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I - Master Negative torag Number SNPaAgO<^ CONTENTS OF REEL 66 1) Vogenberger, Ralph Albert Sprouting capacity and sprout development in certain hardwood species of Central Pennsylvania MNS# PSt SNPaAg066.1 2) Kerns, Robert Willis The ecology of rural social agencies in Pennsylvania MNS# PSt SNPaAg066.2 3) Merkle, Frederick Grover Base exchange studies on the Pennsylvania Jordan field plots MNS# PSt SNPaAg066.3 HtK. Author: Vogenberger, Ralph Albert Title: Sprouting capacity and sprout development in certain hardwood species of Central Pennsylvania Place of Publication: Copyright Date: 1931 Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg066.1 <101741>**OCLC*Form:manuscriptitem2 lnput:CHF Edit.FMD 008 ENT: 980205 TYP: s DT1: 1931 DT2: LAN: eng 035 (OCoLC)38091975 037 PSt SNPaAg066.1 $bPreservation Office, The Pennsylvania State University, Pattee Library, University Parl<, PA 16802-1805 090 20 Thesis 1931m $bVogen,RA $cst $cax+(Archival) 090 20 Microfilm D344 reel 66.1 $cmc+(service copy, print master, archival master) 100 1 Vogenberger, Ralph Albert. 245 10 Sprouting capacity and sprout development in certain hardwood species of Central Pennsylvania $cby Ralph A. Vogenberger. 260 $c1931. 300 35 leaves $bill. $c29 cm. 502 Thesis (M.S.)-Pennsylvania State College. 504 Bibliography: leaves 34-35. 533 Microfilm $bUniversity Park, Pa. : $cPennsylvania State University $d1997. $e1 microfilm reel ; 35 mm. $f(USAIN state and local literature preservation project. Pennsylvania) $f(Pennsylvania agricultural literature on microfilm). 590 Archival master stored at Nafional Agricultural Library, Beltsville, MD : print master stored at remote facility. 590 This item is temporarily out of the library during the filming process. If you wish to be notified when it returns, please fill out a Personal Reserve slip. The slips are available in the Rare Books Room, in the Microforms Room, and at the Circulation desk. 650 0 Forests and forestry $zPennsylvania. 650 0 Tree planting $zPennsylvania. 830 0 USAIN state and local literature preservafion project. $pPennsylvania. 830 0 Pennsylvania agricultural literature on microfilm. Microfilmed By: Challenge Industries 402 E. State St P.O. Box 599 Ithaca NY 14851-0599 phone (607)272-8990 fax (607)277-7865 www.lightlink.com/challind/microl.htm IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (QA-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 1 4.5 1^ 171 2.8 ■ 3.6 4.0 ■- u 1.4 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 — 150mm .// /APPLIED A IIV14GE . Inc ^^ss. 1653 East Main street '^='' Rochester, NY 14609 USA '=''=' Phone: 716/482-0300 .^=1^= Fax: 716/288-5989 O 1993, Applied Image, Inc., All Rights Reserved ^ .^ . iil'M THE PHJNSILVASIA STATE COLLEGE SPROUTING CAPACITY AND SPROUT DEVELOPMEMT IN CERTAIN HARDWOOD SPECIES OF CENTRAL PEHNSILVANIA y\ w i By Ralph A. Vogenberger THESIS FOR DECfflEE OF BJASTER OF SCIEUCE IN FORESTRY June, 1931 APPROVED ....22htg..^..?*/* 1931 BY • • # • t c#* •^••V • ••^^^^•V* *^\ • • • • •V* PrWessor o: T^\^^ (30HTE8TS FOREWORD 1 INTRODUCTION ....• 3 SCOPE OF STDK ••••••« •...♦ ••...#...•.•..•« K DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN STUDI .•. 6 THE REGION • 6 FACTORS UNFAVORABLE TO SPROUT REPRODUCTION 8 METHODS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION •• • U RELATION BETWEEN NUMBER OF DOMIMAMT SPROUTS AND TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS PER «UMP •••••••••••••••9-^13 RELATION BETWEEN HEIGHT OF DOMINANT SPROUTS AND TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS PER STUMP 15 RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS AND THE DIAMETER OF PAREMT STUMP 17 RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS AND THE AGE OF PARENT STUMP 20 RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS AND THE HEIGHT OF PARENT STUMP • • •••• 21 RELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF YEARS AFTER CUTTING AND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SPROUTS PER STUMP 22 RELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF TEARS AFTER CUTTING AND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SMIOUTS PER ACRE 2K RELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF YEARS AFTER CUTTING AND THE HEICaT OF THE DOMINANT SPROUTS ................. 26 RELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF YEARS AFTER CUTTING AND THE D.B.H. OF THE DOMINANT SPROUTS 28 SILVICULTURAL APPLICATION 30 SUMMARY 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY ••• 34 FOREWORD The author is greatly indebted to Arthur C. Mclntyre, Instructor in Forest Research, Pennsylvania State College, who suggested this study, and offered much kind advice and criticism; to Harold J. Lutz, Assistant Professor of Forestry, Pennsylvania State College, under whose direction the study was made, for his assistance in connection with the field work and preparation of the manuscript* The author also wishes to acknowledge the aid given by George W. Holt, Unionville, Pennsylvania, who furnished information in regard to location and time of cutting of the areas on which the field work was carried out* -1- Chestnut oak stump, one year after cutting, with a total of 142 sprouts. Nine of these sprouts are dominant and average 6 feet in height. The parent stump is 75 years old, .6 ft. high, and has a diameter (inside bark) of 8.5 inches . -2^ INTRODUCTION i%«*> It is a well knoim fact that most of our hardwood species possess the capacity for sprouting after cutting, and in many cases after burning* The early growth rate of these sprouts is more rapid than the early growth rate of seedlings • Reproduction by sprouts is inexpensive and rapid, and the sprout systan of reproduction is relatively simple and easy to practice* These advantages have led many woodlot owners throu^out the East to prefer this method of reproduction to slower, and more expensive methods • For many years iron mining and smelting were important industries in Pennsylvania, and consequently there was a great demand for charcoal. The hardwood forests were cleared off in order to flU. this demand, and the succeeding stands were cut again as aoon as they were large enough to use* The rotation used was about twenty-five years, and reproduction was obtained largely from sprouts. With the closing down of the iron mines and smelters, the hardwood stands were permitted to grow to older ages, so at present we find stands of sprout origin as old as one hundred years* There are no accurate statistics available on the amount of timber of sprout origin in this region, but a conservative estimate would be seventy-five per cent* It is actually knownthat in some cases ninety per cent of the timber is of sprout origin* Butt rot is a form of defect which is commonly associated with older stands of sprout growth* Wood-destroying fungi attack the parent stump, and decay spreads up into the heartwood of the sprout* Sooner or later a large percentage of the butt log of the -3- sprout Is affected by heart rot. Decay Increases with age, and consequently, sprout reproduction is more applicable in stands managed on short than on long rotations. The most import€uit of the products derived from coppice stands are ties, props, posts, poles, and fuel. Although charcoal and fuel were at one time leading products, they are now of minor importance. Chemical wood and pulp wood as well as furniture stock and lumber are other minor products derived from timber of sprout origin. Tannin, in some localities, is an important product obtained from the bark of the various species of aak. In the region in which this study was made, a fairly good market exists for the major products of sprout stands. The region is situated about half way between the hard coal and the soft coal regions of Pennsylvania, and consequently, ready markets are found for mine ties and props^ The railrcilSl companies make constant d^nands for ties, while posts and poles are in demand by the State Hij^iway Department, farmers, and mcmy other odscellan^us consumers. This investigation of sprout growth was made primarily because of the fact that sprout timber is of great importance in this region. Much of the timber throughout the region is wwned by farmers, and it is hoped that this study will be of particular interest and value to th^a. SCOPE OF THE STODY The growth of sprouts, like all other forms of plant growth, is influenced by a complem of factors. Mo attempt was made in this -4- study to investigate all of the influencing factors. Only those factors were considered which were most readily investigated and which were thought to be most significant and important in the application of silviculture practice* This study was limited, as far as possible, to sites which were more or less uniform in regard to such factors as fire, grazing, season of cutting, ejqposure, soil, and system of cutting. The object of this study was to determine the following relationships! 1# The relation between the number of dominant sprouts and the total number of sprouts per stump for various species. 2. The relation between the average height of dominant sprouts and the total niamber of sprouts per stump for various species. 3. The relation between the total number of sprouts per stump I tump stump I tump 5» The relation between the total number of sprouts per stump and the age of parent 3tomp for various apecies. 6. The relation between the total ntimber of sprouts per stump and the age of the sprouts. ?• The relation between the number of sprouts per acre and the age of the sprouts. 8. The relation between the average height of the i§idharit sprouts and their ages. -5- 9. The relation between the average diameter (breast high) of the dominant sprouts and their ages. DEFINITIOMS OF TERMS USED IN THE STUDY In order to give the reader a precise tmderstanding and to eliminate ambiguity, it appears desirable to define some of the terms used in this study. Sprout - A shoot developing from an adv^fititious or dormant bud on an injured tree or on the stump of a tree. Leffelman and Hawley (13), Schwarz (l7), and Westveld (21) have used the term "sprout" to designate only shoots which develop from stumps three inches or more in diameter at ground level. To shoots developing from stumps smaller than three inches, they have applied the term "seedling sprout". However, for the purpose of this study, the term "sprout" will be applied to all shoots irrespective of the size of the parent stump. Dominant sprouts - The largest and most vigorous of the sprouts arising from a stump. These sprouts are probably the only ones that will survive competition. Sprouting capacity - The ability which a species manifests to produce sprouts. I THE REGION The region represented in this study is situated in the central part of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The topography consists of rolling limestone valleys separated by long, narrow. steep, parallel, mountainous ridges of sandstone* The region is drained by ntmerous creeks flowing ihto the West Branch of the Susquehanna River* The Moshannon, Bald Eagle, and Penn Creeks, with their tributaries, are the most important of these streams. The elevation of the region ranges from about 1000 feet above sea level as a minimum to about 2500 feet above sea level as a maximum. The winters are quite severe, with temperatures falling as low as 20 degrees below zero, and there is generally a heavy fall of snow throughout the region both in the valleys and on the mountains. The average date of the first killing frost in the autumn is September 30, while the average date of the last killing frost in the spring is May 1. The summers are relatively cool with the summer mean being about 69 degrees F. and the absolute maximum being 96 degrees P. Sudden changes in temperature are common. Rainfall is generally sufficient and well distributed although droughts are common in the late summer and early fall* The timber of this region is generally recognized as a mixed oak type. The chief species predominating in the stands are chestnut oak (Ouercus montana) > scarlet oak {Qjl cocclnea), white oak {g^ alba), red oak (S* borealis) . black oak ( Q^ velutina). red maple (Acer rubrum) , hemlock (Tsuga canadpqsis) , white pine (Pinus strobus) . and hickory (Hicoria s^.)* Just to the north lies the northern hardwood type in which the predominating species are beech (Fagus grandifolia) , yellow birch (Betula lutea) , black birch (B^ lenta) , Sugar maple (A^ saccharum) , red maple, hemlock and white pine. -7- FACTORS UMFAVORABLE TO SPROUT REPRQDnnTTnw There are many factors which are believed to be detrtoental to sprout production and development. Since all of these factors could not be investigated it was decided to eliminated as many of them as possible from the study in order to make the data more comparable. The most important of these factors are discussed below. Firs, is undoubtedly a factor that has great influence upon sprouting capacity. Fire bums the sprouts to the ground and causes the stumps to produce new shoots. Frequent fires soon destroy sprout production entirely, because the vitality of the stump becomes e3diausted. Thus, on areas which are burned over repeatedly, we find large numbers of stumps which have failed to produce sprouts. The stands formed on such areas are open and irregular. Zon (23) has shown that fire also has an effect on height growth of sprouts. His table showing the effect of fire on hei^t growth in stands of sprouts, U years old, in the Tennessee River Valley followsj Species black oak scarlet oak irtdte oak Average height in fftftt badly burned slightly bumfld 24.3 25.8 19.7 25.9 27,7 21.3 Grazing probably has somewhat the same effect as fire on althou^ not always killed back to the ground, they are injured and new shoots are produced. Where only the tops have been browsed, the sprouts are hindered in growth and the resulting tree is of poor form. I.ate spring and summer cuttinpra probably result in less vigorous sprout production than winter and early spring cuttings. If the trees are cut during the growing season, the bark is more easily stripped from the stump and consequently, many adventitious and dormant buds are destroyed. Sprouts that are produced late in the season are stiU tender at the end of the growing season and very susceptible to frost killing. Zon (23) has given in the following table a comparison of the effect of sijmmer and winter cutting upon the growth of two year old dominant sprouts from stumps 32 years old: . Species White oak Black oak Scarlet oak Spanish oak Summer cut diameter heit^ht Winter out diameter heif^ht 0.82" .88 1.02 1.12 4.35' -4.98 5.83 0.7L" .94 .38 .84 4.S5' 6.32 7.20 6.62 Jn this table, the height growth is shown to be greater for the winter cut, while the diameter growth is greater for the summer cut. Mattoon (U) however, shows in the following table for 1 year old chestnut sprouts that the diameter growth as well as the height growth is greater for the winter cut, but that the average number of sprouts is greater for the summer cut: Season Midwinter May Aver, no. sprouts 22 35 Aver, height 6.15' 3.5 Aver, diameter Mi^MHMMi .23 Brown (4.) , in an experiment carried out at the Storrs (Connecticut) Agricultural Experiment Station found that the months of June, July, and August were most favorable for the elimination of bushes from pastures, since the sprouting capacity was poorest during that period. -9- On the other hand, if good sprout reproduction is the object in management, no cutting should be made during this period. Southern and western exposures are believed to be more or less unfavorable for sprout reproduction. No data has been collected in regard to this condition, but observation and comparison seemed to show that stumps on southern and western slopes were not as vigorous sprouters as those on northern and eastern slopes. Southern and western slopes are generally considered inferior sites because they are constantly exposed to the warm rays of the 3^m. Moisture content of the soil is generally somewhat lower on these warm slopes, and it is likely that the heat also has an effect on the sprouting capacity of the st^imps. Systems of cutting which do not permit sufficient light to reach the sprouts are unfavorable for sprout development. Oak sprouts are moderately tolerant to intolerant and abundant light is required for their best development. For this reason upper slopes and ridges are more favorable to sprout reoroduction than lower slones and coves, and clear cutting systems are more favorable than other systems of cutting. Decayed or partly decayed stumps are believed to have an unfavorable effect upon sprouting capacity. This phase was not investigated in this study, but Mattoon (14.) has shown the relation of soundness of parent stump to the height growth of sprouts of chestnut. His table is given here, and he explains the high average shown for the poor quality stumps as being due to the fact that no measurements were taken on stumps which were so badly diseased that -10- no sprouts were produced. Quality of Length of growth In hel^^ht In feet 3tumn 1st year 2nd Tear ?rd year total Good Fair Poor A.18 3.97 2.23 2.20 2.00 1.90 9.01 1.51 7.89 1.23 7.20 METHODS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION Field methods - In any study of the progressive development of vegetation, the best and most accurate method of investigation is by the use of permanent sample plots, in which the origin and development of the vegetation may be followed and studied from the initial stages clear through to maturity. The one objection to this method however, is the fact that it requires too long a time to secure data, and often results of an investigation are desired quickly. Therefore, a method of alternating areas is most practicable for such a study. This method involves laying out sample plots in which the various stages of development are represented on different areas. The method of alternating areas was used in this study. The plots laid out were l/25 acre in size, and rectangular in shape (13.2« X 132.0* )• This size and shape was used because it was most saUsfactory and convenient for the areas studied. The plots were laid out with a steel tape and a measuring pole 6.6 f ^et long. The chain was stretched across the area chosen for the location of the plot and then with the use of the pole it was possible to determine the outer limits of the plot. The data were collected from plots located on areas which had not been burned nor grazed since the time of cutting. It was -11- not always possible to definitely determine whether or not the area had been grazed, but no plots were established where there was evidance of grazing. Only areas which had been cut over during the winter or early spring were selected in this study, and the information regarding the time of cutting was obtained from the owner of the woodlot and then checked, where possible, by an inspection of the parent stumps. The plots were limited to the northern or eastern slopes of ridges, and to soils varying from a stony loam to a sandy loam. The soil was classified ocularly. The plots were further limited to areas which had been clear cut, and consequently, only even-aged stands were considered. It was desirable, in order to study development, to lay out plots on areas which had been cut over for various lengths of time. Plots were established and measurements taken on areas which had been cut 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 22, and 3U years earlier. A total of 53 plots were estabUshed which included measurements on 1854 stumps. The data collected included: species, height, diameter Inside bark, age, condition, origin, total munber of sprouts, number of dominant sprouts, average height, and average diameter breast high of the dominant sprouts for each stump occurring on the plot. Then location of plot, age class of sprouts (number of years after cutting) , and date were also recorded. Measurements taken on each plot were tallied on separate sheets. Office methods - In handling the data, the first step necessary was to group it according to species and number of years after cutting. Then a further grouping was made according to stump diameter, stump -12- height and stump age classes. Averages were obtained for each set of measurements in each of the groups and these averages plotted on coordinate paper. Smooth curves were draum and then tables prepared from values read directly from the curves. No curves or tables are presented where insufficient data did not permit their construction, or where correlations could not be established between certain factors. However, the conditions as they existed are included In a short discussion. BKLmON BErwr™' NUMBER OF DOMINAMT SPPOHTS AMD TOTAL HUMBER OF SPROUTS PER STJfSP, Competition for light and food normally causes high mortality among the sprouts produced, and the dominant sprouts at the end of the first year are probably the only ones which will survive for any length of time. The aim in this phase of the study was to determine the number of dominant sprouts per stump and the ratio between the number of dominant sprouts and the total number of sprouts per stump. Measurements were taken on 543 stumps of seven species, one year following cutting. The total number of sprouts and the number of dominant sprouts were recorded for each stump. No distinction was made as to height, diameter, age, or condition of the parent stump, since it wfts believed that the effect of these factors was more or less compensating and that the combined effect was more important than the effect produced by any single factor. The data were grouped by species into classes based on the total number of sprouts, vi^. - 1-10 11-20, etc. Averages were computed for the total number ill -13- . .■>.* . ->«^«\^>i*.Ma^k/. i ^^^H^^l^l^ of sprouts and the number of dominant sprouts for each class. These averages were then plotted on coordinate paper with number of dominant sprouts as the ordinate and total number of sprouts as the abscissa. Smooth curves were drawn and Table I was prepared by redding values directly from the curve • TABLE I. - Relation between total number of sprouts and number ^ - ^ • - ■»• r stump at ap;e of one year> Species t Dominant 1 pprouts chestnut J number oak 1 per cent white t: nuaber oak ^ per cent Scarlet oak red oak # number cent number per cent black s number oak 2 per cent red t ntunber maple t per cent hickory: t number ap. 0 : per cent 10 Total number of sprouts 1 No. stumps __: lessi» 2.2 22.0 2.2 22.0 2^ 2it0 22.0 1*2 17.0 20 l*i V « 40 1«2 i5.5»io.e '}.6i A.2 J^ 50i 1,1 8.8i 8.8! — J^ M H I— *— ^ Jt^ 18.0 As2 lA.Oill.? i-.»2: g-'O 14.0tl2.5 i»?» ?»2 ?i^otig.?ti3To ?.2t 3.2: A.l 16.0:13.7 Aji. 8.8 ^s£ 10. A AjI 3A A.9: 5.5 12.3 3,?: A.O: 5.3 16^0:13.3:13^- 2.8: lA.O:! 11.0 ^ 12.6 60 SljI 8.8 4^ 1*0 1.2 J^ 70 : 30 : 90 :tban AO 6.3: 7.2: 221 9.tQt 9tO» total; 240 /,^2i 5.2: 5.5: i^O : U 6^01 6.5: 6:n:» I 5.5: 6.8: 8.5: . 8?. 7,9: 8.5: 9. A: : : ^_J Ml ?>?« 9.2> 6.1: J. : 10.2: 6.5: 5.9: A.7 10^8: 8.Z.: 5.9 6.5: 7.3: X 121 126 8 # Based on two year old sprouts. # stunrps with less than 40 sprouts X study of Table I brings out certain interesting relations. There is an increase in the number of dominant sprouts as the total stump sprouts decreases as the total number of sprouts increases. This may be explained by the fact that as the total number of sprouts Increases, competition for light and food becomes more keen. The result is that proportionally fewer sprouts are vigorous and dominant. -U- I There la little or no difference in thie relationship between the «neue species sidled. Chestnut oai, which Is prohably the least tolerant species has a slightly lower percentage of dominant sprouts than red «aple which IB prohahly the «ost tolerant of the species studied, to exception to this statement Is found In the two upper .lasses Where the data were ,ea.,r. The data for red oai and hickory are hased on 2 year old sprats and consequently can not he directly compared with that for the other species. „ost of the stu:^s produced less than 40 sprouts, and only .v,.n 70 sorouts. two hundred twenty one chestnut a few oroduced more than 40 sorouiis. OS. stumps produced less than 40 sprouts each and only 19 stu^s produced ^re than 40 sprouts each. In the case of red «aple, 121 stu^s produced less than 40 sprouts and only 5 st-ps produced »ore than 40 sprouts • It was believed by the writer that the nuMber of sprouts produced by a stu^ would have an Influence upon the height growth 0, the dopant sprats, especially during the early years of growth This Phase of the study was carried out for t.e ^ose of deterging -. +^.n did exist between height growth and total just what correlation did exxsT, number of sprouts per stump. A «w, +WO vear old sprouts because The study was made on two year ox y *x. +v,« ««P of one year old sprouts, insufficient data did not permit the use of on . . „ 270 stumps of various species. The total number Data were obtained on 270 stumps o .^ A +he height of the dominant sprouts was of sprouts were counted and the height -15- •5 measured. No distinction was made as to height, diameter, age, or condition of the parent stump. The data were grouped by species into classes of total number of sprouts per stump. Averages were computed for the total number of sprouts and the height of the dominant sprouts for each class. These averages were then plotted on coordiaate paper ^dth height of dominant sprouts as the ordinate and total number of sprouts as the abscissa. Smooth curves were drawn and Table II was prepared by reading the values directly from this curve. TABLE II. - Relation of total number of sprouts from stumps fj^^"^^ species and the height of dominant sprouts at two years of age> Species chestnut oak White oak scarlet oak red oak black oak red maple hickory sp« Total mimber of ayrouts per ^tuinp.. ^number 70 : 80: stumps I'jr-rzrflJ^-^^^' ^^ feet of dominant sprout^. 5.2 : 5.5 » 5.8 : 5.8 4,2 t 4.6 : 5.0 : 5.5 4.A s 4.9 s 5.7 : 6.A U,U : 5.8 i 6.8 : 6.0 t X * A.6 i 5.0 : 5.7 : 6.3 « « » * « X 5.1 X 5.A s 5.7 : 5.9 : t X * : 2.5 X 2.6 : 2.8 x 3.0 6.1 X 6.3 s 6.6 5.8 : 6.0 6*A • 6.4. 5.7 : 6.6 t t 5.7 X 5.6 i 3.2 X 3.4 6.2 t t X 7.1 47 43 40 17 X t 3 t : 112 s t 8 The dominant sprouts increase in height as the number of sprouts per stump increases as in sho^ in Table II. This May be explained by, (l) , the same vigor that results in a stump producing a large number of sprouts also causes the sprouts to grow more rapidly in height for at least the first few years, and, (2), competition for -16- light m.3t be very keen, and rapW height growth results from the attempt of the domtaaBt sprouts to obtain more Ught, in a oomparlson of the effect of total number on height „f aomlnsnt sprats in different species. It is sho^ that chestnut oak gradually loses Its hi^ ra»k In rate of height growth as the total number of sprouts per stump increases. In the case of stumps producing 10 sprouts, chestnut oak shows greater height growth than any of tte remaining species, it is closely foUowed by red maple. in the foUowlng two classes chestnut oak faUs to second ^e. being an^ssed by red oak. Finally, in the group for stumps wl* AO sprouts, number of sWs producing more than *0 sprouts, the refining values are not considered. Red maple shows the same general trend as chestnut cak. scarlet oak and red oak show an opposite trend, while white oak and hickory r«^ln throughout as the slower growing species. ft|]p rpuTT TOTAL NUMBER Diameter of the parent s^P was beUeved to be an important .actor which Influenced sprouting capacity. Dls.eter, .bile probably Closely reUted to age, is much easier to study in its relation to aproutlhg capacity. It also se«.s more practical than the age of the parent tree for use in management. Sprouting capacity was measured J ^ <«Q+Aad of by the height of the by the number of sprouts produced, instead of W dominant sprats as has been done by Zon (23), .Spaeth (OB) . Spaeth (X8) a.d Averell (D have also expressed the sprouting capacity of various hardWs as the percentage of the stumps that had sprouted. -17- In this study measurements were taken on 285 stumps of various species. The diameter inside bark ^s measured because in ^y cases the bark of the stump was partly or entirely missing, and did not permit measurement of diameter outside bark. The data were grouped by species Into one-inch stump diameter classes. Averages .ere computed for total number of sprouts and diameter of stump for each diameter class. These averages were then plotted on coordinate paper .dth number of sp«>uts as the ordinate and diameter of the stump as the abscissa. Smooth curves were drawn and Table III was prepared .y reading values directly from these curves. Table III was prepared from data obtained from two year old sprouts because Insufficient da^ did not permit the use of one year old sprouts. TABLE III. - stump dia.# inches Relation between stump diameter and total QT^-ronts in ^aT.iou3 species. TotS number of sprouts per stump at 2 number of : hickory SP of age No* stumps # diameter inside bark* -18- ■ Table III Indicates that stumps produce a greater nmber of itump Aiwve this point, there is a reduction in the number of sprouts produced. This reduction is shovm for chestnut oak, white oak, and red oak. The remaining species do not shov. any such dovamrd trend, possibly because of Insufficient data. The diameter at which the maximum number of sprouts are produced varies with the different species. For chestout oak the greatest number of sprouts are found on stumps about 11 inches in diameter. White oak shows maximum production on stumps 8 inches In diameter, and red oak produces the maximum number on stumps with a diajneter of 9 inches. Scarlet oak shows a greater capacity for sprouting than any of the other species. At a diameter of U inches scarlet oak is still on the increase in relation to number of sprouts produced. White oak shows the poorest capacity for sprouting since after a stump diameter of 8 inches is attained this species begins to decline in number of sprouts produced. These data compare favorably with the results reported by Zon (23) . He obtained measure^ts on 13^ white oak and 1306 black oak sprouts and found that the greatest height growth of the dominant sprouts was produced in white oak from stumps 7 to 9 inches IB diameter. In black oak he found the most vigorou* sprouts on stumps between 10 and 15 inches in diameter. Spaeth (18) stetes in the sum-^nary of his table on the sproutin. capacity of various hardwoods, that after reaching eight inches, white oak, white elm, red maple, and swamp white oak show a marked decline in capacity. 4 -19- n TOTAL ampT? n-p SPROUTS IN vtPTnns SPECIES. Measurements were taken on 413 stumps in order to learn the effect of age of parent stump upon sprouting capacity in the different species. Table IV was prepared in a manner similar to that used in preparing the predeeding tables. Table IV is based on one year old sprouts with the exception of red oak which is for two year old sprouts* TABLE IV. - Relation between the stump age and total number of sprouts in various species. _, — Species chestnut oak white oak scarlet oak red oak # black oak hickory sp# Ap;e of parent stump 1 41-50 .— ~: t : • '' '' * To+ni niimhftr of sprouts one jr.ear. oia. 1.4: 7.6: 14«4 I t 3.6: 3.8: 13.6 : 20.1: 25.0: 29.3: : : « 17.9: 20.3: 21.8: : t » : : 1.3 1.0 3.0 2.0 6.5: 11.0: t t 2.0: 5*2: 18*9: 23.0: 24.9: 26.1: 26.9 : : t * I I : 22^2 t t : 23.6: 24*3 I % t 3.0: 4*0: 5.3t 6.7: 8.0 25.8 9-4 I t t I t ?6.6: 21.4 t s 11.0: f Based on two year old sprouts. Table IV indicates that sufficient data .ere not obtained in order to determine the age at »hich «axi«« production occurred. m species (red oa. excepted), show a constant Increase in number of sprouts .1th increase In age. Ked oak (2 years old) sho.s a ^™ produJuon of sprouts at an a.e between 91 and 100 years. Greeley and Ashe(9) in their study of .hlte oak state. "In eost localities an age of «0 years ™arks the limits of vigorous sprouting capacity." Foster and Ashe (5) in their s^dy of chestnut oak state. Ho. stumps 239 0 103 16 U 3 -20- «The sprouting capacity is detemined more by age and vigor than by size. Under the most favorable conditions of growth, vigorous trees sprout mtilA 150 or even 200 years old, or until they are from l6 to 18 inches in diameter. Stunted trees and those growing under TSnfavorablec oofiditions, as on thin rocky soil or high ridges, sprout feebly when more than 120 years old and 12 to U inches in diameter." ..^..TTOK RTr,TmN ^'^^ ^T-TmT AND TOTftT, NTTMRF,-- OF SPROUTS IN VflTRTOnS SPECIFnS. In order to determine the effect of stump height on sprouting capacity measurements were taken on 538 stumps with one year old sprouts, 281 stumps with two years old sprouts, and 357 stumps with five year old sprouts. The total number of sprouts were counted on each stump and measurement was made of stump height. The data were souped by species and age of sprouts Into .5 foot stump height classes. Averages were then computed for the height of stump and total number of sprouts in oach class. No tables or graphs are presented on this study because a correlation could not be established .ith the data obtained in any of these three age classes. This lack of correlation is probably due to the fact that only a small range in stump height existed. Only four stump height classes were established since aU stumps were less than 2 feet in height. Most of the data was for stumps which varied in height between .6 and 1.5 feet. Zon (22) Showed In the following tahle the reUtlon between the height of the .t»p and the height of the predo^»tlng shoot when one year old: i: » -21- r Ht. of stump, ft. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 5 3.0 3.5 U.O 4.5 Ht. of predom. ^hoot,ft. 5.3 4-7 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.7 ;i.o He states, "Stmps 1 foot high show the best results and, from the general tendency of the sprouts to decrease in height with increase in stump height, one may infer that the lower the stump the more vigorous the sprouts." MTCR OF SPPnnTS IH VARIOUS SPECIES. This relationship was studied in order to determine and compare the survival of sprouts in the various species, as it might influence the composition of the mature stand. The total number of sprouts were counted on 1854 stumps .bich had been cut 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 22, and 34 years earlier. These data were grouped by species and age of sprouts. An average was computed for the total number of sprouts per stump of each species for each period since cutting. These averages were then plotted on coordinate paper and smooth curves drawn. The curves are presented in Figure !• These curves sho« clearly ttot the mortaUty among the sprouts of all species Is very high up to an age of about 8 or 10 ye»rs, and that the greatest mortality is between the ages of 1 and 5 years, scarlet oak. however. Is the exception, since the curve sho,s its highest mortality to he during the first 3 years. Other important facts indicated hy these curves are that.- 1. Bed maple «.d chestnut oai have the greatest survival of any of i A ^f -xt vpars and that these two species the species over the period of 34 years, ana T>na have a very low mort^ity after reaching 15 years of age. -22- THE FREDERICK POST CO. AGK OF SPROUTS (YBARS) N9 319 2. Black oak and hickory have the poorest survival of any of the species. Too much emphasis should not be placeion these species however, since their cArves were dram from a rather small number of measurements. 3. Red oak has a comparatively high mortality up to an age of about 30 years The curves show very definitely why sprout hardwood stands in this reirion are composed so abundantly of chestnut oak and red maple. As may be seen from the number of stumps of each species measured, the composition of the stands is almost identical with the survival of the various species at the age of 35 years. It is very likely that for older stands of sprouts this correlation would be perfect. ^VT.^'Vim BT^lEP ^nMRTT.!. OF YEARS f™^ ^TTIHG AMD Wmm OF SPROUTS "(ALL SPECIKS) PER ACEeT This study was made in order to show the survival of sprouts of all species on an acre basis. Measurements were taken on 53 plots of 1/25 acre each in size and Included a total of 1854 stumps. The plots were distributed over areas which had been cut over 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 22, and 34 years earlier. The total number of sprouts were counted on each plot and then converted to an acre basis for each of " the age clasaes. T^e figures were then plotted on coordinate paper and a smooth curve drawn which is presented as Figure 2. Study of the curve shows that the highest mortality is during the second and third years. Approximately 21,000 sprouts per acre are present at the end of the first growing season whereas approximately 9,000 are present at the end of three years. Between 3 years and 05 years of age there is a decrease of approximately -24- THE FREDERICK POST CO. AGE OF SPROUTS (YEARS) 7>500 sprouts per acre, and from 25 years onward the mortality is coraparitively low. RELATION BETY^EEH NUMBER OF YEARS AFTEF. CUTTING (AGE OF SPROUTS) AND HEIGHT OF DOMIMIHT SPROUTS IN VARIOUS SPECIES. This study was made to leam and compare the rate of height fprowth of the various species. Measurements were obtained from 1715 stumps of various species with sprouts 1, 2, 5$ 10, 17, 22, and 34 years of age. Cuarves were prepared in a manner similar to that used in the construction of Figures 1 and 2. These curves are presented as Figure 3. A study of the curve will show that:- 1. There is very little difference in the growth rate of the various « species during the first few years. The difference in growth rate of the various species becomes more pronounced as the sprouts increase in age. Differentiation begins at about 10 years of age. 2. All species show a rapid growth rate up to about 15 years of age. After that period, the growth rate is not so rapid. 3. Red oak is shown to be a more rapid grower than any of the other species. 4. Hickory is shown to be the slowest growing species of the group, although the curve here presented is based on a small number of measurements • The re stilts shown by th*se curves compare favorably with the results obtained by Zon (23), Boisen and Newlin (3), Korstian and Stickel (12), Leffelman and Hawley (13), Graves (7), and Mattoon (U). < n -26- M, i^lHuittii:]! XLki THE FREDERICK POST CO. AGE OF SPROOTS (YEARS) N9 319 BELATION BETTffiEN NTJMBRR OF YEARS AFTER CUTTING (AGE OF SPROUTS) -VHD DIAMETER BREAST HIGH OF DQBgNAHT SPROUTS IN VARTOnS SPTyiTg?""'^ ''JL-i t. As a means of further showing the difference in vigor and rate of growth of sprouts of various species, a study was made of the relation between number of years after cutting and the diameter breast high of the dominant sprouts • For this study measurements were taken on the sprouts of 393 stumps which had been cut 5, 10, 17, 22, and 34 years earlier. Curves were prepared and are presented as Figure 4* The important facts brought out by these curves are that:- !• The difference in diameter growth becomes more pronounced as the sprouts increase in age* of 2. The rate^dlameter growth decreases after an age of about 13 years is reached. This was also approximately the petiod at which the rate of height growth decreased. T 3* Hickory shows very slow diameter growth in comparison with the other ST)ecies. U^ Red oak and black oak, which were shown to have the greatest height growth also show the greatest and most rapid diameter grovrbh. Results similar to those shown here have been obtained by Zon (23) and Graves (?)• -28- THE FREDERICK POST CO. AGE OF SPROUTS ( YSARS) N9 319 SILVICULTORAL APPLICATION This study has brought out several important facts which may be applied in the management of sprout hardwood stands* Sprout reproduction may be successfully obtaijied from most of the hardwood species, but some species are more prolific sprout producers than others. Of the species occurring in this region, those possessing the greatest sprouting capacity were found to be chestnut oak, red maple, scarlet oak and red oaK* The species of oak are of great commercial importance and their reproduction should be encouraged. The one serious competitor of the oaks however, appears to be red maple. Due to its high sprouting capacity and its silvicol habits, this species has crowded out other more desirable species. White oak and hickory are important species and yeOt their capacity for sprouting is low, and their growth rate comparatively slow. This indicates that if these species are desired in the final cutting, some other means of reproducing them must be resorted to. A short rotation is advisable in managing a sprout forest and the products obtained from sprouts should be chiefly minor products sach as ties, props, posts and poles. If long rotations are used, much timber is subject to waste due to butt rot, and sprout reproduction is apt to be poor. It has been shown that the sprouting capacity of chestnut oak, white oak, and red oak becomes less after the parent tree has attained a diameter of about 10 inches at stump height. Stands of oak should be clearcut for sprout reproduction since the oaks are Intolerant and require abundant light for best development. The stumps should be cut low and smooth, and care must . t -30- be taken not to strip the bark from the sttirap at the time of cutting* Winter or early spring is probably the best time to cnit the timber. Since poor reproduction is obtained if the cutting is made during the late spring or summer months • loung sprout stands should be protedted from fire and grazing* Fire, of course, will do damagd to stands at any age, but greatest damage is done when the sprouts are young* Gra^.ing is not desirable until the sprouts have attained a height of 8 or 10 feet which is equivalent to an age of about 5 yeai The height gro?rbh of sprouts is very rapid during the first 15 years* After that period, the growth rate in both diameter and height becomes less* It is probable that a thinning at the age of about 15 years would increase the rate of growth since it has been shown that at "Uiis age there are about 24-00 sprouts per acre, which average about 20 feet in height and about 2 inches in diameter breast high* This overstocking is nrobably one of the factors which causes slow growth and poor form among so many of the trees in the mature sprout stand* An important factor that should be considered when a thinning is made is the point at which the sprout arisen from the parent stump. The resistance of a sprout to wind and snow damage is largely determined by this factor* A good example of this occurred during a heavy snow storm in the spring of 1929 • On the permanent > plots established in a stand of 18 year old black locuat (Robinia pseudoacacia) at the Pennsylvania State College, many sprouts were damaged by the snow* It was noted that those sprouts arising at or near the top of the stump were more seriously damctged than those arising from the root collar or near the base of the stump* -31- SUMMARY A large proportion of the timber of central Pennsylvania is of sprout origin • Most of the products obtained from this tiin||ber are in the form of ties, props, posts, and poles irtiich are used locally or transported short distances. The species which are found most abundantly and which have the greatest commercial value are chestnut oak, scarlet oak, red oak, black oak, white oak, red maple and hickory* « A study of the sprouting capacity of these species has broujjht out the following facts:- 1. There is an increase in number of dominant sprouts as the total number of sprouts per stump increases, but the percentage of dominant sprouts decreases as the total number of sprouts increases. 2. Most of the stumps produce less than 4.0 sprouts each, of which 5 or less are dominant. 3. The dominant sprouts increase in height as the total number of sprouts per stump becomes greater. /^0 The stumps produce a greater number of sprouts, up to a certain point, with increases in stump diameter. 5» Increases in age of the parent tree, up to a certain point, are accompanied by greater ntimbers of sprouts. 6. There is no correlation between stump height up to 2 feet and the total number of sprouts produced. ?• Red maple and chestnut oak have the greatest survival of any of the species over the period of 34- years; these two species have a very low mort6LLi1gr after reaching 15 years of age. -32- Bm Black oak and hickory have the poorest survival of any of the species. 9. The highest mortality among the sprouts ef all species occurs during the second and third years • 10. There is little difference in rate of height growth or diameter growth the first few years* Differentiation begins at about 10 years of aige, and from then on the difference in growth rate of both diameter and height of the various species becomes more pronounced* 11. Growth is rapid up to an age of about 15 years. After that period^ the rate of growth of all species decreases. 12. Red oak, black oak, and scarlet oak are the most rapid growing species; red maple and hickory are the slowest growing species. -33- BIBLIOGRAPHY (t) AvereU, J. L. (1929) Factors affecttog the reproduction of hardwiod forests in southern Connecticut. Jour, of For. 27» 56. (2) Belyea, H. C. (1931) Forest measurement. John Wiley & Sons. (3) Boisen, A. T., and Hewlln, J. A. (1910) The commercial hickories. U. S. D. A. Forest Service Bull. 80, (4) Broim, B. A. (1930) Effect of time of cutting on the elimination of bushes in pastures. Jour, of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol* 22* (^) Foster. H. D., and Ashe, W. IT. (1908) Chestnut oak in the ^^^ s^^eri A;;alachlans: U. S. D. A. Forest Service Cir. 135. (6) Frothlngham, E. H. (1912) Second-gro^ hardwoods In Connecticut. U. S. D. A, Forest Service Bull. 96. (7) Graves, H. S. (1905) Hotes on rates of growth of red cedar, red oak and chestnut. For. Quart. 3 « 351. (8) Graves, H. S. (1910) The manage-mit °J ^^^^^-growth sprout foreits. U. S. D. A. Yearbook for 1910 » 157-168. « J A_i.^ « « fiQii^ White oak in the southern (9) Greeley, W. B., and Ashe, W, W. v-L'iJ;; nniw o^i.. xu ^ ^ ASSlchians. U. S. D. A. Forest Service Cir. 105. (10) Hawes, A. F. (1908) Conversion ofco^i^emidBrst.^^Td3 to ^ hi^ forest in ewtem France. For. Quart. 6 : 154. (11) Hawley, R. C (1907) Treatm^t of hardwood lands in sou«x- western ConnecUcut. For. Quart. 5 » 283. (12) lorstian, C F., and SJickel, P; W. (1927) f-^-^^^^Jjr ment of blighVkilled chestmit. U. S. D. A. misc. uir. U. S. D. A, Bur. of Soils. -34- (16) Recknagel, A. B. (1923) S«n^ aspects of European forestry. For. Quart* 11 i 323» (17) Schwarz, G. F. (1907) The sprout forests of the Housatonic Valley of Goimecticut. For. Quart. 5 » 121-153. aft^ Snaeth J. H. (1928) Twenty years growth of a sprout hardwood (18) Spaeth,^Jj^«.^^ 'i^^J^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ Agricultural Experiment Stat*to Bull. 465* (19) Tourney, J. W. (192A) Foundations of ^yiculture. Part III. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor. « MO-442. (20) Troup, R. S. (1928) SUvlcultural syste-s. Oxford Univ. Press, London. |129# (22) Zon, R. (190^) Chestnut in southern Maryland. U. S. D. A. Bur. of For. Bull. 53. (o-x^i 7«n R (1907) Management of second growth in the southern ^'^^ ^Jl^aiS^s. U. 1. D. A. Forest Service Cir. 118. ########## A- -35- m;:mm^.m^rci:^i)^^,^m&§M.i.4mi^Mf;i-i^m^^