in the same way as London purple,
lime being added to prevent injury to foliage, but larger
amounts of it appear to be required to give satisfactory results.

English purple poison, as I am informed by the introducer,
Henry S. Ziegler, 400 N. 3d Street, Philadelphia, Pa., has
been upon the market only a few years. He states that " the
name is original with me, and the composition consists of arse-
nious acid with an aniline base." It seems, therefore, that the
last three poisons mentioned, London purple, Paris purple, and
English purple poison, are derived from the same source,
although there are undoubtedly certain variations in their
texture and composition. (For analyses see page 123.) Con-
siderable quantities of soluble arsenic are present in English
purple poison, so it should be used with lime to prevent injury

1 Much information on this subject may be found in the following places :
Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. Vol. iii. second series, 1890, Bull. 8 ; Ibid. Vol. iv. second
series, Bull. 2 ; Minn. Agric. Ewp. Sta. 1890, Bull. 10, 71 ; Texas Agric.
Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 32, 494 ; Bailey, Annals Hort. 1889, 63.

Other Arsenites. 75

to foliage. The insecticidal action of the poison is not so
energetic as that of Paris green, but if used more freely the
insects will succumb. As yet English purple poison is little
used.

White arsenic has long been known as an effectual destroyer
of insect life. In 1848 George Gordon l said that small brown
ants are easily destroyed by mixing with one pound of loaf
sugar a small portion of arsenic. Grind very fine and put the
mixture on bits of white cards near the places they frequent. It
is difficult to say how generally this advice was followed, but that
the poison was frequently tried for a similar purpose appears
very probable. Its very energetic poisonous qualities when it was
taken internally were well known, and these must naturally have
occurred to the minds of persons desirous of destroying insect
as well as animal life. Nevertheless, white arsenic was rarely
recommended as being a suitable poison to apply to the foliage
of plants, for its action is so caustic that the leaves are exposed
to nearly as great injury from the remedy as from the insect to
be overcome. It was used upon potato foliage for the destruc-
tion of the beetle, but with unsatisfactory results, Paris green
at the same time proving so much superior that the white
arsenic was abandoned.2 But an account of the successful use
of the poison against the canker-worm appeared in 187 1.3 John
Smith, of Des Moines, Iowa, writing to the Western Pomologist,
says that in 1868 he used arsenic, hellebore, and strychnine
against the canker-worm. He applied them separately to dif-
ferent apple trees, using them as follows :

Arsenic one-half pound dissolved in fifty gallons of water, and
applied to ten large trees.

Hellebore two pounds mixed in four gallons of water, and
applied as above in fifty gallons of water.

Strychnine one bottle, with an amount of water equal to that
used with the other materials, and similarly applied.

In two days the worms on the part treated with the arsenic
were all dead, and the application of hellebore was also followed
by good results. Strychnine apparently possessed little value for

1 Jour. London Rort. Soc. 1848, Vol. iv. 19.

2 Saunders and Eeed, Canadian Entomologist, 1871, July, 41.

» Smith, Western Pomologist, Vol. ii. 1871, May, 125. " See, also, The Smatt
Fruit Recorder, 1871, July 1, 103.

76 The Spraying of Plants.

this purpose. In spite of this favorable report the poison was
not in demand, because of its caustic properties.

After the Paris green and London purple had become well
known they were both considered safer insecticides than white
arsenic, and the first was acknowledged to be the best of the
three. Kiley, however, did not entirely accept this opinion, but
thought that London purple is not more injurious upon cotton
foliage than Paris green is.1 Cook was the first to make a care-
ful study of this point.2 He made applications to the foliage
of plum, cherry, apple, pear, peach, willow, elm, and maple trees,
to determine the comparative degree in which the three arsen-
ites mentioned above are injurious. His first conclusion is as
follows : " London purple is more injurious to the foliage than
is Paris green ; and white arsenic — arsenious acid — is more
harmful than is either London purple or Paris green." Later
experiments have confirmed this result, and the truth of its
general application is accepted.

The milk of lime was first used in connection with the arsen-
ites to overcome their caustic properties, by Gillette, in the fall
of 1889. 8 The results were so encouraging that extensive ex-
periments were carried on the following year, and many valu-
able conclusions were reached in consequence of the careful and
extended observations made during that season. It was plainly
shown that " lime added to London purple or Paris green in
water greatly lessens the injury that these poisons would other-
wise do to the foliage." 4 Another interesting result obtained
in these experiments was that " lime added to a mixture of
white arsenic in water will greatly increase the injury that this
poison would otherwise do to foliage. If the arsenic is all in
solution, the lime will then lessen the injury, as in the case of
London purple and Paris green."

The next step in this series of advancements was taken by
Kilgore.6 During 1890 his investigations were made in lines
almost identical with those followed by Gillette, and many of
the latter's conclusions were verified. In addition to these,

1 Eiley, If. S. Ent. Com. 1880, Bull. 3, 62.

2 Mich. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1889, Aug. Bull. 53.

8 Iowa Agric. Exp. Sta, 1890, Aug. Bull. 10, 410.

« IMd. 419, 420.

*^. C. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, July, Bull. 77 b, 7.

White Arsenic. 77

he also gave directions for the manufacture of an insecticide,
in which white arsenic entered as one of the principal ingredi-
ents. It was made "by boiling together for one-half h*our
in two to five gallons of water

White arsenic 1 pound,

Lime 2 pounds,

and dilute to required volume, say one hundred gallons. ... It
is desirable that the lime should be present in the boiling solu-
tion of white arsenic, since it renders the latter insoluble as fast
as it goes into solution, thus reducing the volume of Water and
shortening the time for obtaining the arsenite."

Two other compounds of arsenic have been used for the de-
struction of insects, the first trial being made upon the Gipsy
moth, in Massachusetts.1 One of these, the arsenate of soda,
" has been recommended by various parties as an insecticide,"
but the results of the experiments show that it injures foliage
before an efficient quantity for the destruction of the cater-
pillars can be applied. The other, however, the arsenate of lead,
is promising. It was proposed as an insecticide in 1892, by
F. C. Moulton, a chemist in the employ of the Gipsy Moth
Commission. It was first tested against tent caterpillars in
1893, with the following results : 2 " The smaller proportions,
as | pound or less to 150 gallons of water, do not kill the cater-
pillars \_Clisiocampa Americana~\ as quickly as is desirable. . . .
The larger proportions seem unnecessary and would, of course,
be rather expensive for general field work, but some such pro-
portions as 1, 1^, or 2 pounds to 150 gallons of water would
prove entirely satisfactory so far as we can judge from these
experiments." When used as strong as 2-i pounds in 150 gal-
lons of water, no injury to apple foliage resulted, which is
indeed remarkable when the small amount necessary to destroy
the insects is considered.

Caustic and Non-poisonous Insecticides.

Having thus traced the introduction of the various compounds
of arsenic, and their gradual adoption by agriculturists for the
destruction of chewing insects, there still remains the consider-

1 Fernald, Jfass, Hatch Agric. Ewp. Sta. 1894, April, Bull. 24. » Ibid. 5.

78 The Spraying of Plants.

ation of insecticides which destroy the organism, not by enter-
ing its body with the food, but by penetrating the outer cover-
ings directly, and causing the death of the insect only after the
material has come in contact with some vital part. There are
several materials which possess this power, and some of them
have long been in use. Strong alkalies, such as potash or soda,
were among the first substances employed for this purpose.
The insectidal value of soap is largely due to alkalies which
have commonly been applied in this form. The intrinsic value
of all soaps has caused them to be used as the foundation
for many mixtures. Quassia wood contains an alkaloid which
is fatal to insect life, and decoctions of the " chips " have been
recommended since the early part of this century. Pyrethrum,
kerosene, and resin can also be added to the list, although
their value has not been known, in all cases, so long as that
of the materials mentioned above.

Pyrethrum first attracted the attention of Europeans early in
this century.1 It had long been sold by the people living south
of the Caucasus Mountains in southeastern Asia, the plant
being a native of the district. An Armenian named Jumtikoff
learned that the powder was obtained from the flower heads of
certain species of pyrethrum, and in 1828 his son began to
manufacture the powder on a larger scale. It was exported,
and at present this industry brings large revenues into the
countries in which it is carried on. The species which furnishes
the best powder is Pyrethrum roseum (properly Chrysanthemum
cocclneuin) ; it is not cultivated in Asia, but the flowers of the
wild plants are gathered. The Dalmatian powder is produced
from Pyrethrum (or Chrysanthemum) cineraricefolium, a closely
related species. About 1850, pyrethrum powder was introduced
into France for the destruction of insects in houses. In 1856
good seeds were obtained from the Caucasus, and these having
been planted, a crop of home-grown seed was secured two
years later. Plants of Pyrethrum roseum were grown in
America as an ornamental plant at least as early as 1870 ;
but the Dalmatian form has been grown for the purpose of
producing the highly prized powder. The first to engage in

1 See TT. S. Patent Office Kept. Agric. 185T, 129 ; Ibid. 1861, 223 ; and Ann,
Kept, U.S. Com. of Agric. 1881-82, T6.

Pyrethrum. 79

this industry was G. N. Milco, a native of Dalruatia, who
successfully cultivated Pyrethrum cineraricefolium near Stock-
ton, Cal. The powder which he made has been sold under
the name " Buhach." It is in every respect apparently as
good as the imported article, and is even superior to the latter in
regard to strength. It is probably the best form to use in this
country. Plants of both species were grown in Washington,
D.C., in 1881, with satisfactory results. In the spring of that
year Riley distributed seeds of the two forms to growers in
various parts of the country. In this way the plants have
become fairly well known, and the use of the powder has rapidly
increased. On account of the cost, it has been used principally
in dwellings and in greenhouses. It is most frequently applied
in the dry form, but during the past few years it has given
good results either when mixed with water, or when the essen-
tial oil has been applied after being extracted by alcohol ; an
infusion of the entire flowers is also effective.

It is difficult to say when kerosene oil began to be valued
for the destruction of insects. The oil was undoubtedly used
before any records of its insecticidal value were published ;
and one might suppose, from its nature, that it would possess
energetic properties of this character. Turpentine mixed with
earth and water was successfully used to destroy worms on trees
as early as 1835,1 and it is but a step to pass from this liquid to
the use of kerosene. The latter was recommended for the de-
struction of scale on orange trees in 1865,2 and was also
successfully applied to oleander, sago-palm, acacia, and lemon
trees. The oil was poured into a saucer and applied by means
of a feather. In June of the following year, the Gardener's
Monthly recommended this oil for destroying all insect life ; but
in an issue of the next month, the statement was modified by
saying that the vegetable oils were safer.8 Many others proba-
bly had the same experience, for if not applied very carefully,
much injury to the foliage may result. It has been the practice,
both in Europe and this country, to apply kerosene with a
certain amount of water, having one part of oil to twenty-five

1 The Cultivator, 1S35, 176, cites M. D. Thosse in Sittiman's Journal.
* Gardener's Monthly, 1865, Dec. 364.
» Ibid. 1866, June, 176, and July, 208.

80 The Spraying of Plants.

of water, more or less. This was applied by means of a hand
syringe, and a fairly uniform mixture was obtained by dashing
the contents of the filled syringe back into the vessel holding
the liquids. Rapid work was the price of a good mixture. This
practice is still followed to a certain extent in England, but is
rapidly giving way to more desirable methods.

Soap, water, and kerosene can be so thoroughly mixed to-
gether that a permanent emulsion will be formed. Although
the product may be a comparatively new one, the idea which
led to its manufacture is not so recent. As has already
been said, soap and water formed the basis of many mixtures.
Records can be found showing that nearly all insecticides,
especially if they possess much value, have at one time or an-
other been used in connection with soapy solutions. It is sim-
ply carrying out the idea that if a certain remedy is effective,
its value will be increased if another substance also possessing
value be added to it. Thus we find that a correspondent of
the Gardener's Monthly says he had used soap water and crysylic
acid together, first mixing them thoroughly ; and carbolic acid
was applied in the same manner.1 The insecticidal value of
kerosene once being known, it was very natural that the oil and
soap should be used together. The first record that I have
found of such a mixture appeared in February, 1875.2 George
Cruickshank, of Whitinsville, Mass., here says that he had
been fighting the currant worm since 1866, but at first with
unsatisfactory results. " In May, 1870, I began using kerosene
with whale-oil soap, increasing the kerosene until it would kill
the worm and not injure the foliage of the plant. I used 5
pounds of whale-oil soap, and 1 wine quart of kerosene to
25 gallons of soft water to mix. Stir the soap and kero-
sene together till thoroughly mixed ; add two pails of hot
water, stir till the soap is dissolved, then add the balance of
cold water and it is ready for use. Apply with a syringe with
/orce, in bright sunshine. . . . Where the kerosene and soap
was used, I had no worms after two years. In 1873 I had a
barrel of the liquid all mixed, and ready for use by the usual
time the worm makes his appearance, but could find no worms
to use it on." In June of the same year a similar note ap-

1 " T. A." in Gardener's Monthly, 1868, Jan. 11.
> lUd. 1875, Feb. 45.

Kerosene Emulsions. 81

peared ; l Henry Bird, of Newark, N. J., made a mixture in which
he used a little kerosene oil with strong soap-suds. He said
that " it readily combines and can be applied uniformly with
a syringe."

Although it is not definitely stated in the two cases just
mentioned that emulsions were secured, still there can scarcely
be any doubt that at least a part of the oil was emulsified.
Who, then, is the originator of the, or a, kerosene emulsion V
The answer is undoubtedly to be found in the unrecorded work
of some unknown but intelligent grower of plants.

Cook was probably the first experimenter to recommend the
use of a mixture of kerosene oil and soap water. He says : '2 "I
found it [kerosene] would mix permanently with soap solution
in 1877 and 1878, and that it would kill many insects if it
touched them, and best of all would destroy haustellate insects
like bugs, plant and scale lice. I first recommended this to the
public in 187&3 . . . The best substances for such use (killing
haustellate [sucking] insects) are a weak solution of carbolic
acid, a strong suds either of whale-oil or common soap, and
tobacco water. I have found that the addition of a half tea-
cupful of crude petroleum to two gallons of either of the above
makes them the more effective. ... I mix one quart soft
soap, or one-quarter of a pound of hard soap, with one or two
quarts boiling water ; as soon as the soap is all dissolved, I stir
in, while all is yet hot, one pint of kerosene oil. This is now
violently stirred till it is permanently mixed — that is, till
upon standing the oil will not rise to the top, but will remain
incorporated with the liquid. . . . When we are ready to use
this, stir in enough water to make fifteen pints in all — that is,
one-fifteenth of the liquid applied would be kerosene oil."
These formulas, using either the hard or the soft soap, have re-
ceived the name of the originator, and they are still in common
use.

Riley published the following in the annual report of the
Commissioner of Agriculture for the years 1881-82, 127 :
" Emulsions with soap-suds and lye had been worked at some

1 "T. A." in Gardener's Monthly, 1868, June, 106. See, also, Country Gen-
tleman, 1S76, July 6, 422, citing from The Agriculturist.
* Mich. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, March, BuU. 58, 5.
» See Rept. Mich. State, Board of Agric. 1878, 484.
6

82 The Spraying of Plants.

years ago by Professor Taylor, the microscopist of the Depart-
ment, and more recently they have been made by several in-
dependent experimenters in Florida, but particularly by Mr.
Joseph Voyle,1 an intelligent correspondent at Gainsville, who
uses kerosene, soap, and fir-balsam combined at a high temper-
ature and produces a permanent paste which he calls « murvite,'
readily soluble in water. Recent experiments made at our re-
quest by Mr. Clifford Richardson, assistant chemist of the
Department, with ordinary soap, whale-oil soap, and both light
and heavy oils, also show that 20 parts hard soap, 10 parts
water, 40 parts kerosene, and 1 part balsam, produce the most
satisfactory results. . . . Mr. Hubbard's experiments would in-
dicate, however, that for insecticide purposes nothing equals
the milk emulsions which were first suggested by Professor
Barnard 2 during our work on the cotton worm at Selma, Ala.,
in 1880, and though the use of ordinary emulsifying agents, as
various mucilaginous substances and the phosphates, lactophos-
phates, and hypophosphates of lime, may facilitate the making
of kerosene emulsions, we have not yet had them sufficiently
tested as insecticides, and for the present can recommend noth-
ing more simple and at the same time more available to the
average farmer than the permanent milk emulsion as produced
by Mr. Hubbard.'*

During the season 1881-82, Mr. Hubbard was making exper-
iments for the destruction of the scale insects affecting orange
trees. He made the milk emulsion only, and of varying
strengths. The following is the formula recommended at the
close of the season's work : 8 " Refined kerosene, 2 parts ; fresh,
or preferably sour, cow's milk, 1 part (percentage of oil 66 f).
Where cow's milk is not easily obtained, ... it may be replaced
by an equivalent of condensed milk (Eagle brand) diluted with
water in the proportion 1 to 2. . . . In applications for scale
insects, the kerosene butter should be diluted with water from
12-16 times."

Under date of Sept. 15, 1881, Mr. Hubbard writes to Dr.
Riley regarding the condition of the work on orange scale then

1 See U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. of Ent. Bull. 1, 19.

2 For further details concerning- W. 8. Barnard's suggestion of an emulsion of
milk and kerosene, see The, Official Gazette U. S. Patent Office, Vol. 59, No. 12, 1919.

8 Ann. Sept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1881-82, 118, 114.

Kerosene Emu Isions. 83

in progress at Crescent City, Fla.1 "Experiments with
Neal's mixture gave, upon the whole, rather disappointing
results." I have not learned what was the composition of this
mixture, but it may have been an emulsion of kerosene in soap
water, for Dr. Xeal did considerable work in this direction. On
Oct. 10, 1882, he wrote from Archer, Fla., to the chief of the
Division of Entomology regarding these formulas, only two of
which it is necessary to mention.2 These were also applied for
the destruction of the cotton worm :

"1. Four pounds whale-oil soap were dissolved in one gal-
lon of water with heat ; to this, kerosene was added gradually
till it was found that one gallon kerosene made a good emul-
sion, capable of being diluted to one per cent without at once
disintegrating.

"2. Four pounds resin soap, common bar or yellow soap,
were dissolved in one gallon water. One gallon kerosene grad-
ually added, with constant agitation. The greater the per cent
of resin in the soap, the better was the emulsion I found it
made, which would indicate that such a soap for this purpose
would no doubt be a valuable article in the market."

On Nov. 28, 1882, Hubbard wrote in detail concerning
the use of kerosene, and also criticised Neal's formulas. He
says : 3

" Experiments made in September with kerosene washes on
purple scale show that the eggs are much more difficult to kill
than I had supposed. They have been killed by 66 per cent
kerosene and soap emulsions diluted 1 to 9. ... I have care-
fully gone over Dr. Neal's report and have a few comments to
add to my former communication.

" Dr. Neal says * the greater the percentage of resin in the
soap the better the emulsion I found it made.' This may be
true of the emulsion, but when diluted, the resin, or a large part
of it, separates from the liquid and forms a waxy scum on the
surface, which clogs the pump and nozzle, and is troublesome
unless removed. . . . The strongest emulsion used by Dr. Neal
contains 50 per cent of oil and the strongest wash a dilution of
1 to 9. My experiments with milk emulsion of this strength
did not in the end prove satisfactory, and I long ago decided to

* V. S. Dept. ofAgric. Div. of Ent. 1883, Bull. 1, 10.
2 Ibid. 32. a Ibid. 17, 18.

84 The Spraying of Plants.

increase the amount of oil in the emulsion. I now use 66 per cent
emulsion diluted 1 to 9, and these, although sufficiently strong
for long scale, are not sufficiently penetrating to kill the eggs of
purple scale. . . . The following are my estimates for a stan-
dard wash of whale-oil soap and kerosene, emulsion 66 per cent
oil, diluted to 1 to 9 (one gallon emulsion = 10 gallons wash) :
whale-oil soap, £ pound ; water, 1 gallon ; kerosene, 2 gallons."

In the annual report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for
1884 a formula is published which contains twice as much
soap as Hubhard's original one, the other ingredients remaining
the same. This has become most commonly known under the
name of the Riley-Hubbard formula for the kerosene emulsion,
and is used to-day unchanged. It is prepared as follows :

" Kerosene, 2 gallons ; common soap, £ pound ; water, 1 gallon.

" Heat the mixture of soap and water and add it boiling hot
to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force pump
and spray nozzle for five to ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect,
forms a cream, which thickens on cooling, and adheres without
oiliness to the surface of the glass. Dilute with cold water
before using, to the extent which experience will indicate is
best."

The scale insects found upon the orange trees in California
may be cited as further examples showing that obstacles can be
overcome if only sufficient attention is directed towards them.
These insects were a serious pest on the Pacific coast, and they
are not entirely under control even at the present day, but their
great numbers in former years aroused the fruit growers to ener-
getic measures. Many compounds were recommended for the
treatment of the pests. The preparations were generally in liquid
form, and may be considered as rather elaborate outgrowths of
compounds whose value had long been known. The following
are good examples of these remedies, whose number was almost
endless : l

1. Forty-six pounds whale-oil soap, 4 gallons coal oil, 100
gallons water.

2. Twenty-five pounds brown soap, 6 pounds wood potash, 4
gallons coal oil, 100 gallons water.

iEllwood Cooper, "California Fruit Culture," a report of the fifth annual con-
vention of California fruit growers.

Resin Soaps. 85

3. Ten pounds whale-oil or other soft soap, 2£ or 3 pounds
sulphur, 1 gallon coal oil, 17 gallons water.

It will be seen that soap or kerosene, or both, formed the
basis of most of these washes. They were not entirely satis-
factory, for some reason still unexplained. In 1886, D. W.
Coquillett and Albert Koebele, were appointed by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture to investigate the trouble, for in the East
such emulsions were used almost invariably with good results.

In a review of their work, published in 1887, Dr. Riley makes
the following statements, which indicate well the character of
these investigations : 1

" Among the different substances thoroughly experimented
with were caustic potash, caustic soda, hard and soft soaps,
tobacco soap, whale-oil soap, vinegar, Paris green, resin soaps,
and compounds, and so on. . . . Mr. Koebele's attention was,
however, directed mainly to the preparation of resinous soaps
and compounds on account of their greater cheapness. He suc-
ceeded in making a number of these mixtures, which, when
properly diluted, need not cost more than one-half to one cent
per gallon, and which produce very satisfactory results, killing
the insects or either penetrating or hardening the egg masses
so as to prevent the hatching of the young. One of the most
satisfactory methods of making a resin soap is to dissolve 1
pound of caustic soda in 1^ gallons water to produce the lye ;
then dissolve 2 pounds resin and 1 pound tallow by moderate
heat, stirring in gradually during the cooking 1 quart of the
lye, and then adding water until you have about 22 pints of
a brown and thick soap- This will make 44 gallons of wash,
costing less then one-half cent per gallon."

A few further suggestions were made regarding various
combinations of the above mixture, and the addition of adhesive
substances to the washes was strongly advised. But the most
important part of this address was the emphasis laid upon the
value of the resin washes, for from this time on they were destined
to extensive use in the orange district of California.

1 Address by Professor C. V. Kiley before the California State Board of Horticul-
ture, at its seini-annual session at EiA-erside, Cal., April 12, 1SS7, as reported in the
Pacific Rural Press, April 23, 1887, cited in Bull. 15 U. S. Dept. of Agrie. Div.
of Ent. 16, 17. See also Ann. Hept. U. S. Com. of Ayric. 1SS6, 558, giving details
of Koebele' s work.

86 The Spraying of Plants.

During 1887 Koebele tested the value of the addition of
arsenic acid to kerosene emulsion. In his report to the Ento-
mologist, dated December, 1887, he says : 1 " In the main I have
followed your suggestion while here in April last, in preparing
the kerosene emulsion, viz. to emulsify with resin compound,
and use the arsenic acid in addition. I am glad that your
hopes in this wash are verified. In every instance where your
proposed arsenic acid was added, either to emulsified kerosene
or resin compound, there has been a complete extermination
of the scales." Although such washes were here favorably
reported upon, they have not come into general use.

The next year another valuable contribution was made upon
this subject, of which the following abstracts are the most
important : 2

"Caustic solutions have the disadvantage of hurting the
tree, and are not especially adapted to penetrate into the egg-
sac, which, on account of its peculiar texture, repels most
liquids.

"Various soap solutions, some containing kerosene and some
whale-oil, have proved fair remedies, but cannot in my opinion
be equaled by the resin solutions, of which we give three
formulas. The first was tried by Mr. A. Koebele, the second
by Mr. Alexander Craw, of Los Angeles ; the third has been
given me by Mr. L. D. Green of Sacramento. From personal
experiments with them all I am well satisfied with thenio

" Recipe No. 1. Four pounds resin, 3 pounds sal-soda, water
to make 36 pints. Dissolve the sal-soda in a few pints of water ;
when thoroughly dissolved, add the resin. Heat until dissolved,
and add water finally. Use two quarts of solution to the gallon
of water. Use at a temperature of about 100° F.

" Recipe No. 2. One pound caustic soda, 10 pounds resin,
100 gallons water. Prepare as above.

" As, perhaps, owing to the nature of the caustic, the leaves
are sometimes liable to be affected, I should recommend the
spraying of the tree with pure water liberally (the water will
free the pores of the leaves) two or three days after the appli-
cations of the resin solutions.

1 Ann. Kept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 188T, 143-1 4T.

2 Klee, " A Treatise on the Insect Injuries to Fruit and Fruit Trees of the
State of California," 1888, Oct. 12, 28, 29.

History of Fungicides in America. 87

" These solutions being cheap, they may be used liberally,
and two or three treatments a year would, I think, keep the
trees in fair order.

"Recipe No. 3. Sixty pounds resin, 60 pounds tallow, 10
pounds potash, dissolved in 10 gallons water ; 10 pounds caustic
soda (Green bank, 98 per cent). Dissolve the resin and tallow ;
when dissolved, add caustic water slowly. After mixture is
made, add 10 gallons of water. Use at the rate of 1 gallon of
mixture to 10 gallons of water.

" In the case of the black scale, I have found the addition of
sulphide of soda at the rate of 1 gallon to 75 of resin solution
(the strength of the sulphide being 1 pound of concentrated
lye to 2 pounds of sulphide) beneficial, and I should recommend
the trial of this for icerya."

D. W. Coquillett, assistant in the Division of Entomology,
continued the work begun by Koebele in regard to the de-
struction of scale insects, and at the end of the year 1889 the
following was recommended as " the best solution for use dur-
ing the latter part of the year " : it was made by combining
with heat, " resin, 18 pounds ; caustic soda (70 per cent strong),
5 pounds; fish-oil, 2| pints; water to make 100 gallons."1 A
slightly modified formula was published the following year ; the
fish-oil was omitted, and 5 pounds of caustic soda (77 per cent)
were used with 40 pounds of resin, this being sufficient to make
50 gallons of the wash.2 Formulas almost identical to these
are in use at the present time and are highly valued for the
destruction of orange-scale insects, but fish-oil is very commonly
added to the preparations.

History of the Fungicides.

This country has been less energetic in the introduction of
new fungicides, probably because fungi have always been more
or less serious here, and growers were accustomed to their
presence. A special stimulus appears to be necessary to arouse
a people to any new line of thought, and if this is not present,
progress is slow. The American mildews, introduced into
France, forced the vineyardists in the affected districts to

i Ann. Sept. U. S. Com. of Agrio. 1889, 355. » Ibid. 1890, 263.

88 The Spraying of Plants.

discover some efficient remedy, and they did so. The appear-
ance in the Central States of the potato beetle and the canker-
worm exerted a similar influence on American farmers ; they
also were forced to overcome the pests, and the result was as
successful as could have been wished. When each country had
entered upon the task allotted to it, the next step would natu-
rally be a mutual exchange of results that might be beneficial to
the other, and such exchanges have taken place. Americans
have riot been slow to test many of the excellent practices recom-
mended by French investigators, but when the methods were
once understood they have been adopted in all parts of the
land, at least by a few growers, with astonishing rapidity ; and
so well has the information regarding these remedies been dis-
seminated that no man now has an excuse for not knowing
how to treat the large majority of the troubles which affect the
plants that he grows.

Little was known in this country regarding the treatment of
fungous diseases of plants by liquid applications previous to
1885. Saunders and Goff were the pioneers in the work. The
former,1 in 1884, suggested the use of three fungicides for the
treatment of apple scab : Hyposulphite of soda, applied for
the first time, in proportion of 1 pound to 10 gallons of water :
sulphide of lime, made by boiling 2 pounds of sulphur and 1
pound of quicklime in 2 gallons of water, stirring frequently
till of a reddish yellow color ; after settling, the clear liquid is
poured off : a mixture of sulphur and water, in the proportion
of 1 pound to 10 or 15 gallons of water. The same remedies
were also recommended by Goff for the apple scab and leaf-
blight. During the following year he tested the hyposulphite
of soda with the result that " in the syringed portion of the
tree, the per cent of uninjured fruits was double that in the un-
syringed portion, while the percentage of the third quality, or
much injured fruits, was one-half less. It also appears that all
of the fruits on the syringed portion were larger in size than
those on the un syringed portion. We also noted that there
were many more decayed fruits on the unsyringed portion of
the tree." 2 These were the first of innumerable experiments
regarding the treatment of the same diseases.

* Canadian Horticulturist, 1884, vii. No. 6, 127.

* Awn,. Rep. N. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sta. 1885, 260.

Former Treatments of G-rape Diseases. 89

Colonel Alexander W. Pearson, of Vineland, N.J., summed
up the situation, regarding vineyard diseases, in a comprehen-
sive article which was published in 1886.1 He says : " Years
ago, while experimenting with sundry chemicals designed in
their application to prevent or cure 'the rot,' I accidentally
noticed a vine, one branch of which was trained beneath the
shelter of a projecting cornice, while the other ran over a
trellis exposed to the sky. The grapes beneath the cornice
were sound; those exposed were rotten." Acting upon this
hint, Colonel Pearson made a board covering, twenty inches
wide, over a portion of his trellis, and the following year he
found that the fruit under the shelter was sound, while that
which projected beyond was injured as well as all others which
were unprotected.2 The year following, the boards were re-
placed by cotton sheeting a yard wide, which was regularly
used afterwards. Paper bags were also tried, these being tied
about the fruit. They also afforded excellent protection, but
their use was rather expensive, so that the main reliance was
placed upon the cloth coverings, which in addition protected
the foliage from the downy mildew.

In 1882, Colonel Pearson selected a block of Concords from
which he u had the symptoms of infection removed as fast as
they appeared. All the rotted grapes were picked weekly from
the clusters, picked up from beneath the trellis, taken away, and
buried. The leaves, wherever spotted with the phoma [black
rot], were also gathered." The following year "the vines thus
cleaned showed an improvement of at least 50 per cent in their
crop. Plowing all debris under, late in the spring, and then
leaving the ground undisturbed, also proved beneficial." These
processes of disinfection were considered as forming the surest
and most practicable means for the prevention of rot on grapes.

Vines that were well nourished were supposed to resist disease
better than their weaker neighbors, the downy mildew in par-
ticular being influenced by this variation. In other respects
this fungus was treated with difficulty : " There is no benefit
from any method of disinfection, which I have tried. Sulphur

1 Scribner, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bot. I>ic. Bull. ii. "Keport on the Fungous
Diseases of the Grape Vine," Appendix B. " Kemarks on Grape Eot and Grape Mil-
dew," 54-63.

* This remedy was not new. See Ann. Kept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1861, 498.

90 The Spraying of Plants.

is inefficient, and the burial of the vineyard debris and subse-
quent non-culture, which are of avail against the phonia, are
useless here. When atmospheric conditions favor the develop-
ment of this pest, it spreads like a prairie fire. I have seen the
foliage on ten thousand vines completely blasted by mildew
within three days after its appearance. Our only defense
against peronospora will be in constitutional, prophylactic
treatment."

The above review was made by one of the most intelligent
vineyardists in the country. It shows how comparatively help-
less grape growers were in controlling fungous diseases, although
Colonel Pearson himself had obtained good results. In the trial
of chemicals of which he speaks, many articles must have been
tested, but apparently none proved of value. In 1880, however,
another experimenter appears to have been more fortunate : *
"A writer in the California Horticulturist speaks of the success
of the application of sulphate of copper for mildew on rose
bushes, using one-half ounce to a pail of wrater." But this note
did not attract any particular attention, in which respect it
resembles a similar one which appeared in an English journal
in 1861 (see page 17).

During 1884 a substitute for Paris green was mentioned in
the Country Gentleman.2 Although its use as an insecticide
was advised in later years, a similar preparation was also
thoroughly tested in regard to its fungicidal value. It was
made by dissolving

Copperas 1 pound.

Water. 4 gallons.

When dissolved add to this solution

Slaked lime I pound.

The Americans were thus hovering about the truth, but they
did not quite discern it. The discovery was made by the French,
and much of the preliminary work necessary to the develop-
ment of this new idea was also done by them.

The first formula for the manufacture of a fungicide that
was borrowed from the French was for making the material
which was later known as the Bordeaux mixture. It was pub-

» Coun.try Gentleman, 1880, April 22, 262. 2 Ibid. 1884, July IT, 59T.

Former Treatments of drape Diseases. 91

lished by F. Lamson-Scribner, at that time assistant botanist
in the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in the annual
report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1885,
although it actually appeared earlier in articles published by
the Section of Vegetable Pathology which bear a later date.
On page 84 of this report may be found the following para-
graph •

" Many remedies for the disease of the vine due to the
peronospora have been proposed, but so far the most effectual
specific known is a solution of lime and sulphate of copper. It
is made by dissolving 18 pounds of sulphate of copper in about
22 gallons of water ; 1 in another vessel mix 34 pounds of coarse
lime with 6 or 7 gallons of water, and to this solution add the
solution of copper. A bluish paste will be the result,, This
compound, when thoroughly mixed, is brushed over the leaves
of the vine with a small broom, care being taken not to touch
the grapes. This remedy, it is asserted, will not only destroy
the mildew, but will prevent its attacks." This preparation
was at first known as " the copper mixture of Gironde."

The following statements, no less interesting than the above,
may be found on page 81 of the same report : " Many of the
diseases of our fruit orchards might be remedied, or at least
diminished, by raking together and burning the leaves as soon
as they have fallen. . . . The plan of raking up the leaves and
burning them has been especially recommended as a means of
checking the growth of the apple-scab fungus, and the pear-
tree scab. In respect to the latter disease, it is not confined to
the leaves and fruit, but extends to the young shoots also. . . .
If this disease be taken early, say at the time of the formation
of the conidial or summer spores (the only spores so far known),
the direct application of some fungicide might prove beneficial.
Experiments alone will prove the usefulness of this."

Here, then, are the first indications of a future which could
scarcely have been prophesied at the time, even by the boldest
imagination ; wre have a hint of a power whose influence was
destined to bring the growing of plants largely out of the realm
of chance, so far as fungous diseases are concerned, and with

1 This amount of water is undoubtedly given as an equivalent of the French
hectoliter. But the French measure is equivalent to 26.41T gallons of the standard
United States measures. See Appendix.

92 The Spraying of Plants.

the help of the knowledge already acquired, to place this art
upon a footing even more firm than that enjoyed by those occu-
pations in which the weather and other dispensations of Provi-
dence have no direct influence. The passage contains the germ
of an educational movement which stands unparalleled in the
effect it has had in broadening the horizon of the agriculturist
of the United States. It has forced him to see that there is
more in his business than following the rule-of-thumb processes
so long in vogue. It has emphasized the power of knowledge,
and it has demonstrated, and is daily impressing the fact upon
all who take the trouble to see, that it requires more brains
than brawn to succeed in an occupation at which formerly
even the most ignorant could be at least fairly successful. The
ignorant are going to the wall, and it is the educated man, the
" book farmer," who is pushing them along, and who fills their
places when they are gone. The fittest stand the best chance
of surviving.

TJie Warfare against the various Fungous Diseases.

The formula for the manufacture of the Bordeaux mixture
was soon widely copied. The following year, 1886, it was
published by Hilgard in January,1 by Riley in February,2 by
Colman in May,8 and again by Scribner in the government
reports.4

In Hilgard's report the remark is made that attention was
called to the mixture at an earlier date in the Pacific Rural
Press. No other fungicide is mentioned, but some remarks
are made concerning the value and use of the mixture in
France. Dr. Riley's article is on " The Mildew of the Grape
Vine " ; it mentions the Bordeaux mixture, and also the use of
kerosene-milk emulsion, sulphur and lime, and carbolic acid.

It was during 1886 that the Section of Vegetable Pathology
was established as a part of the United States Department of
Agriculture. F. Lamson-Scribner was appointed its chief, and
in May there appeared the first publication, Circular No. 1,

i Calif. Agric. Exp. Sto. 1886, Jan. Bull. 51.

» Rural Neic- Yorker, 1886, Feb. 6, 87

» U. S. Dept. of Agric. Sot. Div. Sec. Veg. Path. 1886, May, CIr. 1

* Ibid. Bull. ii. 16 ; Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1886, 100.

Treatments for Downy Mildew. 93

entitled: "Treatment of the Downy Grape Mildew (Perono-
spora viticold) and the Black Rot (Phoma uvicold)" The five
remedies mentioned in this circular were all copied from the
French journals. The directions were in brief as follows :

" For Peronospora.

1. "Dissolve in 10 gallons of water 5 pounds of the sulphate
of copper." This was to be used for soaking the stakes and all
tying material, and was also to be sprayed upon the foliage,
using for the purpose any fine spraying apparatus, the cyclone
nozzle being suggested as the best for the purpose.

2. " Make a mixture of lime and water, as one ordinarily
applies whitewash." Apply as above, but repeat after rains.

3. This was the formula for the " copper mixture of Gironde,"
as given on a preceding page.

4. " The powder of Podechard." This contained 225 pounds
of air-slaked lime, 45 pounds of sulphate of copper, 20 pounds of
flowers of sulphur, 30 pounds unleashed ashes, and 15 gallons of
water.

5. " The ordinary milk-kerosene emulsion, with the addition
of from 2 to 5 per cent of carbolic acid and the same percentage
of glycerine, and then dilute 1 part of the emulsion in 20 to 50
parts of water. Spray on the under surface of the leaves by
means of a cyclone nozzle of small aperture." J

For black rot, the mixture of lime and sulphate of copper
was particularly recommended, and in addition to this a free
use of Podechard's powder, upon the ground in the vineyard,
was advisable.

Scribner wrote as follows concerning the above circular :
" Three thousand of these circulars were distributed, and I
have reason to believe that many made a trial of one or more
of the remedies proposed, but I regret to say that few responded
to the request that the results of these trials be reported to the
Department."2 A report was received from George M. High,
Middle Bass, Ohio, the letter being dated Dec. 28, 1886, in
which he speaks of having poor success with formula Xo. 2,

1 This formula had previously been published by Riley in Rural New- Yorker,
1886, Feb. 6.

'Ann. Sept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1886, 100.

94 The -Spraying of Plants.

but No. 3 was very promising. He also used the following upon
sixty Catawba vines : " Dissolve 1 pound of sulphate of copper
in 2 gallons of water ; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime in
the same quantity of water; then mix these together thoroughly.
The advantage was the preservation of the foliage in a healthy
condition in a marked degree over vines untreated." l

Bush & Son & Meissner, of Bushberg, Mo., also reported
their work, saying : " We have tried all the remedies recom-
mended in your circular and find that designated as No. 3 the
best. We are continuing to apply this mixture of lime with
dissolved sulphate of copper (not too strong), with confidence
in its good results."2 Another correspondent stated that he
used Podechard's powder (No. 4) with marked benefit.

The second publication of the Section of Vegetable Pathology
was a "Report on the Fungous Diseases of the Grape Vine."8
It is a bulletin of one hundred and thirty-six pages, and gives
exhaustive descriptions of the fungi causing the downy mildew
(Peronospora viticola), the powdery mildew (Uncinula spiralis),
the black rot (Physalospora Bidwellii), anthracnose (Sphaceloma
Ampelinum), grape leaf blight (Cercospora viticola), and grape
leaf spot (Phyllosticta Labruscce). The botanical structure, the
general appearance, conditions of development, and similar
points were dwelled upon, so that this may be considered as
perhaps the most important publication of the section, when
one considers the influence that it exerted not only upon grape
growers, but upon horticulturists in general.

The remedies recommended against the downy mildew were
mostly those in use by French and Italian vineyardists, viz.
the mixture of copper sulphate and lime, and the milk of
lime alone. There is also published a letter from Dr. John
Strentzel, of Martinez, Cal., dated June 28, 1886, in which
the following statements are made concerning the use of iron
and copper sulphates : 4 "I have been using for years solutions

1 Ann. Kept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1886, 101. See also Country Gentleman,
1887, April 28, 340.

2 Ibid. loc. cit.

8 This was Bull. ii. of the Section, Bull. i. having been published on a botanical
subject not related to the work of the Section.

4 Scribner, " Report on the Fungous Diseases of the Grape Vine," U. S. Dept.
of Agric. Sec. Veg. Path. Bull. ii. IT.

Treatments for Grape Diseases. 95

of sulphates of copper and iron to destroy parasitic fungi on
vines and pear trees, also to kill red spider on almonds. . . .
The mixture I use consists of 2 pounds of sulphate of iron to 1
gallon of water, dissolved, and add 3 pounds of lime and
1 pound of sulphur, the lime being slaked in hot salt brine
to a consistency of thick whitewash." The removal of diseased
fruit, leaves, and canes is also recommended, in addition to the
liquid applications.

The powdery mildew was best treated by the use of a mixture
recommended by J. F. Allen.1 It is composed of sulphur and
lime, and is almost identical with Grison's liquid described on
page 16.

Against black rot, it was advised to wash " the vines in early
spring, before the buds have commenced to swell, with a strong
solution of the sulphate of iron," but the main reliance was to
be placed in the bagging of the fruit.

Anthracnose was to be controlled by the European practice of
" washing the vines in early spring, before the buds have com-
menced to expand, with a strong solution (50 per cent) of
sulphate of iron. . . . When the young shoots have attained
a length of five or six inches, they receive a good dusting with
the flowers of sulphur, whether the disease has appeared on
them or not."

As regards the other two diseases mentioned in the bulletin,
no remedies were then known, but it was thought "probable
that the general treatment advocated for the downy mildew
and anthracnose will have a direct tendency to limit their
development."

Three appendices form about two-thirds of this bulletin.
Appendix A, written by Erwiu F. Smith, gives an account of
the extent and severity of fungous disease on grapes, and some
of the more common methods of treatment. The material was
compiled from the answers received to a circular asking for
information on these topics.

Appendix B was written by Colonel A. W. Pearson. It is
an article on "Remarks on Grape Rot and Grape Mildew,"
which has already been quoted in these pages.

Appendix C is entitled "The Prevention of Mildew — Re-
sults of Experiments with Various Fungicides in French and

* U. S. Patent Office Rept. Agric. 1854, 312.

96 The Spraying of Plants.

Italian Vineyards in 1885." Sixty-eight pages, or one-half of
the bulletin, are devoted to this subject, and it forms a fitting
close to the matter which precedes. Its contents, coming, as it
were, directly from the European vineyards, which were suffer-
ing even more severely than ours, lent a weight to the whole
publication which greatly increased its value. The subjects
treated in the various abstracts have already been discussed in
the preceding chapter of this volume.

The annual report of the mycological Section l for 1886 con-
tains much interesting matter. The Section seems to have been
placed in good working order from the time of its establish-
ment, and many important descriptions and recommendations
are contained in this report, a very complete review of the work
carried on in France and Italy being given. An abstract of
Millardet's article on the work done during the year mentions
many of the substances tried in France, the best of which are
" the copper mixture of Gironde ; David's powder ; Pode-
chard's powder ; mixture of sulphate of copper and plaster ;
cupric steatite (a bluish-white, unctuous powder, composed of
steatite and sulphate of copper) ; and sulphatine (a secret mix-
ture of sulphur, lime, sulphate of copper, and plaster)." Then
follows a "table showing results of experiments of Millardet
and David with mildew remedies in France in 1886."

A letter from M. G. Foex, of Montpellier, France, contains an
account of a meeting of the International Congress held in
Florence, Italy, during October. It says that the copper salts were
considered most valuable, and the formulas recommended were
those of the Bordeaux mixture (the copper mixture of Gironde,
page 27) ; eau celeste, Audoynaud process (page 30) ; and sul-
phated sulphur. In regard to the last substance the letter says
that "M. Theophile Skawinski, at Chateau Laujac, in Gironde,
and M. D. Cavazza, director of the school of viticulture at Alba
(Piedmont), have used successfully mixtures of pulverized sul-
phur with 8 to 10 per cent of sulphate of copper finely tritu-
rated." According to an official report of the meetings held in
Florence, the conclusions in respect to the remedies for the
mildew "were : (1) That gaseous remedies applied against the
peronospora have not given useful results; (2) that among
the remedies in the form of powder thus far tried the most eifi-

i Ann. Sept. U. S. Com. of Agric.t 1886, 95-138.

The Recommendations of 1886. 97

cacious are those in which sulphate of copper is used ; (3) that
the mixture of lime and ashes, and of lime and sulphur, have
not as yet given results sufficiently satisfactory to enable us to
recommend their use ; (4) among the liquid remedies, the milk
of lime prepared so as to make it convenient for application,
has proven quite satisfactory ; however, its use from a practical
and economical standpoint encounters in many places serious
difficulties ; (5) that the remedies most successful in the results
obtained are the mixed liquids or solutions containing sulphate
of copper."

This portion of the report closes with an article on Ska-
winski's powder as a fungicide, giving its history, composition,
and use. On the pages which follow are described several
fungi found upon the grape and also some occurring upon other
plants. Among the latter may be found an account of the cel-
ery leaf-blight which is of interest here on account of a remedy
which is mentioned for its prevention: "I would hesitate to
recommend the application of solutions containing the salts of
copper on this vegetable, for hygienic reasons. A solution of
penta-sulphuret of potassium, or liver of sulphur, 1 to 2 ounces
to a gallon of water, sprayed upon the plants at the first appear-
ance of the blight, may arrest its progress. This preparation
deserves a trial in this case." The use of this substance was
probably suggested by the English papers, which at this time
contained many accounts of its value for the control of certain
fungous diseases.

Remedies for the orange-leaf scab are also suggested, three
of the preparations named being, " a solution of bisulphide of
potassium, one-half ounce to a gallon of water ; the Grison
liquid . . . ; to 10 gallons of strong soap-suds add about a
pound of glycerine and one-half pint of carbolic acid."

Regarding the treatment of potato rot, only suggestions are
made. A trial of Podechard's powder, and of David's powder,
are recommended.

The curing of pear blight is looked upon as an almost
hopeless task, and unfortunately we are now little nearer the
solution of the problem than at that time. The report says
that "spraying offers little hope of success. . . . An experi-
ment tried during last season in spraying with a solution of
hyposulphite of soda, applied several times during the period

98 The Spraying of Plants.

of expansion of the buds, gave no evidence of beneficial
effects."

Although the Department of Agriculture was taking by far
the most active part in advancing the cause of the treatment of
fungous diseases, the work was not entirely confined to it. Early
in 1886 there is recorded1 an account of the Italian practice
of sprinkling lime upon grape foliage. The remedy consists
" simply of a lime wash made of 5 pounds fresh lime slaked with
24 gallons of water. The vines are sprinkled abundantly with
this wash from the middle of May to the middle of August, the
application being repeated five or six times in all."

Goff continued his experiments in the use of the hyposul-
phite of soda, applying it, in 1886, upon apples and pears. His
work of the preceding year was verified in the case of the
apple, but the results from pear trees were less striking, only a
slight difference occurring in favor of the sprayed half. The
material was also applied to pears for the blight, with entirely
negative results.2

During the spring of 1886, " B. F. J." wrote an account which,
at present, appears like a prophecy ; for it has taken scientists
several years to learn the fact which at that time was not
known to exist. The writer, after speaking of the use of a 1 per
cent solution of blue stone, and of a 10 per cent solution with
lime enough to make a thin paste, for the control of grape dis-
eases, reasons that the copper sulphate solutions should be ap-
plied to potatoes " threatened with mildew or rot. . . . But if,
in the event of the appearance of the Colorado beetle, Paris
green (arsenite of copper) extended in 50 times its bulk of fine,
ground land plaster be applied to potato vines as often as
needed to destroy the insects, old and young, it will be worth
the while to ascertain if mildew makes its appearance in fields
so treated. It is believed by the writer that little or nothing
will be seen of mildew or rot under such circumstances, and if,
after the bugs have disappeared, the Paris green and plaster are
continued, the vines will resist to the end." 8

Whether the above was founded on experience or not, it does

1 Country Gentleman, 1886, Feb. 4, 88.

« Ann. Kept. N. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sta. 1886, 174.

» Country Gentleman, 1886, May 27, 405.

Spraying in 1887. 99

not alter the fact that, even at this time, Paris green was believed
to have some value as a fungicide, and this is probably the first
statement of a fact which was not generally conceded until defi-
nite experiments made by trained men had established its truth.
Such are the most important events of the year 1886. The
main feature of the work was the spreading of information, and
the recommending of lines of treatment to be followed. Little
actual work was done.

The work of 1887 was of the same nature, for the results of
scarcely an experiment made in this country were published.
Each one appeared to wait for someone else to try the reme-
dies, so that there might be no doubt about the successful issue
of later experiments. The United States Department of Agri-
culture apparently had no plantations in which to work, for,
in the annual report of the chief of the Section of Vegetable
Pathology, more recommendations appear than do the results
of actual field tests. The results of the French experiments are
still freely drawn upon, and they form the basis of the recom-
mendations. Most of the work done in this country was under
the direction of the Department of Agriculture, which is deserv-
ing of praise for thus bearing the brunt of a movement which,
with characteristic conservatism, has not been immediately
adopted by the bulk of the agricultural population.

Circular No. 3 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology appeared
in April, 1887. Its subject was the " Treatment of the Downy
Mildew and Black Rot of the Grape." The value of copper
sulphate was placed above that of all compounds in which
no copper appeared, and formulas were given for the manufac-
ture of the following : the simple solution of sulphate of copper,
1 pound of the salt being dissolved in 25 gallons of water ; eau
celeste (Audoynaud process) ; copper mixture of Gironde, or
Bordeaux mixture, 16 pounds sulphate of copper, 30 pounds of
lime, 28 gallons of water, this being a more dilute mixture than
that recommended in 1886 ; and it is also stated that " some
have reduced the ingredients to 2 pounds of sulphate of copper,
and 2 pounds of lime to 22 gallons of water, and have obtained
good results." Directions are also given for the manufacture
of David's powder, and of sulphatine, the directions for the
latter being to "mix 2£ pounds of anhydrous sulphate of

100 The Spraying of Plants.

copper with 15 pounds of triturated sulphur, and 10 pounds
of air-slaked lime."

Circular No. 4 appeared in July ; it was entitled " Treatment
of the Potato and Tomato for the Blight and the Rot." Among
the formulas given, only two require notice. That for the Bor-
deaux mixture produced a still more dilute preparation. The
directions were to " dissolve 4 pounds of sulphate of copper in
16 gallons of water ; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime
in 6 gallons of water." This was a decided improvement on
the formula published during the preceding April. Among
the dry applications is found a " Blight powder " ; this was
made by mixing " 3 pounds of anhydrous sulphate of copper
with 97 pounds flowers of sulphur." It has not come into
general use.

The annual report of the Section of Vegetable Pathology for
1887 l is full of suggestion and encouragement. The white rot
and the bitter rot of grapes are described, they having been
identified in this country for the first time. Copper compounds
are recommended for their treatment. New formulas are intro-
duced, as the old ones had not given satisfaction in all cases.
The manufacture of eau celeste is described as follows :

"In 2 gallons of hot water, dissolve 1 pound sulphate of
copper ; in another vessel dissolve 2 pounds ordinary carbonate
of soda ; mix the two solutions, and, when all reaction has
ceased, add 1| pints of liquid ammonia ; when desired for use,
dilute to 22 gallons." 2 This preparation has become better
known under the name " modified eau celeste."

To prevent injury to the young shoots, the following solution
is recommended : u Dissolve 1 pound sulphate of copper in a
gallon of hot water, to this solution add liquid ammonia, a little
at a time, until all the copper is precipitated ; the liquid is then
turbid and blue in color. Add 2 or 3 gallons of water, and let
stand to settle. Then pour off the clear liquid which contains
sulphate of ammonia — the compound which causes the burn-
ing of the leaves. Then pour upon the precipitate left in the
vessel just enough liquid ammonia to dissolve it. ... When
required for use dilute to 22 gallons." 3

1 Ann. Bept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 188T, 323-397.

2 Formula of M. Masson, Progres Agricole, 1887, July.
» Progres Agricole et Viticole, 1888, April 29.

Spraying in

The last formula of the year for making the Bordeaux mix-
ture is introduced by a statement that " considerable latitude
is allowed in quantity of lime and copper sulphate in the Bor-
deaux mixture, but the amount of the latter ought not to fall
below 4 per cent. The most recently recommended formula for
the preparation of this compound is 4 pounds of sulphate of
copper, 2 pounds lime, 25 gallons water." 1

The report also contains a description of the strawberry-
leaf blight with directions for treatment. Regarding the lat-
ter point, the work done in the laboratory showed " that these
conidia will not germinate in very dilute solutions of hyposul-
phite of soda or sulphate of copper. It is a simple matter to
apply similar solutions to the plants in the field, where it is only
reasonable to suppose they will have a like action on the repro-
ductive bodies in question." The hyposulphite of soda solution
was made by dissolving 1 pound of the salt in 10 gallons of
water. One form of copper solution, recommended for the first
time in America, was thus prepared: "In 1 quart of liquid
ammonia dissolve 3 ounces of carbonate of copper, then dilute
to 20 gallons." This was here called the ammoniacal carbonate
of copper.

Regarding the treatment of apples for the scab, are the
following statements : " Experiments already made with the
sulphate of copper solutions indicate that they will, when prop-
erly applied, at once check the scab. . . . The following course
of treatment is suggested :

" 1. In early spring, before the buds have commenced to
expand, spray the trees thoroughly with a solution of sulphate
of iron, using 4 pounds of iron sulphate to 4 gallons of water.

" 2. As soon as the fruit has set, apply the Bordeaux mix-
ture or one of the modified preparations of eau celeste.

" 3. If the weather should be such as to favor the develop-
ment of the scab fungus, a third application should be made
two or three weeks after the second, using the same materials."

The chloride of iron or some other fungicide is suggested for
preventing the rust of beets. The anthracnose of the raspberry
and the blackberry is supposed to be amenable to treatment as
well as that of the grape, and the same practice of washing the

1 Viala and Ferrouillat, " Manuel pratique pour le Traitement des Maladies de la
Yigne," second edition, 1888, 27.

j ; fJib: ^paying of Plants.

dormant canes with the sulphate of iron solution is recom-
mended. When the plants are in leaf, the Bordeaux mixture
should be substituted for the solution. In treating beans for the
anthracnose, solutions of the liver of sulphur are most prized,
as less danger is connected with their use. Treatments of the
following plants for fungous diseases are also recommended,
the copper compounds being particularly advised : catalpa, for
leaf spot ; rose, for black spot ; rose rust, for which the chloride
of iron is preferred, it having been reported as of value in the
treatment of a coffee disease ; and gooseberry, for mildew. The
Grison liquid is also mentioned.

The work of controlling plant diseases, other than that
planned by the United States Department of Agriculture, was
conspicuous by its absence. The agricultural journals occa-
sionally copied parts of the government reports, or made recom-
mendations, but scarcely a record of individual efforts can be
found. The various State stations already established were
also inert, with a single exception. Goff was continuing the
work he had begun in 1885, and this year, 1887, treated apple
trees with the hyposulphite of soda, and with the Audoynaud's
eau celeste. The former proved as satisfactory as in preceding
years. The latter, however, was too strong for the foliage, one
application causing decidedly injurious effects. The fruits on
portions that were sprayed three times dropped from the trees
before maturity.1 These experiments may have formed the
basis of the remarks in the report of the Section of Vegetable
Pathology regarding the injury caused by eau celeste, for I can
find no other account of the use of this fungicide during the
year upon apples. Arthur also reports marked success in the
use of the sulphide of potassium in the treatment of gooseberry
mildew, the solution being used at the rate of one-half ounce
of the chemical to one gallon of water.2

After the establishment of the government experiment sta-
tions, most of which were organized in 1888, the bulk of the
work done to advance the methods of controlling plant diseases
was carried on by the stations and by the Department of Agri-
culture at Washington, the work of the Section of Vegetable
Pathology being especially thorough. The published reports

i Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sta. 188T, 99-101. * Ibid. 348.

Spraying in 1888 and 1889. 103

of these experiments have taken the lead in the endeavors to
overcome fungi affecting cultivated plants, and they are a record
in which may be found the gradually lengthening list of plant
diseases which have succumbed. It is impossible to give the
details of the enormous amount of the work done each year,
so only the more important contributions will be noted.

A bulletin of particular value to grape growers was issued by
the Agricultural Department in 1888. It records the results of
many experiments made in 1887 in the use of the several for-
mulas published in Circular No. 3 of the Section of Vegetable
Pathology. The downy mildew and the black rot are the two
diseases controlled. The Bordeaux mixture proved to be the
most satisfactory remedy.1

The report of the Section of Vegetable Pathology for 1888,2
Professor B. T. Galloway having been appointed chief of the
Section in November, contains a long list of diseases which
were studied and treated. Mention is made of various diseases
of the grape ; the downy mildew of potatoes ; tomato black-rot,
and a form of blight ; brown rot and powdery mildew of cher-
ries ; leaf blight and cracking of the pear ; rose-leaf spot ; plum
pockets ; apple rusts ; leaf spot of maples ; a sycamore disease ;
cotton wood-leaf rust ; peach yellows ; and notes on celery-leaf
blight. This list well represents the energy which was displayed
in America in combating all fungous diseases as soon as the
proper methods were supplied. The study of fungi was vigor-
ously carried on by many investigators, and a firm basis for
experimental work was thus established.

Early in 1889 the same department published a bulletin in
which several plant diseases and the methods of their treatment
are mentioned.3 Applications of the sulphide of potassium so-
lution, or of modified eau celeste, were advised for the treatment
of the apple scab, and the same remedies, or other fungicides
then known, were named in connection with apple rust and
bitter rot. The black rot of grapes was successfully treated in
1888 by Colonel A. W. Pearson, Vineland, N.J., who made
experiments under the direction of the commissioner of agri-

1 Scribner, U. 8. Dept. Agric. Bol. Div. Bull. 5.

* Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1888, 325-404.

3 Galloway, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bot. Div. Bull. 8, 45-67.

104 The Spraying of Plants.

culture. The Bordeaux mixture proved to be most satisfactory,
and the following formula for its manufacture is given :

"Dissolve 6 pounds of sulphate of copper in 16 gallons of
water ; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime in 6 gallons of
water." The two liquids were then slowly mixed and the
preparation was ready for use. This formula is the one which
at first was most widely recommended.

The methods of treating the rust of melons consisted in the
use of a carefully prepared eau celeste, only enough ammonia
being added to precipitate the copper. The liquid was then
poured off, and ammonia added to the copper sediment remain-
ing in the bottom of the vessel until all the copper was again
dissolved. One pound of the sulphate of copper so treated was
sufficient for twenty-two gallons of water. Hyposulphite of
soda and also the sulphide of potassium were suggested for the
prevention of bean anthracnose.

Bulletin 11 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology gives an
account of some of the work done in the treatment of plant
diseases during the year 1889. In addition to the various
diseases which had already received attention, the following
are named : leaf blight of the pear and of the quince ; rusts of
the peach, plum, quince, and blackberry ; leaf blight of the
strawberry and of the blackberry ; and the rot and the blight of
tomatoes. In the annual report of the Section1 additional
mention is made of the treatment of several apple diseases,
including the important experiments of Taft, Goff, and Hatch
on the apple-scab fungus. The account of the treatment of
nursery stock for the powdery mildew is also interesting.
Pear stock was treated for the leaf blight, and these experi-
ments may be considered as being the first directed towards the
protection of nursery stock. The nurseries of Franklin Davis
& Co., situated twenty miles north of Washington, were used in
these experiments. The following year the first applications
on cherry stocks were made, the disease treated being that
commonly known as leaf blight. In later years the treatment
of nursery stock became one of the leading features of the
work of the Section.

It was during 1889 that the government experiment stations
began to report the results of work in the treatment of plant
» Ann. Kept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1889, 397-432.

Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides. 105

diseases. In October, Xeale published1 an account of work
done in Delaware vineyards. The Bordeaux mixture was used
with an estimated saving of $65.25 per acre. Stained fruit
was cleaned by placing it in wire baskets which were dipped
in diluted vinegar. The fruit was allowed to remain here a
few moments, and then dried on wire frames.

An important article written by Weed appeared the following
month.2 He conceived the idea of applying insecticides and
fungicides together, and the statement is made that "a con-
siderable number of experiments with this end in view have
been carried on during the season with very satisfactoiy
results." One of these experiments was designed to control
the brown rot of stone fruits. A plum orchard was treated
for this disease as follows : " We sprayed the trees early in
April (April 16), before the leaves came out, with a simple
solution of copper sulphate; and twice during May (loth and
25th), the first with London purple alone, the second with a
combination of London purple and the Bordeaux mixture,
which treatment was repeated June 1. No further applica-
tions were made, except to one tree, which was sprayed with
the Bordeaux mixture July 16." Fairly satisfactory results
were obtained from the applications.

The Bordeaux mixture was also applied to apple trees for the
prevention of the scab, but the results were decidedly against
the use of this fungicide for the treatment of the disease, a
result which, it is scarcely necessary to say, has not been
verified in late years. The black rot of the grape, and the
quince-leaf spot, were more successfully controlled by the same
remedy.

Maynard tried a combination of Paris green and a solution of
copper sulphate upon potatoes. The growth of foliage was
checked, but the blight was not so serious upon the treated
as upon the untreated portions.3

At the time that Gillette was experimenting with mixtures
of the arsenites and lime (see page 76), he also used the Bor-
deaux mixture in place of pure lime, with such success that

1 Del. Affric. Exp. Sta. 1SS9, Bull. 6.

2 Ohio Agric. Escp. Sta. second series, Vol. ii. 1SS9, BulL 7, 186. See also
Agricultural Science, Vol. iii. 18S9, 263.

s Jfass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, Jan. Bull. 7, 12.

106 The Spraying of Plants.

the use of the combination rapidly gained favor. One of the
conclusions reached was that " London purple (Paris green and
white arsenic have not yet been tried) can be used at least eight
or ten times as strong without injury to foliage if applied in
common Bordeaux mixture instead of water." Later experi-
ments have shown that Paris green can be applied in the same
manner with greater safety than when pure water is used.

Although the smuts of grain are not best treated by spraying,
still these diseases are sufficiently connected with the subject in
hand to allow the mention of some work done by Kellerman
and Swingle.1 In 1889 the work was mainly verifying the
methods proposed by Professor Jensen, of Copenhagen, Den-
mark, for the treatment of the various grain smuts. The
following year fifty-one methods for treating the stinking smut
of wheat were tried. " Of all the treatments tested, the Jensen,
or hot-water method, is probably the best for general use,
although in our experiments it did not prevent all the smut"
(see Part II. under OATS).

Halsted published a report in 1889 which proved to be the
beginning of an important series.2 This first publication con-
tained notes on diseases of the potato, grape, cranberry, cucum-
ber, sweet potato, and lilac, those of the cranberry having
already been mentioned in Bulletin 64 of the station. The
reader is referred to later reports by the same investigator for
the descriptions and methods of treatment of a great many dis-
eases of plants cultivated out of doors, and also of those grown
under glass. The reports are especially rich in the accounts of
diseases affecting greenhouse plants, and those commonly grown
by florists.

During 1890, Maynard continued his work on the combina-
tions of insecticides and fungicides.3 He used the ammoniacal
carbonate of copper together with Paris green. The foliage
was in all cases seriously injured, and the fungicide appeared to
lose its- value when used in this manner. Later experiments
have generally agreed with this result, and such a combi-
nation has not been used in common practice. Kerosene had

1 Kansas Agric. Exp. Sta. 1889, Oct. Bull. 8, and 1890, Aug. Bull. 12.

2 Ann. Sept. IT. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1889, 221-239.

» Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Jan. Bull. 11, 18.

Spraying in 1890. 107

been tried for the destruction of the black knot of plums, but
injury was liable to be done to the small growths, for the oil
spread to other places than those on which it had been applied.
The recommendation is therefore made that the oil be mixed
with some pigment to form a thin paste, and this is then to be
spread over the newly forming knots. Very satisfactory results
had followed the use of the remedy, the knots being destroyed
without injury to the sound tissues. The applications were
made with a brush.

The Agricultural Department at Washington was conducting
work in the treatment of diseases of the grape, apple, pear,
quince, raspberry, hollyhock, and cotton. Comparative tests of
fungicides were also made, and a new one known as mixture
No. 5 was considered as having special merit. " It consists of
equal parts of ammoniated sulphate of copper [see page 117] and
carbonate of ammonia thoroughly mixed and put up in air-tight
tin cans."1 It was used at the rate of 12 ounces in 22 gallons
of water, but this proved injurious to the foliage of cherry,
peach, blackberry, and young grape shoots.

Chester, of the Delaware station, made some important
experiments in the treatment of grape diseases.2 The fun-
gicides tested were the " ammoniated carbonate of copper," or
the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate ; the carbonate of
copper and the carbonate of ammonia mixture, a compound
first used by this station, and prepared by mixing together 3
ounces of carbonate of copper and 1 pound of pulverized car-
bonate of ammonia, and then dissolving in 2 quarts of hot
water, after which the solution can be diluted to 50 gallons ;
the precipitated carbonate of copper ; the Bordeaux mixture ;
modified eau celeste ; and mixture No. 5, of the United States
Department of Agriculture. While all the conclusions drawn
from the work have not been fully substantiated in after years,
the publication did much to demonstrate the practicability and
financial success of proper applications of fungicides. The Bor-
deaux mixture was recommended as being perhaps the best to
use early in the season, but when danger of staining the fruit
arose, the use of the carbonate of copper and carbonate of
ammonia solution, or of the modified eau celeste, was recom-

1 Galloway, Ann. Eept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1890, 402. See also p. 160.
* Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, Bull. 10.

108 The Spraying of Plants.

mended. The precipitated carbonate of copper was thought
to be valuable as a fungicide, but it has since fallen from
favor.

Professor L. R. Jones, of Vermont, began work upon potato
diseases in 1890, and since that time valuable reports have been
published by him regarding the various diseases of this crop.
In the annual report of the station for that year may be found
a condensed account of the work upon potatoes as well as upon
the diseases of other plants.1

In Galloway's report for the year 2 1890 is the statement :
" In treating the disease [leaf blight of pear, cherry, and straw-
berry] the present season, the best results were obtained from
the use of the ammoniacal copper carbonate and the Bordeaux
mixture. As far as the efficacy of the two fungicides is con-
cerned, there is little choice. The ease with which the ammo-
niacal solution is prepared and applied, however, makes it more
desirable in the end." These two fungicides were at the time
generally considered to be the best.

In 1891, Galloway published an account of the use of Bordeaux
mixture made of different strengths, and the results obtained
showed that for grape diseases it was not necessary to use as
much copper sulphate and lime as the formula given in Circular
4 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology called for. " There
was little difference between the plats treated early with full-
strength and those treated in the same way with the half-
strength mixture." 3 The " half-strength " was made by using
one-half the amount of materials called for by what has later
been termed the " standard " formula mentioned in Circu-
lar 4, the amount of water used remaining the same. The
half-strength or " normal " formula was soon very generally
adopted.

Goff in 1891 established the fact that Paris green possesses
marked fungicidal value, especially during dry seasons.4 Later
experiments made by Lodeman have shown that the poison is

1 Ann. Kept. Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, 129-144. See also Bull. 24 of the same
station for more detailed descriptions.

2 Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1890, 393^08.
» Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1891, 367.

* Ibid. 364 ; and Ann. Rept. Wis. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891-92, 264.

Spraying in 1891. 109

of value in wet seasons as well ; l and it is at present considered
as possessing more value to the apple grower than any other
single compound which he has at his command for checking
fungous and insect enemies.

It is singular that while our most reliable insecticide, Paris
green, is found to possess value as a fungicide, the Bordeaux
mixture, which is probably our best fungicide, should possess
a marked insecticidal value. In some notes which appeared in
the Journal of Mycology (Vol. vii. 27), Hatch, of Ithaca, Wis.,
says that in treating potatoes it was noticed that plants sprayed
with the Bordeaux mixture suffered less from insects than
those used as checks, and "it would thus appear that where
the mixture is used for rot and blight it may also be efficient
as an insecticide." Professor Jones, of Vermont, gave still more
positive information of the same nature at the Brooklyn meet-
ing of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science,2
although his remarks applied particularly to injuries from the
flea beetle. Beets were protected in a similar manner. Gallo-
way writes me as follows regarding the experience of the
government experimenters : " We also had a striking case a few
years ago in treating a large vineyard. The leaves on the
plants of our check plats were all badly eaten by the grape-vine
fidia, while those adjacent, sprayed with Bordeaux mixture,
were not touched at all." 3

In 1891 Chester made a comparative test of some fungicides
which at that time seemed to be of value, but which were not
in general use.4 Applications were made to pear trees, the fol-
lowing formulas being used for preparing the fungicides :

C. Copper carbonate 1 pound.

Water 25 gallons.

G. Copper sulphate 8 ounces.

Soda hyposulphite 14 "

Water 25 gallons.

1 Cornell Agric. Escp. Sta. Bull. 48, 272.

* Agricultural Science, Vol. viii. 364-367.

s See Ann. Rept. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, 40 (distributed early in 1895),
for experiments made by Garman on tobacco worms, grasshoppers, and potato
beetles, in 1889, these being the first of this nature ; also Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 86, 58, for the prevention of insect injuries to apples ; Ann. Sept. Vt. Agric.
Exp. Sta. 1S94, 12, 81, 95 et seq.

* Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1892, Bull. 15, 5.

110 The Spraying of Plants.

H. Johnson's mixture : 1

Copper sulphate 8 ounces

Ammonium carbonate I pound.

Water 25 gallons.

I. Copper carbonate 8 ounces.

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound.

Water 25 gallons.

A. Copper carbonate 3 ounces.

Ammonia 26° 1 quart.

Water 25 gallons.

B. Copper carbonate 3 ounces.

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound.

Hot water 2 quarts.

Water to dilute to 25 gallons.

D. Copper sulphate 6 pounds.

Quicklime 4 "

Water 25 gallons.

E. Copper sulphate 1 pound.

Sal-soda 11 pounds.

Ammonia 1 pint.

Water 25 gallons.

After two years' trial of the above, the formulas D, E, and I
were shown to be the most effective. D, or the Bordeaux mix-
ture, exerted no injurious action on the foliage nor on the
fruit ; E, or the modified eau celeste, had but slight action on
the foliage ; while preparation I had little or no action on foli-
age or fruit. This really implies that the Bordeaux mixture
was as effective as any fungicide used, and that it proved to be
the safest as well. The only objection raised to it was the
difficulty of making the applications. The other preparations
were either of less fungicidal value, or they injured foliage.

Since 1892 exhaustive experiments have been conducted by
the United States Department of Agriculture for the prevention
of rusts affecting wheat and other cereals. In that year, eleven
preparations were applied, two being in the form of powder;
the remainder were liquid, and were sprayed upon the plants or

1 This fhngicide was so called from the fact that Dr. S. W. Johnson first pro-
posed its use in the Ann. Kept, of the, Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, 113. It never
came into general use.

Spraying in 1892. Ill

were applied to the soil. The materials used were the Bordeaux
mixture, the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, ferrous
ferrocyanide mixture, copper borate mixture, ferric chloride
solution, ferrous sulphate solution, cupric ferrocyanide mixture,
cupric hydroxide mixture, potassium sulphide solution, flowers
of sulphur, and sulphosteatite. Although these were applied
in various ways, the results were in no case favorable for en-
couraging the use of fungicides in controlling such diseases,1
and later experiments have, on the whole, verified the results
then obtained. The same report also contains a list of twenty-
five different mixtures which were applied to pear nursery stock
at Geneva, N.Y., the number including various compounds of
copper, iron, and zinc. The copper compounds proved to be
the most efficient in preventing leaf blight, and no compound
was found which has proved to be preferable to the Bordeaux
mixture.

One of the most important advances of the year 1894 was
made by Bailey.1 In treating a quince orchard with the
Bordeaux mixture it was found that the rust (Rcestelia
aurantiacci) " was certainly less prevalent in the sprayed por-
tion of Colonel Bowmen's orchard [Medina, N.Y.] than in the
unsprayed part."

Many valuable experiments have been made, and many im-
portant results obtained, which cannot be named in this brief
account of the ever-widening use of insecticides and fungicides;
yet one other disease is of sufficient importance to require
special mention. The black knot of plums and cherries is con-
tinually threatening the profitable cultivation of these fruits,
and in some localities the disease has forced growers to aban-
don their culture on account of the death of the trees.

Maynard has recorded3 an experiment in which certain plum
trees were sprayed with copper sulphate solution early in the
season, and later with the Bordeaux mixture, the last treatment
being made July 29. The conclusion drawn from the experi-
ment was that "the number of warts was very decidedly less
where treated with the copper mixture than where untreated,

1 Galloway, Ann. Sept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1892, 216 et seq. Fairchild, Jour, of
Mycology, Vol. vii. No. 8, 240.

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 80, 627.

3 Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Bull. 11, 19.

112 The Spraying of Plants.

. . . and we believe that the plum wart may be held in check
by the use of this remedy." This note attracted but little
attention, and four years later, when the Cornell station pub-
lished a bulletin x on the same subject, scarcely a person appears
to have adopted the remedy. The Cornell experiments were
carried on during two seasons, and they showed conclusively
that the disease can be treated successfully and profitably by
the use of the Bordeaux mixture.

II. IN CANADA.

Canada was active in taking advantage of the knowledge
gained in the United States and in Europe. The experiments
of Saunders in destroying the potato beetle were made soon
after the discovery of the value of Paris green (see page 60).
Through the kindness of Professor Craig, of Ottawa, I have
been able to collect the following data regarding the early use
of insecticides and fungicides in the provinces. He writes that
" as far as I know G. W. Cline, of Winona, Ontario, and J. K.
McMichael, of Waterford, Ontario, were the pioneers among
the practical orchardists in the work of applying insecticides."
In reply to a letter, the last-named gentleman kindly writes as
follows : " I commenced spraying about the spring of 1883 with
a small force-pump, using a number of ingredients, as an experi-
ment to destroy fungi on pear trees.2 In the spring of 1887, I
bought a large double-acting force-pump, and sprayed my apple
and pear trees with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which
I first used in 1885 to destroy fungi, and obtained fairly good
results. For canker-worm and other insects I used Paris green.
For a few years I sprayed with the carbonate of copper to
destroy fungi on the leaves and fruit of apples and pears, but
recently the sulphate of copper has been applied for the same
purpose." Since neither Mr. McMichael nor Professor Craig
know of any grower in Ontario who sprayed any earlier than
is stated in the above letter, we may conclude that the former
was the first, or at least one of the first, to make such appli-
cation in that province.

i Lodeman, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 81.

* See Ann, Kept. Fruit Grower*1 Ass'n of Ont. 1889, 86. Mention is here
made of the application of hyposulphite of soda in IbSL

Spraying in Canada. 113

I am also indebted to Mr. R. W. Starr, of Wolfville, Nova
Scotia, who has taken the pains to write so complete an outline
of this branch of horticultural work in the Eastern section of
Canada, that the letter is given below in full:

"I can scarcely give dates as to when spraying was first
adopted in this province, as the practice has grown up from
small beginnings with the fine rose watering-pot and garden-
syringe, using solutions of whale-oil soap, tobacco, or hellebore
to destroy the currant and gooseberry worm, and thrips on the
rose bushes. These methods wrere in use by the late Hon. C. R.
Prescott as early as in the forties at least, and I can remem-
ber some experiments of his with tobacco and the soap solution
to drive the curculio from his plums, but this was afterwards
abandoned for the malet and sheet.

"In 1875, Mr. A. S. Harris, of Port Williams, who had been
fighting canker-worms for two years with poor success, got a
small brass hand-pump with single and double orifice nozzle
from Xew York. With this he sprayed his trees, using Paris
green, 1 teaspoonf ul to 10 quarts of water. This was so suc-
cessful that the next year every one who was troubled with
the canker-worm provided himself with a pump and arsenites.
Since then the use of the spray has been continuous where
needed, large, powerful pumps fitted to casks or tanks and
placed upon wagons being used for the purpose. The first of
these was gotten up by myself in 1880. I used a common brass
cylinder lift and force pump fitted with suction and delivery
hose. With this I tried nearly every kind of nozzle made ;
some are good and some are worthless. The Vermorel as it
is now made is, I think, the best for all purposes.

" During the past four years spraying has assumed a much
more important place in our fruit industry than formerly. B}r
using the Bordeaux mixture and other fungicides with Paris
green, and spraying early and frequently, we find that we can
keep in check the black scab on the apple and pear, and the
black knot and rot of the plum, as well as destroy the insect
pests that seem to have been increasing proportionately as fast
as the fruit trees."

Some of the first Canadian publications regarding the use of
fungicides appeared in 1888.1 Then appeared formulas for

* Ann. Hept. Fruit Growers' Asfn, 1838, 105, 152.
I

114 The Spraying of Plants.

making the eau celeste and the original Bordeaux mixture as
first prepared in this country- The latter was given by Dr.
Blley, while the former was copied from one of the United
States government reports.

In the annual report of the Canadian Experimental Farms
for 1890, there is an account of experiments made by Professor
Craig for the control of the apple-scab fungus. The copper
compounds were here used, and he writes me that "the first
work done in Canada on this line was in 1890, under my direc-
tion, at Abbotsford, Province of Quebec. ... It is safe to say
that the Experimental Farm system has led the work in the
practical application of fungicides in Canada. This year
[1894] quite a large proportion of our most progressive fruit
growers are using Bordeaux mixture in the Hamilton and
Grimsby districts of Ontario, the Island of Montreal, the east-
ern townships of Quebec, and the Annapolis valley of Nova
Scotia. In British Columbia, where insects are more injurious
thus far than fungous diseases, spraying for the destruction of
those foes is more generally practiced than for the prevention
of fungous diseases."

The following year a bulletin * appeared in which were pub-
lished methods for treating the apple-scab fungus, the downy
mildew of the grape, gooseberry mildew, and there were also
given directions for making the carbonate of copper, the copper
sulphate solution, the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and the
sulphide of potassium solution. This bulletin was soon fol-
lowed by another 2 report from the same author, in which were
mentioned combinations of the ammoniacal copper carbonate
with Paris green, and the copper carbonate in suspension and
Paris green.

Early in 1891 Fletcher published a bulletin3 in which were
mentioned a great many injurious insects, and information was
given regarding the preparation and use of various insecticides.
The annual report of the stations for 1891 also contains matter
of a similar nature, and thus Canada took her place in the list
of those countries engaged in the task of overcoming the in-
numerable parasites of cultivated plants.

1 Craig, Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1891, Bull. 10.

2 Ann. Kept. Exp. Farms, 1891, 144-148.

a Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1891, Bull. 2.

CHAPTER IV.

THE MATERIALS AND FORMULAS USED IN SPRAYING.

No attempt has been made to render the following list of
materials and formulas complete. Such a record would require
many more pages than can here be devoted to the subject, and
in the end the result would be of little value, since the majority
of the substances named would be such as have been found to
possess no real worth and have in consequence been discarded.
But many of the materials formerly recommended did possess
merit, and the principal reason for their abandonment has been
that other and more effective substances have been brought
forward, with the natural result that the first was displaced by
the newcomer. Such formulas are frequently interesting as
showing the steps which have been taken in the development
of preparations now recognized as the best, and they may also
assist in doing away with the idea that a fungicide or insecticide
must be made in accordance with a certain definite formula in
order to be effective. Nearly all the following directions will
bear considerable modification? and while it is highly desirable
that the rules be followed as closely as possible, since they have
been formulated after much experience, minor changes may be
made with comparative safety, and good results will still follow.
The cost of the more important substances is given ; the first
figure refers to the wholesale price, while the second one gen-
erally refers to the price when the article is bought at retail.

ACETO-ARSEXITE OF COPPER. See Paris Green, page 121.

ALCOHOL. — A 30 per cent solution of alcohol when applied
in the form of a spray is useful in destroying aphis in green-
houses and in dwellings where the use of other methods is not
advisable. See also PYRETHRUM.

115

116 The Spraying of Plants.

ALUM AND PYKETHRUM. —

Alum 2 ounces.

Pyrethrum 3 large tablespoonfuls.

Water 10 gallons.

First dissolve the alum, after which the powder may be
added. This mixture has been recommended as possessing
special value in destroying cabbage worms. The applications
are made by means of a watering-can or sprayer when the
caterpillars are first seen.

AMMONIA ; AQUA AMMONIA ; HARTSHORN ; VOLATILE AL-
KALI; NH3, THE GAS; NHJIO, DISSOLVED IN WATER. —
Although ammonia alone possesses no practical value as an in-
secticide or as a fungicide, it is so frequently used in the prepa-
ration of the latter that it has interest in this connection. Am-
monia is the term popularly used to denote a solution of the
gas in water. It is a clear, colorless liquid, lighter than water,
and possessing an overpowering, pungent odor. It has a strong
alkaline reaction, and is a solvent of probably all the copper
compounds used in spraying. It is for this reason that the
article is of such importance in the preparation of certain
fungicides. Commercial ammonia varies greatly in strength,
but there are two methods of indicating its degree of concen-
tration. The older method is the one inaugurated by Beaume.
He used an instrument called a hydrometer, which showed the
specific gravity of liquids in accordance to an arbitrary scale
invented by himself. The following five items have been
selected from his table for testing liquids lighter than water.

In the first column are degrees taken from his scale ; the
second shows the specific gravity (G.) of the liquid as compared
with water; the third shows the per cent of the weight of
ammonia gas (% Wt.) as found in the liquids which register
the indicated degrees upon the scale. The figures in the second
and third columns form the standards of measurement now
used by most chemists :

Beaume, 16° indicates .960 G. or *9.8 % Wt.
" 20° " .936 " " 1(5.6 "
« 22° " .924 " " 20.4 "
i< 24° " .913 " " 24. "
" 20° " .901 " " 28.6 "

Materials and Formulas. 117

The 26° Beaume ammonia is the strong ammonia of com-
merce, and in the end it is the cheapest form to buy. The
liquid loses its strength very rapidly unless it is kept in
tightly closed vessels, bottles having glass stoppers being among
the best. It must be handled with extreme care, for the fumes
are so overpowering that serious consequences may result unless
the operator has at all times fresh air to breathe. Strong
ammonia is readily diluted with water to any desired extent.
Cost of 22° Beaume seven to twenty cents per pound.

AMMOXIATED COPPER SULPHATE. — According to the " United
States Pharmacopoeia " of 1870, this substance may be prepared
as follows : " Take of sulphate of copper half a Troy ounce ; car-
bonate of ammonium 360 grains. Rub them together in a glass
mortar until effervescence ceases. Then wrap the ammoniated
copper in bibulous paper, dry it with a gentle heat, and keep it
in a well stoppered bottle." The sixteenth edition of the " United
States Dispensary," 1877, contains the chemical reactions which
take place, and very complete information. When the prepara-
tion is exposed to the air it is said to part with the ammonia,
resulting in the formation of carbonate of copper and ammonium
sulphate. It has been used by the United States Department of
Agriculture in a preparation known as mixture No. 5.

ANALYSES of various substances are here inserted together
for sake of convenience of comparison (page 118). The table
is taken from the Massachusetts State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, report for 1893, page 378.

ARSENIC ; ARSENIOUS ACID ; ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE ;
WHITE ARSENIC ; WHITE OXIDE OF ARSENIC ; ARSENIC TRI-
OXIDE ; As2O3. — The element arsenic stands midway between
the metals and the non-metals. When pure it is a solid, having
a metallic lustre and a steel-gray color. It is but little used,
the compound commonly sold as arsenic being arsenic trioxide.
This is a white crystalline powder, which is gritty like sand.
It is soluble in cold water to the extent of 1 part in 100 ; boiling
water, however, dissolves 1 part in about 10 of water.

A solution of white arsenic has a caustic action upon foliage
if a sufficient amount of the poison is present. Danberry
records1 an experiment in which one hundred square feet of
young barley was watered with a solution of arsenious acid,

lJour. Chem. Soc. of London, 1862, Vol. xiv. 225.

118 The Spraying of Plants.

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Materials and Formulas. 119

made by dissolving 2 ounces in 10 gallons of water. After
six days the crop looked blighted, but the plants eventually
recovered. Most plants are seriously injured when not more
than one-fourth the above amount is used, and the solution for
this reason requires dilution to such an extent that its value as
an insecticide is largely destroyed.

Arsenious acid may also be the cause of the death of a plant
if applied in solution at the roots. Jager1 cites many cases in
which different plants were seriously injured or killed in this
manner, the action of the poison being to cause the entire plant
to wilt and finally to die. In one experiment, some young oat
plants were watered with a solution containing 1 part of arsenic
in 480 of water. The application was repeated a week later,
and two weeks from the beginning of the work most of the
plants were wilted to the ground, but some still remained fresh
and continued to grow.2 Cuttings also absorb arsenic with the
same result as when the poison enters through the roots, for a
chemical examination showed arsenic to be present in the
tissues.

In view of the above, arsenious acid or white arsenic cannot
be recommended as an insecticide. When combined with other
substances, however, it can be used with safety. Kilgore pub-
lished the following formula for combining arsenic and lime : 8
" A very cheap insecticide, having the same insecticidal proper-
ties as London purple, can be easily made by boiling together
for one-half hour in 2 to 5 gallons of water

White arsenic (commercial) 1 pound,

Lime [unslaked] 2 pounds,

and dilute to required volume, say 100 gallons. ... It is desir-
able that the lime should be present in the boiling solution of
white arsenic since it renders the latter insoluble as fast as it
goes into solution, thus reducing the volume of water, and
shortening the time for obtaining the arsenite. When the
white arsenic is dissolved alone, a larger volume of water and
more time are required. When lime is added the precipitation

1 Dr. Georg v. Jager, " Ueber die Wirkungen des Arseniks auf Pflanzen." Stutt-
gart, 1864.
a Ibid. 8, 9.
» N. C. Agric. Exp. Sla. 1891, July, Bull. 77 b, 7.

120 The Spraying of Plants.

goes on slowly, requiring more than twenty-four hours to reach
completion." This precipitate is the arsenite of lime, which is
the active principle of London purple:

In 1875 McMurtrie, then the chemist at the Agricultural
Department in Washington, conducted some experiments from
which he drew the following conclusion : " Plants have not the
power to absorb and assimilate from the soil compounds of
arsenic, and that though arsenical compounds exert an in-
jurious influence upon vegetation, yet this is without effect
until the quantity present reaches for Paris green about 900
pounds per acre ; for arsenite of potassa about 400 pounds per
acre; f or arseniate of potassa about 150 pounds per acre."1

ARSENATE OF LEAD; GYPSINE; PB3(AsO4)2. — Arsenate of
lead may be made by placing "11 ounces of acetate of lead and
4 ounces of arsenate of soda into a hogshead containing 150
gallons of water. These substances quickly dissolve and form
arsenate of lead, a fine white powder which remains in suspen-
sion in water." 2 If it is desired to make any variations in the
above, the poison can be prepared by using 29.93 per cent by
weight of arsenate of soda, and 70.07 of acetate of lead. These
may be dissolved separately, and when united the arsenate of
lead will be precipitated. This compound is much lighter than
Paris green and can be used with greater freedom, as it does
not injure foliage. The conclusions of Fernald in regard to
the amounts to use are that "some such proportions as 1, 1|,
or 2 pounds to 150 gallons of water would prove entirely satis-
factory," 8 and potato beetles were killed when but f of a pound
was used. At the Cornell Station this poison proved unsatis-
factory in the destruction of canker-worms 4 and of tent-cater-
pillars in 1895.

ARSENATE OF SODA; NA2HAsO4. — This material has also
been tried by Fernald, but it injured foliage and was not so
effectual in destroying insects as the other forms commonly
recommended. Its use for this purpose cannot be advised.5

ARSENITE OF COPPER ; SCHEELE'S GREEN ; CuHAsO3, or

1 Ann. Kept. IT. S. Com. of Agric. 1875, 147.

2 Fernald, Mass. Hatch Ag.ric. Exp. Sta. 1894, April, Bull. 24, 6.
» Ibid. 5.

* Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 101.

6 Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, April, Bull. 24, 8, 9.

Materials and Formulas. 121

Cu3(AsO3)2. — "This compound is to be had by adding an
aqueous solution of arsenic trioxide to an ammonia-copper sul-
phate solution ; this latter solution is prepared by adding am-
monia to a solution of copper sulphate until the precipitate
which is at first formed dissolves."1 During 1895, the writer
tested this arsenite, and the results showed that its value in
destroying the codlin-moth is far inferior to that of Paris
green, while its fungicidal action is probably greater than that
of any other compound of arsenic and copper. The United
States Department of Agriculture conducted a similar work
during the year, but a full account has not yet been published.

Paris Green; Schweinfurth' s Green; Emerald Green; Mitis
Green; French Green; Ac eto-ar senile of Copper ; (CuOAs2O3)3 —
Cu(C2H3O9)2. — Paris green may be prepared by making a boil-
ing solution of wrhite arsenic in one vessel, and a similar one
of acetate of copper (verdigris) in another. These two boiling
solutions are then combined, and Paris green is precipitated.
It appears as a more or less fine powder, having a beautiful
clear green color. It is practically insoluble in water, but dis-
solves readily in ammonia. It is for this reason that ammonia
forms such an excellent test for determining the purity of the
powder ; all sediment which the ammonia will not dissolve may
be considered as foreign matter.

Ehrmann has given the composition of pure Paris green to
be as follows : a

Copper oxide 31.29

Arsenious acid 58.65

Acetic acid 10.06

Most samples, even of the purest grades, show some variations
from the above.

Since very nearly all the arsenic found in Paris green is prac-
tically insoluble in water, it is true that this poison is the safest
insecticide now in general use. It will, nevertheless, injure
foliage, sometimes to a serious extent, if several applications
are made. The foliage of the stone fruits is particularly sus-
ceptible to this action, although even the apple will suffer. The

* Shepard, " Elements of Chemistry." 1885, 245.

2 Cited by Boss, Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, August, Bull. 58, 5.

122 The Spraying of Plants.

danger may be avoided by adding lime to the liquid in which
the poison is held, using equal parts of lime and arsenite, as is
also done with London purple. Paris green is heavier than the
latter, and must be more frequently stirred when in water.

Paris green possesses some value as a fungicide. This is
probably due to the presence of the copper. Although the
fungicidal value of the poison is, perhaps, only one-half as great
as that of the Bordeaux mixture, its protecting influence is
fairly strong, as has been shown by several investigators. It is
without doubt the most valuable single remedy that can be
used in an orchard, since it checks most insect injuries, and
reduces, to a marked degree, the losses occasioned by fungous
diseases, although it cannot be considered as a very energetic
fungicide.

Since Paris green contains less soluble arsenic, it can be used
with greater freedom than London purple, as there is less danger
of injuring the foliage. When the poison first came into use,
more of it was applied than was necessary for the destruction of
the insects. The amount has been reduced so that, at present,
the following may be accepted as a safe and effective mixture
for plants when only one or two applications are to be made.
The fine-grained powder is to be preferred, as it does not settle
so rapidly, and is more evenly distributed :

Paris green 1 pound.

Water 150-300 gallons.

The more concentrated mixtures should be used only upon
plants which are not easily injured, as the eggplant and the
potato; in other cases, when the insects are destroyed with
difficulty, lime should be added, using an amount equal in bulk
to that of the poison. It is always safer to make this addition,
even when the mixture is more dilute ; the amount of lime used
is so small that no clogging of the machinery will result, and
there is no danger of injuring the plants.

The action of lime in overcoming the caustic properties of the
compounds of arsenic has suggested the use of the Bordeaux
mixture in combination with these poisons, but especially with
London purple and with Paris green. These mixtures have
now been in use for several years, and they have, almost with-
out exception, given excellent results. The value neither of the

Materials and Formulas. 123

insecticide nor of the fungicide appears to be weakened, and
the presence of the lime in the Bordeaux mixture entirely pre-
vents any injury to foliage. The arsenites are mixed with
the fungicide in the same proportions as if clear water were
the diluent. Other combinations than the above are not so
satisfactory.1

When used dry, both London purple and Paris green may be
applied pure, provided a uniform and economical application
can* be made. It is, however, customary to mix the poisons
with flour, leached ashes, plaster, air-slaked lime, soot, and
similar substances, using 1 part of the insecticide to from 5 to 50
of the diluent, the required amount of the latter being less
when the two are thoroughly mixed and carefully applied.
But since the introduction of improved machinery, the liquid
applications are generally preferred. The price of Paris green
varies from eighteen to thirty cents per pound.

ARSENITE OF LIME ; CA3(AsO3) 2 (Normal). — An arsenite of
lime is formed when arsenious acid and lime are boiled together,
as already described under ARSENIC. About three-fourths of
London purple is made up of this material, according to analyses
made at the Cornell experiment station.2 The arsenite of
lime is insoluble in water, and is not injurious to foliage. As
an insecticide it is probably not surpassed by any compound of
arsenic; it is advisable to mix some coloring matter with the
poison to lessen the danger of mistaking it for some other
article.

English Purple Poison. — An analysis of this preparation
shows the total amount of arsenic trioxide to be 36.75 per cent
of the material. Of this amount, 14.58 per cent is soluble in
water. This insecticide has as yet been tested only to a limited
extent, but my own experience with it has been that the fol-
lowing proportions may be used with success against the potato
beetle, an insect which is destroyed with greater difficulty than
many other pests :

English purple poison 1 ounce.

Lime 1 "

Water 4 gallons.

1 See Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Dec. Bull._35, for accounts of experiments
in combining various fungicides and insecticides.

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sla. 1890, July, Bull. 18, 36.

124 The Spraying of Plants.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in mixing the
poison with water. Much of it floats upon the surface in the
form of bubbles, and it is almost impossible to wet all the poi-
son. When once thoroughly wet, it remains in suspension
fairly well. The color of the mixture is darker than that of
London purple.

London Purple. — The chemical composition of London pur-
ple is variable. Two analyses published by Bailey l are as fol-
lows : "1. Arsenic, 43.65 per cent; rose aniline, 12.46; lime,
21.82; insoluble residue, 14.57; iron oxide, 1.16; and water,
2.27. 2. Arsenic, 55.35 per cent; lime, 26.23; sulphuric acid,
.22 ; carbonic acid, .27 ; moisture, 5.29." Some samples show
that fully one-half of the arsenic is in a soluble condition, and
this easily explains the scorching of the foliage to which Lon-
don purple has been applied. In the manufacture of certain
dyes this substance appears as a waste product, which accounts
for the above variations. The finely divided condition of the
powder is one strong point in its favor. It remains sus-
pended in water a long time, and the liquids with which it is
mixed require comparatively little agitation. The value of Lon-
don purple does not rest in its coloring matter, for this can be
removed and the arsenite still be as effective as before. In
order to check the caustic action of the poison, it is well to add
an amount of lime fully equaling in weight that of the drug ;
the dissolved arsenic will then be converted into an insoluble
arsenite of lime.

The following formula indicates the manner of its use :

London purple 1 pound.

Lime 1 "

Water 200-300 gallons.

When less water is used, the amounts of the other ingredi-
ents should be reduced in proportion. In making applications,
the liquid should be stirred sufficiently to prevent the solid par-
ticles from settling to the bottom.

If London purple is used without lime, foliage is commonly
scorched when 1 pound in 200 gallons of water is used, but more
dilute mixtures will prove more satisfactory. This arsenite
should cost from six to fifteen cents per pound.

i Horticulturist's Rule-Book, third edition, 2.

Materials and Formulas. 125

Paris Purple. — This substance closely resembles English
purple poison, being of a very deep maroon color. Chemical
analysis shows 34.1 per cent of arsenic trioxide, 40.7 per cent of
this amount being soluble in water. It may be used in the
same manner as recommended for English purple poison, and
it is also defective from the fact that it does not mix readily
with water.

BENZINE. — Benzine has been used in the place of the
bisulphide of carbon for the destruction of insects infesting
seeds. It is not so energetic as the latter, so that larger quan-
tities of the liquid must be used.

BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. See CARBON BISULPHIDE.

BLIGHT POWDER. See SULPHATED SULPHUR.

BLUE STONE. See COPPER SULPHATE.

BLUE VITRIOL. See COPPER SULPHATE.

BORAX. — Borax, whether used as a powder or in a strong
solution, is of value in driving roaches and similar vermin from
the places they frequent. ^

BORDEAUX MIXTURE; COPPER MIXTURE OF GIRONDE;
COPPER SULPHATE AND LIME MIXTURE; MILLARDET MIX-
TURE. — The early history of this fungicide has already been
thoroughly discussed, as well as the first formulas adopted for
its manufacture. The chemical composition of the mixture is
by no means clear, for although at first thought it would
seem that the reactions which take place when the copper
sulphate solution and the milk of lime are brought in con-
tact with each other must be quite simple, still such is not the
case. The new compounds formed vary with the proportion of
the ingredients, and all who have observed the behavior of the
mixture must have noticed that it varies in color with the dif-
ferent amounts of lime added, sometimes being intensely blue,
again, much paler blue ; and frequently a greenish tinge will be
noticed, this being most marked when a small amount of lime
is present. Since the chemistry of the mixture has not yet
been accurately determined, it will be of little avail to discuss
the various theories regarding its composition, and only those
concerning which there is the most certainty may here be briefly
mentioned.

When the mixture was first studied, it was supposed that the
union of the two ingredients caused the formation of copper

126 The Spraying of Plants.

hydrate, water, and the sulphate of lime, in accordance with
the following reaction :

CuS04, 5H20 + CaOH20 = Cu(OH)2 + CaSO4 -f <5H2O.

copper sulphate crystals +water-slaked lime=copper hydrate+lime sulphate-fwater.

It was soon found, however, that these changes would not
account for the various phenomena noticed during its manufac-
ture. Careful observation has shown that when lime is added
to a certain point, the mixture assumes a greenish tinge, due
to the formation of precipitates, probably basic sulphates of
copper, in which this color predominates. It is a popular idea
that the addition of lime is necessary in order to neutralize any
free sulphuric acid which may be present. If such were the case,
the precipitate would be largely a sulphate of lime, with no hy-
droxide of copper. When lime is added to a solution of copper
sulphate, the latter compound is entirely broken up and new ones
formed. The presence of the basic sulphate of copper is thus
explained. When sufficient lime is added so that the copper
sulphate is entirely neutralized, most of the copper is probably
precipitated in the form of a hydrate. But at least one other
compound is sometimes formed in the Bordeaux mixture. This
appears most commonly when an excess of lime has been added
to a concentrated form of the mixture. It ma}7 be a double
basic sulphate of copper and lime, but so little work has been
done regarding its formation and action that no definite state-
ments can be made.

Whatever may be the composition of the Bordeaux mixture,
it is certain that all but a trace of the copper is in the form of
a precipitate or sediment which is practically insoluble in water.
This settles to the bottom, leaving a clear solution above. This
solution is of no value as a fungicide, for the sediment contains
all the compounds useful for this purpose, and therefore the
mixture should be kept thoroughly stirred that the sediment
may be uniformly applied.

But the reactions which take place in the Bordeaux mixture
do not cease when the material is applied to the plant. It is
well known that carbonic acid will cause considerable quanti-
ties of copper to enter into solution again if the acid comes in
contact with the copper sediment of the mixture. The chemi-

Materials and Formulas. 127

cal changes which take place have not been fully determined,
but Professor J. T. Willard has suggested the following:1

2 (Cu(OH)2, CuSO4) + CO2 =

basic copper sulphate carbonic

acid gas

2 CuSO4 -f Cu(OH)2 + CuCO3 + H2O.

copper copper copper water,

sulphate hydrate carbonate

This theory appears to be very plausible and several facts
tend to support it. When dew or rain-water gathers upon a
leaf, the liquid always contains a certain amount of carbonic
acid gas in solution, obtaining it both from the air and from the
leaf itself. If the foliage has been sprayed with the Bordeaux
mixture, the carbonic acid comes in contact with the copper
sediment, and a certain amount of the copper is dissolved.
This much has been proved. That the dissolved copper may
be in the form of the sulphate is also very probable, since it is
well known that a solution of copper sulphate is injurious to
foliage, and well-prepared Bordeaux mixture has also caused a
similar injury. This alone is not very convincing, but when it is
considered that the injury following the use of the fungicide does
not take place immediately as a rule, but only after the sedi-
ment has been exposed to the air for some time, the position is
strengthened. If, however, the weather is of such a nature that
the foliage is constantly wet by light showers, not enough rain
falling to wash off the leaves but only to wet them, and if this
were continued for some time, much injury might be expected
to result from the use of even such a safe preparation as the
Bordeaux mixture. During the early part of the year 1894
such conditions did exist, and much complaint was heard
regarding the injury done to both apples and pears by the
use of this remedy. It seems very probable that the carbonic
acid should unite with some of the copper, and also with some
of the lime, although no mention is made of this in the above
reaction, and that pure copper sulphate should result. As the
amount of this compound gradually increases, the injury to
the foliage and the fruit naturally follows.

i Cited by Fairchild, U. S. Dept. of Agric. J>iv. Veg. Path. Bull. 6, 14.

128 The Spraying of Plants.

The formation of the carbonate of lime may take place as
soon as, or even before, the appearance of the copper sulphate,
since the acid would probably act more energetically upon the
hydrate of lime than upon the copper compounds ; therefore
the appearance of the copper sulphate would depend to a
certain extent upon the absence of the hydrate of lime. This
well explains the tardiness with which the Bordeaux mixture
injures foliage.1

Several corollaries follow from the above, and these have
considerable practical bearing on the method of making the
mixture.

If a larger amount of lime is used than is required to satisfy
the immediate chemical changes which take place, the more
slowly will the fungicidal action of the Bordeaux mixture ap-
pear. In wet seasons this is an advantage, since the mixture
will retain its efficiency longer, and less injury will be done.
The disadvantages of using much lime are very easily realized
by all who have applied the mixture. The machinery is apt
to be clogged, and the liquid becomes more difficult to handle
and to apply uniformly. The particles of lime probably also
offer more resisting surface to rain in heavy showers, and more
of the material will be washed from the trees. The use of as
small an amount of lime as possible would therefore appear to
be desirable, but such is the case only to a limited extent.

The use of the ferrocyanide of potassium test, or Patrigeon's
method, has already been mentioned on page 46. This test
shows exactly how much lime is necessary to satisfy all imme-
diate chemical changes, and it serves, therefore, as an index of
the minimum amount required. The Bordeaux mixture so
prepared is of an intense blue, and, as more commonly made,
the amount of sediment is comparatively small. When applied
to plants it is easily handled, and is in this respect the most
satisfactory preparation. Its fungicidal action probably begins
as soon as the application is made, and the copper is more ener-
getic than when it is in the presence of considerable quantities of

1 For more detailed accounts of the chemistry of Bordeaux mixture consult the
work of Chester and of Sostegni. An abstract of Sostegni's article is in Cornell
Agric. Exp. Sla. 1892, Bull. 48. Fairchild has written an exhaustive article on
this fungicide, which was published as Bull. 6 of the Division of Vegetable Pathol-
ogy, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and entitled " Bordeaux Mixture as a Fungi-
cide."

Materials and Formulas. 129

lime. The adhesive properties are perhaps greater than those
of any of the other mixtures of this nature, and there are thus
several features which recommend the method for general use.
But the season of 1894 showed that the preparation is not a very
safe one to use except in dry seasons, or in regions where the
rainfall and dew are but slight. In the presence of much water,
the mixture will injure both foliage and fruit, whatever may be
the compound doing the mischief, and for this reason when so
prepared it cannot be unqualifiedly recommended. In some sea-
sons it may be used with impunity, while in others it may cause
a loss which will more than overbalance any advantage derived.
The ferrocyanide of potassium test, is of great value in deter-
mining how much lime is actually required, and in this manner
it may serve as a check when the ingredients are not weighed,
and then this neutral condition may be taken as a starting-point
for the addition of more lime.

In making the Bordeaux mixture by the aid of the ferrocya-
nide of potassium test, certain points must be borne in mind in
dissolving the copper sulphate. (See, also, COPPER SULPHATE.)
A definite proportion should exist between the amount of the
salt used and the water in wrhich it is dissolved. This is
necessary so that the amount of the copper compound in a
given amount of water may be known. The more common
method is to dissolve either 1 or 2 pounds of copper sulphate
in 1 gallon of water. Any desired amount can then easily be
obtained by first stirring the stock solution thoroughly, and
then taking out the quantity which holds the desired amount.
The milk of lime is then added to the diluted solution until a
few drops of the dissolved ferrocyanide of potassium (which
see) give no brown discoloration when added to the mixture.
A better way of using the test, however, is to add some of the
mixture to a few drops of the solution, the latter being held in
a butter dish or other article of white porcelain. This will
show the presence of the red precipitate when it cannot be
detected by the old method of adding the test solution to the
mixture. It is probable that much of the injury which fol-
lowed the use of the Bordeaux mixture in 1894 was caused by
an insufficient amount of lime having been used, this being due
to the fact that the ferrocyanide of potassium test did not show
plainly the true condition of the preparation. A person ex-

130 The Spraying of Plants.

perienced in making the mixture can tell by its color when
sufficient lime has been added, but he cannot always tell how
much to add in excess of the amount demanded by the test.
For this reason it is safer to use a definite formula, provided
the materials are fairly pure, since then there is less chance of
a mistake ; this applies especially to beginners.

Another test sometimes employed is to insert into the mix-
ture a polished iron surface. If an insufficient amount of lime
is present, so that some copper still remains in solution, the iron
will become coated with this metal. The test is said to be very
delicate.

It is probably true that, as a rule, each extreme should be
avoided. The formulas at present in use in America may be
divided into two classes,^- those in which the ingredients are
weighed, and those in which the ferrocyanide of potassium test
is used. Among the former we have the following :

The " Standard," or 3.6 per cent Bordeaux Mixture.

Copper sulphate 6 pounds.

Quicklime 4 "

Water 22 gallons.

This formula was at first extensively used, but it was found
that a more dilute mixture would answer the purpose equally
well, so it has been abandoned for the mixture which may now
be termed

The " Normal" or 1.6 per cent Bordeaux Mixture.

Copper sulphate 6 pounds.

Quicklime 4 "

Water 45 gallons.

This formula, or one in which the amount of water varies
from 40 to 50 gallons, may now be considered the most popular
in America. Sixty gallons of water should be used when
spraying peaches. If air-slaked lime is used in place of the
fresh article, the amount should be doubled, and even then its
use cannot be recommended, since too little is yet known re-
garding the composition and action of the mixture prepared
in this manner. By a 3.6 per cent Bordeaux mixture is meant
one in which the weight of the copper sulphate is equal to 3.6
per cent of the weight of the water, considering 1 gallon to

Materials and Formulas. 131

weigh 8.345 pounds. For the same reason the normal mixture
may be termed a 1.6 per cent Bordeaux, as the 6 pounds form such
a percentage of the weight of the water. This method of desig-
nating the various mixtures is the one generally adopted in
Europe, and it is convenient here for purposes of comparison.

Occasionally the recommendation is made to add 1 quart of
molasses to the above mixture in order to increase its adhesive
properties. As a matter of fact, the addition is rarely made,
and is scarcely necessary, since the mixture, even when used
alone, is one of the most adhesive of fungicides. The addition
of from 1 to 2 pounds of soap has been made for the same
purpose, and also to make the mixture spread more evenly.
The value of the mixture is slightly increased by such additions ;
nevertheless, they are scarcely necessary.

In Italy the milk of lime is not used in making the Bordeaux
mixture, but in its place lime water, which is a saturated solu-
tion, is added to the copper sulphate solution. This makes a
very dilute mixture, as the following formula of Cavazza shows.

Cavazza's Bordeaux mixture (Italian) :

Copper sulphate 720 grams.

Lime water 100 liters.

This is a neutral mixture which contains about .072 per cent
of copper sulphate. It is very highly recommended in Italy,
and Professor Cavazza writes me that he has used the mixture
so prepared, since 1886, for controlling fungous diseases of the
grape as well as those of the peach, and in general it is there
used in preference to other formulas. The French, however,
use a mixture having from 1 to 2 per cent of copper sulphate,
the milk of lime being preferred to a saturated solution.

When the Bordeaux mixture is made according to a certain
formula, a few points must be observed which it is unnecessary
to notice when the ferrocyanide of potassium test is used. The
directions given above call for 1 to 2 pounds of copper sulphate
to each gallon of water, the smaller amount being preferable.
This solution should be diluted one-half before the lime is added.
If too little water is present when the two ingredients are brought
together, the mixture thickens up like sour milk, and it must
be thoroughly stirred to change it to a more liquid form. Such
concentrated mixtures are not, on the whole, the best to make,

132 The Spraying of Plants.

as in my experience the sediment is more coarse than when a
larger amount of water allows of a more free intermingling of
the two ingredients. Two gallons of water to every pound of
copper sulphate is a safe proportion, and the use of still more
water might be of benefit. All immediate chemical action has
largely ceased a few minutes after the lime and the copper
sulphate have been brought together, and the mixture may
then be diluted as desired, and immediately applied.

The most convenient method of making the mixture is to
have a stock solution of definite strength, so that any desired
amount of the sulphate may be taken. This should be diluted
as already described, and then the milk of lime should be added.
This ingredient may also be prepared in large quantities before
using; it will keep indefinitely if kept covered with water.

The sediment in the Bordeaux mixture remains in suspen-
sion much better during the first twenty-four hours after
the two ingredients are brought together; in fact, it settles
so slowly that an agitator is scarcely necessary during this
period. But after a day or two, probably on account of some
physical change in the mixture, the sediment rapidly settles,
rendering the use of an agitator essential for a uniform appli-
cation. To what extent this change affects the fungicidal
value of the mixture is not known, but if care is exercised in
keeping the old mixture well stirred, it is probable that good
results will follow. Such, at least, has been the writer's experi-
ence with Bordeaux mixture which was allowed to stand several
weeks before it was applied to the apple trees which were being
treated.

If the Bordeaux mixture has been imperfectly made, or if it
is not applied with proper machinery, it will be found better to
strain either the lime before it is added to the copper sulphate
solution, or else the mixture before it is applied, the former
being perhaps the better plan. The mixture should be kept
constantly stirred when the application is made.

The dried sediment has been used in place of the liquid form,
but the results were not equally satisfactory. It was found
that about four times as much material was necessary when the
powder was applied, and, besides, its efficiency was apparently
less marked. (See, also, DAVID'S POWDER.)

Bordeaux mixture is said to possess a certain value as an

Materials and Formulas. 133

insecticide, but this action is not sufficiently great that its use
for this purpose can be recommended. Flea beetles appear to
be most easily overcome or driven away by this preparation,
and it is possible that it can be used to advantage for this pur-
pose when the pest causes much damage.1 Uniformly good
results have not always followed its use for this purpose, how-
ever.

BORDEAUX MIXTURE AND MOLASSES. — Ferret mentions the
following formula as possessing especial merit : 2

Copper sulphate 4? pounds.

Quicklime 4* "

Molasses 4* "

Water 30 gallons.

Dissolve the lime in 24 gallons of water. To this add the
molasses, which has been diluted with 3 gallons of water ; stir
this well and pour in the copper sulphate, also dissolved in 3
gallons of water. The precipitate settles slowly, leaving a
greenish colored liquid above. This color is a proof of the suc-
cess of the operation. The mixture, even wThen diluted to 40 or
50 gallons, may be recommended for trial, although in this
country it will scarcely prove superior to the preparation com-
monly employed. Sugar has also been used in place of the
molasses.

BORDEAUX MIXTURE, DRIED. See DAVID'S POWDER.

BUHACH. See PYRETHRUM.

CARBOLIC ACID; PHENIC ACID; PHENOL; C6H6O. — Car-
bolic acid is a powerful poison to the lower forms of life, and
is very extensively used as an antiseptic. Its value as an in-
secticide or as a fungicide is, however, comparatively slight,
and it cannot be recommended for such use. It has been very
thoroughly tested however, and the following has been fre-
quently recommended for the destruction of root insects :

Carbolic acid 1 part.

Water 50-100 parts.

1 For further details regarding this subject the reader is referred to Jones, Vt.
Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S94, Bull. 44, 95 ; Halsted, N.J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull.
107, 13 ; Lodeman, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 86, 58. Ann. Sept. Vt.
Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, 12, 95 et seq.

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1892, April, 508.

134 The Spraying of Plants.

CARBOLIC ACID AND GLYCERINE :

Carbolic acid \ pint.

Glycerine 1 pound.

Soap-suds 10 gallons.

An emulsion should be made of these ingredients. Apply
against sucking insects.

CARBOLIC ACID AND SOAP. — An emulsion of carbolic acid
and a soap solution may be made very readily according to the
following formula, and the product possesses considerable in-
secticidal value, largely on account of the presence of the soap :

Carbolic acid 1 pint.

Soft soap (hard soap 4 pound) 1 quart.

Hot water 2 gallons.

The soap is first dissolved in the water, after which the acid
is added ; an emulsion is then produced by thorough agitation.
It destroys insects by coining in contact with them, and may be
applied as a wash or in the form of a spray. It should be used
upon dormant wood only.

CARBOLIC ACID EMULSION. — The stock solution is pre-
pared as in the preceding, but should be diluted with thirty
parts of water before being applied to foliage.

CARBOLIZED PLASTER. — Carbolic acid is occasionally mixed
with some dry powder as plaster, air-slaked lime, road dust,
etc., and the two are then applied together. It possesses little
value, but the recommendation is to use :

Carbolic acid 1 pint.

Plaster or other powder 50 pounds.

It is most useful when applied to plums which suffer from
the curculio. If it is used with lime, it is effective in destroy-
ing slugs upon all plants.

CARBONATE OF COPPER. See COPPER CARBONATE.

CARBON BISULPHIDE ; BISULPHIDE OF CARBON; FUMA; CS2.
— This is a clear, colorless liquid, highly volatile and inflamma-
ble. The commercial article has a powerful and disagreeable
odor. The fumes are poisonous to animal life, and in this lies
the value of the liquid. Its insecticidal properties seem to have

Materials and Formulas. 135

been first utilized by Louis Dayere, formerly professor of agri-
culture at the Institute of Versailles. He used the liquid in
Algiers for preventing insects from injuring stored wheat, and
it is now commonly used in this country for similar purposes.1
The vapor is heavy and it is better, when possible, to apply
the liquid above the parts to be treated, so that the entire space
may be more quickly filled. The amount of liquid to use will
vary with the tightness of the receptacle, and the character of
the product to be protected. For growing plants it is not advis-
able to evaporate more than 20 or 25 minims in a vessel con-
taining from 2 to 3 cubic feet of space, this being an equivalent
of 1 pint of the liquid to about 1000 cubic feet of space, or to 1
ton of grain. If so used, the receptacle should be as nearly air-
tight as possible. When grain or other seeds are treated, the
amount can be advantageously increased, and much larger quan-
tities than the above can be used without fear of injury. All
vermin that live underground can also be successfully extermi-
nated. Ants' nests may be destroyed by making a hole in the
center of the nests, and then pouring in 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of
the liquid, after which the hole should be tightly closed with
earth. VToodchucks and gophers can easily be killed by means
of this poison ; about a gill of the fluid is poured upon rags or
cotton, and these are then forced into the animal's burrow.
The opening should then be closed, and the woodchuck will
cause no more trouble if all the holes are similarly treated.

Subterranean applications for the destruction of insects have
also been successfully made. The phylloxera of the grape has
been so destroyed, and the cabbage root-maggot may be over-
come in this manner more advantageously than in any other.
A machine known as the McGowen bisulphide of carbon in-
jector2 was invented in 1894 for the purpose of making such
applications, so the liquid may now be used quickly and effec-
tively in treating underground insects.

CARBON BISULPHIDE AND KEROSENE. — The mixture is pre-
pared by using 1 part of carbon bisulphide, and from 5 to 20
parts of kerosene. The two should be thoroughly stirred before
being applied. The action is similar to that of the bisulphide
of carbon, but the mixture is practically out of use.

i Akhbar, 1857, Oct. 16. Cited in Gard. Chron. 1858, Aug. 28, 653.
» Cornell Agric. Exp. St&. 1894, Bull. 78.

136 The Spraying of Plants.

CHLORIDE OF COPPER. See COPPER CHLORIDE.

CHLORIDE OF IRON. See IRON CHLORIDE.

CLAY. See WASHES.

COAL TAR. — If a few quarts of coal tar are added to a barrel
of water, the liquid soon becomes so impregnated with the odor
that it may be used as a repellent of insects. A strong solution
of gas tar may be used for a similar purpose, but these applica-
tions possess comparatively little value.

COMBINATIONS OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. — The
most successful of these combinations is that of the Bordeaux
mixture and compounds of arsenic. The lime in the mixture
prevents the arsenic from injuring foliage, while it does not
appear to lessen the efficiency of the poison. Each preparation
is applied at the same rate as if used alone.

A combination of the ammoniacal carbonate of copper and
an arsenite has been used with success by some, but such a
preparation is frequently very injurious to foliage, and it
should be applied with caution. The ammonia acts as a
solvent of the arsenic, and this solution does the damage.
The addition of lime would tend to reduce the severity of
the injury.

The Bordeaux mixture has been used as an agent for emulsi-
fying kerosene, with apparently satisfactory results.1 The
preparation should be more thoroughly tested before it can
be recommended. Kerosene emulsion and Bordeaux mixture
have been combined, but not with satisfactory results. See
also CORNELL MIXTURE.

When pure kerosene is emulsified with the Bordeaux mixture,
the combination allows the addition of Paris green, making
a mixture adapted to destroy nearly all the insect and fungous
enemies of plant life. When a mixture of kerosene emulsion
and the Bordeaux mixture is made, the arsenite cannot be
added successfully; for even when the emulsion and the arsen-
ite are united, the resulting mixture is still unsatisfactory.

Resin washes and kerosene emulsion, applied together, have
not yet been sufficiently studied and tested to determine the
value of such mixtures.

A simple solution of resin, made as described on page 169, is

1 See Galloway, Insect Life, vii. 126, for an account of this and other com-
binations.

Materials and Formulas. 137

said to increase the adhesive power of the Bordeaux mixture
when the two are applied together.

The resin preparations and arsenical compounds have been
successfully united and applied, but such combinations are at
present little used.

COPPER ACETATE; VERDET; VERDIGRIS. — There are sev-
eral compounds of copper and acetic acid, but the one which
has been used in spraying is known as the dibasic acetate of
copper. It possesses only fairly good fungicidal properties, but
it has been highly recommended for its adhesion to foliage. It-
may be applied at the rate of 2 to 4 ounces in about 25 gallons
of water.

COPPER ARSENITE. See SHEELE'S GREEN, page 1£0.

COPPER CARBONATE; CARBONATE OF COPPER; CuCO3. —
Chester's method of preparing this chemical is as follows:
"Dissolve in a barrel 25 pounds of copper sulphate in hot
water. In another barrel dissolve 30 pounds of sal-soda.
Allow both solutions to cool, then slowly pour the solution of
sal-soda into the copper sulphate solution, stirring the same.
Fill the barrel with water and allow the precipitate of copper
carbonate to settle. Upon the following day siphon off the
clear supernatant liquid, which contains most of the injurious
sodium sulphate in solution. Fill the barrel again with water,
and stir the precipitate vigorously into suspension ; again allow
the precipitate to settle, and again on the following day siphon
off the clear liquid. The operation washes the carbonate free
of most of the sodium sulphate which contaminates it. Make
a filter of stout muslin, by tacking the same to a square wooden
frame which will just fit over the open top of the second barrel,
letting the muslin hang down loosely so as to form a sack;
through this filter the precipitate, so as to drain off the excess
of water, and as the filter fills remove the precipitate, and allow
it to dry in the air, when it is ready for use. The operation
is not troublesome, and can be carried on in connection with
other work."1 The following reactions are at present supposed
to take place when the two solutions are united:2 12 (CuSO4,
5H9O)-fl2 (Xa9CO3, 10H0O) = 6 [CuCO3, Cu(OH)2, H2O] +
12 Na2 SO4+ 6 CO3 + 168 H2O.

i Ann. Bepl. U. S. Com. Agric. 1890, 403.

» Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. kth Ann. Kept. 1891, 67.

138 The Spraying of Plants.

By using the above amounts of material, there will be formed
a trifle over 12 pounds of the carbonate of copper, the selling
price of which is about forty cents a pound. When thus made
at home, the cost is only about fifteen cents, which is a great
saving, especially as the material is nearly chemically pure.

Copper carbonate is a fine, bluish-green powder, insoluble in
water. It dissolves readily in ammonia, forming the ammoni-
acal solution of copper carbonate, which see. The powder
has often been used as a fungicide when suspended in water,
but the results obtained have almost invariably been unsatisfac-
tory. When applied in this manner, however, the following
formula will prove most satisfactory :

Copper carbonate 1 pound.

Water 40 gallons.

The liquid should be agitated frequently to prevent the cop-
per compound from settling to the bottom. The cost of copper
carbonate varies from thirty-five to sixty cents per pound.

COPPER CARBONATE, AMMONIACAL SOLUTION ; CUPRAM. —
Penny1 has made a very careful study of the best method of
preparing this solution, and the results of his work are here
given in full:

"The practical directions then are these: To 1 volume of
26° Beaume ammonia (the strong ammonia of commerce) add
from 7 to 8 volumes of water. Then add copper carbonate,
best in successive quantities, until a large portion remains un-
dissolved. The mixture should be vigorously agitated during
the solution and finally allowed to subside, and the clear liquid
poured off from the undissolved salt. A second portion should
then be made by treating the residue of the former lot with
more ammonia diluted as before, then with the addition of
fresh copper carbonate, in every case with vigorous stirring or
agitation. This method of making in successive lots will result
in a richer solution of copper, at least, unless an unwarranted
length of time be taken. This solution may be made in any
suitable wooden or stoneware vessel.

"A still better way is to place in a large jar an inverted

1 The chemistry of this solution has been thoroughly treated by C. L. Penny, of
the Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. an account of which may be found in Bull. 22. I have
also quoted freely from other bulletins of the same station on these subjects.

Materials and Formulas. 139

crock, or other suitable shelf, and on this the copper carbonate,
so that it shall be at the surface of the ammonia when it is
poured in. After adding the ammonia, diluted as above, the
whole should be allowed to stand covered some time, as over
night, and then the un dissolved copper salt may be in great
part easily lifted out of the solution. Instead of the shelf a
suitable receptacle may be used, as a fine wire sieve. The jar
will need nothing but a loose cover, as the loss of ammonia will
be slight at that degree of dilution.

" The clear solution thus obtained, containing from 3 to 4 per
cent of ammonia gas, must be diluted as described above, in no
case less than 13 or 15 fold, better, for the safety of the plant,
20 fold or more.

" Those directions which recommend so much ammonia (what-
ever it may be) to be used as may be necessary to dissolve the
copper salt and then to dilute to a given number of gallons, are
not only not economical, but absolutely dangerous, inasmuch as
it is an uncertainty just how much ammonia may be used in
the first instance, and hence uncertain what strength it may
have after dilution, when applied to the trees. It should be
borne in mind always that if strong ammonia is used it must
be diluted from first to last at least 100 fold, and better con-
siderably more.

" The solubility of copper carbonate in ammonium carbonate
has been studied but not yet sufficiently for report."

After the copper carbonate has been dissolved in ammonia
water, it should be used by taking as much of the fluid as con-
tains 1 ounce of dissolved copper carbonate, and this is then
diluted with 9 gallons of water. These proportions should be
retained when either larger or smaller quantities of the fungi-
cide are desired.

The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate possesses some
decided advantages. It is a clear solution entirely free from
sediment, and can therefore be applied as readily as water.
Another favorable point is that it may be used quite freely
upon maturing fruit, and also upon flowering plants, without
leaving any conspicuous stain. When certain plants require
spraying with a fungicide shortly before the crop is harvested,
this preparation is an excellent one to use. In efficiency it also
ranks high, being clearly surpassed in this respect only by the

140 The Spraying of Plants.

Bordeaux mixture. It is also cheap, and on the whole is one of
our most valuable remedies.

Several definite formulas have been recommended for the
manufacture of this fungicide, the two following being the best
known :

Copper carbonate 3 ounces.

Ammonia (22° Beaume) 1 quart.

Agitate until the copper is completely dissolved. It will
keep indefinitely, but should be diluted with 25 gallons of
water.

Copper carbonate 5 ounces.

Ammonia (26° Beaume) 3 pints.

"Water 45 gallons.

The ammonia should be diluted as already described, after
which the copper will dissolve more readily. Sixty gallons of
water should be used when spraying peaches.

Combinations of the ammoniacal carbonate of copper and the
arsenites are said to have been used with success, but my own
experiments have resulted differently. The combination injured
foliage to such an extent that it was abandoned after repeated
trials. When Paris green was added, the mixture was par-
ticularly caustic, since the ammonia undoubtedly caused some
of the arsenic to enter into solution. London purple did not
make so caustic a mixture, but nevertheless considerable injury
resulted, and these combinations may be considered unsafe.
The addition of milk of lime,' however, obviates the trouble,
and renders the preparation a safe one. Lime to the amount of
two to three times the bulk of the poison should be added.

There are several other mixtures which, in composition, are
essentially the same as the solution of copper carbonate in
ammonia. They are the modified eau celeste, copper and am-
monium carbonate mixture, and Johnson's mixture. Regard-
ing these, Chester says, " For all practical purposes, the above
fungicides of this group are one and the same, the essential
copper salt being, in each case, what for brevity we may call an
ammonium copper carbonate, but which is in reality a mixture of
ammonium copper carbonate (CuCO3, 2NH3) and ammonium
cupric hydroxide [3Cu(OH)2, 4NH3, 3H2O]." *

i Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. kth Ann. Mept. 1891, 68.

Materials and Formulas. 141

COPPER CARBONATE AND AMMONIUM CARBONATE MIXTURE.
— This mixture was proposed by Chester in 1890. He thought
it possible that ammonia might not be the best solvent of
copper carbonate and the following formula uses ammonium
carbonate in place of ammonium water. The resulting fun-
gicide is nearly identical with copper carbonate dissolved in
ammonia, and the remarks regarding that fungicide also apply,
in the main, to this preparation :

Copper carbonate 3 ounces.

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound.

Water 40-45 gallons.

"By this combination all the copper is completely dissolved.
To test the question, I prepared the above fungicide with the
exception that I took 5 ounces of the copper carbonate in order
to have an excess. An analysis showed that the 1 pound of
ammonium carbonate had dissolved 3.11 ounces of the original
copper carbonate."1

Ammonium carbonate can be bought for fifteen to thirty
cents per pound.

COPPERAS. See IRON SULPHATE.

COPPER CHLORIDE; CuCL2. — The chloride of copper has
received little attention as a fungicide, although it is a prom-
ising compound. It contains 46.93 per cent of actual cop-
per. When used alone it is very caustic to foliage, a solution
of 1^ ounces in 25 gallons of water being too strong. Two
or three times its bulk of lime should be added, when 5 ounces
to 25 gallons of water will prove a satisfactory proportion. The
undissolved crystals must be kept in tightly closed glass vessels,
as they absorb water rapidly, and are soon reduced to a liquid
condition. The chemical is at present too expensive for general
use.

COPPER SODA MIXTURE. See COPPER CARBONATE.

COPPER SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE ; 2 XA2S2O3, Cu2S2O3. — This
material may be prepared as follows : " Dissolve 8 ounces of sul
phate of copper in hot water, then dilute with cold water, to about
10 gallons. In another vessel dissolve 1 pound of hyposulphite of

1 Chester, Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. kth Ann. Kept. 1891, 71.
1 For a more complete discussion of this fungicide, see Del. Agric. Exp. Sta
Itth Ann. Rept. 1891, 73.

142 The Spraying of Plants.

soda in cold water; add the two together; dilute in 25 gallons."
The preparation possesses no special fungicidal value.

COPPER SULPHATE ; SULPHATE OF COPPER ; BLUE VITRIOL ;
BLUE STONE; CuSO4; CuSO4 + 5H2O. — This chemical is formed
by uniting metallic copper and sulphuric acid, the product being
formed in several different ways. The substance is deposited
from solutions in the form of large, blue, transparent crystals
containing 25.46 per cent of actual copper, and it is in this
form that the salt is commonly sold. Granulated copper sul-
phate is formed by breaking up the larger crystals ; otherwise,
it is identical with the other form. On account of the fine-
ness of the particles, the mass loses its deep blue color, and for
this reason the granulated form offers greater temptations for
adulteration. A pure solution of copper sulphate forms a red-
dish-brown discoloration with a solution of the ferrocyanide of
potassium, and this may be used as a test for the purity of the
copper compound.

Copper sulphate is readily soluble in cold water, and still
more so in hot water. A solution may be quickly made by
hanging the material in a coarse sack near the surface of the
water. This is done so that the dissolved portion may settle to
the bottom as fast as it enters into solution, for in this manner
the crystals are continually surrounded by clear liquid. If the
crystals are placed in the bottom of the vessel, they are soon
surrounded by a saturated solution which prevents them from
being dissolved until the contents of the vessel are stirred so
that the more clear liquid may come in contact with the crystals.

Copper sulphate should always be dissolved in wooden or
earthen vessels. If an iron vessel is used, the copper will be
deposited upon the iron, forming a copper-plated portion
wherever the two come in contact.

A simple solution of copper sulphate should be sparingly
applied to foliage, for when the liquid is sufficiently concen-
trated to have a decided fungicidal action it causes so much
injury to most foliage that its use cannot be considered safe.
This compound is more caustic than some other forms of
copper, but Professor Taft recommends the use of a simple
solution of copper sulphate instead of ammonia solution of
copper compounds. He has sucessfully applied solutions con-
taining 1 part of blue vitriol in 1000 parts of water to plants

Materials and Formulas. 143

whose foliage is not so tender as that of peaches or beans. It is
valued also because it does not stain the parts treated.1 On
dormant wood it can be used freely. It is then made of

Copper sulphate 1 pound.

Water 15-25 gallons.

The more dilute solution is for such tender wood as peaches.
Grain is often soaked in a solution of copper sulphate to destroy
spores of smut. The preparation is then made of

Copper sulphate 1 pound.

Water 1-2 gallons.

The use of a one-half per cent solution has been recom-
mended for a similar purpose, the seed being soaked for twelve
or fifteen hours.

COPPER SULPHATE AND SULPHURIC ACID SOLUTION. — An-
other, and a rather restricted use of copper sulphate, is to make
a saturated solution, and to this add about 1 per cent of com-
mercial sulphuric acid. The preparation is, of course, used
only upon dormant wrood, and is especially recommended for
anthracnose of the grape.

The price of copper sulphate varies greatly. The granulated
form may be bought for four to fifteen cents per pound, and the
crystals at four to eight cents.

COPPER SULPHATE AND AMMONIUM CARBONATE MIXTURE.
— See JOHNSON'S MIXTURE.

COPPER SULPHATE, ANHYDROUS. — When copper sulphate
crystals (CuSO4 + 5 H2O) are heated, the water of crystallization
is driven off and only a pale blue powder remains (CuSO4-f
2 H2O). This dissolves readily in water, and possesses the prop-
erties of the original crystals, although the weight is reduced,
which leaves a greater proportionate amount of actual copper.
The powder has been applied when mixed with sulphur or other
powders for the prevention of mildew, but it is now little used.

CORNELL MIXTURE. — This preparation consists of a mixture
of Bordeaux mixture, kerosene emulsion, and an arsenical com-
pound. The combination is made with difficulty, but success
may follow if a few points are observed. The Bordeaux mix-
ture must be exactly neutral, and here the ferrocyanide of

1 American Agriculturist, middle edition, 1895, July 20, 34.

144 The Spraying of Plants.

potassium test is of value. The kerosene emulsion should be
made according to the Hubbard-Riley formula, and then be
poured into the Bordeaux mixture. And finally the arsenite
may be added. Unfortunately, even if the combination be
successfully made, the various ingredients appear to lose much
of their value when so applied, and as yet the preparation
cannot be generally recommended.1

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. See MERCURIC CHLORIDE.

CUPRAM. — A term applied to copper carbonate dissolved in
ammonia, which see.

CUPRIC STEATITE. See SULPHOSTEATITE.

CUPROSTEATITE. — Thispowder closely resembles sulphostea-
tite in its composition, but while the latter contains about 10 per
cent of copper sulphate, the copper in cuprosteatite is in the
form of the hydrate, about 15 per cent of the powder being of
this material. On this account the fungicide is said to be
less caustic to foliage than sulphosteatite. Both powders are
applied in the same manner.

CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. See HYDROCYANIC GAS.

DALMATIAN INSECT POWDER. See PYRETHRUM.

DAVID'S POWDER; DRIED BORDEAUX MIXTURE. — The old
formula for preparing the powder called for

Copper sulphate 4 pounds.

Quicklime 16 pounds.

As little water as possible was used for dissolving the sul-
phate and for slaking the lime ; the two were then united and
the product dried. It was then ground to a powder and ap-
plied. The ingredients used at present in making the Bordeaux
mixture can be similarly treated. When the dried mixture is
used in place of that suspended in water, it has been found that
about four times the amount of the materials is required, and
the distribution is on the whole not so satisfactory. The pow-
der has never been used to any great extent, and for the reasons
given will probably never become popular.

EAU CELESTE (Audoynaud process).

Copper sulphate 1 pound.

Hot water 2 gallons.

1 See also Slingerland, Science, xxii. No. 551, 105. Also, Bailey, Annals Sort.
1893, 48.

Materials and Formulas. 145

When the crystals are dissolved and the liquid has cooled, add

Ammonia (22° Beaume) 1£ pints.

Water, to make 25 gallons.

This fungicide has a caustic action upon foliage and cannot
be recommended with safety. According to Professor Chester,
" the probable reactions taking place in the preparation of the
eau celeste are : 1

1. 3[CuS04, 5H20] + 4NH4HO

normal copper sulphate ammonia

water

= CuS04, 2Cu(OH)2 + 2(NH4)2, SO4 + 15 H20.

basic copper
sulphate

2. CuS04, 2 Cu(OH)2 + 2(NH4)2, SO4 + 8 NH4HO

In excess.

= 3(CuSO4, 4 NH3, H2O) + 9 H20."

ammonium copper sulphate

Nevertheless, the fungicide is not a safe one to use.2
EMULSIONS. — Of the insecticides which kill by contact there
are none more effective than those which are composed of emul-
sion of soap solutions and such penetrating liquids as mineral
oils. The kerosene emulsions are the best known and most
generally used. (See under KEROSENE.) But the following
liquids have been recommended3 as suitable substitutes for this
oil. The percentages of the amounts to use in the emulsions
are given for comparison :

Benzine emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent.

Kerosene emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent.

" Nitro benzina " emulsion, containing from . . 0.5 to 0.75 per cent.
Bisulphide of carbon emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 0.75 per cent.

The general method of procedure for preparing these emul-
sions is as follows :

" Active principle (oils, etc.) 0.5 to 1.0 per cent-

Soft soap 0.5 to 2.0 per cent.

Water of preparation 1.0 to 3.0 per cent.

Water of dilution 99.0 to 97.0 per cent."

1 Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. Uth Ann. Kept. 1891, 68.

2 Ferret, in Jour. (TAg. Prat. 1SS7, June 23, 878, says that the precipitate
first formed when ammonia is added to a copper sulphate solution is a hydrated
oxide of copper (oxide de cuivre hydrate). The clear liquid contains the sulphate of
ammonia, which has a tendency to injure foliage.

3 Ad. Targioni Tozzetti," Mostra di Sostanze e di Emulsion! Insetticide," 1691, IT.

L

146 The Spraying of Plants.

These ingredients are mixed in a definite order :

(a) Dissolve the soap in the insecticide.

(6) Add this solution to the water of preparation, and agitate.

(c) The water of dilution may then be added, and the emul-
sion again thoroughly agitated.

In America the method followed is to dissolve the soap in the
"water of preparation," after which the oil is added. This
mixture is then thoroughly agitated, commonly by means of a
force-pump, until all the oil is emulsified. If the liquids are
hot, an emulsion may be produced more easily.

FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM; YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF
POTASH; K4FECY6. — The only value this material possesses in
connection with spraying is to assist in making the Bordeaux
mixture, and to serve as a test for discovering the presence
of sulphate of iron. The test solution may be made by dis-
solving the compound in water :

Ferrocyanide of potassium 1 ounce.

Water 1 pint.

The test solution forms a reddish-brown precipitate, or discol-
oration (the ferrocyanide of copper, Cu2FeCyfi), with a dissolved
copper salt, but a blue precipitate with an iron salt. See page
151.

FISH-OIL SOAP. —

Crystal potash lye 1 pound.

Fish-oil 3 pints.

Soft water 3 gallons.

Dissolve the lye in the water, and when boiling, add the oil,
and boil for two hours. One pound of the soap may be dissolved
in 5 to 10 gallons of water. This is of value as an insecticide

FLOUR. — Flour is sometimes added to liquids to render them
more adhesive. It may be used at the rate of 1 pound to 40
or 50 gallons of the preparation, but such additions are rarely,
if ever, advisable. An exception may be made in the case of
powders, especially those containing the arsenites. With these,
the addition of flour, at the rate of five to ten times the bulk of
the poison, may be of service in rendering the mixture more ad-
herent to the foliage. But this condition is often followed by

Materials and Formulas. 147

serious injury, undoubtedly due to the fact that the poison is
not washed off, but remains to burn the foliage. The addition
of lime to the mixture would probably be beneficial.

FOSTITE. See SULPHOSTEATITE.

FCMA. — A form of carbon bisulphide, which see.

GAS TREATMENT. See HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS.

GLUE. — Glue is frequently recommended as a valuable addi-
tion to insecticides and fungicides; it is supposed to increase
their adhesive properties, and probably does so to a limited ex-
tent. In general practice its use is unnecessary, but in case
liquids do not adhere to foliage when the application is first
made, the addition of some cheap glue, used at the rate of 1
pound to 50 gallons of liquid, may prove of value.

GLUE AND ARSENITES. —

Common glue 1 pound.

Paris green 1 ounce.

Hot water 2 gallons.

The glue is first dissolved in hot water, after which the
Paris green is stirred in, and the remainder of the water added.
This is said to be of value in protecting trees from borers, but
the applications may cause serious injury, and the remedy should
be used cautiously. The mixture may also be used upon foliage,
in which case dilute with about 15 gallons of water.

GRISON LIQUID ; EAU GRISON ; SULPHUR AND LIME MIX-
TURE.— For the original formula of this liquid, see page 16.
It is at present commonly made by using

Flowers of sulphur 3 pounds.

Quicklime 3 "

Water , 6 gallons.

These should be boiled until the amount of liquid is reduced
to 2 gallons. It should then be allowed to settle, and the clear
liquid be drawn off and tightly corked in bottles. Dilute with
100 parts of water before using. The preparation is particu-
larly valuable in treating the European mildew of the grape,
and also for use against various mildews which attack plants
grown under glass. See, also, LIME SULPHIDE.

GYPSIXE. See ARSENATE OF LEAD.

148 The Spraying of Plants.

HELLEBORE ; WHITE HELLEBORE ; EUROPEAN HELLEBORE ;
VERATRUM ALBUM. — The roots of this plant and also of
Veratrum viride, American hellebore, when ground into a pow-
der possess considerable insecticidal value. The powder is of a
light yellowish-brown color, and possesses an odor which is not
wholly disagreeable. The active principle of the root, known as
Jervine, is a very powerful alkaloid. It generally destroys
an insect by being eaten with the food, but it appears
probable that it also possesses a certain value when it merely
comes in contact with the insect's body. Hellebore is much
less poisonous than the arsenical compounds, and it also soon
loses its strength when exposed to the air. For these reasons it
should be preferred to the mineral poisons when the plants to be
treated are bearing products which are nearly ready for market,
as ripening currants, or heading cabbages. If properly applied,
it is very effective in destroying chewing insects, and more than
two applications are rarely necessary. Only the fresh powder
should be used. It may be applied either in dry form or when
mixed with water. When used in the form of a dry powder, it
is generally applied pure, but may be successfully diluted with
once or twice its bulk of plaster, lime, or flour, the last causing
it to adhere more firmly to the foliage. In cases where the
insect does not yield readily to treatment, applications of the
pure powder may be advisable. The powder should be sifted
uniformly upon the foliage.

When used in water the following formula may be success-
fully employed :

Hellebore (fresh) 1 ounce.

Water 3 gallons.

Some recommend the addition of an ounce of glue to the
above mixture, or a small amount of flour, in order to render it
more adhesive ; yet for general practice such additions are
scarcely necessary. The use of one ounce of powdered soapstone
with the mixture of hellebore and water has also been recom-
mended as possessing especial value. The cost of good hellebore
varies from twelve to twenty-five cents per pound.

HOT WATER. See WATER.

HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS ; HCN. — D. W. Coquillet was
the first to suggest and use this gas for the destruction of scale

Materials and Formulas.

149

insects. His experiments began in September, 1886, in the
orange grove of J. W. Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, Cal. Its
use has been followed by such good results that all other gases
have been abandoned in treating these pests. The gas is pre-
pared by using

Cyanide of potassium, 60 per cent 1 ounce.

Commercial sulphuric acid 1 fluid ounce.

Water 3 " ounces.

Potassium cyanide of 90 per cent has also given excellent
results. The water is first placed in an open, glazed vessel,
and then the acid is added. When the parts to be treated are
all covered, the diluted acid is placed under the tent, the cya-
nide of potassium is dropped in, and the tent immediately
closed. The gas is exceedingly poisonous, and should not be
inhaled. The amount formed with the above materials is suffi-
cient for a confined space containing 150 cubic feet. It is safer
to use the gas upon dormant trees, and during cool weather or at
night, since trees are more easily injured during a high tempera-
ture. The treated parts should remain covered about an hour.

" The following table, giving height of trees and the propor-
tions of chemicals and water, will be found suitable for districts
in the interior or beyond ten miles in a direct line from the sea-
coast :

Height of Tree
— Feet.

Diameter
through Foli-
age — Feet.

Water — Fluid
Ounces.

Sulphuric Acid
— Fluid Ounces.

Cyanide of
Potassium —
Ounces.

6

4

2

1

1

8

6

4

2

2

10

8

6

3

3

12

10

10

5

5

12

14

14

7

7

14

14

16

8

8

16

16

18

9

9

18

16

20

10

10

20

16

22

11

11

22

18

24

12

12

24

20

26

13

13

26
30

20
20

27

28

13*
14

13*
14

150 The Spraying of Plants.

" One would suppose that an [orange] tree having a dense
foliage would fill up the space within the tent and require less
gas to be effective. But the cold surface of the leaves con-
denses the gas, and fumigators find that a slightly heavier
charge of chemicals is necessary for such a tree, and where the
foliage is scant a less amount than is given in the table will
answer. Some orchardists and fumigators consider that the
work has not been effective unless some of the leaves or tender
twigs have been injured. This is not necessary, for in our
early experiments we have treated trees and killed the scale
without even injuring the most tender twig or blossom. As
the trees recover very quickly, even when seriously scorched, a
slight burning is no detriment and is evidence that the work
has been effective, except in the case of ' black scale ' (Lecanium
Olece), during the early summer when the eggs are under the
females. The proper time to fumigate for this scale is during
the fall or early winter, when they are in the larva state." 1

" In order to make the canvas used for fumigation perfectly
air-tight, to prevent the gas escaping, the tents have been
treated with a light coat of boiled linseed oil. The great
objection to the oil has been that it had a tendency to stiffen
the canvas and add considerably to its weight, so a cheaper
and more flexible preparation was sought. The following
mixture, used by Commissioner Scott, of Los Angeles County,
[Cal.] during the past season, made the tents gas-tight and
left the canvas soft and pliable. The chief essential ingredient
is a supply of common prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni)
that grows in abundance in the southern counties of the state.
It is the flat-leaf species, and parties living in sections to which
it is not indigenous could have it sent in boxes. To make the
cactus extract, chop up enough cactus to fill a barrel two-thirds
full, then fill up the barrel with cold water. It should stand
for twenty-four hours, when it will be ready for use. Do not
prepare more than is required for immediate use, otherwise it
will sour and become worthless. Stir well, then strain ten gallons
of the liquid into another tub or barrel ; dissolve twro pounds ot
common glue and add to the cactus extract, with sufficient
yellow ochre or Venetian red to give it a good body. After
thoroughly mixing the ingredients, it is ready for use. Both

i Craw, California State Ed. of Hort. 1894, Bull. 68, 18.

Materials and Formulas. 151

sides of the canvas should be painted, and the dressing well
rubbed into the fiber with a flat paint-brush. If oil is used,
the canvas should be spread out and thoroughly dried before it
is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous com-
bustion. When dry there is no danger from this."1

IRON CHLORIDE (probably FERROUS CHLORIDE, FECL2). —
This material has been successfully used in checking certain
coffee diseases, and its use appears to be restricted almost
entirely to this plant. Very dilute solutions were applied, and
these proved to be exceedingly adhesive. The remedy is at
present little known.

IRON SULPHATE; COPPERAS; GREEN VITRIOL; FESO4.—
Copperas is formed by the union of sulphuric acid and iron.
It is a green crystalline substance, and when finely broken up it
bears a certain resemblance to granulated copper sulphate, and
as it is much cheaper than the latter, it has been used as a
means of adulterating the copper salt. Iron sulphate dissolves
readily in water. The ferrocyanide of potassium may be used
as a means of detecting the presence of this compound. This
test gives a reddish-brown precipitate with a concentrated solu-
tion of copper sulphate, but with a dilute solution it merely
gives the same color to the liquid, without the formation of a
precipitate. With the sulphate of iron, the test forms a deep
blue precipitate, very easily distinguished. If there is any ques-
tion as to the purity of copper sulphate, this test may easily be
used and the adulteration detected, provided the sulphate of
iron has been used as an adulterant.

Iron sulphate is of no practical value as an insecticide, and
its use as a fungicide is very limited. Iron is not nearly so
efficient in this respect as copper is, so the latter is almost
invariably preferred except when the plants to be treated are
dormant. The iron salt may then be used as follows :

Iron sulphate 4-8 pounds.

Water 1 gallon.

All parts should be thoroughly treated writh this solution;
but the value of the operation has, in most cases, still to be
determined.

* Craw, California State £d. of Sort. 1894, Bull. 68, 20.

152 The Spraying of Plants.

Against anthracnose of the grape the following application
has shown itself to be of great value, and it is regularly used
by European vineyardists :

Water (hot) 100 parts.

Iron sulphate, as much as the water will dis-
solve.
Sulphuric acid 1 part.

Great care should be exercised in using this preparation, as
it is exceedingly caustic and will injure machinery, clothes, and
nearly everything with which it comes in contact. It is gener-
ally applied with a swab made by tying rags about the end of
a stick. Dormant vines are uninjured by the treatment.

JOHNSON'S MIXTURE; COPPER SULPHATE AND AMMONIUM
CARBONATE MIXTURE. — This preparation is almost identical
with the modified eau celeste, ammonium sulphate being formed
by the reactions instead of sodium sulphate. The former is
injurious to foliage, and for this reason the mixture never has
been used to any extent. It contains dissolved copper carbon-
ate, as does the ammonia solution of the same compound, and
that fungicide should be consulted in connection with John-
son's mixture.

Copper sulphate 8 ounces.

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound.

Dissolve in a pail of warm water and then dilute with
Water 25 gallons.

KEROSENE; COAL OIL; (PETROLEUM). — Kerosene has been
used to destroy insects almost from the time of its first general
introduction for illuminating purposes. It was originally used
in two ways : first, when pure, in which case it was carefully
used and applied as much as possible only to the insects to be
destroyed; and second, when mixed with water, generally at
the rate of 1 gill to 1 or 2 gallons of water. Since the oil is
lighter than water, such mixtures were imperfect, and a certain
amount of skill was required to obtain a mixture sufficiently
uniform to prevent injury to the foliage. A small hand-syringe
was the instrument generally employed, but now special ma-
chinery has been devised for the same purpose. Such appli-

Materials and Formulas. 153

cations are still made, but to a limited extent. Most plants
are easily injured by the oil. Coleus, grape, peach, pea, and
eggplant appear to suffer less than others. Paraffine, a closely
related product, may be used at the rate of a wineglassf ul to
a watering-can of water, the mixture being sprayed upon the
insects.

Pure kerosene will destroy trees and branches which are sev-
eral years old if a sufficient amount of the oil be applied. The
beneficial results of such treatment are open to doubt, and the
practice can hardly be advised except in isolated cases, when
some unusual danger is feared. Howard has found that the oil
may be used to advantage in the destruction of the mosquito.
These breed in stagnant water, such as is commonly found
in pools, etc., and by the use of 1 ounce of oil to 15 square
feet of water surface, a film is formed which is very effectual
in destroying all forms of aquatic insect life.

KEROSENE AND MILK EMULSIONS. — By emulsifying kero-
sene with some other material a very uniform dilution of the
oil may be obtained, and it may be used of any desired strength.
Milk has been very extensively used as an emulsifying agent,
and it possesses particular value in those regions in which it is
difficult to obtain soft water, hard water being unsuited to
assist in making emulsion when soap is used instead of milk.

Kerosene and Condensed Milk Emulsion. —

Kerosene 2 gallons.

Condensed milk 3 pints.

Water 6 "

It is unnecessary to heat the ingredients, but they may be
mixed and immediately churned or agitated by means of a
force-pump until a perfect emulsion is obtained.

Kerosene and Sour Milk Emulsion. —

Kerosene 2 gallons.

Sour milk 1 gallon.

These liquids should be agitated in the same manner as the
preceding. The mixture will soon assume a thick buttery con-
sistency, and when the entire mass is in this condition the oil is
properly emulsified. The addition of a little vinegar is said to
hasten the process, especially if the milk is sweet instead of

154 The Spraying of Plants.

sour. If sweet milk is used, the emulsion is not formed so
readily, but in other respects the two are equally valuable. If
the applications are not to be made immediately, it is better to
put the concentrated emulsion in air-tight jars until wanted,
otherwise fermentation will take place, and after a week or
more the preparation will be of little value.

These emulsions should be diluted fifteen or twenty times
with water, depending upon the insect to be destroyed and the
foliage to be treated.

KEROSENE AND SOAP EMULSIONS. — Soap is very generally
preferred to milk for emulsifying kerosene and other oils.
Hard soap is easily obtained, and is therefore more commonly
used. Whale-oil soap is said to be the best for this purpose.
If soft soap is at hand, it may be used as well as the hard soaps,
since the actions of the two are practically identical. One quart
of soft soap is considered to be the equivalent of one-fourth pound
hard soap.

Cook's Soft Soap Emulsion. — "Dissolve one quart of soft
soap in two quarts of boiling water. Remove from the fire,
and, while still boiling hot, add one pint of kerosene and im-
mediately agitate with the pump as described above. In two
or three minutes the emulsion will be perfect. This should
be diluted by adding an equal amount of water, when it
is ready for use. This always emulsifies readily with hard or
soft water ; always remains permanent, for years even ; and is
very easily diluted, even in the coldest weather, and without
any heating. In this last respect it has no equal, so far as we
have experimented. The objections to it are : we cannot
always procure the soft soap, though many farmers make it,
and it is generally to be found in our markets; it occasionally
injures the foliage, probably owing to the caustic properties of
the soap. We have used this freely for years and never saw
any injury till the past season. In case of any such trouble we
may use only half the amount of soap — one pint instead of one
quart." The emulsion should be diluted so that about one-
fifteenth of the liquid is kerosene, the amount varying under
different circumstances.

Cook's Hard Soap Emulsion. — " Dissolve one-fourth pound of
hard soap, Ivory, Babbitt, Jaxon, or whale-oil, etc., in two
quarts of water, add, as before, one pint of kerosene oil, and

Materials and Formulas. 155

pump the mixture back into itself while hot. This always
emulsifies at once, and is permanent with hard as well as soft
water. This is diluted with twice its bulk of water before use.
The objection to a large amount of water sinks before the fact
that this secures a sure and permanent emulsion, even though
diluted with hard water. This also becomes, with certain
soaps, lumpy and stringy when cold, so that it cannot be
readily diluted with cold water unless first heated. Yet this is
true with all hard soap emulsions in case of certain soaps. We
can, however, always dilute easily if we do so at once before the
emulsion is cold, and we can also do the same either by heating
an emulsion or diluent, no matter how long we wait." (Page 81).
Hublard-Riley Kerosene Emulsion. —

Hard soap \ pound.

Kerosene 2 gallons.

Boiling soft water 1 gallon.

The soap should first be dissolved in the boiling water, after
which the kerosene is added, and the two churned for five or ten
minutes. One essential condition of success in making this
emulsion is that the liquids should be as warm as possible. My
own practice has been to heat the two after the kerosene has
been added, taking care that the oil did not catch fire. It is
also necessary that the water be as soft as possible, for if much
mineral matter is present the emulsion will not be permanent,
and the oil will soon separate and rise to the surface. With
very hard water it is almost impossible to obtain a good emul-
sion.

If these conditions are all fulfilled, however, this emulsion is
an excellent one, as the amount of kerosene used is large, and
in other respects the preparation is easily handled. It should
be diluted with from 4 to 20 parts of water before being ap-
plied, hard water being again avoided. When diluted with 4
parts of water, the emulsion contains about 29 per cent of kero-
sene ; when diluted with 20 parts of water it contains nearly
9 per cent of the oil.

KEROSENE EMULSION AND ARSENITES. — The attempt has
frequently been made to obtain a uniform mixture of these two
materials, but with only partial success. The results have not
been satisfactory, and the use of such a mixture cannot be ad-

156 The Spraying of Plants.

vised since the arsenicals and a certain amount of the emulsion
appear to separate in the form of clots that adhere with surpris-
ing firmness to the sides of the vessel in which the preparation
is made, and render its use practically impossible.

KEROSENE EMULSION AND BALSAM OF FIR. — The addi-
tion of two ounces of fir balsam to the Hubbard-Riley emul-
sion is said to increase its efficiency and also its adhesive
properties.

One-half pint of turpentine may be used for the same pur-
pose.

KEROSENE EMULSION AND BORDEAUX MIXTURE. — A mix-
ture between these two preparations may be obtained without
much difficulty, but the fungicide should be made with as little
lime as possible. For this purpose, employ the ferrocyanide
of potassium test. Applications of the mixture can scarcely be
advised, however, since both fungicide and insecticide appear to
lose a certain degree of their efficiency, since such even distribu-
tion on the foliage cannot be obtained as when the two are
applied separately.

KEROSENE-PYRETHRUM EMULSION. — This emulsion is made
in the same manner as the preceding ones, but pure kerosene
is not used. A decoction of pyrethrum is made by filtering
1 gallon of the oil through 2\ pounds of the powder, and this
decoction is then treated like pure kerosene. It is little known.

LEAD ARSENATE. See ARSENATE OF LEAD.

LIME. — Quicklime is the most valuable form of the metal
calcium to be used in spraying, although the compound does
not remain in this form. Quicklime is the oxide of calcium,
CaO. When water is added to it, there is formed the hydrate
of lime, or calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, or water-slaked lime,
as it is more commonly called. When exposed to air, quicklime
sooner or later combines with carbonic acid gas and is thus
converted into the carbonate of lime, or air-slaked lime, CaCO3 ;
this is the same, chemically, as limestone, or chalk.

The milk of lime is formed by slaking quicklime in water.
It possesses little value when used alone, either for combating
insects or fungi, but is extensively used to avert the caustic
action of other preparations. If sprayed upon plants, it may be
found desirable to strain out the coarser particles to prevent
clogging the machinery. Air-slaked lime has been used in

Materials and Formulas. 157

making the Bordeaux mixture, but in that case twice as much
lime should be used as called for by the formulas in which
quicklime is mentioned.1

The action of lime upon foliage has been studied by Cuboni.2
When this material was first used by the Italians, their endeavor
was to cover the grape foliage with a thick and uniform layer.
The work of Cuboni shows that light acts upon the chlorophyll
under the treated parts in a perfectly normal manner, for treated
leaves had a coefficient of transpiration of 7 grams per square
centimeter in one hour, while non-treated leaves, under the
same conditions, had a coefficient of 7.25 grams, a very insig-
nificant difference. It would thus appear that no injurious
influence of this nature need be feared from applications of
lime or of the Bordeaux mixture.

Quicklime may be applied alone as follows :

Lime £-2 pecks.

Water 40 gallons.

This formula allows of much modification, but the thicker
the mixture is made the more difficult it is to apply. Its value
as a fungicide rests largely in the mechanical action of the lime;
it forms a coating over the parts treated, so that the germinating
spore cannot penetrate to the leaf tissue. In other respects its
effect is but slight.

Air-slaked lime is of greater value as an insecticide when used
dry, than when mixed with water. In the dry condition, it is
effective in destroying snails, slugs, and the larvae of some insects,
as the cherry slug. It may also be used as a diluent of poison-
ous powders, as hellebore, arsenites, etc. It causes the death of
angleworms, whether used dry or with water, and flower pots
may easily be rid of them by the use of this material, a satu-
rated solution containing sufficient quantities for the purpose.

Quicklime can be bought for 60 cents to $1.50 per barrel.

LIME, SALT, AND SULPHUR WASH. — A mixture similar to
the following was originally used in California as a sheep-dip,
but as fruit trees began to drive out the sheep, the applications
of the compound were transferred to the trees, and thus it has
been very generally used, and lias proved to be of value in the

1 See, also, Millardet et Gayon, Jour, d 'Ag. Prat. 1888, May 17, 693 et seq.
> Cited by Viala, " Les Maladies de la Vigne," 1893, 118.

158 The Spraying of Plants.

orchards as well as on the sheep. It is used against insects and
fungi.

Lime (unslaked) 25-40 pounds.

Salt 15

Sulphur 20

Water 60 gallons.

To mix the above, take 10 pounds of lime, 20 pounds of sul-
phur, and 20 gallons of water. Boil until the sulphur is thor-
oughly dissolved. Take the remainder — 15 pounds of lime and
15 pounds of salt — slake and add enough of water to make the
whole 60 gallons. Strain, and spray on the trees when milk-
warm, or somewhat warmer. This can be applied when the
foliage is off the tree, and will have no injurious effects on the
fruit-buds or on the tree itself.

LIME SULPHIDE ; SULPHIDE OF LIME ; CAS. — This sub-
stance is made by boiling together sulphur and quicklime, using
equal parts of each, until the liquid assumes a reddish yellow
color. Even twice the amount of sulphur may be used with
the above quantity of lime, and an excellent article will still be
produced. Lime sulphide is of a white color, the compound
being CaS. As the boiling is continued, a yellow color appears,
caused by the formation of the bisulphide of lime, CaS2. Upon
prolonged boiling the yellow is replaced by an orange-red, which
is the color of a third compound, the pentasulphide of lime,
CaS5. This is particularly rich in sulphur. The most popu-
lar method of using lime sulphide is described under GRISON
LIQUID, which see. The compound is not a very energetic
fungicide, but is valuable in treating surface mildews, such as
the oidium of the grape. It is also of value in controlling
mildew upon plants grown under glass, such as the peach, cu-
cumber, rose, etc. With few exceptions, however, the copper
compounds are to be preferred.

LINSEED OIL EMULSION. — This remedy has been recom-
mended by S. T. Maynard for the destruction of the San Jose
scale insect, it having proved to be very efficient in controlling
various scale insects found upon cacti, English ivy, rose, apple,
pear, ash, thorn, and willow.

Hard soap I pound.

Boiling water, enough to dissolve the soap.
Linseed oil 1 gallon.

Materials and Formulas. 159

Churn thoroughly until a pasty emulsion is formed. Dilute
with from 12 to 24 gallons of water. The remedy has not yet
been thoroughly tested.

LIVER OF SULPHUR. See POTASSIUM SULPHIDE.

LONDON PURPLE. See under ARSENITE OF LIME.

LYE. — The success following the use of soaps for destroying
insects has lead to treatments of lye for the same purpose. It
may be used as follows :

Concentrated lye 1 pound.

Water 3 gallons.

One and one-fourth pounds of potash may be used in place
of the lye. These solutions are very caustic, and should only
be used upon dormant wood. They are especially useful in
destroying scale insects, but soft-bodied insects may also be
exterminated by using :

Concentrated lye 1 pound.

Water 40 gallons.

It is well to wash this solution from delicate foliage in the
course of half an hour, to prevent any injury which might
follow if the insecticide were allowed to remain.

LYE AND SULPHUR WASH. —

Concentrated lye 1 pound.

(Potash 14 pounds.)

Sulphur \\ pounds.

Water 3 gallons.

This is recommended for the destruction of scale insects, but
should be used only upon dormant wood.
LYE AND WHALE-OIL SOAP WASH. —

(a) Concentrated lye 1 pound.

Water 1 gallon.

Sulphur Is pounds.

Boil until all the ingredients are dissolved.

(6) Whale-oil soap 14 pounds.

Water 54 gallons.

160 The Spraying of Plants.

When the soap is dissolved, unite solutions (a) and (6), and
boil for a short time. The remedy is particularly valuable in
treating scale insects just as they hatch in spring. It is more
effective if used warm, at a temperature of 130° F., taking care
to reach as many insects as possible.

MERCURIC CHLORIDE; CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE; HoCL2. —
It is made by subliming a mixture of mercuric sulphate and
common salt, the resulting product being one of the deadliest
poisons. Recommendations for its use as an insecticide are
occasionally advanced, but the poison has such a caustic action
upon foliage, that it cannot be used with safety.

It possesses some value as a fungicide, however, especially in
preventing scab upon potatoes. For this purpose use :

Corrosive sublimate 2 ounces.

Water 16 gallons.

Scabby seed potatoes should be soaked in this solution for
about an hour and a half before planting.
MERCURIC CHLORIDE WASH. —

Corrosive sublimate 1 ounce.

Soft soap 10 gallons.

Alcohol or wood spirit 1 pint.

Water, sufficient to make a stiff paint.

The corrosive sublimate should first be dissolved in the alco-
hol, and this solution then added to the soap. The wash is
used upon the bases of apple trees to prevent the entrance of
borers, and for this purpose it has been highly recommended.

MIXTURE No. 5 (of the U. S. Department of Agriculture). —

Ammoniated copper sulphate 1 part.

Ammonium carbonate 1 "

Twelve ounces of the mixture should be dissolved in 22
gallons of water, when it is ready for immediate use. A more
concentrated solution, consisting of 1 pound to 25 gallons of
water, has also been recommended. The fungicide has not
been generally adopted, as it frequently causes injury to foliage.
Before being dissolved, the mixture should be kept in air-tight
receptacles, or its composition will change.

MODIFIED EAU CELESTE. — This well-known fungicide is one
of the best now in use. In composition it is practically the

Materials and Formulas. 161

same as the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, since this
compound is first formed, and is then dissolved by ammonia.
A solution of sodium sulphate is also present, but this is scarcely
objectionable. The freshly precipitated carbonate of copper is
much more easily dissolved by ammonia than the dry article is,
and in this respect the preparation is superior to the common
ammoniacal solution. But there is also present a certain amount
of the sulphate of soda, yet, if properly diluted, no injury should
result from this source. Modified eau celeste is readily prepared
as follows :

Copper sulphate 2 pounds.

Sal- soda 2 i "

Dissolve these separately with a small quantity of water and
slowly unite them. When chemical action has stopped add

Ammonia, 26° Beaume 1 quart.

Or ammonia, 22° Beaume 3 quarts.

This concentrated solution should be diluted before an appli-
cation is made, with from 50 to 100 gallons of water, the last
being probably none too much. The fungicide is cheap and effect-
ive. The price of sal-soda varies from \\ to 5 cents per pound.

MOLASSES. See SUGAR.

OIL. — None of the oils is used in a pure form, with the ex-
ception of kerosene; a few others are occasionally applied in
connection with some other substance.

OIL AND ALKALI WASH. —

1. Whale-oil U gallons.

Sal-soda 25 pounds.

Water 25 gallons.

The sal-soda is first dissolved in the boiling water, after
which the oil is added. Apply when cooled to 130°. Use
during winter for scale insects.

2. Concentrated lye (American, 80 per cent) ... 1 pound.

Potash i "

Water 6 gallons.

In place of the lye, one can use ± pound of Greenbank pow-
dered caustic soda, of 98 per cent ; or 1 pound of solid caustic

M

162 The Spraying of Plants.

soda, of 76 per cent ; or 1^ pounds of solid caustic soda, of 63
per cent. This is used in the same way and for the same pur-
pose as No. 1.

OREGON WASH. — The Oregon wash is practically the same
as the California lime, salt, and sulphur wash, with the excep-
tion that sulphate of copper is substituted for salt. The for-
mula, as given by Henry E. Dosch, of the Oregon State
Board of Horticulture, is as follows :

"Place 100 pounds of sulphur and 80 pounds of lime in a
boiler with 100 gallons of water, and boil slowly until the
sulphur is dissolved. Dissolve 8 pounds of sulphate of copper
in hot water, add to 20 pounds of slaked lime, and mix the
whole together. When ready to spray, take 1 pound of the
mixture and 2£ gallons of hot water, for winter use, applying
lukewarm ; 1 pound of the mixture to 8 or 10 gallons of water
for summer spray. The water in the mixture will boil away,
leaving a solid mass, which, however, dissolves readily when
hot water is added for spraying."

PARAFFINE. See KEROSENE.

PARIS GREEN. See page 121.

PATENT INSECTICIDES. — The Division of Entomology of the
United States Department of Agriculture made an exhibit at
the Columbian Exposition, in 1893, of forty-two different
patented insecticides; and many more exist. Some possess
value, while others are positively unsafe to handle. As a rule,
it is better and cheaper for each grower to prepare the insecti-
cides and also the fungicides which are to be applied, since then
there can be no doubt as to their composition.

PERSIAN INSECT POWDER. See PYRETHRUM.

PRECIPITATED CARBONATE OF COPPER. See COPPER CAR-
BONATE.

PODECHARD'S POWDER. —

Copper sulphate 45 pounds.

Water, enough to dissolve.

Lime, air-slaked 225 "

Ashes 30 "

Flowers of sulphur 20 "

The copper sulphate solution should be poured upon the lime,
which in turn must be surrounded by the ashes to keep the

Materials and Formulas. 163

liquid within bounds. After standing twenty-four hours the
sulphur should be added, and then all the ingredients thoroughly
mixed together. The mixture, when dry, should be passed
through a sieve having eight meshes to the inch, when it is
ready to apply. It has been recommended for various fungous
diseases, but is not much used.

POTASH; POTASSIUM. — Various compounds of potash have
been recommended for the destruction of insects, but they are
not always effective, whether applied at the root or on the
foliage.

Kainit 1 ounce.

Water 1 pint.

Other forms may be used in the same manner, but foliage is
frequently injured.
POTASH SOAP. —

Concentrated lye 1 pound.

Cotton-seed oil 3 pints.

Soft water 3 gallons.

Boil the lye in water until dissolved, then add the oil and
boil for two hours, replacing evaporated water with hot water
from time to time. Use 1 pound of this soap to 8 or 10 gallons
of water on lice-infested plants or trees, and wash the trunks
and branches with a stiff brush.

POTASSIUM SULPHIDE; SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM; LIVER
OF SULPHUR; K2S. — This substance is used when dissolved
in water at the rate of £ to 1 ounce in 1 gallon of water. The
solution soon loses its strength, so should be made only just
before using. It possesses considerable value in the treatment
of certain fungous diseases, as gooseberry mildew, but is not so
energetic as the copper compounds. Cost, fifteen to twenty-five
cents per pound.

PYRETHRUM; BUHACH; DALMATIAN INSECT POWDER ; PER-
SIAN INSECT POWDER. — This powder is obtained from plants
of the genus Pyrethrum. It owes its value to the presence of
an oil which is exceedingly poisonous to most insects, but appar-
ently harmless to the higher animals. The oil acts upon the
insect only when in contact with it, in the same manner as

164 The Spraying of Plants.

kerosene and similar insecticides. The oil is particularly abun-
dant in the flower-heads just before they open, and the plant is
best cut at this time. The stems also are used, and they may
form about one-third of the mass to be ground into powder.
The oil is very volatile, so the dried plants should not be exposed
to the rays of the sun, to a high temperature, nor to moisture.
After being dried, they should be placed in a receptacle which
can be tightly closed; and it is imperative that the powder be so
treated, else it will quickly lose its strength.

There are two species of Pyrethrum which furnish the bulk
of the commercial articles. P. roseum is the plant that is
native to the province of Transcaucasia, and from it is obtained
the form sold as Persian insect powder. P. cineraricefolium,
however, is native to Dalmatia, and Dalmatian insect powder
is the product derived from this plant. Buhach is obtained
from a cultivated form of the same species. This plant is the
one mostly grown in California, and for this reason Buhach is
the most reliable powder to use. The insecticidal value of the
plant does not appear to diminish under cultivation, and, as
Buhach is made in this country, it is more apt to be fresh.
Both species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and it is prob-
able that they have equally valuable insecticidal properties.

Pyrethrum can be used in a great variety of ways, of which
the following are the most important : 1

"1. In solution. — One ounce to 3 gallons of water.

"2. Dry, without dilution. — In this form it is excellent for
thrips and lice on roses and other bushes. Apply when the
bush is wet. Useful for aphis on house plants.

" 3. Dry, with dilution. — Diluted with flour or any light and
fine powder. The poison may be used in the proportion of 1
part to from 6 to 30 of the diluent.

" 4. In fumigation. — It may be scattered directly upon coals,
or made into small balls by wetting and moulding with the
hands, and then set upon coals. This is a desirable way of
dealing with mosquitoes and flies.

" 5. In alcohol. — (1) Put 1 part of pyre thrum (buhach) and
4 parts alcohol, by weight, in any tight vessel. Shake occa-
sionally, and after eight days filter. Apply with an atomizer.
Excellent for greenhouse pests. For some plants it needs to be

i Bailey, " Horticulturist's Rule-Book," third edition, 1895, 10, 11.

Materials and Formulas. 165

diluted a little. (2) Dissolve about 4 ounces of powder in 1
gill of alcohol, and add 12 gallons of water.

" 6. Decoction. — Whole flower-heads are treated to boiling
water, and the liquid is covered to prevent evaporation. Boiling
the liquid destroys its value.

" 7. Water extract. — Pour 2 quarts hot water through about
a half-pound of pyrethrurn, held in a coarse bag, and then add
cold water enough to make 2 gallons, and it is well to stir in
the powder itself. For aphis and cabbage worms. It will keep
but a few days. Or the extract can be made as follows : Make
a paste of 2 tablespoon fuls of pyrethrum by adding water.
Stir this into 2 gallons of water, and apply writh a fine nozzle.
This is recommended for the rose-chafer.

"8. Pyrethro-kerosene emulsion. — See under KEROSENE-PY-
RETHRUM EMULSION."

The cost of pyrethrum varies from twenty to nearly seventy-
five cents per pound.

QUASSIA. — The wood of Picrcena (or Picrasma) excelsa con-
tains a principle which is fatal to many insects when brought in
contact with them. The wood has an extremely bitter taste,
and for this reason it has been supposed that seeds placed in
water in which the wood had been soaked would be protected
from birds and vermin. Its value for this purpose is, however,
doubtful. Quassia wood is generally sold after having been
cut into " chips," and it is commonly used as follows :

Quassia chips 1 pound.

Water 8 gallons.

Boil until reduced to 6 gallons.

Another formula has been recommended which is probably
more effective than the preceding :

Quassia chips \ pound.

Water 1 gallon.

The chips are boiled in the water for about fifteen minutes ;
the liquid should then be strained, and to the solution is added

Soft soap \ pound.

When thoroughly mixed, the liquid is ready for use. This
insecticide is not very energetic, but possesses a certain value in

166 The Spraying of Plants.

destroying plant lice. Quassia chips are worth from six to ten
cents per pound.

QUASSIA CHIPS AND WHALE-OIL SOAP. —

Quassia chips 8 pounds.

Whale-oil soap 7 "

Water 100 gallons.

" Soak the chips twelve hours in 8 gallons of water, or if hot
water is used, less time will be required. Dissolve the soap
by boiling in sufficient water to cover it ; strain the extracts
from the quassia and add the two ingredients together. Stir
thoroughly and dilute to make 100 gallons.

"This solution is used successfully among the hop growers
for exterminating hop lice in the large fields. It is not injurious
to foliage. . . . For some species of aphis [upon other plants]
a stronger solution may have to be used, and in such cases dilute
only to 80 gallons instead of 100." *

QUICKLIME. See LIME.

RESIN SOAP. —

Resin 2 pounds.

Caustic soda 1 pound.

Tallow 1 "

Dissolve the caustic soda in 1^ gallons of water. In this,
dissolve the resin and tallow with moderate heat, adding water
to make 22 pints of brown, thick soap. For use dilute with
44 gallons of water and apply as a spray. It is used as a sum-
mer wash to destroy insects.

RESIN WASHES. — The history of these washes has been dis-
cussed on page 85. Their action is of two kinds. Some insects
are killed when these washes come in contact with their bodies,
an action similar to that of the kerosene emulsions. But scale
insects are often so well protected that they cannot be directly
reached by the applications. The action of the resin washes is
then to form a covering over the insect so that both air and
moisture will be excluded. In this manner the pest is literally
smothered to death. These washes are particularly valuable in
destroying scale insects. In the East, where such insects are less
troublesome, kerosene emulsion is more commonly recommended,

* Washington State Board of Sort. 3d Biennial Sept. 1893-94, 71.

Materials and Formulas. 167

and it may be that the insects are also more easily treated here.
But in California and in the South, the resin solutions are very
highly valued, as they appear to be more efficient than those
containing kerosene.

Applications are made to dormant as well as to growing trees.
In the former pase stronger mixtures are used with success, but
if used during summer, the same ones might cause much dam-
age. When selecting from the formulas given below, the nature
of the treatment must be kept in mind, to avoid injuring the
trees. It is advisable to use a covered iron kettle for boiling the
ingredients of the insecticides.

Resin 20 pounds.

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 5 "

Fish-oil , 2£ pints.

Water to make 100 gallons.

The first three ingredients should be placed in a large kettle
and covered with four or five inches of water. Boil for one or
two hours, or until the liquid has a dark brown color resembling
coffee.

The use of a 98 per cent granulated caustic soda shortens the
required time of boiling. In case this is used, its amount may
be reduced to 3 pounds, and 3 pounds of fish-oil should also
be added. Under such circumstances, these ingredients may be
boiled a moment with but 15 gallons of water and a stock solu-
tion thus obtained, which may be diluted at will. (The total
cost is about five and one-third cents per gallon.) These two
formulas are very extensively employed in the work of the United
States Department of Agriculture.

When water is added to the solutions, it should be poured in
slowly and thoroughly mixed. Dilute as required, in green-
houses 1—3, or 1-4. For use in summer.

Resin 40 pounds.

Caustic soda (98 per cent) 10 "

Potash 10 "

Tallow "40 "

Water to make 50 gallons.

Dissolve the soda and the potash in about 10 gallons of hot
water. The resin and the tallow should be heated, and when
dissolved and thoroughly mixed, pour the two solutions into a

168 The Spraying of Plants.

barrel holding 50 gallons, and stir well. Allow the mixture to
stand about two hours, when the barrel may be slowly filled
with warm water, the contents being continually stirred as the
water is added. One pint of the preparation may be used in a
gallon of warm water. For use in summer.

Kesin 20 pounds.

Caustic soda 8 "

Fish-oil 1 gallon.

Water to make 100 gallons.

The caustic soda is first dissolved in about 16 gallons of
water, after which half of the solution is taken out and the
resin added to that remaining in the kettle. When all the
resin is dissolved, the fish-oil is added to it, and the whole
thoroughly stirred, after which the balance of the caustic soda
solution is added very slowly and boiled for about an hour, or
until it will readily mix with water. Use an iron kettle. For
use in summer.

Resin 17£ pounds.

Soda (60 per cent) 7 "

Fish-oil 3 "

Petroleum 2 "

Water 100 gallons.

Boil the first three ingredients together for four hours in 20
gallons of water, after which the petroleum should be poured in,
the whole being well stirred. The 80 gallons of water may then
be added, and an emulsion made by active agitation. For use
in summer.

Resin 8 pounds.

Caustic soda 1 pound.

Water to make 22 gallons.

Dissolve the caustic soda in about 1 gallon of water. When
dissolved half the solution is taken out, and the resin added to
the remainder and boiled until dissolved, after which the bal-
ance of the soda solution is added very slowly. The mixture is
then boiled over a hot fire, being stirred almost constantly ; and
when cooked sufficiently it will assimilate with cold water like
milk, which it much resembles. Dilute as above, and apply
during summer.

Materials and Formulas. 169

Simple solution of resin :

Resin 2 pounds.

Crystallized sal-soda 1 pound.

Water 2 quarts.

Boil the above until a clear brown solution is obtained. This
is an excellent method of obtaining a stock solution of resin.
It is as valuable as any soap to increase adhesive properties of
Bordeaux mixture, and costs much less.

Resin 30 pounds.

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 9 "

Fish-oil 4£ pints.

Water 100 gallons.

Place the first three ingredients in an iron kettle and cover
with five or six inches of water. Boil for an hour or two, or
until the liquid has a dark brown color, after which the re-
mainder of the water may be slowly added. It is not necessary
that all should be immediately used, since the liquid may be
diluted as well later. For winter use.

RESIN WASHES AND ARSENICALS. — Paris green, London
purple, and even arsenious acid will mix readily with resin
compounds, especially those which consist of resin, caustic soda,
and water. The poison may then be used at the same rate as
in clear water. Arsenious acid has been used in this manner
upon orange trees at the rate of 1 pound to 300 gallons of the
wash.

SALT; SODIUM CHLORIDE; NACL. — Common salt has very
frequently been recommended as an insecticide, and there is
no doubt that it is capable of killing many insects. But its
effective use requires such strong solutions that the remedy is
generally worse than the disease, and for this reason it is rarely
applied.

SCHEELE'S GREEN. See ARSENITE OF COPPER, page 120.

SCHWEINFURTH'S GREEN. See Paris Green, page 121.

SKAWINSKI'S IRON SULPHATE AND SULPHURIC ACID SOLU-
TION. —

Iron sulphate 110 pounds.

Sulphuric acid (53°) 1£ pints.

Warm water , . . ? . , 26 gallons.

1TO The Spraying of Plants.

The acid should first be poured upon the iron crystals, after
which the water may be added. This preparation is almost
identical with one already described under IRON SULPHATE,
and it is used for the same purpose. It has shown itself, in
the hands of Skawinski and others, to be a very efficient remedy
against grape anthracnose, being applied exclusively to dormant
wood.

SKAWINSKI'S POWDER. —

Copper sulphate, powdered 22 pounds.

Alluvial earth, or soot 33 "

Coal-dust 165 "

Mix thoroughly and apply in the form of a powder. The
preparation has been successfully applied in Europe for treat-
ing grape mildews, but is at present little used.

SNUFF. — Fresh snuff is as valuable as other forms of tobacco
in destroying insects. It may be used dry or as a decoction ;
for the latter use see Tobacco. When dry it is very service-
able in destroying insects where more energetic measures can-
not be taken, as in dwelling-rooms and small conservatories.
The powder should be blown upon the insects.

SOAP. — Probably all soaps are of value as insecticides, and
they were among the first remedies used. They kill by corning
in contact with the insect, destroying it directly, as does kero-
sene, and probably also by closing the breathing pores, and so
smothering it. Common soap may be used at the rate of

Soap 1 pound.

Water 5-8 gallons.

The proper strength of the preparation varies with the insect
and the plant to which it is applied. For plant lice, the
weaker solutions are sufficiently strong, but for mealy-bug and
similar pests the more concentrated forms are desirable.

SOAP AND ARSENITES. —

Soap 4 pounds.

Paris green or London purple 4 ounces.

Lime 4 "

Water 50 gallons.

Dissolve the soap in 1 to 2 gallons of hot water, then add
the poison and the lime. Dilute just before using. This

Materials and Formulas. 171

preparation combines certain properties of those insecticides
which kill by contact, and those which are first eaten. It
possesses value for all insects, but only soft-bodied organisms
are overcome by the soap. Kerosene emulsion or the resin
washes are commonly to be preferred. The lime is added to
the preparation to prevent injury.
SOAP AND FISH-OIL. —

Potash lye 1 pound.

Fish-oil 3 pints.

Soft water 3 gallons.

First dissolve the lye in the water by boiling, then add the
oil and boil two hours longer. Dilute with 6 to 10 gallons of
water to every pound of the soap which is formed. The
mixture is especially valuable for destroying soft-bodied
insects.

SOAP AND LIME WASH. —

(a) Potash 5 pounds.

Lard 5 "

Boiling water 5 gallons.

(6) Quicklime 1 peck.

Boiling water 5 gallons.

When (a) and (b) have been thoroughly acted upon by the
hot water, mix the two liquids. Dilute before using by adding
2 gallons of boiling water to each gallon of the mixture. This
preparation has been recommended for borers, but it is of
doubtful value.

SOAP AND SODA WASH. — Add a strong solution of common
wash soda to soft soap until the latter thickens to a thick paint.
The mixture is of value in destroying bark lice and similar
insects.

SOAP AND TOBACCO. —

Soft soap 8 pounds.

Kain water (warm) 12 gallons.

When this has cooled, add

Strong tobacco decoction 1 gallon.

This has been recommended for the destruction of soft-bodied
insects, and undoubtedly possesses considerable value.

172 The Spraying of Plants.

SODA AND ALOES. —

Washing soda 2 pounds.

Bitter Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce.

Dissolve the above in hot water, and when cool add
Water 1 gallon.

The preparation has been recommended for destroying plant
lice, but in order to be effective the plants must be dipped in
the mixture, and in half an hour syringed off with clear water.

SODA AND RESIN WASH. —

Sal-soda 3 pounds.

Hot water 1 pint.

Then slowly add

Resin 4 pounds.

Hot water 2 pints.

These should be thoroughly mixed, and before using should
be diluted with 5 gallons of water.
SODA AND WHALE-OIL SOAP WASH. —

Sal-soda 25 pounds.

Water 25 gallons.

Boil until dissolved, when 1| gallons of whale oil should be
added. It is applied only to dormant wood, and is particularly
useful in destroying scale insects. Apply at a temperature of
130° F.

SODIUM ARSENATE. See ARSENATE OF SODA.

SODA WASH. —

Washing soda 2 pound.

Water 2 gallons.

The liquid is ready for use as soon as the soda is dissolved.
It has a caustic action upon foliage, so should be used only upon
dormant wood. It is said to be of value against borers and
scale insects.

SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE; NA2S2O3. — Solutions of the hypo-
sulphite of soda have been very thoroughly tested in respect to

Materials and Formulas. 173

their fungicidal value, but the results have not been so satis-
factory as with the copper compounds, and therefore the sub-
stance is but little used. The solution may be prepared by
dissolving 1 pound in 10 to 20 gallons of water, although there
has been recommended the application of only ^ ounce in 10
gallons. The latter, however, can have but little value. The
cost of this substance varies from six to fifteen cents per pound.
SODIUM SULPHIDE WASH. —

(a) Whale-oil soap 30 pounds.

Hot water 60 gallons.

(6) American concentrated lye 3 pounds.

Sulphur 6 "

Boiling water 2 gallons.

Mixture (6) should be very thoroughly boiled until it is of a
dark brown color. Chemically it is the sulphide of soda.
Solutions (a) and (ft) should then be mixed and boiled half an
hour. Before using, dilute with 90 gallons of warm water.
The remedy is of value for scab diseases of oranges.

SUGAR. — Sugar or molasses is sometimes added to copper
compounds to assist in holding a certain amount of the copper
in solution. It has long been known that when concentrated
solutions of sugar and copper sulphate are mixed there is pro-
duced a bluish-white precipitate, known as a sulpho-saccharate
of copper. It is soluble in water, but when heated the com-
pound is broken up, and the copper is deposited in the form of
a red powder, the protoxide of copper. Recommendations have
been made to add molasses at the rate of one-tenth by weight
of the amount of copper sulphate, or one-twentieth its weight
of sugar. This renders a portion of the copper in the Bordeaux
mixture immediately soluble ; but the advantage of the practice
is doubtful. (See, also, page 50.) The presence of an excess
of lime in the Bordeaux mixture is essential to the proper
manufacture of the fungicide with these materials.

The following analysis represents approximately the com-
position of a high-grade molasses :

Sugar 50 per cent.

Other organic matter 20 "

Ash 10 "

Water 20 K

174 The Spraying of Plants.

A poor quality of molasses has been found to possess

Sugar 44.00 per cent.

Glucose 1.47

Ash 12.96

Water 41.57

SULPHATED SULPHUR; BLIGHT POWDER. —

Copper sulphate, anhydrous 3-8 pounds.

Flowers of sulphur 90-100 "

Mix the two materials and apply in the form of a powder.
The mixture was formerly supposed to possess strong f ungicidal
properties, but it is now little used. It is of some value in
treating surface mildews, the sulphur probably then being the
active principle.

SULPHATE OF COPPER. See COPPER SULPHATE.

SULPHATE OF IRON. See IRON SULPHATE.

SULPHATINE POWDER. —

Anhydrous copper sulphate 2 pounds.

Flowers of sulphur 20 "

Air-slaked lime 2 "

The ingredients should be thoroughly mixed, when they may
be applied. The powder is supposed to be of value as a fungi-
cide, but is very little used.

SULPHIDE OF LIME. See LIME SULPHIDE.

SULPHOSTEATITE J CuPRIC-STEATITE ; FOSTITE. Sul-

phosteatite is an exceedingly fine blue powder consisting of
steatite or talc, and containing also from 2 to 10 per cent of
copper sulphate. It is obtained in Europe, and was first intro-
duced into America by C. H. Joosten, of New York, in 1893 ;
he changed the name to "Fostite" the following year. The
copper contained in the powder is largely soluble, and in con-
sequence foliage is frequently injured by the use of the fungi-
cide. It has been recommended as an insecticide, but I have
failed to derive any benefits from its use for this purpose. It
is not so valuable as other copper compounds, yet it has the
desirable quality of being remarkably adherent to foliage.

SULPHUR; FLOWERS OF SULPHUR; S. — Sulphur is valuable
both as an insecticide and as a fungicide. Its use for the first

Materials and Formulas. 175

purpose is practically confined to greenhouses and conserva-
tories, and even there only few insects are affected by it. It is
most rapidly applied by evaporating in a sand bath over an oil
stove, but extreme care must be given that it does not take fire,
as then it will instantly destroy all the plants. Red spider and
related insects are said to be destroyed by the fumes, and treat-
ment should be made as soon as they are discovered, or even
before. Sulphur may also be evaporated successfully by plac-
ing it upon the heating pipes. It is well to mix it with an
equal amount of lime, and then add water to form a thick
paint, with which the pipes may be covered. When applied in
a dry form directly to the plants, it possesses little value as an
insecticide. A moist atmosphere in the house probably renders
the fumes more effective.

Sulphur is one of the most valuable fungicides for the treat-
ment of surface mildews, and it has long been used for this
purpose. Previous to 1880, it was almost the only fungicide
used in Europe, and it did excellent service in controlling the
European mildews which attacked the vine and many other
plants, whether grown under glass or in the open. Out of
doors it was commonly applied in a dry condition, being blown
upon the plants by means of hand bellows. Under glass it was
used in three ways : in the form of powder, when mixed with
water, and when evaporated from the heating surfaces. The
first method was executed in the same manner as out-doors.
When mixed with water both the sulphur and the water assist
in destroying many pests, and it is a common practice to make
such applications. The proportions of the two vary greatly.
It has been recommended to use 1 ounce of sulphur to 5 gallons
of water, and also as much as 1 pound to 1 gallon. The more
dilute mixtures are more easily applied, and if the work is
thoroughly done, are, on the whole, equally valuable. The fumes
of sulphur for treating mildews are obtained as described above.
When the powder is used out of doors the value of the remedy
undoubtedly rests in the fact that the sulphur gradually gives
off fumes on account of the heat of the sun, and the mildews
yield for the same reason that they do when the powder is evap-
orated under glass.

One of the most valuable preparations of sulphur is known as
Grison's liquid, which see.

176 The Spraying of Plants.

Sulphur generally sells for about three cents a pound whole-
sale, and ten cents retail.
SULPHUR AND LIME POWDER. —

Flowers of sulphur 1 part,

Air-slaked lime 1 "

Mix and apply in form of a powder. The mixture is of value
for surface mildews, but is little used in America. The Euro-
pean grape mildew is easily controlled by it.

SULPHUR AND SNUFF. —

Flowers of sulphur 1 pound.

Scotch snuff 1 "

Quicklime 1 "

Soft soap 1 "

Lampblack i "

Water, enough to make a thin paint.

This formula contains an excellent variety of materials, but
other and simpler ones are undoubtedly equally effective in the
destruction of plant lice, for which the above is particularly
recommended. It should be used only upon dormant wood.

SULPHUR AND WHALE-OIL SOAP WASH. —

Sulphur $ pound.

Boiling water £ gallon.

Boil the sulphur for fifteen minutes. To this add

Whale-oil soap 1 pound,

and boil for five minutes. Allow the mixture to stand a week,
and before using, dissolve 1 pound in a gallon of hot water,
making the application when the temperature has fallen to
130°. It is supposed to be a repellent of various burrowing
larvae, as the currant borer, and others.

SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM. See POTASSIUM SULPHIDE.

SULPHURIC ACID. See IRON SULPHATE.

TOBACCO ; NICOTIANA TABACUM. — The active principle
of tobacco is nicotine, and this compound gives the plant its
value as an insecticide. It kills by coming in contact with the
insects, and so long as this occurs, the method of its application
is of minor importance. It is most commonly used for the

Materials and Formulas. 177

destruction of plant lice, although other soft-bodied insects
may also be overcome by the applications. The mid-veins,
or "stems," are the parts sold for insecticidal purposes. The
simplest method of using them in greenhouses is to strew them
under the benches, making the layer two to four inches thick,
and renewing the stems eveiy five or six weeks. Tender plants
may easily be injured in this manner. Another common prac-
tice is to burn the stems in the houses, placing them in a sheet-
iron receptacle having the form of an enlarged stove-pipe placed
upon end, and having a perforated bottom. Legs should be
attached at the bottom to keep the fire from the floor. Paper
or shavings may be used for starting the fire, yet the stems
themselves should never come to a blaze, but only smolder, so
that large volumes of smoke may be produced. If the stems
are dampened, the operation is more effective. About one-
half pound of the stems to every 500 square feet of glass is the
quantity generally used. On account of the disagreeable smell
left in the house this remedy cannot always be employed. In
place of it there may be used semi-fluid extracts of tobacco
which are now upon the markets. When evaporated these are
very efficient in destroying aphis, and only a slight odor
remains.

A decoction of tobacco stems is commonly employed. It
is prepared by steeping the stems in an amount of water
sufficient to cover them, and when their strength has been well
drawn out, the liquid is diluted so that it has the color of fairly
strong tea. It is then sprayed upon the plants, care being
taken that the insects to be destroyed are reached by the appli-
cations. This remedy can be used successfully where fumiga-
tion is not advisable, and it is cheap and effective.

Powdered tobacco or snuff may also be used 'with success.
The plants to be treated should first be sprayed with clear
water, and then the powder may be blown on them. The water
causes it to adhere, and the decoction which probably results
acts energetically in destroying the pests.

A tobacco decoction is frequently employed in place of pure
water in the preparation of other insecticides, and the presence
of the nicotine renders the preparation more efficient. With
kerosene emulsion, however, my experience has been such that
its use for this purpose cannot be advised.
N

178 The Spraying of Plants.

VERATRUM ALBUM OR V. VIRIDE. See HELLEBORE.

VERDET. See COPPER ACETATE.

VERDIGRIS. See COPPER ACETATE.

WASHES. — Many washes have been recommended and used
for preventing injury from insects and fungi. The majority of
them consist largely of soapy materials, and if the applications
are accompanied by a rubbing of the affected parts good results
will follow, especially in destroying insects. But in such cases
the mechanical action is perhaps as effective as the material
applied. Clay has been used for centuries on account of the
benefits which are supposed to have followed its use when
mixed with water. It has been particularly recommended as
an agent for preventing the entrance of borers into trees, and
has been widely used for this purpose. The actual value of the
operation is probably not so great as is frequently stated, and
much profitless labor has undoubtedly been performed in this
direction.

The following formula is inserted here not because it possesses
any marked value, but rather for the purpose of illustrating the
varied combinations of different substances which have been
used for the purpose of rendering these washes more efficient.
This one has been well recommended for preventing the en-
trance of borers into plum and peach trees, and it represents
but one of a considerable class of such remedies :

Carbolic acid 1 quart.

Soft soap 3 gallons.

Lime 4 pounds.

Water 40 gallons.

Clay, enough to make a thick wash.

This wash is very adhesive, and on this account has attracted
attention.

WATER ; H2O. — Water is used as an insecticide in three
different ways : as a means of drowning the insect, as a means
of forcibly dislodging and indirectly destroying it, and as a
conveyance for killing it by means of heat. The first method
is employed frequently in the culture of the cranberry, the
entire bog being flooded for a certain period, so that it is im-
possible for the insects to escape. European vineyardists make
use of the same expedient in treating their vines for the phyl-

Materials and Formulas. 179

loxera, the ground remaining covered with water for several
weeks during the winter, when the plants are dormant. It is
only in exceptional cases that water can be used in this manner
to advantage.

The practice of dislodging insects by means of a stream of
water forcibly applied is confined almost wholly to florists.
Plants grown under glass may easily be kept clean in this man-
ner, provided the water may be used freely ; it is one of the
best remedies for mealy-bugs and similar pests. The presence
of red spider upon greenhouse plants is principally due to a dry
atmosphere, and no good gardener need be troubled by this
insect, unless some very good reason exists why the plants
should not be syringed or sprayed. A moist atmosphere will
also check the growth of certain fungi, but as a rule such condi-
tions favor their development.

The value of hot water in destroying insect life has long been
known. If an insect be treated with water having a tempera-
ture of 125°-130° F., it will succumb almost immediately, and
no injury to the plant will result. Rose chafers will yield
readily to this treatment, but great difficulty is experienced
in maintaining the proper temperature. A spray is cooled
instantly, and when a solid stream is used the operation is
slow and difficult. For this reason the remedy is little used.

Cold water, that having a temperature little above freezing, has
been recommended against soft-bodied insects, as the cabbage
worm, but satisfactory results rarely follow such applications.

WHALE-OIL SOAP. — The value of this soap for destroying
insects was discovered many years ago. (See page 14.) The
oil from which the soap is made is probably the active prin-
ciple. The dissolved soap has proved itself to be of particu-
lar value in destroying scale insects when used at the rate of
1 pound in about 5 gallons of water. Mealy-bugs may also be
destroyed by such a solution, but care must be taken to see that
the insects are wet by the liquid. Plant lice are easily killed
with much weaker solutions, using 10 gallons to the pound.

Whale-oil soap may also be highly recommended for use in
preparing emulsions of the various oils, since the union of two
good insecticides cannot fail to make the mixture more eii'ect-
ive than is either substance alone. The soap varies in price
from eight to twenty cents per pound.

180 The Spraying of Plants.

WHALE-OIL SOAP AND SULPHIDE OF POTASH WASH. — The
following formulas for a summer wash have been recommended
by the Horticultural Commissioners of Sutter County, Cal. :

" Whale-oil soap (80 per cent strength) 20 pounds.

Sulphur 3 "

Caustic soda (98 per cent strength) 1 pound.

Commercial potash 1 "

Water to make 100 gallons.

" Place the sulphur, caustic soda, and potash together in about
2 gallons of water and boil for at least an hour, or until
thoroughly dissolved. Dissolve the soap in the water by boil-
ing ; mix the two and boil them for a short time ; use at 130° F.
in the vessel.

" Professor Hilgard recommends, in bad cases of scale and in
fighting red spider, an addition of kerosene in the form of an
emulsion, to the above wash:

" Kerosene .• 1 gallon.

Whale-oil soap \ pound.

Water £ gallon.

" Dissolve the soap in the water and when boiling hot add the
kerosene. Churn the mixture for five or ten minutes with a
hand spray-pump until it forms an emulsion. If the emulsion
is perfect it will be of a creamy nature, no oil appearing on the
surface. Add this to the 100 gallons of spraying material.

"The sulphide of potash and the kerosene emulsion are often
made up in large quantities, and the proper amount is added to
the whale-oil soap as required. Keep this wash well stirred
when using.

" It is very important that the whale-oil soap should be at
least 80 per cent strength. To test the soap, spread five or ten
ounces of it on a tin plate counterpoised on a pair of upright
scales reading to ounces, and then dry the whole by setting it
on top of a pot of boiling water. The loss in drying will indi-
cate the amount of water in the soap. Thus, if five ounces
were taken and one ounce was lost in drying, the soap would be
of 80 per cent strength."

WHITE HELLEBORE. See HELLEBORE.

YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. See FERROCYANIDE OF
POTASSIUM.

CHAPTER V.

SPRAYING DEVICES AND MACHINERY.

THE development of spraying machinery received an impetus
about the same time that the injury of insects and fungi began
to threaten and destroy so many of our cultivated plants. For
a long term of years very little had been
done towards developing apparatus of this
character, and many crude contrivances
were used. The early history of the in-
dustry reveals many appliances which are
no longer in use, the names even being
nearly as obsolete as the machines.

I. HISTORY OF SYRINGES AND PUMPS.

The simplest device for making liquid
applications to the stems and foliage of
plants was probably a whisk of heath,
straw, or some similar material ; the stems
were tied in small bundles, the part above
the tie serving for a handle (Fig. 1).
Brooms were also used for the same pur-
pose. The liquid was applied by first dip-
ping this crude brush or broom into it, and
then throwing upon the plant what ad-
hered to the brush. A fairly good applica-
tion can be made in this manner, although
the process is a tedious one. This device
was, nevertheless, used as late as 1882 in France for the purpose
of applying mixtures composed of the sulphate of copper and
lime. It is probable that the density of this preparation pre-
181

FIG. 1. — Heath whisk,
the first device used
for applying Bor-
deaux mixture.

182

The Spraying of Plants.

vented it from being applied by means of other devices then
known. Since brooms were used in applying liqiiids and semi-
liquids to plants even less than twelve years ago, it is not im-
possible that in certain sections the practice may still be in
vogue. For many plants it is surely much better to use a device
of this character than it is to make no application, for low-
growing plants can be fairly well treated, and they should be
benefited nearly as much as if more
costly machinery were used. The
character of many crops grown
during the past few seasons indi-
cates that plants will repay treat-
ment whatever be the nature of the
method followed. An improved
brush is shown in Fig. 2. The
liquid, which was carried in a tank
on the back of the operator, entered
the hollow handle through a tube
connected with the bottom of the
tank. The fluid then ran along
the fibers of the broom, and was
thrown from the extremities. The
flat broom was attached to a broad
piece of oilcloth, which assisted in
making a uniform application. A
stopcock was inserted in the handle
so that the liquid could be shut off
when desired. This device was
used in France for applying the
Bordeaux mixture.

The watering-can is one of the
first contrivances made for apply-
ing liquids upon plants. Its structure, as a rule, is very simple,
being composed of nothing more than a cylindrical reser-
voir capable of containing one or more gallons of liquid.
This device is still in very common use, especially among
florists. The water or other liquid is poured out through a
tube which projects on the outside of the reservoir, and which
springs from the bottom or from near the bottom of the can.
These tubes or sprouts are of varying lengths and shapes, and

FIG. 2. —An improved brush for
distributing Bordeaux mix-
ture.

4

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 183

are often jointed ; the cans also differ much from each other.
The water may be broken up into fine drops by means of a
perforated disk, or rose, which covers the outer opening of the
spout, the size of the drops varying with the size of holes in the
rose. Watering-cans are used advantageously only on very low-
growing plants, as the liquid leaves the spout by the force of
gravity, and not by pressure applied by the operator. Very
thorough applications can be made by means of these cans, but
they are wasteful of materials.

Small hand pumps, commonly called syringes, came into use
at an early day. They were very simple in construction,
were at first used almost entirely
for throwing clear water upon
cultivated plants. They con-
sisted practically of nothing but
a tube in which a piston and
piston-rod could play. The water
was thrown out of the same ori-
fice through which it entered.
Such a contrivance admitted of
considerable variation, and sev-
eral styles have been described
in very early publications.

A more complicated form of
syringe includes those which are
supplied with valves, generally
two (Fig. 3). In such syringes
the liquid does not leave the cyl-
inder through the same orifice
at which it entered, but it passes
out through another. These orifices are each supplied with a
valve which allows of the free passage of water in the desired
direction, but prevents its return. The earlier forms of these
syringes were made principally by the English, and several more
or less modified forms have been described. The principal ones
appear to have been Read's,1 Macdougal's,2 Warner's,3 Johnston's
portable garden engine,4 and Siebe's universal garden syringe.6

G. 3. — Small hand syriuge having
eparate inlet and outlet orifices.

1 " Loud. Ency. of Gard." 1STS, 546.
* Gard. Jfag'.\o\. vi. 305.
» Ibid. Vol. vili. 353,

* "Loud. Ency. of Gard." 1878, 547.
« Ibid. loc. Git.

184 The Spraying of Plants.

Many other syringes could be mentioned, but the above repre-
sent the principal ones in use in England as well as in other
European countries. American gardeners also used them ex-
tensively, and this type of syringe is still very commonly found,
although in a much modified form. The following syringe is one
of the most popular recently used (Fig. 4) : " In applying Paris
green or any other solutions to fruit or ornamental trees, Whit-
man's fountain pump is invaluable. It will throw a stream
thirty feet high, sixty feet horizontally, and works so easily
that a child five years old can work it. It can also be used
advantageously in watering plants, cleaning carriages and win-
dows, and might enable one to prevent much destruction in case
of fire. The pump now retails at seven and' one-half dollars." l

FIG. 4. — Whitman's fountain pump.

Garden engines were designed to throw larger amounts of
iiquid than could be well done with hand syringes, and they
were also generally arranged so that a considerable amount of
liquid could be transported from one part of the grounds to
another. A large number of different kinds were made, but
the majority of them consisted of a force pump fastened upon
a tank. The pumps, tanks, and the devices for transporting the
outfit, differed considerably. All were designed to throw clear
water, or solutions which contained no coarse particles. The
nozzles used were also designed for the same purpose, and were
very simple in construction. Fig. 5 represents one of the early
machines used in America.

The spraying implements in use in America and in Europe
were until recently very similar. The comparatively small
amount of work which had been done in fighting insect and
fungous enemies previous to 1880 could be fairly well accom-

i Cook, Kept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 1878, 236.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 185

plished with the machinery then made, and the demand for
more efficient apparatus was not sufficient to stimulate invent-
ors to introduce new devices. But increasing necessities soon
created a demand for improved machinery, and this quickly
brought about the production of new implements which were
adapted to the wants of the horticulturist.

It is interesting to note that for about a century the needs of
American and European growers were practically the same, and
that the apparatus used by the one was also adopted by the
other. Then suddenly all changed. The Europeans, and par-
ticularly the French, branched off and made machinery for
which there was at first no demand in this country, and for which
there is even now com-
paratively little. The
Americans, on the other
hand, manufactured ma-
chinery that is not used
to any great extent in
Europe, even to this day.
It was between the years
1870 and 1880 that the
American growers be-
gan searching for pumps
which were better suited
to their purpose ; but it
was not until 1880 to
1885 that this demand
had much effect upon
manufacturers. In
France, new machinery was demanded also between the years
1880 and 1885, so it may indeed be said that the breaking away
from old methods after a century of uniformity, took place
simultaneously in France and in America.

The appearance of the potato beetle in the central and east-
ern portions of the United States, between the years 1860 and
1875, familiarized farmers with the use of Paris green, the use
of this poison proving to be the easiest and most effectual
method of dealing with the insect. The poison was applied
both in the form of powder, and suspended in water. But the
latter method was not so generally adopted, as difficulty was

FIG. 5. — An early form of garden engine.

186 The Spraying of Plants.

experienced in making the application. In 1874, Frank M.
Gray, of Jefferson, Cook County, 111., sent to Professor C. V.
Riley, then of Missouri, a sprinkler which was designed to
spray two rows of potatoes at once.1 It consisted of a tank
holding about eight gallons, and was so arranged that it could
be strapped to the back of the operator. Two leads of hose
were attached at the bottom of the tank. At the outer extrem-
ity of each hose was a nozzle or sprinkler which broke the
liquid up into fine drops. The flow was due to the force of
gravity, and could be shut off at will by clamps placed upon
the hose. This is the first case which has come to my knowl-
edge of the principle of a knapsack sprayer being used in/
combating the pests of cultivated plants. It will be noticed,
however, that no pump was fastened to this machine. Several
devices, resembling the above more or less, have since been con-
structed, but they have not met with much favor.

W. P. Peck, of West Grove, Penn., made another machine
for applying Paris green in water.2 He also used a tank strapped
to the back, but atomized the liquid by means of a crank which
operated a pair of bellows. The machine was also provided
with an automatic agitator which prevented the poison from
settling.

The first knapsack pumps used in America were imported
from France, and it was not until 1890 that Americans began
seriously to consider their manufacture. In France, their use
is also very recent, since, at the close of the year 1885, these
machines were scarcely known. The manufacture of two forms
had just begun, their structure having undoubtedly been sug-
gested by the conditions under which the Bordeaux mixture
could be most thoroughly applied. One machine was made by
Gaillot, of Beaune (Cote d'Or).8 It was constructed so that
air was forced, by means of an exterior pump, into the liquid
at the bottom of the tank, and the contents were kept agitated
by the rising air. The other form was manufactured by Kat-
terbach, also of Beaune ; but, as it appears to have been little
used, it cannot have been of much value. Four or five different

i Eiley, " Potato Pests," 1876, 63.
» Ibid. 64.

3 Eicaud, Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1885, Dec. 3, 795 ; also Gaillot, Ibid. 1888, May
24, 733.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 187

machines were exhibited at a fair held in Montpellier, France,
during February, 1886, and a great number were manufactured
and sold within the next few years. Hand or barrel pumps
were rarely used. The most popular knapsack pumps now
made in France are the Eclair, the Vigouroux, the Japy, and
the Albrand. The first (Fig. 6) is manufactured by Vermorel,
Villefranche (Rhone). It is made without a piston, the liquid
being propelled by means of a circular rubber disk B which is
fastened at the edges,
but moves up and
down in the center,
thus forcing on the
liquid contained be-
tween the disk and the
bottom of the tank, C.
The liquid in the reser-
voir, R, flows through
the valve, L, entering
the space above the
disk. When the latter
is forced upward by
the action of the han-
dle, K, the fluid is
forced through a sec-
ond valve, V, into a
second receptacle,
which serves as an air
chamber, D. From
here it passes through
the orifice, H, and is
discharged at the end
of a hose provided for the purpose. When the center of the
disk is lowered, more fluid is drawn in from the reservoir, and
in this manner the pumping is performed.

The Yigouroux pump contains an air chamber and piston
pump within the tank. The piston is moved by means of a rod
which ascends through the top of the tank, and, after turning
sharply, descends on the outside to below the tank, where it is
attached to the lever which serves as a handle. Another form,
one which is provided with a second pump for filling the tank

FIG. 6. —The "ficlair " knapsack pump.

188

The Spraying of Plants.

without removing it from the back, is also made by the same
manufacturer.

The Japy pump (Fig. 7) is very like the preceding, but the pis-
ton rod is worked by a lever situated within the tank, the lever
in turn being moved by a rod extending through the top of the
reservoir. Both the cylinder and the air chamber project below
the tank. For plans of an improved Japy pump, designed by
B. T. Galloway, see Journal of Mycology, Vol. vii. No. 1, 39.

I

FIG. 7. — The "Japy" knapsack pump. Fio. 8. — The "Albrand" knapsack purap.

The Albrand (Fig. 8), manufactured by Valloton, Lyons,
France, is provided with an air pump situated on one side of
the tank, near the top. Air is forced into the reservoir, the
outlet of the conducting tube being near the bottom, thus
agitating the liquid. The pressure of the air within the tank
forces out the liquid.

B. T. Galloway, of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, was the first in this country to publish detailed plans for
the construction of knapsack pumps.1 His recommendations
have been followed more or less closely to the present time, but

1 Journal of Mycology, Vol. vi. 1890, Sept. 10, pp. 26 and 51.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 189

several minor changes have been made. His pump (Fig. 9)
consists of a knapsack tank carried on the back of the
operator. The pump proper is composed of a tube or cylin-
der which projects a short distance above the top of the tank,
the lower end being near the bottom of the reservoir. The
piston is moved by means of a handle which extends forward
in such a manner that it can be worked easily by the person
carrying the pump. No pressure is brought to bear upon the air
above the liquid, but all necessary force is applied directly to
the liquid by means of the
working parts of the pump.
The Galloway knapsack
sprayer, as the machine is
commonly called, was first
manufactured by two firms
in Washington, D.C.1 A few
other manufacturers almost
immediately began the con-
struction of this class of
pumps, but on account of
the limited demand, they
were not produced in nearly
such large quantities as were
the various hand and barrel
pumps. One company2 put
an enormous air chamber
above the tank the first year
it sold the machine ; as this
feature was advertised only
one year it is good evidence that its use was not advisable.
Later styles of these pumps have varied in the shape of the
tank, and many desirable features have been added, but the gen-
eral plan has remained unchanged. They are almost without
exception made of copper and brass, and consequently withstand
the corroding action wrought by many of the materials applied.
Rumsey & Co. has departed from the Galloway sprayer, and
now manufactures a pump in which air is forced into the tank
by means of a pump, and this air pressure forces out the liquid.

FIG. 9. — The "Galloway" knapsack pump.

i Albinson & Co.; Leitch & Sons.

* Field Force Pump Co., Lockport, N.Y.

190

The Spraying of Plants.

Several French machines are built in this manner, one of the
advantages claimed being that the outfit is more durable, since
the materials applied do not come in contact with the working
parts of the pump. The Galloway type, however, is at present

more popular.

The use of Paris green to de-
stroy the plum curculio, canker-
worm, and the codlin-moth, soon
created a demand for pumps and
nozzles which would be effective
in applying sprays to well-grown
trees. Several firms soon began
to supply this demand. C. J.
Rumsey & Co., of Seneca Falls,
N.Y., had been supplying various
garden engines as early as 1858,
or even before. In 1860 the firm
advertised a garden engine as
an instrument for " the throwing
of liquid compounds,
such as whale-oil, soap-
suds, tobacco - water,
etc., for destroying in-
sects on trees, roses,
and other plants." The
outfit consisted of a
tank resting on two
wheels in front and on
two legs behind ; it
was moved about as a

wheelbarrow IS. The
pump had ail enor-

mous air chamber, a

part which has fortunately been reduced in size during later
years. Various small hand or bucket pumps were sold soon
after.

On Nov. 6, 1860, Messrs. W. and B. Douglas, of Middletown,
Conn., obtained a patent on a garden or greenhouse engine, and
in the same year the same company patented its " Aquarius," a
bucket pump still advertised.

FIG. 10. -The "Florida" barrel pump, the first
form especially designed for spraying purposes.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 191

It was not until the year 1880 that the pump manufacturers
of this country fully realized the necessity of taking steps
towards supplying the growing demand for pumps especially
designed for spraying purposes, and the next five years showed
that many were giving the matter serious attention. Xew firms
were organized with the special object of manufacturing and
selling pumps and other materials which were in demand by
those who sprayed.

In 1880 Rumsey & Co. offered for sale the " Florida " pump
(Fig. 10), which seems to have been the first barrel pump
designed especially to meet the re-
quirements of a good sprayer. The
firm writes me that " its introduc-
tion was followed by a demand we
were unable to supply." This state-
ment is emphasized by the fact that
in 1882 the well-known firm, the
Field Force Pump Co., of Lockport,
X.Y., was founded, to supply the
demand of local fruit growers for
a pump which would be satisfac-
tory as a sprayer. The leading
entomologists of the country were
urging the farmers to spray, and
these in turn made demands upon
the manufacturers ; and thus the
industry arose. In 1882 the latter
company received a patent upon its

combined cistern and force pump FlG n. _ combined cistern and
(Fig. 11). This pump was pro- force pump,

vided with a three-inch cylinder,

but a larger size had one that was three and one-half inches in
diameter. A later form was made with a two and one-half
inch cylinder.

In 1889 another firm, the Nixon Nozzle & Machine Co.,
came into prominence. At this time it advertised two garden
engines, the "Little Giant" and a "Barrel Machine"; the
" Little Climax " pump was also catalogued. These machines
were all very powerful, and were made particularly to supply
the growing demand for spray pumps.

192

The Spraying of Plants.

Morrill & Morley, Benton Harbor, Mich., in 1894 introduced a
pump shown in Fig. 12. This style is a radical departure from
older forms. The cylinder is placed at the bottom of the pump,
directly in the liquid. No stuffing-box is used, and as the pis-
ton and cylinder are surrounded by the fluid, no priming is

necessary. These pumps are sim-
ple, powerful, and durable, and
many are now in use.

In recent years many of the
leading pump manufacturers have
added spray pumps to their cata-
logues, and other firms have been
established which make a specialty
of this class. As so many differ-
ent men have been engaged in
the work, it is not strange that a
great variety of pumps should
have been made. Some of them
are excellent, but others do not
answer all requirements so well as
might be desired. One form that
has been little used and which yet
has some very promising features
is that made by the Bean-Cham-
berlin Manufacturing Co., of Hud-
son, Mich. The firm offers a
number of pneumatic pumps which
differ radically from the pumps
sold by other dealers. Instead of
using directly the force obtained
by the moving piston, this force is
directed toward compressing air
in a reservoir. Fig. 13 illustrates the general plan upon which
these pumps are built.

The pump proper, B, is situated at the right of the large tank
or reservoir. It is used for forcing liquids into the reservoir, C,
from below. As the liquid enters the tank the air is compressed,
and this allows a large amount of fluid to enter. Most of these
pumps are made so that they will withstand 160 pounds of
pressure, a steam gauge, G, being fastened to the tank of each

FIG. 12. — A new type of spray
pump.

Spraying Devices and Machinery.

193

pump to indicate the pressure
under which the work of spraying
is done. These pumps are made
of different sizes.

The Nixon Nozzle & Machine
Co., Dayton, O., was the first to
manufacture a geared spraying
machine. It was called the " Field
and Orchard Machine," and was
designed by A. H. Nixon, the
founder of the firm. The machine
was introduced in 1887, it being
sent to several persons to be tested.
In 1888 it was offered to the pub-
lic. Fig. 14 illustrates the general
construction of the machine as first
sold. It will be noticed that the
four nozzles are situated in front
of the wheels, instead of at the
rear as is now generally the case.
The tank held 100 gallons, and
was built in the form of a cube,
instead of barrel-shaped. The
price was seventy-fhe dollars.

FIG. 13. — Pneumatic spray pump.

FIG. 14. —The first geared spray machine advertised in America.
O

194

The Spraying of Plants.

Various excellent machines of this type are now manufac-
tured by several firms.

During the past few years, many machines adapted to the
spraying of potatoes and other low-growing plants have been
manufactured. They are of two kinds : First, those in which
the flow of liquid is produced by gravity ; second, those in which
the fluid is forced through the outlet orifice with the aid of a
pump. Some of the machines belonging to the first class break

FIG. 15. — The first successful spraying outfit using steam power.

up the liquid by means of revolving brushes,1 or by a blast
of air,2" but the majority are modifications of common street
sprinklers.

The second class includes both hand pumps and power
machines, and as a rule these are the most satisfactory. Less
trouble is experienced from clogging, and more uniform appli-
cations may be made. One of the first machines of this charac-
ter was the " Climax," this having been sold in 1890. It was
manufactured by Thomas Peppier, Hightstown, N.J., and is

i J. E. Steitz, Cudahy, Wis. 2 Seth K. Samms, Byberry, Philadelphia, Penn.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 195

still upon the market in an improved form. In 1895 the Dem-
ing M'f 'g Co., Salem, O., first made the " Monarch," a powerful
machine, which is also suitable for vineyard work.

The first successful use of steam power for spraying was
made, so far as I have been able to learn, by Stephen Hoyt,
Xew Canaan, Conn. The outfit (Figs. 15 and 16) was first
operated in 1894, and the following year it was again used with
most satisfactory results.1 Large shade trees were sprayed
thoroughly and rapidly by the outfit. Mr. Hoyt writes me as
follows regarding its operation :

FIG. 16. — Tank, boiler, and pump of the outfit shown in Fig. 15.

" The machine is made to throw four streams, two of which
are to work at the same time ; two men are to go up the trees
to the crotch and spray, while the other two are either preparing
to go up the next or are coming down from the two which they
have sprayed. The hose is fixed so as to shut any one of them
off at any time, and so when two of the men are through spray-
ing, the other two can start or keep on as they choose.

" The two streams in the picture have a water pressure of from
125 to 150 pounds per square inch, and with a steam pressure

i Connecticut Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, July, Bull. 121, 4.

196 The Spraying of Plants.

of 100 pounds. We can produce a spraying pressure of over
200 pounds, but is not necessary as it is too big a strain on the
hose. I have had three streams going at one time with a
water pressure of 100 pounds.

" We use the McGowen nozzle, it being the most economical
and does not use so much of the liquid as some others, and if
necessary, can make the spray nothing but a mist. But for elm-
tree spraying we use the McGowen straight stream, as the pres-
sure is so great that it tears the stream into a good spray for
tree spraying."

Various modifications and improvements have already been
suggested for the above, and the time must soon come when
some such apparatus will be generally employed for preserving
the long-suffering shade trees of our cities from the ravages of
insects. The smooth roads will allow the use of heavier and
more simple machinery than could be worked in many of our
large orchards. The cost of the treatments would be distributed
among so many, and the benefits derived would be so great,
that such outfits may soon come into general use.

Gas engines have also been employed. During 1895, W.
R. Gunnis, of San Diego County, Cal., applied kerosene emul-
sion to his trees, using power of this nature. " The appa-
ratus is placed on the platform of a light wagon, and on the
front end is a tank of a capacity of 100 gallons, filled with the
emulsion. A small electro-vapor engine on the wagon operates
a double-action, high-pressure, cylinder pump, and to this eight
lines of hose may be attached. The pump can be worked at a
pressure of 200 pounds, rendering the spray fine and strong,
and capable of reaching to the tops of the tallest trees, where
the hose is supported by ten-foot bamboo canes. Twenty-five
or thirty acres of four-year old trees may be sprayed in one day
with the labor of four men." 1

A device for mixing kerosene and water has been invented
by Professor Goff, and during 1894 the Nixon Nozzle &
Machine Co. offered it for sale in connection with the " Climax "
pump, and other firms attached it in a modified form to knap-
sack sprayers. Experiments for obtaining such a mixture had
been made in 1888,2 but it was not until about the year 1893

i Insect Life, 1S95, vii. No. 5, 413.

« Goff, N. Y. State Agrio. Exp, Sta. Ann. Kept, 1888, 148.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 197

that dealers considered the matter seriously. The principle
underlying the construction of the apparatus is that the move-
ment of the piston draws into the cylinder a certain amount
of water through one
opening, but through
a second one kerosene
is drawn in. The two
liquids become intimate-
ly mixed by their pas-
sage through the pump
before being thrown
from the nozzle, and
thus a dilute kerosene
may be evenly applied.
The flow of kerosene
into the cylinder may
be regulated by a stop-
cock.1 An improved
form of such an attach-

FIG. 17. — An improved form of a kerosene reser-
voir attached to a knapsack pump.

inent on a . knapsack
pump is shown in Fig.
17. The Demiug Co.,
of Salem. O., and Professor H. E. Weed, of Agricultural Col-
lege, Mississippi, have been most active in perfecting these
machines.

II. EVOLUTION OF NOZZLES.

The production of the spray nozzle is one of the most inter-
esting of the many problems which have taxed the ingenuity
of inventors. So long as the materials applied were in the form
of clear liquids, or when they were used only in small quantities,
not much attention was paid to this part of the machines. But
with the use of the garden engine and force pump, and more
dense fluids, there also arose the demand for proper devices by
means of which the liquid thrown could be broken up more or
less finely.

The simplest, and probably the first form of nozzle was one

* See also Wit. Agric. Exp. Sta. Ann. Sept. 1891, 162, and Garden and
Forest, vii. 1895, 143.

198 The Spraying of Plants.

which would throw a solid stream. It was constructed so that
the volume of liquid was gradually contracted as it approached
the outlet orifice, and the stream was not broken up until it had
been carried some distance from the nozzle. The stream was
often changed to a spray by screwing a rose, or some similar
device, to the end of the nozzle. The openings in these attachr
ments still allowed the passage of solid streams of liquid, but
these were so reduced in size that the fluid was broken up into
much smaller drops.

Three principles have been utilized in the construction of all
spray nozzles now in use. These principles form a basis for
the natural division of nozzles into three main groups, these
allowing of still further subdivision :

1. Spray nozzles in which the stream is more or less broken
directly in consequence of the modifying action of the margins
of the outlet orifice.

2. Spray nozzles in which the stream, having passed the
outlet orifice proper, is modified by obstructions which affect
its free and direct outward passage.

3. Spray nozzles in which a strong rotary motion is given
to the liquid, and in consequence of this motion, the stream
leaving the outlet orifice immediately assumes the form of a
spray.

These principles are mentioned in the order in which they
probably came into use. Some of the later nozzles combine
the first two principles, and others seem to form a connection
between them, although one principle or the other strongly
predominates. Some of the nozzles belonging to the various
groups are here briefly considered.1

The first group was long represented by nozzles throwing a
solid stream, the outlet orifice being circular. A new type of
nozzles, a modification of these, began to be made about 1875.
This class became known as graduating spray nozzles, from the
fact that the character of the liquid thrown could be varied
from a solid stream to that of a fine spray, by introducing into
the outlet orifice a pointed piece of metal or lance. This entered
the orifice from the inner side, and the further it was intro-
duced, the smaller became the opening and the finer was the

1 For a more complete description, with illustrations, of many of the nozzles
here mentioned, see American Gardening, 1893, May, 266.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 199

spray. It was moved by turning some part of the nozzle which
was connected with the lance. The "Peerless," "Lowell," and
" Gem " (Fig. 18 a) are good examples of this class.

In 1878 a patent was granted to the Belknap Company on a
new nozzle called the " Boss " (Fig. 18 5). It has two outlet
orifices, and the stream is directed into the one or the other by
means of a hollow stopcock which is perforated in such a man-
ner that it partially or entirely closes one or both of the open-
ings. The "Eureka," "Masson," and "Bordeaux" (Fig. 18 c)
are modified forms which have since appeared. The spray is
varied by changing the size of
the opening, this being easily
done by turning the perforated
stopcock.

In 1858 Rumsey & Co. adver-
tised a nozzle called the " Fan-
tail" (see Fig. 5). It consisted
of a flat spreading tip having a
long, narrow opening which dis-
charged the liquid in the form
of a spray resembling in outline
the ilame of a gas jet. This
principle of having the liquid
issue between two flat, parallel
pieces of metal has been retained
in more or less modified form
in many of the nozzles now in
use. One of the most primitive
forms was made by hammering a nozzle designed to throw a
solid stream in such a manner that the opening was long and
narrow instead of circular. It was even recommended that
they should be made in this manner.1 Little was done towards
improving this class of nozzles until about 1889, when a patent
was granted on the "Xew Bean." In this nozzle the width of
the opening could be adjusted by means of a screw, one side of
the orifice being of rubber packing. In 1890 Bailey published
a description of a device, by means of which the end of a hose
could be contracted so that a fan-shaped spray was produced 2

1 Cullitator and Country Gentleman, 1871, Aug. 3, 486.
» Cornell Agric. E®p. Sta. 1890, July, Bull. 18, 39.

FIG. 18. — Spray nozzles, a, gradu-
ating spray "Gem"; 6, "Boss";
c, " Bordeaux."

200

The Spraying of Plants.

(Fig. 19 a). The size of the opening was entirely under the
control of the operator, and in case of clogging it could be
opened to its fullest extent.

It was about this time that the " Wellhouse " nozzle was first
made * (Fig. 19 6). It is made after the pattern of a gas jet,
but much larger.

In 1892 the first automatic cleaning nozzle was invented
(Fig. 19 d), it having been suggested by the device shown in
Fig. 19 c. It has since been offered for sale, in a modified

FIG. 19. — a, " Bailey " ; b, " Wellhouse " ; c and d, forms which led to the con-
struction of e, the "McGowen."

form, having been named the "McGowen," after its inventor.2
In this nozzle (Fig. 19 e) the opening is formed by two pieces
of metal which remain in contact when not in use. One piece
is movable and is in the form of a piston which moves back-
ward and forward in a cylinder placed at right angles to the
main shaft. As the pressure in the shaft increases, the size of
the opening enlarges, and in this manner any obstruction which
may become lodged at the outlet orifice will cause an increase

1 Invented by Walter Wellhouse, Fairmount, Kan. See a full illustrated account
in Hep. Kan. Hort.'Soc. xviii. 99.
> John J. McGowen, Ithaca, N. Y,

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 201

of pressure which forces the piston back to its fullest extent,
thus allowing the passage of the obstruction. This nozzle is
in many respects a radical departure from all forms made at
the time of its introduction, and its automatic action marks it
as a distinct advance in the evolution of spray nozzles.

The second group of nozzles, including those in which the
stream of liquid is broken by some obstruction preventing its
free outward passage, is represented by fewer specimens than is
either one of the others. Although such nozzles were among
the first made, their construc-
tion apparently does not admit
of so many modifications as are
feasible in the other groups.

The form first sold was known
as a "Diffuser." It was made
by extending a portion of one
side of the outlet orifice into a
broad, fan-shaped piece of metal
against which the liquid was
thrown at a very slight angle.
This caused the stream to spread
over the surface of the projec-
tion, and in this manner it was
broken up into a coarse spray.
Fig. 20 a represents a form at
present used in France, the
"Vigouroux." The fan-shaped
projection has in recent years
been so constructed that it may
be brought close to the orifice or it can be removed entirely1
(Fig. 20&). It is generally made of metal, but there is now
sold one form in which a piece of rubber answers the same
purpose. The rubber is pressed over the opening in the nozzle,
and the size of the orifice as well as the character of the spray
may be varied to a considerable extent.

In 1884 a patent was granted to the Nixon Nozzle & Machine
Co.,2 on a nozzle known as the " Climax," in which the liquid
was forcibly thrown as a solid stream against a piece of wire

i P. C. Lewis Manufacturing Co. Catskill, N. Y.
* Nixon Nozzle & Machine Co. Dayton, O.

FIG. 20. — a, " Vigouroux "
b, " Lewis " ; c, " Climax "
d, " Ball."

202 The Spraying of Plants.

gauze (Fig. 20 c). It was here broken up into a spray varying in
character with the size of the meshes in the wire netting. These
nozzles were widely recommended and sold, and they are the
most important which can at present be found in this group.

The "Ball" nozzle (Fig. 20 d) is a new modification which
was first extensively advertised in 1895. At the end of a hose
is fastened a hollow conical piece of metal in which a light ball
loosely rests. As the liquid is forced against the ball the latter
is not ejected, but remains to break up the fluid into a fairly
light spray. The serious objection to the device is the amount
of power required to throw even a moderate amount of fluid.1

There is another class which may be included here. It is
composed of those nozzles in which the obstruction is not a
solid, but consists of a stream of liquid. Two openings are
made at the outer extremity of the nozzle, and these incline
toward each other in such a manner that the two streams
issuing from them come forcibly in contact with each other,
and are immediately changed to a fine spray. The " Lilly,"
or " Calla," and one modification of the " McGowen," are good
examples of this form.

The history of the third group of nozzles is very recent, yet
many forms have been produced. Several of the most popular
nozzles now in use may here be classified together. They are
collectively knowri as the cyclone or eddy-chamber nozzles,
from the fact that the liquid, upon entering the nozzle, is
forced to whirl with great rapidity in a circular chamber
before it passes through the outlet orifice. This cyclonic
motion causes the fluid to be broken up into particles which
vary in size with the size of the opening, the smaller orifices
causing the formation of a spray which is exceedingly fine, so
fine that it floats in the air like steam, and does not fall to the
ground.

William S. Barnard appears to have been the first to conceive
the idea of making spray nozzles in which the above principle
should be utilized.2 During the summer of 1880 he was

1 American Ball Nozzle Co. S37-84T Broadway, N. Y.

2 " On such evidence it must be held that Barnard originated the basic idea of the
improvement in question." Decision of the Commissioner of Patents and of U. S.
Courts in Patent Cases as recorded in The Official Gazette, of the U. S. Patent
Office, Vol. 59, No. 12, 1922.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 203

engaged as an agent of the United States Entomological Com-
mission, and was stationed in the South to conduct experiments
for the destruction of the cotton-worm. It was probably while
engaged in the \vork of throwing liquids that the idea suggested
itself, and that it was soon put into execution is shown by an
affidavit made by Professor C . V. Riley, April 14, 1886.1 During
1880 the principle was tested with the aid of watch crystals, these
being chosen from the fact that in them the action of the liquid
could be easily observed. Other contrivances were also em-
ployed, and thus began the series which eventually led to the
construction of the nozzle that became
widely known as the " Riley," "Cy-
clone," or " Eddy-chamber " spray nozzle
(Fig. 21 a). Unfortunately, the name
" Barnard " has not been more closely
connected with the invention, which is
without doubt one of the most impor-
tant of the many bearing on the subject
of spraying. The nozzle was briefly
mentioned in the annual report of the
United States Commissioner of Agri-
culture for 1881-82, and again in the
report of 1884. In the latter report, on
page 330, Dr. Riley makes the following
statement : " The final form of chamber
adopted is the result of numberless ex-
periments carried on by Dr. Barnard in
my work, both for the United States
Entomological Commission and the De-
partment of Agriculture."

Dr. Riley visited France in 1884, and in an address delivered
June 30, to the Societe Centrale d' Agriculture de 1'Herault, he
mentioned Barnard's nozzle, and this no doubt hastened its
adoption in that country.2 The nozzle was easily clogged, and
on this account it gave considerable trouble, yet it was conceded
to be one of the best, and was used by several experimenters in
1885. It attracted the attention of French manufacturers,
the firm of V. Vermorel, Yillefranche (Rhone), being perhaps

» Official Gazette U. S. Patent Office, Yol. 59, No. 12, 1922.
Agricole, 1SS4, July 10, 261.

1

FIG. 21.— a, "Cyclone";
&, old form of " Yermo-
rel " ; c, modified form
of " Yermorel."

204 The Spraying of Plants.

the first to manufacture this nozzle, which is there called the
"Riley." Vermorel informs me that it was during 1886 and
1887 that he added the attachment by means of which the out-
let orifice can be cleaned when it becomes clogged. The improve-
ment consists of a pin or lance which can be pressed forward
until the point penetrates the orifice and thereby forces outward
all obstructions. Fig. 21 b represents one of the earlier forms.
Vermorel also made a few minor changes during 1889 and 1890.
His improved form of the cyclone nozzle became known as the
" Vermorel," and it was almost immediately adopted in America,
to the exclusion of the older forms made by Barnard. The
name " Vermorel " has also been retained. The nozzle is at
present one of the best in use. Although many modifications
of it have been made, the original form is fully as serviceable
as the later ones, and it is generally preferred.1

The elbow in the Vermorel nozzle is one feature which is
open to slight objection, and many attempts have been made to
avoid it (Fig. 21 c). Several nozzles have also been made in
which the eddy chamber and outlet orifice are situated directly
in line with the main shaft. These nozzles look a little neater,
and they are more easily moved about among branches, but in
other respects they possess no advantage. The spray as a rule
is no better than that of the true Vermorel, and the parts are
cleaned with greater difficulty in case of clogging. The class
is represented by the "Marseilles," "Bean's Cyclone," "Myers,"
" Acme," and others.

Vermorel nozzles are also made with a shaft about eighteen
inches long. Connections are made with the lance which
cleans the orifice by means of a rod which is operated by a lever.
This form is used almost wholly with knapsack pumps.

III. BELLOWS AND POWDER GUNS.

Powders have long been used for the control of fungi and
insects. In Europe sulphur was generally so applied, previous to
1885, against the grape mildew, and special apparatus had been
devised for making these applications. The most popular
instrument for the purpose was a hand bellows, upon which

1 For French modifications of the cyclone nozzle, see Riley, Insect Life, 1889,
Vol. i. No. 8, 243 ; and lUd. No. 9, 263.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 205

FIG. 22. — Hand bellows for blowing powders

was fastened a small reservoir for holding the material
(Fig. 22). Bellows are easily operated, distribute the powders
evenly, and in ad-
dition are cheap,
so they are still
very commonly
used, in modified
and improved
form, both in Eu-
rope and in this
country. When
large areas are to
be treated, however, the work progresses but slowly, and this
has led to the invention of machines which force a current of
air through a tube by means of a revolving fan, the powder
being mixed with the air. A type of this class of machines is
shown in Fig. 23. Their action is certain and rapid, and
although they are more expensive, their greater effectiveness

well warrants the outlay.
The first powder gun made
in America appears to have
been invented by Legget,
who began its manufacture
as early as 1854.

Another advance was
made in 1895, when there
was advertised a horse-

FIG. 23. — Gun for applying powders rapidly, power machine called the

"Sirocco Dust Sprayer." 1

A powerful air blast is produced by gearing a revolving fan to
the main wheels, and large amounts of any dry powder may
be quickly and evenly distributed.

IV. COMPARISON OF LIQUIDS AND POWDERS.

Having thus very briefly discussed the gradual introduction
and development of the machinery used in making applications
of insecticides and fungicides, it now remains to discuss the

1 The Sirocco Company, Unionville, Lake County, O.
by W. K. Monroe.

The device was invented

206 The Spraying of Plants.

all-important question, "Which is the best?" Before going
into details it may be well to obtain a clear idea with regard
to the comparative value of liquids and powders.

Powders are more easily handled than liquids, and with the
machinery now made they can be just as evenly applied ; yet it
is only in exceptional cases that their use is advisable. Powders
cannot be thrown any considerable distance, and this neces-
sarily limits their profitable application to the lower growing
plants. This becomes especially emphatic when a wind is
blowing, for every current of air will change the direction in
which the particles move, and a considerable loss of material
will take place. A quiet day is therefore generally the best for
making such applications.

Another defect is that powders cannot always be made to
adhere so firmly to foliage as the liquid applications do. When
the foliage is dry it commonly occurs that scarcely any of the
powders will adhere, and this necessitates wetting the parts to
be treated, or else waiting until dew or rain shall have moistened
them so that the particles will remain where they are applied.
Plants having smooth foliage are particularly difficult to treat.
Another objection, and so far as fungous diseases are concerned,
the most serious one, is that we have no powders which are as
effective as the liquids, and for this reason alone the latter are
to be preferred. With insecticides, however, the case is different.
The best insecticides are in powder form, and when low-grow-
ing, rough-leaved plants are treated while the foliage is damp,
the poisons can be profitably and economically applied. Plants
grown in greenhouses can also be successfully treated in the
same manner, since here there are almost no air currents, and
the moisture may be controlled with ease.

Liquids can be applied under nearly all circumstances. If
proper machinery is used, it makes comparatively little differ-
ence whether the plants are one or thirty feet high. In case
of a wind the material can still be thrown, although not so
well, and the operator is also under less discomfort. Liquids
will adhere to the parts to which they are applied, with only
few exceptions, and on this account greater protection is
afforded by them. Both fungicides and insecticides can be
thrown equally well by the same appliances, and since the two
are generally used, it would seem that liquids are to be pre-

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 207

ferred. This is especially true when several different crops are
to be treated.

If powders are preferred, the hand bellows will be found
very serviceable when only a small area is to be covered. For
more extensive work, machines with revolving fans to produce
stronger air blasts will answer the purpose better, since the
work can be done more easily and also more rapidly.

V. MERITS OF THE VARIOUS SPRAYIXG DEVICES.

The bulk of insecticides and fungicides are applied in liquid
form, and so much machinery for making the applications is
offered for sale that the selection of the best is by no means
an easy matter. The conditions under which the materials
are used are so exceedingly varied, that recommendations
which apply in one case have little value in another. Only
general statements can be made with safety, and each indi-
vidual must select that which in his judgment promises to be
most effective. Several of the ideas here advanced are not in
accord with those of some writers whose opinions are entitled
to very careful consideration ; but since they are the result
of personal experience and observation in the field, and of ex-
periment in the laboratory, the conclusions reached are given
with the belief that no one who follows them will go far
astray. The subject is the more difficult to treat from the fact
that personal bias often enters, and that Mrhich suits one man
may or may not suit another. The manufacturers' side must
also be considered, since it is but right that their products
should be justly valued. Unfortunately, it is impossible to
enter into the merits and defects of all spraying contrivances
offered for sale ; the descriptions, therefore, will apply only to
the types of the more important groups.

A few points apply in the selection of any spraying machine.
As a rule, it is better to have all working parts of brass, the
body of the pump being either of brass or of iron. The alloy
is more durable than iron, since it is not so easily corroded by
the liquids used, nor by exposure to air. The first cost is
greater, but in the end the extra price is well spent. All brass,
however, is not suitable for spray pumps. Ammonia water has

208 The Spraying of Plants.

a strong solvent action upon soft brass, that which is composed
of copper and zinc, and for this reason such brass should be
avoided. Hard brass is an alloy in which more or less tin is
used with the copper ; it is much more durable, and is to be
preferred in the construction of both pumps and nozzles.

Pump valves are made of various materials. The metal ones
are to be preferred as a rule, although glazed ball valves are
very satisfactory. Leather is freely used as packing and in
valves, and on account of the ease with which it can be
replaced, it is not objectionable. Rubber, however, especially
if it is soft, is unsafe to use in a spray machine. Kerosene will
cause it to swell to such an extent that the pump is rendered
worthless until a new valve is put in, or the old one is given
time to shrink, — a process which may require months.

Knapsack pumps have several features to recommend them.
Liquids can in this manner be carried and applied in places
inaccessible to wheeled vehicles. Vineyards are frequently set
in such locations, as are also espaliers and fruit-walls, and under
such conditions a knapsack pump has no equal. On small home
grounds, where the nature of the spraying is varied, these
pumps may also be used to advantage. But trees cannot be
successfully treated by them, as the liquid is not thrown far
enough. Nor is their use in even moderately large plantations
advisable, since the labor of carrying the pump is onerous, and
the machine is not easily operated. Other unpleasant features
will also be forced upon the man who works the machine, and
when possible a different device should be preferred.

Hand syringes are practically out of the question when liquid
applications are to be made, except in case of plants grown
under glass; then the syringe is much used, although water
under pressure is now so generally piped to greenhouses that
even here the use of syringes is steadily decreasing, the more
so, since a stream of water forcibly applied is a very popular
way of controlling insect pests. Fungicides may be applied to
plants under glass, either with syringes or by means of knap-
sack or bucket pumps.

Bucket pumps, such as represented in Fig. 24, are very power-
ful for their size, and they will throw considerable quantities
of liquid. Moderate-sized trees may be thoroughly treated by
them, and when little work is to be done these pumps may well

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 209

be substituted for the knapsack sprayers.
Statements are frequently seen, asserting
that these and similar pumps may be
used successfully in orchard work, and
so they may. But the work is so tedious
and slow, that the experiment will rarely
be tried more than once. A larger pump
will throw a greater quantity of liquid and
throw it easier, so that it is a mistake to
purchase a small pump for any but very
limited plantations. Fig. 25 represents
another serviceable pump of this kind.

The greatest variety of pumps may be
found among those which are suited for work on a barrel, or

Vfcu

FIG. 24. — Bucket pump.

FIG. 25. — Improved bucket pump.

tank, and here is where the greatest difficulty occurs in making
a selection. Items of cylinders, pistons, handles, air chambers,

210 The Spraying of Plants.

agitators, bases, etc., require attention, and as they are all of
importance, they will be briefly considered.

Experience has led to the conclusion that no barrel spray
pump should have a cylinder less than 2% inches in diameter,
and one with a three-inch cylinder is perhaps to be preferred.
This assumes that more than one nozzle is to be attached to
the pump, otherwise a smaller pump will answer, especially if
an eddy-chamber nozzle is used. But with nozzles designed for
heavier work, such as the " Wellhouse," the " McGowen," or the
"Bordeaux," the above dimensions are none too large. The
stroke should be at least four inches in length, and a longer one
would probably be better.

Pistons may be packed with leather or with metal rings.
The latter are more durable, but the wear of the cylinder is
greater, and they are now little used in spray pumps. Leather
or candle-wicking is cheaper, and is at present preferred.

The handle of a pump is a more important item than may at
first be supposed. It requires considerable force to move a
three-inch piston with the accompanying body of water, and at
the same time to drive the liquid through a hose and nozzle
with such force that it shall be broken into a spray. If the
handle is long, the work can be done with comparative ease.
By a long handle is meant one which is from 25 to 30 inches
from the pivot to the outer end, the distance from the pivot to
the piston-rod being from four to five inches additional. Full
allowance is here made for the length of the handle, since many
are made which are faulty in this respect.

Air chambers have been almost universally regarded with
great favor both by the manufacturers of pumps, and by those
who purchase apparatus. The strong point in their favor is
that they cause a more uniform flow of liquid, which, to a cer-
tain extent, is highly desirable. The question is entirely one of
degree, since the presence of an air cushion unquestionably pro-
duces a more uniform flow. The assertion is also occasionally
made that greater power may be obtained by the use of an air
chamber, and that in consequence the spray is better and more
easily thrown. Having many pumps and nozzles at my dis-
posal, the different sides of the question have been examined.
Some of the chambers have been tapped and aircocks inserted.
Any desired amount of air could thus be displaced by the water,

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 211

or the chamber could be completely filled. Different styles of
nozzles were used with the varying capacity of the air cham-
bers, so that the experiments might be as conclusive as possible.
A sensitive steam gauge was also attached so that the pressure
could be measured.

The results showed that no greater force could be obtained
whether a large or a small air space was present ; the pump
did riot appear to work more easily with a large chamber than
with a small one, nor did the character of the spray appear to
be modified. A great difference could be seen, however, in the
length of time required for a nozzle to throw its best form of
spray, since the character of the spray of most nozzles varies
with the pressure of the liquid. It was also noticed that the
flow of liquid continued much longer when a large air chamber
was attached, but as the pressure decreased, the value of the
spray decreased, so that only the main flow was suitable for
making applications. As many nozzles are not provided with a
stopcock for shutting off the flow of liquid, there is more or less
loss of material whenever the pumping ceases. There is also
a loss of time and material when the pressure is increased, since
the flow from the nozzle is delayed as the capacity of the air
chamber increases. The work indicated that for all practical
purposes an air chamber having a capacity of one pint to one
quart is sufficient for any barrel pump or for any nozzle. It
allows a quick application of pressure, and its almost immediate
removal, while the air cushion is sufficiently large to produce a
uniform spray.

The agitation of most of the liquid insecticides and fungi-
cides is, unfortunately, necessary; otherwise the undissolved
particles settle at the bottom of the tank, and, in consequence,
the applications are uneven. Even a knapsack pump will not
maintain proper agitation, although it is thoroughly shaken by
the man carrying it. Some certain means of agitating the
liquid must, therefore, be adopted. Attempts have been made
to force a return stream of the liquid into the barrel or tank,
and the currents so produced were supposed to answer the
desired purpose (see Fig. 28). But the results have not shown
this to be the case, and this class of agitators is being gradu-
ally abandoned. Another, and more effective, method is to
attach a paddle or dasher to the handle or other moving part of

212

The Spraying of Plants.

the pump, so that at every stroke the liquid will be more or less
thoroughly stirred (Fig. 29). These have proved successful so
far as the agitation is concerned, but all who have worked a
spray pump know that the labor is sufficiently severe without
the addition of an attachment which necessarily consumes con-
siderable force. Since the agitation must be accomplished, the
use of some of these devices is one of the best ways out of the
difficulty. My own practice has been, however, to insert a long-
handled paddle into the
opening through which the
barrel is filled, and to stir
the liquid in this manner,
directly by hand, whenever
it is necessary. This method
is, on the whole, probably
the easiest and most satis-
factory. The work can be
done as thoroughly as de-
sired, and with but little
extra labor.

The liquid contained in
large barrels or tanks can
be agitated very easily by
means of a permanent de-
vice consisting of one or
more paddles which are
moved by a lever that pro-
jects above the reservoir.
At short intervals the lever
may be moved until the fluid is thoroughly stirred. When long
tanks are employed, several paddles should extend crosswise of
the tank, near the bottom, and, if these are properly connected,
one movement of the lever will cause a movement of all the
paddles, thus quickly and easily agitating the contents of the
tank.

If a pump is to be used upon a barrel, as is the most common
practice, the base-casting should be curved. It is better to turn
the barrel on its side (Fig. 26) and fasten the pump in this
manner. When it lies on its side, the sediment collects very
near one central point, and can easily be dislodged and mixed

FIG. 26. — A spray outfit, the pump properly
attached to the barrel.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 213

with the water. But, if the barrel is on end, the sediment col-
lects in an even layer over the entire bottom, and it is much
more difficult to maintain an even mixture. Large tanks are
unsatisfactory in this respect, since the bottom is generally flat,
and it is difficult to reach all the sediment with the agitator.
When power sprayers are used, and the horse does the pump-

FIG. 27. — A compact and powerful spray pump.

ing, it does not make so much difference if the labor is harder,
and the agitator can be attached to a moving part of the pump
with very satisfactory results.

Fig. 27 represents a type of pump sold by several manufac-
turers, which answers most of the requirements above men-
tioned. The air chamber is in the piston rod, where it is
entirely out of the way, yet it is large enough for all practical
purposes. These pumps are exceedingly compact, powerful, and

214

The Spraying of Plants.

durable, and can be recommended with confidence. Fig. 28
illustrates another form very similar to the preceding. The
air chamber surrounds the upper half of the pump, causing the
enlargement. These two pumps are amongst the most compact
and serviceable ones now sold.

FIG. 28. — A good barrel pump, with a return pipe for agitation, and a strainer.

Fig. 29 shows a style of pump of which there are several
modifications (see also Fig. 34). The most striking feature of
this type is the very large air chamber. Many of these sprayers
are in use, and as they appear to give satisfaction they must
have points of decided merit. Such air chambers are of par-
ticular value upon power sprayers.

Several manufacturers advertise a horizontal-acting pump,
as shown in Fig. 30. These are of various sizes, the cylinder

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 215

not being smaller than 2| inches, and in some it is as large as
5 inches in diameter. These pumps are little used, as they
seem to be harder to operate, and they are limited in their use
more than the forms adapted to barrels.

FIG. 29, — Spray pump, with large air chamber ; the paddle at the bottom of the
barrel acts as an automatic agitator.

In some localities, semi-rotary pumps (Fig. 31) are in demand,
no other form being thought equally effective. The action of
these pumps, when new, leaves little to be desired. They are
easily worked and powerful, and at first appear to approach the

FIG. 30. — A powerful horizontal spray pump.

216

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 217

ideal spray pump. Yet the manufacturers have admitted that
these pumps are not so durable as the other styles, and
this necessarily follows from the manner of their construction.

FIG. 81. —Semi-rotary or "clock" pump.

They are also more delicate, and will not bear the abuse which
appears to have no effect upon other forms. When clear solu-
tions are applied there is little to wear the inner parts, but with
gritty preparations, such as the Bordeaux mixture, their days of
service are not very long.

218 The Spraying of Plants.

Later and improved forms of the pump represented by Fig.
12 have been extensively used during the season of 1895, with
very satisfactory results. One cylinder has been replaced by a
metal sheet, which is fastened at the base of the pump, but
the outer end is free to be carried up and down at everv stroke
of the handle. This is one of the best and most easily operated
agitators with which I am acquainted, and the pump has met
with much favor, although but recently put upon the market.

Barrel pumps have thus far proved the most satisfactory in
spraying old orchards. The operation is too slow and tedious
when smaller pumps are employed, and geared power sprayers
are unable to cover the trees with sufficient uniformity. Engines
have not as yet been sufficiently employed to warrant their rec-
ommendation. When trees are comparatively small, a very
serviceable outfit may be obtained by placing the barrel and
pump on a light wagon. Two men can work most conveniently.
One drives and pumps, while the other holds the nozzle, or the
operations may be differently divided. If more than one lead
of hose is in use, it will require a man for each hose, and another
to pump.

If the trees are large, such as old apple trees, an outfit similar
to that shown in Fig. 32 will prove of great service. One man
drives and pumps, while behind him is the barrel or tank. The
tank may be of various shapes, some growers preferring hogs-
heads, while others use a long, low tank, having a flat (Fig. 33)
or rounded bottom, the latter being better, as the liquid can be
more thoroughly agitated. Above this tank is a platform,
which is from ten to fifteen feet from the ground. The men
directing the spray stand upon this, and are prevented from
falling by a rail which surrounds the platform. This elevation
allows the spray to be thrown to the tops of very high trees,
with the assistance of only a short pole. A pole is an unwieldy
instrument at best, and if proper nozzles are used it may be dis-
pensed with in the majority of cases. The work can also be
more thoroughly accomplished from above, as the parts of the
tree are more easily reached, and the liquid does not fall back
upon the men, as so frequently occurs when the spray is thrown
from lower elevations. The man who drives is at a disadvan-
tage, but if he is properly protected by rubber clothing, the
position is rendered much less uncomfortable.

FIG. 32. — An excellent spraying outfit for tall orchard trees.
219

220

The Spraying of Plants.

Many orchards are so thickly planted that an apparatus like
the above can be driven through only with great difficulty. In
such cases the branches should be cut so that the orchard may
be penetrated in at least one direction. With good apparatus
the trees may then be thoroughly treated.

Later improvements in spraying machinery are the power
sprayers, of which Fig. 34 represents one of the best. The

FIG. 33. — A good rig for spraying orchards.

illustration is so detailed that little need be said regarding the
construction of the machine. The pumps are worked by means
of a bar which is fastened to a crank. The crank is attached
to wheels that connect with the large wheels by means of
sprocket chains, and motion is obtained in this manner. Fig.
35 represents another type of machine of this class. The liquid
is applied by means of a rotary pump. Power machines are
excellent for spraying all low-growing plants or small trees, but

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 221

the best work cannot be done in a bearing apple orchard, and
the hand pumps must be depended upon for the most efficient
service. But for potatoes, nursery stock, vineyards, orchards of
dwarf trees, these machines will amply repay their cost, and
with proper treatment will lessen the unpleasant features of
spraying to a very great degree. Wherever sufficient work is
at hand to warrant their purchase, they will be found indispen-
sable when once used.

FIG. 34. — Power sprayer. A, lever attached to the gearing ; Z>, bar moved by
means of a crank attached to the wheels ; BB, pumps which force the liquid
into the discharge hose ; C, tank.

As has already been stated on page 194, several machines
have been built for the sole purpose of spraying potatoes. As a
rule, those in which the liquid is applied with the aid of a force
pump are to be preferred, although excellent machines may be
found among those in which the liquid flows by the force of
gravity. Some method of converting the fluid into a spray
should, however, be present. Fig. 36 represents a machine in
which this is done by means of a revolving brush, BB. Air

The Spraying of Plants.

blasts are used by some for the same purpose with marked
success.

The best spray nozzle, so far as efficiency, simplicity, and
cheapness are concerned, is the end of a hose and a man's
thumb. Unfortunately the thumb gets sore and tired, and opera-
tions must be suspended to wait for repairs. It is the nearest
approach to the ideal nozzle yet devised, if it were only more
practicable. It will do all that a good nozzle should do. It
throws a fine mist-like spray, one that will "float in the air

FIG. 35. — Power sprayer, with rotary pump.

like a fog," or the particles of water may instantly be made
coarser, and the water thus carried to a greater distance; or
still coarser and the water leave the hose in the form of a solid
stream. These changes all take place instantly (after a little
practice), and it makes no difference whether the parts to be
sprayed are a few inches or many feet away. This nozzle never
clogs, but is cleaned automatically, and as quickly as the char-
acter of the spray is varied. In fact it possesses all the desir-
able qualities of a spray nozzle, except durability, and for this
we must turn to the metals for aid.

Spraying Devices and Machinery. 223

All operators do not desire the same kind of spray even for
the same kind of work. It is commonly said that the best
spray is one which most nearly resembles a fog. This is true so
far as the spray is concerned, but the trouble cornes in applying
it. A fine spray cannot be applied so advantageously as a
coarser one, nor can it be applied so rapidly for the reason that
the finer the spray the less liquid is thrown, and the smaller the
area treated. Whenever the wind blows, a fog-like spray will go
wherever the wind carries it, and not where the operator directs

FIG. 36. — Potato sprayer ; the liquid flows by the force of gravity, and is spread by
means of revolving brushes, BB ; A, rod attached to agitator ; T, tank.

it. Sometimes this will be an advantage. It is especially so
when the wind is blowing in the right direction. Yet when the
other side of the tree is being treated the wind will come from
the wrong direction, and much of the material is blown where
it is not wanted. In addition to this, the work is more slowly
performed, and whether it is more thoroughly done than when
a coarser spray is used is still open to doubt. After having tried
both kinds of sprays, it appears to the writer that if the parts to
be treated are close by, a fine spray is to be preferred, as then
there is less waste and an even application may be made. If

224 The Spraying of Plants.

the parts to be treated are more removed, being situated from
ten to twenty-five feet away, a coarser spray is wanted; — the more
distant the object, the coarser the spray. The work can thus be
done much more rapidly, just as effectively (with the exception
of some waste), and much more satisfactorily, than by the use of
a fine spray. In case a fine spray is used, it is necessary to have
a pole to carry the nozzle to the different parts of the tree, and
this is as tedious as it is unpleasant. When a coarser spray is
made, there is generally formed enough of the finer spray to float
in the air and protect parts which are not directly reached by
the operator.

The finest sprays are produced by the eddy-chamber nozzles,
and by those in which two streams of water strike each other
at an angle. With such nozzles, the spray can be made as fine
as desired, the size of the outlet orifice being the main control-
ling factor. For long-distance work, when the liquid is to be
carried ten feet or more, the best spray is formed when the fluid
is forced through two flat, parallel, metal surfaces. The greater
the pressure, the greater will be the amount of fine spray and
the farther will it be thrown. Although the ideal nozzle has
not yet been made in metal, some of the forms now sold are
approaching perfection.

All good spray machinery is expensive, and only careless
operators will neglect the ordinary methods of preserving it
as long as possible. When the pump has been used in applying
any of the preparations mentioned in Chapter IV., with the ex-
ception of clear water, it should be cleaned. No insecticide nor
fungicide should be allowed to stand within the pump, but clear
water should be pumped through it before it is put away. It
is well to oil all the working parts occasionally, as a little oil at
times may prevent the metal from being cut, and the pump wrill
be thus preserved much longer than otherwise. Nozzles are also
benefited by the same treatment. Oil can scarcely be used too
freely on the inside of such apparatus, and an occasional coat of
paint on the outside will assist materially in protecting the
metal. The careless man pays dearly for his neglect.

CHAPTER VL

THE ACTION OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES.

SPRAYING has become a common practice with compar-
atively few cultivators. The majority still waver when it
comes to doing the work, hoping that they may gather good
crops even if the operation is not performed. Very few have
doubts of its value, but for one reason or another, at the
last moment nothing is done. Undoubtedly much of this
hesitation is caused by the uncertainty whether as good
results may be obtained by the novice as are obtained by those
who have had experience in the work. I know of a farmer
who owns a young bearing orchard, which almost every spring
has promised an abundant harvest ; but when fall came and the
time for harvesting the crop drew near, the apples which still
hung on the trees were so full of worms and so distorted by
fungi that the profits derived from their sale were indeed
small. The man was so impressed by the good results of
spraying as practiced by one of his neighbors who grows the
same varieties of apples, that in 1894 he finally made prepara-
tion to spray in earnest. He was advised as to the best
methods of doing the work, and the proper materials were
applied, yet at first he could not overcome the fear that his
trees would not be just as thoroughly protected as others had
been, and that in spite of the application the apples would
turn out as they did in the past. But the fruit was fair, and
his orchard will no doubt be regularly treated in the future.

Such doubts are needless. Protection by spraying will be
just as efficient for one man as for another, and provided the ene-
mies of the plants are equally serious, the results in one case
will be just as marked as they are in the other, if a few points
are observed. Without wishing to encourage carelessness in
Q 225

226 The Spraying of Plants.

this matter, it may be said that few of the formulas now in use
will fail to be effective even if they are slightly modified.
The history of the several formulas need only be considered
to show that this is the case. Spraying is not an exact
science, and most of the methods allow of considerable modifi-
cation. Spray, by all means, if the crops are in need of it, even
though the advice of the experienced is not always followed to
the letter in regard to the best method of making the applica-
tion or of preparing the materials. Follow such advice as
closely as possible, but no serious consequences will result if
slight deviations occur. Three points, however, cannot be too
strongly emphasized :

First, be on time. Make an application when it will do the
most good, and never allow that time to pass if it can possibly
be avoided , Every delay is of advantage to the parasite, and it
will be used so well that in most cases the injury cannot be
repaired. The destruction of one insect may mean the destruc-
tion of hundreds, and one application made at the right time
may mean, and generally does mean, the protection of a plant
against millions of spores of fungi which are endeavoring to
gain a foothold. Be ready for action at a moment's notice,
and when the moment comes, spray !

Second, be thorough. When spraying a plant, spray it well.
With a little care, a complete success may be obtained instead
of only a partial one. When the work is finished, the grower
should have the feeling that it is well done, and then no fear as
to the result need be entertained. Spraying is not always
pleasant work, and the temptation to slight it is often strong ;
but the operator will be rewarded just to the extent to which
he has been painstaking, and to that extent only.

Third, apply sprays intelligently. This is really the most
important factor in the work, although good crops can be
obtained without it, provided directions are followed. The
first two points cannot be neglected without injury to the
crops, but this one can be. The crop is in need of the applica-
tions only, but the grower should know the reasons for them,
and should be in a position to modify his treatments so as to
make them conform writh the character of the insect or the
disease which is being treated, and with the season. Every
year and every day such knowledge will be of value. So

The Treatment of Insects. 227

many things are still unknown, and so many points still in dis-
pute, that personal knowledge and judgment about individual
cases are not only desirable, but are very essential. Directions
covering the majority of cases can be given, but now and then
one will come up which seems to differ from all others, and it
is then that this knowledge will prove most valuable. A few
of the general principles upon which this work rests are men-
tioned below.

The principal organisms against which the cultivator has to
contend are insects and fungi. They are widely different in
their organization, and entirely different substances are required
for their destruction. Any substance which is used to destroy
or repel insects may be termed an insecticide ; and any sub-
stance which destroys fungi, or which prevents their injurious
growth on vegetation, is a fungicide. Xo substance, so far as
known, will answer both purposes equally well.

I. UPON IXSECTS.

Practically all the applications which are made to destroy in-
sects are designed to act in one of two ways. The substance may
be destined to enter the digestive system of the insect and thus
cause death, just as many poisons cause death when taken into
the stomachs of higher animals. This method is by far the
cheapest, and when possible it is advisable to make use of it.

The second method does not consist in putting poison on
the food of the insect, but the material is put directly upon the
insect itself. It then causes death either by stopping up the
breathing pores, or it penetrates the outer coverings and so
enters the body directly. This method cannot be used with
success against all insects, as some have very tough and dense
coverings which are not readily penetrated by any material that
we can use for the purpose. Beetles, for example, can scarcely
be destroyed in this manner. But all soft-bodied insects, such
as aphides, worms, and caterpillars, yield readily to the treat-
ment if sufficient material comes in contact with their bodies.

This method of killing insects by means of substances which
cause death merely by penetrating the creature's body, is rather
expensive, and it is resorted to only when the pest cannot be
treated by poisoning its food. It thus comes that most worms

228 The Spraying of Plants.

and caterpillars are destroyed by means of poisons which are
eaten, though they yield to the other treatment equally well.

The food of many insects, however, cannot be poisoned, since
they feed upon the juices of plants and do not eat the external
coverings. It is fortunate that most of these insects have soft
bodies, so that they yield readily to treatment if the poison
comes in contact with them. Their mouth parts are formed for
penetrating the external coverings of plants to a depth suffi-
cient to reach the sap ; just as the mosquitoes' bills are in the
habit of penetrating human kind. All aphides belong to this
class, as well as the true bugs, these having mouth parts which
are adapted to suck, but not to chew. The utter uselessness of
covering a plant with poisons to protect it from these pests
will readily be seen. No matter how thick the poison may be,
the insect's beak will penetrate this poisonous layer, and it
will take no food until the beak has passed the limit of the
poison and is deeply buried in the tissues of the plant.

From the above it will be seen that :

(a) To destroy chewing insects, such as the potato beetle,
poisons must be evenly distributed over those parts upon which
the insects feed, and this may in some cases be done even before
the insect is present, or is visible. Only those poisons which
cause death after being eaten should be used.

(ft) To destroy sucking insects, such as plant lice, the ma-
terials must be distributed upon the insects as evenly as possi-
ble, and it is useless to make any application before the insect
has appeared. Only those poisons which kill by coming in con-
tact with the insect's body should be used.

First determine what kind of a pest it is that needs treat-
ment, then select the proper material from among those men-
tioned in Chapter IV.1

II. UPON FUNGI.

Among fungi we find many serious enemies. It is difficult to
tell just what a fungus is, but some of the principal character-
istics may be mentioned. A fungus is a plant ; but unlike

1 The complete transformations which many insects undergo before maturing
are as follows : (a) the egg ; (b) the larva, grub, or caterpillar ; (c) the pupa or
chrysalis ; (d) the imago or matured adult insect.

The Treatment of Fungi. 229

flowering plants, it possesses no chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the
green-colored protoplasm found in flowering plants, and it is the
only substance we know through which plants change crude food
to nutritive material. We must conclude, therefore, that fungi
do not prepare their own food, but feed upon organic matter
which is already adapted to their wants. They possess no
leaves, flowers, nor seeds. That part of any fungus which is
of most interest to the horticulturist is composed of long, fine
threads, either grow ing separately or in bundles ; these threads
are known as hyphae, and collectively they form the mycelium
or vegetative portion of the fungus. The mycelium corresponds
to the roots and stems of flowering plants.

Spores, which are organs performing the same office as the
seeds of flowering plants, are produced by this mycelium either
directly, or upon branches (sometimes called sporophores) which
are thrown out. These sporophores cause the white downy
appearance seen upon grape leaves affected with the downy
mildew. A spore, strictly speaking, is not a seed, for a seed
contains a young plant, while a spore does not, being usually
composed of only one cell. If a spore finds the proper condi-
tions of heat and moisture it will germinate and send out a
fine filament, which, if nourished, grows and branches, and
eventually a plant like the original will be produced.

Most fungi in the North produce two kinds of spores, known
as the summer and the winter spores. The summer spores are
usually borne upon the exterior of the host-plant, or the plant
on which the fungus grows. These spores ripen quickly and
propagate the fungus rapidly. But if they do not germinate
soon after ripening they lose their vitality.

The winter spores are usually produced within the tissues of
the host-plant, commonly in the leaves and fruit. They are
the spores which live through the winter; but in the spring,
under favorable circumstances, they germinate, and thus the
fungus is again developed.

Fungi may be divided into two general classes : those grow-
ing upon dead and decaying matter, or saprophytes ; those feed-
ing upon living tissue, or parasites. By far the larger portion
possessing interest to the horticulturist belong to the latter
class, for in this are included the fungi which do so much
injury to cultivated plants.

230 The Spraying of Plants.

Yet all parasitic fungi do not attack the host-plant in the
same manner. Some immediately penetrate into the interior
tissues, and there they flourish, being well protected from outer
influences by the exterior covering of the plant. The fungi
causing all the more serious diseases develop in this manner,
and in fact the vast majority of plant diseases are caused by
such organisms. There are others, however, in which the
body of the fungus is almost entirely upon the surface of the
host-plant, only a comparatively small number of threads pene-
trating the tissues in order to obtain nourishment. These
parasites can be rubbed off, and unless the attack has been
very severe, the green, healthy tissue will be seen underneath.
This class may for convenience be termed "surface fungi," to
distinguish them from those which grow within the host-plant ;
it is represented by the common powdery mildew of the grape,
one mildew of the gooseberry, one of the strawberry, and a few
others.

The life histories of the various fungi must form the basis
for any methods of treatment which may be adopted. During
certain stages of their existence, parasitic fungi may be checked
quite easily, and at such times the remedies should be applied.

It is evident that when a fungus has once become established
inside the host-plant, it cannot be reached without destroying the
tissues of the host in the affected places, which is by no means
desirable. The fungus must be destroyed before it enters the
host ; in other words, the spores must be killed as soon as they
germinate, or better, they must not be allowed to germinate.
All applications must be preventive, not curative, since a cure
is practically impossible when the fungus is once established,
unless it grows upon the surface of the host.

The line of treatment indicated is this : to cover the stems
and foliage of the cultivated plant with some substance that
will destroy the spores which may be present, as soon as they
germinate, or with one that will have the power of prevent-
ing this germination. If that is done, the plant will remain
healthy, so far as fungi are concerned ; otherwise it will not,
unless, indeed, no fungus attacks it. Several substances which
destroy these spores, as well as the surface fungi, have already
been found. They are easily applied, safe, and effective, and
any grower who suffers his fruit to be ruined by these para-

The Effect upon the Host-Plant. 231

sites is, as a rule, deserving of his loss, for means of destroying
the pests are at his command. It is largely the grower's fault if
his apples are scabby, if his grapes are mildewed, and if his
potatoes rot in the field. Spraying is no longer an experiment,
it is a necessity; and those who recognize this fact are the
ones who are reaping the rewards.

III. UPON THE HOST-PLANT.

Insecticides and fungicides are applied solely for their action
upon the organisms it is desired to destroy, since in other respects
most of the preparations possess no value. If properly applied
they are harmless to the plants, and should not in any way
interfere with their proper growth nor with the sale of the
products. When some of the mineral preparations, however,
are too freely used late in the season, the appearance of the
crop may reduce to a considerable extent its market value,
although the product may be still as wholesome as if untreated.

Fears have also been entertained that some substances are
dangerous even when not visible, on account of their effect
upon the crop, which was supposed to be poisoned. This sub-
ject was well agitated when Paris green and London purple
began to be commonly used in the destruction of the potato
beetle. Many analyses were made, but no arsenic could be
found, either in the tubers or in the parts above ground, and
soon all fear of arsenical poisoning disappeared, and potatoes
treated with the arsenites were used without question. Another
equally groundless objection was raised in England regarding
American apples which had been sprayed for the canker-worm
or codlin-moth. It was said that the bloom found on American
apples consisted largely of the arsenic which had been applied
to the trees to destroy insects, and that such apples were unfit
for use. These reports have led to many chemical examina-
tions of sprayed fruit, and only in rare cases has even a trace of
arsenic been found. It is only when very late applications are
made, such as are utterly useless, that any of the poison is found
upon the fruit, and then the quantities are so minute that they
could in no way cause injury to the consumer. But even though
all the poison sprayed upon the apples in making necessary
treatments should remain there undisturbed, a person would be

232 The Spraying of Plants.

obliged to eat at one meal eight or ten barrels of the fruit in
order to consume enough arsenic to cause any injury. As a
matter of fact, however, the poison all disappears during the
growth of the apples, and these are as wholesome as if no
treatment had been made, or even more so.

Similar objections have also been raised in the case of grapes
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture. In the fall of 1891, the
board of health of New York city seized considerable quantities
of grapes which showed the presence of Bordeaux mixture, and
threw them into the river. The following report of the board
appeared after an investigation had been made :

" 1. A copper salt is found only upon a very small part of the
grapes offered for sale, and the grapes which are to be avoided
are easily recognized by the greenish-colored substance upon
the berries and stems.

U2. Whenever the substance is apparent upon the berries or
stems, the grapes should be washed before they are used as
food or in the manufacture of wine.

• " 3. The board urges all dealers and consignors in this city
to advise shippers and consignors of grapes to send no more
grapes to the market upon which this substance is apparent.
The board further states that it does not object to the use of
Bordeaux mixture as recommended by the proper authorities;
but such mixture, or any mixture containing poisonous sub-
stances, should not be sprayed or otherwise placed upon the grapes
immediately before or after they have matured, arid should not
appear upon them when sent to market or offered for sale."

This subject is equally interesting from a hygienic stand-
point, for whether grapes are sold in the open market or not,
their effect upon the consumer should be understood. The
following paragraph is a clear and concise statement of the
facts bearing upon the question : * " Accepting, then, 0.5 gram
as the maximum amount of copper in any of the forms dis-
cussed that may with safety be daily absorbed, let us see how
these figures compare with the quantity of this metal found
in connection with properly sprayed fruits, as well as some
other foods and drinks. Analyses to determine the amount
of copper in sprayed grapes have been made in Germany,
France, America, and other countries. The results of all these

1 U. S. Dept. Agric. Farmers' JButtetin No. 7, 19.

The Effect upon the Host-Plant. 233

show that grapes sprayed intelligently rarely contain more
than 5 milligrams (0.005 gram) of copper per kilogram, the
average being from 2|- to 3 milligrams per kilogram. In
other words, 1,000,000 pounds of grapes sprayed in the usual
way with the Bordeaux mixture would contain from 2| to 5
pounds of copper. To reduce the figures still further, each
1000 pounds of fruit would contain 17.5 to 35 grains of copper.
On this basis an adult may eat from 300 to 500 pounds of
sprayed grapes per day without fear of ill effects from the
copper. This shows how ridiculously absurd are the state-
ments that fruits properly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture
or any other copper compound are poisonous."

The effect of applying soluble arsenic upon foliage has been
considered on page 117, but there still remains a point in regard
to the injury done by arsenical poisons to animals consuming
the grass beneath. Professor Cook has carefully experimented
in this direction, and his results are so conclusive that they are
here given in full : " In tree No. 1 a thick paper was placed
under one-half of a rather small apple tree. The space covered
was six by twelve feet, or seventy-two square feet. The paper
was left till all dripping ceased. As the day was quite windy,
the dripping was rather excessive. In this case every particle
of the poison that fell from the tree was caught on the paper.
Dr. R. C. Kedzie analyzed the poison and found four-tenths (.4)
of a grain [of arsenic]. Tree No. 2 was a large tree with very
thick foliage. Underneath this tree was a thick carpet of
clover, blue grass, and timothy just in bloom. The space cov-
ered by the tree was fully sixteen feet square, or equal to two
hundred and fifty-six square feet. As soon as all dripping had
ceased, the grass under the tree was all cut very gently and
very close to the ground. This was taken to the chemical
laboratory and analyzed by Dr. R. C. Kedzie. There were
found 2.2 grains of arsenic. Now, as our authorities say that
one grain is a poisonous dose for a dog, two for a man, ten for
a cow, and twenty for a horse, there would seem to be small
danger from pasturing our orchards during and immediately
after spraying, especially as no animal would eat the sprayed
grass exclusively. To test this fully, I sprayed a large tree
over some bright, tender grass and clover. I then cut the
clover carefully, close to the ground, and fed it all to my horse.

234 The Spraying of Plants.

It was all eaten up in an hour or two, and the horse showed no
signs of injury. This mixture, remember, was of double the
proper strength, was applied very thoroughly, and all the grass
fed to and eaten by the horse. This experiment was repeated
with the same result. I next secured three sheep. These were
kept till hungry, then put into a pen about a tree under which
was rich, juicy, June grass and clover. The sheep soon ate the
grass, yet showed no signs of any injury. This experiment was
repeated twice with the same result. It seems to me that these
experiments are crucial, and settle the matter fully. The analy-
ses show that there is no danger, the experiments confirm the
conclusion.

" Thus we have it demonstrated that the arsenites are effec-
tive against the codlin-moth, that in their use there is no danger
of poisoning the fruit, and when used properly no danger to the
foliage nor to stock that may be pastured in the orchard."1

The danger following the use of copper compounds on foliage
is naturally even less than when a form of arsenic is applied.
One case is on record in which poisoning has followed when
grape foliage was eaten by sheep, this having been sprayed
with the Bordeaux mixture.2 Since sprayed foliage is probably
never fed regularly to stock, there need be no cause of appre-
hension in this respect.

The extent to which copper is absorbed by foliage still
remains an open question. The researches of Millardet and
Gayon show that a certain amount of copper is absorbed and
retained by the cuticle of the leaf.3 The investigations of
Rumm, however, show that such is not the case.4 If the
copper is actually absorbed the quantities are exceedingly
minute. That it possesses a stimulating action upon foliage
is also doubtful. Lime may have such an effect, since several
cases are on record in which the application of Bordeaux mix-
ture produced a greener appearance of the healthy foliage.

1 A. J. Cook, Ann. Kept. Mich. Bd. Agric. 1889, 820.

2 Wiener Landw. Ztg. 1892, 494.

3 Jour. d?Ag. Prat. 18ST, Jan. 27, 123, and Feb. 3, 156.

* "Ueber die Wirkung der Kupferpraparate bei Bekampfung der sogenannten
Blattfallkrankheit der Weinrebe." Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Ges. Bd. 11, Heft 2, 1893,
79-S3; Ibid. Heft 7, 445-452. See, also, adverse critical review by Zimmermann
in Bot. Centralbl. 1893, No. 23, 308; Nos. 29, 30, 119, 120; and Aderbold in Bot.
Zeit. No. 11, 1893, 162. Cited by Fairchild in Bull. 6, Sec. Veg. Path. U. S. Dept
Agric. 27.

The Effect upon the Soil. 235

The benefits derived have not yet been fully determined. It
has been estimated that the germination of spores of certain
fungi may be prevented by solutions of lime containing 1 part
to 10,000 of the liquid ; or iron sulphate, 1 part to 100,000 of
water ; or copper sulphate, 1 part to 10.000,000 of water.1 This
readily explains the energetic action of the copper compounds,
and why such small amounts may be applied to advantage.

For further information concerning the action of copper
compounds when applied to plants, consult R. Otto, "Unter-
suchungen iiber das Verhalten der Pnanzenwurzeln gegen Kup-
fersalzlosungen" (Zeitschrift fur PJlanzenkrankheiten, Bd. iii.
1893, Heft 6). The plants studied in these investigations
were Phaseolus vulgaris, Zea Mays, Pisum sativum. It was
found that "copper exercises a poisonous influence upon the
plants, it interferes with the development of the roots and
lessens the activity of the functions of the plant, or kills the
latter outright, when the roots of the plants are growing in
more or less concentrated solutions of copper sulphate." It was
also found that practically no copper was absorbed by the roots,
and the parts above ground were entirely free from the metal.
See review in Botanisches Centralblatt, 1893, Vol. 55, 340-342.

See also, A. Tschirch, "Das Kupfer vom Standpunkte der ge-
richtlichen Chemie, Toxicologie, und Hygiene. Mit besonderer
Beriicksichtigung der Reverdissage der Conserven und der
Kupferung des Weins und der Kartoffeln." Stuttgart (F. Enke),
1893. The entire question of the use of copper compounds
upon cultivated plants is thoroughly discussed by the author.
In general his conclusion is, "to remove all copper. from articles
of diet means forbidding the plant to absorb it from the soil,
and also considering as injurious to health the use of bread and
chocolate." See Botanisches Centralblatt, 1893, Vol. 55, 170-175,
for a detailed review of the work.

IV. UPON THE SOIL.

Doubts have been very frequently expressed as to the final
outcome of the continual addition of insecticides and fungicides
to the soil, it being supposed that the roots of the plants as
well as the soil itself would eventually suffer. Scientific inves-

i Millardet et Gayon, Jour. &Ag. Prat. 1885, Nov. 12, 707.

236 The Spraying of Plants.

tigation has shown these fears to be groundless, as it has so
many other doubts formerly entertained. The following ex-
tracts should prove sufficiently convincing even to the most
skeptical : x

" Former analyses of unsprayed top soils of the station farm
have shown no trace of copper in their composition. Recent
analyses of top soils taken from an old potato field which has
received many applications of Paris green (an aceto-arsenite of
copper), show from three ten-thousandths to three and one-third
ten-thousandths of one per cent of metallic copper. Analyses of
top soils from a portion of the same field to which Bordeaux
mixture was applied last season for the potato blight show
four ten-thousandths of one per cent of metallic copper, equal
to about sixteen ten-thousandths of one per cent in the form of
copper sulphate. English writers frequently speak of using
from 22 to 32 pounds of copper sulphate per acre in one season's
application of Bordeaux mixture for potato blight. To impreg-
nate such soil as that which was used in the above analysis to
the depth of one foot with one per cent of copper sulphate would
require about 32,625 pounds of the sulphate, which, if applied
at the rate of 30 pounds a year, would require in its application
nearly 1100 years, provided that none of it escaped in drainage."

Some experiments conducted by Bailey in 1895 indicate that
practically no danger is to be feared from very heavy applica-
tions of arsenites to soil. His conclusion is as follows : " The
arsenic which falls upon the soil seems to become or to remain
in an insoluble condition, and passes downward, if at all, to a
very little distance, and then only by the mechanical action of
water in carrying it through spaces in the soil."2

The results obtained by a careful European investigation8
are also inserted here, that the subject may be viewed from
different standpoints. The only conclusion to be drawn from
these extracts is that proper applications of insecticides and
fungicides will apparently never cause any appreciable injury
either to the roots of plants or to the soil :

" 1. Soluble copper salts are injurious to plants ; the injurious

1 Beach, Country Gentleman, 1892, 68.

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 101, 502.

3Haselhoff, "Injurious action of solutions of the sulphate and the nitrate of
copper upon soil and plants," Landwirthschaftliche Jdhrbucher, 1892, 272-276.

The Effect upon the Crop. 237

action begins when 10 milligrams of copper oxide are present in
1 liter of water, but when only 5 milligrams per liter are present
no marked effects can be seen.

" 2. If solutions of copper sulphate and of copper nitrate are
applied to soils, the plant food present, especially lime and
potash, are dissolved and washed away; the copper oxide is
absorbed by the soil. As a result of these two processes, the
fertility of the soil is more or less decreased.

" 3. Barley and oats suffer more than grass from solutions of
copper sulphate and copper nitrate; copper sulphate is more
injurious to corn than to beans.

"4. The injurious action of copper sulphate and copper
nitrate is counteracted if an excess of the carbonate of lime is
present in the soil. But as soon as this excess has been acted
upon, the injurious processes take place in the same manner as
in soils in which no lime is found."

V. UPON THE VALUE OF THE CHOP.

It is scarcely necessary to enter into details regarding the
benefits derived from proper applications of insecticides and
fungicides. Experiment stations and private growers have
many times demonstrated that the market value of the product
is increased to such an extent that the cost of materials and of
labor is returned many-fold to the grower, whenever proper
applications have been made. Indeed, the conditions now are
such that it is as necessary to spray certain crops as it is to cul-
tivate them. Doubts are no longer entertained concerning the
treatment of potatoes with arsenites ; the operation is generally
performed as one of the regular duties in obtaining a crop. The
majority of the best apple growers have come to feel the same
concerning apples. They spray with insecticides for the codlin-
moth and other insects, and with the Bordeaux mixture for
fungous diseases. The operations have passed the stage of
experiment, and are now considered in the light of a necessity.

The grape is another striking illustration of the same truth.
In many sections, especially in the southern states, it is practi-
cally impossible to obtain a sound crop on account of the abun-
dance of fungous diseases. There it is not only a question of
profits, for it is difficult to obtain any crop whatever. Peaches,

238 The Spraying of Plants.

plums, cherries, quinces, all the small fruits, and many vegeta-
bles, will generally repay proper treatment.

A secondary benefit is also derived in those products which
are stored. Unsound fruit will not keep, for decay generally
begins in a part which has already been injured. It has been
said that sprayed fruit will keep longer than that wrhich has not
been treated, even though both are free from blemishes. The
question is open to doubt, however, since no decisive experiments
have yet been made. But the more nearly perfect the stored crop
is when put in, the longer it will keep and the greater value it
will possess, other conditions being equal.

It must not be inferred from the preceding remarks that all
crops should be sprayed. The question " Does spraying pay ? "
can best be answered by the grower, and he must be his own
judge regarding the advisability of treatments. Let the question
be considered from the proper standpoint and the matter will be
simplified. The final test in regard to the making of treatments
may be stated in this form : does the difference between the mar-
ket value of sound fruit, and the value of the product obtained
when no treatments are made, warrant the expense of purchas-
ing materials and the labor of making the applications? The
grower knows the price received for his crop ; he also knows the
price paid for perfect or fancy crops ; the difference between
the two, so far as injuries from insects and fungi are concerned,
shows to what extent the crop may be benefited by treatments.
It is then a simple matter to determine if the applications will
pay. It will be noted that little question regarding the efficiency
of the applications is here entertained. It is taken for granted,
and with good reason, that proper treatment must produce the
desired result. The arsenites will destroy all chewing insects,
with scarcely an exception, and the copper compounds will pre-
vent injury from most fungi; these are established facts, but
it remains for the grower to apply them. There probably
exists an economical remedy for every disease of plants ; the
vast majority of these diseases are now under control, and
although a few obstinate cases still exist, the future is encourag-
ing when we consider the progress made in the past. Intelli-
gence, knowledge, and good judgment, when assisted by in-
secticides and fungicides, will prove more than a match for
these organisms which prey upon the products of man's labors.

PART II.

SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING
CULTIVATED PLANTS.

ALMOND.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Blight; Almond Disease (Cercospora circumcissa, Sacc.).
— Description. This disease is especially serious in California,
the trees often being practically defoliated during the summer.
The fungus attacks the leaves and the stems. Upon the
former it produces small circular spots, the diseased areas
being more or less restricted by the small veins of the leaves.
The spots are about an eighth of an inch in diameter, and
upon the death of the tissue the discolored areas fall from the
leaves, causing an appearance similar to that of the shot-hole
fungus upon plum foliage. Diseased stems also show distinct
spots of circular or oval outline. The dead tissue soon falls
out, producing a pitted appearance on the surface of the af-
fected twigs.

Treatment. N". B. Pierce, who has thoroughly studied this
disease, recommends spraying the trees with the ammoniacal
carbonate of copper, making the first application before the
trees bloom, the second when the trees are in full leaf, and
the third four weeks later.1

1 Galloway, Ann. Hep. U. S. Com. of Agrie. 1892, 232.
239

240

The Spraying of Plants.

APPLE.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Bitter Rot; Ripe Rot (Glceosporium fructigenwn, Berk. G.
versicolor ?) . — Description. Apples are often seriously injured,
especially in some of the southern states, by a rot which causes

FIG. 37. — The bitter-rot of apples.

a softening of the tissues of the fruit, and changes them from
their normal color to a brown (Fig. 37). This rot " takes fruit
at any stage of its growth from the time it is about three-
quarters of an inch in diameter until it is ripe."1 It is by

i Garman, Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1893, Bull. 44, 4.

Apple. 241

no means uncommon in the northern states, and appears to
be particularly destructive to the earlier varieties. Early
Harvest, Sweet Bough, and others are very subject to the dis-
ease. Any part of the apple may be first attacked, and when
the fungus has once gained a foothold it spreads very rapidly.
The older portion, or the part first attacked, soon bears small
black pimples, and it is said that the tissue beneath them has
an exceedingly bitter taste, which has given the disease its
name.

Treatment. Carman1 recommends the use of Bordeaux mix-
ture for preventing the development of the disease. He obtained
the greatest benefit from applications made as follows : First,
before the leaves expanded; second, soon after the apples had
set ; third, about fourteen days later ; fourth, four weeks after
the preceding. In this manner " thirty-one and one-sixth per
cent of the whole number of apples borne by the sprayed tree
during the season were saved from the rot."

The disease has also been successfully treated by the use of
the sulphide of potassium. The ammoiriacal carbonate of
copper gave similar results. These last experiments are inter-
esting from the fact that the first application was not made till
about the middle of August. Earlier applications are, however,
advisable.

Black Rot (Sphceropsis malorum, Berk.). — Description. The
external characters of this disease are practically identical with
those of the Bitter Rot. The remedies to be used are also the
same.

Brown Rot. See under CHERRY.

Powdery Mildew (Podosphcera Oxycanthce, DeBary). — Descrip-
tion. This fungus attacks the foliage of young apple seedlings
very soon after the unfolding of the leaves, and continues
its growth throughout the summer, very much weakening the
plants, and making them unfit for budding purposes. The dis-
ease is especially serious in the southern states. The affected
leaves have a grayish appearance which is caused by a powdery
substance. This gray powder consists of the parts of the fungus
which project beyond the leaf tissue. The leaf soon dries and
is rendered worthless.

Treatment. The trouble has been successfully controlled by

1 Gorman, Ky, Agric. Exp. Sta. 1893, Bull. 44, 5.
E

242 The Spraying of Plants.

the Section of Vegetable Pathology at Washington, and the
following are the conclusions reached : *

" 1. The disease can be effectually prevented by the applica-
tion of the ammoniacal solution of carbonate of copper.

" 2. In the nursery the total cost of the treatment need not
exceed twelve cents per 1000 trees.

" 3. The first application should be made when the leaves are
about one-third grown, and should be followed by at least five
others at intervals of ten or twelve days."

Rust (Rcestelia pirata, Thax., and Gymnosporangium macropm,
Link.). — Description. The fungus which causes the rust of
apples is one of the most peculiar in which the horticulturist
is interested. Unlike many fungi, this one lives upon two host-
plants during its course of development. These host-plants are
the apple, and the cedar or juniper. There are probably several
species of rusts which attack cultivated apples,2 but the histories
of all are essentially the same. The most common one is now
supposed to be Roestalia pirata, Thax.3

The effects of this fungus upon the apple are first noticeable
during the latter part of May, or in early June. The leaves are
then dotted with bright yellow spots, the so-called rust; the
fruit is also attacked about the same time. Such fruit becomes
worthless, as the growth is increased at the diseased point, and
the swollen part produces spores, which ruins the apples. Spores
are also produced upon the under side of the leaves. They ap-
pear and ripen during midsummer. They will not germinate
and grow upon either the leaves or fruit of the apple, but they
will develop the fungus upon the cedar. There the mycelium
enters the tissues, and as growth advances, enlargements appear
upon the branches of the tree. Such swellings, or " cedar-apples,"
as they are called, are from half an inch to almost two inches in
diameter; they become full grown early in spring. During
April and May, horn-shaped masses an inch or more in length
are produced by the cedar-apple. They are of a bright yellow
color and can readily be seen among the green branches of the
cedars. Upon these soft, yellow bodies the spores are borne;
these spores will not grow upon cedars, but only upon the leaves

1 Ann. Rep. V. S. Com. Agrie. 1889, 415.

2 Byron D. Halsted, Ann. Rep. U. S. Com. Agrie. 1888, 3T6.

3 Scribner, " Fungous Diseases of the Grape and other Plants," 1890, 84.

Apple. 243

or fruit of the apple. They ripen in spring, and consequently it
is at this season of the year that the apple trees must be pro-
tected. Unfortunately, when a tree has once become infected,
it seems that the mycelium of the rust may remain in the buds
and branches for years, and in the spring when the young leaves
have formed, the characteristic yellow spots may again appear,
although no new infection has taken place., The disease is
sometimes so serious that the tree loses all its foliage, and this
alone would ruin the crop, although the apples themselves may
not be attacked.

Treatment. It is difficult to combat the apple rust successfully.
Since apple trees are attacked by spores which are produced upon
cedar trees, it naturally follows that by removing all cedars we
also remove the source of the disease. Cutting and burning
the cedar-apples before the appearance of the yellow horns will
answer the same purpose. In many cases, however, such a
course is impracticable on account of the abundance of the
trees. Scribner advises l the removal of all badly diseased trees
in the orchard, as well as the worst branches on trees which are
not seriously attacked. Then, to prevent further injury from
the fungus, spray both large and small trees with some good
fungicide, as the Bordeaux mixture. The applications should
be made as soon as the first leaves appear. Two applications
should be sufficient, the second one being made eight or ten days
after the first. During rainy seasons it may be well to repeat
the operation a third time. "The planting of resistant varieties
is one of the best methods of escaping the disease. See QUINCE.

Scab (Fusicladium dendritic um, Fckl.). — Description. This
fungus attacks the fruit and the leaves of both apple and pear
trees. Upon the fruit it forms dark, circular spots, the largest
being about half an inch in diameter (Fig. 38). These spots
are often close together or unite to form surfaces which may
extend over a considerable area. The centers of the spots are
dark brown or black in color, but at the edges there is a light
gray or white circle. This appearance is due to the separation
of the outer skin, or cuticle, from the tissue beneath. When
the diseased area is large, it generally cracks, and then the
hard, brown tissue within the apple may be seen (Fig. 39).
Growth is checked in the diseased portions and the fruit is

i Orchard and Garden, 1S90, Vol. xii. July, 184.

244 The Spraying of Plants.

usually one-sided, sometimes to such an extent that the blossom
end and the stem are close together. Isolated spots do not
seriously injure the apple, but frequently its market value is
thereby considerably reduced.

The appearance of the disease upon the leaves is similar to
that upon the fruit, but the light-colored edge is wanting. The
parts attacked are circular or oval, and where several spots have
run together the outline is irregular. The first indication of
the presence of the fungus on the foliage is the appearance of

FIG. 38. — Fall Pippin apple disfigured by scab.

small, light green areas which are easily distinguished when the
leaf is held up to the light. In a few days the central portions
of these areas become raised, causing the leaf to become more
or less distorted. The color at the same time changes to a dull
brownish-black, which is plainly visible upon the upper side of
the leaf. This causes the leaf to curl, the concave or hollow
side being underneath ; the edges of the leaf often become
brown and torn. (For colored plate of scab, see Cornell Bull. 84.)
The scab is undoubtedly the most serious fungous disease
with which the apple grower has to contend. No other disease
annually ruins such a large percentage of the crop. From the

Apple.

245

fact that the fungus also grows upon the leaves, it frequently
occurs that entire orchards are defoliated. The result is that
the tree receives so little nourishment that it may not bear a
profitable crop for several years, even though during this time
it is kept free from the disease. Wherever apples are grown,
they suffer more or less from the parasite. Some years the

FIG. 39. — Severe attack of apple scab upon fruit and foliage.

injury may be so slight that it is scarcely noticed, and during
others it may attack a tree with such intensity that there is
scarcely enough fruit or foliage left to tell the tale of the cause
of the destruction. Apple growers in western Xew York and
in southern Michigan will bear evidence of the condition of
orchards in the summer and fall of 1892 and 1893. The trees,
especially iu Michigan, appeared as if burned by fire, and it was

246 The Spraying of Plants.

said that in some counties there was not produced one car-load
of first-class fruit. It is no wonder that apple-growing does not
always pay. The wonder is that it ever does pay, when the
care given the orchard is considered. The causes of the many
failures are principally two: first, the neglect of the top, as
regards pruning, spraying, and similar operations ; second, the
neglect of the roots, as regards feeding and the condition of
the soil. It rests entirely with the grower if his trees shall
produce scabby fruit or perfect fruit. He can make his choice,
and the outcome will be as he chooses. In this statement, no
variety, however susceptible it may be to the attacks of the scab,
is excepted. Some varieties, as the Spitzenberg, Fameuse, Fall
Pippin, Early Harvest, and in many localities the Baldwin,
seldom produce uniformly good fruit, and with few exceptions,
the last has been far from perfect during the past few years.
Ben Davis, King, Fallawater, and many other varieties are not
nearly so much affected by the scab.1 These varieties need less
care and often produce very fair crops without any special
attention, but in such cases they generally bear in years of
plenty, when prices run low except for extra fine fruit.

Treatment. Treatment of the apple scab should begin early in
the season. This was forcibly shown in the spring of 1892.2
The first application, using Bordeaux mixture, was made June
13, about one week after the blossoms had fallen from the trees.
At the time of the second application, June 22, small portions
affected with the scab fungus could occasionally be found upon
the apples in places thickly covered by the Bordeaux mixture
previously applied. These portions were undoubtedly attacked
before the first application was made. As this occurred soon
after the blossoms fell, it is clear that the trees were sprayed too
late. They should receive at least one application before the
blossoms open. The value of this has been demonstrated in
another way. D. G. Fairchild observed the growing mycelium
upon apple twigs even before the buds broke, and this would
indicate that for very susceptible varieties it may be well to
spray with a solution of the sulphate of copper when the buds
are swelling.

1 Cornell Agric. Exp- Sta. Bull. 48, 288-290.

2 For detailed account of experiments in the treatment of apple scab, see Cornell
Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48, 265-274 ; also Bulletins 60 and 86.

Apple. 247

A second application should be made just before the blossoms
open, and a third as soon as the blossoms have fallen from the
trees ; but for these, as well as for all later ones, it is advisable
to use the Bordeaux mixture or some similar preparation. Such
applications may be made at intervals of ten or fifteen days,
depending upon the weather, until from two to six have been
made. The number necessary will depend largely upon the
variety treated. In comparatively dry seasons, two applications
will afford almost complete protection to resistant varieties,
while those subject to the disease would repay as many as four
or five. When so treated, the fruit and the foliage will be
practically perfect as regards injury from scab.

The amounts of liquid necessary to protect an apple tree from
the scab will vary with the size of the tree and with the season.
A well-grown apple tree, twenty-five years old, will require from
two to three gallons of liquid when sprayed before the blossoms
open. Later in the season, when the tree is in full leaf, it will
be necessary to use four or perhaps five or even six gallons to
cover the leaves and the fruit thoroughly.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Aphis (Aphis Mali, Fabr.). — Description. These small insects,
commonly called lice, are often very numerous upon the young
shoots and leaves of apple trees. They are generally most
abundant in spring and early summer, and in the fall. They
are supposed to cause considerable damage by sucking the juices
from the blossoms and young leaves, but the injury done by
them has probably been overestimated. During the latter part
of June and July the insects disappear. While they are pres-
ent, immense numbers may be found upon the stems and under
side of the leaves, the latter being curled so that the pest is
very well protected from any application which may be made.

Treatment. Unless the lice are very abundant it is not neces-
sary to try to destroy them, for they do not cause any serious
damage, and in a short time they naturally disappear. It is not
advisable to spray entire orchards, although they may be badly
infested. But if it is desired to destroy the lice upon certain
trees, a cheap and efficient remedy will be found in tobacco
water, or in the decoction. This should be sprayed upon the
trees as soon after the lice have appeared as possible, and the

248 The Spraying of Plants.

applications should be repeated at intervals of two to four days
if the insects persist. Kerosene emulsion is also an excellent
remedy, but it is more expensive. The lice are veiy easily
killed, and any of the insecticides which kill by contact will
destroy them.

Borers (a) Flat-headed borer (Chrysobothrisfemorata, Fabr.) ;
(&) Round-headed borers (Saperda Candida, and S. cretata, Fabr.).
— These insects cannot be controlled by spraying. Various
washes containing carbolic acid, clay, and many other ingre-
dients have been recommended to drive or keep the insects
from the trees, but none have proved to be of much value.
The best and safest line of treatment is to dig out the larvae,
or to run a wire into the burrow until the insects are reached.

Bud-Moth (Tmetocera ocellana, Fabr.). — Description. The
adult, also known as the eye-spotted bud-moth, measures about
three-fourths of an inch across the fore wings. " The head,
thorax, and basal third of the fore wings, and also the outer
edge and fringe are dark ashen gray, the middle of the fore
wings is cream white, marked more or less with costal streaks
of gray, and, in some specimens, this part is ashy gray, but
little lighter than the base. . . . The hind wings above and
below and the abdomen are ashy gray. The under side of the
fore wings is darker, and has a series of light, costal streaks on
the outer part." 1 The insect appears to have but a single brood
in the North. The eggs are laid during June and July. Accord-
ing to Slingerland,2 these hatch in from seven to ten days ; the
larvae feed upon the foliage until about half grown, this requir-
ing a period of about six weeks. They then form a small
silken case, well concealed in the crevices of the twigs, and
there they remain until the following spring. When the buds
are swelling, and even after they have burst, the larvae again
appear. They are then small and dark brown, "about one-
fourth of an inch in length, with a shining black head and
thoracic shield." 3 They injure large trees, and also those in
the nursery ; in the latter case they are particularly destructive,
since the future shape of the tree may be seriously affected by
the loss of the terminal buds. The opening buds are eaten and

1 Fernald, Mass. Hatch. Afjrio. Exp. Sla. 1891, April, Bull. 12, 7.

2 Cornell Agrie. Exp. Sta. 1893, March, Bull. 50, 14.
8 Ibid. 10.

Apple.

249

also the young foliage, so that even large trees frequently suffer

severely from the insect. The young growing leaves are drawn

together and firmly held by means of silken threads, and in

this retreat the larvae are well sheltered (Fig. 40). The insect

pupates within this mass of foliage

six or seven weeks after its first

appearance in spring, and about

ten days later the adult appears.

Eggs are laid after three or four

days, and thus the life circle of the

insect is completed.

Treatment. The insect may be
quite easily destroyed by thoroughly
spraying the affected trees with
arsenical poisons as soon as the
buds have opened, so that the tips
of the young leaves may be seen.
Two applications, made before the
blossoms open, should prove en-
tirely effective in the destruction
of this insect.

Canker-worm (Anisopteryx pome-
taria, Harris). — Description. This
insect is commonly called the fall canker-worm, and another
species, Paleacrita vernata, Peck, is known as the spring canker-
worm ; 1 they are frequently termed measuring worms, from the
peculiar manner in which they move about (Fig. 41).

The caterpillars vary in color from yellow to dark brown,
and are variously striped. When mature they are about an
inch long. They then leave the tree upon which they have
been feeding, either by crawling down the trunk or by lower-
ing themselves from the branches by means of a fine thread.
They enter the ground and spin cocoons. Here they remain
until fall, when the adult moths appear. The male (Fig. 42)
has a wing expanse of about one and one-fourth inches. It is
of a glossy gray color, two irregular white bands being gener-
ally found upon each of the fore wings. The female is wing-
less (Fig. 43), from one-fourth to nearly half an inch in length,
and is also gray in color. She soon crawls up the trunk of the

i Saunders, " Insects Injurious to Fruit," 1889, 46.

FIG. 40. — Young apple foliage in-
jured by larra of bud-moth.

250

The Spraying of Plants.

tree and deposits her eggs among the branches. The adult
forms of the spring canker-worm rarely appear in the fall, but
emerge early in the following year. They closely resemble
A . pometaria.

Treatment. Various measures have been taken to keep these
insects in check, the most common being to wrap the trunk of

FIG. 41. — The canker-worm at work ; natural size.

the tree with some material over which the adult female can-
not crawl to lay her eggs. For this purpose tar, or any sticky
substance, has be'en in common use.1 -Cotton has been highly
recommended. However, the cheapest and best method to get

1 Kaupenleim and Dendrolene are two substances recommended by Professor
Smith in Bull. Ill, N. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Sept.

Apple.

251

FIG. 42. — Canker-
worm moth; male,
natural size.

rid of the pest is to spray the foliage with Paris green or Lon-
don purple.1 This should be done early in the season, as soon
as the caterpillars make their appearance. If they are seen to
be injuring the trees before the blossoms are
open, it may be well to make an application
at that time. But generally it is not neces-
sary to spray the trees till after the blossoms
have fallen. .Never apply the arsenites to
fruit trees while they are in blossom, for the
bees which are working among the flowers
and assisting in the setting of the fruit may
be poisoned, to the loss of their owner as
well as to the owner of the orchard. Whether
bees are actually poisoned by arsenites when
applied to trees while in full bloom is still a
disputed point ; 2 they probably are, and the grower will do well
to apply sprays either before or after the trees have bloomed.
It may also be that the injury done to the delicate parts of the
flower by the materials used is alone sufficient cause for avoid-
ing this time to do the work.. The time of blossoming is short,
and trees should not suffer if sprays are properly applied before
and after this period.

If one application of the arsenite is not effective in ridding
the trees of worms, others should be made at intervals of eight
or ten days until the pest is overcome. When the worms are
young, they most commonly feed upon the
under side of the leaves, and it is a good plan
to treat these parts thoroughly. In making
the applications it must be remembered that
the worms will not be destroyed unless the
poison is placed upon the leaves. All parts
of the tree should be drenched, and if many
worms remain a few days after such an appli-
cation, the materials used are faulty, or they
have not been mixed in the proper proportions.

Cigar-case-bearer; Case-worm (Coleophora Fletcherella, Fer-
nald). — Description. The appearance of this insect is so

i See Bailey, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 101.

1 Cook, Mich. Agric. Exp. Sta. 2d Rep. 261. Webster, Insect Life, Vol. v.
No. 2, 121. Lintner, Ibid. Vol. vi. No. 2, 181.

FIG. 43. — Canker-
worm ; adult fe-
male, natural size.

252 The Spraying of Plants.

remarkable that when it has once been observed it is readily
distinguished in the future. The insect may be found upon
pears and apples. " The moth is a very delicate and pretty steel-
gray object. During the day it rests on a leaf with its heavily
fringed wings folded closely over its abdomen, and its long,
slender antennae placed close together and projecting straight
forward from its head. They may be seen on the leaves from
about June 15 to July 15." l Eggs are soon laid upon the young
leaves, and in the course of about two weeks the young cater-
pillars may be seen. During the first two or three weeks these
mine within the leaf, eating out the green tissue and causing
the formation of hollow brown areas. The larvae then begin
the construction from bits of the leaf of the peculiar cases,
which are shaped like a cigar, but only about three-eighths of
an inch long; in these they find protection. About the middle
of September the worms migrate to the branches, where they
remain throughout the winter. Early in spring, as soon as the
first leaves appear, the larvae return to the foliage and attack
all green parts of the host-plant. As the case becomes too
small for the growing insect, the old one is deserted and a new
one made. The little worm continually carries the case on end,
and it obtains its food by eating through the upper surface of
the leaf and eating out the green portions which are within
easy reach, causing the affected part to turn brown. During
June the larvae pupate, and soon the adult again appears.

Treatment. The case-bearer is serious in only a few locali-
ties, and its life history has but recently been carefully studied.
Although no definite experiments have been made aiming at
the destruction of the insect, yet the general opinion of all who
have closely observed it is that the larvae may be killed by
spraying the affected trees with the arsenite early in the spring,
making one application before the blossoms open, and two
after they fall, as is done for the codlin-moth.

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn.^. — Description.
This moth is about half an inch long, and when at rest has
the wings folded close to its body. Its general color is grayish
brown. " The fore wings are marked with alternate, irregular,
transverse, wavy streaks of ash gray and brown, and have on
the inner hind angle a large, tawny-brown spot, with streaks of

i Slingerland, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, May, Bull. 93, 219.

Apple.

253

light bronze or copper color, nearly in the form of a horseshoe ;
at a little distance they resemble watered silk."1 The hind
wings are of a glossy light brown color (Fig. 44).

The moths first appear in spring, having passed the winter
in cocoons. The first moths fly about the time that the blos-
soms fall from the apple trees, and they continue to appear for
two or three weeks, or even longer. Very soon after leaving
the cocoons the moths lay their eggs, generally at the blossom

FIG. 44. — Codlin-moth ; all parts natural size.

ends of the little apples. The eggs soon hatch and the larvae
immediately begin to eat the fruit. The second generation of
moths appears in about six weeks. Two or three broods are
produced in a season, and this fact tends to increase the diffi-
culty of treating the insect successfully.

Treatment. Formerly the principal remedy for the codlin-
moth was to destroy all the windfalls, either gathering by
hand, or having them eaten by stock which was allowed to run
in the orchard. This practice was fairly successful. Since

i Saunders, " Insects Injurious to Fruit," 1589, 129.

254 The Spraying of Plants.

the moth is a night-flying insect, it has been repeatedly tried
to attract it by means of lights. Rarely is one caught, and it
is useless to attempt to trap the moth in this manner.

Spraying with arsenites is rapidly taking the place of the
many methods which were formerly employed to destroy this
pest. The applications are safe, easily made, and are almost
invariably followed by excellent results. The first application
should be made as soon as the blossoms fall from the trees, earlier
ones being unnecessary. But as soon as the blossoms have
fallen, spray thoroughly, using either Paris green or London
purple. The operation must not be delayed until the apples
are as large as cherries, but should be immediately performed.
It is well to spray a second time about ten days later, but if the
weather is rainy, applications are advisable after heavy showers,
since the poison is more or less washed away by a beating rain.
Poison must be at the blossom end of the apple when the larva
appears, for when the worm is once inside the fruit it can no
longer be reached ; the first thing that it eats should be poison.

Since the second brood comes from the first, if the first is
killed there can be no second, therefore the necessity of doing
the work well from the beginning. The appearance of the later
broods is probably too irregular to allow of successful treatment,
and it is not always advisable to make special applications for
their destruction.

By applying a combination of an insecticide and a fungicide,
we can treat both the codlin-moth and the apple scab, thus
saving the labor of one treatment. The most reliable combi-
nation thus far made is that of the Bordeaux mixture and
Paris green or London purple. This combination is as effective
as when separate treatments are made l against the fungus and
the insect. The use of the ammoniacal carbonate of copper
applied in connection with the arsenites has also given good
results, and as the mixture is more easily applied than Bor-
deaux, it may in some rare cases be given the preference
(see page 140).

In Paris green we have a combined insecticide and fungicide,
already prepared, but the fungicidal value is not so strong as
might be wished. Its use during the past two years has,
however, shown that it affords apples considerable protection

i Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48, 274 ; 60, 274.

Apple. 255

against fungi. The foliage of susceptible varieties may be
rendered fairly perfect by the arsenite, and in consequence, the
vigor of the tree itself will be considerably increased. Its addi-
tional value as an insecticide makes it one of the best remedies
for destroying orchard pests.

Stock is frequently pastured in bearing orchards which are in
permanent sod, and doubts are often expressed as to the advisa-
bility of removing the animals after the trees have been sprayed
with arsenical poisons or other materials. Cook l has conducted
some experiments to test this point, and in no case could
he find that horses or sheep were in the least injured. He
applied much larger amounts of the poisons than are generally
used ; and I have still to hear of the first case in which pastur-
ing stock under sprayed trees, whatever the application may
have been, has been followed by bad results. When one con-
siders how small is the amount of poison used per tree, the
small percentage of it that falls to the ground, and how little
of this adheres to those parts of the herbage that are eaten, it
will be seen that there is practically no danger to the stock.

Curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus, Say). — Description. As
the name of this insect indicates, it possesses four projections,
these being found on the back at the posterior end of the body.
They are nearly conical in form and of a brownish-red color.
The general appearance of the insect is brown, but a shade of
red may also be noticed. Although it is closely related to the
plum curculio, its body is slightly smaller and the snout longer ;
the entire length is about one-quarter of an inch. Its habits
are also in some respects different. In laying its eggs no
crescent-shaped mark is made, but a hole, somewhat enlarged
at the bottom, is bored into the small apple, and the egg is
there deposited.2 The apple grows more slowly in the
affected portions, which results in its becoming misshapen, and
if the fruit is stung several times it will be worthless on account
of its small size and irregular form. Fig. 45 represents apples
which were injured by this insect and also by the plum curculio,
another serious enemy of the apple.

Treatment. The apple curculio rarely does much damage in
the Xorth, but in some of the middle states it is occasionally
very destructive. The most promising remedy is to spray the

i See page 283. * Gillette, Iowa Ex,p. Sta. BuU. 11, 493.

256

The Spraying of Plants.

trees very thoroughly with the arsenites early in spring. It
may be advisable to make the first application before the
blossoms open, and another after their fall. The value of such
applications is still a disputed point, and it is more fully dis-
cussed under " Spraying for the curculio," page 68. My own
experience leads me to believe that apples in thoroughly
sprayed orchards suffer comparatively little from this insect.
Jarring the trees has also been recommended, but this is not
always practicable. Sheep and hogs may be of service in an

FIG. 45. — Apples distorted by curculio injuries.

affected orchard, but unfortunately apples which are stung by
the curculio do not fall to the ground to such an extent as do
those attacked by the codlin-moth, and only a small number
would be destroyed by this means.

Fall Web-worm (Hyphantria cunea, Harris). — Description.
The mature insect is a moth, pure white in color, with an ex-
panse of wings of about one and one-fourth inches. The insect
is widely distributed throughout the country, and when undis-
turbed, the larvse may do considerable injury, not only to fruit
trees, but to many other plants, since they are not very par-

Apple. 257

ticular as to diet. The eggs are laid upon the foliage during
early summer, and soon hatch. The full-grown larvae are about
an inch long, with varied markings. They are thickly covered
with yellowish hair, of varying shades, it being longer at the
extremities of the body. The head is black, and a dark stripe
extends along the back. These caterpillars are most con-
spicuous in the fall after they have woven a web, inside which
they work. The foliage to be eaten is first enclosed in this
manner, and afterwards devoured. When full grown the
caterpillars descend to the ground, and there spin cocoons in
which they remain until the following year. There is but one
brood of the insect in the Xorth.

Treatment. Spray with the arsenites during summer, as soon
as the presence of the insect is noticed. The foliage should be
covered with the poison before it is surrounded by the web,
and this can be done most effectively while the larvae are
small. If spraying is neglected, cut out the limb and burn
it, or hold a burning torch to the nest until the caterpillars are
destroyed.

Leaf-Skeletonizer (Pempelia Hammondi, Riley). — Description.
The larva of this moth causes the curled and scorched appear-
ance which is sometimes exhibited by apple leaves, especially
when young. The worm, which is greenish-brown, causes the
injury by eating the green portions of the leaves. Its length is
about half an inch. A web is generally spun, and frequently
several leaves are drawn together by it, making an unsightly
object.

Treatment. The web spun by the larvae affords them some
protection against applications which are made; but if the
arsenites are applied as soon as the worms are seen, their work
should soon receive a check, for new material will soon be
required for food, and this should bear the poison. Hand
picking has also been recommended ; it is a laborious but
certain method of destroying them.

Maggot; Railroad-worm (Trypeta pomonella, Walsh). — De-
scription. The many small burrows frequently seen extending
in all directions throughout the flesh of an apple are caused by
a greenish-white footless maggot about one-fourth of an inch in
length. The mature form of the insect is a two-winged fly. It
lays its eggs singly under the skin of the apple, early in sum-

3

258 The Spraying of Plants.

mer ; these hatch in a few days, and the maggot, after tunneling
for about six weeks, leaves the fruit, and enters the ground,
where it pupates. The mature flies appear the following
summer.

Treatment. No effectual remedies are yet known. It is
scarcely possible that arsenical sprays will lessen the trouble ;
but the destruction of the young affected fruit, if well done,
would materially reduce the danger of injury.

Oyster-shell Bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouche). — De-
scription. The small brownish scales which are commonly seen
upon apple trees have been secreted by a little insect which may
be found underneath them during the summer. The scale, or
shell, protects the insect, and the latter can scarcely be reached
by any application made at this time of the year. But in early
spring the scales contain a number ot Jight-colored eggs.
These hatch in May, and during warm weather the young
insects crawl about, and in a few days attach themselves to the
bark. They then begin to secrete a shell which soon resembles
that of the parent.

Treatment. Since the bark-louse is a sucking insect it cannot
be destroyed by arsenites or similar poisons. Spray affected
plants with some insecticide which kills by contact, such as
kerosene emulsion, or tobacco water. These applications should
be made before the young insect has attached itself to the bark.
Before the eggs hatch it is well to scrape badly affected parts,
and then to wash them thoroughly with some good insecticide,
those of a soapy nature being preferable.

Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa Americana, Harris). — Descrip-
tion. The moths are three-fourths of an inch long, the spread of
the wings being about one and three-fourths inches. The general
color is brown, but there is a darker band near the outer mar-
gin of the fore wings. In July the moths lay their eggs closely
in rows around the smaller twigs of trees, sometimes as many
as three hundred being deposited. These eggs do not hatch
until the following spring; then the caterpillars appear, and
begin to feed upon the young leaves. After a few days they
commence to spin their web, which soon grows to be large and un-
sightly. When full grown the caterpillars are about two inches
long ; they are somewhat hairy, and have a white streak run-
ning along the center of the back. The sides of the body are

Apple. 259

ornamented with yellowish markings, while underneath it is
quite black. The worms mature in about six weeks from the
time they are hatched. At this time they generally leave the
tree and seek some sheltered corner in which they spin their
cocoons. In three weeks moths issue, and eggs are again laid.

Treatment. This insect does considerable damage if it is left
unchecked, but it is so easily destroyed that there is no need
of having any trouble with it in an orchard. As soon as a
nest is seen, the branch may be cut off and burned, or the
insects crushed without the removal of the nest. But a much
better remedy is to spray the foliage near the web with arsen-
ites. The caterpillars always return to the web at night, and
they may also be found there in bad weather ; and if the tree
has been sprayed they generally return there to die. In spray-
ing for the codlin-moth sufficient poison is applied to rid the
orchard of this enemy also.

Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm.). — Description.
This insect is a small yellow plant louse. It is found upon many
kinds of trees, both on the branches and among the roots, and
causes injury by sucking the juices. The insect is protected by
a woolly or mealy covering, and from this it has received its
common name. When the roots of nursery trees are attacked
the stock is almost worthless, for the labor and expense of de-
stroying the insects is generally greater than the value of the
stock.

Treatment. Affected branches may be cleaned by throwing
a strong stream of water upon them, thus dislodging the
insects. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco w^ater will also kill
them, if the applications are made so thoroughly that the
insecticide will penetrate the covering. It will probably be
found necessary to repeat them. Roots of trees standing in
the ground may be treated with scalding water. If the roots
are to be dipped into the water, a temperature higher than
150 degrees F. should not be allowed, and 130-135° F. should
kill the insects after a moment's immersion. Kerosene emulsion
and tobacco water give good results. They may either be
sprayed upon the roots, or these may be dipped into the liquid.
In either case the roots must be well cleaned before the appli-
cation is made, so that the insecticide will reach the insect. It
is possible that the hydrocyanic gas treatment would be of

260 The Spraying of Plants.

value in treating young, dormant trees before setting. During
summer these insects multiply very rapidly, and all treatments
should be made early in the season, and very thoroughly. If
this is not done, bisulphide of carbon may prove effective,
although the remedy does not yet appear to have been used for
this purpose.

APRICOT.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Rust. See under PLUM.

INSECT ENEMIES.
Curculio. See under PLUM.

ASPARAGUS.

Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris Asparagi, Linn.). — Description.
In many localities asparagus is seriously injured by a small,
dark, metallic-blue beetle, which is also marked with yellow
and red. It passes the winter as a beetle, and lays its eggs on
the young asparagus shoots in spring. There are two or three
broods.

Treatment. The removal of affected parts and the destruc-
tion of the eggs will assist in suppressing the pest. Hellebore,
mixed with flour, 1 part to 10, has been recommended as being
effective against the first brood of larvae, and it is probable
that the arsenite would prove valuable if applied after market-
ing has ceased.

ASTER.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Rust (Coleosporium Soncfii-arvensis, Lev.). — Description.
The fungus appears to attack the leaves mostly from the under
side; here it produces orange-colored pustules and eventually
causes the death of the diseased leaves.

Treatment. Spray the plants early in the season with a clear
fungicide, repeating the applications at intervals of two to four
weeks. Care should be exercised to reach the under surface of
the leaves.

Balm of G-ilead, Bean. 261

BALM OF GILEAD.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.
Leaf Rust. See under COTTONWOOD.

BARLEY.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

" Barley is subject to two loose smuts, both somewhat like oat
smut. They may be prevented by soaking the seed four hours
in cold water, letting it stand four hours in a moist state in sacks,
and finally treating in hot water as directed for oats and wheat
(which see), but only for five minutes, and at a temperature of
126° to 128° F." i

BEAN".

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Anthracnose; Pod Rust (Colletotrichum Lindemuthianum, Briosi
and Cavara). — Description. This fungus attacks the stems,
foliage, and fruit of bean plants, and is, perhaps, the most
serious trouble against which bean growers have to contend.
The seed may be affected even before it is sown; it is then
wrinkled and pitted to a greater or less extent, the affected
parts being sometimes only very slightly discolored, again, very
markedly yellow or brown. The disease can be carried from
season to season by affected seed, and in severe cases the young
plants are so much injured by the fungus that they are not able
to appear above ground. Young seedlings are also destroyed,
as the stem is frequently cut off by the parasite, causing deep
and blackened indentations. The large and the small veins are
similarly attacked, while the green tissue of the leaf does not
escape. The latter shows the trouble by the appearance of
dark discolorations which conform in shape, to a certain extent,
to the surrounding veins. The part first attacked soon becomes
brittle and then breaks, leaving an irregular opening through
the leaf. A black discoloration marks the progress of the dis-
ease. Upon the stems and veins, affected parts are consider-
ably sunken and blackened, the edges being tinged with red.

» U. S. Dept. ofAgric. Div. of Veg. Path. Farmers' Bull. No. 5.

262

The Spraying of Plants.

This is particularly noticeable upon the sides of diseased pods
(Fig. 46). Later, the central portion of the pits show minute,

FIG. 46. — Bean anthracnose.

light-colored dots, which are masses of spores or reproductive
bodies. Spore formation appears to be particularly energetic
upon the pods.

Bean. 263

Treatment. The use of healthy seed is of the greatest impor-
tance. Diseased seed may be soaked in some good fungicide, but
the value of the operation is open to doubt. Professor Beach
has made a careful study of this disease, and his conclusion is
as follows : 1 " Even when the treatment of the seed by the best
fungicides is so severe that the stand is seriously injured, there
remains enough of the disease to injure the crop under field
conditions. At the time of harvesting the crop in the above
noted experiments, not a sound plant or even a sound pod was
found in the whole lot. These results certainly give little en-
couragement for hope that treatment of seed writh fungicides
will yield sufficiently good results to justify recommending its
adoption."

The recommendations made by Professor Beach in regard to
treating the disease are : " (1) Selection of sound seed; (2) im-
mediate removal of infected seedlings from the field ; (3) keep-
ing the foliage covered with Bordeaux mixture." A weaker
mixture, one containing about 1.5 per cent of copper sulphate,
has given excellent results, and it is harmless to foliage. The
disease is more severe in low, damp places, so these should be
avoided as much as possible.

Rust (Uromyces Phaseoli, Winter). — Description. Diseased
leaves first show small, brown dots which are nearly circular,
and slightly elevated. They soon discharge a brown powder,
this being the first crop of spores. Later, a second crop of
spores is produced; these are black in color, and somewhat
larger than the earlier form. The buds are similarly affected.

Treatment. The free use of Bordeaux mixture may afford
full protection to exposed plants, but as yet no general use of
the remedy has been made.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Bean Weevil (Bruchus obtectus, Say). — This insect closely
resembles the pea weevil in appearance, and their life histories
are practically identical. See under PEA.

1 Some Sean Diseases. A thesis in the Bot. Dept. of the Agric. Coll. Ames,
Iowa, 1892, 323.

264 The Spraying of Plants.

BEAN, LIMA.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Blight (Phytophihora Phaseoli, Thaxter). — Description. This
fungus attacks the young leaves and stems, and also the pods.
It generally appears during August and September, and covers
the affected parts with a dense, white covering.

Treatment. Spray the plants with some clear copper com-
pound before the season when the disease generally first appears.
Two or three applications should protect the vines.

BEET.

Leaf Spot (Cercospora beticola, Sacc.). — Description. "The
common name well describes the general appearance of the beet
leaves infested with this Cercospora, for they are at first more or
less covered with small light or ashy spots, which later often
become holes by the disappearance of the tissue previously
killed by the fungus. . . . Full-sized leaves often become
mutilated, and sometimes scarcely more than the framework
remains." x The spots are at first surrounded by a band of red
or purple (Fig. 47). The disease is more or less prevalent
throughout the summer months.

Treatment. The trouble may be controlled by the use of
fungicides, but as beet foliage is easily injured, the safest one
to use is the Bordeaux mixture. This may be used of the
normal strength, or even more dilute. The first applications
should be made about the middle of June or early in July, de-
pending upon the latitude and the season. The foliage should
thereafter be kept covered by the material.

Root Rot (Phyllosticta, sp.). — Description. The fungus caus-
ing root rot of beets is particularly serious after the roots are
stored. The affected parts shrink slightly, turn black, yet
remain quite firm. The leaves appear to be affected by the
same fungus, its presence causing the formation of circular
spots, sometimes half an inch in diameter. The diseased tissue
dies and soon cracks.

Treatment. The foliage should be well protected by the Bor-

i Halsted, &. J. Agric. Exp. Sta, 1895, Bull. 107, 8.

Beet.

265

deaux mixture during the growing season, and when the beets
are stored all the leaves should be removed.

Rust ( Uromyces Betce, Pers.). — Description. This disease is at
present most destructive in Europe and in California. It is
easily recognized by the rusty-red powder that is abundantly
produced upon the affected portions of the leaves. A similar
disease attacks carnations and hollyhocks.

FIG. 47. — Beet leaf spot.

Treatment. Although it appears that no definite experiments
have been made in this country for the control of beet rust, it
is probable that the fungus may be held in check by continued
applications of the Bordeaux mixture. The related forms found
upon other plants yield to treatment, and applications made
at the first appearance of the trouble should prevent it from
becoming serious.

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thax.). — This disease also attacks
potatoes, causing them to be scabby. The only known remedy
for the trouble in beets is to avoid ground in which the fungus
is known to exist.

266

The Spraying of Plants.

BLACKBERRY.

The insect and fungous troubles of the blackberry are treated
under RASPBERRY, which see.

CABBAGE.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Club-root ; Club-foot ; Finger-and-Toe (Plasmodiophora Brassi-
cce, Woronin). — Description. As its name indicates, this disease
causes distinct and marked swellings
or " clubs " at certain portions of the
root system of the cabbage and re-
lated plants; when the attack is
severe, the roots are apparently all
united into one large swelling wholly
distinct from the normal growth of
the plant (Fig. 48). The fungus caus-
ing the disease may remain active in
the soil for several years, and the
young plants are frequently very
seriously attacked even before they
are set in their permanent quarters.
Affected plants appear weak and
sickly, they grow slowly or not at all,
and are disinclined to form heads.

Treatment. Although club-root is
one of the most serious of the dis-
eases attacking cabbages, its treat-
ment is not well understood. The
successful use of fungicides appears
to be hopeless, and until some means
of destroying the fungus in the soil
has been discovered, the best plan of overcoming the parasite is
to starve it out by growing other crops upon the land. It has
been recommended that cabbages and allied plants should not
be grown upon infested land oftener than once in three years.
All material which is capable of encouraging the growth of the
fungus should be destroyed, and the spread of the disease should

FIG. 48. — Cabbage club-root.

Cabbage. 267

be checked whenever opportunity offers. Halsted has success-
fully treated club-foot by applications of air-slaked stone lime,
used at the rate of 75 bushels per acre. This remedy should
be given a thorough trial.1

INSECT ENEMIES.

Cabbage Aphis (Aphis Brassicce). — Description. This insect
is one of the many forms of plant lice with which gardeners
have to contend. It is a small, greenish-blue insect which, if
unchecked, increases at an astonishing rate. It is almost con-
tinually protected by a gray flour-like covering which renders
treatment difficult. As with all other insects which propagate
rapidly, it is essential that those found early in the season be as
completely exterminated as possible.

Treatment. Poisons which penetrate the outer coverings of
the insect are to be recommended. It is difficult to make mate-
rials adhere to either the foliage or to the insects, and for this
reason they must be all the more carefully applied; kerosene
emulsion, tobacco water, hot water, pyre thrum, etc., are all
effective if properly used.

Cabbage Plusia (Plusia Brassicce, R.). — Description. The
adult insect is a dark-gray moth about an inch in length hav-
ing a small silvery spot and V-shaped mark in the center of
each fore wing. The moths appear in spring and lay their eggs
generally on the upper side of the cabbage leaf. They hatch
into green larvae which feed upon the foliage of the plant, fre-
quently burrowing through and through the cabbage head,
practically ruining it for market. The worms also feed upon
lettuce, endive, celery, and other garden plants, their treatment
being the same as here described. These worms are span-worms ;
they progress by looping the body and then straightening it.
When full grown they are about one and one-half inches in length.
The larvae then spin cocoons, pupate, and in a short time the
adult moth appears. There is more than one brood each season.

Treatment. The remedies mentioned under CABBAGE-WORM
may be used successfully against this pest also. But if pos-
sible, greater care should be exercised in destroying the plusia,
since on account of its tunneling habits it inflicts more damage

i N. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 7th Ann. Kept. 1894, 288.

268 The Spraying of Plants.

on the crop. The first brood should be exterminated by repeated
and thorough applications.

Cabbage Root-maggot (Phorbia Brassicce, Bouche). — Descrip-
tion. The adult insect is a two-winged fly which bears much
resemblance to that so commonly found in and about dwelling-
houses. It is considerably smaller, however, and the wings
fold more closely together.

The adult flies appear during April and early May. Eggs
are laid about the base of the newly set plants, in some cases
several hundred being found about a single plant. These ap-
pear to hatch in about a week, depending upon the condition of
the weather. The young maggots generally first attack the
young roots, burrowing along their surfaces, until finally the
root is destroyed. The main roots are then attacked, and later
the stem of the plant may be entered. In this manner a crop
is soon rendered worthless. There appear to be two, and pos-
sibly three broods each year.

Treatment. The cabbage root-maggot has for years been
causing serious losses to cabbage growers, and although about
seventy methods of destroying the pest have been recommended,
only few have much merit, showing that the enemy is a difficult
one to deal with. Pieces of tar paper fitted closely about the
young plants at the time of setting, or immediately after, are
very effective in preventing the flies from laying their eggs.
As the insect works upon many weeds, and also upon other cul-
tivated plants, this method does not destroy the pest, but drives
it to other quarters, from which future supplies may at all times
come. Another and better plan is to inject about a teaspoon-
f ul of the bisulphide of carbon just underneath the plant, avoid-
ing contact with the roots as much as possible. In severe cases
a tablespoonf ul may be used to advantage. One application, if
made when the maggots are first seen in May, should be suffi-
cient. After applying the liquid, press the soil about the plant,
to prevent, as far as possible, the escape of the fumes.1

CABBAGE-WORM.

Imported Cabbage-butterfly (Pieris Rapce, Linn.). — Description.
Our common cabbage-worm, although a species introduced from

1 For an exhaustive account of this insect, see Slingerland, Cornell Agric. Exp.
Sta. 1894, Bull. 78.

Cabbage. 269

Europe, has become so widespread and serious that many cab-
bage crops are annually ruined by it. Gardeners are only too
familiar with the mature and the larval forms to require com-
plete descriptions for the identification of the insect. The
adult is a white butterfly having the outer fore corner of the
front wings marked with black. In addition to this the male
has one black spot near the center of the front wings, while the
female has two. The insects pass the winter in the chrysalis
state, and in spring the mature forms appear. The female lays
her eggs, which are small and of a yellow color, upon the leaves
of cabbages and related plants ; in a few days the eggs hatch,
producing small green worms that feed upon the foliage of
the plants upon which they were laid. These worms become
full grown in about two weeks, when they seek some sheltered
place in which they turn to pupae. In from one to two weeks
a new crop of butterflies may be seen, and these in turn con-
tinue to propagate the species. Several broods appear each year.

Treatment. This pest is most easily destroyed when it is in
the larval stage. It may then be treated in two general ways.
As the larvae eat the foliage they may be poisoned very easily
by applying hellebore or some form of arsenic. The latter,
however, must be used only upon young plants, otherwise there
is danger of poisoning the human consumer. Hellebore may
be used quite freely at i all times, since it loses its strength on
exposure to air. The other method of destroying the insects is
to apply poisons which penetrate the soft covering of their
bodies. For this purpose kerosene emulsion may by success-
fully employed, but as in the case of the arsenites, only young
plants should be treated in this manner. For heading cabbages,
it is safer to use some form of pyrethrum. Some prefer the use
of hot water to all other remedies ; it is clean, does not injure
the plants if properly applied, and it destroys the worms. It
is unpleasant to handle, however, and its use has not generally
been favored. Particular care should be taken to kill the first
brood, whatever the remedy selected, for if this brood is exter-
minated, later ones will have small chances of appearing. All
applications should be repeated as often as seems to be
necessary.

Harlequin Cabbage-bug (Murgantia histrionica, Hahn). — De-
scription. This southern insect is gradually extending north-

270 The Spraying of Plants.

ward along the Atlantic coast, and is showing itself to be per-
haps the worst enemy of the cabbage grower. The adult bug
is nearly half an inch in length. It is brightly marked with
black and orange colors, and for this reason has received its
popular name. The mature insect hibernates during the
winter ; in early spring, as soon as the cruciferous plants upon
which it feeds make their appearance, the eggs are laid, com-
monly on the under side of the leaves, and closely cemented in
a double row containing about a dozen eggs. These hatch
within a week, and the young pests then begin to suck the sap
from the leaves. So active are their operations in this direction
that it is said a young cabbage plant will succumb in one day
if attacked by half a dozen of the insects. The bugs are very
shy, and if disturbed they try to hide. They mature in about
twelve days from the time the egg is hatched, and this allows
of the appearance of several broods each year.

Treatment. For several reasons this insect is very difficult to
control. It cannot be destroyed by poisons which are taken in-
ternally, and on account of its active habits it is difficult to
reach with external applications; again, the rapidity with which
it can multiply renders very thorough work necessary from the
start, else their number will soon increase to an extent sufficient
to ruin the cabbage plants. Hand picking has been recom-
mended, but it is of doubtful value when large areas are af-
fected. One habit of the pest may prove of considerable service
in its destruction. During the nights of spring and autumn, the
adult insects collect under chips, boards, etc., and under small
piles of leaves or some similar materials which afford them good
hiding-places. If these are removed or burned in the morning
after the insects have collected under them, large numbers may
be disposed of. This practice is particularly valuable if the
brood which hibernates during the winter can be so destroyed,
since this largely reduces the abundance of the future genera-
tions. Another method of destroying this brood and of saving
the cabbage plants has been suggested by Weed. The harlequin
cabbage-bug is very fond of mustard, and if the latter is sown
between the rows of cabbages almost all the insects will collect
upon the mustard. This should then be sprayed with pure
kerosene, and thus the hibernating bugs can practically all be
destroyed.

Carnation.

271

CARNATION.

FUNGOUS DISEASES. *

Anthracnose ( Volutella sp.). —
Description. Although anthrac-
nose is apparently an introduced
disease, it has become so wide-
spread that it is now one of
the most serious of the many
fungi attacking carnations. The
fungus causes grayish -brown,
sunken areas to appear at the
bases of the leaves, these being
marked with small black eleva-
tions covered with bristly points.
The parasite also grows in the
stems of flowering plants, caus-
ing the parts beyond the affected
portion to suffer from want of
nourishment, a symptom read-
ily distinguished by an expe-
rienced florist. Cuttings very
frequently contain the disease,
and for this reason they cannot
do well.

Treatment. Avoid spreading
the disease wrhen propagating
the carnations; only healthy
stock should be used. If there
is danger from infection, the
most promising method of pre-
venting the spread of the disease
is to keep the plants growing
well, and to spray them with
some good fungicide, as the Bor-
deaux mixture. To avoid stain-
ing the plants, the ammoniacal

1 See, also, Atkinson, Carnation Dis-
eases. A paper read before the American
Carnation Society, 1893, Am. Fl. viii. 720.

FIG. 49. — Carnation rust.

272

The Spraying of Plants.

solution of copper carbonate may be substituted, although it is
perhaps not so efficient. The plants should at all times be pro-
tected in this manner.

Rust (Uromyces caryopliyllinus, Schr.). — Description. This
European disease was first noted in this country about the year
l.sui. It has IXMMI rapidly dissemina-
~^j ted here by means of the stock sent
out by propagators, and now it can
be found in the house of nearly every
extensive carnation grower. The
first external appearance of the dis-
ease (Fig. 49) is the formation of
gray, blister-like elevations on the
leaves and stems, these being of
various sizes and shapes. As the
fungus develops, these parts rupture
and a large amount of a reddish-
brown powder is forced through the
broken epidermis. This powder con-
sists of spores which are capable of
reproducing the parasite in other
localities. Later another kind of
spore is matured from the affected
part, this being of service to carry
the fungus through conditions which
prove fatal to the body of the para-
site and also to the spores first pro-
duced.

Treatment. A plant that has be-
come infested with the rust fungus
cannot be cured ; the only remedy is
to cut out the affected parts and de-
stroy them. The spread of the dis-
ease may, however, be checked by
the proper use of fungicides. The disease appeared in the
Cornell forcing houses during the winter of 1894-95, and was
practically controlled by thorough applications of the Bordeaux
mixture. Copper chloride appeared to be equally effective.
Soap was used with the mixture in order to make the liquid
adhere better. This, however, did not prove entirely satisfac-

FIG. 50. — " Spot " of carnation.

Carnation, Cauliflower. 273

tory, and the greatest reliance was placed upon the production
of an extremely fine spray, the particles being so small that
they adhered without much difficulty. If thorough applications
are made at intervals of one to three weeks, little trouble should
be experienced from carnation rust. It is said that the
disease may also be controlled by the use of the sulphide of
potassium.

Spot; Blight (Septoria Dianthi, Desm.). — Description. The
spot of carnations may be recognized by the presence of grayish-
brown spots, more or less circular in outline, and surrounded by
a conspicuous purple band which is well defined on the inner
edge, but mingles with the healthy green tissue at the outer
margin (Fig. 50). Both stems and leaves are attacked, and
much damage is inflicted. The foliage cannot perform its
functions properly, and the stems may be so severely attacked
that all portions beyond the diseased areas die.

Treatment. It is probable that proper application of fungi-
cides, as described under RUST, will prevent the malady from
becoming serious.

CATALPA.
FUXGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Spot (PJiyllosticta Ca talpce, Ell. & Martin ). — Description.
During early summer the leaves of catalpa trees often become
disfigured by circular brown spots which under favorable cir-
cumstances increase to such an extent that the trees may almost
entirely lose their foliage before the middle of August. When
the attack is less severe the affected portions frequently drop
from the leaves, causing the latter to be more or less perforated.

Treatment. Spraying the trees early in the season with the
Bordeaux mixture or some other good fungicide would prob-
ably largely prevent the trouble. Two or three applications
made at intervals of two or three weeks should suffice.

CAULIFLOWER.

The enemies and diseases of cauliflowers have been consid-
ered under CABBAGE, which see. Care should be taken in
treating this crop, that the center or "flower" of the plant
remains uninjured by the applications.

274 The Spraying of Plants.

CELERY.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Celery Blight; Rust; Sun-scald (Cercospora Apii, Fries). —
Description. The first indication of celery blight is the appear-
ance of small, yellowish spots upon the leaves. They rapidly
enlarge, run together, and finally cause the destruction of the
leaf, which first turns yellow and then brown. The disease is
more serious in dry locations, especially if the sun is allowed to
shine freely upon the foliage.

Treatment. The crop should be grown only in moist localities,
and there it naturally grows to its greatest perfection. If grown
on high land, shade is desirable; if it can be obtained from a
building so much the better, as trees and other growing plants
rapidly dry out the ground in their immediate vicinity. In
case the plants cannot be kept free from the disease by these
means, the application of any standard fungicide will almost
entirely prevent its appearance.

Leaf Blight (Septoria Petroselini var. Apii). — Description. All
parts of the celery plant except the roots suffer from this fungous
disease. Watery areas appear on the stems and leaves, and
these soon show many small black dots which contain the
spores or reproductive bodies of the fungus. The disease is
very common in seed-beds, and may be carried over on the seed.

Treatment. The first precaution to take is to plant only clean
seed. That which is speckled or spotted with the above-men-
tioned black dots should be avoided as much as possible. If, in
addition, the young plants are sprayed with a good fungicide
the disease should not become serious. Such applications
should be repeated whenever the condition of the plants seems
to demand it.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Celery-caterpillar. See under PARSLEY.

CHERRY.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Brown Rot (Monilia fructigena, Pers.). — This disease and its
treatment are fully discussed under PEACH. The cherry does

Cherry, Chrysanthemum. 275

not require such repeated applications, since the fruit matures
earlier in the season. It is also more unsafe to use the Bor-
deaux mixture, on account of the danger of staining the fruit ;
the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate or some other
clear fungicide will be found a better remedy after the cherries
are one-half grown. The Bordeaux mixture may be safely ap-
plied as soon as the blossoms have fallen and the fruit has set.

Leaf Blight (Cylindrosporium Padi. Karst.). This disease is
fully treated under PLUM, which see.

Powdery Mildew (Podosphcera Ozycanthce, DeBary). See
under APPLE.

Black Knot (Plowrightia [Spkceria] morbosa, Sacc.). See
under PLUM.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Canker-worm (Paleacrita vernata, Peck). See under APPLE.

Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst). See under
PLUM.

Slug (Selandria Cerasi, Peck). — Description. The mature
insect is a black fly having four wings. The eggs are laid in
small openings made in the leaf by the insect. They hatch in
about two weeks. The larvae mature in about four weeks.
They bear a certain resemblance to a tadpole, being shiny,
dark-green worms, about half an inch long (Fig. 75). They eat
the soft tissues of the leaves, only the larger veins remaining.
In severe cases the trees may be entirely defoliated. There are
two broods each year.

Treatment. Fortunately this insect may be overcome very
easily. Dry-slaked lime dusted over the leaves destroys the
pest, and if air-slaked lime be freely used it will answer the
same purpose. Pyrethrum, hellebore, or some form of arsenic,
applied dry or with water, will also rid the tree of the insect.
Dry road-dust has been recommended, but is not always satis-
factory.

CHRYSANTHEMUM.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Spot (Septoria Chrysanthemi, E. & D.). — Description.
The fungus causing leaf spot of chrysanthemums first causes

276 The Spraying of Plants.

the formation of small dark-brown spots upon the foliage.
The affected areas increase in size until the leaves are so badly
affected that they fall to the ground. It is only within the last
few years that the disease has become serious. A leaf blight,
caused by Cylindrosporium Chrysanthemi, E. & D., closely resem-
bles the leaf spot and is with difficulty distinguished from it
without the aid of a microscope.

New Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta Chrysanthemi, E. & D.).— De-
scription. This is another recent disease affecting chrysanthe-
mums. It forms upon the leaves rather large purplish-brown
areas. These appear soft and velvety upon the surface. When
a leaf is severely attacked the portions apparently unaffected
turn yellow, and the value of the leaf to the plant is de-
stroyed.

Treatment. Although these diseases have not been exten-
sively treated, it seems very probable that they should be kept
in check without much difficulty. Bordeaux mixture has in a
few cases been used with apparent success ; and if the applica-
tions are thoroughly made, and repeated at intervals of two or
three weeks, there is every reason to believe that the plants
may be kept comparatively free from disease. But these fungi
have also proved to be troublesome in the cutting bench, and
here their treatment is more difficult. Only healthy stock
should be used for propagation, and if the plants have been
well grown this should not be difficult to find. If the diseases
do appear among the cuttings, the use of fungicides will un-
doubtedly be of value in checking the spread of the parasites.

CORN.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Smut (Ustilago Maydis, DC.). — Description. This fungus
attacks all parts of the corn plant above ground. It forms
large black swellings on the stalks, ears, and tassels, being espe-
cially common in the first two places named. It is less fre-
quently found upon the leaves. It does the greatest damage
in the ear, for it not only destroys much of the grain, but
that which remains serves well as a source of infection to the
crop grown the following year, provided any of it is used for
seed.

Corn, Cotton. 277

Treatment. Effectual remedies for corn smut have not yet
been found. Some claim that soaking the seed in a fungicide
or in hot water may assist in preventing the trouble, but so
many cases are on record in which such treatments were of
practically no value that they cannot be recommended.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Corn is subject to the attacks of a great many forms of
insects. As these cannot, however, be successfully treated by
means of the remedies particularly treated of in this work, they
will not be individually described. Those insects which attack
the roots of corn, generally appear when the crop has been
planted upon sod land, and as a rule the older the sod the more
numerous are the insects. Those which work upon the parts
of the growing plants above ground are perhaps best treated by
collecting them by hand and then destroying them. No effec-
tive remedies are known for several of the pests. If the grain
is to be stored it will also be exposed to the attacks of certain
insects. These may be destroyed very easily by the use of the
bisulphide of carbon; but the corn must first be placed in a
tight receptacle.

COTTOK
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Many fungous diseases of cotton have been described,1 but
apparently no good remedies have yet been discovered.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Leaf-worm; Cotton-worm; Cotton-caterpillar (Aletia argil-
lacea, Iliibn.). — Description. The adult insect is a grayish-
brown moth whose wings expand nearly one and one-half
inches. The slender green worms or caterpillars begin to
appear in early spring, the eggs having been laid upon the
under side of the young cotton leaves. The number of broods
varies from three to six, so the transformations take place
rapidly.

Treatment. The arsenites are probably the best insecticides
to use in the destruction of this insect. They may be applied

1 Atkinson, Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1892, Dec. Bulls. 36 and 41.

278 The Spraying of Plants.

either when mixed with water or when dry. The latter method
is preferred by cotton planters, the undiluted poison being placed
in osnaburg bags which are held over the plants. Machines
which use the poisons diluted about ten times with flour or
plaster are also made.

COTTONWOOD.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Rust (Melampsora populina, Lev.). — Description. Poplar
and cotton wood trees are frequently attacked by a fungus
which produces an orange-colored powder on the under side
of the leaves. Such leaves may fall quite early in the year, and
if the attack is severe, the trees will be partially or entirely
defoliated. The winter stage of the fungus is found upon the
under side of the leaves also ; waxy pustules of a brown color
mark its presence.

Treatment. This leaf rust may be checked by applications of
the Bordeaux mixture made early in the season when the first
leaves have unfolded ; the treatments should be continued at
intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle of
July.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Leaf-beetle (Lina scripta, Blley). — Description. This beetle
is nearly three-eighths of an inch in length, of a deep, blue-black
color, more or less freely marked with yellow, or the ground
color may be yellow and the markings black. The adults
hibernate during the winter, and lay their eggs upon the young
foliage. The eggs soon hatch, and the young black grubs
begin to feed voraciously, at the same time growing rapidly.
As the larvae grow older this color becomes of a lighter shade.
They have the power of emitting from the spines found upon
their bodies a milky liquid possessing a strong odor. There
are several broods each year.

Treatment. The arsenites should be freely used for the
destruction of the first broods, and if the insects appear again
during the summer, the applications should be repeated.

Willow-worm. See under WILLOW.

Cranberry.

279

CRANBERRY.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Gall Fungus ; Red Rust (Synchytrium Vaccinii, Thomas). —
Description. The presence of this fungus in the cranberry
plant irritates the latter to such an extent that it forms the
excrescences or galls which have given the popular names to the
disease. These galls are of a red color, and in New Jersey
they generally appear upon the young stems, leaves, flowers,
and fruit, about the first of May. They are quite small, being
no larger than one twenty-fifth of an inch, both in length and
in thickness, but they are frequently so numerous that they
give to the plant or even to a bog a de-
cided red color. In such cases the
affected portions are frequently dwarfed
and misshapen. Some of the spores
seem to ripen during the winter or early
spring, and infection takes place during
the early growing months of the year.

Treatment. It has been recommended
to burn affected parts ; and the sugges-
tion has also been made to keep the bog
dry during winter and spring. As the
disease apparently progresses by means
of new infections, as do most of the fungous diseases which are
under control, it seems reasonable to expect that application of
such fungicides as the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal
carbonate of copper will prove beneficial if made as soon as
growth begins in the spring. It would probably be necessary
to make several such treatments, but the flowering time of the
plants should be avoided if possible.

Scald ; Rot. — Description. Scald of cranberries is produced
by a fungus which attacks the fruit during July and August
(Fig. 51). The first sign of the disease is the formation of a
small, soft spot upon one side of the berry ; or the disease may
appear in different places at the same time. This affected part
soon extends throughout the entire berry, giving the latter the
appearance of having been cooked. It is soft and of a light
brown color, but the skin remains unbroken. Later in the
season the berry shrivels and may fall to the ground or remain

FIG. 51. — Cranberry scald.

280 The Spraying of Plants.

hanging upon the plant. The foliage is also affected, distinct
brown areas appearing upon the leaves. The disease is most
troublesome during warm, moist seasons.

Treatment. It has been recommended to sand the bog to the
depth of an inch as a partial remedy. Keeping the bog as dry
as possible during the summer months is supposed to be of ser-
vice. The use of properly applied fungicides appears promis-
ing, but the value of these cannot yet be told.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Fire-worm; Cranberry-worm; Vine-worm; Blackhead (Rhopo-
bota vacciniana, Packard) . — Description. The moths lay eggs
on the under side of the leaves during the fall. These do not
hatch until the following spring, the young larvae appearing
during the latter part of April or in early May. The moths
appear early in June, laying their eggs about the middle of the
mouth. The grown larvae have jet-black heads, the body being
green and having fine hairs scattered over the surface. They
feed upon the young leaves, and draw these together by means
of silken threads. The moths are grayish-brown, lighter col-
ored bands extending across the fore wings; the hind wings are
dull brown. There are two broods.

Treatment. The bogs may be flooded after the eggs have
hatched, in this manner drowning the larvae. Some growers
prefer to spray the bogs at this time with tobacco water. Kero-
sene emulsion might answer the same purpose.

Arsenites, if applied early and thoroughly, have been effectual
in destroying these insects. Cranberry foliage appears to be
susceptible to injury from these poisons, so that lime should be
added. Two quarts of glucose or molasses are said to increase
their effectiveness.

Fruit-worm (Acrobasis Vaccinil, Elley). — Description. The
moths appear early in July and lay their eggs upon the small
cranberries, generally at the blossom end. The eggs are small,
flat, and light yellow in color. They hatch in about a week,
producing a little greenish worm, which, when mature, is about
half an inch in length. These larvae first feed a day or two upon
the outside of the berry, after which they enter the fruit, hol-
lowing it out, and then another berry is attacked. The larvae
do not pupate till fall, passing the winter in this condition.

Cranberry^ Cucumber. 281

Treatment. The habits of this insect render it of easy de-
struction by the use of the arseuites. The bogs should be
sprayed as soon as the fruit has set, and later applications be
made at intervals of about ten days as frequently as appears to
be necessary. Two treatments will probably prove to be suffi-
cient in the majority of cases. No danger of poisoning the
berries need be feared.

There are several other insects which feed upon the foliage
and the fruit of cranberries ; among them may be mentioned
a weevil, the yellow-headed cranberry-worm, and the tip-worm.
Proper applications of the arsenites, if made when the insects
begin to cause trouble, will practically control the pests. Paris
green is on the whole the safest insecticide, but it should be
used with an equal volume of lime. Some farmers use tobacco
water with satisfactory results. Proper flooding will also mate-
rially reduce the number of insects.

CUCUMBER.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew (Erysiphe Cichoracearum, DC.). — Description. The
cucumber mildew caused by this fungus is found almost en-
tirely in greenhouses. All parts of the vines are affected,
although upon the fruit the disease is not so serious. The
parasite grows merely upon the surface of the plant, producing
white, moldy areas, which appear as if they consisted of a
white powder scattered thinly upon the affected part (Fig. 52).
These may be so abundant that the entire upper surface of a
leaf is covered, and the stems are frequently surrounded by the
fungus for a considerable distance. These spots may be easily
removed by rubbing the leaf, since the only portions of the para-
site which enter the cucumber plant are small projecting threads
that enter the cells, and from these the nourishment is drawn.

Treatment. Fungi growing upon the surface of the host-
plants may be successfully treated whenever they are seen, and
the cucumber mildew is no exception to the rule. It mav be
controlled by spraying with a solution of the liver of sulphur,
the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, or the Bordeaux mixture.
These should be used at about three-fourths their normal
strength, as cucumber foliage is tender and the disease is not

282

The Spraying of Plants.

FIG. 52. — Cucumber mildew.

difficult to overcome. The fumes of sulphur are also effective
in destroying the fungus. This mildew also attacks verbenas,
in which case applications of the sulphide of potassium have
given good results.

Cucumber. 283

Powdery Mildew (Plasmopara Cubensis, B. & C. ) See under
MUSKMELON.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Melon-louse (Aphis Cucumeris, Forbes). — Description. This
louse attacks cucurbitaceous plants, especially cucumbers and
muskmelon vines, about the middle of June. The affected
leaves curl, the edges turning downward and inward, and thus
affording protection to the insects, which propagate at a very
rapid rate. Large quantities of honey-dew are excreted, and
in this material a fungus grows which blackens the vines in a
manner similar to that which occurs on pear trees attacked by
the psylla. Badly infested plants die.

Treatment. The vines should be closely watched during the
season, and the curling leaves should be removed and destroyed
with the insects upon them. Applications of the Hubbard-Riley
kerosene emulsion, diluted about fifteen times, made to the
under side of the leaves will be of value; or whale-oil soap,
used at the rate of one pound to six gallons of water and simi-
larly applied, will also prove effective. The insect is a difficult
one to keep under control.

Melon-worm (Eudioptis hyalinata, Linn.). — Description. The
adult insect is a moth of bright, pearly-white color. A dark
border extends along the front and outer edges of the fore
wings, and along the lateral margin of the hind wings. The
larvae are a little over an inch in length, yellowish-green in
color, a few hairs being scattered over the body. They feed
upon the foliage and fruit of melons, cucumbers, squashes, etc.,
being particularly destructive in the southern states.

Treatment. Hellebore may be used successfully ; but the
arsenites offer perhaps the best means of destroying the insects.

Spotted Cucumber-beetle; Southern Corn Root-worm (Diabro-
tica, 12-punctata, Oliv.). — Description. The adult insect is a
beetle about one-fourth of an inch in length. It is yellow in
color, but has twelve black spots upon its back, as its name
implies. The winter is passed in the mature stage. The eggs
are laid in spring about the roots of cucumbers, squashes, etc.,
and in the South corn is very commonly selected. The eggs
produce a slender, dirty-white worm, which is about half an
inch in length when full grown. There are two broods each

284 The Spraying of Plants.

year. The beetles feed upon the plants mentioned above, and
also upon other garden vegetables.

Treatment. See under STRIPED CUCUMBER-BEETLE.

Striped Cucumber-beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fabr.). — Descrip-
tion. The beetle appears early in spring and attacks the leaves
and stems of the cucumber and related plants. Eggs are laid,
these being placed in the soil at the base of the plants. The eggs
soon hatch and produce small whitish worms that are about half
an inch long when full grown. They feed upon the roots of
the plants, causing the latter to wilt and die. The larvae mature
in about two months, the insect passing the winter in the beetle
form. It is then very handsome, the back being yellow but
marked with three black stripes running nearly the length of
the wing covers. The length of the insect is scarcely a quarter
of an inch ; but the pest is so abundant in spring that serious
damage is inflicted if no steps are taken to prevent injury.

Treatment. The more difficult it is to destroy an insect, the
more remedies are recommended, and the very number of these
is good evidence that none are specifics. Powders have gen-
erally been recommended for the destruction or disposal of the
two insects above described. Tobacco powder, or dust, is per-
haps the best of these, especially if a little carbolic acid be
added to it. The powder may be applied freely to the plants,
and applications should be repeated at intervals of a few days,
selecting a time when the plants are wet. In place of the
above, it has been recommended to use lime, plaster, road-dust,
etc., and kerosene may be substituted for carbolic acid. The
arsenites, when used dry and mixed with some of the above,
may also possess considerable value. All application should be
made early, and, if possible, to the under side of the leaves.
Spraying has not yet proved satisfactory.

Plants are frequently protected by means of a device consist-
ing of a light frame, as two pieces of barrel-hoops crossing each
other at right angles, covered by some fine mosquito netting.
The frame is placed over the young plants, and over this is
spread the netting. The edges of the latter must be well
covered with earth, else the beetles will succeed in entering,
and when once under the netting it appears to be impossible
for them to get out again. When the plants have made a good
growth the screens may be removed.

Currant. 285

CURRANT.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Anthracnose; Leaf Blight (Glceosporium Ribis, M. & D.). — De-
scription. During the latter part of June and early in July
there occasionally appears upon the upper side of the foliage
of cultivated currants small brownish-black spots, which are
as yet still confined to the interior of the leaf tissue. As these
spots enlarge, the epidermis on the upper side of the leaf
becomes raised and loosened, and this gives a whitish appear-
ance to the affected part, although the general color of the
diseased tissue is dull brown. The entire leaf then changes to
yellow, and finally it falls to the ground, this taking place early
in August.

Treatment. Although the disease has apparently remained
untreated, it is very probable that applications of fungicides, if
made thoroughly and early in the season, will prove effective
in controlling the trouble.

Rust; Leaf Spot (Septoria Ribis, Desm. ; Cercospora angulata,
Wiiit.). — Description. This disease attacks all varieties of
currants, generally appearing a little before midsummer. It
attacks the foliage of gooseberries as well. The first indica-
tion of the disease is the appearance of small brown spots upon
various parts of the foliage (Fig. 53). These may be so abun-
dant as to form considerable areas.

What is probably another disease causes the formation of
whitish spots having black centers. These fungi are often
present at the same time, and as their histories are not yet
fully known and their treatment is the same, the two may here
be considered together. They cause the leaves to fall from the
bushes when the attack is severe, so that the plants may be
entirely bare during the latter part of the summer, thus greatly
weakening them.

Treatment. The plants should be sprayed with a clear fungi-
cide, as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, to avoid staining
the fruit. After harvesting, the Bordeaux mixture may be
used to advantage. The first application of the season should
be made about two weeks before the spots may be expected.
Since the Bordeaux mixture, if properly prepared, cannot injure
the plants, it may be freely applied.

286

The Spraying of Plants.

INSECT EMEMIES.

Borer; Imported Currant-borer (Sesia \JEger\a\ tipuliformis,
Linn.). — Description. The parent moth, which is about three-
quarters of an inch across the expanded wings, is bluish-black
in color, and has three yellow bars extending across the abdo-
men. The eggs are laid in the spring, and the small white
larvae which soon appear gnaw to the pith, upon which they
feed. They pupate in the fall, but the moth does not appear

FIG. 53. — Currant leaf spot.

till the following spring. The presence of this borer materially
reduces the vitality of the cane in which it feeds, to the injury
of the crop. Gooseberry plants are also occasionally affected.

Treatment. The best way to overcome the pest is to watch
for weak canes, and when these are found they should be cut
off close to the ground and burned.

Currant-worm; Currant Saw-fly; Gooseberry Saw-fly; Im-
ported Currant- worm (Nematus ventricosus King.). — Descrip-
tion. The currant-worm was imported from Europe probably
some years before 1860. The adult insect is a four-winged
fly which bears a certain resemblance to the common house-

Currant. 287

fly, except that it is somewhat larger and has a yellowish
appearance. These flies may be seen in abundance in early
spring hovering about the currant and gooseberry bushes, just
as the first leaves are expanding. The small, white eggs are
laid on the under side of these leaves, generally in rows along
the larger veins. The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and
the worms immediately begin feeding. The presence of these
insects is frequently not noticed until fully one-half or two-
thirds of the leaves have been destroyed ; this arises from the
fact that the eggs are almost invariably laid upon the leaves
which are near the ground, and also near the center of the
plant. The upper foliage is therefore reserved till the last, and
then when this also is gone the bushes appear as if suddenly
defoliated. The young larvae are at first whitish in color ; they
soon become green, and later they are spotted with black.
Before pupating they again become green. There are from
two to four broods a year.

Treatment. There is no insect which is more easily con-
trolled than the currant-worm, yet there is scarcely one wrhich
is left so undisturbed in its destructive work. The principal
trouble is that the pest is not noticed until the currants are
about one-half grown, and at that time much damage has
already been done, and eggs are being laid for a second brood.
If the plants be thoroughly sprayed with an arsenite as soon as
the first leaves are nearly grown, no injury will be done to the
fruit, and practically all of the first brood will be killed, and
with it the second one also. But this first treatment must be
made early. If later ones are necessary, hellebore will be found
an effectual remedy, whether applied dry or mixed with water.
Such applications will also free the bushes from other leaf,
eating insects.

Four-lined Leaf-bug ; Black-lined Plant-bug ; Four-striped
Plant-bug; Yellow-lined Currant-bug (Pcecilocapsus lineatus,
Fabr.). — Description. The mature insect (Fig. 54) is a bug
about one-third of an inch long. Its back is yellow, but four
black stripes extend nearly its entire length, and these have
given rise to the many popular names of the insect. Eggs are
laid near the tips of the soft growths about a week after the
appearance of the adults. The eggs do not hatch until the
following spring, the young insects appearing during the latter

288

The Spraying of Plants.

FIG. 54. — Four-lined leaf-bug of currants, adult.

part of May. While young they are bright red in color, but
later more black appears (Fig. 55). The adult insect may be

found during June
and July. The in-
sects attack the
leaves at the tips of
the shoots, sucking
out the juices. This
causes the forma-
tion of small,brown,
angular areas of
dead tissue (Fig.
56), which at once
indicate the pres-
ence of this bug by
giving the leaves a
characteristic spot-
ted appearance.

Treatment. The
insect is extremely active during the day, but in the early
morning it may be
jarred from the cur-
rant or gooseberry
bushes and caught
in pans containing
kerosene. Kero-
sene emulsion, con-
taining at least 9
per cent of the oil,

will destroy the im- /jRP9g||A%\

mature insects, but ^ \& W^T^i#¥ // Jfe. i

it must be made
still stronger to kill
the adults. The
young insects
should be destroyed

if possible. A third Fm 5g _Four_iine(i ieaf-bug, immature form.

way to overcome

the pest, and perhaps the best one, is to cut off the tips of the

shoots which carry eggs and then destroy them.

Currant.

289

Green Leaf-hopper; Currant Leaf-hopper (Empoa albopicta,
Forbes). — Description. These insects are true bugs. They
are rather slender, and about an eighth of an inch in length.
The color is light green, almost white. The insects suck the
juices from the under side of the foliage, and this causes the
formation on the upper surface of white areas which invariably

FIG. 56. — Currant foliage injured by the four-lined leaf-bug.

indicate the presence of the pest. Currants and gooseberries
suffer most severely from the first brood, during May and June.
Treatment. Insecticides which kill by contact must be used.
Kerosene emulsion, if directed towards the under surface of the
leaves, will destroy great numbers. Pyrethrum may be used
successfully, if the plants are first thoroughly wet, and the
powder then freely dusted upon the foliage, from beneath

290 The Spraying of Plants.

if possible. Tobacco dust or liquor, or some of the many liquid
commercial insecticides, will prove of value if properly applied.
Whale-oil soap has also been recommended.

DAHLIA.

Four-lined Plant-bug. See nnder CURRANT.
Green Lettuce- worm. See under LETTUCE.

EGGPLANT.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Anthracnose (Glceosporium Melongenea, E. & Hals.). — De-
scription. This fungus appears to attack the fruit more
seriously than the other parts of eggplants. It causes the
formation of shallow pits in which very small pink blotches
appear. The disease has as yet not caused much loss, and no
attempts directed towards its treatment appear to have been
made. It is probable that the remedies recommended for the
leaf spot will be sufficient for checking the anthracnose.

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta hortorum, Speg.). — Description. When
this fungus attacks the foliage of eggplants it causes the leaf
tissue to turn brown, and later it becomes dry and brittle.
These parts may in a short time fall from the leaf, forming
openings of varying sizes. When several of such areas are
situated near each other, large portions of the leaf may be
affected, and it frequently happens that the plants lose nearly
all their foliage in this manner. The fruit appears to be
affected by the same fungus. Here it appears as a dark dis-
coloration which causes the fruit to rot, and consequently
renders it worthless for market.

Treatment. If the leaf -spot fungus is feared, the young
plants should be sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture as soon
as they have become established in the field. Applications
should be repeated at intervals of two or three weeks. When
the fruit is approaching maturity, a clear fungicide should be
applied in place of the Bordeaux mixture, to avoid staining the
fruit.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Potato-beetle. See under POTATO.

Elm. 291

ELM.
INSECT ENEMIES.

Canker-worm. See under APPLE.

Elm Span-worm (Eugonia subsignaria, Hiibn.). — Description.
These insects hatch from eggs as soon as the buds break in the
spring. The larvae are commonly known as measuring, or
span-worms. They are grayish-brown in color, having a large,
red head, and the last segment of the body is of the same
color. The larvae pupate about the end of June, and during
July and August the mature insect appears. It is a pure white
moth, the wings expanding nearly one and one-half inches.

Treatment. When possible, the affected trees should be
thoroughly sprayed with Paris green used at the rate of one
pound to 150 gallons of water. This is the best remedy against
all insects which work on the foliage of shade trees, but when
the trees are large much difficulty is experienced in reaching
all parts. See also page 195.

Gipsy Moth (Ocneria dispar, Linn.). — Description. The
gipsy moth is found in America only in the immediate vicinity
of Boston. It has there caused great damage, as the larvae are
voracious feeders and take kindly to nearly all foliage. The
eggs of the moth are laid during July, August, and September,
generally near the pupa case of the female. They are deposited
in clusters, and covered with a thick layer of yellow hairs. The
following spring the young caterpillars appear, and for about
ten weeks they feed upon the foliage of most plants. When
grown they are two inches or more in length, and greenish-
brown in color. Each segment of the body bears upon either
side a tuft of hairs, while along the back there is a double row
of spots, those 011 the four anterior segments being purple in
color ; the remainder are brown. The insects pupate in some
sheltered spot on the trees, or in neighboring fences, etc. In
this state they remain about ten days, when the adults appear.

Treatment. The caterpillars are readily destroyed by the
arsenites, Paris green and the arsenate of lead having been
most extensively used. The latter is effective when used at the
rate of two pounds to 150 gallons of water. It is not feasible
in many cases to make such applications, so the insects are
destroyed by collecting the eggs, and destroying them, and also

292 The Spraying of Plants.

by trapping the larvae under bands of burlap, or some similar
material, bound about the trunks of the trees.1

Imported Elm-leaf beetle; Elm Flea-beetle (Galeruca xantho-
melcena, Schr.). — Description. The mature insect resembles
the striped cucumber-beetle in size and markings. The larva
is long, slender, and yellowish-black. It has a yellow band ex-
tending along the back and sides. The pest is most active from
May till August, eating the soft tissues of the leaf, but not the
veins. There are three or four broods. Serious eastward.

Treatment. The arsenites should be used when possible,
spraying the tree thoroughly. When large trees are attacked,
the insects may be destroyed by pouring hot water into all
crevices and cracks about the base of the tree and in the imme-
diate neighborhood. The insects pupate at the surface of the
ground wherever a slight shelter can be found. Kerosene
emulsion applied in the same manner would also probably
prove effective in their destruction.

Willow-worm. See under WILLOW.

GOOSEBERRY.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew (Sphcerotheca Mors-uvce, B. & C.) . — Description. The
fungus attacks the foliage and young fruits soon after the buds
have broken. The first appearance is the formation of a cob-
web-like covering which fits close to the plant. Later these
areas become whitish, and apparently sprinkled with a fine
white powder. Affected leaves and shoots are checked in their
growth, and finally they become dry and brown ; diseased shoots
often branch freely (Fig. 57). The berries are checked in
their growth, and generally drop from the bushes long before
the time of maturity. They also show the powdery covering.

Treatment. The disease is caused by a surface fungus, and
the white threads seen on the host-plants form the body of the
parasite. This may be destroyed by applications of fungicides,
especially some of the copper compounds, or of the sulphide of
potassium. Weekly applications of the latter have given excel-
lent results. To avoid staining the berries, clear fungicides

* See the reports of the Mass. State Bd. of Agric. on the " Extermination of the
Gipsy Moth."

Gooseberry.

293

should be used, although the Bordeaux mixture may be applied
once or twice early in the season. The first application should
be made before the buds start in the spring.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Gooseberry Fruit-worm (Dakruma convolutella, Hiibn.). — De-
scription. A pale, gray moth lays its eggs upon the young

FIG. 57. — Gooseberry mildew. The shoot on the left was sprayed, the other not.

gooseberries in early spring, and the larvae which appear enter
the berries and feed within them. This causes the fruit to
ripen prematurely. When the worm is full grown it is about
three-fourths of an inch in length ; its head is brown, but the
body is light green. It leaves the berry and enters the ground,
passing the winter in the pupa state.

294 The Spraying of Plants.

Treatment. The affected berries should be destroyed when
discovered. Poultry will aid in destroying the larvae before
they pupate. It has been recommended to spray with
the sulphur and whale-oil soap wash just before the eggs are
laid.

The other insects which work upon gooseberries have been
mentioned under CURRANT, which see.

GRAPE.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Anthracnose; Scab; Bird's-eye Rot (Sphaceloma Ampelinum,
DeBary). — Description. Anthracnose is perhaps the most
formidable disease with which the vineyardist has to contend.
It does not yield to the same treatment which checks the other
fungous diseases of the grape, and even when applications are
made which are especially designed for its control, the results
are not invariably satisfactory. The vines should therefore be
watched, that the first sign of the disease may lead to its timely
treatment.

The fungus causing anthracnose attacks the fruit, the leaves,
and the stems, in fact, all green parts of the vine. It may
appear any time during the growing season of the plant, but
most commonly affects the berries during the middle and latter
part of summer. The name " anthracnose " is now generally
used in this country and in Europe. It is formed from two
Greek words meaning " coal " and " disease," the dark discolora-
tion of the affected part suggesting the name.

The shoots of the grape are very subject to the attacks of
the fungus. The first indication of the trouble is a darkening
and sinking of small, oval areas which extend lengthwise of
the stem. These may be very abundant, giving the shoots a
speckled appearance. The spots gradually enlarge, and the
center assumes a gray color, the edges still remaining dark, and
having a more or less decided tinge of purple. After the
disease has progressed some weeks, the stem is very seriously
injured, and if there have been several points of attack, its
growth may be entirely checked and the shoot destroyed.
Upon the leaf the disease causes changes very similar to those
of the stem, but there is a reddish-brown color in the affected

Grape. 295

areas, which renders it more difficult to distinguish this disease
from some others. But one peculiarity of anthracnose is that
it generally attacks the veins of the leaves, as well as the leaf-
stems, and so its identification is not always difficult. The
stems of the clusters are also injured, and it frequently occurs
that a part is completely girdled, causing a " ring-around," as it
is commonly called. The berries below the ring do not ripen,
but remain green, and gradually shrivel.

The berries of some varieties of grapes are almost invariably
affected to such an extent as to render them unfit for market.
The Yergennes, Diamond, Salem, Agawam, and many others
are very susceptible to its attacks. The first indication of the
presence of the fungus on the berries is the formation of dis-
tinct brown spots which are practically circular in outline
(Fig. 58). The discolored part is sunken, and may be bor-
dered by a margin which has a tinge of red or purple. If a
berry is attacked in several places, it becomes speckled in
appearance, until the spots grow into each other, forming con-
siderable areas of irregular outline. The portions first diseased
may change to a lighter, or even to a gray color, on account of
the rupturing of the epidermis or outer skin, forming a hard-
ened "scab."

Treatment. In Europe, where the fungus has long been
known, it is the custom to wash the vines and the stakes during
winter or early spring with the sulphuric acid and sulphate of
iron solution. The liquid is applied by means of swabs or
brushes. It blackens the canes, and this is a test of the
thoroughness of the work. See pages 45, 152.

If, after two or three days, there remain portions which are
unchanged in color, the vineyard is treated a second time, par-
ticular attention being paid to the parts omitted at the first
treatment. In addition to these winter treatments, the vines
are sprayed during the summer months with the Bordeaux
mixture. As these applications are made more particularly for
other diseases, the downy mildew and the black rot, they will
not be mentioned here in detail.

European vineyardists seem to have perfect control of anthrac-
nose by following the above line of treatments, and the work
done in America is also promising. The cost of washing vines
and stakes in this country scarcely exceeds two dollars per acre,

296

The Spraying of Plants.

as shown by actual trials, and marked benefits appear to have
followed the practice, even under adverse circumstances. Vine-

. 58. — Brighton grapes affected with anthracnose.

yardists whose grapes are troubled with anthracnose are advised
to give the above remedy a thorough trial, for it is the best as
yet known.

G-rape. 297

Black Rot ; cnaroon (Lcesradia Bidwellii, V. & R. ; PJioma uvicola,
B. & C.). — Description. The name "black rot" has been com-
monly applied to this disease on account of the appearance of
the affected berries, these being of a deep black color. But the
fungus causing the rotting of the fruit also attacks other parts
of the plant. On the shoots it forms dark, oval areas, which
are slightly sunken. The centers of such spots are more or less
thickly studded with very small elevations or pimples, these
being characteristic of the disease, and by their aid the trouble
can in most cases be identified. Affected leaves turn to a dark,
reddish-brown color at the injured part. These portions are
generally found between the larger veins, and not centered
upon them, as in the case of anthracnose. Their outlines are
generally rounded.

To the vineyardist such attacks are, however, of slight im-
portance as compared with those which injure the fruit. There
is probably no fungous disease of the grape which annually
causes greater losses than the black rot. Although each berry
must be separately affected, since the disease does not spread
from one to the other by means of the stems, yet the conditions
are generally so favorable that a large percentage of the crop is
annually lost. This applies particularly to southern vineyards,
for in them the disease is much more virulent than at the
North. In Xew York, the fungus is not generally serious, only
those regions being visited in which the climate is ameliorated
by bodies of water, or by other local conditions. Localities in
which the Catawba ripens well may be considered as subject to
the disease ; colder climates are comparatively exempt.

Grapes which show the attacks of the black-rot fungus are
generally nearly or quite full grown (Fig. 59). It is therefore
during August and September that the disease is most to be
feared. If the berries are still green when the fungus gains an
entrance, the affected part turns a purplish brown, this color
gradually extending to the entire berry, which still retains its
form and firmness. The part first attacked gradually becomes
blackened, and characteristic pimples appear. At the same
time the berry shrivels and becomes strongly ridged, the seeds
projecting prominently under the drawn skin ; the entire berry
is then black, and minute elevations may be seen scattered
thickly over its surface, These changes may take place very

298 The Spraying of Plants.

rapidly, so that apparently in a few days a crop may be largely
reduced. It seems to require about a week for the disease to
become noticeable after infection takes place, the rapidity of
the later changes depending very largely upon the condition of
the weather. A warm, moist atmosphere is particularly favor-
able to the development of this fungus.

Treatment. Although the black rot appears late in the season,
it is always safe to begin early in treating the vines. The cop-
per compounds, especially the Bordeaux mixture, have shown
themselves to be practically specifics against this disease. Ap-
plications should be made before the disease has appeared. In
the South, where the rot is a regular visitor, the treatments may
be commenced to advantage as soon as the first leaves have
fully expanded. The second application may be made after the
vines have blossomed, and the third from two to four weeks
later, depending upon the season. The Bordeaux mixture may
be used with safety up to the time when the berries are three-
fourths grown, but if used later than this, there is danger of
staining the clusters and reducing their market value. This
may be partially avoided by reducing the strength of the normal
mixture one-fourth or one-third; although not so effective as
the stronger mixture, the dilute form still possesses much value
as a fungicide, and it may be used to advantage. Or the
ammoniacal carbonate of copper may be used in its place, and
this is the fungicide very commonly employed when the later
applications are made. If the weather is favorable to the dis-
ease, appHcations should be made-about every ten days after the
fruit is grown. Six or seven applications should practically
prevent the appearance of the disease, even in badly infested
districts.

In the North, where the attacks are not so severe, the treat-
ments need not be begun so early. If the vines are thoroughly
sprayed about the first of July, and two additional applications
are made at intervals of two or three weeks, little trouble need
be anticipated from black rot.

But everything depends upon the thoroughness with which
the work is done. It was formerly supposed that to spray the
clusters was injurious to them ; but this is a fallacy. The clus-
ters should be treated as well as the foliage, especially when
they are young, and if the practice can be continued without

FIG. 59. — Concord grape attacked by black rot
299

300 The Spraying of Plants.

injury to the appearance of the fruit, so much the better. It
is necessary that the growth from the spores which fall upon
the berries should be stopped, and this can only be accomplished
by treating the clusters, as well as the other parts of the vine.

The cost of spraying grape-vines depends upon a great many
factors, all of which cannot here be discussed in detail. Good
machinery is of the greatest importance, for upon this depends
the quality of the spray. Reliable help will also increase the
cost of the work, for such men will use more time and more
material than shiftless workers. Yet only such labour should
be employed. The time of the year also affects the cost of the
work, since early in the year there is much less surface to be
covered. The character of the season also influences the total
outlay of the year, for in some seasons twice as many appli-
cations may be required as during others. A few data regard-
ing the spraying of grapes may be mentioned, with the assurance
that they will serve as guides to those beginning the work.

Taking an average of the applications made during the entire
season, it may be said that each vine should receive approxi-
mately one quart of liquid at each application. The cost of
material and labor should not much exceed one-half a cent per
vine for each treatment, whether the Bordeaux mixture or the
ammoniacal carbonate of copper is used, the latter being a little
more expensive. When this small outlay is compared with
the great benefits which so commonly result from the work, it
is strange that the practice is not more generally followed. The
above figures refer to vines of the Concord type, these making
a very extensive growth. For less vigorous varieties the cost
may be reduced, and the use of some of the machines now
manufactured will still further lessen the expense. This is
especially true in the North, where the black rot and other
fungous diseases of the grape are not so serious as southward,

Downy Mildew; Brown Rot; Gray Rot (Peronospora mticola,
DeBary). — Description. This fungus attacks the stems, foli-
age, and fruit of the grape-vine. While it is not generally so
serious as the black rot, in the northern states it is more com-
monly seen, and probably causes the loss of more grapes than
its southern neighbor.

The external characters of the downy mildew are very dis-
tinct. On the shoots it causes the formation of brown, slightly

Gfrape.

301

sunken areas ; these may be easily distinguished from the deeper
and more distinctly marked spots caused by anthracnose. But

FIG. 60. — Downy mildew upon grape foliage.

it is only in very severe cases that the shoots are affected to an
injurious extent. It is on the foliage and on the fruit that the
greatest harm is done. The foliage (Fig. 60) first shows the

302 The Spraying of Plants.

presence of the parasite by portions of the leaf turning a lighter
green than that of the normal tissue. Later, these parts turn
yellow, and when the destruction of the tissue is complete, the
parts affected are of a brown color. If the under surface of
such leaves is examined, it will be found that there is a frost-
like substance projecting from the discolored part of the leaf
after the upper surface has begun to turn yellow. This appear-
ance is due to the formation of fungous threads which project
beyond the leaf surface and bear the summer spores of the
parasite. This appearance assists materially in identifying the
disease.

The fruit is also very susceptible to the attacks of the downy
mildew ; but when that is affected, the vine does not suffer so
much as the grower does. In case of diseased foliage, the crop
of the next year, as well as that of the present, is threatened ;
but with diseased fruit it is only a matter of the present year,
which is all-sufficient to make the grower anxious to know
what can be done.

In the southern states the mildew appears during June, but
in the North it is not feared before July. The young berries
suffer very extensively. They are generally attacked before
they are one-half grown. The name "brown rot" has been
applied to such fruit on account of the brown color which sup-
plants the green. Later, as the fungus matures, the affected
berries become covered with a whitish powder, — the fruiting
threads and the spores of the parasite, — and this gives the ber-
ries a gray color, from which has come one of the popular names
of the disease. Both forms of the rot are nevertheless caused by
the same organism, although the external characters differ.

Treatment. The downy mildew of grapes may attack the
vines throughout the growing season, and for this reason it
is more essential that applications be made earlier in the
year than those necessary for the control of the black rot.
Where downy mildew is found, an application made when the
shoots have grown from six to ten inches is a very important
one. The second should be made after the vines have blos-
somed, and later ones should succeed each other at intervals of
two to four weeks, taking the same precautions against stain-
ing the fruit as mentioned under BLACK ROT. The treatments
should be preventive rather than curative.

drape. 303

Powdery Mildew (Uncinula spiralis, B. & C.).1 — Description.
The fungus causing the powdery mildew of the grape differs
from the preceding diseases in the fact that it is a surface
fungus, the body of the parasite not being found in the tissues
of the host-plant, but upon the surface of the green parts.
The vines are attacked throughout the growing season, but
contrary to the general rule, the disease develops more abun-
dantly during comparatively dry weather. It is therefore
found over a wide territory, but fortunately it is not as a
rule very serious.

Young shoots attacked by the powdery mildew are checked
in their growth, and if the threads of the fungus are abun-
dant, they impart to the affected portion a grayish-white color.
This color is particularly noticeable upon the leaves (Fig. 61),
for the fungus almost invariably grows upon their upper sur-
face, and if allowed to develop unchecked, large patches soon
become covered so thickly that the green parts underneath can
no longer be seen. If these patches are firmly rubbed, the
white covering may be removed, and the browning of the parts
formerly covered will be seen. This is especially distinct when
the mildew has made an energetic growth. The discoloration
is due to the small suckers which the fungus has projected into
the leaf cells for the purpose of obtaining nourishment, and the
greater the number of these suckers, the more marked is the
discoloration.

Affected berries show similar discolorations, and the whitish
covering may be removed as well. As the berry grows, the
injured parts assume a brown, scurfy covering which is com-
posed of dried epidermis. This golden-brown film is very
commonly seen upon green grapes ; it is often cracked so that
the green tissue is visible. Such disfigurements are, however,
not always caused by the powdery mildew, since any cause
which destroys portions of the epidermis will be followed by
similar discolorations.

Treatment. The powdery mildew is not a serious disease,
and as the body of the fungus is not within the host-plant,
there is little occasion for treating the vines until the fungus

1 The common surface mildew of European vines is Oidium Tuckeri. B. In
general appearance it resembles our powdery mildew. But it is more easily con-
trolled, the flowers of sulphur having long proved to be a specific.

304

The Spraying of Plants.

has put in an appearance. Sulphur has been very generally
recommended for its destruction, the application being made
either with the dry powder, or after the sulphur has been
mixed with water. This remedy has not given uniformly good
results out of doors, and a safer plan is to use some of the
copper compounds. Carbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia

FIG. 61. — A fresh attack of powdery mildew upon grape foliage.

is an excellent remedy, and it is easily applied. All parts of
the plants should be treated.

Rattles; Shelling. — Description. It frequently occurs that
grape-vines drop their berries just as the latter are ripening.
The outer extremities of the clusters are first affected. This
trouble is primarily caused by defective nutrition of the berries,
and, although to a certain extent influenced by the action of

Grape. 305

fungi and insects, the remedial measures should be directed
towards strengthening the plant by means of proper fertil-
izers, potash being perhaps the most important element re-
quired. See Cornell Bulletin, 76, for a full account of the
trouble.

Ripe Rot; Bitter Rot (Glaeosporium fructigenum, Berk.). —
Description. The names given this disease are suggestive of
the time in which the berries are attacked, and what eifect the
fungus has upon the flavor of the fruit. The disease may
attack the fruit stems, and cause the berries to wilt on account
of the supply of nourishment being cut oif. But more com-
monly the berries are directly attacked. Such fruit shows a
reddish-brown discoloration at the affected point, and this color
soon extends over the entire berry. The surface then becomes
dotted with black pimples as in the case of black rot, but here
they are not so numerous, and they are also larger but less ele-
vated. The berry also shrivels, but the black color is wanting,
since those affected with ripe rot remain dark purplish brown,
although some assume a red tint. As a rule, they fall to the
ground when this stage is reached, while berries destroyed by
black rot remain upon the vine even until the following spring.

Ripe rot will spread after the grapes have been harvested, and
care should therefore be exercised in selecting only sound fruit
when it is to be stored. See under APPLE, page 240.

Treatment. The same treatment which serves to check black
rot will also control this disease, the later treatments being of
special importance.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Grape-slug; Grape-sawfly (Selandria Vitis, Harris). — Descrip-
tion. The adult, a small four-winged fly, lays its eggs in
little clusters on the under side of the young leaves. These
eggs produce small yellowish-green larvae, which feed in groups,
beginning at the margin of the leaf and eating inwards until
the leaf is destroyed. Others are then attacked, and it fre-
quently occurs that very serious injury to the vineyard is done
by this insect. There are two broods, the first appearing in
spring, and the second in July or August. The winter is passed
in the pupal state.

306 The Spraying of Plants.

Treatment. The larvae are easily destroyed by spraying af-
fected vines with an insecticide, such as an arsenite, hellebore,
or kerosene emulsion.

Grape-vine Flea-beetle ; Steely-bug (Graptodera chalybea,
Illig.). — Description. This insect passes the winter in the
adult form. As soon as the buds of the grape commence to
swell in the spring the beetles begin feeding, the centers of the
buds appearing to contain the most coveted portions. When a
bud has been eaten in this manner it is of course useless, and in
cases of severe attacks, which sometimes occur, the entire crop
of the year may be ruined in a short time. The beetles feed
for about a month, when eggs are laid in clusters on the under
side of the leaves. Small, dark-brown larvae soon appear, and
these immediately feed upon the foliage. In about four weeks
they leave the vines and pupate, the adult beetle appearing in
about three weeks. It then continues feeding until fall.

Treatment. This insect is very easily controlled. The vines
should be sprayed with Paris green when the beetles first attack
the buds, and again when the young larvae appear. One or
two applications made during each of these two periods will
practically clear a vineyard of the pest.

Leaf-hopper ; Thrip (Erythroneura Vitis, Harris). — Descrip-
tion. This insect passes the winter in the adult form. It is
about an eighth of an inch long, of a white color, but marked
by three dark red bands. Eggs are laid in the leaves, the larvae
appearing in June. These miniature forms are without wings,
but otherwise closely resemble the adult, except in being smaller.
They moult several times, their white cast-off skins adhering to
the under surfaces of the leaves for some time. They feed
upon the juices of the plant. Grapes having thin foliage suffer
more from these insects than do the heavier-leaved varieties.
The affected leaves appear indistinctly spotted with white on
the upper surface, and frequently much injury is done to the
vine.

Treatment. The treatment of this pest is unsatisfactory. If
the fallen foliage is gathered and destroyed so the insects can-
not find proper shelter during the winter, their number will be
materially reduced. The remedies suggested for the currant
leaf-hopper may be of avail in the vineyard.

Grreenhouse Troubles. 307

GREENHOUSE PESTS.

FUNGI INFESTING PLANTS.

There is such an enormous variety of plants grown under
glass that each cannot here be treated individually. Nor is this
necessary, for a few general directions may be made to cover
almost all cases. Fungi as a rule prefer a warm, moist atmos-
phere for their growth, and this is generally found in a green-
house, as it is essential to the proper development of many
plants. But the general opinion of gardeners is that even when
such conditions exist, mildews need not necessarily appear. It
is said that extremes of temperature, of humidity, and draughts
of air are conducive to disease, and common practice tends
strongly to support the notion. Such conditions should there-
fore be avoided as far as possible.

Some of the surface fungi found on plants grown under glass,
especially in houses improperly ventilated, are destroyed by
spraying the foliage with clear water or with some prepared
insecticide or fungicide, soapy mixtures being most commonly
employed. Fungi whicli cannot be disposed of in this manner
are reduced by removing diseased parts of the host-plant and
destroying them. This tends to prevent new infections, and it
is a process which well repays the outlay of time and labor.

Sulphur is probably the most valuable preventive of the fun-
gous disease's which attack greenhouse plants. It may be used
in various ways. An early method of making applications, and
one still employed, is to dust the plants with the dry powder.
This is effective in destroying several surface mildews. A prep-
aration of sulphur formerly very generally employed is in
liquid form. It is the Eau Orison of the French, and is very
valuable in the treatment of diseases which may be controlled
by the powder. But the most efficient method of using sulphur
is to place it in a warm situation so that it will rapidly give off
its fumes, and still not take fire. It may be mixed with equal
parts of lime or some similar powder, and then by the aid of
water, oil, or other liquid, it is wet until a thin paste is formed.
This is then smeared upon the heating surfaces of the house.
Or the sulphur may be evaporated in a sand bath over an oil
stove, but in such cases extreme care must be exercised that

308 The Spraying of Plants.

the material does not take fire, for this means instant death to
all plants reached by the fumes.

If, in spite of the above precautions, fungi are still present
to an injurious extent, the next plan to follow is to apply some
of the standard liquid fungicides to the threatened plants, pre-
ferring those remedies which are clear solutions, for these dis-
figure even the most delicate colors to only a very small extent.
If this does not prove effectual, the plants should be thrown
away, and the grower might do well to try some other business.

INSECTS INFESTING PLANTS.

The number of different insects injurious to greenhouse plants
is rather small, although the number of the individuals of each
kind may be large enough. These creatures for the most part
require different methods for their extermination, and each of
the more important will be treated in detail.

Aphis; Green-fly; Plant Lice. — Description. These sucking
insects are too well known to require description, for they attack
nearly all greenhouse plants. They reproduce with extreme
rapidity, and must therefore be continually watched. Affected
leaves generally curl, the insects being found on the under side.
When the stems are attacked, frequently no external sign of
the insect's presence is visible except the insect itself.

Treatment. Insecticides which kill by contact must be em-
ployed for destroying the aphis. Kerosene emulsion, pyre-
thrum, tobacco water, etc., may be used with success. But the
most common method of clearing a house of these creatures is
to fumigate with tobacco stems. A common coal scuttle will
answer the purpose well; when filled with the stems it will
supply smoke sufficient for a house containing from three thou-
sand to five thousand cubic feet. The amount to use will vary
with the tightness of the house and the quality of the stems.
The stems should be sufficiently moist to prevent them from
blazing. They may be ignited very easily with some paper or
shavings. If the house is a very tight one, it is well to admit
air after the fumes have been in about an hour, but in the ma-
jority of establishments this point takes care of itself. If only
few plants are to be treated, they may be placed singly under a
paper flour-sack or in a box, and then smoked, care being taken
not to use too much tobacco. Some commercial preparations of

Greenhouse Pests. 309

tobacco are excellent, for they are as efficient as the stems, and
are almost free from smoke and leave no offensive odor. If
powders are preferred for destroying aphis, pyrethrum will be
found efficient, especially if the plants have been wet previous
to the application ; tobacco dust will also answer the same
purpose.

Foliage-eating Insects, of which there are many kinds, should
be treated by making applications of such insecticides as Paris
green, hellebore, etc., but the foliage of many plants is easily
injured by the arsenites, so these should be used cautiously.
Picking the insects off by hand is another means of clearing
the plants.

Mealy-bug (Dactylopius adonidum, Linn.). — Description.
Mealy-bugs are familiar to all who have grown plants under
glass. They are sucking insects, and are covered with a whitish
powder from which they have received their common name.
There is also a considerable quantity of a cotton-like material
present where these insects have been allowed to multiply, and
thus they may be easily recognized. All the green parts of
affected plants are susceptible to their attacks.

Treatment. Although the mealy-bug is one of the oldest and
best known of greenhouse pests, still no very satisfactory remedy
for it has yet been discovered. The most practical plan is to
throw forcible streams of water against them, so that they may be
dislodged. If this practice is persisted in, it will prove very effect-
ive. But all plants will not bear such treatment, and it is not
always possible to throw the water, so that the remedy has a
somewhat limited application. Where it cannot be employed,
the alcoholic decoction of pyrethrum will be found of great
service. It should be applied by means of a small atomizer,
and the insect should be treated until it is seen that the liquid
has penetrated the woolly covering and has reached the body.
The latter then turns yellowish-brown. Comparatively few
plants are injured by this remedy, and its adoption is recom-
mended. Kerosene emulsion, and commercial insecticides, as
fir-tree oil, are also of value. Plants should be treated early, so
that the insect may not obtain a foothold.

Mite; Verbena Mite (Tetranychus bimaculatus, Harvey). —
Description. This mite is as yet not very well known in green-
houses. It is very similar to the red spider in size, shape, and

310 The Spraying of Plants.

habits, but it is not red, and it has two dark spots at the rear
of the back.

Treatment. The mite is perhaps the most difficult to over-
come of all insects found in the greenhouse. Unlike the red
spider, it is but little affected by a moist atmosphere, or by
moisture upon the infested parts. If water is forcibly sprayed
upon the insects so that they will be dislodged, some good will
result. But all plants cannot withstand this treatment. The
best method of destroying the mite is probably to use kerosene
emulsion containing from twenty to twenty-five parts of water
to one of oil, or to apply Antipest, Fir-tree oil, or some other
good commercial insecticide of this nature. The insects are
most abundant on the under surface of the leaves, and all
applications should be carefully and forcibly directed to these
parts. The plants should be sprayed once or twice a week, and
the foliage of some should be washed or syringed an hour or
two after the treatment, to prevent injury from the insecticide.

Red Spider (Tetranychus telarius, Linn.). — Description. The
red spider is a true mite, and not a spider. It has received the
name from the fact that it spins a web, and covers the leaves
and even whole plants with an envelope of irregularly but
thickly scattered silken threads. It sucks the juices of the
host-plants, preferring the more tender green parts for the
scene of operations, although older foliage does not escape its
ravages. The red spider causes the color of the leaf to change
from green to a grayish-white, which shows very plainly upon
most plants. This whitening of the upper surface of the
foliage is a certain indication of the presence of a sucking in-
sect, and generally this insect proves to be either the red spider,
the mite, or thrips. The last, however, does not form a web.
Such discoloration should be immediately investigated, and if
either of the first are present, the careful gardener will remove
the parts and take precautions to destroy any insects which
may escape this process.

Treatment. The red spider nourishes in a dry atmosphere
and in bright, sunny places ; shade and moisture are unfavor-
able to its development. Here, then, lies the secret of its cheap
and successful destruction. Copious spraying of the affected
parts with clear water, and the maintenance of a moist atmos-
phere, will soon rid a house of this insect ; in case such a course

Greenhouse, Hollyhock. 311

is injurious to the plants grown, an occasional wetting and the
removal of infested leaves will be sufficient to subdue them.

Insecticides which kill by contact may also be used success-
fuDy, but they are not generally necessary. The fumes of
sulphur, produced as described on page 175, are also said to
have a beneficial action in the destruction of the red spider,
as well as of the mite.

Snail; Slug. — Description. The foliage of plants grown in
moist situations under glass is frequently riddled or entirely
devoured by snails. In dryer places so much harm is not done.
These animals feed mostly in the night, concealing themselves
under boards or other objects, or in crevices which are dark.
They feed upon tender vegetation of nearly all kinds, and may
cause irreparable damage to young seedlings or cuttings in a
single night.

Treatment. Large numbers of snails may be caught by ex-
amining the houses with a light after dark. They may also be
trapped by placing pieces of turnip, cabbage, or other vegetable
matter about the houses in such a manner that hiding-places
may be formed. The creatures congregate under the bait, and
often large numbers are caught in this manner. Salt, and also
lime, are said to be distasteful to them.

HOLLYHOCK.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Rust (Puccinia Malvacearum, Mont.). — Description. During
May and June the stems and leaves of the hollyhock may
become discolored by small spots which at first are yellow, but
later they become brown. These diseased parts are due to the
presence of the rust fungus, a parasite which may develop so
vigorously and abundantly that the leaves of the host-plant
become dry and dead, as if scorched. The plants may be
entirely prevented from blossoming, and unless measures are
taken to check the disease, hollyhocks may be forced from cul-
tivation, as has occurred in some parts of Europe.

Treatment. Hollyhock rust may be practically prevented by
spraying the foliage with some good fungicide as soon as the
leaves appear in the spring. The applications should be re-
peated frequently enough to keep the young growths covered.

312 The Spraying of Plants.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Hollyhock-bug (Orthotylus delicatus, Uhl.). — Description. These
bugs, which are bright green in color, sometimes attack holly-
hocks early in the season so vigorously that the plants wilt, and
occasionally die. The insects suck the juices of the plants, and
are undoubtedly their worst insect enemy.

Treatment. Kerosene emulsion has been successfully used
against the pest, and if the applications are commenced as
soon as the bugs are seen, no serious damage should result.

MAPLE.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta Acericola, C. & E.). — Description. The
fungus attacks the foliage of both large and small trees, destroy-
ing the green coloring matter. It appears in spring, causing
the formation of dark brown areas which enlarge very rapidly.
Later the parts first affected assume a lighter, or even a gray
color, although there is much variation in the appearance of
the disease upon different species of maples. The patches
may finally extend over the entire leaf.

Treatment. Large trees are treated with difficulty, but nurs-
ery stock may be easily reached. Plants should be sprayed
thoroughly with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the leaves
appear in spring, and new treatments should be made so that
the young growths shall at all times be protected. Destroy-
ing affected leaves may assist in checking the disease upon the
shade trees, but spraying them by means of proper machinery
will prove most satisfactory.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Green-striped Maple-worm (Anisota rubicunda, Fabr.). —
Description. The adult insect is a moth of a yellowish-white
color, the shade varying in different parts of the country. The
spread of the wings is about two and one-fourth inches. The
insect passes the winter in the pupal state, and in spring, when
the adult moths appear, large numbers of eggs are laid, gener-
ally in clusters on the under side of the leaves. The larvae are
striped longitudinally with alternating bands of light and dark

Maple. 313

green, while at the posterior extremity there project two black
horns, each about a quarter of an inch in length. The larvae
feed upon the foliage of the trees, being particularly injurious
in the western states, where shade trees are in certain years
entirely defoliated. There are two or three broods, depending
upon the latitude.

Treatment. The best and most effective remedy is to spray
the trees with Paris green or some similar poison, whenever such
a course is practicable. In other cases, the larvae may be caught
in trenches about a foot deep that are dug in concentric circles
about the bases of the trees. The larvae wander from the tree
to pupate, and they will collect in the trenches, where they may
be easily destroyed.

Tussock Moths (Orgyia, sp.). — Description. There are several
species of tussock moths which resemble each other very
closely. The caterpillars when grown are about an inch in
length ; the body is yellow in color, and generally is marked
by a narrow, dark band extending along the back. The sides
of the body may be similarly marked. Upon the back, just
forward of the center, may be found four thick tufts of yellow-
ish hair, while from the second segment of the body there
extend two long black plumes. A single plume extends back-
ward from the rear of the body. The larvae hatch during May
from eggs which were laid upon the silken cocoons by the
female during the preceding fall. In about five weeks the
larvae begin to pupate, the adults appearing a week later.
Only the males possess wings; these expand nearly an inch
and a half. The ground color is ashy gray, but several dark
lines cross the fore wings. As a rule there are two broods.

Treatment. These insects cause much injury to shade trees,
and if unchecked they gradually increase in numbers so that
the trees are each year defoliated. The most practical remedy
appears to be to collect the cocoons while the trees are dormant.
As the eggs are laid upon the surface of the cocoons they may
be easily discovered. The cocoons may be found upon the
branches and trunks of infested trees, and also upon fences
and in sheltered spots in the neighborhood. The larvae are
also easily killed by the arsenites, although the application of
the latter is not always practicable.

314 The Spraying of Plants.

MIGNONETTE.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Blight; Mignonette Disease (Cercospora Resedce,
Feckl.). — Description. "The disease first appears either as
minute pale spots with brownish or yellowish borders, —
little sunken areas in the succulent tissue of the leaf, — or
as reddish discolorations which spread over the leaf and
finally develop into these pale spots or patches. The spots
when young are simply dead portions, uniformly brown
throughout ; but as they become older and larger, little black
specks appear in their centers, giving a somewhat granular
cast. The disease spreads very rapidly over the leaves, the
dead areas grow larger and more irregular in shape, the
leaves commence to curl, wither, and hang limply against
the stems." 1

Treatment. Early and repeated sprayings of the young
plants with the Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of
copper will almost entirely prevent the disease.

MOSSES AND LICHENS.

It is very rare that these growths injure the cultivated plants
upon which they are found. But they often lend an unkempt
air to a plantation, and for this reason, if for no other, their
removal appears desirable. Bordeaux mixture has frequently
cleaned fruit trees of these plants, and its general use for this
purpose may be recommended. Alkaline washes have a similar
action. Spanish moss, which in the Southern States appears to
have an injurious action upon certain trees, may be destroyed
by spraying the tree with a wash composed of eight cans of con-
centrated lye dissolved in fifty gallons of water. It is possi-
ble that strong fungicides would exert a similar influence.

MUSKMELON.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Powdery Mildew ; Cucumber Mildew (Plasmopara Cubensis, B.
& C.). — Description. This disease has been reported as having

i Fairchild, Ann. Repl. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1889, 429.

Muskmelon, Oats. 31£

been found upon squashes, melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins, in
some cases inflicting serious damage. It bears a certain resem-
blance to the downy mildew of grapes in its external charac-
ters. Affected parts of the leaves turn yellow, then brown,
while underneath these parts may be found the frost-like
patches so characteristic of the downy mildews. But with the
cucumber mildew the growth changes to a color closely
approaching violet. The dead leaf tissue soon becomes
broken, and the leaf is often entirely destroyed.

Treatment. The application of a good fungicide, as already
described under downy mildew of the grape, should protect the
vines from the fungus.

INSECT ENEMIES.

See under CUCUMBER.

OATS.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Loose Smut (Ustilago Arenas, Jensen). — Description. This
fungus causes the grains, and generally the husks as well,
to be transformed into a black mass in which all the normal
tissue of the oat plant has disappeared. This powdery mass
consists of spores. These appear when the crop is heading,
and they mature at blossoming time. When the crop is
harvested the spores have nearly all been blown away, leaving
a naked stalk.

Treatment.1 "It has been found that the infection of the
plant takes place when the seed is germinating and from spores
adhering to the seed when planted. If these adhering spores
can be killed, a crop wholly free from smut can be obtained.2

" The Jensen or hot-water treatment for oat and wheat smut. — This
method, discovered by J. L. Jensen, of Denmark, in 1887, con-
sists in immersing the seed which is supposed to be infected
with smut for a few minutes in scalding water. The tempera-
ture must be such as to kill the smut spores, and the immersion

1 The remedies here mentioned have been taken from farmers' Bull. No. 5, of
the U. S. Dept. of Agric. Dit. of Yeg. Path.

2 " There is some good evidence to show that fresh manure of herbivorous animals
containing smut spores may, if applied at the time of planting, infect the young
plants. It is hardly necessary to mention this manner of infection, since almost no
American farmers manure grain fields in this manner. There is no danger in using
well-rotted manure."

316 The Spraying of Plants.

must not be prolonged so that the heat would injure the germi-
native power of the seed. If the water is at a temperature
of 132|° F., the spores will be killed, and yet the immersion,
if not continued beyond fifteen minutes, will not in the least
injure the seed. The temperature must be allowed to vary but
little from 132i°, in no case rising higher than 135°, or falling
below 130°. To insure these conditions when treating large
quantities of seed, the following suggestions are offered :

" Provide two large vessels — as two kettles over a fire, or
boilers on a cook-stove, the first containing warm water (say
110° to 130°), the second containing scalding water (132£°).

" The first is for the purpose of warming the seed preparatory
to dipping it into the second. Unless this precaution is taken
it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at a
proper temperature.

" The seed which is to be treated must be placed, a half-bushel
or more at a time, in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance
and exit of water on all sides. For this purpose a bushel basket
made of heavy wire could be used, within which spread wire net-
ting, say twelve meshes to the inch, or an iron frame could be
made at a trifling cost, over which the wire netting could be
stretched. This would allow the water to pass freely and yet
prevent the passage of the seed. A sack made of loosely woven
material (as gunny sack) could perhaps be used instead of the
wire basket. A perforated tin vessel is in some respects prefer-
able to any of the above.

" Now dip the basket of seed in the first vessel ; after a
moment lift it ; and, when the water has for the most part
escaped, plunge it into the water again, repeating the operation
several times. The object of the lifting and plunging, to which
should be added also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain
in contact with the hot water. Less than a minute is required
for this preparatory treatment, after which plunge the basket
of seed into the second vessel. If the thermometer indicates
that the temperature of the water is falling, pour in hot water
until it is elevated to 132^°. If it should rise higher than 132°,
add small quantities of cold water. This will doubtless be the
most simple method of keeping the proper temperature and
requires only the addition of two small vessels, one for cold
and one for boiling water.

Oats. 317

" Steam, conducted into the second vessel by a pipe provided
with a stopcock, answers even better, both for heating the
water and elevating the temperature from time to time.

" The basket of seed should, very shortly after its immer-
sion, be lifted and then plunged and agitated in the manner
described above ; and the operation should be repeated eight
or ten times during the immersion, which should be continued
fifteen minutes. In this way every portion of the seed will
be subjected to the action of the scalding water. Immediately
after its removal dash cold water over it or plunge it into a
vessel of cold water and then spread out to dry. Another por-
tion can be treated similarly, and so on until all the seed has
been disinfected. Before thoroughly dry the seed can be
sown ; but it may be thoroughly dried and stored if desired.

" The important precautions to be taken are as follows :
(1) Maintain the proper temperature of the water (132£° F.), in
no case allowing it to rise higher than 135° or to fall below
130°. This will not be difficult to do if a reliable thermometer
is used and hot or cold water be dipped into the vessel as
the falling or rising temperature demands. Immersion fifteen
minutes will not then injure the seed. (2) See that the volume
of scalding water is much greater (at least six or eight times)
than that of the seed treated at any one time. (3) Never fill
the basket or sack containing the seed entirely full, but always
leave room for the grain to move about freely. (4) Leave the
seed in the second vessel of water fifteen minutes.

"The hot-water treatment for oats. — The foregoing method is
applicable to both wheat and oats. With oats the following
slight modifications are probably advantageous : (1) Have the
water in the second vessel 143 J° F. and immerse the seed five
minutes, cooling with cold water afterwards. Where large
amounts of seed are to be treated this will prove the most
speedy form of the treatment, but great care must be taken to
see that every grain is thoroughly wetted. (2) Have the water
in the second vessel at 132|° F. ; immerse the seed ten minutes
and do not cool with cold water, but spread out at once to dry.
This last is no doubt the best form of the Jensen treatment for
oats, since it requires a shorter time than the regular method
and the warmth of the grain aids it materially in drying.
Moreover, experiments have shown that seed treated in this

318 The Spraying of Plants.

way yields the most grain and straw. Neither of these modifi-
cations can be recommended for wheat without more data than
we now possess.

"Potassium sulphide treatment for oats. — In this treatment the
seed is left twenty-four hours in a one-half per cent solution
of potassium sulphide. The published experiments seem to
show that a weak solution of potassium sulphide is nearly as
good as the hot water. The potassium sulphide is cheapest in
the 'fused ' condition, in which form it costs about twenty-five
cents a pound. One pound of the sulphide should be dissolved
in twenty-four gallons of water. Place the seed in a wooden
vessel and pour on the solution till the seed is covered several
inches deep. Stir the solution before pouring it on the grain
and thoroughly mix the seed several times before taking it out
of the solution. The oats should stand in the solution twenty-
four hours, after which they may be spread out to dry. The
solution gradually loses its strength and hence cannot be used
more than three or four times without being renewed.

"It will probably be best to sow the seed as soon as possible
and before it becomes thoroughly dry.

" Soaking the seed twelve hours in a solution of twice the
strength will no doubt prove effectual.

" Copper sulphate treatment for wheat. — This consists in im-
mersing the seed in a solution made by dissolving one pound
of commercial copper sulphate in twenty-four gallons of water
for twelve hours and then putting the seed for five or ten
minutes into lime water made by slaking one pound of good
lime in ten gallons of water.

" These treatments have all been tried and have proved effec-
tive. Probably the hot water is the best for general use. In
some parts of the country, seed wheat is treated in strong solu-
tions of copper sulphate and no lime is used. This practice is
much inferior, since it injures the seed, while those given here
prevent the smut completely and at the same time do not injure
the seed if carefully followed. In all forms of seed treatment
care should be taken to spread the grain out to dry at once, and
by frequent stirring prevent its spoiling. The treated seed
should be handled only with clean tools and should be put in
sacks disinfected by boiling fifteen minutes. If these precau-
tions are not taken the seed may be infected again after treat/

Oats, Onion. 319

ment, especially in case of stinking smut of wheat. If the seed
is to be sown broadcast it will not have to be so dry as if it is
to be drilled. The seed may be treated with hot water a con-
siderable time before planting if dried carefully, but it is prob-
ably better to treat just before planting."

Rusts. — The various rusts which attack oats, wheat, and
barley have not been successfully treated by the use of fun-
gicides.

ONION.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew ; Rust (Peronospora Schleideniana, Unger). — Descrip-
tion. Seed onions, especially when grown on low ground, ap-
pear to be particularly affected by this disease. The first
appearance of the trouble is the formation upon the onion tops
of a grayish velvety coating. The leaf wilts, and turns yellow.
This occurs about the time that the onions begin to bottom.
The fungus passes the winter by means of spores which are
developed within the tissue of the host-plant.

Treatment. Proper applications of the Bordeaux mixture, or
of some other fungicide, if made early in the season and re-
peated at intervals of two weeks, should keep the disease in
check. All affected onions should be destroyed.

Smut (Urocystis Cepulce, Frost). — Description. The disease
is more severe upon dry land, as the onions appear to be less
able to outgrow it. The first leaves of the seedlings are
attacked, dark spots scattered along their surfaces showing the
presence of the fungus. Such plants generally die before the
third leaf is formed. When the disease appears upon older
plants the bulbs show dark ridges extending up and down
their sides, even to the leaves. These ridges are mainly com-
posed of a sooty powder consisting of the spores of the fungus.
It has been estimated that a single large onion may mature
a cubic inch of smut in a single season. The soil soon becomes
filled with the germs of the disease, and it is almost impossible
to grow a sound crop.

Treatment. Affected soil should not be planted to seed
onions. It appears probable that by transplanting onions the
disease may be largely avoided, since it enters the young onions
before they appear above ground. One ounce of a mixture of

320 The Spraying of Plants.

equal parts of sulphur and lime to every fifty feet of drill has
been recommended as a preventive.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Maggot (Phorbia Ceparum, Meigen). — Description. This in-
sect closely resembles the Cabbage Root-maggot in appear-
ance, and the methods of treatment are practically the same for
the two insects. See under CABBAGE.

FIG. 62. —Orange scab.

ORANGE.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Scab (Cladosporium sp.). — Description. Orange leaves
affected with the scab first show warty-like elevations, mostly
on the under surface of the leaves (Fig. 62). These excrescences
also appear upon the young shoots. They are at first light-col-
ored, but later the tops turn nearly black. Growing leaves and
shoots are distorted by the parasite, and they finally become
yellow and worthless.

Orange. 321

Leaf Spot (Colletotrichum adustum, Ellis). — Description.
Leaf spot attacks both wild and sweet oranges. It first pro-
duces on the leaves light green spots which are about an eighth
of an inch in diameter. These enlarge till they are fully an
inch across, the older portions becoming brown and studded
with small black dots. This disease is not as yet very serious.

Treatment. The two diseases here mentioned have appar-
ently not been thoroughly treated, so that all recommendations
must be founded upon the experiences gained in treating other
plants. The copper compounds will probably prove most effi-
cient in controlling the diseases, the applications being com-
menced a week or two before the troubles first appear.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Leaf Notcher (Artipus Floridanus, Horn). — Description. The
adult is a small insect about a quarter of an inch long; it is of a
metallic greenish-blue color. It feeds upon the foliage of the
trees, beginning at the edges of the leaves.

Treatment. Jarring the trees has been recommended, and
it seems probable that applications of the arsenites would prove
effectual in destroying the pests.

Mealy-wing (Aleyrodes Citri). — Description. These minute
white flies frequently appear in such numbers upon orange
foliage that the tree may be considerably weakened by them.
Related forms are common in northern greenhouses, and
plants are often seriously injured by their work. In the South
the insects generally pass the winter in the larval stage. In
early spring they pupate, and the adults appear during March
and April. Eggs are laid in abundance on the under side of
the leaves. They soon hatch, and the larvae, on account of their
transparency, may be present in swarms, and still pass unnoticed.
They suck the juices from the leaves, and secrete a honey-dew
upon which a dark fungus soon grows. There are three gener-
ations each year in the South.

Treatment. The insects do not yield readily to treatments of
kerosene emulsion, but the resin wash smothers the immature
forms. Under glass, other species are easily destroyed by
tobacco smoke.

Mite ; Leaf-mite ; Spider ; California Spider ; Red-spotted
Mite; Red Spider (Tetranychus Q-maculatus, Riley). — Descrip-

T

322 The Spraying of Plants.

tion. The insect is pale green in color, and is marked above by
six small dark spots. It feeds upon the juices of the plant,
and increases with such rapidity that, unless checked, the foli-
age soon becomes ruined. Ten days is the estimated time for
maturing the insect from the egg when conditions are favorable.
The name " spider " has been applied to the mite on account of
its habit of spinning a fine thread which often entirely covers
the infested parts.

Treatment. The pest is held in check by abundant rains,
showing that it does not relish water any more than its relative,
the red spider of greenhouses. It is also easily destroyed by
kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, and if the trees are thoroughly
and forcibly sprayed with clear water, it will have a decided
effect in clearing the foliage of the insect.

Rust-mite. — The rusty appearance of oranges is caused by the
work of a minute yellow animal, a true mite. It lives upon the
essential oil which is found in all parts of the orange tree, suck-
ing it out by means of a beak. On the fruit this causes the
familiar browning of the orange.

Treatment. As the eggs, molting young, and adults are found
upon the trees at all seasons of the year, no definite direction
can be given which will apply to every district. All applica-
tions should be repeated at intervals of a week or ten days, so
that the young may be destroyed before they mature. Spraying
the trees with sulphur suspended in water is one of the best
remedies, as the fumes are deadly to the insects. Whale-oil
soap solution, made by dissolving one pound of the soap in ten
gallons of water, is also effectual.1

Glover's Scale ; Long Scale ; Oystershell Scale (MytUaspis
Glover ii, Packard). — Description. The eggs of this insect hatch
early in spring, the young larvae being yellowish purple in color.
These almost immediately begin to secrete a cotton-like covering
which extends over the entire body in about a week. The first
molt takes place about three weeks after the eggs hatch, and
the covering of the insects from that time on is penetrated with
difficulty by insecticides. There are three periods when the
newly hatched scales are most abundant : in March, in June and
July, and in September or October, and each generation soon

1 For detailed experiments, made by H. G. Hubbard, see Ann. Rep. 17. S. Com.
of Agric. 1884,361.

Orange. 323

covers itself with the long, yellowish or dark brown scale which
may be found upon the leaves and branches of the orange.

Treatment. The trees should be sprayed with resin washes,
kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap whenever the young insects
are seen. It is especially important that this should occur dur-
ing the three periods above mentioned, for then the greatest
numbers can be destroyed. The old scales cannot be penetrated
by any insecticide which does not injure the foliage.

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Coinstock). — Descrip-
tion. This scale insect is undoubtedly the most serious to fruit
trees of any with which the horticulturist has to deal. It is
.probably a native of Chili, but was imported into California,
and from there it has spread to the eastern states. It is now
very irregularly scattered throughout the East and has already
shown that it is capable of destroying not only the orange, but
also most of our other fruit trees.

During the winter the San Jose scale is only about one-half
grown, the scale being less than a sixteenth of an inch in diam-
eter. It is nearly circular, quite flat, but the center has a slight
elevation. This is of a dark color, while the remainder of the
scale is gray. These immature forms begin sucking the juice
of the plant as soon as growth commences in the spring. They
complete their growth in about four weeks, and then lay their
eggs under the scale. Early in June, in the latitude of New
York, the young insects begin to crawl out from under the old
scale. In two or three days they settle down, and begin the
secretion of a scale which resembles that of the parent form.
Before fixing themselves they are active, and so minute that
their small yellow bodies can scarcely be seen without the aid
of a glass.

From the time of the appearance of the first generation in
spring, the young insects can be seen almost continually through-
out the summer months, and until the arrival of cold weather in
the fall. The number of generations which appear in a season
has not yet been ascertained.

Treatment. The most effectual method of ridding plants of
this pest is by treating them, while dormant, with hydrocyanic-
acid gas. With grown trees, the operation of covering an
entire plant with an air-tight tent is a difficult process, al-
though it has been done successfully in the orange groves of

324 The Spraying of Plants.

California. Nursery stock may, however, be treated very
easily in this manner, and when the operation is finished there
need be no doubt that all the insects are destroyed. In California
the resin washes have been used with success, care being taken
that all parts of the tree are reached by the material. In the
eastern states these washes have not proved to be equally
effective, a solution of two pounds of whale-oil soap to a gallon
of water having given the best results. Kerosene emulsion
may probably be successfully used if made according to the
Hubbard-Riley formula, and diluted five times. Caustic soda
and caustic potash should also give good results if applied
during the winter months.

During the summer, if kerosene emulsion is persistently used,
so that at least the majority of the young are killed, the insects
may be gradually reduced in numbers, although the fight will
prove a hard one. Continued watching and thorough spraying
must in time exterminate the scale in an orchard.

PANSY.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew; Rust (Peronospora Violce, DeBary). — Description.
Diseased leaves show the presence of this fungus by turning
brown at the affected places. The disease as yet does not
appear to be well understood.

Treatment. Proper culture and the application of fungicides
are to be recommended.

PARSLEY.
INSECT ENEMIES.

Parsley-worm ; Celery-caterpillar (Papilio Asterias, Cramer).
— Description. The mature butterfly is black, but it has rows
of yellow and blue spots upon the wings. These expand nearly
four inches, and the adult is one of the most handsome of our
summer butterflies. The eggs are laid upon the leaves of
parsley, parsnip, celery, carrot, and many related plants. The
young caterpillar, appearing in Jane, is at first black, but as
it increases in size the color becomes greenish. About the
middle of July, when full grown, the larva is about an inch

Parsley, Pea. 325

and a half long, the ground color being pale green, but the
sides of the body are marked with a series of yellow and black
markings. When disturbed it projects two yellow horns from
the back of the head ; these emit a disagreeable odor, and
doubtless serve as organs of defense. It soon seeks a sheltered
spot, and there spins its cocoon. In about two weeks the adult
insect again appears. Eggs are laid, and the larvae become full
grown and pupate late in September or early in October. The
winter is passed in this condition, the mature insect appearing
the following spring.

Treatment. These insects are rarely present in sufficient
numbers to cause much injury. If their destruction is at-
tempted, the arsenites will be found very efficient, but they
should be applied only to those plants whose foliage is not
used. Hellebore, or pyrethrum, is safer and almost as effective,
and these materials should be applied to celery, parsley, and
other plants whose treated parts are used as food.

PARSNIP.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Parsley-worm. See under PARSLEY.

Web-worm (Depressaria heracliana, De Geer.) — Description.
The moths probably hibernate during the winter, laying their
eggs early in spring. The larvae appear in June. They feed
upon the green parts of the parsnip, and protect themselves by
means of a web. The flower cluster is particularly affected.
This insect is comparatively rare.

Treatment. One or two applications of an arsenite should be
sufficient to protect the plants, since the insect appears to have
out one brood each year. The treatments should be made as
soon as the larvae are seen in the spring. The insects pupate in
the stems of the parsnip, and the destruction of these stems
late in July would materially reduce the number of the insects.

PEA.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew (Erysiphe Martii, Lev.). — Description. This disease
generally appears late in summer, or during the autumn months.

326 The Spraying of Plants.

It covers the foliage with a white, downy layer, which almost
entirely obscures the green color of the leaves and stems.
Later, small black dots appear, these being the fruiting bodies
of the fungus.

Treatment. The disease could undoubtedly be easily checked
by means of the cop per" sprays; but the foliage of these plants
is of such a character that liquids do not readily adhere. Soap
will assist in overcoming this difficulty if it is added to the
liquids. Another line of treatment which might be followed
by good results is to apply powders to the vines while they
are wet with dew. Fostite should prove of value for this pur-
pose.

Rust. — This is the same disease which has been discussed
under BEAN. It is rarely serious.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Weevil; Pea-bug (Bruchus Pm, Linn.). — Description. The
adult is a dirty-black beetle having white markings on the wing
covers, and a T-shaped mark of the same color at the extremity
of the abdomen. The insect is scarcely three-sixteenths of an
inch long. The winter is generally passed in the adult stage,
the beetles mostly appearing in the spring. Eggs are laid while
the young pods are forming, and the larvae enter the growing
peas, upon which they feed, rarely injuring the germ, how-
ever, although the seed is considerably weakened. The insects
pupate within the peas, and soon afterward the adult appears,
although it does not leave the peas, as a rule, until the following
spring.

Treatment. No practicable method has yet been found by
means of which the beetle can be prevented from laying its
eggs in the young pods. The practice commonly followed is to
treat the peas, after harvesting, with the bisulphide of carbon.
Two or three treatments at intervals of three or four weeks
will be found sufficient to exterminate the pest. Another
method of destroying the insects is to subject the peas to a
temperature of 145° F. for about an hour. If this is done as
soon as the peas are ripe, the larva?, which are then practically
grown, will succumb, and the germinating qualities of the seed
will not be injured. The bean-weevil may be successfully
treated in the same manner.

Peach.

327

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

PEACH.

Black Spot (Cladosporium carpophilum, Thm.). — Description.
This surface fungus is generally more severe upon late varie-
ties, Hill's Chili being especially susceptible to its attack. It
forms small dusky-brown or black spots upon the side of the
fruit (Fig. 63), and although the spots scarcely exceed one-

FIG. 63. — Black spot of peach.

eighth of an inch in diameter, when several run together, large
areas of the peach may be affected (Figs. 64, 65). In such
cases, all growth of the diseased portion is stopped, and fre-
quently the flesh cracks down to the pit. As a rule, the disease
is not very troublesome.

Treatment. Spray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture, be-
ginning the treatments early in July. The mixture should not
be made stronger than one pound copper sulphate to ten gallons
of the liquid, and an abundance of lime should be added, other-

328

The Spraying of Plants.

wise the foliage may be seriously injured. Two applications
may be required after the first of August. For these, a clear
fungicide, such as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, should
be used, but there is again danger of burning the foliage. For
this reason, the solution should not be made stronger than an
ounce to twelve gallons of water. Some injury may result even
from this dilute preparation, but it will be so slight that no
serious loss need be feared. Powders have proved unsatisfac-
tory in the treatment of peaches, as the leaves are so smooth
that but little of the material adheres to them.1

FIG. 64. — Fruit severely attacked by
black spot.

FIG. 65. — Same as Fig. 64,
another view.

Brown Rot; Fruit Rot; Twig Blight (Monilia fructigena,
Pers.). — Description. Brown rot is probably the most serious
fungous disease with which peach growers are obliged to con-

1 Peach trees should at all times be treated cautiously. At a meeting of the
A. A. A. S. held at Springfield, Mass., Aug. 2T, 1895, "P. H. Rolfs read a paper
upon ' Some unexpected results from spraying peach orchards.' He said : In spray-
ing peach orchards with the resin wash advised by the division of entomology, it
was found that the insecticide was excellent when used during dry weather. When
the wash was used late in the year and early in the spring, it was liable to destroy
the fruit buds. In no case did the insecticide affect the leaf buds. The experiments
show that the insecticide advised for winter use should not be used in winter in
Florida, but may be used in September and October." — Springfield Republican,
Aug. 28, 1895, 4. See, also, Bull, xviii., Cornell Exp. Sla.

Peach. 329

tend. The disease is more severe upon early varieties, and in
the middle Atlantic states the fungus is extremely prevalent
and serious. It causes the rotting of the fruit about the time
the period of ripening begins. It increases rapidly in warm,
moist weather, and peaches which touch each other are among
the first to suffer from the disease. This is mainly due to the
fact that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the point
of contact, and with such favorable conditions the fungus
easily succeeds in gaining an entrance. Cherries and plums
also suffer from the disease, and in the same manner; the
sweet, soft-fleshed varieties of cherries are especially susceptible.
The affected fruit turns brown and appears as if decayed ; it
then becomes covered with an ash-colored coating which consists
of myriads of spores, each one capable of spreading the disease.
The fungus also attacks the small twigs, causing their death
(Fig. 66). It is no uncommon sight to see dried peaches,
plums, or cherries attached to the branches upon which they
grew, the latter having been destroyed by the disease as well
as the fruit. It also appears certain that the blossoms may be
affected and ruined, so that no fruit will set. This disease,
therefore, should be closely watched and thoroughly controlled.

Treatment. The treatment here described applies practically
also to plums ; but cherries cannot be treated so often, as the
fruit matures earlier. (1) The first application should be
made, in badly infested districts, just before the buds begin to
swell ; at this time spray with a simple solution of copper
sulphate, using one pound to twenty-five gallons of water.
(2) While the buds are swelling, spray with the Bordeaux mix-
ture. (3) Repeat the second when the fruit has set. (4) When
the fruit is grown, spray with the ammoniacal carbonate of cop-
per, using one ounce of copper carbonate to twelve gallons of
water. (5) Repeat the fourth application at intervals of six or
eight days until the fruit is harvested. It is only in very few
localities that such measures need be adopted ; in the majority
of cases the third and the fifth recommendations will suffice.

Curl ; Leaf Curl ; Trenching (Ezoascus deformans, Fuckl.) . —
Description. The name "curl" has been given to this disease
on account of the appearance of the affected leaves. As soon as
the first leaves have become grown, they frequently show a
curled or puckered appearance (Fig. 67) ; the ridges may

330

The Spraying of Plants.

FIG. 66. — Brown rot of peaches.

extend across the leaves or in a longitudinal direction. They
appear as if puffed up, and the normal green color is replaced
by shades of yellow or red. Such foliage generally falls from
the trees before July, when another set of leaves is produced.
The mycelium of the fungus appears to live through the winter

Peach.

331

upon the buds and twigs, for when buds are taken from dis-
eased trees and inserted in nursery stock the resulting shoots
generally show the dis-
ease, although there
was no apparent infec-
tion when the budding
was performed.

Treatment. Some
think to have con-
trolled the disease by
spraying thoroughly
with the copper sul-
phate solution before
the buds break, and
following this, after
the trees have blos-
somed, with applica-
tions of the Bordeaux
mixture at intervals of
about two weeks until
July first. Burning af-
fected leaves and giv-
ing good cultivation
may also decrease the
severity of the trouble.

Leaf^Rust. See under PLUM.

Mildew (Podosphcera Oxycanthce, De-
Bary). — Description. Early in the sea-
son, before the peaches are one-half
grown, they are occasionally attacked by
a mildew which produces white, powdery
patches upon their surface (Fig. 68).
These may be very small, or they may
enlarge until they are fully half an inch
in diameter. As the season advances
these parts become brown and hard, some-
times causing the peach to crack. The
ldew' foliage is also attacked by this fungus;
here it produces a thick covering of white mycelium which
entirely obscures the green color underneath.

FIG. 67. — Peach curl.

332 The Spraying of Plants.

Treatment. It is probable that the disease can be checked
by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the
fruit has set, and following this at intervals of two weeks by
two treatments of one ounce of the carbonate of copper dissolved
in ammonia and diluted with twelve gallons of water.

Rosette. — This disease causes the growth of affected trees to
become compressed and bunched in the form of a rosette. The
causes as well as the remedies are unknown. The disease is
found only in the southern states. It is contagious, and affected
trees should be destroyed.

Yellows. — Peach yellows is a disease which has so far baffled
all researches as to its cause or the methods of curing affected
trees. The trees first ripen their fruit prematurely, the peaches
possessing distinct red streaks extending from the surface towards
the pit. The following years the new growth is generally tufted,
and branched shoots are produced from wood that is more than
two years old. Such growths have narrow, horizontal leaves,
which are yellowish in color. The disease is contagious, and
affected trees should be burned as soon as the disease is dis-
covered. No cure is known.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Black Peach-aphis (Aphis Persicce-niger, Smith). — Descrip-
tion. These plant lice are shining black in color, one form hav-
ing wings, the other possessing none. They feed upon the juices
of the trees, and may be found upon the leaves, stems, and roots.
They reproduce in the characteristic manner of plant lice.

Treatment. The insects found above ground may be de-
stroyed by kerosene emulsion diluted fifteen or twenty times, or
by tobacco water. Those found upon the roots are more diffi-
cult to destroy. Tobacco stems or dust may be dug about the
affected parts; or the roots may be exposed, and water having
a temperature of 130° F. poured upon them. Another remedy
which should give excellent results is to inject bisulphide of
carbon about the roots, using about a teaspoonful to every
square foot of soil. The roots of young trees may be dipped
in hot water or in kerosene emulsion before setting them in
their permanent positions.

Borers. See under APPLE.

Plum Curculio. See under PLUM.

Pear.

333

PEAR.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Leaf Blight; Fruit Spot (Entomosporium maculatum, Lev.). —
Description. The leaves, stems, and fruit of the pear are sub-

FIG. 69. — Pear leaf blight.

ject to the attacks of the leaf blight fungus. Quince trees suffer
in the same manner. The disease appears as soon as the first
leaves are developed, or, if the weather is dry, it may not cause
any injury until midsummer. The leaves become dotted with
reddish-brown spots which gradually increase in size, coalesce,

334

The Spraying of Plants.

and eventually destroy large areas (Fig. 69). The leaves finally
fall to the ground, and if the fungus is very prevalent the trees
may be entirely defoliated. Upon the stems the affected parts
appear black and dead. The fruit first shows reddish spots
which later turn dark (Fig. 70). If the pears are attacked
while small, the diseased parts grow but slowly, the tissues
become hard and corky, and the result is an irregular fruit,
generally cracked upoii the dwarfed side, and more or less
marked by isolated spots which appeared after the first seri-
ous infection. Quinces suffer in the same manner, but the

FIG. 70. —The fruit spot of pears.

foliage frequently turns yellow before falling to the ground,
and the affected fruit is mottled with black spots less than an
eighth of an inch in diameter, when late infections have taken
place. This fungus is probably the most serious of those which
work upon these fruits, but fortunately it may be controlled
with comparative ease.

There is a bacterial disease which is frequently mistaken for
the leaf blight, but it is entirely distinct. It is commonly known
as " fire blight " or " twig blight." It is very serious upon pears
and quinces, and also frequently attacks some varieties of apples.
It causes the foliage to turn to a uniform brown, the change
taking place sometimes in two or three days. The leaves do not

Pear. 335

fall from the trees but remain upon the branches, giving the
parts the appearance of having been scorched by fire. The
bark of affected stems becomes brown and sunken. The bac-
terium enters the tree through the blossoms and also through the
growing tips. There is no known remedy, the only method of
checking the malady being to cut out affected parts and to
burn them as fast as they appear.

Treatment. The leaf spot of pear and quince may be pre-
vented by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as
soon as the first leaves have developed. The application should
be repeated at intervals of two to four weeks, more treatments
being made during moist weather, until the first of August.
Later treatments will rarely be required. In case they should
appear to be necessary, the ammoniacal carbonate of copper,
diluted as for peaches, should be applied. Other clear fungi-
cides will answer the same purpose for the late treatments.

Rust. See under APPLE.

Scab. See under APPLE.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Borers. See under APPLE.

Bud-moth. See under APPLE.

Cigar-case Bearer. See under APPLE.

Codlin-moth. See under APPLE.

Curculio. See under PLUM.

Midge (Diplosis pyrivora, Riley). — Description. The mature
insect is a small two-winged fly or gnat. It appears in early
spring, the winter having been passed in the pupal stage, and
lays its eggs in the young pear blossoms even before these are
fully opened. The eggs hatch quickly, and the larvae immedi-
ately bore into the young fruit, which they pierce in all direc-
tions. The fruit becomes swollen and misshapen, and eventually
drops from the trees. Before this takes place the pears crack
open in wet weather, and thus allow the escape of the midge
larvae. The larvae are less than three-sixteenths of an inch in
length; they are pale yellow in color, and have a very smooth
skin. They enter the ground early in June and there pupate;
the mature insect appears the following spring.

Treatment. The pear-midge is exceedingly difficult to control.
It cannot be reached by insecticides while in the pears, and after

336 The. Spraying of Plants.

it has pupated it is also well protected. If the pears are not
allowed to set, the larvae will be unable to develop, and the
recommendation has therefore been made that the trees be
sprayed while in blossom and all the fruit prevented from
setting. This might be accomplished by using an arsenical
spray, as white arsenic, but no experiments appear to have
been made to settle the point. Picking the affected fruit before
the larvae enter the ground has also been suggested, as well as
thorough cultivation to destroy the pupae. Thorough applica-
tion of kerosene upon the surface of the soil would also destroy
many of the larvae before they pupate. Professor Smith has

FIG. 71. — Pear leaf blister.

said that heavy fertilizing applications of kainite, if made
early in July, will materially reduce the numbers of this insect.
Pear Leaf Blister (Phytoptus Pyri, Scheuten). — Description.
The animal causing the reddish blisters so commonly seen
upon pear leaves early in the season (Fig. 71) is a true mite
(Fig. 72). It passes the winter under the outer scales of the
buds, and as soon as warm weather starts the trees into growth
it abandons its winter quarters and begins to feed upon the
juices of the young foliage. The insect enters the leaves, where
it is entirely protected from all applications of insecticides.
The presence of this pest causes the formation of small swell-
ings which are dull red early in the season, but later they turn

Pear.

337

green, and about the middle of June they appear as irregular
brown patches, of varying sizes. The leaves become distorted
and unsightly, and redden up early in the fall.

Treatment. Spray the trees in spring before the buds swell
with the Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion, diluting with
five to seven parts
of water. One
thorough applica-
tion will practi-
cally exterminate
the insect.

Psylla (Psylla
pyricola, Forst.).
— Description.1
The eggs of this FIG. 72. - Mite causing pear leaf blister, greatly enlarged.

insect are laid

early in spring, during warm days of April, by adults which
hibernated during the winter. The eggs are laid in small
crevices of the twigs ; they hatch in about two weeks, and pro-
duce small flattened nymphs (Fig. 73), which suck the juices of

the tree. They occasionally
appear before the buds have
opened, in which case they
hide under the bud-scales or
under the bark, and wait for
the coming of the leaves.
They then seek the axils of
the leaves and move but little.
They secrete large quantities
of honey-dew, often being en-
tirely covered with it. It runs
down the stems of the tree,
and is a favorable medium for
the growth of a dark fungus
which causes the tree to ap-
pear as if covered with soot.
The absence of this color is a good indication that the psylla is
not present. The adult insect (Fig. 74) appears about a month
after the egg hatches. It closely resembles a cicada or harvest-

i See Slingerland, Cornett Agric. Exp. Sta. 1892, Oct. Bull. 44.
z

PIG. 73. — Immature form of psylla.

338

The Spraying of Plants.

fly, but is only about a sixteenth of an inch in length. This
winged form is extremely active and difficult to capture.
Affected trees become much weakened ; the foliage is light
green or yellowish, and if the tree is badly
infested both the fruit and the foliage drop
prematurely to the ground.

Treatment. The best method of over-
coming this destructive insect is to spray
the trees with kerosene emulsion, contain-
ing from 4 to 5 per cent of kerosene, as
soon as the first leaves have unfolded in
spring. The application should be made
very thoroughly, and it should be repeated
once or twice at intervals of ten days or
two weeks, if there is reason to fear that
many insects have survived. Treatments
made during the summer are also of value,
but the spray must be copious, and it must be thrown with great
force to destroy the adults. All applications should also be
made soon after a rain, for then the honey-dew is mostly washed
away, and the immature insects, or nymphs, may be reached

FIG. 74.— Adult psylla.

FIG. 75. — Cherry slug upon pear leaf.

more easily by the emulsion. Winter applications of kerosene
emulsion as applied for plum scales have been recommended.

Slug. — The shiny dark-colored slug, which is so frequently
seen upon pear foliage (Fig. 75), is identical with the one found
upon cherry foliage. A description of the insect will be found
under CHERRY, but it will be well here to emphasize the neces-

Pear, Plum.

339

sity of treating the pest before much damage is done. Appli-
cation should be made seasonably and thoroughly.

See SYCAMORE.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

PLAXE-TREE.
PLUM.

Brown Rot. See under PEACH.

Leaf Blight; Shot-hole Fungus (Cylindrosporium Padi; Sep-
toria cerasina, Peck). — Description. The foliage of plums and

FIG. 76. — Shot-hole fungns of plum.

cherries is often disfigured in early summer by small circular
spots about an eighth of an inch in diameter. The spots are at
first of a purple color, but later, as the tissue dries, the color
changes to brown, and the affected areas become loosened and
drop out. This causes the leaves to appear as if pierced by
shot, as they are frequently full of these small, round holes
(Fig. 76). In such cases the foliage turns yellow, drops during
the summer, and the trees are unable to mature their fruit.
If unchecked, the fungus may cause serious losses, but fortu-
nately the disease is easily controlled.

340

The Spraying of Plants.

. Treatment. The trees should be sprayed with the Bordeaux
mixture as soon as the leaves appear, the application being re-
peated at intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle
of July. Clear fungicides should be applied to cherries early
in the season to avoid staining the fruit, and the same precau-
tion should be ob-
served with plums,
although the Bor-
deaux mixture may
be continued longer
with this crop. Four
applications should
be sufficient even in
very bad seasons ;
and two or three
will generally be
found sufficient.

Leaf Rust (Puc-
cinia Pruni-spinosce,
Pers. ). — Descrip-
tion. In general
appearance this dis-
ease is very similar
to the preceding.
The affected areas
are dull red upon
the upper surface of
the leaf and yellow-
ish-brown on the
lower surface, but
the spots are small,
and frequently
cause the foliage to
drop prematurely.
Give the same treatment as for the plum leaf

\

FIG. 77. — Black knot of pluin.

Treatment.
blight.

Plum Knot ; Black Knot ; Plum Wart (Plowrightia [Splicerta]
morbosa, Sacc.). — Description. It is a common opinion that the
black knots (Fig. 77) found so generally upon plum and sour
cherry trees are caused by insects, but such is not the case.

Plum. 341

These swellings are caused by a fungus, and the insects find
them to be good breeding-places, which explains their presence
in many old knots. Although the fungus has long been known
to mycologists, its life history has not yet been entirely de-
termined; enough is kn'own, however, to serve as a safe guide
in the treatment of the disease. Early in spring, when growth
starts, these swellings begin to appear. At first they are yellow-
ish in color, but later this changes to a darker shade. During
Mav and June a crop of spores is produced upon the surface of
the knots, causing them to appear as if coated with a thin layer
of velvet. This soon disappears, and then the knot becomes
darker until winter, when it is jet black. In November and De-
cember the surface of the knot may be seen to be thickly cov-
ered with minute black elevations, in which the winter spores
are borne. These are distributed during the latter part of
winter. The spores generally gain entrance into the trees at
the crotches of small limbs and at the junction of annual
growths. They cause swellings which extend along the younger
branches to a distance of four or five inches the first year. All
the mycelium does not die during the winter, so the following
spring the formation of new swellings may be seen at the edges
of the old knot. In this manner the disease may live from
year to year, or until the limb dies.

Treatment. The general recommendation has been to cut out
the knots and destroy them as soon as they are discovered. It
should be done before a crop of spores is matured. If in addi-
tion to this the trees are thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux
mixture during the warm days of early spring before growth
starts, and again when the buds are about to burst, it is proba-
ble that the winter spores may be rendered harmless. If the
crop of spores produced during May and June is similarly dis-
posed of, no infection need be feared. Consequently the trees
should be sprayed for the third time with the Bordeaux mix-
ture during the latter part of May, and again about the middle
of June. "These applications must be thoroughly made, and if
this is done the black knot fungus may be practically con-
trolled. In case a knot appears upon a large limb, or upon the
trunk of a tree where it cannot be easily removed, it should be
painted with pure kerosene oil. This will destroy the knot and
also the living tissue surrounding it ; care should therefore be

342

The Spraying of Plants.

exercised in the application of the oil that it is not too freely
distributed. By mixing some coloring matter with the kero-
sene the treated parts may easily be distinguished.

Plum Pockets; Plum Bladders (Exocutcu* [Taphrina] Pruni,
Fuckl.). — Description. Plums are frequently attacked by this

FIG. 78. — Plum pockets.

fungus soon after they blossom. The affected fruit begins to
swell (Fig. 78) until it is from one to two inches in length. At
first the plums are very smooth, but they are yellow in color.
Later this changes to gray, the appearance being caused by a
thick coating of the spores of the parasite. This color is then
replaced by dark brown or black, and towards the end of June

Plum. 343

the fruit falls to the ground. It is then nearly hollow, and rattles
like inflated bladders. The walls of the plum are fairly thick,
but no stone or pit exists. Wild cherries and plums are also
attacked by other closely related fungi. The mycelium of these
fungi is perennial, so that the disease generally appears year
after year on the same tree. It attacks the leaves and stems as
well as the fruit, and causes the affected parts to become swollen
and distorted.

Treatment. No careful work appears to have been done in
controlling the fungi that cause plum pockets. From the fact
that the mycelium has been found growing upon the twigs and
extending to the young leaves and fruits, it seems probable that
the copper compounds would prove valuable in controlling the
disease. The trees should be sprayed when the buds begin to
swell, and again just before the blossoms open. The disease
may also spread by means of spores, and this would probably
necessitate applications at the time when the affected fruit is of
a gray color.

Powdery Mildew. See under APPLE.

Rot. See under PEACH.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Borers. See under APPLE.

Bud-moth. See under APPLE.

Canker-worm. See under APPLE.

Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst). — Description. The
plum curculio, or " little Turk," as the beetle is occasionally called,
is the worst enemy of plum growers. The adult insect is scarcely
a fourth of an inch in length. It is grayish-brown in color, and
has a black hump on the center of each wing cover. The long
snout is generally curved underneath the body. The eggs are
laid in the young plums as soon as the blossoms fall, and beetles
may still be present even six weeks later. By means of the
snout a hole is bored in the plum and the egg is laid within it ;
a crescent-shaped cut is then made about the part containing
the egg in such a manner that a small lip of the green flesh is
formed. Within this lip the egg- is secure. It hatches in a few
days, the grub immediately beginning to eat its way towards the
center of the fruit. It feeds for about four weeks, being then
over three-eighths of an inch in length. It is of a yellowish-

344 The Spraying of Plants.

white color, the head being pale brown. When full grown, the
larva leaves the plum and descends several inches into the
ground. It there pupates, and the mature insect appears in
the fall, or sometimes not until the following spring. There is
but one brood each year.

Treatment. Spraying the trees with arsenites has been recom-
mended as an effective method of destroying the curculio, but
many growers doubt the efficiency of the practice (see pp. 68, 73).
The beetles feed some time before laying their eggs, and such
applications are designed to kill the adults before the eggs are
laid. The first treatment should be made as soon as the first
leaves unfold, and before the blossoms open ; the second, when
the blossoms have fallen ; the third, about two weeks later.
Paris green and lime should be used, each at the rate of one
pound to about two hundred gallons of water.

Another method of destroying the curculio, and a more certain
one, is to jar the trees early in the morning before the beetles
are active. The insects fall readily from the trees, and may be
caught on sheets, or in some of the machines now used for the
purpose. When the insects are ordinarily abundant, the trees
should be jarred every other morning, beginning the work as
soon as the blossoms have fallen. In severe cases the trees
must be treated daily, and some growers have repeated the
operation again in the evening, as the insects were so numer-
ous. Jarring the trees should be continued until the beetles
are no longer caught upon the sheets; in this manner the fruit
will be well protected.

Plum gouger ( Coccotorm scutellaris, Lee. ). — Description. This
insect is found mostly west of the Mississippi River. It is a
snout-beetle, and resembles the plum curculio in many respects.
It is, however, yellowish-brown in color, and when the egg is
laid no crescent mark is made about the point of insertion.
The larva burrows into the pit; here it pupates, and late in
summer or early fall the adult appears. The winter is passed
in this stage, the eggs being laid the following spring at the
same time as are those of the plum curculio.

Treatment. The plum gouger is controlled in the same man-
ner as the plum curculio.

Plum-scale (Lecanium sp.). — Description. This scale insect
passes the winter in an immature form. The scales are about

Plum, Potato. 345

one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length; they are very narrow,
flat, and of a brown color. About the first of April these
minute scales move about and soon fasten themselves, gener-
ally to the under side of the small branches. They increase
rapidly in size, so that in two months they are from two to
three-sixteenths of an inch in length, and nearly circular in
outline. At this time eggs are abundantly produced under
the large brown scales, and by the first of July the young in-
sects may be seen crawling over the branches. They pass on
to the under side of the leaves, where they establish themselves
near the larger veins. Here they remain until the latter part
of August, when they return to the branches. The affected
leaves make little growth and look unhealthy; and although
the scales have increased but little in size, so much sap has
been removed that the trees make but little growth and the
fruit is dwarfed. When the insects return to the branches
in the fall they are of a rich brown color, and but one-twenty-
fifth of an inch in length ; in this form they hibernate, and the
following spring they again become active.

Treatment. In the fall, as soon as the foliage has fallen, spray
the trees with the Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion diluted
with four parts of water. A weaker emulsion will not be
effective, and a stronger one may injure the trees. If this
work is thoroughly done, the pest can be practically extermi-
nated. The application may be made any time from Novem-
ber to April. During the summer months the foliage interferes
with the proper application of the spray, and the emulsion can-
not be applied to the leaves with safety.

Slug. See under CHERRY.

POPLAR.
See COTTOXWOOD.

POTATO.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Early Blight (Macrosporium Solani, E. & M.). — Description.
The early blight of potatoes is not yet fully understood, but
much of the early dying of the leaves is no doubt caused by the
fungus mentioned. Observations tend to show that the injuries
caused by the flea-beetle frequently serve as starting-points for the
disease (Fig. 79). Around the little holes made by these insects,

FIG. 79.— Early blight (Macrosporium Solani) on potato foliage.
346

Potato. 347

there may be seen the characteristic browning and drying of the
leaf-tissue, rings of a darker color being visible in the affected
areas. The edges of the leaves are more generally affected, and
as the small, circular spots increase in size they run together
and destroy the entire outer portions of the leaf. These then
turn yellow and later brown, the edges curl up, and tin ally all
the leaflets and the petiole are destroyed. The injury also
extends to the stems, and eventually the plant dies. The pota-
toes do not rot, but they remain small. The browning of the
tissue often begins during July, the trouble being much more
severe upon mature plants, and if the weather is moist the
trouble appears to increase less rapidly than during a drought.
Whether the early blight fungus is capable of entering unin-
jured tissue, or whether its entrance is entirely dependent upon
the work of the flea-beetle, has not yet been definitely deter-
mined, but it is undoubtedly true that the abundance of this
insect has considerable influence upon the prevalence of the
disease. In some cases the tissue dies apparently without the
assistance of insects.

Treatment. Spraying the vines with the Bordeaux mixture
has given fairly good results. The fungicide should be used at
least of normal strength, and it appears probable that a
stronger mixture is still more beneficial. For very early pota-
toes the first application should be made, in Xew York, iri June ;
for medium varieties from the first to the middle of July ; while
late varieties may not require treatment before the first of
August, although this period is rather late, the third week in
July being perhaps an average date. Applications should be
repeated at intervals of two to four weeks, three treatments
being sufficient in seasons favorable to the fungus. If power
sprayers are used, each row should receive as much liquid as
is thrown by two Vermorel nozzles while the horse is walking
across the field. The vines should be very thoroughly treated.

Rot ; Blight ; Late Blight ; Downy Mildew (Phytopldlwra in-
festans, De Bary). — Description. Potato blight, or rot, has
long been known as the most serious and destructive of all
potato troubles. When the weather is warm and moist the
disease spreads with great rapidity, so that an entire field may
be destroyed in the course of a few days. The first symptom
of the malady is the browning of distinct areas upon the potato

348

The Spraying of Plants.

leaves (Fig. 80); the affected portions may be small, or they
may extend over the entire leaflet. In this respect it differs

T*

FIG. 80.—

Potato foliage attacked by Phytophthora infestans, a fungus which
causes rotting of the tubers.

plainly from the early blight, which progresses slowly, and
causes distinct, circular spots, while those produced by the
rot are at first small and irregular but they rapidly extend

Potato. 349

under favorable circumstances over large portions of the foli-
age. There is also soon formed on the under side of the dis-
colored parts a frost-like coating, which is composed of the
summer spores'and of the threads bearing them. Such a con-
dition is not present when the plants are attacked by the early
blight. The tubers of plants attacked by the phytophthora
almost invariably rot, and it is on this account that the losses
occasioned by the disease are often so great. It is supposed
that the tubers are infested by spores whicli fall to the ground
from the diseased leaves above, and not by the mycelium of the
fungus growing downward within the stem to the potatoes.
The spores are carried through the soil by descending water,
and upon reaching the potatoes they gain an entrance into the
tubers and cause the dry rot which is so destructive. It is pos-
sible, however, that the tubers may be reached by both methods.

As its name implies, the late blight does not appear early in
the season. It rarely attacks plants before the middle of July,
and frequently not before the first of September. Consequently
there is abundant time for treating the vines, and the losses
from this disease need not be heavy.

Treatment. The potato rot caused by this fungus can be
almost entirely prevented by the application of proper fungi-
cides. The work of Professor Jones of Vermont has clearly
shown that the disease can be controlled, and experiments made
in Europe have emphasized the same fact. Bordeaux mixture
is the best fungicide to use, as there is no danger of disfiguring
the crop, nor of injuring the foliage. It should be made at least
of "normal" strength, and when made according to the "stand-
ard " formula, it has been still more effective. But the latter
mixture is applied with considerable difficulty, so that thorough
applications of the former are to be advised. Treatments may
be begun any time during July, depending upon the time of
planting and the lateness of the variety. July 15th is generally
early enough for the first application in Xew York. It should
be followed by one or twTo others made at intervals of one to
three weeks, depending upon the weather. If the potato foliage
is thoroughly covered with the mixture, little trouble need be
anticipated from this disease.

Bacterial Blight. — Potatoes also appear to suffer from a bac-
terial disease which causes the death of the parts above ground

350 The Spraying of Plants.

and also a rotting of the tubers. No distinct discoloration s appear
upon the leaves, as is the case with fungous diseases, but the
entire plant is unhealthy and dies prematurely. Tubers fre-
quently show discolored patches on their surface before decay-
ing; a soft rot results. No remedy is known, except rotation.

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thax.). — Description. Potatoes very
commonly suffer from the attacks of a fungus which causes the
skin of the tubers to become rough or scurfy (Fig. 81), the
injury often penetrating to a considerable depth. The life
history of the fungus is not yet well understood, but it is

FIG. 81. — Potato scab.

known that the disease may be communicated to new tubers by
unclean seed, and that barnyard manure, lime, or ashes may
have a tendency to increase the disease. Soil in which scabby
potatoes have been produced also appears capable of infecting
later crops. One kind of scab is caused by an insect.

Treatment. Land in which the scab fungus is found should
not be planted to potatoes, and only clean fertilizers or unin-
fected manure should be applied. Scabby seed may be cleaned
by soaking it for an hour and a half in a solution of corrosive
sublimate, using one ounce of the poison in eight or nine gal-
lons of water. This may be done either before or after the
potatoes are cut, but the tubers must not again be brought in

Potato. 351

contact with the disease. It is safer to treat the seed before it
is cut; and if care is taken not to transfer the organism to the
cleaned potatoes, no scab should develop upon clean land. Hal-
sted has been successful in preventing the development of the
disease by rolling the seed in sulphur. He used the sulphur at
the rate of three hundred pounds to the acre, that which did
not adhere to the potatoes being sprinkled in the open row.

IXSECT ENEMIES.

Colorado Potato-beetle ; Potato-bug ( Doryphora 10-lineata, Say).

— Description. This insect is too well known to require a de-
tailed description. It hibernates during the winter as a mature
insect, and in the spring it begins to feed upon the foliage of
eggplants or potatoes as soon as these are at hand. The eggs
are laid on the under side of the leaves. They are bright yel-
low in color, and easily seen. The larvae appear in about a
week, and the plant is soon stripped of its foliage. In a short
time the grubs become full grown ; they then leave the plant
and pupate in the surface soil. Here they remain about ten
days, when the mature insect again appears. There are three
or four broods each year.

Treatment. Potato-beetles are easily destroyed by spraying
the young plants with an arsenical poison. This should be
done early in the season so that the first beetles, or at least
the first brood of larvae, may be exterminated. The poison
should be made about one-fourth or one-third stronger than
for fruits, as these insects seem to require more poison than
most others. There is no danger of injuring potato foliage in
this manner.

Flea-beetle (Phyllolreta vittata, Fabr.; Haltica striolata, Harris).

— Description. This species of flea-beetle, as well as several
others, makes the growing of many garden plants a difficult
matter. The mature beetles are, as a rule, not more than one-
tenth of an inch in length. They are very active, and move so
quickly that their popular name is very appropriate. The
beetles appear early in spring and eat out little cavities in the
tender foliage of young plants, often to such an extent that the
plants are ruined. If the work of the beetles does not destroy
the crop, the injured parts afford conditions suitable to the
growth of certain fungi, and these two parasites may succeed

352 The Spraying of Plants.

in accomplishing that which each alone could not have done.
There appear to be several broods of the beetles each season.

Treatment. No uniformly effective remedies are known.
Good results have been obtained by dusting the young plants,
while wet, very freely with tobacco dust. Arsenites have also
been recommended, as well as lime, ashes, plaster, and kerosene
emulsion. Bordeaux mixture and soap has given good results
in certain cases when thoroughly applied.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

The privet is comparatively free from fungous diseases, one
form of blight which occasionally appears rather suddenly being
the most serious. It is probably due to Phyllosticta Ligustri, Sacc.
Little attention has been given it, but the use of Bordeaux mix-
ture is the most promising line of treatment.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Privet Web-worm (Margarodes quadristigmalis, Gn.). — De-
scription. The adult moth is almost entirely white, a narrow
brown line marking the anterior edge of the front wings ; there
are also a few brown dots and markings at the outer edges of
both pairs of wings. The body is almost entirely white. It is
nearly five-eighths of an inch in length, the wings expanding
about one and one-fourth inches. Eggs are laid in spring, near
the mid-vein of the leaves ; they hatch in less than a week, and
the larvae immediately begin to feed upon the foliage. They
vary in color from yellowish-green to a very dark green, while
along the back are situated two rows of small black warts. The
head is yellowish-green. The caterpillars feed for about three
weeks ; they then pupate, the moth appearing about eight days
later. There are at least four broods of this insect each year in
the latitude of Washington.

Treatment. The free use of arsenites or of kerosene emulsion
will undoubtedly exterminate the insect if the work is begun
when the first larvae are seen in spring.

FUNGOUS DISEASES. PUMPKIN.
Powdery Mildew. See under MUSKMELON.
INSECT ENEMIES. See under CUCUMBER.

Quince.

353

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

QUINCE.

Black Rot (Sphceropsis Malorum, Peck). — Description. Apples
and pears, as well as quinces, suffer from the fungus which
causes black rot. The fruit is generally not attacked until it is
at least one-half grown.
Infection takes place, as
a rule, at the blossom
end. A small brown
spot appears upon the
surface, and as it in-
creases in size dark pim-
ples appear upon the
part first affected. Later
the fruit cracks, and
spores are freely dis-
tributed. The diseased
quinces frequently re-
main hanging on the
trees throughout the
winter, and serve as ex-
cellent sources of infec-
tion.

Treatment. As the
malady appears late in
the season, the applica-
tion of the Bordeaux
mixture can scarcely be
recommended. Clear
fungicides should be used, and, if thoroughly applied, the dis-
ease, which, as a rule, is not serious, can probably be held in
check by two or three treatments.

Blight. See under PEAR.

Leaf Blight; Fruit Spot; Leaf Spot (Entomosporium macula-
turn, Lev.). — Description. Quince foliage is generally affected
by the leaf-blight fungus during early summer. Fig. 82
represents quince foliage dotted with the small circular spots
which are produced by the fungus. These are of a reddish-
brown color, and although at first circular in form, when several

2 A

FIG. 82. — Quince foliage affected with leaf blight.

354

The Spraying of Plants.

are united, the diseased part assumes an irregular outline. Badly
infested leaves turn yellow and fall to the ground during the
latter part of summer, or early in the fall. Trees very com-
monly lose all their leaves in this manner. Upon the fruit, if
the attack takes place after the quince is nearly grown, dark
brown or nearly black sunken areas are formed, these being
more or less thickly scattered over the surface, as shown in
Fig. 83. If the quince is affected while it is small, its shape

may be much altered, for
the flesh becomes cracked
and corky in the diseased
places. Such fruit is only
too familiar to quince
growers. The fungus also
attacks pears.

Treatment. The method
of treating this disease has
already been mentioned
under leaf blight of the
pear. The two fruits are
treated in a similar man-
ner, but the applications
made upon the quince
during the latter part of
June and in July are the
most important ones.

Ripe Rot. See under
APPLE.

Rust (Rcestelia auranti-
aca, Pk.). — Description.
This disease (Fig. 84) "is
very conspicuous upon the fruit, as it covers the injured portion
of the quince with an orange, fringe-like growth. The tube-like
projections of the fungus contain numerous spores, and when
this stage is apparent, the fruit is already irrevocably ruined.
Sometimes the entire young fruit is involved, and it may die
and fall; but more often the fruit hangs upon the tree, and
the diseased portion becomes dry, hard, black, and sunken.
. . . This rust fungus also penetrates the twigs, and often
causes knots to appear, resembling the black knot of the

FIG. 83. — Quince attacked during the latter
part of the season by fruit spot.

Quince, Raspberry.

355

plum." l The life history of this fungus is similar to that caus-
ing the rust of apples, which see.
Treatment. See under APPLE.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Borers. See under APPLE.
Slug. See under CHERRY.

FIG. 84. — Young quinces attacked by rust.

INSECT ENEMIES.

RADISH.

Maggot. See under CABBAGE.

RASPBERRY.

Anthracnose ; Cane Rust (Glceospoj-ium necator, E. & E.). —
Description. This fungus attacks the young canes of raspber-
ries, blackberries, and dewberries. It appears during the latter
part of June and during July, attacking the lower parts of the

i Bailey, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, Dec. Bull. 80, 625, 626.

356

The Spraying of Plants.

canes first. The affected parts are circular but later oval in
outline (Fig. 85), the central part is gray in color, and this is
surrounded by a distinct purple rim. These areas are sunken,
and when several run together they may cause the cracking of
the cane, or even its death. The leaves are also attacked to a
limited extent, but with no such serious results. When the
fruit stems are diseased, the berries are frequently prevented
from ripening, and consequently they dry up on the bushes.

Treatment. An-
thracnose has not
yet been very suc-
cessfully treated.
The best recom-
mendations which
can now be given
are to spray the
bushes thoroughly
with the copper sul-
phate solution be-
fore the buds swell
in the spring, and
to follow this by re-
peated and copious
applications of the
Bordeaux mixture
at intervals of two
weeks until mid-
summer. A clear
fungicide may be necessary to avoid staining the fruit. Even
this treatment may not hold the disease in check. In that case
perhaps the best method to follow is to cut off all growth close
to the ground during the fall or spring, and then burn the canes.
This means the loss of one year's crop, but the source of infec-
tion would no doubt be so reduced that but little disease should
appear during the next few years, especially if the bushes are
also sprayed as above described. Or the entire plantation may
be pulled up and a new one, composed of less susceptible vari-
eties, may be set upon other land.

Orange-rust; Red-rust (Cceoma luminatum, Link). — Descrip-
tion. This fungus is found upon blackberries and raspberries.

FIG. 85. — Easpberry anthracnose, or cane rust.

Raspberry. 357

It possesses a perennial mycelium, so that when a plant is once
infested it cannot be cured. The fungus has two forms which
were formerly supposed to be distinct plants. One form is
known as Puccinia Peckiana ; it attacks the foliage, and pro-
duces spores which germinate in the fall or spring. The myce-
lium enters the canes of the host-plant, probably by means of
the underground parts, and from there it spreads to the vari-
ous branches. The copious production of orange-colored spores
on the under side of the foliage of diseased plants is the result
of such infection. This condition is preceded by an appear-
ance which is easily recognized : the leaves are smaller, and
they have a pale green color which distinguishes them from
the healthy tissues.

Treatment. The only practical remedy yet known is to dig
out and destroy affected plants as soon as they are discovered.
Spraying the foliage with a fungicide to prevent the entrance
of the fungus into the leaves might be followed by good results.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Cane-borer (Oberea bimaculata, Oliv.). — Description. The
mature insect is a slender, black beetle about half an inch in
length. During June it lays its eggs in the young shoots which
grow from the base of the plant. A row of punctures is made
above and below the place in which the egg is inserted. The
egg soon hatches and the grub begins to burrow downward.
By autumn it has reached the roots of the plant. The follow-
ing spring the adults again appear.

Treatment. The puncturing of the young canes when the
eggs are laid causes the tips to wilt and on this account the
affected shoots are readily seen. They should be cut off below
the injured part, and destroyed. The canes should also be
watched during late summer, and any which are found wilting
should be cut out close to the ground and burned.

Sawfly ; Raspberry-slug (Selandria Rubi, Harris). — Descrip-
tion. During May and early in June the raspberry sawfly may
be seen among the canes of these plants. It is a black, four-
winged fly, the abdomen being tinged with red. The eggs are
laid within the leaf, generally near the veins. The larvae are at
first nearly white, but later they become dark green and are
thickly covered with soft spines of the same color. When

358 The Spraying of Plants.

grown, the larvae are about half an inch in length. They feed
upon the foliage of the plants, and, if present in considerable
numbers, the foliage may be almost entirely devoured. During
June the insect pupates, but the adult does not appear until the
following spring.

Treatment. The slugs are readily destroyed by the arsenites,
hellebore, or pyrethrurn. But some applications must neces-
sarily be made while the plants are in blossom ; this exposes
bees to the action of the poisons, and large numbers of these
insects are destroyed whenever enough poison to kill the slugs
is applied. Under such circumstances it is a question of killing
the bees or tearing out the plants. Hand picking might be
practiced, and if carried on for a year or two would greatly
reduce the numbers .of, the pest. Kerosene emulsion might also
be tried, the blossoms being touched as little as possible.

ROSE.

Black Spot; Leaf Blight (Actinonema Rosce, Fries). — Descrip-
tion. During early summer the foliage of roses suffers from the
attacks of a fungus which causes the formation of irregular,
black spots upon the upper surface of the leaves (Fig. 86).
The spots eventually become nearly circular; their edges are
apparently fringed with delicate white, and later in the season
the affected leaves turn yellow, and fall to the ground ; at this
time the spots may be fully half an inch in diameter. Roses
grown indoors or in the open appear to be equally affected.

Treatment. Fungicides containing copper will check the dis-
ease if the treatments are begun as soon as the buds open in
spring. Clear solutions are to be preferred. Removing and
destroying the affected leaves will also tend to lessen the
trouble.

Leaf Spot (Cercospora roscecola, Pass.). — Description. The
spots formed by this fungus are dark red or nearly black, the
edges of the well-defined areas being mostly of a red color.
The center changes to a grayish-brown color as the season
advances. Only those plants which grow out of doors are
affected, the foliage being the part generally attacked.

Treatment. The treatment described under Black Spot,
above, is also recommended for this disease.

Rose.

359

Mildew (Sphcerotheca pannosa, Lev.). — Description. This
fungus attacks roses which are grown under glass and also
those out of doors. It checks the growth of the young shoots,
and causes the leaves to remain dwarfed and curled, the edges

FIG. 86. — Black spot of roses.

being generally rolled downward. At the same time, a white
powdery growth entirely covers the affected areas, and the
plants soon become so weakened that they possess no practical
value. Fig. 87 represents a leaf partially affected.

Treatment. The treatment of mildews affecting plants grown
under glass has already been discussed under GREENHOUSE

360

The Spraying of Plants.

PESTS. Many of the same remedies will also prove of value
with plants grown in the border, sulphur and the copper com-
pounds being particularly recommended.

FIG. 87. — Rose leaf attacked by mildew.

Phragmidium (Pkragmidium speciosum, Fries). — De
scription. The stems of roses suffer severely from this fungus.
The mycelium is perennial, and the affected places show irregu-
lar elevated areas on the stem (Fig. 88). They are black in
color, and consist of innumerable spores borne upon slender
filaments. In severe cases the diseased stems die.

Rose. 361

Treatment. The treatment recommended against the rust
will also apply to this disease. In addition, however> the
affected steins 'should be removed as soon as discovered.

Rust (Phragmidium mucronatum, Winter). — Description. All
the young green parts of the rose are subject to the attacks of

I

FIG. 88. — Rose Phragmidium.

the rust fungus. It causes the formation, in early summer, of
small reddish-yellow spots which gradually increase in size as
the season advances. The stems frequently become bent and
twisted by the growth of the mycelium. During August, the
color of the spots changes to dark red. In the fall, small dar>

362 The Spraying of Plants.

bodies are produced on the under side of the leaves ; they con-
tain the spores which preserve the fungus through the winter.

Treatment. The plants, and the soil about them, should be
sprayed in early spring before growth has commenced with the
copper sulphate solution. After the buds have burst the Bor-
deaux mixture should be used, or some clear fungicide which
will not stain the leaves. These applications should be contin-
ued until midsummer at intervals of two or three weeks. Raking
and burning the leaves in the fall will also diminish the trouble.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Mealy-bug. See under GREENHOUSE PESTS.

Rose-chafer ; Rose-beetle ; Rose-bug (Macrodactylus subspinosus,
Fabr.). — Description. The beetles appear, as a rule, early in
June. They are about half an inch in length and of a yellowish-
brown color, the legs being pale red. The beetles feed for about
a month after the time of their first appearance. They devour
nearly all kinds of foliage, and in some localities fruit planta-
tions are annually almost ruined by these insects. Shortly be-
fore the disappearance of the adults, the eggs are laid in the
ground near the surface. The grubs feed upon the roots of
various plants and in the fall they descend below the frost line
and there pass the winter. In the spring they ascend to the
surface and pupate, the adult emerging as above stated. There
is but one brood each year.

Treatment. No satisfactory remedies for the destruction of
the rose-beetle are known. The insect can persist only on
sandy land, for heavier soil prevents the grubs from descending
to a proper depth. It is, therefore, only on sandy land that the
pest is to be feared. The following methods of exterminating
the insect have been recommended, but none are entirely satis-
factory : " Hand picking. Knocking off on sheets early in the
morning. Bagging. Pyrethrum. Kerosene emulsion. Py-
rethro-kerosene emulsion. Eau celeste. It is said to prefer
Clinton grapes, spireas, rose-bushes, and magnolias, and it has
been suggested that these plants be used as a decoy. Open
vials of bisulphide of carbon hung in bushes and vines are
recommended by some. Sludge-oil soap, a manufactured ma-
terial. Spraying with dilute lime whitewash. Hot water, at
a temperature of 125° to 130° F. To prevent the insects from

Rose, Spinach. 363

breeding, keep the light lands — in which they breed — under
thorough cultivation, and especially never seed them down." l

Rose Leaf-hopper (Typhlocyba Rosce, Harris). — Description.
These insects are generally found upon the under side of the
leaves, but when disturbed they move or fly rapidly from place
to place. They live upon the juices of the plants, and are fre-
quently serious. The mature insect is less than a fourth of an
inch in length ; its wing covers are nearly transparent, and the
body is yellowish- white. There are several broods. The af-
fected leaves show irregular, white markings on their upper
surface, and in this manner the presence of the pest may easily
be observed.

Treatment. The same remedies mentioned under CURRANT
GREEX-LEAF-HOPPER may also be employed against this insect.

SHADE TREES; SHRUBS.

There are many fungi and insects attacking other plants
than those mentioned individually in this work, but it is
scarcely practicable to describe each in detail. The reader is
referred to Chapter VI., in which general directions will be
found ; it is hoped these will serve as guides in the treatment
of any trouble which it is desired to overcome.

SPINACH.

Anthracnose (ColletotricJium Spinacece, E. & H.). — Description.
The affected parts are generally circular in form; they soon
produce brown pustules, and the color of the spot gradually
changes to gray. The fungus spreads with great rapidity,
attacking the old and the young leaves indiscriminately.

Mildew (Peronospora effiisa, Rabenh.). — Description. Spin-
ach grown under glass is frequently attacked by this fungus.
The diseased foliage shows " gray, slightly violet patches of a
velvety texture upon the under side of the leaves, while from
the upper side they have a pale yellow shade due to the loss of
the green color."2 Dr. Halsted has also described three other
fungous diseases of spinach, viz. black mold, leaf blight, and

» Bailey, Horticulturist'1 s Rule-Book, 1895, 42.

* Halsted, N. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, July, Bull. 70, 5.

364 The Spraying of Plants.

white smut, and the reader is referred to the bulletin mentioned
below for detailed descriptions.

Treatment. All spinach diseases are controlled with difficulty,
since the parts attacked by the fungi grow quickly, and they
are then used as food. Fungicides would undoubtedly prevent
the entrance of the parasites, but the market value of the crop
would be lessened to such an extent that the applications can
scarcely be advised. The plants might be sprayed with dilute
solutions of clear fungicides, but comparatively little has as yet
been done in this direction. The destruction of all infested
leaves or plants appears to be the most advisable procedure.

SQUASH.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Powdery Mildew. See under MUSKMELON.

INSECT ENEMIES.
See under CUCUMBER.

STRAWBERRY.

Leaf Blight; Rust; Sunburn (Sphcerella Fragarice., Sacc.). —
Description. The foliage of strawberries is subject to the
attacks of a fungus which may appear at any time during the
growing season. The first symptom of the disease is the for-
mation of small purple spots which gradually increase in size
until they are from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in
diameter (Fig. 89). The purple color is early replaced by a
clear, reddish-brown, which becomes of a still lighter shade as
the season advances ; the edges of the spots, however, generally
remain purple. Badly infested leaves turn dark and are of no
value. The fungus passes the winter by means of spores, and
by mycelium contained within the leaves. This disease is fre-
quently very serious, especially upon certain varieties.

Treatment. Spraying the plants with the Bordeaux mixture
will check the trouble. Applications should be begun as soon
as growth starts in spring, and non-bearing plants may be
treated throughout the summer, the treatments being made
at intervals of three or four weeks. Bearing plantations will
derive benefit from a treatment made when growth starts in

Strawberry.

365

the spring, and from another made when the first blossoms
open. After harvesting the fruit, it is a good plan to mow off
the old foliage, then to remove and destroy it. Burning the
strawberry patch over is frequently followed by bad results.
The new growth should then be sprayed at intervals of three
or four weeks until two or three applications have been made.

Mildew (Sphcerotheca Castagnei, Lev.). — Description. This
fungus grows on the berries, and also on the surface of the

FIG. 89. — Strawberry leaf blight.

strawberry leaves, during the summer. It covers them with
a thin net of mycelium which resembles delicate cobweb.
Affected leaves curl and appear as if suffering from want of
water (Fig. 90). The disease is rarely serious.

Treatment. When the malady is first seen, spray the plants
with a fungicide containing copper. Sulphur, if scattered upon
the leaves and between the plants, is also said to check the
disease, since the heat of the sun at this season of the year is
sufficiently great to cause fumes to be given off freely.

366 The Spraying of Plants.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Leaf-roller (Phoxopteris comptana, Frol.). — Description. The
adult insect is a small, brown moth measuring about half an
inch across the wings. It appears in early spring and lays its
eggs upon the leaves of the strawberry, although the raspberry
and blackberry are rarely affected. The larvae are greenish
brown, and when full grown, nearly half an inch in length, but
rather slender. They mature in June after having spun a web
which causes the familiar rolling upward of the leaflets. The
soft tissue of the leaf is eaten, and what remains turns reddish
brown, giving the plant a burned appearance. There are two
broods in the North, the winter being passed in the pupal stage.

Treatment. Spray the plants during August, when the second
brood of larvae appears, with an insecticide such as Paris green
or London purple. Two applications may be required. Or the
foliage may be cut and burned, 'for the first brood pupates in
the rolled leaf, and in this manner it may be practically exter-
minated.

Sawfly; Slug (Emphytus maculatus, Norton). — Description.
" The four-winged fly appears in spring, and deposits its eggs
within the tissues of the leaf or stem. The larvae hatch in a
short time and feed upon the leaf, gnawing small, circular
holes at first like those eaten out of currant and gooseberry
leaves by young currant-worms. They develop in five or six
weeks into pale green worms about three-fourths of an inch
long. The larvae now go slightly beneath the surface, where
they form cocoons within which they change to the pupa state,
and later emerge as flies. In the southern states there are two
broods each season, while at the North there appears to be but
one."i

Treatment. Burn the foliage as soon as the crop is harvested,
or spray with hellebore or Paris green before there is danger of
poisoning the fruit. Plants which are not bearing may be
sprayed with an arsenite when the worms first appear, and
again later if necessary.

Tarnished Plant-bug (Lygus pratensis, Linn.). — Description.
This bug is about one-fourth of an inch in length. It is very
variable in color, some being dark yellow, and others nearly

» Weed, " Insects and Insecticides," 1891, 92.

Strawberry

367

black. The adult hibernates during the winter, but in the
spring it sucks the juice of the growing plants, preferring to
obtain it from the young fruits, which are in consequence
dwarfed. Eggs are laid early in spring, and soon both adult

FIG. 90. — Strawberry leaf curled by the mildew.

and immature forms may be found. A great many species of
plants suffer later in the season, and as there are from two to
four broods each year, much injury may be done.

Treatment. Pyrethrum powder dusted freely upon affected
plants will destroy the insects ; this is probably the best rem«

368 The Spraying of Plants.

edy. Kerosene emulsion is also effective, but there is danger oi
tainting the fruit.

SWEET POTATO.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Black Rot (Ceratocystis Jimbriata, E. & H.). — Description.
The fungus causes large, greenish-black patches to appear upon
the tubers; the dark color eventually extends deeply into the
potato, entirely ruining it. The disease may attack the young
plants in the seed beds, the infection coming either from the
soil or from unhealthy tubers. When the young sprouts are
affected, the stems near the ground become discolored by dark
lines or blotches, and the lower leaves frequently suffer in the
same manner. The shoots frequently die beyond the point of
attack.

Treatment. The use of unaffected potatoes for producing the
sets is essential. No diseased sprouts should be planted, and, if
possible, land that is free from the fungus should be used for
the crop. Spraying with copper compounds may materially
assist in checking the trouble in the field, and soaking the
tubers a short time in the ammoniacal carbonate of copper
before storing them may prevent its spread in the bins.

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta bataticola, E. and M.). — Description.
Sweet-potato foliage attacked by this disease dies at the points
of infection, the dead portions turning nearly white. The
plants may suffer severely from the disease, the yield being
correspondingly reduced.

Treatment. Spray with the Bordeaux mixture at the first
appearance of the fungus.

White Mold; Leaf Mold (Cystopus IpomcecE-pandurana, Farl.).
— Description. This fungus causes the leaves to turn brown,
the older ones being particularly affected. Small white patches
also appear on the under side of the discolored areas.

Treatment. Spraying the vines with a good fungicide will
probably prove valuable in checking the disease.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Sawfly (Schizocerus ebenus, Norton; S. privatus, Norton). —
Description. These two sawflies are not, as a rule, very seri-
ous, but occasionally they develop in sufficient numbers to do-

Sweet Potato^ Sycamore. 369

considerable damage. The larvae appear during the summer,
and feed upon the foliage.

Treatment. The same treatment recommended for the de-
struction of the currant sawfly will also destroy these insects.
The applications, however, need not begin until the young
larvae are noticed, but they should be repeated as required
during the summer.

Tortoise Beetles; Golden Bugs (Cassidce). — Description. The
insects hibernate in the adult state. They attack the young
potato vines during May and June, eating irregular holes in
the foliage. Eggs are laid, and during June and July the
larvae appear. At this time the vines are growing so fast that
the insects do comparatively little injury. The adults appear
again during July and August, but no eggs seem to be laid
until the following spring.

Treatment. Professor J. B. Smith recommends the use of
Paris green or London purple at the rate of 1 pound to 175
gallons of water. The application should be made as soon as
injury is noticed, both sides of the leaves receiving treatment.
The vines should be treated again if the first application does
not prove effective.

SYCAMORE.

Leaf Blight (Glceosporium neruisequum, Sacc.). — Description.
Both the native and the foreign species of plane trees are sub-
ject to the attacks of a fungus which causes the leaves to appear
as if scorched. The disease develops so early in the season
that the injury caused by it is often ascribed to frost. Entire
trees are frequently discolored by the abundance of brown leaf
surface, and although this form of the disease is present only
about two months, still trees have been killed by the repeated
attacks of the fungus. Diseased leaves often fall.

Treatment. The severity of the attacks can undoubtedly be
diminished by spraying with fungicides as soon as the leaves
unfold in spring, repeating the operation so that all new growths
may be protected. But such applications can only be made to
smaller trees, and when they are impracticable a probable help
in checking the malady is to burn all affected leaves that fall
from the trees.

2B

370 The Spraying of Plants.

TOBACCO.
INSECT ENEMIES.

Tobacco worm (Phlegethontius Carolina, Linn.). — Description.
The moth closely resembles the tomato worm as regards color
and habits. There are two broods in the South, and it is here
that much injury is done to the tobacco plantations through
the ravenous appetite of the worms.

Treatment. The destruction of the insect by means of the
arsenites appears to be the most feasible method. The follow-
ing practice appears to be safe and efficient : 1 " To those who
wish to use poison I would advise the use of (a) Paris green,
| pound in a forty-gallon barrel of water, with a little white-
wash well stirred in. (&) That the mixture be kept well stirred
in the barrel and sprayer, (c) That applications should begin
by the tenth of June and be repeated every two weeks by top-
ping, and that no applications should be made after that time."
Hand picking may also be resorted to.

TOMATO.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Blight ( Cladosporium fulvum, Cooke) . — Description. Af-
fected leaves first show dark-brown spots on the under side.
The upper surface at the same time turns yellow and the edges
of the leaves curl downward, as a rule. As the disease pro-
gresses, the foliage shrivels and eventually dies, leaving the
naked stems. The fungus is found both in greenhouses and
out of doors.

Treatment. For the treatment of the blight when found
upon plants grown under glass, see GREENHOUSE PESTS. When
the fungus appears out of doors, the plants should immediately
be thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, or modified
eau celeste, repeating the treatment at intervals of ten days or
two weeks, until no further infection is feared.

Rot (Maerosporium Tomato, Cooke). — Description. This
fungus generally attacks the tomatoes when they are over one-
half grown. The blossom end is attacked, the appearance of a
small black spot being the first indication of the disease. This

i Peter, Ky. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 53, 139.

Tomato. 371

spot increases in size until fully half of the tomato is destroyed.
The diseased part is black and sunken, and generally extends
squarely across the tomato from side to side (Fig. 91). The
warm moist weather of summer appears to be particularly
favorable to the development of this parasite.

Treatment. Very thorough spraying with the Bordeaux mix-
ture, or other copper compound, is perhaps the best preventive.
If possible, a dry location should be selected for growing the
plants, and the stems should be kept free from the ground.

FIG. 91. — Tomato rot

Two other serious diseases of the tomato are also known, but
as they are probably caused by bacteria, no remedies can as yet
be named. It is probable that one of these organisms is the
first cause of the rotting of tomatoes above described.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Tomato Worm (Phlegethontius celeus, Hbn.). — Description.
The larvae of this moth are fully three inches in length when
grown. They are of a green color, but have a few nearly white
markings on each side of the body. They devour an enormous
amount of foliage, and can be discovered by the bare places
among the plants. Early in September the larvae enter the
ground to pupate, and here they remain until the following
summer, when the moths appear. These belong to the Sphinx

372

The Spraying of Plants.

family, and they are beautifully and delicately marked. They
fly mostly in the evening. The ground color is a soft gray, but
there are various markings of a darker color, some red or
reddish-brown parts being present.

Treatment. Hand picking is the most common method of
destroying the larvae, but any of the poisons in use against
chewing insects would answer the purpose as well.

TURNIP.

INSECT ENEMIES.

Maggot. See under CABBAGE.

VERBENA.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Mildew ; Rust (Erysiphe Cichoracearum, DC., or Oidium ery-
'iphoides, Fr.). See under CUCUMBER.

FUNGOUS DISEASES.

VIOLET.

Mildew. See under PANSY.

Rust; Spot; Violet Disease

(Cercospora Violce, Sacc.). — All
violet growers are familiar
with this disease (Fig. 92),
which causes the formation
upon violet foliage of small,
circular, grayish - white spots
having a dark center. The
first appearance of the disease
may occur during summer,
while the plants are in the
open ground. Or it may not
be visible until late in win-
ter. Surrounding conditions
appear to have a strong influ-
ence in the development of the
fungus. Too much heat, care-
lessness in watering, fresh stable manure, and improper ven-
tilation have all been advanced as immediate causes of the

FIG. 92. —Violet disease.

Violet, Willow. 373

appearance of the disease. Much truth undoubtedly lies in
these statements, and the requirements of the plants should be
thoroughly understood by all who attempt to grow the crop.

Treatment. Give good culture. If the disease persists, spray
the plants with a good fungicide, as the Bordeaux mixture,
making the first application as soon as the disease appears,
and repeating it at intervals of two to four weeks. Destroy
affected leaves and plants.

WATERMELON.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Anthracnose. — This disease may be identical with the an-
thracnose of the BEAN, which see.
Powdery Mildew. See under MUSKMELON.

WEIGELIA.
INSECT ENEMIES.

Four-lined Leaf -bug. See under CURRANT.

WHEAT.
FUNGOUS DISEASES.

Stinking Smut (Tilletia fceteus, Schroet.; and T. Tritici
Wint.). — Description. This disease causes the wheat kernels
to become swollen as they approach maturity. They are at
first green in color, but later turn grayish-brown. If a kernel
is crushed, it will be found to be filled with a brown powder
possessing a very disagreeable odor : this has been the cause of
the popular name of the disease.

Treatment. See under OATS.

Loose Smut (Ustilago Tritici, Jensen). — Description. This
disease closely resembles the loose smut of oats. Unfortunately,
no practical remedies are as yet known.

WILLOW.
INSECT ENEMIES.

Willow-worm; Antiopa Butterfly (Vanessa Antiopa, Linn.).
- Description. The adult insect hibernates during the winter.

374 The Spraying of Plants.

It is a butterfly whose wings are "purplish brown above, with a
broad buff-yellow margin, near the inner edge of which there
is a row of pale blue spots. Expands from three to three and
a quarter inches."1 The eggs are laid early in spring upon
willow, poplar, and elm trees, the young larvae appearing early
in June. When full grown the larvae are nearly two inches in
length ; the ground color is black, but it is relieved by spots
of white and red. During June the larvae pupate, the adult
appearing early in July. There are two broods each year, the
larvae of the second appearing in August.

Treatment. The caterpillars are voracious feeders, and they
may be destroyed by arsenical poisons.

* Harris, "Insects of Mass. Injurious to Vegetation," 1841, 218.

APPENDIX.

A. LAWS REGARDING THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS.

Many of the organisms which attack cultivated plants have
become so abundant and serious in certain localities that com-
munities have taken measures to check the spread of existing
parasites, and also to prevent the introductions of different ones
which occur in other localities. A few States have passed quar-
antine laws with this end in view, all nursery stock being rigidly
examined, and treated if necessary, before its passage into the
State is allowed. The exportation of trees, etc., from very re-
stricted areas within certain States has also been forbidden.
The suppression of insect and fungous diseases is thus rapidly
increasing in importance, and laws aiming at their extermina-
tion are being more and more frequently passed. Several of
these consider the spraying of plants, and below will be found
the leading points concerning these acts.

CALIFORNIA has been a pioneer in legislating against plant
diseases. On March 14, 1881, there was approved "An Act
to Protect and Promote the Horticultural Interests of the
State." It was amended by an act approved March 19, 1889,
and by an act approved March 31, 1891. Section 1 states :
" Whenever a petition is presented to the Board of Supervisors
of any county, and signed by twenty-five or more persons who
are resident freeholders and possessors of an orchard, or both,
stating that certain or all orchards or nurseries, or trees of any
variety are infested with scale insects of any kind injurious to
fruit, fruit trees, and vines, codlin-moth, or other insects that
are destructive to trees, and praying that a commission be

375

376 Appendix.

appointed by them, whose duty it shall be to supervise theii
destruction as herein provided, the Board of Supervisors shall,
within twenty days thereafter, select three commissioners for
the county to be known as a ' County Board of Horticultural
Commissioners.' . . ." [Statutes of California, 1889, 413.]

It is the duty of the County Board to cause the inspection of
all plantations and buildings in which the presence of injurious
insects or fungi is feared. If such are found, a notice is served
upon the proper individuals, and it then becomes incumbent
upon the latter to destroy the pest. In case this is not done
within a certain period, the Board is compelled to assume the
work, the expenses being ultimately drawn from the owners of
the property. An excellent feature of the above law is that all
officials are required to enforce its provisions, as is distinctly
stated. The mere granting of power to act in a certain man-
ner has been fatal to the enforcement of other laws of this
nature.

Several counties have availed themselves of the benefits to be
derived from the above acts, and have passed ordinances suited
to their needs. In 1894, thirty-four counties possessed " Horti-
cultural Quarantine Guardians."

CANADA possesses a law which prohibits spraying fruit trees
while in bloom with any substance injurious to bees. The act
was passed in April, 1892, and reads as follows :

" 1. No person in spraying or sprinkling fruit trees during
the period within which such trees are in full bloom shall use,
or cause to be used, any mixture containing Paris green or any
other poisonous substance injurious to bees.

"2. Any person contravening the provisions of this Act,
shall on summary conviction thereof before a justice of the
peace, be subject to a penalty of not less than $1.00 or more
than $5.00 with or without costs of prosecution, and in case of
a fine or a fine and costs being awarded, and of the same not
being upon conviction forthwith paid, the justice may commit
the offender to the common gaol, there to be imprisoned for any
term not exceeding thirty days unless the fine and costs are
sooner paid.

"3. This Act shall not come into force until the first day of
January, 1893."

Appendix. 377

This law scarcely appears necessary, as all our fruits may be
amply protected without treating them during the blossoming
period ; and, bees unquestionably suffer if such applications
are made.

The MASSACHUSETTS legislature, on March 14, 1890, approved
an act whereby the Governor was " authorized to appoint a
commission to provide and carry into execution all possible and
reasonable measures to prevent the spreading, and secure the
extermination of the Ocneria dispar or gypsy moth, in this
Commonwealth." Three commissioners were appointed, and
work was begun April 1st.

In 1891, by an act approved April 17th, the entire work
came under the control of the State Board of Agriculture.
Spraying with Paris green was one of the methods adopted for
the extermination of the insect. " "When the caterpillars ap-
peared, spraying was commenced with a large force of men and
teams equipped with hogsheads of Paris green and water,
pumps, hose, ladders, oil suits, etc. — an extensive and expen-
sive outfit." l The remedy proved to be only partially success-
ful, however, as it was expensive, and it met the opposition of
property owners. The large size of many of the plants also
prevented proper applications from being made, so that the
treatments have since met with little favor.

MICHIGAN passed a compulsory spraying law early in 1895.
It is entitled, " An Act to Prevent the Spreading of Bush, Vine,
and Fruit Tree Pests, such as Canker Worms and Other Insects,
and Fungous and Contagious Diseases, and to Provide for their
Extirpation."

The more important features of the law are here outlined :
"Section 1. The people of the state of Michigan enact that
it shall be the duty of every owner, possessor, or occupier of
an orchard, nursery, or vineyard, or of land where fruit trees or
vines are grown, within this state, to spray with a poisonous
solution or disinfectant of sufficient strength to destroy such
injurious insects or contagious diseases, all fruit trees or vines
grown on such lands which may be infested with any injurious
insects or worms, or infected with any contagious disease known

1 Special Report of the Mass. State Bd. of Agric. Jan. 1892, 7.

378 Appendix.

to be injurious to fruit or fruit trees or vines : Provided, That
no such spraying shall be done while said fruit trees or vines
are in blossom, except in case of canker-worms.

"Section 2. In any township in this state where such inju-
rious insects or contagious diseases are known to exist, or in
which there is good reason to believe they exist, or danger may
be justly apprehended of their introduction, it shall be the duty
of the township board, upon the petition of at least ten free-
holders of such township, to appoint forthwith three competent
freeholders of said township, as commissioners, who shall hold
office during the pleasure of the board, and such order of ap-
pointment and of revocation shall be entered at large upon the
township record. Provided, That in townships having a board
of yellows commissioners, such commissioners shall be ex officio
commissioners under this act."

It is the duty of the commissioners to notify owners of plan-
tations of the presence of any injurious parasite, it being un-
necessary that a complaint be first made by any one.

" Section 5. Whenever any person shall refuse or neglect to
comply with the order to spray or disinfect the orchards or
vineyard designated by the commissioners, as aforesaid, it
shall become the duty of the commissioners to cause said trees
or vines to be effectually sprayed with a poisonous solution, or
disinfected, as occasion should require, forthwith, employing
all necessary aid for that purpose, and the expenses for the
same shall be a charge against the township; and for said
spraying or disinfecting, the said commissioners, their agents
or workmen, shall have the right and power to enter upon any
and all premises within their township.

" Section 6. If any owner, township officer, or commissioner,
neglects or refuses to comply with the requirements of this law
as set forth in the preceding sections, and within the time
therein specified, such persons shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars or
imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding sixty days, or
by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the
court ; and any justice of the peace of the township where
such trees or vines may be growing shall have jurisdiction
thereof."

The act was ordered to take immediate effect.

Appendix. 379

OREGON has followed the example of California, for on Feb-
ruary 25, 1889, the legislature approved " An Act to Create a
State Board of Horticulture and Appropriate Money Therefor."
It was amended February 21, 1891, and again in February, 1895.
After dwelling upon the formation of a "Board of Horticul-
ture," and other details of organization, etc., some of the powers
of the board are stated as follows :

" Section VI. For the purpose of preventing the introduction
into the State, or spread of contagious diseases, insect pests, or
fungous growth among fruit or fruit trees, and for the preven-
tion, treatment, cure, and extirpation of fruit pests, and diseases
of fruit and fruit trees, and for the disinfection of grafts, cions,
orchard debris, fruit boxes and packages, and other material or
transportable articles dangerous to orchards, fruit or fruit trees,
said Board may make regulations for the quarantining, inspec-
tion, and disinfection thereof, which said regulations shall be
circulated by the Board in printed form among the fruit grow-
ers and fruit dealers of the State, shall be published at least four
successive times in some daily or weekly paper in each county
in the State, before the same shall be in force therein, and shall
be posted in three conspicuous places in each county in the
State, one of which shall be at the County Court House.
Such regulations, when so promulgated, shall be held to im-
port notice of their contents to all persons within the State,
and shall be binding upon all persons therein. A wilful vio-
lation of any quarantine or other regulation of said Board,
necessary to prevent the introduction into the State, or the
shipment sale or distribution of any articles so infected as to
be dangerous to the fruit growing interest of the State, or the
spread of dangerous diseases among fruit trees or orchards,
shall be deemed a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof,
shall be punished by a fine of not less than five, nor more than
one hundred dollars, for each offense, or by fine and imprison-
ment for not less than five nor more than thirty days."

When the Board becomes aware of the presence of injurious
insects or fungi upon certain premises, the owner is to be noti-
fied.

" Such notice shall contain directions for the application of
some treatment approved by the Commissioners for the eradica-
tion or destruction of said pests, or the eggs or larvae thereof, or

380 Appendix.

the treatment of contagious diseases or fungous growths. Any
and all such places, orchards, nurseries, trees, plants, shrubs,
vegetables, vines, fruit, or articles thus infested are hereby
declared to be a public nuisance. And whenever any such
nuisance shall exist at any place in the State, on the property of
any owner or owners, upon whom or upon the person in charge
or possession of whose property, notice has been served as afore-
said, and who shall have failed or refused to abate the same
within the time specified in such notice, or on the property of
any non-resident or any property not in the possession of any
person and the owner or owners of which cannot be found by
the resident member of the Board or the Secretary, after diligent
search within the district, it shall be the duty of the Board, or
the members thereof in whose district said nuisance shall exist,
or the Secretary under his or their direction, to cause such
nuisance to be at once abated, by eradicating or destroying said
insects or pests, or their eggs or larvae, or by treating or disin-
fecting the infested or diseased articles. The expense thereof
shall be a County charge, and the County court shall allow and
pay the same out of the general fund of the County."

UTAH possesses a law which might be of considerable value.
It was approved March 8, 1894, and is known as

" An Act Authorizing the County Courts to Appoint Fruit
Tree Inspectors and to Provide for the Destruction of Fruit
Destroying Insects."

Its directions are specific, and so complete that if the county
probate judges perform their duty properly, the plants should
remain very free from parasites. The following extract shows
to what extent details are mentioned :

" Section 1. It shall be the duty of the county court of any
county in the Territory of Utah where fruit is grown, to appoint
one or more fruit tree inspectors for such county.

" Sec. 2. The duty of the fruit tree inspector of each county
shall be to inspect every orchard, vineyard or nursery in such
county at such time and under such regulations as the county
court shall prescribe. He shall annually report to the county
court every item of interest and the result of his labors pertain-
ing to the duties of his office.

* Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the Probate Judge of any

Appendix. 381

county wherein fruit trees are growing, to annually issue his
proclamation, stating the time or times when it is prudent and
proper to spray fruit trees and to otherwise disinfect orchards
that are infested with any kind of fruit-destroying insects, in
which he shall name two or more formulas that have been used
and approved for such purposes."

And further :

" Sec. 5. The county court is hereby authorized and required
to provide for the publication of the proclamation required by
section 3, and to formulate such rules and regulations as it may
deem proper, to govern the actions of the fruit tree inspector in
his duties, and to give such public notice as it may deem proper
in relation to the disinfecting of storerooms, warehouses and
salesrooms where fruits in either a green or dried state may be
stored, handled or offered for sale."

On March 8, 1895, a proclamation issued by the probate
judge of Sanpete County contained directions for spraying
apple, pear, peach, and plum trees, the time for making the
applications as well as the materials to be used being stated.

An inquiry was made to learn of the success attending the
enforcement of the terms of the proclamation, and of the gen-
eral effectiveness of the act as passed by the legislature. Mr.
Joseph Judd, the probate judge of Sanpete County, replied as
follows :

" In answer to your favor on the subject of our spraying laws, will say we have
the law on our statute book, and it was enforced in 1894. It has been carried out
thoroughly this year again, and we have found good results of the spraying. There
is no doubt that spraying is absolutely necessary in these dry climates, and I con-
sider it a very necessary law. But I have always doubted its constitutionality, as
it hardly looks reasonable that the law can tell a person just how and when he shall
spray or otherwise treat his orchard, and inflict a penalty if the law is not complied
with.

" Some of our people have refused to comply in full, or as to when they shall
spray, and we have just had a ruling on the law by our chief justice Merritt. He
declares the law unconstitutional, and from this time on I think that spraying will
not be done so generally."

With such a precedent, it appears doubtful if laws designed
to control spraying will ever become popular.

382

Appendix.

B. METRIC SYSTEM.

The meter is the primary unit of length. It is equal to
ToooWfftfth part of the distance measured on a meridian of
the earth from the equator to the pole, and equals about 39.37
inches.

MEASURES OF LENGTH.

EQUIVALENTS.

Myriameter

10,000 meters

6.213T miles

Kilometer

1,000

j 0.62137 mile, or
1 8280 ft. 10 in.

Hectometer

100

828 ft. 1 in.

Dekameter

10

393.7 in.

Meter

1 meter

39.37 in.

Decimeter

.1

3.937 in.

Centimeter

.01 "

.3937 in.

Millimeter

.001 "

.03937 in.

MEASUEES OF SURFACE.

EQUIVALENTS.

Hectare 10,000 sq. meters
Are 100 "
Centare 1 " meter

2.471 acres
119.6 sq. yards
1550. sq. inches.

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

No. OF
LITERS.

CUBIC MEASURE.

DRY MEASURE.

LIQUID OR WINE
MEASURE.

Kiloliter, or Stere

1000

1 en. meter

1.308 cu. yards

264.17 gal.

Hectoliter

100

.1"

2 bu. 3.35 pks.

26.417 gal.

Dekaliter

10

10 cu. decimeters

9.08 quarts

2.6417 gal.

Liter

1

1 cu. decimeter

.909 quart

1.0567 qts.

Deciliter

.1

.1 " "

6.1022 cu. inches

.845 gill

Centiliter

.01

10 cu. centimeters

.6102 cu. inch

.338 fl. oz.

Milliliter

.001

.1 cu. centimeter

.061 " "

.27 fl. dram

EQUIVALENTS.

Appendix.

383

SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS.

EQUIVALENTS.

No. OF GRAMS.

WEIGHT OF WATER
MAXIMUM DENSITY.

AVOIRDUPOIS
WEIGHT.

Millier, or Tonneau

1,000,000

1 cu. meter

2204.6 pounds

Quintal

100,000

1 hectoliter

220.46

Myriagram

10,000

1 dekaliter

22.046 "

Kilogram, or Kilo

1,000

1 liter

2.2046 "

Hectogram

100

1 deciliter

3.5274 oz.

Dekagram

10

10 cu. centimeters

.3527 "

Gram

1

1 cu. centimeter

15.432 grains

Decigram

.1

.1 "

1.5432 "

Centigram

.01

10 cu. millimeters

.1543 grain

Milligram

.001

1 " millimeter

.0154 "

COMMON
MEASURE.

EQUIVALENTS.

COMMON
MEASURE.

EQUIVALENTS.

An inch

2.54 centimeters

A cu. yard

.7646 cu. meter

Afoot

.3048 meter

A cord

3.624 steres

A yard

.9144 "

A liquid qt.

.9465 liter

A rod

5.029 meters

A gallon

3.786 liters

A mile

1.6093 kilometers

A dry qt.

1.101 "

A sq. inch

6.452 sq. centimeters

A peck

8.811 "

A " foot

.0929 sq. meter

A bushel

35.24 "

A " yard

.8361 " "

An oz. avoirdupois

28.35 grams

A " rod

25.29 sq. meters

A pound "

.4536 kilogram

An acre

.4047 hectare

A ton

.9072 tonneau

A sq. mile

259 hectares.

A grain troy

.0648 gram

A cu. inch

16.39 cu. centimeters

An oz. "

31.104 grams

A " foot

.02832 cu. meter

A pound "

.3732 kilogram

INDEX.

Acetate of copper, 137.

Aceto-arsenite of copper, 121.

Acme nozzle, 204.

Aconite, 16.

Acrobasis Vaccinii, 280.

Actinonema Jtosce, 358.

Action of insecticides and fungicides,
225-238.

Adhesive power of fungicides, 47.

Algeria tipuliformis, 286.

Agitators, 211-213.

Air-chambers, 210, 211.

Air-slaked lime, chemistry of, 156.

Albrand, knapsack pump, 187, 188.

Alcohol, 9, 13, 115 ; amylic, 50.

Aletia argillacea, 277.

Aleyrodes, sp., 321.

Alkali and oil wash, 161.

Almond disease, 239 : leaf blight, 239.

Aloes, 12, 50 ; and soda, 172.

Alum and calcium chloride, 44 ; pyreth-
rum, 116.

Alwood, W. B., quoted, 69, 70.

American Ball Nozzle Co., mentioned,
202.

Ammonia, 116; and brass, 207, 208.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate, advan-
tages of, 139 ; and arsenites, 136, 140 ;
and Paris green, 106 ; introduction of,
into America, 101 ; preparation of, 13S ;
recommended, 108.

Ammoniated copper fungicides, 30 ; cop-
per sulphate, 117 ; and ammonium
carbonate, 160.

Ammonium carbonate and ammoniated
copper sulphate, 160 ; and copper car-
bonate, 140, 141 ; copper sulphate, 151 ;
cupric hydroxide, 140 ; sulphate, 44 ;
and Bordeaux mixture, 48 ; and copper
sulphate, 35.

2 r 3

Amylic alcohol, 50.

Analyses, miscellaneous, 117.

Analysis of sprayed grapes, 232, 233.

Anhydrous copper sulphate, 143.

Anisopteryx pometaria, 249, 251.

Anisota rubricunda, 312.

Anthonomus guadrig-ibbus, 255, 256.

Anthracnose, bean, 261-263; carnation,
271 ; currant, 285 ; eggplant, 290 ;
grape, 294, see also grape anthracnose ;
raspberry, 355; spinach, 363; water-
melon, 261, 373.

Antiopa butterfly, 373.

Ants, destruction of, 57, 135.

Aphis, 10, 308 ; apple, 247 ; black, peach,
332; Brassicce, 267; cabbage, 267;
destruction of, 12; Cucumeris, 283;
Mali, 247 ; Persicw-niger, 332; woolly,
10.

Apple aphis, 247 ; bitter rot, 240 ; black
rot, 241 ; borers, 248 ; brown rot, 241 ;
bud-moth, 248 ; canker-worm, 249, 251 ;
case-worm, 251, 252 ; cigar-case-bearer,
251, 252 ; codlin-moth, 252-255 ; coleo-
phora, 64 ; curculio, 255, 256 ; spraying
for, 69 ; enemies and diseases, 240-260 ;
fall web-worm, 256; leaf blight, first
treated in America, 88; leaf-skeleton-
izer, 257 ; maggot, 257 ; oyster-shell
bark -louse, 258 ; powdery mildew, 241 ;
railroad-worm, 257 ; ripe rot, 240 ; rust,
242 ; scab, 243-247 ; scab, first treated
in America, 88; scab, treatment of,
101 ; sprayed with arsenites, 231 ; tent
caterpillar, 258 ; value of spraying, 237 ;
woolly aphis, 259.

Apricot, curculio, 260; enemies and dis-
eases, 260 ; leaf rust, 260.

Aqua ammonia, 116.

Aquarius, pump, 190.

386

The Spraying of Plants.

Arsenate of lead, 120 ; experiments with,
77 ; preparation of, 77 ; soda, 120 ; soda,
experiments with, 77.

Arsenic, 117; compared with arsenites,
76 ; early use of, 56, 75 ; effect of, on
vegetation, 120 ; trioxide, 117.

Arsenicals and resin compounds, 136, 169.

Arsenious acid, 117 ; anhydride, 117.

Arsenite of, copper, 120 ; lime, 128 ; prep-
aration of, 77, 119.

Arsenites and ammoniacal copper car-
bonate, 136, 140; glue, 147; kerosene
emulsion, 155; lime, 76, 77, 105; plum
curculio. 68-74 ; soap, preparation of,
170 ; comparison of, 76 ; danger of
their use, 231 ; in England, 66 ; France,
53 ; soil, 236.

Artipus Floridanus, 321.

Asparagus beetle, 260.

Aspidiotus perniciosus, 828.

Aster, leaf rust, 260.

Atkinson, G. F., mentioned, 277 ; quoted,

271-273.

Audoynaud, quoted, 30.
Australasia, spraying in, 57.
Automatic cleaning nozzle, 200.

Bacterial blight, potato, 849 ; disease of

pear, 334.
Bailey, L. H., mentioned, 199; quoted,

111,236,251,355,868.
Bailey nozzle, 200.
Ball nozzle, 202.
Balm of Gilead, leaf rust, 261.
Balsam of fir and kerosene emulsion, 156.
Barley, affected by copper salts, 237 ; dis-
eases, 261 ; rust, 819.
Barnard nozzle, 203.
Barnard, W. 8., mentioned, 202, 203;

suggested kerosene emulsion, 82.
Baron, Le, quoted, 61, 62.
Barrel machine, 191 ; pumps, 209-220.
Barry, P., quoted, 13.
Beach, 8. A., quoted, 263.
Bean, anthracnose, 261-268 ; enemies and

diseases, 261-263; lima, blight, 264;

new, nozzle, 199 ; pod rust, 261-263 ;

rust, 263 ; weevil, 263.
Beans, affected by copper salts, 235, 237.
Bean-Chamberlin M'f g Co., mentioned,

192.
Bean's cyclone nozzle, 204.

Beaum6, scale of, 116, 117.

Beaune, treatment of, 24, 29.

Bees, poisoning by sprays, law regard-
ing, 376.

Beet, diseases, 264, 265; leaf spot, 264;
root rot, 264; rust, 265; treatment,
101 ; scab, 265.

Belknap Co., mentioned, 199.

Bellows, 204, 205 ; for atomizing liquids,
186.

Bencker, G., quoted, 44.

Benzine, 125; emulsion (Italian), 145.

Berrichone mixture, tested, 48.

Bessey, C. E., quoted, 65-67.

B. F. J., quoted, 98.

Bidault, quoted, 24.

Bird's-eye rot, grape, 294-296.

Bisulphide of carbon, 52, 134 ; emulsion
(Italian), 145 ; injector, 135.

Bitter rot, apple, 240 ; grape, 305 ; gourd,
5.

Black aphis, peach, 332.

Blackberry, 266 ; see also Kaspberry ;
anthracnose, 101.

Blackhead, cranberry, 280.

Black knot, and kerosene, 106; cherry,
275: plum, 340; treatment of, 111,
112.

Black-lined plant-bug, 287.

Black rot, apple, 241; grape, 297-300;
early treatment of, 89 ; in France, 39 ;
quince, 353 ; sweet potato, 368 ; spot,
peach, 327 ; rose, 358.

Blight, bacterial, of potato, 349 ; carna-
tion, 273 ; celery, 274 ; early, of potato,
845; fire, pear, 334; leaf, plum, 339;
quince, 353 ; lima bean, 264 ; twig,
peach, 328 ; potato, 347 ; powder, 174 ;
privet, 352 ; quince, 334, 353 ; tomato,
870.

Blue stone, 142 ; vitriol, 142.

Bones, burnt, 6.

Borate of soda ; see Sodium borate.

Borax, 125.

Bordeaux mixture, agitation of, 132 ; and
amount of lime required, 128 ; air-
slaked lime, 30 ; ammonium sulphate,
48; carbonic acid gas, 127; ferrocy-
anide of potassium, 128, 129; glue,
28, 44, 48 ; kerosene, 136 ; kerosene
emulsion, 156 ; London purple, 105 ;
molasses, 43, 131, 133 ; potassium fer-
rocyanide, 46; resin washes, 136; as

Index.

387

an insecticide, 109, 133 ; Cavazza's, 131 ;
celeste, formula for, 42 ; celeste, tested,
44, 48 ; chemistry of. 125-128 ; dried,
144 ; early method of applying, 181 ;
excess of lime, 41 ; first formula for,
2T, 28, 81, 34, 38 ; formula for, 104 ; in
1888, 38; Australia, 5T; England, 55;
injury to grapes, 232, 233 ; injurious to
sheep, 234 ; introduction into America,
90, 92, 101 ; normal, 108, 130 ; origin
of, 24; preparation of, 125-133; stan-
dard, 108, 130; suggested for other
plant diseases in America, 91 ; tested,
48; with dissolved copper, 41, 42;
nozzle, 199, 210.

Borer, apple, 248; cane of raspberry,
357 ; currant, 286 ; imported currant,
286 ; peach, 332 ; pear, 248, 335 ; plum,
248,343.

Boss nozzle, 199.

Bouchard, A., treatment of, 35.

Bouillie berrichonne, 37 ; bordelaise, see
Bordeaux mixture ; bordelaise celeste
a poudre unique, 48 ; bourguignonnes,
32 ; dauphinoise, 35.

Bourguignonne mixture, tested, 48.

Bowers, J. L., mentioned, 69.

Brass, for pumps, 207, 208.

Bridgeman, T., quoted, 13.

Brimstone, 6, 12.

Broom for applying Bordeaux mixture,
1S1 ; improved, 182.

Brown rot, apple, 241 ; cherry, 274 ;
grape, 300-302 ; peach, 328 ; plum,
339.

Brown turtle insect, 10.

JBruchus obtectus, 263; Pisi, 326.

Bucket pump, early use of, 190 ; pumps,
208, 209.

Budd, J. L., mentioned, 65, 66 ; quoted,
63.

Bud-moth, apple, 248; pear, 248, 335;
plum, 248, 343.

Buhach, 79 ; preparation, 163, 164.

Burdock leaves, 13.

Bush & Son & Meissner, quoted, 94.

Cabbage, aphis, 267 ; bug, harlequin, 269 ;
butterfly, 268; club-foot, 266; root,
266; enemies and diseases, 266-270;
finger-and-toe, 266 ; fly, 13 ; harlequin
bug, 269 ; plusia, 267 ; root-maggot,
268 ; treatment of, 135 ; worm, 263.

Cceoma luminatum, 356.

Calcium chloride and alum, 44.

California spider, 321.

Calla nozzle, 202.

Canada, spraying in, 112-114.

Cane borer, raspberry, 357 ; rust, rasp-
berry, 355.

Canker, 4 ; worm, 8 ; and London purple,
67 ; apple, 249, 251 ; cherry, 275 ; early
treatment of, 63 ; elm, 291 ; experi-
ments on, 79 ; Paris green, first use
for, 62 ; plum, 249, 343.

Cantharides, 4.

Capol, de, quoted, 44.

Carbolic acid, 18, 133; and glycerine,
134 ; soap, 134 ; emulsion, 134 ; tested,
57.

Carbolized plaster, 134.

Carbon bisulphide, 52, 134; and kero-
sene, 135; emulsion (Italian), 145.

Carbonate of ammonia and copper car-
bonate, 141 ; copper, 137 ; soda, 52.

Carnation, anthracnose, 271 ; blight, 273 ;
diseases, 271, 272; rust, 272; spot, 273.

Carpet-bug destroyer, analysis of, 118.

Carpocapsa pomonella, 252-255.

Carrere powder, 41.

Case-worm, apple, 251, 252.

Cassida?, 369.

Catalpa, leaf spot, 273 ; treatment, 102.

Caterpillar, of insects, 228.

Caterpillars, destruction of, 51.

Cauliflower, enemies and diseases, 273 ;
see also Cabbage.

Cavazza's Bordeaux mixture, 131.

Cedar-apple, 242.

Celery, blight, 274 ; caterpillar, 274, 324 ;
enemies and diseases, 274 ; leaf blight,
274 ; rust, 274 ; sun-scald, 274.

Ceratocystis fimbriata, 368.

Cercospora angulata, 285; Apii, 274;
beticola, 264; circumcissa, 239; Re-
sedce, 314; roscecola, 358; Fi0&»,372.

Chafer, rose, 362.

Chapin, quoted, 62.

Chapin's apple leaf sewer, 64.

Charbon, grape, 297-300.

Chemicals, early use of, 19.

Cherry black knot, 111, 275; brown rot,
274 ; canker-worm, 275 ; curculio, 275 ;
enemies and diseases, 274, 275 ; leaf
blight, 275; powdery mildew, 275;
slug, 275.

388

The Spraying of Plants.

Chester, F. D., mentioned, 128 ; on grape

diseases, 10T ; pear diseases, 109, 110 ;

quoted, 137, 140, 141.
Chloride of calcium and alum, 44 ; copper,

141 ; iron, 101, 151 ; mercury wash,

160; sodium, 169.
Chlorophyll, 229.
Chrysalis, 228.
Chrysanthemum, disease, 275, 276; leaf

spot, 275 ; new leaf spot, 276.
Chrysobothrisfemorata, 248.
Cigar-case-bearer, apple, 251, 252 ; pear,

251, 835.
Cladosporium carpophilum, 327 ; den-

driticum, experiments on, 22; ful-

imm, 370 ; sp. 820.
Clay, 8, 9.

Climax nozzle, 201 ; potato sprayer, 194.
Cline, G. W., mentioned, 112.
Olisiocampa Americana :•, 77, 258.
Clock pumps, 217.
Cloque, 47.

Club-foot, cabbage, 266.
Coal oil, 152 ; tar, 136.
Cobbett, W., quoted, 10.
Coccotorus scutellaris, 344.
Coccus, 7.

Cochylis roserana, destruction of, 52.
Codlin-moth and London purple, 63, 68 ;

Paris green, 64 ; apple, 252, 255 ; first

treated by experimentation, 65; with

Paris green, 63 ; pear, 252, 335.
Cold water, 179.

Coleophora Fletcher ella, 251, 252.
Coleosporium Sonchi-arvensis, 260.
Colletotrichwn Spinacem, 363.
Colorado potato beetle, 351.
Colsa oil, 52.
Combination of arsenites and kerosene

emulsion, 155.
Combinations, 148 ; of insecticides and

fungicides, 186; of insecticides and

fungicides, suggested, 105.
Combined cistern and force-pump, 191 ;
Composition of Forsyth, 6.
Oonotrachelus nenuphar, 275, 343.
Cook, A. J., mentioned, 67, 68 ; on kero-
sene emulsion, 81 ; quoted, 62, 63, 64,

184, 283, 235, 251.
Cook's hard soap emulsion, 154 : soft

soap emulsion, 154.
Copper, absorbed by foliage, 234, 235;

acetate, 137 ; aceto arsenite, 121 ; action

on foliage, 234 ; plants, 235 ; soil, 286;
amount in soil, 236; carbonate, 137;
ammoniacal solution, 138 ; and ammo-
nium carbonate, 141 ; dextrine, 44 ;
chemistry of, 137 ; early use upon
grapes, 27 ; in ammonia, introduction
into America, 101 ; precipitated, sug-
gested, 36; recommended, 46; chlo-
ride, 141 ; compounds and sugar, 173 ;
hydrate and ammonia, 36; sulphur,
44 ; perforation of, 44 ; recommended,
46 ; hydro carbonate, 44 ; in food, 235 ;
mixture of Gironde, 125; nitrate, in
soil, 287 ; phosphate, 44 ; early use
upon grapes, 27 ; soda mixture, see
copper carbonate, 141 ; sodium hypo-
sulphite, 141 ; sulphate, action on
foliage, 46; spores, 22, 235; ammo-
niated, 117 ; and ammonium carbon-
ate, 151 ; sulphate, 85 ; carbonate of
soda, 36; lime mixture, 125; Paris
green, 105; sodium carbonate, 44;
sulphuric acid, 143 ; wheat smut, 318 ;
anhydrous, 143 ; as a fungicide, 142 ;
dissolved in ammonia, 30 ; early use
of, 17, 22, 27 ; in Australia, 57 ; Eng-
land, 55; soil, 237; on foliage, 34;
preparation of, 142 ; salt and lime
wash, 162 ; test for purity, 142 ; tested,
41; value of, on posts, etc., 24; sul-
phide, early use upon grapes, 27;
sulphocyanide, 44 ; sulphosaccharate,
42, 173.

Copperas, 151, see also Iron sulphate.

Coquillett, D. W., work of, 85, 87.

Corn, affected by copper salts, 235, 237 ;
enemies and diseases, 276, 277 ; insect
enemies, 277 ; root-worm, southern,
283 ; smut, 276.

Cornell mixture, 143.

Corrosive sublimate, 9 ; use of, 160.

Cotton blight, 10 ; caterpillar, 277 ; ene-
mies and diseases, 277, 278 ; leaf-worm,
277 ; worm, 277, 286; Paris green for,
61.

Cottonwood, leaf-beetle, 278 ; rust, 278.

Craig, quoted, 112, 114.

Cranberry, blackhead, 280 ; enemies and
diseases, 279-281 ; fire-worm, 280 ;
fruit-worm, 280 ; gall fungus, 279 ; red
rust, 279 ; rot, 279 ; scald, 279 ; vine-
worm, 280 ; worm, 280.

Craw, quoted, 149-151.

Index.

389

Crawford, F. S., quoted, 57.

Creed, W., mentioned, 69.

Crioceris Atparagi, 260.

Cruickshank, G., quoted, 80.

Cuboni, C., quoted, 20, 157.

Cucumber, enemies and diseases, 281-
284 ; melon-louse, 283 ; worm, 2S3 ;
mildew, 281, 314; powdery mildew,
283; southern corn root-worm, 283;
spotted beetle, 283 ; striped beetle, 284.

Cupram, 138.

Cupric-steatite, 174.

Cuprophosphate, 44.

Cuprosteatite, 44, 144.

Curculio, apple, 255, 256 ; spraying for,
69 ; on apricot, 260 ; cherry, 275 ; pear,
255, 335 ; plum, 332, 343 ; spraying for,
68-74 ; peach, 329.

Currant, anthracnose, 285; borer, 286;
bug, yellow-lined, 287 ; enemies and
diseases, 2S5-290; green, leaf-hopper,
289 ; imported borer, 286 ; leaf blight,
285 ; spot, 285 ; rust. 2S5 ; sawfly, 286 ;
worm, 13 ; imported, 286 ; introduction
into America, 59.

Cyanide of potassium, 149.

Cyclone, Bean's, nozzle, 204 ; nozzle,
"202,203.

CylindrospoHum Padi, 275, 339.

Cystopus IpomtKce-pandurance, 368.

Dactylopius adonidum, 309.
Dahlia, insects affecting, 290.
Dakruma con colutella, 293.
Dalmatian insect powder, 163.
Davenport's modification of sulphatine,

57.

David powder, 33, 144; in Australia, 57.
Deane, S., quoted, 4, 6.
Death to rose-bugs, analysis of, 118.
Deming MT g Co., mentioned, 195, 197.
Dendrolene, 250.

Dfpressa heracliana, 325. »
Devices, spraying, 207-224.
Dextrine and copper carbonate, 44.
Diabrotica, 12 ; punctota, 283 ; «?*Y-

tata, 284.

Diffuser, nozzle, 201.
Diploninpyritora, 335.
Diseases treated in America in 1887, 102 ;

in 1888, 103 ; in 18S9, 104-106 ; in 1890,

106-108 ; in 1891, 10>-110, in 1892, 110 ;

in 1894, 111.

Disulphide of carbon, 184.
Doryphora 10-lineata, 351.
Dosch, H. E., quoted, 162.
Douglas, W. & B., mentioned, 190.
Downy mildew, grape, see also Grape,

300-302 ; appearance in France, 19, 25 ;

potato, 347.
Dung, 4, 6, 16.
Dust sprayer, Sirocco, 205.

Early blight, potato, 345.

Eau'celeste, action on foliage, 46 ; chem-
istry of, 145 ; in Australia, 57 ; modi-
fied, 160; preparation of, 144; sug-
gested, 30 ; tested, 35, 38, 41.

Eau Grison, 16, 147, 307.

Eclair, knapsack pump, 187.

Eddy-chamber nozzles, 203, 210; the
spray of, 224.

Eggplant, anthracnose, 290; leaf spot,
290.

Elder, 7, 11, 13.

Elm, canker-worm, 291 ; flea-beetle, 292 ;
gipsy moth, 291 ; insects affecting, 291,
292 ; leaf-beetle, 292 ; span-worm, 291 ;
trees, spraying with steam power,
195.

Emerald green, 121.

Emphytu* maculatv*, 366.

Empoa albopicta, 289.

Emulsions, kerosene, and Bordeaux mix-
ture, 156 ; milk, 153 ; pyrethrum, 156 ;
soaps, 154, 155; linseed" oil, 158; prep-
aration of, 145.

Engines, garden, 11 ; gas, 196 ; steam,
195, 196.

England, fungicides in. 55; insecticides
in, 56 ; spraying in, 54.

English purple poison, 74 ; composition,
123 ; use of, 123.

Entomosporium maculatum, 333,
353.

Erytiphe Cichoracearum, 281, 872 ;
Jfartii, 326.

Erythrontura Vitis, 306.

Eudioptis hyalinata, 283.

Eureka nozzle, 199.

Europe, spraying in, 53.

European hellebore, 148.

Exoaacu*, 47 ; deformans, 329 ; Prwnt,
34-2.

Experiment stations, establishment of,
102.

390

The Spraying of Plants.

Fairchild, D. G., quoted, 234.

Fall web-worm, apple, 256.

Fantail nozzle, 199.

Farmyard drainage, 12.

Fernald, C. H., quoted, 77, 248.

Ferrocyanide of potassium and Bordeaux
mixture, 128, 129 ; chemical action of,
146 ; recommended, 46 ; test for iron,
151 ; use of, 129.

Ferrous chloride, 151 ; sulphate, tested,
57.

Fessenden, T., quoted, 10, 11.

Fichet's insecticide, 50.

Field Force Pump Co., mentioned, 191.

Finger-and-toe, of cabbage, 266.

Fir balsam and kerosene emulsion, 156.

Fire blight, pear, 334.

Fire, for strawberry leaf blight, 865.

Fire-worm, cranberry, 280.

Fish-oil, 8 ; and soap, 171 ; soap, 146 ;
use of, 166-169.

Flax rubbish, 8.

Flea-beetle, 345 ; elm, 292 ; grapevine,
306 ; on potato, 351.

Fletcher, J., mentioned, 114.

Florida spray pump, 191.

Flour, 146.

Flowers of sulphur, uses of, 175.

Foex, M. G., mentioned, 96.

Foliage, copper absorbed by, 234.

Foliage-eating insects, 309.

Formulas and materials, 115-180.

Forsyth, W., quoted, 6, 7.

Forsyth's composition, 6.

Fostite ; see Sulphosteatite.

Four-lined leaf bug, 287, 373 ; plant bug,
287, 290.

French applications of fungicides to
grapes, 49 ; fungicides, introduction
of, 93, 95, 99 ; green, 121 ; knapsack
pumps in America, 186.

Frenching, 329.

Fruit, keeping qualities of sprayed, 238 ;
not poisoned by arsenites, 231 ; rot, of
peach, 328; spot, pear, 333; spot,
quince, 353 ; worm, cranberry, 280 ;
gooseberry, 293.

Fuma, 134.

Fungi, classes of, 229 ; definition of, 228,
229 ; methods of destroying, 230 ; treat-
ment of, 230.

Fungicides, action on soil, 235-237 ; and
insecticides, action of, 225-238; com-

parative test of, 48 ; early trials of, 19 ;
first used in America, 87 ; French, in-
troduction of, 93 ; test by Bencker, 44 ;
of adhesive powers, 47 ; in America, 93,
107, 108, 114 ; use in America, 92-114.

Fungivore, 21.

Fusicladium dendriticum, 243-247;
Pyrinum, early treatment of, 47 ; ex
periments on, 22.

Gaillot's knapsack pump, 186.

Galeruca xanthm/ielcena, 292.

Gall fungus, cranberry, 279.

Galloway, B. T., quoted, 107, 108 ; knap-
sack pump, 188, 189.

Garden engine, 11, 184, 185 ; early form
of, 190.

Garman. H., quoted, 241.

Gas engines, 196 ; treatment, see Hydro-
cyanic acid gas.

Gases for grape mildew, 96.

Gayon, U., quoted, 48.

Gem nozzle, 199.

Germany, spraying in, 54.

Gillette, C. P., and plum curculio, 71 ;
quoted, 105, 106.

Gipsy moth, on elm, 291.

Girard, A., quoted, 47.

GlcKosporiurn fructigenum, 240, 305;
melongenea, 290 ; necator, 355 ; ner-
visequum, 369 ; Ribis, 285.

Glover's scale, 322.

Glucose, 174.

Glue and arsenites, 147 ; and Bordeaux
mixture, 48 ; value of, 147.

Glycerine and carbolic acid, 134 ; Grison
liquid, 97 ; phenic acid, 24.

Goeze, J. A. E., quoted, 5.

Goff, E. 8., mentioned, 65, 196; quoted,
88.

Golden bugs on sweet potato, 369.

Gooseberry enemies and diseases, 292-
294; fruit-worm, 293; mildew, treat-
ment, 102, 292 ; sawtiy, 13, 286.

Gophers, treatment of, 135.

Gordon, G., quoted, 57.

Gouger, plum, 344.

Gourd, bitter, 5.

Graduating spray nozzles, 198, 199.

Grain, rusts, 319 ; treatment of, 106,
135.

Grape, anthracnose, 294 ; treatment, 23,
37, 45, 295; bird's-eye rot, 294-296;

Index.

391

bitter rot, 305 ; black rot, 297-300 ;
early treatment of, 89 ; first controlled
by Bordeaux mixture, 40; fungicides
for, 39, 41 ; in France, 39 ; brown rot,
300-302 ; charbon, 297-300 ; cleaning,
105; diseases, early treatment of, in
America, 94, 95, 99, 100 ; treatment of,
107; downy mildew, 300-302; early
treatment with fungicides in America,
93 ; introduction into Europe, 53 ;
methods of treatment, 45 ; treatment
with iron sulphate, 21 ; lime, 20, 27 ;
sulphur, 21 ; enemies and diseases,
294-306; flea-beetle, 306; gray rot,
300-302; leaf-hopper, 306; powdery
mildew, 303, 304; rattles, 304; ripe
rot, 305 ; sawfly, 305 ; scab, 294 ; shell-
ing, 304 ; slug, 305 ; steely-bug, 306 ;
thrip, 306 ; vine flea-beetle, 306.

Grapes, and Bordeaux mixture, 232, 233 ;
injured by Bordeaux mixture, 232, 233 ;
sprayed, analysis of, 232, 233 ; value of
treatments, 237.

Graptodera ehalybea, 306.

Gravity machines, 194.

Gray, F. M., mentioned, 186.

Gray rot, grape, 300-302.

Green, W. J., quoted, 73, 74.

Green-fly, 308 ; leaf-hopper, currant, 289 ;
-striped maple-worm, 312 ; vitriol, 151.

Greenhouse, pests, 307-311 ; remedies
used in, 307-311.

Grison liquid, 16 ; preparation of, 147.

Grub of insects, 228.

Gunnis, W. R., quoted, 196.

Guns, powder, 204, 205.

Gymnonporangium, macropus, 242.

Gyp sine, 120.

Haggerston, P., mentioned, 14.
Halsted, B. D., mentioned, 106, 133;

publications of, 106 ; quoted, 242, 264,

267, 363.

Haltica fttriolata, 351.
Hamilton's recipe, 15.
Handles, pump, 210.
Hard soap and kerosene, 154.
Harlequin cabbage-bug, 269.
Harris, J., quoted, 13.
Hartshorn, 116.
Hatch bill, mentioned, 64.
Haynes, E. P., mentioned, 62.
Heath broom, 181.

Hellebore, 5, 13, 15, 18 ; analysis of, 118 ;

properties of, 148 ; uses of, 148.
Hemery compound, 15.
Hemingway & Co., letter of, 65, 66.
High, G. M., quoted, 93.
Hilgard, E. W., quoted, 180.
History, early, of liquid applications,

1-18; evolution of nozzles, 197-204;

pumps and syringes, 181-197.
Hollyhock-bug, 312 ; rust, 311.
Horizontal-acting pumps, 214, 216.
Horse-power sprayer, first form adver-
tised, 193.
Hot water, 178, see also Water ; and smut

of grains, 315-319.
Howard, L. O., quoted, 69.
Hoyt, 8., quoted, 195, 196.
Hubbard, H. G., on kerosene emulsion,

82 ; quoted, 82, 83.

Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion, 155.
Hydrate of copper and sulphur, 44.
Hydrocarbonate of copper, 36, 44.
Hydrocyanic acid gas, amounts to use,

149 ; preparation of, 148.
Hyphae, 229.

Hyphantria cunea, 256.
Hyposulphite of soda, 172 ; first use ot,

88.
Hyssop, 5.

Imago of insects, 228.

Imported cabbage butterfly, 268; cur-
rant borer, 286 ; worm, 286 ; elm-leaf-
beetle, 64.

Injector for bisulphide of carbon, 135.

Insect powder, 163.

Insects, chewing, 228; foliage-eating,
309 ; methods of destroying, 227, 228 ;
sucking, 228 ; transformation of, 228.

Insecticides, action upon soil, 235, 236 ;
and fungicides, action of, 225, 238 ; in
England, 56 ; France, 50 ; patent, 162.

Iron, chloride, 101 ; use of, 151 ; salts,
early use upon grapes, 27 ; sulphate,
45 ; action upon spores, 235 ; and grape
anthracnose, 23 ; sulphuric acid, 169,
170 ; as an insecticide, 90 ; early use
of, 21, 22; properties of, 151; 'testa
for, 151 ; uses of, 151.

Italy, spraying in, 53.

Jager, G. V., quoted, 119.
Japy, knapsack pump, 187, 188.

392

The Spraying of Plants.

Jensen, J. L., hot water treatment of
smut, 315-319 ; quoted, 315, 319.

Johnson, S. W., mentioned, 110.

Johnson's mixture, 140, 152.

Johnston's engine, 183.

Jones, L. E., mentioned, 133 ; on potato
diseases, 108.

Joosten, C. H., mentioned, 174.

Judd, Joseph, quoted, 381.

Juniper web-worm, 64.

Kainit, 163.

Katterbach's knapsack pump, 186.

Kedzie, K. C., mentioned, 233.

Keeping qualities of sprayed fruit, 238.

Kellerman, W. A., mentioned, 106.

Kenrick, W., quoted, 12.

Kerosene, 18; and black knot, 106;
Bordeaux mixture, 136 ; carbon bisul-
phide, 135 ; condensed milk, 153 ; milk
emulsion, 82, 153 ; soap emulsion, 81,
154 ; water, device for mixing, 196 ;
applied in water, 79 ; early use of, 79.

Kerosene emulsion and arsenites, 155 ;
balsam of fir, 156 ; Bordeaux mixture,
156 ; resin washes, 136 ; sulphide of
potash, 180 ; applied with gas engine,
196; Hubbard-Riley formula, 84; in
France, 51 ; introduction of, 80, 84 ;
Italian, 145 ; in England, 66 ; proper-
ties of, 152 ; Pyrethrum emulsion, 156 ;
when first emulsified, 80, 81.

Kilgore, B. W., quoted, 76, 119.

Knapsack pump, Albrand, 187, 188 ;
Eclair, 187: Galliot's, 186; Galloway,
188, 189 ; Japy, 187, 188 ; Katterbach's,
186 ; Vigouroux, 187, 188 ; with kero-
sene attachment, 197 ; pumps, intro-
duction into America, 186 ; uses of,
208 ; sprinkler, early forms, 186 ; with
air-pump, 188, 189.

Koebele, A., work of, 85, 86.

Lcestadia Bidwellii, 297-300.

Lafitte, P. de, quoted, 23, 29.

Lampblack, 12.

Larva, of insects, 228.

Laure, J., powder of, 21.

Laws, spraying, 375-381 ; Australia, 58 ;
California, 375; Canada, 376; Oregon,
379; Massachusetts, 377; Michigan,
877 ; Tasmania, 58 ; Utah, 880.

Laws, spraying, unconstitutional, 381.

Lead arsenate, 120 ; see also Arsenate of
lead.

Leaf-beetle, cotton wood, 278 ; imported,
elm, 292 ; blight, almond, 239 ; celery,
274 ; cherry, 275 ; currant, 285 ; mign-
onette, 314; pear, 333; plum. 339;
quince, 353 ; rose, 358 ; strawberry,
364 ; sycamore, 369 ; blister, pear, 336 ;
bug, four-lined, 287 ; curl, peach, 329 ;
hopper, grape, 306; green, currant,
289; rose, 363; mite, orange, 321;
mould, sweet potato, 368 ; notcher,
orange, 321 ; roller, strawberry, 366 ;
rust, apricot, 260 ; aster, 260 ; balm of
Gilead, 261 ; cottonwood, 278 ; peach,
331 ; skeletonizer, apple, 257 ; spot,
beet, 264 ; catalpa, 273 ; chrysanthe-
mum, 275; currant, 285; eggplant,
290 ; maple, 312 ; orange, 321 ; quince,
353 ; rose, 358 ; sweet potato, 368 ;
worm, cotton, 277.

Leather in pumps, 208 ; scraps, 8.

Lecanium, 344 ; Olece, treatment of, 150.

Leek, 5.

Leizour, quoted, 51.

Lesne, A., quoted, 52.

Lettuce-worm, green, 290.

Lewis nozzle, 201.

Lichens, 314.

Lilly nozzle, 202.

Lima bean, 264.

Lime, 6, 7, 8, 11 ; action on copper salts,
in soil, 237 ; foliage, 156, 234 ; spores,
235 ; and arsenites, 76, 105 ; soap wash,
171 ; sulphur, chemistry of, 158 ; mix-
ture, 147 ; powder, 176 ; chemistry of,
156 ; first use of, for downy mildew of
grape, 20 ; for plant-lice, 5 ; salt, sul-
phur wash, 157 ; and copper sulphate
wash, 162 ; sulphide, 16 ; preparation
of, 158 ; uses of, 157 ; wash for curcu-
lio, 16.

Lina scripta, 278.

Lindley, Geo., quoted, 11.

Linseed oil emulsion, 158.

Lintner, J. A., quoted, 251.

Liquid applications, early history of, 1.

Liquids and powders compared, 205-207 ;
application of, 205-207.

Litmus paper, use of, 46.

Little Climax, 191 ; Giant pump, 191.

Liver of sulphur; see Potassium sul-
phide.

Index.

393

Lodeman, E. G., mentioned, 133; on
black-knot, 112.

London purple, analyses, 124 ; and Bor-
deaux mixture, 105; canker-worms,
67 ; codlin-moth, 63, 68 ; introduction
of, 65-67 ; report of first trials, 66 ; use
of, 124.

Long scale, 322.

Loose smut, oats, 315-319 ; wheat, 315-
319, 373.

Loudon, J. C., quoted, 11, 14,

Lowell nozzle, 199.

Lye, 9, 11; and sulphur, 159; whale-oil
soap, 159 ; uses of, 159.

Lygus pratensis, 366.

Macdougal's syringe, 183.

Machine for mixing kerosene and water,

196, 197.
Machinery, care of, 224 ; spraying, 207-

224 ; early forms of, 185.
Macrodactylus wibspinosus, 362.
Macrosporium Solani, 345 ; Tomato,

370.

Maggot, apple, 257 ; onion, 320.
Manufacture of spray pumps increasing,

191.
Maple, enemies and diseases, 312, 313;

green-striped maple-worm, 312 ; leaf

spot, 312 : tussock moths, 313.
Jfargarodes quadristigmalis, 352.
Marseilles nozzle, 204.
Masson nozzle, 199.
Materials for spraying, 115-180.
Maynard, S. T., quoted, 111, 158.
McGowen, J. J., automatic cleaning

nozzle, 200, 201, 210 ; mentioned, 200 ;

nozzle, 202.

McMichael, J. K., quoted, 112.
McMurtrie, A., quoted, 120.
Mealy bug, 362 ; treatment of, 309 ; wing,

orange, 321.
Mearns, J., quoted, 12.
Measures, metric system, 382, 383
Jfflampsora Populina, 278.
Melon-louse on cucumber, 283 ; worm,

on cucumber, 283.
Mercuric chloride, 160 ; wash, 160.
Mercury, red oxide of, 52.
Merritt, Justice, 381.
Methods of destroying insects, 227, 228 ;

spraying, 226.
Metric system, 382, 383.

Midge, pear, 335.

Mignonette, disease, 314 ; leaf blight, 314.

Milco, G. N., mentioned, 79.

Mildew, cucumber, 281, 314; downy,
grape, 300-302; potato, 347; goose-
berry, 292; onion, 319; pansy, 324;
pea, 326 ; peach, 10, 331 ; treatment
of, 15, 381 ; powdery, cucumber, 283 ;
grape, 808, 304; muskmelon, 314 ; plum,
241, 343 ; pumpkin, 314, 352 ; squash,
814, 864; watermelon, 281, 373; rose,
17, 359 ; spinach, 363 ; strawberry, 365 ;
yerbena, 281, 372 ; violet, 324, 372.

Mildews, early treatment of, 12.

Milk, condensed, and kerosene, 153.

Millardet, A., quoted, 22, 27, 37, 48.

Millardet's mixture, 125.

Mite, 309 ; orange, 321.

Mitis green, 121.

Mixture No. 5, 160 ; introduction of,
107.

Modified eau celeste, 160 ; suggested, 37.

Molasses and Bordeaux mixture, 43;
chemistry of, 173 ; uses of, 173.

Mold, leaf, "of sweet potato, 368; white,
of sweet potato, 368.

Monarch potato sprayer, 195.

Moniliafructigena, 274.

Monroe, W. R., mentioned, 205.

Morrill & Morley, mentioned, 192.

Mortar, 8.

Mosquitos, treatment of, 153.

Mosses, 314.

Moulton, F. C., mentioned, 77.

Murgantia histrionica, 269.

Murray, J., quoted, 13.

Muskmelon, powdery mildew, 314.

Mycelium, 229.

Myers nozzle, 204.

Mytilaspis Gloverii, 322; pomorum,
258.

Neal, quoted, 83.
Neal's mixture, 83.

, 286.
New Bean nozzle, 199 ; leaf spot, chrys-

anthemum, 276.
Nicol's recipe, 14.
Nicotiana Tabacum, 176.
Nitre, 14.

Nitro-benzina, emulsion, 145.
Nixon Nozzle and Machine Co., founded,

191 ; mentioned, 191, 193, 201.

394

The Spraying of Plants.

Non-poisonous potato-bug destroyer,
analysis of, 118.

Normal Bordeaux mixture, 108, 130.

Nova Scotia, spraying in, 113.

Nozzle, Acme, 204 ; automatic cleaning,
200 ; Bailey, 200 ; Ball, 202 ; Barnard,
203; Bean's Cyclone, 204; Bordeaux,
199, 210 ; Boss, 199 ; Calla, 202 ; Climax,
201 ; Diffuser, 201 ; Eureka, 199 ; Fan-
tail, 199 ; Gem, 199 ; Ideal, 222 ; Lewis,
201; Lilly, 202; Lowell, 199; Mar-
seilles, 204 ; Masson, 199 ; McGowen,
200, 202 ; Myers, 204 ; New Bean, 199 ;
Peerless, 199; Kiley, 203, 204; Ver-
morel, 204 ; with lance, 204 ; Vigour-
oux, 201 ; Wellhouse, 200, 210.

Nozzles, cyclone, 202, 203 ; eddy chamber,
202, 203, 210; graduating spray, 198,
199 ; history of, 197-204 ; principles of
construction, 198 ; sprays produced by,
222, 224.

Nursery stock, treatment of, 104, 111.

Nux vomica, 15.

Oat loose smut, 315-319 ; plants affected
by copper salts, 237 ; rust, 319 ; smut
and potassium sulphide, 318.

Obera bimaculata, 357.

Ocneria dispar, 291.

Oidium eryttiphoides, 372; Tuckeri,
53.

Oil and alkali wash, 161 ; fish, use of, 166-
169 ; petroleum, 5 ; train, 7, 9 ; whale, 7.

Oils, 5, 52, 161.

Oleo-sulphide of carbon, 52.

Oliver, P., quoted, 21.

Onion, enemies and diseases, 319, 320 ;
maggot, 320 ; mildew, 319 ; rust, 319 ;
smut, 319.

Oospora scabies, 265, 350.

Orange, California spider, 321 ; enemies
and diseases, 320-324; Glover's scale,
322; leaf mite, 321 ; notcher,321; scab,
treatment, 97 ; spot, 321 ; long scale,
322 ; mealy-wing, 321 ; mite, 821 ;
oyster-shell scale, 322 ; red spider, 321 ;
spotted mite, 321 ; rust-mite, 822 ;
raspberry, 355 ; San Jose scale, 323 ;
scab, 320 ; spider, 821 ; trees, treat-
ment of, 150.

Orchards, old, spraying of, 218-220 ;
sprayed and stock, 233, 234.

Oregon wash, 162.

Orgyia, sp., 313.

Oriental fertilizer and bug destroyer,

analysis of, 118.

Origin of Bordeaux mixture, 24.
Orthotylua delicatus, 312.
Osborn, II., and plum curculio, 70.
Otto, K., quoted, 235.
Oxalic acid, 50.
Oyster-shell bark -louse, on apple, 258;

scale, 322.

Pcecilocapsus lineatus, 287.

Paleacrita vernata, 275.

Pansy, mildew, 324 ; rust, 324.

Papilio Asterias, 324.

Paraffine, 56, 162.

Parasitic fungi, 229, 230.

Paris green, action on foliage, 122 ; soil,
236; analysis of, 118; and ammoniacal
copper carbonate, 106; copper sul-
phate, 105 ; glue, 147 ; lime, 122 ; as a
fungicide, 98, 122; composition, 120;
early methods of application, 61 ; first
use for canker-worm, 62 ; codlin-moth,
62 ; for cotton-worm, 61 ; plum curcu-
lio, 69-74; potato beetle, 60, 185;
kerosene, and Bordeaux mixture, 136 ;
law for spraying with, 376 ; manner of
use, 123 ; patent preparations of, 60 ;
properties, 120; upon fruit, 231.

Paris purple, 74 ; composition, 125 ; use
of, 125.

Parkinson, John, quoted, 4.

Parsley-worm, 324, 325.

Parsnip, web- worm, 325.

Pasturing stock in sprayed orchards, 233,
234.

Patent insecticides, 60, 61, 162.

Patrigeon, G., quoted, 36, 45, 46.

Pea-bug, 326; mildew, 325; rust, 326;
weevil, 326.

Peas, affected by copper salts, 235.

Peach, black aphis, 332 ; spot, 327 ; borers,
332 ; brown rot, 328 ; curl, treatment,
47, 329; enemies and diseases, 327-
832 ; Trenching, 329 ; fruit rot, 328 ;
leaf curl, 329 ; rust, 331 ; mildew, treat-
ment, 10, 15, 332 ; rosette, 332 ; twig
blight, 328 ; yellows, 332.

Pear blight, experiments on, 97 ; borers,
248, 335; bud-moth, 248, 335; cigar-
case-bearer, 251, 335 ; codlin-moth, 252,
335; curculio, 255, 335; early treat-

Index.

395

ment with fungicides, 47 ; enemies and

diseases, 333-339 ; fire blight, 334 ; fruit

spot, 333 ; leaf blight, 333 ; blister, 336 ;

midge, 335 ; psylla, 331 ; rust, 242, 335 ;

scab, 243, 335 ;"slug, 338.
Pearl ashes, 11.

Pearson, A. W., quoted, 89, 90.
Peck, W. P., mentioned, 186.
Peerless nozzle, 199.
Pempelia Hammondi, 257.
Pepper, 5, 11, 12, 13.
Peppier, T., mentioned, 194.
Perono»pora effusa, 363; ScMeideni-

ana, 319 ; Violas, 324 ; vMcola, 300-

302 ; see also Downy mildew of grape.
Peroxide of silicate, 118.
Perret, M., quoted, 43, 145.
Perret's mixture, 47.
Persian insect powder, 163.
Petit, A., quoted, 46.
Petroleum, 5, 152.
Phenic acid, 50, 133 ; and grape mildew,

24.

Phenol, 133.
Phlegethontius Carolina, 370 ; celeus,

371.

Phoma 'uvicola, 297-300.
Phorbia Brassicce, 268; Ceparum, 320.
Phosphate of copper, 44.
Phoxopteris comptana, 366.
Phragmidium mucronatum, 361 ; rose,

360 ; »pecio#um, 360.
Phyllosticta Acericola,3l2; Bataticola,

368; Catalpce, 273; hortorv/m, 290;

liguttri, 352 ; vittata, 851.
Phylloxera, treatment of, 135.
Phytophthora infestans, 347 ; Phaseoli,

264.

Phytoptus Pyri, 336.
Picreena excelsa, 165.
Pierce, N. B., quoted, 239.
Pieris Rapce, 268.
Pigeon dung, 16.
Pine bug, 10.
Pinolini, quoted, 21.
Pistons, packing, 210.
Plane tree, 339.
Plant-bug, black-lined, 287; four-lined,

287, 290 ; tarnished, on strawberry, 366.
Plant-lice, 308 ; early remedies for, 5.
Plasmodiophora Brassicae, 266.
Plasmopara Cubensis, 283, 314.
Plaster, carbolized, 134.

Plowrightia morbom, 275, 340.

Plum, black knot, 111, 340 ; bladders,
342 ; borers, 248, 343 ; brown rot, 339 ;
bud-moth, 248, 343 ; canker-worm, 249,
343 ; curculio, 332, 343 ; experiments
of Alwood, 69 ; Cook, 69, 70 ; Gillette,
71 ; Osborn, 70 ; Weed, 70-73 ; spray-
ing for, 68-74 ; treatment in New York,
73 ; Ohio, 73 ; enemies and diseases,
339-345; gouger, 344; knot, 340; leaf
blight, 339; pockets, 342; powdery
mildew, 241, 343 ; rot, 328, 343 ; scale,
344 ; shot-hole fungus, 339 ; slug, 275,
345 ; wart, 340.

Plusia Bra&#icce, 267 ; cabbage, 267.

Pneumatic pumps, description of, 192.

Podechard's powder, 32 ; preparation of,
163.

Podosphaira Oxycanthce, 241, 275, 331.

Pod rust, bean, 261, 263.

Pole, use of, 218.

Pons, B., quoted, 42.

Poplar, 345.

Pot ashes, 11.

Potash, 163 ; soap, 163.

Potassium, 163 ; cyanide, 149.

Potassium ferrocyanide, see Ferrocyanide
of potassium ; sulphide and smut, 318 ;
and whale-oil soap, 180; early use in
America, 97 ; in England, 55 ; sug-
gested, 24 ; use of, 163.

Potato, affected by copper salts, 235 ;
bacterial blight, 349 ; beetle, 290, 351 ;
appearance of, 185 ; early spread of, 59,
60 ; first destroyed by Paris green, 60 ;
blight, 347 ; bug, 351 ; downy mildew,
347 ; early blight, 345 ; treatment with
fungicides, 47 ; enemies and diseases,
345-352 ; experiments on. in England,
55 ; flea-beetle, 351 ; late blight, 347 ;
rot, 347; and Paris green, 98; Bor-
deaux mixture first recommended for,
29; treatment of, 100; scab, 350;
sprayer, Climax, 194; Monarch, 195;
sprayers, 221 ; sweet, see Sweet potato,
368 ; water, 10.

Potatoes, spraying with force pumps,
194 ; gravity machines, 194.

Powder, David's, 33; guns, 204, 205;
insect, 163 ; Podechard's, 32 ; Ska-
win ski's, 170.

Powders and liquids compared, 205-207 ;
application of, 205-207; first used

396

The Spraying of Plants.

against downy mildew of grape, 21 ;
used against grape mildews, 32.

Powdery mildew, apple, 241 ; cherry, 275 ;
cucumber, 283 ; grape, 303, 304 ; musk-
melon, 314; plum, 241, 343 ; pumpkin,
314, 352 ; squash, 314, 364 ; watermelon,
281, 378.

Power sprayer, first form advertised,
193 ; gas, 196 ; steam, 195, 196 ; spray-
ers, 220, 221.

Precipitated copper carbonate, 187.

Preparations for spraying, 115-180.

Prevost, Benedict, quoted, 22.

Prillieux, E., quoted, 28, 40.

Principles of nozzle construction, 198.

Privet blight, 352 ; web-worm, 352.

Profits of spraying, 288.

Psylla, pear, 337.

Psylla Pyricola, 337.

Puccinia Mafoacearum, 811.

Puceron lanigere, 50.

Pump, air chambers of, 210, 211 ; an early
form recommended in America, 184;
barrel, method of mounting, 212 ; cyl-
inders, 210; first form designed for
spraying, 191 ; handles, 210 ; horizon-
tal-acting, 214, 216 ; new type, 192 ; pis-
tons, 210 ; valves, 208.

Pumps and syringes, history of, 181-197 ;
barrel, 209-220; brass for, 207, 208;
bucket, 208, 209 ; clock, 217 ; durabil-
ity of, 217; knapsack, uses of, 208;
semi-rotary, 215-217 ; types of, 213-220.

Pumpkin, powdery mildew, 314, 352.

Pupa of insects, 228.

Pyrethro-kerosene emulsion, 156.

Pyrethrum, 52 ; and alum, 116 ; intro-
duction of, 78 ; preparation, 163, 164 ;
uses of, 164, 165.

Pyrolignic acid, 52.

Quassia, 15, 17, 18, 165 ; and soap, 165,
166.

Quicklime, 11, 12 ; chemistry of, 156.

Quince, black rot, 353 ; blight, 334, 353 ;
enemies and diseases, 353-355; fruit
spot, 353 ; insects affecting, 355, see
also Apple ; leaf blight, 334, 353 ; spot,
853 ; ripe rot, 240, 354 ; rust, 111, 354.

Eadclyffe, W. F., quoted, 17.

Radish, insects affecting, 355; see Cab-

Railroad-worm, of apple, 257.

Rain, action of on fungicides, 47.

Raspberry anthracnose, 101, 355; cane
borer, 357 ; rust, 355 ; enemies and dis-
eases, 355 358 ; orange rust, 355 ; red
rust, 856 ; sawfly, 357 ; slug, 357.

Rattles, grape, 304.

Raupenleim, 250.

Read's syringe, 188.

Red oxide of mercury, 52 ; rust, cran-
berry, 279 ; raspberry, 356 ; spider, 10,
821 ; treatment of, 310 ; spotted mite,
on orange, 321.

Resin and soda wash, 172 ; compounds
and arsenicals, 136 ; first use of, 85-87 ;
soap, preparation of, 166 ; washes and
arsenicals, 169 ; Bordeaux mixture,
136 ; kerosene emulsion, 136.

Resin washes, preparation and use of,
166-169.

Rhopobata vacciniana, 280.

Rig for spraying, 218-220.

Riley, C. V., in France, 51 ; mentioned,
68; quoted, 59, 60, 61, 64, 85, 203;
Hubbard kerosene emulsion, 155 ; noz-
zle, 203, 294; on kerosene emulsion,
81.

Ripe rot, apple, 240 ; grape, 305 ; quince,
240, 354.

Robertson, John, quoted, 10.

Rcestelia aurantiaca, 354; pirata,
242.

Root-maggot, cabbage, 268 ; treatment
of, 135; rot, beet, 264; worm, south-
ern corn, 283.

Rose, black spot, 102, 358; bug, 362;
chafer, 362 ; enemies and diseases, 358-
363; leaf blight, 358; hopper, 363;
spot, 358 ; mildew, 359 ; and copper
sulphate, 17 ; Phragmidium, 360 ; rust,
102, 361.

Rose, used for spraying, 198.

Rosette, peach. 332.

Rot, bitter, grape, 305; black, quince,
358 ; sweet potato, 368 ; brown, grape,
300-302 ; peach, 328 ; plum, 339 ; cran-
berry, 279 ; fruit, peach, 328 : gray,
grape, 300-302 ; plum, 328, 343 ; potato,
347 ; grape, 305 ; tomato, 370.

Rubber in pumps, 208.

Rue, 4, 5, 8.

Rumsey & Co., mentioned, 189, 190, 191,
199.

Index.

397

Rust, apple, 242 ; bean, 263 ; beet, 265 ;

cane, of raspberry. 355 ; carnation, 272 ;

celery, 274; currant, 285; hollyhock,

311 ; mite, orange, 322 ; onion, 319 ;

pansy, 324 ; pea, 326 ; pear, 242, 335 ;

quince, 111, 354 ; red, cranberry, 279 ;

raspberry, 356 ; rose, 361 ; strawberry,

364 ; verbena, 281, 372 ; violet, 372.
Busts, of grains, 319.

Sage, 5.

Salicylic acid, 52.

Salt, 9, 11 ; lime, and copper sulphate
wash, 162 ; sulphur wash, 157 ; use of,
169.

Sand, 6.

San Jose scale, 323.

Saperda Candida, 248 ; cretata, 248.

Saprophitic fungi, 229.

Saunders, W., mentioned, 88; quoted,
249, 253.

Sawfly, currant, 286; gooseberry, 286;
grape, 305 ; raspberry, 357 ; straw-
berry, 366 ; sweet potato, 368.

Scab, apple, 243-247 ; beet, 265 ; grape,
294 ; orange, 320 ; pear, 243, 335 ; po-
tato, 350.

Scald, cranberry, 279.

Scale, Glover's, 322 ; insects, treatments
of, 7, 84, 150 ; plum, 344 ; San Jose, 323.

Scheele's green, 120.

ScMsocerus ebenus, 368 ; privatus. 368.

Sckizoneura lanigera, 259.

Schnorff, 23, 37.

Schweinfurth's green, 121.

Scribner, F. Lara son, quoted, 91, 93, 242.

Sea, sand, 8 ; shells, 8 ; water, 7 ; weed, 8.

Section of Veg. Path, foundation of, 92.

Seeds, treatment of, 135.

Selandria Cerasi, 275 ; Rubi, 357 ;
Vitis, 305.

Semi-rotary pumps, 215-217.

Septoria cerasina, 839 ; Chrysan-
themi, 275; Dianthi, 273; Petrose-
Uni, 274 ; Jiibis, 285.

Sesia tipuliformis, 286.

Shade trees, spraying, 195, 196, 363.

Sheep, injured by sprayed grape foliage,
234.

Shelling, grape, 304.

Shot-hole fungus, plum, 339.

Shrubs, 363.

Siebe's syringe, 183.

Sirocco Dust Sprayer, 205.
Skawinski, quoted, 45.
Skawinski's iron sulphate and sulphuric
acid, 169, 170 ; powder, 44, 170 ; sul-
phur, 44.

Slingerland, M. V., quoted, 248, 252, 288.
Slug, 311 ; cherry, 275 ; grape, 305 ; pear,
338 ; plum, 275, 345 ; raspberry, 357 ;
strawberry, 366.
Slugs, 8, 11.
Smith, G. M., mentioned, 68; John,

quoted, 75 ; J. B., quoted, 250.
Smoke, tobacco, 177.
Smut, barley, 261 ; corn, 276 ; hot water
and, 315-319; loose oats, 315-319;
wheat, 315-319, 373 ; onion, 319 ; po-
tassium sulphide for, 318 ; stinking, of
•wheat, 315-319, 373; wheat, and cop-
per sulphate, 318.
Smuts, treatment of, 106.
Snail, 811.
Snuff, 177 ; and sulphur, 176 ; uses of,

170.

Soap, 5, 6, 7, 11 ; and arsenites, prepara-
tion of, 170 ; carbolic acid, 134 ; kero-
sene, emulsions of, 154; lime wash,
171 ; quassia, 165, 166 ; soda wash, 171 ;
tobacco, 171; black, 50, 52; fish-oil,
146, 171 ; potash, 163 ; resin, first use
of, 85; preparation of, 166; standard
remedy, 18 ; use of, 170 ; whale-oil,
uses of, 179.

Soda and aloes, 172 ; resin wash, 172 ;
soap wash, 171 ; whale-oil soap wash,
172.

Soda wash, 172.

Sodium arsenate, 120 ; experiments with,
77 ; borate and grape mildew, 23 ; car-
bonate, 52 ; and copper sulphate, 36,
44; chloride, 169; hyposulphite and
copper sulphate, 141 ; first use of, 88 ;
use of, 172 ; sulphide wash, prepara-
tion of, 173.

Soft soap and kerosene, 154.
Soil, affected by copper salts, 236; in-
secticides and fungicides, 235-237.
Soot, 5, 7, 13.

Sostegni, L., mentioned, 128.
Soufres des Tapets, 21.
Sour milk and kerosene, 153.
Southern corn root-worm, 283.
Span-worm, elm, 291.
Sphaceloma Ampelinum, 294-296.

398

The Spraying of Plants.

Sphcerella Fragarice, 364.

Sphceria, 275, 840 ; morbosa, 275, 340.

Sphceropsis malorum, 241, 353.

Sphcerotheca Castagnei, 365 ; Jfors-
uvce, 292 ; pannosa, 359.

Spider, orange, 321 ; red, treatment of,
310.

Spinach, anthracnose, 863 ; mildew,
363.

Spores, use of, 229.

Spot, black, of rose, 358 ; carnation, 273 ;
leaf, of rose, 358.

Spotted cucumber-beetle, 283.

Spray, character of, 218, 222-224; ma-
chinery, care of, 224.

Sprayed fruit, keeping qualities of, 238.

Sprayer, dust, Sirocco, 205 ; power, first
form advertised, 193.

Sprayers, potato, 221 ; power, 220, 221.

Spraying, definition, 3 ; in America. 59-
114 ; in 1886, 92-99 ; in 1887, 99-102 ;
in 1888, 102, 103 ; in 1889, 103-106 ; in
1890, 106-108 ; in 1891, 108-110 ; since
1892, 110-112; in Australia, 57; Canada,
112; England, 54; Europe, 53 ; France
in 1885, 29 ; in 1886, 80 ; in 1887, 34 ;
in 1888, 88 ; in 1889, 41 ; Germany, 54 ;
Italy, 53 ; Nova Scotia, 113 ; laws, 58,
376-^381 ; machine, gas engine, 196 ;
steam power, 196 ; machinery, 207-224 ;
early forms, 185 ; method of, 226 ; old
orchards, 218; profits of, 238; tank,
218, 219 ; value of, 237, 238.

Squash, insects affecting, 814, 364 ; pow-
dery mildew, 314, 364.

Standard Bordeaux mixture, 108, 130.

Starr, R. W., quoted, 113.

Steam spraying machine, 195, 196.

Steely -bug, grape, 306.

Stinking smut, wheat, 315-319, 373.

Stock in sprayed orchards, 233, 234 ; so-
lutions suggested, 34.

Strawberry, leaf blight, 364 ; roller, 366 ;
mildew, 365 ; rust, 364 ; sawfly, 366 ;
slug, 366; sunburn, 364; tarnished
plant-bug, 366.

Striped cucumber-beetle, 284.

Strychnine, 75.

Sugar, and copper compounds, 178.

Sulphate, of ammonia, 44 ; of copper, 142 ;
see also Copper sulphate ; and wheat
smut, 318 ; of iron, see Iron sulphate.

Sulphated sulphur, 44, 174 ; verdet, 44.

Sulfatine, 33 ; analysis of, 118 ; in Aus-
tralia, 57 ; powder, preparation of,
174.

Sulphide of lime, 16; preparation of,
158 ; potassium, 51, 180 ; and kerosene
emulsion, 180 ; smuts, 318 ; in England,
55 ; soda wash, preparation of, 178.

Sulphocyanide of copper, 44.

Sulphosaccharate of copper, 42, 173.

Sulphosteatite, 44 ; early use of, 33 ; in-
troduction of, 174 ; tested, 38, 41 ; value
of, 49.

Sulphur, 10, 11, 12, 13, 175 ; and copper
hydrate, 44 ; cuprophosphate, 44 ; lime
mixture, 147 ; powder, 176 ; lye, 159 ;
snuff, 176; Sulphosteatite, 49; whale-
oil soap, 176 ; in America, 88 ; salt, and
lime wash, 157 ; sulphated, 44, 174 ; use
of, in greenhouse, 807.

Sulphuret of potassium, 163.

Sulphuric acid, 45 ; and copper sulphate,
143; iron sulphate, 169, 179; as a
fungicide, 22.

Sunburn, strawberry, 364.

Sun-scald, celery, 274.

Sweet potato, black rot, 368; golden-
bugs, 369 ; leaf-mold, 368 ; spot, 368 ;
sawfly, 368; tortoise-beetles, 369;
white mold, 368.

Swingle, W. T., mentioned, 106.

Switzer, S., quoted, 15.

Sycamore leaf blight, 369.

Synchytrium Vaccinii, 279.

Syringe, 7.

Syringes, early forms of, 183 ; uses of,
183, 208.

Syringing, definition, 3.

Tank for spraying, 218, 220.

Tanks, agitators for, 211-213.

Tanner's bark, 8.

Tansy, 5.

Taphrina, 47, 342.

Tar, 136 ; water, 8, 11.

Tarnished plant-bug, strawberry, 866.

Tasmania, spraying in, 57, 58.

Tavelure, 47.

Tent caterpillars and arsenate of lead.

77 ; on apple, 258 ; for gas treatments,

150.
Telranychus Mmaculaius, 309 ; 6-ma

culatus, 321 ; telarius, 310.
Thacher, J., quoted, 7, 8, 9.

Index.

399

Thick-thighed walking-stick, 64.

Thrip, grape, 806.

Thrips, 10.

Tilletiafateus, 315, 319, 373.

Tmetocera ocellana, 248.

Tobacco, 8, 10, 11, 13, 18, 170 ; and soap,
171 ; for plant-lice, 5 ; liquor, analysis
of, 118 ; stems, use of, 308 ; uses of,
176-178 ; worm, 370.

Tomato, blight, 370 ; rot, 370 ; first treat-
ments of, 28, 29; treatment of, 100;
worm, 37.

Tortoise beetles, sweet potato, 369.

Tozzetti, A. T., quoted, 145.

Train-oil, 7.

Trypeta pomonella, 257.

Tschirch, A., quoted, 235.

Tuck, quoted, 16.

Turnip fly, 13 ; maggot, 268, 372.

Turpentine, 5, 8, 11.

Tussock-moths, 313.

Twig blight, peach, 328 ; pear, 334.

Typhlocyba rosce, 363.

Uncinula tpiralin, 303, 304.

Urine, 4, 7, 16.

Urocystis Cepulw, 319.

Uromyces Beta*, 265 ; Ciryophyttinus,

272 ; Phawoli, 268.
Unlikigo Maydis, 276 ; Tritici, 315-319,

373.

Valves, 208.

Vanessa antiopa, 373.

Veratrwm album, 148.

Verbena mildew, 281, 872 ; mite, 309 ;

rust, 281, 372.

Verdet, 44, 137 ; sulphated, 44.
Verdigris, 137.
Vermorel, nozzle, 204 ; with lance, 204 ;

V., mentioned, 203, 204.
Vigouroux knapsack pump, 187, 188 ;

nozzle, 201.
Vinegar for canker, 4 ; cleaning grapes,

105 ; insects, 11 ; in kerosene emul-
sions, 153.

Vine- worm, cranberry, 280.
Vineyards, American, and fungi, 89 ;

early treatment of, 89, 90 ; commercial

treatment in America, 105.
Violet, disease, 372 ; mildew, 324, 372 ;

rust, 372 ; spot, 372.
Vitriol, blue, 142 ; green, 15J,

Volatile alkali, 116.
Volutella, sp., 271.

Walnut leaves, 7, 11, 13.

Warner's syringe, 183.

Wash for insects, 6, 178 ; resin, first
made, 85.

Washes, clay, 178; resin, preparation
and use of, 166-169.

Water, 11, 178; cold, 179; hot, 11, 179;
for smut, 315-318 ; sea, 7.

Watering can, description, 182, 183.

Watermelon anthracnose, 261, 373 ; pow-
dery mildew, 281, 373.

Webster, F. M., quoted, 251.

Web- worm, fall, apple, 256; parsnip,
325; privet, 352.

Weed, C. M., and plum curculio, 70 ;
quoted, 105, 366.

Weed, H. E., mentioned, 197.

Weevil, bean, 263 ; pea, 326.

Weigelia, insects affecting, 286, 373.

Weights and measures, 382, 383.

Wellhouse, nozzle, 200, 210 ; Walter, men-
tioned, 200.

Whale-oil, 7; soap and lye, 159; potas-
sium sulphide, 180 ; soda wash, 172 ;
sulphur, 176 ; first use of, 14 ; uses of,
179.

Wheat, loose smut, 315, 319, 373 ; rust,
319; smut and copper sulphate, 318;
stinking smut, 315-319, 373; arsenic,
117.

White arsenic, 117, see also Arsenic;
hellebore, 148, see also Hellebore;
mold, sweet potato, 368; oxide of
arsenic, 117 ; scaly coccus, 10.

Whitman's fountain pump, 184.

Whitney, A. E., quoted, 67.

Willard, S. D., quoted, 73.

Willow, antiopa butterfly, 373; worm,
278, 292, 373.

Woodchucks, treatment of, 135.

Woodward, J. S., quoted, 63, 64.

Woolly aphis, 10; destruction of, 50;
on apple, 259.

Worms, 11.

Wormwood, 5, 7, 8.

Yellow-fined currant-bug, 287.
Yellow prussiate of potash, 146.
Yellows, peach, 332.
Young, Lawrence, quoted, 16.

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