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r. Formai gardening, with veronica and phlox in the foreground

THE

STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA
HORTICULTURE

A DISCUSSION, FOR THE AMATEUR, AND THE PROFESSIONAL AND
COMMERCIAL GROWER, OF THE KINDS, CHARACTERISTICS AND
METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF THE SPECIES OF PLANTS GROWN IN
THE REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA FOR ORNAMENT,
FOR FANCY, FOR FRUIT AND FOR VEGETABLES; WITH KEYS TO THE
NATURAL FAMILIES AND GENERA, DESCRIPTIONS OF THE HORTI-
CULTURAL CAPABILITIES OF THE STATES AND PROVINCES AND
DEPENDENT ISLANDS, AND SKETCHES OF EMINENT HORTICULTURISTS

BY

L. H. BAILEY

Illustrated with Colored Plates, Four Thousand Engravings in the Text,
and Ninety-six Full-page Cuts

IN SIX VOLUMES

VOL. Ill— F-K

PAGES 1201-1760. FIGS. 1471-2047

THIRD EDITION

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1919

The rights of reproduction and of translation are strictly reserved

<

\ q

COPYRIGHT, 1900
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

REWRITTEN, ENLARGED AND RESET

Set Up and Electrotyped. Published May 12, 1915
Reprinted May, 1917; March, 1919

. DEPT.

.rtlount Pleasant P
J. HORACE MOFARLAND COMPANY
HARRISBURQ, PENNSYLVANIA

FULL -PAGE PLATES

Facing page

XL. Formal gardening, with veronica and phlox in the foreground (in color)

Frontispiece

XLI. A good fern in southern California. — Alsophila australis '. 1217

XLII. A young Celeste fig tree, as grown in Georgia 1234

XLIII. Floriculture. — A house of begonias, with a row of ferns 1242

XLIV. Forcing of grapes. — Muscat of Alexandria 1263

XLV. Ferns in a public garden, with springtime bloom (in color) 1307

XLVI. Type of an old-time formal garden. — Washington's garden at Mt. Vernon . 1315

XL VII. Fringed gentian. Gentiana crinita 1327

XL VIII. The garden gladiolus, variety "Peace" (in color) . . . ... . 1343

XLIX. The Niagara grape (in color) . 1380

L. The grapefruit. About one-third natural size 1391

LI. A home greenhouse 1410

LII. Heliotrope, an old-time favorite 1452

LIII. Good use of spring flowers. — Mertensia virginica 1470

LIV. Herbs and shrubs employed about a pond 1481

LV. Hollyhock .... 1497

LVI. Roman hyacinth. — One of the forms of Hyacinthus orientalis . . . .1614

LVII. A night-blooming cactus. — Hylocereus tricostatus in Hawaii. Hedge planted by

Sibyl Moseley Bingham between 1831 and 1840 ... ... 1625

LVIII. One of the many beautiful garden irises. — Probably one of the hybrid or deriva-
tive forms of the germanica group . 1657

LIX. Japanese irises. — Iris Icevigata 1675

LX. The black walnut. — Juglans nigra 1717

(v)

4f\ r**i i --, f~\

. 9 i i i 3

FABA (phago, to eat; yields edible seeds). Legu-
minosse. A genus established by Tournefort for cer-
tain plants now referred to Vicia. Faba vulgaris,
Moench, is the horse bean, broad bean or Windsor
bean, now accepted as Vicia Faba. From other groups
in Vicia, it differs mostly in its stiff erect habit and the
very large fleshy seeds and pods. The name Fabacese
is sometimes used instead of Leguminosse, and some-
times for the papilionaceous leguminosa?.

FABIANA (after Francisco Fabiano, Spanish bota-
nist, Valencia). Solandcese. Small heath -like shrubs;
one is sometimes grown in cool greenhouses and in
mild climates for its bloom.

Erect and branching plants, sometimes viscid: Ivs.
small and crowded : fls. usually many, terminal or oppo-
site the Ivs., small; corolla long-tubular, dilated or
ventricose above, often contracted at the throat;
stamens 5, attached on the corolla-tube; disk fleshy,
annular or lobed: caps, oblong, 2-
valved. — About 20 species, Bolivia,
Brazil to Patagonia.

imbricate, Ruiz & Pav. Fig.
1471. Height 3-8 ft.: Ivs. ovate,
scale-like, imbricated: fls. sessile or
nearly so, white, with a short
reflexed limb, borne profusely.
Peru. B.R. 25:59. R.H. 1903, p.
291. G.C. III. 32: suppl. Sept.
27; 52:210. Gn. 60, p. 430; 72, p.
511. G.W. 2, p. 511.— This plant is
apparently little grown under glass
in this country. It is a rather com-
mon shrub
in S. Calif.,
where it
blooms at
different sea-
sons. In Eng-
land, it is
said to thrive
best near the
sea . Good
bushes produce
a wealth of well-
lasting bloom in
late spring. It
prop, without
difficulty from
potted cuttings
in Aug.

L. H. B.

FAGARA : Xanthoxy-
lum.

FAGELIA (after
Caspar Fagelius, plant
cultivator). Syn. Bolu-
sdfra, Kuntze. Legumi-
nbsae. One species, a fast-
growing, twining sub-shrub from
S. Afr., covered with clammy
hairs, and bearing all summer
axillary racemes of pea-like fls.
which are yellow, the keel
tipped violet; standard reflexed;

keel obtuse, exceeding the wings ; stamens diadelphous :
pod about 6-seeded, turgid. Cult, outdoors in S. Calif,
and abroad under glass. The plant is allied to Caja-
nus, but its seeds are strophioled, pod swollen, not
flattened, and the 2 upper calyx-lobes nearly distinct.
The Fagelia of Schwenke (1774) is Calceolaria.

bitumindsa, DC. Sts. sev-
eral feet long, woody at base:
Ifts. 3, rhomb-ovate, pale and
glandular-dotted beneath, to
1^ in. long: fls. about ^in-
long: pod 1^ in. long: plant
strong-smelling. B. R. 261
(as Glycine, showing fls. also
veined with red) . — Blooms
in winter in S. Calif.

L. H. B.

1472.
Fagopyrum

esculentum.
(XI)

1471. Fabiana imbricata.

(XX)

77

FAGOPtRUM (beech
wheat, from the likeness of
the fruit to a beech-nut).
Polygonaceae. Probably only
2 species, of Eu. and N. Asia.
Quick-growing annuals, with alternate deltoid or
hastate Ivs., small whitish fls. in racemes or panicles,
5-parted calyx, 8 stamens, 1-loculed ovary ripening
into a floury 3-angled achene. — Both species are grown
for the grain, from which flour is made; and in
horticulture sometimes used as a catch-crop or green-
crop in orchards and elsewhere for the good effect
on the land.

esculentum, Moench (Polygonum Fagopyrum, Linn.).
BUCKWHEAT (which see). Fig. 1472. Lys. large and
broad, long-petioled : fls. white, fragrant, in panicled or
corymbose racemes: achene or grain with regular angles.

tataricum, Gaertn. (Polygonum tatdricum, Linn.).
INDIA- WHEAT. BUCKWHEAT. Fig. 1473. More slender:
Ivs. smaller and hastate or arrow-shaped, shorter-
petioled: fls. greenish or yellowish, in small mostly
simple racemes from the If .-axils: achene with wavy or
notched angles, smaller than in buckwheat. — Useful
in short-season climates and on poorer lands. The Fig.
1473 is made from LinnaBus' original specimens of his
Polygonum tataricum, now deposited in the Linnaean
herbarium, London. L jj g

FAGUS (ancient Latin name). Fagacese. BEECH.
Ornamental trees, chiefly grown for their handsome
foliage, good habit and the conspicuous color of the
bark; also valuable timber trees. There are marked
horticultural forms.

Deciduous: winter-buds conspicuous, elongated,
acute: Ivs. alternate, distichous, dentate or nearly
entire, with caducous small stipules: fls. monoecious,

(1201)

1202

FACTS

FAG US

with tht IVG.: stagnate in sl^nder-peduncled pendu-
lous heads, appearing at the base of the young shoots;
perianth 5-7-lobed; stamens 8-13; pistillate with 3
styles, usually 2 in an axillary peduncled involucre: fr.
a brown, ovate, triangled nut, 1 or 2 in a prickly, dehis-
cent involucre. — Eight
species occur in the cooler
regions of the northern
hemisphere. The species
of the southern hemis-
phere, often included
under Fagus (as F. betu-
loides and others), form
the genus Nothofagus,
which see.

The beeches are tall
deciduous hardy trees, of
noble, symmetrical habit,
with smooth light gray
bark and clean dark green
foliage, which is rarely
attacked by insects or
fungi. They are among
the most ornamental and
beautiful trees for park
planting, and attractive
at every season, especially
in spring, with the young
foliage of a tender deli-
cate green, and the grace-
ful, drooping heads of the
staminate flowers. All of
the eight species known,
save one, are in cultiva-
tion and differ compara-
tively little from each
other. The American and
the European species are
especially much alike, but
the first has the bark of a lighter color, the head is
broader and more roundish, and the leaves less shin-
ing, turning clear yellow in fall, while the latter has
a more ovate head and shining foliage, which turns
reddish brown in fall and remains on the branches
almost through the whole winter. It is sometimes used
for tall hedges. In Europe, the beech is a very impor-
tant forest tree, and the hard and very close-grained
wood is largely used in the manufacture of different
articles and for fuel; but it is not very durable in the
soil. The sweet nuts are edible, and in Europe an oil
is pressed from them, used for cooking and other
purposes.

1473. Fagopyrum tataricum.

1474. Fagus grandifolia.

(XH)

The beech prefers dryish situations, and grows best
in sandy loam and in limestone soil. Propagated by
seeds sown in fall where there is no danger of their
being eaten by mice, or dried after gathering and kept
mixed with dry sand until spring. The young plants
should be transplanted every second or third year;
otherwise they make long tap-roots, and cannot always
be transplanted successfully. The varieties are grafted
on seedling stock, usually in the greenhouse in early
spring; grafting in the open usually gives not very
satisfactory results.

Both in Europe and the eastern United States the
beech forms extensive forests. It is today the common
hardwood tree of central Europe, particularly in Den-
mark and Germany, raised as pure growth or mixture.
It requires a loamy, preferably calcareous soil, shuns
poor sand and swamp," ascends to 3,500 feet in the
Alps; prefers north and east exposures, endures much
shade, protects and improves the soil, and produces
large amounts of wood to the acre. The wood is heavy
(specific gravity 0.65 to 0.75) hard, straight-grained, of
close texture, not durable. Beech is not used as build-
ing lumber, but is extensively used for ordinary wooden
ware, furniture, wheelwright and cooperage stock.
(F. Roth.)

grandifdlia, Ehrh. (F. ferruginea, Ait. F. americana,
Sweet. F. atropunicea, Sudw.). AMERICAN BEECH.
Figs. 1474, 1475. Tree,
to 80 ft., rarely 120 ft.:
Ivs. ovate-oblong, acumi-
nate, coarsely serrate, silky
beneath when young, with
9-14 pairs of veins, dark
bluish green above, light
yellowish green beneath,
2%-5 in. long: involucre
covered with slender,
straight or recurved prick-
les, %in. high. E. N.
Amer., west to Wis. and
Texas. S.S. 9:444. Em.
182. G.F. 8:125. A.G.
12:711. F.E.20:586. Var.
pubescens, Fern. & Rehd.
Lvs. soft-pubescent below,
sometimes only slightly so.
Var. caroliniana, Fern. &
Rehd. (F. ferruginea var.
caroliniana, Loud. F. ro-
tundifolia, Raf.). Lvs. broader, of firmer texture,
darker above: involucre rufous-tomentose, with fewer
and shorter prickles: nut smaller, not exceeding the
involucre. From N. J. and S. 111. to Fla. and Texas.

sylvatica, Linn. EUROPEAN BEECH. Fig. 1475.
Tree, to 80 ft., or rarely 100 ft.: Ivs. ovate or elliptic,
remotely denticulate, silky beneath and ciliate when
young, with 5-9 pairs of veins, dark green and glossy
above, pale beneath, 2-4 in. long: involucre with mostly
upright prickles, about 1 in. high. Cent, and S. Eu. to
Caucasus. M.D.G. 1902:579-582. H.W. 2:20, pp. 42,
43. F.E. 33:615. Fig. 1475 contrasts the Ivs.
of the American and European species. A great
number of varieties are in cult., of which the
following are the most remarkable: Var. pen-
dula, Lodd. Fig. 1476. With long, pendulous
branches, the larger limbs mostly horizontally
spreading. G.C. III. 51:114. G.W. 15, p. 662. B.H.
1907, p. 393. Gn. 42, p. 65; 55, p. 267; 64, p. 167.
G.F. 1:32 (adapted in Fig. 1476). Gng. 6:258. G.W.
2, p. 15; 9, p. 510; 15, p. 663. G.M. 52:807. Var.
tortudsa, Dipp. (var. suenteliensis, Hort.). Dwarf
form, with twisted and contorted branches and small
Ivs. M.D.G. 1912:110. Var. pyramidalis, Kirchn. Of
pyramidal habit. Var. purpfcrea, Ait. (var. atropur-
purea, Hort.). Fig. 1477. Lvs. purple. M.D.G. 1901:

1475. Fagus grandifolia (left),
and F. sylvatica. ( X 1A)

FAGUS

FATSIA

1203

163; 1908:499. G.C. III. 24:305. F.E. 13:472; 14:
874. A.G. 18:837. G.W. 2, p. 539. A form with very
dark purple Ivs. and of compact habit is var. Riversii,
Hort. There are other forms, differing in the shade of
purple, as var. cuprea, Hort., and also some with rosy
pink variegated Ivs. Var. purpftrea pendula, Hort., has

1476. Fagus sylvatica var. pendula.

purple Ivs. and pendulous branches, but is of slow
growth. Var. Zlatia, Spaeth, has yellow foliage. Var.
heterophylla, Loud. (var. asplenifolia, Lodd.). Lvs.
deeply cut, often almost to the midrib, into narrow
lobes. A very graceful variety, forming a dense and
low, shrubby tree. Mn. 1, p. 61. F.E. 18:314. P.G.
3: 163. Less important varieties, but sometimes grown,
are the following: Var. cristata, Lodd., with deeply
toothed, curled, small and clustered Ivs.: of slow
growth. Var. incisa, Hort. Similar to var. hetero-
phylla, but Ivs. less deeply cut. Var. macrophylla, Hort.
Lvs. large, to 5 in. long. Var. quercifdlia, Schelle
(var. quercoides, Hort.). With deeply toothed and
sinuate, rather narrow Ivs. Var. quercoides, Pers.,
often confused with var. quercifolia, is a form with
dark and rough, oak-like bark. M.D.G. 1909:509.

F. asidtica, Winkl.=F. orientalis. — F. Engleriana, Seemen.
Tree, about 50 ft. tall: Ivs. obovate or oval-obovate, glabrous
below: stalk of fr. 2-3 in. long, glabrous. Cent. China. — F. jap6n-
ica, Maxim. Lvs. small, elliptic, crenate: involucre small, slen-
der-peduncled, half as long as the nuts. Japan. S.I. F. 1:35. —
F. orientalis, Lipsky (F. asiatica, Winkl.). Pyramidal tree: Ivs.
elliptic to oblong-obovate, nearly entire: lower prickles of the
involucre changed into linear-oblong lobes. Asia Minor to N.
Persia.— F. Sieboldii, Endl. Lvs. ovate, shortly acuminate, cre-
nate, with 9-14 pairs of veins: lower prickles of the involucre chang-
ing into slender linear or obovate-oblong lobes. Japan. S.I.F.
1 : 35. — F. sinensis, Oliver (F. sylvatica var. longipes, Oliver).
Tree, about 50 ft. tall: Ivs. ovate or rhombic-oval, finely pubescent
below: stalks of fr. lJ^-2 in. long, pubescent above. Cent. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FALLUGIA (after Virgilio Fallugi or Falugi, an
Italian botanical writer, end of the seventeenth cen-
tury). Rosdcese. Ornamental woody plant sometimes
cultivated for its handsome white flowers and the
attractive heads of feathery tailed fruits.

Deciduous shrub: Ivs. alternate, small, 3-7-lobed
at the apex, stipulate: fls. 1-3, terminal on elongated
branchlets, perfect or polygamous, with 5 narrow bracts
inserted between the calyx-lobes; calyx-tube cupular;
sepals 5, imbricate; petals 5, suborbicular, yellowish
white; stamens numerous in 3 rows; pistils many, on a
conical torus, pubescent; style slender: achenes with
long persistent plumose styles. — One species in S. W.
N. Amer.

This plant is a low divaricate shrub with slender
spreading branches, and conspicuous white flowers at

the tips of slender branchlets, followed by dense heads
of feathery tailed fruits. Hardy as far north as Massa-
chusetts; demands well-drained soil and a sunny warm
position; likes limestone soil; stagnant moisture, par-
ticularly during the winter, is fatal to it. Its best place
is in a rockery of southern aspect. Propagation is by
seeds, which are freely produced.

paradoxa, Endl. Shrub, to 3 ft.: Ivs. cuneate with
3-7 narrow-oblong lobes decurrent into the linear
petiole, revolute at the margin and whitish tomentose
below, M-Kin. long: fls. 1-3, 1-1 K in. across, white:
achenes with feathery tails 1-1 3^ in. long. June- Aug.;
fr. Aug.-Oct. Calif., Nev. and Utah south to Mex.
B.M.6660. M.D.G. 1900:207. ALFRED REHDER.

FARADAYA (Michael Faraday, famous chemist,
1794-1867). Verbenacex. Climbing shrubs, allied to
Clerodendron, with opposite simple Ivs., and fls. in
terminal or nodular panicles; corolla tubular, widened
upward, with a 4-lobed limb of which one lobe is
larger; stamens 4, paired, exserted; ovary 4-lobed
and 4-celled: fr. a drupe. There are about a half-dozen
species in Austral, and S. Pacific islands. They appear
not to be in the trade. F. splendida, Muell., of Austral.,
may occur in choice collections: it is a tall glabrous
climber with ovate, acuminate coriaceous Ivs. 6-12 in.
long, and large white fls. in terminal panicles.

FARFUGIUM: Ligularia.

FATSIA (from a Japanese name). Araliacese. Half-
hardy shrubs or small trees, used for subtropical
foliage effects in the North, and planted permanently
far South.

Fatsia has 2 species, belonging to the Panax series,
in which the petals are valvate, while in the Aralia
series they are more or less overlapping, but the sides
affixed at the base. Within the Panax series, Polyscias
has the pedicel articulated under the fl., while in Fatsia
and Acanthopanax the pedicel is continuous with the
fl. Fatsia is distinguished from the hardier and less

1477. Good specimen of purple beech. — Fagus sylvatica

var. purpurea.

familiar but worthy Acanthopanax by the greater
length and distinctness of the styles. This genus is
doubly interesting as producing the famous rice paper
of the Chinese, and two rivals of the castor-oil plant
in bold subtropical effects, made by large Ivs., the
lobes of which spread out like fingers.

While fatsias require more care in the North than the
hardy aralias, their massive subtropical appearance is

FATSIA

FEIJOA

highly distinct. A perfect specimen is figured in Gar-
dening 5 : 133, where W. R. Smith says of F. papyrifera:
"This plant produces the beautiful substance known as
rice paper; it grows to 10 ft. high, with a st. 4 in. diam.,
full of white pith like the elder; in a full-grown speci-
men the pith is about 1 in. diam. It is divided into
pieces 3 in. long, and by the aid of a sharp instrument
is unrolled, forming the thin, narrow sheets known as
rice paper, greatly used by the Chinese for drawing
figures of plants and animals, and also for making arti-
ficial fls. Until about 1850 the source of this substance
was unknown to scientists. The Chinese, on inquiry,
gave very fanciful figures and descriptions of it. ...
It is destined to be a people's plant, as J^in. of the root
will grow and form a good plant the first season. It
has survived most winters for the past 5 years in
Washington, D. C."

As associates in groups of bold-habited plants, F. W.
Burbidge (Gn. 45, p. 321) suggests Polygonum sacha-
linense, Chamaerops Fortunei and Rodgersia podo-
phylla. For contrast with feathery and cut-leaved foli-
age, he suggests bamboos, aucubas, cut-leaved maples

1478. Fatsia japonica.

and various ivies. Fatsia may be grown in the temper-
ate house in the North, outdoors southward. It is
easily grown and propagated. The species are unarmed;
the very spiny plant sometimes referred to this genus
as F. horrida, is treated under Echinopanax, which see.
Siebert and Voss declare that most of the plants sold as
Fatsia japonica are Aralia spinosa. These plants like
shade. Full sunlight for an hour or two in early morning
is enough. They should have a shelter-spot, where the
wind will not whip their foliage.

papyrifera, Benth. & Hook. (Aralia papyrifera, Hook.
Tetrapanax papyri ferum, Koch.). Height 5-7 ft. (accord-
ing to Franceschi, 20 ft. in the open ground in S. Calif.) :
branches and young Ivs. covered with stellate, more or
less deciduous down: mature Ivs. reaching 1 ft. long, cor-
date, 5-7-lobed ; lobes acute, serrate ; sinus very deep : fls.
inconspicuous, white, in sessile, globose clusters. Formosa.
B.M.4897. A.F. 7:385. Gng. 5:133. Gn. 45, p. 321.

japonica, Decne. & Planch. (Aralia japdnica, Thunb.,
not Hort.? A. Sikboldii, Hort.). Fig. 1478. Lvs.
downy at first, finally shining green: fls. in umbels.
Japan, China. — Abroad are cult, forms with white or
golden margins and a form reticulated with gold mark-

ings. Var. Mdseri, Hort., is regarded as an improved,
more compact-growing variety which originated with
Moser of Fontainebleau. Intro, into Amer. by Mon-
tarioso Nurseries, Santa Barbara, Calif.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

FEDIA (application doubtful). Valerianaceas. One
glabrous branching annual of the Medit. region, some-
times grown as an ornamental and also as a salad
plant. Lvs. entire or dentate: fls. red, small, in more or
less dense terminal cymes; peduncles thick and fistular;
corolla with an elongated tube and a 2-lipped limb,
irregular at the base; stamens 2; style entire or 2-3-fid.
F. Cornucopias, DC. (Valeridna Cornucopias, Linn.),
a variable species, usually with purplish sts., grows
10-16 in. high: Ivs. nearly all radical, oval-oblong, shin-
ing green. It is sometimes known as African valerian.
The Ivs. are eaten as salad, being related to corn-salad.
The plant seems not to be in the American trade.

FEIJOA. The FEIJOA, or PINEAPPLE GUAVA (Feijba
Settowiana, Berg, family Myrtaceae) is indigenous to
western Paraguay, southern Brazil,
Uruguay, and parts of Argentina,
where it is common in the forests,
and the fruit is highly esteemed by
the natives though not cultivated.
It was introduced to southern
Europe in 1890, and is grown along
the Riviera, both in France and
Italy. From the former country
it was introduced to the United
States about 1900, and is becoming
widely planted in California. Its
distribution in other countries is
very limited.

Feijoa is of 2 species. It is the
Orthostemon of Berg, not of
Robert Brown. F. obovata, Berg
(0. obovatus, Berg), is considered
by Niedenzu to be a variety of F.
Sellowiana. It is a white-tomentose
shrub, with bisexual showy fls.;
petals 4, spreading; stamens numer-
ous, in many series, colored; ovary
4-celled, bearing a thickish style;
pedicels 1-fld., at the ends of the
branches or becoming lateral. The
other species is F. Schenckiana,
Kiaersk., of Brazil, described first in
1891. The genus is closely allied to
Psidium, but is distinguished by the
albuminous seeds and stamens suberect in the bud.

The plant grows to an ultimate height of 15 feet. Its
leaves are similar in form and appearance to those of
the olive, but larger, the upper surface glossy green,
and lower surface silvery gray, forming a contrast that
makes the shrub effectively ornamental. This effect is
much heightened by its flowers which are produced in
late spring and are \l/2 inches in diameter, composed
of four cupped petals, white outside and purplish crim-
son within, surmounted by a tuft of crimson stamens
1 inch long. The oval or oblong fruits, 2 inches in
length and 1 Y^ inches in thickness, ripen in autumn and
early winter. The skin is dull green, with sometimes a
touch of crimson on the cheek; it incloses a layer of
whitish, granular flesh, which surrounds a quantity
of translucent, melting pulp, containing twenty to
thirty seeds. The flavor bears a pronounced resem-
blance to that of the pineapple, this being enhanced by
the fact that the seeds are so small that they cannot
be felt in the mouth. While commonly eaten fresh, the
fruit may be cooked in several ways, crystallized, or
made into jam or jelly.

The feijoa does not seem to thrive under strictly
tropical conditions, preferring a climate such as that

FEIJOA

FENDLERA

1205

of southern California or the Riviera, free from exces-
sive humidity, and cool at least part of the year. In
France, the plants have passed uninjured through
temperatures of 12° F. A good loam, rich in humus, is
the ideal soil for the feijoa. It has been successfully
grown on heavy clay, by working in a quantity of light
material, but it does not do well on light or sandy soils.
The situation seems to be of little importance, provided
the land is well drained. While the plant is notably
drought-resistant, for best results in growth and fruit-
ing a liberal supply of water is necessary. During the
dry season, irrigations should be as frequent as for
citrous trees. Fertilizers must be applied with caution,
or they will stimulate growth at the expense of fruit.
A small quantity of bone-meal, or other fertilizer not
too rich in nitrogen, may be advantageously applied
each year, while well-rotted manure will supply the
much-needed humus, if it is lacking in the soil. The
plants should be set 15 or 18 feet apart, and require very
little pruning. Seedlings usually come into bearing at
three to five years; grafted or layered plants will some-
times bear the second year.

In some instances, seedling feijoas fruit sparingly or
not at all, either through the failure of the flowers to be
properly fertilized or because of unfavorable soil or sur-
roundings. Although isolated plants are often productive,
it has been suggested that the feijoa is sometimes self-
sterile, and two or more bushes should be planted
together to permit of cross-pollination. The difficulty can
probably be obviated, in a measure at least, by propa-
gating asexually from strains of known productiveness.

The fruits fall when mature, and must be laid in a
cool place until they are in condition for eating, which
can be detected by a slight softening, and also by the
odor, — a fragrance most delightful. If picked before
fully mature and ready to fall, the fruits lack much of
the delicate flavor of a perfectly ripened specimen.
Very little care is required in packing, and the fruits
can be shipped long distances without difficulty. They
spoil quickly in a hot, humid atmosphere, but if stored
in a cool place they can be kept for a month or more
in perfect condition.

The shrub is attacked by a very few insects, the only
one noted in either California or southern Europe
being the black scale (Saissetia oleae), which rarely
requires combative measures. No fungous diseases
have been observed on mature plants.

Propagation is usually by seed, but some vegetative
means must be used to perpetuate named varieties.
Fruits for seed should be selected with a view to desira-
bility in every character, as in precocity of bearing and
productiveness of the parent. While the feijoa does not
come absolutely true from seed, fairly good results are
usually secured from selected seeds.

One of the best mediums for germinating the seeds
is a mixture of silver-sand and well-rotted redwood
sawdust. This gives an almost sterile medium, in which
there is little danger of damping-off, to which fungus
the young plants are very susceptible. With care in
watering, however, any light porous soil, not too rich
in humus, may be used. Sow the seeds in pans or flats,
covering them to the depth of ^ inch. Germination
will usually take place within three weeks. A glass-
house is not necessary, but the flats containing the
seeds should be kept in a frame with lath or slat cover-
ing to provide partial shade. The seeds will retain
their vitality a year or more, if kept dry. As soon as
the young plants have made their second leaves they
should be pricked off into 2-inch pots; after attaining
a height of 4 inches they should be shifted into 3-inch
pots, from which they can later on be transplanted
into the open ground.

Cuttings can be successfully rooted under glass.
They should be of young wood from the ends of
branches, and about 4 inches in length. Inserted in
clear sand over bottom heat they will strike roots in a

month or two; without bottom heat they root very
slowly. It is sometimes advised to keep them covered
with bell-jars until they have formed roots.

Layering is used in France to perpetuate choice
forms. It is somewhat tedious, but more certain than
any other vegetative means of propagation. Those
branches which are closest to the ground are bent
down and covered with soil for the space of 3 to 6
inches. They require no care except to keep the soil
fairly moist, and they will root in six months.

Whip-grafting and veneer-grafting are successfully
practised under glass, using as stocks seedling feijoas
of the diameter of a lead pencil. The cions should be
of about the same diameter and of young but firm wood.

Several named varieties have been established, of
which the most prominent are Andre and Besson.

F. W. POPENOE.

FELICIA (for Herr Felix, a German official). Com-
posites. Herbs or sub-shrubs, grown under glass or as
pot specimens.

Leaves alternate, entire or dentate:
heads usually long-peduncled, the
corolla blue or white, the disk yellow.
Much like Aster, from which it differs
in having pappus bristles
in one series, and in
other technical charac-
ters.— Forty to 50 species '
in Afr.

amelloides, Voss, not
Schlechter 1898 (Cin-
eraria amelloides, Linn.
Aster rotundifblius,
Thunb. A. capensis,
Less. Agathsea caelestis,
Cass. A . rotundifolia,
Nees. A. amelloides,
DC.). BLUE DAISY.
BLUE MARGUERITE. Fig.
1479. An old green-
house plant, 1-2 ft., with
roundish ovate opposite
Ivs. and large, solitary
heads of an exquisite
sky-blue. S. Afr. B.M.
249. A.F. 13:657. F.R.
1:674. Gng. 6:149.—
There is a variegated-
Ivd. variety (I.H. 8: 296).
Grown easily from cut-
tings. Handled like a
cineraria; or, if grown
from spring cuttings
for winter bloom, like
a chrysanthemum, but
with more heat in the
fall. An elegant pot-plant, and useful for bedding in a
protected place. Var. monstrdsa, Hort. Fls. double the
size of the type.

petiolata, N.E. Br. (Aster petiolatus, Harvey). An
undershrub more or less prostrate and useful for
hanging-baskets: Ivs. obovate or lanceolate, wedge-
shaped at the base, rather papery: fls. at first rose-
colored, gradually changing to aster-blue. S. Afr.
B.M. 8370. F.E. 33:503. G.C. III. 42:82.— Intro, in
S. Calif, in 1912. jj. TAYLOR-!

FENDLERA (after Augustus Fendler, a German
naturalist, botanical explorer of New Mexico). Saxi-
fragaceas. Ornamental woody plant grown for its hand-
some white flowers.

Deciduous shrub: Ivs. opposite, short-petioled,
entire, 3-nerved: fls. solitary or rarely 2-3 at the end of
short lateral branchlets; calyx-lobes and petals 4;
stamens 8; ovary almost superior: fr. a 4-celled, dehis-

1479. Blue daisy.— Felicia
amelloides.

1206

FENDLERA

FENUGREEK

cent caps., with flat, oblong seeds. — Two species from
Texas to Mex. Allied to Philadelphia, but differing
in its 8 stamens and superior ovary. They are grace-
ful ornamental shrubs with small, grayish foliage,
covered in June along the slender, arching branches

1480. Fendlera rupicola. ( X

with graceful white fls., resembling in shape a Maltese
cross. Hardy in New England, and growing best in a
well-drained, sandy or peaty soil and sunny position.
A very handsome and graceful plant for sunny rock-
eries or rocky slopes. Prop, by seeds or by greenwood
cuttings under glass.

rupicola, Engelm. & Gray. Fig. 1480. To 4 ft. : Ivs.
linear-lanceolate or linear-oblong, 3-nerved, revolute
at the margin, grayish tomentose beneath, 3^-1 in.
long: fls. milky white, 1 in. across; petals rhombic-
ovate, with distinct claw, spreading; stamens erect.
June. G.F. 2:113 (adapted in Fig. 1480). G.C. III.
36:410. B.M. 7924. R.H. 1891, p. 42; 1899, p. 129.
M.D.G. 1899:231. G. 28:601. ALFRED REHDER.

FENNEL. Species of Fasniculum (Umbelliferae),
annuals or treated as such, used as salad or condimental
herbs. Native of southern Europe. The common
fennel (F. offidndle, Linn.) is grown mostly for its young
leaves, which are used in flavoring, and also for its
aromatic seeds. Leaves sometimes eaten raw. Sow
seeds in late fall to ensure early germination in spring,
or sow in early spring. In any good soil, the plant
comes to maturity quickly. This plant has become in
California one of the most widely naturalized Euro-
pean weeds. It is a pest in pastures, said at times to
attain 12 or 15 feet.

The Florence or sweet fennel is F. duke, DC. The
bases of the crowded leaf-stalks are much thickened,
making a bulb-like enlargement above the ground. This
thickened base has an oval form in cross-section.
Earthing-up blanches these thickened leaf-bases, and
after boiling they are fit for eating. A good fennel
bottom may be 3 or 4 inches high. This is an Italian

vegetable, but is in the American trade. Easily culti-
vated annual; matures quickly. Sow in spring, and
later for succession.

Giant fennel is cultivated for ornament, and is
described under Ferula. Fennel-flower is a name of
Nigella. L H B

FENUGREEK ( Trigonella Fcenum-Grxcum, literally
Greek hay). An annual legume indigenous to western
Asia, cultivated for human food, forage, and for medi-
cinal qualities; widely naturalized in Mediterranean
countries; little grown in America.

Fenugreek is an erect little-branched plant with 3-
foliolate leaves. The seeds are 1 or 2 lines long, brown-
ish yellow and marked with an oblique furrow half
their length. They emit a peculiar odor, and contain
starch, mucilage, a bitter extractive, a yellow coloring
matter, and 6 per cent of fixed and volatile oils. As
human food they are used in Egypt, mixed with wheat
flour, to make bread; in India, with other condiments,
to make curry powder; in Greece, either boiled or raw,
as an addition to honey; in many oriental countries, to
give plumpness to the female human form. The plant
is used as an esculent in Hindostan; as an early fodder
in Egypt, Algiers, France, and other countries border-
ing the Mediterranean. Formerly the seed was valued
in medicine; now it is employed only in the prepara-
tion of emollient cataplasms, enemata, ointments and
plasters, never internally. In veterinary practice it is
still esteemed for poultices, condition powders, as a
vehicle for drugs, and to diminish the nauseating and
griping effects of purgatives. It is commonly used by
hostlers to produce glossy coats upon their horses and
to give a temporary fire and vigor; by stockmen to
excite thirst and digestion in fattening animals; by
manufacturers of patent stock foods as a flavoring
ingredient.

Fenugreek does not succeed on clays, sands, wet or
sour soils. It yields most seed upon well-drained loams
of medium texture and of moderate fertility; most
fodder upon rich lands. For seed-production, potash
and phosphoric acid should be applied; for forage,
nitrogenous manures. Deep plowing and thorough
harrowing are essential. Ten to twenty pounds of
seed should be used broadcast, or seven to ten pounds
in drills 18 inches apart. Thinning when the plants are
2 or 3 inches tall, and clean culture throughout the

1481. Fern-balls as received from the dealer.

season until blossoming time, are necessary for a seed
crop. The crop may be mown, dried and threshed four
or five months after seeding. An average yield should
be about 950 pounds an acre. As a green manure,
fenugreek is inferior to the clovers, vetches and other
popular green manures of this country. It possesses

FENUGREEK

FERNS

1207

the power of obtaining nitrogen from the air by means
of root-tubercles. — For description of the plant, see
Trigonella. M. G. KAINS.

FfeNZLIA: Gilia.
FERDINAND A: Podachxnium.

FERN-BALLS (Fig. 1481) are the dried rhizomes of
ferns, imported from Japan. Dealers often start them into
growth, and sell them when the mass is well covered
with its delicate vegetation. To start them into growth,
the balls are drenched in a tub of water and then hung
in a warmhouse, not in direct sunlight. When the
plants are well started, gradually expose them to more
light and to a copier air. Give liquid manure if they
do not grow satisfactorily. The species are mostly
Davallias, apparently D. bullata and D. Mariesii.

Fern-balls (Davallia bullata) are of Japanese origin.
They are natives of deep mossy forests (the mosses
on trees as well as on the ground), with abundant
humidity in the air, as in Kiso or some parts of

1482. Ferns in formal shapes.

Fukushima districts. Toward the end of every
winter, an expert goes into these forests and gathers
the vines of such ferns. They should be carefully kept
in the bamboo baskets in which a large quantity of
mosses are contained, which must be sprinkled with
water on the way to the metropolis. The people out-
side of large towns or cities do not care much for this
plant. When the plants arrive in the cities or towns,
they fall into the hands of gardeners who make many
shapes with the vines (Fig. 1482). This is done before
any leaves appear. Then the balls or other shaped
articles are hung from the ceiling beam quite near to
its end but not exposed to rain or hot sunshine. The
ferns should not be subjected to pouring rain or showers,
although they like dew. They should have some
sprinkling of cool water once every day after sunset.
The plant dislikes dust or warm impure water. The
best fertilizer is the extract of fish-meal or cake ("abura-
kasunazumi"). Prices run from 20 cents to 50 cents
United States money according to the shape of balls
and general excellence. (Issa Tanimura.)

1483. Sporan-

FERNELIA (Jean Francois Fernel, 1497-1558,
physician to Henry II of France). Rubiacex. Four
small evergreen trees or shrubs of the Mascarene Isls.,
rarely grown in choice warmhouse collections. Lvs.
small, opposite, coriaceous, short-stalked, ovate-oblong
or nearly orbicular : fls. small, solitary or in 2's, provided
with a 4-toothed calyx-like involucre; corolla short-
tubed, salver-shaped, with 4 spreading lobes; stamens
2, affixed in the corolla-throat; disk annular; ovary
1-celled below and 2-celled above: fr. a small berry.
F. buxifblia, Comm., is the species likely to be in cult.
It is a much-branched shrub 4-5 ft. high, with pbovate
or oblong Ivs. }^in. or less long, and many whitish fls.
in the axils of the Ivs.: berry dry, size of a pea, red,
borne inside the involucre. Mauritius. L H B

FERNS. The plants included under this name com-
prise an entire order, made up of several distinct fami-
lies. They include plants varying in size from a hair-
like creeping stem bearing a few simple, moss-like
leaves, to tall trees 80 or more feet in
height, with a stem or trunk nearly a
foot in diameter. Singularly enough,
the extremes in size are both found in
tropical regions, in which most of the
species abound. Most of the ordinary
native species, as well as the larger part
of those in cultivation, consist of an
erect underground stem or rootstock
with leaves, often called fronds, clustered
in dense crowns, or in the cases of creep-
ing stems with scattered leaves. In
gardening parlance, other plants are
sometimes called ferns, as species of
lycopodium and selaginella, as well as ^ts™0f>a fem6"
Asparagus plumosus.

In the life of an individual fern plant, two distinct
phases occur, represented by two separate and unlike
plants. The ordinary fern plant represents the asexual
phase of growth (sporophyte), producing its spores
normally in spore-cases (sporangia, Fig. 1483), which
are borne in masses (son, Fig. 1484) on the back or
margin of the leaf, or in a few cases are grouped in
spikes or panicles, or in rare cases spread in a layer over
the entire under surface of the leaf. The sexual stage
(gametophyte) develops from the germinating spore,
and consists of a tiny usually scale-like green heart-
shaped prothallus (Fig. 1485), which bears the sex-
organs (archegonia, female, and antheridia, male) on the
under surface. After fertilization in the archegonium,
the egg develops directly into a young fern plant (Fig.
1485). Many ferns also propagate vegetatively by
runners or offsets, by bulblet-like buds, and in certain
species the tips of the leaves bend over and take root,
as in our common walking-leaf (Camptosorus, which
see).-

Ferns frequently hybridize. The crossing takes place
naturally in the prothallium stage. They are not
crossed by hand, as are the seed-plants, but from the
accidental mixing when prothallia of allied species are
growing together. Fig. 1486 (G.F. 9:445) is a hybrid
between two native species; it has been found in the
wild in several parts of New England.

Great diversity has existed in the matter of the
separation of the ferns into
genera. Hooker, relying mainly
on artificial characters drawn
largely from the sorus, recog-
nized about seventy genera
only, many of them heterogene-
ous groups of plants with little
resemblance in structure, habit
or natural affinities. John
Smith, relying on stem charac-

1484. A sorus or fruit- ters, Presl on variation in vena-
dot of a fern. tion and habit, Fe"e, Moore,

1208

FERNS

FERNS

1485. Prothallus of a
fern, with a young leaf
arising.

and others, have recognized a much greater number of
genera, ranging from 150 to 250, or even more. In
the very unequal treatment by Diels in Die Natiir-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien (Engler & Prantl), some 120
genera are recognized. A somewhat similar differ-
ence prevails in regard to the number of species.
The Synopsis Filicum of Hooker
and Baker (1874), supplemented
by Baker's New Ferns (1892),
recognizes some 2,700 species.
It is the too prevailing tendency
in this work (1) to fail to recog-
nize many valid species which
have been described by German
and French botanists, and (2)
to mass under one name very
diverse groups of species from
distant quarters of the world —
from 8 to 10 species not infre-
quently appearing as a single
so-called "variable species." The
most recent book dealing with the
whole order of ferns, the Index
Filicium by Carl Christensen,
recognizes approximately 150
genera and 6,000 species, and this
number is continually increased
as the result of further tropical
exploration and more careful
study. New forms are constantly coming in from the
less-explored parts of the world, and within the last few
years several new species have been described from the
United States, including some from the better-known
parts. Of this number some 200 species are in occa-
sional cultivation in America, but the species that
form the bulk of the fern trade do not exceed two
dozen. In Europe several hundred species have long
been in cultivation. Most of the species thrive best
in the mountain regions of the tropics, the mountains
of Jamaica and Java having nearly 600 species each,
and the Andes also a large number. About 165 species
are native in the temperate United States, representing
some thirty-five genera; our native species are so widely
distributed that usually not more than twenty-five to
fifty will be found within the limits of one state, and
the common species of the best locality do not number
more than twenty. Recent explorations in southern
Florida have discovered in that state the presence of a
considerable number of West Indian species not found
elsewhere in the United States.

The ferns are commonly classified as part of a group
of spore-bearing plants, with vascular (woody) tissue
in stem and leaves; this group is technically known as
the Pteridophytes, and is ordinarily divided into three
orders; viz., the Equisetales, including the horsetails
and scouring rushes; the Lycopodiales, including the
selaginellas and the club mosses, or ground pines; and
the Filicales, including the true ferns and their nearer
allies (see pp. 7-9, Vol. I) . The Lycopodiales and Equi-
setales are really not as closely related to ferns as this
grouping would indicate.

It should be noted that neither the family nor the
generic limitations are in a settled condition. The
researches of Bower, Lang, Jeffrey, and others have
resulted in some changes of classification which are
not included below because they are not complete
enough. Their conclusions are undoubtedly correct
but are not at present usable.

The families of the order Filicales may be distin-
guished as follows:

A. Spores of one sort. (Isosporous.)

B. Sporangia fleshy, with no ring, rising from the interior

tissues of the If. (Eusporangiate ferns.)

1. Ophioglossaceae. ADDER'S-TONGUE FERNS. Her-
baceous small ferns with the sporangia borne in spikes

or panicles on highly modified divisions of the large
fleshy foliage Ivs.; prothallium tuberous, subterranean,
without chlorophyll.

2. Marattlaceas. Coarse ferns with large fleshy
sporangia on the under surface of the If., arranged in
circular or boat-shaped receptacles; prothallium above
ground, green.

BB. Sporangia rising from an epidermal cell, with an
elastic ring of peculiar cells, which assist in scat-
tering the spores by rupturing. (Leptosporangiate
ferns).

c. Lvs. filmy, usually only 1 cell thick between the veins.

3. Hymenophyllaceae. FILMY FERNS. Sporangia
attached to a thread-like receptacle arising in a cup at
the end of the If. : ring complete, horizontal or oblique.

cc. Lvs. herbaceous or leathery.

D. Ring incomplete or rudimentary: sporangia in

panicles.

4. Osmundaceae. FLOWERING FERNS. Coarse swamp
ferns developing copious green spores early in the
season: sporangia in panicles at the apex or middle of
the If. or on separate Ivs.

DD. Ring apical: sporangia usually single under a scale,
or in panicles.

5. Schizaeaceae. Upright or climbing ferns with
ovate sporangia, which open vertically.

DDD. Sporangia sessile, either single or in
clusters of 3-6.

6. Gleicheniaceae. Terrestrial
ferns with Ivs. of firm texture and
usually of indetermi-
nate growth: sporangia

opening vertically, in
clusters of 3-6.

7. Ceratopteridaceae.
Aquatic ferns with
succulent foliage:
sporangia very
large, scattered,
with a broad ring:
Ivs. of 2 sorts, the
sterile usually float-
ing.

I486. An example of a fern hybrid. — Dryopteris

cristata X D. marginalis.

FERNS

FERNS

1209

DDDD. Sporangia numerous, collected in definite serve to indicate not only the relatively great age of

clusters (sori) . the plant but its slow rate of continuous development,

8. Cyatheaceae. Mostly tree ferns with sessile or as well.

short-stalked sporangia in conspicuous receptacles, £ree ferns are primarily forest dwellers and occur

opening obliquely (Fig 1179 Vol II) either as component parts of the dominant forest

9. Polypodiacese. Ferns ' with stalked sporangia ^ro^h ,or' more commonly, as a sort of thicket or

AA. Spores of two sorts: minute microspores and con- change; they reach, therefore, their best development,

spcuous macrospores. (Heterospor-
ous.) These spores develop into two
sorts of prothalli, those from the micro-
spores developing only antheridia, and
those from the macrospores only arche-
gonia.

10. Marsiliaceae. Small plants rooting
in mud, the Ivs. either quadrifoliate or
reduced to mere filamentous petioles:
sporangia borne in oval conceptacles on
the leaf-stalks. Often aquatic, with the
leaves floating on the surface of water in
pools or lakes.

11. Salviniacese. Small or minute plants
with the aspect of liverworts, floating on
the surface of pools: sporangia in mostly
spherical conceptacles.

The literature on the ferns is very ex-
tensive, since they have ever been attrac-
tive plants in cultivation. Many of the
species have been illustrated in elaborate
treatises by Schkuhr, Kunze, Hooker,
Greville, Blume, F4e, Mettenius, Moore,
and others. Our native species have been
illustrated in the two quarto volumes of
D. C. Eaton, "The Ferns of North Amer-
ica." A valuable summary of the more
common fern species is found in Dr.
Christ's "Die Farnkrauter der Erde"
(1897), and a recent structural and
morphological treatment is by Sadebeck,
in Engler & Prantl: "Die Naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien." Schneider's "Book of
Choice Ferns" is the most complete treat-
ise on the species under cultivation. A
useful American horticultural manual is
Robinson's "Ferns in Their Homes and
Ours." An excellent little handbook for
the wild species of this country is Under-
wood's "Native Ferns and Their Allies."
L. M. UNDERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT.f

Tree ferns.

The term "tree fern" is applied com-
monly to ferns of the family Cyatheaceae,
to distinguish them from species of other
families of ferns which, for the most part,
are not at all arborescent. A compara-
tively small number of Cyatheaceae, it is
true, have the trunk short, and oblique or
decumbent; but in most species the trunk
is erect and greatly elongate (commonly
3 'to 40 feet high) and the whole plant
so unmistakably tree-like in size and pro-
portion, that the name "tree fern" is a
most appropriate one for the family. The
leaves are usually large and are borne in
a radiating palm-like crown at the apex of
the trunk, or caudex, as it is often called.
The trunk itself, in the case of an ordinary
mature individual, is marked by numer-
ous close-set leaf-scars (Fig. 1487); these

HI

f ••-'- '

1- -••*.• t-

1487. The trunk of a tree
fern. — Cyathea arborea.

both as to species and number of indi-
viduals, upon lofty mountains and upon
the seaward side of ranges which are
drenched constantly by cool moisture-
laden winds from the ocean.

The successful cultivation of tree ferns
under glass is predicated upon these facts,
although not all the species here men-
tioned are horticulturally known in this
country. It is found that most species
should be grown at a temperature of about
60° F. and in a rather shallow soil; that a
continuously wet but well-drained sub-
stratum is essential; and that in general a
tolerably high atmospheric humidity also
is requisite for best growth. Very bright
sunlight must be guarded against in all
but a few species, among these being the
common tropical American Cyathea
arborea, which grows naturally in rather
open places, and C. furfuracea, a native
of Cuba and Jamaica which assumes a not
unattractive form in drier open situations.
As in other groups of ferns, there are cer-
tain species which demand unusual care
and minor variations of treatment, such
as wrapping the trunk in sphagnum as
a safeguard against drying out. These
special requirements can be determined
only by experience.

The Cyatheaceae are divided technically
into three tribes: Thyrsopterideae, Dick-
sonieae, and Cyatheae. The first mentioned
consists of a single species, Thyrsopteris
elegans, Kunze, from Juan Ferndndez. The
two latter tribes may be distinguished as
follows:

Sori terminal upon the veins, at or
near the margin of the segments;
indusia at least bilobed, the outer
lip formed of the more or less modi-
fied lobule of the leaf Dicksonieae.

Sori borne upon the back of the veins ;
indusium (if present) not formed of
the leaf -margin in any part . . Cyatheae.

The Dicksonieae consist of three genera:
Culcita (often known as Balantium), with
about six species, all of small stature and
nearly devoid of trunk; Dicksonia, with
five tropical American species and several
hardy Australasian species, the latter not
uncommon in cultivation and capable of
enduring unusually great extremes of cold ;
and Cibotium, with four North American
species and several which occur in Asia
and the islands of the Pacific. (See under
Cibotium and Dicksonia.)

It is in the Cyatheae, however, that the
greatest variety and extremes of leaf form
are noted, and consequently the species
of this tribe are most highly esteemed in
cultivation. They are commonly asso-
ciated under three genera: Cyathea,
Alspphila, and Hemitelia, distinguished
mainly by characters of the indusia. One

1210

FERNS

FERNS

of the most graceful species of all is Cyathea
arbor ea, introduced into England from the West
Indies by Admiral Bligh in 1793. There are numer-
ous species almost equally fine, many of which are
not in general cultivation. The species with clean
trunks, from which the leaves are freely deciduous
after maturity, are the most pleasing; and among
those which deserve especial notice are the following:
Cyathea minor, a very slender Cuban plant with trunk
6 to 12 feet high and 1 to IK inches thick, its several
slender bipinnate leaves borne in a spreading crown;
C. portoricensis, a tall Porto Rican species with large
nearly tripinnate leaves, its rachises dark, lustrous,
purplish brown; C. elegans, of Jamaica, a close ally of
C. arbor ea, often attaining a wide spread of leaf at an
unusually early age; C. Werckleana, C. hemiotis, and C.
hastulata, of Costa Rica, a peculiar subgroup charac-
terized by having the leaves fully tripinnate, the ulti-
mate rachises discontinuously alate; C. diver gens, extend-
ing in one form or another from the Andes to Costa
Rica, its huge fronds exceedingly lax and sometimes
even in large plants recurved nearly to the ground; C.
insignis of the Greater Antilles, in technical characters
allied to the well-known C. princeps of Mexico; C.
suprastrigosa and C. conspersa of Costa Rica and Pan-
ama, delicate graceful tripinnatifid plants of the high
mountains; C. punctifera of Nicaragua and Costa Rica,
a plant of lower range, its huge tripinnatifid fronds
remarkably beautiful from the strong contrast afforded
by the slender rich brown rachises and the unusually
vivid green leaf -segments; C. aureonitens of Costa Rica
and Panama, a lofty plant with leaf -scars in distant zones,
having the unusual habit also of shedding piecemeal all
its large tripinnatifid fronds, seasonally.

Of Alsophila, the two best-known species in cultiva-
tion are doubtless A. australis and A. aspera, the latter
a common West Indian plant. A. myosuroides, of Cuba,
Mexico, and Central America, has lately been reintro-
duced to cultivation. It is a remarkably handsome
plant, its rather harsh, heavy, gray-green, tripinnatifid
leaves borne from a copious mass of slender, glossy
brown scales. Another beautiful species, A. Salvinii,
from Mexico and Guatemala, has very large tripinnate
• fronds, with woody castaneous rachises in striking
contrast. A favorite species in cultivation also is A.
quadripinnata (A. pruinata), native in the West Indies
and from Mexico to Chile, its short trunk bearing huge
four-pinnate fronds, bluish or silvery white beneath.

The genus Hemitelia includes not only plants of the
above sort, with tripinnatifid fronds (as, for example,
the well-known H. capensis), but also plants of a dis-
tinctly different type known as the subgenus Cnemi-
daria. These are H. horrida, of the West Indies, and
numerous related species of the American tropics,
many of which have long been cultivated in European
conservatories. They are characterized mainly by
short trunks and large, leafy, simply pinnate or bipin-
natifid fronds, and make a beautiful display in cultiva-
tion. Among them may be mentioned H. speciosa, H.
bella, H. grandifolia, (H. insignis), H. spectabilis, and H.
subincisa. Their characters have recently been dis-
cussed at some length. (See Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.
16:25-49, 1912.)

Considering the wealth of material available in the
American tropics and the comparative ease with which
it may be secured, it is remarkable that so little atten-
tion has been given to the introduction of recently
described species. The novelty and beauty of many of
these render an effort to this end exceedingly desirable
and advantageous from a horticultural point of view.
Costa Rica in particular has yielded many interesting
new species within late years. This region, which has
been called the richest in the world, will doubtless be
equaled by certain parts of the Andes of South
America, when that immense territory shall have been
adequately explored. WILLIAM R. MAXON.

Cultivation of tender ferns.

To grow commercial varieties of ferns profitably,
the first care should be to secure the necessary number
of properly built and equipped houses, with a con-
veniently arranged workshop. The house which gives
the most general satisfaction runs north and south, has
an even-span roof, and with a fall to roof of 6 inches
to the foot. Its benches should be arranged to be about
7 feet wide, with a 24-inch path on either side. In an
18-foot house this will permit of having a 7-foot center-
table, two SH-foot side benches and two 24-inch paths.
Benches should not be more than 3 feet above the
walks, as this will bring every part of the bench within
easy reach, and will permit of every plant being in
constant sight and easily cared for, which fact is
essential in the profitable cultivation of trade ferns.

The width of house is immaterial, but when houses
adjoin, a width of 27 feet has been found to be very
satisfactory, as this permits the construction of three
7-foot benches, two 24-inch paths, and two paths 2%
feet wide under each gutter.

Thorough provision should be made for ventilation.
For a 27-foot house, a continuous row of ventilators of
at least 3 feet in width should be provided, with some
reliable apparatus for raising same. Heating is the
next important consideration. Either steam or hot
water will give equally good results if properly installed.
The safest way for the average grower is to give the
heating contract to some reliable firm. Water-taps
should be so arranged that a 25-foot hose attached to
same will easily reach any part of the house. A 25-
foot hose can easily be carried about without injuring
either itself or benches and plants; and iron pipe is of
only half the cost of good hose. In most fern-houses
drip is a source of great annoyance, and should be pre-
vented by the use of drip-bars, by having a drip-groove
plowed into the headers immediately under the ven-
tilating-sash, and also by having a groove in sides of
gutter-plates. This very slight additional expense will
very soon pay for itself by saving a great number of
plants, especially when growing very small ferns in
houses, such as have been transplanted from spore-
pots into boxes. Ventilators should fit into a groove
in ridge of house and be hinged to the ridge. When
ventilators are so arranged, air, which is very desirable
on a good many warm rainy days in the summer, can
be given without having plants in the houses suffering
from excessive moisture. Burning of the foliage will
also be avoided, as the plants will at no time be exposed
to the direct rays of the sun. Ventilators hinged on
header and opening on ridge will always give trouble.
No matter what kind of covering is put over the open-
ing, if it efficiently excludes the burning sun's rays it
will also prevent the ingress of air.

A propagating-room should be provided; and in the
case of general trade ferns raised from spores, it is a
very safe rule to calculate on having from 60 to 70
square inches of room in the propagat ing-frame for
every 1,000 plants desired. The propagating-frame
should be 3J^ feet wide, have sides 9 inches high, and,
to insure an even moisture, its bottom should be cov-
ered to the thickness of 1 inch with fine cinders with
the fine ashes removed, which make very clean and
efficient drainage material. 'The frame should be
covered with light sash constructed with drip-bars, to
carry off condensation.

Shading of fern-houses should have close attention.
It is best effected by the application of a suitable wash
to the outside of glass on roof. The following composi-
tion for a wash has given excellent results for a number
of years: To two gallons of benzene or turpentine add
one pint (or more, according to time the shading is
desired to remain on houses) of linseed oil, five pounds
of pure white lead and enough whitening to make
proper thickness (which can very easily be ascertained

FERNS

FERNS

1211

by applying some of it to a piece of glass while adding
the whitening) ; thoroughly mix and apply to outside of
glass with a soft brush of the same width as glass.
This shading, by the addition of more or less linseed
oil, may be made to stay on houses up to one year. If
properly applied in spring, it will be just right during
the hot days of summer, and in the fall and winter,
when more light is gradually required, the frosts gradu-
ally will have reduced the shading, thus admitting
more light at the necessary time.

Much time, annoyance and expense will be saved by
a careful arrangement of the workshop, or potting-room,
a thing which in most cases is totally neglected. It
should be so built that potting-benches are about 3 feet
above the floor and 5 feet wide. They may be perma-
nently constructed of substantial material, in order that
a number of pots of different sizes can be conveniently
stored, and that potting material can be thrown from
cart or wagon directly onto potting-benches. By an
improper arrangement of workshop great expense, loss
of time and material are incurred by having to handle
material repeatedly in small quantities.

Propagation by means of spores.

To grow ferns from spores successfully, it is advisable
to sterilize soil on which they are to be sown, which
can best be done by subjecting it to a high temperature
by means of steam under a pressure of ten to fif-
teen pounds; and for this purpose a properly equipped
workshop should be provided with a tight box about 3
by 3 by 8 feet or larger if an uncommonly large number
of ferns is to be grown. It should be fitted with a
grating made of 2-inch laths spaced 1 inch apart
and placed 2 inches from bottom of the box. This
grating may be covered with burlap, and if a %-inch
steam pipe is fitted between bottom of box and grating,
and connected to highest point of steam boiler (to
insure getting perfectly dry steam), the soil is ready
to be sterilized. After having cooled off, the soil is in
practically the same condition as before so far as moist-
ure, friableness, and the like are concerned, and this
cannot be said of soil that has been sterilized by burn-
ing and by other methods. This steaming process will
effectually destroy all forms of life in the soil and leave
it for the use of spores alone. In most localities, the
water used for moistening spores is impure and full of
the spores of low forms of plant life, which are very
destructive to the prothalli of ferns. To prevent this,
the workshop should be provided with a receptacle in
which the water intended for use on ferns while in the
prothallus state can be raised to a boiling temperature,
which will effectually destroy all spores that may be
present in the water. This is best done by leading a
1-inch steam-pipe to within 6 inches of the bottom of
the receptacle and turning on a reasonable pressure
of steam. If boiled twelve hours before intended for
use, it will be cool enough to be applied, and will be
pure. A fern workshop should also be provided with a
dry closet, having a number of shelves about 12 inches
apart, for storing fern-spores.

In beginning the cultivation of ferns, it is advisable
to purchase the spores from some reliable firm which
makes fern-growing a specialty, until a sufficient num-
ber of stock plants can be grown to supply spores for
home demand. Spores will do about equally well in
pots or pans. Pans 12 inches square and 4 inches deep
are used for that purpose, as also are the 6-inch com-
mon flower-pots. The 12-inch pans should be supplied
with IV-j inches and the 6-inch pots with 3 inches of
coal cinders for drainage. Soil for sowing spores on is
best composed of five parts, in the proportions of two
parts good garden soil, two parts of finely screened peat
and one of sharp clean propagating sand. Leaf -mold
may be used instead of peat, if easier to procure. This
soil should be thoroughly sterilized, as already directed.
The spore-pots should be filled with the soil to within

w

1488. A fern pan.

% inch of the top; press firmly. The rest of the pots
should be filled with the same composition after it has
been passed through a screen of about J'g-inch mesh, then
made absolutely level, firmly pressed and thoroughly
watered with sterilized water. Three or four hours
after watering will be the best time to sow spores. The
spores should be thinly scattered over the surface of
the soil, a quantity that can be held on a surface of
% square inch being abundant to sow one 12-inch pan.
Spores should not be covered with soil. Immediately
after sowing, the sash of the propagating-frame should
be tightly closed and kept so until spores show signs of
germination, when a small quantity of air should be
given and gradually increased, so that by the time
the first small fronds have made their appearance they
may have been sufficiently hardened off to have the
sash removed entirely. In sowing spores, great care
will be necessary to prevent them from getting mixed,
fern-spores being very minute and so light that the
slightest movement of air will carry them long dis-
tances. While sowing spores, all spore-pots should be
kept tightly covered. Being kept in a very close and

humid atmosphere after
sowing, the spores should
not require any watering
for one or two weeks, by
which time they will
have sufficiently settled
not to be dislodged by
a very gentle overhead
watering, which should
be given whenever soil
shows the least sign of
being dry. Sterilized
water should be used
until after the first
delicate fronds have been formed. As soon as the first
little fronds have made their appearance, care should
be taken to weed out all undesirable varieties, which,
even with the very best of care, will occasionally
creep in. A temperature of 65° F. should be main-
tained in the propagating-house.

As soon as the first small fronds are evenly formed
all over the surface of the pot, the little plants should
be transferred in clumps of four or five plants each, to
well-drained pans (Fig. 1488) or boxes filled with soil
composed of one-half rich garden soil and one-half
peat or leaf-mold, finely screened. In transplanting,
great care should be exercised not to cover the remain-
ing prothalli, but to have them just level with the sur-
face of the soil. The clumps of plants should be kept
as loose as possible, as this will give each individual
plantlet a better chance to form the necessary number
of rootlets, and it will, later on, also be easier to separate
the plants. Boxes for transplanting ferns are most
convenient when 4 inches deep, 14 inches wide and 22
inches long. These boxes will hold about 200 plants
placed about 1 inch apart. As soon as the little plants
have formed two or three fronds each, they should be
separated and transplanted singly into boxes similarly-
prepared as before, where they may remain until
sufficiently strong to be potted into 2- or 2J^-inch
pots.

Times of sowing fern-spores are the first weeks of
March, July and October. When making three sow-
ings a year, and allowing a sufficiently longer time for
slower-growing varieties, a constant supply of plants will
be assured. In calculating on time of sowing spores of
commercial varieties of ferns, it will be helpful to
divide them into two classes, as some varieties are con-
siderably slower of growth and will consequently have
to be sown earlier, in order to be ready for sale at the
same time as the more rapid-growing ones. The follow-
ing popular commercial kinds will require from nine
to ten months between times of sowing and potting.
The names are those that the plants bear in the trade:

1212

FERNS -

FERNS

Doodia caudata.
Doryopteris nobilis.
Lastrea aristata.

variegata.
chrysoloba.
opaca.

" Sieboldii.
Lygodium japonicum.

scandens.

Nephrodium hirtipes.
Nephrolepis exaltata.

cordata compacta.
Platyloma Bridgesii.

" falcata.
Polypodium aureum.

fraxinifolium, etc.
Polystichum coriaceum.

setosum.
Pteris Victoria.

" tremula Smithiana.

Adiantum cuneatum.

' variegatum.
" grandiceps.
" Bausei.

decorum._
Fergusonii.
gracillimum.
mundulum.
tenerum.
Wiegandii.
Cibotium Schiedii.

regale.

Cyathea medullaris.
Cyrtomium caryotoideum.

Fortune!.
" falcatum.
Davallia tenuifolia stricta.

" Veitchiana.
Dicksonia antarctica.
Doodia aspera.
Doodia aspera multifida.

The following trade ferns will develop into plants
large enough to be potted in about six months after
sowing spores:

Adiantum pubescens. Pteris cretica albo-lineata.

hispidulum. magnifica.

Alsophila australis. Mayii.

Gymnogramma calomelanos. nobilis.

chrysophylla. hastata.
decomposita. adiantoides.

peruviana. internata.

sulphurea. Sieboldii.

Lomaria ciliata. leptophylla.

gibba. Ouvrardii.

platyptera. palmata.

Nephrodium immersum cris- serrulata.

tatum. cristata.

Nephrodium molle corymbif- nana.

erum. tremula.

Onychium japonicum. Wimsettii.
Pteris argyrsea.

It should also be borne in mind, when calculating
time of sowing, that spores sown in the autumn will
require about four weeks longer for development than
those sown at other times of the year.

Fern-spores are borne on the back or under side of
fronds. In some cases they are borne naked on under
surface of frond, while in others they are produced
under a scale-like membrane or indusium. In some
cases, as in Pteris, the edge of the pinnae is folded back
over the spores, while in adiantums a small part of the
leaflet is folded back over each little fruit-dot to serve
as a shield or indusium. Davallias form a small sack-
like receptacle at the extremity of the pinnae. The
proper time of gathering spores is when they assume
a light brown, rather dry appearance, or in the indu-
sium-bearing kinds when the indusium or shield begins
to open. Spores should be gathered on a dark day when
the fronds are slightly moist, as they will be better
retained in that condition, and will not be so liable to
get mixed when disturbed. Fronds, or parts of them,
should be cut off entirely in most cases, put up in tight
paper bags and stored on shelves in a dry closet for a
week, by which time, in most cases, they will be suffi-
ciently dry to have spores removed from them by rub-
bing the frond in a sieve which has about twenty meshes
to the inch. When thus separated from fronds, the
spores should be put up in small seed-bags and placed
in air-tight jars until required for .sowing. Cared for
in this manner, perfect success has been invariably
secured, even after keeping spores for years.

Propagation by other means.

Some ferns form little plants at the ends of pinnae
and of fronds, which upon attaining to sufficient size
may be detached from parent plants, planted into
shallow, well-drained seed-pans, and for a week or
two left in the propagating-frame, where they will
soon form roots, when they can be potted. Among
such are Adiantum caudatum, A. Edgeworthii, A.
lunulatum var. dolabriforme, Asplenium Belangerii,
A. bulbiferum, A. salicifolium, Polystichum angulare
var. proliferum, and many more.

A very useful decorative fern is Nephrolepis daval-

lioides var. furcans, and it will make a beautiful speci-
men plant in a comparatively short time. To grow
large quantities, the old plants should be cut back to
within 6 inches of surface of soil and placed in a house
where a bottom heat of 90° F. may be secured, when
they will soon form a large number of short, strong
fronds. At this time they may be divided into a number
of small plants, potted off and placed in the same posi-
tion as the parent plants. A somewhat slower method
is to plant put a number of plants on a bench into 5
inches of soil, in which soil the rhizomes, running over
the surface, will form a number of small plants, which
may be detached and grown on.

A beautiful fern is Adiantum Farleyense, and it
deservedly ranks as the greatest favorite among fern-
lovers. It is best propagated by division. From old
plants, cut off all fronds down to the rhizomes, wash
off soil, cut rhizomes into pieces ^ inch long, insert
same into well-drained fern-boxes about Yi inch apart,
in \l/i inches of clean, sharp propagating sand. Place
same in propagating-frame in a temperature of 70° F.
In this position each little fragment of rhizome will
form two or three little fronds in about fifteen or
twenty days, when they may be potted off singly into
2-inch pots and kept in a temperature of 70° F. The
soil best adapted to A. Farleyense is finely chopped sod
which has been piled for about six months, with one-
fifth well-decomposed cow-manure added. To attain
perfection in growth and coloring, A. Farleyense should
be kept in a light, airy and sunny house, in which every
condition of moisture and atmosphere can be kept
under absolute control. In a house of this kind, the
greatly admired and beautifully pinkish tint may be
easily obtained and fronds will be hardy and of good
substance. A temperature of 70° F. is at aU times
desirable.

General culture.

To grow ferns such as are used for jardinieres and
decorative work and mentioned in the two preced-
ing lists, a temperature of no less than 55° F.
should be maintained at all times at night in coldest
weather, with a rise of temperature in the daytime of
10° or 15°. To keep ferns in a healthy and growing
condition, to prevent and to kill insect pests and dis-
eases, a proper condition of atmosphere should be care-
fully maintained at all times. Extremes in heat, moist-
ure or dryness should never be allowed. On a warm,
dry, sunny day, when a great deal of air has to be
admitted, much of the moisture of the house is conse-
quently carried off; it will be of great benefit then to
syringe the ferns once or twice a day, also occasionally to
dampen floor of houses. An excessively dry atmosphere
induces the development of the very troublesome pests,
thrips and red spider. On damp and rainy days a
saturated atmosphere should be prevented by supply-
ing a little artificial heat, even if some air has to be
admitted at the same time. This slight expense of
heating on damp days will abundantly pay for itself
by causing the growth of strong, thrifty plants. An
excessively moist atmosphere causes parts of fronds
of a great many plants to turn black and to rot off,
besides inducing the development of almost incurable
fungoid diseases.

The soil for deep-rooting ferns should be as follows:
Three parts fibry loam, one part fibry peat, one part
leaf-mold, one part sand, one part sphagnum moss,
one-half part broken crocks and one-half part broken
charcoal. These ingredients should be thoroughly
mixed and ample drainage provided. For shallow-
rooting ferns the following compost should be used:
One part fibry loam, one part peat, one part leaf-
mold, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken
crock, one part sand, one-half part broken charcoal.
If the charcoal cannot be readily secured, half the
amount of sand and finely broken crocks will answer,

FERNS

FERNS

1213

although the composition as prescribed is preferred, as
charcoal keeps the soil sweet and may spare time for
repotting.

In potting ferns after they pass 4-inch pots, a pottmg-
stick should always be used as the potter cannot very
well firm them with his fingers, and it secures eveness in
potting. Ferns should be potted tight, especially old
plants. Also old plants should be partly shaken out
and the roots shortened somewhat, and if carefully
handled will quickly reestablish themselves and make
better plants. A potting-stick is very handy also for
pressing the compost between rhizomas, and it can be
done much more neatly than with the hand.

In the selection and growing of stock plants, the care-
ful grower should always be on the watch for types
t which are most perfect in shape, in character of indi-
uvidual fronds, in coloring, freedom of producing spores,
/and exemption from the attacks of insects and fungous
' diseases. In a large number of ferns a great difference
between the different plants of the same species will be
apparent to the careful observer. Some plants of same
species have beautifully developed fronds, but are
carried on long, weak stems, which makes them unfit
for general use. Others may be of compact, sturdy
habit of growth, but with poorly shaped
individual fronds. In some individuals
the coloring will be greatly superior. By

i closely studying all these points and by
continually selecting only the most per-
fect types of ferns from the young plants,
one can in a few years work up a very
desirable and superior stock. The same
stock plants of the rapid-growing varie-
ties of ferns should not be carried over
for more than three or four years, but
young and more desirable plants should
continually be selected and grown to
take their places.

The stock should be shifted into larger
pots whenever necessary, and placed in
a light, airy house, in which all neces-
sary conditions are under perfect con-
trol, and in which a temperature in cold-
est weather of 55° F. at night, with a
rise of 10° or 15° in daytime, can always
be maintained. The house should be
shaded just enough to prevent fronds
from turning yellow. Proper attention to atmospheric
conditions of stockhouse should never be neglected.
Stock plants should not be permitted to remain pot-
bound for too long a period of time, except with a few
kinds, such as alsophilas, dicksonias, cyatheas, cibo-
tiums, Pteris tremula, P. argyrsea, some davallias, and
Polyslichum coriaceum, which, if given too much nour-
ishment, will often be very slow in setting spores.

Insects which are most troublesome to ferns are
thrips, red spider, scale and mealy-bug. They are
mainly present in a too-dry atmosphere. Thrips, red
spider and mealy-bug are easily prevented by a prop-
erly moistened atmosphere, also by spraying of foliage
once a week with tobacco water. As tobacco greatly
varies in strength, every grower will have to determine
to his own satisfaction how strong to make his solution.
The preparation known as "Rose-leaf tobacco extract,"
has proved very efficient in destroying these insect
pests. To fifty gallons of water add one quart of the
extract, and apply with some good insecticide sprayer
and a force pump. Fifty gallons of this solution will be
enough to spray 100,000 ferns in 2J4-inch pots.

Bearing in mind the foregoing advice, the amateur
fern-grower may determine the proper way in which to
raise his plants. He may not have a fern-house, but he
can have a tight glass box or Wardian case. The bot-
tom should be a zinc tray, to prevent drip on the floor
and to prevent too rapid drying out of the soil. The
top or roof of the box should be hinged, so that it can

be raised. In this miniature greenhouse many interest-
ing ferns can be grown. Lycopodiums and selaginellas
(which see) are treated in much the same way as ferns.

NICHOL N. BRUCKNER.

X. E. E. ScHMITT.t

List of tender ferns. (X. E. E. Schmitt.)

Acrostichum. A widely distributed class of ferns found in tropics
of both hemispheres; some have fronds that are solitary, while
others are pinnatifid; some are deep-rooting and require a loamier
soil, while others are shallow-rooting and require a very shallow
and porous soil. They -are a class varied in many respects; the
fertile fronds are totally covered on the under side with the spores,
generally brown in color, and when ripe, after shedding the spores,
will perish and be succeeded by the barren fronds. Propagated by
division and spores. Winter 55° to 60° night. They should have a
perfect drainage, the deep-rooting ones of ordinary depth, but the
shallow-rooting are best grown in a depth of about 2 inches of soil
and very porous, as for davallias, the shallow-rooting species; they
all love a moist and shady atmosphere except A. aureum, which
will stand sun with its roots in 2 inches
of water; it is found in Florida and
tropical America.

Actinopteris. A low -growing and
charming class of ferns with palm-like
or rayed fronds. They thrive best in a
compost of loam, peat, chopped sphag-
num moss, coarse sand and crocks
(broken small), in equal parts; they
should have ample drainage, filling the
pots about half-full with crocks. They require
a good light and plenty of moisture; they are
best propagated by spores; they can also be
divided. Winter temperature, 58° to 60°.

Adiantum. The maidenhair ferns with fronds,
the individual pinnae of which vary from not
more than J^inch in width in A. gracillimum
to the large A. peruvianum with pinnae 2J^ to
3 inches long. They are hardy, stove and tem-
perate ferns, and require a deep rich soil and
plenty of water during the growing season, and
less during the resting-period, which is usually
from December to the latter part of February.
They should be allowed to get fairly dry but
not wilted before they are watered again. In
most species or varieties of garden origin, re-
move part of the old fronds just as growth
commences; with some of the denser-growing
sorts, all the fronds may be cut away just as the
new growth is commencing, as it is very tedious
and there is not much gained thereby. It should
be cut close, but with sparser or large-growing
sorts as A. trapeziforme and many other strong-
foliaged sorts, it is better to leave all the good
foliage possible to stimulate the new growth;
turn the plants out of the pot, cut away the
lower half of the ball and trim in the sides
of the old ball close to the rhizomes with a
large knife, then loosen slightly the edge of
the ball with a sharp-pointed stick so that the roots will feel the
effect of the new move readily; never round off the sides in a
slant or sloping manner as the old crowns are very closely knit
together and trouble would be experienced in getting them wet
through again. Should they become too dry, give a little water
every few minutes until they are given enough to penetrate the
old ball. The crowns should be let down a little deeper than
they were when turned out of the pot. The surface should be
slightly pointed here and there which will help the water
more readily to penetrate. Have the pots well drained, placing
a thin layer of sphagnum moss over the crocks which will keep
the drainage clean. Fill in the soil, pack firmly with a potting
stick up to the height required to receive the ball, which should be
low enough to give a light covering of soil; they throw out their
new roots from top, bottom and sides; then place in a layer of soil,
tightening it with the potting stick, place layer after tightening as
before until it has reached the required height ; give a fair watering,
fill about twice the space left from the top of the soil to the rim of
the pot. They will not require any water for two or three days,
then give a light sprinkling with a watering-pot with a rose on.
They will require to be looked over every other day or so. In about
a week's time they will require a moderate watering, but not so
heavy as at first. After potting, an increase of 8° to 10° in tempera-
ture, both by night and by day, is necessary. Some of the smaller-
growing sorts will require a deeper drainage and smaller pots.
Adiantums with a few exceptions will not tolerate syringing at any
time, particularly during dull or cloudy weather, as damp may
settle in the foliage and ruin several plants, but care must be taken
that they have sufficient water at the roots, as in the growing season
they take a good supply of water. The temperature in winter for
greenhouse ferns should be 52° by night, adding 6° to 8° by day;
stove should be 56° to 58° by night, adding about 6° by day.
Adiantums require a mixture of chopped or hand-broken fibry sod
that has been stacked about six months, one-half part peat, one-
half part leaf-mold, one part well-decayed cow-manure preferred
(as they are good feeders), one and one-half part sand, one part
chopped sphagnum, one-half part broken crocks and one-half
broken charcoal about % inch in size, using fine and all; place in

1489. Cyrtomium f alcatum.
Young plant.

1214

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FERNS

even layers in the order above stated, then turn three or four times
which will leave the whole evenly mixed, when it will be ready for
use. For cult, of A. Farleyense, see p. 1212.

Alsophila. Tree ferns, natives of tropical America and Australia.
A. australis and A. excelsa will stand sun with a copious supply of
water. Soil as for Dicksonia. Winter temperature for Australian
species, 50° to 55°; for West Indian, 58° to 60° night.

Anemia. A pretty class of small-growing ferns, sometimes
called the flowering ferns, as the fertile sprays appear along with
the sterile frond. They require an open porous soil and are not
deep-rooted. Moderate temperature, 52° to 55° winter temperature
by night. Propagated by spores.

Angiopteris. Giant ferns, more resembling a cycad than a fern,
were it not for the spore cases. They are native of tropical Africa,
tropical Asia and the Philippines. They are deep-rooting, with
heavy and fleshy roots, and enjoy a rich deep and porous soil.
They require a high and moist temperature, not less than 60°
by night in winter and will stand 90° or more in summer. They
require shade during summer, with more light during winter. A
soil as for dicksonias, with the addition of a little manure is satis-
factory. They should be potted just as growth is commencing.
Care should be taken not to bruise their fleshy roots; should any be
damaged they should be cut off with a sharp knife. Propagated
by spores and division, both a slow process, but more readily by
the large and fleshy scales carefully removed from the old plants,
laid between sphagnum moss, sand and broken crocks in a case
with a bottom heat of 80° or a little more; they should be laid on a
slant with inner side of scale facing upward. When they have
formed buds, emitted roots, and made two or three leaves, they may
be detached and potted singly in as small pots as their roots will
permit; return to case and inure to more light and air gradually;
each scale may bring four or five plants.

Blechnum. Ferns of easy culture, requiring moderate shade.
Allied to Lqmaria. Several of them are dwarf tree ferns; others
have spreading rootstock. They will not stand dryness; require a
moderately strong soil containing a small amount of manure.

Cheilanthes. A class of dainty and graceful ferns. They require
an open and porous soil; will not tolerate syringing, and require a
good light at all times. Propagated by spores and division, spores
preferred. They will not stand an overabundance of moisture at
any time, but will well repay proper care, as they are all very
beautiful. Some have fronds resembling the palmate fronds of
Doryopteris, while others are very much divided. The soil should
consist of one part fibry loam, one part peat, one part leaf-mold,
one part sand, one-half part broken crocks, one part sphagnum
moss and one-half part broken charcoal, broken quite small, the
whole thoroughly mixed together and the pots well drained. A
temperature of 50° to 55° suits them best in winter.

Cyathea. Beautiful tree ferns, native of New Zealand and tropi-
cal America. C. medullaris will grow to a great height, from 60 to
75 feet, and is often seen in its wild state far above the surrounding
vegetation. Will stand full sun. Temperature for New Zealand
species, 50° to 55° winter; tropical American, 55° to 60° nights.
Soil as for Dicksonia.

Cyrtomium. Fig. 1489. Ferns of easy culture. Require a
greenhouse temperature of 48° to 50° by night in winter; will
stand a strong light and partial shade. Useful for fern-dishes.
Allied to Aspidium. General culture for ferns.

Davallia is a beautiful class of ferns found both in the tropical
and subtropical zones. The smaller-growing forms can be grown
in shallow baskets or pans and have a fair amount of rest in
winter. The Japanese fern-balls are probably D. bullata and D. Mar-
iesii, and can be laid out in the garden and frozen down to zero and
when the growing season returns watered and they will begin to
grow again. Dayallias with heavy rhizomes or any of the surface
creeping sorts will want to be kept a little on the dry side during
the resting period, which is from the beginning of December to about
March, when they will gradually recommence, and water should
be given accordingly. They must be syringed at least twice daily
tin winter, as black thrip is liable to attack them; should they be
attacked, dip in a medium solution of aphine or fresh tobacco water.
Should the plants be too large to handle, syringe them with aphine
or tobacco water at night and give a thorough syringing with clear
water the next day; apply two or three times, then stop for two or
three days, then repeat, after which the troubles will be over.
The cooler kinds will commence their growth about a month later
than stove kinds. They should be repotted or top-dressed just as
growth commences, if they require it.

D. pallida is a fern which rests from December to March, at
which time gradual increase of water may be given it and by the
end of March it will be commencing its growth. It should be care-
fully separated, taking care not to injure the points of the rhizomes.
Many of them will be found all the way to the bottom of the pots
or pans m which they have been growing. It is well to leave an old
specimen undisturbed for three or four years and only give a light
top-dressing in the spring as growth is commencing, and weak
liquid manure about every two weeks as the fronds are unfolding;
but always water with clear water first, then follow with liquid
manure. It requires a stove temperature of 58° to 68° by night,
adding 6 to 8 by day on bright days, during its resting period,
with corresponding increase during the growing season of about 20°.
It needs a good strong light but also shade. It requires a good
supply of water during its growing season and only a small amount
once a week, but must be syringed twice daily. The composition
of the soil should be an open and porous material consisting of the
following: two parts fibry loam which had been stacked about
six months and broken up by hand (not sifted or pulverized), one
part hbry chopped peat, one part leaf-mold, one part sand, one-
half part broken charcoal, using in the same manner as the crocks,
one part sphagnum moss chopped roughly, all the parts of this

- . — j"w •*" «^. A 11^ 1^1.0 vi ^anw sauting ue wen drained oy

placing a flat piece of crock over the holes flat side down. The
soil should be hand-picked so as to be free of worms and insects.
Ihis process is slow and tedious, but when there is taken into con-
sideration the length of time a plant is to remain undisturbed, too much
care cannot be taken. Place the curved pieces one against the other
until the entire bottom is covered, then place a good sprinkling
of clean % inch soil (no dust), and cover the whole with a thin
layer of sphagnum moss, covering the crocks evenly so that no
soil will pass through. The receptacle is now ready for the soil
Place some of the roughest of the soil directly over the moss, then
falling up to within 2 inches of the top, pack down evenly with a
wide potting stick so that they will not sink afterward; now put
m the rhizomes one by one, setting the points so that they will be
evenly distributed, and firm the soil tightly with the fingers, as a
potting stick cannot well be used on account of bruising; let them
be about even with the top on the sides and slightly rounded in
the center; stake the fronds with light stakes to keep them steady,
which will give them a neat appearance as they will have to remain
until the new growth has developed and the plant is reestablished
with new roots, when they will sustain themselves without any

given as when first potted, but after this the plants will require
water more frequently as they will be making roots rapidly as will
be indicated by the foliage that has developed. Directly after pot-
ting keep the house close and increase the air gradually until full
air can be given. Hard-leaved ferns like davallias can stand a light
syringing three or four times a day on all bright days but none on
cloudy days unless there is artificial heat on. Decrease syringing as
the cool nights of the end of summer and autumn approach; the
temperature may also be lowered until it falls to the winter tempera-
ture with the declining season. The foregoing soil is suitable for
most shallow-rooting ferns.

Dennstsedtia. With creeping rootstock. Winter temperature,
52° to 55°. Propagated by spores and division. Culture as for
Microlepia.

Deparia. A small group of ferns with arching fronds. Stove
winter temperature, 55° to 58°. Propagated by spores or bulbils
that form on the fronds. Culture, see main article (p. 1210).

Dicksonia. An interesting class of tree ferns from Australia.
They require a cool temperature and partial shade in summer,
but their stems must be syringed frequently. They must never
be allowed to dry at the roots, and even more copiously watered in
summer. Winter temperature, 45° to 48°; can be stood outside in
summer. Can be propagated by spores or side growths carefully
removed from the parent stem without injuring the heel. Require
a soil of taree parts loam, one part peat, one part leaf-mold, a little
more than one part sand, some broken crocks and sphagnum moss
with the whole, and well drained.

Didymochlxna. An interesting group of ferns of distinct habit
and growth. Winter temperature, 55° to 58°.

Diplazium. A rather coarse-growing but interesting class of
ferns, grown mostly in the greenhouse. Allied to Asplenium. A
fairly porous soil suits them best. Propagated by spores or division.
Winter temperature, 55° to 60.°

Doodia. A small and distinct class of ferns of cool temperature,
48° to 52°. Propagated by spores and division. For culture, see
main article (p. 1210),

Drynaria. Plants with a thick and downy rhizome. Propagated
by spores and division. All stove ferns allied to Polypodium.

Dryopteris. Small stove ferns. Require' a winter night tem-
perature of 55° to 58°.

Gleichenia. A genus of most beautiful and graceful ferns, natives
of Australia, New Holland and tropical America. They thrive
best in a compost of one part loam, one part peat, one-half part
sand, one-half part broken crocks, one part sphagnum moss; in pot-
ting, the center of the plant should be dropped a little below the rim
of the pot so that the outer rhizomes can rest on the new soil, leav-
ing the center a little deeper than the outer edge; pin the rhizomes
down carefully but do not cover; pot firmly; give a gentle water-
ing; syringe several times a day, but take care not to oyerwater.
They love a cool, moist atmosphere; the tropical American ones
can stand a little more heat, also a little sun; winter temperature
for New Holland ones, 48° to 52°; American, 50° to 55°. Care
should be taken at all times not to ovorwater or let them get too
dry; the best way is to sound them with your knuckles, and in
fact almost any plant of careful treatment should be treated the
same way.

Goniophlebium. Mostly a deep and free-rooting class of ferns,
demanding culture as for Polypodium.

Hemionitis. An interesting class of low-growing stove ferns
requiring a porous soil. Winter temperature, 55° to 58°. Propa-
gated by spores, or by pinning a mature frond having formed buds,
on a surface of porous sandy material, which readily form new
plants.

Hemitelia. A distinct and striking class of tree ferns, native of
tropical America and the Philippines. They are all stove ferns
requiring 60° winter night temperature and ample moisture and
shade at all times; soil as for Dicksonia, as they are heavy and
deep-rooting.

Hymenophyllum. A class of ferns of most graceful and delicate
structure; native of tropical America. They require a deep shade
and a shallow compost to grow in as they are found growing on
tree ferns and sandstone; the following will suit them best: sandy,
lumpy peat with very small pieces of sandstone and live sphagnum

FERNS

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1215

moss, carefully placed between the small rhizomes and grown in a
dense shade. Their foliage should never be allowed to become dry;
they should be grown in a case. Winter temperature, 52° to 55°.

Hypolepis. A class of ferns with creeping rootstock, of easy
culture, requiring shade. Propagated by spores and division.
General culture of ferns.

Leucostegia. A class of ferns allied to Microlepia and Davallia,
which see. Deep-rooting ferns of easy culture. Winter temperature.
52° to 55°.

Lygodium. A class of ferns of easy culture, requiring a deep
rich loamy soil. L. palmatum is hardy. For culture, see main
article (p. 1210).

Marattia. A bold, distinct, and interesting class of ferns. Allied
to Angiopteris, which see for treatment.

Meniscium. A small class of interesting low-growing ferns.
Require a medium temperature of 52° to 55° in winter. General
culture of ferns (p. 1210). Propagated by spores.

Microlepia. A class of mostly strong-growing and graceful
ferns of easy culture; M. hirta var. cristata, being crested, makes a
beautiful specimen. They like a strong open soil with a little cow-
manure added and a fair supply of water at all times. They require
good light but shady. Propagated by division or spores.

1490. Pteris cretica var. albo-lineata. (X H)

Nephrolepis. A large group of ferns having more garden forms
than any other class of ferns, and the end is not yet in sight, as
every year or two another form appears; the type N. exaltata will
grow fronds 4 to 5 feet long, while some of the variations will
grow them as short as 8 inches long. All the forms of N. exaltata
will stand sunshine under glass. A compost of three parts good
fibry loam, one part manure, one part sand, a small sprinkling of
leaf-mold and sphagnum moss thoroughly mixed, suits them best.
They like a fair supply of water at all times. When potting, always
drop the plant down so as to cover % inch, as the young fronds
will readily push through the soil. N. Bausei is deciduous. N.
Duffii is a small frpnded and beautiful species. Propagated readily
by runners, of which they furnish an abundance; pin the runners
down over the surface of the soil; in a short time they will make a
lot of young plants which can be taken up when they have made two
fronds, potted up into 2-inch pots, kept close for about two weeks,
when more air can be given them; then pot on as required.

Notholcena sinuata. Native of Mexico; an interesting and grace-
ful fern of downy foliage. Grows well in a medium temperature.
Care must be taken in watering; it will not stand syringing. An

open porous soil suits it best. Propagated by division or spores,
spores preferred.

Onychium. A class of interesting and graceful ferns of easy cul-
ture for which see main article. Winter temperature 48° to 52°.
Propagated by spores or division.

PeUaea. A very interesting class of low-growing ferns of neat and
graceful habit. Winter temperature 55° to 58° at night. Requires
a porous soil and good light ; will not stand very much moisture on
foliage. Thrip and mealy-bug are the worst enemies. Readily
propagated by spores or division.

Phlebodium. Ferns of strong-growing habit. See Polypodium.

Phyllitis. A class of shallow-rooting ferns of easy culture. Allied
to Polypodium, which see.

Phymotodes. Somewhat shallow-rooted, but fairly strong-grow-
ing ferns, of easy culture. Best grown in pans. Require partial
shade and a porous soil as for shallow polypodiums or davallias.
They may also be used to cover walls in greenhouses, and to grow
on trunks of tall tree ferns.

Platycerium. The stag and elk's-horn ferns. A distinct and
most interesting class of ferns. They naturally grow in the forks
of trees and on rocks. They are best grown on blocks or rafts; fibry
peat and live sphagnum moss suit them best. They should have
plenty of water in the growing season and a moist atmosphere at
all times. Winter temperature at night, 58° to 60°, adding 5°.to 7°
by day.

Polypodium. Comprising many divisions and many of them in
common cultivation. They are native of all climes. Some are hardy
with hardly any protection, white some require stove temperature.
Some are deep-rooting, while others are very shallow-rooting and
require a very porous soil. They are mostly evergreen excepting
the hardy species, which are deciduous. Some of the shallow-rooting
species will grow on a surface of very shallow material composed
of peat and moss, while others require an addition of loam. They
are varied and distinct and can be employed for many purposes, to
cover walls in a greenhouse or conservatory or rockwork out-of-
doors. Some are very decorative and bold in habit, while others
are graceful and beautiful. The deep-rooting kinds require a com-
post of two parts loam, one part leaf-mold, one part peat, one part
sand, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks and
one-half part broken charcoal; they require ample drainage and
an ample supply of water when growing, and reduced amount when
at rest in winter. The shallow-growing sorts will require ample
drainage and a compost of one part fibry loam, one part peat,
one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks and one-half
part charcoal. Some of the sorts will grow on a mossy surface or
can be employed to cover walls or unsightly places in a greenhouse
and by receiving an occasional syringing will do well, while others
are better grown in pots or pans. Pans for many are preferred.

Polystichum. Many of these are hardy or will winter out-of-
doors with moderate protection. Propagated by spores or by pin-
ning down the fronds on a porous surface until small buds are
fairly well rooted, when they may be detached and potted singly.
A moderate soil suits them best.

Pteris. Fig. 1490. A various group, some of them hardy,
others suitable for greenhouses and for stoves. They are not par-
ticular as to soil; a mixture of two parts peat, one part loam and
one part sand will suit them. The variegated forms should be pro-
tected from very strong light. Some of the species propagate
readily by division of the creeping rhizomes. Most of the tender
species thrive in an intermediate or greenhouse temperature.

Selaginella. A class of plants of decorative and useful character
and varied in form of growth as S. csesia, S. arborea and S. Witt-
denovii; will grow to 15 or more feet, while others will not rise over
2 inches or so. Propagated by cuttings in the larger-growing kinds,
division in most kinds, and pegging in some tall - growing species.
Take down a tall-growing sort and peg it to mossy and sandy surface
and in a short time when fairly well rooted, it may be potted sepa-
rately in the regular mixture for Selaginella. Compost for Selagi-
nella, two parts loam, one part fibry peat, one part leaf-mold, one
part sand, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks
and one part charcoal. Mix the whole thoroughly, drain well as
recommended for ferns. S. grandis and S. Lyallii require a Wardian
case and will need a very moist atmosphere at all times, also a tem-
perature of 60° by night, with corresponding increase by day in
winter; in summer, 80° to 90° by day.

Todea. The filmy ferns of New Zealand are T. superba, the
finest of them all; they are rare and seldom met with; they love a
deep shade and coolness at all times; a temperature of 40° to 45° in
winter suits them best. Their fronds should never be allowed to
become dry. The strong - fronded ferns are stove ferns, requiring
a winter temperature of 55° to 60°.

Trichomanes. A class of filmy ferns of great beauty, requiring
a cool and moist atmosphere. They should be grown in fibry peat,
sphagnum moss, sand, and broken crocks in equal parts. They are
very shallow-rooting and must be handled with the utmost care in
repotting. They must be potted tight, and if small broken sand-
stone can be had, all the better; the depth of the soil need not be
more than 1 to 1 K inches. Temperature 45° to 50° in winter. They
should be grown in a Wardian case, kept close except an opening
on the coolest side. The fronds should never become dry; but
should be sprayed several times a day if there is danger of their
becoming dry.

Vittaria lineata. A very unusual fern growing naturally on trees
in southern Florida. It does best fastened on a block in a mixture
of fibry peat and sphagnum moss or in shallow baskets in the fore-
going materials with a portion of sand, broken crocks and charcoal
broken small. Pot firmly but let the material be shallow. It loves
plenty of water at all times and a good light. Propagated by divis-
ion and spores. Winter temperature 55° by. night.

1216

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Cultivation of hardy ferns.

The hardy ferns are easy to transplant and tenacious
of life under adverse conditions, but since the beauty
of fern foliage is brought out only by luxuriance of
growth, it should be the aim to plant only where such
can be secured.

Ferns in general require positions in which the soil
retains an even amount of moisture at all times. Most
species do not grow well in a cultivated border or where
the space between the plants is not mulched or given a
ground cover of mosses or other plants which hold
the temperature and moisture of the soil surface more
evenly and allow the ferns to grow roots near and on
the surface of the ground. Also when the earth is
bare between the plants, the rains dash mud on the
under side of the fronds — a condition under which no
fern can thrive. However, some of the stronger-grow-
ing species, as the osmundas, because of their height
and strong deep roots will do well in a cultivated border.
A study of the soil surface where the fern is growing
well in the wild will show about what is necessary.

Some ferns, as the maidenhair (Adiantum), have
strong wiry stems which will push up through a very
heavy covering of leaves, while other species, as all of
the evergreen ferns, grow in positions in which the
annual fall of leaves does not remain on their fronds.
The larger number of ferns prefer no heavier mulch
than is made by the death of their own fronds, which
naturally fall away from the center of the plant, mulch
the surrounding soil but leave the crown of the plant
uncovered and unhindered for its growth in the spring.
Many of the smaller ferns which have neither deep nor
strong creeping roots require a ground cover of other
plants or simulated conditions to prevent their being
heaved out of the ground during the winter. A number
of species with strong creeping roots as Dennstsedtia
punctilobula (Dicksonia pilosiuscula) and Dryopteris
(Aspidiwri) novaboracensis eventually form thick
masses which completely coyer and fill the ground
with roots. When this condition has been attained, no
soil mulch or cover is needed, and even the old fronds
had best be removed before growth starts in the spring.

Ferns may be separated into two classes by their
stems: (1) those with creeping stems; and (2) those
having a central crown or cluster of crowns.

Those with creeping stems spread and form large
masses. They not only send up a crop of fronds in the
spring but continue to grow new fronds during the
season. This class of ferns may be transplanted at any
season with ordinary care, in fact the fronds may be
mowed off and the roots taken up in sods and relaid
like turf, but better results will be secured with more
care to preserve the younger and newly started fronds.

Those ferns with distinct crowns naturally send out
only one set of fronds each year. This class of ferns is
best moved after the plants have ceased growth in the
fall or before growth starts in the spring. Especially
is this the case with those species having deciduous or
fragile fronds which easily become wilted or broken.
When transplanting while in leaf, it is necessary to
preserve fully half of the fronds to insure a good growth
the following year. The evergreen species, as the
Christmas fern (Polystichum or Aspidium acrosti-
choides), Dryopteris (Aspidium) marginalis and others
with hard coriaceous foliage, can with reasonable care
be transplanted at any season of the year.

In general, the soil for ferns should be rich in humus
and mineral matter and sufficiently friable to allow
penetration by the fine roots. A heavy clay is not
satisfactory but may be corrected by the addition of a
sandy soil and thoroughly rotted manure or leaves.
A pure leaf-mold is not a good fern soil because it is
lacking in minerals and is too light and loose for
any fern except the Adiantum. A good sandy loam
with too little clay to bake and not enough vegetable

matter to be spongy will suit the larger part of ferns.
It will be noticed that most species of ferns with
crowns grow in the wild where their roots reach through
the surface mold to a more mineral soil underneath; in
fact they often grow in apparently poor yellow loam.

The following ferns grow luxuriantly in full sunlight
with suitable conditions of soil and moisture: Pteris
aquilina, Onoclea sensibilis, Dennstsedtia punctilobula
(Dicksonia pilosiuscula), Dryopteris (Aspidium) nova-
boracensis, and the osmundas.

Practically all the remaining species prefer more or
less protection from the direct rays of the sun, but
darkness or dense shadow is not required. Even the
species which grow in deep, dense shade apparently
need only the humid atmosphere found there, since

1491. Dryopteris simulata.

near waterfalls and springs they grow in the open. In
mountainous regions in which the atmosphere is cool
and not drying, many species grow in full sunlight
which require more or less shade in drier climates.
Among such might be mentioned Asplenium Filix-
foemina, A. acrostichoides, Phegopteris hexagonoptera,
D. polypodioides, Dryopteris (Aspidium) Thelypteris,
D. cristata, Onoclea Struthiopteris, Woodwardia vir-
ginica, and W. angustifolia.

There are about seventy-five native American species
which can be grown in northern gardens, and also a
good number of quite distinct varieties. There are
hardy species in foreign countries so that a complete
collection of hardy ferns would probably reach 150
species.

The following species not natives of the United States
are hardy at Philadelphia: Dryopteris chrysoloba, D.

XLI. A good fern in southern California. — Alsophila australis.

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1217

dilatata, D, Filix-mas, D. pseudo-mas Pinderi, Nephro-
dium hirtipes, Polystichum Braunii, P. lobatum and P.
setosum.

The following notes are drawn from experience in
cultivation of these native ferns in the neighborhood
of Philadelphia.

Adiantum pedatum prefers light, loose, rich soil in cool, moist
shade, with yearly mulch of leaves. Soil conditions are more
important than shade. Where established in a wild state will
endure the full sunshine coming with the removal of trees until
soil conditions change or it is crowded out by stronger plants.

Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Soil conditions about the same. See
that leaf-covering is not of too large and heavy leaves.

Asplenium acrostichoides. Culture as A. Filix-foemina.

Asplenium angustifolium thrives on rich rather moist soil in
shade. Avoid complete removal of fronds when planting in early
fall, as this fern quickly sends up new fronds to the weakening of
the following season's growth.

Asplenium Bradleyi. A small rare fern. See Camptosorus and
A. pinnatifidum for cultivation.

Asplenium ebenoides. Culture same as for A. pinnatifidum or
Camptosorus.

Asplenium Filix-foemina. Give good rich loam, moist, with
drainage, with some shade. Endures full sunlight in cool climate.
A beautiful and extremely variable fern. A number of forms are
catalogued.

Asplenium montanum. Cultivated as Camptosorus or A.
pinnatifidum.

Asplenium pinnatifidum. A small evergreen fern found in the
wild in cool shaded places in which there is an uniform amount of
moisture in the soil and when the air is not given to quick extremes
of temperature and humidity. Ferns of this character need about
the same careful placing as do real alpine plants. Planting between
stones is advisable. No winter cover, no bare soil and no plant
stronger-rooted than a moss near it.

Asplenium platyneuron prefers partial shade. Care must be
taken to prevent smothering by leaves, and to plant where the least
likely to be heaved by frost. It is found most plentifully as a native
on banks growing with grass and other plants in partial shade. The
fronds are evergreen, but become discolored in severe weather.
Any good loam suits it. Easy to move at any season but difficult
to maintain in masses.

Asplenium resiliens (A. parvulum). Culture of A. platyneuron,

Asplenium, Ruta-muraria. Culture same as A. pinnatifidum.

Asplenium Trichomanes. A small fern growing well where A.
platyneuron does. The shade of a small rock will suit it.

Asplenium viride. See A. pinnatifidum for culture.

Camptosorus rhizophyllus. WALKING-LEAP FERN. In wild state
is found in cool, shaded positions not subject to excessive drought
or moisture. It prefers a moist atmosphere but this is not necessary
for good growth but where the best soil and atmospheric condi-
ditions prevail the leaves often attain a length of 18 inches before
rooting. Avoid all winter covering.

Cheilanthes. Low-growing rock ferns generally doing well in
fairly dry positions. C. lanosa prefers deep shade and more moist
soil. C. lanosa, C. tomentosa and C. Fendleri at least of the species
are perfectly hardy at Philadelphia.

Cryptogramma acrostichoides should have shade throughout year.

Cystopteris bulbifera. Will do well in usual deciduous shade in
any loam, but grows best and produces far more numerous bulblets
when planted on a moist bank of gravelly soil in the shade of
kalmia.

Cystopteris fragilis should be planted in shade in positions where
it will receive no covering of leaves. The fronds die in early August
in the drier situations. It will grow in positions which become
exceedingly dry in midsummer. It forces well in a coolhouse.

Dennstxdtia punctilobula (Dicksonia pilosiuscula) prefers shady,
moist situations where it does not receive any covering by falling
leaves of large size. Grows well in sunshine. May be transplanted
at any season, and takes kindly to heavy enrichment. The best
fern to grow in quantity for cutting during the summer. Can be
readily grown as a north border to a shrubbery in any medium to
light loam.

Dryopteris Bootti is found in a wild state in moist, shaded posi-
tions, but will grow well in shade in quite dry positions. Does not
need shade in winter. Use good loam.

Dryopteris cristata prefers moist to wet soil in shade. Will often
burn with direct sunlight. Evergreen, quite variable. Var. Clin-
toniana is larger. The fern and variety appear to need swamp
conditions to grow well.

Dryopteris Filix-mas. Practically the same conditions as for
D. marginalis.

Dryopteris Goldieana prefers deep, moist, rich soil in cool shade.
Grows finely in shaded places and soil suited to rhododendrons.

Dryopteris marginalis wants rich soil in rather deep shade dur-
ing the entire year, but will grow well in partial shade — and endure
even full sunlight, though not growing so luxuriantly. This is one
of the native ferns commonly sold by collectors in city markets.
It is evidently seldom established by purchasers of plants in full
leaf. Once wilted the plants will not recover.

Dryopteris noveboracensis does best in rather moist, rich soil in
partial shade, but will endure full sunlight with good soil con-
ditions. Prefers light rich loam. One of the common field ferns
growing in large masses either alone or with Dennstsedtia puncti-
lobula. When cut it wilts quickly so is of little value for bouquets.

78

Easily transplanted at any season. Will not endure heavy mulch
of leaves. Not evergreen.

Dryopteris spinulosa is less common in America than the var.
intermedia, which occurs wherever conditions favor its growth. It
has the finest cut or divided fronds of any of the large evergreen
ferns, being almost the equal of the deciduous fern, Dennstsedtia
punctilobula, in this respect. The fronds are gathered extensively
for florists' use. In culture, give the same conditions as for Poly-
stichum acrostichoides, with heavier shade and more moisture.
The best fern to grow under coniferous trees.

Dryopteris simulata (Fig. 1491) is much like the following and
requires similar conditions. It occurs in boggy woods from Maine
to Maryland and perhaps westward.

Dryopteris Thelypteris prefers quite moist situations with at
least partial shade. With congenial soil and moisture does well in
sunlight. A distinct and pleasing deciduous fern.

Lygodium palmatum is rather difficult to establish. Give a
deep rather moist light loam in partial shade.

Onoclea sensibilis prefers a rich, moist soil in partial shade or
full sunshine. It will also grow in shade. It likes a heavier soil
than most ferns and uniform moisture. Does poorly in dry soils.
Onoclea Struthiopteris should be given a rich, moist soil with at
least partial shade. The fronds will "burn" in fierce sunlight. A
good fern to grow north of a wall or building where specimen
plants are desired.

Osmunda cinnamomea prefers moist, partially shaded situa-
tions, but will grow well in full sunshine in rich soil not exceedingly
dry. Perhaps the most beautiful of the osmundas. Best to move
while dormant.

Osmunda Claytoniana, a native of low ground, both in shade and
sunshine, but will grow equally well in rich soil only fairly moist.
Best transplanted when dormant.

Osmunda regalis prefers a peaty soil in very wet, boggy posi-
tion in partial shade, but will grow as well in full sunshine if soil
is rich and not dry. A very distinct fern.

Pellsea atropurpurea prefers rather dry positions in partial
shade, winter and summer. It will not endure heavy mulching.
Will grow in full sunshine, but not to its full size. It may be
transplanted at any season.

Phegopteris Dryopteris prefers good soil in shade not over moist
or dry. Avoid coating of leaves. It is a beautiful species and useful
for planting on rockwork in shade. The fronds die in August.

Phegopteris hexagonoptera needs good soil in shade. Fronds die
down rather early. Will not grow well through a leaf mulch.

Phegopteris polypodioides prefers moist, shaded positions, but
will grow in any good soil not too dry. The fronds die down in
late summer, especially in the drier positions. Any winter cover-
ing of leaves must be removed.

Polypodium vulgare prefers good, light soil in well-drained but
moist situations in shade, with no other plants growing with it.
It will endure very dry places, but will be dwarfed. Will also do
well in full sunlight if soil conditions are good. As a native it
grows in positions in which it does not receive any yearly coating
of fallen leaves, and, wherever planted, should not be covered with
coarse material. Plant perfectly evergreen; height 6 to 10 inches.
Polypodium incanum of Virginia and the South is hardy but not
vigorous at Philadelphia.

Polystichum Braunii. This fern needs good deep light loam,
not spongy, with humus and shade winter and summer. A distinct
and beautiful evergreen fern open to improvement by selection
and culture, although belonging to the class of "crown" or "tree"
ferns which do not have the chance to vary or "sport" which the
species with vegetative roots do.

Polystichum (Aspidium) acrostichoides should be given shade
both summer and winter for best results, and in no case can shade
in summer be omitted. The plants will endure sunshine for a few
years but will not be thrifty, and will eventually die. One of the
more common florists' ferns — the Christmas fern — the sterile
fronds of which are gathered and stored by the million for winter
use by florists. They are found on the north side of the hills and
the best grade grows not in low ground nor where the soil is shallow
but where good loam with no winter leaf covering are the condi-
tions. The planting of this fern for the sale of the fronds may
become profitable as demands increase and its wild habitats become
forbidden grounds to pickers. In culture give (1 ) northern exposure;
(2) good corn land; (3) no loose or bare earth between plants; (4)
no grass; (5) no real cover of leaves in the fall. Give with these a
good supply of moisture such as the lower half of a hillside can
easily be made to receive from the overflow from rainfall on the
upper half. There must be good drainage.

Polystichum fragrans. Positions in the wild suggest dense cool
moist shade with good drainage.

Polystichum Lonchitis. Grows well under conditions for P.
acrostichoides as far south as Philadelphia.

Pteridiumaquilinum, to be grown to perfection, should have con-
siderable sunlight, with moist, rich soil, kept cool and loose with a
coating of leaves or other material. In such a position it should
grow to 4 to 5 feet high, with other dimensions corresponding.
However, it will grow in almost any position. It has strong, creep-
ing rootstocks, so that attention is necessary to keep a healthy
group within bounds. The earliest fronds put forth die in late
summer, but those of later growth remain green until frost, so
that with attention to the removal of dead fronds a group will look
well until fall. The rootstocks break or crack easily so that plants
are injured by transplanting and grow poorly until again estab-
lished. Early spring is the best time to move plants.

Woodsia. Small rock ferns mostly requiring winter shade and
doing best on rock banks facing the north.

1218

FERNS

FERNS

Woodwardia angustifolia wants a moist situation in deep shade.
Does well in moist peat north of a bank or wall. Will endure full
sunlight in positions where it has become established, but will
not grow well when transplanted to sunny position. W. mrginica
needs more moisture. p^ ^y^ BARCLAY.

Culture of asparagus fern (Fig. 1492).

The sprays of Asparagus plumosus look so much like
certain ferns or selaginellas, that the plant is commonly
known as asparagus fern; and the cultivation of it is
therefore treated at this place. (For the botanical
account, see p. 407, Vol. I.) The first and all-impor-
tant factor in the cultivation of asparagus fern is the
construction of the bed. To meet with any degree of
success, the bed must have perfect drainage. The
house should be 25 or 30 feet high, and wired at the top
and bottom. The wires beneath are made fast to each
side of an iron trellis about 8 inches apart and at the
top an equal distance apart, in order that the strings
may be as nearly straight as possible.

1492. A house of "Asparagus ferns." — Asparagus plumosus.

The early growth of Asparagus plumosus var. norms
is very slow; but as soon as it is transplanted and well
rooted in a rich soil, the growth is more rapid, the tender
shoots developing into a vine which will be ready to cut
for the market in about a year. There is great difficulty
in securing the seed of the nanus. In a whole house,
there may be only a few seed-bearing strings. After
being picked, the berries are allowed to dry for a month,
and are then ready for planting. A good, rich soil, cov-
ered with a thin film of sand, serves very well to start
them. The temperature should be about 65°, and as
nearly constant as possible. When the plant is well
rooted, it is removed to a deeper soil or potted in 3-
or 4-inch pots and placed on a bench. Here it remains
a year, and is then placed in the bed.

Up to this time a small amount of labor suffices to
keep the plant growing in a healthy condition; but from
now on great care must be taken and much labor
expended to produce the best crop. The bed into which
the young plant is set should be carefully laid with
rocks at the bottom, so the water can escape freely.
Over this place 2 or 3 feet of soil, manure, and

dead leaves. It is but a short time now that the roots
have room to expand before the shoots appear above
the trellis, and the stringing begins. Strong linen thread
is used for strings.

The first crop will not be ready to cut before the end
of the second year, — that is, from the time the seed is
planted. As soon as this crop is exhausted, new strings
are put in place of the old, and another crop is started.
This goes on year after year. Now that the plant has
gotten its growth, it is more hardy, and is constantly
sending up new shoots. If the bed is well made in the
beginning, the asparagus need not be disturbed for
eight or ten years. However, at the end of that time it
is well to take the plants up and fill the beds with fresh
soil and manure.

In the spring, when the sun gets high, the asparagus
houses are shaded with a light coating of white lead,
whiting and kerosene oil. This is absolutely necessary,
as the summer sun would in a very short time burn the
tops of the vines. The vine flowers in the fall, and only

on strings that have
been matured six
months or more.

The vine alone is not
the onlysourceof profit.
When the plant is a
year old, a few of the
most nearly perfect
sprays may be taken
without injuring its
growth . These are very
desirable in the market.
There is, of course,
some waste in working
up the Asparagus to
be shifted, but on the
whole, it is very slight.
The different forms in
which it is sold utilize
by far the greater part
of it.

Insects destroy the
shoots and sprays. This
is prevented to a great
extentbyinsectpowder.
The cut-worms do the
most damage. About
the only way to get rid
of them is to pick them
off the strings during
the night, as they gen-
erallyseek shelterunder
the thick clusters of
the plant at daylight.

There are many drawbacks in growing asparagus, among
which are expensive houses, the slow growth of the plants
(which makes it necessary to wait at least two years
before receiving any return from the expenditure), injury
from insects, and the great amount of labor involved in
looking after the houses. WILLIAM H. ELLIOTT.

FERNS, POPULAR NAMES OF. Adder's Tongue
F., Ophinglossum vulgatum. Asparagus F., Asparagus
plumosus. Beech F., Phegopteris. Bird's-nest F., Asple-
nium Nidus. Bladder F., Cystopteris. Boston F., Neph-
rolepis exaltata var. bostoniensis. Brake, Pteridium.
Bristle F., Trichomanes. Buckler F., Dryopteris. Cali-
fornian Gold F., Ceropteris triangularis. Chain F.,
Woodwardia. Christmas F., Polystichum acrostichoides.
Cinnamon F., Osmunda cinnamomea. Climbing F.,
Lygodium. Dagger F., Polystichum acrostichoides.
Deer F., Lomaria. Elk's -horn F., Platycerium alci-
corne. Female F., Asplenium Filix-foEmina. Filmy F.,
Hymenophyllum. Floating F., Ceratopteris. Flowering
F., Osmunda; sometimes also Anemia. Gold F.,
Ceropteris. Grape F., Botrychium. Hart's-tongue F.,

FERNS

FERONIELLA

1219

Phyllitis Scolopendrium. Hartford F., Lygodium palma-
tum. Hay-scented F., Dennstsedtia punctilobula. Holly
F., Polysiichum Lonchitis. Lace F., Cheilanthes gracil-
lima; also Dryoptcris intermedia. Lady F., Asplenium
Filix-fcemina. Lip F., Cheilanthes. Maidenhair F.,
Adiantum; more particularly A. Capillus-Veneris
abroad and A. pedatum at home. Male F., Dryopteris
Filix-mas. Marsh F., Dryopteris Thelypteris. Oak F.,
Phegopteris Dryopteris. Ostrich F., Matteuccia Struth-
iopteris. Pod F., Ceratopteris thalictroides. Rattlesnake
F., Botrychium virginianum. Royal F-, Osmunda regalis.
Sensitive F., Onoclea sensibilis. Shield F., Dryopteris
F., and Polystichum. Stag-horn F., Platy cerium. Sun F.,
Phegopteris. Sweet F., Myrica asplenifolia; abroad,
various Dryopteris. Sword FM Nephrolepis exaltata.
Venus' Hair F., Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Walking
F., Camptosorus rhizophyllus. Wall F., Polypodium vul-
gare. Wall-rue, Asplenium Ruta-muraria. Washington
F., Nephrolepis exaltata var. washingtoniensis.

FERONIA (from Feronia, Roman goddess of forests).
Rutdcese, tribe Citreas, subtribe Feroninse. Spiny
deciduous tree with hard-shelled fruit; related to
Citrus, for which it can perhaps be used as a stock.

Leaves odd-pinnate, deciduous: fls. small, perfect
or by abortion male in terminal or axillary panicles;
petals 5 (rarely 4 or 6) ; stamens twice as numerous as
the petals; filaments much longer than the anthers,
dilated at base and densely pubescent on the sides and
within; ovary at first 5-celled, later becoming by
confluence 1-celled: fr. with a hard, compact woody
shell; seeds oval, lenticular, with a thin hairy brown
testa immersed in an acid edible pulp; cotyledons
fleshy, aerial in germination. — Only 1 species is known.

Limonia, Swingle (Schlnus Limbnia, Linn. Limonia
acidissima, Linn. F. elephdntum, Corr.). WOOD-
APPLE. Spiny deciduous tree, native to India, Ceylon
and Indo-China: bark gray, rough: Ivs. odd-pinnate,
3-7-foliate; Ifts. opposite, obovate, blunt at the apex,
sometimes emarginate, entire-margined with a short
petiolule; rachis margined, articulate, spines long and
straight, axillary: fls. (sometimes male by abortion of
the ovary) dull red, small, in terminal or axillary long-
pedicelled panicles; petals 5 (rarely 4 or 6); stamens 10
(rarely 8 or 12), filaments short, dilated at base and
densely pubescent on the sides and within; anthers
large; ovary 5-celled, with many ovules in each cell;
stigma cylindrical, sessile: frs. globose or oblate, 23^-3
in. diam., having a hard, woody
rind filled with a pinkish edible
pulp in which the numerous woolly
seeds are immersed. For discus-
sion of name and synonomy, see
Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4:325 (n.
12, June 19, 1914). 111. Roxbg., PI.
Coromandel., PL 141. Gt.
34:1206. Wight, Ic. PL Ind.
Or., PL 45; Beddome, Fl.
sylvat. South Ind., 1:121;
f albot, For. Flor. Bombay,
fig. 124; Engl. & Prantl, Nat.
Pfl.-fam. III. 4, 193, fig. 112.
— The pulp of the fr. which is
acid, is used for making
jellies somewhat similar to
black currant jelly. It is also
made into a kind of chutney
with oil, spices and salt by
the natives of India. The fls.
and Ivs. of this tree have an
odor of anis and are used as a stomachic. The com-
monly cult, species of Citrus can be grafted on this
plant and wood-apple seedlings are now being tested
as stocks by the U. S. Dept. of Agric. in Calif, and
Fla. and also in the greenhouses in Washington, D. C.

WALTER T. SWINGLE.

FERONIELLA (diminutive of Feronia, Roman god-
dess of forests). Rutacese, tribe Citreas, subtribe Fer-
oninse. Small much-branched spiny tree, related to
Feronia and suggested as a possible stock for citrous
fruits.

Leaves odd-pinnate, persistent, 3-6-paired; rachis
cylindrical, sometimes narrowly winged; spines soli*

1493. Flower and fruit
of Feroniella oblata. (FL
nat. size, fr. X %.)

1494. Feroniella oblata. ( X %)

tary, in the axils of the Ivs.: fls. in much-branched
axillary infl., perfect or by abortion male, usually 5-
parted, having 4 times as many stamens as petals;
filaments much longer than the anthers, dilated at base
and having a hairy appendix on the inner side; style
long, stigma cylindric, caducous; ovary at first 5-6-
celled, later becoming by confluence 1-celled : fr. spher-
ical or depressed globose, with a hard shell composed
of radially arranged prismatic elements; pulp edible;
seeds numerous, oblong or elliptical, with a smooth
crustaceous testa; cotyledons aerial in germination. —
Two species are known.

oblata, Swingle. KRASSANG. Figs. 1493, 1494.
Spiny tree, 25-65 ft. high, native to Cambodge and
Cochin-China: Ivs. odd-pinnate, 3-4-paired; Ifts.
covered with small whitish hairs, especially when young,
pellucid-punctate, oval or obovate, crenulate when
young, often emarginate, with a very short petiole;
rachis pubescent; fls. in many-fld. panicles, white, very
fragrant, usually 5-parted, with lanceolate pointed
petals; stamens 4 times the number of petals, anthers
large, oval, filaments joined together at the base by the
woolly pubescence of the appendices occurring on their
inner side: fr. borne in clusters of 3 or 4, flattened
spheroid, 2 to 2 1/3 m- diam.; pulp subacid, pinkish,
edible. 111. Swingle in Bui. Soc. Bot. de France,
59, pi. 18 and fig. a, p.. 778. Lecomte, Fl. gen. Indo-
Chine, 1 : 685, fig. 72, 1-5. — This species occurs commonly
in the forests of Cambodia and is sometimes cult, by
the natives for its frs. which, when young, have a pro-

1220

FERONIELLA

FERTILITY

ttoiincod orange odor :ind are used as a condiment in
sauces. Young plants of this species are growing in the
greenhouses of the Dept. of Agric. at Washington, D.C.
lucida, Swingle (/'V/Ywia lucida, Schcff.). KAVISTA
MATH. Small spiny tree, native to Java: Ivs. odd-
pinnato, .'{ (i-p.'iin-tl; Ifts. oval or obqvatc, coriaceous,
shiny above, margins entire or slightly crenulato,
obtuse or omarginato at the apex; petioles pubescent,
the terminal 1ft,. sessile; rachis pubescent, articulated:
(Is. perfect or by abortion male, fragrant, white, rather
large; sepals small, linear, pubescent; petals pointed-
oval; stamens 4 times as many as the petals: fr. globose
2)^-2^i in. diain.; seeds small, with a thin hard testa,
immersed in the glutinous pulp. 111. Iconos Hogor. 2 : 149.
— The pulp is sometimes eaten in Java, like that of the
wood-apple (Feronia Limonia), It grows wild in the
drier parts of Java and has been intro. into the U. S.
where it is being tested by the Dcpt. of Agric. as a stock
for citrous fruits. WALTER T. SWINGLE.

FERRARIA (Giovanni Battista Ferrari, 1584-1653,
Italian Jesuit, botanical writer and collaborator with
the celebrated artist Guido Reni). Iriddcex. Half-
hardy bulbous plants from the Cape of Good Hope
(and recent species from other parts of Africa), rarely
growing more than 6 inches high.

Corm large and irregular: foliage glaucous; lowest
lys. long ana linear, the others ovate, clasping, succes-
sively smaller, and topped by inflated sheaths from
which emerge the fugitive fls.: these have 6 triangular,
spreading, crisped, petal-like lobes, marked with many
dull colors, as yellow, green, purple and brown; each
spathe contains several fls., and the fls. are united at
tne very base, connivent and cup-shaped below the
spreading lobes; the fls. lost only from morning to
afternoon of a single day{ but there is a fair succession;
some are visited by carrion flies: fr. an ellipsoid mem-
branous caps. — Only one species, F. undulata, is much
known in cult., but the other 5 or 0 species of the Cape
are doubtless of equal interest. This was known to pre-
Linnamn authors as Flos indicus and Gladiolus indicus.
The bulbs should be stored like gladiolus in a dry,
warm place, away from mice.

A. F Is. dull brownish purple.

undulata, Linn. St. stout, erect, sometimes exceed-
ing 1 ft: basal I vs. sword-shaped, 1 ft. and more long,
flat, clasping and dilated at base; upper Ivs. and
spathes lyfc-2 in. long: fls. 2 in. across, largely dull pur-
ple; anthers oblong, with parallel cells. B.M. 144.

AA. Fls. greenish.

uncinata, Sweet. St. short, little branched: Ivs. 2-3,
linear: fls. 2, the perianth greenish and with narrow
very acuminate scgms. 1 in. long; anthers small, the
cells nearly parallel.

AAA. F Is. dark purple.

atrata, Lodd. St. about 6 in.: Ivs. about 1, sword-
shaped, firm, strongly ribbed, twice longer than st.:
fls. 3-4, bright dark purple, 1^-2 in. diam. when
expanded; anthers oblong, with cells parallel.

Other names arc advertised by Dutch bulb-growers, as /•'.
iviminVii.s-ix. F. calettit, F. conchiflora, F. grandiflora, F. immac-
iilnin, F. liliacca, F. rosea, F. Pavonia: these are to be sought under

WILHELM MILLER.

FERTILITY of soils: that condition of soils which
makes them productive. The elements of productivity
are, a full supply of available plant-food, a suitable and
continuous supply of moisture, good physical conditions
of the soil, coupled with suitable seed and climate.

Land may contain vast quantities of potential nitro-
gen, potash, phosphoric acid and other plant-food,
and yet be unfruitful, — infertile. Most of the potential
plant-food in the soil is lazy, or not available in sufficient
quantities in a single season to produce maximum crops.
Average arable land which contains from 3,000 to 4,(XX)

pounds of nitrogen, an equal amount of phosphoric
acid and four times an much potash in the first 8 inches
of an acre, may produce only fifteen bushels of wheat
to the acre, which requires, with the straw, but twenty-
four, thirteen and twenty pounds of these three ele-
ments respectively. Therefore, land may contain a
great abundance of potential plant-food, and yet not
contain enough of that which is available for a full crop.
To make land more fertile, one or more of the follow-
ing means may be employed. Usually deeper and more
thorough tillage should first |>e resorted to, since most
lands, by reason of careless fanning, cunt. 'tin much inert
plant-food. Superior tillage is almost certain to produce
fruitfulncss, and therefore should lie resorted to before
more expensive methods are tried. Tillage not only
makes plant-food more available, but it improves tin-
physical conditions of the soil, thereby making it more
adaptable to the plant; it may also assist in relieving
the land of surplus water, and give to the soil the
power of retaining stores of moisture by capillary
action.

Moisture plays such an important part in productive-
ness that it may be said to constitute its prime factor.
Clay soils are usually composed of such fine particles
that water percolates through them slowly, hence tin-
larger part of the rainfall must either run off over the
surface, or remain to be evaporated. The aim should
be so to prepare the land by subdrainage, plowing and
surface tillage, and by introducing at least one crop of
tap-rooted plants in the rotation, that the surplus
water will filter through the soil in a reasonable time.
Percolation of rainwater through soils makes them more
friable and warmer in spring, aerates the land, pro-
motes beneficial biological and chemical changes, and
brings to the soil the nitrogenous compounds contained
in the rainwater. Soils that are reasonably porous have
the power of retaining more moisture, and of giving it
up to plants, when needed, to a greater extent, than
either open sandy or close clay soils. Fertility, which
results in fruitfulness, is governed very largely by the
water and moisture conditions of the soil, and these,
in turn, are to a considerable extent governed by the
texture of the land and the amount of humus that it
contains.

Legumes, used either as a harvest or cover-crop, pro-
mote fertility. A cover-crop of clovers planted August
1, and analyzed sixty-four days after planting, con-
tained nitrogen, in roots and tops, to the acre as
follows:

Tops Roots Total

Pounds Pounds Pounds

Crimson clover 125 30 155

Red clover 63 40 103

Mammoth clover 07 78 145

Clovers and other legumes may be used to fix and
store up the uncombined nitrogen of the air and to
digest and make available the mineral constituents of
the land, thereby greatly increasing the fertility of
the soil.

In most of the semi-arid districts of the United
States, except where irrigation can be successfully
undertaken in the rich valleys, the problem of perma-
nently maintaining and increasing the productivity of
the soil is as yet unsolved. Better tillage may serve
in many coses to prolong the time of profitable culti-
vation, but unless something is done toward restora-
tion it only postpones for a short period (ho day when
the land must be left to the tooth of time and to the
growth of such hardy plants as can maintain them-
selves on a depleted soil. All such posture lands may
be greatly ln-nefited by sowing, even in small quan-
tities, in 'early spring with red and alsiko clover in
humid districts, and bur clover in the rainloss-sum-
mer regions. Lands adopted to orcharding that, have
become depleted and that have a tenacious subsoil
may be benefited by exploding a charge of dynamite

FERTILITY

FERTILIZATION

1221

in a hole about 1 inch in diameter and 2 feet deep at
each plae:e> where :i tree is to he set. Sueli t rent rnent
tends to promote filtration, to set, free plant-food by
aeration and to improve! the physical condition of
the adjacent soil, while at the same time it lessens
the labor necessary to prepare the ground for tree-
setting.

Hani manures, when properly oared for and intelli-
gently applied, not only furnish acceptable plant-food
but iunnus as well. Fertility and high productivity
usually may be maintained many years by means of
superior tillage, leguminous harvest, and cover-crops,
and the manures of the farm. In some cases a high
slate of fertility can be maintained only by occasional
applications of commercial mineral fertilizers, such as

Khosphates and potash, but too often expensive ferti-
/ers have been substituted for tillage, leguminous
plants and barn manures.

Fertility may frequently be promoted by light
applications (ten to twenty bushels to the acre) of
quicklime. Lime serves to make plant-food more
available, to improve soil texture and to correct acidity.
It may also be applied beneficially to a green-manure
fallow. Lime tends to sink into the soil, therefore
it should be applied after the last plowing preceding
the seeding, and should be covered and mixed with the
soil by tillage. Hydrated, or biting lime, not only tends
to set free plant-food but to flocculate the soil, thereby
improving its physical condition. Its use is especially
recommended on clay and moist lands and in orchards
where the ground is much shaded. Applications of
gypsum and salt are sometimes beneficial in main-
taining fertility, but they, as well as lime, usually act
indirectly, as the soil is seldom deficient in these con-
st it nt cuts so far as they are required as plant-food. On
high-priced lands, especially those; devoted to horti-
culture, the soil should be made and kept fertile — well
up to its highest productive power.

A bare summer fallow of one to three plowings and
suitable surface tillage will not only destroy weeds, but
liberate plant-food as well, while storing moisture in
the soil for the immediate use of young plants. Hut a
bare fallow, if not accompanied by the addition of some
plant-food, may hasten the depletion of the soil. It
is a mat I er of judgment, then, as to whether the particu-
lar soil contains such abundant supplies of plant-food
that some; of them may be removed; or whether it is
very deficient. In the latter case a green fallow would
be i'ar preferable to a bare one. In many cases a bare
fallow is merely a method of mining-farming which
hastens the time when the land must be turned out
to pasture for economic reasons. Often productivity
is increased more satisfactorily by means of green-
manuring than by bringing plant-food to the land
from outside sources. In most of the humid districts
early sowed pe;is (which withstand late frosts) followed
by buckwheat, and both plowed under some time
before they mature, can be grown in time to fit the
land for seeding in September to wheat, rye or timothy,
the nurse crop being omitted. When the land might,
be made too porous by this method, rye sowed in the
fall, plowed under before coming to head and followed
by peas, would greatly improve; the light and sandy
soils by bringing stores of nitrogen and humus.

Nature, in producing and storing fertility, provides
a great variety of plants and an infinite number of
ways of multiplying them so that the land is fully
covered with vegetation — except in desert regions.
Upon the best of these Jands a vast animal life is main-
tained while the remainder produces other plants to
feed other animals. In the densely settled agricul-
tural districts of China, for the last two thousand
years the farmers have been returning as much to the
land as they have taken from it; and the soil is now
more productive than it was when first brought into
cultivation. The problem of conservation and resto-

ration erf se>ils is nenv in America the most, serious one
the; agriculturist has te) solve.

Sometimes soils are; re;nele;re;el unfruitful by the
presence of delete-riems substances, as e>rganic aciels or
alkaline salts, or a superabundance of se>me one or
more of its usually useful ingredients, as water or
nitre>ge;nous compemnels. An e>xce>ss of nitrogen stimu-
lates the growth erf stalk anel straw at the e-xpe-nse of
grain, or in the orchard it tends to the; fetrmatiem of
wood rathe'r than to fruitfulness. The ae;ielity shoulei
be corrected by lime1, as noted abe)ve, the surplus water
removed by elrainagc, the nitre)ge;ne)iis matter reduced
by the production of such crops as are; not harmfully
aifect,e;el by its superabundance, such as forage crops
which are; prized for their foliage; rather than for their
seeds, while; the alkalinity may sometimes be overcome
by deep tillage*, irrigation or application of gypsum in
suitable amounts. J. p. ROHKKTB.

FERTILIZATION is the: fusion of sexually differ-
entiated cells, anel with spe;cial reference to the seed
plants it me;ans that a cell (a fertilized egg, or zygote)
is thus formed which is capable of developing into the
e-mbryonic plant later recognized in the plantlct of
the; se;ed. The fusing cells, or gametes, are (1) the; egg
(female cell), which is organized in the ovule, as
describee! below, and (2) a sperm-cell, or nucleus (male
cell), devele)pe;e! in the germi-
nating pollen-tube. Fertiliza-
tion is a process which may not
be reaelily observed in the se;eel-
plants except through the; use
of careful histological methods.
both m the fixation of material
and in the subsequent pro-
cesses of imbedding anel stain-
ing. The phenomena are illus-
trated in Figs. 1496-1497.

The term "fertilization" has
always implied the union of
male and female cells; but
formerly, when less was known
regarding the details erf the
phenomenon, " fertilization "
included the mere mechanical
process whereby pollen from
1495. A pollen-grain of tnc anther was transferreel by
Lilium philadelphicum . t to thc gti of thc

Section of a single gram ao' _ ynr *u:s ro,,Bon "fer-
before the anther opena; t, nowcr: J
the tube-cell; g. the genera- tllization by insects Or fer-

nv. ...|i. The large Bpheri- tilization by wind" — meaning

oul Ixxly in each cell in the ^i +___„(•„,. nc nnttan uv thoao
nucleus: ( Magnified 500 tnc transl l)v U" '

agencies — arc freouent expres-
sions in the work of Darwin
and Wallace. In this last-mentioned sense, the wore!
pollination is appropriate, and now commonly em-
ployesd. If the silks of corn are pollinated with corn
ix)llen, fertilization normally ensues and seeds are
produced; but if the corn-silks are pollinated by the
pollen e>f the lily, no seeds will be formed. It is obvious
that cross-pollination has no limits; but cross-fertiliza-
tion is limited to those cases in which the sexual cells
unite and a new organism develops.

The development of some structures essential in
fertilization are of interest in this connection. The
mature; pollen-grain consists of a large tube-cell and
nucleus and a small generative cell and nucleus. When
lodgeel upon a suitable stigma the pollen-grain germi-
nates by the development of a tube which enters the
loose; tissue of the stigma and grows further into the
conducting parts of the style. In some cases, definite
stylar canals are present, but usually the tube we;elge>s
itself between the yielding e;e:lls, absorbs nutrient in
its course, anel force;s or dissolves its way to the ovule;
or sceel-case, where, as a rule, it enters the micropyle
anel approaches the embryo-sac and egg-cell. In its

1222

FERTILIZATION

FERTILIZERS

course the pollen-tube is doubtless "directed" by the
distribution of food. Meanwhile, the generative
nucleus of the pollen-tube divides into two sperm
(male) nuclei, and these migrate to the growing end
of the tube.

With the formation and
opening of the flower, the
embryo-sac attains its devel-
opment. This structure is too
complex to require full treat-
ment here, but it is sufficient
to say that, when approaching
maturity, it consists of one
large cell containing eight
nuclei, four of which collect at
each end of the cell. One
nucleus from each end marches
to the center, and the fusion
which then commonly results
gives a nucleus the divisions
of which ultimately organize a
so-called food, or endosperm,
tissue, which may surround the
embryo when formed.

At the micropylar end of the
embryo-sac, another nucleus
organizes the egg-cell — a
prominent cell with consider-
able protoplasm — and the other
two degenerate or form the
subsidiary cells of an "egg ap-
paratus." The cells at the an-
tipodal end of the embryo-sac
are also of little present sig-
nificance. At about the time of
the maturity of the egg-cell
the tip of the pollen-tube
reaches and penetrates the wall

ft

3

V

1496. Outline of a pistil of
Lilium philaddphicum.

A lengthwise view of pistil of the embryo-sac, then dis-
almost through the center; solves and liberates the two

S'raingma haslbeeii lodged" ma^e nuclei- One of these fuses
The course of the pollen- with the egg-cell, and this is
tube, pt, is indicated by the important act under con-
sideration. The other sperm
nucleus often fuses with the
indicated by the arrows: /, endosperm nucleus, .but that

the stigma; 2, S, the style, Jr.™ nnf ofTWt thf> pharaptf>r<3
show the triangular canal aoes, BCt HJ^ cnaract

which leads into the three Of the embryo. The fusion of

chambers of 4, the ovary, in egg and male nucleus unites,
on the other hand, the charac-
ters of the ovule-bearing and
pollen-bearing plants in the
may proceed immediately to

B. M. DUGGAR.

, ,

broken line. At the right,
1,2, 3,4, are cross-sections
of the pistil at the levels

each chamber of which are

two rows of ovules. (Nat-
ural size.)

fertilized egg, which
develop the embryo.

FERTILIZERS. It is now well recognized that
shade trees, ornamental shrubs, small fruits, and
flowering perennials, as well as annual flowering and
foliage plants, are often as greatly benefited by the
use of proper fertilizers and manures as vegetables and
ordinary farm crops. There are, nevertheless, occa-
sional soils on which fruit trees, and shade trees in
particular, require little or no artificial fertilization or
manuring. For example, it was not found profitable
to fertilize apple trees at the Agricultural Experiment
Station in Geneva, New York, whereas at the Pennsyl-
vania Agricultural College the use of fertilizers was not
only strikingly helpful, but practically vital to success-
ful orcharding. Instances of such contrasts in con-
nection with trees and shrubs are always to be expected.
On this account the giving of rule-of-thumb directions
for fertilizing, in a work of reference which is designed
to be generally applicable to the entire United States, is
not only well nigh impossible, but may, if followed,
lead to the most unreasonable procedure on the part
of those not sufficiently conversant with their own

particular soil conditions. For this reason this dis-
cussion will be confined largely to the general principles
involved, since they not only fail to mislead the novice,
but may serve as a safe and rational basis for general
procedure for all.

Shade trees, ornamental trees and shrubs.

Because of the fact that trees have an extensive
root-system, and hence possess a wide feeding range,
they often stand less in need of artificial manuring
and fertilizing than certain shrubs, especially if the
la.tter have already been set for a long time.

It is to be presumed that most soils contain enough
iron and magnesia to meet the needs of trees and shrubs,
yet since these substances are just as essential to their
growth as any of the three so-called "essential elements,"
it is well to bear in mind that very rare cases may be
met with in which even iron or magnesia may be help-
ful. In this connection it may be mentioned that the
soil in a section of northern Michigan is said to con-
tain so little iron that certain farm animals, if fed exclu-
sively on the plants which grow there, cannot be
reared successfully. It has even been found that
manganese compounds are sometimes helpful to plants,
and if the supply of iron is insufficient, they aid in pro-
moting chlorophyl formation in the leaves, without
which the higher plants cannot exist.

Some soils are relatively deficient in magnesia as
compared with lime, and when such is the case, growth
is likely to be restricted until enough magnesia is
added to create a proper balance between the two. A
much more frequent lack, in soils of the humid regions,
is lime.

Unfortunately, an extended and systematic study of
the lime requirements of trees and shrubs has not yet
been made, although many valuable isolated observa-
tions are on record. It
would be of great value
if such experiments
were conducted on an
extensive scale. Such
experiments as were
made in this direction
in Rhode Island
showed, for example,
that the American
elm ( Ulmus americana)
and the basswood
(Tilia americana) were
both greatly helped by
liming when grown on
the very acid granitic
soil of that state.
From this it may be
inferred that benefit
from liming would also
follow on many of the
soils of the humid re-
gions which are derived
chiefly from granite
and from certain of
the sandstones, shales,
slates, gneisses, schists
and conglomerates.

The sugar or rock
maple was found to be
but little helped by
lime, even where the
elm and basswood

1497. Section of an ovule of

Lilium philadelphicum.
Cut lengthwise; i, i, inner integu-
ment, inclosing except at a narrow
orifice (micropyle) where the pollen-
tube, pt, enters the body of the ovule,
which is chiefly occupied by the large
embryo-sac with three nuclei, one
Showed Striking bene- much disorganized, e, the endosperm
fit. The common white nucleus, just being formed by fusion
u;-~u ^«J +~ K« °f two nuclei from the respective ends

birch seemed to be of the embryo-Sac. d\ male nucleus.
even less responsive to which has just migrated from pollen-
liming than the sugar tube and is about to fuse with 9 , the
1° egg nucleus. The synergidse, or "egg

, apparatus," have disappeared. (Mag-

The Use of much nified 670 diameters.)

FERTILIZERS

FERTILIZERS

1223

lime may sometimes interfere with the growth of the
Norway spruce. It is also unfavorable to at least
some of the pines. The effect of liming on certain of
these conifers is observable not only by way of its
lessening the growth of the tree, but also by its causing
a shortening of the needles.

The chestnut tree is reputed not to need liming, but
even to be seriously injured, if lime is used.

Among the flowering shrubs, general experience
points to the fact that lime should be avoided in con-
nection with the growth of the laurels, rhododendrons,
azaleas and the Ericace® generally. There is, however,
no doubt as to the benefit to be derived from the use
of lime in connection with many of the other ornamental
and flowering shrubs. Experiments by Hogenson
appear to show that sulfate of magnesia may some-
times be very helpful to certain shrubs which are
ordinarily injured by lime, although this work needs to
be extensively supplemented before being accepted as
a sure basis of procedure.

In general, the need of nitrogen for trees and shrubs
is indicated by insufficient limb and leaf growth,
although any other lacking essential ingredient may
ultimately have the same limiting effect.

Whenever trees or shrubs are being set in poor land,
it is well to work into the soil generous amounts of
ground, steamed bone or superphosphate. The latter
phosphate possesses, however, a very distinct advan-
tage for subsequent application, due to its high con-
tent of soluble phosphoric acid. Basic slag meal should
be avoided for those trees and shrubs likely to be
injured by lime, whereas for others it may be employed
at the time of planting. These materials may be used
when the trees or shrubs are set, if well mixed with the
soil, and from one to four pounds may be used for
a tree or shrub, according to their size.

High-grade sulfate of potash or muriate of potash
may be similarly worked into the soil at the rate of
half a pound to a pound a tree when potash is known
to be deficient, but even in such cases it is sometimes
advisable to withhold it until a year after setting, and
then make the application alone, in conjunction with
superphosphate, or in a complete fertilizer. Twice
as much double manure salt or four times as much
kainit is required to replace either the sulfate or the
muriate of potash.

If the growth is not satisfactory, after the trees or
shrubs have been set for some time, a complete fertilizer
containing from 2 to 4 per cent of ammonia, from suita-
ble sources, may be worked into the soil about the trees
or shrubs, or it may even be scattered on the surface
of the ground, in case the land is kept in grass.

Care should be taken to keep the fertilizer away
from the base of the trees or shrubs, and it should be
applied for at least a considerable distance beyond the
reach of the branches. For this purpose, quantities of
fertilizers, ranging from two to thirty-five pounds, may
be used for each tree, according to its kind, size and age,
although even for large shrubs, from two to six pounds
will usually be sufficient.

Just as the keen observation of the feeder is neces-
sary in the fattening of the animal, so also the judg-
ment of the experienced gardener is essential to the
proper gaging of the amounts of fertilizer for trees
and shrubs of all kinds.

Much is claimed, by those who have had experience
in renovating old trees, for the plan of making a large
number of holes under the tree, to a depth of 1 foot to
2 }/2 or 3 feet, and placing the fertilizer in these holes.
This procedure has much justification, owing to the
great "fixing" power of the soil, especially for phos-
phoric acid and potash salts which are otherwise pre-
vented from being quickly and readily carried down in
large quantities to points where the deeper roots can
immediately reach them. Even if fertilizer is employed
in this manner it is also well to apply some of it to the

surface, in order to insure an even lateral distribution
of at least a part of it.

Another drastic method of procedure in renovating
old trees is to trench around a part or the whole of the
tree, at a suitable distance from the trunk, to a depth
of several feet, and then fill the trenches with new soil
mixed with manure and a complete fertilizer contain-
ing slowly-acting phosphatic and nitrogenous materials,
and suitable amounts of potash salts. In such a case it
is a part of the plan to cut off many of the ends of the
old roots in order to make them branch and thus
increase their feeding capacity.

Apples and pears.

Apple trees, as a rule, respond to liming rather
better than pear trees; nevertheless, on very acid soils
there are several good reasons for liming even pear
trees. An occasional application of magnesian lime
may be desirable, but if used it should be alternated
with applications of purer lime.

On land known to be very rich naturally, or which
has been highly manured for a series of years, neither
fertilizer nor manure will be required for newly set
apple or pear trees, and in only exceptional cases
will they be needed, even for those just coming into
bearing. When such exceptional conditions do not exist,
it is usually a safer plan to fertilize the land with liberal
amounts of potash, phosphoric acid, and rather slowly
available sources of nitrogen, or else to employ such
small amounts of quickly available nitrogen as will
surely be used up before or by midsummer. If, on the
other hand, excessive amounts of farmyard manure or
nitrogenous fertilizers are applied, or if the application
is too long delayed, late growth is promoted, with the
result that the wood remains too soft. In such cases
cracking and other serious injury is likely to follow
during the winter season.

As a rule, the orchard may be used to advantage for
some years after the trees are set, for the growing of
quick-maturing crops, such as peas, early cabbages,
radishes, and potatoes, or even for tomatoes, melons,
or squashes. These crops may be well fertilized, and
many of the earlier ones can be followed in the late
summer by a cover-crop of crimson (scarlet) clover, or
hairy vetch. If the soil is already rich enough, or is
too rich, in nitrogen, barley or rye may be substituted
for the legumes. These cover-crops can then be plowed
under the next spring. Some growers even prefer weeds
to any of these cover-crops because of saving the outlay
for seed.

When the stage is passed in which extended cropping
between the trees is possible, and the burden of fruit
becomes great, especial care should be taken to apply
an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid annually,
and only enough nitrogen from legumes or fertilizers to
insure adequate foliage, satisfactory wood-growth, and
abundant fruit-spurs. For this purpose a suitably com-
pounded complete fertilizer may be employed. If
legumes are found to supply enough nitrogen one may
employ annually from 200 to 600 pounds an acre of
acid phosphate or basic slag meal, and from 50 to 400
pounds an acre of the muriate or high-grade sulfate
of potash. If the double manure salt is used as the
source of potash instead of the muriate or the high-
grade sulfate of potash, the total application should
amount to approximately twice as much an acre,
because of its lower potash content.

The nitrogen for the orchard may be supplied in one,
or, on light open soils, in two applications of nitrate
of soda at such a rate that the total application for a
season will not exceed from 100 to 300 pounds an acre,
dependent upon the slowness of the growth of the
trees. It is usually much simpler to make a single
application of a complete fertilizer, in which the nitro-
gen is present in nitrates, ammonium salts, soluble
organic compounds and in less quickly available

1224

FERTILIZERS

FERTILIZERS

organic forms, than to apply nitrates at two or more
different times. When such complete combinations
are used the danger of loss by leaching is greatly les-
sened and a satisfactorily continuous but properly
decreasing supply of nitrogen for the trees is assured.
The fertilizer application should not be made later
than just after the time the fruit has set. Many good
authorities even advise waiting until this time in order
to gage the application according to the probable
yield and requirement of the trees.

At the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, far better results were secured with double
manure salt (sulfate of potash and sulfate of magnesia)
than with muriate of potash, but in experiments else-
where the muriate of potash has given as good results
as the high-grade sulfate of potash. It is probable, in
view of the known lack of carbonate of lime in the
Massachusetts soil, that this rather serious deficiency
was responsible for the poorer results with muriate of
potash, for in soils elsewhere where the lime supply was
sufficient, muriate of potash has acted well. It is, of
course, possible that the magnesia of the double manure
salt was helpful in the Massachusetts experiments.
The results furnish, however, no positive evidence to
that effect, but indicate strongly that the chlorin of
the muriate of potash was probably injurious because
of a lack of carbonate of lime.

The idea that the proportion of the various fertilizer
ingredients affects the color of apples in a direct way
has little to support it. It is rather tenaciously claimed,
nevertheless, that basic slag meal has special value in
adding color to apples, but this may be due solely to
its adding a proper balance of mineral ingredients
which could perhaps be equally well supplied by other
phosphates. There is abundant evidence, however, that
over-fertilization with nitrogen leads to the develop-
ment of exceptionally heavy and abundant foliage;
and the excessive shading lessens the color of the
fruit. Direct exposure of the apple to the sunlight also
lessens its tendency to shrivel. This is due, probably
to its effect either on the proportion of the various
chemical constituents of the skin, or to its thickness,
by which evaporation of water is hindered. In order to
insure even distribution of the color on the individual
apples, severe thinning is essential, for otherwise one
apple will partially shade another.

In some European countries the fertilizer for orchards
is placed from 4 to 5 inches deep in holes 20 inches
apart, at the rate of about an ounce and a quarter a
hole. This method is, however, probably too expensive
to employ in this country, though it may be especially
effective for orchards which are in sod. If the work
were capable of being done by machinery or by some
suitable implement the method might possibly prove
of economic value.

Peaches.

Peach trees are less in need of lime than apple trees,
yet liming is nevertheless often desirable, even for its
indirect benefits. The fertilizer required for peaches
is much more than fof apples, for the reason that
the trees grow far more rapidly and bear early and
abundant crops. On poor soils generous fertilizing
must be provided from the outset, but if the land is
very rich or heavily manured, fertilizer may be omitted
for the first year or two. If a soil is very poor it should
receive at the outset from 300 to 500 pounds an acre
of a fertilizer containing a moderate amount of nitrogen
derived from appropriate materials, a fair quantity of
available phosphoric acid, and a generous amount of
potash in muriate of potash. On soils in which potash
is naturally very abundant, the supply can be greatly
lessened.

When the peach trees come into bearing, more nitro-
gen will be required than at the outset, and the total
quantity of fertilizer may then be increased one-half,

or even more than doubled. In the case of peach trees,
constant watchfulness is required to make sure that
neither too little nor too much nitrogen is used. An
excess of nitrogen will prevent proper ripening of the
fruit, and of the wood in the autumn, whereas too little
will mean abbreviated crops, loss of vigor, and at the
same time the lack will create conditions favorable to
disease. In any case, ample supplies of phosphoric
acid and of potash, as muriate, should be provided to
meet any possible need. If a little extra nitrogen is
required in the spring, it may be applied in nitrate
of soda, or, if the soil is properly limed, sulfate of
ammonia may be substituted for the nitrate of soda if
desired.

In case one wishes to stock the land with phosphoric
acid in advance, large applications of bone or basic
slag meal may be made, ranging from 400 to 1,000
pounds an acre of the former and from 500 to 1,200
pounds an acre of the latter. The old plan of heavily
stocking the soil and waiting a long time for the
returns is, however, giving way to the frequently more
economical plan of more nearly meeting the fertilizer
needs from year to year, instead of tying up a large
amount of money hi a long-tune investment.

Plums, cherries and apricots.

The plum and cherry, regardless of whether the latter
is a sour or sweet variety, are certainly far more in
need of liming than the peach, but data are not at hand
as to the relative requirements of the peach and apri-
cot. The fertilization of these fruits should not vary
widely from the treatment required for peaches, except-
ing that the quantity may be rather less, and the same
care should also be exercised not to use excessive
amounts of nitrogen.

Blackberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants.

The blackberry is especially at home on very acid
soils and a very light application of lime will meet all
possible requirements of the plants, if indeed it is
needed at all. The blackcap raspberry is more likely
to be helped by liming than the blackberry, although
it is well adapted to moderately acid soils. The Cuth-
bert raspberry is appreciably helped by liming on quite
acid soils, and the same is probably true of most or all
of the red and yellow varieties. The gooseberry and
currant, including the white and various red varieties
are greatly benefited by liming. As much as two to
four tons of ground limestone an acre, or its equiva-
lent of slacked lime, are often very helpful to these
plants. Raspberries, in particular, thrive well on a
heavy, freshly rotted sod, as for example, on old grass
land plowed the autumn before the plants are set. In
many cases all that is required on such land is to supply
an adequate mixture of an available phosphate and a
potash salt, but whenever the cane growth is weak and
unsatisfactory, or, when gooseberries and currant
bushes do not show satisfactory growth, a moderate
amount of complete fertilizer containing a fair amount
of nitrogen in gradually available forms is likely to be
beneficial. The use of heavy applications of nitrogen
for raspberries, currants and gooseberries is not advised,
for it will induce too great a growth of canes and foliage
and interfere with the maturing and ripening of the
fruit. The plants will also be rendered more readily
subject to mildew.

Strawberries.

The strawberry grows well on moderately acid to
very acid soils, and if lime is used the application should
be light, rarely exceeding 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of
ground limestone an acre.

An important point to be recognized by strawberry-
growers is, that weak plants are not likely to be heavy
bearers the next year. In consequence, the plants when
set should be supplied with a fertilizer reasonably

FERTILIZERS

FERTILIZERS

1225

rich in available nitrogen. This fertilizer should
usually be applied at the rate of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds
an acre at the time of setting, and in the later years
just after picking the crop of fruit, fertilizer may be
scattered in a furrow turned away from each side of
the bed, after which the furrow may be turned back
again. Early each spring fertilizer should be applied
broadcast over the beds. This should contain liberal
quantities of soluble phosphoric acid and potash but
only enough nitrogen to promote reasonable growth.
This nitrogen should, however, be largely in readily
soluble and available form. If too much nitrogen is
used in the spring the fruit will lack color, and it may
be soft and unsatisfactory, especially for distant ship-
ment. It may even be necessary to omit all nitrogen
in the spring, if the soil is exceptionally rich in humus
or has been well manured previously. This can only
be decided by the observant grower.

On many soils superphosphate is preferable to basic
slag meal as a source of phosphoric acid for straw-
berries, for the reason that too much lime is to be
avoided, and furthermore, the phosphoric acid is
largely soluble and better adapted to top-dressing. On
an exceedingly acid soil the use of basic slag meal may
be permissible for application at the time of setting,
for the action of the soil aids in rendering it available
to the plants.

Grapes.

Grapes may show some gain from the use of lime
under certain circumstances, but they do not require
it in even approximately the same degree as the cherry,
plum, currant, and gooseberry. The chief need of this
crop is available phosphoric acid and potash. If
nitrogen is used, the quantity must be carefully regu-
lated, and in Europe slow-acting forms of organic
nitrogen are in special favor. Basic slag meal or bone-
meal may be used as sources of phosphoric acid when
the grapes are set, but later, superphosphate is to be
preferred, especially if it is not most thoroughly worked
into the soil. Sulfate of potash is often considered
preferable to the muriate of potash for grapes, for it is
alleged to give a better quality of fruit.

Quinces.

The quince responds to liming in about the same
degree as the cherry and plum. It should receive enough
nitrogen to insure reasonable growth, but no more;
and on exhausted soils a moderate amount of available
phosphate and muriate or sulfate of potash will be
helpful.

Cranberries.

The cranberry thrives better at the outset, even on
certain very acid soils, than after its acidity has been
lessened by liming. If more nitrogen is needed than
that naturally available from the humus of the bog,
it is usually recommended that it be applied in small
quantities, as nitrate of soda or preferably as nitrate
of potash, provided the bog is already fairly dry and
is likely to remain so; but if wet, sulfate of ammonia
may be better The chief need of the cranberry vine
is usually phosphoric acid and potash. The phosphoric
acid for top-dressing may be in superphosphate, but
if applied just before the plants are set one may
employ bone-meal, or, if on very acid peat or muck
soil, even raw rock phosphate.

In case spring applications of fertilizer are made, it
must not be expected that they will always affect the
cranberry yield of that particular season as much as the
yield of the crop which follows. Such applications
should ordinarily be made after the water is drawn
off and the land has dried out to a reasonable extent.
It is often helpful to apply fertilizer just after the cran-
berry crop is harvested, but late spring applications
develop stronger vines for the next season.

Pineapples.

The requirements of the pineapple crop vary widely,
dependent upon the rainfall and soil conditions. Where
the winter season is likely to be fairly cold, nitrogenous
fertilizers should not be applied in the autumn, for
otherwise injury from frost may follow. Neverthe-
less, potash salts have sometimes been used at that
tune with good effect. On certain acid soils, liming is
necessary at fairly frequent intervals in order to bring
out the best effect of superphosphates. If lime is not
used, bone-meal or basic slag meal may sometimes be
preferable to superphosphate as sources of phosphoric
acid. From one and three-fourths to two tons of fer-
tilizer an acre, annually, have been recommended for
pineapples by the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Florida. It is said that the fertilizer should con-
tain 5 per cent of nitrogen, 4 per cent of available
phosphoric acid and 10 per cent of potash, in order to
meet the conditions in that state. During the first
year and a half the applications of fertilizer are made
four times a year, but after this period of time is passed,
the first application of the year is made either in Feb-
ruary or March, and the second after cutting the sum-
mer crop. It is obvious that this rule might require
modifications on other soil and also as influenced by
different climatic or other local conditions.

Table beets, mangels, sugar beets and Swiss chard.

These plants are among the vegetables most in need
of liming. Certain of them also have much greater
ability than the cabbage and turnip to appropriate
from the soil the required supply of phosphoric acid,
for beets have been found to yield fair crops where
cabbage plants, on account of a lack of available
phosphates, failed to develop salable heads.

These plants are able to profit to a considerable
extent, as concerns physiological functions, by the
soda of nitrate of soda, provided the supply of potash
is insufficient, yet it is unwise to limit the supply of
potash intentionally, in order to bring out this action,
for if this is done the net loss in crop due to insufficient
potash may more than offset the advantage of attempting
to make the soda fully effective.

All of these plants and many others take up, in vary-
ing degrees, considerable more mineral matter than is
represented by the sum of the minimum requirements,
as determined for each essential ingredient in the
presence of an abundance of all of the others. If, there-
fore, the fertilizer contains soda, it will be taken up in
considerable amounts by the plant to satisfy this "lux-
ury" or "excess" consumption in conjunction with
the potash physiologically necessary to the plant. Thus
the extra potash which would otherwise be taken up
to satisfy this excess in the mineral requirement is
conserved in the soil for future crops. The use of
nitrate of soda, therefore, as one of the ingredients of
a fertilizer for these crops, results in insuring the crop
against a shortage of potash and prevents the plants
from taking up an unnecessary excess of potash, pro-
vided an abundance is already present in the soil or is
supplied in the fertilizer.

In Europe, beets of all kinds, and especially mangels,
have been found to respond very favorably to nitrate
of soda in comparison with the results with sulfate of
ammonia, yet with certain cereals the yields, under
similar conditions, have been larger with the latter.
Notwithstanding this favorable action of nitrate of
soda on these crops, it is so subject to loss by leaching
that it is often better on very open soils to use it in
conjunction with several other forms of nitrogen,
rather than alone. This is especially true in conse-
quence of the frequent occurrence, in certain sections
of the country, of very sandy and gravelly soils and
especially in view of the long period of growth of the
chard, sugar-beets and mangels.

These crops all require generous supplies of nitro-

1226

FERTILIZERS

FERTILIZERS

gen, a fair amount of available phosphate, and high
percentages of potash. In the case of sugar-beets, if
grown for their sugar-content, the proper relationship
of these fertilizer ingredients to one another is of great
importance.

Cabbage, kale, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, turnips and
kohlrabi.

These crops are all remarkably helped by liming on
soils which are fairly acid. Liming, especially with
caustic or slaked lime, has a tendency to lessen the
development on these plants and on turnips, of the
disease known as "club-foot" and "finger-and-toe."

What has been said of the action of the soda of the
nitrate of soda, in connection with beets, is true also
to a considerable degree of these crops; nevertheless,
when the period of growth is long and the soil is either
a heavy silt or clay, or exceptionally open and sub-
ject to leaching, a combination of several sources of
nitrogen in the fertilizer, is usually preferable. The
reference to heavy silt and clay soils is made in con-
sideration of the fact that sodium carbonate is left as a
residual product after the plant has taken up the nitric
acid of the nitrate of soda; and this sodium carbonate
tends to deflocculate such soils and make them stiffer
and more difficult to work than before.

Heavy applications of nitrogen are required for all
these crops and some of them, as shown at Rothamsted
and elsewhere, are more dependent than beets upon
generous supplies of soluble and available phosphoric
acid. These plants require also large quantities of
potash.

The Swedish turnip, or rutabaga, usually responds to
liming rather more than the flat turnip, although lime
is often very helpful to the latter.

Several of these plants are especially dependent for
their quality on rapid growth; hence, the nitrogen
and phosphoric acid must be derived, to a large extent,
from readily available materials.

One or two experimenters in this country who have
grown turnips in pots and boxes claim to have found
that the turnip can utilize rather unavailable forms
of phosphoric acid, yet these results need further sub-
stantiation in the field before their final acceptance,
and in the light of the past field evidence, generous
fertilizing with soluble phosphates appears to be desir-
able. These plants, like the group described previously,
respond to liberal amounts of potash salts, yet these
salts seldom give very satisfactory results unless they
are used in conjunction with liberal amounts of super-
phosphate and nitrogenous fertilizers.

Carrots and chicory.

The carrot is less likely to show benefit from liming
than most root crops, and chicory is even subject to
injury by lime when carrots are slightly benefited.
Owing to their long period of growth the nitrogen
supply for these plants should not only include small
amounts of nitrates and ammonium salts, but also
soluble and insoluble organic nitrogen, in order that
some of the nitrogen may be continually at the dis-
posal of the plant throughout the growing season.
These plants are dependent upon reasonable supplies
of phpsphatic manures, and generous amounts of potash
are likewise highly essential. The carrot responds in
a less degree than mangels, to applications of soda.

Spinach, lettuce, endive and cress.

These plants are all likely to be greatly benefited by
liming, even on soils of moderate acidity. Because of
the fact that the quality and market value of these
plants depends upon their making a rapid growth,
large amounts of immediately available plant-food
are essential. Some of the nitrogen should be present
in the fertilizer in nitrates, some in ammonium salts
and some in quickly available organic forms. No

attempt should be made to economize unduly in the
use of readily available phosphates and potash salts,
for the reason that these crops must have ample sup-
plies of both. The growth of early lettuce, and of
spring spinach in particular, may often be pushed
forward with remarkable rapidity in the early spring
by the use of fertilizers containing generous amounts
of nitrates. In fact, these crops may be brought to
maturity by such means much faster than by the sole
employment of farmyard manure, especially if the
manure is poor in nitrogen and not thoroughly rotted.

Onions.

The onion will not thrive and mature properly on
highly acid soils which are extremely deficient in car-
bonate of lime. It is often possible, where fairly good
crops can still be grown without the use of lime,
nevertheless to hasten the maturity of the onion crop
from ten days to three weeks, by its employment. A
lack of lime is often one of the causes of thick necks
and of failure to ripen properly.

Since the onion crop is planted very early in the
season, and because of the consequent opportunities
for the loss of nitrogen if too large a part of it is
applied in nitrates, appropriate proportions of nitrogen
in ammonium salts and in suitable organic forms
should also be employed in order to insure an adequate
supply as needed.

Generous amounts of potash are required by these
crops and it is of vital importance to use for the onion
a large amount of superphosphate, because of the fact
that it, like lime, hastens the maturity and the proper
ripening of the crop. It is also equally important not to
use such a large amount of nitrogen as to make it
out of balance with the potash, and in particular with
the phosphoric acid, for if this is done growth will be
unduly prolonged, the onions will have thick necks,
and they will not ripen satisfactorily nor quickly.

Potatoes.

Fertilizers for potatoes must be very different
according to the section of the country in which they
are grown. For example, in the North, where the sea-
son is short, the nights cold, and where the crop must
be hurried along to the utmost, unusually large pro-
portions of nitrates and of ammonium salts are indis-
pensable, whereas in warmer regions, organic sources of
nitrogen may be employed more largely, or perhaps in
some favorable cases, they may be used exclusively.
The potato crop is in need of quite large quantities
of nitrogen, ranging usually from forty to ninety pounds
an acre.

The percentages of potash required in potato fer-
tilizers should be adjusted more particularly with
reference to the locality, and whereas in many of the
potato regions of New England 200 pounds of potash
(equivalent to 400 pounds of muriate of potash) are
considered necessary for each acre, the quantity could
be reduced to one-half or even less in certain portions
of the Middle West, or it might perhaps in some excep-
tional cases be omitted altogether.

For several reasons it is important to insure high
percentages of soluble and available phosphoric acid
in potato fertilizers, since it often becomes the limiting
factor in potato-production over large areas of the
United States.

The effect of the fertilizers may be somewhat nulli-
fied or intensified, according to the choice of seed. In
all cases, seed which has heated or which has been
exposed to frost, should be avoided. It has also been
shown at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Rhode
Island that, if other things are equal, seed tubers which
are rich in nitrogen will usually give larger crops than
those in which the nitrogen-content is low. The advan-
tage of the high nitrogen-content of the tuber becomes
magnified in case they are sprouted once or twice

FERTILIZERS

FERTILIZERS

1227

before planting. No amount of nitrogen applied in
the field appears to be able to offset finally and fully
the disadvantage of the tubers with the low nitrogen-
content. This doubtless explains the advantage of
early dug potatoes, for seed purposes, as compared
with those which are allowed to mature, for the former
are usually richer in nitrogen.

Asparagus.

Sandy soil is ideally adapted to the growing of aspara-
gus. Nevertheless, whenever it is intended to estab-
lish a plantation on land of this character, it is wise to
turn under considerable stable manure or else a heavy
leguminous crop such as hairy vetch. If this is done,
the general soil conditions are rendered much more
favorable and the asparagus has a better chance to
gain a good foothold. Wherever the land needs liming,
some lime should be plowed under and a further appli-
cation should be made on the surface after plowing.
The land should then be thoroughly harrowed or
otherwise tilled.

Fine ground bone and basic slag meal have been
used for asparagus very successfully when worked into
the soil at the outset, although the latter is rather better
adapted to it on account of the greater availability of
the phosphoric acid and the fact that it contains con-
siderable lime.

Some of the best growers of asparagus, on sandy
eoils, have found that muriate of potash is a better
source of potassium than the sulfate.

In humid regions fertilizers for asparagus should
contain a considerable amount of nitrogen in nitrates,
though other forms of nitrogen are also particularly to
be desired on light soils, such as those usually employed
for this crop, because of the danger of the loss of
nitrates by leaching. It is obvious that, for top-dress-
ing, superphosphate is preferable to any other form of
phosphoric acid, because of its greater solubility. An
ideal fertilizer for asparagus should contain super-
phosphate, potash salts, and high percentages of nitro-
gen, a part being derived from nitrates, some from
ammonium salts, and also some of it from organic
sources.

Sandy soils are likely to be very deficient in phos-
phoric acid; hence, the quantity of this ingredient
should be high. The fertilizer should likewise carry a
high percentage of potash on sandy soils, excepting
in regions in which it is known not to be needed.
Although potash is usually the least deficient element
in the sandy soils of humid regions, the demand of the
asparagus plant on this ingredient of fertilizers is so
great as to make its use profitable, whereas on other
sandy soils in semi-arid regions, potash might not be
required.

Mefaru.

On soils that are very acid, it is imperative to use
considerable quantities of lime for canteloupes and
muskmelons. Such soils will, nevertheless, produce
good crops of watermelons, even if liming is omitted,
and heavy liming with slaked or burned lime may,
in some cases, even decrease the yield.

Owing to the fact that these crops are generally
grown on light, gravelly or sandy soil, a fertilizer is
demanded for humid regions containing a fairly high
percentage of nitrogen. This should be represented by
nitrates, to a still greater extent by ammonium salts,
and a part should be from suitable organic sources.
It should also contain a high percentage of soluble
and immediately available phosphoric acid .and gen-
erous amounts of potash in order to bring the crop to
maturity as rapidly as possible. Plants of this character
which have an extensive amount of foliage, usually
require high percentages of potash. Special care should
be taken to keep the fertilizer from coming in contact
with the seed.

Squashes and pumpkins.

The common summer squash, as well as the Hubbard
and crookneck varieties, are less in need of liming than
canteloupes or muskmelons. Nevertheless, on very
acid soils liming is decidedly helpful. These crops are
all heavy feeders on nitrogen, a considerable part of
which should be in immediately available nitrates and
ammonium salts. Moderately high percentages of
soluble and available phosphoric acid are necessary,
although the summer squash, at least, responds much
less to phosphoric acid and more to potash than the
cereals and most other cultivated crops. On this
account, the percentage of potash in fertilizers for
squashes should be high, excepting, of course, where
the soils are already rich in available forms of this
ingredient.

Celery.

Celery is a crop that will thrive well on slightly acid
soils. Nevertheless, where the acidity is great, liming
is very beneficial. The quality of this crop depends
very largely upon its making a rapid and steady growth.
On this account a constant water-supply is one of the
most important features connected with its culture.
It is of the highest consequence that celery should
have a large supply of nitrogen embracing suitable
proportions of nitrate nitrogen, ammonium salts and
organic materials. Fair amounts of soluble and avail-
able phosphates are desirable, and on. the muck or
peat soils where this crop is frequently grown, espe-
cially large quantities of potash should be employed,
since this is the fertilizer ingredient which they lack
to the greatest extent. The form of potash usually
preferred on such soils is the muriate, although fre-
quently kainit is said to have given excellent results.
Either is perhaps preferable to the high-grade sulfate
of potash or to the double manure salt.

Cucumbers.

Cucumbers are considerably more in need of liming
than squashes. In other respects they should have
essentially the same fertilizer treatment. Great care
should be taken in connection with squashes and
pumpkins, as well as with cucumbers, not to allow the
seed to come in close contact with the fertilizer, or,
indeed, with soil into which large quantities of fertilizer
have been introduced. If fertilizer is used in the hill it
is well to have it thoroughly incorporated with the
soil. Subsequently, this soil should be covered with
fresh earth before the seeds are planted.

Tomatoes.

The tomato will grow quite well even on soils that
are distinctly acid. Nevertheless, moderate liming is
often helpful. When tomatoes are grown in green-
houses it has been found that very large quantities of
lime are helpful, by virtue of lessening the tendency to
certain diseases, but the necessity for it is less in the
field because of the lower temperatures and less humid
conditions.

In order to hasten the ripening of this crop, it is very
important to have large quantities of soluble and
available phosphoric acid, and abundant potash in the
fertilizer. One of the most important features is to
have the nitrogen supply so regulated as to bring about
at once a rapid and vigorous growth of the plants, but
the quantity must not be so great as to prolong the
growing period unduly, since this will prevent early
ripening; and it is a well-known fact that the early
fruit generally sells for a much higher price than that
which matures later. Furthermore, a large proportion
of the nitrogen should be present as nitrates and
ammonium salts which can be readily utilized. It is
also desirable to apply the entire amount at the time
when the plants are set, or, at least, very shortly after-
ward, for if successive applications are made at a later

1228

FESTUCA

date they will result in prolonging the growing period
and delay the ripening of the fruit.

Peas and beans.

Peas are usually much more helped by liming than
beans. The latter vary widely in their lime require-
ment as shown by the fact that on a soil so greatly in
need of lime that the Golden Wax and Low's Champion
(a green-podded variety) will scarcely produce half a
crop, the pole Horticultural bean is only slightly
benefited, and the lima bean is practically indifferent
to it.

Notwithstanding that these plants are capable of
assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, it is nevertheless
usually desirable, especially when they are grown to
be marketed in the green state, to employ a fertilizer
containing a small or moderate amount of readily
available nitrogen. This will aid in developing a root-
system until such a time as the plants can draw their
nitrogen supply to a considerable extent from the air.

Peas and beans also require moderate amounts of
potash and phosphoric acid, in fact much more than
would be the case if they did not grow so rapidly, and
hence reach the crop-producing stage in a short inter-
val of time. The common white field bean has been
found to require potash more than phosphoric acid,
under conditions in which the cereals and the common
farm crops showed a greater response to the latter.

H. J. WHEELER.

FERULA (old Latin name, perhaps from the verb
to strike; possibly the stems were anciently used as
ferules). Umbelliferae. GIANT FENNEL. Hardy strik-
ing herbs, prized for their spring and early summer
foliage.

Stout perennial glabrous usually glaucous thick-
rooted herbs, of perhaps 50 species in S. Eu., N. Afr.,
and W. Asia: Ivs. pinnately decompound, the ultimate
segms. filiform or small (rarely broadish and dentate) :
fls. small, in elevated compound many-radiate umbels;
petals broad, mostly ovate-acute, the point often
inflexed: fr. orbicular or ovate, piano-compressed,
membranous-bordered. — The giant fennels are valued
for the excessive fineness with which their foliage is cut,
and their clusters of perhaps 40-50 umbels of minute
yellow fls. borne on stout sts.. which rise far above the
foliage. In spring the masses of foliage are very
refreshing. The bold fl.-sts. make the plants useful
for bordering plantations and for stream sides. The
ferulas yield gum-ammoniac, galbanum and asafetida.
The genus is now held to include Narthex, Scorodosma
and Euryangium. These plants are not to be con-
founded with the true fennels, which belong in Fceni-
culum. Ferula is closely allied to Peucedanum. The
species are difficult to represent in herbaria, and they
are confused.

communis, Linn. COMMON GIANT FENNEL. Robust,
8-12 ft.: Ivs. light green, very numerous, forming a
fine mound or clump, the segms. linear-setaceous; lf.-
sheaths very large: fls. yellow; central umbel on a
branch nearly sessile, and the surrounding ones stalked
and mostly male. S. Eu. to Syria. — Presumably the
F. gigantea of trade lists belongs here, although F.
giganiea, Fedtsch., of Cent. Asia, is recognized botani-
cally.

Var. brevifdlia, Mariz. (F. brevifolia, Link. F.
Unkii, Webb & Berth. F. nodiflbra, Guss.). Ulti-
mate If.-segms. shorter than in the type. The gum-
ammoniac of Morocco comes from this plant. B.M.
8157. See history in Kew Bulletin, 1907, pp. 375-388.

tingitana, Linn. (F. sdncta, Boiss.). Robust, the st.
leafy below, paniculate-corymbose above: Ivs. triangu-
lar-ovate, quarternate pinnatisect, the segms. narrow-
oblong and cut: fls. orange, in globose umbels. N. Afr.
B.M. 7267. — Long supposed to be the source of gum-
ammoniac. Probably not in the trade.

glauca, Linn. (F. neapolitana, Tenore). Very tall
(to 14 ft.), branching: Ivs. large, pinnately decom-
pound; segms. flaccid and broad-linear, obtusish and
1-nerved, green above and glaucous beneath: bracts
at base of peduncles membranaceous, oblong, deciduous :
fls. yellow, in many umbels. S. France to Dalmatia.
G.C. III. 32:441, 442.

F. Assafoetida, Linn. (Assafcetida disgunensis, Kaempf. Scoro-
dosma foetidum, Bunge). St. 6-12 ft., very stout and much-
branched: Ivs. puberulous and minutely glandular or somewhat
tomentose, the radical ones large and ternatisect with segms. oblong-
lanceolate and obtuse: umbels on fleshy peduncles, 20-30-rayed,
the fls. yellow. S. W. Asia. G.C. III. 32:443. An evil-smelling
plant, one source of the drug asafetida. — F. Ndrthex, Boiss. (Narthex
Asafoetida, Falconer). St. 6-8 ft., with large sheaths: Ivs. pubescent
when young, 1-2 ft. long, ovate, the segms. either entire or
irregularly serrate. S. W. Asia. B.M. 5168. A source of asafetida.
A specimen described in G. F. 3, p. 523, required 16 years to attain

sufficient strength to bloom.

L. H. B.

FESTUCA (ancient Latin name for a kind of grass).
Graminese. FESCUE-GRASS. Annual or perennial grasses
grown for ornament or as pasture grasses.

Blades narrow: infl. few-fld., paniculate; spikelets
2- to several-fld.; lemmas firm, rounded on the back,
usually acute or awned from the tip. — Species about
100, in the temperate and cooler parts of the world.

A. Spikelets awnless: blades flat, 2-4 lines wide.

elatior, Linn. TALL or MEADOW FESCUE. One to
3 ft.: spikelets 5-8-fld., about ^in. long. G. 8:179.
Gn. 25, p. 428. — Frequently cult, as a meadow or pasture
grass. The form called F. pratensis is rather smaller
and has narrower panicles (Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost.
20:155), sometimes sold under the name Bromus
pratensis, meadow brome-grass. Eu.

AA. Spikelets awned: blades narrow involute.
B. Sts. loose and decumbent at base.

rubra, Linn. RED
FESCUE . One - half
to 2 ft. : base of sts.
usually red. Eu. — •
Occasionally used
in mixtures for pas-
tures.

BB. Sts. in close

erect tufts.

c. St.-blades flat, the basal
blades long and slender.
heterophylla, Lam.
VARIOUS - LEAVED FES-
CUE. Fig. 1498. One to
3 feet., slender: panicle
rather loose; spikelets
4-6-fld. Eu.— Cult, as a
lawn grass in shady
places.

cc. St.- and basal blades
involute.

ovina, Linn. SHEEP'S
FESCUE. Fig. 1499. Six
to 20 in.: panicle con-
tracted after flowering,
2-4 in. long. Eu. Dept.
Agric., Div. Agrost. 20:
281. — Sown in mixtures
for pastures.

glauca, Lam. (F. ovina
var. glauca, Hack.).
BLUE FESCUE. Resem-
bles F. ovina but has
silvery blue, or glaucous
foliage. Eu. — Used for
borders.

duriuscula, Linn. (F.
1498. Festuca heterophylla. ( X YZ) OlAna var. duriuscula,

FESTUCA

FICUS

1229

Koch). HARD FESCUE. Blades firm and comparatively
thick, 3^1inediam., often rough. Eu. — Pasture mixtures,
vaginata, Waldst. & Kit. (F. amethystina, Hort.,
not Linn.). Sheaths and panicles purplish: foliage
bluish: panicle 8 in. long. Eu. — Used for ornament.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

FETTICUS. Another name for Corn-Salad.
FEVER-BUSH: Benzoin.
FEVERFEW: Chrysanthemum Parlhenium.
FEVER-TREE: Pinckneya jiubens.
FEVERWORT: Triosteum.

FIBER PLANTS are treated only incidentally in this
work, and with particular reference to the horticultural
values of the groups to which they belong. See Cyclo.
Amer. Agric., Vol. II, p. 281.

FICUS (ancient Latin name). Moracex. The fig,
the India rubber plant, the banyan tree and the creep-
ing fig of conservatory walls belong to this vast and nat-
ural genus, which has over 600 species scattered through
the warmer regions of the world.

Ficus has no near ally of garden value. It is a genus
of trees or shrubs, often climbers, with milky juice. In
the common fig the Ivs. are deeply lobed, but in most
of the other species they are entire or else the margin
is wavy or has a few teeth or an occasional small lobe.
The Ivs. are nearly always alternate, F. hispida being
the only species of those described below which has
opposite Ivs. The foliage in Ficus varies from leathery
to membranous, and is variable in venation, so the
veins are very helpful in telling the species apart.
Ficus is monoecious or rarely dioecious, the apetalous
or sometimes naked minute fls. being borne inside a
hollow more or less closed receptacle ; stamens 1-3,
with short and united filaments ; pistillate fls. with 1-
celled sessile ovary, ripening into an achene that is
buried in the receptacle. What the horticulturist calls
the fig, or fruit, is the fleshy receptacle, while the fruit
of the botanist is the seed inside (Fig. 1500). In the
following account, fruit is used instead of receptacle.

The fertilization or caprification of the fig is one of
the most interesting and complicated chapters in nat-
ural history, and is of great practical importance. See
Fig, where the culture of F. Carica is discussed.

The most important ornamental plant in the genus
is the India rubber plant (F. elastica), which ranks
amongst the most popular foliage plants for home
use indoors. This is not the most important rubber-
producing plant, both Hevea brasiliensis and Castillo,
elastica being producers of more and finer rubber.

The creeping fig (F. pumila, better known as F.
repens or F. stipulata) is one of the commonest and best
climbers for covering conservatory walls. It clings close
and makes a dense mat of foliage, which is about as
dark in color as the English ivy. The plant has been
cultivated since 1771, but within the last half-century
has come to be recognized as the best plant for its special
purpose. Once in a long while it fruits in conservato-
ries, and the fruiting branches are very unlike the bar-
ren ones. They stand out from the conservatory wall
instead of lying flat and close. The leaves of the barren
branches are less than an inch long and heart-shaped,
with one side longer than the other at the base and a
very short petiole; the leaves of fruiting branches are 2
to 3 inches long, elliptic-oblong, narrowed at the base,
and with a petiole sometimes % inch long (Fig. 1501).

Among the many wonders of the genus Ficus are
the epiphytal habit of some, the huge spread of the
banyan tree (F. benghalensis) , and the fact that some
species ripen their fruits under ground. Some of the
tallest tropical trees are members of this genus, and
often they begin life by climbing upon other trees.
The ficus often overtops and outlives the other tree,

which may be seen in every stage of decay, or may have
entirely disappeared, leaving the giant climber twined
spirally around a great hollow cylinder. The banyan
tree sends down some of its branches (or aerial roots)
into the soil, these take root, make new trunks, and
eventually produce a great forest, in which it is impos-
sible to tell the original trunk. The banyan in the

botanic gardens at Cal-
cutta sprang from a seed
probably dropped by a
passing bird into the
crown of a date palm a
little more than a century
ago. The main trunk not
many years ago, was 42
feet in circumference, with
232 additional trunks,
many of them 8 to 10 feet
in circumference, and the
branches extend over an
area 850 feet in circum-
ference, forming a dense
evergreen canopy through
which sunlight never pene-
trates. The banyan under
which Alexander camped,
and which is said to have
sheltered 7,000 men, now
measures 2,000 ft. in cir-
cumference and has 3,000
trunks. Other species
have the same method of
propagation, but F. beng-
halensis is the most
famous.

The various species are
cultivated both indoors
northward and as shade
and fruit trees in Florida
and California. In this
country the most impor-
tant commercially is the
fig, Ficus Carica, now
widely grown in Califor-
nia. For the botanical
treatment of this difficult
genus recourse has been had to King's "The species of
the Indo-Malayan and Chinese countries" in Ann.
Bot. Gard. Calcutta 1 :185 pp. + 232 plates, 1888, and
wherever possible below reference is made to the
splendid illustrations of that work, thus, K. 130.=
King, plate 130. For the African species the recent
treatment of Mildbraed and Burret on Die afrika-
nischen Arten der Gattung Ficus. Engler's Bot. Jahrb.
46:163-269 (1911), has been consulted.

The cultivation of Ficus elastica. (H. A. Siebrecht.)

The rubber plant (Ficus elastica) which is known
all over this country, is perhaps the most popular and
satisfactory house plant that has ever been cultivated.
It is a plant for the million. Some florists have several
houses especially devoted to the propagation and culti-
vation of this tough and thrifty plant. There are also
thousands upon thousands of young plants or rooted
cuttings from thumb-pots imported into this country,
especially from Belgium and Holland, for marketing
every spring. It is estimated that from 80,000 to
100,000 rubber plants are sold in America in a single
year. There are several varieties of the rubber plant,
but the true Ficus elastica is the best, both for grow-
ing and for selling. It can be easily told from the
smaller-leaved variety, which is smaller and lighter
colored in all its parts, the stem being smoother, and
the sheath that covers the young leaves lacking the
brown tint, which often runs into a bright Indian red.

1499. Festuca ovina.

1230

FICUS

The method of propagating now popular in America
employs old bushy stock-plants, either in pots or tubs,
or planted out into a bed where the night temperature
can be kept from 60° to 75° F. As soon as the young
shoots are 5 to 6 inches long they are operated upon.
An incision is made at the place where it is intended to
root the young plant, cutting upward on a slant mid-
way between two eyes, making the cut anywhere from
1 to 2 inches long, according to the thickness and
length of the young shoot or branch. A small wedge,
as a piece of match, is then inserted to keep the cut
open. A large handful of clean, damp, well-prepared
moss is then placed around the branch to cover the
cut and is tied moderately firm with twine or raffia.
Some use a small piece of charcoal for a wedge in the
cut; others coat the two cuts with a mixture of char-
coal dust and lime. The latter practice is beneficial in
that it expedites the callusing of the cuts and the root-
ing of the young plant after being cut and mossed. The
moss should be kept constantly moist, and the higher
the temperature, within reasonable limits, the quicker
the rooting process goes on. The roots of the young
plant usually appear on the outside of the oval-shaped
bunch of moss. A complete cut can then be made below
the moss and the young plant potted. The smaller the
pot at first the better. The leaves of the young plants
should be tied up in order that they may not be injured
by coming in contact with one another or by lying
flat on the pots. The young plants now require a gentle
bottom heat and frequent syringing, — a dozen times on
clear days. As soon as the young plants are taken from
the stock-plant, a little wax should be put on the end of
the cut to prevent the milky sap from escaping. The
best time of the year to propagate and root ficus is from
the first of January to May. The European growers
never start much before the Christmas holidays; and
from then until spring they make all their cuttings.

The older method of propagating rubber plants is
Btill the favorite one abroad; it employs single-eye cut-
tings. Sometimes, if the branches
are very thick, only one-half the
stem is taken with the eye and a
single leaf, the leaf being curled up
and tied with raffia, and the small
piece with the eye set into the prop-
agating-bed. This is a bed of sharp
sand, or sometimes of sand and
chopped sphagnum moss or fine
cocoa-fiber. Frequently the single-
eye cuttings are put at once into the
smallest -sized thumb-pot, with a
mixture of very finely ground pot-
sherd and charcoal filling about one-
half the pot, and either soil or sand
for the remainder. A small stick is
used to hold the leaf upright. These
pots are plunged into the propaga-
ting-benches in either sand, moss
or fiber, and a steady bottom heat
of 75° to 80° is apph'ed and kept
up until the plants are rooted. As
a rule, such beds are inclosed in a
glasshouse, in order to keep about
them a close, warm and moist at-
mosphere. Only ventilation enough
to permit the moisture caused by
the evaporation to escape is allowed
on these beds. In this country, propagation by the first
described method can be continued nearly all the
year round. From experience of both methods, the
writer can say that the top-cutting and mossing pro-
cess is better by far, especially where plenty of stock
plants can be maintained.

After being shifted from the smaller-sized pots into
3- or 4-inch pots, the young plants will stand a great
deal of liquid manure as soon as they are rooted through

1500. Young figs.
Showing how they
arise from the axis
of the leaves.

or become somewhat pot-bound. Many propagators
plant out the young plants from 3- and 4-inch pots into
coklframes after the middle of May, or when all danger
of night frost is past. They do very well in the bright,
hot, open sun, but must receive plenty of water. After
being planted out in frames, they should be potted not
later than September, and for early marketing as early
as August. The plan of planting out and potting in
the later part of summer or early autumn is a very prac-
ticable one, as the plants do not suffer so much from the
severe heat during the summer.

altissima, 28.
aurea, 12, 30.
australis, 26.
Barter!, 9.
Bellinger!, 27.
benghalensis, 32.
Benjamina, 13.
brevifolia, 16.
Carica, 1.
comosa, 13.
Cunninghamii, 23.
diversifolia, 18.
Duvivieri, 12.
elastica, 12, 26.
erecta, 17.
glabella, 15.

glomerata, 25.
heterophylla, 11.
hispida, 6.
humilis, 11.
indica, 31.
infectoria, 22.
Krishnse, 8.
lutescens, 18.
macrocarpa, 3.
macrophylla, 19.
minima, 4.
nitida, 29.
opposite folia, 6.
Palmeri, 21.
pandurata, 10.

Parcellii, 7.
populnea, 16.
Pseudo-Carica, 2.
pumila, 4.
quercifolia, 11.
radicans, 5.
religiosa, 14.
repens, 4.
retusa, 29.
Roxburghii, 24.
rubiginosa, 26.
Sieboldii, 17.
stipulata, 4.
variegata, 5, 12.
villosa, 20.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Fr. large, edible: Ivs. deeply lobed, decid-
uous for at least 5 months: plants almost
hardy from N. Y. southward.

B. Lrs. wavy-margined or lobed 1.

BB. Lvs. deeply lobed: fr. roughish 2.

AA. Fr. not usually edible, at least not as the
fig is edible: Ivs. entire or toothed, but not
deeply lobed and not deciduous for such a
long time: plants, with exception of F.
macrophylla, not hardy, and cult, in green-
houses or outdoors in frostless areas of
Fla. and Calif.
B. Habit climbing or trailing, often clinging

to walls,
c. Plant a climbing shrub or tree: Ivs.

about 5 in. long 3.

cc. Plant a creeping vine: hs. less than 4 in.

long.
D. Lrs. unequally heart-shaped at base... 4.

DD. Lvs. only slightly notched at base 5.

BB. Habit erect or straggling, shrubs or trees;
not climbing or trailing.

c. Lvs. usually opposite 6.

cc. Lvs. always alternate.

D. Foliage variegated 7.

DD. Foliage not variegated, except in a
variety of F. elastica.

E. The Ivs. cup-shaped 8.

EE. The Ivs. not cup-shaped.

F. Length of Ivs. more than 4 times

the breadth 9.

FF. Length of Ivs. less than 3 times

the breadth.
Q. Form of Ivs. fiddle-shaped or

banjo-shaped, very large 10.

GG. Form of Ivs. not as above.

H. Lvs. lobed, much as in the

native oaks: a shrub 11.

HH. Lvs. not so lobed.

I. Primary lateral nerves more
than 8 pairs, usually much
more.
j. The primary lateral nerves

50 pairs or more 12.

K. Sheath rosy, showy: Ivs.

4-12 in. long 13.

KK. Sheath inconspicuous: Ivs.

2-4% in. long.
33. The primary lateral nerves

less than 50 pairs.
K. Color of fr. purplish.
L. Tree 100 ft. or less: Ivs.

very long-acuminate. . . . 14.
LL. Tree small: Ivs. short -

acuminate 15.

KK. Color of fr. not purplish.

Carica
Pseudp-
[Carica

macro-

icarpa

pumila
radicans

hispida
Parcellii

Krishnse
Barteri

pandu-

(rata

querci-
[folia

elastica

Benja-
[mina

religiosa
glabella

FICUS

FICUS

1231

L. Fr. globose and stalked. .16.
LL. Fr. if stalked, pear-shaped,

often nearly sessile 17.

n. Primary lateral nerves less

than 8 pairs.

3. The primary veins dis-
tinctly bifurcating .18.

jj. The primary veins not bi-
furcating
K. Stipular sheaths large and

showy, rosy 19.

K.K. Stipular sheaths not large

and showy.

L. Whole plant brown-hairy. 20.
LL. Whole plant not brown-
hairy: Ivs. often hairy
or villous.

M. Frs. white or whitish.
N. Young Ivs. densely
woolly beneath; ma-
ture Ivs. not abruptly

acuminate 21.

NN. Young Ivs. not densely
woolly; mature Ivs.
abruptly acuminate . 22.
23.

MM. Frs. red or yellowish.
N. The frs. on scaly leaf-
less branches.
o. Lvs. almost orbic-
ular 24.

oo. Lvs. ovate to ovate-
lanceolate 25.

NN. The frs. sessile or

short-stalked.
o. Young Ivs. woolly or

rusty.

p. Lvs. cordate at base.
Q. Diam. offr. about

y2in 26.

QQ. Diam. offr. 1 %-

!Y2in 27.

pp. Lvs. not cordate at

base 28.

oo. Young Ivs. not woolly

or rusty.

p. Base of Ivs. nar-
rowed.

Q. Stipules glabrous.
R. Lvs. 2-4 in.
long: fr. yellow
or reddish .... 29.
HR. Lvs. 3-414 in.
long: fr.
or a nge-yellow . 30 .
QQ. Stipules not gla-
brous 31.

pp. Base of Ivs.

rounded 32.

brevi-

[folia
erecta

diversi-
[folia

macro-
[phylla

villosa

Palmeri

[toria
infec-
Cunning-

[hamii

Rox-

[burghii
glomer-
[ata

rubigi-

[nosa
Bellin-

[geri
altissima

retusa

globose, in cauline clusters. India. K. 208. — This name
was once advertised as a shrub with leathery Ivs. The
true species is a climbing shrub.

4. pfcmila, Linn. (F. stipulata, Thunb. F. repens,
Hort., not Rottl.). CREEPING FIG. Fig. 1501. Pros-
trate or climbing shrub, clinging close to conserva-
tory walls and then flattened: Ivs. more or less 2-ranked,
on very short petioles, ovate, obtuse, entire or slightly
wavy, rounded or cordate at the base, often un-
equally; veins prominent below. Japan, China,

aurea
indica

benghal-
[ensis

1. Carica, Linn. Figs. 1500, 1505, 1506. Height
15-30 ft.: Ivs. 3-5-lobed, the lobes more or less wavy-
margined or lobed, and with palmate veins, whereas
nearly all species mentioned below are pinnately
veined: fr. single, axillary, pear-shaped. Supposed to
be a native of Caria, in Asia Minor. — Makes a fine
pot-plant, and fruits freely in northern conservatories.
For cult, see Fig.

2. Pseftdo-Carica, Miq. Resembling the fig of com-
merce, but the Ivs. more deeply cut than in F. Carica,
3- or sometimes 5-nerved: fr. axillary, round, roughish.
Abyssinia. — Franceschi says of the Calif, cult, specimens
"fr. said to contain very much sugar, but so far (1914)
it has never come to perfection in Calif., where, how-
ever, it is now attracting considerable attention, it
having proved to be the very best home for. . . .
small wasps ( Blastophaga) which are indispensable
for the fertilization of the so-called 'Smyrna figs'."

3. macrocarpa, Wight. Becomes a large, climbing
shrub, very rarely a small tree: Ivs. 5 in. long, mem-
branous, broadly ovate; petiole 2-2^ in. long; primary
lateral nerves about 3 pairs: fr. 1-2 ^ in. thick, spotted,

1501. Ficus pumila, fruiting branch.

Austral. B.M.6657. R.H. 1891:448. K. 158. G.C. II.
14:560, 561, 717. H.U. 4, p. 359 (the last two as F.
stipidata) . Var. minima (F. minima, Hort.) has smaller
Ivs. The species is sometimes used for hanging-
baskets.

5. radicans, Desf . Garden plant, with green, oblong-
acuminate Ivs. and trailing habit. Imperfectly known.
Habitat unknown. Var. yariegata, Hort. W. Bull., has
Ivs. irregularly marked with creamy white, the variega-
tion beginning at the margin. G.C. III. 22:185. A.G.
19:527. R.B. 28:37.— Useful for hanging-baskets.
Intro. 1897.

6. hispida, Linn. f. (F. oppositifolia, Willd.). Shrub
or small tree, all the parts mostly hispid-pubescent:
Ivs. entire or toothed, opposite, rough-hairy: fr. clus-
tered on old wood or leafy branches, hispid, yellowish.
Asia, Trop. Austral. K. 154, 155. — Scarcely cult, in
Amer. outside of botanic gardens.

7. Parcellii, Veitch. Lvs. thin, membranous, light
green, mottled with cream-white, more or less in the
manner of mosaic, oblong-oval, acuminate, dentate.
Islands of Pacific. F.S. 22:2273. F.M. 1874:124.
A.F. 29:1290. G.C. III. 35:13.— Intro, by Veitch
about 1874. A warmhouse shrubby plant; probably the
most popular of the variegated forms of Ficus. Readily
prop, by cuttings of half-ripened wood placed in sand
in brisk bottom heat. Also cult, in S. Calif., where it
bears tricolored fr.

8. Krishnae, DC. KRISHNA BOR. Small tree with
gray bark, the branches puberulent: Ivs. cup-shaped,
the limb of the cup containing the mid-rib, with 4-5
pairs of lateral nerves: fr. axillary, sessile, solitary or
sometimes in pairs, yellow, about J^in. diam. India.
B.M. 8092, where there is also an account of the super-
stitions in regard to the tree among the Indians. — The
large showy and extraordinarily cupped Ivs. of this
most distinct fig will undoubtedly make it popular.
Little known as yet in U. S.

9. Bdrteri, Sprague. A shrub or small tree 6-25 ft.
tall in nature, lower in cult., smooth, with thick ridged
branches: Ivs. petiolate, the blade the narrowest of
almost all the figs, 6-14 in. long, and less than 1% in.
wide, bright green above, paler beneath ; primary lateral

1232

FICUS

FICUS

nerves 16-18 pairs: frs. in axillary clusters of 2-3,
almost round, orange-colored when mature, and edible.
S. Nigeria. — Little known in U. S. as yet, but worthy
of cult.

10. pandurata, Hort., not Hance, which is an acumi-
nate-lvd. Chinese fig, apparently not in cult. A showy
shrub or tree with distinctive fiddle-shaped or banjo-
shaped Ivs. frequently a foot long, decidedly emarginate
at the apex, cordate at the narrowed base, dark glossy
green, the prominent nerves whitish: fr. unknown.
G. 28:682. G.C. III. 33: 284. Gng. 16:34. Gn. M.
8:268. A.F. 23:239; 26:203.— A showy stove fig now
widely grown. Intro, in 1903.

11. quercifdlia, Roxbg. The oak-lvd. form is the
typical one, but King includes F. humilis, Roxbg., in
which the Ivs. are serrate or nearly entire and not
lobed. 'Lvs. 2-5 in. long, "thickly membranous;"

nerves 5-7 pairs; petiole
Kyi in. long: fr. in axillary
pairs, egg- or pea-shaped.
Burma, Malaya, where it is
a shrub. L.B.C. 16:1540.
K. 95. (The plant fruit-
ing soon after importa-
tion, when 2 ft. high.) —
Advertised in 1895, and
grown for years at the
Montaripso Nurseries. Voss
refers this, with many other
synonyms, to F. hetero-
phylla.

12. elfistica, Roxbg. (F.
Duvivieri, Hort., a form with
thinner Ivs.; otherwise the
same) . INDIA RUBBER
PLANT. Figs. 1502, 1503.
Lvs. 4-12 in. long, shining,
leathery, oblong to elliptic,
with an abrupt, dull point;
nerves parallel, running at
nearly right angles from
midrib to margin: fr. in
pairs, sessile, in axils of
fallen Ivs., covered at first
by a hodded involucre,
when ripe greenish yellow,
Kin. long. Damp forests
of Trop. Asia. G.F. 2:547.
H.U. 6, p. 108. K. 54.—
Becomes 100 ft. high in
tropics, but becomes un-
sightly under glass at 8 or
10 ft. Cult, plants mostly
have a single st., but there
is a growing demand for
compact and branching
plants. Var. variegata (var. aitrea, Hort.) is much
less popular. Lvs. creamy white or yellow near the
edges. Liable to fungous diseases. This species is also
grown S. as a shade tree. The nervation is very
characteristic. So, also, is the handsome rosy sheath
which incloses the young Ivs., and which soon drops
off. This is regarded as a stipule of exceptionally
great size.

13. Benjamina, Linn. A rather unimportant tree
horticulturally, with small Ivs., and smooth throughout:
Ivs. thin, not much coriaceous, shining, ovate-elliptic,
entire, the apex sharply acuminate, 2-4 K in. long;
lateral primary nerves very numerous, freely inter-
mingling near the margins of the Ivs.: frs. in pairs,
axillary and sessile, smooth and blood-red when ripe.
Malayan Penins. K. 52, S3h, Var. comosa, Kurz.
Fig. 1504. Sepals lanceolate-acuminate rather than
spatulate: fr. % in. diam., narrowed at base rather
than globose or ovoid.

1502. Leaf of rubber plant,
Ficus elastica, showing vena-
tion.

14. religiosa, Linn. PEEPUL TREE of the Hindoos.
Lvs. ovate-rotund, at the apex produced into a long,
linear-lanceolate tail-like appendage; petiole 3-4 in.
long; stipules minute: fr. in axillary pairs, sessile, dark
purple, Kin. thick. India. Gn. 1, p. 435. K. 67a. —
Grows 100 ft. high, and the lys., suspended on their
long, flexible petioles, rustle in the slightest breeze.
"Quite hardy in S. Calif, but not attaining very large
size. " — Franceschi.

15. glabella, Blume. A small tree, ultimately glabrous
throughout: Ivs. petioled, thin, not very leathery,
obovate-oblong, acuminate, entire, 2-4 in. long, 3-
nerved, and with 8-^10 pairs of primary lateral nerves:
fr. all lateral, sometimes axillary, usually not so, sessile,
or very rarely stalked in cult, specimens, dark purplish,
sometimes with yellow dots, less than Kin. diam.
Malaya Penins. K. 60.

16. brevifdlia, Nutt. (F. populnea, Willd.). An ever-
green tree, sometimes epiphytic in nature, 10-30 ft.:
Ivs. thin and only slightly leathery, ovate or rarely
obovate, 1K~4 in. long, acute at the apex, broad at the
base; primary lateral nerves 14-16 pairs: fr. distinctly
stalked, yellow when young, ultimately bright red,
about Kin. diam., and nearly globose. Fla. — Of little
value horticultu-
rally, except for the

frs.

17. erecta,Thunb.
Extraordinarily va-
riable: shrub to
small tree, gla-
brous, pubescent, or
almost strigose: Ivs.
broadly ovate, obo-
vate or elliptic
(lanceolate in var.
Sieboldii), entire or
with here and there
a lobe, or rather
coarsely dentate
above the middle:
fr. single or in pairs,
peduncled or sub-
sessile, and either
globose and not
stalked or pear-
shaped and long-
stalked. Himalayas,
China, Japan. B.
M. 7550 (where the
Ivs. look rather
leathery ). K. 178.—
Procurable through
dealers in Japanese
plants.

18. diversifdlia, Blume (F. lutescens, Hort.). MIS-
TLETOE FIG. A smooth shrub or small tree with short-
stalked or sessile Ivs. : Ivs. broadly obovate, the much-
narrowed base glandular, 1-3 in. long, midrib branched
once or twice, glandular at the joints: fr. axillary, soli-
tary, or rarely in pairs, always stalked, dull yellow or red-
dish when ripe. India and Malay Penins. R.B. 30:156.
K. 174. — The small Ivs. and usually solitary fr. suggest
the mistletoe, and in nature the plant is often an epiphyte.

19. macrophylla, Desf. MORETON BAY FIG. Lvs.
6-10 in. long, 3-4 in. wide; stipules 2-4 in. long: fr.
nearly globular, 9-12 lines thick, axillary, in 3's or 4's,
on short, thick peduncles. Austral. — Much planted in
S. and Cent. Calif., where, however, it does not perfect
seed. F. yon Mueller says it is perhaps the grandest
of Australian avenue trees. Ernest Brauntpn claims
for this species partial or perhaps complete immunity
from frost. He cites a specimen in Calif, which leaved
out after a heavy frost and is still (1914) healthy after
more than a year has elapsed since the frost.

1503. Ficus elastica, the rubber plant
of florists.

FICUS

FICUS

1233

20. villosa, Blume. A straggling shrub, the whole
plant brown-hairy: Ivs. thick and leathery, petioled,
oblong-ovate, sharply acuminate, the base cordate,
3-5-nerved at the base, the primary lateral nerves 5-6
pairs, 5-6 in. long: fr. short-stalked, in axillary clusters.
Malaya. K. 172. — A good stove climber, but little
known in Amer.

21. Palmeri, Wats. Tree, 8-12 ft. high, branching
near the ground: Ivs. 3 in. long, 2-23/2 m- wide; petiole
1 in. long: fr. in pairs, axillary, globose, J/£in. thick,
white, according to Franceschi needing much heat to
develop. Discovered on San Pedro Martin IsL, N. W.
Mex., 1887. — Perhaps the best adapted to severely hot
and dry places. Franceschi says it attains 30 ft.

22. infectdria, Roxbg. A low tree, all the parts
smooth; often deciduous for some weeks at a time:
Ivs. 33^5 in. long; nerves 5-7 pairs, not prominent:
fr. in axillary pairs, sessile, globose, %'m. thick, whitish,
flushed and dotted. Trop. Asia, Malaya. K. 76-79.
— Grows 60 ft. high, and is one of the best shade trees.

23. Cunninghamii, Miq. A large
tree, resembling F. infectoria and
differing only in the form and acumi-
nation of the If. from that species:
in F. infectoria the primary lateral
nerves are easily detected; in F.
Cunninghamii they are fine and so
much intermingled as to be almost
indistinguishable. Austral. — Recom-
mended as a shade tree for extreme
S. Fla. by Rea-
soner Bros. Cult.
in temperate
house north-
ward. Decidu-
ous for several
months each
year.

24.R6xburghii,

Wall. A low tree,
10-20 ft.: Ivs.
broadly-ovate or
rounded, 5-15 in. long,
4J^-12 in. broad, some-
times cordate at the
base; primary lateral
nerves 5-7 pairs, promi-
nent on both sides :fr. 2 in. diam.
on short leafless cauline branch-
lets, reddish. India. K. 211. —
The Ivs. are frequently almost
orbicular; very ornamental.

25. glomerata, Roxbg. CLUSTER FIG. Lvs. 4-7 in.
long; nerves 4—6 pairs: fr. clustered on leafless, scaly
branches, pear- or top-shaped, 1J^ in. thick, reddish.
India, Burma. K. 218, 219. — "A quick-growing, ever-
green shade tree." — Reasoner. "A dense shade tree:
Ivs. have a peculiar metallic luster and are deciduous
for a short time at the end of winter: small frs., much
relished by cattle and children but dry and woody."
— Franceschi.

26. rubigindsa, Desf. (F. australis, Wllld.). Lvs.
leathery, rounded or cordate at base, notched at tip: fr.
mostly in pairs, globular, 5-6 lines thick, usually warty.
Austral., where it throws out aerial roots like the
banyan tree. B.M. 2939. — The rusty color is a beauti-
ful feature. Voss considers this a form of F. elastica.

27. Bellingeri, C. Moore. Tall glabrous tree: Ivs.
ovate, sharp-pointed, leathery, 5-6 in. long, dark green
and shining above, light green and paler underneath;
petioles 2-3 in. long: fr. !%-!% in. diam., marked with
small scattered warts. New S. Wales. — According to
Franceschi it grows faster than F. rubiginosa, its near-
est relative. Rare in cult., but advertised in 1914.

79

1504. Ficus

Benjamina var.
comosa.

28. altissima, Blume. A tall tree with only a few
aerial roots, when mature wholly glabrous: Ivs. petio-
late, thick and leathery, broadly ovate, sometimes
inequilateral, but not cordate, shining, 3-5-nerved and
with 5-6 pairs of lateral primary nerves, 4-7 in. long:
fr. axillary, sessile, in pairs, yellowish when ripe. India.
K. 30, 30a. — Said by an American dealer to resemble
F. pandurata, but this must be an error. Franceschi
says it is taller-growing and finer than F. elastica.

29. retfisa, Linn. (F. nitida, Thunb., and Hort., not
Blume). Lvs. 2-4 in. long; nerves 5 or 6 pairs; petiole
3-6 lines long: fr. sessile, in pairs, axillary, 4 lines thick,
yellow or reddish. Trop. Asia, Malaya. K. 61, 62. —
A large evergreen tree with a few aerial roots.

30. aftrea, Nutt. Branches pale, smooth, furrowed:
Ivs. 3-4 in. long, smooth, oblong, entire, narrowed but
obtuse at each end, stout-petioled : fr. orange-yellow,
globose, 4 lines thick. S. Fla. — Reasoner . say s it is a
handsome decorative plant for the florist, and that it
grows 60 ft. high. Chapman describes it as a small
tree; he says nothing about stipules. Too tender for
outdoor cult, in S. Calif .

31. indica, Linn. Not the banyan tree. Glabrous
throughout, except stipules: Ivs. 4-7 in. long; nerves
about 4r-6 pairs, not very prominent; petiole 4-12 lines
long; stipules 6-9 lines long: fr. in crowded pairs, ses-
sile, globose, smooth, yellowish red, 4 lines thick. Trop.
Asia, Malaya. K. 45. — This species is greatly confused
in botanical literature with F. benghalensis, but F.
indica does not take root from its branches, as does the
banyan tree. In recent writings, F. indica is often given
as a synonym of F. benghalensis, but the distinctions
here given are those made by King, in Flora Brit.
India 5:499 (1890). Tree grows 50 ft. high.

32. benghalensis, Linn. BANYAN TREE. Also written
bengalensis. Young parts softly pubescent: nerves
prominent; petiole 6-18 lines long; stipules 9-12 lines
long: fr. in pairs, sessile, globose, puberulous, red,
about the size of a small cherry. Trop. Air., India. —
A tree, 70-100 ft. high, rooting from the branches, thus
forming accessory trunks and extending the growth of
the tree indefinitely. For an explanation of the confu-
sion between F. benghalensis and F. indica, see Hooker's
Flora Brit. India 5:499, 500. K. 13.— There are vigor-
ous specimens growing outdoors at Miami, Fla.

F. Afzelii, Don, is a plant from S. Afr., never described by Don.
The plant in the trade is said to be F. eriobotroides. Once adver-
tised for indoor ornament. — F. carndsa, Hort. Advertised 1895 for
indoors. — F. Chauvierii, Hort. In Eu. this is said to be second only
to F. elastica. Franceschi says it has broader and more oval Ivs.,
large red figs, not edible, and comes from New Caledonia, where it
attains 60 ft. J. D. Eisele says that it has oval Ivs. with creamy
white veins, is strong-growing, and "should be valuable for sub-
tropical gardening.' The name is unknown in botanical literature.
A plant cult, at N. Y. Bot. Card, as this species has orange fr. — F.
Codperi, Hort., is cult, indoors from Trop. Amer. Advertised 1895.
The name is unknown in botanical literature. G. 1:757. — F.
Dryepondtia, Hort., is a striking shrub with long-stalked Ivs. that
are silvery green above and dark purple beneath. Probably not a
Ficus. R. B. 32, p. 85. Said to be a native of Afr. — F. eetveldiana,
Hort., is a species "with large broadly oval Ivs. and with the veins
and nerves colored," something as in Caladium. The name is
unknown in botanical literature. G.C. III. 28:303. — F. eriobotroi-
des, Kunth & Bouchg. Habitat unknown. See F. Afzelii. — F. fal-
c&ta, Miq., is cult, but not advertised. A creeper, with Ivs. often
of 2 forms, leathery, tesselately dotted and colored beneath. It is
a form of F. punctata, with Ivs. oblong or subrhomboid, obtuse,
not tapering below. India. — F. Lucidnii, Hort., "has large Ivs."
Intro. 1900. Otherwise unknown. — F. liicida, Dry. From India,
but not described in Flora of British India. Advertised 1893 for
indoors. — F. maculata. Linn., described by Franceschi (1914) as
with Ivs. "large, oval, light green, not glossy. Cochin-China."
must be some other plant than the true F. maculata, which is a
serrate-lvd. fig from Santo Domingo. — F. nemoralis, Wall., is a
"small tree or bush" with smooth, petioled Ivs. which are 3-nerved
and dark-colored beneath: fr. smooth axillary, about Min. diam.
India. K. 206, 207. — There are many forms. — F. princeps, Kunth
& Bouch6. Brazil. Cult, by Franceschi, who says it grows 60 ft.
high and has magnificent foliage, which is bronze and copper-col-
ored when young. — F. pyrifdlia may be F. Benjamina, F. erecta,
F. Fontanesii, or F. rubra. The name is advertised by Yokohama
Nursery Co., who also advertise F. erecta. — F. rugdsa is a trade
name for some fig as yet undeterminable. The true F. rugosa,
Don, is perhaps a Trop. African species, but was not character-
ized by Don, and the status of the name is uncertain. — F. Syco-

1234

FICUS

FIG

morus, Linn. (Sycomorus antiquorum, Gasp.), is a tree with peti-
oled, ovate, entire 8-10-ribbed Ivs. which are deciduous for some
months each year: fls. greenish or yellowish in pedunculate ra-
cemes: fr. small but abundant, extensively used for food: it is a
branching tree 30-^0 ft. high, the Ivs. smaller than those of the fig,
more or less angular or even lobed. Egypt and Syria; the sycamore
of the Bible; Pharaoh's fig. Intro, in U. S., but not in the trade. —
F. vdstd, Hort.=F. populifolia, an Abyssinian species not in cult.
— F. Wendlandii has Ivs. "10-12 in. long by 8-10 in. wide, of a
dark green color, and light green ribs and veins." Its habitat and fr.
are unknown. — F. Wrightii, Benth., a creeping or climbing fig not
cult, in Amer. outside of fanciers' collections: Ivs. 3-4 in. long,
wedge-shaped, 3-nerved. Probably=F. foveolata, Wall. China.

N. TAYLOR, f

FIG (Plate XLII) is Ficus Carica, a native of Asia.
It is a warm-temperate fruit, although it will stand 10°
to 20° of frost under favorable conditions. It was
early introduced into North America, but until recent
years it has been little grown commercially. It has
been known to fruit in the open in Michigan without
other protection than a high board fence inclosure, but
usually, if grown north of Philadelphia, the plants are
lifted in early November, with good balls of earth,
kept in a dryish cellar over winter, and planted out the
next spring. From Philadelphia to the Carolinas it
may be bent to the ground and covered with earth or
pine boughs. The fruit is borne on the young wood,
and often on young trees. This fruit is really a hollow
pear-shaped receptacle with many minute seeds
(botanically fruits) on the inside; it grows like a branch
from the side of the shoot. Inferior, run-wild forms are
frequent in the southern states, where they are some-
times called "old man and woman" by the negroes.
Figs may be grown under glass, being planted per-
manently in a border after the manner of hothouse
grapes. They usually bear better if the branches are
trained more or less horizontally. Two or more crops
may be expected in one year under glass. Eastern nur-
serymen sell fig trees. As early as 1833 Kenrick ("New
American Orchardist") described 23 varieties. Popular
varieties for amateur cultivation in the East are Turkey,
White Genoa, Black Ischia and Celeste. In order to
facilitate the ripening of the fruit in cool climates or
under glass, it is a custom to dress the surface of the
nearly full-grown figs with sweet oil. As a dessert fruit
figs are usually eaten in the fresh state, in which con-
dition they are scarcely known to people in cool cli-
mates. They are also cooked, and preserved. The
commerical fig is the dried fruit.

The fig is propagated very easily from hardwood cut-
tings, as grapes are. Take cuttings in the fall, remov-
ing just below a bud. If wood is scarce, single-eye cut-
tings may be used, being started preferably in a frame.
From cuttings, bearing plants may be expected in two
to four years. New varieties are obtained from seeds.
Various fruit books give directions for the growing of
figs. Publications in California and of the United
States Department of Agriculture discuss them. But
the only independent American writing seems to be
James T. Worthington's "Manual of Fig-Culture in the
Northern and Middle States," Chillicothe, Ohio, 1869.
Although regularly copyrighted, it is a pamphlet of only
ten pages. It recommends the laying down of the trees
in late fall and covering them with earth. This practice
gave better results than covering with other material,
or carrying the trees over winter in cellars, either in tubs
or transplanted from the open (p. 1552). L. jj. B.

Figs in the southeastern and Gulf states.

In the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf states the fig
has been cultivated since the days of the earliest set-
tlements. The exact time of introduction and indeed
the exact origin of many of the more important varie-
ties are unknown. For many years the trees, or more
properly bushes, found a place as dooryard or garden
plants, and to this day some of the finest specimens are
to be found near the shelter of buildings in country,
town or village. The fruit was used by the owners of

the bushes and the surplus found its way into the
local market.

Within the last ten to twenty years, attention has
been given to the fig as a commercial fruit and it has
found a place as an orchard fruit in many localities.
Its culture may be said to extend from Norfolk, Vir-
ginia, southward along the Atlantic coast, and around
the Gulf of Mexico into Texas. In proximity to the
water it is grown without protection, but inland, par-
ticularly in the northern limits of its range, the bushes
are protected during the winter months, by bending
them down and covering with boards, straw, heavy
paper, in fact anything that will cover them. With
some care in protecting the plants by laying them down
and covering in winter, the fig is grown beyond the
region in which it has a place as an orchard fruit. Most
of the orchard plantings have been made in close
proximity to the ocean or gulf.

The propagation of the fig in this region is almost
entirely by cuttings made from well-ripened wood and
planted during winter or in early spring. The hardened
wood from old bearing trees gives the most satisfac-
tory results. The cuttings should be 4 to 5 inches long,
and cut through the nodes. In planting, the cuttings
are set with the upper ends level with the surface of
the earth.

Soils best adapted to the growing of the fig are clay
soils, or heavy soils, which are or may be kept uniformly
moist. No greater mistake can be made than to
attempt the culture of the fig in light sandy soils, more
or less deficient in moisture in the lower South. Under
these conditions, the nematode (root-knot) works
serious damage to the roots of the trees and the plant-
ing soon dies out. But on heavy soils, the nematodes
are not able to work such havoc and the fig thrives in
spite of their limited attacks. On light soils, the fig
may be grown in the well-packed earth of yards or
planted against buildings where the roots may find
their way into the soil beneath the buildings, where the
nematode has been starved out for lack of food plants.
The shaded condition of the soil is also beneficial. It is
doubtful whether a successful planting can be made on
any large scale on light soils in the lower South for
the reasons just indicated

Varieties.

The varieties which may be grown successfully in
the area indicated belong to the group which will carry
good crops of fruit without pollination. On account
of climatic conditions, it is doubtful whether figs of
the class requiring caprification can ever be success-
fully grown.

The more important varieties are the following:

Black Ischia. — Size medium to large; color of skin
bluish black, almost entirely covered with delicate
bluish bloom; flesh creamy white; quality good.
Strong grower, not a heavy bearer but quite hardy.
Season late.

Brunswick. — Fruit very large, broadly pear-shaped
with short, rather slender stalk; ribs well marked, eye
large, open with rosy scales; skin tough, dark brown
in color; pulp thick, pink, soft, quality fair. Midseason
and late.

Celeste. — Small to medium, pear-shaped, ribbed;
violet -colored, sometimes shading purplish brown,
covered with bloom about half way up from the neck;
stem short, stout; flesh whitish, shading to rose-color
at center, firm, juicy, sweet, excellent quality. One of
the hardiest varieties of figs, and can be grown far
outside of the usual limits of culture; very desirable
for canning and preserving. Season early.

White Ischia. — Fruit of medium size, turbinate;
skin greenish yellow; pulp rosy, red, soft, melting;
quality rich, sweet; a variety of high quality. Very
productive. Season late.

Lemon. — Fruit medium to large, flattened, faintly

XLII. A young Celeste fig tree, as grown in Georgia.

FIG

FIG

1235

ribbed, light yellowish green; stem short, stout; flesh
white, sweet, rather soft; quality fair to good. Vigorous
and prolific. Early.

• Magnolia. — Fruit of large size; amber-colored; flesh
pinkish amber, handsome. Vigorous grower; prolific;
excellent for canning. Midseason and late.

Turkey (Brown Turkey). — Size medium to large;
broadly pear-shaped, with short, thick stalk; ribs few
in number; color coppery brown; flesh white, or slightly
amber-colored, shading to pink about the seeds; flesh
solid, excellent quality. It is very hardy and prolific.
Midseason and late.

Of the varieties just described, the more important
commercial sorts are Celeste, Turkey, Brunswick
and Magnolia.

Magnolia is the favorite variety along the coast in
Texas from Beaumont southward. In the eastern
Atlantic states it is not so favorably regarded, as the
fruit splits and sours on the trees during the rainy
weather which so often comes when the crop is matur-
ing. It is entirely distinct from the Turkey fig. Turkey
or Brown Turkey is very hardy, of dwarf growth and
therefore a favorite in the colder sections in which the
trees must be protected during winter. Celeste equals
Turkey in hardiness, but it is a more robust grower.
It is the most commonly planted variety from Beau-
mont, Texas, eastward, and in the southeastern states
should generally be given preference for orchard plant-
ing. Brunswick, on account of its large handsome
appearance is a desirable variety for the production
of fresh fruit for market.

General cultivation.

In setting the fig in orchard, the trees are com-
monly placed 10 by 15 feet or 12 by 20 feet in thor-
oughly plowed and pulverized soil. January and
February in the lower South are favorite months for
planting, but in the colder sections it is usually better
to delay planting until after spring opens. While
setting the trees, great care should be taken to prevent
the roots from becoming dried out. This point must
be strongly emphasized, as the character of fig roots is
such that they will not stand drying.

It is not best to attempt to train the figs to tree form,
but to allow them to develop with three or four trunks.
To start them in bush form it is necessary to cut the
plants back hard at time of planting. In case of severe
weather during winter there is much less danger of
losing whole trees if grown with several stems or trunks
than if grown with single trunks. Subsequent pruning
should be done to remove any sprouts or suckers that
come up from the ground, to remove dead or injured
branches, and to shape the form of the trees during the
first few seasons. Branches that have to be removed
for any cause should be cut back entirely rather than
to stubs. The fig will not stand severe pruning year
after year, such as has sometimes been attempted, and
it is best to prune as little as. possible to keep the trees
in good shape.

As the fig is a shallow-rooted tree, deep tillage is
impossible. The orchard should not be plowed and
implements for shallow cultivation only should be
used. There is no better tillage tool than an ordinary
hoe, but its use is too expensive on large plantings. It
may, however, be used in the garden plot. Cultivation
should begin in spring just in advance of the starting
of growth and should continue at weekly or ten-day
intervals until about July 1. Cover-crops of cowpeas
or beggarweed should then cover the ground until
autumn. In the handling of plantings of the later-
ripening sorts, cultivation should be continued later
in the season, and a winter cover-crop used instead of a
summer one. Stable manure and commercial fertilizer
should be used liberally to supply the necessary plant-
food.

A considerable amount of fruit can be and is handled

in the markets as fresh fruit. It should be carefully
cut from the trees early in the morning, selecting only
well-colored but firm fruit, packed in strawberry carriers
and shipped by express. When the work is properly
handled in this way, its marketing presents no serious
difficulties within a radius of 100 miles or so in the
lower South and even greater distances in the northern
area of its possible culture. By far the greater quantity
of fruit is used by the canneries in the manufacture of
preserved figs. A very delicious product is manufac-
tured in the lower South, and meets with a ready sale.

H. HAROLD HUME.

The fig in California.

The fig, as grown in California at the present time,
illustrates, perhaps more than any other fruit, the
difficulties that arise in the course of the introduction of
any new and highly specialized industry. Years of
time and the united labors
of many persons have at
last resulted in the perma-
nent establishment of fig-
culture on a large scale in
some parts of California.
The successive steps by
which this has been accom-
plished form one of the
most remarkable chapters
in our horticultural history.

The edible cultivated fig
is a native of southwestern
Asia and undoubtedly ranks
as one of the most ancient,
beautiful and valuable of
all fruit trees, forming a
large part of the daily food
of the people in those coun-
tries in which it thrives.
The common name fig comes
from Ficus, and that from
the Hebrew "feg." The importation of figs, dried,
canned or preserved, into regions unsuited to their
growth, forms an immense and increasing group of
industries. The literature of the fig, always very large,
is receiving continual additions, as new varieties are
introduced, as new values are found for the varied
products and as its culture is being extended far
beyond what were thought, twenty years ago, to be its
inflexible climatic limitations.

The botanical varieties of the edible fig (Ficus
Carica) as generally recognized include the following:
(1) Ficus Carica var. sylvestris, the all-important wild
fig of Asia Minor; (2) Ficus Carica var. smyrniaca;
(3) Ficus Carica var. hortensis; (4) Ficus Carica var.
intermedia.

The first of these, commonly known as the Capri
fig, is not edible, but it was discovered ages ago that
the famous little fig-wasp, formerly called Blastophaga
psenes but now determined as Blastophaga grossorum,
breeds within it and is able to cross-pollinate the
flowers of the invaluable Smyrna fig which otherwise
will not perfect fruit. This process is termed "caprifica-
tion" and is absolutely necessary for the maintenance
of the highest grades of commercial orchards. The
third of these groups includes all the self-fertilizing
table and preserving varieties of the common fig. The
fourth variety (intermedia) has the ability to mature
one crop without cross-pollination, but not a second.
The best figs for drying are all of the second class
(var. smyrniaca) and three crops are the usual thing in
average seasons. In fact, nearly all the cultivated figs
bear three more or less distinct crops; in many orchards
and gardens of California one may gather ripe figs
every day from late July until frost and rains destroy
the very perishable fruits.

3JV

1505. White Adriatic fig.

1236

FIG

FIG

Figs have been cultivated on the Pacific coast for
more than two centuries, as it is thought that they were
in the Mission gardens at Loreto, Lower California,
before 1710. Father Zephyrin's monumental "History
of the Franciscan Missions in Calfornia," three volumes
of which have now been issued (1913), contains many
facts about the first Mission gardens from San Diego to
Dolores and Sonoma. The fig was in them all, and was
spoken of by the early visitors to California, such as
Malaspina, Menzies, Mocino and Vancouver. Santa
Clara Mission had rows of very large fig trees before
1792.

At the present time (1913), the fig has become
established over almost the entire horticultural area of
California, wherever the temperature does not fall
below 18° F. It does not thrive where there is much fog
or where the summers are cold and windy, but even in
such places if somewhat protected by walls or build-
ings, it matures fruit. When planted close to its cli-
matic limits, a young tree needs special protection the
first few years until the wood is mature and the growth
less rapid. The fig is most at home in southern Cali-
fornia, over the Coast Range Valleys, the San Joaquin
and Sacramento Valleys
to Northern Shasta, and
up the lower slopes of
the Sierras to about
the elevation of 2,500

1506. Young fig tree, and fig-drying in open air, California.

feet in central California — to 3,000 feet and upward
farther south. Magnificent single trees and stately
avenues abound in various places. Many trees now
standing have trunks 3 feet in diameter. One in
Stanislaus County is 80 feet in height; another in Butte
County has rooted from drooping branches until it
seems a whole grove. This is the notable General Bid-
well tree at Chico (Mission Black variety) which covers
a circle of 200 feet in diameter and has long been the
pride of the region. Superb fig trees are found in all
the old foothill and valley towns of California. A
magnificent grove is on the old Thurber farm near
Vacaville. Large commercial fig orchards have been
planted, especially in Nesuo, Los Angeles, Butte,
Santa Barbara, San Bernardino, Tulare, Merced,
Sonoma, Placer, San Joaquin and Shasta Counties.
The Maslin orchard near Loomis and the Roeding
orchard east of Fresno are two of the most famous and
successful ones in California. Fresno County now has
220,000 bearing fig trees, and Los Angeles nearly
100,000.

Varieties.

There are many horticultural varieties known to
the markets and catalogues under innumerable syn-
onyms. Their classification is by shape, color of skin
and color of flesh. The shape is round or turbinate in
some sorts, pyriform or obovate in others. The skin
varies in color in different varieties from green through
pale yellow, buff, light brown, reddish brown and purple,
to black. The flesh is almost white, opaline, or various
shades of red; it can be described as melting, spicy,
juicy, coarse or even dry in a few old sorts. The size
varies from those hardly as large as a green gage plum
to others that sometimes weigh four or five ounces
apiece. Eisen, in his useful and thorough monograph

on the fig published by the Department of Agriculture
(Division of Pomology, Bulletin No. 9, 1901) lists and
describes nearly 400 varieties from different parts of
the world. Eleven of these are Smyrnas, and twenty
are varieties of the Capri or wild fig, differing in season
so as to afford a succession and thus increase their
value in caprification. Baja California, and Sonora,
fine regions for the fig, have produced some varieties
of promise, and others have been reported from South
Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, northern
India, Algiers and many other places.

When the earlier California nurserymen began to
grow figs, they first secured the Black Mission variety
which the padres had brought from Mexico, and the
little White Marseilles, which was at Santa Clara and
Santa Barbara before the discovery of gold. They also
obtained from Ellwanger and Barry, of Rochester, and
from Berckmans, of Georgia, between I860 and 1870,
all the varieties then grown in America, principally for
pot and greenhouse culture, not more than twenty-five
sorts in all, chief among which were the Brown Tur-
key, Celeste, the Green and Black Ischias and the
large Brunswick. Georgia and the Gulf coast were cul-
tivating in gardens these sorts for home use, especially
Celeste, which is fine for canning and preserving.
There was therefore, much early correspondence be-
tween California nurserymen like William B. West,
John Rock, Felix Gillet, James Shinn and others, and
the fig-growers in the South, whose main drawback
was in the frequent summer rains. Almost immedi-
ately, however, the Californians began to import trees
from France, Italy, Spain, and later began to study
the Smyrna fig industries. The catalogues of Califor-
nia nurserymen, by 1880, contained about 150 named
varieties — with plenty of duplications, as was natural.
The University of California experiment stations, by
1890, had about seventy-five varieties under trial and
distributed them with great energy. The late John
Rock, one of the most ardent horticulturists of his
time in America, made many trips abroad and seldom
failed to send back new kinds of figs. The inevitable
and essential sifting down continued for over thirty
years from 1880 until the nurseries of today list not to
exceed thirty varieties. The principal sorts now in
general cultivation, besides the very important Smyrna
and Capri varieties sent out chiefly by George Roed-
ing of Fresno, are the following:

Adriatic (Grosse

Col di Signora Nigra.

Pingo de Mel.

Verte).

Dauphine.

Ronde Noire.

Agen.

Doree.

Ronde Violette

Angelique.

Drap d'Or.

Hative.

Black Ischia (Black

Du Roi.

Royal Vineyard.

Marseilles; Black

Lardaro.

San Pedro (white).

Provence; the Re-

Madeline.

Smyrna (common

culver of England).

Mission (California

type).

Bourjasotte Blanche.

Black).

White Genoa.

Brown Turkey.

Negro Largo.

White Ischia.

Brunswick.

Pastiliere.

White Marseilles.

Celeste (Celestine).

A large amount of new experimenting has been done
in California with fig varieties by the Bureau of Plant
Industry which took up the work so well begun by
Hilgard and others at the California Station. Lack of
means and a general change of the University policy
toward the sub-stations (where the fig orchards were
located) led to the abandonment of those useful trials
about 1902. Fortunately, the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture had become deeply interested in
the Smyrna fig problem, and soon established plant
gardens in California. Beagles, who has charge of the
one near Chico, furnishes the following list of the varie-
ties being tested there in 1912, in addition to a great
many seedlings and crosses under numbers and not
yet in bearing. The list, as furnished by Beagles, is
arranged in the order of securing the varieties, not
alphabetically, and the first forty-four sorts are from
the well-authenticated collection at Chiswick, England :

FIG

FIG

1237

De 1'Archipel.

Arbal.

Brown Turkey.

Bontard.

De Jerusalem.

Pastiliere.

Grosse Marseilles.

Nebian.

Negro largo.

Peau dure.

Vigasotte Bianco.

De la Madeleine.

Negronne.

Grise Savantine

Col di Signora Bianca.

Bourjassotte noire.

bifere.

Doree Nobis.

Poulette.

Quarteria.

Pingo de Mel.

Ceil de Perdrix.

Douro Vebra.

Black Ischia.

Du Roi.

Reculver.

Toulousienne.

Grosse Violette de

Gourand Rouge.

Gouraud noir.

Bordeaux.

D'Agen.

Doree.

Datte.

Lampa.

Brunswick.

Monstrueuse.

Large Black Douro.

Gentile.

Bourjassote grise.

Adam.

White Adriatic.

A' Bois Jaspee.

De Constantine.

Pacific White.

Royal Vineyard.

Biberaeo.

Vendome.

De Grasse.

Grosse Verte.

Barbillonne.

Euscaire Preto.

Violette Sepor.

Figuires Blanch.

Trois recoltes.

Dr. Hoggs Clare.

Warren's Brown Tur-

Monaco bianco.

Hardy Prolific.

key.

Bondance Precoce.

Figue d'Or.

Capri Milco.

Trifer.

Recousse noire.

Trojano.

Green Ischia.

Black Douro.

Capri Solms No. 1.

Hirta du Japon.

Grassale.

Capri Solms No. 2.

St. Johns.

Martinique.

Capri Solms No. 3.

Vebra.

Crave.

Capri Solms No. 4.

Datte Quotidienne.

White Ischia.

Dauphine.

The California Experiment Station, under Hilgard,
found that several varieties which are no longer in
ordinary cultivation were important. Chief among
these was a French fig of compact growth, Hirta du
Japon, a medium-sized, turbinate, dark purple fig of
high quality. It is excellent for house culture and for
small gardens.

Smyrna figs.

The story of the introduction of the fig-wasp, the
indispensable Blastophaga, to California fig orchards
is one of the amusing, pathetic and fascinating romances
of outdoor life. Smyrna figs were planted early, and
they did not bear; the trouble was indistinctly charged
to "the climate;" growers laughed at the absurd "book
notion" that the Asia Minor Greeks depended on
"some sort of an insect" to secure abundant crops of
fruit. The late John Bleasdale, who had been in Por-
tugal, told many persons about fig-caprification early
in the 1870's. Some of the nurserymen took it up with
energy and managed to secure cuttings of Smyrna figs
and of Capri figs, but no insects. The San Francisco
"Bulletin," between 1880 and 1882, secured and dis-
tributed over California about 14,000 cuttings. The
fig-growers in Asia Minor became anxious to prevent
importation of the insects to California or of the Capri
fig cuttings, and the difficulties grew worse. Eisen and
Rixford cross-fertilized figs by hand as soon as the
wild fig trees blossomed. This was done on the James
Shinn farm at Niles and at the California Nursery
(managed by John Rock) in the same neighborhood.
Then the Roedings of Fresno became interested,
through Eisen, and planted a Smyrna fig orchard, but
had no Blastophaga. Meanwhile the Department of
Agriculture took hold. Walter Swingle was detailed
and in 1899 secured the Algerian Blastophaga for the
Californians. James Shinn, of Niles, had also obtained
the Blastophaga in 1891, but his location was not
suitable so that it perished and the work was done
over again by both Swingle in 1899 and George Roed-
ing, of Fresno, in 1896, working separately at different
points of the problem. But all this time, the fig-wasp
had accidentally become established near Modesto,
about 1869, on the Gates farm. The wild fig tree there
was, possibly, imported by West, of Stockton, in the
form of cuttings carrying some of the "mamme" or
winter generation of fruits containing the Blastophagas.

The literature of this whole subject is fascinating.
It may be studied in the reports of the Department
of Agriculture and in the following papers: "Some
Points in the History of Caprification and in the Life
History of the Fig," Walter T. Swingle, before the
Thirty-fourth Fruit-Growers' Convention of Cali-
fornia (1908); also his paper on the Maslin seedling
fig orchard in the report of the thirty-fifth convention;

also papers of his in the thirty-sixth and thirty-eighth
reports; an essay by G. P. Rixford, read before the
Forty-first Convention of California Fruit-Growers,
in Santa Barbara, in 1912. His botanical and entomo-
logical paper, read in 1911 before the Pacific Associa-
tion of Scientific Societies, on the "Fructification of
the Fig by Blastophaga" traces the whole subject
down from the days of Linna?us. A practical paper on
the subject is to be found in George C. Rpeding's
"California Horticulture," a pamphlet issued in 1909.

Caprification.

The work of study and experimentation has gone
forward steadily since the first importation of the
Blastophaga; it is likely that more has been done in
this line in California in the past twenty years than in
all the rest of the world put together. The practical
methods of keeping the fig insect prosperously estab-
lished so that every fruit can be fertilized are now well
founded, and as the profits of the industry are gen-
erally recognized, large plantings can be expected.
There are some obscure problems still undetermined
relating to the different crops of figs and the fructi-
fication of some of the non-Smyrna types. But in
California the industry as a whole finds possibly the
most favorable soil and climate known to exist any-
where. It seems probable, therefore, that fig-growing
will soon rank in importance with the growing of
citrous fruits. The cultivated varieties of Smyrnas are
doubtless capable of much improvement as regards
size, crop and season.

Only thirty Capri figs are needed to caprify a large
fig tree, so abundant are the insects and the pollen in
good seasons, and one tree of the wild fig is sufficient
for one hundred Smyrna trees. The male of the fig-
wasp is without wings, but the female has wings and
saw-like mandibles; she cuts her way through scales
which interlock over the apex of the half-grown Smyrna
fig. She loses her wings in entering, dies in the fig and
is absorbed by the vegetable cells. If she lays her
eggs they also perish and the continuance of the spe-
cies depends upon those individuals that remain upon
the wild fig trees.

Propagation.

The fig grows readily from cuttings. Use well-
ripened wood of the previous season's growth, cut at
the joint, and give them the same treatment required
for grape cuttings. They will even grow from single-
eye cuttings. Bottom heat is not necessary in Cali-
fornia where the cuttings are set in nursery in Decem-
ber or January and are ready for the orchard in a year.
In the eastern states, winter-made cuttings can be
started with bottom heat, or, in April, in the open air.

Budding is best done by the annular or ring method,
so useful for the chestnut and walnut. The fig can be
cleft-grafted in February in California, but extreme
care must be taken to exclude the air. Seedlings are
easily grown from the fertile seeds of the imported
Smyrna figs, and from the few fertile seeds occasionally
appearing in common varieties. Maslin, of Placer
County, began to raise seedlings from imported dried
figs in 1885 and these are now bearing.

Forcing.

The fig requires more heat under glass than does the
grape. The temperatures preferred are, at first, 50° F.
at night and, 65° for the day; later increase to 60° or
65° at night and 75° or more in the day. Figs must have
mu,ch air and moisture till the crop is set. The best
varieties for forcing are Early Violet, the White and
Brown Ischias, White Marseilles, Hirta du Japon and
Negro Largo. A soil of turfy loam with plenty of top-
dressing is suitable for pots and tubs. Brown Turkey,
Marseilles and Brunswick are the standard varieties
for walls.

1238

FIG

FILIPENDULA

Cultural methods in California.

The fig tree in California requires much space, hence
it is used as an avenue tree or if in orchard form other
trees are set between, to be afterward removed. In
good soil, fig trees, like walnuts, should finally stand
not less than 40 feet apart, and 50 feet is considered to
be better.

Little pruning is required for the fig. Trees grown
for table figs are headed low, about 18 inches from the
ground, to facilitate picking. Trees grown for drying
figs are headed higher so that they can better be kept
smooth and clean, as the figs are usually allowed to
ripen and fall. Cultivation is necessary until the trees
completely shade the ground.

Figs begin to bear early in California, often the
second or third year. Some trees prove barren or very
poor bearers and must be replaced by others. The tree
appears to be as long-lived as the olive, has very few
insect enemies, and is not subject to disease. It is a
good ornamental tree.

The fruit in some districts, in some seasons, ferments
on the trees ("fig-sour"). This sometimes seems to
come from over-irrigation, sometimes from lack of
vitality, and most often occurs in very tender and
juicy varieties.

The very dangerous fig moth (Ephestra cautella) is
now widely distributed in America, although not yet
in California. During the last few years, many cargoes
of imported figs have been seized in New York and
destroyed on account of this insect, which fills the fruit
with eggs and ultimately with its larva? (Bulletin No.
104, 1911, Bureau of Entomology). Asiatic dried figs
are not only subject to this pest but contain less sugar
(1^4 per cent less) and less proteids (1^ per cent) than
do the California dried figs.

Fig-drying. — The fig crop is handled with much care
and cleanliness in California, and labor-saving methods
are used in all cases. The figs must remain on the trees
till fully ripe; then they shrivel and drop off, are picked
up, dipped in boiling brine (three ounces salt to one
gallon water), placed on trays exposed to the sun and
turned once. The later drying is done in the shade.
The figs are next placed in the "sweat boxes" and
"mixed" so as to equalize the moisture. They aye then
washed clean in a weak brine, drained off and taken
to the packing-room. Exceeding care, cleanliness and
much experience are required to produce high-grade
results.

Fig avenues. — There is a growing interest felt in the
fig as an avenue tree in California, since it is deciduous
and so does not shade the road in winter, and since it
thrives without culture or pruning where the moisture
is sufficient and the soil deep.

Culture in other places.

While California probably offers the best climate on
the continent for commercial fig-growing, the industry
has a future over much of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
the extreme South, Hawaii, Australia, large portions of
South Africa, Mexico and the west coast of South
America.

Fig-culture in the northern and middle parts of the
United States is essentially different, of course, from
the outdoor and orchard methods. The tree can be
grown as a bush and protected each winter by cover-
ing the branches with several inches of soil. In the
southern middle states, fig bushes are grown by cover-
ing in winter with matting and straw. One crop, or at
most two, is all that can be expected. See the discus-
sions on pages 1234 and 1235.

The crop.

Statistics are not well kept at present in the fig
industry, but the annual California crop exceeds 4,000
tons (dried figs) while the local consumption of fresh
figs is large and increasing. The fig pastes, conserves,

and the like, and the use of figs in wafers and other
forms is also general. As Smyrna exports about 30,000
tons in good years, there is evidently room for the
California industry. The dried Smyrnas of Califor-
nia are equal to the best of Asia Minor and contain
64 per cent of sugar (Roeding's Calimyrna variety,
the Erbeyli variety of its native country). Besides this
variety, persons at Fresno are planting on a large scale
the Kassaba, the Checker Injir of Scios, the Bardajic
and what is called in California the purple Bulletin
Smyrna.

Related species of Ficus.

The famous and useful "Sycamore fig" of the Orient
(Ficus Sycomorus) produces fruit in racemes on the
older branches. It is too tender for outdoor culture in
America. (See page 1234.) The beautiful peepul tree
of India is the sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) of the Brah-
mans and Buddhists, and it is now found in many
private collections in southern California. Ficus elas-
tica, the India rubber tree, is often seen in the warmer
parts of California. In 1914 a tree of F. elastica fruited
heavily at Niles and the children seemed to like the
figs. The true banyan fig has not yet been successfully
grown in the state, but ought to be tested. In the
American tropics many interesting kinds of Ficus may
be expected. CHARLES H. SHINN.

FIG. Adam's Fig: Musa paradisiaca. Barbary Fig: Opuntia
vulgaris. Devil's Fig: Argemone mexicana. Hottentot's Fig:
M esembryanthemum edule. Indian Fig: Opuntia vulgaris. Keg Fig:
Diospyros Kaki. Pharaoh's Fig: Sycomorus antiquorum.

FIG-MARIGOLD: M esembryanthemum.
FfLAGO: Gifola.

FILBERT. One of the group of nuts produced by
species of Corylus. The nuts of Corylus are variously
grouped or classified; those are usually known as
filberts that are provided with a tubular husk much
longer than the nut itself; as cobs, if the husk is little
or not at all longer than the nut; and as hazels if the
husk is much shorter than the nut. The filbert nuts
are usually oblong in shape; the cobs roundish and
angular; and the hazels rather small, roundish and
thick-shelled. These are derived from different species
and hybrids of Corylus (which see) of the Old World;
and these vernacular names do not seem to be very
definitely or accurately used. The name filbert is of
disputed origin; the idea that it comes from "full-
beard," in allusion to the long husk, is undoubtedly
erroneous.

Filberts are grown in many parts of Europe, and they
are exported to America in large quantities. Many
attempts have been made to grow them in this coun-
try but without success owing, apparently, to lack
of hardiness, to fungous disease, and to the want of
varieties bred for American conditions. Probably
some of the failure is due to lack of discrimination
in soils and to unskilled methods of growing. See
Hazel-nut. L. jj, gt

FILIPENDULA (Latin filum, thread, pendulus,
hanging; alluding to the numerous small tubers
hanging together by thread-like roots). Syn., Ulma-
ria. Rosacese. MEADOW-SWEET. Hardy herbs grown
for their showy panicles of white, pink or purple
flowers.

Perennials with fibrous or tuberous rootstock: Ivs.
stipulate, interruptedly odd-pinnate, the terminal 1ft.
often much larger and palmately lobed: fls. in cymose
corymbs; calyx-lobes and petals usually 5; stamens
20-40, with the filaments narrowed toward the base;
carpels distinct, 5-15, 1-seeded, indehiscent. — Nine
species in N. Asia and Himalayas, N. Amer. and Eu.
Filipendula has usually been united with Spiraea, but

FILIPENDULA

FITTONIA

1239

is very distinct in its herbaceous habit, pinnate stipu-
late Ivs. and indehiscent 1-seeded achenes.

The meadow-sweets are hardy plants with rather
large pinnate or palmately lobed leaves and white,
pink or purple flowers in showy terminal corymbs,
borne on erect leafy stems rising 1 to 10 feet from a
rosette of radical leaves. They bloom in early summer
or midsummer and are very handsome border plants.
Most of them delight in a rather moist and rich soil
and are especially decorative if planted on the borders
of ponds and brooklets, but F. hexapetala prefers drier
situations and likes full sun, while most of the others
also thrive well in partly shaded positions. F . purpurea
should be mulched during the winter in the North.
Propagated by seeds sown in fall in pans or boxes and
kept in the cool greenhouse, or sown in spring; also by
division of older plants.

A. Lfts. numerous, almost alike, small, pinnately lobed.

hexapetala, Gilib. (F. Filipendula, Voss. Ulmaria
Filipendula, Hill. Spiraea Filipendula, Linn.).
MEADOW-SWEET. DROPWORT. Fig. 1507. One to 3
ft. high, with tuberous rootstock, glabrous: radical
Ivs. 6-20 in. long; Ifts. sessile, oblong, pinnately lobed
and serrate, 1 in. long: fls. in a loose
corymb, white, about %in. across,
with usually 6 petals: achenes about
12, pubescent, semi-cordate. June, July.
Eu., W. Asia and Siberia. Var. fl6re-
pleno has double fls., and is common.

AA. Lfts. few, the terminal one much
larger and palmately 3-9-lobed.

B. Lateral Ifts. 3-5-lobed.

rftbra, Rob. (Spiraea lobdta, Gronov.
Spiraea palmdta, Linn. F. lobdta,
Maxim. Ulmaria riibra, Hill). QUEEN
OF THE PRAIRIE. Height 2-8 ft., gla-
brous: terminal 1ft. large, 7-9-
parted, with oblong, acuminate
incisely serrate lobes; lateral Ifts.
smaller, 3-5-lobed, on the upper
Ivs. missing, green on both sides,
only pubescent on the veins
beneath: fls. pink, in a rather
large paniculate cyme: achenes
6-10, glabrous. June, July. Pa.
to Ga., west to Mich, and Ky.
Mn. 2:145. B.B. (ed. 2) 2:249.
— Beautiful. Var. venusta, Voss.
Fls. deep pink or carmine. Var.
albicans, Hort. Fls. light pink,
or almost white. R.B. 3 : 169.

palmata, Maxim. (Spiraea
palmdta, Pall. Ulmaria palmdta, -
Focke. Spirsea digitdta, Willd.). Height 2-3 ft.: Ivs.
whitish tomentose beneath or glabrous; terminal Ifts.
7-9-parted; stipules large, semi-cordate: fls. pale pink
at first, changing to white : achenes 5-8. July. Siberia,
Kamchatka and Saghalin. — This species is but rarely
cult. ; the plant common under the name Spiraea palmata
belongs to F. purpurea.

\ BB. Lateral Ifts. none or few and ovate.
c. Achenes usually 5, ciliate: lateral Ifts. none or few.

camtschatica, Maxim. (Spirsea camtschdtica, Pall.
Spiraea gigantea, Hort. Ulmaria camtschdtica, Rehd.).
Height 5-10 ft. : Ivs. glabrous or villous beneath, often
with rufous veins; terminal 1ft. very large, cordate,
3-5-lobed, with broadly ovate, doubly serrate lobes;
lateral Ifts. usually none; stipules large, semi-cordate:
fls. white. July. Manchuria, Kamchatka.

purpftrea, Maxim. (Spiraea palmdta, Thunb. Ulmaria
purpurea, Rehd.). Height 2-4 ft., glabrous: terminal
1ft. very large, cordate, 5-7-lobed, with oblong, acumi-

1507. Filipendula hexapetala (plant about 2 feet
high) . Commonly known as Spiraea Filipendula. Qne
of the plants called meadow-sweet.

nate, doubly serrate lobes; lateral Ifts. none or few,
oblong-ovate; stipules narrow: fls. carmine or deep
pink, in large paniculate cymes with crimson peduncles
and sts. June- Aug. Japan. B.M. 5726. I.H. 15:577.
F.S. 18:1851. J.H. III. 51:201. F.W. 1869:33. Gn.
W. 23: suppl. June 16. Gn. 17:36.— This is undoubt-
edly the finest species of this genus. It is also some-
times grown in pots and forced. Var. alba, Hort.,
has white fls. and var. elegans, Voss, white fls., with
red stamens and usually several lateral Ifts.; the latter
is said to be a hybrid. R.B. 4:7. G.Z. 22:25.

cc. Achenes about 10: lateral Ifts. present, ovate.

Ulmaria, Maxim. (Spiraea Ulmaria, Linn. Ulmaria
pentapetala, Gilib. U. palustris, Moench). QUEEN OF
THE MEADOWS. Height 2-6 ft. : Ivs. glabrous or puberu-
lous above, whitish tomentose beneath; terminal Ifts.
3-5-lobed, 2-4 in. long, lateral Ifts. smaller, ovate,
coarsely doubly serrate: fls. white, in rather dense pani-
culate cymes: achenes about 10, semi-cordate, almost
glabrous, twisted. June-Aug. Eu., W. Asia to Mon-
golia; naturalized in some places in the eastern states.
B.B. (ed. 2) 2:249. Var. denudata, Maxim. (F.
denuddta, Rydb.). Lvs. green beneath and nearly
glabrous. Var. adreo-variegata, Voss, has the
Ivs. variegated with yellow. Var. plena, Vosa
(var. flore-pleno, Hort.). Fls. double.

F. angustifdlia, Maxim. (Spiraea angustifolia, Turcz.
Ulmaria angustifolia, Rehd..). Similar to F. lobata: fls.
white: Ivs. glabrous or whitish tomentose beneath.
Dahuria, Manchuria. — F. vestita, Maxim. (Ulmaria
vestita, Rehd. Spiraea vestita, Wall.). Similar to F.
camtschatica, but only 1 ft. high and Ivs. grayish
tomentose beneath: fls. white. Himalayas. B.R. 27:4
(as S. kamschatica var. himalensis) .

ALFRED REHDER.

FINGER-GRASS. Species of Chloris and Panicum.
FIORIN: Agrostis stolonifera and A. alba.

FIR. Strictly, species of the genus Abies,
but popularly it includes many trees known
to nurserymen and others as
Picea, and by some it is applied
to Pinus, Larix, and others.

FIRE-CRACKER, FLORAL: Bre-

wortia.

FIRE-ON-THE-MOUNTAIN : Eu-
phorbia heterophytta.

FIRE-PINK: Silene virginica.

FIRE -PLANT: Euphorbia hetero-
phylla.

FIRE- WEED : Epilobium angusti-
folium and Erechtites hieracifolia.

FISH-GRASS: Cabomba.

FITTONIA (Elizabeth and Sarah Mary Fitton,
authors of "Conversations on Botany," and friends of
Robert Brown). Acanthdceae. Low-growing herbaceous
perennials, valued for the brilliant variegation made by
red or white venation of their large heart-shaped leaves.

Leaves prominent or rather large, cordate, beauti-
fully veined: fls. borne singly in the axils of the over-
lapping bracts, which form a peduncled, terminal
spike; calyx-segms. linear-bristly; corolla-tube slen-
der; hp long, narrow, shortly lobed at the apex; sta-
mens 2, affixed near the throat; style filiform, truncate
at apex: fr. an ovate-acute 4-seeded caps., some of the
seeds likely to be aborted. — Species 3, in Peru. Fit-
tonias may be grown with philodendron, Cissus dis-
color, Episcia cupreata, nephthytis and selaginellas.
There is often a bare, unsightly space under the
benches that can be transformed into a tangle of
tropical creepers by the use of such plants. A board
may be placed slanting toward the walks and covered
with rotten stumps, chunks of peat, and moss for the
plants to run in. The open borders near the walks have

1240

FITTONIA

FLACOURTIA

hardly sufficient drainage. They may also be pegged
down in mossy coverings for tubs of palms, as they can
stand much watering.

Fittonias are most useful and ornamental plants for
growing in a deeply shaded place in the tropical green-
house. The beautiful markings of their foliage always
attract attention; and being of easy culture, they can
be used effectively for places in the foliage house in
which no other plant would thrive. The best time to
root fittonias is early spring, as after a year's growth
they are likely to have a rather straggling appearance,
and need a general overhauling. Remove the points
of the shoots, with two leaves attached, and one joint
to insert in the sand. These make the best cuttings,
but any part of the stem will root and grow provided
there is a joint on it. After cuttings are rooted, which
will be in two or three weeks in a temperature of 65°,
pot them singly in 2-inch pots, in equal parts of loam
leaf-mold, and sand. — When they are well rooted in
these small pots, choose the size of pan they are
intended to grow in, and fill it with the same propor-
tion of loam, leaf-mold and sand, as advised for the
first potting. This time, however, the loam is better
to be more of fibrous and in a rather lumpy state, and
the leaf-mold should not be too well rotted, but rather

flaky in texture.
In filling the pan
with the com-
post, raise it in
the center above
the rim. This
gives the plant a
mound appear-
ance, which adds
to its beauty.
The small
plants should be
planted in the
large pan about
2 inches apart;
water them
gently with a
fine rose, so as
not to disturb
the earth in the
receptacle. As
stated above,
these plants re-
quire, at all
times, to be
grown in a shady position, and except in the dead
of winter should never be in a temperature of less than
60° by night. In severe zero weather, it will not harm
them to drop as low as 55°. — Pyramid-shaped plants
of some of the fittonias can be grown. Pot them along
singly and tie them to a stake. When about four or
five pairs of leaves are formed, pinch out the heart of
the plant. This will encourage side breaks to start,
which should be pinched after they have made three
pairs of leaves. After the leading shoot has been
pinched, two breaks will start away, and after two
leaves have been well formed, one of the shoots should
again have the heart taken out of it. The other must
now be taken for the leader and allowed to make three
or four more joints before it is stopped again by remov-
ing the heart. In this way the desired height will be
attained, and at the same time plenty of side breaks
will be encouraged to start. The side shoots must be
carefully watched; pinch back all the strong shoots, so
that a plant of symmetry may be formed. When these
plants are well rooted in the pans, or have attained the
desired size in pyramid form, water them occasion-
ally with soft-coal soot, a handful to an ordinary
watering-pot, which generally contains about two and a
half gallons. Water twice in between with clean water.
The soot tends to bring out the brilliancy of the mark-

ings, making the whole plant have a glossy appear-
ance. Scale, and other insect pests are sometimes
found on these plants, but if fumigated with hydro-
cyanic gas, as advised for other plants, will give very
little trouble. (George F. Stewart.)

1503.

( X \i)

A. Habit erect: height
gigantea, Lind. (Gymnostachyum gigantea, Hort.).
Sub-shrubby, branching, 1% ft.: sts. reddish violet
only between the joints, with 4 ranks of silky, white,
erect hairs: Ivs. opposite, elliptical, not notched at the
base, with 2 ranks of hairs, tapering rnore than in the
other species, dark, shining green; veins carmine-red:
fls. pale, with a reddish brown band in the middle of the
side and upper lobes, and a dark yellow spot in the mid-
dle of the lower lip. R.H. 1869, p. 186. I.H. 16:611.

AA. Habit trailing or dwarf: height about 6 in.

B. Veins of If. red.

Verschaffeltii, E. Coem. (Fittbnia and Erdnthemum
rubronervum and rubrovenosum, Hort. Erdnthemum
riibro-venium, Veitch. Gymnostachyum Verschaffeltii,
Lem.). Lvs. ovate, notched at the base, dull green,
often yellowish, veined carmine. F.S. 15:1581. I.H.
10:372. Var. Pearcei, Hort. (F. and G. Pearcei, Hort.).
Lvs. light, bright green; veins light, bright carmine;
under surface somewhat glaucous. Var. Daveana,
Hort. (F. Daveana, Hort.). "Foliage with light cen-
ter, bordered very dark green." More robust than the
type and with veins of stronger red.

BB. Veins of If. white.

argyroneftra, E. Coem. Fig. 1508. Dwarf: Ivs. dark,
shining green. F.S. 16:1664. Gn. 36, p. 527; 2, p. 319.
G. 11:7. — The velvetiness of the upper surface of F.
Verschaffeltii is due to large projecting epidermal cells
with an apical nucleus. Instead of these characteristic
cells, F. argyroneura has small cells and conical hairs,
which are partitioned off and have tubercles at the base.

WILHELM MILLER.

FITZROYA (Capt. R. Fitzroy, of the British Navy;
died 1855). Pinacese. Two evergreen trees or shrubs,
one of the mountains of S. Chile (F. patagonica^Hook.
f. B.M. 4616), and one of Tasmania (F. Archeri,
Benth.). Lvs. small, 3-verticillate or decussate-oppo-
site, imbricated: catkins very small, globose. They are
little known in this country, and may be expected to
thrive only in the milder parts. The former species is a
tree, has Ivs. mostly verticillate, ovate-oblong, in 2-4
rows, anthers commonly 4-celled, 3 ovules, and seeds
2- winged; the latter is bushy, has opposite decussate
keeled Ivs., anthers 2-celled, ovules 2, seeds 3-winged.
The Biltmore Nursery, N. C., lists F. patagonica, "a
tree of variable dimensions, native of the Andes, from
Chile to the Straits of Magellan. Lvs. dark green above,
with 2 white lines beneath. ... Its value in cult, in
the U. S. has not yet been fully proved;" but it is said
to possess sufficient hardiness to withstand the winters
in the S. It is reported as being hardy in S. England.
It is monoecious, the small cones consisting of about 9
scales; the Ivs. on small trees are reported as varying
much in the way in which they stand on the st., but
they are 4-rowed and decurrent; pollen-sacs mostly 4.

T TT T)

FIVE-FINGER: PoteniiOa.

FLACOURTIA (Etienne de Flacourt, 1607-1660,
General Director of the French East India Company,
Governor of Madagascar and author of a history of
Madagascar) . Flacourtidceae. One of the species, a shrub
with edible fruits, is cultivated in the tropics and has
been introduced in southern California and perhaps
elsewhere.

Shrubs and small trees, often spine-bearing: Ivs.
short-stalked, toothed or crenate, simple, alternate:
fls. small, dioecious, in small racemes or glomes or
panicles (the fertile ones sometimes solitary); sepals

FLACOURTIA

FLORICULTURE

1241

4-5, scale-like, ciliated, overlapping; petals none;
stamens many; styles 2 to many; ovary 2-5-celled: fr.
a berry, often edible, usually with 1 seed in each cell.
— Fifteen to 20 species in Trop. Afr., Asia, and islands.

Ramontchi, L'Her. GOVERNOR PLUM. BATOKO
PLTJM in the Zambesi region. Fig. 1509. An excessively
variable shrub or small tree, as customarily defined,
native in Trop. Afr. and Asia, and planted in the
American tropics: glabrous or nearly so, spiny or
spineless (spines axillary) : Ivs. oblong to elliptical and
obovate, obtuse or pointed, variously crenate-dentate,
short-petioled : sterile fls. in short racemes, the fertile
few or solitary or in pairs, all small; styles 5-7, very
short, radiate: fr. cherry-like, to 1 in. diam., roundish
and pulpy, with 8-10 seeds, purple, red, or blackish,
bearing on top the remains of the stigmas; edible,
ripening in the farther West Indies early in the year
but some specimens sometimes remaining till Sept.
There are various forms, as var. inermis and yar. macro-
carpa. Hooker & Thomson in "Flora of British India"
recognize 5 marked varieties, and include within the
species F. sapida of Roxburgh. The species is reported
as "common throughout India, wild or cult." and as
having a distribution from Madagascar to the E.
Archipelago. Duthie, in "Flora of the Upper Gangetic
Plain," says that the var. sapida (with pubescent
branchlets, elliptic or suborbicular Ivs. which are gla-
brous or puberulous only on the veins beneath) produces
fr. that is eaten raw or cooked, and twigs and Ivs.
that are used as fodder. "Ramontchi" is said to be the
native name in Madagascar. L. H. B.

FLAG: Iris. Cat-tail Flag: Typha. Corn Flag: Gladiolus.
Sweet Flag: Acarus Calamus. Yellow Flag: Iris Pseudacorus.

FLAMBOYANT: Poinciana.
FLAME-TREE: Sterculia acerifolia.

FLAX: Linum. False Flax: Camdina. New Zealand Flax:

Phormium tenax. Toad Flax: Linaria.

FLEABANE: Erigeron.

FLEMINGIA (John Fleming, Pres. Medical Board of
Bengal; author of "A Catalogue of Indian Medicinal
Plants and Drugs," 1810). Legumindsse. Of this
genus, two shrubs are cultivated in southern California
and southern Florida.

Herbs, sub-shrubs or shrubs of the Old World tropics,
erect, prostrate or twining: Ivs. mostly with 3 digitate
Ifts., rarely 1; stipules striate, often caducous: fls.
papilionaceous, red or purple and mixed with yellow,
in crowded racemes or panicles, or sometimes solitary;
standard obovate or orbicular, auricled at base; wings
obliquely obovate or oblong, often adhering to the
incurved or nearly straight keel; stamens 9 and 1:
pod short, oblique, swollen, 2-valved. — Species above
20, mostly of Trop. Asia, but occurring also in Trop.
Afr. and to the Philippines. Allied to Dalbergia and
Rhynchosia.

congesta, Roxbg. Shrub, 4-6 ft., erect: Ifts. oblong or
broadly lanceolate, the side ones 2-nerved, middle one
3-nerved: racemes axillary, dense, shorter than the
If .-stalks; fls. purple, with a silky-hairy calyx and a
scarcely exserted corolla: pod ^in. long, 2-seeded. — A
variable species of India.

strobilifera, R. Br., has been intro. in S. Fla. It
is an erect shrub, 8-10 ft., with slender velvety
branches: Ivs. simple, oblong, subacute, rounded at
base, somewhat silky beneath: racemes zigzag, 3-6 in.
long, with very large bracts that hide the fls. ; calyx J^in.
long, hairy and with lanceolate teeth; corolla purple:
pod less than J^in. long. India. L, jj. B.

FLOATING HEART: Limnanthemum.
FLOERKEA DOUGLASD: Limnanthes.

FLORA'S PAINT-BRUSH: A common name for Emilia
flammea.

FLORICULTURE, or the growing of plants for
ornamental purposes, particularly for flowers, is yearly
assuming larger proportions in the United States. The
industry consists in growing annual, biennial and peren-
nial plants either under glass or outdoors, and in the

1509. Flacourtia Ramontchi.

disposal of the same in wholesale or retail markets.
These products are sold as cut-flowers or potted plants
to be used for indoor or outdoor home ornamentation,
or for planting in public parks, about schools and
other puolic buildings, or in cemeteries for ornamental
purposes. (For home flower-gardens, see p. 1747.)

Importance of the industry.

The floricultural statistics taken from the census of
1910 show a marked increase in the importance of
this branch of agriculture within the previous decade.
The acreage, as given for this census, was 18,248 as
compared with 9,307 as given for the census of 1900.
The total valuation, as given in this census, was
$34,872,000, an increase of 85.9 per cent as compared
with the report of the census for 1900. The figures were
compiled in nine large geographical divisions of the
United States. These were New England, Middle
Atlantic, South Atlantic, East North Central, West
North Central, East South Central, West South
Central, Mountain, and Pacific.

From its beginning the industry has centered around
such large cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Baltimore and Washington. The business is now assum-
ing considerable importance in Chicago, St. Louis and
other large cities in the Middle States, the South and
West. Statistics show that the largest floricultural
output comes from the Middle Atlantic section. The
states which compose this section are New York, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania. The total valuation of prod-
ucts from this section is $11,810,076. The second
section of importance is the East North Central,
composed of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and
Wisconsin, in which the figures given were $9,029,125.
The third important section was New England, where
the total valuation was $4,677,316. The smallest out-
put comes from the Mountain section, composed of
Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah and Nevada. Here the output was
$753,914. The most rapid increase in the industry dur-
ing the decade seems to have been in the Pacific sec-
tion, composed of Washington, Oregon and California,
where the valuation of flower products sprang from
$726,968 in 1899 to $2,175,572 in 1909. New York
leads other states in floricultural products, having an
output of $5,110,221. The rank of other important
states is Pennsylvania, Illinois, New Jersey, Massachu-
setts and Ohio.

Floriculture is intensive agriculture; consequently
the acreage devoted to the industry is not so large as
in other branches of agriculture. The amount of capital

1242

FLORICULTURE

invested in glasshouses and their equipment is con-
siderable. The return from the products, however, is
immediate. Commercial growers and men making a
business of greenhouse construction, estimate that
it costs from 60 to 90 cents a square foot of ground
covered to build and equip a modern range. The
growers estimate that the products from such an area
the first year should cover the cost of construction.

The flower-growing industry in the United States
has not yet assumed the large proportions that it has
in many European cities. The early colonists were an
extremely practical people and paid little attention to
the distinctly ornamental features about the home. As
wealth increased, however, there came to be a more
liberal use of flowers and plants; hence a larger demand
for them in the industrial world.

Floricultural statistics for the Dominion of Canada
are less complete than for the United States. The fol-
lowing are figures furnished through the courtesy of
W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist:

Capital invested, approximately $1,500,000

Square feet of glass 6,000,000

Annual output $1,000,000

Area covered 120 acres

History of the industry.

The early history of the floricultural industry is
obscure. It was merged to such an extent with other
branches of horticulture and other industries that it
could hardly be called a distinct industry. Previous to
1825 there is record of but few commercial flower-
growing establishments. From 1830 to 1840, rapid
progress was made in all branches of the work. The
demand for glasshouse products increased to a con-
siderable degree. Better houses were built, better sys-
tems of heating were devised, and consequently better
products were put on the market.

Even the glasshouses of this period were extremely
crude affairs. The framework was of large dimensions,
the glass small in size, heavy and thick. The roofs
were largely portable, being made of sash. About 1855
the first house having permanent sash-bars was built
by Frederic A. Lord hi Buffalo. The wooden super-
structure of this house was heavy and the interior light
conditions correspondingly poer, but it was a vast
improvement over sash-houses. This type of construc-
tion was met with favor by glasshouse men, and many
houses of a similar type soon were built. Glass of
larger size was used, and this was embedded in putty
instead of being placed on the outside as in sash-houses.

Previous to 1870 the principal business of the florist
was the growing of potted plants. The flowers from
these were often sold as cut-flowers, but the business
centered about growing potted plants for outdoor
bedding and other ornamental purposes. The cut-
flowers of that early period were comparatively of a
small-flowered, short-stemmed sort — heliotrope, camel-
lia, tuberose, bouvardia and those of a like nature.
Although the carnation was introduced as a florist
crop about 1852, it was of little commercial importance
previous to this date. About 1865, Dailledouze &
Zeller of Flatbush, Long Island, began to breed the
carnation, and between 1866 and 1872 several new
varieties were introduced by this firm. Garden roses
had been popular for many years, but few attempts
were made to grow them under glass previous to 1870.
They then came rapidly into public favor.

From 1870 to 1880 the demand for both potted
plants and cut-flowers increased rapidly. More atten-
tion was paid to city and home ornamentation, and
consequently more park and private conservatories
were built. Each year witnessed improvements in
construction, and consequently better grades of
florists' products. In the last twenty years the ad-
vances which have been made in cultural conditions

and the improvements in florists' crops have completely
revolutionized the industry.

Improvements in glasshouse structures, and their heating.

The tendency among flower-growers now is to build
large houses in preference to smaller ones. It has been
proved that the cost of construction is cheaper and that
these may be more easily heated, that plant-growth is
healthier because of a more uniform temperature, that
they are easier to construct and can be cared for with
greater economy of labor. Glass of larger size is now
used, and more attention is given details of construc-
tion to increase the light factors in the house. There
have been many changes in methods of heating glass-
houses during their history. From the crude methods
of flues, various devices for heating with hot water
and steam have been devised. Both of these methods
have then- advantages. In the earlier methods of hot-
water heating, the pipes were large and the system waa
an expensive one to install. Steam, therefore, came
into popular favor, especially in large commercial
establishments. It is still generally used. In some
sections of the country and in the growing of some
species of plants, hot water is still used; but here
better systems for forcing the circulation of water have
been installed so it is possible to use pipes of smaller
dimensions.

Improvements in flower crops.

The work of the plant-breeders began to produce results
in the the early nineties of last century. Many new varie-
ties of chrysanthemums and carnations were put on the
market. The violet then became an important florist
crop. The early part of the twentieth century, however,
witnessed a deluge of new varieties in practically all
species. Breeding and improved cultural methods
brought the qualities of the products far above any-
thing produced in the previous century. Large-flowered
carnations on long, stiff stems, violets of much larger
sizes, and improved strains of chrysanthemums, roses
and other species gave a remarkable impetus to the
industry.

Previous to the beginning of the twentieth century,
the American florist had interested himself in the cul-
ture of a wide variety of plants. In many cases the
larger part of the products were sold at the range.
The business, however, assumed such proportions that
many up-to-date florists found that they could not
profitably raise and dispose of their products at retail;
consequently the retail flower-stores became more
and more important factors in the disposal of the prod-
ucts. Wholesale commission houses and wholesale
flower-markets were established in the larger cities so
that the grower could devote nearly his entire time to
the production of his crop. Many of the more progres-
sive florists came to feel that they could not afford to
grow a wide variety of plant species, but that it paid
them better to grow one or two crops and to devote
their whole attention to growing these in the finest
manner possible so that they could produce flowers
which were first quality in every respect; hence men
came to be known as carnation, rose, violet, chrysan-
themum, fern, palm and other specialists. This led to
a wonderful improvement in the quality of flowers
produced, and there was no call in the market for the
inferior grades.

The buying public has had its influence in producing
a better quality of florists' products. It has demanded
not only better quality but something out of the ordi-
nary. People tired of roses, carnations, violets and bulb-
ous stock continually. The early part of the twentieth
century witnessed a remarkable interest in orchids.
The commercial man had to meet this demand. Twelve
years ago an orchid could hardly be found outside of
private conservatories. They were considered impossi-
ble to grow with financial success. Today nearly every

FLORICULTURE

FLORISTS' PLANTS

1243

up-to-date retail grower has his section of orchids,
and nearly every large floricultural center has its orchid
specialist. For many years it was considered impossible
to get satisfactory results from sweet peas under glass.
The introduction of new strains and careful study of
cultural conditions made the culture of this crop pos-
sible. The forcing of hardy herbaceous perennials like
antirrhinums, delphiniums, and the like, and the forcing
of hardy shrubs and other rare, hardy stock has fur-
nished the flower-grower with a wonderful range of the
more unusual plants.

Many large American flower-producers are now
managing their business on a departmental scale.
There are retail and wholesale departments; palm,
carnation, orchid, rose, chrysanthemum and bedding
departments, each in charge of a specialist in growing
that particular crop.

The flower exhibitions held from time to time in
the larger cities have had a beneficial effect on the
uplift of the business. These exhibitions have been
viewed by thousands of retail buyers. The choicest
products of the flower-grower's skill have been exhib-
ited, and the public has become dissatisfied with the
inferior grade of commercial flowers offered for sale
in the average flower-shops. They have demanded
better products, and it has been the work of the flower-
grower to produce these qualities.

Literature.

Within the last ten years there has been a remarkable
increase in literature on flower-growing. Such papers
as "The Florists' Exchange," "The American Florist,"
"Florists' Review," "Horticulture," "Gardening,"
"Gardener's Chronicle of America," have kept the
grower closely in touch with the work in the gar-
dening world. Many publications for the amateur,
like "The Garden Magazine," "Country Life in Amer-
ica," "House & Garden," "Suburban Life" have
assisted in giving the American people much valuable
information regarding flower-growing about the home.

A long list of books might now be given, dealing
with commercial and home flower-growing. Among
these, valuable for the commercial man, are: "The
American Carnation," C. W. Ward; "Commercial
Rose-Culture," Eber Holmes; "Chrysanthemums for
the Million," Charles H. Totty; "Violet-Culture," B.
T. Galloway; "Orchid Culture," William Watson;
"Florist's Manual," William Scott; "Plant-Culture,
G. W. Oliver. Excellent books for the amateur are:
"The Rose," H. B. Ellwanger; "Window-Gardening,"
H. B. Dorner; "The Garden Month by Month," Mrs.
M. C. Sedgwick; "Making a Bulb Garden," Grace
Tabor; "Roses and How to Grow Them," Doubleday,
Page & Co.; "House Plants and How to Grow Them,''
Parker T. Barnes. E. A. WHITE.

FLORIDA ARROW-ROOT: Zamia integrifolia.
FLORIDA SWAMP LILY: Crinum americanum.

FLORISTS' PLANTS. A half-century ago the
florist plant trade, although perhaps relatively of
greater importance than at present, was not a promi-
nent feature of the holiday trade. At Christmas there
was some acceleration in the business, but this was
overshadowed by the trade in cut-flowers. Easter was
not a time of great plant sales. Church decorations in
Protestant churches were not common. The sales of
plants were more evenly distributed throughout the
year, and the variety of plants sold was greater because
the grower and consumer came in contact with each
other, thus enabling the grower to dispose of plants
which would not withstand the handling experienced
by the plants of the present day. With the changing
conditions in the family life of city residents, plants are
no longer largely desired for window-gardens, but for
temporary decoration of the living-rooms. The old type

of plant-grower with his botanical collection has
passed away, and in his place is the large commercial
grower of a few staple plants which are grown in per-
fect condition. These growers produce a large quantity
of plants for Christmas and then begin operations for
Easter, as both of these dates now are times for the
sending of gifts.

The trade in florist plants in the U. S., including bed-
ding plants, is not less than $10,000,000, and it is encour-
aging that it is annually increasing without any dimuni-
tion in the volume of the cut-flower business. Every
up-to-date florist makes Christmas and Easter displays,
and often special exhibits of chrysanthemums, and so
on, are made when in season. The most successful of
these displays are made in houses arranged for the
purpose, for when made in an ordinary greenhouse
with high benches, the taller plants are above the level
of the eye and the effect is sacrificed. The best houses
for displays are those of the conservatory type such as
are seen in connection with some of the best flower

1510. Pot-plants being packed for shipment.

stores. An ordinary greenhouse is often adapted for
the purpose by constructing low benches, 18 to 20
inches high, for displaying bulbous plants and omitting
them entirely for tall plants. The object sought in all
cases is to have the plants placed so that the buyer
looks down upon them. The show house is not very
large for the reason that it is not always advisable to
have too many plants of a kind in sight and also
because at Easter the occurrence of warm, bright,
unseasonable weather prevents keeping the plants in
good condition. It is generally recognized that the
display must be maintained in good condition by
removing all unsightly plants and faded flowers. The
stock should be replenished and rearranged every day.
The good salesman is one who has a knowledge of
the care of plants, as well as their good points, their
appropriateness for special occasions, and so on.
Judicious advice on these points has much to do in
winning and retaining customers. When a sale is made,
the plants are carefully tagged with the correct address
and the time it is to be delivered. If the plant is
intended as a present, the sender's card is usually

1244

FLORISTS' PLANTS

placed in a waterproof envelope which is fastened to
the delivery tag. Deliveries of Christmas and Easter
plants particularly should be promptly made, for
nothing creates more dissatisfaction than late delivery.
This requires skill in systematically arranging the
plants according to the delivery routes, thus avoiding
traversing the same territory a second time. It is
axiomatic that the plant should be at its best on the
day or at the function for which it is to be used. The
weather has much to do with the condition of plants
upon delivery. At Christmas, stock may be sent out
twenty-four hours in advance, while at Easter stock
delivered thus far in advance may not be satisfactory
on Sunday.

All plants in pots, with the possible exception of the
woody kinds, are staked and tied before handling.
Plants are neatly wrapped with several thicknesses of
paper to insure safe delivery. Plants with flowers
which are easily bruised are usually wrapped with a
sheet of cotton batting or waxed paper and then six to
eight thicknesses of newspaper with clean plain paper

1511. The completed crate for shipment.

outside. When plants must be shipped in cold weather,
they must be wrapped as indicated and then set in
strong wooden boxes. These boxes are approximately
4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 8 inches deep. The corners
are strengthened by the use of extra cleats. The box
is first lined with corrugated paper, and then several
thicknesses of newspaper which are left hanging over
the edges of the box all around. Slightly dampened
excelsior is used around the pots to prevent breakage
and to make the package secure. The paper is then
brought up over the plants and fastened (Fig. 1510).
Over the top a frame is built of H x 4-inch cleating
lumber which prevents damage to the plants (Fig. 1511) .

The number of plants that can be had in perfection
at Christmas is limited and does not change from year
to year. Among the leading flowering plants are
poinsettias in pots and pans, azaleas, cyclamen and
Lorraine begonias. The more expensive plants are
ericas (E. melanthera) and camellias.

The berried plants commonly grown are the Jerusa-
lem cherry (Solanum Capsicastrum), Christmas pepper
(S. Pseudo-Capsicum'), aucubas, ardisias, holly and
Otaheite oranges.

The foliage plants include araucarias, boxwood,
crotons, nephrolepis, Pandanus Veitchii, Ficus pan-
durata and F. elastica, Dracaena (D. terminalis, D. fra-
grans, D. Mand&ana, D. Godseffiana, D. Lord Wolseley)
and Adiantum.

Easter is a great plant day and there is a great variety
of suitable plants. The leading flowering plant is, of
course, Lilium longiflorum.

It would be difficult to determine the relative mar-
ket value of the different plants, but among the bulbs
tulips, hyacinths, narcissi and lilies-of-the-valley are
staples. These are sold in pots or pans, singly or
in plant combinations. A very large amount of bulbous
material is sold at Easter. Cinerarias, Primula obconica
and P. sinensis are a smaller factor than formerly on
the large city markets, but still remain an important
item in the smaller cities. Marguerites and spirea
(Astilbejaponica), when well grown, find a good sale in
New York. A number of violets and pansies planted in
low dishes, and small blooming geraniums, from 3-inch
pots, planted in 6- to 12-inch bulb pans, are salable
plants in many localities. Among the shrubs the azaleas
are most important, although in some cities they show a
decline in popularity. Following these are genistas,
which have been for many years a popular Easter
plant. Hydrangea rosea and H. Otaksa were long stand-
ard varieties, but now will probably give way to the
new French varieties. In some cities hydrangeas are
less used for Easter than for Memorial Day. Lilacs,
Charles X, Marie Legraye and Madame Lemoine are
among the best. The lilac has the disadvantage of a
great display of wood and leaves before the terminal
flowers charm the eye. It therefore requires acces-
sories to relieve this effect, and the demand for this
plant is limited. Rhododendrons are slowly gaining in
popularity. Acacias and ericas are becoming more
common each year. Acacia longifolia and A. paradoxa
are now grown for market. Erica Cavendishii is used
for individual plants, while E. cupressina is used in
making up baskets of plants. Bougainvillea Sanderiana,
like the rambler roses, may be made to assume definite
forms which are especially beautiful when the bracts
are well colored. Among the other shrubs more or less
common are Azalea mollis, Deutzia gracilis, Spiraea
Van Houttei, double almond, hawthorns, and Wistaria
multijuga. In the last decade the rambler roses have
taken a prominent place among Easter plants and each
year a larger number are grown. The crimson rambler
was first used, but is now superseded by the more
beautiful Dorothy Perkins, Tausendschon, Lady Gay,
Newport Fairy and Hiawatha. The rambler roses
possess the advantage that they can be trained into
pleasing forms. The polyantha roses are popular also,
and among the varieties used are Madame Norbert
Levavasseur (Baby Rambler), Mrs. Cutbush and
Orleans. The latter are very satisfactory when sold
either as individual plants with waterproof crepe paper
pot-covers or in baskets with other plants. The hybrid
perpetuals are still grown, but not in so large quantities
as formerly. The varieties now grown are Frau Karl
Druschki, Mrs. John Laing and Magna Charta.

Easter brings a demand for some of the larger sizes
of foliage plants for decorations in churches, retail
stores, and the like. The small -sized ferns, dracenas
and palms are required in making up baskets of plants.

The florist of fifty years ago thought that a good
blooming plant did not need any aids to make it
attractive. This has changed, and the florists are
seeking every means to make their plants more attrac-
tive. The most inexpensive method of doing this is to
use pot-covers of waterproof crepe paper in color suited
to the subjects. Porto Rican or raffia matting in color
is used in a similar manner.

The trade of the present day disposes of a great
many plants in baskets or boxes. Individual plant-
baskets, with handles, to hold even as large as 6- to
8-inch pots are often used. Baskets, usually of the
peach-basket shape, are also utilized for an endless
variety of combinations of flowering and foliage plants
(Fig. 1512). The baskets are supplied with a metal
receptacle or lining so that the pots may be removed
from the plants, giving them the appearance of having
been grown together. Formerly these receptacles were
filled by the retailers, but now many are prepared at

FLORISTS' PLANTS

FLOWER

1245

the greenhouses according to order and sent to the stores
where all that is needed is to add the basket and
the ribbons. The latter plan relieves the store of much
work in the busy season, but may not result in as artistic
combinations as can be secured by a person trained in
the work. The manufacturers of florist supplies are
striving to meet the demand for something new in
baskets and boxes. New material, weaves and shapes,
are seen every year. There is also a great variety of
coloring. There are green, gilt, white, red, ivory, bronze
and copper shades as well as two-tone effects, as red
and green, white and green, blue and white, pink and
white, and yellow and white. The variety offered is
such that baskets can be secured in sizes to suit either
the high-class or popular trade. The small florist

1513. Longitudinal section
of a buttercup flower.

1512. A made-up basket of living plants.

usually begins by using some of the willow, rattan or
splint baskets which are filled with inexpensive plants.
Cedar tubs, wood and terra-cotta boxes are also used.
The demand for pleasing arrangements of flowering
and foliage plants in boxes, jardinieres, hampers,
baskets, pans and dishes of fanciful design, light and
airy, dainty and graceful, is increasing and is receiving
the attention of the growers of holiday plants. It is
generally recognized that the work offers as wide a
scope for inventive genius and artistic discernment as
any phase of the florist business. A. C. BEAL.

FLOWER is a popular or semi-technical term for the
aggregate of structures having to do with sexual
reproduction in the higher plants. The concept
usually includes color, and a definite organization as
outlined below; therefore, gymnosperms, ferns, and
the lower plants are said not to have true flowers. As
ordinarily understood, the flower is a showy structure
useful for esthetic purposes, gratifying in color and often
in odor, and in some way intimately connected with
the production of seed; but analogous although incon-
spicuous structures are sometimes popularly recog-
nized as "flowers." To the layman, many of our com-
mon herbs, shrubs and trees are said not to bear flowers
at all, although the botanist recognizes that at least
inconspicuous greenish flowers are borne by all of these
plants unless they be ferns or gymnosperms.

Botanically considered, the flower when complete
consists of four sets of organs from the center outward :
the gyncecium, andrcecium, corolla, and calyx, to which
may possibly be added a fifth,
the disk (Figs. 1513-1516).

The gynoscium Figs. 1517-
1519). — In the center are one
or more small flask-like or
pouch-like organs (pistils) which
are hollow and contain tiny
bud-like growths (ovules) . The
pistils collectively are termed
the gyncecium (female house-
hold). The hollow ovule-bear-
ing part of the pistil is the ovary. At the summit of the
ovary is a more or less sticky or roughened
surface, the stigma, which may rest directly
on the ovary (sessile) or may be raised aloft
on a stalk (the style) . From the ovules seeds
are developed (see Fertilization).

The fundamental or unit foliar organ of
the gyncecium is termed a carpel. In the
simplest case there is but one carpel, folded
to form a pouch with the upper ventral leaf-
surface within, and the margins forming a
suture down one side. The structure thus
formed is a simple pistil. The suture bears
the ovules and is termed the placenta, and
is normally ovuliferous throughout, but fre-
quently only the uppermost or basal ovule
of the row is present (apical and
suspended, or basal and erect). In
other cases there are several or
many carpels but these remain dis-
tinct, then forming many simple
pistils. In most cases, however, the
carpels are more or less fused, at
least below, and the resulting pistil is said to
be compound. The sutures are axially placed
and the midribs are outward (anterior), the
ventral surface of each carpel lining the
ovarian cavity. There are, therefore, nor-
mally as many cells or locules in a compound
ovary as there are carpels. Through the
partical opening-out of each carpel while the
margins of adjacent carpels still remain
united, the ovary may become one-celled
though still compound, as in the violet.
The placenta will in this case be parietal (on the
walls). In certain families (Caryophyllaceae, Primu-
laceae) the compound ovaries are one-celled but have
a basal placenta, or this basal placenta may project
upward into the single chamber of the ovary as a
central post on which the ovules are borne (free-central
placenta) (Fig. 1515). To determine the number of
carpels in a given pistil is often difficult. If there are
several separate stigmas or styles, it is usually safe to
infer that each represents a carpel. If the ovary is sev-
eral-celled, each

cell usually de- 6J ^^«^

notes a carpel and
in one-celled ova-
ries the placentae,
if parietal, denote
the number of car-
pels. In the case
of a pistil with a
one-celled ovary,
basal placenta,
one style and one
stigma, only de-
velopmental or
phylogenetic
studies will show
how many carpels
are present.

1514. Structure of flower. — The plum.

se. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens; o.
ovary; s. style: st. stigma. The pistil con-
sists of the ovary, style, and stigma. It
contains the seed part. The stamens are
tipped with anthers, in which the pollen is
borne. The ovary, o, ripens into the fruit.

1246

FLOWER

FLOWER

Ovaries are sometimes raised on a stalk within the
flower, as in the caper family (gynophore) and in Coptis
(thecophore) . The styles and stigmas are frequently much
modified for pollination purposes, as in the orchids and
in the pitcher plant (Sarracenia) .
The andrcecium (Figs. 1520-
1522). — Surrounding the pistils
are found one or more whorls of
organs called stamens, collec-
tively termed the andrcecium
(male household). A stamen
normally consists of a slender
stalk (filament) capped by an
enlarged part (anther), although
this stalk is often wanting. The
anther contains one, two or four
cavities (locules or "cells") in
which a powdery mass (pollen) is
located. The so-called cells are
not to be confused with the cells
of the plant tissue. The gynce-
cium and andrcecium, which are

1515. Section of a flower
of corn-cockle.

Showing torus, ovary,
styles, stamens and floral
envelopes.

1519. Compound pis-
til of a St. John's-wort.
It has five carpels.

1516. Parts of flower in
the trumpet-creeper.

both necessary for the production of good seed, are
termed the essential organs of the flower. Ordinarily
each stamen represents one foliar unit. When many
stamens are present, this increase in number is brought
about in one of three ways : by an increase in the num-
ber of whorls of stamens (Caryophyllacese, Rosacese)
or an increase in length of the spiral (Ranunculus), by
the conversion of petals into stamens, or by a breaking
up of each individual stamen into many (St. John's-
wort). The first method is by far the most common.
In the last method, the origin is usually betrayed by
the aggregation of the stamens in fascicles. Normally
both filament and anther of each stamen is
free from its neighbors, but in some cases
the filaments are all joined into a tube
around the pistil (monadelphous) as in the
hollyhock, or into two groups (diadelphous)
as in the pea family. These two groups are
usually very unequal in the pea tribes,
nine stamens being united while the tenth
is free. In other cases the anthers may be
coherent while the filaments are free (synge-
necious), as in the Composite. In the Ster-
culiaceae, the filaments or tube of filaments
are variously toothed, crested or otherwise
modified; while in the Orchidacese they are
fused with the style to form the so-called
column or gynandrium of the flower. In
the milkweeds, each stamen bears a cornu-
copia-like appendage
which together form
the crown. In Viola,
two of the filaments
bear nectar-spurs.

The anthers are
usually oval or oblong
bodies fixed to the
filament by the base
(basal), or by the
center (versatile). At
maturity they con-
tain normally two
1518. Head of simple pollen-sacs separated
pistils in hepatica. by a sterile tissue

(connective) which is a prolongation of the filament.
The anther-sacs are sometimes four in number, some-
times reduced to one through fusion. The walls of the
sacs contain a peculiar fibrous
layer by the hygroscopic proper-
ties of which they are enabled to
curve back, thus opening the pol-
len-chamber along definite prear-
ranged lines and allowing the pollen
to escape. The dehiscence is usu-
ally by a longitudinal slit, but it
is frequently by terminal pores as
in the Ericaceae, or rarely by
transverse slits. In Vaccinium, the
pores are carried aloft on long
tube-like extensions of the anther,
while in Berberis the pores are
provided with an uplifting trap-door.

The pollen-grains are normally spherical or oval cells
in which the two or three nuclei representing the male
gametophyte are found. The wall consists of a deli-
cate inner layer (inline), surrounded by a thicker
cutinized layer (exine) which is either smooth or
externally sculptured in various ways. Specialized
places in the extine serve as germ-pores through
which the pollen-tubes easily emerge. These
pores are sometimes provided with actual
lids (pumpkin and squash) which pop off at
the proper time. The pollen in the
Orchidaceae and Asclepiadacese is
more or less waxy and coheres into
one or several masses (pollinia). The
pollinia are in many cases produced
into minute stalks which connect with
a sticky gland that is designed to be-
come attached to visiting insects. On
the departure of the insect the gland,
together with the attached pollinia,
is carried away to the next flower.
The pollen-grains of orchids, heaths
and a few other plants are composed
of two to four cells (compound).

Corolla (Figs. 1523-1527). — Outside the stamens is
found a whorl of flat leaf-like usually colored organs
termed petals or collectively the corolla. The petals are
usually in one whorl and follow the numerical plan of the
flower closely; rarely are they fewer or numerous. They
are normally flat or concave colored bodies distinct

1520. Anthers,
showing d e h i s-
cence; azalea on
left, barberry on
right.

1517.

Compound
pistil of
catnip.

Showing
4-par ted
ovary, long
style, 2 stig-
mas (s).

1521. Transitions from stamens to petals in the water-lily.

from one another (polypetalous) and regularly spread-
ing from the receptacle. But in many plants the petals
are connate (gamopetalous) into one structure for a
greater or less distance toward the apices. The united
part is the tube, the lobed border the limb of the gamo-
petalous corolla. The lobes or segments are either all
alike and equally placed (regular corolla) or they vary
much among themselves (irregular corolla) . If the lobes

FLOWER

FLOWER

1247

are united higher up into groups of two and three, as
in many mints, the upper more or less erect, the lower
spreading, the corolla is bilabiate (Fig. 1526). A partic-
ular type of irregular polypetalous corolla is the so-
called papilionaceous corolla (Fig. 1527) found in the pea.

1522. Stamens
of erica (left) and
vaccinium.

1523. A salver-shaped corolla.

family and consisting of a standard, two lateral wings,
and a keel. A regular corolla is radially symmetrical,
possessing an infinite number of planes of symmetry
(actinomorphic), while most irregular flowers possess
but one plane of symmetry (zygomorphic) . A few pos-
sess no such plane (as Canna). Gamopetalous corollas
fall into certain types based on the shape of the tube
and limb. The more common types are rotate, salver-
form, funnelform, bell-shaped, tubular, and urceolate.

The corolla may be vari-
ously colored. White flow-
ers owe their color to light
reflected from air which is
between the cells of the
petals, as shown by the
fact that when waterlogged
these petals become trans-
parent. Yellows and oranges
are usually due to abun-
dant minute color bodies
(chromoplasts) located
within the cells of the petal.
Reds and blues are due to
colored cell-sap.

Calyx. — Surrounding the
1524. Funnelform corolla of corolla is another set or
morning-glory. whorl of organs, the calyx,

the individual organs of

which are sepals. The calyx is usually composed of as
many sepals as there are petals, but in the Portulacaceae
there are but two sepals, while in some plants there are
many. In many of the Ranunculaceae and other fami-
lies they are colored like petals and replace these organs.
In the Easter lily and tulip they are similar to the
petals. In the Compositae the calyx is reduced to
scales or bristles or is absent entirely. The sepals are
frequently connate (gamosepalous) , and the resulting
structure is often irregular. The calyx and corolla are
together termed the floral envelopes. If they are simi-
lar in appearance, and, therefore, difficult to recognize,
as in the Easter lily, they are collectively termed
perianth.

Disk (Figs. 1528, 1529).— In many
plants a glandular disk, or series of
glands corresponding to such a disk,
is found. When present, this disk
may lie either between the stamens
and pistil (intrastaminal) as is the
common case, or more rarely be- 1S2s Rotate co-
tween the stamens and petals roiia and connivent
(extrastaminal). The genus Acer is stamens of solanum.

peculiar in having some species with an intrastaminal
disk while in others it is extrastaminal. By some
morphologists this disk is considered a fifth set of organs
in the flower, while by others it is considered merely as
an outgrowth of the floral axis or receptacle on which
all other parts of the flower are in-
serted. The disk is in many cases
characteristic of whole families, which
led Bentham and Hooker to place
these families together in the series
Disciflora3. The disk also occurs in
other families not obviously related.
It forms a ring about the styles in
some Rubiacese. The glandular cup of
Populus and the finger-like gland of
Salix are probably to be referred here,
although by some they have been
interpreted as a reduced perianth. The
disk usually functions as a nectary. In corolla of salvia.
shape and structure it is very diverse.
It may be cup-shaped, saucer-shaped, annular, regular,
or irregular; or it may be of separate glands, either
simple or variously lobed. It may line the cup of the
perigynous flower or it may be adnate to the surface
of the ovary.

Receptacle (Figs. 1530, 1531).— The apex of the
stem on which the various floral organs are inserted is
termed the receptacle or torus. This is normally a
simple club-shaped thickening of the summit of the
stem. In the strawberry it is much enlarged and fleshy,

1526. Labiate

1527. A papilionaceous
corolla. — The sweet pea. s,
standard; w, w, wings; ft,
keel.

1528. Showing the disk in the
willow flower. Pistillate flower
at a; staminate flower at b.

forming the greater part of the fruit. In the raspberry it
remains on the plant when the "fruit" is removed. In
the Compositae there is a common receptacle for all
the flowers of the head, as well as for each individual
flower. In the caper family the receptacle is often pro-
longed upward, forming a stalk for the ovary within
the flower (gynophore).

In the Rosacese, Onagraceae, Saxifragaceae, and in
various other plants, the stamens, petals and sepals
are perigynous, that is they are inserted on the edge of a
cup-shaped organ which springs either from below the
ovary or from its summit. The view has been held
that the gamosepalous calyx here bears the stamens
and petals on its tube. Another early proposed view
has in recent years gained ground rapidly and is now
widely accepted. This view interprets
the cup as a hollowed receptacle
likened to a glove-finger when the apex
is slightly pushed in.
The ovary at the
bottom of the cup is
really apical as usual,
while the sepals,
petals and stamens,

located at the higher 1529 Disks in flowers of

margin of the cup, maple family.

1248

FLOWER

FLOWER

are as usual inserted morphologically lower on the
receptacle. While in most flowers the ovary is
inserted on the summit of the receptacle (superior
ovary), in others, as in the Orchidacese, Onagracese,
Umbelliferse, Rubiacese, and Composite, the ovary
appears to occupy the center of
the club-shaped structure (inferior
ovary) below the insertion of the
calyx, corolla, and stamens which
seem to spring from the summit
of the ovary (epigynous). The
view has been held that in such
cases a gamosepalous calyx similar
to that described above in the
perigynous flower has grown fast
to the surface of the ovary,
and that the other organs are
borne on the calyx-tube at the sum-
mit of the ovary. The opinion is
now becoming general that the true
explanation of the phenomenon is
that the cup-shaped receptacle of
the perigynous flower, and not the
calyx, has grown fast to the surface
of the ovary. In the Onagraceae
and some other plants, the hollow
receptacle has not only grown fast
to the whole surface of the ovary
but projects beyond it so that such
flowers have an inferior ovary and
are also perigynous (Fig. 1530).

Bracts. — The leaves on the peduncles and upper
parts of the stem adjacent to the flower deserve a word.
They are often much modified in size, shape and color
from the normal foliage leaves, being often much
reduced. They sometimes form an involucre around
the flower, and are calyx-like, as in hepatica and straw-
berry. In other cases, they form a showy corolla-like
involucre, as in Cornus and Poinsettia, and are then
often mistaken for a corolla. In the Arum, a single
huge bract (spathe) envelopes the entire flower-cluster
(spadix); these are well shown in Figs. 1532, 1533.

1530. The fuchsia
flower in longitu-
dinal section.

1531. a, epigynous flower; b and c, perigynous flowers.

Incomplete flowers. — Not all of the floral sets described
above are always present. The flowers may be incom-
plete. Thus the corolla may be wanting (flower apetal-
ous) as in hepatica and anemone, or both calyx and
corolla may be absent (naked or achlamydeous) as in
willow and pepper, or the stamens may be wanting
(imperfect or unisexual, pistillate flower) as in willows
and oaks, or the pistils may be absent (staminate
flowers of willows and oaks). At least one set of essen-
tial organs is necessary for a functional flower, but in
some cases, through specialization for other purposes,
both sets may be absent. Thus the marginal flowers of
the hydrangea are enlarged and showy for insect attrac-
tion, but are neutral. In the case of unisexual flowers,
. the stamens and pistils may be borne in different flowers
on the same plant (monoecious) as in the oak and birch,
or on separate plants (dioecious) as in the willow and
poplar. In some plants, as in the maple, certain
flowers are unisexual while others are perfect, a con-
dition termed polygamous.

The plan of the flower. — If the numbers of parts in
each set are counted, a certain number will be found
to be common to many or all of the sets of the same

flower. This is the numerical plan of the flower (Fig.
1534). Thus in geranium there are five sepals, five
petals, ten stamens, and five parts to the pistil. The
stamens, when numerous, are often in multiples of this
numerical plan. The parts of the pistil, on the other
hand, frequently show a reduction from the numerical
plan as exhibited by other parts of the flower. The
number of parts in some flowers is so irregular that a

1532. The great white spathe (and the spadix) of the garden calla.

numerical plan can be made out only with difficulty,
while in some flowers such a plan is apparently wanting.
The members of each floral set are usually inserted
all at the same height on the floral axis (receptacle),
and are therefore in whorls, although frequently more
than one whorl occurs in the andrcecium and rarely
in other sets. The parts of one set normally fall between
those of the set next outside and next inside, and are
said to alternate with these. In some families, as for
example in the Ranunculacese and Magnoliaceae, some
or all of the organs of the flower are inserted spirally
on the receptacle like scales on a pine cone. In such
cases there is often a marked intergrading between the
organs of the adjacent sets at the boundary line. The
relative position of parts of the
flower may be graphically indicated
by means of a diagramatic cross-
sectional plan, called the floral dia-
gram (see Fig. 1534.). Information
in regard to the number and union
of parts may also be indicated by
so-called floral formulae as follows:

K
5

GAG

5 5+5 2

In this formula, the letters from
left to right indicate calyx, corolla,
androecium, and gynoecium respec-
tively. The brackets over the letters
indicate a fusion of parts in the
same set, while the bracket under-
neath indicates a fusion of different
sets. The above flower would be
polysepalous with five sepals, gamo-

1533. Spathe and
spadix of Jack-in-
the-pulpit.

FLOWER

FLOWER

1249

petalous of five fused petals, have ten stamens in two
whorls all inserted on the corolla, and two carpels
united into one pistil with a superior ovary.

Double flowers. — Occasionally in nature and very
frequently in cultivation, the number of petals becomes
very greatly increased, often to the exclusion of the
stamens and pistils, so that the flower presents a full
rosette-like appearance. Such flowers are popularly
said to be "full" or "double." The increase in petals
is apparently a mutation, but is stimulated by changes
in nutrition due to cultivation. Most double-flowered
varieties tend strongly to run out. The origin of the
extra petals is not always the same. In most cases, as
in double hollyhocks and carnations, the stamens and
even carpels have been transformed into petals; in
rarer cases the extra structures are interpolated organs.
Double "flowers" in the sunflower, golden glow, and
the like, are simply heads in which all disk-flowers are
converted into ray-flowers (see next paragraph).

False flowers of the Composite (Figs. 1535, 1536). — The
so-called flowers of such plants as the white daisy, sun-
flower, aster, goldenrod, and dandelion are found on
close study not to be flowers at all, but flower-clusters
of the type termed heads. These heads are remarkably
specialized for economy and division of labor. This
community of flowers functions as does one individual
flower in other cases, and the whole make-up of the
head simulates a flower to a remarkable degree.
Around the head is a calyx-like involucre of bracts,
functioning like a calyx as a protection in the bud. In

1534. Diagrams of the flower of drosera, vismia and viola.

daisy, sunflower and others there is a corolla-like part
consisting of highly modified ray-flowers or ligulate
flowers. The central part of the head in these plants is
occupied by disk-flowers. The aster, goldenrod, cone-
flower and many others are like the daisy, while in the
dandelion, chicory, hawkweed and sow thistle the head
consists of ligulate flowers only, and in the thistle, bone-
set and iron weed the head contains only disk-flowers.
The morphology of the less specialized disk-flower is as
follows: A one-celled, one-seeded inferior ovary is sur-
mounted by a variously modified calyx, which is often
wanting, and a tubular five-toothed gamopetalous
corolla. On the corolla-tube are borne five syngenesious
stamens, and from the summit of the ovary projects a
single style which is two-branched above. The ray-
flowers have been developed from the disk type in the
course of evolution by greatly increasing the size of
such a tubular corolla, and by splitting the tube down
one side, at the same time flattening out the slit por-
tion. In the sunflower, there was no great change in
color as the ray-flowers evolved, while in the daisy and
the asters the rays are of a different color from the
disk-flowers. Since the involucre performs for the whole
head the same function that the individual calyx does
normally for each flower, there is no longer any neces-
sity for the calyx. Therefore, following the general
rule that a useless structure tends either to disappear
or take on a new function, the calyx has become
obsolete in some cases while in others it has become
modified into scales, awns or bristles (pappus) which
aid the fruit in dissemination. In many cases the ray-
flowers have been sacrificed entirely for insect attrac-
tion and have become sterile. By this massing of the
flowers, more flowers may be pollinated by one insect
visitor, and more easily pollinated. Efficiency and

80

economy run through the whole organization of the
composite head to a remarkable degree.

The biology of the flower. — The flower is a structure
developed by plants to promote and safeguard sexual
reproduction, primarily in land plants, and to bring
about cross-pollination in these plants. The three
definite agents of
cross - pollination
with which the
flower is con-
cerned are water,
wind and insects.
The agent for
which the flower
is adapted exerts
a profound influ-
ence on the struc-
ture of the flower.

1535. Head of composite, showing re-
ceptacle at e, bearing the disk-flowers.
The long rays are shown, and beneath
them the hairy involucre. — Rudbeckia.

Only insect - pol-
linated flowers are
normally showy.
Water- and wind-
pollinated flowers
are usually green and small, with often a total loss of
corolla or of both corolla and calyx. The pollen in such
plants is produced in abundance to make up for great
loss, as it is wafted indiscriminately through the air.
Water plants usually flower at the surface and are
wind- or insect-pollinated. The true water-pollinated
or hydrophilous plants are few in number. Naias,
Zannichellia, Zostera and Ruppia may be mentioned,
all of which belong to the Naiadacese. In Zostera, the
pollen-grains are long and spiral as a further adapta-
tion to water-pollination.

Wind-pollinated or anemophilous flowers (Figs. 1537,
1538) are very numerous. Elodes and Vallisneria (eel-
grass) among aquatic plants may be mentioned. Val-
lisneria is remarkable because the staminate flowers
break off before anthesis, rise to the surface, expand,
and are floated about by the wind, the three reflexed
sepals acting as floats which cannot be upset. The pis-
tillate flowers are attached to long peduncles which
extend to the surface of the water, whether it is shallow
or deep. The pistillate and staminate flowers are so
shaped that when the two float together the stamens are
in exactly the right place to touch the stigmas. After
pollination, the peduncle coils up and the fruit matures
under water. The catkin-bearing trees are all ane-
mophilous and have very much reduced flowers. The
willows are both wind- and insect-pollinated. Among
herbs the grasses, sedges, rushes, and sorrels (Rumex)
are wind-pollinated. Interesting in this respect is
Thalictrum (meadow-rue) of the Ranunculacese, the
flowers of which are wholly green and insignificant
with large exserted anthers and abundant pollen and
feathery stigmas. It thus exhibits perfectly the various
adaptations to wind-pollination in a family that is
normally insect-pollinated and has showy flowers. The
time of flowering of wind-pollinated flowers often shows

1536. Parts in the head of a coreopsis.

a distinct relation to efficiency. The wind-pollinated
trees and shrubs bloom in early spring before the leaves
interfere with the passage of pollen through the air.
The grasses and other herbaceous anemophilous plants
bloom before the tall growth of late summer has
matured, at which time plants are mostly insect-pol-
linated. The pollen-grains of anemophilous plants are
nearly always smooth and very light, and usually con-

1250

FLOWER

FLOWER

1537. Wind-pollinated flower
of juncus. (Enlarged)

tain starch as a reserve food instead of oil. This pol-
len is capable of withstanding greater desiccation than
is the pollen of most insect-pollinated flowers. In the
pines, each grain is provided with two air-sacs to
increase the buoyancy and to expose greater surface
to the wind.

Insect-pollinated or ento-
mophilous flowers must meet
two distinct problems: they
must entice the insect to the
flower; and they must guide
the insect in such a way that
cross-pollination will be as-
sured. The attractive agents
are four in number, — color,
honey, scent, and abundant
pollen (for pollen - eating
insects), but they are not
usually all found in one
species. Color is provided
mainly by the corolla, but
the calyx (in Anemone) or
even the bracts around the
flowers (in Cornus and Poin-
settia) may function thus instead. Attempts have
been made to show that certain colors are more attrac-
tive than others to certain groups of insects. Yellow
has been designated as the color for flies and beetles,
blue and red for hymenoptera, browns for carrion
insects and wasps, and whites for night-flying insects
especially. Honey (nectar) is produced in a great
variety of flowers and it is a reward for the insect visit.
The honey-secreting glands (nectaries) are borne either
on the disk or on the petals, but more rarely are they
staminal or ovarian. In order that the honey may not
be appropriated by undesirable insects which would not
effect cross-pollination, it is frequently placed at the
end of spurs or grooves which are adapted to the pro-
boscis of the insects for which the flower is adapted.
Various markings of the corolla, such as bright eye-
spots and dark converging lines, called honey-guides,
often direct the insect accurately to the honey, and in
such a way that cross-pollination will be accomplished.
An interesting case is the violet, where the honey is
produced by staminal nectaries but is collected and
stored in the spur of the lower petal. To this storehouse
honey-guides in the form of purple lines lead. The beard
in the throat of the violet flower protects the pollen
from rain and also discourages the insect from entering
the flower on the wrong side. Scent as a means of
attracting insects is very general, and is especially
frequent in nocturnal and crepuscular (twilight)
flowers. The scent is due to
volatile oils produced mainly by
the petals. These oily compounds
are comparatively few in number
and often re-occur in plants that
are wholly unrelated. Thus the
clove scent is found also in some
orchids, and the violet scent is
found with slight modification in
the flowers of several plants. Flow-
ers that attract pollen - eating
insects are often yellow, as butter-
cups and dandelion, but flowers of
other colors are frequently visited
at least by bees that carry away
quantities of pollen in their femoral
pollen-pockets.
Most pollen is injured by exposure to rain and dew.
The grains tend to swell and burst owing to the exces-
sive osmotic pressure. It is for this reason that pollen
when studied or germinated in the laboratory must be
mounted in a sugar solution approximating the density
of the stigmatic fluid. It is not a surprise, therefore, to
find that nature has protected the pollen of many

1538. Wind -pollin-
ated flower of a grass.
— Poa. (Enlarged)

flowers from rain, by structural means. Thus, bell-
shaped hanging flowers, salverform corollas with a
small eye which requires pressure to force a drop of
water in, closed corollas of the snapdragon type, beard
in the throat, flowers that droop only in wet weather,
flowers that close up during rain, and many other con-
trivances, are adaptations, in part at least, for the pro-
tection of the pollen.

The protection of the honey and pollen from unbid-
den insect guests and the safeguarding of the flower
from self-pollination by such insects, has led to various
protective devices. The closed throat of the toadflax
and snapdragon, the small eye of the salverform corolla,
the beard in the violet, setose peduncles and stems over
which insects can walk with difficulty, glandular pedun-
cles and bands of viscid matter which serve as a sort
of sticky fly-paper to prevent wingless insects from
reaching the flower, are all adaptations of this nature.
Remarkable in this respect is the teasel, which has
connate-perfoliate leaves. These leaves form a basin
around the stem at each node. The basins fill with
water during each shower, and, as the water will not
evaporate for several days, there is a veritable moat
around the stem at each node which climbing insects
cannot pass.

Cross-pollination is frequently rendered more cer-
tain by various mechanical devices. Thus a device of

1539. Dimorphic flowers of primula.

great efficiency found in many plants is the separation
of stamens and pistils in different flowers (diclinism)
which renders self-pollination impossible. In this
respect, the dioecious plant is the most perfect type.
Diclinism is especially common in anemophilous plants,
in which the pollen is blown about indiscriminately.
Another efficient device consists in the early matura-
tion of the stigmas (proterogyny) or of the stamens
(proterandry) before the other sex in the same flower
(condition of dichogamy). Still another, although much
less common device, is the production of two or three
types of flowers in the same species in which the styles
and stamens are of different lengths (heteromorphism) .
Thus in the primrose (Fig. 1539) one flower may have
long stamens and short style, and another flower short
stamens and long style (dimorphic), so that an insect
coming from a long-stamened flower will have pollen
on his proboscis at exactly the right height to brush
the stigma of the long -sty led flower. In Ly thrum
Salicaria, the various combinations between the length
of style and of each of the two sets of stamens furnish
three types of flowers (trimorphic) . Other devices are
often found. Thus in some flowers the pollen of another
plant is prepotent in fertilization over that of the same
plant if both are placed on the stigma at the same time.
There are also many special structural mechanisms in
individual species, a study of which forms one of the
most interesting chapters in biology. Here may be

1251

mentioned the wonderful adaptations of the orchid
flowers, the catapulting of the pollen of the orchid
Catasetum against the insect, the lever-hammering
stamens of Salvia, the deliberate stuffing of the Yucca
stigma with pollen by the Pronuba moth as she deposits
eggs in the ovary, the gall flowers and caprification of
the fig, and many other equally extraordinary cases.

Although most plants seem to need cross-pollina-
tion and to have structures adapted to this end, there
are some in which definite preparation is made for
close- or self-pollination. Thus certain plants, as violet,
barley, Polygala, Dalibarda (Fig. 1217) and others,
produce cleistogamous flowers, which are small green
apetalous structures often hidden by the leaves or are
even subterranean. The calyx of these flowers never
opens. The anthers lie against the stigma, and on open-
ing, the pollen is immediately applied to the stigma of
that same flower. Seeds produced by such flowers are
often much in excess of those produced by the showy
flowers of the same species. In the violet (Fig. 1540),
cleistogamous flowers are produced in abundance
through the summer after the showy flowers have
disappeared. Incidentally it is interesting that these
flowers in violets are more important in classification
than are the showy ones.

Evolution of the flower. — In the Thallophyta, Bry-
ophyta and Pteridophyta there is no flower as that
term is here used. The sporophyte shows an increas-
ing complexity through these groups, but there is no
differentiation into an organ that could popularly or
even technically be called a flower. Among the Gym-
nosperms, the cones of the Pinacea? have been likened
to a flower with many carpels but with no calyx or
corolla, while those of the GnetaceaB are still more
flower-like. The true flower, however, is a structure
characteristic of the Angiosperms.

There are two prominent theories in regard to the
origin of the flower. First, the foliar theory holds that
sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are real leaves
modified in the course of evolution from the foliage-
leaves of their ancestors. Floral parts are, therefore,
metamorphosed leaves. The evolution in this case
would have been from below toward the apex of the
floral shoot, or from the foliage leaves toward the
carpels. Certain teratological conditions have been
cited in support of this theory, especially when petals,
stamens and sometimes carpels have been replaced by
green leaves. This has been considered merely a
reversion to ancestral conditions. Trillium grandi-
florum frequently furnishes cases of this sort. This
theory has been exclusively held in the past. Recently
another wholly different theory has been proposed by
Bower, and is now accepted by very many botanists.
This has been termed Bower's sterilization hypothesis.
It holds that the foliage-leaves together with the sepals
and petals are sterilized sporophylls and that evolution
has been from above downward. Specifically it holds
that although the simple sporophyte of the mosses
consisted as at present of a capsule and seta undiffer-
entiated into stem and leaves, in some special groups
of mosses, however, the spore-bearing region around
the columella of the capsule became segmented into
transverse belts separated by sterile belts. Coincident
with this, the exterior of the capsule became lobed in
such a way that each fertile belt came to lie in the axil
of a lobe. From this it is easy to postulate an increase
in size of the lobes to form the scale-leaves of the club-
mosses and selaginellas, and an increase in specializa-
tion of the fertile belt to form the axillary sporangium
of these plants. It is but a step now to the angiosperm-
ous flower, in which some of the sterile sporophylls
have become modified into petals and sepals instead of
leaves. The demand for a large independently growing
sporophyte is thought to have led to the sterilization
of the sporophylls. According to this theory, leaves are
recent rather than primitive structures. The steriliza-

tion theory has the advantage of being more in accord
with modern knowledge of the evolution of organs in
these groups.

Floral evolution within the angiosperms is also diffi-
cult to follow and botanists differ as to its course. It is
by many held that the most ancient type is the acyclic
type as represented by the Ranunculacese, Magnolia-
cea3 and the like. Another although gradually dimin-
ishing school holds that the simple flowers of the
Graminea3 among the monocotyledons and the Amen-
tifera among the dicotyledons are the most primitive.
The high specialization of other parts of these plants
and the likelihood that the flowers have been simplified
because of the adoption of the wind method of pollina-
tion, strongly suggests that these flowers are not primi-
tive but specialized.

The flower from standpoint of comparative mor-
phology.— The newer evolutionary morphology has
brought about changes in viewpoint in regard to floral
parts, and a new
terminology has
arisen. Accord-
ing to present
knowledge, there
is in some algse
and in all bry-
ophytes, pterid-
ophytes and
spermophytes a
definite alterna-
tion of two gen-
erations or

Ehasesinthelife-
istory of each
plant, separated
by a unicellular
condition of the
organism. One
of these, the
more primitive,
bears only sex-
cells (eggs and
sperms) called
gametes and is
termed the gam-
etophyte, i while
the other bears
spores only and
is termed the
sporophyte.
These genera-
tions have ex-
actly reversed their relative size, complexity and
degree of independence as evolution has progressed.
The originally independent carbon-assimilating gam-
etophyte of the mosses has become in the higher
plants wholly parasitic on the sporophyte and is
entirely lacking in green color. On the other hand the
sporophyte, represented in the mosses and liverworts
by the dependent capsule and seta stalk, has become
the real plant, bearing leaves and flowers in the higher
group. The thalloid reduced gametophyte of the ferns
is termed a prothallium, bearing sperm-cells in antheri-
dia and an egg-cell in an archegonium. This prothal-
lium has become differentiated in the more specialized
family Selaginellaceae into two types differing in size
and complexity of structure, and originating from spores
of different size. The large type of spore (megaspore or
macrospore) gives rise to the large female prothallium
which bears the archegonia; and the small spore (micros-
spore) gives rise to the small male prothallium bearing
only a single antheridium. The prothallia of both
sexes are very much reduced and permanently inclosed
within the spore wall. In the flower-bearing plants, the
reduction and dependence of the gametophyte have
been carried much farther. The male gametophyte or

a.

1540. Common blue violet.

The familiar flowers are shown, natural
size. The corolla is spurred. Later in the
season, cleistogamous flowers are often
borne on the surface of the ground. A small
one is shown at a. A nearly mature pod is
shown at 6. Both a and 6 are one-third
natural size.

1252

FLOWER

FONTANESIA

male prothallium is inclosed in the pollen-grain and
the female prothallium within the embryo-sac. The
spore-bearing chamber or chambers (sporangia) corres-
ponding to the capsule in the mosses are borne on
leaves (sporophylls) in the ferns and fern allies. If
these terms used for the mosses and ferns are now
applied to the organs of the higher plants the termi-
nology will be as follows: Stamens, microsporophylls;
anther-chambers, microsporangia; pollen-grain, micro-
spore; nuclei within pollen-grain, male prothallium
(male gametophyte) ; carpel, megasporophyll; ovule,
megasporangium; embryo-sac, megaspore; cells within
embryo-sac except embryo, female prothallium (female
gametophyte); the embryo growing from the fertilized
egg is the daughter sporophyte. A mature seed, there-
fore, contains parts of three generations; seed-coats
and nucellus, if present = sporophyte; endosperm
(according to one interpretation) =gametophyte; and
embryo = daughter sporophyte . This terminology is now
gaining ground over the old in morphological circles
for it shows the relation of the flower to organs in the
lower groups. K. M. WIEGAND.

FLOWER-DE-LUCE. The origin of the Fleur-de-lis
of the French coat of arms is not known. By some it is
supposed to represent the head of a spear, by others the
flower of a lily. It has also been derived from the
points of a crown and from several animal forms, as
bees and toads. Apparently, the iris has nothing to do
with the heraldic Fleur-de-lis. This name as applied
to iris is of later origin and of a purely botanical sig-
nificance, referring chiefly to I. germanica. See under
"Fleur," Larousse, Dictionaire du XIX Siecle, 8:450.

H. HASSELBRING.

FLOWER-FENCE, BARBADOES: Poinciana pulcherrima.
FLOWER-OF-AN-HOUR: Hibiscus Trionum.
FLOWERING MAPLE: Abutilon.

FLtJGGEA (for Fluegge, a German botanist of early
19th century). Euphorbiacese. Tropical shrubs, some-
times cult, in the greenhouse: Ivs. alternate, simple,
entire: fls. apetalous, the staminate in axillary clusters,
with imbricate calyx and rudimentary pistil, the pis-
tillate borne singly, and with a lobed disk present,
styles slender — ovules 2 in each of the 3 cells: seeds
grooved on the inner face. — Six species in the Old
World tropics. Related to Phyllanthus. One species,
F. leucopyrus, Willd., with orbicular to obovate Ivs. and
edible white berries has been intro. to cult, in Eu. It
is a bushy shrub from Asia south to Austral, and is
said to need rich mold and moist high temperature.
Prop, by cuttings. j. B. S. NORTON.

FCENICULUM (diminutive from the Latin for hay,
because of its odor). Umbelliferse. About four species
of annual, biennial and perennial herbs, spread from the
Canaries to W. Asia, one being the FENNEL of gardens
(which see). Glabrous, often tall: Ivs. pinnately decom-
pound, the segms. linear or filiform: fls. yellow, in
compound umbels, the calyx-teeth obsolete, the petals
broadish, emarginate: fr. oblong or ellipsoidal, not
laterally compressed, the carpels half-terete, ribbed
and flattened. F. vulga\re, Hill (F. officinak, All. F.
Famiculum, Karst.), of S. Eu., the fennel, is a perennial
of short duration, cult, as an annual or biennial for
its aromatic seeds and Ivs.: erect and branched, 3-5
ft.: Ivs. 3-4 times pinnate, the ultimate segms. very
narrow and thread-like and rather stiff in the wild and
in dry places but very slender when cult., the petioles
broad and clasping: umbels large, of 15-20 or more
rays. Often run wild. — Under cult., the petiole has
become broad and sheathing and other changes have
taken place. What are considered to be horticultural
forms have been described as distinct species: var.
piperitum, Hort, (F. pipmtum, DC.), the carosella of S.

Italy, the young sts. of which, inclosed in the sheathing
petioles, are eaten raw in the early season; var. dulce,
Alef. (F. dulce, Mill.), the finocchio or Florence fennel,
a low-growing condensed plant, with very large If .-bases.

L. H. B.

FOKIENIA (named after the Chinese province
Fokien where the tree grows). Pinacese. A tree inter-
mediate in its characters between Chamaecyparis and
Libocedrus, resembling the latter in the foliage and in
the seeds having 2 very unequal lateral wings; the cone
is subglobose and composed of numerous peltate scales,
each bearing 2 seeds. — One species in Fokien. F.
Hodginsii, Henry & Thomas (Cupressus Hddginsii,
Dunn). Tree to 40 ft.: branchlets much flattened, the
lateral Ivs. with spreading acute apex, green above and
with white markings below: cone 1 in. long, ripening
the second year. G.C. III. 49:66, 67.— Suited only for
cult, in warmer temperate regions. ALFRED REHDER.

1541. House constructed without rafters.

FOLIAGE PLANTS. A term used to designate plants
that are grown for the general effect of their foliage
rather than for their flowers. The term is indefinite.
In some cases, and more correctly, it is used for plants
with unique or interesting leaves — usually colored — as
coleus, Rex begonia, peperomia, calathea, farfugium.
In other cases it is used to designate plants of full
foliage and graceful habit, — plants that are prized for
their general habit quite as much as for the characters of
the individual leaves. Of this latter class, ferns, palms,
grevillea, screw pine, araucaria, fatsia, ricinus, are
leading examples. The latter class contains the most
popular commercial subjects, and they are much used
in room and table decorations. The plants are often
rented for use in temporary decorations. For the cul-
ture of foliage plants, refer to the various genera.

FONTANESIA (after Rene Louiche Desfontaines,
prominent French botanist, 1752-1833, director of the
botanical garden at Paris). Oleacese. Shrubs grown for
their handsome foliage.

Deciduous, glabrous: branches quadrangular: Ivs.
opposite, short-petioled, entire: fls. perfect, small, in
axillary clusters forming terminal leafy panicles;
calyx minute, 4-parted; petals 4, narrow, small; sta-
mens 2, exceeding the petals; ovary superior, usually
2-celled; stigma 2-lobed: fr. a flat, winged nutlet. — Two
species in W. Asia and China.

These are slender -branched shrubs with rather
narrow leaves and small whitish flowers in short ter-
minal panicles. They retain the foliage unchanged until
late in fall, and are well adapted for shrubberies, grow-
ing in any good garden soil. F . Fortunei is hardy as
far north as Massachusetts, F. phillyraeoides only half-
hardy. Propagation is readily effected by greenwood
cuttings under glass in early summer; also by layers
and by seed.

FONTANESIA

FORCING

1253

Fortunei, Carr. (F. phillyrxmdes var. sinensis,
Debeaux. F. calif arnica, Hort. ). Shrub, to 15 ft.:
Ivs. lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, shining,
quite entire, 2-4 in. long: fls. in axillary and terminal
clusters, forming a narrow, leafy panicle: fr. broad,
oval or ovate, ^-^in. long. May, June. China.
R.H. 1859, p. 43. — Sometimes united with the fol-
lowing, to which it is superior by its more vigorous
growth, the darker and larger foliage, and by the
greater hardiness. In China it is used as a hedge
plant and may be recommended for trial in this
country.

phillyraeoides, Lab. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. ovate-
lanceolate or narrow-elliptic, mostly with rough,
minutely denticulate margin, 1^-2^ in. long: fls.
and frs. like those of the preceding species. W. Asia.
L.B.C. 14:1308. Var. angustifolia, Rehd. (F. angusti-
folia, Dipp.). Lvs. narrow-lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate. ALFRED REHDER.

FORAGE PLANTS are mentioned only incidentally
in this work, as they belong to agriculture rather than
to horticulture. They are mostly grasses and legumi-
nous plants, and have a very large special literature,
much of which can be secured from the United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., the
various experiment stations, and separate books. Some
of the forage plants are of interest to horticulturists as
green-manures and cover-crops.

FORCING. The word forcing is variously used.
Properly, it should designate the growing of plants
outside their usual or normal season. This distin-
guishes forcing from the ordinary purpose of the glass-
house, which is to imitate the usual season in which
plants grow. For example, begonias are not forced: we
endeavor to protect them and to give them the season
and the conditions under which they grow in the wild.
Carnations when flowered in the winter are forced,
because we transpose their seasons. Chrysanthemums
blooming in October and November are not forced:
they are only protected. Sometimes the word forcing
is used in a very special sense, to denote the produc-
tion of flowers from bulbs or tubers in a very short
time under the influence of a very high temperature.
Thus, the lily-of-the-valley may be placed in a tempera-
ture of 90° or above, and the large buds be forced to
throw out their flowers before the plant secures a firm
foothold on the soil.

A forcing-house is a building in which plants are
forced; but the term has come to denote a simple glass-
house in which plants are grown only for sale, in dis-
tinction from private conservatories, or more elab-
orate structures used for the display of plants. See
Greenhouse.

The forcing industry in America is very large. At
first it was confined mostly to cut-flowers (which see),
but pot-plants, vegetables and fruits are receiving more
and more attention. The staple forced flowers are the
rose, carnation, violet, lily-of-the-valley, and various
bulbs. These are treated under their respective names.
Of vegetables, the most important forcing species is
lettuce. This is followed by tomato, cucumber and

radish. Other
vegetables are of
very minor im-
portance as forc-
ing products.
The growing of
fruits under glass
is receiving in-
creasing atten-
tion in this coun-
try. Very little
of this fruit-rais-
ing is really forc-

ing, however, since the glass inclosure is used chiefly to
protect the plants and to enable better care to be given :
the fruit does not ripen much ahead of its normal season.
Of this category are glasshouse grapes. Strawberries
are really forced, however, the whole period of vegetation
and bloom being greatly forwarded. Much attention
is now given by florists to the forcing of hardy plants;
and this is one of the most delightful of horticultural

1542. Even span forcing-house, 20 feet
wide, heated by steam.

1543. Uneven span forcing-house, 20 feet wide, on a side hill.
Heated by steam.

operations for the amateur. Many of our native plants
can be forced with the greatest satisfaction, but the
business is usually confined to imported stock of florists'
plants.

The forcing-house should be of the simplest construc-
tion. The plan should secure the greatest amount of
light, economy of space and of heating, and directness
and simplicity in every operation. The simple sash-bar
frame, without rafters (Fig. 1541), is most satisfactory
when properly constructed. The side walls should be
low and the roof comparatively flat. Often there is
no glass on the side walls. Under most conditions, the
house should run north and south, particularly if
even in span (Fig. 1542), but the lay of the land and the
location of existing features usually determine the direc-
tion. If the house runs east and west, or if it stands on
sloping land (Fig. 1543), an uneven or broken span is
usually advisable. The widely different opinions respec-
ing the merits and demerits of the different spans are
proof that each is good under certain circumstances.
It is the prevailing opinion that, in broken spans, the
long roof should be to the south; yet formerly some
glasshouses had the short span — which is then very
steep — facing the south (Fig. 1546).

In America, all forcing-houses are heated by means
of small wrought-iron pipes, which fit together with
threads. The old-time cast-iron flues may be employed
for conservatories, but they are too bungling for forcing-
houses. They do not admit of sufficient modification in
layout to adapt them to the long and often crooked
runs of forcing-house establishments. The wrought-
iron pipes are heated either by steam or water. Each
system has its advocates, which means that each has
its merits. Steam is less costly to install, since less pipe
is required. It also admits of greater variation in the
layout. Crooks and obstacles are more easily over-
come. In a large establishment, the place may be
heated up sooner. Hot water gives a milder heat
because the pipes are less hot. Of itself, it is less liable
to fluctuations. Theoretically, it is less expensive in
fuel; but in practice, the cost of running is found to
depend more on the character of the particular system
and the operations of the fireman than on the medium
itself. When properly installed, steam is as uniform in
action as water, and it is adapted to larger areas and to
higher temperatures (p. 1403).

Very good shape for a forcing-house in the propor-
tion of breadth to length is probably as 1 is to 4 or 5.
The best houses are rarelv less than 18 or 20 feet wide,
and rarely more than 30 to 35 feet. From 400 to 800 feet
is considered to be a good range of profitable length.

1254

FORCING

FORCING

Houses of greater length are constructed, but they
must be considered as special cases. Parallel houses
are often "nested" with good results, — the adjoining
houses resting on a common wall. When the various
houses are to be used for one kind of crop, the partitions
between them may be omitted; a very large space may

WORK ROOM FOR

LEAN-TO

9

^ ~~'l~

| BEO

1544. Uneven span forcing-house, 30 feet wide. Hot water.

then be covered with practically one house without
the necessity of rearing a high roof. The size of house
tends constantly to increase.

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 1541-1548)
show old and recent styles of American forcing-houses.
For further discussion of glasshouses, see Greenhouse.

L. H. B.
The forcing of vegetables.

The title "vegetable-forcing" may be applied to any
method of growing vegetables which will cause them
to mature or to become suitable for use in a shorter
time or at a different season than when grown under
normal conditions. This includes the growing of vege-
tables in coldframes, hotbeds and vegetable forcing-
houses.

Coldframes.

Coldframes are box-like structures about 6 feet in
width and of any desired length. They usually are
built to run east and west and with the north side a
foot or so higher than the south side. These frames
are sometimes covered with muslin but usually with
sash in which glass is fastened. The frames serve not
only as a protection against cold winds and frost but
as a means of catching the sun's rays which may pass
through them. In this way, a higher temperature can
be maintained in these frames than that which prevails
in the open at the same time. Coldframes are used for
the purpose of starting crops early and thus growing
them to maturity earlier than they can be grown out-
side, and also for the growing of plants for the field-
crops.

Hotbeds.

Hotbeds are similar in construction to coldframes.
The chief difference is that in the hotbeds fresh horse-
manure is used to supply heat. The manure
is firmly packed to a considerable
depth, in a pit dug for that
purpose inside the
frame. Rich garden
soil is placed over
the manure to a
depth of about 6
inches. As the ma-
nure ferments, the
heat thus formed
penetrates the soil
above, thus fur-
nishing a satisfac-
tory medium for
plant-growth.

Hotbeds are in common use in connection with
private gardens in all sections of the country except
where freezing weather does not occur. They are
used extensively in a commerical way in and near
most of the large cities in northern latitudes, and
especially such cities as Philadelphia, Cincinnati and
St. Louis. Crops are grown to maturity more commonly
in hotbeds than in coldframes.

Vegetable forcing-houses. Figs. 1547, 1548.

The growing of vegetables in vegetable forcing-
houses has become a very popular and profitable line
of work in many sections of the coun-
try. The area of glass devoted to vege-
tables has increased with great rapidity
during the last few years. The first
section of the country to become noted
as a forcing center was Boston, Massa-
chusetts. Soon afterward Grand Rapids,
Michigan, became an important vege-
table - forcing locality. The Grand
Rapids growers did not copy after the
Boston growers, however, as their soil,

*-J\J\3\j\JH gj.1 \J ȴ ^A Oj ilVy VV V^ V V^l j GfcO LUl^JLJ. DVMj

houses, varieties and methods in general differed very
materially from those used by the Boston growers.

Vegetable-forcing, as conducted by the Boston
growers, was rapidly extended to other places in the
eastern part of the United States. The development
of the industry was even more rapid and became more
extensive in Michigan and nearby states. Grand
Rapids methods, with modifications, were followed
very largely in this section of the country. The great-
est development has occurred in northern Ohio,
especially at Ashtabula, Toledo and Cleveland. How-
ever, nearly every city of much size, in the northern
part of the United States, has in or near it one or more
vegetable forcing-houses. The amount of money
invested in these houses is enormous. A single acre
under glass represents an expenditure of $15,000 to
$25,000, depending on the kind of material used and
the cost of the material at the time the building was
done.

Success in the growing of vegetables under glass
does not depend upon climate. Vegetables can be
grown in greenhouses in any state of the Union and in
any country on the earth in which vegetation flour-
ishes. However, vegetables can be grown under glass
more cheaply in moderately warm climates than in
cold regions, and more easily where much sunshine
occurs than where cloudy weather is prevalent.

As the gardener makes his own soil for the forcing-
house, to a considerable extent, the character of the
native soil is not so important as is the case with most
field-grown crops. However, a sandy soil can
be prepared for the forcing-house more
easily than can a heavy clay soil.
A good vegetable-forcing
soil should con-

1545. Lean-to lettuce house, 26 feet wide. Hot water.

FORCING

FORCING

1255

tain an abundance of plant-food, should have a good
water-holding capacity, be capable of easy working
and be as free as possible from weed seeds and disease
germs.

A very important factor in determining the financial
return from vegetable-forcing is nearness to market.
Other things being equal, the closer the grower can
get to the consumer the greater the profit. Cheapness
of fuel for heating purposes is also very important. If
coal is to be used, the hauling should be considered
when estimating the cost.

No one thing has more to do with the success or
failure in vegetable-forcing than the man who runs the
business. To be a success he must enjoy the work. He
should have an understanding of the requirements of
the crops to be grown and ability to apply himself
diligently to his work. Careful attention to details
is of greater importance in connection with vegetable-
forcing than with any other line of vegetable-growing.
Besides being a good grower, he should be a good
salesman.

The forcing of lettuce. Fig. 1548.

Head lettuce. — As this crop has special treatment
elsewhere^ it will need but brief mention here. The
Boston growers grew head lettuce from the beginning.
They were successful in the growing of it and the mar-
kets in which they sold demanded head lettuce. The
soil used by the Boston growers is of a very loose tex-
ture, being well filled with organic matter. In working
over the soil in the houses it is spaded to a depth of
1H to 2 feet. Large quantities of manure are added at
frequent intervals. Some growers practise steam
sterilization. Heavy watering is done before the plants
are set in the beds. The water-holding capacity of the
soil is so great that usually no further watering is
necessary until the following crop is to be put in. The
lettuce is allowed to develop until the heads become
large and solid, when they are cut, trimmed, washed
and carefully packed in boxes, three dozen heads in a
box. If the lettuce is to be shipped some distance it
is put up in cases holding one barrel. It is sold by the
dozen heads.

Leaf lettuce. — It was not until Eugene Davis, of
Grand Rapids, Michigan, originated and introduced
the Grand Rapids leaf lettuce that lettuce-forcing
became popular in the middle West. The growing of
head lettuce under glass did not prove a success in
this region. The cry of "over-production" was heard
soon after the forcing of leaf lettuce began and has con-
tinued until the present time. With the exception of
short periods during the fall months of some years,
there has been no over-production of this crop.

Cultural methods.

When leaf lettuce is sold by the pound, the usual
practice is to grow three crops of lettuce followed by
one of cucumbers .or tomatoes. When the lettuce is
sold by the dozen, more than three crops are commonly
grown before the ground is given over to the other
crop. Lettuce sold by the pound is usually grown to a
much larger size than when it is sold by the dozen.

The seed for the first crop of lettuce is sown from the
first to the middle of August. It is sown in flats or in
solid beds, usually broadcast but sometimes in rows.
It is sown very thickly and if covered at all with earth
the covering is very shallow, not enough soil being
used to hide the seeds entirely from view. In warm
weather one thickness of heavy brown paper or burlap
is thoroughly moistened and placed over the seed as
soon as it has been sown and watered. The covering
is left on until the seed germinates which will vary
from two to five days according to the amount of sun-
shine and degree of heat in the house. It should not be
left on too long as spindling, nearly worthless plants
will result. In cold, cloudy weather seeds sown in

flats will germinate best if covered with glass for a few
days after sowing.

In about a week, in bright weather, and from ten
days to two weeks in cloudy weather, the seedlings will

1256

FORCING

FORCING

be ready to prick off. This operation is tedious and
requires deft hands and practice to do it well and
rapidly. The plants are separated one from another,
care being taken not to injure them, and transplanted
into other flats or beds. They are spaced about 2
inches apart each way. All diseased and poorly rooted
plants are discarded. The number of plants that can
be pricked off in a day of ten hours will vary from 5,000
to 10,000 according to the skill of the operator. Some
of the best growers sterilize the soil in which the seeds
are sown and the seedlings grown. This not only
insures plants free from disease but eradicates all
weeds by destroying the vitality of the weed seed.

All the care that is required for the seedlings is to
keep the planthouse at the proper temperature, see
that the soil is supplied with the right amount of
moisture, remove all weeds which appear and stir the
soil when necessary to keep it from crusting. The
house in which the plants are grown should be well
ventilated in order to guard against the damping-off
of the seedlings. An occasional smudging with some
form of tobacco is necessary to keep the green aphis
under control. The cabbage butterfly frequently
deposits eggs on fall-grown plants and these hatch into
green worms which feed upon the lettuce in the beds.
The butterflies should be killed when seen flying near
the plants and should be guarded against as much as
possible.

In the fall when the days are long and many of them
bright, lettuce will be large enough to set in the per-
manent beds about four weeks after it is pricked off.
When lettuce is sold by the pound it should not be set
closer than 7 by 7 inches or farther apart than 8 by 8
inches for best results. When sold by the dozen it can
be set as close as 5 by 5 inches, although the best dis-
tance will depend upon the size of plants which are
found most profitable to grow. The first crop of let-
tuce will be ready to cut, when sold by the pound, in
six to eight weeks from the time the plants are set
in the permanent beds. It should give a yield of at
least three-quarters of a pound a square foot.

The prices that the growers have realized for the
first cuttings of lettuce have, during recent years, been
rather low. The cost of growing this crop is small,
however, as little fuel is needed for heating purposes.
The second and third crops will require more time for
their proper development than the first. They should
give a heavier yield, however, and the prices secured
are usually better.

It is very important to have plants of the right size

to set in the beds as soon as the ground can be prepared
after a crop is out. To be able to do this, it is neces-
sary to make frequent sowings of seed. In large green-
house establishments, seeds should be sown every
day or every other day, while in a small forcing-house
a sowing should be made once a week throughout the
season. No time should be lost between crops as time
is money in the vegetable-forcing business. Con-
siderable time can be gained by making a second trans-
planting for the second and third crops. The plants
should be removed from the flats before they begin
to crowd and placed in 2-inch pots. These pots should
be plunged in the soil between the newly set plants in
the permanent beds. The pots should be placed in the
beds as thick again as the permanent plants are set.
By following this plan, the plants can be grown to a
much larger size without injury than is possible when
they are grown only in the flats.

Grand Rapids lettuce will stand a wide range of
temperature without serious injury, but the lower the
temperature the slower the growth and tougher the
leaves, and the higher the temperature the more rapid
the growth and more tender the leaves. A low tempera-
ture will produce heavy lettuce and a high temperature
light lettuce. As long as thorough ventilation is given,
little danger of injury from high temperature will
occur, but high temperature and closed ventilators
invite disaster. The best results are secured when the
temperature is held at 45° to 50° at night until the
lettuce has attained sufficient height, 8 to 10 inches,
when it should be kept as near 45° as possible. The
lowering of the temperature at the finishing of the
crop will increase the weight considerably. If the
houses are arranged so that it is possible to keep but
one temperature, a night temperature of 45° to 48° is
most satisfactory. The day temperature may vary
greatly without injuring the lettuce if the ventilators
and heating pipes receive proper attention. Ventilation
should be given at all times during the day except
when the weather is very cold or stormy. The heating
pipes should be turned off whenever the heat from the
sun is sufficient to give the proper temperature in the
houses.

Sub-irrigation is the most satisfactory method of
watering lettuce. The water can be applied at any
time through the tile without wetting the foliage.
This method is not in general use because of the ex-
pense of installation. Water-tight benches or beds
are essential for its successful operation.

The overhead or Skinner system of watering is in

1547. A range of forcing-houses.

FORCING

FORCING

1257

common use, especially in large establishments. It is
a great improvement over the old method of watering
with the hose. It is not only more efficient but requires
much less time and labor than the hose method. With
it, water can be applied in any quantity desired and
so gently that no baking of the soil wUl occur.

Whatever the method of watering, the
soil should be thoroughly soaked as soon as
the plants are set. It should not be allowed
to dry out, as the plants will be damaged
by the resulting check in growth. When
the water is applied to the surface, the
watering should be done only on bright days
and early enough in the day so that the
lettuce leaves will dry off before night.

Insects and diseases of lettuce.

The one insect that is always ready to
make its appearance is the green aphis.
Fumigating regularly, at least once a week
with tobacco stems or extract of tobacco
will keep this insect under control. In case
it secures a foothold and one smudging does
not do the work, a second the following night
will put the aphis under control. Tobacco
dust scattered on the surface of the soil
before the plants are set will help to repel
the aphis.

The cabbage worm is often troublesome,
especially on the fall crop. Poisoning when
the plants are small, and hand-picking when
the crop approaches maturity, are the most practical
remedies. Snails and slugs sometimes do damage, but
do not as a rule appear when clean methods of cul-
ture are practised. Other insects, such as the white fly
and black aphis, make their appearance on lettuce
occasionally but seldom become serious.

Among the more common diseases affecting lettuce
is the drop or stem-rot. This rot acts very much like
the damping-off of the seedlings. It is a fungous trou-
ble and can be controlled to a large extent by thorough
ventilation. Sterilization of the soil with steam some-
times becomes necessary in extreme cases. There are
other less serious forms of rot affecting leaf lettuce, all
of which can be kept under control, as a rule, by proper
ventilation. Watering at night or during cloudy
weather and high temperatures with closed ventilators
are practices which will tend to induce attacks of rot.

Another lettuce trouble of common occurrence is
"rosette." This is a disease which attacks the roots,
retarding and in some instances stopping the growth of
the plants. Sterilizing with formaldehyde, used at the
rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water and apply-
ing one gallon of the mixture to each square foot of
space, has frequently given good results. Sterilizing
with steam, while more expensive, is more certain to
prove effective. When the lettuce is allowed to suffer
from the lack of sufficient moisture in the soil, it will
often have the appearance of lettuce rosette. The
grower should examine the soil carefully -when the
lettuce appears stunted in growth to be sure that the
trouble is not lack of water instead of a diseased con-
dition before going to the expense of sterilizing.

Cutting and packing lettuce.

There is a certain time in the development of leaf
lettuce when it is of just the right size and of the proper
degree of maturity to cut for market. This can be
determined by the feeling and appearance of the let-
tuce. When ready to cut, the lettuce plants will feel
firm when the hand is pressed gently on the top. If the
edges of the leaves show a few brownish spots, the cut-
tings should be done without delay. The ability to
judge just when the lettuce should be cut will be
acquired by practice.

Some of the large growers who make a business of

shipping lettuce, pack it in barrels. It is placed with the
top of the lettuce plants toward the outside of the
barrel and, when filled, the barrel is covered with bur-
lap. Fifty pounds are usually packed in an apple or
cracker barrel and from seventy-five to ninety pounds
in a sugar barrel. The lettuce is protected from frost

1548. A modern house of lettuce.

in cold weather by lining the barrel with paper. In
warm weather, holes are cut in the sides of the barrels to
admit air and thus prevent heating.

Boxes of different sizes but usually holding about a
bushel are used by many growers. When the lettuce
is to be shipped, the boxes are covered with wooden
covers. When it is to be sold on a local market the
lettuce is covered with paper or left uncovered. At
Ashtabula, Ohio, all of the growers pack their lettuce
in small baskets with stationary handles. Three and
one-quarter pounds is packed in each basket and the
lettuce and basket are covered neatly with paper.

The kind and size of the package and the amount of
lettuce put in is not of so much importance as the
quality of the lettuce and the care with which it is
prepared for market. Bright, clean, crisp lettuce will
sell much more readily than tough, dirty lettuce. All
dead or yellow leaves should be removed and all dirt
washed off.

Marketing.

At some of the large forcing centers the growers are
organized for the purpose of marketing their crops.
One man is selected to do the selling of the entire out-
put. The growers endeavor to put up a uniform grade
of produce, and inspection is provided to see that no
inferior stock goes in with that which is up to the
standard. This plan insures better feeling among the
growers and secures better returns for them than is
possible when each grower sells his own products in
competition with the other growers.

A grower who has a local demand for all the lettuce
he can grow has a decided advantage over the man who
is obliged to ship his lettuce some distance. The per-
son having a market within easy driving distance can,
if he grows good stock and puts it up neatly, not only
cut out the cost of shipping, the commission and much
of the package cost that the man who must ship is
obliged to pay, but he can also get a higher price
for his lettuce, as he can put it on the market in better
condition than is possible with shipped lettuce.

Forcing of cucumbers.

Cucumbers are forced very commonly as a spring
and early summer crop in many regions. The New

1258

FORCING

FORCING

England growers devote a considerable area under
glass to cucumbers in the fall and winter months.
Eastern-grown cucumbers are sold in western markets
at the time of the year at which most of the western
growers are devoting all of their glass to lettuce or
tomatoes. Some of the vegetable forcers in Illinois
and farther west grow cucumbers in the fall and winter.

Varieties.

The long English type of cucumber is not popular for
commercial purposes in this country although it is
grown to some extent in private greenhouses. The
American forcing-man prefers a type of cucumbers
for forcing which is of the White Spine order. The
first requisite of a good forcing cucumber is prolificacy.
It should be from 8 to 10 inches long, even a foot in
length not being objectionable, of regular and uniform
diameter, not too thick, and free from what some term
"neck" ends. It should be dark green in color. The
fewer the seeds and the more poorly they are developed
the better it will please the consumer.

Cultural methods.

Cucumber seed is planted in pots or flats about
four weeks before the plants are to be set in the per-
manent beds. When planted in pots two to four seeds
are placed in each pot. When planted in flats the seeds
are sown rather thickly in rows about 2 inches apart.
The flat-grown plants are pricked off, when large
enough to handle, into pots, one plant in a pot, or into
flats about 4 inches apart each way. The plants which
are started in pots are not pricked off but they are
thinned, when necessary, to not more than two in a pot.

Cucumbers should be kept growing all of the time to
get best results. In order to do this, they must be
kept in a warm house. The night temperature should
be above 60° and may run as high as 70°. The day
temperature should run at least 10° higher than the
night temperature and on bright days it can go still
higher if the ventilators are open. The seedlings should
never be allowed to dry out nor should they be watered
too heavily as damping off is liable to occur when the
soil is too wet. The watering should always be done
on bright days. Cold draughts should be avoided as
they induce attacks of mildew. Judicious ventilating
will insure hardy plants.

The distance apart the cucumbers should be planted
depends on the method of training to be used. There
are two distinct methods of training, the "A"-shaped
trellis and the upright. When the trellis is to be used,
the plants are set in rows from 10 to 16 feet apart and
from 10 to 15 inches apart in the rows. When the vines
are to be trained upright, the plants are set from 2 to

3 feet apart each way, one plant in a place.

The trellises are made of wire or slats and wire which
are run across 2 by 4 pieces of timber placed at wide
intervals. When the vines are trained upright, strings
are fastened to wires which are run above each row,
one string to each vine. When training, the vines are
simply twisted around the strings and the "feelers"
attach themselves and thus hold the vines in place.

Some growers use slender sticks, made especially for
the purpose, on which to train the vines. The sticks are
IK by % inches and from 6 to 8 feet long. A piece about

4 inches in length is nailed across the bottom to keep
the stick from sinking into the soil. The tops of the
sticks are fastened to wires run parallel to the rows,
one wire above each row. The vines are held in place
by pairs of nails driven into the sticks at intervals of
12 to 15 inches. One of the nails of each pair is bent at
right angles after being driven into the stick and the
bent part is dropped onto the other nail after the vine
has been placed between the nails.

The pruning of the vines is similar, no matter which
method of training is used. All laterals are cut back
more or less. One to three female flowers are left on

each lateral. Best results are usually secured when the
laterals are cut beyond the first female bloom.

Cucumbers in fruiting use an enormous amount of
water if it is available. As soon as the supply of water
in the soil becomes reduced below the amount required
for the maximum growth of the plants and fruit, the
number of short runty cucumbers will increase in
proportion to the number of long ones. The Skinner
system or any other similar system of overhead water-
ing is ideal for cucumbers. Care should be taken to
do the watering at a time when the foliage will dry off
quickly, especially if mildew or any other fungous
trouble makes its appearance. Aside from the fact
that the soil must be rich in plant-food, there is no
other matter of as great importance as the water-sup-
ply. Whether the water be applied a little at a time
and frequently or in larger quantities and at longer
intervals is not of so much impo tance as the supply
itself, which should be sufficient for the needs of the
plants at all times.

Pollination.

Some form of artificial pollination is necessary for
best results with the White Spine type of cucumber.
Hand pollinating is very tedious and is seldom em-
ployed in large houses. The usual method is to place
a hive of honey bees in the house and let them do the
work. In large establishments several hives are re-
quired. One strong hive for each half -acre of cucum-
bers will be ample. When first put in, the bees are
quite uneasy but they soon quiet down and make
themselves very much at home.

Insects and diseases of cucumbers.

One of the most formidable insects attacking forc-
ing-house cucumbers is the red spider. Some growers
are obliged to fight this insect every season. The best
way to combat it is to prevent its making an appear-
ance. This can often be done by keeping all of the
soil, walks and other places where there is enough dirt
to permit of their breeding, moist at all times. When
these little animals appear on the plants they can be
driven off by spraying the plants thoroughly with
water. To be effective, the water must be applied with
force and directed against the under side of the leaves.

Another insect which causes much damage to cucum-
bers is the striped cucumber beetle. The stink-bug
may be included with it, as the work of the two insects
is very similar in its effect upon the plants. The most
serious trouble with these insects does not occur
when the plants are small, as they can be protected
then, but when they are large. The vines which are
damaged by these enemies resemble those injured or
killed by the bacterial wilt. If the vines are killed by
the wilt, all of the plant dies at one time. When the
damage is caused by the bugs, the upper part of the

Elant or a lateral branch will wilt and dies first, usually
ut not always followed in a few days by the wilting
of another branch or the remaining part of the plant.
No effective means has as yet been found for combat-
ing these insects. Some growers claim that by keeping
the side ventilators and doors closed most of the time
the bugs will not get into the houses. To keep them
out in some places the ventilator openings would have
to be screened. No crops which the bugs work on
should be grown near the forcing-houses. When the
insects once gain admittance to the houses, they are
very difficult to eradicate. The stink-bugs lay their
eggs in clusters on the leaves and these should be
gathered and destroyed.

The white fly is occasionally serious on cucumbers.
The remedy is to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas,
but as this gas is dangerous to both plant and animal
life it is used only in extreme cases.

The green and black aphis occasionally attack
cucumbers in the forcing-house. The green aphis can

FORCING

FORCING

1259

be controlled by fumigating with tobacco. The black
aphis usually occurs in patches and can be destroyed
by applying strong solutions of tobacco or soap.

Nematodes (eel-worms) often become very destruc-
tive to cucumbers. As they work entirely on the roots,
their presence is indicated by a weak and stunted
growth of the vines. There is no cure for a vine once
attacked. Sterilizing the infested soil with steam is the
usual method of eradicating them. It is not safe to set
plants in an infested soil which has not been sterilized.

Cucumber wilt is a bacterial trouble which often
destroys a crop in a few days. There are no satisfac-
tory means of combating it when it becomes estab-
lished. It is most likely to occur on plants which are
weakened in some other way, as by having too much
water applied or too little heat. Plants which are kept
growing vigorously are seldom attacked by the wilt.

The downy mildew is very partial to cucumbers
and often does serious damage. Cold draughts should
be avoided as much as possible. Frequent spraying
with bordeaux will keep the trouble in check. Another
less common but sometimes serious cucumber dis-
ease is anthracnose. Bordeaux is the remedy for this
disease. Root rot of cucumbers is of occasional occur-
rence and may be prevented by sterilizing the soil
with steam.

Grading and packing cucumbers.

In sorting cucumbers for market they are made
into at least two grades. The culls are seldom placed
on the market. About the same kinds of packages
are used in which to pack cucumbers as are used
for lettuce. They vary in size from the sugar barrel
to the small basket holding from two to two and
one-half dozen specimens. When handled in winter
they are usually packed in paper-lined boxes or
baskets.

Forcing of tomatoes. Fig. 1549.

Tomatoes are forced under glass at all seasons of
the year except during the time they are ripening most
freely in the field. The largest area of glass is devoted
to this crop in the spring and early summer. There is
also quite a large area grown during the fall and early
winter. Only a very few growers force tomatoes in
the midwinter months.

Varieties.

There is a difference of opinion among growers as
to which varieties are best for forcing. In a general
way it may be said that for the fall crop the varieties
having medium to small fruits are most desirable.
Some growers also prefer these kinds for the spring
and early summer crop. Other growers like the large
fruiting sorts, such as the Stone and Globe for the
summer crop. Some markets prefer pink or purple
varieties and others red sorts.

Some of the requirements of a good forcing variety
are: prolificacy, smoothness in form, meatiness and
good flavor. If the fruit is to be shipped it should not
be too tender of skin. Some varieties crack more
readily than others and those that are inclined to crack
should be avoided. Other qualities not lacking, those
kinds which are most resistant to disease are to be
preferred. Some varieties need less attention in the
matter of hand pollinating than others. This is a
desirable character and should be given consideration
when selecting a variety for forcing purposes.

Cultural methods.

For the fall crop the seeds should be sown in June.
The best results are secured from this crop when the
fruit is all set and well grown before cold weather
begins. The crop should begin ripening about the time
killing frosts occur and the bulk of the crop should be
off by the first of January.

For the spring and early summer crop the seed should
be sown in time so that the plants will be ready to set
in the permanent beds by the first of March. If a
temperature of 60° can be maintained at night, the
plants can be grown in two months from the time of
the sowing of the seed. Plants set in the permanent
places the first of March should ripen fruit about the
first of June and should be through fruiting by the
middle of August or a little before.

The care of the seedling plants is about the same
for the fall and spring crops, except that owing to the
difference in the amount of sunshine they can be

grown more quickly
and easily in summer
than in winter. For
either crop the seeds
are sown thickly in
flats or beds and in
rows about 2 inches
apart. As soon as
they are sown the
seeds should be
covered with glass,
paper or burlap to
keep the surface of
i>v the soil moist. When
') large enough to
handle, the seedlings
should be pricked off
into flats or beds, spacing
the plants 2 inches apart
each way. Before they
begin to crowd, they
should be transplanted
again, this time into 2-
inch pots. A third hand-
ling should be made in
about three weeks when
the plants should be trans-
ferred to 4- or 5-inch pots.
From these pots they
should be transplanted to
the permanent beds.

A. temperature of 60°
or 65° should be main-
tained in the plant house
at night and at least 10°
higher on bright days.
Careful attention to water-
ing and ventilating is very
important. Plants which
are given too much water
or which grow in a house
in which the ventilators
are seldom open will be
readily attacked by dis-
eases. Plants which are
properly grown are dis-
ease-resistant to a con-
siderable extent.

The spacing of tomato
plants which is practised by different forcers is much
more nearly alike than is the case with cucumbers.
The plants are seldom set closer than 1J^ feet nor
farther apart than 4 feet. Two by 2 feet or 1J^ by
3 feet are good distances. Nearly all tomatoes are
trained upright and usually to one stem. When two
stems are used, the tops are trained apart a foot or
more, making the plant form the shape of a partly
opened fan. Strings run from the foot of the vines
to wires run above the rows are the usual means of
support. By twisting the vines around the support-
ing strings, only a small amount of tying will be neces-
sary. All laterals or side branches should be removed
when small if the plants are trained to one stem.
If they are to be trained to two stems, the lowest

1549. Strand of winter
tomatoes.

1260

FORCING

FORCING

strong lateral should form the second stem. The
lateral just above the first blossom cluster is usually
the strongest. All other side branches should be
removed. The pruning requires careful attention and
consumes much time. If the laterals are allowed to
grow to a large size before they are removed, it will,
not only require more time to cut them off but they will
take needed strength from the main branch.

Pollination.

As honey bees do not work on tomato blossoms it is
necessary to do more or less hand pollinating, the
amount depending on the time of the year, the number
of blossoms open and the varieties grown. If the
weather is such that the ventilators can be kept open
wide most of the time during the day, frequent and
systematic jarring of the plants will be fairly satisfac-
tory. Artificial pollination is more necessary when the
plants first begin to bloom than when the amount of
bloom is abundant. Some of the English types of for-
cing tomatoes do not require much attention in the
matter of pollinating. However, it is better to be on
the safe side and do more pollinating than necessary
rather than not enough. The camel's-hair brush is
used by some growers and the wooden spoon and
spatula with handles 15 to 18 inches in length are used
by other growers as a means of transferring the pollen
from one flower to another.

Grading and packing tomatoes.

Unless they are to be shipped a long distance, forc-
ing-house grown tomatoes should not be picked until
they show considerable color. The more nearly mature
the fruits are when taken from the vines, the better
the quality. Picking should be done every other day
or at least three times a week. The fruit should be
handled with care to avoid bruising, as injuries impair
the keeping quality of the fruit.

In grading, unless the fruit is unusually rough or too
variable in size, only one grade need be made for the
average market. All very rough and otherwise inferior
fruits should be withheld from the market. Some growers
make a fancy grade for special trade. This stock should
be of medium and uniform size, even in color and very
smooth. The hotels and clubs which give orders for
such stock are willing to pay an extra price for it.

Tomatoes are handled mostly in baskets. These
are seldom larger than a half bushel and usually con-
siderably smaller. The basket used by the Ashtabula
growers is the same as they use for lettuce and holds
ten pounds of tomatoes. A very satisfactory package
for use in warm weather is the four-basket carrier or
crate. The baskets which are put in this carrier hold
five pounds each. When properly selected as to size,
color, and smoothness, tomatoes packed in this con-
tainer are very attractive. The chief objection to their
use is that they are too much like the package used by
the southern tomato-growers and thus not distinctive
enough for the forcing-house tomatoes. During cold
weather or when the tomatoes are to be shipped a long
distance, each fruit should be wrapped in paper to
protect it from the frost and to prevent bruising.

Dealers who have not handled forcing-house-grown
tomatoes are sometimes slow to pay the price which
the stock, if well grown, graded and packed, should
demand. When they have once learned that forcing-
house-grown tomatoes are of superior quality and will
stand up much better than those which have been
shipped a long distance and of necessity must be
picked green or nearly so, they are usually willing to
pay much more for the forcing-house-grown than for
the outside-grown tomatoes.

Forcing of radishes.

Radishes have been forced by many growers but
they have not become generally popular. This is no

doubt due largely to the fact that the growing of them
and preparation for market necessitates a large amount
of hand labor; and the requirements of the crop are
exacting.

The turnip-shaped sorts are most satisfactory for
forcing in the forcing-house. The seed should be sown
thickly in rows which should be marked 4 inches apart
and about % inch deep. The Skinner system of water-
ing is very satisfactory for radishes if the watering
is properly done. The soil should be kept moist but
not too wet on the surface. The watering should be
done only when the weather is bright. Some growers
have found it more satisfactory to allow the radishes
to remain quite thick in the rows until a part of them
are large enough to market and then pull the market-
able ones and allow the others to develop, than to
thin them enough when they are small to permit the
radishes to mature nearly at one time. This method
of thinning will enable the gardener to grow many
more radishes in a given area than when the old
method is used.

Some of the essential factors in successful radish
forcing are: good seed, carefully sown; an abundance
of light; plenty of ventilation; sufficient water and
heat to keep the plants growing rapidly but not enough
to cause damping-off ; neatness and cleanliness in bunch-
ing, washing and packing.

Other forcing crops.

Space will permit only of a classification of other
forcing crops than those previously mentioned. Nearly
all kinds of vegetables which are grown in the open
can be grown in the forcing-house. Whether it is
practicable or not to force a vegetable in a commercial
way depends principally on two things: cost of produc-
tion and market demand.

The following lists include practically all vegetables
which are forced commercially, either extensively or
to a limited extent. The vegetables included in these
lists are divided into two classes, the "cool" and the
"warm" plants.

By cool plants is meant those for which the proper
night temperature is from 40° to 55° and by warm
plants those for which the night temperature should
be from 55° to 70°. With either class of plants the day
temperature on bright days should be at least 10°
higher than the night temperature.

"Cool" forcing vegetables:

Asparagus Cress Pea

Beet Lettuce Radishes

Carrot Onion Rhubarb

Cauliflower Parsley Spinach

Celery

"Warm" forcing vegetables:

Bean Eggplant

Cucumber Muskmelon

Pepper
Tomato

C. W. WAID.

The forcing of fruits.

The forcing of fruits under glass has increased con-
siderably in recent years and particularly so in the
private establishments. Grapes probably occupy more
space than any other class of hothouse fruits. Records
of cultivating the vine may be traced back some thou-
sands of years. Nevertheless, the greenhouse grape-vine
has not been improved to the same extent through
systematic hybridizing that many other fruits have
been. Some of our oldest varieties still hold a promi-
nent place in the forcing-houses. Some worthy claimants
have been added to the list from time to time. Madres-
field Court was raised over forty years ago by crossing
Muscat of Alexandria with Black Morocco, producing
a distinct Muscat grape with the Morocco coloring.
Of later introduction may be mentioned Lady Hutt,

FORCING

FORCING

12G1

Appley Towers and a few others which have been
tested and have found favor with many growers.
Another account of raising grapes under glass will be
found in the article Grape.

Forcing of grapes.

The vine is of easy propagation. Different methods
may be applied for reproducing young vines, such as
cuttings or by eyes of ripened wood. Inarching and
grafting may also be resorted to. However, the general
method of raising young vines is from single eyes. It is
advisable to choose wood of the previous season's
growth or, when pruning back the vines, to take
thoroughly ripened wood with plump eyes. If not
ready for propagating, the wood may be heeled in a
cool house until needed. The month of January is
best for this purpose, for then there is usually a steady
bottom heat, which is necessary. A bottom heat of
70°, with a temperature in the house of 65°, is most
satisfactory. Furthermore, January-propagated plants
allow for a long season to
grow on the canes. In pre-
paring the eyes for propaga-
tion, about Yz inch of wood
on each side of the eye is
sufficient. Make a cut on the
opposite side from the eye a
trifle deeper than the bark,
which will callous in a short
time after it is placed in heat
and roots will emit in two or
three weeks. These eyes may
be placed in pans, flats or
singly in 3-inch pots; when
time is no serious object, the
pots are decidedly to be pre-
ferred, as the young vine roots
are very brittle. In prepar-
ing the pots to receive the
eyes, half fill them with
fibrous soil and fill the top
with a fairly sharp sand,
enough to cover the wood
with the eye just level with
the sand. The advantage of
having the soil in the bottom
is that the roots will strike
down and the plants may be
repotted, when ready, with-
out a check. They must be
kept growing through the
summer in a warm moist house and repotted when
necessary.

Inarching may be found valuable at times, partic-
ularly if there is a variety in the house that is not
desirable. The operation is fairly simple. There are
different methods of inarching, although the most
successful is with the young growing wood. For
example, to inarch a variety with a permanent vine,
preparations should be made the year previous. Grow
the variety desired in a pot, then ripen off as for plant-
ing. Whenever the vines are started into growth,
bring in the pot vine intended for inarching, about ten
days after the heat has been placed in the grapery.
Otherwise the pot vine will start into growth before
the permanent vine. It is advisable to select shoots
of about the same strength, if possible. The shoot that
is operated on should be as near the base as possible.
To inarch them is just a matter of bringing the two
shoots together and tying with raffia. When the cion
has united with the green growing shoots, which will be
in a short time, gradually cut it away from its own
root; also pinch the stock back by degrees to increase
the strength of the cion. Usually the cion will grow
away rapidly and produce a strong cane by fall so that
when pruning time comes the following winter the

1550. Pot-grown apple tree
in bearing.

old cane may be cut away and the new variety will
take its place.

Hybridizing.

In hybridizing with the aim to produce new varie-
ties, it is best to select a fairly strong-growing variety
for the female parent, choosing the rich Muscat pollen
for the male parent. No estimate can be formed as to
results from a true cross, as many different varieties
will appear. Grapes will produce an abundance of
pollen and great care must be taken to avoid self-
fertilization. Nature protects the pollen of the grape-
vine by a cap that surrounds the pistils and stamens,
and when the pollen is ripe for distribution the caps
are pushed off by the expansion of pistils and stamens,
insuring pollination. To cross-pollinate one variety
with another, measures should be taken in advance of
natural development to prevent self-pollination. Select
the bunch to be operated upon a few days before it
would begin to flower. Cut away the larger part of the
flowers, leaving a dozen or fifteen to be crossed with
other pollen. Then secure this bunch in a fine muslin bag,
which will prevent any insects from distributing unde-
sirable pollen upon it. The muslin will allow sufficient
air for the berries to set, after which it may be removed.
The bag is placed around the bunch a day or so before
the cap is ready to be dislodged, and careful watch must
be kept when the cap begins to loosen. Have a pair of
very fine plyers or pincers ready and remove the
cap by force, then immediately cut away the stamens
before the pollen has time to ripen. This must be
executed with great care as the flowers are very deli-
cate. Sometimes the flowers cannot all be operated
upon at the same time. If so, place the bunch again
in the bag and repeat the above process. When the
stamens have been removed, apply the pollen chosen
for the cross. This is best applied to the stigma with
a camel's-hair pencil. Repeat until the whole have
been gone over carefully. By using these precautions,
the bunch cannot become contaminated with undesir-
able pollen. Grape seed will germinate very readily,
although it should be sown soon after ripening as
its germinating power is weakened .if kept any great
length of time.

Vine borders.

Good drainage is absolutely necessary for the suc-
cessful cultivation of grape-vines. They will not resent
an abundance of water while in active growth, in fact
they demand it, but a border which the water cannot
pass through freely will be found a serious difficulty. It
is well in finding a location to choose, if possible, a
site on elevated ground, as the drainage from the border
can be carried off with less expense than in a low place,
without the trouble of the drain-pipes becoming stopped
up. A vine border will last for years and the advantage
of a well-made border, even though expensive in build-
ing up, will be manifest in the better fruit produced.

A grapery may be supplied with both outside and
inside borders, although it is not necessary. Neither
would it be advisable for early forcing, for the reason
that many of the roots would be out in the cold soil
at quite a contrast from the ones inside. But for mid-
season or late, there is no objection to this method.
In fact, vines that have access to an outside border
will keep healthy and vigorous several years longer
than when confined wholly inside. However, an inside
border will last for at least ten or fifteen years. This
must be decided before the house is built as, for an
outside border, the walls must be erected on arches to
allow the roots access outside. One advantage of this
method is that the vines do not require such close
attention as when depending entirely upon the inside
border. However, at present the larger number of
graperies are built with inside borders only. The first
thing to be done is to excavate at least 3^ to 4 feet for

1262

FORCING

FORCING

the border. Assuming it to be a span-roof house, lay
a drain down the center, allowing enough fall to carry
off the water. Use 3-inch pipes and provide openings
along every 20 feet or so to take away the water. After
the drain is complete, a coat of rough concrete may be
placed over the bottom, which will prevent any of the
vine roots from penetrating into the subsoil. Over this
add a foot or 18 inches of drainage, such as broken stone
or brickbats, — anything that will insure a free passage
for water. From the drainage to the surface level, there
should be about 2^ feet or a trifle over for soil. In
some localities it is difficult to secure a grade of soil
best adapted for vine-growth, although grape-vines
will thrive in different kinds of soil, if not too sandy or
too clayey. A good loamy soil is best, virgin loam pre-
ferred; or loam that has been in pasture three or four
years may be plowed and placed directly into the bor-
der. The grass fibers are of great benefit. The vines
would make a very satisfactory growth for a year or
so without any fertilizing ingredients added. However,
this would not be a wise policy and fertilizers of a last-
ing quality should be used. On that
account, farmyard manure should
not be used. All fruits require
potash, phosphoric acid and nitro-
gen and therefore these manures
should be applied. Do not apply
the fertilizers too heavily. It is a
simple matter when the vines be-
come thoroughly established to feed
from the surface. Bone is one of
the very best ingredients to place
in the grape border. This may be
used in a coarse state or that known
as J^-inch bone at the rate of
forty or fifty parts of solid to one
of bone. Potash may be used in
the shape of hardwood unleached
ashes, a trifle less in quantity than
that recommended for the bone.
Toward the surface, a quicker-acting
complete fruit - fertilizer may be
used. Such a border should grow
and produce grapes for many years.
A span-roof house running north
and south is recommended, as a cer-
tain amount of sunlight will be had
on both sides, whereas in a house
running east and west, very little
sun will strike on the north side.
Either curvilinear or straight span answers the purpose
for a private establishment.

Planting vines.

Vines may be planted either in fall or early spring.
Early fall-planted stock appears to come away more
freely and break stronger than spring planting. Plant
the canes about 4 feet apart; there is nothing gained
by too close planting. It is immaterial whether one-year-
old plants are selected or two-year-old, providing they
are thrifty strong canes. They should be shortened
back to 2 feet to insure strong growths from the
remaining buds, since, if a much longer length of cane
is left, they will break away unevenly and weakly.
Before planting, all the soil from a ball should be
removed and the roots straightened out. Spread the
roots out evenly on the border, cover with about 3
inches of soil and firm the soil well around them.

General treatment for forcing.

Grape-vines respond to the forcing treatment readily,
although a newly planted grape-house should be
brought along with little or no forcing the first season.
There would be no advantage in forcing them, as they
should not be allowed to produce fruit until the second
year, when they will be thoroughly established. How-

1551. Pot-grown pear
tree in bloom.

ever, assuming that the vines are established and grapes
are needed from the first to the tenth of May, the house
must be started by the middle of December with a
temperature of 45° to 50° at night, with a rise of 10°
to 15° by day, according to weather conditions, and
gradually increasing so that when the grapes are in
bloom the temperature will be 65° at night and 75°
to 80° by day. If a supply of grapes is demanded up to
Christmas or the New Year, three compartments must
be accommodated, the midseason house being started
two months later and the late house about the first of
April. A very important point to be considered is to
give the border a thorough watering, for while the
vines are at rest they are kept fairly dry. Ventilation
or airing is very important, for unless this is attended
to carefully serious trouble will follow, such as mildew,
red-spider and the like. The heat should be allowed to
rise gradually until the maximum is reached in the
morning, then kept as steady as possible and toward
evening gradually lowered to night temperature.

The best method of growing vines under glass is the
single-rod spur system. The spurs should be 15 or 18
inches apart on each side of the rod. Then disbud to
one shoot for each spur. As the young growth advances,
it must be trained in place by degrees, as the young
shoots are very brittle and if brought down too quickly
are liable to snap off. The next step is pinching the
shoots. The aim is to allow enough growth to cover
the trellis with foliage but to avoid crowding. A fairly
safe method is to stop the shoot at the second or third
leaf beyond the bunch, also pinch all lateral growths
at the first leaf.

Probably one of the most anxious times with the
man in charge is while the vines are in bloom or setting
their fruit. Certain varieties will set their fruit much
more freely than others. The Muscat family, as a rule,
is a bit backward in that respect. A safe method to
follow is a steady temperature with a fairly dry bracing
atmosphere so that the pollen can distribute itself
freely. By gently tapping the bunches around mid-
day, they should set freely. When the berries are about
the size of garden peas, they are in condition for thin-
ning. This is a tedious operation, requiring time and
Eatience. The bunch must never be handled with the
ngers. Either a stick with a fork or a straight stick
to lift the shoulders of the bunch while thinning should
be used. The aim is to cut away enough surplus ber-
ries to allow the remainder to swell to full size, so that
when full grown and ready to cut the bunch will keep
the same perfect shape when set on the dinner-table.

Grape-vines, when in a healthy, vigorous condition,
are rank feeders. There is no better time to apply food
than just after the grapes are thinned and again as
they take on their second swelling after the stoning
period. This may be applied in the shape of liquid
manure water or a complete chemical fertilizer. The
grower must use his own judgment in regard to quan-
tity, as so much depends on conditions. A healthy vine
can withstand more food than one less robust. Never-
theless, it is much better to feed lightly than too
heavily.

A moist humid atmosphere is necessary for grapes
while they are growing or from the time they are
started into growth until they begin to color, from which
time a drier bracing air will be of advantage. At this
stage, bottom air may be admitted by degrees during
the day, and later, or when ripe, keep bottom air on
day and night.

Pruning.

There are two objects in pruning: first, to keep the
vines in submission and second, to encourage vigor.
For the first season after planting, it would be well to
allow the vines to grow freely with very little stopping
of shoots. This encourages root-action and if every-
thing has progressed satisfactorily, the canes will

XLIV. Forcing of grapes. — Muscat of Alexandria.

FORCING

FORCING

1263

reach the top of the house the first season. When
pruning time comes, this cane must be shortened back,
allowing only about 5 feet of the season's growth to
remain. The same method should be adopted the fol-
lowing year and so on till the full height of vine is
secured. Before beginning to prune a grape-vine, one
should be absolutely sure the wood is thoroughly ripe.
This may easily be ascertained from well-ripened wood,
for after pruning the cut will remain perfectly dry
and in a few days have the appearance of an old cut.
On the other hand, if the wood cuts soft with a fluid
on the cut, then the wood is not ripe enough. To pro-
duce well-ripened wood from the time the crop is
gathered till pruning time, an abundance of air should
be allowed in the house and when the foliage has com-
pleted its functions a dry atmosphere should be main-
tained and the vines kept fairly dry at the roots. In
the long-rod spur system, it is necessary to prune hard
back, otherwise in a few years long ungainly spurs will
result. One or two eyes to each spur is sufficient and,
with thoroughly ripened wood, there is no danger but
that a bountiful crop 'will follow.

Varieties.

There are many varieties for forcing purposes,
although only a selection of the best varieties, early and
late, is given here. The Muscat grapes are the finest
of all uthe hothouse kinds. Unfortunately they require
a longer season to ripen. Consequently one must rely
on earlier-maturing varieties for early forcing. A few
canes of Muscats may be planted in an early house and
they will be useful after the early kinds are exhausted.
It is not wise to depend on thin-skinned Muscats for
late use, as there would be difficulty in keeping them in
condition any length of time. The following varieties
are recommended for early, midseason and late:

Early. — Black Hamburg, Appley Towers, Madres-
field Court, White Buckland Sweetwater, Foster Seed-
ling, Royton Muscat.

Midseason house should be devoted wholly to Mus-
cat of Alexandria, which is one of the finest of all
indoor grapes. It thrives better in a compartment
by itself, requiring a trifle more heat.

Late house. — Gros Colmar, Gros Maroc, Barbarossa
or Gros Guillaume, Alicante, Diamond Jubilee, Prince
of Wales, White Lady Hutt.

Many others may be added to the list, but these
will be found to cover the season and varieties suffi-
ciently for all purposes.

Forcing of peaches and nectarines.

These fruits come next in popularity to the grape
and considerable space is devoted to their culture
under glass. Great improvements have been brought
about in recent years with both peaches and nectarines
and a large number of new varieties are constantly
appearing for forcing. One of the handsomest forcing
peaches is Peregrine. The color is magnificent and
flavor all that could be desired, with size sufficient to
please the most exacting. Others might be mentioned
to show the progress of time.

Cultural methods.

The same style of house that has been recommended
for grape-culture will be found ideal for peaches and
nectarines, although instead of having the walk down
the center of the house, it is better along each side.
This will allow planting the trees crosswise of the house
on trellises about 6 feet apart, which affords ample
space for a well-balanced tree. Also the same arrange-
ments in regard to borders, drainage and so on should
be carried out, although a slightly shallower border
would be satisfactory. From 2 to 2^ feet of soil would
be sufficient; nor is it necessary to make the border
quite so rich for peaches and nectarines as for grapes,
as the trees would have a tendency to rank growth, a

condition that should be guarded against. Peach trees
budded on plum stock are superior for forcing purposes.
Choose the best trees obtainable for this work. In our
climate, if everything goes well, the trees will grow
into large proportions in three or four years. There-
fore, space should be considered with this in view. A
tree that is planted in such a way that the branches
are evenly balanced on both sides, causing an equaliza-
tion of the sap, will insure better results. Assuming
the peach-house to be 25 feet in width with the trellis
crosswise the house, allowing a walk on each side, each
tree would have a spread of about 18 feet. One tree in
the center of each trellis is sufficient, which allows
ample room for development. If desired, a tree may be
planted on each side of the permanent one for two or
three years, but must be cut away as the space is needed
for the permanent tree. Still another method may be
adopted and probably the best, which is placing trees
in tubs on each side, then as space is needed they may
be moved away, whereas when planted in the border
one is likely to leave them too long and crowd the
main tree out of shape.

It would not be wise to force newly planted trees to
any extent, but rather to bring them along gradually
for the first season, when they will be in condition for
forcing. If ripe fruit is in demand about the first week
in May, the house must be started about the middle
of December. The peach tree will come on and develop
its blossoms in a comparatively moderate temperature
and it would not be wise to submit it to extreme heat
artificially. Peach trees delight in fresh air, and will
resent a too close humid atmosphere. A temperature
of 40° to 45° at night and 50° to 55° by day will suit
their requirements at the start. Gradually increase
this so that the temperature will range from 50° to 55°
at night and 60° to 65° by day or 70° with sun heat
when in bloom. After the fruit is set, another 5° may
be added. Give plenty of air without lowering the
temperature, particularly in cold weather. Give the
house a light spraying two or three times a day when
the weather is clear until they come into bloom. Do
not spray while they are in blossom. After the fruit is
set, spraying may be resorted to again once or twice
a day according to weather conditions.

Peaches are subject to greenfly. As a precaution
after the fruit is thoroughly set, syringe every ten
days or so with a solution of whale-oil soap, enough
just to color the water. This is an excellent remedy for
both greenfly and red spider, both deadly enemies to
peach foliage.

The peach tree will produce many more shoots than
are needed to furnish the trellis, therefore the surplus
will have to be removed. This is best done by degrees
rather than removing them all at once, which would
be likely to cause a check. A number of shoots may be
pinched at the third leaf, which in all probability would
form spurs or fruit-buds for the following season. The
aim is to allow enough wood to remain to cover the
trellis, but to avoid crowding. As the crop advances
or before the fruit becomes of much size, thinning of
the fruit would be in order. It is a serious mistake to
overcrop. If a tree has a tendency to rank growth, a
fairly heavy crop would be of advantage. The grower
must be governed according to conditions.

Watering and feeding are important. Potash is neces-
sary for all stone-fruits and should be applied in some
form, or a complete fruit-fertilizer may be recommended.
It is better to feed light and often rather than too much
at once. Enough water must be supplied to give the
border a thorough watering from top to bottom. Then
no more should be given until necessary, for if the soil
is not allowed to sweeten up it would be impossible to
keep the trees healthy. It is not a good policy to have
the trees or borders saturated just as the fruit is ripen-
ing. It is better to give them a watering a week or so
in advance, which will usually last until the fruit is

1264

FORCING

FORCING

gathered. The object of this is to improve the flavor
of the fruit.

One should not think that after gathering the fruit
the house needs little or no attention. The temperature
will not need close watching, but the fruit-buds have
to form and develop, and good attention to watering
and spraying the foliage is a wise step toward success
for the following season. Cut away any useless wood
after the crop of fruit has been picked, thus allowing the
remainder of the wood to become well ripened. Well-
ripened wood will withstand any reasonable amount
of frost during the dormant state, and fruit-buds will
respond when called upon with
abundance of healthy strong blos-
soms. Winter-pruning may be
done any time after the trees have
cast their foliage. This means
removing any weak growths,
shortening back extremely strong
growth and training the young
wood so that it will spread over
the space about 5 inches apart.

Varieties.

For forcing there are many
varieties to choose from. The
peach crop may be extended at
least seven weeks for one house,
but if the compartments are at
command a season of five months
or more may be had by planting
early, midseason and late varie-
ties. The following varieties may
be relied upon for early, mid-
season and late:

Early forcing peaches. — Duch-
ess of Cornwall, Duke of York,
Peregrine. .

Early forcing nectarines. —
Cardinal, Early Rivers, Advance,
Lord Napier.

Midseason peaches . — P e r e-
grine (Alexander, Noblesse),
Bellegarde, Grosse Mignonne.

Midseason nectarines. — Stan-
wick - Elruge, Rivers, Orange- _
Chaucer.

Late-house peaches. — Crawr
ford Late, Thomas Rivers,
Princess of Wales.

Late-house nectarines. — New-
ton, Spencer, Humboldt, Vic-
toria.

Numerous other varieties
could be added to this list. How-
ever this will be found sufficient
for all practical purposes.

Pot-fruits.

1552. Pear in fruit under glass. — The
Hardy.

This method of producing fruit has found favor with
many growers throughout the country, particularly
in private establishments. It requires no specially
built houses for the purpose, providing the house
receives full sunlight with abundance of ventilation.
There are two or three advantages of this concentrated
method of growing: first, the house may be used for
other growing crops after the fruit is gathered, as the
trees may be placed outside or, as severe winter sets in,
they may be stored away in a coolhouse close together
until such time as they are needed for bringing into
growth again; second, a large variety of fruits is
adapted to this method of culture, such as peaches,
nectarines, pears, plums, figs and the like. These
trees may be grown into either pyramid or half-stand-
ard forms. Pyramids, as a whole, make a more attrac-
tive appearance in a house than any other form of

training. A house for pot-fruits requires about the same
treatment as that recommended for peaches planted
in a permanent border. Care and watchfulness are
required as to watering, particularly when first start-
ing into growth, as at that stage there is not much
foliage, consequently an over-abundance of water
would have a tendency to sour the soil. Potting the
trees is very important. There is no better time for this
operation than early fall, or just as they are casting
their foliage. Also a serious error is placing them in too
large pots or tubs. They should be repotted every fall,
but it is not always necessary to give them a larger
tub. Often the ball may be re-
duced and placed into the same-
sized tub. The soil should consist
of a good fibrous loam used in
a fairly rough state, if possible,
as this will allow free action for
. the water to pass off. Firm pot-
ting is of great importance-.
Three parts of soil to one of
thoroughly decayed rich manure
with a little bone mixed in would
be an excellent compost for the
purpose. Careful watering after
repotting is very important.

When the trees come into
bloom, keep a fairly dry bracing
atmosphere. Pears and plums
will refuse to set their fruit other-
wise. As the growth advances,
frequent pinching or stopping
the shoots should be attended to.
Some growths will doubtless be
much in advance of others.
When the young growths reach
the length of 5 or 6 inches, they
should be pinched and again
when they have extended another
similar growth and so on. Usu-
ally in the case of pyramid trees,
growth will be found more ad-
vanced at the top, hence those
shoots should be stopped, result-
ing in more vigor for the lower
branches.

Surface-dressing when the fruit
is swelling is of great benefit.
Either manure or a concentrated
fertilizer may be mixed with the
soil and added as a top-dressing,
but by all means do not apply
this until the fruit is swelling
away freely.

Pot-fruit that has been
properly cared for during the
season of growth in regard to
pinching and summer-pruning
requires little winter -pruning

aside from removing the very weakest growths.

Varieties.

The following varieties are the best:

Pears. — Souvenir du Congres, Madame Treyve,
Hardy, Fondante d' Automne, Louise Bonne, Con-
ference, Magnet, Pitmaston Duchess, Durondean,
Princess.

Plums. — The Czar, Blue Rock, Oullins Golden,
Early Transparent, Gage, Mallard, Denniston Superb,
Belgian Purple, Golden Esperin, Transparent Gage,
Green Gage, Grand Duke.

Figs. — Brown Turkey, Negro Largo, White Mar-
seilles, Violet Sepor.

Apples and apricots also may be added, although they
are not so profitable as the others mentioned.

WM. TURNER.

FORCING

FORCING

1265

Forcing hardy plants.

Forcing is an economical method of securing large
quantities of flowers in winter; it is extensively used by
commercial florists for cut-flowers and flowering plants.
Plants usually forced are hyacinths, tulips, narcissi and
other Dutch bulbs, lily-of-the-valley, astilbe, dicentra,
hybrid perpetual and rambler roses, Deutzia gracilis,
hybrid rhododendrons (R. sinense) and Ghent azaleas,
tender hydrangeas and lilacs.

This mode of procuring flowers at small cost has
always been more or less in vogue among plantsmen,

and of late years
has received fresh
impetus, owing to
the heavy demands
for decorative
plants at Easter. It
is not only an in-
expensive method of
getting flowers, but
with most plants,
after a little experi-
ence, the time of
blooming can be

flower-buds. Close pruning is necessary, and root-
pruning is helpful. Grafting, which has a tendency to
dwarf and hasten maturity, is also used with strong
growers. Sometimes both growing in pots and grafting
are employed, as in lilacs.

A plant fit for forcing must be compact, both top and
roots; economy in space is essential. It is now possible
to secure from the French, Dutch and Belgian nurseries
many plants grown for this purpose. A few come pot-
grown, but most of them are from the open ground:
very little of this work is done in American nurseries.
Figs. 1553-1555 show the methods of preparing woody
plants for forcing.

Herbaceous plants should be prepared for forcing
with equal care, and the process may require several
years. The removal of the flower-buds and growth,
under high cultivation, in close, compact clumps,
apparently produces the same results that pruning
and grafting accomplish for trees and shrubs. Fig.
1556 shows the root-clump of an herb prepared for
forcing.

Plants that have once been forced are commonly
thrown away. It is generally cheaper to buy new stock,
but lilacs, azaleas, and the like, can be planted out
and will recover sufficient strength in two years for a
second forcing, or for other use.
Some species, like Viburnum
plicatum, staphylea, and xantho-
ceras, if grown on in pots after
forcing, may be again forced, and
seem to do better the second year.
This is probably explained by
the fact that insufficient prep-
aration was given for the first

1553. Azalea, received from Europe, now
pruned for forcing.

easily calculated. The process has
limitations, at any rate with our pre-
sent knowledge of the matter, inasmuch
as, with the exception of "retarded
plants" and a few bulbs, it is not
practicable in late autumn and early
winter without the use of ether. It is
possible, however, that by using "re-
tarded plants," i.e., plants held over
their natural time of flowering by
keeping them in cold storage at a temperature suffi-
ciently low to prevent growth, this difficulty may
eventually be overcome. Except, however, with lily-
of-the-valley, which is admirably adapted to this prac-
tice, little is known of the possibilities of this form of
forcing; it is hoped that other plants, equally useful,
may be treated in this way. It is evident that, on
account of the cost of storage, bulky plants could not
be handled.

The requirements for successful forcing are: (1) a
good knowledge of the plants; (2) proper preparation;
(3) a period of rest; and (4) proper care after the plants
are brought into heat.

Those plants force most easily which bloom in spring
and early summer. Late-blooming kinds, like Rhodo-
dendron maximum, clethra and Hydrangea paniculata
var. grandiflora, do not give good results. No success is
obtained with asters and goldenrod, unless they are
retarded. These points must be studied out by the
grower.

Trees and shrubs should be specially prepared for
forcing by careful cultivation for one or two years
before use. They can be planted out-of-doors, with
plenty of room to develop, or they can be grown in
pots, the latter method being used with vigorous plants,
which are apt to run to growth without developing

81

1554. Rhododendron, received from Europe,
ready for forcing.

trial, the first forcing
being really "proper pre-
paration" for the second
forcing.

Hardy plants must
have a period of rest for
successful forcing, the
time required vary-
ing in different
species. One can-
not tell, except by
experiment, that
Paper White nar-
cissi will force easily

1555. Lilac pruned for forcing.

in November and December, while the double Von Sion
will not; the individual equation of each kind is an
element which must be considered. There is a popular
notion that freezing will shorten the time for resting,
or, at any rate, is conducive to the welfare of the plant.
This idea does not seem to stand any practical test.
After potting, do not subject the plants to severe
frosts (10° to 12° F.), or else the roots, now much
exposed, may suffer. The large buds of lilac and
rhododendron may also be injured if frozen hard.

Pot the plants as soon as they ripen their growth in
autumn, beginning in September with herbaceous stock,

1266

FORCING

FORCING

and continuing until severe frost. It is possible, but
not desirable, to lift some things after the ground is
frozen hard. Plants received from abroad are potted on
arrival, or, if furnished with a ball like azaleas (Fig.
1553), they can be stored and not potted until brought
into heat. Dutch bulbs are boxed or potted as they are
received, and buried in the earth or piled in stacks
and covered with enough leaves and
litter to exclude frosts. Lily-of-the-
valley, astilbe and dicentra may be
kept in their packing-cases in a cool
pit until ready for use. Large plants
in tubs and boxes can be
covered with leaves and
kept out-of-doors, but most
plants should be stored in
a cool cellar, pit or frame
kept at a temperature of
35° F.; a temporary varia-
tion of 5° either way does
no harm. It is well to delay
this storage until as late in
the season as possible, but it
must be done before severe
weather. Plants may be
stowed compactly in several
tiers if necessary. It must
be remembered that no
growth is to be allowed while stored; it is their period
of rest, and this must be enforced. Good ventilation
must be given on bright days and every precaution
taken against an accumulation of moisture : if the plants
are well watered when put away very little will be
required afterwards. Dampness is most serious with
evergreens, like kalmia, and such things as Phlox
subulata. This stock should have the airiest positions;
sometimes it can be placed in shallow frames 2 feet
deep, which are drier than deep pits. In severe weather
the pits are often covered with snow a week or more,
but the plants will not suffer if this happens but once
or twice during the winter. At such times mice and
squirrels will make trouble unless trapped or poisoned.
Nothing except retarded plants, a few bulbs and one
or two kinds of prunus should be brought in before
November. December 15 to January 1 is as early as it is
safe to begin forcing most hardy plants; it will be found
that as the days lengthen the results will be more satis-
factory. At first the plants must be kept cool, 45° F., or
thereabout. Syringe twice a day until the buds swell:
after growth starts the treatment is the same as that

1556. Dicentra roots prepared
for forcing.

1557. Forcing lily-of-the-valley in pots.

given greenhouse plants, and they can be put in a much
warmer house if so desired. It is at this time that care
in handling, particularly in the matter of heat, makes it
possible to time the period of blooming so accurately,
but it is impossible to give any general rules satisfac-
torily to cover these matters.

A few plants, like lily-of-the-valley, can be placed
directly in a forcing-box, generally made over the

pipes in the hottest house, where a temperature of
80° or more can be maintained. They are first soaked
in water for a day or two and then kept in this heavy
heat until flower-buds are well developed (Fig. 1557).

Tulips, hyacinths and other bulbs, sometimes an
azalea or lilac, can also be hurried up in such a box, but
it is dangerous, and not good practice ; better and more
lasting flowers come with ordinary treatment. Trilliums
(Fig. 1558) and various early-flowering wild plants may
be forced with satisfaction.

Although no rules can be given for the time required
in forcing, it is knowledge not hard to acquire with
even surprising exactness. Nothing is likely to require
more than three months in houses ranging from 45°
to 55° F. — i.e., after bringing in from the pits. A month
or six weeks is good time to allow in February and
March, but with the same plants and temperatures,
more time would be needed earlier; with the advance of
the season, the work is quicker and less uncertain.
There is a great difference in plants. Rhododendrons
(the hybrids) require eight weeks or more, but one
species will often bloom in March, within twenty-four
hours. Plants like the rose, which must make a growth

1558. Forced trillium.

before the buds form, take more time than Rhododen-
dron sinense. The difference between dull and bright
weather is an important factor, but with extra firing,
or the use of the forcing-box, these matters even up,
and the average time of flowering is wonderfully even.
In this work, a man with good plant sense is most
likely to succeed.

The use of anesthetics in forcing.

In the latter part of the last century and early in the
present, experiments were begun in Germany, and
confirmed in France, England and the United States,
in subjecting plants to the influence of ether and
chloroform for the purpose of securing better results
in forcing. Ether seems, for many reasons, the most
practical agent, but, owing to its cost and the extra
expense of handling the plants, this process does not
appear to be in common use among florists. For a
detailed treatment of this subject, the reader is referred
to an article by M. Emile Lemoine in the Journal of the
Royal Horticultural Society (London), Vol. XXVIII,
1903-4, p. 45. See, also, the article Etherization, p.
1146, Vol. II.

In the main, the treatment of plants for this purpose
is as follows: A container, which can be hermetically
sealed and of the proper size is provided. In it are
placed the plants "as dry as possible, in equally
dry sand." The temperature of the box is 62° to 65° F.
Under the lid is a vessel into which the ether can be
poured and the hole sealed at once. It is important to
have the ether at the top as its vapor is heavier than
air and consequently gravitates downward. Ether,

FORESTRY

1267

particularly when mixed with air, is very inflammable
and lighted matches, cigars or pipes must be kept
away. "Thirty or forty grammes of ether are enough
for one hundred cubic litres of air: one gramme equals
fifteen and one-half grains, one litre equals sixty-one
cubic inches." The ether used is "pure sulfuric
ether which boils at 95° F." The plants are kept under
the influence of the ether for two days; sometimes they
are removed for two days and the etherization repeated
for the same length of time. Afterwards they are
placed in a coldhouse and "treated in the usual man-
ner." Lilacs "were in full flower eighteen days after
being placed in the greenhouse," one, "Marie Legraye
still earlier." Johannsen made lilacs "flower regularly"
the first two weeks in September which had been
etherized the first week in August." With other
shrubs, such as Rhododendron sinense (Azalea mollis).
Viburnum Opulus, Prunus triloba, Deutzia gracilis and
some of the spireas, the results were more or less
favorable."

Trials with chloroform apparently have been less
successful and other anesthetics and stimulants have
been found failures. g M> WATSON.

FORESTIERA (after Forestier, a French physician).
Syn. Adelia. Oleacese. Sometimes grown as ornamen-
tal shrubs.

Deciduous, rarely evergreen trees or shrubs: Ivs.
opposite, entire or serrate: fls. dioecious, apetalous,
with or without calyx, in small, axillary clusters in
early spring, before the Ivs.; stamens 2-4: fr. a small,
mostly black, 1- or 2-seeded drupe. — About 15 species
from 111. south to Brazil and the W. Indies.

The species in cultivation are shrubs with rather
small leaves, inconspicuous yellowish flowers before
the leaves and small dark purple or black, berry-like
fruits. F. acuminata is hardy in sheltered positions as
far north as Massachusetts, while F. ligustrina is some-
what tenderer. They prefer moist soil and are suited
for planting along streams. Propagation is by seeds
and layers.

acuminata, Poir. (Adelia acuminata, Michx.). De-
ciduous shrub, to 10 ft. high, sometimes spiny, glabrous:
Ivs. slender-petioled, ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate,
remotely serrate, 1^-4 in. long: staminate fls. in dense
clusters; pistillate fls. in short panicles: fr. narrow,
oblong or cylindrical, deep purple, falcate, acute, Km-
long. W. 111. to Texas. Michx. Fl. Bor. Amer. 2:225.
B.B. (ed. 2)2:728.

ligustrina, Poir. (Adelia ligustrina, Michx.). Decidu-
ous shrub, to 6 ft., pubescent: Ivs. elliptic-obpvate to
oblong, obtuse, appressed-serrulate, about 1 in. long:
fls. in fascicles: fr. sessile, ovoid, obtuse, Km- long.
Tenn. to Fla. and Ala.

F. neo-mexicana, Gray (A. parvifolia, Coville). Shrub, to 10
ft.: Ivs. spathulate, almost entire, usually glabrous, grayish green
and rather small: fr. ovate or short-oblong, obtuse, }£m- Texas to

ALFRED REHDER.

FORESTRY is the rational treatment of forests; this
treatment may vary with the object in view. Forests
may subserve various objects, giving rise to three
classes of forests: they furnish wood materials for the
arts — supply forests; they furnish a soil cover, which
may prevent the blowing of the soil and formation of
sand-dunes, or may retard the erosion and washing
of the soil and may regulate the waterflow, or act as
a barrier to cold or hot winds, and exercise other bene-
ficial influences on climate and surroundings — protec-
tion forests; or, finally, they furnish enjoyment to the
esthetic and sporting elements in man, as game-pre-
serves and parks — luxury forests. Any two or all three
objects may be attained simultaneously in the same for-
est. In the end, and in a more limited sense, forestry
is the art and business of making revenue from the
growing of wood crops, just as all agriculture is finally
concerned in producing values from food crops and

other crops. In the economy of agriculture, wood crops
may be grown on land that is too poor for field crops.

This art is divided into two distinct and more or less
independent branches, namely silviculture, the techni-
cal branch, and forest management, the business
branch. Silviculture is a branch of the larger subject
arboriculture, and comprises all the knowledge and
skill applied in producing the wood crop, relying
mainly on natural sciences. While horticulture and
silviculture have both to deal with trees, their object
and with it their treatment of trees are totally different:
the orchardist works for the fruit of the tree, the land-
scape gardener for the pleasing form; in both cases the
object is attained by the existence of the tree and its
single individual development; the forester is after
the substance of the tree, the wood; his object is finally
attained only by the removal of the tree itself. He
deals with masses of trees rather than individuals: it
is logs in quantity and of desirable quality, clear of
knots, not trees, that he is working for; hence, his
treatment differs from that of the horticulturist.

The clear long boles free of knots are secured by a
dense stand, when by the shade of neighbors the lower
branches are made to die and break off. When in this
way clear boles to a certain height are secured, the
stand is opened up by thinnings in order to secure
expansion of crown and thereby more rapid increase
in diameter of bole. There are several ways of repro-
ducing the crop, namely artificially by sowing or plant-
ing, the latter being done with one- to four-year-old
plants, at the rate of 1,500 to 4,000 to the acre; or by
natural regeneration, either by sprouts from the stump,
the so-called coppice, which is applicable to hardwoods
and for the production of fuel wood and small-dimen-
sion material, or else by seed from mother or nurse
trees. There are various procedures of securing a crop
by seed, a so-called timber forest, which differ by the
rapidity of the removal of the old crop or nurse trees, and
by the size and progress of the opening — strip system,
group system, selection system, and, the most refined,
shelterwood system.

Since the crop takes many years to mature — some-
times a century and more — in order to carry on a con-
tinuous forestry business, from which to secure annual
returns, special arrangements peculiar to this business
must be made : these arrangements, naturally influenced
by the economic conditions of the country, form the
subject of forest organization or management.

The ideal of the forester to which he attempts a
gradual approach with his actual unregulated forest
is known as the "normal forest." It supposes that a
rotation has been chosen, i.e. a year or period when
the timber will be ripe (determined in various ways);
that as many stands are at hand as there are years in
the rotation, differing by one year from each other, so
that each year a mature area can be harvested — a
normal age-class gradation; that the increment on
the whole area is the best attainable for species and site
— a normal increment; that the amount of wood stand-
ing, the stock on which the increment is deposited, is
the proper one for each age-class — a normal stock.
This is the standard with which the actual forest is
compared to judge its abnormalities, which by the
management are to be, as far as practicable, removed.

Since the forest crop takes from thirty to one hundred
years and more to mature, i.e., to produce desirable
size, highest value, or best interest rate on the invest-
ment, it is a business which does not appeal to private
enterprise: the long-time element, as well as the influ-
ence of forests on water-flow and other cultural con-
ditions make forestry particularly a business to be
conducted by the state or other long-lived corporation.

The horticulturist, as such, is mainly interested in
the rational treatment of such forests as have a pro-
tective value, influencing climatic, soil and water con-
ditions in general and locally.

1268

FORESTRY

FORSYTHIA

The raising of trees for shade, for ornament, and for
avenues is not forestry, but a branch of arboriculture
(which see); the ornamental utilization of forests, as a
part of grounds, is discussed
under Woods.

B. E. FERNOW.

FORGET-ME-NOT: Myosotis.

FORMAL GARDENING : Land-
scape Gardening.

FORSf THIA (after William
Forsyth, prominent English
horticulturist, director of the
Royal Garden at Kensington,
1737-1804). Oleacex. GOLDEN-
BELL. Shrubs grown for their
wealth of bright yellow flowers
appearing early in spring, also
for their handsome dark green
foliage.

Deciduous: Ivs. opposite,
petioled, serrate or entire,
simple or partly 3-parted to
3-foliolate: fls. 1-6, axillary,
pedicelled, heterostylous; calyx
and corolla deeply 4-lobed,
lobes of the corolla oblong,
longer than the campanulate
tube; stamens 2, included, in-
serted at the base of the corolla;
ovary superior; style slender
with 2-lobed stigma: fr. a 2-
celled, dehiscent caps, with
many winged seeds. — Four
species in China, Japan and
S. E. Eu.

The golden -bells are highly
ornamental, free -flowering
shrubs, with simple or ternate
leaves and showy yellow flow-
ers, borne in great profusion
along the slender branches in
early spring before the leaves.
They belong to the showiest
early - flowering shrubs, and

have handsome, clean foliage, remarkably free from

insects or fungi, remaining unchanged until late in fall.

The upright forms are well adapted

for the borders of 'shrubberies and

the pendulous form for covering

walls, fences, arbors or porches.

They grow in almost any kind of

garden soil, and are hardy North

except F. viridissima, which is

somewhat tenderer. Propagation is

readily by greenwood and hard-
wood cuttings; also by seeds. The

branches of the pendulous form

often take root at the tips when

touching the ground, and send

forth vigorous shoots, like some

brambles or the walking-fern.

A. Lvs. often S-parted or 8-foliolate:

branches hollow between the
nodes (except in the hybrid).

B. Branches always hollow between

the nodes: Ivs. usually ovate,

often 8-foliolate.

suspensa, Vahl. Shrub, to 8 ft.,
with slender branches often lopping
on the ground and taking root: Ivs.
broad-ovate or oblong-ovate, ser-
rate, 3-4 in. long: fls. 1-3, rarely
to 6, about 1 in. long, golden yellow,
tube striped orange-yellow within;

1559. Flowers of For-
sythia suspensa var. For-
tunei.

1560. Forsythia suspensa var. Sieboldii.
(Xjfl

calyx about as long as tube: caps, ovate, about 1 in.
long. China. S.Z. 3. Gn. 73, p. 243. Var. Fdrtunei,
Rehd. (F. Fortunei, Lindl.). Fig. 1559. Of upright
habit with finally arching branches:
Ivs. often ternate, ovate or oblong-
ovate: corolla with straight and
spreading twisted segms. R. H.
1861:291. G. 4:79; 13:87. G.M.
50:227. F.E. 31:421. Var. decipiens,
Koehne. A vigorous form of the
preceding: fls. always solitary, on
pedicels usually %\o.., sometimes
nearly 1 in. long, deep yellow, known
only in the macrostylous form. Gt.
55, p. 203. Var pallida, Koehne.
Fls. always solitary, pale yellow.
Var. variegata, Butz. Lvs. varie-
gated with golden yellow: fls. deep
yellow. Var. atrocaulis, Rehd. A
form of var. Fortunei with dark
purple branches and the young
growth purplish. Cent. China. Var.
pub esc ens, Rehd. Similar to the
preceding, but Ivs. soft and short-
pubescent on both sides or only
below. Cent. China. Var. Sieboldii,
Zabel (F. Sieboldii, Dipp.). Fig.
1560. Low shrub, with very slender,
pendulous or trailing branches: Ivs.
mostly simple, broad-ovate or ovate :
corolla-lobes flat and broad, slightly
recurved. B.M.4995. F.S. 12:1253.
Gn. 33, p. 563. A.G. 13:94. G.F.
4:79. Gt. 55, p. 205. — F. suspensa
is an excellent shrub for the margins
of groups, because it finally rolls
over and meets the greensward. It
can also be trained over an arbor.

BB. Branches usually, particularly
above, with lamellate pith be-
tween the nodes, pith at the
nodes usually solid: Ivs. only on
vigorous shoots partly 2-3-parted
or sometimes 3-foliolate, usually ovate -lanceolate.

intermedia, Zabel (F. suspensa x F. viridissima).
Shrub, with slender, erect or arching branches: Ivs.
oblong to ovate-lanceolate,
sometimes 3-lobed or ter-
nate, usually coarsely ser-
rate, 3-4 in. long: fls. almost
like those of F. suspensa var.
Fortunei. Gt. 1885 : 1 182 ;
40, p. 397. Gn.W. 22:181. Var.
vi tell in a, Koehne (F. vitettlna,
Koehne). With upright or spread-
ing branches: fls. deep yellow, little
over 1 in. long. Gt. 55, pp. 227,
228. Var. spectabilis, Spaeth (F.
spectdbilis, Koehne). Upright with
spreading and somewhat arching
branches: fls. somewhat paler than
of the preceding, 1 Jxj in. long, often
5-6-merous. Gt. 55, p. 229. G. 35:
255. Var. densifl&ra, Koehne (F.
densifldra, Koehne). Upright shrub
with divaricately spreading and slen-
der arching branches: fls. crowded
at the base of the branches, rather
pale with flat slightly recurved
corolla-lobes. Gt. 55, pp. 230, 231.
Var. priinulina, Rehd. Upright
shrub, with spreading and arching
branches: fls. crowded at the base
of the branches, pale yellow; lobes of
the corolla revolute at the margin. —

1561. Flowers of
Forsythia viridissima.

FORSYTHIA

FORTUNELLA

1269

1562. Forsythia viridis-
sima. (X1A)

F . intermedia is often confounded with forms of F.
suspensa. In foliage it resembles much the following,
which has the Ivs. narrower, always simple, usually
serrate only above the middle, with smaller teeth. It
is as hardy as F. suspensa and very floriferous.

AA. Lvs. always simple:
branches, at least in
their upper part, with
lamellate pith through-
out, including the
nodes: habit upright.
viridissima, Lindl. Figs.
1561, 1562. Shrub, to 10 ft.,
with green,
erect bran-
ches: Ivs. ob-
long-lanceo-
late or lanceo-
late, always
simple, and
generally ser-
rate only above the
middle, very dark
green, 3-6 in. long:
fls. 1-3, about 1 in.
long; corolla with
rather narrow, twisted lobes of
bright, somewhat greenish yel-
low; calyx about half as long as
tube. China. B.M. 4587. F.S.
3:261. B.R. 33:39. H.F. 1852:
97. J.H. 111.65:423. Gn. 33, p.
563. G.2:65;28:39. A.G. 13:94.
Var variegata, Hort. Lvs. varie-
gated with white. — Less hardy
and graceful than the preceding forms.

europaea, Degen & Baldacci. Upright shrub to 6 ft.:
Ivs. usually ovate to ovate-lanceolate, entire or at the
end of vigorous shoots with shallow teeth, 2-3 in. long:
fls. 1-3, about 1 in. long, short-pedicelled, golden yel-
low; calyx-lobes ovate-ciliate, shorter than the corolla-
tube: caps, ovoid, about J^in. long. Albania. B.M.
8039. Gt. 54, p. 291. G.C. III. 36:123. J.H.S. 29:
663. F.E. 18:348.

F. Giraldi&na, Lingelsh. Upright shrub: Ivs. elliptic to oblong,
long-acuminate, broadly cuneate at the base, entire or serrulate,
glabrous or hairy on the veins beneath, 2-5 in. long: fls. short-
stalked: caps, ovoid with a long and slender beak. N. W. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FORTUNEARIA (after Robert Fortune, who trav-
eled during the years 1843-61 in China and Japan and
introduced a large number of highly ornamental plants).
Hamameliddce3e. Ornamental shrub, grown for its
handsome foliage.

Stellate-pubescent: Ivs. deciduous, alternate, serrate,
with small caducous stipules: fls. small, short-pedicelled,
in terminal racemes; calyx turbinate with 5 short
lobes; petals 5, subulate, slightly shorter than sepals;
stamens 5, with short filaments; ovary partly superior
with 2 filiform re volute styles: fr. a dehiscent woody
caps., separating into 2 valves bifid at the apex; seeds
glossy, dark brown; embryo with large cotyledons revo-
lute at the margin. — One species in Cent. China. Very
similar in habit and foliage to Sinowilsonia, but the fls.
and the embryo are very different. In general appear-
ance it suggests the hazel; fls. and frs. insignificant.
Has proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Prop, is
by seeds and possibly by grafting on Hamamelis.

sinensis, Rehd. & Wilson. Shrub to 6 ft.: Ivs. obo-
vate or obovate- oblong, short -acuminate, usually
rounded at the base, sinuate-denticulate, glabrous
above, pubescent on the veins below, 3-5J^ in. long:
fls. scarcely J^in. across in racemes about 2 in. long:
caps, ovoid, less than >£in. long. May. Cent. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FORTUNELLA (named for Robert Fortune, who in
1846 introduced the first kumquat into Europe).
Rutacex, tribe Citreae. KUMQUAT. Evergreen shrubs,
grown for then* small ornamental fruits, which are also
preserved and eaten fresh. See Kumquat.

Leaves unifoliate, thick, pale and densely glandular-
dotted below: stamens 4 times as many as the petals,
polyadelphous; ovary 3-6- (rarely 7-) celled, ovules 2
in each cell; stigma cavernous: frs. like Citrus but
smaller, 1-1 y% in. diam., globose or oval, skin usually
thick, sweet and edible; seeds green in section, cotyle-
dons hypogeous in germination: first fotiage-lvs. broadly
ovate, opposite. Differs from Citrus in having a few-
celled ovary with only 2 ovules in a cell, and a cav-
ernous stigma; from Atalantia in having 4 times as
many stamens as petals. — Four species are recognized.

The two commonly cultivated species of kumquats
have been referred by botanists to Citrus, but the
obviously related Hongkong wild kumquat has been
referred to Atalantia. The kumquats are, as a matter
of fact, out of place either in Citrus or Atalantia and
constitute a separate genus about midway between these
two. See Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5:165-176 (No. 5,
March 4) 1915.

A. Subgenus Eufortunetta. Fr. 4~, 5-, 6- (or rarely 7-)
celled, pulp vesicles abundant, their stalks arising
from the smooth ovary wall, peel of fr. thick and
fleshy. The kumquats proper.

margarita, Swingle (Citrus margarita, Lour.). Figs.
1563, 1564. OVAL KUMQUAT. NAGAMI KUMQUAT. A
shrub or small tree, thornless or nearly so: twigs slen-
der, angled when young, often somewhat tufted: Ivs.
lanceolate, tapering toward both ends, the tip abruptly
rounded, sometimes emarginate, the base cuneate,
margin usually obscurely crenate above the middle,
dark green above, veins scarcely visible, pale green and
densely glandular-punctate below: fls. arising singly
or in few-fid, clusters in the axils of the Ivs., small,
%-^in. diam.; pedicel short, 1^-2^ lines long; bud
more or less angular in cross section; pistil short, 2-2 J^
lines; style persistent, scarcely longer than the ovary;
stigma capitate, cavernous, with large, deep-seated oil-
glands between the stylar canals; ovary 4- or 5-celled,
ovules 2 in a cell, usually collateral: frs. oval or oblong,
1-1 y*> x f-1 in., rarely 1 J^-l ^ in. long, yellowish orange
with large translucent oil-glands imbedded in the thick
and fleshy skin; pulp-vesicles abundant, fusiform, pulp
acid ; seeds large, 5-6 x 3-3 % x 2-2 }/£ lines, oval ; embryos
one or several, pistache-green in section; germination
with hypogeous cotyledons: first foh'age-lvs. opposite,

1563. Leaves of Fortunella. (X}^)1, F. margarita; 2, F. japonica;
3, F. crassifolia; 4, F. Hindsii.

1270

FORTUNELLA

FOTHERGILLA

oval, narrowed at the base but without a sharply delim-
ited jointed petiole. B.M. 6128. G.C. II. 2:336. Hume,
Citr. Fr. p. 129. — The oval kumquat, the type of the
genus Fortunella, is the most vigorous member of the
genus, the branched shrub or tree attaining a height
of 10-12 ft. and the Ivs. sometimes reaching 6 in. length

1564. Fruits with cross-sections of Fortunella. ( X 1A) I, F.
margarita; 2, F. japonica; 3, F. crassifolia; 4, F. Hindsii.

and 2 in. width. It was the first kumquat to reach Eu.,
having been brought to England by Robert Fortune in
1846. Because of its superior vigor it is the one most
commonly grown commercially, but the frs. are inferior
to those of the following species, the skin being harsh
hi flavor because of the biting quality of the oil.

japonica, Swingle (Citrus japonica, Thunb.). ROUND
KUMQUAT. MARUMI KUMQUAT. Figs. 1563-1565. A
much-branched shrub with very short spines or none:
differs from F. margarita in the broader and blunter
pointed smaller Ivs., 1JHH4 x %-!% in., paler and vein-
less below, round frs. |— l^£in. diam., not showing any
persistent rudiment of the style, and usually with 5-6
segms.: seeds small, 3J^~5 x3-3J^ x2-2J^ lines, oval,
blunt-pointed, the empty testa not projecting beyond
the end of the embryo. 111. Rumph. Herb. Amb. 1 : 110,
pi. 31. Thunb. Icon. PI. jap. 2, pi. 5. Hume, Citr. Fr.
p. 129. — The round kumquat is perhaps the most hand-
some of the citrous frs. because of its dwarf habit, much-
branched twigs, and small, bright orange-colored frs.

crassifolia, Swingle. MEIWA KUMQUAT. Figs. 1563,
1564. A much-branched shrub with very short spines
or none: differs from F. margarita hi the more rounded
frs. 1-1 ^2 x 1-1 % in., with 6 or 7 cells, not 4 or 5, and in
the thicker trough-shaped Ivs. sometimes more abruptly
pointed toward the tip, and paler green below : petioles
narrowly winged, not merely margined. It differs from
F. japonica in the If. characters and the slightly oval
frs. with 6 or 7 cells and a thicker peel. It differs from
both species in having much broader oval or ovate pulp-
vesicles. — This kumquat recently intro. into the U. S. by
Japanese nurserymen is as yet but little known.

AA. Subgenus Protodtrus. Fr. S-4-ceUed, having
between the stalks of the pulp-vesicles many minute
wart-like, pale yellow cellular masses, peel of fr.
thin and but slightly fleshy. The Honakong wild
kumquat.

Hindsii, Swingle (Sclerostylis Hindsii, Champ. Ata-
Idntia Hindsii, Oliver). HONGKONG WILD KUMQUAT.

Figs. 1563, 1564. A spiny
shrub or small tree:
twigs slender,
angled when
young: Ivs.
oval-ellipti-
cal, tapering
sharply at
both ends, dark green
above and faintly venose,
paler and venose below,
petioles winged, often
merging into the lamina

1565. Buds and flower of of the If. without a sep-
Fortunella japonica. arative joint: fls. short,

/

broad; pistil very short; style shorter than the ovary,
stigma large, cavernous; ovary 3- or 4-celled, ovules 2
in a cell: frs. small, K-^in. subglobose, bright orange-
red; pulp- vesicles very few, small, fusiform; seeds thick,
oval or ovate, plump, 4*^-5^ x 3*4-4 x2>£-3 lines,
pistache- green in section. 111. Seeman, Bot. Voy. H.
M. S. Herald, 1852-1857, pi. 82.— The Hongkong wild
kumquat grows commonly on the dry hills about Hong-
kong and on the mainland of China opposite. It is the
most primitive of the true citrous frs. and doubtless the
species of Citrus have evolved from such a plant.

WALTER T. SWINGLE.

1566. Fothergilla. — Leaves of F. Gardenii and flowers of
F. major.

FOTHERGILLA (after John Fothergill, eminent
English physician, who introduced and cultivated
many new plants, 1712-1780). Hamamelidacese. DWARF
ALDER. Shrubs, chiefly grown for their showy spikes of
white flowers and also for the handsome foliage.

Deciduous, more or less stellate -pubescent: Ivs.
alternate, short-petioled, coarsely toothed, stipulate:
fls. in terminal spikes, perfect, apetalous; calyx cam-
panulate, 5-7-lobed; stamens numerous, with the fila-
ments thickened toward the end: caps, dehiscent,
2-celled and 2-seeded. — Four species in the southern
Atlantic states.

These are hardy ornamental shrubs with simple,
dull green leaves, and showy spikes of white flowers in
spring with the leaves: the distinct foliage resembles
somewhat that of the alder, or more that of Hamamelis,
and turns yellow late in fall. They grow best in moist,
peaty or sandy soil. Propagation is by seeds, not ger-
minating until the second year, or by layers, which
take two years to root; the first species also by suckers
and root-cuttings.

A. Lvs. rarely exceeding 1 in., stellate-pubescent above:
low shrub.

Gardenii, Murr. (F. alnifolia, Linn. f. F. Carolina,
Brit.). Fig. 1566. Low shrub, with generally spreading
branches, to 3 ft.: Ivs. oblong or obovate, rounded
or cuneate at the base, coarsely dentate above the
middle, pubescent above, pale or glaucous and tomen-
tose below, 1-2 in. long: spikes ovate or oblong, 1-2
in. long, leafless at the base; stamens Y^va. long, some-
times pinkish. April, May. Va. to Ga. B.M. 1341.
L.B.C. 16:1507.

FOTHERGILLA

1271

AA. Lvs. 2-5 in. long, glabrous or glabrescent above:
shrubs to 10 ft. high.

monticola, Ashe. Fig. 1567. Upright shrub with
spreading branches: Ivs. roundish oval to broadly obo-

vate or obovate,
remotely dentate,
often from below
the middle, light
green and sparingly
pubescent below,
often only on the
veins, 2-4 in. long:
spikes lJHj-3 in.
long with 1-3 Ivs.
at the base; sta-
mens Kin- long:
caps. J^in. long.
April, May. N. C. to
Ala. — Has proved
hardy at the Arnold
Arboretum, like the
preceding and the
following species.

major, Lodd. (F.
alnifolia var. major, Sims). Fig.
1566. Upright shrub of dense
pyramidal habit: Ivs. oval or
obovate, cordate or truncate at
the base, sinuately dentate
above the middle or nearly
entire, dark green and somewhat
glossy above, glaucous and more
or less stellate-pubescent below,
at least on the veins, of firm
texture, 23^-5 in. long: fls. like
in the preceding species. April,
May. Known only from cult,
plants. B.M. 1342. L.B.C. 16:
1520. G.F. 8:445 (excl. Ivs. and
frs.). M.D.G. 1902:395, 396.—
This species is superior to the
former on account of its dense,
pyramidal habit.

F . parvifldra, Kearney. Closely related to F. Gardenii. Lower
and stoloniferous: Ivs. nearly orbicular, rounded or cordate at the
base, toothed from below the middle. N. C. to Fla.

ALFRED REHDER.

FOUQUIERIA (Pierre Ed. Fouquier, professor of
medicine at Paris in the first part of the nineteenth
century). Fouquieriacese. CANDLEWOOD. Four species
from the deserts of Mexico and one extending into the
United States and sometimes cultivated in the larger
rockeries of California. These plants are interesting
as being an example of an order far removed from the
Cactacese in flowers and fruit but reduced to something
of their habit by the desert conditions.

Small trees or shrubs, becoming leafless in dry
weather, with showy tubular fls. in terminal racemes
or panicles: Ivs. fleshy, obovate, fascicled in the axils
of thorns: sepals 5; corolla with a spreading 5-lobed
limb; stamens 10-ao; styles 3, separate or united:
seeds with a membranous wing or fringed with long
hairs. Fouquieria is by some authors retained in
the Tamaricaceae.

splendens, Engelm. COACH-WHIP. VINE-CACTUS.
JACOB'S STAFF. OCOTILLO. Shrub, 6-25 ft., branch-
ing near the base : branches long, gray, furrowed, erect :
Ivs. obovate, rounded at apex, wedge-shaped at base,
K-l in. long: fls. scarlet or brick-red, exceeding 1 in.
long, in racemose or thyrsoid elongated clusters;
stamens 8-12, exserted: caps, %-%'m. long, the seeds
white, with a long fringe of spirally thickened hairs.
W. Texas and Ariz, to S. Calif. B.M. 8318. A.G.
13: 759. —A hedge plant in Mex., making an impentra-
ble barrier. The plant is a conspicuous object in the

1567. Fothergilla
monticola. (X%)

deserts from Texas westward, standing on the open
exposed places and slopes, the rod-like stiff canes look-
ing like lifeless sticks in dry weather and in its season
crowned with masses of showy bloom. L. jj_ g +

FOURCROYA: Furcrsea.
FOUR-O'CLOCK: Mirabilis Jalapa.
FOXGLOVE: Digitalis.

FRAGARIA (Latin, fragrance, from the smell of the
fruit) . Rosacese. STRAWBERRY. Low perennial creeping
herbs grown for the excellent fruit, and one or two
species for ornament.

Plant stemless, with scaly rootstock or crown, and
rooting runners: Ivs. palmately 3-foliolate and toothed,
all from the crown : fls. white or reddish, in corymbose
racemes on slender, leafless scapes, sometimes lacking
stamens; calyx deeply 5-lobed and reinforced by 5
sepal-like bracts; petals 5, obovate, elliptic or orbicular;
stamens many, short; pistils many, on a conical recep-
tacle, becoming small and hard achenes and persist-
ing on the enlarging receptacle, which becomes pulpy
and edible. — The fragarias are exceedingly variable.
About 150 specific names have been applied to them,
but Bentham and Hooker would reduce them all to
3 or 4 species, and Focke (in Engler & Prantl) to about
8. Rydberg, however, accepts 27 N. American species
(N. Amer. Flora, XXII, part 4. 1908). Of the true
fragarias, about 4 species-types are interesting to the
horticulturist as the parents of the garden strawberries : —
F. chiloensis, the probable original of the ordinary cul-
tivated strawberries of Amer. ; F. virginiana, which was
early domesticated, and of which some trace still remains
in cult, varieties; F. moschata, the Hautbois, and F.
vesca, the alpine and perpetual strawberries, which are
little cult, in this country. The classical work on straw-

1568. Fragaria chiloensis.

1272

FRAGARIA

1569. Fragaria virginiana, showing the profuse runners.

berries is Duchesne's "Histoire Naturelle des Frais-
iers," 1766. See Strawberry. For Fragaria indica, see
Duchesnea.

A. Lfts. distinctly petiolulate, few-toothed.
Daltoniana, Gay (F. sikkimensis, Kurz). Small plant
with red sts. to the very slender runners, offered as a
rock-garden subject or carpeter: hairy or nearly gla-
brous: fls. solitary; calyx-lobes and bracts toothed: fr.
long (1 in. long by half as broad), bright scarlet, with
little flavor. Himalayas, 10,000 ft. and upward.

AA. Lfts. sessile or nearly so, many-toothed.

B. Lvs. normally overtopping the fls. and fr.: achenes
mostly sunken in the flesh of the berry.

chiloensis, Duchesne. Fig. 1568. Low, but stout in all
its parts: Ivs. thick, more or less glossy above, bluish
white below, blunt-toothed: fl. -clusters fork-
ing and long-rayed, the peduncle short, soon
lopping on the ground: runners mostly
appearing after the fr. is gone: berry large
and firm, dark-colored, more or less musky
in flavor, reinforced by a very large calyx or
hull. Pacific coast region Peru to Patagonia.
— A common wild strawberry of the Pacific
slope from Alaska to Calif., is considered to
be the same species.

Var. ananassa, Hort. (F. anandssa, F.
tincta, F. calyculata, Duchesne. F. grandi-
ndra, Ehrh. F. vesca var. ananas, Ait.).
PINE STRAWBERRY. COMMON GARDEN STRAWBERRY.
Taller growing: Ivs. larger and thinner, mostly lighter
green on both sides: fr. larger, running into very
many kinds.

virginiana, Duchesne. SCARLET or VIRGINIAN
STRAWBERRY. Figs. 1569, 1570. More slender: Ivs.
thinner, light green above and below, the upper sur-
face with sunken veins: fl. -clusters small, with a few
hanging frs. at the top of a rather long peduncle: run-

ners usually appearing with the fr. : berry small,
light scarlet, globular or oblong-conical, usually with
a constriction or neck underneath the moderate-
sized calyx or hull. E. N. Amer. — Variable. A few
early varieties of strawberries, as Crystal City, seem
to be wholly or partly of F. virginiana origin. Var.
illinoensis, Gray (F. illinoensis, Prince. F. Grayana,
Vilm. F. virginiana var. Grayana, Rydb.). A large
and more robust form, more hairy, the hairs on
the pedicels spreading whereas on the type they are
more appressed.

BB. Lvs. normally shorter than
the fl.-clusters: achenes
usually not sunken in
the flesh of the berry.

vesca, Linn. (F. semper-
fldrens, Duchesne) . ALPINE
and PERPETUAL STRAWBER-
RIES. Erect and dark green,
only sparsely hairy, the Ivs.
thin and light green as com-
pared with the foregoing
species, very sharp-toothed:

fl.-cluster small, forking, erect: fr. firm, small, usu-
ally hemispheric, the achenes very prominent; hull
spreading. Eu. — The American more slender form
of this group-species, common in woods from Va.
north, is var. americana, Porter (E. americana,
Brit.), Fig. 1571, with ovoid or somewhat conical
fr. usually with a distinct neck, and sparingly hairy
rather than hairy-pubescent petioles and scapes,
and thinner Ivs. The true F. vesca is thought to
be sparingly naturalized eastward, and probably
native in many parts, particularly the white-fruited
form (forma albicdrpa, Brit.). The cult, forms are
rarely seen in this country, but the quality is high,
and they are deserving of more attention in home
grounds. Variable in cult. There is a form with
Ifts. reduced to 1 (F. monophylla, Duchesne. B.M.
63). This type of strawberry bears more continu-
ously than F. chiloensis arid F. virginiana in its cul-
tivated forms.

1570. Fruit of Fragaria
virginiana. (Nat. size)

1571. Fragaria vesca var. ameri-
cana. (Separate fruit nat. size)

FRAGARIA

FRASERA

1273

moschata, Duchesne (F. elatior, Ehrh.). HAXTTBOIS.
Taller, usually dioecious, more pubescent, the calyx or
hull strongly reflexed from the fr.: berry dull red,
musky. Eu. — Cult, forms rarely seen in Amer.

mexicana, Schlecht. Lvs. few and scape solitary:
Ivs. rather thin, soon becoming smooth above, the
slender silky petioles 2-3 in. long; Ifts. oblong-obovate
or cuneate, coarsely serrate: fls. usually less than ^in.

1572. A frame. — It accommodates four sashes.

diam., on scapes 2-4 in. high; sepals and bracts silky;
petals obovate: fr. nearly hemispheric, small, the
achenes superficial. Cent. Mex. — The "everbearing
strawberry," frequently advertised, is said to belong
here. F. calif ornica, Cham. & Schlecht., is similar
but has much longer petioles and broadly rounded or
rhomb-ovate Ifts., somewhat larger fls. and fr., and the
achenes in shallow pits. Calif., New Mex., Lower Calif.

L. H. B.

FRAGRANT BALM: Monarda didyma.

FRAME. Fig. 1572. A box without permanent top or
bottom which is designed, when covered with glass or
other transparent material, as a place in which to grow
plants. When supplied with artificial bottom heat, the
frame is part of a hotbed ; when supplied only with sun
heat, it is part of a coldframe. The frame may be of
any size, but the normal size is 6 by 12 feet, an area
which accommodates four 3- by 6-foot sashes; and
this 6 by 12 area is understood when one speaks of "a
frame." . See Hotbed.

FRANCfSCEA: Brunfelsia.

FRANCOA (Fr. Franco, Valencia, sixteenth century,
promoter of botany). Saxifragdcese. Two or three
species of Chilean perennial herbs, with lyrate leaves
and terminal dense racemes of white or pink flowers
borne in summer, suitable for outdoor planting in
mild climates.

Plants erect, scapose, the Ivs. basal or nearly so.
2-3 ft. high, and in the N. could perhaps be wintered
in a coldframe: glandular-pilose or tomentose: rhi-
zome thick, many-headed: Ivs. glandu-
lar-dentate: fls. 1 in. across, in racemes
6 in. long; floral parts in 4's rarely 5's;
petals obovate, clawed; stamens 4:
caps, coriaceous, elongated, 4-angled
and 4-celled.

A. Fls. white.

ramdsa, D. Don. (F. glabrata, DC.).
Taller, woodier and more branching
than the others, and distinguished by
pubescent infl. : If .-stalks not margined:
fls. smaller. Hardy at Washington,
D. C., with spikes 2 ft. long and 1 in.
thick. Forms are known under the
names F. ramosa hybrida (G.W. 7:230,
a robust plant with pure white fls.
larger than the type); and F. ramosa
Candida. F. ramosa is an attractive
species. Gt. 60: 1590. Gn. 69, pp. 271,
343; 70, p. 283. G.L. 24:177. G. 7:
741; 13:307. G.M.49:127.

AA. Fls. mostly pink.

sonchifSlia, Cav. Fig. 1573. Lf.-stalks broadly
winged at the base; lower lobes continuous with the
broad margin at the base of the If .-stalk: petals deep
rose, dark-spotted. B.M. 3309. — By some considered
to be a variety of F. appendiculata.

appendiculata, Cav. Lf.-stalks not winged at the base ;
lower lobes distant from the base of the stalk:
petals pale rose, rarely spotted. B.M. 3178
(shows a white longitudinal band on petals).
B.R. 1645. L.B.C. 19:1864, erroneously
named F. sonchifolia. R.H. 1906, pp. 428, 429.
G.W. 12, p. 260. L. H. B.f

FRANGLPANI: Plumeria*

FRANKENIA (John Frankenius, Swedish
botanist, 1590-1661). Frankenidcese. Low
perennials, evergreen, sometimes woody,
mostly in saline soils, more or less heath-like :
Ivs. opposite or in 4's, thickish, entire, small
and numerous on the sts., often fascicled on
short branchlets: fls. small, perfect and complete, sessile
or nearly so, solitary or in dichotomous clusters; calyx
and corolla 4-5-merous, the sepals united, the petals
with a crown at the base of the blade; stamens usually
same number as petals and alternate with them; style
3-4-cleft; ovary 1 -celled, with parietal placentae, ripen-
ing into a caps, inclosed in the calyx. — Probably 30 spe-
cies in many parts of the world, a very few of them in the
S. W. U. S. The family Frankeniacese is closly allied to
Caryophyllaceae, from which it differs in the parietal
placentae, and to Hypericaceae, from which it differs in
habit, in the definite stamens
and the valvate calyx. The
family has 3 other genera,
as it is defined by Niedenzu,
these being Hypericopsis with
1 species in S. Persia, Beat-
sonia with 1 species in St.
Helena, and Niederleinia with
1 species in Patagonia. The
frankenias are practically
unknown as cult, plants,
although sometimes men-
tioned as carpeters and for
rock-gardens. F. tievis, Linn.,
the sea-heath, is offered. It
is a diffusely much-branched
plant, spreading 6-8 in., gla-
brous or nearly so:
Ivs. revolute and
thereby appearing
linear, crowded in
opposite clusters:
fls. few, sessile in
terminal leafy clus-
ters, pink. Eng-
land and the Medit.
region. F. pulveru-
lenta, Linn., is a
closely allied hairy
species; it has been
reported in ballast
at New York.

L. H. B.

FRASERA (John
Fraser, English
botanist, collected
in Amer. 1785-96
and published
Walter's "Flora
Caroliniana"). Gen-
1573. Francoa sonchifolia. ( X \£) tianaceas. CoLUMBO.

1274

FRASERA

FRAXINUS

Large stout glabrous herbs, all N. American, and all but
1 far- western with a single st. from thick bitter mostly
biennial roots, opposite or whorled lys., and cymose
panicled clusters of dull white, yellowish or bluish fls.
which are commonly dark-spotted; calyx deeply 4-
parted; corolla wheel-shaped, 4-parted, persistent, the
lobes glandular within; stamens 4, the filaments often
united at the base; ovary 1 -celled, the stigma entire or
2-lobed.— Species 8, mostly in woods or dry soils.
Three of the species have been offered in the trade, but
are probably very little planted. F. carolinensis, Walt.,
of the eastern states and Ont., is a biennial or short-
lived perennial, 3-4 ft. tall, with lance-oblong or
spatulate veiny Ivs. mostly in 4's, and greenish yellow
purple-dotted fls.

A. Lvs. in whorls of 4~6, not white-margined.
speciosa, Douglas. Stout, 2-5 ft., very leafy, the Ivs.
ovate to oblong: fls. greenish white or barely tinged
bluish, dark-dotted; 2 glands on each corolla - lobe.
Wyo., S. and W.

1574. Fraxinus Bungeana. ( X K)

AA. Lvs. in 2's or 3's, white-margined.

Parryi, Torr. Height 2-3 ft.: Ivs. opposite or in 3's:
fls. whitish, dark-dotted; 1 notched gland on each
corolla-lobe. Ariz., S. Calif.

Cusickii, Gray. Slender, height 3-8 in. : Ivs. opposite:
fls. bluish; 1 gland reaching from near the base to near
the middle of each corolla-lobe. Ore. L> jj. g.-j-

FRAXINfeLLA: Dictamnus.

FRAXINUS (ancient Latin name). Oleacese. ASH.
Interesting trees grown chiefly for their handsome
pinnate leaves and some species also for the conspicu-
ous panicles of white flowers.

Deciduous: Ivs. opposite, odd -pinnate, without
stipules: fls. in panicles, dioecious or polygamous, with
or without calyx or with calyx and a 2-6-parted corolla
with generally linear segms.'; stamens generally 2; ovary
2-celled: fr. a 1 -seeded, winged samara. — About 50
species in the temperate regions of the northern hemi-
sphere south to Cuba; 16 of them occur in the U. S.

The ashes are ornamental trees, most of them hardy,
with rather large leaves and small flowers in panicles,
either appearing before the leaves and greenish, or in
the subgenus Ornus after or with leaves and whitish in
showy panicles: the winged fruit is insignificant. They
are valuable as street and park trees, and grow mostly
into tall, pyramidal or broad-headed trees, with rather

light green foliage, which turns yellow or dark purple
in fall or remains green, as in F. excelsior and F. Ornus.
The ash is seldom severely injured, though a number of
insects and fungi prey on the leaves and wood, of which
two borers, and a fungus attacking the leaves are per-
haps the most obnoxious. Most of the species are hardy
North except those from the southern states, southern
Europe and Himalayas; of the subgenus Ornus, F.
Bungeana and F. longicuspis seem to be the hardiest.
The ashes are important forest trees, and the straight-
grained and tough wood is much used for handles of
tools, in the manufacture of carriages and wagons, for
the interior finish of houses, and for furniture, for
baskets and also for fuel. From F. Ornus manna is
obtained as an exudation of the trunk, and some
Chinese species, especially F. chinensis and F. Mariesii,
yield the Chinese white wax.

The ashes grow in almost any moderately moist soil,
F. nigra being somewhat more moisture-loving, while
F. oxycarpa, F. Ornus, F. syriaca and F. cuspidata grow
well even in drier situations. They are usually
readily transplanted and grow rapidly when young.
Propagation is by seeds gathered in fall and sown
immediately, or stratified and sown in spring, covered
with about 1 inch of good soil; sometimes they
remain dormant until the second year. The varieties
and rarer kinds are budded in late summer or grafted
in spring on the seedlings of any of the common species.

INDEX.

acuminata, 9.

globosa, 20.

polemoniifolia, 20.

alba, 9.

heterophylla, 80.

potamophila, 24.

albo-marginata, 9, 20.

iodocarpa, 9.

pubescens, 12.

albo-variegata, 20.

jaspidea, 20.

quadrangulata, 17.

americana, 9.

juglandifolia, 1, 9.

Regelii, 24.

angustifolia, 1.

laciniata, 20.

rhynchophylla, 8.

anomala, 16.

lanceolata, 11.

rotundifolia, 1, 23.

argentea, 20.

latifolia, 1.

rufa, 20.

asplenifolia, 20.

lentiscifolia,23.

sambucifolia, 18.

atrovirens, 20.

longicuspia, 4.

sambucina, 4.

aucubsefolia, 12.

lutea, 20.

scolopendri folia, 20.

aurea, 20.

mandschurica, 19.

serratifolia, 6.

aurea-pendula, 20.

Mariesii, 5.

Sieboldiana, 4.

Biltmoreana, 10.

monophylla, 20.

simplici folia, 20.

Bungeana, 2, 3.

nana, 20,

sogdiana, 21 and

caroliniana, 15.

nigra, 18, 19.

suppl. list.

chinensis, 8.

novse-angliae, 9.

Spaethiana, 6.

crispa, 20.

obovata, 3.

syriaca, 21.

cucullata, 20.

oregona, 14.

tamarisci folia, 22, 23.

cuspidata, 7.

Ornus, 1.

Theophrastii, 1 and

diversifolia, 20.

oxycarpa, 22.

suppl.

elegantissima, 20.

oxyphylla, 22.

Toumeyi, 13.

epiptera, 9.

parvifolia, 2, 23.

triptera, 15.

erosa, 20.

pendula, 20, 23.

turkestanica, 21.

excelsior, 20.

pennsylvanica, 11, 12.

velutina, 13.

floribunda, 1.

•pistacise folia, 13.

viridis, 11.

glauca, 9.

platycarpa, 15.

A. F Is. in terminal panicles on leafy shoots, perfect or
polygamous, with or after the Ivs. (Ornus.)

B. Corolla present, divided nearly to the base; stamens
with long filaments.

c. Petioles not conspicuously enlarged at the base.

D. Lowest pair of Ifts. not much smaller than the others.

E. Lfts. stalked.

1. Ornus, Linn. (Ornus europasa, Pers. F. flori-
bunda, Hort., not Wall.). Small tree, becoming 25 ft.:
winter-buds gray or brownish tomentulose: Ifts. gen-
erally 7, stalked, oblong-ovate or ovate, irregularly
serrate, rufously pubescent on the midrib beneath,
2-3 K in. long: fls. whitish, fragrant, in dense, terminal
panicles 3-5 in. long: fr. erect, narrow-oblong, truncate
or emarginate at the apex, about 1 in. long. May, June.
S. Eu., W. Asia. Gn. 22, p. 117; 34, p. 78; 48, p. 286;
31, pp. 354, 355. F.E.22:61. G. 18:541. G.M. 54:860.
H.W. 3:60, p. 120. Var. juglandifdlia, Tenore (var.
latifolia, Dipp. F. rotundifolia, Hort.). Lfts. ovate or
broadly ovate-oblong. Var. rotundifdlia, Tenore (F.
rotundifolia, Lam.). Low tree: Ifts. roundish-elliptic
to roundish-obovate. Var. angustifdlia, Tenore (F.
Theophrdstii, Hort., partly). Lfts. lanceolate.

FRAXINUS

FRAXINUS

1275

2. . Bungeana, DC. (F. parvifolia, Lingelsh. F.
Bungeana var. parvifolia, Wenzig). Fig. 1574. Small
tree, to 15 ft., or shrub: winter-buds nearly black: Ifts.
generally 5, stalked, ovate, obovate or roundish, obtuse
to short-acuminate, serrate, glabrous, 1-1K in. long:
panicles to 23/2 m- l°ng> many-fld.; calyx with narrow
acute lobes; filaments longer than the linear petals: fr.
narrow-oblong, obtuse or emarginate. May. China.
G.F. 7:5 (adapted in Fig. 1574).

EE. Lfts. sessile.

3. obovata, Blume (F. Bungeana var. obovata,
Lingelsh.). Tree: petioles often slightly winged; Ifts.
5-7, oval or obovate, short-acuminate to obtusish,
cuneate at the base, crenate-serrate, dull green above
and slightly pubescent on the veins, grayish green below
and pubescent toward the base of the veins, 2-4 in
long: infl. small; petals linear, longer than the stamens:
fr. with narrow-oblong obtuse wing. Japan.

DD. Lowest pair of Ifts. much smaller than the others;
Ifts. long-acuminate.

4. longicuspis, Sieb. & Zucc. Slender tree, to 30 ft.,
with rufously pubescent winter-buds: Ifts. 5-7, stalked,
oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate, obtusely serrate,
almost glabrous, 2-4 in. long: fls. in rather slender, nar-
row panicles, to 4 in. long; petals linear-oblong, about
as long as stamens: fr. oblanceolate, obtuse. May.
Japan. S.I.F. 1:81. Var. Sieboldiana, Lingelsh. (F.
Sieboldiana, Blume). Lfts. oval to oblong-ovate, short-
stalked, usually pubescent below along the midrib.
Japan, Korea. Var. sambucina, Lingelsh. (F. Sieboldiana
var. sambucina, Blume). Lfts. sessile.

5. Mariesii, Hook. f. Shrub or small tree: winter-
buds grayish black: petiole minutely glandular-pubes-
cent; Ifts. 5-7, nearly sessile, close, touching each
other, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate,
entire or finely crenate-serrate, yellowish green below
and glandular-puberulous on the midrib toward the
base, otherwise glabrous, 1H-3 in. long: panicle upright,
5 in. long; petals linear-spatulate about as long as
stamens. Cent. China. B.M. 6678. — Handsome and
free-flowering; blooms even as a small shrub.

cc. Petioles distinctly enlarged at the base; Ifts. sessile,
the lowest pair smaller.

6. Spaethiana, Lingelsh. (F. serratifolia, Hort.,
partly). Tree: young branchlets glabrous: winter-buds
dark brown: Ivs. 6-12 in. long; petiole grooved, reddish
brown at the enlarged base, glabrous; Ifts. 5-9, oblong
to oblong-obovate, deeply crenate-serrate, dark green
above, lighter green below and glabrous except along
the midrib toward the base, 3-7 in. long: fls. and frs.
unknown. Origin unknown. — Handsome tree with
large Ivs.

BB. Corolla with a short tube or wanting.
c. The corolla with short tube; anthers almost sessile.

7. cuspidata, Torr. Shrub or small tree, to 20 ft.,
with dark, reddish brown buds: Ifts. usually 7, slender-
stalked, lanceolate or oblong- lanceolate, acuminate,
coarsely serrate, almost glabrous, l%-2 in. long: fls.
fragrant, in 3-4-in. long panicles: fr. spatulate-oblong.
April. Texas to Ariz, and New Mex. S.S. 6:260.—
Handsome flowering tree for temperate regions.

cc. The corolla wanting, or occasionally present; calyx
often irregularly toothed. (Ornaster.)

8. chinensis, Roxbg. Tree, to 40 ft.: branchlets
glabrous: winter-buds brownish black, conspicuous
with a rufous woolly tomentum when opening: Ivs.
5-8 in. long; petiole enlarged at the base, nearly gla-
brous; Ifts. 5-7, short-stalked, elliptic to elliptic-oblong
or ovate-oblong, acuminate, cuneate at the base, ser-
rate, dark green above, light green below and hairy
along the lower part of the midrib, 2-5 in. long: pistil-
late panicle 3-6 in. long: fr. oblanceolate, obtuse or

emarginate at the apex, \Yi in. long and J^in. broad.
China. May. Var. rhynchophylla, Hemsl. (F. rhyn-
chophylla, Hance). Lfts. entire or irregularly crenate-
serrate, on slenderer stalks. Cent, and W. China. G.F.
6:485.

AA. Fls. from leafless axillary buds, before the Ivs.; without
corolla; filaments usually shorter than anthers.

B. The fls. dioecious, with the calyx persistent on the fr.;
anthers linear or linear-oblong: Ifts. generally 6-7:
buds brown. (Leptalix.)

c. Lvs. always pinnate.

D. Fr. oblanceolate or lanceolate; its body terete.
E. Lfts. stalked.

F. Under side of Ifts. glaucous: wing of the fr. not
decurrent.

9 americana, Linn. (F. nbvse-dnglix, Mill. F. diba,
Marsh.). WHITE ASH. Fig. 1575. Tall tree, to 120 ft.:
branchlets and petioles glabrous: Ifts. gen-
erally 7, stalked, ovate to ovate-lanceo-
late, entire or denticulate, dark green above,
glaucous beneath, 3-5 in. long: fr. linear-
oblong, with terete body, the wing not decur-
rent, \Yi in. long. From Canada to Fla.,
west to Minn, and Texas. S.S. 6:268. Em.
377. G.F. 7:405. F.E. 23:427.— Very vari-
able. Var. acuminata, Wesm. (F. acumi-
nata, Lam. F. eplptera, Michx. F. ameri-
cana var. glauca, Hort.). Lfts. dark green
and shining above, very glaucous and
almost glabrous beneath, usually entire.
Var. juglandifdlia, Rehd. (F. juglandifolia,
Lam.). Lfts. less shining above, usually
broader, more or less pubescent beneath,
serrate at least above the middle. This is
the northern form, while the former is more
common in the southern states. Var. iodo-
cdrpa, Fern. Frs. conspicuous by their red- "r^^f '
dish purple color. Var. albo-marginata, aize)
Hort. Lfts. edged white.

10. Biltmoreana, Beadle. Tree, to 50 ft.: branch-
lets and petioles pubescent: Ifts. 7-9, ovate-oblong
to lanceolate, often falcate, acuminate, rounded or
broadly cuneate at the base, entire or obscurely toothed,
dark green and glabrous above, glaucous below and
pubescent, particularly on the veins, 3-6 in. long:
panicles pubescent: fr. linear-oblong, with terete body,
the wing not decurrent, emarginate at the apex, \}^r
1% in. long. May. Pa. to Ga., west to Ala., Mo. and
111. S.S. 14:716.

FF. Under side of Ifts. green or grayish green: wing of
the fr. decurrent, hence body margined.

11. lanceolata, Borkh. (F . viridis, Michx., in part.
F. pennsylvdnica var. lanceolata, Sarg.). GREEN ASH.
Tree, to 60 ft: branchlets and petioles glabrous: Ifts.
5-9, stalked, ovate to oblong-lanceolate, irregularly
serrate, green on both sides, almost glabrous, 2-5 in.
long: fr. oblanceolate, with decurrent wing, hence
body margined, about \Yi in. long. Canada to Fla.,
west to Rocky Mts. S.S. 6:272.

12. pennsylvanica, Marsh. (F. pubescens, Lam.).
RED ASH. Tree, to 60 ft.: branchlets and petioles
pubescent: Ifts. 5-9, stalked, ovate to oblong-lanoeo-
late, acuminate, crenately serrate or entire, pubescent
beneath, 3-6 in. long: fr. linear-spatulate, about 2 in.
long, with somewhat decurrent wing. Canada to Fla.,
west to Dakota and Mo. S.S. 6:271. — This species
varies considerably in the amount of pubescence and
the shape of the Ifts., and many forms under different
names are grown in European nurseries and gardens.
Var. aucubaefolia, Hort., is a form with less pubescent
Ivs., blotched yellow. There are also variegated forms
with the Ivs. blotched white or edged white.

1276

FRAXINUS

FRAXINUS

EE. Lfts. sessile or short-stalked: branchlets and petioles
pubescent.

13. velfttina, Torr. (F. pistacixfdlia, Torr.). Tree, to
40 ft., with velvety pubescent, rarely glabrous branches:
Ifts. 5-9, sometimes reduced to 3 or even 1, short-
stalked, oblong to lanceolate, usually
acuminate, narrowly cuneate at the base,

entire or remotely serrate, yellowish green,
firm and thick at maturity, pubescent or
nearly glabrous beneath, 2-4 in. long: fr.
spatulate, with marginless body. Texas to
Ariz, and New Mex. S.S. 6:267. G.F.8:15.
— F. Toumeyi, Brit., with narrower more
distinctly stalked Ifts., is probably only a
variety of this species. M.D.G. 1913:556;
also S.S. 6:267 represents this variety. —
Particularly recommendable for saline and
alkaline soil, where but few trees will grow;
not hardy N.

14. oregdna, Nutt. Tree, to 80 ft.: peti-
oles sometimes glabrous at length; Ifts.
7-9, almost sessile or short-stalked, oblong
or elliptic, acuminate, entire or obscurely
and remotely serrate, light green, 2^-6 in.
long, thick and firm at maturity: fr. ob-
long-obovate, with decurrent wing, about
Wash, to Calif. S. S. 6:276.

1576. Key
of Fraxinus
nigra. (Nat-
ural size.)

£ in. long.

DD. Fr. elliptic or broadly spatulate, body compressed
with the wing all around.

15. caroliniana, Mill. (F. platycdrpa, Michx. F.
triptera, Nutt.). WATER ASH. Tree, to 40 ft., with
pubescent or glabrous branches: Ifts. 5-7, stalked,
ovate or oblong, acuminate, broadly cuneate or some-
times rounded at the base, serrate, rarely entire, pubes-
cent or glabrous beneath, 2-5 in. long: fr. 1-2 in.
long, with pinnately veined wing, often 3-winged. Va.
to Fla., west to Ark. and Texas. S.S. 6:274, 275.

cc. Lvs. usually simple, occasionally 8-5-foliolate:
branchlets quadrangular.

16. an6mala, Wats. Shrub or tree, to 20 ft.: Ifts.
broadly ovate or roundish at the apex, rounded, acutish

1577. Fraxinus excelsior. ( X H)

or emarginate, entire or sparingly crenate-serrate,
glabrous and dark green above, paler and pubescent
below while young, 1^-2 in. long: fls. polygamous:
fr. obovate-oblong, rounded or emarginate at the apex,
%in. long. Colo., Utah, Nev. and S. Calif. S.S. 6:266.

BB. The fls. without calyx (only No. 17 has a deciduous
minute calyx); anthers cordate, rarely broadly
oblong: Ifts. generally more than 7, nearly glabrous.
(Fraxinaster.)
c. Branches 4-angled and usually winged.

17. quadrangulata, Michx. BLUE ASH. Tree, to 80,
rarely 120 ft.: Ifts. 7-11, short-stalked, ovate to lanceo-
late, acuminate, sharply serrate, yellowish green on
both sides, 3-5 in. long: fls. perfect: fr. oblong, emar-
ginate, winged all around, 1-2 in. long. From Mich, to
Ark. andTenn. S.S. 6:263.

cc. Branches terete or nearly so.

D. Rachis at the base of Ifts. with thick rufous tomentum:
fls. dwecious.

18. nigra, Marsh. (F. sambucifolia, Lam.). BLACK
ASH. Fig. 1576. Tree, to 80 ft.: Ifts. 9-11, sessile,
oblong-lanceolate, rounded at the base, acuminate,
sharply serrate, green on both sides, dark above, 3-6
in. long: anthers broadly oblong: fr. narrow-oblong,
with decurrent wing. From Canada to Va., west to
Mo. S.S. 5:264,265. Em. 382.

19. mandsch&rica, Rupr. (F '. nigra, var. mandshurica,
Lingelsh.). Tree, to 100 ft., with obtusely quadrangular
branches and dark brown buds: Ifts. 9-11, almost sessile,
ovate to oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate, pubescent
or hispid on the veins beneath, 3-6 in. long: fr. oblong-
lanceolate, 1-1 J^ in. long. Manchuria, Korea, Saghalin,
Japan. S.I.F.2:62 (as F. Sieboldiana) .

DD. Rachis without conspicuous rufous tomentum: fls.

perfect or polygamous.

E. Buds black.

20. excelsior, Linn. Fig. 1577. Tall tree, to 120 ft.:
Ifts. 9-13, almost sessile, oblong-ovate or ovate-lanceo-
late, acute or acuminate, serrate, dark green above,
paler beneath, 2-5 in. long: fr. oblong, often emargi-
nate, about \}/2 in. long. Eu., W. Asia. H.W. 3:59,
pp. 115, 116. Gn. 22, p. 273. F.E. 24:395. Many
different varieties are cult., some of the most distinct
being the following: Var. albo-marginata, Hort. Lfts.
edged white. Var. argentea, Loud. (var. dlbo-variegdta,
Hort.). Lfts. blotched white. Var. lutea, Loud. Lvs.
variegated with yellow. Var. jaspidea, Desf. Bark of

the young branches striped pink-
ish white. Var. aurea, Pers. With
yellow branches. Var. aftrea-pen-
dula, Loud. With pendulous yel-
low branches, but a somewhat
weak grower. Var. erosa, Willd.
(Var. asplenifdlia, Kirchn. Var.
laciniata, Hort. Var. elegantissima,
Hort. Var. scolopendrifplia, Hort.).
Lfts. very narrow, incisely serrate
and often almost linear. Var.
crispa, Willd. (Var. atrovirens,
Var. cuculldta, Hort.), with
very dark green curled and
twisted Ivs.; of slow growth.
Var. diversifdlia, Ait. (F.
heterophylla, Vahl. F. sim-

plicifolia laciniata, Hort. F. rufa, Hort., not Bosc).
Lvs. simple or 3-parted, usually incisely dentate. Gn.
22, p. 273. Var. monophylla, Kuntze (F. monophylla,
Desf. F. simplicifdlia, Willd.). Lvs. simple, ovate,
serrate, rarely with 1 or 2 small Ifts. at the base. Var.
nana, Loud. (Var. polemoniifolia, Var. globosa, Hort.).
A compact, slow-growing, dwarf form with very
small Ivs. M.D.G. 1904:380. Var. pendula, Ait. V/ith
pendulous branches. One of the best pendulous trees

FRAXINUS

FREESIA

1277

for forming arbors and shady seats. Gn. 39, p, 451;
68, p. 400.

EE. Buds brown.

F. Lfts. sessile or nearly so.
G. Number of Ifts. 3-5, rarely 7.
21. syriaca, Boiss. (F. sogdiana, Dipp., not Bunge.
F. turkestdnica, Carr.). In cult, usually small tree, the
branches with short internodes and Ivs. therefore
crowded, often in whorls of 3: Ifts. lanceolate, acumi-
nate, cuneate at the base, serrate, bright green and
quite glabrous on both sides, 1^-2}^ in. long: panicles
\Yi in. long: fr. usually obovate-oblong, obtuse. Syria
to Kurdistan.

GG. Number of Ifts. 7-13.
22. oxyciirpa, Willd. (F. oxyphylla, Bieb.

F.

usually 9, ovate to oblong-ovate, serrate with incurved teeth, pubes-
cent on the veins below, 3-5 in. long: fr. oblanceolate. Japan. — F.
raibocdrpa, Regel. Shrub: Ifts. 3-7, oblong or oblong-obovate,
usually entire, obtuse, 1-2 in. long: fr. strongly falcate with obo-
vate not decurrent wing. Turkestan, Bukhar. — F. retiisa, Champ.
Allied to F. Mariesii. Tree: Ifts. about 5, ovate to ovate-lanceo-
late, glabrous, reticulate, 2-3 in. long. Hongkong. Var. Henryana,
Oliver. Shrub or tree, to 35 ft.: Ifts. slender-stalked, oblong to
lanceolate, serrulate, 3-5 in. long: panicle dense, 4-6 in. long: fr.
%-\ in. long, emarginate. Cent. China. H.I. 20:1930. Only the
variety is in cult. — F. sogdi&na, Bunge. Allied to F. potamophila.
Lfts. 7-11, ovate-lanceolate, bright green: fr. 1 J£ in. long, obtuse or
emarginate. Turkestan. — F. texensis, Sarg. Allied
to F. americana. Tree, to 40 ft. : Ifts. 5, broadly
oval or ovate, rounded or acute at the apex,

«... v^ijrv*ai£/a, vv IXJLU. y.* • is^/yjjib t^M-fr, A^JTCW. » •

tamariscifblia, Hort., partly). Tree: Ifts. 7-11, ovate-
oblong to oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, cuneate at
the base, sharply serrate, light green on both sides and
glabrous except along the midrib below, 13^-3 in. long:
fr. obovate-oblong, acute or obtusish, narrowed at the
base. May. S. Eu. to Persia.

23. rotundifdlia, Mill. (F. parvifolia, Lam. F. len-
tiscifolia, Desf. F. tamariscifblia Hort., partly). Shrub
or small tree, to 15 ft., with slender, often purplish
branches: Ifts. 7-13, sessile, broadly oval to elliptic,
rarely obovate, acute, or rounded at the apex, ser-
rate, y<z-^Yi in. long: fr. oblong, obtuse or acute. W.
Asia, S. Eu. Var. pendula, Rehd. (F . parvifolia var.
pendula, Dipp.), with pendulous branches, forming a
graceful small weeping tree.

FF. Lfts. distinctly stalked; stalk y*>-%in. long.

24. potamophila, Herd. (F. Regelii, Dipp.). Small
tree, to 30 ft., with rather stout, upright branches: Ifts.
7-13, stalked, rhombic-ovate or ovate-lanceolate, ser-
rate, acute or acuminate, glabrous or sparingly pubes-
cent on the midrib below, 1-2 1/% in. long: fr. oblanceo-
late-oblong, with decurrent wing, acute, 1 in. long.
Turkestan, Songaria. — Handsome tree with round
head and dense small foliage.

F. angustifdlia, Vahl. Closely related to F. oxycarpa. Lfts.
7-13, elliptic-lanceolate to lanceolate, serrate, ty-1% in. long: fr.
obtuse at the base. S. Eu., N. Afr., W. Asia. Var. australis,
Schneid. (F. australis, Gay). Lfts. below and rachis hairy. — F.
argentea, Loisel., is a variety of F. Ornus, not in cult., but in gar-
dens often other ashes, especially variegated forms, are cult, under
this name. — F. australis, Gay=F. angustifolia var. australis. — F.
Berlandieriana, DC. Allied to F. lanceolata. Tree, to 70 f t. : Ifts. 3^5,
ovate or obovate, serrate, downy along the veins beneath, to 4 in.
long. Texas to Mex. 8.8.6:273. — F. bracteata, Hemsl.=F. Griffithii.
— F. coriacea, Wats. Allied to F. velutina. Tree, to 30 ft. : Ifts. 5, sub-
coriaceous, ovate to oblong, acute, broadly cuneate or rounded at the
base, glabrous or pubescent below. S. Calif, to Utah, Ariz., Nev. S.S.
14:713. — F. dimorpha, Coss. & Dur.=F. xanthoxyloides var.
dimorpha. — F. dipetala, Hook. & Am. Allied to F. cuspidata. Shrub:
Ifts. 5-7, elliptic or ovate, serrate or entire, H~2 in. long: fls. with
2 obovate petals. Calif., Mex. S.S. 6:261. Tender. — F. floribiinda,
Wall. Allied to F. longicuspis. Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 5-7, ovate-
lanceolate, serrate, reticulate beneath, 2-4 in. long: panicles large,
to 10 in. long; petals oblong. Himalayas. Tender. — F. floridana,
Sarg.=F. pauciflora. — F. Greggii, Gray. Allied to F. cuspidata.
Small tree: Ifts. 3-7, oblong-obovate, crenately serrate, or entire,
Yy-l in. long: fr. linear-oblong, emarginate. S.S. 6:262. G.F.
2:451.— F. Griffithii, Clarke (F. bracteata, Hemsl.). Allied to F.
Mariesii. Tree, to 40 ft. : Ifts. 5-7, subcoriaceous, elliptic to ovate-
lanceolate, lustrous above, bright green below and pubescent on the
veins, 2-4 in. long: infl. 6-8 in. high, with persistent lanceolate
bracts; petals 4: fr. spatulate. Cent. China, Himalayas, Java. —
F. holotricha, Koehne. Allied to F. potamophila. Tree: Ifts. 9-13,
ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, pubescent on both sides, 1 J^-3 in.
long: fls. in 10-fld. racemes; ovary pubescent. Origin unknown. —
F. hybrida, Lingelsh. =F. pauciflora. — F. pauciflora, Nutt. (F.
floridana, Sarg. F. hybrida, Lingelsh.). Allied to F. caroliniana.
Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 3-5, oblong, acuminate, cuneate at the base,
tomentose below: fr. oblong-lanceolate, rounded or emarginate at
the apex. Ga. to Fla. S.S. 14:717. — F. Paxidna, Lingelsh. Allied
to P. longicuspis. Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 7-9, sessile, ovate, crenulate,
4-7 in. long: panicle large and dense: fr. 1-1 J4 in. long, J^in.
broad. Cent. China, Himalayas. — F. platypoda, Oliver. Allied to
F. americana. Tree: petioles enlarged and winged at the base;
Ifts. 5-7, ovate-lanceolate, finely serrate, hairy along the midrib
below, 2—4 in.: fr. narrow-oblong, acute. Cent. China. H.I.
20:1929.— F. pro/undo, Bush. Allied to F. pennsylvanica. Lfts.
7-9, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, 3-6 in. long, tomentose
beneath: fr. 2-23^ in., with decurrent wing. Ind., Ark., to Fla. S.S.
14:714-5. — F. pubinSrvis, Blume. Allied to F. longicuspis. Lfts.

1578. Freesia refracts,
as it was in 1816, with a
modern flower of var.
alba at the left. (XI)

l^-2^in. long. Texas. S.S.
6 : 270. — F . Theophrdstii, Nouv.
Duh., is a variety of F. Ornus,
but in gardens other forms are
sometimes cult, under this
name. — F. xanthoxyloides, Wall.
Shrub or small tree, to 25 ft.:
rachis narrowly winged; Ifts.
5-9, oblong, crenulate-serrate,
glabrous, Yr-\Yi in. long: fls.
from axillary leafless buds, usu-
ally perfect, with calyx: fr.
oblong. Himalayas. Var. di-
morpha, Lingelsh. (F. dimorpha,
Coss. & Dur.). Lfts. sessile,
roundish oval to oblong, pubes-
cent on the midrib below. N. Afr. Var. dumdsa, Lingelsh. (F. dimor-
pha var. dumosa, Carr.). A low shrubby form of the preceding
variety, with small Ifts. — This species belongs to the section
Sciadanthus, having perfect apetalous fls. with calyx.

ALFRED REHDER.

FREESIA (name unexplained, perhaps personal).
Iridacese. Popular "bulbs" for fall planting and winter
blooming, and next to the Chinese narcissus, which may
be grown in water, they flourish in home windows with
less care than most other bulbs; they are also much-
prized florists' plants; easily grown, attractive, and
fragrant.

Cormous plants, with plane narrow Ivs. at the base
and somewhat on the sts., and showy fls. in small clus-
ters at the top of the slender st. : perianth tubular and
funnel-shaped, the segms. more or less unequal; sta-
mens 3, inserted in the tube, the anthers linear; ovary
ovoid or oblong, 3-celled, with crowded ovules, the
style filiform and the branches 2-fid (Tritonia, closely
allied, has simple style-branches): fr. a loculicidal 3-
valved caps., bearing turgid seeds.— ^S. Afr., probably
2 or 3 original species, but the specific limits difficult
of determination.

Freesias have well-shaped tubular flowers, white or
pale yellow. The five to seven flowers are upright and
attached along a jointed axis which is suddenly bent
back almost at right angles to the vertical peduncle.
The popularity of freesias is a growth of the last
quarter century or more, although they have been in
cultivation since 1816 or earlier. Conservative botanists
now suppose that the usual garden freesias are all origi-
nally of one stock, which species should be called F.

1278

FREESIA

FREMONTIA

refrada. Extremes of variation in form are shown in
Figs. 1578 and 1579, from the long and slender tube of
var. alba to the short and broader tube of var. Leicht-
linii. One of the earliest pictures of the plant is that in
the "Botanical Register" for 1816 (Plate 135, as Tri-
tonia refracta), a part of which is reproduced in Fig.
1578 to show the great irregularity of the corolla-lobes
at that early period, and the straggling habit of the
flowers, some pointing down and others up. The gar-
den evolution of the freesias has proceeded along two
lines. The greatest effort has been expended to pro-
duce a pure white flower, and in the best strains the
white color is mostly associated with a long and slen-
der tube. The ideal of a yellow flower is less popular,
and is mostly associated with the shorter and broader

1579. Freesia refracta var. Leichtlinii.

tube. In both cases the forms with straggling inflores-
cence and irregular corolla-lobes have been suppressed.
One may readily see how strongly two-lipped and gaping
were the flowers of 1816, and how much the tube
was bulged on one side. Any tendencies toward such
forms in modern bulbs are signs of undesirable charac-
ters. In pedigree plants the lobes are rounded and the
flowers symmetrical.

These plants are much forced by florists, chiefly for
cut-flowers at Christmas. If cut when only two flowers
are out, the others will open. They may be had in
flower from Christmas until June by successional
plantings from August to February. For the best
results the largest and highest-priced bulbs should be
planted as early as August. Under good care, the
bloom may be secured in ten to twelve weeks after
the bulbs are planted ; it is not necessary that the bulbs
be kept cool or stored for a time after potting, as is the
case with hyacinths and tulips, for they root quickly
and start rapidly into growth. For holiday bloom, the
bulbs are planted in October. One of the strong points
of freesias is that planting may be delayed longer than
with many other bulbs. Bottoms may be dried off
gradually in the pots and then be shaken out and kept
dry during summer. Repot; the larger bulbs will
bloom, but will not give so good results as medium-sized

imported bulbs not previously forced. When the plants
are growing, keep them cool and moist. Provide good
drainage, and let the potting earth contain a little sand
and more or less fibrous material. Usually several
bulbs are planted together in pots or boxes (about six
bulbs in a 5-inch pot). Offsets are freely produced and
these may be used for propagation; or seeds may be
employed, giving blooming plants in two or three
years, or sometimes the recent hybrid forms are said
to give bloom in six to seven months from seeding.

refracta, Klatt. Fig. 1578. Weakly erect, 1-1^ ft.,
from an ovoid reticulated corm, the st. more or less
distantly branched and bearing a few reduced Ivs: the
basal Ivs. about 6, linear, firm, about 6 in. long: fls.
in loose secund spikes on a flexuose rachis, the spathe-
valves oblong-lanceolate and acute and not covering
the ovary; perianth greenish yellow or bright yellow, to
1^2 in. long, the tube abruptly constricted below the
middle, the limb distinctly labiate and the segms.
unequal. B.R. 135 (as Tritonia refracta). — The original
type is probably no longer in cult. Var. alba, Baker
(F. dlba, Hort.). Lvs. broader: infl. less branched;
spathe-valves broader, toothed, covering the ovary;
fls. large, clear white, with a gradually narrowing tube,
the perianth-limb not bilabiate (or only indistinctly so),
the segms. obtuse and nearly equal. G. 5:97; 8:575;
27:88. G.M. 50:927. Gn.W. 15:10. J.H. III. 43:272.
The common garden form, much prized. F. virginalis
grandiflora is a seedling of this, the fls. being much
larger, ground-color white and less yellow in throat.
G. 31: 215. Var.odorata, Baker (F.odorata, Klatt). Lvs.
broader than in the type, less rigid, and infl. less
branched and fls. fewer: spathe-valves broader and
more obtuse, toothed at the apex, covering the ovary;
fls. bright yellow, the tube abruptly constricted, the
limb not distinctly bilabiate and the segms. obtuse and
nearly equal. L.B.C. 19:1820' (as Tritonia odorata).
Var. Leichtlinii, Hort. (F. Leichtlinii, Klatt), (Fig..
1579), differs in its shorter abruptly constricted tube
and large pale yellow fls.; by many considered to be a
distinct species.

Armstrongii, W. Wats. Differs from F. refracta in the
color of the fls. and absence of purple from the lf.-
bases: 16-20 in.: tube white with orange at base, the
segms. markedly bordered with rose-purple: about
one month later in blooming then F. refracta alba.
Named for W. Armstrong, of S. Afr. Gn. 59, p. 374.
G.M. 48:833.

hybrida, Hort. Here belong many hybrid forms, some
of them known as the "colored freesias," as: F. Chdp-
manii, a cross of the typical F. refracta (F. aurea, Hort.),
with var. alba, producing a soft yellow flushed with
deeper yellow and with an orange blotch (Gn. 71, p.
165. G.M. 50:164. G. 31:175); F. Tubergenii, being
a cross of F. refracta alba, and F. Armstrongii (G.W.
13, p. 199. G. 28:215. Gn. 69, p. 184. J.H. III.
52:299); F. kewensis, hybrid probably between F.
Armstrongii and F. Leichtlinii; F. Mdidenii, being F .
refracta alba x F. Armstrongii; F. Ragionieri, a race
resulting from the crossing of F. refracta, F. Leichtlinii
and their hybrids with F. Armstrongii, described as
producing scented fls. tinted in shades of pink, rose,
purple, blue, brown, orange, and spotted and veined.

L. H. B.f

FREMONTIA (after John Charles Fremont, dis-
tinguished western explorer, who discovered it in 1846).
Syn. Fremontodendron. Sterculiaceas. Ornamental
woody plant, grown chiefly for its showy yellow flowers.

Deciduous shrub or small tree with stellate pubes-
cence: Ivs. alternate, slender-petioled, palmately lobed:
fls. solitary on short, lateral branchlets, apetalous;
calyx large, deeply 5-parted, with 3 small bracts at the
base; stamens 5, connate toward the base into a tube;
ovary superior, inclosed by the staminal tube; style
filiform: fr. a 5-celled, hirsute, dehiscent caps, with

FREMONTIA

FRITILLARIA

1279

many seeds. — One species in Calif., allied to the Mexican
Cheiranthodendron. Its bark is sometimes used as a
substitute for that of the slippery elm and the plant
is therefore locally known under this name.

This is a beautiful free-flowering shrub, with rather
small, palmately lobed leaves and large yellow flowers
appearing in great profusion in June. It is not hardy
North, and in cooler regions it should have a sunny
and sheltered position, preferably against a wall of
southern aspect; it prefers well-drained, rather dry soil,
and dislikes, especially during the winter, an excess of
moisture. Propagation is by seeds or by greenwood
cuttings under glass in summer.

californica, Torr. (Fremontodendron californicum,
Coville). To 20 ft.: Ivs. generally roundish ovate, cor-
date or rounded at the base, obtuse, 3-5-lobed or
almost entire, whitish or ferrugineous pubescent
beneath, %-lK in. long: calyx lj^-3 in. across, deep
yellow, with stellate hairs outside, villous at the base
within; lobes orbicular: caps, densely beset with hispid
hairs, 1 in. long. S.S. 1:23. B.M. 5591. Gn. 3, p. 55;
22, p. 115; 29:8; 33. p. 566. G. 5:397; 32:457. G.M.
50:29. F.S. 22:2349. R.H. 1867:90. I.H. 13:496.
B.H. 17 : 13. ALFRED REHDER.

FREYCINETIA (Chas. Louis de Freycinet, 1779-
1842, French navigator). Pandanaceae. Climbing or
straggling shrubs sometimes seen under glass and per-
haps planted far S., but apparently not in the American
trade. The sts. are often prolonged, rooting: Ivs.
sheathing at base, the free part long and narrow, cari-
nate, serrate or entire: fls. dioecious, in terminal fas-
cicled spadices surrounded by fleshy leafy often colored
bracts; males consisting of several stamens with short
filaments; females of many 1-celled many-ovuled
densely packed ovaries: fr. an oblong mass of fleshy or
hard drupes. — Species above 50, islands of the Pacific,
Austral., New Zeal. F. Bdnksii, Cunn., is a tall climber,
sometimes attaining the tops of high trees, with many
stout branches, the arching Ivs. to 3 ft. long and most
abundant toward the ends of the branches: fl. -bracts
numerous and leafy, the inner ones with thick succulent
bases, sweet, and often eaten in New Zeal., where the
plant is native: fr. rather fleshy, brown at maturity,
Hiii. long, edible. B.M. 6028. F. Cumingiana, Gaud.,
of uncertain nativity, is more slender, Ivs. not arching
and divaricate. The freycinetias are little grown
indoors as they require much room. They may be
used as pillar plants. Prop, by offsets. L. H. B.

FRINGE-TREE: Chionanthus virginica.

FRITILLARIA (Latin fritillus, commonly understood
to be a checker-board, but may have meant dice-box).
Liliacese. FRITILLARY. This group includes the crown
imperial and the fritillaries, hardy bulbous plants,
mostly low-growing and spring-blooming, with drooping
or nodding flowers which are often checkered or tessel-
lated with dark purple and green, but some also with
brighter colors.

Various leafy-stemmed simple herbs, the st.-lvs.
narrow, sessile, alternate or whorled, the bulb mostly
of few fleshy scales: perianth deciduous, mostly bell-
shaped or sometimes bowl-shaped, the segms. nearly
or quite equal, oblong or ovate, all or the inner ones
with a nectar-bearing cavity or area at the base ; sta-
mens 6, with slender filaments and linear or oblong
anthers; ovary 3-celled, nearly or quite sessile: fr. an
ovoid or subglobose loculicidal winged or angled caps.,
with numerous seeds. — Species perhaps 70, widely dis-
tributed in the north temperate zone. Fritillaries
resemble lilies in having drooping or nodding fls. but
their anthers are fixed at the base, while those of the
lilies are fastened on the back but are free to swing
about. Lilies have funnel-shaped fls., while fritil-
laries and tulips have bell-shaped fls., and tulip fls. are

erect. Nearly all the Old World fritillaries resemble
tulips in having coated bulbs, while the American
fritillaries resemble lilies in having scaly bulbs.

The most popular kinds are the checkered lily (F.
meleagris) and crown imperial (F. Imperialist . Figs.
1582, 1583. These are hardy, easy to cultivate, and
variable. The crown imperial is one of the most
characteristic plants of old-fashioned gardens, but it has
been banished from many modern gardens because of
its strong fetid odor. It is the most robust species, and
until lately was supposed to be the only one with its
flowers in umbels, all the others being solitary or in
racemes. It rejoices the children early in every spring
by its pearly drops of nectar, which seem never to fall.
F. meleagris, the most popular of the purple kinds, is
the common snake's-head or checkered lily, so called
from the tessellation of purple and green, which is
prettiest when as sharply and regularly defined as
possible. This plant grows wild in moist English mead-
ows, and can be naturalized in large quantities in such
situations. Other ancient inhabitants of European

Gardens are F. latifolia, F. lutea and F. persica. Other
inds are apparently less known in gardens. As a rule,
the kinds that are chiefly purple or green, or mixtures of
both colors, are dull, unattractive and curious compared
with the few kinds that have brilliant yellow or red.
Of the duller and purple kinds, two of the choicest,
next to F . meleagris, are F. tulipifolia (which is flamed
like a tulip and never checkered) and F. camtschat-
censis, great masses of which in Alaska make one of
the "summer sights" remembered by the tourists.
The white in fritillaries is perhaps always more or less
greenish, and the white color in F . meleagris is as good
as in any species. A most brilliant species is F. recurva,
which is also difficult of culture. Next in brilliancy
come such species as F. lutea, F. aurea, F. Moggridgei
and F. pudica, all highly individual and all yellow,
some checkered, others not.

The culture of fritillaries is rather various, as some
species are capable of being naturalized, some culti-
vated in borders, some in rockeries and others in pots.
The crown imperial, being exceptionally vigorous,
requires deep planting, rich soil and much room. The
earth should be trenched. Well-rotted manure may be
worked into the soil 6 inches below the bulbs and the
bulbs set on a level 6 inches from the surface of the
ground. If possible it should be shaded from the mid-
day sun, as southern exposures are said to make the
flowers smaller and shorter-lived. In border cultiva-
tion of fritillaries the essential peculiarities are a
sheltered shady site, early fall planting, division every
two or three years, and, as a rule, a warm, deep, sandy
loam, which is not top cold or too retentive of moisture.
Bulbs of the taller kinds may be planted 3 to 4 inches
deep; bulbs of the dwarf kinds may be set at half that
depth. As all fritillaries increase rapidly by offsets, it
is desirable to lift and divide the plants at least every
three years, or the small bulbs will rob the big ones.
For the same reason, fritillaries are rarely propagated
by seeds. The dwarf and rare sorts require more care
and some leaf-mold in their soil, and some kinds require
an evergreen carpet through which they may spring,
as Sedum hispanicum or its var. glaucum.

Our native fritillaries, which include the bright-
flowered F. recurva and F. pudica, are confined to the
Pacific coast. Of these Carl Purdy makes two cultural
groups, based on the character of bulb, the kind of soil
and the conditions of shade. The first group contains
F. biflora, F. liliacea, F. pluriflora and F. Purdyi; the
second F. atropurpurea, F. coccinea, F. lanceolata, F.
parviflora, F. pudica and F. recurva. The former grow
in the sun in open fields in heavy clay soils; the latter
in shady woods in well-drained soils, but F. pudica
does not need so much shade as the others of its group,
and must have sandy loam and slight shelter. The bulbs
of the first group are composed of thick, heavy scales

1280

FRITILLARIA

FRITILLARIA

attached to a thin rhizomatous base, and the stems
are 4 to 12 inches high and very leafy at the base;
in the second group the bulbs are of one piece, and low-
conical in form, their sides thickly covered with small,
round, white rice-like offsets, and the slender stems
are 1 to 3 feet high and leafy above the base. For
the first group Purdy recommends a rich loam, and a
slight shade to draw out the stems and prolong the
bloom; for the second group a light, loose soil, rich in
mold, a sheltered place and considerable shade. At
the best these are not profuse in their bloom.

The key to the various subgenera here given is
essentially Baker's in his monograph in Jour. Linn.
Soc. 14:251 (1875); it rarely happens that the botanical
and horticultural interests agree in using such simple
and obvious characters as those of the bulb and style.
The nectaries or glands are less useful and reliable, but
they help to explain the natural groups in this varied
genus.

INDEX.

alba, 1.

kamschatcenais, 30.

persica, 19.

armena, 16.

lanceolata, 22.

pluriflora, 21.

atropurpurea, 24.

latifolia, 7-9.

pudica, 17.

aurea, 7-9.

leucantha, 4.

Purdyi, 21.

biflora, 29.

libanotica, 20.

pyrenaica, 12.

Burnatii, 3.

liliacea, 28.

Raddeana, 26.

camtschatcensis, 30.

longipetala, 26.

recurva, 27.

chitralensis, 26.

lutea, 7T9.

ruthenica, 6.

coccinea, 25.

meleagris, 1.

Sewerzowi, 18.

contorta, 1.

meleagroides, 11.

Thunbergii, 4.

delphinensis, 3.

minor, 11, 19.

tubseformis, 3.

Elwesii, 14.

Moggridgei, 3.

tulipifolia, 15.

floribunda, 22.

mutica, 22.

verticillata, 4.

fusco-Iutea, 16.

oranensis, 13.

Walujewi, 5.

gracilis, 22.

pallidiflora, 10.

Whittallii, 2.

Imperialis, 26.

parviflora, 23.

KEY TO THE SUBGENERA.

A. Bulbs tunicated (i.e., coated).
B. Style 3-cut.

c. Glands distinct and promi-
nent, equal.

D. Glands long

DD. Glands wide

cc. Glands obscure, equal, long. .
BB. Style undivided.

C. Glands equal, obscure

cc. Glands unequal, prominent.

D. Glands long

DD. Glands short

AA. Bulbs scaly.

B. Style undivided

BB. Style 5-cut.

c. Caps, acutely angled.

D. Fls. solitary or racemose..

DD. Fls. in umbels

cc. Caps, obtusely angled

Species. Subgenera.

1. EUFRITILLARIA
2-14. MONOCODON
NOTHOLIRION

15-17. AMBLIRION

18. KOROLKOWIA
RHINOPETALUM

19-21. THERESIA

22-25. GONIOCARPA

26. PETILITJM
27-30. LILIORHIZA

1. meleagris, Linn. CHECKERED LILY. SNAKE'S-
HEAD. Figs. 1580-1582. St. 1 ft. or more high: Ivs.
3 or 4, linear or lanceolate, typically 1-fld. : fl. dull red
with the inside checkered and spotted with higher
color; segms. oblong, narrowed at both ends, about
1^ in. long, the inner ones bearing an oblong or linear
cavity; fls. sometimes white or yellowish, or purplish
and more or less checkered. England and Norway,
through Cent. Eu. to Caucasus. Gn. 32:536; 47, p.
330; 52, p. 243. — The Dutch bulb-growers keep several
kinds distinct. The extremes of color-range are (1)
a greenish white, (2) a sufficient degree of purple to
make the checkering as distinct as possible, and (3)
an approach to yellow. Some kinds bear 2-3 fls.; some
are double; some fls. spread so widely as to be almost
funnel-shaped. Var. alba, Hort. White. G. 29:355.
Gn.W. 21:221. Var. cont6rta, an old monstrosity,
instead of segms. free all the way, and a shouldered
base, has the lower third of the perianth united into
a funnel-shaped tube. The yellow of some fls. is con-
jectured to be the result of a cross with F. lutea made
before Gerarde's time. In England the species flowers
toward the end of April. G. 18:182; 35:273. J.H. III.

1580. Stamens

and pistil of

Fritillaria

Meleagris.

From Flora
Danica, show-
ing the 3-cut

52:329. Gn.M. 10:117; 12:228. Gn. 61, p. 306 (vars.)
G.M. 52:770.

2. Whittallii, Baker. Height 1 ft.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
linear, glaucous: fls. checkered green and brown; nec-
taries orbicular. Mt. Taurus.

3. tubaeformis, Gren. & Godr. (F. delphinensis,
Gren.). St. 6-12 in., often only 1-fld.: Ivs. above mid-
dle of st. oblanceolate to linear: fls. wine-
purple, spotted yellow and somewhat
checkered, inodorous; segms. obtuse.
Alps. — Distinguished by the glands 3-4
lines long and stigmas very short. Baker
gives the same color-range as for F.
meleagris. The most desirable form is
var. M6ggridgei, Boiss. (F . Moggridgei,
Hort.), with bright yellow, checkered
inside with bright red or reddish brown.
This is a dwarfer form from the mari-
time Alps with wider Ivs. (6-9 lines),
longer stigmatic cusps, approaching F.
lutea, and essentially yellow-fld. G.C.
II. 13:533. Gn. 18:132. F.M. 1880:
405. — It blooms early. Var. Burnatii,

stigma, an im- Planch., bright plum-color, checkered
acternin ° this greenish yellow: fl. solitary, broadly bell-
genus, shaped, smaller, earlier and with smaller
glands.

4. verticillata, Willd. (F. leucdntha, Fisch.). Height
1^ ft.: sts. simple, often 1-, sometimes 2-5-fld.: Ivs.
near the middle of the st., ovate and tapering toward
the apex: fls. white or yellow, with small darker spots
at the base. Altai Mts. B.M. 3083.— In the type the
Ivs. are numerous, 20-40: anthers barely half as long
as the filaments : style no longer than the ovary, but in
var. Thunbergii, Hort. (F. Thunbergii, Miq.), the upper
IVs. are often sparse: anthers as long as the filaments;
style lJ^-2 times as long as the ovary. G.C. II. 13:532.
It is doubtful whether the yellow-fld. form is cult.

5. Walujewi, Regel. Probably belongs here, as its
linear Ivs. have tendrils: st. 1 ft.: fls. silver-white or
lead-colored outside and crimson-brown spotted white
or yellow inside. Turkestan. Gn. 52:243.

6. ruthenica, 'Wikst. Height 1-2 ft.: st. 1-3-fld.:
Ivs. 6-20, linear-lanceolate: fls. livid purple, obscurely
checkered. Caucasus.

7-9. lutea, Miller, and its allies F. latifdlia, Willd.,
and F. aurea, Schott. These 3 names may be taken as
representing the 3 well-marked types of color: F. lutea
an intermediate form, essentially yellow, but greenish,
and with the purple checker-marks duller in color and
not so sharply defined and regular. F . latifolia repre-
senting the extreme of dark purple and
green without yellow; F. aurea, at the
other extreme, being essentially yellow,
the checker marks smaller and more
sharply defined, and the colors bright. In
this sense the pictures may be referred to
the types as follows: B.M. 1538 to F.
lutea; B.M. 853 and 1207 to F. latifolia;
B.M. 7374, R.H. 1878, p. 287, Gn. 42:
72, J.H. III. 28:357, to F. aurea. F.
latifolia represents the extreme width of
Ivs., and F. aurea is said to differ in
having the lower Ivs. often whorled. All
these grow 3^-1 ft. high. One of the most
anciently cult, of all fritillaries is F. lutea,
which is found promiscuously mingled with the wider-
Ivd. form, both wild and cult. At present the most
popular of the 3 is probably F. aurea. The Dutch bulb-
growers advertise several varieties of F. latifolia. These
3 species are fom S. W. Asia. — F. lutea. St. often 1-fld.:
Ivs. alternate, linear-lanceolate: fls. yellow, more or
less marked or suffused with purple; segms. oblong-
lanceolate. F. latifdlia (F. lutea var. latifolia) has

1581. Strange

form of doub-
ling in the

checkered lily,
pictured as

early as 1613.

FRITILLARIA

FRITILLARIA

1281

lanceolate Ivs., the upper ones opposite: fls. purple.

F. aurea. Lvs. 10-12, lower in 3's, linear, somewhat

glaucous and fleshy: fls. solitary, bright yellow.

10. pallidifldra, Schrenk. Height 6-15 in. : Ivs. many,

large and broad, glaucous-blue: fls. 1-6, yellow, hand-
somely tessellated in-
side. Siberia. B.M.
6725 (green, with a few
dark purple spots) .
Gt. 6:328. R.H. 1880,
p. 215. G.C. II. 19:
573. Gn.W. 23:397.

11. meleagroides,
Patrin. (F. minor,
Ledeb.). Height 1-2
ft.: st. very slender,
mostly 1-fld. : Ivs. 3-6,
narrowly linear: fls.
dark purple, spotted
green; anthers a third
"the length of the fila-
ments. W. Siberia.
B.M. 3280.

12. pyrenaica, Linn.
Height 1-1H ft.,
mostly 1-fld.: Ivs. 6-10,
linear, glaucous: fls.
dark purple, spotted
green ; anthers two-
fifths the length of the
filaments. Pyrenees.
B.M. 664, not 952 or
1216.

13. oranensis, Baker.
Height 1-1 Yi ft.: lower
Ivs. lanceolate; upper
Ivs. linear : fls. dark pur-
ple, obscurely check-
ered green. Mt. Oran.

1582. Common Snake's-Head or
Checkered Lily (Fritillaria melea-

gris).

Faithfully redrawn from Dealer's
Hortus Eystettensis, published in
1613. (Incorrect as to stamens and
some other characters.)

G.C. II. 13:341.

14. Elwesii, Boiss.
Lvs. 5-6: fls. green,
flushed purple on back
and tips, not checkered.
Lycia. B. M. 6321
Gn. 65, p. 307. Gn.W.

(erroneously, as F. acmopetala) .
21:445.

15. tulipifolia, Bieb. Height 2-8 in.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
3-4, elliptic, concave, nerveless, 1^2-2^2 m- long: fls.
solitary, inside rusty brown-purple, not checkered,
outside dark glaucous-blue, streaked with the same
purple. Caucasus. B.M. 5969. — One of the choicest
and daintiest kinds. Very distinct. Foliage glaucous
blue: fls. resembling a tulip in shape, and with a chalky
look outside.

16. armena, Boiss. Height 6-12 in.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
4-5, lower lanceolate, upper linear: fls. between funnel-
and bell-shaped, dark purple, not checkered. Armenia.
B.M. 6365. J.H. III. 35:83. Var. fusco-mtea, Hort.,
tawny yellow.

17. pudica, Spreng. St. 2-10 in.: Ivs. 3-8, lower ones
strap-shaped, often opposite (while in F. tulipifolia
and F. armena they are alternate), upper ones linear:
fl. usually solitary, pale or dark yellow, rarely purple,
never checkered; segms. oblong-spatulate and obtuse,
more or less spreading. N. W. Amer. Gn. 13:598; 61, p.
337. R.H. 1895, p. 229. G.C. III. 19:403. J.H. III.
32:295. Mn. 4:49. — The stamens (as in Nos. 14 and
15) are nearly as long as the perianth. "Deep orange-
yellow, fragrant." — Van Tubergen.

18. Sewerzowi, Regel. Height 1-1 ^ ft.: lowest Ivs.
lorate-lanceolate, 1 in. wide, often opposite, upper Ivs.
lanceolate, 6-7-nerved, 3-4 in. long: pedicels 3-6 lines
long; fls. 6-10, green, not checkered, but with a few

82

purple spots outside; filaments purple; anthers green.
Turkestan. Gt. 760. B.M. 6371. J.H. III. 30:319.
G.C. III. 1:457. Gn. 69, p. 133.

19. persica, Linn. Robust, 2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 40-60,
glaucous, linear, 4-6 in. long, 6-9 lines wide: raceme
10-50-fld.; fls. small bell-shaped, slightly odorous, lilac-
purple, sometimes chalky outside and lined with purple
but never checkered; stamens a trifle shorter than the
perianth. Orient. Fls. end of April or beginning of May.
B.M. 1537. Var. minor, Sims, B.M. 962 (excluding
synonymy), has smaller fls. and anthers barely exserted.

20. libanotica, Baker. Closely resembling No. 19, but
with 6-30 strongly odorous fls., pale lilac, with darker
vertical veins; stamens a third shorter than the peri-
anth; anthers purplish. Palestine, rocky and shady
parts of Mt. Lebanon.

21. plurifldra, Torr. PINK FRITILLARY. Height 6-12
in.: Ivs. few, mostly at the base, oblong-lanceolate,
about 4 in. long: raceme 4-12-fld.; fls. rosy purple, not
checkered, the glands not evident; stigma shortly
3-lobed. Calif. G.C. III. 21:231.— Blooms early. F.
Purdyi, Eastw., differs in the fl. being white beauti-
fully tinged purple. Humboldt Co., Calif.

22. lanceolata, Pursh. Sts. 1-3 ft. : Ivs. 4-10, lanceo-
late, whorled on the upper part of st. (or sometimes
scattered), ovate-lanceolate, 1-4 in. long: fls. 1-4,
bowl-shaped, dark purple mottled greenish yellow,
somewhat variable in color; segms. ovate to oblong,
concave, with large' gland. Calif. Var. gracilis, Wats.
Fls. very small with narrow and more acuminate segms.,
deep purple or almost black. Var. floribunda, Benth.
(F. miitica, Lindl.). Fls. 3 to many, dark purple or
greenish and conspicuously spotted or checkered, the
segms. crisped or erose. — The bulbs of F. lanceolata
live one year; the scales are few or none, and the bulb
is covered with

rice-like bulblets
(whence the
name "rice-root
lily").

23. parvifldra,
Torr. St. 5-20-
fld. : Ivs. about 9,
mostly whorled,
linear: fls. pur-
ple, suffused
green, not check-
ered, on short
and strongly re-
curved pedicels;
segms. with
shallow nectar-
ies. Sierra Ne-
vadas in Calif .

24. atropur-
pftrea, Nutt. St.
1-6-fld., lower
and more slender
than in No. 23:
Ivs. 12-20, scat-
tered or imper-
fectly whorled :
fls. dark purple
obscurely check-
ered with green,
on slender pedi-
cels. Wyo. and
Utah, to the
Sierras and the
Columbia River.

25. coccinea,
Greene. SCAR-
LET FRITILLARY. 1533. The Crown Imperial.— Fritillaria
St. 1 — 4 -fid., Imperialis.

1282

FRITILLARIA

slender, 12-18 in. high: Ivs. 3-7, in 2 or 3 whorls
at middle of st., narrow-linear: fls. scarlet, slightly
mottled within with yellow. Calif. — Said to be very
like F. recurva, but lower and less leafy and the fls. of
different color; it has a smaller bulb and takes more
readily to cult.

26. Imperialis, Linn. (Imperialis coronata, Dum.
Cours.). CROWN IMPERIAL. Fig. 1583. Height 2-3 ft.:
Ivs. numerous, crowded, ascending, %-l in. wide, high-
est often in whorls of 8-10: fls. end of March. B.M. 194
and 1215. Gn. 46, p. 101; 52, p. 243. A.G. 13:488.
R.B. 20:196. — There are single and double forms in
yellow and red, and kinds with foliage striped white,
and with gold. There are varieties Aurora, Maximus,
and William Rex, red; Sulphureus, sulfur-yellow; and
Crown upon Crown, Couronne Orange, Red Slagz-
waard and others. Var. longipetala, Hort. Gn.
56:358, with long segms. Var. chitralensis, Hort., has
rich yellow fls.: said to be a common form in Chitral
(British India). G.C. III. 47:171. G.M. 54:682. F.
Raddeana Regel, from Turkestan, is somewhat dwarfer,
blooms earlier, has floral Ivs. recurved-spreading, fls.
straw-colored or greenish yellow and shorter than the
pedicels.

27. recurva, Benth. Height 6-24 in.: st. 2-8-fld.,
purple, mottled green: Ivs. 6-12, lower ones in whorls of
3-4, linear, ascending: fls. narrow, bell-shaped. Calif.,
Ore. B.M. 6264. Gn. 18:458; 59, p. 415; 61, p. 336.
— This has stamens only a little shorter than the
perianth, while in the next 3 species they are only
half the length of the perianth. Distinct by the color
of the fls., which are bright red outside without a
trace of purple, and brilliant yellow inside, spotted
with red.

28. liliacea, Lindl. WHITE FRITILLAKY. Height
3-12 in.: st. 1-6-fld.: Ivs. on st. few, linear-oblong or
linear, those of the radical tuft narrowly or broadly
oblong: fls. between funnel- and bell-shaped, whitish,
veined green, not checkered; gland at base of segms.
greenish and purple-dotted. Calif, in Coast Range
from San Francisco south. Gt. 1871:715.

29. bifldra, Lindl. BLACK LILY. CHOCOLATE LILY.
Height 6-18 in., stout: st. 1-3-fld.: Ivs. 2-6, most of
them near the base, scattered or whorled, oblong:
perianth greenish or dark purple or lined with purple;
segms. elliptic-obovate, with a greenish longitudinal
band. S. Calif. — Fls. often described as dark chocolate-
brown to nearly black.

30. camtschatcensis, Ker-Gawl. Mostly written
kamtschatcensis and variously misspelled. (Lilium
camtschatcense, Linn.). BLACK LILY. Height 6-18 in.:
st. 1-3-fld.: Ivs. 10-15, lanceolate, the lower ones
whorled: fls. livid wine-purple, not checkered, 1^4, in.
or less long. Siberia, Alaska. Gt. 5:290. Gn. 25:232;
52, p. 242. F.S. 12:1232. G. 14:362.

F. agrestis, Greene. Bulbs very deep-seated: sts. 1-1% ft.:
Ivs. 8-12, oblong-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate: fls. 3-8, on abruptly
recurved pedicels, yellowish green, with prominent midnerve on
each segm. Calif. — Said by Purdy to occur in 2 forms, one a dainty
plant a few inches high with fls. having light green or yellow base-
color and heavily lined with brown (Mendocino Co.); the other a
foot or two tall and similarly marked, so fetid as to be called
"stink bells" (edge of San Joaquin Valley, Contra Costa Co.).
Probably not in cult. — F. askabadensis, Mich. St. about 3 ft.:
upper Ivs. linear-lanceolate, whorled: fls. 5-8, hanging amongst
the uppermost Ivs., about 1 in. long, bell-shaped, pale yellow-green.
Cent. Asia. B.M. 7850. G.C. III. 31:238; 45: 184. Gn. 61, p. 256.
G.M. 45:745. R.H. 1903: 180. J.H. III. 44:293. F. S. R. 1: 134.— F.
cdnica, Hort. Lvs. in a rosette: fls. bell-shaped, pale yellow outside
and bright yellow inside. Greece. — F. p6ntica, Wahl. St. tall, 1 %
ft., leafy at middle, the Ivs. broadly lanceolate, lower ones opposite:
fls. yellow-green, margined and tipped red, the segms. bearing
nearly orbicular nectaries. Asia Minor. Gn.W. 21:407. — F.
tuntdsia, Heldr. St. 8-10 in.: Ivs. long and glaucous: fls. 4-6, bell-
shaped, about 1 in. across, intense dark maroon. Greece. Gn.W.
23:435. — F. Zdhnii, Hort. Fls. bell -shaped, rather large, brown,
checkered with green inside and streaked with yellow outside.
Greece. ITT T.,

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

FROST

FRCELICHIA (J. A. Froelich, physician of Ellwangen,
Germany, monographed Gentiana in 1796; died 1841).
Amarantdcex. About a dozen species of woolly or hairy
American annuals, found chiefly in W. Indies, Mex.
and Brazil, scarcely planted: Ivs. opposite, entire or
nearly so: spikes opposite, terminal; fls. perfect, 3-
bracted; calyx tubular, 5-cleft, hardened and spiny-
crested in fr.; stamens 5, with united filaments: fr. an
indehiscent utricle, inclosed in the filament-tube. F.
floridana, Moq., has been advertised for sale in Amer.
It is cult, abroad. Height 1-4 ft., leafless above: Ivs.
linear to oblong or lanceolate: spikes 2 in. long or more;
fls. white and woolly, set off by small blackish bracts:
fr. broadly winged and irregularly toothed. July-Sept.
B.M. 2603 (as Oplotheca floridana) . Dry sandy areas,
Del. to Fla., and west. F. campestris, Small, is by
some authors considered not to be distinct.

L. H. B.f

FROST. Hoar frost or white frost is ice deposited
upon the surface of plants or other objects. Sometimes
it consists of frozen dew-drops, sometimes of feathery
spinelike ice-crystals, but usually both formations are
present. The moisture from which the deposit of ice is
formed comes partly from the ground, partly from the
air, and in the case of plants, probably partly from the
plant itself.

The term "black frost" is used when plants are
frozen without the appearance of any deposit of ice
upon them. It occurs when the temperature falls below
the freezing-point (32° F.), but not low enough to cause
the moisture in the air to come out in the form of hoar
frost.

The term "frost," when unqualified, means simply
temperatures that are injurious to vegetation without
regard to any deposit of ice. It is in this sense that
the term "frost" is used in this article.

Degrees of frost.

With respect to the effect of frost on vegetation, the
Weather Bureau recognizes three degrees of frost —
light, heavy, and killing. A light frost is recorded when
only the tenderest plants are injured; a heavy frost,
when the injury to tender plants is more marked and
the hardier plants are damaged; and a killing frost,
when the staple products of the region are injured
severely or are killed. When no deposit of frost occurs
and the temperature of the air as indicated by the
thermometer falls during the night to 32°, a killing
frost is recorded also. Frost charts and frost tables,
published by the Weather Bureau, are based on the
records of killing frosts only.

How plants are injured by frost.

When ice appears on the leaves or blossoms of the
plant, it is evidence that the temperature of the plant
is at or below the freezing-point; but if the temperature
does not go below 32° F., or does not remain at that
point too long, little injury will result to any temperate-
zone plants. In fact, the phenomenon that we usually
have in mind when we speak of killing by low tempera-
ture occurs only when ice forms within the tissue. Care-
ful observers have found that the ice formed in the
tissue is nearly always in the intercellular spaces, the
water being withdrawn from the cells to form these
crystals. Whether the withdrawal of water from the
cell is the cause of death or is merely associated with it,
is not certain. In case of winter dormant tissue, that
is very resistant to low temperature, the injury at a
given temperature is much greater when the tempera-
ture-fall is very rapid. In the case of a few tissues, like
ripe apples and pears and leaves of Agave americana
and of lettuce, the rapidity of thawing influences the
extent of injury at the highest killing temperature of
the tissue. However, it is not a determining factor,
since, if the temperature be carried somewhat lower,
the tissue will kill regardless of the rate of thawing.

FROST

FROST

1283

Varieties as well as individual plants differ greatly
in their ability to withstand cold, and a temperature
that may destroy a plant at one time may cause little
injury at any other time. Hence, no general statement
can be made with regard to injurious temperatures
that will apply in all cases.

The following table indicates the temperatures (Fahr.)
that have been found injurious to tree fruits during the
blossoming period:

Fruits

Petals
closed

In
blossom

Setting

Later

27

29

30

30

Peaches

20

25

28

30

22

28

29

29

Pears

27

29

29

30

30

31

31

29

General atmospheric conditions that cause frost.

The loss of heat that brings the temperature of
plants to the freezing-point occurs in two ways, — (1)
loss by conduction, and (2) loss by radiation. Loss of
heat by conduction occurs when the air in contact with
the plant is colder than the plant itself. This allows
the heat to flow directly from the plant into the colder
air about it. Frosts due to this cause alone result
almost invariably from the importation of large masses
of cold air, brought down from the upper atmosphere
by descending currents, or from higher latitudes by
northerly winds, both of which movements usually
are active when the weather clears after a storm.

Frosts, particularly in the late spring or early fall,
result also from loss of heat by radiation. Plants radi-
ate heat continuously. During the day more heat is
received by them from the sun than they give off, and
the plant becomes warmer; at night plants pour more
heat into the atmosphere than they receive from it,
hence they become colder.

Radiation proceeds most rapidly when the sky is
clear and the atmosphere is quiet. Clouds check radia-
tion, because the heat given off from the earth does
not penetrate them easily. Much of it is reflected
back toward the earth, warming the whole stratum
of air between the earth and the clouds.

A quiet atmosphere allows the colder, therefore
heavier, particles of air to settle to the surface of the
earth. Thus, on quiet, clear nights, when frost is likely
to occur, the air near the ground may be 10° colder
than the air 10 or 15 feet above the ground. The wind,
by stiring up the atmosphere, prevents the settling
of the cold air, and in this way maintains the stratum
of air near the surface at a more nearly uniform tem-
perature.

Frost results seldom from conduction or radiation
alone. Both usually are active when frost occurs.

Forecasting frost from weather maps.

Frosts that injure vegetation are a part of the regu-
lar weather sequences. The weather comes to us in
what may be termed waves that travel with more or
less regularity in the middle latitudes from west to
east. The weather map is a survey of the atmosphere.
It charts the daily progress of these weather waves.
By the aid of such a chart it is possible to foresee in a
measure the coming of a frost, and to judge its probable
extent and severity.

The weather map is based on observations of pres-
sure, temperature, cloudiness, wind, and precipitation,
made at many places scattered over a large area. Low
atmospheric pressure indicates the trough of the
weather wave, and high pressure its crest. The low-
pressure area is called the cyclone, because the winds
whirl or eddy about its center, the direction of rota-
tion being counter clock-wise in the northern hemi-
sphere. In approaching the center, the winds have an

ascending as well as an inward component of motion.
The cyclone also is called a storm, because it is attended
on its eastern side by southerly or easterly winds,
cloudiness, rain or snow, and comparatively high tem-
perature, and on its western side by northerly winds,
clearing weather, and a decided fall of temperature.

2 '9.6 3ao

1584. Weather map, 8 a.m., June 7, 1913.

The crest of the wave is indicated by increased pres-
sure, and is called the anti-cyclone. It is so named
because its structure is exactly opposite to that of the
cyclone. The winds of the anti-cyclone blow outward
from its center, and have a downward component of
motion; the sky is clear; the precipitation is scanty or
absent; and the temperature is comparatively low.

Frosts are most likely to occur in the rear (western
side) of the cyclone, and just in front (eastern side) of
the crest or center of the anti-cyclone. Here is found
the mass of cold air, imported from the north by the
northerly winds, and augmented by the cold brought
down from above by the gently descending currents;
the sky is clear; and as night comes on the air becomes
quiet. Thus, the conditions that cause frost are ful-
filled.

A weather wave, in which frost was the most pro-
nounced characteristic, moved from North Dakota to
the Atlantic coast from June 7 to 10, 1913 (Fig. 1584).
The general conditions on the morning of the 7th and
8th (Fig. 1585) are shown by the accompanying weather
maps for those dates. The eastward progress of frost
from day to day is indicated by the dotted lines on the
map of the 7th. The relative position of the cyclone

1585. Weather map, 8 a.m., June 8, 1913.

(low) and the anti-cyclone (high), on the 7th, indicates
clearly that frosts will occur over the Upper Mississippi
Valley and the Upper Lakes on the following morning,
while the conditions shown by the map of the 8th
make it certain that the frosts will spread eastward
over New York and the New England states by the
morning of the 9th.

The Weather Bureau issues frost warnings when
frosts are indicated for any part of the United States.

1284

FROST

FROST

The warnings are distributed by mail, telegraph and
by telephone. They are telegraphed at Government
expense to many telephone companies.

Forecasting frost from local observations.

It is not possible to forecast frost twenty-four or
thirty-six hours in advance without the aid of the
weather map; but, by observing the local conditions
during the late afternoon and early evening, it is pos-
sible often to determine whether a frost will occur
before morning. Assuming that it is the frost season,
the conditions to be considered are: (1) the character
of the preceding weather, (2) the state of the sky,
whether cloudy or clear, (3) the direction and force of
the wind, (4) the trend of the temperature, and (5)
the atmospheric pressure.

Preceding weather. — Since the weather comes in
waves, an abnormally warm period is likely to be fol-
lowed by the opposite extreme.

State of the sky. — A clear sky increases loss of heat
by radiation, as explained already.

Direction and force of wind. — A southwest to west
wind indicates that the cyclone is passing (except per-
haps on the Pacific coast, where other conditions may
modify the directions), and that the anti-cyclone is
approaching, while a northwest to north wind indicates
that the anti-cyclone is near. If the wind dies away it
will become colder near the ground.

Trend of the temperature. — If the temperature falls
steadily during the late afternoon, reaching 40° by 6 or
8 P. M., with a clear sky and a light wind, frost is
indicated before morning.

Atmospheric pressure. — The actual stage of the
barometer is not important, except if the pressure has
been very low during the day it indicates the passage
of a deep depression which is likely to be followed by
a high crest. If the barometer rises rapidly during the
late afternoon or early evening it indicates the rapid
approach of the anti-cyclone.

The influence, of local conditions on frost.

Everyone who has lived in the open country is
familiar with the fact that some places are more sub-
ject to frost than other places. Crops in one part of a
field may be destroyed by frost, and in another part of
the same field remain uninjured. The explanation for
this seeming discrimination is found in the influence
of local conditions.

There are five factors that determine the frost risk
at any place: (1) location, city or country, (2) ele-
vation and topography, (3) proximity to bodies of
water, (4) exposure to the sun, (5) soil and soil cover-
ings.

Location. — Frosts are much more likely to occur in
the open country than in cities. Many investigations
confirm this. The higher night temperatures of cities
is attributed to the heat given off from buildings and
pavements, and to the smoke from the many city
fires that collects over cities on quiet nights.

Elevation and topography. — The average tempera-
ture decreases with elevation above sea-level at a rate
of 1° for each 300 feet of ascent. From this it might
be expected that hilltops would be more frosty than
adjacent lower lands. Such is not the case. On clear
quiet nights the colder air that settles to the surface
drains away from the hilltops and hillsides and accumu-
lates over the low lands, decreasing the temperature of
the vegetation and sometimes causing frost. If the val-
ley into which the cold air drains is closed, so that it
cannot flow away as rapidly as it accumulates, a "frost
pocket" results. Some farms have many such "frost
pockets." A walk over a farm on a clear quiet night
often will reveal their location and extent. Low hill-
tops and hillsides, but not too near the valley floor,
should be chosen for fruits or other crops that are
liable to be injured by frost.

Proximity to bodies of water.—Under similar condi-
tions, land warms and cools about five times as rapidly
as water. During the season of spring frosts, the water
is relatively cool, although considerably above the freez-
ing-point. Therefore, it tends to cool the air over
adjacent lands during the day and to warm it at night.
The influence of a body of water on nearby vegetation
is twofold: by lowering the day temperature it retards
growth, and by increasing the night temperature wards
off frost. The fruit-belts along the various lakes are
examples of this twofold influence. The cool air from
the lake by day retards the blooming period, and also
gives immunity from frost at night. The influence of a
body of water is more marked in the fall than in the
spring, because of the heat stored up by the water dur-
ing the summer. It also increases the length of the
growing season over adjacent lands by warding off
frost both in spring and fall. The distance to which
the influence of a body of water will extend inland
depends upon the volume of water, its temperature
relative to that of the land, the area of its free surface,
the slope of its shores, and the prevailing winds. The
prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are from the
west. Thus, the influence of a lake extends farthest
on its east side, and farthest also when the land slopes
gently away from the water. The influence of Lake
Michigan, mainly because of the gentle slope of its
eastern shore, extends nearly half way across the state
of Michigan, while the influence of Lake Erie, because
of the abrupt rise of its eastern shore, extends inland
only a few miles.

Exposure. — Hillsides exposed toward the south are
warmest; next come those facing east, then west, and
finally north. Frost liability follows in the reverse
order, being greatest on the north side. In the eastern
states many fruit-growers prefer the northern slope for
an orchard site, notwithstanding its greater liability
to frost. This preference is based partly on the opinion
that the colder soil and air of northern slopes tends to
retard the blooming time until the period of spring
frosts is passed.

Soil and soil coverings. — Dark-colored, sandy soils,
because good absorbers of heat, are least liable to
frost. Many cranberry-growers cover the surface of
the bogs with an inch or two of sand as a means of
protecting from frost. The sand stores up heat by day
with which to combat frost at night. Well-drained
soils are less frosty than poorly drained soils, because,
when the soil is wet, the heat from the sun is expended
in evaporating the water, and not in warming the soil.
Good tillage reduces the frost risk, because a loose,
porous soil absorbs more heat than a hard, compact
soil- WILFORD M. WILSON.

The protection of orchards against frost-injury.

Although much interest has been manifested in the
prevention of frost-injury to orchards in recent years,
it is well known that the protection of plants and
fruits from such injury dates back more than 2,000
years. Pliny the Elder, one of the most noted of Roman
writers, who lived from 23 to 79 A.D., states that the
Romans practised heating and smudging as a protec-
tion against frost-injury. We have no doubt that the
practice was successful, since it was recommended by
Pliny whose one surviving work, his "Natural History,"
is considered a storehouse of facts. Smudging was also
recommended by Olivier de Serres, a French agricul-
turist, in the sixteenth century. He recommended the
use of wet straw and half-rotten manures so as to pro-
duce a heavy smoke. In the latter part of the eighteenth
century, the practice of smudging was compulsory
in parts of Germany, and failure to comply with certain
regulations resulted in prosecution before an officer
of the law. According to Boussingault, the celebrated

FROST

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1285

French chemist, smudges have been used for centuries
on the plains of Cuzco, Peru, on still clear nights by
Indians, to retard the loss of heat from the soil. This
practice was inherited by them from the pre-Spanish
civilization. From the fragmentary pieces of literature
we are able to find concerning the matter of frost-pre-
vention, there is no doubt that the practice has been
more or less common from the most remote times to
the present day.

It is only in recent years, however, that the matter
of frost-prevention has been scientifically investigated.
The literature on the subject has been, until very
recently, of very little importance, because the methods
advocated were very crude and could not be used by
the commercial fruit-grower. However, during the
1880's and early 1890's, the French vine-growers did
some remarkable work. Even at that time, they used
heavy oil and tar as fuels, placing these in flat ironware
dishes much the same as the modern practice of using
smudge -pots with
crude-oil. There had
also been devised sys-
tems of automatic
lighting operated by
a mercuric column,
not very much unlike
some of our more re-
cently patented auto-
matic alarm thermom-
eters and self-light-
ers. About the same
time that the French
vine - growers were
perfecting their
work in frost-preven-
tion, the California
and Florida orange-
growers were also
making experiments
along the same line.
The first successful
attempt to prevent
frost -injury by the
use of heating de-
vices on a large scale
occurred in California
about 1896. Edward
Copely is credited with inventing the wire coal-basket
as well as a machine to make it cheaply. These bas-
kets were filled with kindling and about twenty-five
pounds of coal, twenty-five to thirty baskets being pro-
vided to the acre. They were suspended 'by wires to
limbs of trees. The first use of oil of which there is a
record was by Everett at Arlington, California ; and the
first use of hot water was by Meacham, at Riverside,
California. Later, J. P. Bolton, of the United States
Weather Bureau, stationed at Fresno, California,
devised an oil-pot for use in the vineyards during .the
period of spring frosts.

The occasion for considerable activity in the matter
of frost-fighting at this time was due to a very severe
frost in December, 1895, causing great damage to the
orange and lemon groves in the Riverside section. It
may be said that the beginning of frost-fighting in a
commercial way dates from this time. The Riverside
Horticultural Club in the winter of 1897-98 took
an active interest, and many experiments were con-
ducted, using all sorts of devices for adding moisture to
the air by means of fires of damp straw and stable
manure, evaporation of water by means of evaporating-
pans, sprayers and sprinklers, and by irrigation of the
orchards. Boilers were also used with connecting pipes
whereby steam was generated and carried to the dif-
ferent parts of the orchards. Direct heating of the air
by means of fires was also tried and proved to be the
most successful method of preventing frost-injury.

1586. Method of protecting windward side of an orchard by doubling the
number of orchard-heaters.

The deciduous fruit-growers of the Sacramento
Valley, California, also practised orchard-heating more
or less successfully, adopting the methods employed
by the citrus fruit-growers of the South. It is remark-
able that some of this work did not bear so good
results as it should. Fully ten years passed without
any advance having been made in the methods of
orchard -heating. About 1906, a renewed interest
was taken in the work and since that time orchard-
heating has been given scientific study. Within
the last four or five years the fruit- and vegetable-
growers throughout the United States have taken
much interest in the practice of protecting their
crops from frost-injury, and it has become a recog-
nized part of orchard work in districts in which frosts
regularly occur.

The literature on the subject has now assumed con-
siderable importance since it is the result of scientific
investigation of frost-injury and frost-prevention at

the hands of scientific
men. There are many
important articles
and bulletins on the
subject.

The losses occa-
sioned by frost in the
citrus and deciduous
fruit districts of the
United States often
reach enormous pro-
portions. It has been
impossible to secure
accurate information
as to what the aver-
age annual loss has
been over a period of
years; but it is safe
to say that the loss
would approximate
$10,000,000 a year.
If one takes into con-
sideration the freezes
which occurred in the
citrus belt in Florida
during 1880, 1884,
1886, 1894, and 1895,
where not only the

fruit but the trees themselves were killed, the loss
would average still greater. It is estimated that the
freeze of 1894-95 destroyed 3,000,000 boxes of oranges
in the Florida groves. Although the citrus industry in
California had not yet reached large proportions, the
losses were correspondingly heavy. In January, 1913,
the losses in the southern California citrus district
reached the enormous sum of $50,000,000, all of which
might have been saved by means of the present methods
of frost-prevention. Deciduous fruits have suffered quite
as heavily from frost-injury. Very often almost the
entire crop of fruit throughout the eastern and southern
states is a complete failure. In the middle West,
especially in Colorado, the one great drawback to
fruit-growing has been the danger of damage by frost.
This has also been true of the deciduous fruit districts
of the inter-mountain and Pacific coast states. How-
ever, since the advent of the present methods of pro-
tecting against frost-injury, much security has been
added to deciduous fruit-growing.

The problem of preventing injury to plants from
frost may be classified under the following heads:

1. The prediction of frost, and the issuance of
adequate frost-warnings.

2. The construction and use of devices and appa-
ratus to be used in frost-prevention.

3. The cost of orchard heating.

4. The physics of orchard-heating.

5. The use of electricity in frost-prevention.

1286

FROST

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The prediction of frost and issuance of frost-warnings.

The prediction of frost and issuance of adequate
frost-warnings necessarily belong to the United States
Weather Bureau. It is wholly impossible accurately
to predict frost locally without a knowledge of general
weather conditions over a considerable area. However,
a local observer with a complete knowledge of the
climatology of his district and a knowledge of the air-
currents, humidity, maximum and minimum tempera-
tures, and the like, is capable of making very accurate
forecasts in cooperation with the United States Weather
Service. For careful work, a detailed mapping of the
climatological features of each district should be made.
It is known that temperatures vary greatly within any
district, dependent upon elevation, contour, proximity
to large bodies of water, and so on.

Frosts usually occur during periods of high baro-
metric pressure, following a period of low pressure in
which there has been some precipitation. Under such
conditions the air is very dry and dust-free, producing
conditions favorable to intense radiation, and conse-
quently causing rapid cooling of both plants and soil.

1587. Orchard-heating with fifty coal-heaters to the acre. Each heater
holds from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds of soft coal.

It has been stated more or less empirically that the
temperature of the dew-point is a safe guide in the
local forecasting of frosts, but recent investigations
have shown that it is not dependable when used alone
and in disregard of other important factors, such as the
daily maximum temperature, temperature-curve, wind-
direction, barometer, and condition of the sky. To
this should be added a complete knowledge of general
weather conditions as obtained from the nearest Dis-
trict Weather Bureau Office.

In 1882, Lieutenant (now Brigadier General) James
Allen published a pamphlet entitled "To Foretell Frost
by the Determination of the Dew-point." He said
that if the dew-point is above freezing in the early
evening the minimum temperature next morning will
be above freezing; if the dew-point is below freezing,
the minimum temperature next morning will also be
below freezing. If the prediction of frosts were so
simple, anyone with the aid of the psychrometer, or
wet-and-dry bulb thermometer, might easily make
independent forecasts. However, it has been found
that the dew-point is an aid only when used in com-
bination with a perfect knowledge of the other weather
factors and a knowledge of the climatology of the
district. The dew-point temperature is used in the
Rogue River Valley, Oregon, because it has been found
a very safe guide in combination with the above factors

which were determined by several years of observa-
tion and study. From 1909 to 1913 the average
departure of the minimum temperature of the follow-
ing morning from the previous evening's dew-point
temperature during periods of spring frosts has been
0.10 F. It is possible that every district, by a careful
study of all the factors governing frost conditions, may
be able to predict accurately not only the minimum
temperature that will occur, but also the time when
the firing in the orchards must begin. This is now done
in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon, and has been prac-
tised for several years without a single error.

The several ways of preventing fall in temperature.

In order to prevent the fall in temperature, the fol-
lowing methods have been practised: (1) Direct heat-
ing of the air. (2) Adding water-vapor. (3) Adding
both heat and water-vapor. (4) Ventilation or mixing
the air. (5) Irrigation, or use of water. (6) Use of heated
water and steam. (7) Use of screens or covers to pre-
vent loss of heat by radiation. (8) Spraying with water.
In the discussion of preventing frost-injury, all
the methods excepting that of adding heat
will be omitted, as recent experiments have
shown that direct heating of the stratum of
air in contact with the trees and fruits is the
only practicable way of handling frost-preven-
tion on a large scale. All the other methods
have been given extensive trials, and, while
practicable for small gardens, cannot be used
over large areas on account of the large
amount of labor necessary, and the further
fact that their application cannot be made
general. Direct heating is not only simple,
but is the least costly, and has, therefore,
the advantage of general application.

Methods of direct heating in frost-preven-
tion.— As stated above, it has been demon-
strated beyond question that adding heat
directly to the air through the agency of fires
distributed throughout the orchard is the
most successful and practicable way to handle
the frost problem in commercial orchards.
A multitude of devices and many kinds of
fuel have been experimented with, and it is
now the opinion among growers who have
fought frost that the best heat-producing
material so far demonstrated is crude-
oil or distillate burned in some form of
sheet-iron receptacle or smudge-pot. In the first
place, oils are easy to handle, may be readily stored,
and, compared with other fuels, produce more heat
in proportion to the cost. The cost of handling and
igniting such fuels as coal and wood, together with
the disadvantage of so much bulky material dis-
tributed throughout the orchard which interferes with
cultivation, decidedly places these fuels at a disad-
vantage, excepting in very small tracts. No matter
how remote a fruit district may be from an oil-field,
there is no question but that oil is the best fuel to be
used, especially in large commercial orchards when
the labor problem is one of more than ordinary impor-
tance. There is very much difference in the oils as
secured in different parts of the country. For the
most part, eastern crude-oils have a paraffine base,
while those on the Pacific slope have an asphaltum base.
The crude-oil, or petroleum, as it comes from the wells
is very rich in gases and the lighter oils, such as ben-
zene, gasolene, kerosene, and others, and, therefore, is
not used as such for orchard-heating. The gases and
lighter oils are all removed by fractional distillation,
leaving behind the heavier oils and the asphaltum or
paraffine base, as the case may be. The fuel-oils on the
market are, therefore, residuals, and as such are used
for orchard-heating. A residual oil with a paraffine
base will burn in the common smudge-pot without

FROST

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1287

leaving behind anything but a little soot; but the oils
with an asphaltum base do not. For this reason it is
found necessary to remove the asphaltum base in so
far as is practicable. Asphaltum does not burn readily
in a simple smudge-pot, and, therefore, remains
behind after the lighter oil has burned. Upon cooling,
it becomes very hard, and reduces the capacity of the
pot for future fillings. The best oil for orchard-heating
purposes is one of approximately 20° Beaume test,
considering the matter of cost as an item. A lighter oil
up to 32° Beaume may be used, but being lighter, it
will burn more rapidly and reduce the effective burn-
ing time of the orchard-heater.

The orchard-heater. — During recent years, large num-
bers of types of orchard-heaters have been placed
upon the market. As stated elsewhere in this article,
the first smudge-pot devised for orchard-heating was
the invention of J. P. Bolton, of Fresno, California,
and the object of this invention was to produce a
device which would effect fairly complete combustion.
In fact, the idea in all of the more recent types of
orchard-heaters has been to bring about more perfect
combustion of the fuel-oil and a consequent reduction
in the amount of soot given off. Also, there has been
an effort to increase the burning time of the pot by
increasing the capacity for fuel-oil. This has been
partially effected by several interesting devices, but
the perfect pot producing complete combustion of
fuel-oil has yet to be invented. The so-called soot-
arrester of some types is a misnomer. Very extensive
experiments have been made with all the devices on the
market, and it has been shown that the plain sheet-iron
pot holding approximately five quarts of fuel-oil is
just as effective as the more complicated and expensive
types. This pot is inexpensive, and when made of No.
29 or 26 sheet-iron will cost from 5 to 8 cents. In
using a heater of such small size, the number to the
acre should not be less than 100, and preferably more
in districts in which periods of low temperature con-
tinue more than four or five hours. Owing to the
cheapness of such pots, a very large number may be
used in preference to using a few expensive heaters
of the reservoir type. Many small fires give better
results than a few large ones, as the heat is better dis-
tributed and convectiye air-currents are not produced.
It must be understood that any orchard-heating device
that is in any way complicated by dampers, cocks,
valves, and the like, must be avoided. At best, an
orchard-heater is roughly handled and the more expen-
sive and complicated types would find a very short
existence in actual orchard-heating practice. Further-
more, the matter of storage must be considered. The
simple pot which will nest easily and occupy very little
space will be more desirable. There is no objection to
the high-priced reservoir heater providing it is not
complicated, but the same results may be secured by
the more simple lard-pail type, holding about five
quarts and having a burning time of four and five
hours, depending upon the quality of fuel-oil used.

Equipment for orchard-heating. — The equipment
absolutely necessary for effective orchard-heating con-
sists of the following:

1. Storage reservoir.

2. Distributing wagon tank.

3. Orchard-heaters.

4. Lighters for igniting the fuel-oil.

5. Thermometers.

6. Frost alarm thermometers.

(1) The storage reservoir should be built of con-
crete or steel and should have a capacity sufficient to
provide for at least five fillings of the orchard-heaters —
that is to say, for five frost-periods. Such a reservoir,
if built of concrete, should be constructed in such a
way as to make the walls and floor one continuous
pouring, so as to provide against leakage of oil. Resid-
ual oils have no effect upon the concrete, and all leakage

is due to improper pouring of the cement. A rich cement
mixture should be used. The reservoir should be so
placed that it may be filled and emptied by gravity.
At best, it is expensive to handle oil, and there should
be no pumping. Oil should be secured in tank-car lots,
and, if the proper arrangements are made, all the hand-
ling may be done by gravity. The reservoir should
have an outlet pipe 2J^ to 3 inches in diameter and
supplied with a close-fitting valve. A cover to keep out
dust and rain should also be provided. (2) The supply-
tank should be placed upon a heavy low truck and
should hold between 300 and 400 gallons. It should be
provided either with two heavy gate valves at the
rear or with two lines of hose with valves for the pur-
pose of distributing the oil into the orchard-heaters.
This tank may be the ordinary supply-tank used to
carry spray material. (3) The number of orchard-
heaters to be used to the acre will depend upon a knowl-
edge of the conditions under which they are to be used.
If the simple one-gallon type of heater is used, at least
100 to 120 should be provided to the acre. Besides, a
double row should be placed around the side from which
the prevailing air-movement comes in the periods of
frosts. In fact, it is best to reinforce all sides of the
orchard. After filling the heaters, they should be cov-
ered so as to prevent the entrance of moisture or to
provide against evaporation of the oil. In placing the
heaters, it is best to arrange them somewhere near
the intersections of the diagonals made by the trees;
but any arrangement which will not place a pot directly
under a tree will suffice. (4) Fuel-oil is rather difficult
to ignite, and a small amount of gasolene must be used
so as to provide for quick lighting. The best method
of lighting is to use a machinist's oil-can filled with
gasolene, and a torch made of two pieces of thin iron
pipe. The larger piece is fitted with a screw cap and is
filled with a mixture of kerosene and lard oil. A sec-
tion of small pipe through which is drawn a piece of
waste is then fitted by a reducer to the other end. The
waste is kept saturated with the mixture of lard and
kerosene and when lighted provides a very good torch.
This iron torch is very useful in taking off fids or caps
of heaters when lighting. The machinist's oil-can
filled with gasolene is carried in the left hand and
about two tablespoonfuls are poured on the surface
of the fuel-oil in the pots. The torch is applied and
the gasolene ignites, firing the heavy fuel-oil. A simpler
and lighter torch is easily made by wiring a piece of
waste into a ball and twisting the wire into a handle.
The waste is kept saturated by plunging it into the oil
of the heater, igniting it from the surface flame as it
is removed. (5) A most necessary part of any orchard-
heating equipment is a sufficient supply of fairly accu-
rate thermometers. There should be at least one ther-
mometer to the acre. The thermometers should be
hung with the bulb about 4 to 5 feet from the ground,
depending, of course, upon the relative position of the
fruiting area of the tree. In many orchards the ther-
mometers will be placed higher, in others, lower. All
thermometers should read correctly to within J^°, and
if the correction be greater it should be placed upon a
tag attached to the thermometer. In reading the
thermometers, a pocket electric flashlight is much
better than a lantern. The heat from a lantern will
cause the mercury to rise before it can be read and the
thermometers will, therefore, not give the true atmo-
spheric temperature. The thermometers should be in
the open in order to get the approximate temperature
of the plants to be protected. This temperature is
always slightly lower than the true atmospheric
temperature. Besides the thermometers in the orchard,
other thermometers placed at a safe distance from the
heated area should be provided. A self-registering
thermometer, while not necessary as a part of the
equipment, would be very useful in determining the
actual minimum as well as the rate at which the tern-

1288

FROST

FROST

perature is falling. (6) The frost-alarm thermometer is
a device for sounding an alarm when a certain tempera-
ture is reached. This point is usually a degree or two
above the danger point, and serves the purpose of
giving notice of approaching danger. The thermometer
is placed at a point any distance away and where the
lowest temperatures usually occur. Wires are led from
the thermometer to the house. When the mercury
falls below a certain point, the electric circuit is broken
and a relay causes a bell to ring. If a thermograph is
at hand, the man on duty may easily note by the
character of the temperature curve whether or not it
may be necessary to prepare for lighting the fires. There
are several types of frost-alarm thermometers on the
market, but the simplest and most trustworthy of all
is the one in which the mercuric column breaks an
electric circuit which in turn operates a relay con-
nected with an electric bell.

Besides the above necessary devices for orchard-
heating, there have been invented certain automatic
devices for lighting a large number of pots at the
same time, either
by hand or elec-
trical control. Such
devices are always
complicated, and, dis-
regarding their cost
which is an item of
considerable impor-
tance, they are im-
practical in large
operations. If the
means be electrical or
mechanical, an expen-
sive cartridge must
be used, the cost of
which is greater than
the cost of the labor
for lighting the pots
by hand. Besides, all
automatic devices re-
quire that a large
number of wires be
strung through the
orchard, which would
interfere with other
orchard practice. As

1588. Using wood for orchard heating — fifty fires to the acre.

a rule, the period over which frost-injury may occur
may be a month or six weeks, and during this time
various orchard work must be in progress.

Injurious temperatures. — The temperatures at which
the principal orchard fruits are liable to be injured
cannot be accurately stated, since weather conditions
previous to a freeze determine to a very great extent
the ability of plants to withstand low temperatures.
Not only do the different degrees of cold produce dif-
ferent effects on the same plant, but the same plant
will often behave differently when subjected to the
same degree of cold. It is well known that plants or
parts of plants in active growth are more easily killed
by low temperatures than the same plants or parts of
plants when dormant. Actively growing plants con-
tain large quantities of water; that is to say, the pro-
toplasm or cell-sap is watery, and, as a rule, the larger
the proportion of water contained within the plants
the more likely they are to be injured by low tempera-
tures. Injury to plants is due to changes or disturb-
ances produced in the protoplasm by low temperatures
and, because of the unlike specific characters of dif-
ferent plants, is not always produced in exactly the
same way. Some plants are injured at temperatures
above freezing, while others are injured by the forma-
tion of ice at temperatures which they can withstand if
the formation of ice is prevented. Again, some plants
are not injured if the formation of ice does not progress
too far, while some are resistant to the lowest tempera-

tures. As yet we do not know the nature of the peculi-
arities which determine the different powers of resist-
tance of individual plants or of the same plant at
different stages of growth. It is well known that the
resistance to injury can be increased to a certain extent
by raising the concentration of the cell-sap. Cold, in
itself, acts as a stimulus, inducing an increased produc-
tion of sugar in many plants. The presence of an
increased amount of sugar in a plant acts in such a way
as appreciably to lower the freezing-point While tables
giving injurious temperatures to fruit when in bud,
blossom, and so on, have been prepared, it is safe to say
that these temperatures are not entirely reliable. This
is because conditions are never the same in any frost
period. It may be stated that in the practice of orchard-
heating the safest plan is to keep the temperature just
above the freezing-point no matter what the variety
of fruit. No doubt, this will often be 2° to 3°, or even
more, higher than necessary, but the practice is on the
safe side. In orchard-heating practice the temperature
should never be allowed to go much below the danger

point, as it is usually
difficult to bring it
back without some
chance of injury to
the fruit.

Effect of orchard-
heating on pollination.
— That pollination
and subsequent fertil-
ization of the orchard
fruits is in any way
affected by orchard-
heating is yet to be
proved. It has been
contended by some
that the smoke or
soot incident to the
use of fuel-oil has a
tendency to prevent
the normal activities
of such insects as visit
the blossoms of fruit
trees. However, there
is no proof that the
presence of soot on
the trees has any

effect in keeping insects, especially the honey-bee, away
from the newly opened blossoms. Under normal con-
ditions, the blooms which bees visit open during the
early part of the day and, therefore, only such blossoms
attract them. These blossoms have been closed during
the time when smudging was being done, and, therefore,
the nectaries, pistils and stamens have no soot deposited
upon them. With citrus fruits, soot may have an inju-
rious effect upon the fruit, but it has been found that
such fruit may be freed from soot by a washing process
which does not materially increase the cost of handling.
The cost of orchard-heating. — The cost of orchard-
heating is such a variable quantity that it is almost
impossible to make a general estimate which will be
of any value. Equipment, cost of fuel, length and
number of firing periods, and so on, will vary in differ-
ent localities and seasons. Orchard-heaters will cost
all the way from 6 cents to 50 cents each, and from
fifty to two hundred heaters, depending upon condi-
tions, will have to be used to the acre. The quantity
of oil will vary with the season, and the cost will be
all the way from 1 to 5 or 6 cents a gallon. Usually,
no less than 300 gallons an acre should be provided. At
least one wagon-tank will have to be provided for each
10 acres at a cost of $25. Lighters and torches will
cost from $1 to $2 an acre; thermometers 75 cents to
$1 an acre. The cost of a storage- tank charged to each
acre will depend upon its size, but will not be far from
$10 an acre for large tracts. It is possible to get at the

FROST

FROST

1289

actual cost of fuel-oil to the acre in the following way:
The quantity of fuel-oil necessary to raise the tempera-
ture 5° F. above the surrounding air in an orchard in
full bearing with wide-spreading trees will be approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons an hour to the
acre. This will be true if the air remains calm or does
not move more than 1 or 2 miles an hour. In young
orchards with the fruiting area low, practically double
the quantity of fuel-oil as given will be necessary. The
simple lard-pail type of heater, or, for that matter, any
type of orchard-heater providing a burning area of
about 44 square inches, will burn about one quart of fuel-
oil an hour. Fifty one-gallon heaters will burn approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons of fuel-oil an hour,
and if this oil costs 4 cents a gallon, the cost of an acre-
hour will be about 50 cents when all the pots are burn-
ing. In other words, under the above conditions, it
will cost approximately 1 cent an hour for each heater
used, providing this heater does not have a burning
surface greater than 44 square inches. It will require
less fuel to heat an orchard in the square form than
one of any other shape. The more the orchard-heaters
are massed in the form of a square, the better the
results. In fact, it is almost impossible to protect an
orchard of only a few rows because there is no mass-
ing of the heat generated on account of the lack of
braking effect on air-movement.

The physics of orchard-heating.

By common consent, the one-gallon or ten-pound
lard-pail type of orchard-heater has been made the
standard. This heater has a top diameter of 7J^ inches,
a bottom diameter of 6% inches, and a depth of 8
inches. It has a top burning surface of about 44 square
inches, an average burning surface of 40 square inches,
and under actual field conditions will hold five quarts.
As will readily be seen, the rate of burning fuel-oil
will not remain con-
stant owing to the
form of the pot. Since
the rate of burning
does not remain con-
stant, it is natural to
suppose that a cor-
responding change in
the orchard tempera-
ture-characteristic
takes place. In other
words, the difference
in temperature be-
tween the air outside
the heated area and
that in the heated
area does not remain
constant. The char-
acteristic for any
orchard-heater having
sloping sides will be
approximately the
same as for the standard lard-pail type.

By repeated experiment it has been shown that the
standard lard-pail type heater will burn about two
pounds (two pints) of fuel-oil an hour, providing the
oil is neither too heavy nor too light gravity. A very
simple rule which will determine the burning time of
any fuel-oil in the standard pot is to divide the weight
of a gallon (in pounds) by two. This will give the num-
ber of hours a gallon will burn under actual conditions
in the field.

For any other size heater of the lard-pail type, the
burning time will vary in accordance with the following
law: K=T (DH)2, in which T=the time of burning,
D=the mean of the top and bottom diameters, and
H=the depth, K=a constant. In other words, it has
been found that if the mean diameter times the depth
be squared and multiplied by the burning time (in

1589. Smudging used to prevent frost-injury.

hours) of a unit quantity (one gallon) of fuel-oil, the
product will be the constant for the same fuel-oil
burned under the same conditions, no matter what the
size of the pot may be, providing it is not too much out
of proportion.

The calorific power of fuels. — Analyses of various
fuel-oils on the market have shown that the heating
power averages about 18,000 British thermal units
to the pound. A pound of dry pine wood, or, for that
matter, the best oak wood, if perfectly dry, will generate
about 6,000 B.T.U.'s under perfect combustion; bitu-
minous coal under the same conditions will generate
12,000 B.T.U.'s. It will be seen, therefore, that the
ratio of wood, coal and fuel-oil is about as 1:2:3. A
cord of well-seasoned pine will weigh about 2,000
pounds and that of oak about 4,000 pounds. These
figures are, of course, only approximate, but will serve
as a basis for calculation in case anyone should desire
to use wood or coal for orchard-heating purposes.
Since the calorific power of fuel-oil is about 18,000
B.T.U.'s to the pound, the standard fuel-pot burning
two pounds of fuel-oil an hour will generate 36,000
B.T.U.'s. This is largely theoretical as, owing to the
character of the heater, combustion is by no means
perfect. Nevertheless, the amount of oil, as indicated,
is consumed, and will, therefore, be accounted for on
the basis of complete combustion. By repeated experi-
ment, it has been shown that the quantity of fuel-oil
necessary to raise the temperature 5° F. above the
surrounding air in an orchard in full bearing with the
trees forming a protective covering and the air calm
or moving not more than 1 or 2 miles an hour, is approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons or 100 pounds an
hour to the acre. This quantity of fuel-oil is approxi-
mately the amount which would be burned in one
hour by fifty standard orchard -heaters. In very
young orchards, or with a wind of 10 to 15 miles

an hour, fully two or
three times as much
fuel-oil will be neces-
sary to maintain a
temperature 5° F.
above that of the sur-
rounding air. Under
average orchard con-
ditions, with the trees
in good bearing, the
maximum height at
which the bulk of the
fruit crop is borne is
usually not more than
12 to 15 feet above the
surface of the ground.
In many cases frost-
injury does not occur
above this height, the
cold-air stratum being
relatively thin. Dur-
ing periods of injuri-

ous low temperatures, the atmosphere is very dry and,
therefore, calculations may be based upon the heating
of the air only, since the small amount of water-vapor
present at such times is of little importance. Taking an
acre as the unit area, and assuming that the height to
which the air must be heated to protect the crop is 12
feet, the total weight of the air inclosed within this space
would be 42,000 pounds. As stated above, a pound of
fuel-oil has a thermal capacity of 18,000 B. T. U.'s,
and since it will require 100 pounds of fuel-oil an hour
to the acre to maintain the temperature of the air 5° F.
above the surrounding atmosphere, 1,800,000 B. T.
U.'s or about 700 mechanical horsepower will be
expended an hour to the acre on 42,000 pounds of air.
But 1,800,000 B. T. U.'s would raise the temperature
of 360,000 pounds of water 5° F., and since the specific
heat of air is 0.24, it would raise the temperature of

1290

FROST

FRUIT-GROWING

1,500,000 pounds of air 5° F. However, it is seen that
1,800,000 B. T. U.'s are just capable of maintaining
42,000 pounds of air 5° F. above the surrounding
atmosphere when there is no wind-movement. This
means that even with large trees having the ability of
reflecting back a considerable amount of heat, and with
the soot and smoke acting more or less as a blanket, the
loss by radiation, convection and absorption is enor-
mous. As a matter of fact, irf of the heat generated by
the orchard-heaters is lost, and the efficiency is, there-
fore, less than 3 per cent. Though effective and well
within the financial possibility of application, the
orchard-heater is nevertheless a wasteful appliance.

In the above calculations, the effects of wind-move-
ment have not been taken into consideration. Take
the case of a pot placed in an outside tree row heating
a space 25 feet square and 12 feet high. This space
contains in round numbers 600 pounds of air. The
standard pot will generate 600 B. T. U.'s a minute, or
sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 600 pounds
of air about 4° F. This will be true if there is no wind-
movement and if there is very little radiation of heat.
However, if the air moved only 100 feet a minute, or a
little more than 1 mile an hour, the temperature could
never rise more than 1° above the temperature of the
incoming cold air. At 4 miles an hour it could rise but
34° F. This will be true only in the outside tree rows,
on the side from which the air-movement comes. This
shows why it is often difficult to protect the outside
rows from frost-injury. Naturally, with the orchard in
the form of a square, all the rows beyond the first, on
account of air-movement, would receive a certain
amount of heat from the first row. However, with a
high wind of 18 to 20 miles an hour and a temperature
of 10° F. or more below the danger-point, the problem
of frost-prevention becomes a serious one. The num-
ber of fuel-pots must be three or four times the number
required for ordinary orchard-heating.

The value of smoke. — The discussion so far has con-
sidered mainly the value of fuels from the standpoint
of heating. There is some value in the smoke which is
generated but very much less than there is in the heat.
When it is calm there is little difficulty in maintaining
a heavy smudge with only fifty orchard heaters, or
fires, to the acre, but a very light breeze will quickly
drive it away. Experience has shown that the smudge
is valuable when the temperature drops somewhat
below the danger-point about sunrise. In cases of this
kind, the smoke acts as a screen and prevents the too
sudden warming up or thawing of the frozen fruit.
However, it is unsafe to depend on smudge alone.

The use of electricity in frost-prevention. — During
recent years much thought has been given the matter
of frost-prevention by electrical engineers. However,
let it be said that some other means than that of direct
electrical heating must be employed. If we take the
above figures indicating the amount of heat energy
which must be expended to the acre to raise the tem-
perature 5° F. in an orchard and maintain it above
that of the surrounding atmosphere, we find that this
is equivalent to approximately 700 H. P. of mechanical
energy. In the transmission of electrical energy from
the source of power, there is always a heavy loss, so
that fully 1,000 H. P. of mechanical energy would have
to be generated in order to raise the temperature 5°
F. in an acre of orchard. From this it will be seen that,
although our large electrical power plants are carrying
a very light load during the hours of 1 A.M. to 7 A.M.,
the amount of reserve power would be so small in
comparison with the demands that the largest power
plant would cover but a very small area. Of course,
this consideration takes into account the conversion
of mechanical energy into heat energy. In actual
practice, the electrical heater is so inefficient that it is
wholly beyond the range of possibility for orchard-
heating. The problem of frost-prevention by electrical

methods must be attacked from a different side, either
by the use of high tension discharges or by the use of
large electric fans that will tend to stir the air or pro-
duce a chimney effect so as to carry the cold air
upward. Even the latter will be useless when very
low temperatures are accompanied by high winds.

A simple method of estimating the quantity of fuel
necessary to raise the temperature of the air in an acre
of orchard any number of degrees Fahrenheit under
every condition is as follows : In a full bearing orchard
there are approximately 500,000 cubic feet of air to the
acre which must be heated continuously, it being con-
sidered that the height to which heat must be added
is about 12 feet. By experiment, it has been shown that
it will require about 0.75 to 1.00 B. T. U. to the cubic
foot an hour to maintain the temperature 1° F. above
that of the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, it
will require 375,000 to 500,000 B. T. U.'s an hour, under
average conditions to maintain the temperature of an
acre of orchard 1° F. above that of the surrounding
atmosphere. Since one pound of crude-oil or distillate
contains approximately 18,000 B. T. U.'s, the number
of pounds of fuel-oil required to the acre-hour will be
twenty to twenty-eight pounds. Since a pound of oil
is approximately one pint, the quantity of oil an acre-
hour for 1° F. rise will be two and one-half to three and
one-half gallons. As shown above, the ratio of wood,
coal and oil is about as 1:2:3, wood having 6,000, coal
12,000, and oil 18,000 B. T. U.'s to the pound.

Bibliography. — Some recent publications on frost
protection are: "The Protection of Orchards in the
Pacific Northwest from Spring Frosts by Means of
Fires and Smudges," P. J. O'Gara, Farmer's Bulletin,
No. 401, U. S. Dept. Agric. "The Prevention of Frost
Injury in the Orchards of the Rogue River Valley,
Oregon," P. J. O'Gara, Bulletin No. 5, Office of the
Pathologist and Local United States Weather Bureau
Station, Medford, Oregon. "A comparative Test of Fuel
Oils and Appliances Used in Orchard-Heating to Prevent
Frost Injury," P. J. O'Gara, Bulletin No. 6, Office of the
Pathologist and Local United States Weather Bureau
Station, Medforcl, Oregon. "Forecasting Frosts in the
North Pacific States," E. A. Beals, Bulletin No. 41, U.
S. Weather Bureau. p. j. O'GARA.

FRUIT-GROWING comprises all the knowledge
and practice that are directly concerned in the produ-
cing and handling of fruits. Pomology (literally,
science of fruits) is synonymous with fruit-growing.
There has been an effort to divorce the terms pomology
and fruit-growing, making the former to comprise the
scientific and classificatory subjects and the latter the
practical subjects; but such division is arbitrary and
is opposed to usage. The word "growing" can no longer
be held, when used in such connection, to designate
merely the planting and care of fruit-plants, for all
good practice is necessarily associated with scientific
knowledge and theory. Fruit-growing is a more familiar
and homely term than the Latin-Greek word pomology,
and for that reason it has seemed to some persons to
be less adaptable to the formal presentation of the
knowledge connected with fruits. It is significant,
however, that with the exception of Prince's "Porno-
logical Manual," the fruit books that have done much
to mold public opinion in America have not been known
as pomologies, notwithstanding the fact that the greater
number of them have given great attention to formal
descriptions of varieties. The term pomology is founded
on the Latin pomum, a word that was used generically
for "fruit." In later Latin it came to be associated
more particularly with the apple-like fruits. The word
is preserved to us in the French pomme, meaning
"apple," and in other languages of Latin derivation.
In English we know it as pome, a botanical term used to
designate fruits that have the peculiar morphological
structure of the apple and pear. This use of the term

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

1291

is explained under the article Pyrus, However, the
root of the word pomology is derived from the Latin
ppmurn rather than from the botanical pome.

The limitations of fruit-growing, as art and discussion,
depend on the use of the word "fruit." This word, as
used by the horticulturist, is impossible of definition.
Products that are classed with fruits in one country
may be classed with vegetables in another. To the
horticulturist a fruit is a product that is closely asso-
ciated, in its origin, with the flower. As used in this
country, it is the product of a bush or tree or woody
vine, the most marked exception being the strawberry.
Most fruits may be grouped under three general heads,
— orchard or tree fruits, vine fruits (of which the grape
is the type), and small-fruits or "berries." Of the
orchard fruits, the leading groups are the pome-fruits
(apple, pear), drupe-fruits (peach, plum, cherry), and
the citrus-fruits (orange, lemon) . Of the small-fruits, we
may distinguish the bush-fruits (raspberry, blackberry,
currant, gooseberry, blueberry), cranberry, and the
strawberry. There are many fruits, particularly in the
tropics, that do not fall within these groups. The spe-

1590. A vineyard of American grapes (New York).
Picking-crates are shown in the foreground.

cies of fruits that are fairly well known in North Amer-
Jca are not less than 150, but the important commer-
cial species are not more than forty.

Fruit-growing is the most important and charac-
teristic horticultural interest of North America. It is
of high excellence as measured by commercial stand-
ards, quantity of product, and the quickness with which
scientific theory and discovery are applied to it. Most
remarkable examples of the quick assimilation and
application of theoretical teachings are afforded by the
readiness with which fruit-growers within recent years
have adopted the ideas associated with tillage, spray-
ing, pollination, fertilizing, pruning, inter-planting,
and the modifications in conditions of marketing. Yet,
great as have been the advances, progress has only
begun; and in the precise and painstaking application
of the best teaching the American fruit-grower has
much to acquire.

The American ideals in fruit-growing are quite
unlike the European. The American aims at uniform-
ity over large areas. The European gives more atten-
tion to special practices, particularly in training of
fruit trees. This is well illustrated in American nur-
series as contrasted with European nurseries (see
Nursery). The American merely prunes his fruit
trees in the nursery: he does not train them. The
American is likely to give most attention to the fruit
by the bushel or by the barrel; the European is likely
to consider his fruits singly or in small numbers, and
often to sell them by the piece or by the dozen.

In many parts of North America, the extension of

fruit-growing is the most radical change of base tak-
ing place in farming operations. This growth of the
fruit business is possible because the consumption of
fruit is increasing, the facilities for transportation have
been improved, scientific discovery has insured the
production of good crops, and also because many other
kinds of farming have been relatively unprofitable.

While the phenomenal development of American
fruit-growing has been due in great measure to climatic
and economic conditions, it also has been hastened by
book writings. More than fifty authors have contribu-
ted books of greater or less size, either on the general
subject or on special fruits, beginning with Coxe's
"View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees" in 1817, and
followed by Thacher's "American Orchardist" in 1822.
These pioneer writings gave much of their space to
orchard management, with little mere compilation of
descriptions of varieties. Subsequent volumes, for
nearly fifty years, were in large part compilations and
collations of accounts of varieties. To this latter class
belong the works of Prince, Kenrick, Downing, Thomas,
Warder. It is only in the present time that we have
come to treat the subject fundamentally, by giving the
weight of discussion to principles of orchard manage-
ment. (For lists of books, see the article Literature.)
In recent years, the bulletins of the United States
Department of Agriculture and of the many experiment
stations, and the extensive discussion in the rural press,
have greatly spread the knowledge of fruit-growing
and have undoubtedly stimulated its practice.

The sources of American fruits — of the species and
races that are cultivated on this continent — are chiefly
four: (1) Original or early importations of western
Asian and European fruits; (2) oriental types, from
the China-Japanese region ; (3) the introduction within
fifty years of fruits from the Russian region; (4) the
development of native species. In the first group are
included the prevailing types of apples, pears, quinces,
cherries, domestica plums, olives, currants, some of the
gooseberries. In the second group are citrous fruits,
peaches, apricots, Japanese plums, kaki, and others,
many of them having come to us by way of Europe.
In the third class — the Russian fruits — are types of
orchard fruits of such recent introduction that we have
only recently ceased disputing violently about their
merits and demerits; therefore a special review of the
subject is given at the close of this article. The fourth
class — the native fruits — includes the grapes of the
eastern states, blackberries, dewberries, raspberries,
many gooseberries, stra,wberries (of Chilean origin),
many plums, cranberries, blueberries, and a few
apples.

Recently, there has been much interest in fruit-
growing on the part of persons who desire to establish
themselves on the land. The attractiveness of fruit
appeals to them, and they think that the raising of it
is not laborious and that the business is adaptable to
beginners. This is one expression of amateurism. Fruit-
growing entails continuous, active and often hard, dis-
agreeable labor, and, in the case of most orchard fruits,
it requires long waiting for perfect results. The busi-
ness demands much special knowledge, quick action,
and first-rate salesmanship. The competition is sharp.
Persons should enter the business with caution, and
only with a full comprehension of the elements of
failure and success. The business has additional risk
when one must leave the property to be managed and
cared for by hired labor. Usually, the most profitable
results are secured when part of the farm is devoted to
other products than fruit, for one is then able to employ
help and equipment more advantageously, to raise
produce for the teams and other live-stock, and to have
secondary sources of revenue.

In North America, it is chiefly the commercial large-
area fruit-growing that is most highly developed. The
amateur phase, — for fancy and for home use, — was

1292

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

once relatively more important, as explained in a sub-
sequent paragraph. The "fruit garden" is now little
seen. It is very desirable, however, that the growing
of the choicest fruits in the most painstaking personal
way shall be encouraged amongst us; and with the
further development of the country this will take place
if writers do not overlook the subject.

In Canada, the total yields of fruits for thirty years
have been as follows, in quantities (Canada Yearbook,
1910):

Canada

1871

1881

1891

1901

Apples (bushels) .
Peaches (bus. ) . . .

6,365,315

13,377,655

7,519,913
43,63?

18,626,186
545,415

229,240

531,837

Plums (bushels) .

266,350

. 557,875

Cherries (bus. ). . .

192,369

336,751

Other fruits (bus. ).
Grapes (pounds).
Small-fruits (qts.)

358,963
1,126,402

841,219
3,896,508

320,641
12,252,331

70,396
24,302,634
21,707,791

The exports of fruits from Canada to all countries
has been as follows :

1906

1908

1909

1910

Apples, green or
ripe (barrels) . .
Apples, dried (Ibs)

1,217,564
3,651,260

1,629,130
6,939,088

1,092,066
4,973,562

1,604,477
8,186,984

Of the green apples, the most part went to Great
Britain, but the dried fruit went largely to other
countries than Great Britain or the United States.
Ontario was far in the lead of any other province in
fruit-production in 1901, in grapes, small-fruits and
apples exceeding all the other provinces combined.

In the United States, the value of fruits (including
small-fruits or berries) and nuts produced in 1909 (as
reported in the thirteenth census) amounted to $222,-
024,000, or 4 per cent of the total value of farm crops.
The value reported for 1899 was $133,049,000, the
increase for the decade amounting to 66.9 per cent.
While it is impossible to reduce the quantity of the prod-
uct to a single total, the statistics for individual
classes show that in general the value increased by a
much larger percentage than the production. Of the
total value in 1909 of fruits and nuts, $140,867,000
was contributed by orchard fruits, $29,974,000 by
small-fruits, $22,711,000 by citrous-fruits, $22,028,000
by grapes, $4,448,000 by nuts, and $1,995,000 by tropi-
cal and sub-tropical fruits (other than citrous). In
both acreage and quantities, strawberries far exceeded
any other class of small-fruits; similarly, apples are far
in excess of any other orchard fruit; oranges far exceed
in value all other citrous-fruits taken together. In
nuts, the production in pounds in 1909 was, Persian
or English walnuts 22,026,524; black walnuts 15,628.-
776; pecans, 9,890,769; almonds, 6,793,539; unclassified,
7,988,402. The values of fruits and nuts in 1909, by
states, are displayed in Fig. 1593.

The progress in fruit-growing.

The development of American fruit-growing is well
illustrated in the radical change of ideals within recent
time. These new points of view may be arranged con-
veniently under seven general heads:

(1) The most important shift is the fact that there
is a horticultural industry as distinguished from a
general agricultural industry. At the opening of the
nineteenth century American agriculture was more or
less homogeneous, largely because the extent of it was
limited and because there was little demand for other
than the few staple commodities. The horticulture of

that time was confined chiefly to a small area about the
homestead. A few vegetables, flowers and fruits in a
small plantation, with here and there a single green-
house, represented the horticultural effort of the time.
At the present day we conceive of great geographical
areas as horticultural regions. Persons now buy farms
with the explicit purpose of devoting them to the pro-
duction of fruits or other horticultural products. Even
sixty years ago horticulture was largely an amateur's
avocation, but today it is one of the leading commer-
cial occupations of the country, and the most important
single factor in it is fruit-growing. With this rise of the
horticultural industries came a demand for new knowl-
edge on a host of subjects which were unheard of even
as late as a half-century ago. The contemporary prog-

1591. Young plum orchard, showing clean tillage and high-
heading.

Some growers head-in vigorous young trees like the above;
others prefer to let them take their natural course, keeping the
heads open rather than thick and close. Neither method is best
under all circumstances.

ress in pomology is largely a breaking away from the
old ideals. Practices that were good enough for amateur
purposes, or for the incidental and accidental fruit-
growing of our fathers, may be wholly inadequate to the
new-time conditions.

A century ago there was practically no commercial
orcharding. The apple was grown somewhat extensively
in many parts of the country, particularly in New Eng-
land, but it was used chiefly for the making of cider.
Small-fruit growing, as a business, had not developed.
In fact, commercial strawberry-growing (the most
readily developed of the fruit-growing industries) may
be said to have begun with the introduction of the
Hovey in 1836, although previously there were market
plantations of small extent about some of the larger
towns. The commercial culture of blackberries and
raspberries, although it began about the middle of the
century, did not acquire distinct importance until
after the reaction from the Civil War. The fruit-grow-
ing industries now constitute a distinct branch or
department of our agricultural condition, in the newer
regions as well as in the old. In fact, great areas of
virgin lands are now put at once into orchards.

(2) With the rise of commercial fruit-growing, there
have developed novel questions related to market-
ing. The new marketing revolves about three centers:
(a) The necessity for special products for special uses,
(6) the growing demand for small packages, and (c) the
remarkable development of transportation facilities and
of pre-cooh'ng, handling, and storage. There has arisen
an increased desire for special grades and for particular
kinds of fruit. The fruits that were current fifty years
ago may not be good enough for the markets of today.
Commercial fruit-growing rests on the fact that more
persons are consuming fruits. Many of these persons
buy only in small lots for present consumption. They
go to the market often. They have no facilities for
storing the fruit, and they do not buy for the purpose
of selling. Therefore, the small package has come to
be increasingly more important. There has been a

FRUIT-GROWING

1293

widespread demand for a package that can be given
away with the fruit. This demand for the small and
individual package may be expected to increase with
all the better kinds of fruits or with those that appeal
to the personal customer. This is true in all lines of
trade. Not so long ago, boots and shoes were distributed
in large board cases, but now each pair is sold in a neat
cardboard box. We are still conservative in respect
to the handling of apples in barrels. In the general
trade and for the staple varieties of apples, the barrel
may continue to be the best package, but for the per-
sonal customer and particularly with all the finer or
dessert varieties, a small package must come into use.
In most parts of the world, except in the central and
eastern part of the United States, apples are not
handled in barrels. The fact that the grower must
give attention to his package as well as to the growing
of his crop, forces him to adopt a new point of view
in his fruit-growing and to visualize his market or
even his customer.

(3) Modern commercial orcharding has developed
the tillage ideal. Under the old regime, the tree was
able to take care of itself and to bear a product good
enough to meet the uncritical demands. Nowadays,
however, the tree must receive the very best of care,
for annual crops of great quantity and of the best
quality are desired. Therefore, the plant must be sup-
plied with abundance of plant-food and moisture.
Time was when it was thought that the mere appli-
cation of chemical plant-food to the soil would be
sufficient to make a plant productive. It is now under-
stood, however, that plant-food is only one of the
requisites of good growth. The soil must be deep and
loose and fine, so that it will hold moisture and pro-
mote all those chemical and biological activities that
make the land to be productive. In former times the
best attention in tillage was given to the annual crops.
The orchard was usually in neglect. This was because
the fruit plantation had small commercial importance.
Now that the fruit plantation has risen to first impor-

tance, in many cases, it must be given as good care as
any farm crop. In recent years there has been great
development of special tools and implements for the
tillage of orchard lands. Greater attention is given to
the original preparation of the land, so that planters
no longer ask how large the hole must be to receive a
tree, but accept Warder's advice that the hole should
be as large as the orchard. The philosophy of orchard
tillage, as understood by the best teachers and for
most parts of the country, is (a) to prepare the land
thoroughly at the outset, (6) to give frequent light
surface tillage in the early part of the season or until
the crop is nearly or quite grown, and then (c) to
cover the land with some crop that will remain on the
ground over winter and be plowed under in spring. If
the land has been well prepared, it is not necessary to
plow it deep after the first two or three years, unless
one is turning under a heavy cover-crop. The surface
tilth may be secured by breaking the top-soil early in
spring with a cutaway harrow, gang-plow or other
surface-working tools. This may not be possible, how-
ever, on very heavy lands. The cover-crop adds
humus and protects the land from puddling and bak-
ing in the winter. If it is a leguminous crop it also
adds a store of available nitrogen. It is possible, per-
haps, to use cover-crops so freely that the land be-
comes too full of vegetable matter, but all such dangers
are easily avoidable. Usually the cover-crop is plowed
under in spring at the very earliest opportunity in
order to save the soil moisture. It is by no means the
universal practice to use cover-crops on fruit lands, but
the practice is now accepted, and the grower may
adopt it or not as his judgment dictates.

To facilitate the economical and efficient tillage of
fruit lands, it is coming to be the practice to devote
the land wholly to the fruits. The fertility of the land
is not permanently divided between trees and hay, or
trees and other crops. With plums and pears and some
other orchard fruits, it is often allowable to use the
intermediate land for the first two or three years
for annual crops, but these crops should grad-
ually diminish and every caution should be
taken that they do not interfere with the care
of the trees. Apple orchards, when the spaces
are 40 feet apart, may be cropped for six or
eight years without injury, providing good tillage
and other efficient treatment are given. One

iii

1592. Peach-growing on a large scale in Georgia; also a scene at a shipping-station in the North, showing fruit in small gift packages

1294

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

reason for allowing orchards to stand in sod in the old
times was the difficulty in plowing beneath full-grown
trees. Those persons who desired to plow and till
their orchards, therefore, advocated very high pruning.
The difficulty with these old orchards was the fact that
the land was allowed to run into dense sod. Heavy
plowing in an old orchard indicates that the plantation
has been neglected in previous years. Orchards that
have been well tilled from the first do not require much
laborious tillage, and the roots are low enough to escape
tillage tools. There has been a development of tillage
tools which will do the work without necessity of prun-
ing the tops very high. The practice of tilling orchards
has increased rapidly. At first it was advised by a few
growers and teachers, but the movement is now so
well established that it will take care of itself, and in
the commercial orchards the man who does not till
his orchard is the one who needs to explain. On the
Pacific coast, the importance of tillage is universally
recognized because of the dry summer climate. The
necessity of tilling orchards has forced a new ideal on
the pomologist; and when he goes to the expense of
tilling he feels the necessity of giving sufficient care in
other directions to insure profitable returns from his
plantation. It is true, to be sure, that orchards some-
times thrive under sod treatment, but these are special
cases.

Of the same purpose with tillage is irrigation, — the
purpose to fit the land for its work. Great fruit regions
in the western half of the continent are on an irrigation
basis and a special literature on fruit-raising under
such conditions is now appearing. This irrigation

that trees will bear without pruning. This, therefore,
puts a premium on neglect. The old practice allowed
the tree to grow at will for three or four years and to
become so full of brush that the fruit could not be well
harvested, and then the top was pruned violently.
The tree was set into redundant growth and was filled
with water-sprouts. This tended also to set the tree
into wood-bearing rather than into fruit-bearing. By
the time the tree had again begun fruit-bearing, the
orchardist went at it with ax and saw and a good
part of the top was taken away. It is now under-
stood that the ideal pruning is that which prunes
a little every year and keeps the tree in a uni-
formly healthy and productive condition. The prun-
ing of trees has now come to be a distinct purpose,
and this ideal must gain in definiteness and precision
so long as fruit trees are grown. The practice pro-
ceeds on established principles, and is not of the nature
of discipline.

(5) Now that there is demand for the very best prod-
ucts, it is increasingly important that fruits be thinned.
The thinning allows the remaining fruits to grow larger
and better, it saves the vitality of the tree, and it
gives the orchardist an opportunity to remove the
diseased specimens and thereby to contribute something
toward checking the spread of insects and fungi. Thin-
ning is exceedingly important in all fruits that are
essentially luxuries, as peaches, apricots and pears. It
is coming also to be important for apples and for others
of the cheaper fruits. In the thinning of fruits, there
are two rules to be kept in mind: (a) Remove the
injured, imperfect or diseased specimens; (6) remove

• $1,000,000

9 1760,000 to $1,000,000

O $500,000 to $750,000

O $250,000 to $500,000

O Less than $250,000

The heavy lines (— ) show geographic divisions.

1593. Value of fruits and nuts in the United States in 1909, as displayed by the census.

practice for fruit is another expression of the idea that
in the future nothing is to be left to chance so far as it
is within the power of the grower to prevent it. For
certain intensive fruit-culture, particularly of berries,
special irrigation practices are appearing in the East,
and often they make the difference between failure
and success.

(4) As competition increases, it is necessary to give
better attention to pruning. It is unfortunately true

sufficient fruit so that the remaining specimens stand
at a given distance from each other. How far apart
the fruit shall be, depends on many conditions. With
peaches it is a good rule not to allow them to hang
closer than 4 or 5 inches (sometimes 7 or 8 inches),
and in years of heavy crops they may be thinned more
than this. This extent of thinning often removes
two-thirds of the fruits. It nearly always gives a larger
bulk of fruit, which brings a higher price. Thinning is

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

1295

usually performed very early in the season, before the
vitality of the tree has been taxed, and after the normal
"drop" from non-pollination has occurred.

(6) Spraying of fruit plantations has now come to be
a definite purpose and an established orchard practice;
no good orchardist is now without his spraying appa-

that considers characters of flowers as well as of fruits,
but such schemes are usually impracticable because
fruit-growers cannot secure flowers and fruits at the
same time. For examples of classificatory schemes
the reader may consult the various fruit manuals, but
the following examples from the older literature will

^** •

1594. Various spraying rigs. 1. A tall platform rig, to enable one to spray very high trees. 2. A simple barrel outfit for small
orchards and small trees. 3. Compressed air outfit. 4. A low rig, with barrel. For larger machines, and other patterns, see pages
1058-1060 (Vol. H).

show something of the range and method connected
with the problem:

John J. Thomas' scheme for classifying peaches:

Division I. FREESTONES or MELTERS.
Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored.

Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves crenate, with globose glands.

Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class II. Flesh deep yellow.

Section 1. Leaves crenated, with globose glands.

Section 2. Leaves with reniform glands.
Division II. CLINGSTONES or PAVIES.
Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored.

Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves crenate, with globose glands.

Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class II. Flesh deep yellow.

Section 1. Leaves serrate, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class III. Flesh purplish crimson.

Section 1. Glands reniform.

ratus any more than he is without his tillage tools.
When spraying was first advised, the practice seemed
to be so revolutionary that great emphasis had to be
laid on its importance to induce people to undertake
it. How and when to spray and what materials to use
are matters that will always be discussed, because the
practices must vary with the season, the kind of fruit,
the geographical region, the insects and fungi to be
combated. Spraying may not be necessary every year,
and certainly not equally necessary in all geographical
regions; but the fact that spraying is necessary as a
general orchard practice is now completely established.
A proof of the firm hold that spraying has taken of the
fruit-growing business is afforded by the great numbers
and the mechanical excellence of the machinery and
devices now on the market; and this fact also attests
the vitality of fruit-growing as an occupation. A special
literature has developed on fruit diseases and fruit
insects and the means of combating them, and the
grower must keep fully informed by means of the
government, state and provincial publications.

(7) Perhaps the most gratifying modern develop-
ment in fruit-growing is the demand for instruction in
fundamental principles, or in the reasons why. Years
ago, the grower was satisfied if he had definite direc-
tions as to how to perform certain labor. He was told
what to do. At present, the pomologist wants to be
told what to think. There seems to be a tendency in
horticultural meetings to drop the discussion of the
mere details of practice and to give increasingly more
attention to the underlying reasons and the results that
are to be expected from any line of practice. Knowing
why a practice should be undertaken and what the
results are likely to be, the grower can work out the
details for himself, for every fruit plantation and every
farm is, in a certain way, a law unto itself. There must
be a rational procedure; the details and the applica-
tions are complex: therefore the fruit-growing sub-
jects become effective means of education.

Systematic pomology.

The classifying and describing of the kinds of fruits
is a particular kind of pomological knowledge that is
left to specialists, who are for the most part writers.
With the increase in numbers of varieties, it becomes
increasingly more important that the most careful
attention be given to describing them and to assem-
bling them into their natural groups in order that
similar kinds may be compared and also that it may
be possible to determine the name by analyzing the
specimen. Necessarily, all classificatory schemes for
varieties are imperfect since the varieties often differ
by very slight characters, and these characters may
vary in different regions and under varying conditions.
Theoretically, the most perfect classification is one

Following is John A. Warder's scheme for classifying
apples, adopted "after a long and careful consideration
and study of this subject." See Figs. 1595, 1596.

Class I. Oblate or flat, having the axis shorter than the trans-
verse diameter.
Order I. Regular.
Order II. Irregular.
Section 1. Sweet.
Section 2. Sour.

Subsection 1. Pale or blushed, more or less, but self-
colored and not striped.
Subsection 2. Striped or splashed.
Subsection 3. Russeted.

Class II. Conical, tapering decidedly toward the eye, and be-
coming ovate when larger in the middle and tapering to
each end, the axial diameter being the shorter.
Orders I and II, as above.
Sections 1 and 2. as above.

Subsections 1, 2 and 3, as above.

Class III. Round, globular or nearly so, having the axial and
transverse diameters about equal, the former often shorter
by less than one-quarter of the latter. The ends are often
so flattened as to look truncated, when the fruit appears
to be cylindrical or globular-oblate.
Orders, Sections and Subsections as above.

Class IV. Oblong, in which the axis is longer than the trans-
verse diameter, or appears so. These may also be trun-
cate or cylindrical.
Orders, Sections and Subsections as above.

Robert Hogg's classification of 'pears ("Fruit Man-
ual," 5th ed., London) :

A. The length from the base of the 'stalk to the base of the cells

greater than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk of the base of the

eye equal to the lateral diameter.

B. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells

less than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye equal to the lateral diameter.

1296

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

c. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells equal

to that from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of

the eye equal to the lateral diameter.

A stable and attractive systematic pomology must
give careful attention to the names of varieties. In
North America much has been done, particularly under
the auspices of the American Pomological Society, to

1595. The forms of fruits, showing, respectively, spherical, conical,
ovate, oblong and oblate forms.

usually apple-form. In Fig. 1596 are shown special
parts of the fruit : basin, the depression at the apex, in
which is the calyx or eye; cavity, the depression at the
base, in which is the stem or stalk; suture, or the
groove on the side of plums and other fruits ; corrugated or
furrowed sides. The outline shape of an apple or pear is
best seen by cutting the fruit in halves lengthwise; the
flat side may then be used to print the form on paper.
If descriptions are to be accurate and comparable,
they should characterize all the leading or designative
attributes of the fruit, and to a less extent of the
plant as a whole. Many per-
sons who are called on to des-
cribe varieties have adopted
"forms" or regular outlines, in
order that all characterizations
in any one fruit shall be com-
parable. The following forms,
adopted by the late John Craig,
illustrate the points that a good
description should cover:

simplify and codify the ideas associated with the
nomenclature of fruits. The current rules or code of
nomenclature of the American Pomological Society are
as follows:

Priority.

Rule 1. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the
same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the
accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been
applied in violation of this code.

(a) The term "kind," as herein used, shall be understood to
apply to those general classes of fruits which are grouped together
in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relation-
ship; as, apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc.

(6) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or intro-
ducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this
code, is recognized and emphasized.

(c) Where a variety name through long usage has become
thoroughly established in American pomological literature for two
or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified
for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be
advanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties
bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding the
name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding
some other suitable distinguishing term that will insure their
identity in catalogues or discussions.

(d) Existing American names of varieties which conflict with
earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but
which have become thoroughly established through long usage,
shall not be displaced.

Form of names.

Rule 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single
word, whenever possible, or compatible with the most efficient ser-
vice to pomology. Under no circumstances shall more than two
words be used. When the exigencies of a case make it appear expedi-
ent, such words as early, late, white, red, and similar ones may be
used as a part of a name.

(a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to exist-
ing varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has
been determined to perpetuate it by bud-propagation.

(6) In selecting names for varieties the following points shou'd be
emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and
spelling, indication of origin or parentage.

(c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived
from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the
rules that control the spelling and pronunication of the name from
which it was derived.

There are relatively few special technical terms used
in the descriptions of pomological fruits. The greater
part of them pertain to the pome fruits. The diagrams
(Figs. 1595, 1596) illustrate some of
these terms: Spherical, nearly or quite
globular, the two diameters being approx-
imately equal ; conical, longitudinal
diameter equaling or exceeding the trans-
verse diameter, and the shoulders or
apex somewhat narrowed; ovate, broad-
conical, the base more rounded; oblong,
longitudinal diameter distinctly the
longer, but the fruit not tapering; oblate,
distinctly flattened on the ends. In the
true Japanese or sand pears, the fruit is

Name ,

form size. . . .

cavity stem . . .

suture apex. . .

skin >color. . .

flesh juice. . .

stone quality.

flavor season .

TREE

GENERAL NOTES...

Specimens received from Described by Date

CHERRY... ...Group.

Name

size form . . .

color skin

cavity stem. . .

basin calyx. . .

flesh quality.

texture core. . . .

seed ...

TREE

GENERAL NOTES. .

Specimens received from Described by Date

APPLE. . .

1596. Illustrating special terms used in describing fruits, showing, respectively,
basin, cavity, suture, corrugation.

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

1297

At present, the scoring or judging by points is a
favorite exercise in classroom and at exhibitions. The
score-card with points or attributes totaling 100
indicates the perfect fruit: the judge puts against the
perfect score such percentage of perfection as he thinks
the specimen in hand may deserve. This judgment
of course varies with the person, as the marks are not
mathematical; but experienced judges make very simi-
lar or uniform returns on given specimens.

Following are examples of score-cards:

SCALE OF POINTS FOB JUDGING FRUITS.
Established by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.

No. of points Score

Quality 20

Form 15

Color 15

Size 10

Uniformity in size 20

Freedom from imperfections 20

CALIFORNIA SCORE-CARD FOR ORANGES.

Size

Form

Color (bloom, 2; peel, 10; flesh, 3)

Weight

Peel (finish, 3; protective quality, 7)

Fiber

Grain

Seed

Taste

Perfection 100

SCORE-CARD FOR A COMMERCIAL VARIETY OF APPLE.
From "Productive Orcharding," by F. C. Sears.

Tree

General
market
40

1. Heavy bearer

20

2. Early bearer

10

3. Health and vigor. . .

10

Fruit

60

4. Fair size

10

5. Good color

20

6. Good quality

12

7. Keeps well

10

8. Ships well...

8

Totals 100 100

SCORE-CARD FOR APPLES.
F. A. Waugh.

100

Form

Size 10

Color 15

Uniformity 20

Quality 20

Freedom from blemishes '.'. 20

Total 100

SCORE-CARD FOR PEACHES.
F. A. Waugh.

Form 15

Size 10

Color ......,,,.!! 15

Uniformity 20

Quality " 20

Freedom from blemishes 20

Total 100

ONTARIO SCORE-CARD FOR GRAPES.

Value of points Score

Flavor 30

Form of bunch 10

Size of bunch 15 ......

Size of berry 15

Color .' jo

Firmness 5

Bloom ..'..'.'.'. 5

Freedom from blemishes '. 10

Perfection 100

SCORE-CARD FOR STRAWBERRIES.

J. R. Reasoner, 111. Scale of

points.

Rootage 5

Stock and foliage ............'. '. 5

Vitality, drought-proof 7

Plant-maker ! 10

Healthfulnesa, rust-proof ........../...... 5

Blossoms 5

Staminate.

Pistillate.

Productiveness 25

I"6 10

fehape 5

Color 5

Flavor 8

Firmness, shipping quality . 10

10
5
15
10
10
8
4
8
30

Total .............................................. 100

L. H. B.

Russian fruits.

The Russian apples and their close relatives, the
Siberian crabs and their hybrids, constitute the har-
diest types of pomaceous fruits in cultivation. It was
the demand for hardy varieties for the northwestern
states and Canada that led to their introduction.

There are four varieties of Russian apples that may
be looked on as American pioneers; these are Alexander,
Tetofsky, Duchess (Borovitsky) and Red Astrachan.
These varieties were imported by the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society from the London (England)

Total .

83

.100

1597. Longfield, one of the Russian apples. ( X M)

Horticultural Society about 1835. They were brought
to England from Russia in the early part of the last
century by the executive of the latter society. Dr. Hogg
is authority for the statement that Alexander was
cultivated for 50 years in England prior to 1808. Robert
Manning, superintendent of the test garden of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society at Salem, de-
scribed these varieties from home-grown American
specimens in 1839. Their productiveness and the
handsome appearance of the fruit attracted attention.
Through the efforts of Warder and other western
pomologists they were rapidly distributed throughout
Ohio, Wisconsin and Minnesota. It would appear that
in the last half- or three-fourths-century — which prac-
tically covers the pomological history of the West — the
periodicity of "hard" or "test" winters has been more
or less regular. When the normal or "mild" winter
obtains, the apples of the New England states or their
descendants do not, as a rule, suffer injury except in the
colder parts of Minnesota. These mild winters have fol-
lowed each other with delusive regularity for periods of
ten, fifteen or eighteen years. Under these conditions,
fruit-growers have been prone to efface from their memo-
ries the effects of the last "test winter" and have planted
freely of the American type. With this type have been
usually mingled Alexander, Oldenburg and Red Astra-
chan. It has been invariably noted that after the visita-
tion of an exceptionally cold winter varieties of the
Oldenburg or Alexander types were usually unharmed,
while Greening, Janet, and Baldwin were killed. "Test
winters" — the name has more or less local adaptation

1298

FRUIT-GROWING

FRUIT-GROWING

in the West — visited the northwestern states in 1855-6,
1872-3, 1885-6, and also in 1898-9. Thus it is that
Oldenburg (Duchess) has become a standard of hardi-
ness among apples in the colder parts of the United
States and Canada. Importations of cions were made
by nurserymen and fruit-growers between 1867 and
1875, but the main introduction was made by the
United States Department of Agriculture in 1870 at
the urgent request of the State Agricultural Society of
Minnesota, which began the agitation as early as 1867.
This importation consisted of young trees secured
through the cooperation of Edward Regel, director of
the Imperial Botanic Gardens at St. Petersburg. The
trees were planted on the grounds of the Agricultural
Department at Washington. The collection consisted
of about 300 varieties. They were taken charge of by
William Saunders, superintendent of gardens and
grounds. All available cions were cut and distributed
annually for five years. They attracted considerable
attention in the colder apple-growing regions. Subse-
quent importations of cions and trees were made by the
Iowa Agricultural College between 1875 and 1880.
In 1882 Charles Gibb, of Abbotsford, Canada, accom-
panied by J. L. Budd, of the Iowa Agricultural College,
went to Russia and spent the summer in investigating
these fruits. Large importations of apples, plums,
pears and cherries followed. In these later importa-
tions the east-European fruits were collected without
discrimination, and in most instances have been
erroneously regarded in this country as authentic
Russians.

Russian apples: characteristics and nomenclature.

It is now very difficult to say which are Russian
apples, which German, Polish or Swedish. If we
were to choose the Astrachan variety as a type of the
Russian apple, which in all probability would be a
correct basis, only a comparatively small number of
varieties could be grouped about it. But this is only
one of the several apparently authentic groups which
might be erected upon certain characteristics of tree.
In addition to Astrachan might be cited (1) Hibernal
type: trees vigorous growers, with open spreading tops,
and very large, leathery leaves. (2) Oldenburg type:
moderate growers, with compact, round-topped heads;
leaves of medium size. (3) Longfield type: slow growers;
branches horizontal or pendulous; leaves whitish and
woolly underneath. The Longfield apple, one of the
best known of the Russians, is shown in Fig. 1597.
(4) Transparent and Tetofsky type: trees pyram-
idal; bark yellow; spurs numerous; leaves large, light
green. (5) Anis type: trees upright, spreading or vase-
shaped; leaves medium, veins reddish. It would seem
reasonable to suppose that the Anis family was derived
from the Astrachan type. The flesh of the fruit of the
various types is very similar.

These represent the principal types of Russian apples.
The fruit they bear in the prairie climate matures in
the summer, autumn or early winter. It does not
appear that any of the especially hardy varieties of
undoubted north or east Russia origin are winter kinds
when grown in the Mississippi Valley. Such late-keep-
ing kinds as give promise of commercial value appear
to have originated in the Baltic provinces or to have
been transported at an early date from .the countries to
the west. These types — the Synaps for instance — have
characteristically small leaves, slender twigs, and are
less hardy than members of the groups cited above.

The "bloom," or glaucous covering, of the Russian
apple is characteristic. It does not persist to the same
extent, however under all climatic conditions. In east-
ern Quebec it fails to develop to the same extent that it
does under the drier atmospheric conditions of the east-
ern states. As additional proof that this pruinose bloom
is an immediate climatic effect, one has but to com-
pare the Colorado Spy with that grown in New York.

The smooth, thin skin and abundant bloom of the Colo-
rado apple is characteristic in a greater or less degree
of all varieties produced in the dry regions adjacent
to the Rockies, as it is of the Russian apples in the
more arid portions of that country.

The names of Russian apples are much confused.
There is no pomological society in Russia to assist the

1598. Vladimir, one of the typical Russian cherries. The fruit is
somewhat tapering to the stem. ( X 2i)

fruit-grower in eliminating synonyms; on the other
hand, the factors conducive to confusion are strongly
in evidence. These are illiteracy on the part of the
grower and the practice of propagating fruit trees from
the seed instead of by grafting. Gibb says "nomencla-
ture in Russia is hopelessly confused. Different names
are given to the same apples in different localities, the
same name to different apples growing in adjacent
districts."

Fruit-growers of the West, realizing that Americans
should have a uniform system, at least in the nomen-
clature of these varieties, called a meeting made up of
interested representatives of the fruit-growers' asso-
ciations of South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa and Wis-
consin. These delegates, collectively styled the "Rus-
sian Apple Nomenclature Commission," met at La
Crosse, Wisconsin, August 30, 31, 1898. They decided
that it would be wise to attempt a grouping to be based
upon "family resemblance." In accordance with this
the following statement was adopted: "The varieties
here grouped as members of the same families, while in a
few cases differing somewhat in characteristics of tree,
are so nearly identical in fruit that for exhibition and
commercial purposes they are practically the same and
should be so considered." It is to be regretted that a
commission on nomenclature should take such a radical
stand as this, because the characteristics of a variety
cannot be changed by voting to call it by the same
name as the other member of the group which it most
resembles and almost, though not quite, duplicates.
The trend of modern pomology is to preserve small
differences, to differentiate rather than blend. The
work of the future will consist in large part in studying
small differences with a view of finding closer adapta-
tions. The propriety of ignoring Russian nomencla-
ture and the rule of priority is questionable, but in a
measure is defensible on the grounds of a confused
Russian nomenclature and the unpronounceableness of
Russian names. The findings of the committee have on

FRUIT-GROWING

FUCHSIA

1299

the whole met with the approval of those interested in
Russian apples.

Russian cherries.

. These, next to the apples, constitute the most
clearly defined group of Russian fruits; yet many
cherries commonly called Russian are in reality Polish,
Silesian or German. The typical cherry of northern
Russia is represented by the Vladimir type (Fig. 1598).
This was first introduced into America as a distinct
variety. Later importations and experience demon-
strated that Vladimir was a type, not a variety. This
type appears to have been grown in Russia for centuries
from seeds and sprouts. In this way a special class has
been developed. The Vladimir type is characterized by
its dwarf stature — 5 to 8 feet high — its peculiarly
rounded and compact top, its dark red, meaty-fleshed
fruit. Koslov-morello is evidently a light-colored juicy
variety of Vladimir. The characteristics of the tree are
the same as Vladimir, although when grown from seed
in this country the seedlings exhibit considerable varia-
tion. The amarelles and weichsels of Germany have
been grown in Russia for centuries, generally from seed,
and have become specialized forms. Cherries of the
Vladimir and Koslov-morello types are the hardiest of
the cherries. The Vladimirs have not, as a rule, been
productive in this country. The fruit-buds appear to
be sensitive to cold and as easily injured as some of the
recognized tender types of cherries. Although the trees
are hardy, the introduction of this type has not extended
the area of commercial cherry-growing in this country
farther north than the regions already outlined by the
profitable cultivation of Early Richmond.

Russian plums.

The plums imported from Russia do not differ
materially from those of the domestica type in culti-
vation in this country. The trees are probably some-
what hardier than Lombard or Green Gage, but the
fruit-buds are subject to winter injury wherever Lom-
bard is uncertain. In the main they have been unpro-
ductive. Among the most widely tested varieties
are Early Red, Moldavka and Merunka, all of the
Lombard type.

Russian pears.

These are hardy handsome trees, but none bears fruit
of good quality. Where blight is prevalent they are
extremely susceptible. Among the hardiest of the class
are Bessimianka (meaning seedless, which is only partly
true), Gakpvsky and Tonko-vietka. These thrive wher-
ever the climate admits of the cultivation of the Olden-
burg apple. The fruit ripens in August, and rots at the
core if allowed to mature on the tree.

Russian apricots.

Apricots were brought to Nebraska and Kansas by
Russian Mennonites about twenty-five years ago. A
few of those named and distributed are likely to be
retained in the fruit lists of the West.

Russian mulberries.

Russian mulberries have been widely sold as fruit-
bearing plants by enterprising agents, but their use to
the fruit-grower should be restricted to hedging and
the formation of windbreaks. For these purposes they
are valuable in the colder and more rigorous regions.

Russian peaches.

So-called hardy Russian peaches are sold, but they
really belong to Bokara or Turkestan. The peaches of
the Baltic provinces do not differ essentially from the
ordinary Persian strain in form or hardiness.

In general.

The introduction of the Russian fruits has given us
hardy types from which to breed varieties for northern

latitudes. In Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin this work
is under way. Seedlings and hybrids are appearing
each year, which may be considered valuable additions
to the fruit lists of these regions

Literature.

But two books appear to have been written on Rus-
sian pomology up to 1868, one by Nicolai Krasno
Glasov, 1848, the other by Regel, director of the
Imperial Botanic Gardens, St. Petersburg, in 1868.
The latter is called "Russkaya Pomologaya." It con-
tains a description of 225 varieties of apples, nearly
all of Russian origin. A wood-cut of each appears, in
addition to 144 colored plates. Gibb calls it "a grand,
good fundamental work." American literature on Rus-
sian fruits is mainly confined to three sources; the
reports of the Montreal Horticultural Society, publica-
tions of the Division of Pomology, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, and Bulletins of the Horti-
cultural Department of the Iowa Agricultural College.
To Charles Gibb, Abbptsford, Canada (Quebec), we
are indebted for the faithful and accurate translation
of the names given in the collection imported by the
Department of Agriculture in 1870. This was adopted
by the American Pomological Society in 1885.

JOHN CRAIG.

FUCHSIA (Leonard Fuchs, 1501-1565, German
professor of medicine, and a botanical author).
Onagracese. Handsome and popular flowering plants
of greenhouses, conservatories, window-gardens and
open grounds, blooming most freely in spring and
summer.

Shrubs and small trees, with opposite, alternate or
verticillate simple Ivs.: fls. mostly showy, axillary or
sometimes racemose and paniculate, usually pendu-
lous, in shades of red and purplish and with some of
the parts often white; tube prolonged beyond the ovary
and bell-shaped to tubular, with 4 spreading lobes;
petals 4, sometimes 5, or in some species wanting;
stamens usually 8, often exserted;
style long-exserted, the entire or 4-
lobed stigma prominent: fr. (seldom
seen under glass) a 4-loculed soft
berry. — Seventy or eighty species, the
greater part in Trop. Amer., but 3
or 4 in New Zeal. They are very
variable in character. The common
fuchsias are known to us as small
herbs, but most of them are
shrubs in their native countries.
F. excorticata, of New Zeal., is a
tree 30-40 ft. high, whereas F.
procumbens, of the same coun-
try, is a weak, trailing plant. Of
the many species, less than half
a dozen have en-
tered largely into
garden forms. The
common garden
kinds have come
mostly from F.
magellanica. This
species was intro.
into Great Britain
from Chile in 1788,
or about that time.
It is variable in a
wild state as well
as in cult., and
plants subsequently
intro. from S. Amer.
were so distinct as
to be regarded for
a time as separate

species. Even at the i599. Fuchsia mageiianica van

present day some of globosa. ( X H)

1300

FUCHSIA

FUCHSIA

the forms of F. magellanica are commonly spoken of as
species, so much do they differ from the type. As early
as 1848, 541 species and varieties — mostly mere gar-
den forms — were known and named (Porcher, "La
Fuchsia, son Histoire et sa Culture"). The fuchsia
reached the height of its popularity about the middle

1600. Fuchsia magellanica var. Riccartonii.

of the past century. At present it is prized mostly for
window-gardening and conservatory decoration. The
garden forms of the present day are with difficulty
referred to specific types. The long-tubed or so-called
speciosa forms are probably hybrids of F. magellanica
and F.fulgens (Figs. 1603, 1604). Others are evidently
direct varieties from the stem types. There are many
full double forms. For the history and the garden
botany of the fuchsia, see Hemsley in the Garden
9:284 and 11 :70; also Watson, the Garden 55:74.

In mild climates, fuchsias make excellent outdoor
shrubs, some of them withstanding frost.
These are of the F. magellanica group. They
are familiar to travelers in Ireland, and they
may be seen as far north as the Shetland
Islands. In California, many of the fuchsias
are excellent and popular subjects for plant-
ing in the open. Under glass, forms of F.
magellanica may be grown into large rafter
shrubs, where they produce great abundance
of bloom.

Fuchsias are among the most ornamental
and popular of the cool greenhouse flowering
plants. They may also be used in summer as
bedding plants, and they are among the very
few flowering plants that will bloom in the
shade. If fair-sized specimen plants in 10-
or 12-inch pots are desired, the best time to
root them is the end of August. The best
cuttings are secured from suckers that start
from the base of the plants that are bedded
out. The cutting should be 3 inches in length,
and if the intention is to grow large speci-
mens, pot them singly in 2-inch pots, in three
parts sand, one part loam, and another of
leaf-mold. Place the cuttings when potted in
a shady position in a temperature of not less
than 60° at night. When the very small
plants are well rooted, shift them along into
a pot 2 inches larger, using this time a com-
post of equal parts of loam, leaf-mold, and
sand and add a third part of well-rotted
manure. In this size of pot, the shoot will
have made four or five joints, and should
now be pinched to encourage side breaks.
The plant, where it is stopped, will start
into two breaks, and the strongest should be
taken for a leader; pinch the weaker one
when two leaves are well formed. Strict
attention from now on should be paid to keep
the plants in good shape. The side shoots
must be kept in bounds, so that the sym-
metry of the plant is preserved, pinching the

stronger ones hard and allowing the weaker to grow a
little longer so that they gain more vigor. The leader
may be allowed to make six pairs of leaves, and then
be stopped, always choosing the strongest breaks to
increase the height of the plant. Potting should be
strictly attended to, never allowing the plant to form a
mat of roots around the ball before it
gets a shift into a larger pot. The
potting material for all future pottings
may be composed of two parts good
fibrous loam, with an equal amount of
well-rotted horse-manure, one part flaky
leaves, and one part sharp sand. The
whole should be as rough as can be
conveniently used when working it
equally around the ball of the plant,
in the potting operation. It is neces-
sary to have a good straight stake
down the center of the plant to support it in an up-
right position. When the plant is well established
in the pot in which it is desired to flower it, manure
waterings will be in order, as these plants are gross
feeders when in active growth. Green cow-manure,
fertilizers, and soot secured from soft coals agree well
with fuchsias. The amount to be used is an ordinary
handful to two and a half gallons of water. Water
twice in between with clean water. Give the last pinch
to the plants about six weeks before they are desired
to be in full flower. — For bedding-out purposes, cut-
tings may be rooted in the spring, and grown on into
5- or 6-inch pots. Old plants may be kept through the
winter, in a cool light pit, from which frost is kept.
Keep them rather dry during October, November, and
December, only giving enough water to maintain the
wood plump. In January they may
be removed to a temperature of 50°
by night, allowing a rise of 10° or
15° during the day. This tempera-
ture, by the way, is most suitable
for fuchsias after they are rooted
until they come in flower. After it
is seen where all the live eyes are
on the old plants, trim them into
shape, and remove all the dead
wood. Turn them out of the pots,
and remove all the loose dirt from
the ball with a hose with a gentle
pressure of water on it. They may
be potted in the same size of pot,
and when well rooted in that, give
them a shift two sizes larger. Pinch
the plants two or three times during
the winter, and one will be rewarded
with better plants the second year
than the first. If well attended to
every year, fuchsias may be kept for
many years, attaining an enormous
size. Fumigate with hydrocyanic
gas, during winter, and that, with
syringings on all bright days, until
they come in flower, will keep down
insect pests. (George F. Stewart.)

INDEX.

1601. Fuchsia magellanica var.
discolor. (XM)

alba, 9.

arborescens, 10.
boliviana, 8.
coccinea, 1, 3.
conica, 1.
corallina, 1.
corymbiflora, 9.
decussata, 1.
discolor, 1.
elegans, 1.
exoniensis, 2.
fulgens, 5.
globosa, 1.
gracilis, 1.
hybrida, 2.

Lowei, 1.
macrostema, 1.
macrostemma, 1.
magellanica, 1.
pendulxflora, 5.
procumbens, 11.
Riccartonii, 1.
speciosa, 2.
splendens, 4.
syringseflora, 10.
tenella, 1.
Thompsonii, 1.
triphylla, 6.
variegata, 1.
venusta, 7.

FUCHSIA

FUCHSIA

1301

A. Fls. drooping (Nos. 1-9).

B. Tube of fl. mostly shorter than the calyx-lobes (or in
F. speciosa sometimes as long again); petals obo-
vate and retuse, convolute in the bud. — LADIES'
EAR-DROPS.

1. magellanica, Lam. (F. macrostema, Ruiz & Pav.
F. macrostemma, Auth. F. coccinea, Curtis, not Ait.).
Tube little longer than the ovary, oblong or short-
cylindrical; petals normally blue, and shorter than the
red and oblong-lanceolate calyx-lobes; stamens long-
exserted: Ivs. opposite or in 3's, lance-ovate, very short-
petioled, dentate. Peru and south to Terre del Fuego.
B.M. 97 (F. coccinea). The leading types are as
follows:

Var. globosa, Bailey (F. globdsa, Lindl. F. macro-
stemma var. globosa, Nich.). Fig. 1599. Lvs. opposite,
short-petiolate, ovate, acute, lightly dentate, glabrous :
fls. red-purple, axillary on slender peduncles, small
and short, the bud nearly globular and the tips of the
sepals cohering even after the fl. begins to burst;
tube very short; petals erect, twice shorter than the
calyx-lobes. B.R. 1556. Gn. 55, p. 75. — A profuse
bloomer, and a common type amongst old-fashioned
fuchsias. There is a form with variegated Ivs.

Var. Riccartonii (F. Riccartonii, Hort.). Fig. 1600.
Very like var. globosa and reported to be a seedling of
it, is a very hardy and floriferous form, standing in
the open in Scotland, blooming particularly well in
autumn: 6-10 ft., making a trunk 3 in. diam., and
becoming wide-spreading: shoots slender: fls. red. J.H.
III. 58:329. — A handsome and desirable fuchsia, said
to have been raised at Riccarton, near Edinburgh,
about 1830, but reported as originating in the Falk-
land Isls. Excellent in Calif.

Var. discolor, Bailey (F. discolor, Lindl. F. Lbwei,
Hort.). Fig. 1601. Dwarf, compact and hardy:
branches deep purple: Ivs. rather small undulate-
toothed: peduncles axillary, slender, exceeding the lys.;
fls. red, small, with slender, short tube and wide-
spreading, rather narrow calyx-lobes, which are some-
what longer than the tube; petals obtuse, shorter than
the calyx-lobes. Falkland Isls. B.R. 1805.

Var. cdnica, Bailey (F. conica, Lindl. F. macro-
stemma var. cdnica, Nich.). Shrubby, very leafy: lys.
3-4 together, toothed, ovate, the petiole one-third
length of blade, pubescent: fls. axillary, solitary, on
peduncles much longer than Ivs.; calyx scarlet, the
tube conical (or widest at base) and equaling the
lobes; petals dark purple, erect and emarginate;
small-fid. Raised from seeds brought from Chile.
B.R. 1062. — Lindley says that it differs from F.
gracilis in having broader Ivs., being less floriferous,
and in the conical tube which widens above
the ovary and then narrows.

1602. Fuchsia magellanica var. gracilis.

1603. Fuchsia speciosa. — The common
garden fuchsia. ( X H)

Var. gracilis, Bailey (F. gracilis, Lindl. F. decus-
sdta, Grah., not Ruiz & Pav. F. macrostemma
var. gracilis, Nich.). Fig. 1602. Very slender and
graceful, twiggy and cross-branched: Ivs. lanceo-
late to ovate, toothed; petiole J^in. long: fls. droop-
ing on very long pedicels which are single or in
pairs; tube slender, nearly as long as the narrow
spreading lobes; calyx scarlet; petals purple, retuse,
shorter than the long acute calyx-lobes. Chile. B.R.
847; 1052 (var. muUiflora). B.M. 2507. Gn. 55, p. 74.
Mn. 2, p. 186. — Perhaps a distinct species. A var.
variegata is advertised. F . Thdmpsonii, Hort., is said to
belong here.

With the F. magellanica set may be classed F.
cordllina. Hort., F. elegans, Paxt., F. tenetta, Hort.,
and others. There are apparently many hybrids. The
short-flowered fuchsias are less popular than formerly,
but many varieties are now in cult.

2. specidsa, Hort. (F. hybrida, Hort.). Figs. 1603,
1604. The greater part of present-day garden fuchsias
are of the longer-tubed type shown in the illustrations.
These are probably hybrid derivatives of F. magellanica
forms and F . fulgens. Amongst the named sorts every
gradation will be found, from the short-tubed Storm
King to the Earl of Beaconsfield with fls. 3 in. long.
The old F. exoniensis, Paxt., B.M. 153, is figured as
a very showy plant, marked by very long-pointed
calyx-lobes and sharp-pointed buds, said to be a hybrid
of F. cordifolia (a Mexican species) and F. globosa.
The plant subsequently figured and cult, under that
name does not agree, having shorter fls. and much
less prominently pointed calyx-lobes.

3. coccinea, Ait. Not known to be cult,
in Amer., and inserted here for the pur-
pose of clearing up the synonymy of F.
coccinea. This species appears to have
been intro. before F. magellanica, and it
was named F. coccinea by Aiton. F . magellanica,
however, "usurped its name and spread it to
every garden in the kingdom, whilst the true
plant lingered in botanic gardens, lastly surviv-
ing (greatly to the credit of the Baxters, father
and son) in that of Oxford alone." The species
was lost from its intro. in 1788 to its rediscovery
in an Oxford garden in 1867; meantime forms of
F. magellanica passed as F. coccinea. "F. coccinea is
much more graceful than any of the varieties of F.
magellanica, flowers even more freely, and is readily
distinguished by the almost sessile leaves with broad
bases, and the hairy twigs and petioles; further, its
foliage turns of a bright crimson when about to fall."
— J. D. Hooker, B.M. 5740. Probably Brazilian. The
plant should be looked for in collections.

1302

FUCHSIA

FUCHSIA

1604. The common garden fuchsia —
F. speciosa.

4. splendens, Zucc. Fig. 1605. Much-branched,
shrubby: Ivs. ovate-cordate, pale green, serrate:
peduncles slender, axillary, solitary and single-fid. ;
fls. drooping, rather short; fl. IK in. long, scarlet
tipped pale green, the base swollen and the tube then
compressed; petals shorter than calyx-lobes, ovate,

greenish; stamens
much exserted, the
anthers yellow.
Mex. B.M. 4082.
B.R. 28:67. G.C.
III. 45:338. G.I:
649; 9:693.

BB. Tube thrice or
more the length
of the calyx-
lobes; petals
pointed, nearly
or quite as long
as the calyx-
lobes.

5. fulgens, Moc.
& Sesse. St. some-
what succulent,
glabrous, often red-
tinged: Ivs. large
and coarse, cordate-
ovate, soft, small-
toothed: fls. in ter-
minal leafy clusters
or racemes, the red
long-tubular calyx-
tube 2-3 in. long
and very slender at
the base; the calyx-
lobes short and
pointed, greenish at
the tip, not very widely spreading; petals deep scarlet,
pointed, shorter than calyx-lobes; stamens only short-
exserted. Mex. B.M. 3801. B.R. 24:1. Gn. 55, p. 75.
R.H. 1881:150 (yar. pumila). — A brilliant plant, some-
times seen in choice conservatory collections. Evidently
one parent of the F. speciosa tribes. F. pendubefldra,
Hort., is supposed to be a hybrid, but the fls. very
long like F. fulgens: Ivs. ovate, acuminate, with violet
midrib: tube of fl. 3-4 in. long, trumpet-shaped; fls.
rich crimson shaded maroon. J.H. III. 51:301.

6. triphylla, Linn. Fig. 1606. Low and bushy (18 in.
high), pubescent: Ivs. often in 3's, small, oblanceolate,
petiolate, dentate, green above and purple pubescent
beneath: fls. 1 j/£ in. long, in terminal racemes, cinnabar-
red, the long tube enlarging towards the top; petals
very short; stamens 4, not exserted. St. Domingo,
W. Indies. B.M. 6795. Gn. 41:32. I.H. 43, p. 94.
G.M. 49:333. Gn.W. 5:389.— Known in botanical col-
lections and sparingly in the trade. The species has a
most interesting history, for which see the citations
made above. Upon this plant Plumier founded the
genus Fuchsia in 1703, giving a rude drawing of it.
Upon Plumier's description and picture Linnaeus
founded his F, triphylla. Plumier's figure is so unlike
existing fuchsias that there has been much speculation
as to the plant he meant to portray. No fuchsia was
known to have four stamens or to be native to the W.
Indies. In 1877 Hemsley wrote of it: "The figure,
however, is so rude that nobody, I believe, has been
able to identify it with any living or dried plant. Pos-
sibly it is not a fuchsia at all in the sense of the present
application of the name, for it is represented as having
only four stamens." But in 1873, Thomas Hogg, of
New York, secured seeds of a St. Domingo fuchsia
which turns out to be Plumier's original, thus bringing
into cult, a plant that had been unknown to science
for 170 years. It came to the attention of botanists
in 1882. For a discussion of further confusion in the

history of this plant, see Hemsley, G.C. II. 18, pp.
263-4.

7. venusta, HBK. Branches slender, somewhat
hairy: Ivs. opposite and in 3's, elliptic, acute, entire,
glabrous, somewhat shining: peduncles axillary, slen-
der, about the length of the scarlet fls., more or less
racemose above; fls. elongated, the tube 2 in. long
beyond ovary and narrow-trumpet-shaped, the lobes
ovate-lanceolate and acuminate; petals about equaling
calyx-lobes, scarlet, the margins undulate. Colombia.
F.S. 5:538. J.H. III. 49:243.

8. bpliviana, Carr. Compact, branching, 2-4 ft.,
producing the showy fls. in profuse drooping sometimes
branched clusters: Ivs. large, elliptic-ovate, acute or
acuminate, toothed: fls. 2-3 in. long, trumpet-shaped,
rich red. Bolivia. R.H. 1876:150. G.W. 8, p. 316.—
Very like F. corymbiflora, but said to be more orna-
mental: fls. brilliant coral-red, the calyx-lobes and
petals acuminate and equal or subequal, the former
spreading-star-shaped or reflexed, the petals erect or
close about the stamens; filaments red, anthers whitish;
stigma very large, ovoid: fr. fleshy, violet-black.

9. corymbifldra, Ruiz & Pav. Tall but weak grower,
needing support when allowed to attain its full height,
therefore excellent for pillars and rafters: Ivs. large,
ovate-oblong and tapering both ways, serrate, pubes-
cent: fls. deep red, hanging in long brilliant corymbs;
calyx-tube 3-4 in. long and nearly uniformly cylindri-
cal, the lobes lance-acuminate and becoming reflexed;

Eetals deep red,
ince - acuminate,
about the length
of the calyx-lobes;
stamens length of
the petals. Peru.
B.M. 4000. Gn.
ll:70(asF.bolivi-
ana); 55:74. F.
1841:161. H. U.
2, p. 324. Var.
alba, Hort., has
white or nearly
white calyx -tube
and -lobes. F.S. 6:
547. Gn. 55:74.
— A very hand-
some plant, but
not common.

AA. Fls. erect.

10. arborescens,
Sims (F. synngae-
flbra, Carr.). A
shrub: Ivs. lance-
oblong and en-
tire, laurel -like:
fls. lilac -scented,
pink -red, small,
with a short or
almost globular
tube, in an erect
terminal naked
lilac-like panicle;
calyx - lobes and
petals about equal
in length. Mex. B.
M. 2620. — Little

grown, but excellent for winter-flowering; should not
be lost to cult.

11. procumbens, Cunn. TRAILING FUCHSIA. TRAIL-
ING QUEEN. Trailing, with slender much-branched sts. :
Ivs. alternate, small (^/i-^iin. across), cordate-ovate,
long-stalked: fls. solitary and axillary, apetalous, the
short tube orange and the reflexing obtuse lobes dark
purple, anthers blue: plant dioecious: berry glaucous-

1605. Fuchsia splendens. ( X l/Q

FUCHSIA

FUNGI

1303

red. N. Zeal. B.M. 6139. G. 35:97.— A very inter-
esting little plant, suitable for baskets.

Species not known to be in the American trade are: F. ampliata,
Benth. Fls. large, scarlet, long-tubed, drooping. Colombia. B.M.

. . ,

(5839. — F. bacilldris, Lindl. Compact, with short-jointed branches:
fls. very small, flaring-mouthed, rosy, drooping. Mex. B.R. 1480.
— F. cordifdlia, Benth. Fls. 2 in. long, slender, drooping, hairy,

red, on very long pedicels. Mex. B.R. 27:70. — F. Dominiana,
Hort. Garden hybrid with long drooping red fls. of the speciosa
type. F.S. 10:1004. — F. excorticdta. Linn. f. Shrub or small tree
of New Zeal., reaching 40 ft. high and the trunk sometimes 2-3 ft.
diam., the bark thin, papery and loose: Ivs. alternate, ovate-lanceo-
late to lanceolate, entire or nearly so: fls. 1}^ in. or less long, soli-
tary and drooping, trimorphic. B.R. 857. — F. macrdntha. Hook.
Largest-fld. fuchsia; 4-6 in. long, pink-red, in large, drooping clus-
ters. Colombia, Peru. B.M. 4233.— F. microphylla, HBK. Dwarf,
small-lvd., with deep red, small axillary, drooping fls.: pretty.
Mex. B.R. 1269. — F. serratifdlia, Ruiz & Pav. Fls. long-tubed,
speciosa-like, on drooping pedicels from the axils of the whorled Ivs.,
pink with greenish tinge: handsome. Peru. B.M. 4174. — F.
simplicicaulis, Ruiz & Pav. Lvs. usually in 3's, entire: fls. crimson,
long and slender-tubed, in drooping clusters: resembles F. corym-
bifera. Peru. B.M. 5096.— F. thymifdlia, H.B.K. To 6 ft.: Ivs.
small, opposite or nearly so, ovate or roundish, downy above: fls.
red, on axillary pedicels, the petals obovate and undulate. Mex.
B.R. 1284. L. H. B.

FUMARIA (fumus, smoke, the application perhaps
to the smoke-like odor of roots or other parts of some
species) . Fumariacese, a family by some botanists united

with Papaveracese. This
genus includes the
common fumitory, F.
officinalis, formerly
held in great repute
for various ailments,
but now practically
banished from medical
practice. Seeds are
still rarely sold to
those who have faith
in old physic gardens.
The plant has a large
literature, which is
especially interesting
to those who delight in
herbals. As an orna-
mental plant, it is
surpassed by Adlumia.
There are about 40
1606. Fuchsia triphylla. (XJi) species of Fumaria in

the Medit. region and

Cent. Eu., and S. Afr.: mostly annual herbs, with
compound much-dissected Ivs., usually diffuse and
branching, sometimes climbing, glaucous: corolla
1 -spurred at base, and thereby distinguished at once
from Adlumia; sepals 2, very small; petals 4; stamens
6, diadelphous: fr. a roundish 1-seeded indehiscent
nutlet. F. officinalis, Linn., the common fumitory,
of Eu., is sparingly run wild in waste places: 2-3 ft.
high : Ivs. petioled, the segms. linear, oblong or cuneate
and entire or lobed: fls. small, flesh-color with crimson
tip, in narrow racemes. Variable. L. jj. B.f

FUMITORY: Fumaria officinalis.
FUNCKIA, FUNKIA: Hosia.

FUNGI are plants. They differ from other plants
chiefly in their lack of chlorophyll, the green coloring
matter of green plants, and in the character of the
substance of which their cell-walls are composed.
This is sometimes spoken of as fungous cellulose, and
has characters both of the cellulose of other plants and
the chitin of insects. There are thousands of species
of fungi, varying greatly in form and structure. Some
forms are more or less familiar to everyone; for
example, mushrooms, or toadstools, molds, mildews
smuts and rusts. Other groups of plants often included
under the term fungi are the slime-molds or myxomy-
cetes and bacteria. While they have certain charac-
ters in common with fungi, they are sufficiently dis-
tinct to be considered separately.

The fungus plant consists of a vegetative feeding
portion, the mycelium, which, in a way, corresponds
to the roots of higher plants, and the fruiting struc-
ture, the sporophore. The latter bears the reproductive

bodies, the spores,
which, while much
simpler in structure,
function in the same
way as do the seeds
of higher plants (Fig.
1607). The sporo-
phore is the part most
often observed by the
layman. The mush-
room or toadstool,
the puffball, the
smut boil on corn,
the white powdery
mildew on the grape
or rose, or the blue
mold on stale bread
or cheese, are almost
entirely the sporo-
phores and spore
masses. The myce-
lium is usually buried
in the substratum
from which the food
is derived and is thus
not often observed.
In fact it is often too
minute and colorless
to be seen with the

1607. A fungus. A mildew, showing
the mycelium in the leaf-tissue and
the hanging spore-bearing threads.

(Much magnified.)

Q

naked eye. It may
be observed as a
white branching weft
in the dung of mush-
room beds or in the leaf-mold in the forest. This form
is commonly spoken of as spawn. It may also be
seen as a white weft-like growth between the bark
and wood of rotting logs or dead trees, or as brown
leathery sheets in
the cracks of rot-
ting logs. It some-
times appears as
brown or black
shreds or strands
under the bark of
dying trees. This
form of mycelium
strand or rhizo-
morph is charac-
teristic of the
often very ' de-
structive mush-
room parasite of
trees, Armillaria
mellea. The spores
of fungi are min-
ute microscopic
bodies cut off from
the sporophores
for the purpose of
reproducing the
plant. They are
usually pne- or

1608. Different spore forms of fungi.

a. Spore-sacs with spores of the peach
leaf-curl fungus; 6, spore-stalk with spores
of a mushroom; c, two spore forms of the
wheat-rust fungus; d, winter -spore of
onion-blight parasite; e, spores of the beet
leaf-spot pathogen ; /, spore-sac with sporea
of the black-knot fungus; g, the summer-
spores of the brown -rot pathogen; h,
spores of the apple-tree canker fungus; i,
spore of the alternaria blight fungus of
ginseng; j, conidia of the late blight fungus
of potatoes; k, corn-smut spores.

two-celled, though
often many-celled
(Fig. 1608). They
are often color-
less, though they
may be variously
tinted or colored,
greenish, brown,
black, and so on.
When placed in

1304

FUNGI

FUNKIA

1609. Germinating spores.

a, Conidium of late blight fungus germi-
nating in a drop of water by swarm-spores;
a', swarm-spore germinating by germ-tube;
6, ascospore of apple-scab fungus sending
its germ-tube into the cuticle 6' of the
young apple.

sufficient moisture, and given the proper tempera-
ture, they usually will germinate quickly, either send-
ing out a sprout-like germ-tube (Fig. 1609, b) which
on finding sufficient nourishment grows into myce-
lium, or the protoplasmic contents of the spore-cell
may escape through an opening formed in the cell-wall,

as one or more
actively s w i m-
ming and naked
protoplasmic
masses, called
swarm - spores
(Fig. 1609, a).
These swarm-
spores swim
about in the
water for a time,
(usually less
than an hour),
then invest
themselves with
a cell-wall, and
germinate with
a germ-tube as
above described
(Fig. 1609, a').
This latter is the method of germination of the potato-
blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans. — A fungus often
produces two kinds of spores, the vegetative spores,
conidia (Fig. 1608, j), produced usually in great num-
bers and repeatedly during the season for the purpose
of multiplying the form, and the sexual, or resting-
spores (Fig. 1608, a, b, c, d, k), adapted primarily to
carry the fungus through periods unfavorable to growth,
as dry seasons, winter and the like. Either form may,
however, function as the other. They are disseminated
by wind, water, insects, or by man himself.

Because of their lack of chlorophyll, fungi cannot
assimilate their carbon directly from the carbon-
dioxid of the air as can the green plants. They must
make use of the food substances already manufactured
or elaborated by other plants or animals. With respect
to the nature of the substratum from which fungi
obtain their food-supply, they are of two general
types, saprophytes, those that can feed and develop
on non-living organic substances (chiefly dead parts of
plants and animals); and parasites, those that may
grow upon and take food from living organisms. A
true or obligate saprophyte can feed only upon non-
living organic substances. There are great numbers
of such species, attacking dead and fallen trees, stems
and leaves of plants or the dead bodies of animals,
infesting dung and other debris, breaking up the com-
plex organic substances into simpler form, and deriving
therefrom the food and energy for their development.
Most mushrooms, toadstools, molds and the like,
are obligate saprophytes, playing the role of disin-
tegrators in the
ever-changing
cycle of nature.
An obligate para-
site, on the other
hand is, in nature
at least, compelled
to derive its nu-
trition through
direct attack on
the living tissues
of other plants or
of animals. Of
such fungi, the
rust- and smut-
producing para-
sites, the leaf-curl

fungus of the 1610. Colonies of the rust fungus on
peach, and the the leaf of a hollyhock.

potato-blight organism are good examples. Between
these extremes are to be found very many forms
which, during a part of their active development,
live as parasites, and during the remainder as sapro-
phytes. The apple-scab fungus is a good example. It
passes the summer as an active parasite upon the
leaves and fruit of the apple, but in the autumn and
spring continues its growth and development in the
fallen leaves, producing the sexually formed ascospores
which in the spring infect the next crop. Other forms,
which usually lead a saprophytic existence on the
dead and fallen parts of plants, may, under special
conditions, take on a parasitic habit. A good example
is a common saprophyte, a species of Botrytis, com-
mon in greenhouses. When there is an excess of moist-
ure or the plants are in any way weakened, this fungus
finds it easy to pass from a saprophytic life on the dead
leaves, to that of active and destructive parasitism on
the living leaves. It is sometimes destructive to let-
tuce. Fungi are in general favored by abundance of
moisture. For this reason in a wet season mushrooms
appear in great profusion, and epidemics of plant-
disease-producing fungi often
occur over wide areas, caus-
ing great losses to the agricul-
turist. The loss from potato-
blight in New York state
alone often amounts in wet
seasons to over $10,000,000.
Warm weather is generally
favorable to fungus growth,
but there are some forms,
like the potato-blight fungus,
which flourish only during
relatively cool periods. This
parasite occurs only in tem-
perate regions, being un-
known in the hot low lands
of tropical and subtropical
regions. The peach leaf-curl
fungus is apparently favored
as much by the low tempera-
ture as by the rains of a wet
spring. Other forms seem to
thrive best in dry climates,
as for example the powdery
mildew of grapes.

While many fungi are de-
structive agents of the crops
of the agriculturist, causing him heavy losses, most
fungi are active co-laborers with him, bringing about,
as has been seen, the disintegration of compost, on
which the farmer depends so largely for increased crop-
production. Other fungi, like the yeasts and certain
molds, are necessary agents in the arts and manufac-
tures, as for example, the use of yeast in bread-, beer-
and wine-production, molds in cheese-ripening, and
so on. The value of these fungi lies chiefly in their
ability to produce fermentations of various sorts or to
give flavors to the products. Many fungi are edible,
as for example the large fruit bodies of mushrooms,
puffballs and truffles. While their value as food is
perhaps often overestimated, they are valuable and
form no unimportant part of the food of many
people, especially in Europe. They are to be regarded
chiefly as delicacies. The truffles and the cultivated
mushroom, Agaricus campeslris, are perhaps the
best known. A delicacy known to relatively few is
the large smut boils occurring on Zizania latifolia.
Some fungi are poisonous, as for example the deadly
Amanita, the fly-agaric among mushrooms, and the
ergot, a fungous parasite of rye and other grasses.

H. H. WHETZEL.

FUNGICIDES: Diseases and Insects.
FUNKIA: Iloxta.

1611. Colonies of a fungus
on a plum leaf. The dead
tissue sometimes falls out,
leaving a shot-hole effect.

FUNTUMIA

FURCR.EA

1305

FUNTUMIA (Funtum is one of the vernacular names
of F. elastica). Apocynacex. Three trees, sometimes
very tall, of Trop. Afr., formerly placed in Kickxia, one
of them being a rubber tree. F. eldstica, Stapf, reaches
100ft., with a cyh'ndric trunk and pale spotted bark:
Ivs. oblong or lance-oblong, undulate: fls. white or
yellowish in short-peduncled many-fld. dense cymes,
the corolla-tube constricted above the base, the lobes
oblong and obtuse; stamens inserted well down in the
corolla-tube; disk 5-parted: follicles oblong-clavate,
woody. Offered in Eu.; yields the Lagos caoutchouc.

FURCRjJEA (Ant. Francois de Fourcroy, 1755-1809,
chemist). Syn., Fourcroya, Fourcrcea, Furcroya, Fur-
crcea. Amarylliddceae. Succulent desert plants from
tropical America.

Some with spiny foliage like Agave, others with
minutely toothed margins like Beschorneria. They
occasionally bear immense loose panicles of greenish
white fls., suggesting those of Yucca fdamentosa, which
are known to every plant-lover of the N. The perianth
of Furcrsea is whitish and wheel-shaped; in Agave
greenish yellow, funnel-shaped. The filaments in
Furcraea have a cushion-like swelling at the base,
which is absent from Agave.

Furcraea is cultivated much in the same way as
Agave, except that the furcreas are given more heat
and water. F . gigantea has a very pretty variegated
form, which makes a useful pot-plant.

As a rule, furcreas bear fruit not more than once,
and then die without producing suckers. However,
they produce while in flower an immense number of
bulbels, which may be used for propagation. It is
impossible to say at what size or age the plants will
bloom. Grown in pots, they may take a century. On
the other hand, plants from bulbels have been known
to flower at three years. Seeding is usually rare.

INDEX.

agavephylla, 5.
altissima, 5, 7.

elegans, 5.
foetida, 8.

marginata, 6.
medio-picta, 8.

andina, 5.

geminispina, 9.

pubescens, 5.

Barillettii, 8.

figantea, 8.

Roezlii, 2.

Bedinghausii, 3.

exapetala, 4.

Selloa, 6.

Cabuya, 7.

Humboldtiana, 7.

spinosa, 9.

Cahum, 4.

inermis, 7.

tuberosa, 9.

Commelinii, 8.

interrupta, 9.

variegata, 8.

cubensis, 4, 5, 6, 7.

Lindenii, 6.

Watsoniana, 8.

Deledevantii, 5.

longseva, 1.

Willemetiana, 8.

edentata, 6.

macrophylla, 5.

A. Lvs. rough-margined but not toothed, glaucous, striate-
roughened beneath: infl. pubescent: pedicels short.
SERRULATE.

1. longaeva, Karw. & Zucc. Slender unbranched
tree, up to 50 ft.: Ivs. rigidly outcurving, narrowly
lanceolate, gradually acute, concave, 3-6x60 in.:
infl. 15 ft., broadly conical, short-stalked; fls. !%-!%
in.; ovary rather longer than segm.: caps, elongated,
narrowed below; seeds small (J^x^in.): bulbels
unknown. S. Mex. to Guatemala. Zuccarini. Act. Acad.
Leop. Carol. 16, pt.2:48. M.D.G. 26, p. 10. Bateman,
Orchid, of Mex. & Guat. Vignette to pi. 16. B.M. 5519,
(habit). Herbert, Amaryll., pi. 34. — A similar if sepa-
rable species is reported for Bolivia. The most remark-
able dracsenoid tree, flowering when extremely old,
and then dying, like others of its genus.

2. Roezlii, Andre (Agave argyrophylla, A. Toneliana,
Beschorneria floribunda, Lilia regia, Lilium regium,
Roezlia regia, R. reglna, Yucca argyrsea, Y. argyrophylla,
Y. Parmentieri, Y. Toneliana, Hort.). Trunk becoming 6
ft. or more: Ivs. rather flaccidly spreading, lanceolate,
acute, concave or plicate, 3-5x50 in.: infl. 10-15 ft.,

Eubescent, the moderately broad panicle short-stalked;
s. 1 % in. ; ovary and segm. about equal : caps, ellipsoidal,
scarcely stipitate: freely bulbiferous, the bulbels
elongated. S. Mex. R.H. 1887, p. 353. B.M. 5519 (as
to details) ; 7170 (as F. Bedinghausii) . G.C. III. 9, p. 489;

36, p. 45; 46, p. 340. — The common plant grown along
the Riviera, often as F. longseva, but more commonly as
F. Bedinghausii, with which the synonymy is confused.

3. Bedinghausii, Koch (Beschorneria multiflora,
Hort. Yucca Pringlei, Greenm. Roezlia or Yucca bulbi-
fera, Hort.). Trunk scarcely 3 ft.: Ivs. rather rigidly
outcurving, lanceolate, acute, rather flat, 2-3 x 18-24
in.: infl. 10-15 ft., the rather narrow panicle little
longer than the scape; fls. 1H in.; ovary and segm.
about equal: caps, broadly oblong, abruptly stipitate;
seeds moderate (14-/4 x % in.): freely bulbiferous, the
bulbels ovoid. Cent. Mex. B.H. 13, p. 327. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:44. G.W. 7, p. 101.

AA. Lvs. smooth-margined, typically toothed, usually

green, not striate. EUFURCR^EA.

B. Prickles rather small and close set: Ivs. narrow;

margin straight.

4. cubensis, Vent. (F. hexapetala, Urban. Agave
cubensis, Jacq. A. bulblfera, Salm? A. hexapetala,
Jacq. A. mexicana, Lam. A. odordta, Pers). Nearly
trunkless: Ivs. narrowly lanceolate, spreading, smooth,
about 2x50 in.; teeth nearly straight, j^-J^in. long,
%-l in. apart: infl. 10-15 ft., long-stalked, nearly
glabrous; fls. 2 in.; ovary fusiform, about equaling the
segm.: caps, small, broad, stipitate; seeds small
(/f-x^j in.): bulbels ovoid. Cuba and Haiti. Jacq.,
Stirp. Amer. : 175. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl.
3:40. — As badly confused as Agave americana
and actually rarely seen in gardens: apparently the
original henequen of early writers on the W. Indies,
its fiber called cabuya. A related Yucatan species,
the cahum, with less lanceolate Ivs. and ovary exceed-
ing the perianth, is F. Cahum, Trel., Ann. Jard. Buiten-
zorg. II. Suppl. 3:39.

BB. Prickles large or prominently raised and rather dis-
tant, curved, — suppressed in certain forms.

c. Shape of Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, large.

5. pubescens, Tod. Nearly trunkless: Ivs. spread-
ing, concave, smooth, about 3x60 in.; teeth Kin.
long, %-l^sin. apart: infl. 15-20 ft., rather short-
stalked, pubescent; fls. 2J4 in.; ovary 1 in.; segm. \l/$
in.: caps, large, broad, variously stipitate: bulbels
ovoid. Mex (?). Giorn. Soc. Sci. Palermo 14:5-7.
Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:43. B.M. 6160(?)
(depauperate). Related species are: F. elegans, Tod.
of Guiana, with Ivs. 5 in. wide with hooked black-
ening teeth K-J^in. long and 1% in. apart, glabrous
long-stalked infl., and leafy-tipped bulbels. Hort.
Panorm. 4. F. macrophylla, Hook., established in
the Bahamas and Jamaica (probably from the south)
with teeth J^in. long and 3J^ in. apart, broad
umbonate caps, and ovoid bulbels. Hook. Icon.
2501. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:37, 45.
F. andina, Trel. (F. Deledevdntii, and F. altissima,
Hort.?), of E. Peru, with nearly as large and distant
teeth, short-stalked infl., cuboid caps, and conical-
ovoid bulbels. Ceara or Pernambuco hemp is ascribed
to F. agavephylla, Brot. (F. cubensis, Mart. Agave
inermis and A. subinermis, Roem.), the caraguata
assu of N. E. Brazil., Marcgrav. & Piso, Brazil, p. Ill,
of this same group.

6. Selloa, Koch. Trunk finally 3-5 ft.: Ivs. spread-
ing, concave and revolute or plicate, rough-backed,
about 3x50 in.; teeth K~/4in. long, !%-!% in.
apart, variously curved: infl. tall, stalked, glabrous;
fls. IK in.; ovary %in.; segm. 1 in.: caps, not known:
freely bulbiferous. Colombia. B.M. 6148. — Frequently
meant when the name F. cubensis is used. A handsome
white- or finally yellow-margined plant, frequent in
cult, is F. Selloa marginata, Trel. (F. Lindenii,
Jacobi. F. cubensis Lindenii, Hort. Agave cubensis
striata, etc., Hort.). Wiesner Festschr., p. 350. I.H.
21:186. G.W. 10, p. 212; 11, p. 135; 16, p. 162. G.C.

1306

FURCR^A

FUS^A

III. 23, p. 227 (as F. gigantea) . A form of this, rosy tinged
and without marginal prickles, edentata, Trel., has been
intro. from the Colombian Andes recently by Pittier.

7. Humboldtiana, Trel. (Yucca acaulis, HBK.).
Trunk finally 10 ft. : Ivs. spreading, nearly flat, grayish,
smooth, 5-6 x 60 in. ; teeth Yy-% in. long, usually
divergently twinned from the tops of green prominences,
1-2M in. apart: infl. 25-40 ft., long-stalked; fls. 2-2J^
in.; ovary £5-! in.; segm. 1^-1 Mi in. Venezuela. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. suppl. 3:38. — Called maguey
de cocui by Humboldt; now commonly known as
cocuiza brava in contrast with an unarmed cult, form,
the cocuiza mansa, which may prove not to differ from
F. inermis, Drum. (F . cubensis inermis, Baker. F.
altissima, Hort. Franceschi) . B.M. 6543. Intermediate

1612. Fussea longifolia.
a, perfect stamen; 6, petal-like staminode; c, fruit.

between this and the next is the cabuya of Cent. Amer.,
F. Cabuya, Trel., which likewise presents armed and
toothless forms. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. III. suppl.
3:36, 37.

8. gigantea, Vent. (F. Barillettii, F. fdetida, Agave
fdetida, Linn. A. gigantea, Aloe fdetida, Crantz. Fii-
nium piliferum, Willem.). Nearly trunkless: Ivs.
broadly oblanceolate, nearly flat, undulate, somewhat
roughened beneath, 5-8x60-100 in., entire: infl. 25 ft.,
long-stalked, rather narrow; fls. 1% in., with ovary and
segm. equal: caps, unknown: freely bulbiferous. S. E.
Brazil. DC., PI. Gr. 126, 126a. Redoute, Lil. 476.
B.M. 2250. Perrine, Senate Doc. 300:5. B.H. 10:34.
Indian For. 35:23. Mart., Fl. Bras. 1:44. Ann. Mus.
Marseille. II; 8, p. 125. Squier, Fibre PL, 2. Jacq. Icon.
379. Commelin, Hort. Amst. 2 : 18. — The Mediterranean
hemp, Mauritius hemp, taretra, green aloe, or pita,
intro. by way of Madagascar and hence called Mal-
gache aloe. Varies with moderate toothing, var.

Willemetiana, Roem. (F. Commellnii, Agave Com-
melinii, Auct.), the Creole aloe. Ann. Jard. Buiten-
zorg. II. Suppl. 3:35. With broad median creamy
variegation, the unarmed form is var. medio-picta,
Trel. (F. gigantea variegata, Hort. F. variegata, Hort.
F. Watsoniana, Hort.). G.C. III. 23, p. 243. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:41, 42, 46-8.

9. tuberosa, Ait. (F. interrupta, F. spinosa, Agave
spinosa, A. campanuldta, A. tuberosa, Yucca superba,
Auct.). Nearly trunkless: Ivs. broadly lanceolate,
nearly flat, 8x50-70 in.; teeth usually Xin. long
and M~1M in. apart, sometimes absent toward the
end or below: infl. 25 ft.: caps, unknown: freely bul-
biferous, the bulbels elongated. Cuba and Haiti and,
in somewhat differing forms, in Porto Rico and through
the Lesser Antilles. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 18:1-4.
R.H. 1877, p. 233. Cyclo. Amer. Agric., II. p. 290. Gt.
1852:3. Yearbook Dept. Agric. 1904:31. Ann.
Mus. Firenze. 1:4. Commelin, Hort. Amts. 2:19.
— Commonly called silk-grass, sometimes maguey
or cocuiza: apparently the Haitian cabuya of early
writers. With the teeth twinned, as they are sometimes
in F. Selloa and characteristically in F. Humboldti-
ana, it is var. geminispina (F. geminispina, Ait.)

WILLIAM TRELEASE.

FURZE: Ulex, particularly U. europxus.

FUS.5JA (probably from Latin fundo, signifying
melted or fused together, referring to the carpels).
Annonacese. South American trees or shrubs, resem-
bling Annona in the form of fruit, a solid, spheroid syn-
carpium composed of one-ovuled carpels fused together,
but differing from that genus in having its petals
imbricate or overlapping and in the outer circles of its
stamens which are sterile and petaloid. — A genus of
very few species. Fusaea longifolia was first described
as Annona longifolia by Aublet. It was afterwards
placed in the genera Duguetia and Aberemoa, from
the last-named of which it was set apart by Baillon
as the type of a subgenus or section Fusaea. In the
genera Duguetia and Aberemoa, however, the carpels
are discrete, or separate, and not fused together; in
the former the indumentum is usually stellate-pubes-
cent or scurfy, and in the latter the carpels are not
only quite distinct but are borne on short pedicels.
From the structural features above mentioned, it is
evident that it .merits generic rank.

longifolia, Safford (Duguetia longifolia, Baill. Annona
longifolia, Aubl.) PINACOUA. CARIB APPLE. Fig. 1612.
A small tree: Ivs. oblong-acuminate, mucronate and
smooth: fls. issuing from near the base of small
branchlets growing from the axils of the If.-scars
of the preceding year, the 2 series of petals much
alike; outer stamens sterile and petaloid: fr. ovate-
globose, resembling a solid ball, its surface reticu-
lated with shallow impressed lines, nearly smooth,
flesh-colored. Guiana. — According to Aublet, the fr.
has a good flavor and is eaten with relish by the
Garipon and Galiba (Carib) Indians of French
Guiana. Intro, into Fla. as a fr.-plant, but very
little known. Closely related to this species and
possibly identical with it is the Peruvian F . rhom-
bipetala, Safford (Annona rhombipetala, Ruiz. & Pav.)
with petals clothed on the outside with appressed
sericeous hairs, outer stamens petaloid and connivent
as in F. longifolia, Hin. long, smooth near the base and
minutely puberulent on the outside near the apex;
and obovate-oblong Ivs. with short thick petioles
and sharply acuminate apices, the midrib and lateral
nerves impressed on the upper surface and prominent
beneath, the extremities of the latter connected by a
submarginal nerve almost continuous from the base
to the apex. w. E. SAFFORD.

G

GAGEA (Sir Thomas Gage, British botanist, died
1820). Liliacese. Seventy-five or more small herbs of
Eu., N. Afr. and east to China and Japan, allied to
Ornithogalum, mostly hardy and sometimes grown in
the open. Fls. white, yellow or rose, few on the top
of the mostly low peduncle or scape: Ivs. radical, mostly
only 1, and sometimes on the st. and represented by
bracts under the umbel: perianth persistent, with dis-
tinct segms.; stamens 6; ovary sessile or short-stipi-
tate, 3-loculed: bulbs small. The gageas require the
cult, of ornithogalums. They appear not to be in the
American trade. G. Liotardii, Schult. f., the gold-star,
is from Eu. and eastward; a well-recommended alpine,
4-6 in. high, with yellow fls., making grassy mats:
radical If. usually 1, fistulose; scape-lvs. 2, one of them
larger and at base convolute. —
G. lutea, Ker (G. fascicularis,
Salisb.), the yellow star-of-Beth-
lehem has yellow fls. with backs
of segms. green, opening only in
forenoon: radical If. 1, linear, 6-
18 in. long: scape short, with 1-
3 bracts. Eu. to Himalayas.
B.M. 1200. G. bracteplaris,
Salisb. (G. stenopetala, Reichb.),
is pale yellow: If. 1 at base, lin-
ear-lanceolate and glaucous; st.-
Ivs. opposite, lanceolate, pubes-
cent and fringed. Eu.

L. H. B.

GAILLARDIA (named for M.
Gaillard, a patron of botany in
France). Composite?. Showy- an-
nual and perennial herbs largely
cultivated in borders and flower-
gardens.

Leaves alternate, more or less
toothed, and spotted : fls. in soli-
tary and usually very showy
heads, the rays yellow and red
and always neutral, the disk-fls.
purple and fertile; involucre
broad, the bracts in 2 or 3 series,
hairy; ligules 3-toothed or 3-cleft,
giying a fringed appearance to
the fls. — There are 12 species,
all American, mostlv from the
far W.

There are two types of gailr
lardias, — the annual forms, which are
derived from G. pulchella and G. amblyo-
don, chiefly from the former; and the
perennials, which issue from G. aristata.
The gaillardias are conspicuous for pro-
fusion and duration of flowers. A constant
succession is produced all summer until
very late into the autumn. Besides their
use as border or bedding plants they are
good for cut-flowers, as they last well in
water. They thrive best in light, open,
well-drained soil, and should have full
sunlight and air. In heavy or wet soils the
plants are often winterkilled. The peren-
nial forms are propagated by division,
seeds or cuttings in August or September;
also by root-cuttings in early spring. They

1613. Gaillardia pulchella var. picta. ( X %)

1614. Gaillardia pulchella,
the form known as G. Loren-
ziana. (XH)

(1307)

usually do not breed true from seed and as better
plants are produced by cuttings it is the most satisfac-
tory method of propagation. G. grandiflora and its
many varieties are garden forms of
G. aristata (see Gt. 49, p. 583. G.
7:499). Some of the more recent in-
troductions have highly colored flow-
ers of extraordinary size, at least 4 to
5 inches in diameter. Another kind
has quilled florets (G. fistulosd) of
which Buffalo Bill is an excellent
example, — a large, pure yellow with
a narrow disk. Vivian Grey is also a
remarkable and most distinct form,
with clear yellow fringed rays, and
disk of the same color. More recent
introductions include G. kermesina
splendens with narrow canary-yellow
rays and rich crimson disk, and G.
sulphurea oculata with pale sulfur,
and bright maroon disk-flowers. Other
trade names referable to no botanical
species are G. hybrida grandiflora,
G. Josephus, G. semiplena, and G. Loi-
selii (=pictaLoiselii, H.F. 11.8:329?).

A. Annual gaillardias: fls. normally
mostly red.

amblyodon, Gay. One to 2 ft.,
erect, leafy, hirsute: lys. oblong or
spatulate, sessile and auriculate, entire
or nearly so: lobes (or teeth) of disk-
corollas short and obtuse; rays numer-
ous, brown-red or maroon through-
out their length. Texas. F.S.21:2149.
— Somewhat cult, amongst garden
annuals, and worthy.

pulchella, Foug. Erect, branching,
12-20 in., soft-pubescent: Ivs. oblong,
lanceolate or spatulate, rather soft,
nearly sessile, either entire or the
lower ones lyrate-pinnatifid : lobes of
disk-fls. acute or awned; heads 2 in.
across, the flat rays yellow at top and
rose-purple at base. Ark. and La. to
Ariz. B.M. 1602; 3551 (as G. tricolor).

Var. picta, Gray (G. picta, Hort.).
Fig. 1613. The common garden form
under cult., having larger heads and
of various colors. B.M. 3368. R.H.
1852:20. V. 16:181. In one form (G.
fistulosa, G. tubulbsa, G. Lorenziana, Hort.),
the ray-florets and sometimes the disk-
florets are enlarged and tubular. Fig. 1614.
R.H. 1881, p. 377; 1885:156.

AA. Perennial gaillardias: fls. nor-
mally yellow.

aristata, Pursh (G. grandiflora, G. lutea,
G. maxima, and G. perennis, Hort.). Erect,
2-3 ft.: Ivs. rather thick, lanceolate or
oblong, sometimes spatulate, varying from
entire to sinuate pinnatifid : lobes of disk-
corollas acute or awned; heads 3-4 in.
across, the flat rays yellow, or in cult,
varying to red (particularly at the base).
Plains W. B.M. 2940. B.R. 1186. Gng.

1308

GAILLARDIA

GALANTHUS

2:345. Gn. 45, p. 325. A.F. 5:329.— This is the com-
mon perennial gaillardia of gardens (cult, under many
names). Blooms the first year from seed. From G.
pulchella it is distinguished by taller growth, firmer lys.,
yellower heads, and less attenuate lobes of the disk-
fls.; but it is practically impossible to distinguish the
two, except that one is annual and the other perennial.

N. TAYLOR, f

GALACTIA (from the Greek, milk; some species
said to yield a milky juice, which is improbable).
Leguminbsse. Prostrate or twining, perennial herbs or
shrubs, mostly of the warm regions of America, only
seldom cultivated.

Plants usually with pinnately 3-9-foliate Ivs., and
axillary, interrupted racemes of perfect, more or less
perigynous fls. : calyx short, 4-lobed, bracted; corolla
papilionaceous; standard broad; stamens 10, diadel-
phous; ovary 1, superior, 1-celled, with many ovules;
style beardless: fr. a linear, straight or slightly curved
legume. Cleistogamous fls. sometimes produced. — There
are many species, but of very little horticultural value.
The two following have been advertised in the past
but are probably not now on the market.

regularis, BSP. (G. glabella, Michx.). Lvs. with 3
Ifts. : panicles mainly shorter than the Ivs.: Ifts. ellip-
tical, often notched at the tip, 1-2 in. long, glabrous:
corolla violet-purple. Dry sandy soil, N. Y. to Fla.
and Miss. B.B. 2:335.

Elliottii, Nutt. Lvs. with 7-9 Ifts.: panicles longer
than the Ivs.: Ifts. elliptic-oblong, notched, pubescent
beneath, ^£-1 % "?• long: corolla white tinged with
red. Dry sandy soil, S. C. to Fla., along the coast.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GALANTHUS (Greek, milk flower). Amaryllidacese.
SNOWDROP. Spring-blooming bulbs (one autumnal),
with solid scapes and solitary nodding white flowers.
Bulb tunicated, small: Ivs. 2-3, strap-shaped: peri-
anth without tube, outer and inner segms. unlike;
stamens 6: fr. a 3-valved caps., more or less fleshy. —
Probably a half-dozen species, in Eu. and W. Asia. The
flowers of snowdrops (G. nivalis, Fig. 1615) are amongst
the smallest and daintiest of common hardy cult,
spring-blooming bulbs. They often bloom in early
March, before all the snow has gone. Their pendulous
white fls., with the "heart-shaped seal of green" dear
to Rossetti, hold a unique place in the affections of
lovers of gardens. At first sight the fls. seem to have
3 large white petals, inclosing a green-and-white tube
with 6 tips, but a second glance
shows that the parts that func-
tion as petals are the outer
segms. of the perianth, while the
3 inner ones, with their 2-lobed
tips, are not grown together, but
overlap slightly,
forming a rather
crude but stiffish
tube. Each plant has
a globose coated bulb,
2-3 Ivs., grows 6-9 in.
high, and bears usu-
ally only 1 nodding
fl., which emerges
from a spathe.
Behind the perianth
is the globose green
ovary.

In a congenial
)t, moist, cool and

shady, the plants in-
crease satisfactorily,
1<51- and sometimes, with-

The snowdrop— out any care what-
Galanthus nivalis. ever, form a bed from
which thousands of

flowers may be picked at what is, perhaps, the most
desolate and wearisome moment of the year. The
leaves are linear and channeled, and in dark, shining
masses make a rich, quiet effect. They come out with
the flowers, attain their full growth later, and com-
monly die down in midsummer or fall. The bulbs are
cheap, and should be ordered in liberal quantities.
Plant in the autumn, as for other hardy bulbs; set 3
to 4 inches deep in mellow soil, and close together.

An era of new interest in snowdrops began about
1875, with the introduction of the "giant" kind (G.
Elwesii, Fig. 1616), but those who do not care for "large
violets" will be likely to cling to the small snowdrops.
Nevertheless, G. Elwesii is very distinct, and should
be the first choice if any large kinds are desired, and to
secure the best forms the connoisseur should buy
imported bulbs of its varieties. The only kinds known
so far to possess a patch of green at the base of the inner
segments are G. Elwesii and G. Fosteri. Considering
that there are only two main types in this genus, G.
nivalis and G. Elwesii, the profusion of Latin names
(especially since 1888, the date of Baker's "Hand-
book of the Amaryllidese") is rather trying, except
to the connoisseur who, unlike the general public, is
chiefly interested in the larger-flowered forms and the
novelties.

There are several types of minor importance. The
autumn-flowering kinds, representing many Latin
names, as G. octobrensis, G. corcyrensis, G. Regime-
Olgse, are usually weak-growing plants. However,
much is hoped from G. cilicicus, especially by the
florists, who have hitherto found no snowdrop that
could be profitably forced for Christmas. Doubleness
seems to add nothing to the beauty of snowdrops. So
far it seems to have affected only the inner segments
of G. nivalis and G. Elwesii. Yellow snowdrops are
also practically unknown in America. In these the
heart-shaped spot and the ovary are yellow instead of
green. Of these, G. flavescens is perhaps one of the
best.

INDEX.

byzantinus, 12. Gotwaldii, 12. octobrinus, 1.

Cassaba, 5. graecus, 6. plicatus, 10.

caucasicus, 4. grandiflorus, 11. poculiformis, 5.

cilicicus, 2. Ikarise. 8. Redoutei, 4.

corcyrensis, 1. Imperati, 3. reflexus, 1.

Elwesii, 5. latifolius, 7. robustus, 5.

Erithrse, 5. maximus, 4, 11. Sharlpckii, 1.

flavescens, 1. nivalis. 1. unguiculatus, 5.

Fosteri, 9. ochrospilus, 5. WhMallii, 5.

globosua, 5. octobrensis, 1.

A. Lvs. merely channeled, not plaited.

B. Width of Ivs. small, 8-4 lines.

c. Base of Ivs. not very narrow.

1. nivalis, Linn. (G. Shdrlockii, Hort.). COMMON
SNOWDROP. Figs. 1615, 1616. Bulb 6712 lines thick:
basal sheath split down one side: Ivs. linear, glaucous,
finally 6-9 in. long: outer perianth -segms. oblong,
6-12 lines long; inner segms. green only at the sinus.
Feb., March. Pyrenees to Caucasus. R.H. 1880, p.
148. G.M. 34:154. G.C. II. 11:237. Gt. 48, p. 232.—
There are large-fld. and double forms. Var. corcyrensis
and others flower in Nov. G.W. 2, p. 250. At least 2
varieties have yellow instead of green markings. Var.
flavescens, S. Arn. The markings on the inner segms.
of the perianth and on the ovary are yellow, and the
sts. are more yellow than green. Useful for Alpine gar-
dens. G. 31:149. Var. reflexus has outer segms.
reflexed. G.M. 34:155. Var. octobrensis (var. octo-
brinus, Voss. G. octobrensis, Hort.) . Albania. Known
in cult, as a form blooming in England late in Oct.

cc. Base of Ivs. very narrow.

2. cilicicus, Baker. Less robust than G. Fosteri, with
much narrower Ivs., which are narrowed gradually
from the middle to a very narrow base. Green color
as in G. nivalis. Bulb J^in. thick: Ivs. whitish beneath:

GALANTHUS

GALANTHUS

1309

outer segms. oblong, 9 lines long, 3-4 lines broad;
stamens more than half as long as the inner segms. Mt.
Taurus, in Cilicia, where it flowers Nov. to March.
Intro, 1898. See G.C. III. 21 : 214. Pictured in G.C. III.
23:79. A.F. 13:1137. Gng. 6:244. F.E. 11:282. Gt.
48, p. 228. Gn. 73, p. 88.

BB. Width of Ivs. medium, 6-9 lines long.

c. Foliage moderately glaucous.
D. Outer segms. of perianth 12-15 lines long.

3. Imperati, Bertol. Lvs. broader than in G. nivalis,
and fls. larger: outer corolla-segms. spatulate, 1-134
in. long. Naples and Genoa. This and G. caucasicus
are regarded by Baker as subspecies of G. nivalis.
G.C. II. 11:237. G.M. 34:155. Gn. 76, p. 119.

DD. Outer segms. 9—12 lines long.

4. caucasicus, Baker (G. Redoutei, Rupr.). Lvs.
finally 8-9 in. long, mostly 9 lines broad : outer perianth-
segms. oblong-spatulate, with a very narrow claw; fls.
later than G. nivalis. Caucasus. Van Tubergen seems to
catalogue veuc.mdximus of this species, but consult No. 11.

cc. Foliage very glaucous.
D. Inner segms. with lobes rather spreading or crisped.

5. Elwesii, Hook. GIANT SNOWDROP. Fig. 1616.
Bulb larger and fls. more globose than in G. nivalis:
outer segms. oblong-spatulate, 9-15 lines long, 6-9 lines
broad; inner segms. green in the lower half and also
around the sinus. Mountains of Asia Minor. B.M.
6166. R.H. 1880, p. 148. G.C. II. 11:236. G.M.
34:154. Gn. M. 2:117; 12:112.— The inner segms. are
narrowed suddenly just below the apical lobes, which
are square and much larger than in G. Fosteri. They
also form a narrower tube than in any other species.
Dealers have advertised vars. Cassaba (A. F. 3:471.
C.L.A. 5:135. Gng. 5:180. Gt. 48, p. 225. Gn. 55,
p. 206), ochrospilus (has pale yellow coloring on the
inner segms.), unguiculatus has a long claw at the tip
of each outer segm. (G.C. III. 17:361), and Erithrae.
Var. globosus has almost globular fls., larger than in
the type, and very broad Ivs. Var. Whittallii (Gn. 57,
p. 45; 59, p. 262) seems to belong here. Var. poculiformis,
a large and robust form with the inner and outer
segms. both pure white. Perhaps not in Amer. and
rare in England. — G. robustus, Hort., seems never to
have been accounted for by Baker. It may perhaps be
G. Elwesii var. robustus which is a trade name. It is
broad-lvd and glaucous.

DD. Inner segms. with lobes not spreading or crisped.

6. graecus, Orph. Very near G. Elwesii, but differing
as above and in the smaller fls. and narrower outer
segms., and the very limited distribution of the wild
species. April. Chios.

BBB. Width of Ivs. greatest, 9-12 lines.

c. Green color only near the sinus.
D. Colored on both sides of the inner segms.

7. latifdlius, Rupr. Bulb. 1 in. thick: Ivs. lorate,
bright green: outer segms. oblong-spatulate, 6-9 lines
long; inner segms. green around the sinus, inside and
put; anthers suddenly narrowed to a sharp point, while
in G. nivalis and G. Elwesii they are gradually narrowed.
Caucasus, where it flowers in May. G.C. II. 11:237:
15:404. Gt. 48, p. 229.

DD. Colored on only one side.

8. Ikariae, Baker. Resembles G. Fosteri in foliage,
and G. Elwesii not in coloring but in the square, crisp
lobes of the inner segms. which tend to recurve: outer
segms. nearly 1 in. long; stamens rather shorter than
the inner segms.; green color occupying half the out-
side of the inner segms. Island of Nikaria (the classical
Ikaria). See G.C. III. 13:506. Gn. 52, p. 361: 49,
p. 330. G. 30:153. G.M. 52:146.— Intro. 1893.

cc. Green color also on the lower half of the inner segms.

9. Fosteri, Baker. Resembles G. latifolius in foliage
and G. Elwesii in fl., but the apical lobes of the inner
segms. are short and erect, and smaller than in G.
Elwesii; also the stamens are not more than half so
long as the inner segms., while in G. nivalis, G. Elwesii
and G. latifolius they are three-fourths as long. Asia
Minor. Intro. 1889. G.M. 34:154. G. 35:193.

AA. Lvs. plaited, the edges permanently rolled back.
B. Green color only near the sinus.

10. plicatus, Bieb. Bulb larger than in G. nivalis:
Ivs. about 12 in. long, and 1 in. wide, very glaucous:
outer perianth-segms. ob-
long from a very narrow

base, very convex on the
back, 9^12 lines long, wide-
spreading or even reflexed;
inner segms. green in the
upper half, with a white
edge. March, April.
Crimea. This is much
confounded with G. cauca-
sicus. G.C. II. 11:236.
B.R. 545. B.M. 2162. G.
M. 34:155.

1616. Galanthus nivalis and G. Elwesii. The upper flowers are
G. nivalis; the lowest one is G. Elwesii; the middle flowers are a
variety of G. Elwesii.

11. grandiflSrus, Baker (G. mdximus, Baker, not
Velenovsky). Possibly a hybrid between G. plicatus
and some form of G. nivalis, remarkable for its robust
habit and green color, extending more than half way
down toward the base of the inner segms. Intro.
1893. See G.C. III. 13:354, 656. See also G. caucasicus
var. maximus, No. 4.

BB. Green color also on the lower half of the inner segms.

12. byzantinus, Baker (G. Gotwaldii, Hort.).
Intermediate between G. plicatus and G. Elwesii. "Lvs.
3 in. broad," which seems hardly possible, glaucous on
both sides, especially beneath; margins distinctly and
permanently recurved: outer segms. oblong, convex
on back, 9 lines long, 4 lines broad, apical lobes some-
what reflexed and crisped; stamens much shorter than
inner segms. Intro. 1893. See G. C. III. 13:226.

G. Attenii, Baker, has cone-shaped fls., pure white, but the petals
"crimped into a distinctly large, horseshoe-like patch of green just
below the wavy fold of the tips." Gn. 67, p. 53. — G. Atkinsii,
Hort. Two plants seem to be cult, under this name, according to
S. Arn., one a pure white one, the other frequently has an addi-
tional perianth-segm., also misshapen blooms. Both are scarcely
known outside of England. Gn. 74, p. 154. By some supposed to
be a form of G. nivalis. — G. Olgse, Orph. Outer segms. about 1 in.
long; inner ones half as long, plaiiL white, with rounded lobes.
Blooms in Oct. Greece. — G. Reginx-Olgse, Hort.=G. Olgse.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

1310

GALAX

GALAX

GALAX (from the Greek meaning milk; applica-
tion obscure). Diapensiacese. One acaulescent plant,
much prized for its stiff bronzy root-leaves.

Calyx imbricated, persistent; petals 5, hypogynous,
oblong-spatulate, entire, adnate to the base of the
monadelphous stamens; the stamen-tube 10-toothed,
the 5 teeth alternating with the petals antheriferous,
the others petaloid; anthers transversely dehiscent;
pistil 1; ovary superior, 3-celled, many-ovuled; style
ehort: fr. a loculicidal, 3-valved caps.; seeds with a

1617. Galax aphylla.

loose cellular testa. — This genus contains but a single
species. It belongs to a small family which was much
more extensive in past geologic times, but is now on the
way to extinction. A large industry has arisen in
recent years consisting in the marketing of immense
quantities of galax lys. for decorative purposes, espe-
cially at Christmas time; but the Ivs. are also used at
other times in wreaths and bouquets. The bronzy
autumn coloration of the Ivs. adds to their attractive-
ness. They are collected in the mountains of N. C. and
Va. The plants are grown also in rockeries. It is
recommended to plant in rockeries with northern
exposure, shade, and some moisture. Prop, by division,
aphylla, Linn. (Blandfordia cordata, Andr.). GALAX.
Fig. 1617. Evergreen, perennial herbs: rootstock thick,
matted, creeping: Ivs. basal, tufted, round-heart-shaped,
with narrow sinus, crenate, shining, conspicuously pal-
mately netted-veined, 1-3 in. broad, on long slender
petioles: scape 1-2 J^ ft. high; spike-like raceme dense,
2-5 in. long; fls. small, white, lJ^-2 lines broad. In dry
woods chiefly in the mountains, Va. to Ga., and along
the coast, Va. to N. C. B.M. 754. G.F. 5:605 (adapted
in Fig. 1617). G.M. 44:223. Gn. 59, p. 187.— Called
also colts-foot or beetle-weed. j£. M. WIEGAND.

Galax leaves were used for decorative purposes in a
commercial way only as far back as 1890, when they
were introduced to the northern florist trade by the
writer, who had experimented with them for several
years before that date, sending to hospitals and indi-
viduals. The reports received fully justified the intro-

ducer in advertising the leaf widely as a florist's deco-
rative material for making up wreaths, crosses, and in
fact all designs for which ivy leaves up to that time
had been employed almost exclusively. Today galax
leaves have to a great extent taken the place of ivy
leaves, being less expensive, more easily handled and
kept, and furnishing long wiry stems. The brilliant
bronze leaves supply a color long needed in this class of
work. The sizes also of the leaves vary from J/2 inch or
less to 5 inches diameter, again making their uses very
varied. Small green galax leaves are now used exten-
sively for bunching with violets, taking the place of the
violet leaves. One of the features of the holiday season
in Boston is the fakir with his stand of violets bunched
with green galax. They come in again and are used the
same way at the first touch of spring, when the early
trailing arbutus or "mayflower" appears on the street.
They can be arranged to cover much more space than
the ivy leaves, and do not have to be wired, as is the
case with the latter. The keeping qualities of galax are
remarkable, and they are now used the year round from
cold storage. Outdoor designs, as in cemeteries, will
keep fresh and bright for months if not dried out, but
otherwise require no care. A favorite arrangement of
galax leaves is to place them loosely in a small vase,
where they will retain their bright colors and shape for
weeks, even in a close warm room, though most of the
leaves are used, commonly with flowers, in designs
made up by the florist. As a Christmas decoration
they stand preeminent, and their general good quali-
ties mentioned above cause them to be used through-
out the year, more, perhaps, than any other decorative
green, ferns possibly excepted.

In Philadelphia, some time ago, an enterprising
young woman introduced a novel and taking innova-
tion in the shape of potted galax plants for society din-
ners. Small, brilliantly colored green and bronze
leaves were arranged in tiny pots, specially designed
by Messrs. Sackett & Company, and placed at each
plate, to be carried away by the guests as souvenirs.
They were also sold through one of Philadelphia's
leading merchants by thousands.

The larger cities, Boston, New York, Philadelphia
and Chicago, use the largest quantities, though many of
these are retailed again to smaller cities and towns all
over the United States and Canada, and there is a large
export trade now established in them, mostly to Ger-
many and the Netherlands.

The area over which galax is collected extends from
Virginia to Georgia, and is so vast that there is no dan-
ger of exterminating the plant by collecting the leaves,
even if they were injured thereby, which does not seem
to be the case. It is not practicable to grow the plants
for the harvest of leaves, at least in America, the pro-
cess being too expensive. Under cultivation they would
perhaps not average one perfect salable leaf to a plant,
as a speck or wormhole renders the leaf unfit for deco-
rative purposes. In Europe galax has been tried with
varying success under glass, the leaves bringing a very
high price.

Galax aphylla is a beautiful ground-covering plant,
specially adapted to the rhododendron border, where
the soil and situation alike are suitable to its growth;
it delights in shade and a cool, moist, peaty loam. Its
charms are far better known in England, however, than
at home. The leaves, when full grown, are always
bright green, the brilliant bronze shades appearing
later when the plant ripens and the frosts begin. Then
when they are exposed to the direct rays of the sun the
alternating freezing and sun action cause the leaves to
turn in a short time, though sometimes this occurs to an
extent before any freezing weather, when the sap starts
downward. In dense shade they always remain green.
In spring, when the sap begins to start, the leaves often
turn green or dingy again, and eventually die down the
second season. HARLAN P. KELSEY.

GALBANUM

GALIUM

1311

GALBANUM: Gums and Resins.

GALEANDRA (Greek for helmet and stamen). Orchid-
acese, tribe Vdndeas. Deciduous epiphytes, to be grown
under warmhouse conditions.

Plants with jointed thickened sts.: Ivs. distichous,
membranaceous : labellum inf undibuliform ; sepals and
petals equal, spreading; column erect, winged; pollinia
2.— Six species in Trop. Amer. Cult, as for Eulophia.

Devoniana, Lindl. St. erect: Ivs. linear-
lanceolate, sheathing at base : sepals and petals
lanceolate, reddish brown, with green margins;
labellum whitish, veined in front with crim-
son. From the banks of the Rio Negro. B.M.
4610. I.H. 21:176. A.F. 6:609. J.F. 2:195.
V.0.9:8.

Baueri, Lindl. Sts. subcylindric, nearly
fusiform: Ivs. lanceolate: racemes terminal,
drooping; fls. large; sepals and petals similar,
lanceolate, yellowish; labellum pale yellow in
the throat, interior portion purplish. Mex., S.
B.R. 26:49. P.M. 14:49.

D'Escagnolleana, Reichb. f. Sts. terete,
tapering both ways: Ivs. lanceolate, pointed:
racemes terminal and drooping; sepals and
petals similar, ascending, narrow, yellowish;
lip funnelform or nearly bell-form, fluted,
with a rose-purple blotch on the lower limb.
Brazil. I.H. 34:22 (1887).

G. nimlis. Mast. Racemes short, few-fld., fls. about
2 in. across; sepals and petals light olive-green, the
funnel-like lip white with a purple blotch. Trop. Amer.
V.O. 9:9. G.W. 14, p. 307. QAKES AMES

GEORGE V. NAsn.f

GALEDUPA: Pongamia.

GALEGA (Greek, gala, milk: supposed to
increase the flow of milk). Leguminosse.
Bushy perennials not very commonly cultivated in
America.

Of 120 names of species in this genus, only 6 are now
retained, most of the others being referred to Tephrosia.
The plants mentioned below are hardy herbaceous
perennials of the easiest cult., about 3 ft. high, with odd-
pinnate Ivs. and pea-shaped fls. of purplish blue or
white. They do not require frequent division, make
bushy plants, and bear in July and Aug. many dense,
axillary and terminal racemes of fls., which are useful
for cutting. Seeds of goat's rue are still offered abroad
among miscellaneous agricultural seeds, but the plants
are little known in this country. They are native in
S. Eu. and W. Asia.

A. Lfts. lanceolate: stipules broadly lanceolate.
officinalis, Linn. GOAT'S RUE. Fig. 1618. Height
2-3 ft.: Ifts. mucronate: fls. purplish blue. Eu., W.
Asia. G.M. 49:57. Var. alba or albiflora is commoner
in cult. Gn. 50, p. 269. G.L. 22:294. J.H. III.
48:557. Var. Hartlandii, Hort., has large spikes
of lilac fls. and the young foliage variegated. A.F.
22:695. — A rose-colored variety is sold as var. carnea,
Hort., which is also known in a double-fld. form; a
dwarf, compact, lilac-fld. variety sold under the name
var. compacta, is also known.

AA. Lfts. lanceolate: stipules broadly ovate.
orientalis, Lam. Foliage and stipules larger: fls. pur-
plish blue, nodding: pods pendulous. Caucasus. B.M.
2192. Gn. W. 23:147. B.R. 326.— Height 2^-4 ft.:
rootstock creeping: st. simple. N. TAYLOR.!

GALEOBDOLON: Lamium.

GALEOPSIS (weasel-like, from some fancied resem-
blance). Labiatse. HEMP NETTLE. Several weedy
European plants, some of them naturalized in this
country, rarely cult, in gardens. Annuals, of spreading

1618. Galega officinalis.

habit, opposite Ivs. that are dentate or entire, and red,
yellowish or variegated fls. in whorls toward the top of
the st. : calyx with 5 nearly equal teeth; corolla widened
in the throat, bearing an entire arched upper lip and a
palate with 2 teeth. G. Ladanum, Linn., is canescent,
with very narrow, nearly or quite entire Ivs. : fls. rose-
red or red, sometimes spotted yellow: 8-12 in.: there
are forms with broader Ivs. and also narrow Ivs., and
otherwise variable. G. versico-
lor, Curt., has hispid sts., ovate
coarsely toothed Ivs., and large
yellowish fls. with purple spot
on lower lip: by some con-
sidered to be a form of the
next with larger yellow-and-
purple fls. and an arched rather
than flat upper lip. G. Tetfahit,
Linn., is bristly-hairy with st.
swollen beneath the joints,
erect: Ivs. ovate, toothed: fls.
purplish or white or parti-
colored. L. H. B.

GALEORCHIS (in reference
to the hood-like organ formed
of the united sepals). Orchi-
ddceae. Orchids with fleshy roots :
st. scape-like, with 2 basal Ivs. :
fls. in a short, loose spike, ex-
ceeded by the large
bracts; sepals united,
forming a hood; petals
connivent; lip entire,
spurred; column short;
pollinia granulose, 1
mas in each sac, tailed.
^spect&bilis, Rydb.
(Orchis spectdbilis,
Linn.). SHOWY ORCHIS. St. up to 1 ft. tall, 5-angled:
spike 3-6-fld.; fls. violet-purple, variegated with lighter
purple and white. N.E.N.Amer. GEORGE V. NASH.

GALIUM (Galion was the name of a plant men-
tioned by Dioscorides as used in curdling milk. G.
verum is locally used abroad for this purpose). Rubia-
cese. BEDSTRAW or LADIES' BEDSTRAW, so-called because
of the legend that one of these plants was in the hay
on which the mother of Christ rested. Mostly weak or
slender herbaceous plants with square, often barbed
stems, and whorled leaves.

Flowers very small, perfect, epigynous; calyx almost
or quite obsolete; corolla gamopetalous, rotate, deeply
4-parted; divisions in our species acute or acuminate;
stamens 4; ovary inferior, 2-celled, forming a 2-lobed,
2-seeded, dry, indehiscent fr.; the lobes nearly globular.
— About 220 species in various parts of the world.
Noted for the recurved-scabrous sts. of many species,
mathematical habit due to the whorled Ivs., and the
fine fluffy fls. The profuse-flowering species noted
below are often used in rockeries and flower-beds for
the regular but soft and filmy effect, which is similar
to that of gypsophila. As cut-fls., they are used to
lighten the effect of heavier fls.

A. F Is. yellow.

verum, Linn. YELLOW BEDSTRAW. Perennial from
a somewhat woody base: sts. erect, smooth, tufted,
1-3 ft. high: Ivs. in 8's or 6's, linear, %-l in. long;
apex bristle-tipped: panicle ample, its lower branches
exceeding the Ivs. Eu., now also a weed in fields in
the E. U. S. — A very good plant for rockeries and banks.

AA. Fls. white.
B. Lvs. in 4's, lanceolate, several-nerved.

boreale, Linn. NORTHERN BEDSTRAW. Perennial,
stoloniferous, forming patches: sts. smooth, 1-3 ft.

1312

GALIUM

GARCINIA

high, erect, strict: Ivs. %-\% in. long; apex not bristle-
tipped: panicle ample: fr. usually minutely bristly.
Rocky soil, Que. to Alaska and south to Pa. and Colo. —
Useful in rockeries and flower-beds.

BB. Lvs. in 8's or 6's, oblanceolate to linear.
Molltlgo, Linn. WILD MADDER. WHITE or GREAT
HEDGE BEDSTRAW. Perennial, smooth: sts. erect or
diffuse, 1-3 ft. high, mostly in clumps: Ivs. ^-1 in.
long, bristle-tipped, 1 -nerved : panicle ample: fr. smooth.
Eu., but a weed in fields in the eastern states. — This
plant is known in some places as "baby's breath," but
this name is properly given to gypsophila.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GALPHIMIA (anagram of Malpighia). Malpighia-
cese. Woody plants, sparingly introduced in Florida
and southern California.

Shrubs or subshrubs: Ivs. opposite, small, slightly
glaucous on both sides or beneath, entire or obscurely
toothed, glandular at the margin or base of blade or at
the tip of the If .-stalk: clusters terminal; fls. yellow or
reddish; calyx without glands; petals toothed, clawed,
spreading: fr. a 3-parted caps., not winged. — Species
15 or more, from S. Texas to Brazil, largely Mexican.
Little known as cult, plants, although a few species
have been mentioned in hort. literature abroad, and
the two following are listed in Calif. G. brasiliensis,
A. Juss. Shrub: Ivs. ovate or lanceolate, about 1 in.
long, reddish, glabrous, glaucous beneath: fls. small,
yellow, in short lax panicles, said to be bright in winter
in Calif.; pedicels jointed at base; petals ovate-lanceo-
late, obtuse, scarcely twice longer than calyx. Brazil.
G. hirsuta, Cav. Shrub: Ivs. bright green, ovate,
acute, twice larger than in preceding, hairy both sides:
fls. larger, in longer panicles, yellow. Mex.,
where it is known as "ramo de oro." G. nitida,
cult, in Fla., is apparently G. glauca, Cav.
(Thrydttis glaiica, Kuntze), native from Mex. to
Panama and naturalized in the W. Indies. See
Thryallis, with which Galphimia is combined by
recent students. L. H. B.

GALTONIA (after Sir Francis Galton, the dis-
tinguished author and anthropologist, 1822-1911).
Liliacex. GIANT SUMMER HYACINTH. Large and
handsome Cape bulbs, of three species, one of them
being cultivated in the open for summer bloom.

Scape or peduncle, 2-4 ft. high, from a tuni-
cated bulb: Ivs. long and large, more or less
fleshy, all from the crown: fls. white or tinged
green, large, in an open raceme,; perianth-tube
short, oblong or club-shaped; stamens 6, with
linear-oblong versatile anthers: fr. an oblong 3-
valved caps., containing many angled black
seeds. — The genus differs from Hyacinthus mainly
by its more numerous and
flattened crowded seeds.
The other 2 species are
inferior to the following,
which was intro. by Leicht-
lin in the early seventies
of last century, and now
holds a permanent place in
horticulture. The plants
prefer a rich, open, moist
soil.

candicans, Decne.
( Hyadnthus cdndicans,
Baker). Fig. 1619. Bulb
large, round, coated: Ivs.
4-6, lorate-lanceolate, 2^
ft. long: scape often 4 ft.
high; racemes 20-30-fld.;
fls. fragrant, pure white,
1-1 J^ in. long, the tube
oblong; stamens about

1619. Summer hyacinth,
Galtonia candicans.

Kin. long, inserted high in the tube. F.S. 21:2173.
G.C. 1871 : 380, desc. ; 1872 : 1099 ; II. 15 : 273. G. 28 : 687.
Gn. 62, p. 361; 64, p. 158; 69, p. 163. J.H. III. 45:262;
47:583. R.H. 1882, p. 32. P.G. 3:101. A.G. 17:281.
—The plants should be heavily mulched if left put-
doors where winters are severe. In favored localities
the bulbs may be left for several years with increas-
ingly better results. Large clumps are desirable.

G. clavdta, Baker. Bulb ovoid, 3-4 in. diam.: Ivs. 6-8, soft,
2-2% ft. long, with whitish margin: scape 2 ft., bearing a lax
raceme; fls. with a clavate tube which is 1 in. long and which is
twice as long as the segms. B.M. 6885. — G. prlnceps, Decne.
Much like G. candicans, but fls. fewer and raceme shorter:
stamens inserted below middle of tube. y TI fi +

GAMOGYNE (name refers to the united ovaries).
Aracese. Two erect small herbs from the Malaysian
region, bearing attractive colored inclined spathes: Ivs.
narrow, thickish, tapering into petiole : spadix included
in the spathe: fls. apetalous; anthers truncate; ovaries
united. G. pulchra, N. E. Br. Peduncles erect, terete,
reddish brown, about 6 in. long: spathe bright crimson,
about 1 % in. long, spreading or almost nodding, closed
except at top: stigmas red: spadix with neuter organs
at base. B.M. 8330. G. Burbidgei, N. E. Br. Spathe
less brightly colored: stigmas greenish yellow: spadix
with neuter organs between the male and female parts.

GAMOLEPIS (Greek for united scales; referring to
the involucre). Composite. Flower-garden plants.

Leaves alternate and mostly pinnatisect: peduncles
1-headed, the heads bearing 1 series of yellow, pistillate
rays, the disk-fls. perfect: achenes without pappus,
wingless and glabrous. — About a dozen S. African
herbs or small shrubs, somewhat allied botanically to
Chrysanthemum .

Tagetes, DC. (G. dnmia, Less.). Fig. 1620. An-
nual, of wiry growth, a foot or less high, much
branched and very floriferous: Ivs. pinnate or pin-
nately parted, 5-7 lobes or Ifts. on either side of the
rachis and Ifts. entire or lobed: involucre nearly or
quite urn-shaped, the scales joined more than half
then* length; fls.-heads bright yellow or orange,
%hi. across. R.H. 1896, p. 412. Gn. 25, p. 407 (both
as G. Tagetes). — Hardy or half-hardy. Of easiest
cult, from seeds in sunny places, and most excellent
for ribbon borders and for low mass effects. Con-
tinuous bloomer. £, jj 3.

GARClNIA (Laurence Garcin, who lived and col-
lected in India, and wrote in the eighteenth cen-
tury). Guttiferae. This genus includes the mango-
steen, which is declared by some connoisseurs to
be one of the most luscious of all tropical fruits;
also the gamboge tree, whose resinous juice yields
a well-known pigment and purgative.

Garcinia is a polymorphous genus of upward
of 150 species in the tropics of Asia, Africa and
Polynesia. The species are glabrous trees, usually
with a yellow juice: Ivs. evergreen, opposite or ter-
nate, simple, often thick:
fls. solitary or fascicled,
polygamous or dioecious;
sepals and petals 4; sta-
mens in .male fl. many,
2- or 3-delphous; female
fls. with staminodia; ovary
2- to many-celled, with
sessile stigma and solitary
ovule in each cell. — The
mangosteen is cultivated
in the West Indies; the
gamboge tree is also cult,
in S. Fla.; it is a broad-
leaved tree of slow growth.
The mangosteen is about
the size and shape of an

GARDEN CITIES

1313

orange, with a rind of similar thickness and edible
segments of form and arrangement like those of an
orange. It is brilliantly colored outside with rich pur-
ple. The flavor is said to suggest something between
a grape and a peach. Numberless efforts are said to
have been made to naturalize this tree in the tropics
without success. The successful ripening of this fruit
under glass may be regarded
as an achievement. See
Mangosieen.

Mangostana, Linn. MAN-
GOSTEEN. Height 20-30 ft.:
Ivs. 7-10 in. long, elliptic-
oblong, acuminate, leathery,
nerves horizontal and very
numerous: fls. (male) IK in.
diam., purple or yellow-red,
in few-fld. terminal fascicles;
sepals orbicular, and petals
broad-ovate and fleshy: fr.
about 2% in- diam., dark
purple with large flat seeds.
Malay region. B.M.4847. L.
B.C. 9:845. F.S. 22:2359.
G.C. II. 4:657. G.W. 3, p. 8.

Morella, Desr. GAMBOGE
TREE. Height 30-50 ft. : Ivs.
more tapering at both ends,
4-6 in. long, the veins indis-
tinct: fls. yellowish, male fls.
about 3 in the axils, the
sepals very small; female fls. 1620- Gamolepis

larger, solitary, the stammodes Tagetes. A good yel-
about 12: fr. resembling a low-fld. composite
Morello cherry in size, slightly for edgings. (X%)
4-lobed. Bengal to Siam.
L. H. B.f

GARDEN and GARDENING. The word garden
etymologically means an inclosed space, and garden-
ing is historically distinguished from agriculture by
being within an inclosure of some kind instead of in
the open fields. Gardening operations are usually
conducted on a smaller scale than those of agriculture
and by more intensive methods. Gardening and horti-
culture are really synonymous terms, but, by usage, a
horticulturist is supposed to have a more extended
training and wider range of activities than a gardener.
Moreover, the word gardening now suggests more of
the private, homelike and personal point of view,
whereas the most distinctive feature of American hor-
ticulture is the immense commercial importance of
fruit-growing on a large scale, and a marked emphasis
of the professional side of a fruit-grower's work; and
in later years, it is marked also by the very extensive
vegetable-gardening and floricultural development.
The history and discussion of gardening are, therefore,
set forth in this book under Horticulture. Large private
places are often divided into fruit-garden, kitchen-
garden and flower-garden. Fruit-growing (which see) is
the same as pomology. Kitchen-gardening, in its widest
sense, is the same as vegetable-gardening (which see), or
the more learned word, olericulture; but the expression
kitchen-gardening is now less common, and usually
indicates the private and uncommercial point of view,
whereas market-gardening and truck-gardening (which
are practically the same) are now the chief words
used for the wholesale and commercial side of vege-
table-gardening in the United States. Flower-gar-
dening, a third primary division of gardening, is the
same as floriculture (which see). Under ornamental
gardening and landscape gardening are explained the
two different points of view in the use of plants and
flowers for their own separate values or when grouped
for artistic effects, the nature-like or picturesque con-
ception being set forth under landscape gardening, and

84

the artificial or merely decorative styles under orna-
mental gardening.

It is customary to speak of gardening as the amateur
and personal practice of horticulture. One makes a
garden. One derives from the garden not only the
plants and products that may be harvested, but also
the satisfactions in plant-growing, the reaction to forms,
fragrances and colors, and the
gain of close contact with the
out-of-doors. The first garden
that one may have should be
personal, for his own growth
and development. Naturally,
this will be in some personal or
retired part of the grounds. In
recent years, however, there has
been a marked socialization of
gardening, making it a contribu-
tion to public cleanliness and
beauty and a means of educating
the people. In America, this ap-
plication of the gardening spirit
to civic improvement has been
very marked, as evidenced in
the taking away of fences be-
tween adjoining properties and
the development of a street as a
unit. This is a great gain to
public spirit and to social feel-
ing; but this in no way interferes
with the personal garden for the

sheer love of it, to be grown in a place all one's own.
Persons desiring to find advice on specific gardening
matters, should refer to the different genera under their
respective heads; also to the articles under Landscape
Gardening, and to such cultural entries as Alpine
Plants, Annuals, Arboriculture, Autumn Gardening,
Banks, Bedding, Biennials, Border, Bulbs, Evergreens,
Ferns, Herbary, House-plants, Orchids, Palms, Peren-
nials, Rock-Gardening, Shrubbery, Spring-Gardening,
Subtropical Gardening, Succulents, Vegetable-Garden-
ing, Wall-Gardening, Water-Gardening, Kitchen-Garden,
Wild-Garden, and others. L. H. B.

GARDEN CITIES. Instead of being a community
in which gardens are the dominant feature, the garden-
city form of urban dwelling-place implies primarily
an industrial town of limited size and of definitely
advanced economic ideals. While there were in Eng-
land, where the idea originated, several prior develop-
ments, the example which has best typified the aims
and practicability of the garden city is that sometimes
known as Letchworth, but actually named Garden
City, in Hertfordshire, about thirty-five miles from
London. The genesis of this enterprise appears to
have been in the reception given to a little book
entitled "To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform,"
issued in 1898, and written by Ebenezer Howard, then
a London stenographer. The stated purpose was "to
organize a migratory movement of population from
our over-crowded centers to sparsely settled rural com-
munities." In detail, Howard proposed "to find for
our industrial population work at wages of higher pur-
chasing power, and to secure healthier surroundings
and more regular employment. To enterprising manu-
facturies, cooperative societies, architects, engineers,
builders and mechanicians of all kinds, as well as to
many engaged in various professions, it is intended to
offer a means of securing new and better employment
for their capital and talents, while to agriculturists it
is designed to open a new market for their produce
close to their doors. Its object is, in short, to raise
the standard of health and comfort of all true workers
of whatever grade, the means by which these objects
are to be achieved being a healthy, natural and eco-
nomic combination of town and country life, and this

1314

GARDEN CITIES

GARDENIA

on land owned by the municipality." It will be observed
that this is not a proprietory enterprise.

Howard considered that people aggregated them-
selves into the cities because of the "attractions" there,
of various kinds. In the nature of the case, certain
magnets attract to the town or city, and certain other
magnets attract to the country. He would combine
these magnets into a town-country habitation. He
expressed the idea in a chart, Fig. 1621.

The reception given to this idea was so favorable that
in 1902 a corporation was organized "to promote and
further the distribution of the industrial population
upon the land upon the lines suggested in Ebenezer
Howard's book," which in 1904 began operations. It
is interesting to note that among the subscribers to
this company's stock were George Cadbury and Sir

THE

THREE MAGNETS.

jfjgjjj

WHEBI YOU. THEY Go?

TOWN-COUNTRY.*--

1621. The three magnets that Mr. Howard considers to be the
attractions for the people.

W. H. Lever, both of whom had previously established
with success industrial villages upon a proprietary
plan — Bournville and Port Sunlight.

While it is not the province of this sketch to discuss
in detail the sociological features either of Garden
City in England, or of its German prototype at Hel-
lerau, near to and dependent upon the great German
enterprise of the Krupps at Essen, it is proper to report
the steady growth of the Letchworth scheme (so called
because of the name of the largest estate purchased for
establishing the Garden City), and to note the removal
thither of several large industries, of which it is said
that "printing, book-binding and various branches of
engineering are the chief industries, and there are at
least a dozen others." Garden City had, in 1912,
eight years from its beginning, a population of 7,912,
scattered comfortably and working happily in 1,761
buildings in the developed part of its 4,500 acres, and
the effect of living eight years in its designed whole-
someness had been to give it a death rate of eight in
the thousand, as compared with 14.1 for the larger
English communities from which it drew its inhabitants
and its industries. It is quite within the scope of this
book to register the sober conclusion of the Royal Com-
mission on Canals and Inland Navigation (England),

in 1909, that "If industries are widely distributed,
workers can have better houses at lower rents, can
breathe less vitiated air, and they and their families
can in many cases combine with factory work the
healthy and profitable work of small agricultural
production."

"The gardens of Garden City are ... the small
individual gardens of its houses and cottages. . . .
The garden is inevitable in Garden City. . . . You
will not find a house without one — a real practical
garden. . . . The majority keep their gardens
well. . . . Most of the residences are detached, with
gardens all around them." Such are comments on
this feature of the successful Garden City found in a
book on the enterprise, itself an evidence of the qual-
ity of the printing product of the community. (The
Garden City, by C. B. Purdom; "printed in
the Garden City at the Temple Press and pub-
lished by J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London,
1913.")

In addition to the prevalence of gardens, this
industrial community enjoys other features not
usual in hit-or-miss development. The houses
in Garden City are not in blocks or "rows,"
are not monotonously similar, include careful
provision for health and cleanliness, and range
in cost from $1,000 to more than $10,000.
There are many outdoor recreational facilities,
and a strong community spirit helps to provide
entertainment and amusement. The town plan
takes account of the contour of the land, and
the houses of whatever character are touched
or approached by the green of vine or tree or
plant.

In the United States there are as yet no
garden cities so thoughtfully designed and so
capably worked out. There is a "Garden City"
near New York, but it is merely a well-handled
real estate promotion enterprise. Pullman
near Chicago, was an attempt at mitigating the
rigors of the congested city, and Gary, in
Indiana, is a later and slightly more advanced
industrial town. Neither approximates the
efficiency of the English example. There are
building in northern Michigan several indus-
trial towns in which there is both planting and
the retention of some native growth, but these
are proprietary enterprises, and not cooperative
as is the Letchworth Garden City.

It is certain that there will come into exis-
tence many more communities of the type of
Garden City, because it is coming to be generally
known that the influences of the garden and of wider
living areas upon an industrial population are economi-
cally favorable and tend to contentment, permanence
and prosperity, especially if intoxicating liquors are
either kept out or are made available only under sharp
restraint. j. HORACE MCFARLAND.

GARDENIA (after Alexander Garden, M.D., of
Charleston, S. C., a correspondent of Linnaeus). Rubi-
acese. Shrubs or rarely small trees, sometimes nearly
or quite evergreen, some of which are planted South
and one yields popular flowers for cutting.

Plants glabrous or pubescent or even tomentose:
Ivs. opposite or in 3's, with interpetiolar stipules: fls.
large, axillary and solitary or sometimes corymbose,
yellow or white; calyx-tube ovoid or obconic; corolla
salver-shaped or tubular, the tube much exceeding the
calyx, the limb with 5-9 spreading or recurved con-
torted lobes; stamens .5-9, on the corolla- throat. — Spe-
cies about 60, in subtropical regions of the eastern
hemisphere. See Randia for related plants.

Gardenia includes the Cape jasmine, a tender shrub
2 to 6 feet high, with thick, evergreen foliage and
large double, waxy camellia-like, fragrant flowers. It

GARDENIA

GARDENIA

1315

blooms from May to September in the South, where it
is often used for hedges, and is hardy as far north as
Virginia. In the middle of last century the Cape
jasmine was considered one of the finest stove shrubs
in cultivation, but with the waning popularity of camel-
lias the doom of the Cape jasmine as a conservatory
plant was sealed. The camellia has a greater range of
color, and has had hundreds of varieties, while its
scented rival has had barely a dozen. The flowers of
the Cape jasmine have never been so perfectly regular
as those of a camellia, and the plants are very subject to
insect enemies. Their bloom is successional rather than
close, and large plants are therefore not so showy as
camellias. They are considerably grown abroad for
cut-flowers in early spring, young plants a season or
two old being used for best results. The variety with
variegated foliage is dwarfer and weaker-growing. The
true botanical name of the Cape jasmine is G. jasmin-
aides, a name almost never used in the trade. "Cape
jasmine" itself is one of the most remarkable cases of
the vitality of an erroneous popular name. The single-
flowered form was introduced much later than the
double, and has always been less popular. The earliest
picture of a living plant with single flowers was pub-
lished in 1820 in B. R. 449. Cape jasmines are also
handled by importers of Japanese plants, who some-
times offer seeds also. G. lucida was probably intro-
duced by Reasoner, and G. Rothmannia by Franceschi,
who reports that it is probably not now (1914) in
cultivation. For the true jasmines (which belong to
the olive family, and are often trailing plants), see
Jasminum.

Culture. — The Cape jasmine of today, Gardenia
Veitchii, was introduced by the well-known English
firm of Jas. Veitch & Son. This new variety has ful-
filled the long-desired want, because it is really a winter-
flowering variety, while the old species Gardenia jas-
minoides or G. fiorida could not be made to flower
during the early and midwinter when actually most
valuable, hence the almost total abandonment of that
old variety for cut-flower purposes. This new type
has become one of the most popular florist flowers,
although it is one of the most difficult plants to handle.
The young plants are raised from cuttings in the early
winter. Care must be taken to propagate only from
thoroughly healthy plants. Three- to four-eye cuttings
should be put into clean, sharp sand with a minimum
bottom heat of 70° and a maximum of 85°. The atmo-
sphere should be rather close in the propagating-house
until after the cuttings begin to root, then some air
should be admitted. The cutting-bench must be kept
shaded from the sun and frequent syringing is absolutely
necessary. When fully rooted in the sand, they are
potted into 2-inch pots in well-prepared soil of four
parts decomposed sod loam, one part of well-rotted old
cow-manure and one part sand. The soil should be
well screened. Potting firmly is essential, and not too
much room should be left for water. A gentle bottom
heat for these young plants is highly beneficial. When
the sun begins to get higher and the days lengthen, a
little fresh air during the middle of the day is invigora-
ting for the young plants, but the night temperature
should never go below 65°. The plants must be kept
growing constantly and should be repotted as soon as
they have filled their pots with roots. The months of
May and June are the best time to plant gardenias
into benches or solid beds. The best soil has been
found to be well-rotted turf or sod, a pliable loam and
well-rotted cow-manure well mixed, three parts of
loam to one of manure. Should the soil be rather
stiff or of a heavy texture, a portion of sand may be
added. The benches should be 4 to 5 inches deep and
have sufficient openings or cracks for drainage. Where
very thin turf or sod can be had, the bench should be
lined with this, or if not practicable, then a layer of
sphagnum moss so as to cover the bottom of the

bench. On top of this, a liberal sprinkling of pieces
of charcoal will tend to keep the soil sweet. A small
quantity of ground bone may be sprinkled over the
soil after it is all spread on the benches ready for
planting. Care must be taken that all balls are well
softened and dissolved when planting so that there
will be an amalgamation of the new soil and the soil
of the ball. Firm planting and immediate watering
are of the highest importance and frequent syringing
after planting. Shading is not necessary, providing
frequent syringing is given. Keep the soil moist but
never wet. It is well to keep the house rather close
for a few days, after which air can be given freely.
Gardenia Veitchii can stand any amount of heat, and
there is no danger of burning or scorching until the foli-
age begins to get warm. When thermometer goes
above 90° to 95° more air must be given. The plants
must now make their growth and if buds appear
they must be pinched out. Keep pinching out buds
and small side shoots until the latter part of September
when buds may be allowed to set upon the stronger
shoots. A strong healthy plant can carry four to six
such flowering shoots. After buds begin to set and
sometimes even before, bottom shoots begin to come.
These are the second growth and make for a second
crop of flowers as well as for propagating the young
plants for the next season. Plants are seldom kept
over the second year although it can be done success-
fully. Young plants are decidedly the most profitable.
When the plants are well set with buds, in October
and November, and the roots appear on the surface, a
very light mulch of cow-manure is beneficial as it will
assist to develop the flowers. A night temperature of
65° to 68° is best, while during the day it may range
from 70° to 90°. Good hard syringing will keep down
the pests which are fond of this plant, especially the
mealy-bug. The flowers should be cut before the
center petals have fully expanded and the longer the
stem the more valuable the flower. (H. A. Siebrecht.)

A. Corolla-tube cylindrical.

B. Calyx with 5 long teeth.
c. Ribs on the calyx.

jasminoides, Ellis (G. fldrida, Linn. G. radlcans,
Thunb.). CAPE JASMINE. Variable, very small shrub,
unarmed, the st. sometimes rooting: Ivs. lanceolate,
sometimes variegated : fls. white, solitary, very fragrant,
waxy. For pictures of double forms, see B.M. 1842
and 2627, and B.R. 73; single, B.R. 449 and B.M.
3349; normal and variegated foliage, R.H. 1864, p. 30.
China. Var. Fortuniana, Lindl. (G. Fortunei, Hort.).
B.R. 32:43. F.S. 2:177. R.B. 2.3:241. In 1893 was
advertised G. camelliaeflora in addition to G. radicans,
G. fldrida and vars. major and majestica. G. sinensis
grandiflbra of Berger's catalogue perhaps belongs here.
Presumably the G. Veitchii of the gardens belongs here.

cc. Ribs not present.

lucida, Roxbg. Buds resinous: Ivs. oblong; stipules
annular, variously divided at the mouth, unequally
lobed: fls. stalked, fragrant, white but ultimately
turning yellow, 1-2 ^ in. across. India, Burma, Luzon.
—The calyx-teeth are not decurrent, as in the Cape
jasmine, and thus the calyx does not have the ribbed
look.

BB. Calyx tubular, with 5 very short teeth.

amdbna, Sims. Differs from all here described in hav-
ing numerous strong spines nearly J^in. long, which are
axillary: Ivs. oval, acute, short-stalked: fls. subtermi-
nal; corolla-tube 1 in. long, longer than the lobes, which
are 6, obovate, white, with margins incurved enough to
show the rosy back. India or China.

BBB. Calyx spathe-like.

Thunbergia, Linn. f. Lvs. broadly elliptic, acute,
with pairs of glands along the midribs: fls. 3 in. across,

1313

GARDENIA

pure white; corolla-lobes 8, overlapping. S. Afr. B.M.
1004. — Dwarf-growing, and perhaps not now in cult, in
this country.

AA. Corolla-tube short and wide-throated.

B. Fls. 3 in. long and broad.

Rothmannia, Linn. f. Very distinct in foliage and
fl.: Ivs. with pairs of hairy glands along the midrib:
calyx ribbed, with 5 long teeth, equaling the short,
cylindrical portion of the corolla-tube; corolla-tube
rather suddenly swelled, ribbed; lobes 5, long-acumi-
nate, whitish, spotted purple in the mouth. S. Afr.
B.M. 690. L.B.C. 11:1053.— Fls. pale yellow, but it
does not bloom in Calif, according to Franceschi.

BB. Fls. 1 % in. long and broad.
globdsa, Hochst. Lvs. oblong, short-acuminate; lf.-
stalk nearly 3-5 lines long: fls. white, inside hairy and
lined pale yellow; calyx small, with 5 very short teeth;
corolla-tube wide at the base and gradually swelled;
lobes 5, short-acuminate. S. Afr. B.M. 4791. F.S.
9:951.

G. citriodbra, Hook.=Mitriostigma axillare. — G. intermedia,
Hort., is a name unknown in botanical literature and the plant's
affinities are unknown. — G. Stanleyana, Hook.=Randia raaculata.

WILHELM MILLER.
N. TAYLOR.!

GARDEN LEMON: Cucumis Mdo.

GARD6QUIA BETONICOtDES: Cedronella mexicana.

GARGET: Phytolacca decandra.

GARLAND FLOWER in the
South sometimes means Hedy-
chium caronarium. Often means
Daphne Cnearum.

GARLIC (AUium satl-
vum, Linn.). Hardy per-
ennial bulbous plant,
closely allied to the onion.
It is native of southern
Europe. It has flat leaves,
and the bulb is composed
of several separable parts
or bulbels, called cloves.
These cloves are planted,
as are onion sets, in spring
or in fall in the South.
They mature in summer
and early autumn, being
ready to gather when the
leaves die away. If the
soil is rich, it may be
necessary to break over
the tops to prevent too
much top growth and to
make the bulbs better, as
is sometimes done with
onions. This is done when
the top growth has reached
normal full size. The
cloves are usually set 4 to G
inches apart in drills or
rows, in ordinary garden
soil. The bulbs are used
in cookery, but mostly
amongst the foreign popu-
lation. Strings of bulbs
braided together by their
tops are common in metro-
politan markets (Fig.
1622). The bulbs are
white - skinned or some-
times rose-tinged.

L. H. B.

1622. Garlic, as strung for
GARLIC PEAR: Cratseva. market.

GARRYA (after Nicholas Garry, secretary of the
Hudson Bay Company). Including Fadyenia. Garry-
dcese, formerly included under Cornacex. Ornamental
shrubs chiefly grown for foliage and showy catkins.

Evergreen: TVS. opposite, short-petioled, entire or
denticulate, without stipules: fls. dioecious, apetalous,
1-3 in the axils of opposite bracts on elongated, often
drooping, axillary spikes; staminate fls. with 4 sepals
and 4 stamens; pistillate with 2 sepals and 2 styles and
a 1 -celled ovary: berry 1-2-seeded, rather dry. — About
10 species in W. N. Amer. from S. Ore. to S. Mex., east
to W. Texas.

The garryas generally have elliptic to oblong leaves,
and small greenish white or yellowish flowers in catkin-
like, often pendulous spikes, and dark purple or dark
blue berries. None of the species is hardy North but
G. flavescens, G. Wrightii, and also G. Fremontii, which
are the hardiest, can probably be grown north to New
York in sheltered positions, while the others are hardy
in warmer regions only. They are well adapted for ever-
green shrubberies, and the staminate plants are espec-
ially decorative in early spring with the showy, pen-
dulous catkins, which in G. elliptica attain to 1 foot in
length and often bloom in midwinter. The garryas
thrive well in a well-drained soil and in sunny, shel-
tered position; in England they are often grown on
walls. Propagation is by seeds or by cuttings of half-
ripened wood under glass; also by layers.

elliptica, Douglas. Shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to
oval-oblong, obtuse or acute, usually undulate, gla-
brous above, densely tomentose beneath, 1K~3 in.
long: 3 fls. hi the axils of short and broad, pointed
bracts; spikes rather dense, staminate 2-12 in. long,
often branched, pistillate 1-3 in. long: fr. globose,
silky tomentose. Calif, to New Mex. B.R. 1686.
Gn. 33, p. 562; 37, p. 501; 39, p. 261; 51. p. 257; 53,
p. 449; 55, p. 258; 57, p. 122; 63, p. 181; 67, p. 149;
76, p. 639. G.C. II. 22:425; III. 35:42, 43. Gn. W.
22:115. G. 20:30; 35:21. H.U. 2, p. 35. H.F. 1865:
198. G.L. 24:190. — This is the handsomest species,
and stands about 10° of frost (sometimes more) in a
sheltered position.

G. Fadyenii, Hook. (Fadyenia Hookeri, Griseb.). Shrub, to
15 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to oblong, acute or mucronulate, glossy above,
tomentose beneath or almost glabrous at length, 2^-4 in. long:
bracts oblong-lanceolate, remote: fr. tomentose. Jamaica, Cuba. —
G. flavescens, Wats. (G. Veatchii var. flavescens, Coult. & Evans).
Shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs. elliptic, silky pubescent below, 1-2 in. long:
spikes dense, about 1 in. long. Ariz., Utah, N. Mex.— G. Frem6ntii,
Torr. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. ovate to oblong, acute, glabrous on
both sides, yellowish green, 1-3 in. long: spikes dense, 2-5 in. long:
with short bracts: fr. pedicelled, glabrous. Ore. to Calif. G.C. II.
15:431; III. 35:44.— G. macrophylla, Benth. Shrub, to 6 ft.: Ivs.
ovate to oblong-ovate, glabrous above, villpus-pubescent beneath,
2-5 in. long: spikes dense and short: fr. sessile. Mex. — G. Thuretii,
Carr. (G. elliptica xG. Fadyenii). Shrub, to 15 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to
elliptic-oblong, whitish tomentose beneath, 2-5 in. long: bracts
remote, with usually 1 fl. in each axil; spikes shorter than those of
G. elliptica. Originated in France. R.H. 1869, p. 17; 1879, pp.
154, 155. — G. Veatchii, Kellogg. Spreading shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs.
elliptic-ovate to ovate-oblong, acute, yellowish green, tomentpse
beneath, lV6~2J^in. long: spikes dense, 1-2 in. long: fr. sessile,
usually silky tomentose. Nev. to Calif, and N. Mex. Named for
J. A. Veatch, botanical explorer of Cedros Isl., Lower Calif. — -G.
Wrightii, Torr. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. elliptic or elliptic-ovate, acutish
and mucronate, glabrous or nearly so below, 1-2 in. long: spikes
slender, about 2 in. long: fr. glabrous, nearly sessile. Ariz., Mex.

ALFRED REHDER.

GARUGA (native East Indian name). Burseracese.
This includes a deciduous East Indian tree, reaching
60 feet, and cultivated in southern Florida and Cali-
fornia for its fruits, which are the size of a gooseberry,
and are eaten raw, but chiefly pickled.

Tomentose or hairy plants: Ivs. crowded at tips of
branches, alternate, odd-pinnate; Ifts. opposite, sub-
sessile, serrate: fls. polygamous, large, panicled; calyx
bell-shaped, 5-cut; petals 5, inserted on the tube of the
calyx above the middle; stamens 10; ovary 4-5-celled;
ovules in pairs: drupe with 5, or by abortion 1-3, stones,
which are wrinkled and finally 1-seeded. — Species
perhaps a dozen in India and Pacific islands to Austral.

GARUGA

1317

pinnata, Roxbg. Tree, 30-40 ft., with Ivs. 1 ft. or
more long; Ifts. obtusely crenate: fls. small, in a very
large panicle: fr. a black drupe. India and Malaya to
the Philippines. — Also cult, abroad under glass. .

L. H. B.

GAS PLANT: Dictamnus.

GASTERIA (Greek, gaster, belly; referring to the
usually swollen base of the flowers). Lilidcese, tribe
Aloinese. Mostly acaulescent and small succulents of
similar decorative uses and treatment as Aloe.

Leaves usually elongated, crowded in rosettes or on
short sts., usually 2-ranked: fls. with a red or rosy
typically ventricose curved tube and short equal sub-
erect greenish segms. about as long as the stamens and
pistil. S. Afr. Species 43. Monog. by Berger in Engler,
Das Pflanzenreich, hft. 33 (1908).

acinacifolia, 18.
angulata, 3, 4.
canaliculata, 7.
carinata, 15.
conspurcata, 2.
crassifolia, 6.
denticulata, 5.
disticha, 2, 3, 5.
Dregeana, 10.
ensifolia, 18.
exoavata, 13.
falcata, 15.
fallax, 10.
formosa, 9.

INDEX.

glabra, 16.
glabrior, 7.
grandipunctata, 17.
intermedia, 1.
latifolia, 1, 15.
lingua, 5.
longifolia, 3.
maculata, 10.
major, 16.
marmorata, 6, 12.
minor, 16.
nigricans, 6, 7, 10.
nitens, 18.
nitida, 17.

dbligua, 10.
parvifolia, 14.
parvipunctata, 17.
picta, 9.
planifolia, 8.
pulchra, 11.
scaberrima, 1.
strigata, 15.
subnigricans, 7.
sulcata, 4.
truncata, 3.
venusta, 18.
verrucosa, 1.

A. Fls. scarcely 1 in. long, mostly ventricose.

B. Lvs. radical, in 2 nearly straight ranks, not keeled.

c. The Ivs. with pale raised warts.

1. verrucSsa, Haw. (Aloe verrucosa, Mill. A. disticha,
Linn. A. verrucula, Medikus. A. acumindta and A.
racembsa, Lam.). Cespitose: Ivs. acute, somewhat
concavely 3-sided, spreading, % x 4-6 in., dull gray,
very rough with white crowded tubercles: infl. 2 ft.
high, typically simple. Cape. B.M. 837. DC., PI. Gr.
63. Berger 42, 43. — Varies in a form with Ivs. 1 ft.
long and branched infl., var. latifolia, Salm (Aloe
lingua var., Ker), B.M. 1322, f. 2, 3. Salm, Aloe § 29,
f. 25; a form with large greener more mucronate Ivs.
with less crowded warts, var. intermedia, Baker (G.
intermedia, Haw. Aloe intermedia, Haw.), Salm,
Aloe §29, f. 24. B.M. 1322, f. 1; and a form with
scarcely concave greener Ivs. with the greenish warts
somewhat in lines on the back, var. scaberrima,
Baker (G. intermedia scaberrima, Haw. Aloe scaberrima
Salm), Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 26. Hybrids are reported
between G. verrucosa and G. pulchra; G. verrucosa
intermedia and G. carinata as well as Haworthia radula;
and G. verrucosa latifolia and G. breirifolia.

cc. The Ivs. not white-warty.

2. conspurcata, Haw. (G. disticha conspurcata,
Baker. Aloe conspurcata, Salm). Lvs. obtuse, mucro-
nate, little concave, IJ^x 10-12 in., green, smooth
except on the margin, with small often confluent white
spots: infl. 2^-3 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe §
29, f. 31.

3. angulata, Haw. (G. disticha angulata, Baker. G.
longifolia, Haw. Aloe angulata, Willd. A. lingua longi*
folia, Haw.). Lvs. abruptly short-mucronate, a little
concave on one or both faces, 2 x 8-10 in., one or both
edges angularly doubled, dark green with small often
confluent white spots: infl. 3 ft. high, exceptionally
branching. Cape(?). Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 29.— A form
with gutter-like Ivs. is var. truncata, Berger (A,
angulata truncata, Willd.).

4. sulcata, Haw. (G. angulata, Haw. Aloe sulcata,
Salm. A. lingua angulata, Haw.). Lvs. concavely strap-
shaped, 4-angled, 1x4 in., dull green with small green-
ish little-raised dots: infl. 2 ft. high, simple; fls. little
inflated. Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f . 32.

5. lingua, Berger (G. disticha, Haw. G. denticulata,
Haw. Aloe lingua, Thunb. A. disticha, R. & S.). Lvs.
obtusely mucronate, oblong, somewhat concave,
2-edged, denticulate above, 2 x 8-10 in., green or grayish
with more or less banded and pale greenish spots: infl.
3 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 33. Ber-
ger 44.

6. nigricans, Haw. (Aloe nigricans, Haw. A. obllqua,
Jacq.). Lvs. oblong, abruptly mucronate, 2-edged,

2 x 5-8 in., glossy dark green or purplish with more or
less banded pale greenish spots: infl. 3 ft. high, some-
times branched. Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 7. — Varies
into a less mottled form with shorter fleshier Ivs., var.
crassifolia, Haw. (A. lingua crassifolia, Ait. A. crassi-
folia, R. & S.), B.M. 838. J.H. III. 60, p. 98; and a
white- and rosy-marbled form with smaller Ivs., var.
marmorata, Baker (A. marmorata, Salm. A. formosa,
R.&S.).

7. subnigricans, Haw. (G. nigricans subnigricans,
Baker. Aloe subnigricans, Spreng. A. pseudonigricans,
Salm). Lvs. scarcely 1 in. wide, acute, green with small
separate rather transversely arranged pale spots: infl.

3 ft. high, simple; fls. ventricose. Cape. Salm, Aloe §
29, f. 10. — Varies into a form with more concave Ivs.,
var. canaliculata, Salm; and a form with sword-like
darker Ivs., var. glabrior, Haw. (Aloe guttdta, Salm. A.
nigricans denticulata, Salm. G. nigricans guttdta,
Baker). Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 9.

BB. Lvs. crowded along an evident if short st.
c. The Ivs. in 2 straight or twisted ranks.

8. planifdlia, Baker (Aloe planifolia, Baker). Lvs.
in straight ranks, narrow, abruptly mucronate, 2-edged,
% x 6-10 in., glossy green with more or less confluent
oblong white spots, the minutely rough margin often
rosy: infl. 6 ft. high, or more, simple; perianth very
abruptly inflated below. Cape. Ref. Bot. 162.

9. picta, Haw. (Aloe Bouredna, R. &. S., A. Bowie-
ana, Salm). Lvs. in twisted ranks, tongue-shaped,
abruptly mucronate, somewhat concave and 3-sided,
1^-2 x 10-14 in., glossy dark green mottled with
round white spots confluent below, the thickened mar-
gin subentire: infl. 3 ft. high, branched. Cape. Salm,
Aloe § 29, f. 3. — Varies into the smaller var. formosa,
Berger (Aloe Bowiedna formosa, Salm. G. formdsa,
Haw.).

10. maculata, Haw. (G. obllqua, Haw. G. nigricans
platyphylla, Baker. Aloe maculata, Thunb. A. obllqua,
Haw. A. maculata obllqua, Ait.). Lvs. in somewhat
twisted ranks, tongue-shaped, blunt or abruptly
mucronate, 2-edged or with one margin doubled,
!%-2x6-8 in., glossy dark green with more or less
confluent large oblong spots or entirely white at base
below, rough-margined: infl. 3-4 ft. high, branched.
Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 1. B.M. 979. Berger 47 —
Two varieties are distinguished: var. fallax, Haw. (.A.
maculata angustior, Salm), with smaller whiter smooth
Ivs., and var. Dregeana, Berger, with rough-margined
Ivs.

11. pulchra, Haw. (Aide maculdta pulchra, Ait. A.
pulchraT Jacq.). Lvs. in spiral ranks, falcate, narrowed
from the base, acute, scarcely 1 x 8-10 in., glossy dark
green with oblong white spots transversely or reticu-
lately confluent, slightly rough-margined: infl. 3 ft.
high, branched. Cape. Jacq., Schoenbr. 4:19. Salm,
Aloe § 29, f. 2. DC., PI. Gr. 91. B.M. 765. Miller.
Icon. 292. Berger 47. — It is said to have been crossed
with G. verrucosa.

cc. The Ivs. not 2-ranked. .

12. marmorata, Baker. Lvs. smooth, lorate-lanceo-
late, rounded and cuspidate at tip, 1-13^x5-6 in.,
with one margin doubled, dark green with large green-
ish more or less confluent spots: infl. 2-2^ ft. high,
branched. Cape.

1318

GASTERIA

GAULTHERIA

BBB. Lvs. nearly radical, typically keeled or triquetrous.
c. The Ivs. in 2 spiral ranks.

13. excayata, Haw. (Aloe excavdta, Willd. A.
obscura, Willd.). Lvs. smooth, rather thin, spreading,
lanceolate, mucronately acute, denticulate, \-\Yz x 4—5
in., dull pale green with small greenish white spots: infl.
2 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 22. B.M.
1322, f. 4.

cc. The Ivs. not 2-ranked.

14. parvifdlia, Baker. Lvs. thick, deltoid-oblong,
submucronate, somewhat roughened on keel and
margin, 1 x 2-3 in., purplish green with small whitish
spots: infl. \}/z ft. high, simple. Cape. Berger 49.

15. carinata, Haw. (Aloe carinata, Mill. A. tristicha,
Medikus). Lvs. thick, spreading, triangular -lanceo-
late, somewhat falcate, acute from the 2-in. base, 5-6
in. long, grooved above, dull green with coarse whitish
warts sometimes in irregular lines: infl. 2^-3 ft.,
sometimes branched. Cape. B.M. 1331a. Salm,
Aloe § 29, f, 20. Berger 50. — Varies into a larger
smoother form, var. strigata, Baker (G. strigata, Haw.
A. carinata lasvior, Salm); a form with narrower more
falcate Ivs. with smaller pale points, var. falcata,
Berger; and a form with short broad still finer-punctate
Ivs., var. latifdlia, Berger. It is said to have been
crossed with G. verrucosa intermedia.

16. glabra, Haw. (Aloe glabra, Salm. A. carinata
subgldbra, Haw.). Lvs. triangular-lanceolate, acute or
mucronate from the 2-in. base, 6-8 in. long, dull green
with small scarcely raised whitish points: infl. 2^-3
ft. high. Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 19. B.M. 1331,
If. at left. — Respectively larger and smaller forms are
sometimes designated as vars. major and minor.

17. nitida, Haw. (Aloe nitida, Salm). Lvs. triangular-
lanceolate, acute from the 2-in. base, 6-9 in. long,
smooth, light glossy green with white ox ten banded
spots, the margin roughish: infl. 3 ft. high, simple.
Cape. Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 17. — Varies in a form with
more numerous smaller pale dots, var. parvipunctata,
Salm (A. nitida major, Salm). B.M. 2304; and one with
fewer, larger and more confluent spots, var. grandi-
punctata, Salm (A. nitida minor, Salm).

AA. Fls. 1^-2 in., little inflated, long-stalked: large for
the genus.

18. acinacifdlia, Haw. (Aide acinacifdlia, Jacq.).
Lvs. acute, 3-edged, spreading in a large 2-ranked
rosette, 2 x 14 in., rather glossy dark green with scat-
tered low pale dots: infl. about 4 ft. high, branched
below. Cape. B.M. 2369. Berger 52. — Varies in a
more erect-lvd. form, var. ensifdlia, Baker (G. ensi-
fdlia, Haw.), Salm, Aloe § 29, f. 12; a form with more
confluent low mottling, var. nitens, Baker (G. nitens,
Haw. Aloe nitens, R. & S.); and a narrower-lvd.
form with somewhat seriate slightly raised whiter
spots, var. venusta, Baker (G. venusta, Haw. Aloe
venusta, R. & S. A. acinacifdlia venusta, Salm). It
has been crossed with Aloe striata.

G. brevifdlia, Haw. Lvs. 3-4 in. long, Ungulate, close together:
fls. red, about 1 in. long. Afr. — G. Huttonix, N. E. Br. Lvs. in a
loose rosette, 16-18 in. long, broad at base, narrowed above,
obliquely keeled: fls. pendulous, nearly 1 in. long, rose with green-
keeled lobes. S. Afr. — G. obtusifdlia, Haw. Lvs. thinner than in
G. sulcata and shorter than in G. lingua.

WILLIAM TKELEASE.

GAST6NIA PALM ATA : Trevesia.

GASTROCHILUS (Greek-made name, alluding to
the swollen lip). Zingiberacese. A very few Indian
and Malayan herbs, perennial or annual, that may
sometimes be found in choice collections of hothouse
plants. Allied to Hedychium and Kaempferia, differ-
ing from the former in the character of the connective
and from the latter in the sac-form lip: sometimes
provided with a creeping rootstock: st. very short or
none, or reaching 12 in. high: Ivs. oblong and acute:

fls. mostly white with lip yellow or pink, solitary or in
spikes; corolla-tube slender and the segms. connivent:
staminodia present and petal-like; lip oblong and
entire but the margin sinuate, exceeding the corolla;
ovary 3-celled, each cell many-ovuled. G. pulcherrima,
Wall., is leafy-stemmed, to 12 in., from a creeping
rootstock: fls. white in a spike 2-3 in. long, the lip
tinged pink. H. U. 4, p. 100. G. longifldra, Wall.,
is acaulescent, with Ivs. to 12 in. long: fls. 1 or 2
from the crown, long-tubed, white, the lip tinged red.
The Gastrochilus of Don is orchidaceous, and is now
referred to Saccolabium. L jj g

GASTROLOBIUM (Greek-made name, referring to
the swollen pods). Legumindsze. More than 30 shrubs
of W. Austral., little known in cult. Lvs. simple
and entire, mostly stiff: fls. yellow or in part purple-
red, racemose in corymbs or whorls; calyx 5-lobed;
petals clawed, the standard orbicular or kidney-shaped,
and emarginate, the wings oblong, and the keel broad
and short; stamens free; style filiform, incurved: pod
turgid, ovoid or nearly globular. G. velutinum, Lindl.
A handsome shrub: Ivs. in 3's or 4's, varying from
obpvate to linear-cuneate, very obtuse, emarginate,
%in. or less long: fls. orange-red, on villous pedicels,
in terminal clusters to 13^ in. long: pod ovoid, about
J^in. long. G. cunedtum, Henfr., may be the same as
the foregoing, perhaps with longer racemes. J.F. 3:258.
G. villdsum, Benth. Decumbent with ascending
sts. : Ivs. opposite, ovate to almost lanceolate, very
obtuse, 1-2 in. long: fls. in terminal pedunculate racemes
3-4 in. long; standard orange-red, shorter lower petals
purple-red: pod broadly ovoid, about J^in. long. B.R.
33:45. J.F. 4:341. G. ovalifdlium, Henfr. Diffuse
shrub: Ivs. mostly opposite, ovate or oblong or orbicu-
lar, 1 in. or less long, often emarginate: fls. nearly
sessile in racemes 1-3 in. long, orange or orange-red,
the lower petals deeply colored. J.F. 3:247, 324.

L. H. B.

GASTRONEMA: A section of Cyrtanthus.

GAULTHERIA (named by Kalm after Dr. "Gaul-
thier," a physician in Quebec, whose name was really
written Gaultier). Ericdcese. Ornamental woody plants
grown for the attractive flowers and fruits and also for
their handsome evergreen foliage.

Evergreen erect or procumbent shrubs, rarely small
trees, usually hairy and glandular: Ivs. petioled,
roundish to lanceolate, mostly serrate: fls. in terminal
panicles or axillary racemes or solitary; calyx 5-parted;
corolla urceolate, 5-lobed; stamens 10; ovary superior:
fr. a 5-celled, dehiscent caps., usually inclosed by the
fleshy and berry-like calyx. — About 90 species in the
warmer and subtropical regions of Asia, Austral., and
in Amer. from Canada to Chile. Some have edible
fruits, and an aromatic oil used in perfumery and
medicine is obtained from G. procumbens and several
Asiatic species.

This genus includes the wintergreen and some other
ornamental low aromatic plants with alternate, ever-
green leaves, white, pink or scarlet, often fragrant
flowers in terminal or axillary racemes or solitary, and
with decorative, berry-like red or blackish fruit. G.
procumbens is fully hardy North, while the other
North American species are somewhat tenderer and
need protection during the winter; G. Veitchiana prom-
ises to be hardy as far north as Massachusetts. They
are well adapted for borders of evergreen shrubberies
as well as for rockeries, and in suitable soil they are
apt to form a handsome evergreen ground-cover. Most
of the foreign species can be grown only South or as
greenhouse shrubs. They grow best in sandy or peaty,
somewhat moist soil and partly shaded situations.
Propagation is by seeds, layers or suckers, division of
older plants, and also by cuttings of half-ripened wood
under glass.

GAULTHERIA

GAYLUSSACIA

1319

A. Fls. solitary.

procumbens, Linn. WINTERGREEN. CHECKERBERRY.
BOXBERRY. PARTRIDGE BERRY. St. creeping, sending
up erect branches to 5 in. high, bearing toward the
end 3-8 dark green, oval or obovate, almost glabrous
Ivs., 1-2 in. long, with ciliate teeth: fls. solitary, nod-
ding; corolla ovate, white, about Jim- long; anthers
with 4 awns; filaments pubescent: fr. scarlet. July-
Sept. Canada to Ga., west to Mich. B.M. 1966.
L.B.C. 1:82. Gn. 31, p. 379.

AA. Fls. in racemes.

Shallon, Pursh. Low shrub, to 2 ft., with spreading,
glandular-hairy branches: Ivs. roundish-ovate or ovate,
cordate or rounded at the base, serrulate, 2-4 in. long:
fls. nodding, in terminal and axillary racemes; corolla
ovate, white or pinkish: fr. purplish black, glandular,
hairy. May, June; fr. Sept., Oct. Brit. Col. to Calif.
Called "shallon" or "salal" by Indians. B.M. 2843.
B.R. 1411. L.B.C. 14:1372. Gn. 31, p. 379.

Veitchiana, Craib. Shrub, to 3 ft., sometimes decum-
bent: branchlets setose: Ivs. elliptic to oblong or
obovate-oblong, short-apiculate, broadly cuneate or
nearly rounded at the base, setose-serrulate, glabrous
and lustrous above, paler below and setose on the veins
while young, l%-3% m- long: fls. in axillary and
terminal villous racemes 1-2 in. long, densely bracteate,
the bracts as long or longer than the pedicels; corolla
ovate, white, J^in. long: fr. indigo-blue. May, June;
fr. Aug., Sept. W. China.

G. antlpoda, Forat. Shrub, to 5 ft., sometimes procumbent,
hairy: Ivs. orbicular to oblong, J^-J^in. : fl. solitary, white or pink,
campanulate. New Zeal., Tasmania. — G. cocdnea, HBK. Shrub, to
2 ft., hairy: Ivs. roundish ovate, about 1 in.: fls. slender-pedicelled,
in elongated, secund racemes; corolla ovate, pink. Venezuela.
R.H. 1849:181. — G. ferruglnea, Cham. & Schlecht. (G. ignescens,
Lem. ). Small shrub, rufously hairy: Ivs. ovate or oblong, 1-2 in.:
fls. almost like those of the preceding species. Brazil. B.M. 4697.
J.F. 3:265; 4:371. — G. fragrantissima, Wall. Shrub or small tree,
glabrous: Ivs. elliptic to lanceolate, 2J^-3K in. long: racemes
axillary, erect, shorter than the Ivs. ; corolla white or pinkish, globu-
lar-ovate. Himalayas, Ceylon. B.M. 5984. — G. myrsinites, Hook.
Allied to G. procumbens. Lvs. orbicular or broadly ovate, %-\ in.
long: corolla broadly campanulate; filaments glabrous; anthers
without awns. Wash, to Calif, and Colo. — G. nummularioides, D.
Don ( G. Nummularia, DC. ). Procumbent: branches densely
rufously hairy: Ivs. orbicular to ovate, %-l in. long: fls. solitary,
ovate, white. Himalayas. G.C. II. 22:457. — G. oppositiftilia,
Hook. f. Shrub, to 8 ft. : Ivs. mostly opposite, ovate, cordate, bluntly
toothed, \1A-21A in. long: fls. white, urceolate, J^in. long, in
terminal panicles 3-4 in. long. New Zeal. G.C. III. 52 : 109. Gn. 75,
p. 412.— -G. pvatifdlia, Gray. Procumbent, with ascending and
sparingly hairy branches: Ivs. ovate, acute, 1-1 Yi in. long: fls.
solitary, campanulate: fr. scarlet. Brit. Col. to Ore. — G. pyroloides,
Hook. f. & Thorn. (G. pyrotefolia, Hook. f.). Low shrub, some-
times procumbent, almost glabrous: Ivs. elliptic-obovate, about
1J^ in. long: racemes few-fld., axillary. Himalayas, Japan. Var.
cunedta, Rehd. & Wilson. Branchlets minutely villous: Ivs. nar-
row, oblong-obovate, cuneate: ovary and fr. villous. W. China. —
G. trichophylla, Royle. Dwarf: Ivs. elliptic, ciliate, J^-H in. long:
fls. axillary, pinkish: fr. blue. Himalayas, W. China. B.M. 7635.

ALFRED REHDER.

GAURA (Greek, superb). Onagracese. This includes
several herbs which are distinct in appearance, but
scarcely possess general garden value, although they are
pleasant incidents in the hardy border for those who
like native plants.

Annual, biennial or perennial plants confined to the
warmer regions of N. Amer.: Ivs. alternate, sessile or
stalked, entire, dentate, or sinuate: fls. white or rose,
in spikes or racemes; calyx-tube deciduous, obconical,
much prolonged beyond the ovary, with 4 reflexed
lobes; petals clawed, unequal; stamens mostly 8, with
a small scale-like appendage before the base of each
filament; stigma 4-lobed, surrounded by a ring or cup-
like border: fr. nut-like, 3-4-ribbed, finally 1 -celled,
and 1-4-seeded. — Species 20-25. The bloom ascends
the slender racemes too slowly to make the plants as
showy as possible. The best kind is G. Lindheimeri,
which has white fls. of singular appearance, with rosy
calyx-tubes. Gauras are easily prop, by seed. They
prefer light soils, and the seedlings can be transplanted
directly into permanent quarters.

A. Height 3 ft.: fls. white.

Lindheimeri, Engelm. & Gray. St. hairy and more or
less branched above: Ivs. lanceolate or more often
spatulate with a few wavy teeth and recurved margins :
fls. in a loose spike. Texas and La. R.H. 1851:41;
1857, p. 262. H.F. 8:145. G.W. 14, p. 100.

AA. Height I ft.: fls. rosy, turning to scarlet.
coccinea, Nutt. An erect or ascending, usually much-
branched perennial: Ivs. numerous, lanceolate to linear
or oblong, repand-denticulate or entire: fls. in spikes,
very showy, except that the whole spike does not come
into flower at one time: fr. 4-sided. Manitoba to Mont,
and Texas. WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

GAUSSIA (probably from a personal name). Pal-
mdcese. One slender pinnate-leaved palm, reaching
about 20 ft., from Cuba, recently intro. in S. Calif. It
is allied to Hyophorbe and Pseudophcenix. G. princeps,
Wendl., is a spineless species, the st. thickened below
but very slender above: Ivs. pinnatisect, the pinnae
crowded and narrow-linear and entire or 2-cut: fls.
very small, on filiform branches, monoacious; spadix
long-stalked: fr. small, purple or red. L. jj. B.

GAYA (for Jacques and perhaps Claude Gay, writers
on the plants of W. S. Amer.). Malvaceae. About a
dozen herbs, shrubs or small trees of S. Amer. except
the one described below: mostly tomentose: Ivs. usually
undivided: fls. yellow or white, axillary or terminal,
pedunculate, with no bracteoles; calyx 5-parted; sta-
minal column split at apex into many parts; ovary
many-celled and style-branches as many as the cells,
the ovules 1 in each cell. G. Lyallii, Baker (Plagidn-
thus Lyallii, Gray), the lacebark, endemic in the southern
island of New Zeal., is recorded in horticultural litera-
ture abroad. It is said by Cheeseman to be one of the
most beautiful trees of the New Zealand flora, often
forming a broad fringe to the subalpine beech forests.
It is partly deciduous at high elevations, but is ever-
green in certain river valleys. It is a small spreading
tree 15-30 ft. high: Ivs. ovate, acuminate, usually
double-crenate, sometimes somewhat lobed: fls. to 1
in. diam., white, in axillary fascicles or rarely solitary;
petals obliquely obovate, retuse. G.C. III. 50:56, and
Suppl.Sept.23, 1911. B.M. 5935. —Hardy in the south of
England, where it blooms profusely. L. H. B.

GAYLUSSACIA (after J. L. Gaylussac, eminent
French chemist; died 1850). Syn., Adnaria. Ericaceae,
tribe Vocciniess. HUCKLEBERRY. Small shrubs, some
grown for their handsome flowers, others valued for
their edible fruits.

Evergreen or deciduous: Ivs. alternate, short-petioled,
usually entire: fls. in axillary, usually few-fld. racemes;
calyx 5-lobed, persistent; corolla tubular-campanulate
or urceolate; stamens 10; anthers acute; ovary inferior,
10-celled, each cell with 1 ovule: fr. a berry-like drupe
with 10 nutlets. — About 50 species in E. N. Amer. and
S. Amer. Closely allied to Vaccinium, distinguished
by the 10-celled ovary, each cell with 1 ovule.

The huckleberries are low shrubs with white, red, or
reddish green flowers, and blue or black mostly edible
fruits. The deciduous species are hardy North, but are
of little decorative value, the handsomest being G.
dumosa, while the evergreen species, all inhabitants of
the South American mountains, except the half-hardy
G. brachycera, are often very ornamental in foliage
and flowers, but tender and hardly cultivated in this
country. They grow best in peaty or sandy soil and
in shaded situations; but G. baccata thrives well also in
drier localities and exposed to the full sun; like other
Ericaceae, they are all impatient of limestone. Propa-
gated by seeds, layers or division; the evergreen species
by cuttings of half-ripened wood under glass. See also
Vaccinium for cultivation.

1320

GAYLUSSACIA

GAZANIA

A. Lvs. evergreen, obtusely serrate.
brachycera, Gray. Low shrub, with creeping and
ascending st. and spreading angled glabrous branches:
Ivs. oval, glabrous, ^-1 in. long: racemes short, with
few white or pinkish fls. : fr. blue. May, June; fr. July,
Aug. Pa. to Va. B.M. 928. L.B.C. 7:648 (as Vac-
cinium buxifolium).

AA. Lvs. deciduous, entire.
B. Fls. in loose racemes; corolla campanulate.

c. Plant glandular-pubescent.

dumosa, Torr. & Gray. Shrub, to 2 ft., with creeping
st. and almost erect, somewhat hairy and glandular
branches: Ivs. obovate-oblong to oblanceolate, mucro-
nate, shining above, leathery, 1-2 in. long: fls. white or
pinkish; bracts foliaceous and persistent: fr. black,
usually pubescent, rather insipid. May, June; fr. Aug.,
Sept. Newfoundland to Fla. and La. in moist sandy or
swampy soil. B.M. 1106 (as Vaccinium).

1623. Gazania splendens. ( X J 2)

cc. Plant slightly pubescent or glabrous.

frondosa, Torr. & Gray. BLUE HUCKLEBERRY. DAN-
GLEBERRY. TANGLEBERRY. Shrub, to 6 ft., with spread-
ing, usually glabrous branches: Ivs. oblong or oval-
obovate, obtuse or emarginate, pale green above,
whitish beneath, membranaceous, 1-2 in. long: fls.
slender-pedicelled; corolla broadly campanulate, green-
ish purple: fr. blue, with glaucous bloom, sweet. May,
June; fr. July. N. H. to Fla., west to Ky., preferring
moist, peaty soil. Em. 2:451. G.C. III. 7:580.

ursina, Torr. & Gray. Shrub, to 6 ft., with somewhat
pubescent, spreading branches: Ivs. obovate to oblong,
acute, membranaceous, 2-4 in. long: fls. white or pink-
ish: fr. black, shining, sweet. May, June; fr. July, Aug.
N. and S. C. — Harlan P. Kelsey writes of this species:
"Shrub 2 to 6 feet high; very local in a few counties in
southwestern North Carolina, though common in these
stations. Locally it is known as 'buckberry,' a name
given by the native mountaineers from the fact that
deer feed on the very abundant clustered fruit in late
summer. The berries are much used for pies and jams,

and have a most peculiar and pleasant acid flavor,
unlike any other Vaccinium. It promises to be a
valuable addition to our garden fruits."

BB. Fls. in short, sessile racemes; corolla ovate.

baccata, Koch (G. resinosa, Torr. & Gray). BLACK
HUCKLEBERRY. Erect shrub, to 3 ft., resinous when
young: Ivs. oval or oblong-lanceolate, mucronulate,
yellowish green above, pale beneath, 1-1 J^ in. long:
fls. short-pedicelled, nodding, reddish: fr. black, rarely
white, sweet. May, June; fr. July, Aug. Newfound-
land to Ga., west to Wis. and Ky., preferring sandy or
rocky soil. Em. 451. B.M. 1288 (as Vaccinium).
I. T. 4:152. Var. glaucocarpa, Rob. Frs. larger, blue
with glaucous bloom.

G. Pseudo-Vaccinium, Cham. & Schlecht. Evergreen, usually
glabrous shrub, to 3 ft., with elliptic, entire Ivs. and red fls. ia
secund, many-fld. racemes. Brazil. B.R. 30:62. R.H. 1845:285.

ALFRED REHDER.

GAZANIA (after Theodore of Gaza, 1393-1478,
translator of Aristotle and Theophrastus; by some con-
sidered to be derived from Greek, riches, owing to the
splendid floral coloring). Composite. Showy plants
grown in a cool greenhouse or in the open border in
summer.

Herbaceous, mostly perennial, rarely annual, with
short sts. or none: Ivs. crowded at the crown of the
root, or scattered along the st. : involucral scales in 2
or several rows, cup-like at the base, toothed at the
apex: achenes wingless, villous; pappus in 2 series of
very delicate, scarious, toothed scales, often hidden in
the wool of the achene. — Species 24-30. This group
contains some of the finest of the sub-shrubby com-
posites from the Cape of Good Hope. They have a wide
range of color, — pure white, yellow, orange, scarlet, and
the backs of the rays are in some cases rich purple,
and even azure-blue. Their foliage is often densely
woolly beneath, and the range of form is unusual.
The group is also notable for the spots near
the base of the rays of G. Pavonia and
some others. These markings suggest the
eyes of a peacock's tail. The plants are
also remarkable for their behavior at night,
when they close their fls. and turn their
foliage enough to make the woolly under
sides of the Ivs. more conspicuous.

Gazanias are now rarely met with in
some of the oldest-fashioned florists' estab-
lishments. Few of the more prominent
firms keep them now, and they may be said
to be practically out of the trade in
America. All the kinds described below
are old garden favorites abroad, particularly
G. rigens, a common bedding plant, culti-
vated for nearly a century and a half, but
whose precise habitat has never been ascertained. They
are of easy culture in the cool greenhouse, and are
commended for summer use in the borders of those
who can keep them under glass in winter. They can
be rapidly propagated in midsummer by cuttings made
from the side shoots near the base and placed in a
close frame.

A. Color of heads yellow.
B. Rays not spotted: heads 2 in. across.

uniflora, Sims. Sts. woody at the base, spreading
6-12 in. or more from a center: Ivs. varying as men-
tioned above. The woolliness also varies greatly:
sometimes the whole plant is snowy white; sometimes
the whiteness is confined to the under sides of the Ivs.
B.M. 2270. L.B.C. 8:795.— The involucre is woolly,
according to Harvey, but the pictures cited do not
show it. This and G. rigens have short sts. with
branches alternately leafy, while G. pinnata, G. Pavonia
and G. pygmsea have little or no st. and the Ivs. radical
or tufted at the ends of the short branches.

GAZANIA

GENIPA

1321

BB. Rays spotted at base: heads 3 in. or more across.

pinnata, Less. Rootstock perennial, fibrous: Ivs.
commonly pinnate (some simple); lobes oblong or
linear in several pairs; white on both surfaces and stiff-
hairy: peduncle not much longer than Ivs.; involucral
scales acuminate, particularly the inner ones. Harvey
names 6 botanical varieties.

AA. Color of heads orange: rays spotted at base: heads

3 in. or more across.
B. Lvs. mostly entire and spatulate.
c. Basal markings containing brown.
rtgens, R. Br. Sts. short and densely leafy or dif-
fuse, laxly leafy, with ascending branches: Ivs. some-
times sparingly pinnatifid, i. e., with only 1 or 2 side
lobes, white beneath except on the midrib: heads large
and showy, 1 Yi in. wide, the rays orange, disk purplish
black. B.M. 90 (as Gorteria rigens) shows a head of scarlet
rays, with basal markings of brown, black and white.

cc. Basal markings without brown.
splendens, Hort. Fig. 1623. Hybrid, said to resem-
ble G. uniflora in habit but dwarfer and more compact.
Of the kinds in common cult, it is nearest to G. Pavonia
in coloring of fls. H.F. II. 4:240.

BB. Lvs. mostly pinnate.

Pavonia, R. Br. PEACOCK GAZANIA. Involucral
scales short, the inner broad, acute or subacute. B.R.
35 shows markings of brown, white, yellow and blue,
which are marvelous in design and precision of
execution.

AAA. Color of heads white above.

pygmsea, Sond. Crown woody and much divided:
Ivs. spatulate, entire: rays white, striped purple beneath.
Gn. 47:288. 1.11.43:53. B.M. 7455. G. 30:101.
Var. maculata, N. E. Br. Rays pale creamy white,
with a blackish spot at the base, reverse striped dull
purple. Var. superba, N. E. Br. Rays white, unspotted,
reverse striped bluish. Var. lutea, Hprt. Fl.-heads
very large, chrome-yellow. — This species is very variable
in its involucral scales, which may be short or long,
sometimes cup-shaped at the base, and again almost
free. This upsets one of the most important features
of Harvey's key.

A hybrid between G. nivea, Less., and G. longiscapa, DC., known
as G. hybrida, has been described as a very prof use bloomer, flowering
continuously from June to late autumn. R.H. 1900:209. Gt.
47:134. — G. longiscapa, DC. (G. stenophylla, Hort.), is a white-
woolly perennial with a glabrous peduncle which is shorter than the
Ivs. : involucre glabrous. — G. nivea, DC. Very dwarf, almost woody:
jvs. crowded, hoary-tomentose on both sides: peduncle not exceed-
ing the Ivs.: involucre tomentose. Last two probably not cult, in

Amer- WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR-f

GEISSORHIZA (Greek words alluding to the coats of
the bulb, which cover it somewhat like overlapping
tiles). Iridacese. Ixia-like half-hardy Cape bulbs,
which are dormant from August to November and are
usually flowered under glass in spring and early
summer.

Cormous: Ivs. few, distichous: fls. in different colors,
in open, simple or forked spikes; perianth nearly regu-
lar, rotate, with a cylindrical tube; stamens 6, inserted
in the throat; ovary 3-celled, becoming a small oblong
caps. — Species about 30, 1 in Madagascar and the
others in S. Afr. The genus has a wide range in habit
and in color of fls., but these plants are presumably
inferior to ixias for general culture. The following
species are advertised.

rochensis, Ker. Corm J/£in. diam., globular: Ivs. 3,
one of them on the st., glabrous, basal ones narrow,
few-ribbed: st. 3-6 in., simple or forked, with 1 fl. at
the top; st.-sheath loose and swelling: fls. violet-purple,
1-2 in. across; perianth-tube shorter than the spathe;
segms. with a blotch at the base. B.M. 598, where the
whole plant is a trifle over 3 in. high and the fls. purple,

with a dark red eye, the latter surrounded by a pale
blue circle.

hirta, Ker. Lvs. hairy: fls. 2-6 in a loose spike, bright
red, the tube very short, segms. not blotched: corm
2^in. diam., globular. — Offered in S. Calif. L. H. B.

GEITONOPLESIUM (Greek-made name, near
neighbor, in allusion to its kinship to another genus).
Liliacese. Woody stemmed twiners of Austral, and
Pacific islands of probably 2 species; one is offered in
S. Calif. Fls. small, in loose terminal clusters: Ivs.
alternate, linear to ovate, very short-stalked, lightly
nerved; perianth with 6 oblong distinct segms., the 3
outer ones more or less hood-shaped at times, the inner
ones flat and obtuse; stamens 6, included: fr. a nearly
globular berry with thin pulp and becoming dry; seeds
irregular, black. G. cymSsum, Cunn. Tall-climbing,
with wiry sts. : fls. purplish green, the perianth ^iin.
or less long, the pedicels very short and jointed under
the fl. : berry dark blue, J^in. or less diam. ; seeds few.
Queensland to Victoria. B.M. 3131. L. H. B.

GELSEMIUM (from the word Gelsemino, the Italian
name of the true jessamine). Loganidcese. Climbing
shrubs, with evergreen foliage and yellow flowers.

Glabrous, twining, shrubby plants, with opposite,
rarely whorled Ivs., and showy, hypogynous, per-
fect, regular, yellow and very fragrant fls., in axil-
lary and terminal cymes, the pedicels scaly-bracted :
calyx imbricated, deeply 5-parted; corolla funnel-
form, 5-lobed, imbricated in the bud; stamens 5,
epipetalous; ovary solitary, superior, 2-celled; ovules
numerous, on narrow placentae; style slender, 4-cleft:
fr. an elliptic, septicidal caps., flattened contrary to
the partition; valves boat-shaped, 2-cleft at the apex;
seeds flattened and winged. — There are 2 species in
the genus, one American the other Chinese. The
American or Carolina yellow jessamine is a well-known
woody twiner of the S., bearing evergreen foliage and
a profusion of bright yellow, very fragrant fls. The
cymes of the Chinese species are terminal and trichot-
omous. Our species is very desirable for covering
banks and fences in any soil. It is also grown occasion-
ally in conservatories. The rhizomes and roots are used
medicinally as a nervine, antispasmodic and sedative.
The true jessamine is Jasminum officinale (Oleaceie) of
Eu.

sempervirens, Ait. f. CAROLINA YELLOW JESSA-
MINE. St. high-climbing: Ivs. ovate, or lanceolate,
shining, entire, short-petioled, 1-3 in. long: cymes
terminal, 1-6-fld.; the fls. dimorphous; corolla 1-1 Yt
in. long. Low woods and thickets, Va. to Fla., Texas
and Guatemala; early flowering. B.M. 7851. G.W.
9, P- 494. K. M. WIEGAND.

GENETYLLIS: Darwinian

GENIPA (Brazilian name). Rubiacese. This includes
a West Indian shrub allied to the Cape jasmine and
barely known to American horticulture. Genipa and
Gardenia are difficult to separate.

Small trees or shrubs: Ivs. with short or no stalks,
opposite, large, leathery, obovate or lanceolate, shining :
cymes axillary, few-fld.; fls. white to yellowish; calyx-
' limb bell-shaped, truncated, or 5-toothed ; corolla
salver-shaped, limb twisted to the left, 5-parted; stigma
club-shaped or bifid ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentas 2, almost
touching each other in the axis: berries edible.

clusiifolia, Griseb. A shrub 4-10 ft. in the wild, not
so large in cult.: Ivs. 4 in. or less long, black when
dried, obovate, glabrous: corymbs short-peduncled ;
calyx-limb 5-cut, the pedicels as long as the calyx;
corolla glabrous, the tube nearly as long as the lobes:
berry ovoid. W. Indies.

americana, Linn. A small tree: Ivs. 5-10 in. long,
lanceolate-oblong, glabrous: pedicels shorter than the

1322

GENIPA

GENISTA

calyx; corolla silky, white, about 1 in. across: berry
similar to last, but is "highly commended in cookery"
according to Reasoner, by whom the plant was intro.
(1914). W. Indies.— The fr. is largely used in Trop.
Amer. as a preserve under the name "genipop." It is
often used as a kind of marmalade and has been
called "marmalade-box" in Surinam. N, TAYLOR.!

GENISTA (ancient Latin name). Leguminosas.
Ornamental woody plants chiefly grown for their hand-
some yellow, rarely white, flowers.

Deciduous or half-evergreen, sometimes nearly
leafless shrubs, unarmed or spiny: branches usually
striped and green: Ivs. alternate, rarely opposite,
entire, simple or sometimes 3-foliolate: fls. papiliona-
ceous, in terminal racemes or heads, rarely axillary,
yellow, rarely white; calyx 2-lipped, with the upper
lip deeply 2-parted; style incurved: pod globular to
narrow-oblong, 1- to many-seeded, -dehiscent, rarely
indehiscent. — About 100 species in Eu., Canary Isls.,
N. Afr. and W. Asia. Allied to Cytisus, but without
callose appendage at the base of the seeds. The Genista
of florists is Cytisus.

The genistas are ornamental, usually low shrubs with
showy flowers, appearing profusely in spring or sum-
mer, and followed by small, insignificant pods. None
of the species is quite hardy North, but G. tinctoria,
G. pilosa, G. germanica and some other European spe-
cies will do well in a sheltered position or if somewhat
protected during the winter, while the others are more
suited for cultivation in southern regions. They are
essentially plants suited to drier climates and most of
them do well in California. They are adapted for
covering dry, sandy banks and rocky slopes, and for
borders and rockeries. They grow in any well-drained
soil, and like a sunny position. Propagate by seeds,
sown in spring, also by layers and by greenwood cut-
tings under glass.

INDEX.

*etnensis, 9.
cinerea, 10.
data, 14.
ephedroides, 8.
ferox, 3.
florida, 12.
germanica, 5.

hispanica, 6.
humilior, 14.
mantica, 14.
Martinii, 4.
monospenna, 1.
pilosa, 15.
plena, 14.

polygalsefolia, 13, 14.
Bagittalis, 16.
sibirica, 14.
sphaerocarpa, 2.
tinctoria, 14.
umbellata, 7.
virgata, 11, 14.

A. Color of fls. white.

1. monosperma, Lam. (Retama monosperma, Boiss.).
Shrub, to 10 ft. or more with slender grayish branches,
almost leafless: Ivs. small, simple or rarely 3-foliolate,
generally linear or linear-spatulate, silky: fls. white,
fragrant, in short lateral racemes; corolla silky; calyx

Eurple: pod broadly oval, 1-2-seeded. Feb.- April,
pain, N. Afr. B.M. 683. B.R. 1918. Gn. 55, p. 213;
62, p. 15. G.W. 15, p. 412.

AA. Color of fls. yellow.

B. Twigs striped, not winged. (Nos. 2-15.)

c. Pod globular, indehiscent, 1-seeded.

2. sphaerocarpa, Lam. Similar to the preceding,
but lower and more upright, leafless: fls. yellow, very
small, in numerous panicled racemes; corolla gla-
brous. May, June. Spain, N. Afr.

cc. Pod oval to linear, dehiscent.

D. Shrubs spiny.

E. Infl. racemose.

P. Spines stout: habit upright, to 6 ft.

3. ferox, Poir. Erect shrub, to 6 ft., with many stout
spines: Ivs. simple, rarely 3-foliolate, oblong to obovate,
almost glabrous: fls. in numerous terminal racemes
along the branches; corolla glabrous, over Hm- long,
fragrant: pod linear, densely silky, many-seeded.
Spring, in Calif, in autumn and winter. N. Afr. B.R.
368.

FF. Spines slender: habit decumbent to upright, to 2 ft.
4. Martinii, Verguin & Soulie (G. Scorpius x G. Vil-
larsii). Decumbent shrub: branchlets tomentose: Ivs.
linear-lanceolate, simple, whitish pubescent on both
sides, small: fls. axillary, forming terminal slender
racemes; calyx pubescent; standard and keel silky.
S. France; natural hybrid. Cult, in Calif.

5. germanica, Linn. Erect or as-
cending spiny shrub, to 2 ft., with
viilous branches: Ivs. elliptic-oblong,
cih'ate: fls. small, in 1-2-in. long
racemes: pod oval, viilous, few-seeded.
June, July. Cent, and S. Eu. R.F.
G. 22:2085.

EE. Infl. head-like.

6. hispanica, Linn. Densely
branched shrub, about 1 ft. high, with
numerous thin spines: Ivs. ovate-
lanceolate, pubescent, not exceeding
Kin.: fls. in 3-12-fld. short head-like
racemes: pod rhombic, hirsute. May,
June. Spain, S. France, N. W. Italy.
L.B.C. 18:1738. R.H. 1888:36. Gn.
60, p. 395; 62, p. 95. G.M. 45:69.
M.D.G. 1907:388. — Hardy in W.
N. Y.

DD. Shrubs unarmed.
E. Fls. in terminal heads, sessile.

7. umbellata, Poir. Erect shrub, to
2 feet, with rigid branches, forming a
dense bush : Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate,
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, silky,
K-^in. long: fls. in 10-30-fld. umbel-
like heads; corolla silky, over ^in.
long: pod linear-oblong, tomentose,
2-5-seeded. April, May. Spain.

EE. Fls. in racemes, or axillary.

F. Habit upright. Nos. 8-14.

G. Branches rigid: pod 1-seeded, silky.

8. ephedroides, DC. Erect shrub,
to 3 ft., with rigid branches, almost
leafless: Ivs. sessile, simple or 3-f olio-
late, linear, almost glabrous: fls. in
many-fld. terminal racemes, small;
standard much shorter than keel: pod
oval, 1-seeded, silky. April, May.

Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily.

GG. Branches slender: pod
1-10-seeded.

H. The fls. axillary on last
year's branchlets.

9. aetnensis, DC. Shrub, to 6
ft., with slender branches, nearly
leafless: Ivs. simple, small, linear,
silky: fls. axillary, forming loose,
terminal racemes, fragrant; keel
snorter than the standard: pod
glabrous at maturity, oblique-
oval, 1-3-seeded. June, July.
Sicily, Sardinia. B.M. 2674.

10. cinerea, DC. Shrub, to 3
ft. : branches grooved, pubescent
while young, sparsely leafy: lys.

simple, lanceolate, pubescent on both sides, H~Hm-
long: fls. 1-3, axillary, forming terminal racemes to 8
in. long; calyx pubescent; keel pubescent outside: pod
2-5-seeded, silky. April-June. S. Eu., N. Afr. B.M.
8086. G.M. 52:511;- 53:507.— This species does not
seem to be in the trade at present, but it deserves
attention on account of its copious, brilliant yellow
fls.

1624. Dyer's Greenweed,
Genista tinctoria.

GENISTA

GFNTIANA

1323

HH. The fls. in terminal racemes on the young growth.
I. Pod pubescent, 1-4-seeded.

11. virgata, Link (Spdrtium virgatum, L'Her.).
Shrub, to 8 ft., with slender branches: Ivs. lanceolate to
elliptic, silky- villous, J^-Hin. long: fls. in numerous
short 3-6-fld. -racemes; standard and keel silky: pod
oblong, 1-3-seeded, villous. May-July. Madeira.
B.M. 2265. F. 1875:169.

12. florida, Linn. Erect shrub, to 5 ft., with gla-
brous striped branches : Ivs. spatulate-oblong or lanceo-
late, silky beneath, ^3-% in. long: fls. in dense, many-
fld. racemes; corolla glabrous: pod oblong or narrow-
oblong, silky, 2-4-seeded. April- July. Spain.

ii. Pod glabrous or slightly pubescent, rarely densely so,
3-10-seeded.

13. polygalaefdlia, DC. Erect shrub, to 6 ft., with
somewhat silky branches: Ivs. spatulate-oblong, gla-
brous above, sparingly silky beneath, J^-%in. long:
fls. in many-fld. slender racemes; standard and wings
glabrous, keel silky: pod oblong or narrow-oblong,
almost glabrous, 3-6-seeded. May-July. Spain,
Portugal.

14. tinctSria, Linn. (G. sibirica, Hort. G. polygalse-
fblia, Hort., not DC.). DYER'S GREENWEED. Fig.
1624. Erect shrub, to 3 ft., with striped, glabrous or
slightly pubescent branches: Ivs. oblong-elliptic or
oblong-lanceolate, almost glabrous, ciliate, J^-l in.
long: racemes many-fld., panicled at the ends of
branches; corolla glabrous: pod narrow-oblong, gla-
brous or slightly pubescent, 6-10-seeded. June-Aug.
Eu., W. Asia; naturalized in some places E. B.B. (ed. 2)
2:350. S.E.B. 3:328. R.F.G. 22:2088. Var. plena,
Hort. With double fls. R.H. 1899, p. 573. G.W. 16,
p. 137. Var. virgata, Mert. & Koch (G. virgata, Willd.,
not Link, not Lam. G. elata, Wender.). Of more
vigorous growth, to 6 ft. high: pod 3-6-seeded. S.E.
Eu. Var. humflior, Schneid. (G. mdntica, Poll.). Dwarf
and compact, more pubescent: pods silky- villous.
Italy.

FF. Habit procumbent: fls. axillary.

15. pi!6sa, Linn. Dwarf, procumbent or ascending:
Ivs. cuneate, oblong or obovate, dark green and almost
glabrous above, silky beneath: fls. axillary, 1-2, often
racemose toward the end of branches : pod linear, silky,
5-8-seeded. May, June. Cent, and S. Eu., W. Asia.
S.E.B. 3 : 327. R.F.G. 22 : 2093.

BB. Twigs broadly 2-winged.

16. sagittalis, Linn. (Cytisus sagittalis, Mert. &
Koch). Dwarf, procumbent, with ascending or erect,
mostly simple branches: Ivs. ovate to oblong, villous:
fls. in terminal, short racemes; corolla glabrous: pod
linear-oblong, silky. May, June. Eu., W. Asia. R.F.G.
27:2081.

G. dlba, Lam.=Cytisus multiflorus. — G. Andreana, Puissant=
Cytisus scoparius var. Andreanus. — G. dnglica, Linn. Spiny shrub
to 3 ft., sometimes procumbent, glabrous: Ivs. oval to linear-oblong
bluish green: racemes few-fld. Cent. Eu. S.E.B. 3:326. R.F.G
22:2086. — G. anxdntica, Tenore (G. tinctoria var. anxantica
Fiori). Allied to G. tinctoria. Dwarf, diffuse: Ivs. elliptic, obtuse
glabrous: fls. in racemes. Italy. — G. aspalathaides, Lam. Low
spiny shrub: Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate: fls. 1-3, axillary, forming,
loose, terminal racemes: pod many-seeded. N. Afr. — G. canariensis,
Linn.=Cytisus canariensis. — G. cdndicans, Linn. =Cytisus mon-
speliensis. — G. dalmdtica, Bartl. Allied to G. germanica. Spiny
shrub with appressed or spreading silky pubescence: Ivs. linear-
lanceolate, simple: fls. in terminal racemes, 1-1 Yi in. long: pod
globose-ovoid, 1-seeded. Dalmatia, Herzegovina. B.M. 8075. —
G. formdsa, Hort. =Cytisus racemosus. — G. glabrescens, Briquet=
Cytisus emeriflorus. — G. horrida, DC. Spiny rigid shrub, to 1 ft.:
Ivs. opposite, usually 3-foliolate, pubescent: fls. 1-3, in terminal
heads: pods rhombic-lanceolate, pubescent. S. France, Spain.
G.C. III. 53: 140. — G. juncea, Lam.=Spartium junceum. — G.
lusitdnica, Linn. Spiny shrub, 1-3 ft.: Ivs. 3-foliolate; Ifts. linear-
lanceolate, silky, very small: fls. in peduncled heads. Spain, Por-
tugal.— G. nyssdna, Petrovich. Shrub, to 3 ft., silky-villous: Ivs.
3-foliolate: fls. in terminal leafy racemes to 8 in. long: pod rhombic,
villous, 2-seeded. Servia, Albania. I.T. 5:197. — G. ovata, Waldst.
& Kit. Allied to G. tinctoria. To 1 ft., with ascending or erect
branches: Ivs. ovate to lanceolate, villous: pod villous. S. E. Eu.

L.B.C. 5:482. — G. prostrdta, Lam.=Cytisus decumbens. — G.
racemosa, Hort.=Cytisus racemosus. — G. radidta. Scop. Erect
shrub, with opposite rigid branches: Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate: fls.
in 3-6-fld. heads: pod oval, silky. S. E. Eu. B.M. 2260. — G.
Retdma, Nichols. =G. monosperma. — G. scariosa, Viv.=G. trian-
gularis. — G. scopdria, Lam.=Cytisus scoparius. — G. trianguldris,
Willd. Dwarf, with ascending or procumbent triangular branches,
glabrous: Ivs. obovate to lanceolate, with transparent margin: fls.
in short racemes. Italy. S. E. Eu. L.B.C. 12: 1135 (as G. scariosa).

ALFRED REHDER.

GENTIANA (after Gentius, King of Illyria, who
is said to have discovered the tonic value of these
plants). Gentianace.se. Choice herbs, mostly blue-
flowered, grown in the open, many of them in alpine
gardening.

Chiefly perennial herbs, only rarely biennial or annual,
often dwarf, diffuse or frequently tufted, sometimes
erect and slender or even tall and stout: Ivs. opposite,
rarely verticillate, mostly sessile : fls. blue, violet, purple,
rarely dull yellow or white; floral parts typically 5,
rarely 4-7: fr. a caps. — There are about 300 species,
widely scattered in temperate and mountainous regions.
Many botanists now consider the genus in a highly
restricted sense, taking up various names for gentians,
such as Amarella, Dasystephana, and so on, but they
are here all considered as of the genus Gentiana.

Gentians are amongst the most desirable of alpine
plants, and of blue flowers in general, but they are
usually considered difficult to establish. The genus is
the largest in the family, and from the horticultural
standpoint, the most important.

The blue gentian, celebrated by tourists in the Alps,
is mostly the stemless G. acaulis. This was brought to
English gardens so long ago that all record of its intro-
duction is lost. It is by far the most popular kind in
cultivation. This species is by some split into five
distinct forms, of which G. angustifolia, Vill. (not
Michx.), is nearest to the Gentianella of English gardens.
It has been so much modified in cultivation that it now
has stems 4 to 6 inches high and the rootstock is so
stoloniferous that the plant has to be cut back every
year when used for edgings in English gardens. In
France it is easily grown in a compost of one-half
humus or leaf-soil and one-half good vegetable mold,
to which may be added a little sand. Correvon writes:
"It can be multiplied by means of offsets, but it is
infinitely better to raise it from seed, and, in doing
this, it should not be forgotten that the seeds of this
group of gentians are very tedious, and, more espe-
cially, very capricious in germinating. I have sown
seeds of G. acaulis, some of which did not germinate
for twelve months, while others (which I must say
were more recently gathered) germinated in a few
weeks. The seedlings should be potted as soon as
possible and while they are very young. They will
begin to flower in about three years from the time of
sowing, rarely sooner." Except G. Andrewsii, G.
Saponaria and G. puberula, and perhaps a few others,
gentians do not thrive so well in America as in England.
Our seasons are too hot and dry. Whenever possible,
choose a damp atmosphere.

It is rash to generalize on gentian-culture, because
some plants are tall, others dwarf, some found on moun-
tains, others in lowlands, some in moist soil, others in
dry lands, while some like limestone and others cannot
endure it. The annual kinds are of interest only to the
expert. Alpine plants in general are singular in requir-
ing an extremely large water-supply, combined with
extremely good drainage. Another difficult problem is
to keep the plants as cool as they are on the mountains
without shading them more than nature does. Gentian
seeds are small, and in germination slow and uncer-
tain. They should be sown as soon as gathered, for the
thorough drying out of small seeds is, as a rule, soon
fatal. Gentians are difficult to establish, and dislike
division of the root, but are well worth patient years of
trial, for they are very permanent when once estab-
lished. Nature-like alpine gardens are one of the latest

1324

GENTIANA

GENTIANA

and most refined departments of gardening, and gen-
tians are one of the most inviting groups of plants to
the skilled amateur. Consult Alpine Plants.

There are several fringed gentians, but ours (G. cri-
nita, Fig. 1625) is perhaps the most beautiful of gen-
tians, and one of the choicest and most delicate of
American wild flowers. It has been proposed as our

national flower, and,
while sought after less
than the trailing arbutus,
it is in even greater
danger of extermination
in certain states because
it is a biennial, and
because it has never been
successfully cultivated.
Seeds of G, crinita have
long been advertised,
but they are difficult
to germinate and the
plant is not seen in
American gardens. The
fringed gentian is,
however, firmly rooted
in American literature,
and from the time of
Bryant's ode many
tributes in verse have
been paid to its unique
beauty. The daily un-
folding of its square-
ridged and twisted buds
has been watched in
thousands of homes. By
the artists its blue is
often considered the
nearest approach to the
color of the sky, but it
must be confessed that
a shade of purple often appears in the older flowers.
Correvon makes four cultural groups of gentians:

1. Tall gentians for general culture: species whose
roots are more or less stout, which are of relatively easy
culture, and therefore suitable for borders, rockwork
and landscape gardening. Typical plant, G. lutea;
others are G. affinis, G. alba, G. Andrewsii, G. asclepia-
dea, G. Bigelovii, G. Burseri, G. Cruciata, G. decumbens,
G. Fetisowii, G. gelida, G. Kesselringii, G. macrophylla,
G. Olivieri, G. Pneumonanthe, G. Porphyrio, G. Sapo-
naria, G. sceptrum, G. septemfida and G. Walujewi.

2. Low-growing gentians: species whose roots being
less stout are adapted to rockwork, and for the open
ground only when a special compost is provided.
Includes G. acaulis and the species into which it is
sometimes divided.

3. Tufted gentians: species with sessile flowers
growing little above the level of the ground, and suited
to the same positions as Group II. Typical plant, G.
verna: others are G. bavarica, G. imbricata, G. oregana,
G. ornata, G. pyrenaica, and G. pumila.

4. Rare gentians: species which cannot be grown
without some special knowledge and practical experi-
ence. Typical plant, G. purpurea; others are G. ciliata,
G. Froelichii, G. punctata, and presumably all the rest.

The two most popular gentians in American cultiva-
tion seem to be G. acaulis and G. Andrewsii. These are
perhaps, followed by G. Cruciata, G. puberula and G.
baponaria. The plant which King Gentius knew is
probably G. lutea, the root of which furnishes the gen-
tian of drugstores. From the same sources comes the
liqueur or cordial called "gentiane."

In the index, those marked with an asterisk (*)
appear in American trade catalogues; the others are
cultivated abroad. (See also Suppl. list, p. 1328).
The plants are perennials and mountain-loving, unless
otherwise stated.

1625. Gentiana crinita.

INDEX.

*acaulis, 51.

*decumbens, 3.

adscendens, 3.

detonsa, 16.

affinis, 29.

dinarica, 56.

alata, 48.

ezcisa, 51.

*alba, 7, 19, 51.

Favratii, 48.

algida, 10, 11.

Fortunei, 27.

alpina, 55.

Freyniana, 28.

*Andrewsii, 22.

frigida, 9, 10.

angulosa, 48.

Froelichii, 18.

*angustifolia, 31, 52.

Gaudiniana, 43.

*asclepiadea, 19.

gelida, 11.

barbata, 16.

guttata, 20.

bavarica, 49.

imbricata, 47.

*Bigelovii, 39.

incarnata, 8.

brevidens, 37.

intermedia, 8.

Buergeri, 26.

Kochiana, 53.

Burseri, 2.

Kochii, 51.

*calycosa, 35.

Kurroo, 37.

campestris, 12.

*linearis, 23.

carpatica, 46.

*lutea, 1.

Catesbzi, 21,22.
ciliata, 15.

*macrophylla, 44.
Moorcroftiana, 13.

*Clusii, 54.

*Newberryi, 38.

cordifolia, 28.

nivalis, 46.

*crinita, 14.

occidentalis, 17.

*Cruciata, 45.

ochroleuca, 8.

dahurica, 30.

Olivieri, 30.

*oregana, 40.

ornata, 32.

pannonica, 42.
*Parryi, 36.

Pneumonanthe, 20.

Porphyrio, 31.

prostrata, 25.

pseudo-Pneit im>-

nanthe, ^--1.
*puberula, 41.

pumila, 50.
*punctata, 6.
*purpurea, 4.

pyrenaica, 24.

quinqueflora, 17.
*quinquefolia, 17.

rubra, 5.
*Saponaria, 21.
*scabra, 26.
*sceptrum, 34.
*septemfida, 28.

serrata, 16.

Thomasii, 4.

triflora, 33.

Veitchiorum, 32.

verna, 48.

villosa, 8.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Calyx spathe-like, split in two.
B. Color of fls. yellowish.

c. Form of corolla wheel-shaped 1. lutea

cc. Form of corolla club-shaped, at

least in bud 2. Burseri

BB. Color of fls. blue or purple, at least
above.

c. Corolla plaited 3. decumbens

cc. Corolla not plaited.

D. Anthers grown together 4. purpurea

DD. Anthers free o. rubra

AA. Calyx with a tubular portion, and

usually 5 lobes.
B. Color of fls. yellowish, or greenish

white.

c. Style distinct: caps, not stalked.. . . 6. punctata
cc. Style none or very short: caps,
stalked.

D. Height 2 ft 7. alba

DD. Height 9-12 in 8. villosa

ODD. Height 6 in. or less.

E. Lobes of calyx longer than the

calyx-tube 9. frigida

EE. Lobes of calyx shorter than the
calyx-tube.

F. Lvs. lanceolate-linear 10. algida

FF. Lvs. ovate-lanceolate 11. gelida

BB. Color of fls. blue or purple,
c. Corolla not plaited.
D. Glands found at the base of the
filaments.

E. Calyx 4-cut 12. campestris

EE. Calyx 5-cut 13. Moorcrofti-

DD. Glands not found at the base of [ana

the filaments.

E. Fringed gentians: calyx 4-cut.
F. Caps, raised on a distinct

stalk.
G. Apex of lobes fringed, the

sides less so 14. crinita

QQ. Apex of lobes not fringed,

base fringed 15. ciliata

FF. Caps, on a very short stalk. . . 16. serrata
EE. Not fringed: calyx 5-cut; co-
rolla-lobes tipped with a sharp

point 17. quinquefolia

cc. Corolla plaited.

D. Stigmas 2, always distinct.
E. Caps, finally raised on a distinct

stalk.
F. Anthers permanently grown

together.

G. Calyx as long as the corolla.18. Froelichii
GG. Calyx one-half or one-third

as long as the corolla.

H. Seeds not at all winged. . . 19. asclepiadea
HH. Seeds slightly winged.

i. Fls. open 20. Pneumon-

[anthe
ii. Fls. closed, blue 21. Saponaria

GENTIANA

GENTIANA

1325

HHH. Seeds strongly winded.

i. Fls. closed, purple 22. Andrews!!

ii. Fls. open 23. linearis

FF. Anthers free, at least finally.

G. Number of corolla-lobes 10.24. pyrenaica
GG. Number of corolla-lobes 5
(rarely 4)-

H. Calyx 4-lobed 25. prostrata

HH. Calyx o-lobed.

i. Lvs. distinctly rough above

(hispid-scabrous) 26. scabra

II. Lvs. distinctly rough at

the margins (scabrous).

j. Lobes of calyx shorter

than the calyx-tube. . .27. Fortune!
jj. Lobes of calyx as long as

the calyx-tube.
K. Corolla-lobes ovate,
acute, a little longer
than the much - cut

appendages 28. septemfida

KK. Corolla-lobes oblong-
lanceolate, obtuse ,
thrice as long as the
much-cut appen-
dages 29. affinis

in. Lvs. not distinctly rough

above or at margiiis.
j. Seeds not at all winged.
K. Form of corolla-lobes

linear-oblong 30. Olivier!

KK. Form of corolla-lobes
ovate, often broadly
so.
L. Fls. solitary.

M. Peduncled 31. Porphyrio

MM. Not peduncled... .32. ornata
LL. Fls. in clusters of 3-

5 or more.

M. Lvs. lanceolate-
linear 33. triflora

MM. Lvs. ovate to ob-
long-lanceolate.

N. Height 2-4 ft 34. sceptrum

NN. Height 9-12 in.
o. Calyx-lobes ov-
ate, about as
long as the
calyx-tube. ... 35. calycosa
oo. Calyx-lobes lin-
ear, moderate-
ly or much
shorter than
the calyx-tube.36. Parrvi
jj. Seeds winged (at the
base in G. Kurroo, in
G. Bigelovii wings
narrow, thickish).
K. Height 2-8 in.: fls.

spotted.
L. Pedicel y^in. long or

more 37. Kurroo

LL. Pedicel very short,

practically absent. . 38. Newberryi
KK. Height 1-2 ft.

L. Fls. in a dense spike.39. Bigelovii
LL. Fls. 1 to few or

several.

M. Appendages con-
spicuous, some-
times nearly as
long as the corolla-
lobes 40. oregana

MM. Appendages only
half as long as
the corolla-lobes. . 41. puberula
EE. Caps, sessile.

F. Anthers grown together; style

distinct: seeds winged.
G. Calyx 5-cut, the lobes longer

than the calyx-tube 42. pannonica

GG. Calyx entire, truncate, indis-
tinctly 5-lobed 43. Gaudiniana

FF. Anthers free; style usually

not distinct: seeds not winged.

a. Lvs. 6-12 in. long: calyx 5-6-

lobed 44. macrophylla

GG. Lvs. much shorter: calyx 4-

lobed 45. Cruciata

DD. Stigmas contiguous, rather fun-
nel-shaped, the margin crenate-
fimbriate.
E. Anthers free; style distinct.

F. Calyx pellucid, veiny 46. carpatica

FF. Calyx leafy.

G. Seeds winged 47. imbricata

GG. Seeds not winged.

H. Lvs. ovate 48. verna

HH. Lvs. obovate 49. bavarica

HHH. Lvs. linear 50. pumila

EE. Anthers connate; style short.
F. Fls. spotted.

G. Color deep blue 51. acaulis

GG. Color sky-blue 52. angustifolia

GGG. Color violet-blue 53. Kochiana

FF. Fls. not spotted.

G. Corolla broadly bell-shaped.

H. Size of fls. large 54. Clusii

HH. Size of fls. small 55. alpina

GG. Corolla almost cylindrical.. .56. dinarica

1. lutea, Linn. Fls. in dense, umbel-like cymes;
corolla 5-6-parted; lobes oblong-linear, acuminate;
anthers free; style none. July-Sept. Eu., Asia Minor.
Gn. 64, p. 59. G.W. 3, p. 290.— Prop, only by seed.
Sow seed in Nov. in coldframe. Seedlings appear the
following March and April. In May and June prick
them out under a coldframe, and in Aug. transfer
young plants to pots, where they should be kept until
needed for permanent outdoor use. Be very careful
never to break the roots. Sometimes cult, abroad for
medicine.

2. Burseri, Lapeyr. A low perennial, less than 1 ft.,
with a simple st.: Ivs. elliptic-ovate, 7-nerved: corolla
mostly 6-cut; the tube much longer than the limb; lobes
ovate-oblong, acute; anthers connate; style distinct.
June, July. Pyrenees. — Cult, like preceding.

3. decumbens, Linn. f. (G. adscendens, Pall.). A
stout, erect herb with fl.-sts. 2-10 in. tall: Ivs. mostly
radical, oblong or elliptic, margins scabrous: fls. blue;
calyx-tube Mm- l°ng) often split nearly to the base;
corolla narrowly obconical, toothed between the lobes;
lobes 5, ovate; anthers connate, finally free. Hima-
layas, Tibet. June-Aug. B.M. 705, 723.— Cult, like
G. lutea.

4. purpurea, Linn. Lvs. ovate-oblong, 5-nerved: fls.
purple above; corolla-tube yellowish, club-shaped;
lobes mostly 6, obovate-subrotund, one-third the length
of the tube. Aug., Sept. Eu. L.B.C. 6:583 shows a
rich, dull purple, with no trace of blue. — Compost of
sphagnum and heath soil. Be careful not to break the
roots.

5. rilbra, Clairv. (G. Thomasii, Gillaboz). One of 5 or
more natural hybrids between G. lutea and some species
of the section Coelanthe, which includes G. punctata,
G. purpurea, G. Pannonica, and G. Burseri: fls. purplish
outside. Swiss Alps.

6. punctata, Linn. Lvs. 5-nerved: calyx 5-7-cut;
corolla-tube bell-shaped; lobes ovate, muticous, one-
third the length of the tube; anthers finally free. Cent.
Eu. — The spots are not arranged in any definite order.
This belongs to the section Coelanthe, in which the
seed has a wing of the same color, while the next 5
species belong to the section Pneumonanthe, in which
there is no wing, or it is of a different color. Cult, like
G. Froelichii.

7. alba, Muhl. St. stout: Ivs. acuminate, with a
clasping base: fls. in a terminal head, with single or
clustered ones in the upper axils; dull white, commonly
tinged yellowish or greenish; corolla resembling G.
Saponaria, but more bell-shaped and open ; lobes ovate,
short, little if at all spreading. Low grounds and moun-
tain meadows, N. Amer. B.M. 1551 (as G. ochroleuca).
—This species now takes the name G. flavida, Gray.

1326

GENTIANA

8. villdsa, Linn. (G. ochroleuca, Froel.). St. smooth
scending, simple or nearly so, slender, 6-18 in. tall:
Ivs. ovate-lanceolate and obovate: fls. in crowded
terminal, nearly sessile, leafy clusters, or sometimes
axillary; corolla yellowish white or greenish, club-
shaped, connivent at the apex. E. N. Amer. Not
B.M. 1551. Var. intermedia, Griseb. (G. intermedia,
Sims, not L.B.C. 3:218), may be a hybrid between this
and G. Andrewsii. It resembles G. ochroleuca in having
calyx-lobes of unequal lengths, but as long as or longer
than the calyx-tube, and free anthers: it resembles
G. Andrewsii in the tinge of purplish blue. B.M. 2303.
Var. incarnata, Griseb. (G. incarnata,- Sims), B.M.
1856, from Carolina is not cult. These forms are not
considered worthy of varietal rank in Gray's Syn. Fl.

9. frigida, Haenke. Lvs. spatulate-linear, obtuse: fls.
1 or 2 at the top, sometimes a few in the upper axils;
calyx not laterally cut, and half as long as the corolla or
more; calyx-teeth lanceolate, a little longer than the
calyx-tube; corolla club-shaped, plaits not cut. Car-
pathian Mts.; also N. Amer. — This is the true type of
G. frigida, which is not in cult., but is inserted to make
clear the differences between G. algida of Pallas and of
Steven.

10. algida, Pall., not Stev. (G. frigida var. algida,
Griseb.). Lvs. lanceolate-linear: fls. 2-5 at the top and
distinctly pedicelled ; calyx

laterally cut and one-third the
length of the corolla; calyx-
teeth linear-lanceolate, hardly
as long as the calyx-tube and
sometimes only half as long;
corolla between club- and bell-
shaped; plaits cut with a few
crenate teeth. Altai Mts., E.
Siberia, N. Amer. Gn. 17, p.
343, same as Gn. 27, p. 89; 48,
p. 146. — This grows 4-5 in.
high, has numerous sts. and fls.
nearly 2J^ in. long, whitish,
with blue spots in longitudinal
lines.

11. gelida.Bieb. (G.
dlgida, Stev., not
Pall.). Lvs. ovate-
lanceolate, 3-neryed :
fls. few and terminal,
or many in the upper
axils, peduncled;
calyx-teeth linear-ob-
long, acute, nearly as
long as the calyx-tube
or shorter than it;
corolla rather bell-
shaped, yellowish
white, its lobes

broadly ovate, twice as long as the calyx and twice
as long as the lacerated plaits. June, July. Caucasus.
Not P.M. 7:5, which is G. septemfida var. cordifolia. —
"Light, deep, cool soil and full sunlight." — Correvon.

12. campestris, Linn. A low slender annual with
erect st. 2-6 in. tall: Ivs. sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 3-5-
neryed: fls. dark purplish blue, short-pedicelled, but in
various kinds of clusters; calyx 4-cut; corolla nearly
bowl-shaped, crowned; anthers free; style none. Eu.

13. Moorcroftiana, Wall. A stiff annual 8-16 in.
high: fls. pale blue in nearly terminal cymes which are
racemosely clustered; calyx 5-cut; corolla funnel-shaped,
about 1^2 m- wide. Himalayas. B.M. 6727, where fls.
are shown as pale purple.

14. crinita, Froel. Fig. 1625. FRINGED GENTIAN.
Biennial or often annual: erect, branched, 1-2 ft. high:
Ivs. lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acutish, from a
rounded or subcordate partly clasping base: corolla-

'7
1626. Gentiana Andrewsii.

lobes wedge-obovate: seeds roughened by scales or
needle-like projections. Moist woods and meadows. N.
Amer. B.M. 2031. Mn. 4:161. B.B. 2:613.— The ribs
of the calyx (made by the decurrent lobes) are one of
the minor beauties of this plant, and are probably more
pronounced than in the other fringed gentians here
described. Almost impossible to grow in cult.

15. ciliata, Linn. Perennial: st. flexuose, scarcely
branched: Ivs. linear, obtuse: corolla-lobes obovate-
oblong: seeds smooth. Dry limestone soils. Eu. Not
B.M. 639, which is G. serrata. — Hardly 3 per cent of
Correvon's seedlings have flowered. He recommends
a heavy, compact soil which is almost clayey, and full
sunlight.

16. serrata, Gunner (G. barbata, Froel. G. detdnsa,
Griseb. G. detonsa var. barbata, Griseb.). Annual:
st. erect, branching, 3-18 in. high: Ivs. linear or lance-
linear: corolla-lobes oblong or spatulate-obovate,
fringed around the apex and sides or sometimes either
part nearly bare. Wet lands, Ural and Altai Mts., Cau-
casus, N. Amer. B.B. 2:614. B.M. 639 (erroneously
as G. ciliata) . — No plants appear to be advertised as G.
serrata. G. barbata is a trade name abroad.

17. quinquefolia, Linn. (G. quinqueflora, Hill, Lam.
and others). Annual: height 1-2 ft., the larger plants
branched: Ivs. 3-7-nerved: infl. thyrsoid- paniculate;
clusters 3-5-fld.; fls. bright blue; calyx one-fifth or one-
fourth as long as the narrowly funnel-shaped corolla.
N. Amer. Probably the form in cult, is var. occiden-
talis, Gray. Height 2-3 ft., paniculately much
branched: infl. more open; calyx half the length of the
broader corolla. B.B. 2:615. B.M. 3496.— Very pretty.

18. Froelichii, Jan. Sts. short, almost tufted: fls.
blue, solitary, peduncled, nearly as long as the st.;
corolla not spotted. Very rare in Alps, limestone rocks.
— Easily grown on rockwork in compost of equal parts
of sphagnum, heath soil and vegetable-mold. Half-
exposure to sunlight.

19. asclepiadea, Linn. St. strict, about 1-1 Yi ft.
tall: Ivs. sessile, ovate-lanceolate: calyx-teeth very
short: fls. in spike-like racemes, dark blue, very showy;
corolla club-shaped; calyx one-third as long as the
corolla: seeds not winged. July-Sept. S. Eu., Caucasus.
B.M. 1078. Gn. 48, p. 143, and 54, p. 39. G.M. 47:544.
Gt. 54, p. 345. G. 3:59; 8:481; 13:403; 21:233. Var.
alba, a white-fld. form is excellent but perhaps not
known outside of English trade. Shade or half-shade,
and moist, deep soil rich in humus.

20. Pneumon&nthe, Linn. St. erect: fls. dark blue
in a cyme-like raceme (the top fls. opening first);
corolla club-shaped; lobes ovate, acute, mucronate,
much longer than the appendages. Aug.-Oct. Moun-
tain marshes, Eu., N. Asia. Var. guttata, Sims, is
dotted white. B.M. 1101. — "Requires a cool, deep,
spongy soil, rich in humus. Dislikes lime, and prefers
sandy soil. Does remarkably well when planted on
margins of ponds or brooks. Prop, by seed or division."
— Correvon.

21. Saponaria, Linn. (G. Catesbsei, Walt., not Andr.).
BARREL or SOAPWORT GENTIAN. St. ascending: fls.
light blue, club-shaped; calyx-lobes linear or oblong,
mostly as long as the calyx-tube; corolla-lobes short,
broad, roundish, erect, little, and often not at all
longer than the 2-cleft and many-toothed intervening
appendages. N. Amer. B.M. 1039. (Hooker is prob-
ably wrong in referring this picture to G. Andrewsii,
although the calyx-lobes in the plate are not narrow
enough.) — Cult, like preceding.

22. Andrewsii, Griseb. (G. Catesbsei, Andr., not Walt.).
CLOSED, BLIND or BOTTLE GENTIAN. Fig. 1626. St.
ascending: fls. purplish blue; calyx-lobes lanceolate to
ovate, usually spreading or recurved, shorter than the
calyx-tube; corolla-lobes entirely obliterated, the teeth
at the top being supposed to be the remains of the

XL VII. Gentiana crinita.

GENTIANA

GENTIANA

1327

appendages often found between the corolla-lobes in
other species. July, Aug. Moist places. E. N. Amer.
B.M. 6421. B.B. 2:616. Gn. 27:86. G.W. 4, p. 549.
F.W. 1879:33. L.B.C. 9:815 (erroneously as G. Sapo-
naria). — A white-fld. form is cult, but very rare. For
cult., see G. Pneumonanthe.

23. linearis, Froel. (G. pseudo-Pneumondnthe, Schult.).
St. strict, 1-2 ft. high: fls. blue, 1-5 in the terminal
cluster; corolla narrowly funnel-shaped; lobes erect,
roundish ovate, obtuse, a little longer than the triangu-
lar, acute, entire or 1-2-toothed appendages. Bogs,
N. Amer. B.B. 2:617.

24. pyrenaica, Linn. St. tufted, about as long as the
fl., often forming mats: Ivs. with a cartilaginous, . sca-
brous margin: fls. solitary, dark blue; corolla funnel-
or nearly bowl-shaped, as long as or exceeding the
corolla which is about 1 in. long. May, June. Eu.,
Asia Minor. B.M. 5742. — Very distinct and dainty.
Cult, like G. verna.

25. prostr&ta, Haenke (Chondrophylla americdna,
Nelson). Annual, dwarf: Ivs. white-margined: fls.
azure-blue, solitary and terminal, the parts in 4's;
corolla salver-form, in fruit inclosing the long-stalked
caps. W. N. Amer. Alpine.

26. scabra, Bunge. St. erect, leafy, rough-hairy
above: basal Ivs. almost perfoliate, ovate, acute, faintly
3-nerved, the margins rough toothed: fls. dark blue,
clustered; corolla bell-shaped. E. Asia. G. Fortunei is
considered a variety by recent authorities. (G.C. III.
47:136). Var. Buergeri (G. Buergeri, Miq.) is
advertised by Yokohama Nursery Co. It differs in
having a narrower corolla with shorter and more trian-
gular lobes. Probably not in Amer. except in botanic
gardens.

27. F6rtunei, Hook. Lvs. rather distant, 3-nerved:
terminal fls. rather clustered; corolla-lobes blue, spotted
white; outside of tube green; plaits blue, terminated by
3-toothed appendages, much shorter than the corolla-
lobes. China. B.M. 4776. F.S. 9:947. I.H. 1:36.—
Now thought to be a variety of G. scabra, but not so
considered by Miquel.

28. septemfida, Pall. Lvs. lanceolate ("ovate,"
according to Grisebach), 3-5-nerved: fls. dark blue, in
head-like cymes; calyx-lobes linear; corolla club-shaped.
July-Oct. N. Asia, Orient. B.M. 1229 and 1410 (both
purple outside and dotted brown within; the lobes of
the latter spotted white). G. 34:773. L.B.C. 1:89.
Gn. 54, p. 37. P.M. 8:51. Not F.S. 8:765. G. Frey-
nidna, Hort., is said to differ from the type in having
larger fls. which are less prominently fringed between
the segms. of the corolla. G.C. III. 46:202. Gn. 75,
p. 421; 77, p. 168. Var. cordifdlia, Boiss. (G. cordifolia,
C. Koch), has heart-shaped Ivs.: corolla-tube greenish
white outside, unspotted within; lobes narrower,
unspotted. B.M. 6497. P.M. 7:5 (erroneously as G.
gelidd) . — The name septemfida is misleading, as 7-lobed
corollas are very rare. Cult, like G. lutea.

29. affinis, Griseb. Sts. clustered, 3-9 in. high:
lower Ivs. obovate-oblong; upper Ivs. lanceolate,
acutish: fls. dark blue, in thyrsoid-racemose clusters, a
few or sometimes solitary; calyx-lobes oblong-linear
and sharp-pointed; corolla narrowly obconical, open,
the lobes spreading. N. W. Amer. Gn. 46, p. 77 and
48, p. 139. B.B. 2:615 (where corolla-lobes are pic-
tured erect, but said to be spreading). — Cult, like G.
Pneumonanthe .

30. Olivieri, Griseb. (G. dahurica, Fisch., which is
probably the oldest name). Fls. dark blue, in umbel-
like cymes; corolla narrowly obconical; plaits trian-
gular, nearly entire. June-Aug. Mountain pastures,
Asia.-— By recent authority referred to G. decumbens,
but differing from that species only in having equal
calyx-lobes. Cult, like G. lutea— Useful in the rockery,
but will not grow well in the hot dry summer of E. U. S.

31. Porphyrio, J. F. Gmel. (G. angustifolia, Michx.,
not Vill.). Lvs. narrowly linear: fls. blue, somewhat
brown-dotted (also a snow-white variety with a greenish
hue outside); corolla funnel-shaped; anthers connivent
but never connected. July, Aug. Moist pine-barrens,
N. Amer. B.B. 2:618.— Cult, like G. Pneumonanthe.

32. ornata, Wall. Branches many from the same
root: Ivs. broadly linear: fls. solitary, blue, streaked;
calyx-lobes spreading; corolla ventricose, about 1-1 M
in. long; lobes very short, spreading. Himalayas.
B.M. 6514 and 8140. G.C. II. 20:396; 111.46:179.
Gn. 59, p. 249. — A form that differs from the type in
being more robust, with larger fls. and broader corolla-
lobes which are "intense blue," is offered as G. Veitch-
ibrum, Hemsl. It is a native of W. China, "where it
covers large areas," according to E. H. Wilson (Natural-
ist in Western China, 1 : 139), its discoverer. Intro,
into England in 1904. Alpine. Gn. 73, p. 479. G.C.
111.46:178.

33. trifldra, Pall. St. erect: Ivs. oblong-linear, blunt:
fls. solitary, dark blue, the calyx 5-toothed, acute,
and elongate; corolla club-shaped or bell-shaped, the
anthers free. E. Siberia. — Probably not now in cult, in
Amer. outside of botanic gardens.

34. sceptrum, Griseb. An erect, leafy perennial,
from 2-4 ft. high: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate: fls. dark blue;
corolla bell-shaped, about 1 in. long: seeds winged on
one side according to Grisebach, but Gray says not
winged. Aug., Sept. N. W. Amer. — Cult, like G. lutea,
except that it requires half shade and a rather peaty
soil.

35. calycdsa, Griseb. About 1 ft. high: Ivs. ovate,
about %in. long, the 2 upper commonly involucrate
around the fl.: fls. dark blue, commonly solitary,
according to Gray; corolla oblong -funnel -shaped;
appendages triangular-awl-shaped, laciniate or 2-cleft
at the tip. N. W. Amer. G.M. 47:541.

36. Parryi, Engelm. Sts. many, from a rather
woody root, about 9 in. tall: Ivs. somewhat glaucous,
ovate to oblong-lanceolate, the upper pairs involucrate
around the 1-5 purple-blue fls.: appendages narrow,
deeply 2-cleft. N. W. Amer.

37. Kurrod, Royle. St. tufted, as high as 7 in.:
lower Ivs. lanceolate, upper linear: fls. blue, spotted
white inside, 1-3 on a st.; corolla bell-shaped. Hima-
layas. Gn. 17:264. B.M. 6470. Var. brevidens has
shorter calyx-lobes. J.H. III. 30:3.

38. Newberryi, Gray. St. 2-4 in. high: lower Ivs.
obovate or spatulate: fls. pale blue, white inside, green-
ish dotted; calyx-lobes oblong or lanceolate, nearly as
long as the tube; corolla broadly funnel-shaped, its
lobes ovate and sharp-pointed. N.W. Amer. Alpine.

39. Bigelovii, Gray. St. 6-16 in. high, equally leafy
to the summit: fls. purple; corolla more narrowly
funnelform and smaller than in G. affinis. July, Aug.
New Mex., Colo. B.M. 6874. — "Soon forms large
clumps, often with 40-50 sts. from a single plant, each
bearing 10-20 bright blue fls." — D. M. Andrews.

40. oregana, Engelm. Height 1-2 ft.: Ivs. ovate or
ovate-oblong, 1-1 1/2 in. long: fls. blue, a few at the sum-
mit or several and loosely racemose; corolla broadly
funnel-shaped, over 1 in. long; lobes short, roundish.
July, Aug. N. W. Amer.

41. puberula, Michx. Perennial, usually solitary-
stemmed herb from 8-18 in. tall: Ivs. oblong-lanceo-
late to lanceolate-linear: fls. blue, sessile or nearly so in
the upper axils; corolla open-funnel-shaped, 1^-2 in.
long; lobes ovate. E. N. Amer. B.B. 2:615.

42. pannonica, Scop. A tall stout perennial: lower
Ivs. broadly elliptical, 5-nerved, margin scabrous;
upper ones ovate-lanceolate, also 5-nerved: fls. purple
above; calyx 5-7-cut; corolla leathery, distinctly
spotted; anthers connate at first, finally free. .Eu.

1328

GENTIANA

GENTIANA

43. Gaudiniana, Thorn. Natural hybrid with the
habit of G. purpurea, but the membranous corolla of G.
punctata: fls. rosy violet. Eu., but not widely cult.

44. macrophylla, Pall. Perennial, with erect or ascend-
ing St.: Ivs. lanceolate, distant, very spreading, 3-
nerved, the upper often connate-perfoliate; internodes
unequal: fls. dark blue. July, Aug. B.M. 1414, not
L.B.C. 3:218. N. Eu. and Asia.— Cult, like G. lutea.

45. Cruciata, Linn. (Crucidta verticilldta, Gilib.). An
erect and leafy perennial: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate,
crowded, erect-spreading, the upper connate-perf oliate ;
internodes equal: fls. axillary, in sparse clusters, dark
blue. June-Aug. Eu., N. Asia. — Cult, like G. lutea.
Prefers limestone and full sunlight.

46. carpatica, Kit. (Probably G. nivdlis, Linn.). A
slender perennial with small obovate Ivs.: fls. solitary,
axillary or terminal, dark blue (as are the next 4 spe-
cies); corolla funnel-shaped, scarcely exceeding %in.
long. Carpathian Mts. — Little known.

47. imbricata, Froel. Lvs. acute, margins scabrous,
(the next 3 species with smooth margins) : corolla-lobes
subrotund. June, July. Limestone rocks, Alps. — In
this and the next 3 species, the corolla-lobes are usually
crenate, half the length of the tube, and 6 times the
length of the plaits. "Eastern and granitic Alps." —
Correvon. Cult, like G. bavarica.

48. verna, Linn. Fig. 1627. Tufted: st. angled: Ivs.
ovate or ovate-lanceolate : fls. solitary; calyx membran-
aceous; corolla nearly bowl-shaped; lobes ovate, obtuse.
Apr.-June. Eu., Caucasus. B.M. 491. L.B.C. 1:62.
R.H. 1859, p. 250. Gn. 48, p. 139; 75, p. 284.
G.C. II. 24:373. J.H. III. 52:58. G.W. 23:431. Var.
alata, Griseb. (G. angulbsa, Bieb.), is taller and has the
nerves of the ventricose calyx produced into wings. —
Rockwork, in a compost of heath-soil, finely crushed
granite, and vegetable-mold, with full sunlight. A
supposed hybrid between this and the following has
been described as G. Favrdtii, Hort. The plant is
practically unknown in Amer.

49. bavSrica, Linn. Calyx-lobes lanceolate; corolla
funnel- or nearly bowl-shaped; lobes obovate, obtuse;
ovary sessile: seeds not winged. May-Aug. Cent. Eu.
F.S. 7:651. L.B.C. 13:1256. J.H. III. 35:585. Gn.
15:278 (poor). — The pictures cited all show a salver-
shaped corolla. "Requires a soil that is peaty, or at the
very least porous and cool, well drained, and capable of
retaining an abundant supply of moisture, although it

may be fully ex-
posed to the sun.
In the alpine
garden here we
grow them in
pure sphagnum
moss on a wall
facing due south,
but the plants
which we raise
for sale are grown
in pots in a com-
post of sphag-
num, heath -soil
and sand. Finest
of Group III."
— Correvon.

1627. Gentiana verna. ( X %) 50. pftmila,

Jacq. A tiny

almost moss-like gentian with a 3-4-angled st.: Ivs.
clustered, scarcely more than J^in. long: fls. solitary
terminal; calyx-lobes linear; corolla deep blue, the lobes
ovate, acute. June, July. Tyrolese and Carinthian Alps.

51. acaulis, Linn. (G. exdsa, Presl.). GENTIANELLA.
STEMLESS GENTIAN. Fig. 1628. By the botanists of
continental Eu. this is often split up into the 4 or 5
following species. The plants that Linnaeus had in

mind were probably mostly G. Clusii and G. Kochiana.
For pictures of G. acaulis in its widest sense, see B. M.
52. G.C. III. 15:236. G.W. 3, p. 289. J.H. III. 52:59.
R.B. 28:204. Gn. 48, p. 146; 54, p. 39. F.S. 23:2421,
where a more detailed account of the 4 following species

1628. Gentiana acaulis.

is given. A var. Kochii, Hort., is known but it may
well be G. Kochiana. A white-fld. form, var. alba, is
advertised.

52. angustifdlia, Vill., not Michx. Stoloniferous:
Ivs. linear-oblong, narrowing toward the base,
glistening above: fls. spotted with sprightly green;
calyx-lobes more or less spreading, oval, abruptly con-
tracted at the base. May, June. Limestone rocks,
Alps. — Considered by Correvon the handsomest spe-
cies of the whole genus.

53. Kochiana, Perr. & Song. Lvs. large, flat, thin,
spreading, oval or broadly oblong, light green: calyx-
lobes oblong, limp, more or less contracted at the base
and separated by truncate sinuses; corolla with 5 black-
ish green spots on the throat. May, June. Common in
pastures on granitic Alps. — Dislikes lime. It seems
almost certain that this is the G. acaulis var. Kochii of
many gardeners.

54. Clftsii, Perr. & Song. A low acaulescent peren-
nial perhaps not different from G. acaulis and so con-
sidered in "Index Kewensis:" Ivs. lanceolate-acute,
leathery: fls. dark blue; calyx-lobes pressed close
against corolla, not contracted at base, and separated
by acute sinuses. May, June. Limestone rocks, Alps.

55. alpina, Vill. St. almost wanting: Ivs. small,
glistening, curving inward and imbricated, forming
rosettes which incurve at about the middle: fls. dark
blue. May, June. Granitic Alps. — This and G. Kochi-
ana "require a compost of one-third crushed granite,
one-third heath soil, and one-third vegetable loam, and
should be planted on rockwork half exposed to the sun."

56. dinarica, Beck. Lvs. broad, thick, erect: fls.
dark blue. Certainly a mere form of G. acaulis, but
described as differing from that species in having no
spots on the corolla. Alps of S. and E. Austria.

The following are names of gentians not sufficiently described
for insertion above or as yet scarcely known in cult. : G. arverntnsis,
Hort. Perhaps a var. of G. Pneumonanthe. Fls. Napoleon blue.
See G.C. II. 20:40, desc. G. 29:7. — G. Charpentieri, Thorn. Natural
hybrid, intermediate between G. lutea and G. punctata: corolla
spotted red; calyx 5-cut. Grisebach does not say whether the
corolla is not plaited, anthers always free, and style none. Alps,
above Engadine. — G. corymbifera, Hort., is described as 12-18 in.
high, with usually simple sts. branching toward the top: fls. white,
about 1 in. diam. New Zeal. G.C. III. 46:203. — G. Fetisdwii, Regel.
St. erect, tall: fls. deep blue. China. Gt. 31:1069.— G. Hsengsiii,
Hausm.=G. Kummeriana. — G. Kesselringii, Regel. Height about
8 in.: fls. whitish, dotted violet outside. Turkestan. Gt. 31:1087. —
G. Kummeriana, Sendt. Hybrid between G. lutea and G. Pannonica.
Fls. yellowish. — G. L&wrencei, Burkill. Allied to G. ornata but dis-
tinguished by the much longer linear Ivs. : corolla about 1 % in«
long, blue above, the tube paler with dark blue lines. Mongolia.
G.C. III. 38:307. — G. Wallichiana. — Height 8-12 in.: fls. clear blue.
— G. Walujewi, Regel & Schmalh. Fls. whitish, dotted pale blue.
Turkestan. Gt. 33:1140. WlLHELM MlLLER.

N. TAYLOR.!

GENUS

GEONOMA

1329

GENUS, pi. GENERA (i. e., kind), is a term used in
natural history to designate a group of species. As with
species, so the genus is an indefinite conception, varying
with the author. The chief value of the conception is
its use in aiding us conveniently to arrange and name
plants and animals. The name of the genus is the first
of the two words in the name of the plant: thus, in
Brassica oleracea, Brassica designates the genus, and
oleracea the particular Brassica of which we are speak-
ing. It is difficult to trace the origin of the genus-
conception in natural history, but it is usually ascribed
to Konrad Gesner (Zurich, 1516-1565). L. H. B.

GEODORUM (gift of the earth). Orchidacex. Orchids
of minor importance, E. Indies to Austral., with radi-
cal lanceolate or elliptical Ivs., tuberous bulb-like
rootstocks, and vari-colored fls. in a nodding spike
on the top of the scape; sepals and petals similar, lip
upright: terrestrial. Belongs in the same sub-group
or tribe as Cyrtopodium and Eulophia. In habit, they
somewhat resemble Phaius and
Eulophia, and require similar
treatment, with potting in fibrous
loam and peat. Apparently not
offered in this country, but some-
times grown abroad in collec-
tions. G. purpureum, R. Br.,
from India: Hke a Bletia in
habit: Ivs. large: scape erect,
bearing a densely-fld. drooping
raceme; fls. small, white with purple
markings on the lip. G. fucatum,
Lindl., of Ceylon: 1 ft.: Ivs. oblong-
lanceolate and plicate, the scapes re-
curved at the apex: fl. with pink nar-
row sepals and ovate lip. B.R. 1687.
G. pictum, Lindl., from New. Holland,
grows 1-2 ft., with dull rose-purple
fls. shaded brown and white, borne in
dense racemes. G. dilatatum, R. Br.,
of India, 6-12 in. high, fls. white
marked pink and yellow, borne on an
erect scape. — G. plicatum, Voigt.=
Phaius. L. H. B.

GEONOMA (Wittstein gives this
interesting explanation: "Greek, geo-
nomos, skilled in agriculture: for this
tree puts forth buds at the apex of
its stem which become new trees").
Pabnaceze, tribe Arecese. Slender spine-
less palms with ringed, reed-like stems
much cultivated for their excellent decorative pos-
sibilities.

Leaves terminal or alternate, usually crowded in
showy clusters; blade entire, 2-lobed at the apex, or
more or less pinnatisect; segms. acuminate, 1-nerved,
with the margins broadly recurved at the base; rachis
acute above, convex on the back; petiole nearly cylin-
drical, concave at the base above; sheath tubular:
spadices ascending or recurved, simple, forked or panic-
ulately branched, slender or stout, often colored;
spathes 2, often deciduous before flowering, or obsolete,
the lower one partial, truncate, concave, the upper
compressed or fusiform; fls. monrecious in each spadix,
borne in the furrows of the spadix, at length partially
exserted, when in 3's the upper one pistillate; cells of
the anthers twisted: fr. small, globose, black.— Species
about 100. Trop. Amer. G.C. II. 24:586. A.G. 16:
345. For G. Ghiesbreghtiana, see Calyptrogyne.

Several of the members of this extensive genus of
small-growing palms are useful for the greenhouse,
though most attractive while in a small state, from the
fact that geonomas soon begin to form a stem, and
when aged become rather scantily furnished specimens.
These palms are by no means difficult to grow, and do

85

1629. Geonoma Spixiana.

not require a very high temperature, their natural
habitat being the mountains of Central and South
America, some of the species being found at an altitude
of over 4,000 feet above sea-level. Geonomas form part
of the undergrowth on their native mountains, and are
said never to appear in the open country unsheltered
by trees of larger growth; therefore, shade is necessary
for them when cultivated under glass. The old practice
of growing geonomas in a very light peaty soil does
not seem to be the only method, for excellent results
have been secured by growing them in a good loam,
well manured and well drained, giving an abundance of
water and a night temperature of 60.° Red spiders
and thrips are the most troublesome insects to which
these plants are subject, and both of these pests multi-
ply much more rapidly if the plants are kept too warm
and dry. (W. H. Taplin.)

The most useful species from a commercial point of
view is G. Riedeliana (G. gracilis), which reminds one
of Cocos Weddelliana, but has longer leaflets. The
species are undoubtedly con-
fused under cultivation, and
often unidentified. They are
said not to be grown in the
open in southern California,
at least, not to any extent.
The species here listed
appear to be those of most
horticultural importance
here.

A. Los. simple, 2-lobed at the apex.
B. Cuneate-oblanceolate, rusty, tomentose.
Spixiina, Mart. Fig. 1629 (adapted
from Martius' work on palms). St.
slender, solitary, 6-9 ft. high: Ivs. in a
dense, graceful cluster; blades 3-5 ft.
long, bifurcate one-fourth of their
length, each lobe lanceolate-acuminate,
divergent: spadix from between the
Ivs., about 3 ft. long; fls. small, the calyx
and corolla equal. W. Brazil.

BB. Cuneate-ovate, plicate.
Seemannii, Hort. Low, 1-3 ft. high:
Ivs. all alike, the first 2 in. long, the
later ones 10 in. long, entire, or 2-lobed,
usually deeply cleft at the apex, plaited,
feather-veined; stalk triangular, sheath-
ing at the base, with broad, scarious
margins: fls. unknown. F.M. 1869:428.
Cent. Amer.

AA. Lvs. pinnate.
B. Basal If. -segms. narrow; the upper ones the broadest.

acaulis, Mart. Acaulescent: Ivs. in a congested,
rosette-like cluster, long-petioled, 3-4 ft. high; blade
unequally pinnatisect, with usually 6 segms. on both
sides of the rachis; 22-25-nerved, basal segms. 4 lines
wide, spreading, the middle and upper erect-spreading
at an acute angle, %^4 in. wide, the apical very wide:
spadix stiff, usually about 18 in. long, the stalk very
thick; fls. numerous: fr. unknown. Cent. Brazil.

BB. Broad and narrow segms. irregularly intermingled.
c. Blade of If. 6 ft. long; petiole 1 ft. long.

Pohliana, Mart. St. 12-15 ft. high, slender, densely
ringed, columnar or reedy: Ivs. very numerous, erect or
spreading, forming a much congested, showy cluster, in
adult specimens; segms. very unequal, linear-lanceo-
late, falcate-acuminate, few-nerved and many-nerved
intermixed, 16-20 in. long; petioles very short: spadix
scarcely showing among the dense cluster of Ivs. Trop.
Brazil. — Cult, most advantageously in a warm moist
house. The young specimens are attractive for potted
plants.

1330

GEONOMA

GERANIUM

aconitifolium, 10.
album, 13, 15, 16.
anemonifolium, 3.
argenteum, 6.
armenum, 14.
Backhousianum, 14.
canariense, 3.
cinereurn, 7.
collinum, 24.
Endressii, 22.
enanthum, 17.
eriostemon, 18.
flore-pleno, 15.

Fremontii, 12.
grandiflorum, 20.
Greyilleanum, 25.
ibericum, 13.
incisum, 17.
lancastriense, 11.
Londesii, 24.
macrorrhizum, 5.
maculatum, 16.
malvaeflorum, 4.
nepalense, 21.
phseum, 8.

platyanthum, 18.
platypetalum, 13.
plenum, 16.
pratense, 15.
prostratum, 11.
Richardsonii, 9.
Robertianum, 1.
sanguineum, 11.
sibiricum, 19.
subargenteum, 7.
Traversii, 2.
Wallichianum, 23.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

cc. Blade 2-2lA ft.; petiole 4 in. long. INDEX.
elegans, Mart., var. robusta, Drude. St. 6-10 ft.
high, 3-4 lines diam. : segms. rarely 3, usually 5-7, 1-
nerved, 10-14 in. long, some 4 lines wide, intermixed with
broader, many-nerved ones, all long, falcate-acuminate:
spadix about 10 in. long, the fls. very small, inserted in
deep pits. Cent. Brazil.

BBB. Lf. -segms. all alike (except the connivent apical ones),
c. Alternate, remote, linear, scurfy.

Riedeliana, Wendl. (G. grddlis, Lind. & Andre",
the oldest and perhaps the correct name). Habit of
Cocos Weddelliana, the whole plant sparsely covered
with caducous, brown, shining scales: petiole slender, A. Plants annual, more or less prostrate:

1^2 ft- or more long, terete below, flattened above; Ivs. finely dissected 1. Robertianum

rachis triangular, bisulcate above: Ivs. spreading, AA> PI*1*1*8 perennial.

drooping at the apex; segms. 10-12 in. long, about 9 B- Species tender, to be grown only in

lines wide, linear-acute, elegantly recurved, the 2 greenhouse northward.

terminal ones connivent: fls showy yellow, in long £ ^^^STST 'least' never * TraV6rSU

drooping spadices. Brazil. I.H. 21:169. B.M. 7963. canescent. 3. anemonifo-

cc. Equidistant: petiole half as long as the blade. BB- Species hardy. [Hum

Schottiana Mart. St 9-15 ft. high, 1-1% in thick: c<; l^^us^ooted. * malv*florum

Ivs. long-stalked, gracefully recurving; petiole half or D plant with a thickened woody

more than half as long as the blade; segms. about 35 oase 5. macrorrhi-

qn each side, 10-12 in. long, %in. wide, equidistant, DD. Plants without thickened woody [zum

linear or linear-lanceolate, very long-acuminate, base.

recurved at the tip: spadix about 10 in. long, the stalk E. Foliage silvery-canescent.

about 1 ft. long. E. Brazil.— A very variable species. F- Usually 1-fld 6. argenteum

The following are imperfectly described, but are in the trade: FF- Usually 2-fld . .. ...... 7. cmereum

G. imperiMis, Lind. G.W. 2, p. 37.— G. princeps, Uud.—G. EE. Foliage or whole plant glabrous

Pynxrtidna, Hort. Belongs under A. One of the smallest Ivs. meas- or pubescent, out not silvery.

ures 28 in. long by 10 in. at the broadest. Has not flowered yet, r. Sts. erect.

and the genus is therefore uncertain. R.H. 1898, p. 262. G.C. III. .-, p/,, finri. hhip nJmntf hJnrk R nhamm

23 : 258. F.E. 10 : 886. G.W. 2, p. 445.-G. specidsa, Barb.-Rodr. °" E£ rf^ * T^f °^

G.W. 2, p. 431.— G. Swdrtzii, Griseb. (Calyptrogyne Swartzii, GG- *£• no^. ~ biue< some'

Hook. Calyptronoma Swartzii, Griseb.). Trunk 50-60 ft. high, times Wht blue.

smooth: If.-segms. linear-acuminate, green, glabrous. Cuba. H. Color of fls. white (see

N. TAYLOR.! a^so white-fld. forms of

GEORGINA. A synonym of Dahlia, which still i.^Tsl 3-5 -parted*. ^ .. 9. Richardsonii

survives in the form of "Georginen, the popular name n. LVS. 7-parted 10. aconitifolium

of dahlias in Germany. HH. Color of fls. not white.

.— •>„ i. Mostly 1-fld 11. sanguineum

GERANIUM (Greek, crane; from the resemblance of n. Mostly more than 1-fld.

the fruit to a crane's bill). Geraniacese. CRANESBILL. j. The st. branched.

Generally herbaceous plants, annual, biennial, and per- K. Fls. rose-purple — 12. Fremontii

ennial. Widely cultivated in borders, and some species KK- Fls- violet 13. ibericum

in the rockery, usually caulescent. JJ- Th.e ste- essentially

Leaves simple, alternate or opposite and much- „. sl.TOP'e- 7

11 j- i a i i f K. Lobes of the Ivs.

lobed, sometimes almost radical: fls. regular; sepals 5, more or ^

imbricated, often 3-nerved and mucronate; petals 5, rounded 14. armenum

often hairy or ciliate; stamens 10, in 2 rows; anthers KK. Lobes of the hs.

10; seeds when ripened separated from the ovary and ovate or lanceolate.

with its awn bent sinuously. The genus Erodium, its L- Pedicels recurved

nearest ally, has but the inner row of stamens furnished Jin/?' i • • ; • 15. pratense

with anthers and the awn of the seed is bent spirally. LL< Ped™els erect in

The geraniums of common speech are classed in the M The pedicels not

genus Pelargonium, having at the side of the pedicel a ' glandular 16. maculatum

distinct narrow tube and zygomorphic fls. — The genus MM. The pedicels

Geranium has over 250 species, found in the temperate glandular.

zones particularly of the northern hemispheres, very N. Lvs. finely cut.17. incisum

few in the tropics. The roots of some, as G. maculatum, NN- Lvs- 5-lobed...l8. eriostemon

find use in medicine on account of their astringency. FF- Sts. decumbent or creeping,

Thrive well in ordinary garden soil, and are propagated scarcely erect.

by seeds and divisions of roots. 'The best botlnical ^ g*£rfS Mfc^il ^

account is that of R. Knuth in Engler's Das Pflanzen- ' 'H. Petals about ^ Zonff as \he

reich, hft. 53 (1912), and by Small and Hanks in N. sepals.

Amer. Flora, Vol. 25, 1907, for the N. American spe- i. Fls. pale lilac 20. grandiflorum

cies. A beautifully illustrated account of the genus is n. Fls. rose-purple 21. nepalense

by Sweet (1820-30) in which special stress is laid on HH. Petals 1-2 times the

cultivation. There are 500 colored plates, and, where length of the sepals.

possible, these are cited in the following account, thus, i- Upper Ivs. 8-lobed 22. Endressii

S. 197.=Sweet, Geraniace*, plate 197. n- All the hs. 5 -lobed

Large masses of native species such as G. maculatum aSfSS noised fnum

and G. Robertianum can be effectively naturalized ' sometimes spotted. '

under bushes and trees. They spread very rapidly K. Base of petals ciliated, collinum

and in the case of G. Robertianum will be profuse KK. Base of petals pilose

bloomers nearly all summer. or glabrous 25. Grevilleanum

GERANIUM

GERANIUM

1331

1. Robertianum, Linn. HERB ROBERT. RED ROBIN.
About 9 in. high: Ivs. thin, ovate-orbicular, 3-5-parted,
with 3-fid. pinnatifid lobes: peduncles slender, 2-fld.;
fls. small, bright crimson. June to Oct. Amer., Eu.,
Asia and N. Afr. B.B. 2:341. — For the rockery, in a
moist soil and some shade, and will carpet the ground in
a few seasons, from seed. Annual; or possibly biennial.

2. Traversii, Hook. A silvery canescant herb 3-15 in.
tall with a stout st.: Ivs. beautiful silver-color, nearly
round, 7-parted, the lobes wedge-shaped, and 3-parted:
fls. large, often 1% in. across; sepals broadly ovate,
cuspidate, silvery; petals ovate or nearly round, pale
rose, or sometimes white, much longer than the sepals.
Chatham Isl. — Not hardy north of Washington and
to be grown in temperate house.

Little known in Amer. but a desir-
able greenhouse plant.

3. anemonifdlium, L'Her. ((?.
canariense, Reut.). A stiff single-
stemmed perennial from a thick-
ened rootstock or tube: Ivs. gla-
brous, round-ovate, '5-parted, the
lobes finely dissected: fls. corym-
bose, the pedicels and calyx densely
hairy; sepals oblong, mucronate,
the mucro almost ^in. long; petals
2-3 times as long as the sepals,
obovate, pale purple. Canary Isls.
and Madeira. S. 244. — Must be
grown in the temperate house,
but doubtless hardy south of
Washington.

4. malvaeflorum, Boiss. A usu-
ally 1-stemmed perennial, from a
thickened tuber, not over 18 in.
tall: Ivs. long-petioled, 5-9-parted,
the lobes finely dissected, hairy:
fls. showy, the pedicels and pedun-
cles densely hairy; sepals ovate-
oblong, hairy; petals rose-purple,
obcordate, the apex often emargi-
nate, about twice as long as the
sepals. Medit. Region. — Very
doubtfully hardy north of Phila-
delphia.

5. macrorrhizum, Linn. A large-
rooted species, about 1% ft- high,
with a st. suffruticose at base: Ivs.
smooth, round, basal ones 5-lobed,
cauline 3-lobed, toothed and often
colored red: fls. in bunches at the
end of the st.; calyx inflated; the
sepals ovate and 3-nerved; petals
spatulate and blood-red in color.
May to July. S. Eu. B.M. 2420.
S. 271.

6. argenteum, Linn. SILVER-LEAVED CRANE'S-BILL.
About 3 in. high: Ivs. almost radical, on long petioles,
5-7-parted, with 3-fid linear lobes, both surfaces hoary:
peduncles almost radical, 1- or 2-fld.; fls. large, pink,
with darker veins ; petals emarginate. Middle of June to
Aug. CarnicAlps. B.M. 504. L.B.C. 10:948. S. 59.—
One of the best for the rockery. Often acts as a biennial
in New England.

7. cinereum, Cav. (G. subargenteum, Lange). GRAY
CRANE'S-BILL. Like G. argenteum, but 2-fld. and paler
in color: Ivs. not so hoary in appearance. June, July.
Pyrenees.

8. phjfeum, Linn. About 2 ft. high, with upright,
short-haired st., glandular above: Ivs. 5-7-lobed and
deeply toothed: peduncles 1-2-fld.; petals spreading,
obovate, unequally notched and often with a small
spur, very dark blue, almost black, with white spot at
base of each petal. May, June. Cent, and W. Eu.

1630. Geranium maculatum. ( X J£)

9. Richardsonii, Fisch. & Trautv. About 1^ ft. high:
Ivs. thin and terminal, lobe of the uppermost Ivs. longer
than the often greatly reduced lateral lobes: pedicels
conspicuously glandular pubescent; fls. large, white or
sometimes streaked with pink; petals with long white
hairs on inner surface. Colo, and west. — Sts. and young
growth tinged with red.

10. aconitifdlium, L'Her. St. usually simple,
grooved, 10-20 in. tall, few-lvd.: Ivs. more or less
hairy, deeply 7-parted, kidney-shaped or orbicular, the
lobes broadly ovate, deeply pinnatifid, the segms.
mucronulate: fls. fragrant, loosely corymbose, the
pedicels 2-fld.; sepals oblong or oblong-ovate, 3-nerved;
petals white, obovate, the margins slightly wavy.

Alpine or sub-alpine region of Eu.
June. — Useful chiefly as rock-gar-
den species.

11. sanguineum, Linn. About
1^2 ft. high, with st. occasionally
forked, erect: Ivs. all petiolate,
mostly 7-parted, with 3-5-lobed
linear lobules: peduncles long,
mostly 1-fld. ; fls. very large, blood-
red. June to Aug. Eu. — One of
the best species in cult.

Var. lancastriense, With. (G.
prostr&tum, Cav.). A dwarf er
form, smaller and with less deeply
lobed foliage: fls. lighter in color
and conspicuously veined purple.

12. Fremontii, Torr. & Gray. A
1- or many-stemmed perennial:
Ivs. nearly round, palmately 5-7-
parted, the lobes 3 -toothed or
sometimes crenate, slightly hairy:
fls. large and showy, frequently

1-1 ^2 in- across; sepals oblong,
3-nerved; petals pale rose-purple,
obovate, toward the base densely
ciliate. Rocky Mts. G. 29:191.—
A handsome garden species. Not
as yet much known in cult, in
Amer. but a fine showy geranium
for the hardy border. Blooms all
summer.

13. ibericum, Cav. IBERIAN
CRANE'S-BILL. From 1-1% ft.
high: st. erect and leafless below,
above dichotomously branched,
villous: Ivs. opposite, 5-7-parted,
with deeply cut lobes and toothed
lobules: fls. 1 in. across, in showy,
open panicles, violet. July, Aug.
Iberia. Gn. 71, p. 167. B.M. 1386.
S. 84. Var. album, with white fls.,
is rare but known by some dealers.

Var. platypetalum (G. platypetalum, Fisch. & Mey.).
Slightly shorter than the parent, with Ivs. less deeply
lobed and lobes less pointed : fls. deeper and richer in
color, and also larger. G.M. 52:61. Gn. 76, p. 108. G.
3:293; 9:686.

14. armenum, Boiss. (G. Backhousidnum, Regel?).
About 2^ ft. high, the lower part of the st. thickened
and almost woody: Ivs. radical, upright, orbicular,
with 5 deep lobes: fls. about 1% in. across, inclining to
a dark crimson; petals dark spotted near the base,
obovate, often with the tips a little recurved. All season
at irregular intervals. Armenia. R.H. 1891: 350. —
A very vigorous and floriferous species. Sometimes
growing 4 ft. high.

15. pratense, Linn. MEADOW CRANE'S-BILL. About
2% ft. high, with an upright round st.: Ivs. mostly
hand-shaped, with 7 lobes, each deeply cut: peduncles
mostly 2-fld., drooping after flowering; fls. large, blue;

1332

GERANIUM

GERARDIA

petals entire. June, through Aug. Eu. G. 18:649.
G.L. 18:208. Gn.W. 24:367. Var. fl6re-pleno, Not
so tall as parent. Very numerous deep blue fls. in clus-
ters. June and July, and often again in fall. J.H. III.
48:305. Var. album, a white-fld. form is known.

16. maculatum, Linn. WILD or SPOTTED CRANE'S-
BILL. Fig. 1630. The common American species, about
1J^ ft. high: st. angular: basal Ivs. long-petioled,
deeply 3-5-parted; st.-lvs. opposite, shorter-petioled:
peduncles 1-5, infl. often umbellate; fls. 1-1H in- broad,
rose-purple; petals woolly at base. June, July. N.
Amer. B.B. 2:341. S. 332.— Showy native species;
should be more in cult. Grows best in somewhat wet
places. Var. plenum, a double-fld. variety of deeper
color. Var. album, a pale-fld. or pure white form is
known.

17. incisum, Nutt. (G. eridnthum, Lind.). About 1 ft.
high, leafy branched, the st. thickened below, solitary:
Ivs. finely cut, long hairy, the hairs fine and silky: pedi-
cels conspicuously glandular-pubescent; sepals oblong-
lanceolate, mucronate; petals with stiff white hairs,
inner surface purple, about 1 in. wide. Ore. — A hardy
species well worth growing. Not perfectly hardy near
Boston.

18. eriostemon, Fisch. (G. platydnthum, Duthie). St.
erect, slender, grooved, from an almost woody base:
Ivs. kidney-shaped, 5-lobed, sometimes palmately so,
the lobes ovate, toothed, the teeth slightly mucronate:
fls. corymbose, the sepals ovate, obtuse, very hairy;
petals violet-purple, broadly obovate, entire. Native
of Siberia and temp. China. — A showy and useful
garden plant.

19. sibiricum, Linn. SIBERIAN CRANE'S-BILL. A
slender, somewhat forked plant, brown-villous, 1-2 ft.
high: Ivs. deeply 3-5-parted: peduncles slender, usually
1-fld.; fls. very small, dingy white, the obovate petals
scarcely exceeding the oblong-lanceolate 3-nerved
sepals. June through Aug. Siberia, and naturalized
near New York. B.B. 2:341. Jacq. Hort. Widd. pi. 19.
— Another form under same name, with brick-red fls.,
appears to be in cult.

20. grandifldrum, Edgew. A thick-stemmed peren-
nial about 10-16 in. tall, usually somewhat glandular,
branched: Ivs. long-petioled, the blade 5-parted and
rotund in outline, the lobes irregularly toothed: fls.
bunched at the apex of the branches, showy; petals
spreading, pale lilac, the veins dark purple, about as
long as the sepals. N.Asia. F.S.R. 1:54. Gn. 64, p.
184. — Suitable mostly for rockeries.

21. nepalense, Sweet. St. spreading or ascending,
thin, not more than 18 in. long: Ivs. ovate-rhomboid,
deeply 5-lobed, hairy, the lobes dentate, the teeth
almost spinose: fls. numerous, on hairy pedicels; sepals
lanceolate, acuminate, often mucronate; petals usually
about equaling the sepals, rose-purple, broadly obo-
vate, not emarginate at apex. Mountains of Asia.
June- Aug. S. 12. — Useful only in the rockery.

22. Endressii, J. Gay. About 18 in. high, the st.
covered with pale brown hairs: Ivs. opposite, palmate,
5-lobed, upper ones 3-lobed, serrated, densely hairy,
with spreading hairs: peduncles axillary, 2-fld.; petals
entire, fringed at base, light rose, darker veined, 2-3
times the length of the 3-nerved, oblong-ovate sepals.
Summer. Pyrenees. — Among the best for the border,
and useful for cutting.

23. Wallichianum, D. Don. Of prostrate trailing
habit: st. and Ivs. covered with silky hairs, the st.
deeply grooved : Ivs. light green, 3-5-parted, with deeply
toothed lobes: fls. large, purple, borne sparingly all
summer; sepals 3-nerved, the lateral nerves stiff-hairy;
petals about twice as long as the sepals, smooth,
emarginate. Himalayas. B.M. 2377. S. 90. — For the
rockery and must not be grown in the open exposed
parts of it. The hot dry winds of midsummer in E. U.
S. are not favorable.

24. collinum, Steph. (G. Londesii, Fisch.). St.
angular and usually decumbent, grooved and hairy:
Ivs. palmately 5-parted, deeply divided and cut:
sepals lanceolate-ovate, 3-neryed, densely hairy;
petals entire, purple, with a tinge of violet. June,
July. E. Eu. — One of the showiest in its season. Should
be cut back before seeding, to induce second bloom.

25. Grevilleanum, Wall. St. creeping, rarely a little
erect: Ivs. long-petioled, the blades usually 5-lobed,
kidney-shaped, hairy, the lobes deeply serrate, but not
usually divided: flowering stalk thick, more or less
glandular, the fls. large and showy, frequently 2 in.
across; sepals oblong-ovate; petals obovate, some-
times hairy at their bases, pale rose or in some forma
with large purple spots, at least as to the wild plant,
1-2 times the length of the sepals. Himalayas. — Useful
for the rockery.

The following are unknown as to botanical affinities or are
insufficiently known in Amer.

G. Balkanum, Hort. A hardy plant, with fragrant foliage:
fls. on radical sts., 1 in. across, dark magenta. June.— <?. Held-
reichii, Hort. Orange-colored fls.=(?). — G. Ldwii, Hort. 2-2 yz ft.:
fls. bright rose with violet center. Name unknown in botanical
literature.— -41. prostr&tum, Hort. Fls. purple. Advertised as "good
rockery subject. "=(?). — G. sylvdticum, Linn. About 2 ft. high, with a
soft-haired, upright, round st. : Ivs. 5-7-parted, lobes oblong, deeply
toothed: fls. purple or violet. June, July. The common wood
geranium of Eu. A white-fld. form G. sylvdticum dlbum, Hort., is
known. Gn. 72, p. 178. — G. tuberdsum, Linn. Tuberous-rooted,
9-15 in. high, with st. at base naked: Iva. many-lobed, linear and
serrate: pedicels 1-2-fld., fls. large, violet. May. S. Eu.

N. TAYLOR.!

GERANIUM, FEATHER: Chenopodium Botrys.

GERARDIA (after John Gerarde, 1545-1607, per-
haps the most popular of the herbalists). Scrophulari-
acex. Hardy annual and perennial herbs, all American,
and mostly of the Atlantic states, with yellow or rosy
purple flowers, in late summer and autumn, the later
color rarely varying to white.

Leaves mainly opposite: calyx 5-toothed or cleft;
corolla bell- to funnel-shaped, broad-throated, 5-parted,
the 2 posterior lobes often smaller and more united;
stamens commonly more or less hairy; anthers more or
less approximate in pairs: caps, globose, 2-grooved;
seeds usually angled, loose-coated. The first 3 species
described below belong to a section in which the roots
are more or less saprophytic; by some, and probably
correctly, they are considered as belonging to the
genus Dasystoma. These plants are therefore rather
difficult to cultivate, and are offered only by collectors.
G. tenuifolia is offered by one dealer, the seeds presuma-
bly gathered in European gardens.

A. Fls. yellow.
B. Corolla pubescent outside: biennial or annual.

Pedicularia, Linn. St. much branched: pubescence
partly glandular and viscid, especially on the pedicels
and calyx, while in the next 2 species there is no glandu-
lar pubescence: Ivs. 1-2 in. long, all pinnatifid: fls. in
loose panicles or solitary, the calyx-lobes oblong and
herbaceous, usually incised. E. N. Amer.

BB. Corolla glabrous outside: perennial.
c. Height 8-6 ft.

virginica, Linn. (G. quercifdlia, Pursh). St. at first
glaucous, sparingly branched : lower Ivs. 3—5 in. long,
1-2-pinnatifid; upper Ivs. rarely entire: calyx-lobes
ovate, entire. Dry woods, E. U. S.

cc. Height 1-2 ft.

lasvigata, Raf. Not glaucous but glabrous, the st.
simple or slightly branched: Ivs. 1^-4 in. long, entire,
or the lowest somewhat incised, all petioled, lanceolate
or ovate-lanceolate : calyx-lobes ovate-lanceolate, equal-
ing or shorter than the tube and caps, glabrous, about
twice as long as the calyx. Oak barrens, etc. S. E.
U.S.

GERARDIA

GESNERIA

1333

AA. Fls. rosy purple rarely varying to white.

B. Height 1 ft.

tenuifolia, Vahl. Height 1 ft. ; branching, paniculate:
Ivs. mostly narrowly linear: infl. racemose; corolla
J^in. long, light purple, spotted, sometimes white.
Low or dry ground, E. N. Amer.

BB. Height 2-3 ft.

linifolia, Nutt. Perennial: Ivs. erect, very narrowly
linear, 1 line wide: calyx-teeth minute; corolla 1 in.
long. Low pine-barrens, N. Amer. Not cult., but said
to be a parent with Pentstemon pulchellus of G. hybrida,
Hort. Intro, by Haage & Schmidt, 1899. The poor
cut in S. H. 2:485 seems nearer Pentstemon than Ger-
ardia. WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GERBERA (named in honor of Traug. Gerber, a
German naturalist who traveled in Russia). Compdsitse.
A small group of temperate and tropical Asiatic and
African perennial herbs grown for their yellow or pink
or orange flower-heads.

1631. Gerbera Jamesonii.

Stemless herbs with radical, petiofed Ivs. which are
entire or sometimes lobed: fl. -heads solitary, many-fld.,
the conspicuous rays in 1 or 2 rows, those of the inner
row, when present, very short and sometimes tubular
and 2-lipped, as are the disk-fls. : achenes beaked. —
There are 40 species, only one of which (G. Jamesonii)
is well known in Amer. and is sometimes found outside
the collections of botanic gardens and fanciers. They
should be grown in the temperate house, in a rich com-
post of sandy loam and peat. Prop, by seeds or by
cuttings of side shoots,

Jamesonii, Hook. Fig. 1631. Hairy throughout,
the mature Ivs. very woolly beneath : Ivs. numerous, the
petiole 6-8 in. long, the blade 5-10 in., a little pinnati-
fid: heads solitary, the showy orange-flame-colored
rays strap-shaped. Transvaal. B.M. 7087. G.C. III.
5:773. Gn. 36:340. A.G. 22:345. Gt. 54:1545. G.W.
2, p. 2. R.H. 1903:36. — Could be grown out-

doors in the S. A brilliant summer-blooming com-
posite, more or less planted in the open. Var. trans-
vaalensis, Hort. Has larger fl.-heads than type, of
somewhat lighter color. Var. illustris, Hort. A robust
variety.

G. aurantiaca, Sch. A handsome plant with fls. 2}/£ in. diam.:
florets red, with bright yellow anthers. Natal and the Transvaal.
B.M. 8079. Has been listed under name of G. Elsse. — G. canta-
brigiensis, Hort. A garden hybrid between G. Jamesonii and G.
viridifolia. G.M. 47 : 366, desc. — G. viridifdlia, Sch., is a little-known
green-lvd. plant with showy fls. that are white on the upper side,
yellow beneath. S. Afr. — Well worth growing in temperate house.

N. TAYLOR.

GESNERIA (Conrad Gesner, Zurich, 1516-1565, cele-
brated naturalist, and considered to be the originator of
the idea of genus in taxonomy). Gesneriaceae. Green-
house and hothouse plants with showy tubular flowers.
Sometimes written Gesnera.

Low perennials, sometimes shrubs, with simple,
opposite Ivs. and showy tubular fls. in terminal short
panicles or fascicles: calyx campanulate, 5-parted;
corolla long, straight or curved, more or less ventricpse,
the base often distinctly swollen or gibbous, the limb
mostly shallow-toothed and nearly regular or bilab-
iate; stamens 4, didynamous (in pairs under the upper
lip); style 1, long; glands on the disk in the fl. — Species
upward of 40, in the American tropics. Often tuberous
plants; allied to Achimenes, Gloxinia, Isoloma and
Streptocarpus. Some of the gesnerias of the trade
belong to Naegelia, which differs, amongst other things,
in having an annular or ringed disk rather than a disk
of distinct glands. There is considerable variation of
opinion as to the limits of Gesneria. In this account,
the genus is held to include Pentarhaphia, Duchartrea,
Codonoraphia, Conradia, Ophianthe, Synanthera. The
plants of this group are probably considerably modified
by crossing and breeding. The catalogue name G.
hybrida probably covers some of these forms.

A. Los. green.

cardinalis, Lehm. (Dircsea cardinalis, Regel. G.
macrdntha, Hort.). St. 6-12 in. high, stout, and hairy:
Ivs. large, cordate-ovate, crenatenientate, petioled:
fls. red, tubular, hairy, slender (2-3 in. long), the upper
lip projecting and the lower one almost wanting, borne
in a terminal, more or less flat cluster. Nativity
unknown. B.M. 8167. Gn. 42:232. A good species for
the stove. — G. Duvalii, Hort., is evidently only a slen-
der form of this species.

Hendersonii, Hort. Lvs. velvety green: fls. 3 in. long,
brilliant scarlet, in a large truss. Probably of garden
origin.

longiflora, Hort., is a small-lvd. species, with
drooping, long-tubed nicotiana-like white fls. Gn.
33:340. — The botanical position of this plant is in
doubt. It is not the G. longiflora, HBK., which is pur-
ple-fld., nor G. longiflora, DC., which is Achimenes
longiflora. By some it has been confounded with
Isoloma longifolium, Decne. Pentarhaphia longiflora,
Lindl. (Gesneria ventricosa, Swartz), is a small some-
what branched shrub: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate and serrulate, pale green beneath :
fls. bright scarlet, 1^ in. long, in long-peduncled cymes;
corolla-tube somewhat curved, narrowed toward the
base; stamens red, much exserted. W. Indies. B.M.
7339. — A good summer- and autumn-blooming stove
shrub.

AA. Lvs. richly colored, at least beneath.

libanensis, Morr. (Pentarhdphia libanensis, Hanst.
Rhytidophyllum floribundum, Van Houtte. Ophidnthe
libanensis, Hanst.). Subshrub, but only a few inches
high, simple or slightly branched : Ivs. more or less
rosulate toward top of st., 3-4 in. long, obovate-lanceo-
late, more or less blistered, toothed: fls. bright red,
half as long as Ivs., tubular, puffed or swollen in the
middle, hairy, the mouth oblique and the limb of 5

1334

GESNERIA

GEUM

small ciliated lobes; stamens equaling the tube; calyx
very short, the segms. leafy. Cuba. B.M. 4380.

craniolaria, Swartz (Pentarhdphia craniolaria,
Decne.). Three to 4 ft. somewhat shrubby: Ivs. gla-
brous above and hispid beneath, obovate-cuneiform,
runcinate or more or less lobed: fls. greenish yellow with
black dots, in long-peduncled clusters of 5 or 6, the
corolla-lobes fringed. St. Domingo.

Leopold!!, Scheidw. Compact: st. erect from the
large, depressed tuber, thinly hairy: Ivs. verticillate in
4's, broadly ovate-acuminate, more or less unequal at
base, dentate, green above and purple beneath: fls. long-
tubular, thinly hairy, the lobes nearly equal; light scar-
let, in a rather loose, umbel-like cluster. Nativity not
recorded. F.S. 7:704, 705. Gn. 53:542.

exoniensis, Hort. Hybrid : Ivs. velvety, with red and
purple hairs: fls. bright orange-red, yellow in the throat,

in close clusters:
1ft.

refulgens, Hort.
Probably a hy-
brid: Ivs. cordate-
ovate, red -hairy:
fls. deep red or
vermilion: !*/£ ft.
— One of the best.
Donkelaeriana,
Lem. (G. D6nk-
larii, Hort.). St.
often 2 ft. tall:
Ivs. large, cordate-
ovate, crenate,
hairy, green and
purple-tinged
above and purple
beneath: fls. tubu-
lar - campanulate,
the rounded lobes
nearly equal, dull
red, 2 in. long,
hanging from long
pedicels in a large
panicle. Variable.
Colombia. B. M.
5070. R.B.21:97.
F. 1853:241.

G. amdbilis, Hort.=Nsegelia. — G. cinnabarina, Lind.=Nsegelia.
— G. guatemalensis, Hort., "a free grower and bloomer, fls. orange,"
was once offered. — G. jasminifldra, Hort., "fls. of the purest white,
freely produced, beautiful," once offered. — G. obldnga, Hort., fls.
orange. — G. oblong&ta, Hort., is probably the same and ia very
likely an Isoloma.-^-G. Regime, Hort. Exhibited abroad: Ivs. green
and velvety, the midrib and main veins white : fls. bluish purple. —
G. robusta, Hort., "vermilion, beautifully spotted and tigered."
— G. Seemannii, Hook.=Isoloma. — G. zdbrina, Paxt.=Nsegelia.

L. H. B.

GETIT$LLIS (old Greek name, of no particular
application). Amaryllidaceae. Nine or 10 stemless
herbs, with the look of crocus, allied to Sternbergia,
from the Cape region, seldom cult, under glass; appar-
ently not in the trade: Ivs. usually appearing after the
fls., linear, sometimes filiform and twisted: fls. appear-
ing through the ground, of delicate texture and of
short duration, fragrant, whitish, salverform, with a
long slender tube and 6 similar acute spreading segms.;
stamens 6 or more, attached in the throat; ovary 3-
celled, concealed in the bulb-neck: bulbous. Prop, by
offsets or seeds. G. dfra, Linn. Bulb 1)^-2 in. diam.:
Ivs. 12-20, linear and twisted: fl. with whitish limb 2 in.
or less long and tube 3-4 in. long; stamens 9-12: fr.
yellowish, clavate, recorded as edible. B.R. 1016.
G. spirdlis, Linn. Bulb \-\Y± in. diam.: Ivs. 4-6, linear-
subulate, very much twisted, 4-^6 in. long; perianth-
tube 2-3 in. long, limb 1-1 ^ in. long, whitish and
tinted red on the outside; stamens 6: fr. clavate, 2-3
in. long. B.M. 1088. G. cilidris, Linn. Bulb lft in.

diam.: Ivs. 20 or more, linear, twisted, prominently
ciliate: perianth-tube 2-3 in. long, the whitish limb
^in. long: fr. yellow, clavate, 2-3 in. long.

L. H. B.

GEUM (probably originally from Greek, geuo, to have
a taste; referring to the roots). Rosdcese. Hardy border
and rock plants, some of which are valued for their
bright red flowers, some for their pure yellow flowers,
others for their long plumy fruits.

Herbs, with a perennial rhizome, sometimes stolonif-
erous: root-lvs. crowded, odd-pinnate, the alternate
lobes often smaller, terminal ones largest; st.-lvs. few,
mostly of 3 Ifts. or bract-like: fls. 1-2 in. across, soli-
tary or corymbose or cymose; calyx persistent, its
tube nearly hemispheric, usually 5-lobed; petals 5,
nearly or quite round, longer than the calyx: fr.
bunched on a short receptacle, frequently plumed. —
More than 50 species, mostly in temperate and frigid
regions.

The plumy kinds are all contained in the subgenus
Sieversia. G. chiloense is the best species, and in the
gardens is commonly seen in double forms. A gar-
dener writes that "inferior forms show scarcely any
duplicity." Geums are of easy culture, and are propa-
gated by division or seed. It is said that they hybridize
freely if grown together. The dwarf kinds are suited
only to the rockery. Correvon, of Geneva, Switzerland,
writes that G. reptans is one of the best of the rockery
kinds, and needs full sunlight. For G. triflorum he
advises half exposure to sun and a light, moist soil. G.
rivale grows naturally in marshy places.

A. Plumy geums: style in fr. long and plumose

B. Fls. yellow.

c. Plants spreading by runners.
reptans, Linn. Root-lvs. interruptedly pinnatifid;
upper Ivs. 3-lobed, deeply crenate-serrate : fls. erect;
petals obcordate, not much longer than the sepals.
Eu. Gn. 45 : 284. — The purple styles are pretty.

cc. Plants not spreading by runners.

D. Root-lvs. pinnatifid.

montanum, Linn. An erect and single-fld. perennial
with lower Ivs. lyrate pinnatifid; terminal 1ft. broadly
ovate-rounded: calyx-lobes entire, while those of G.
reptans are often 3-cut at apex; petals 1-2 times the
length of the sepals. S. Eu. G.C. II. 13:425. Gn. 45,
p. 285. — Under the name of G. Heldreichii and G.
Heldreichii superbum are advertised what appear to be
forms of this with orange-colored fls. which often pro-
duce more than 1 fl. The name Heldreichii is of no
botanical significance. G.M. 46:371.

DD. Root-lvs. kidney-shaped.

radiatum, Michx. (Sieversia Peckii, Rydb.) Very
hirsute: root-lvs. 2-5 in. broad: st. 1-8-fld.: bractleta
minute. Mountains of N. C. and Tenn.

BB. Fls. bright red, unmixed with yellow.

c. Lateral lobes of Ivs. minute.

coccineum, Sibth. & Smith, not Hort. "St.-lvs. 3-
lobed; root-lvs. lyrate, the terminal lobe largest, cor-
date-reniform : fls. erect. Mt. Olympus in Bithynia."
The above is an exact translation of the entire descrip-
tion given by Sibthorp and Smith, Flora Gra^ca, t.
485. — The chances are that all the plants in the trade
under this name are really G. chiloense. The true G.
coccineum is known in the botanic gardens.

cc. Lateral lobes of Ivs. 1 in. long.
chiloense, Balb. (G. coccineum, Hort., not Balb.).
"St.-lvs. 3-parted, laciniate; root-lvs. interruptedly
lyrate, pilose: terminal lobe rotund, somewhat 3-lobed,
crenate: fls. panicled: carpels villous." The above is a
literal translation of B. R. 1348, where the terminal
lobe is shown to be 2J/£ in. each way. Chile. B.R.

GEUM

GILIA

1335

1088, and under 1099. L.B.C. 16:1527. Gn. 14:562;
45, p. 284. R.H. 1890, p. 305; 1881, p. 309. G. 4:487.
All erroneously as G. coccineum.

Var. miniatum, Hort. (G. miniatum, Robt. Parker),
has fls. about two shades lighter in color. A robust
form growing 2-3 ft. high, easily prop., and fls. from
April to end of July. Gn. 38:298, where it is supposed
to be a hybrid of G. chiloense var. grandiflorum x G.
aureum, which is a robust many-fld. form of G. mon-
tanum or else of G. chiloense x G. urbanum.

Var. grandifldrum, Hort., is an improved form.
"The double-fld. form of this seems to be a more general
favorite, the blooms lasting longer, though I think they
lack the elegance of those of the simple form. They
begin to expand soon after May and are produced until
Oct."— D. K., in Gn. 38, p. 299. Var. plenum, Hort.,
a semi-double form, is known. It has bright scarlet
fls. and is a good border plant. G. 10:495.

BBB. Fls. chiefly dull red, mixed with yellow.
trifldrum, Pursh (Sieversia cilidta, Pursh). Low,
softly hairy: Ifts. very numerous and crowded, deeply
cut: fls. 3 or more on long peduncles; calyx purple, as
long as the petals. Coulter says the petals are erect.
Arctic Amer. L.B.C. 17:1609. Fruit showy and inter-
esting all summer.

AA. Not long and plumy in fr.
B. Style jointed and bent in the middle.

c. Fls. purplish orange.

rivale, Linn. Fig. 1632. St. erect and nearly simple:
root-lys. lyrate; st.-lvs. few, with 3 lobes or Ifts.: calyx
brownish purple; petals purplish orange, obovate and
emarginate, narrowed into a claw. North temperate
regions. Var. album, is also sold.

cc. Fls. golden yellow.

macrophyllum, Willd. St. erect and hairy: lower Ivs.
pinnatifid, 3-7-lobed, often with small Ifts. irregularly
placed on the rachis: fls. several, short-peduncled. E.
N. Amer. B.B. 2:221.

BB. Style not jointed, straight.

Rossii, Seringe. Slightly pubescent above: scape 1-3-
fld.; styles glabrous. Colo., arctic regions. — Fls. large,
bright yellow.

G. atrococdneum, Hort., may be a typographical error for G.
atrosanguineum. — G. atrosanguineum, Hort., ia presumably a
form of G. chiloense, with darker fls. than the type, and sold mostly
if not entirely, in its double condition. — G. bulgdricum, Hort.=(?).
G. Ewenii, Hort. has light orange fls. and is said tp be a good
border plant. — G. jap6nicum, Thunb., is sold, but little known.
St. flexuose, hirsute: Ivs. 3-5-lobed, hirsute: fls. erect, yellow; petals
as long as the calyx: fr. hirsute, awned, recurved. Japan.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GEVUINA (from the Chilean name). Also written
Guevina. Proteacese. One species, G. Avellana, Molina
(Syn., Quddria heterophylla, Ruiz & Pav.), sparingly
planted in Calif. CHILEAN NUT. CHILE HAZEL. An
evergreen tree, with large, alternate odd-pinnate, dark
green, glossy Ivs. and white, hermaphrodite fls. in long,
axillary racemes: sepals 4, deciduous; stamens 4; ovary
nearly sessile, 1-celled and 2-ovuled, the style filiform:
fr. a somewhat fleshy drupe, about the size of a cherry,
coral-red when ripe, the seed having a pleasant-flavored
kernel, resembling the hazel in taste and largely used
by the Chileans. G.C. III. 40:174. Prop, by seeds or
by green cuttings under glass. No trees of bearing age
recorded in U. S., although a tree approximately 50
years old is recorded as bearing in Devonshire, England.

W. A. TAYLOR.

GHERKIN: A small cucumber. The Burr or West Indian
gherkin is Cucumis Anguria.

GIFOLA (anagram of Filago). Composite. About 10
species of small woolly composites, of no horticultural
significance, in warm and temperate countries. G.

germdnica, Dum. (Filago germdnica, Linn.), the COT-
TON-RosE, is a cottony annual plant somewhat like
leontopodium, which latter is now and then collected by
tourists and dyed like immortelles. It was called
Herba impia by the old herbalists, because a new genera-
tion of clustered heads rises out of the parent cluster
as if undutifully exalting itself. It is native in Eu.,
and has become naturalized in E. N. Amer. in dry
fields. St. erect, 6-18 in.: Ivs. lanceolate, upright,
crowded : heads small, rayless.

GILIA (Philipp Salvador Gil, Spanish botanist of the
latter half of the eighteenth century, collaborator with
Xaurez). Polemonidcese. Annual, biennial or perennial
herbs, mostly of western North America.

Flowers small, of many colors, the corolla funnel-
form to bell-shape or sometimes salverform, 5-lobed;
stamens 5, inserted near the base of the corolla-tube,
the filaments usually naked; ovary 3-loculed, with
axile placenta?, the stigmas 3 (or sometimes 2). — Nearly

1633. Gilia grandiflora. ( X M)

100 species, as the genus is now understood by most
botanists. Gilia is a very polymorphic genus, into
which Gray now (Syn. Fl. 2, pt. 1, suppl.) throws Col-
lomia, Linanthus, Leptosiphon, Leptodactylon, Nayar-
retia, Hugelia, Ipomopsis, Fenzlia. In this conception,
Gilia is defined as follows: "Fls. naked, not involucel-
late; calyx partly herbaceous, scarious below the
sinuses; lobes narrow and acute; corolla salverform or
funnelform to campanulate or almost rotate; filaments
not bearded at base: seeds wingless: herbs, or a few
suffruticose." In cult, only G. californica is woody.
It is not certainly hardy in the E.

Several of the gilias are popular garden annuals or
biennials (a few perennial). They are of the easiest
culture, being vigorous, hardy and floriferous. They
are mostly dwarfish, and are excellent for low masses,
edgings or rockeries. Seeds may be sown where the
plants are to grow. Any good soil will suit them.

achillesefolia, 8.
aggregata, 12.
alba, 6, 8, 10, 14.
androsacea, 15.
aureus, 16.
californica, 18.
capitata, 6.
carmineus, 16.
coccinea, 2.
compacta, 10.

INDEX.

congesta, 4.
coronopifolia, 11.
debilis, 5.
densiflora, 14.
dianthoides, 17.
grandiflora, 1.
hybridus, 16.
laciniata, 7.
liniflora, 13.
linifolia, 13.

major, 6, 8.
micrantha, 16.
minima, 3.
multicaulis, 9.
nana, 10.
nivalis, 10.
rosea, 8, 10, 16.
speciosa, 17.
splendens, 10.
tricolor, 10.

1336

GILIA

GILIA

A. Plants not shrubby. (Nos. 1-17.)
B. Lvs. normally alternate, entire or pinnately cut or

divided (lower Ivs. sometimes opposite).
c. Fls. in dense heads, which are subtended by leafy

involucres.

D. Foliage entire or at least not much parted.
1. grandifldra, Gray (Collomia grandifldra, Douglas).
Fig. 1633. Erect, with minutely pubescent reddish sts.

1634. Flower of Gilia

capitata. ( X2)

1635. Gilia achilleaefolia.
(XM)

1-2 ft. high: Ivs. linear-lanceolate or oblong, narrowed
below but scarcely petioled, entire, acute : fls. many, in
dense terminal heads, buff or salmon-color, redder
inside, 1 in. long. Plains, west of Rocky Mts. B.M.
2894. B.R. 1174. — This and the next are interesting
annuals. Useful as bee plants.

2. coccinea, Gray (Collomia coccinea, Lehm.). More
slender: sts. not red: Ivs. narrower (mostly linear),
somewhat cut at the ends : fls. smaller, slender-tubed, yel-
low or buff outside and brick-red inside. Chile. B.R. 1622.

DD. Foliage pinnately parted or compound.

3. minima, Gray (Navarretia minima, Nutt.). Dwarf
and tufted (3 in. or less high) often forming broad tufts,
nearly glabrous: Ivs. needle-like, pinnately parted:
fls. white, the corolla scarcely exceeding the white-
hairy calyx. In arid districts. Dak. to Ore. and Colo.

4. congesta, Hook. A foot or less high, erect or
spreading, tufted: Ivs. mostly 3-7-divided into linear
divisions: fls. corymbose or in close head-like cymes;
corolla white, the oval lobes nearly as long as the tube;
calyx-teeth long-pointed, nearly equaling the corolla. A
small-fld. species growing from Rocky Mts. to the Pacific.

cc. Fls. not in close heads, but more or less scattered,

or if capitate, the heads not leafy-subtended.
D. Plant perennial: seed only 1 in a locule: fls. small.

5. debilis, Wats. Two in. or less high: Ivs. oblong,
entire or 2-3-lobed, petioled : fls. solitary and nearly ses-

sile, the purple corolla %in. long, the tube exceeding
the calyx. S. Utah. — Offered by collectors, but little
known in cult.

DD. Plant annual: seeds more than 1 to the locule: corolla

distinctly tubular, but relatively small.

E. Infl. capitate.

6. capitata, Douglas. Fig. 1634. Plant 18 in. to 2 %
ft. tall, the sts. long and nearly straight between joints:
fls. about J^in. long, in dense, nearly globular heads,
which terminate long, naked sts.; corolla-lobes lance-
linear, acute: Ivs. cut into very unequal linear lobes.
Calif, and Ore. B.M. 2698. B.R. 1170. G.W. 15, p.
214. — An old favorite. There is a white form (var.
alba). There is also a var. major.

7. laciniata, Ruiz & Pav. Much like the last in
botanical characters, and possibly a form of it: lower
and much more slender, the If.-divisions mostly very
narrow (usually almost thread-like), the heads smaller
or the fls. sometimes even scattered. Chile. — The fine
foliage and compact habit make this species an excel-
lent garden plant.

EE. Infl. mixed, capitate on the main branches, scattered
on the others.

8. achfflesefolia, Benth. Fig. 1635. Stout (2-3 ft.)
and very branchy and bushy, the early main branches
terminating in large, dense heads, but the later, finer
growth bearing scattered fls.: Ivs. small, with short,
linear lobes or teeth: fls. large, violet or purple-blue,
the corolla-lobes oblong or obovate: caps, large. W.
Calif. B.M. 5939 (showing only capitate infl.). — An
old garden plant. Fls. vary to white and rose, and
there is a large-fld. form. Various horticultural names
are in use for these forms, such as alba, rosea, major, etc.

9. multicaMis, Benth. Not unlike the preceding,
from which it differs only in its smaller fls. and more
distinctive habit. Calif. B.M. 3440 and B.R. 1682, both
as G. achilleaefolia from which this may not really
differ.

EEE. Infl. scattered or loosely cymulose.

10. tricolor, Benth. Fig. 1636. A very diffuse, twiggy
grower, 2-2^ ft. high, sparsely pubescent: Ivs. few on
the full-grown plant, small, with many short, very nar-
row or needle-shaped divisions: fls. comparatively
large (%in. long or nearly so), nearly or quite bell-
shaped, the corolla 2-3 times the length of the calyx;
color of the roundish lobes violet and passing to whitish
at the base, of the throat

brown-purple and of the
tube yellow. W. Calif.
B.M. 3463. B.R. 1704.
— One of the commonest
of garden annuals.
There is a white form
(G. nivalis, Hort. G.
alba, Hort.), Gn. 72, p.
201, and a rose-colored
form (G. rbsea, Hort.),
and a red-violet form
(var. rubro - violacea,
Hort.) Besides these
a small form has been
called G. ndna, a large
one G. splendens, and
a dense, stiff one G.
compdcta. None of
these names appears to
be in anything but trade
catalogues. Thrives
with the least care,
and is always a pro-
fuse bloomer. It re-
quires an open warm

situation. 1636. Gilia tricolor.

GILIA

GILLENIA

1337

DDD. Plant biennial: seeds few or many in each locule:

fls. large and long-tubular, red (running into

white forms), the corolla very much surpassing

the subulate calyx-lobes. (Ipomopsis.)

11. coronopifdlia, Pers. (Ipomopsis elegans, Poir.

/. aurantlaca and /. sanguinea, Hort.). STANDING

CYPRESS. St. strict and unbranched, sometimes 6 ft.

high, very leafy: Ivs. pinnate, the divisions needle-like

and about -1 in. long: fls. many, ll/z in- long, long-

1637. Gilia liniflora. (X%)

1638. Gilia micrantha. ( X M)

trumpet-shape, borne along the sides of the summit of
the st., the calyx inconspicuous amongst the short
bract-lvs., the corolla scarlet or pink-red and dotted
and yellowish within, varying to orange, its lobes obtuse
or nearly so and flaring. In dry soil, S. C., south and
west. B.R.1691. G.C.III.40:277. G.M. 49:598. Gn.70,
p. 165. — Common old garden plant, and worthy. Fls.
scentless. Name should probably be G. rubra, Heller.

12. aggregata, Spreng. (Ipomopsis elegans, Lindl.).
Differs in mostly shorter stature, pubescent st., and
more slender habit, with redder (sometimes white)
fragrant fls., with acute and reflexing corolla-lobes.
Neb., south and west. B.R. 1281.— The fls. are fiery
scarlet or sometimes nearly white. A very showy
biennial.

BB. Lvs. opposite, entire, or, if alternate (as in No. 13)

palmately parted.
c. Foliage very fine, the Ivs. cut into thread-like or linear

divisions.
D. Corolla rotate-bell-shape, with a short, flaring tube.

13. linifldra, Benth. (G. linifolia, Hort.). Fig. 1637.
Ten to 20 in. high, diffuse and branchy: lower Ivs.
mostly opposite, but the upper alternate, all palmately
divided to the base in needle-like or spurrey-like
divisions: fls. rather large for the size of the plant, the
corolla white or blush,

nearly rotate, the thin
lobes obtuse. Calif. B.
M. 5895.— A useful tufty
garden annual. The
name liniflora is meant
to designate the resem-
blance of the fls. to those
of Linum tenuifolium;
but some catalogue-
maker, evidently think-
ing that the name meant
linear-flowered, and was
therefore inappropriate or an error, has changed the
name to G. linifolia, under which name it is known in
the trade.

DD. Corolla salverform, with a filiform and elongated
tube. (Leptosiphon.)

14. densiflora, Benth. (Leptosiphon densiflorus,
Benth.). Erect or even strict, 1-2 ft., hairy: Ivs. with
many filiform somewhat rigid divisions: fls. in rather

1639. Gilia dianthoides, the
Fenzlia of gardens.

close heads, lilac or white, H~M in. long; tube of the
corolla scarcely longer than the Ivs.; lobes of the
corolla spreading, obtuse, often dentate, nearly or quite
as long as the tube. Calif. B.M. 3578. B.R. 1725.—
Common garden annual. The white-fld. form is known
as var. alba, Hort.

15. androsacea, Steud. (Leptosiphon androsaceus,
Benth.). Much like the last, but the tube very slender
and much exserted beyond the calyx and Ivs.: fls. 1
in. long, pink, lilac or white, in rather close heads, the
corolla-lobes ovate-acute and entire, much shorter
than the tube, 12-18 in. Calif. B.M. 3491. B.R. 1710.

16. micrantha, Steud. Fig. 1638. Tufted, 8 in. or less
high, the sts. most leafy near the top: Ivs. short, fas-
cicled: fls. with an exceedingly slender thread-like tube
which is 1-1 ^2 in. long, and projecting prominently
above the upper fascicles of Ivs., the corolla-lobes
spreading and obtuse; color range very wide, — from
purple to lilac, red, yellow and white. Calif. — A popu-
lar bedding plant. Forms of it are known as Leptosiphon
aureus, L. carmineus, L. hybridus, and L. roseus.

cc. Foliage of entire (but narrow) Ivs.

17. dianthoides, Endl. (Fenzlia dianthiflora, Benth.).
Fig. 1639. Tufted, 6 in. or less high: Ivs. narrowly lin-
ear, opposite: fls. 1-1 M in- long, lilac or purple, with
yellowish throat, the flat-spreading lobes denticulate or
nearly fringed. S.Calif. B.M. 4876. R.H. 1865:11.—
A choice little annual, excellent for edgings and rock-
work, bearing a profusion of pink-like fls. The fls.
sometimes vary to white (Fenzlia alba, Hort.). A
large-fld. form is called G. speciosa.

AA. Plants shrubby.

18. californica, Benth. A low, procumbent and
much-branched shrub: Ivs. alternate, deeply digitately
parted into 5-7 stiff and hairy segms: fls. showy, very
free; sepals subulate, mucronate; petals cuneate, some-
times toothed, rose-colored. Calif. B.M. 4872. — A fine
showy species, perhaps not hardy in the E.

G. abrotanifdlia, Nutt., occurs in mountains back of Santa
Barbara, and has been listed in collections of native plants for sale:
1-2 ft., simple or somewhat branched: Ivs. ample, all tripinnately
dissected, the ultimate segms. very narrow and acute and curved
backward: fl. without markings (blue?), large, the lobes spread-
ing, obovate and obtuse; stamens scarcely protruding. — G. Chamis-
sdnis, Greene, is a segregate from G. achiltefolia: annual, but some-
times persisting over winter, 1 ft.: Ivs. mostly twice pinnately dis-
sected into linear segms. : branches few and peduncle-like, bearing
large and dense heads of blue fls. Calif. T IT B

N. TAYLOR, f

GILIBERTIA (J. E. Gilibert, 1741-1814, France,
physician and botanist). Araliacex. A genus of very
few Trop. American shrubs (if Dendropanax is sepa-
rated) that are not known in cult. The name is one
frequently but incorrectly used by gardeners for
Trevesia, and G. palmata is described under that genus.
G. paniculata and one or two others are referred to
Polyscias. Gilibertia differs from Trevesia in haying parts
of the fl. in 6-8's instead of 8-12's, and in its simple
entire Ivs. From Dendropanax it differs mostly in its
6-8-merous rather than 5-merous fls. N. TAYLOR.

GILLENIA (dedicated to an obscure German botanist
or physician of the seventeenth century, A. Gille or
Gillenius). Syn. Porter unthus. Rosacex. Excellent
graceful plants for the mixed border, rockeries, or
other hardy gardens.

Erect, perennial herbs, 2-4 ft. high, with nearly
sessile, 3-foliate, or 3-parted, stipulate Ivs.: fls. white
or pinkish, loosely panicled, perfect, perigynous; cup-
shaped receptacle narrow, somewhat contracted at the
mouth, 5-toothed; petals strap-shaped, unequal, 4-8
lines long; stamens 10-20, very short; pistils 5, superior,
lightly coherent, later distinct, pubescent: fr. consist-
ing of 5 2-4-seeded follicles. — Two species. They are
hardy and of easy cult, in any good soil. Prop, by
seeds or division.

1338

GILLENIA

GINSENG

trifoliate, Moench. BOWMAN'S ROOT. Lfts. serrate;

stipules small, awl-shaped, mainly entire. Cent, and S. U.

S. B.M. 489 (as Spiraea). Mn. 8:129. J.H. III. 43:188.

stipulata, Trel.
(G . stipulacea,
Nutt.). AMERICAN
IPECAC. Lfts. in-
cised; stipules
large, broad, and
leaf-like, doubly in-
cised. Cent, and S.
U.S.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GILLYFLOWER.
Down to Shake-
speare's time usu-
ally referred to
what we now call
the carnation, Di-
anthus Caryophyl-
lus, also known as
clove pink. Since
Shakespeare's time
gilliflower has usu-
ally meant either
wall- flowers or
stocks, as explained
Matthiola.

1640. Ginkgo biloba.
under Cheiranthus and

GINGER: Zingiber officinale. Wild Ginger: Asarum canadense.

GfNKGO (Chinese name). Syn., Salisburia. Gink-
goacex, one of the segregates from the Coniferae. One
species in northern China and Japan, the sole remainder
of a more numerous tribe in geologic time; now wide-
spread as a street and park tree and also prized for the
edible seeds.

Tall tree, with wedge-shaped deciduous Ivs.: fls.
small and mostly dioecious; pistillate fl. solitary, the
single naked ovule ripening into a drupe; staminate fls.
in slender, loose catkins: fr. a drupe about 1 in. diain.,
containing a very large lenticular seed or kernel.

biloba, Linn. (Salisburia adiantifblia, Smith).
GINKGO. MAIDENHAIR TREE. KEW TREE. Figs. 1640-
1642. A straight, sparsely branched, usually slender
tree, attaining a height of 60-80 ft. : Ivs. 3-5, 1-clustered,
fan-shaped, divided at summit, with thickened margin,
striated on both sides with numerous parallel veins:
fls. dioecious; male catkins slender, stalked; females
on long footstalks, in pairs, of which one usually
aborts: fr. a drupe, consisting of an acrid, foul-smelling
pulp surrounding a smooth, angular oval, cream-col-
ored, thin-shelled, sweet-kerneled nut. F.S. 10, p. 119.
G.C. 111.5:265, 269. G.F. 1:175 (adapted in Fig.
1640). A.G. 12:268. Gng. 6:194. G.M. 52:1011.

1641. Ginkgo leaves and fruit.

1642. Ginkgo fruit. (Natural size)

Gn. 66, p. 345. Gn.M. 2:11. G.W. 3, p. 542; 10, p.
285; 15, pp. 589-593. J.H. III. 64:148.— The ginkgo
was intro. to Amer. early in the last century; it is gen-
erally successful on good soil in the eastern states as
far north as E. Mass, and Cent. Mich., and along the
St. Lawrence River in parts of Canada. It is of special
value for solitary planting to secure picturesque effects.
It is considerably planted in Washington, D. C., where
it is growing in esteem as a street tree because of its
upright habit and freedom from insect injury. Easily
prop, from seed, stratified in autumn; varieties by
budding and grafting. Several horticultural forms are
recognized, including laciniata, pendula and variegata.
The foul odor of the ripe frs., which continue to mature
and drop during a period of some weeks, constitutes
the chief objection to the species as a street tree, or
near dwellings, and suggests the advisability of prop,
from staminate trees by grafting or budding, for plant-
ing in such locations. The kernels, which have a sweet-
ish, slightly resinous flavor, are highly esteemed for
food in China and Japan, and are gathered from fruiting
trees in Washington for such use by Chinese laundry-
men.

The word Ginkgo seems to be pronounced with a hard
initial G in the orient, but in English a soft G should
be used. The name is often spelled Gingko, but the
other spelling is that used by Linnaeus.

W. A. TAYLOR.

GINSENG (Panax quinquefblium, Linn. P. Ginseng,
Meyer. Ardlia quinquefblia, Decne. & Planch.) is fro
the Chinese more than quinine or any other drug is to
Americans. As its name Panax implies, it is a pana-
cea, being employed for all the ills that flesh is heir to.
Though credited with stimulating, aromatic, alterative,
carminative and tonic properties, the root is with us

GINSENG

GLADIOLUS

1339

1643. Parts of a gladiolus
flower. Showing the three
stigmas, three stamens, six
segments of the perianth,
and the tips of the spathe-
valves.

seldom used except as a demulcent. The reverence in
which it is held, and the high price that it commands in
China, led to extensive search for a substitute, which
resulted in the discovery in 1716 of American ginseng,
Panax quinquefolium, near Montreal, Canada. This
root was favorably received by the Chinese, and soon
became an important article
of export. During the past
fifty years the price of Ameri-
can ginseng has advanced
nearly 700 per cent, but owing
to the energetic hunt for the
root, to the destruction of
forests and to the gathering
of plants at improper times,
the wild supply has greatly
decreased. With the advanc-
ing prices and the diminishing
supply came experiments in
ginseng cultivation, most of
which failed through igno-
rance of the plant's peculiari-
ties. The seed ripens in Sep-
tember. If dry it will not
germinate until the second
year, but if fresh and properly
kept nearly all the seeds will
germinate the first season. The soil must be a light,
friable loam, free from stones, rich in humus and well
drained ; the plants must be well supplied with shade
and moisture. Cultivated ginseng already commands a
considerably higher price than the wild root, and,
though no returns can be expected from a plantation
under three or four years, the industry is profitable
to the men that have given it careful attention.

Ginseng beds can be located in orchards, gardens, or
woods, where the roots may remain without danger of
deterioration for several years after they first attain
marketable size. The roots are so valuable that they
are likely to be stolen, and beds should, therefore, be
placed where they can be guarded.

For further information on ginseng, send to Division
of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C., for Bulletin No. 16 of the Division of
Botany, revised by M. G. Kains in 1898, or consult
Kains' Ginseng, its culture, etc., Orange Judd Company
1899; second edition, 1902. For diseases, consult Cor-
nell bulletins. M. G. KAINS.

GITHAGO: Lychnis.

GITHOPSIS (like Githago, from the calyx). Cara-
panulacese. One blue-fid, annual in Calif., sometimes
recorded in horticultural litera-
ture, G. specularimdes, Nutt. It
grows in the open hill country and
the mountains: st. simple or some-
what branched, 4-7 in. high, rough-
pubescent: Ivs. obovate to oblong
or narrower, sharp-toothed, less
than J^in. long:
corolla tubular-
bell-shaped, the
lobes shorter than
the tube; calyx
10-ribbed, adnate
to the ovary: fr.
a coriaceous caps.,
bearing the rigid
calyx - lobes, de-
hiscing at apex.
Var. diffusa, Jep-
son, is nearly gla-
brous, but sinuses
of calyx some-
what hispid. 1644. Gladiolus conn growing above the old
L. H. B. °ne; an<* the cormels from the bottom.

GLADIOLUS (diminutive of Latin gladius a sword,
from the shape of the leaves). Iridaceae. Popular
summer-flowering and autumn-flowering bulbs, and
now somewhat grown under glass.

Corm-bearing herbs with fls. in simple or
branched spikes; Ivs. radical and cauline: fl. more
or less tubular, the tube usually funnel-shaped
(enlarging upward) ; segms. 6, more or less une-
qual, strongly narrowed or even clawed at the base,
the upper ones often hooded or roofed over the
opening or mouth of the fl.; stamens 3, inserted
on the tube; stigmas 3, on a long style; ovary
3-loculed, becoming an oblong 3-valved
caps., with flattened and winged or some-
times globose seeds: each fl. is borne in a
sessile spathe (like a calyx) with linear or
lanceolate valves or If .-like parts: the Ivs.
are mostly equitant on the st., all firm and
prominently several-ribbed, varying from
linear to sword-shaped (sometimes almost
terete): the old corm dies and a new one
grows on top, and cormels
or offsets (sometimes called
"spawn") form from the
underpart (Fig. 1644).— The
species of Gladiolus are 160
or more, perhaps 100 being in
S. Afr. (Cape), many in Trop.
Afr. in both the E. and the
W., and others in the Medit.
and W. Asian regions. The
greater part of highly im-
proved garden forms are de-
rived more or less directly
from the S. African species.
The Eurasian species are little
grown, although some of them
are hardy. Gladioli have been
much modified by variation,
hybridizing and selection.

The gladiolus is propa-
gated readily by seeds, as
explained farther on; by the
use of the new corm growing above
the old one, and which is separated
either when cleaning in autumn or
before planting in spring; by the
young corms, or cormels. Increasing
stock by the small corms or cormels is
the most common method, and the
one by which a variety is perpetu-
ated. The small corms are stored in
bags, boxes or other suitable recepta-
cles and kept from frost. It is a help
to sprouting if the cormels are not
allowed to dry out during the period
of rest. They should be planted like
one-year seedlings, and they give
blooming plants the first and second
year.

Great progress has been made in
recent years in the improvement of
the gladiolus, until in floriferousness,
form, color, substance and keeping
qualities it has become one of the im-
portant summer flowers, both for
amateurs and florists. It is to be expected, however,
that many other forms and qualities are yet to appear,
considering the great number of wild species of much
beauty that have not been combined in the cultivated
strains. It may be possible, also, that closely related
genera can be used to some extent in hybridizing. The
lines of division between Gladiolus, Antholyza, Acidan-
thera, and some others, are more or less arbitrary.

The early departures were of the gandavensis (Fig.
1645) and similar types, founded probably on G.

1645. Gladiolus

gandavensis.

(XH)

1340

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

psittacinus and G. cardinalis. Forms of G. tristis early
entered into the cultivated strains, as well as G. oppo-
sitiflorus, and later G. purpureo-auratus and G. Saun-
dersii. The Lemoinei and nanceianus races (Fig. 1646)
have afforded foundations for much subsequent breed-
ing. Recently, G. primulimts has entered into the
combinations. It seems to be particularly valuable
as a parent; it is said to be dominant in color over even
the deepest reds, subduing them to excellent shades of
orange, salmon, and terra-cotta; when crossed with
the lighter colors it transforms them to buff, lemon and
ecru; combined with yellow the color is deepened.
The hooded character is commonly inherited. W. W.
Van Fleet has succeeded in crossing this species with
many of the other wild forms. With G. Qvartinianus
the color is said to be toned down to terra-cotta and
the season for blooming is changed from autumn to
midsummer. When G. Watsonius is
used, the progeny is tall, orange in
color with scarlet veinings; the plants
are earlier, more vigorous, and pro-
fuse bloomers. Hybrids from the
above species, and from varieties of
G. cardinalis produce tall graceful
spikes of exquisite light tints.

1646. Gladiolus Lemoinei (on the right), and G. nanceianus. ( X } 3)

The ruffled strains of gladioli have appeared in recent
years, adding a pleasing variety and -much merit to
the flower. This type has been specially developed
in the recent breeding work of A. E. Kunderd, of
Goshen, Indiana (Fig. 1647). Nearly twenty years
ago he began his selections for the production of a
frilled or wavy flower, that should have something of
the petal-edge exhibited so well in azalea. Early- and
late-flowering strains have been produced. It is said
that one strain has the blood of G. Quartinianus and
is producing many good shades of red with fluted or
ruffled petals and suitable for late-flowering purposes.
G. primulinus has also given good tints in yellows, with
flowers very much frilled. It now seems possible to
introduce the ruffling into many of the standard types,
much as has been done with the sweet pea.

The recent Burbank strains have been developed from
the variety America as the seed-parent. These are
said to comprise many very large-flowered forms, with
brilliant coloring.

The G. prsecox group or strain was introduced by
Frederick Roemer, of Quedlinburgh, Germany, said
to be the result of intercrossing the earliest-flowering
plants of G. gandavensis, G. Lemoinei, G. Childsii and
G. nanceianus. In color, markings, or size, the race
compares favorably with the parents, and at the
same time the plants bloom the first year from seed,
especially when the seed is started in a moderate
hotbed in March. As growth advances, they are given
ventilation gradually. There is a decided improve-
ment the second year, when two or more spikes of
normal size are usually produced. Other strains
of gladiolus may also give bloom the first year from
seed.

Some of the earlier history of American gladiolus-
breeding was written for the "Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture" by H. H. Groff, of Canada, one of the
prominent contributors to the improvement of the
flower (extracts) : Some twenty-five years ago "when the
writer, under the inspiration of Luther Burbank, began
his own work in hybridization, the best American-grown
stock available was the Hallock collection of some 400
named varieties of gandavensis and about 100 of the
earlier Lemoine hybrids, all of European origin. After
trial, the writer placed them all in mixtures. About this
time Luther Burbank began to offer a few named varie-
ties, but shortly afterward sold his whole stock, the
collection being now in the writer's hands. This col-
lection, in the opinion of the writer, is the best strain
of gandavensis. The varieties were largely of varie-
gated types, with many of unique markings and peculiar
form. Burbank had given particular attention to varie-
ties calculated to withstand the hot, dry winds of
California, and had originated several with specially
stiff petals, quite distinct from the ordinary types. The
peculiarity of the flowers blooming around the spike
like the hyacinth was also his contribution. All of his
varieties are now grown in mixture by the writer with
the exception of a white variety, which promises to be
distinct and valuable for some time to come. The
work of Van Fleet, of New Jersey, was carried on more
for scientific than commercial results, and reaped a
deserved success. However, the writer has found that
the offspring of a pure species is less stable than that of
well-balanced cross-bred varieties, the former system
handing down few varieties of permanent commercial
value, though they are in themselves valuable as
parents for the foundation of new strains. The best
work of a semi-professional character, in the opinion
of the writer, has been done by T. S. Moore, of Indiana,
who has spared no trouble or expense in procuring
choice material upon which to build, and with satis-
factory results." Writing in 1914, Groff speaks of the
fluted, ruffled and crimped forms being frequent in
the progeny of every improved species; of the develop-
ment of iris-form flowers; and of innumerable influences,
under breeding, on the character of the stalk, fiber,
capsule, shape and size of foliage, disposition of flowers
to droop or to grow erect, on the corm and its husk
and the facility of producing cormels, and other inter-
esting departures.

The interest in the gladiolus has been much stimu-
lated in North America by the work of the American
Gladiolus Society. It was organized at Boston, May
27, 1910, for the purpose of "stimulating interest in,
and promoting the culture and development of the
gladiolus; to establish a standard nomenclature; to
test out new varieties, and to give them such recogni-
tion as they deserve; to study the diseases of the
gladiolus, and find remedies for same; to disseminate
information relating to this flower; to secure uniformity
in awarding prizes at flower shows, and to give one
exhibition each year." The society holds exhibitions,
publishes a bulletin, and in manj1" ways aids in the
popularizing of the gladiolus and in establishing stand-
ards of excellence. It has a trial-ground at the New York

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

1341

State College of Agriculture at Cornell University,
where gladioli are now being carefully studied.

Following is a score-card prepared by direction of
Gladiolus Society of Ohio:

Points

1. Spike (long, 5; straight, 5; many blooms, 5; facing together,

5) 20

2. Flower (large, 5; widely opened, 5; broad, round petals, 5;

substance and texture, 5; beauty of bud, 5) 25

3. Color (attractive, 10; either self-color, or strikingly marked,

5; adapted to cut-flower trade or florists' use, 5) 20

4. Foliage (dark, healthy green, 5; broad, 5; abundant, 5) _. 15

5. Durability (continuance of bloom on spike, 5; lasting quali-

ties as cut-flower, 5) 10

6. General effect (in mass bed or field, 5; in vase or cut display, 5) 10

Total 100

Culture of the gladiolus. (Isaac S. Hendrickson, except
when otherwise stated.)

The Gladiolus has several good points combined to
make it interesting, popular, and promising, as: The
low cost; ease of culture; freedom from insects; varia-
tion in color; ease of carrying over from year to year;
length of blooming season; rapid increase; ease with
which new varieties are produced.

Figures recently compiled from information given
by the growers in the United States are as follows:

Number of acres devoted to gladioli 400 to 500.

Estimated number of bulbs produced annually

14,000,000 to 15,000,000
Estimated value of crop $250,000

Raising new varieties.

It is the contention of some growers that certain
definite results can be secured by hand-crossing of
different varieties, while other growers assert that they
cannot trace a single valuable result to that method.
The writer's observation has led him to the opinion
that some of the best and most useful sorts on the
market today are the results of careful selection of seed
from the varieties showing best form, growth, color,
vigor, size, and other qualities. It is well for the general
gardener to purchase a collection of the best-named
kinds now on sale, plant them together and let the
insects transfer the pollen naturally; and if the weather
is favorable, one is almost sure to have a crop of seed.
This seed must be carried over until the following
spring, when it can be planted in shallow drills, cover-
ing about one-eighth to one-fourth inch with soil; they
will make only a slight grass-like growth the first year,
and must be taken up in the fall, and housed away from
frost. The following spring they can be planted as
one would sow garden peas, and covered about 1^
inches deep; they will make a little more growth and
perhaps a small percentage will flower, but the bulbs
will have to be lifted and planted once more before a
good showing of flowers can be expected. The com-
mercial grower expects to wait three or four years
after planting the seed before he has salable bulbs,
which of course, can be sold only as seedlings or mix-
tures as all forms and colors will be present. In look-
ing for new varieties to name, the greatest care must be
taken to choose only those of real merit, something that
is distinct from previous selections, new in color, good
in substance, excellent in form, and in all ways merito-
rious. When the selection is finally made from perhaps
thousands of seedlings, it is labeled out and lifted
separately in the fall, and jealously guarded until the
next planting-time; then it is watched with eagerness
to see whether it will prove constant and worth taking
the trouble to "bring up," for as it requires at least ten
years to secure enough bulbs to offer for sale, one can
easily waste much time if the selection does not prove
to be a wise one. It is often said that there are too many
varieties now under name, and this is true; but as it is
so very easy and so fascinating to grow seedlings, one
should not discourage the amateur in securing this
satisfaction.

Of course the professional or expert breeder will
exercise the most careful choice of the parent stocks;
and he is able to make many interesting and valuable
combinations of special qualities.

Culture.

While nearly any good garden soil is adapted to the
culture of the gladiolus, the plant seems partial to a

sandy loam. In field cul-
ture, gladioli are usually
planted in rows similar to
potatoes; that is to say,
the furrows are made 3
feet apart to allow tillage
with horse. The bulbs are
placed in the row by hand,
usually about 2 to 4
inches apart each way
according to size, and
covered about 4 or 5 inches
deep. Deep planting pre-
vents them blowing over.
Frequent tillage must be
given in spring and sum-
mer.

For garden culture, they
may be planted promiscu-
ously in the border if
wanted for garden decora-
tion; or if wanted for
cut-flowers principally, the
straight-row method is
best, as it enables better
tillage to be given and
makes it much easier to cut
the blooms. The gladio-
lus is essentially a cut-
flower. If one has a
goodly number of bulbs, it
is an excellent plan to
make successive plantings
about fifteen days apart,
beginning as early as the
ground can be worked
and continued until July.
This will insure continu-
ous bloom from July until
October, or until the
plants are cut down by
frost. As the old bulb or
corm produces its flower,
it dies and a new one
forms in its place, and de-
velops until harvest time,
when it is lifted and stored
in a warm dry place; some
time during the winter
the roots and old bulb
should be taken off, so
that the bulb will present
a clean appearance and
be ready for planting.

As a cut-flower, the
gladiolus will rival most
other flowers in keeping
qualities. The blooms can
be kept fresh and beauti-

1647. The ruffled gladiolus.

(XJO

f ul for a period of five to
ten days after cutting by
changing the water daily
and removing each day the withered blooms; it also
helps if the ends of the spike are nipped off when chang-
ing the water. If the spikes are cut when the first two
or three flowers have opened, the entire stalk will open
out after it has been put in water. They may be sent
to a distance; they will arrive in excellent condition if

1342

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

a little'care is taken when shipping. The spikes should
be cut when the first flower opens, and put in water in
the cellar or cool place for two or three hours, after
which they will stand a journey of two or three days;
and then when placed in water they will quickly
respond and unfold their petals.

The uses of gladioli are varied; great quantities are
used for decorating dining tables in the great hotels
and steamboats; florists have long recognized their
value in making funeral designs; at the exhibition of
the American Gladiolus Society, at Rochester, it was
demonstrated that they can be used for fancy table
decoration, wedding bouquets, and other purposes.

Varieties.

No two persons will agree on varieties, but the fol-
lowing represent some of the good types at present
(given here as a matter of record) :

White. — Europa, Blanche, Peace, LaLuna. Pink. —
Wild Rose, America, Mrs. Frank Pendleton, Myrtle,
Taconic, Panama. Scarlet. — Mrs. Francis King,
Princeps, Brenchleyensis, Contrast (scarlet and white).
Yellow. — Golden King, Sulphur King, Niagara, Kun-
derdi Glory. Maroon. — Empress of India, Mrs.
Milh'ns. Violet. — Baron Joseph Hulot.

Variation in size of bulbs.

There is great variation in size of bulb or corm. It is
a varietal characteristic. Some kinds never make a
large bulb, yet they may be superior kinds. This
ought to give a hint in buying mixtures at the flower-
shop. Nine times out of ten, when a customer has the
opportunity to pick out the bulbs personally, the very
largest ones are taken, with the result that perhaps not
more than one or two kinds are received, as very often
the very best and choicest flowers are concealed in the
small or medium-sized corms. Some of the
large-bulb sorts are very inferior, and it is
easy to increase the stock, while others,
perhaps producing smaller bottoms, bear
only a few offsets.

Commercial cultivation for stock or bulbs.
(E. H. Cushman.)

For successful commercial culture it is
essential that sandy soil conditions are
obtainable. Such preparation of the soil
as puts it in a loose, friable condition will
answer. Probably the ideal soil is a sod,
fall-plowed and then most thoroughly worked
in the spring. Strong, fresh stable manure
should be avoided. If soil is not sufficiently
rich in plant-food it is best to use all strong
manures on a previous season's crop of some
other kind. Any complete fertilizer is bene-
ficial when thoroughly worked through the
soil, at the rate of 600 to 1,000 pounds to the
acre. Planting should be begun as early in
the spring as the proper working of the soil
will permit. The ground being prepared, it
should be furrowed 4 inches deep and from 24 to 36 inches
apart, according to method of cultivation. If fine, round
bulbs are to be grown, and the stock for planting
exceeds 1}^ inches in diameter, it will be necessary to
place the bulbs right side up in the furrow by hand,
either in single or double rows 2 inches apart. Bulbs of
lesser size may be scattered as evenly as possible along
the furrow, with an average of ten or twelve to the foot
of furrow. Clean culture throughout the growing season
is essential. Cutting the spike of flowers is a help to
increasing the size of the bulbs. Four months is suffi-
cient for the growth and maturity of the bulb. To har-
vest, loosen the soil and lift the bulbs by their tops,
and lay on the ground to dry off and ripen. Should
weather permit, they can be entirely ripened out-of-
doors. Cut the tops off close to the bulbs, pulling off

the old bulbs and roots, and place in thin layers in
crates and store in a cool, dry place. If circumstances
require, the tops may be trimmed off at once on lifting,
and the bulbs taken under cover for cleaning and
drying.

Culture in California. (Sydney B. Mitchell.)

Gladioli, like all South African bulbs, do very well in
California; indeed near Santa Cruz, some of the popular
large-flowering varieties are grown in commercial quan-
tities for their bulbs. These summer-flowering kinds
may be planted in the fall to bloom in the following
May and June, but in private gardens additional
corms should be put in at intervals from April to July
so that a succession of flowers may be available until
October, right through the season when California
gardens are barest. It should be noted that the early-
flowering class of the nanus and Colvillei types are
also quite hardy here and
so do not require the glass
protection given in the
East. The favorite varieties
of the nanus or dwarfs are
Peach Blossom and Blush-
ing Bride, while The Bride
easily leads in the Colvillei
section. A few of the less-
known early species are also
grown occasionally, as for
example G. tristis (yellow and terra-
cotta) and its variety concolor (pale
greenish yellow), both of which
flower in March around San Fran-
cisco Bay. The earlier-flowering
classes should all be planted just as
soon as available in late October or
in November. Growth starts at
once, but the flowers usually do not
appear much before the following
May, when they make a brave show
and are fine for cutting. Their
simple requirements are fall-plant-
ing in a well-drained, preferably
loamy soil, put about 3 inches
deep and about the same apart. Separate
bulbs are reset each autumn for best
results.
gain

a year in California, as far as soil and
climate go, there is no good reason why
the local-grown bulbs should not quite
replace imported ones.

Indoor culture. (A. C. Hottes.)

Until recently, the gladiolus used for
blooming indoors was principally of the
nanus type. Planted in November, they
bloom in April and May. They may first
be started in 5-inch pots and later benched.
They require a cool temperature, about
45° at night, if one expects the foliage to develop nicely.
This is a temperature near that of the carnation op-
timum; they are therefore, often planted around the
margins of the carnation benches. Their growth at first
is slow, making little growth till the sun gets higher
in the spring.

The flowers of the nanus type appear two or three
weeks earlier than the standard varieties of gandavensis,
Lemoinei or nanceianus. Varieties of the latter groups,
however, are being developed with the desirable
qualities for forcing, that of earliness and of a pleasing
commercial color, and are becoming of considerable
importance as a spring flower for the florist.

If the stems are not cut too short, the corms will
renew themselves as well as in outdoor culture and they
can be forced again or given a year's growth in the field.

ts. As they increase quite rapidly and
greatly in vigor after they have had

1648. Gladiolus tristis var.
concolor. (XJi)

XLVIII. The garden gladiolus, variety "Peace."

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

1343

The kinds of gladiolus.

The following account includes those species that
appear to have any particular horticultural history; also
some of the prominent Latin-named hybrids, although
not all these hybrids may now be in commerce.

INDEX.

Adlami, 20.

Engesseri, 33.

oppositiflorus, 26.

alatus, 2.

erectus, 19.

Papilio, 13.

albidus, 24.

excelsus, 24.

pracox, 36.

albus, 28.

fasciatus, 9.

primulinus, 19.

angustus, 5.

floribundus, 25, 28.

princeps, 35.

atroviolaceus, 7.

Froebelii, 33.

psittacinus, 22.

biflorus, 8.

gandavensis, 29.

purpureo-auratus, 23.

blandus, 24.

grandis, 3.

Quartinianus, 18.

brenchleyensis, 29.

Hibbertii, 24.

ramosus, 28.

Brinerii, 33.

Hollandia, 29.

salmoneus, 19.

byzantinus, 11.

hybridus, 35.

Saundersii, 17.

cardinalis, 15.

imbricatus, 6.

eegetum, 12.

carneus, 10, 24.

Kunderdii, 37.

sulphurous, 20.

Childsii, 32.

Leichtlinii, 14.

superbus, 17.

citrinus, 29.

Lemoinei, 30.

trimaculatus, 5.

Colvillei, 28.

maculatus, 19.

tristis, 4.

communis, 10.

major, 19.

turicensis, 34.

concolor, 4, 19.

Milleri, 27.

undulatus, 9.

cordatus, 5.

Mortonius, 24.

versicolor, 3.

crispiflorus, 6.

namaquensis, 2.

vinulus, 9.

cruentus, 16.

nanceianus, 31.

vittatus, 9.

delicatissimus, 28.

nanus, 28.

Watsonius, 1.

dracocephalus, 21.

natalensis, 22.

I. SPECIES OF GLADIOLUS (Nos. 1-27).

Few of the original species of Gladiolus are in culti-
vation in their pure form. When grown at all, they are
prized chiefly as oddities, or because of their botanical
interest. The following species are either offered at
the present time in the trade or are parents of modern
garden forms:

A. Fl. with a long, slender, cylindrical curved tube,
which is enlarged in the middle; segms. nearly
equal. (Homoglossum.)

1. Watsdnius, Thunb. (Antholf/za revoliita, Burm.).
Cprm 1 in. diam., globose: st. slender, 18 in. or less,
with 1 long, narrow-linear and stiff If. and 2-3 short
sheathing Ivs.: fls. 2-4, in a lax 1-sided spike, 2 in. or
less long, bright red, the wide-spreading segms. oblong
and acute, the lower ones smaller and lanceolate-fal-
cate; stamens very short. S. Afr. B.M. 450. — Little
known in this country, but offered by Dutch growers.

AA. Fl. short and open, the tube short or scarcely any;
segms. very prominently clawed, usually unequal.

2. alatus, Linn. Corm small, globose: small, the
st. only 4-12 in. high, and slender: Ivs. 3-4, linear and
rigid: fls. 3-4 in a lax spike, the curved tube ^fan. long,
the perianth pink and often strongly veined; segms.
very unequal, the 3 lower tongue-like and protruded,
the others obovate or nearly orbicular, all of them dif-
ferently colored toward the base; stamens nearly as
long as upper segms. S. Afr. B.M. 586; 592; the var.
namaquensis, Baker, which is more robust, with broader
Ivs., more fls., the upper segms. broad.

AAA. Fls. of medium length, with a funnel-shaped tube,
which is flaring at the top; segms. narrowed below,
but not distinctly clawed. (Gladiolus proper.)

B. Lvs. linear (%in. or less wide).
c. Perianth-segms. acute.

3. grandis, Thunb. (G. versicolor, Andr.). Corm
globose, with coverings of thick wiry fibers : st. slender,

2 ft. or less, terete: Ivs. about 3, terete, strongly ribbed,
\}/% ft- or IGSS long: fls. 6 or less in a lax 1-sided spike,

3 in. long, with a curved tube; segms. nearly equal,
oblong-lanceolate and cuspidate, as long as the tube
and twice longer than the stamens, recurved and often
wavy, yellowish or creamy, tinged and striped with
purple-brown, especially on the keel: caps, oblong, 1^
in. long; seeds winged. S. Afr. B.M. 1042.

4. tristis, Linn. Very like the last : fls. 2-4, somewhat
smaller (2 in. or less long) ; segms. shorter than the tube
and not twice longer than the stamens, acute (short-
pointed), yellowish white with purple or blackish pen-
cilings, or var. concolor, Hort., Fig. 1648 (G. concolor,
Salisb.), almost white or uniform yellow. S. Afr. B.M.
272, 1098. G. 21:649. Gn. 75, p. 420. G.C. III. 38:187
(var. concolor). G.F. 8:75 (reproduced in Fig. 1648).
— Said to exhale a powerful and delightful lemon
perfume at night.

5. angustus, Linn. (G. trimaculatus, Lam. G. cor-
datus, Thunb.). Corm globose: slender: st. 2-3 ft.,
simple: Ivs. 3-4, very narrow, flat, 2 ft. or less long:
fls. 2-6 in a very loose spike, long-tubed, white, the
oblong segms. shorter than the tube and the 3 lower
ones with a characteristic purple median line ending
in a heart-shaped or spade-shaped mark; stamens half
length of limb. S. Afr. B.M. 602.

cc. Perianth-segms. obtuse.
D. Color purple or violet.

6. crispifldrus, Herb. (G. imbricatus, Linn., var.
crispiflorus, Baker). St. 1-2 ft., rather slender: lys.
2-3, sometimes ^m. broad: fls. 4-10, the tube J^in.
long and curved, the segms. obovate (1 in. long),
crisped or wavy on the edge, dark purple, more or less
marked with white and red: seeds winged. E. Eu. and
W. Asia. — Hardy or nearly so.

7. atroviolaceus, Boiss. Corm ovoid, %in. or less
diam. : st. 1-2 ft. high : Ivs. 3, closely ribbed, firm : fls. few,
the tube Jiin. long and curved, the obovate segms. 1 in.
long and dark purple or violet-blue : seeds globose, not
winged. W.Asia. G.C. 111.41:378. — Hardy or nearly so.

8. bifldrus, Klatt. Corm globose, small (^in. diam.) :
dwarf (1 ft. or less), the st. slender and terete and bear-
ing only 1 well-formed If., which is subterete and very
narrow and 5-6 in. long, the 2 upper Ivs. rudimentary:
fls. 2-3, lilac, the tube nearly straight, the oblong segms.
twice as long as the tube; stamens reaching half-way
the limb. S. Afr. — Connects with Geissorhiza.

DD. Color (under-color) white or nearly so.

9. vittatus, Hornem. (G. vinulus, Klatt. G. fasciatus,
Roem. & Schult. G. undulatus, Schneev.). Corm glo-
bose: plant low (about 1 ft.): Ivs. 3-4, very narrow: fls.
3-6 in a lax spike, nearly erect, the slightly curved tube
nearly or quite an inch long, the limb longer than the
tube, pink, the 3 lower segms. with a purple central
blotch; stamens reaching half-way the limb. S. Afr.
B.M. 538 (as G. undulatus, var.)

BB. Lvs. ensiform (y&n. or more broad, and flat or

flattish) .
c. Under- or body-color essentially purple.

10. communis, Linn. Corm about %in. diam.:
st. 1^-23/6 ft.: lys. 3-4, 1 ft. or less long: fls. 4-8, small
(\l/z in. long), with a curved tube; segms. bright purple
(flesh-colored in the var. carneus), nearly equal in
length, all connivent or touching (making a narrow
fl.), the 3 lower ones long-clawed and with a median
line: seeds broad-winged.. France, Germany. B.M. 86,
1575. — Hardy; little known in cult, in this country.
Variable; Nos. 11 and 12 are by some considered to be
forms of it.

11. byzantinus, Mill. Fls. more and larger, plant
more robust than in No. 10, segms. more spreading at
maturity, although the 3 upper ones are contiguous,
dark purple, the 3 lower ones with a prominent white
median line: seeds winged. Medit. region. B.M. 874. —
Hardy; little known in gardens.

12. segetum, Ker. Differs from G. byzantinus in
having globular (not winged) seeds, and in the flaring
or spreading segms. of the bright purple, obovate-
obtuse sepals. Canaries and Medit. region. B.M. 719.
— Hardy and early; little grown.

1344

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

13. Papflio, Hook, f. Corm of medium size, globose:
st. 2 ft. or more: Ivs. about 4, rigid, 1 ft. or more long
and 1 in. or less wide: fls. 6-12, pale purple or lilac,
yellow in the throat; perianth horizontal, the curved
tube Kin- l°ng an<i broadly funnel-shaped at the
top; 3 upper segms. obovate-spatulate, uppermost
not reflexing, M-%in. broad, 1^ in. long, the lower
ones very narrow below and marked with large red-
brown spade-shaped yellow-edged blotches. S. Afr.,
in the Transvaal, Orange Free State and Natal. B.M.
5565. — Handsome. Varies to white in cult.

cc. Under- or body-color essentially red (No. 22 may be
sought here).

14. Leichtlinii, Baker. Corm large and globose:
st. about 2 ft. tall, terete: Ivs. about 4, ensiform, 1 ft.
long: fls. 6-8, large, in a somewhat dense 1-sided spike,
bright red, with a curved tube 1 % in. long; upper segms.
obovate and connivent, equaling the tube, 3 lower ones
much smaller and acute, spreading, red at tip but yellow
and minutely red-dotted below; stamens shorter than
upper segms. Transvaal.

15. cardinalis, Curt. Corm large and globose: st.
3—4 ft.: Ivs. 4-6, glaucous-green, ensiform, nearly or
quite 1 in. broad and reaching 2 ft. or more in length:

1649. Gladiolus purpureo-auratus. ( X YS)

fls. many (sometimes 20), nearly erect, bright scarlet,
the tube 1H in. long and nearly straight; upper segms.
oblong-spatulate (2 in. long), scarlet, the 3' lower ones
shorter and narrower, with a large white blotch; sta-
mens more than half the length of the limb. S. Afr.
B.M. 135.

16. cruentus, Moore. Corm large, globose: st. 2-3
ft.: Ivs. about 4, ensiform, dark glaucous-green, 2 ft.
or less long, %-l in. broad: fls. 6-10 in a rather dense
distichous spike, bright scarlet; tube 2 in. or less long,
nearly straight; upper segms. obovate-spatulate, to
23^ in. long; 3 lower segms. 1J^ in. long, white-blotched
and red-spotted; stamens reaching half-way of limb.
Natal. B.M. 5810.— Closely related to No. 15.

17. Saftndersii, Hook. f. Corm large, flattened-glo-
bose: height 2-3 ft.: Ivs. 4-6, strongly ribbed and stiff,
1-2 ft. long and 1 in. or less broad: fls. 6-8, large,
bright scarlet, the tube 1-1^ in. long and curved; 3
upper segms. oblong-spatulate, uniform scarlet, con-
nivent (2 in. long), 3 lower smaller, white-blotched
and scarlet-spotted. S. Afr., coast region to Transvaal.
B.M. 5873. Gn. 12:64.— Handsome. Var. superbus,
Hort., is a form produced by the early infusion of G.
Saundersii into the garden strains.

18. Quartinianus, Rich. Corm to \]/^ in. diam., glo-
bose: strong, 2-4 ft.: Ivs. 3-4, rigid, sometimes nearly
ensiform, the lower ones 1^ ft. or less long, and %in.
or less broad : fls. 4-9, in an open spike, large, blood-red,
the narrow curved tube 1J^ in. long; upper segms.
hooded, the other smaller and more or less reflexed;
stamens nearly equaling upper segms. Nile Land to
Lower Guinea and Mozambique. B.M. 6739. G.C. III.
24:467, and Gn. 55:388 (var. superbus). Trop. Afr.—
One of the best of the genus. Named for M. Quartin
Dillon, who discovered it in Abyssinia.

ccc. Under- or body-color at least, yellow.

19. primulinus, Baker. Very like No. 18 (with which
Baker subsequently united it), but differs in the yellow
color: corm globose, 1 in. and more diam.: Ivs. about 3,
ensiform, 1^ ft. long and to 1 in. broad: fls. 3-5, in a
lax secund spike, clear primrose-yellow throughout;
tube 1 in. long, much curved above; 3 upper segms.
ovate or obovate, acuminate, hooded, 2 in. long and
more than 1 in. wide, the central one covering the
stamens and stigmas; 3 lower segms. deflexed and much
smaller; style exceeding the stamens. Trop. Afr.,
occurring in the rain-forests. B.M. 8080. G.C. III.
36:191; 42:291. R.H. 1908, p. 9.— A handsome species,
and although not discovered until 1887 and flowered
under cult, in 1890, it is now much used as a parent in
breeding. Several varieties are offered, as var. macu-
latus, Lemoine, with fls. large, chrome-yellow, the
inner surface of the reflexed segms. bearing a maroon-
red spot. Var. salmoneus, Lemoine, with fls. saffron
or salmon-color outside, the interior bright chrome-
yellow, with fine purple lines. Var. major, Lemoine,
large-fld., said to be a cross of G. primulinus and yel-
low G. Lemoinei: fls. chrome-sulfur-yellow with light
brown marks on the interior of the segms.: plant strong.
Var. erectus, Lemoine. Erect, with large scarcely
hooded chrome-yellow maroon-spotted fls. Var. con-
color, Lemoine. Fls. large, 2 of the segms. sulfur-yel-
low and the remainder naples-yellow.

20. sulph&reus, Baker. Corm 1 in. diam., globose:
stout, but low, the st. 1 ft.: Ivs. 3-4, the blade short
(2-3 in.) and somewhat ensiform: fls. 6-8, large, soft
bright yellow, the curved tube 1 }/% in. long, upper segms.
hooded, oblong or obovate, the 3 lower ones small;
stamens shorter than upper segms. E. Trop. Afr. —
The G. sulphureus, De Graaf (G. Adlami, Baker) is
another species and the name is older. B.M. 7791.

21. dracocephalus, Hook. f. Corm large, flattened-
globose: st. stout and simple, 2 ft. or less: Ivs. 3-4,
rather firm, 1-1 ^ ft. long and 1 in. or less broad: fls.

GLADIOLUS

GLADIOLUS

1345

3-6, of medium size, yellowish green, the tube (2 in. or
less long) curved; upper segms. elliptic-obovate, hooded,
yellowish and closely striate with purple, the other
segms. much smaller and reflexing, mostly green and
purple-spotted; stamens nearly equaling the segms.
Natal. B.M. 5884.— Odd.

22. psittacinus, Hook. (G. natalensis, Reinw. Wat-
sbnia natalensis, Eckl.). Corm very large, flattened-
globose: st. 3 ft. or more, stout: Ivs. about 4, rather
rigid, 1-2 ft.- long and 1-2 in. broad: fls. many and
large, with a curved tube nearly or quite 2 in. long,
in general effect rich yellow but thickly grained and
overlaid with red (particularly about the margins of
the segms.); upper segms. obo-

vate and hooded, dark crimson,
the lower much smaller and
reflexing, red and yellow mixed.
S. Afr., away from the coast.
B.M. 3032. B.R. 1442. L. B. C.
18:1756. — One of the leading
parents of garden gladioli.

23. purpftreo - auratus, Hook,
f. Fig. 1649. Corm large, glo-
bose: st. 3 ft., very slender: TVS.
3-4, short: fls. 10 or more, prim-
rose-yellow, medium in size, the
curved tube less than 1 in. long;
segms. obovate, not widely
spreading, the lower ones with
a red-brown blotch; stamens
reaching half-way up the limb.
Natal. B.M. 5944. G.F. 2:89
(reduced in Fig. 1649).— Hand-
some. A parent of modern
gladioli. Suggested by Baker
as perhaps a color-variety of G.
Papilio.

cccc. Under- or body-color white.
(Forms of No. 13 may be
sought here.)

24. blandus, Ait. Corm
medium size, globose: st. 2 ft. or
less tall, sometimes branched:

Ivs. usually 4, 1 ft. or less long and V^-^va.. wide: fls.
few, white and red-tinged, the curved tube 1J^ in. long;
segms. all oblong or oblong-spatulate and flaring or
recurved, some of them red-marked in the throat;
stamens more than half length of limb. S. Afr., coast
region; variable. B.M. 625. Sometimes pure white.
B.M. 648, G. dlbidus, Jacq.; pink or flesh-color, B.M.
645; G. cdrneus, Delar.; segms. white, with many pink
markings, B. M. 3680, G. Mortonius, Herb.; taller,
with longer Ivs. and perianth-tube, G. excelsus, Sweet;
pink fls. with red blotches on 3 lower segms., var.
Hibbertii, Hort. G. blandus is an old garden plant.

25. floribundus, Jacq. Corm globose : st. 2 ft. or less,
often branched: Ivs. usually 4, ensiform, 1-2 ft. long:
fls. 12 or less, ascending, in a lax 2-sided spike, large,
white tinged with pink, the slightly curved tube 2 in.
or less long; segms. obovate or spatulate, obtuse or
deltoid, wide-flaring, red-lined; stamens one-third or
one-half length of limb. S. Afr., coast region; perhaps
a form of G. blandus. B.M. 610.

26. oppositifldrus, Herb. Much like the last, but fls.
more numerous and smaller, white, sometimes marked
with rose, the segms. oblong and distinctly pointed.
S. Afr., in the eastern region. B.M. 7292. G.C. III.
13:291. Gn. 45:440. — A very handsome plant, grow-
ing 3-6 ft. high, and said to produce spikes 2 ft. long.

27. Milleri, Ker (Anlholyza spicala, Mill.). Corm
medium size, globose: st. 12-20 in., simple: Ivs. about 4,
ensiform, shorter than the st. : fls. rather large, 4-5,
nearly erect, milk-white, the tube 2 in. or less long and
straight; segms. oblong and nearly acute; stamens

86

1650. Gladiolus turicensis. ( X H)

one-third to one-half length of limb. S. Afr., coast
region. B.M. 632.

II. HYBRIDS AND VARIANTS OP GLADIOLUS IN
CULTIVATION.

The garden gladioli are derivatives of various kinds
and degrees. Of many, the parentage is so confused
that it cannot be made out. However, there were four
early main lines of development or divergence, repre-
sented in the late-flowering G. gandavensis, G. Lemoinei
and G. nanceianus, and the early-flowering G. Colvillei.
To these have been added other lines in recent years.

28. Colvillei, Sweet (G. tristis var. cdncolor x G.

cardinalis). Fls. open or flaring,
with oblong-acute segms. ; scarlet,
with long blotches at the base
of the lower segms : early-flower-
ing: spikes short. Hardy south
of Washington with some pro-
tection. R.H. 1895, p. 289. G.C.
III. 12:90. Gn. 28:566; 34:580;
50, p. 66. Gn.M. 4:189.— The
oldest of the garden forms. Runs
into many types and strains.
The modern white-fid, type, var.
dlbus, represented by The Bride,
is best known in this country.
Small forms are known as G.
nanus: Gn.W. 15:9; used for
early flowering. Some forms are
known as G. floribundus. G. deli-
catissimus, Blushing Bride, is a
form of the same group: segms.
white, with a large oval rose-
crimson yellow-centered blotch
on each of the 3 lower ones. Gn.
W. 15:9. J.H. 111.49:213.

Another form of early-flower-
ing gladioli is known as G.
ramosus, Paxt. (issue of G. cardi-
nalis and G. oppositiflorus), but
it is probably no longer pos-
sible to distinguish these two
groups.

29. gandavensis, Van Houtte (G. psittacinus x <?.
cardinalis). Fig. 1645. Upper segms. nearly or quite
horizontal or hooded, the colors in bright shades of
red and red-yellow, variously streaked and pencilled:
late-flowering: spikes long. The commonest old-time
type of garden gladiolus with the bloom much like
that of G. psittacinus in form and size, but with a
purer and better red. F.S. 2:84 (1846). R.H. 1846:141.
P.M. 11:27. Gn. 64, p. 252. H.F. 1:208; 2:132.
Gt. 59, p. 499 (var. Europa, with pure white fls.) —
First offered to the trade by Van Houtte, Aug. 31, 1841.
M. Souchet, of Fontainebleau, France, did much to
improve the gandavensis type by repeated selections
and breeding. By Herbert and some others, gandaven-
sis is considered to be an offspring of G. psittacinus x
G. oppositiflorus. Var. citrlnus, Hort., is like G. psit-
tacinus, but the color is bright yellow. F.S. 5:539.
C. brenchleyensis is one of the gandavensis tribes;
light red. G. Holldndia is a pink form of this.

30. Lemoinei, Hort. (G. gandavensis x G. purpureo-
aurdtus). Fig. 1646. A modern race characterized by
highly colored yellow, red and purplish fls., purple-
blotched on the lower segms. with a more or less bell-
shaped form of corolla — the segms. broad and heavy and
the upper ones horizontal or strongly hooded. Grown
by M. Lemoine, Nancy, France, and first shown at the
Paris Exhibition of 1878. Gn. 17:306; 30:76. R.H.
1879 : 330. — Fls. said not to open up so well when cut
as do those of G. gandavensis, the st. being hard.

31. nanceianus, Hort. (G. Lemoinei x G. Saundersii).
Fig. 1646. Robust, with very large, open-spreading fls.,

1346

GLADIOLUS

GLEDITSIA

the 2 side segms. widely flaring and sometimes meas-
uring 6-8 in. from tip to tip; upper segm. long and
upright. First exhibited by Lemoine, the raiser, in
1889. The finest race, characteristically is full-open and
large fls., in brilliant shades of red and purple. Gn.
41:190. G.C. III. 13:131. Gn. W. 7:797.

32. Childsii (G. gandavensis x G. Saundersii). Fls.
wide open and large, with very broad petals: st. large
and soft, taking up water well when fls. are cut. Origi-
nated by Max Leichtlin, Germany.

33. Froebelii, Hort., is G. purpiireo-auratus x G.
gandavensis; G. Engesseri, Hort., is of similar paren-
tage; also G. Brineri, Hort.

34. turicensis, Hort. (Fig. 1650), is the offspring of
a large-fld. G. gandavensis and G. Saundersii var.
superbus. It is a fine purplish crimson, the lower segms.
being beautifully marked with white: fls. 3 in. across.
G.F. 3:89 (reduced in Fig. 1650).— This and the last
3 are the work of Froebel & Co., Zurich.

35. princeps, Hort. (G. hybridus princeps). Produced
by W. W. Van Fleet, from seed of G. cruentus x G.
Childsii; like the seed-parent in its scarlet-crimson
coloring, with white and cream feather markings on the
lower segms. : very large, the flat circular bloom expand-
ing to 6 in. diam. : plant very large. G. 24 : 663 ; 34 : 533.
Gn. 60, p. 197. G.M. 44:629.

36. prsecox, Hort. Very early-flowering types,
results of crossing of horticultural groups (p. 1340) .

37. Kunderdii, Hort. A strain or group of the ruf-
fled or fluted kinds. See p. 1340.

Many species of Gladiolus are likely to be discussed in horticul-
tural literature. The following have recently been prominently
mentioned: G. carmineus, C. H. Wright. Resembles R. ramosus,
Paxt., but differs in its laxer habit, longer spathe and yellow anthers:
slender, 1J^ ft.: Ivs. linear, acuminate, 8 in. long and Jjjin. broad:
fls. carmine, about 3 in. across; tube narrow-funnel-shaped, white
outside; segms. ovate, acuminate, 2 of the inner bearing a dark
spot with a pale center; stamens rather more than half length of
perianth. 8. Afr. B.M. 8068. — G. glaiicus, Heldr. Dwarf, not
exceeding 12 in.: st. and Ivs. erect and stiff: fls. many, bluish red
with red and white stripes at base. Greece. — G. MacTdnderi, Hook,
f. St. slender, 2 ft.: Ivs. narrowly linear, the lower about 1 ft. long:
fls. 5-6, the tube yellow, broad segms. scarlet and 1 l/i in. across.
E. Trop. Afr. B.M. 7860. Named for Professor Mackinder,
Oxford, who collected seeds at 10,000 ft. on Mt. Kenia in 1900.
One of the Homoglossum section. L H R

1651. Glaucium flavum.

GLASSHOUSE. Any glass structure in which plants
are grown, particularly one that is large enough to
admit the operator. It is a generic term. See Green-
house.

GLAUCIUM (name refers to glaucous foliage).
Papaveracese. HORNED POPPY. Annual, biennial or
occasionally perennial herbs, a few of which are grown
for their large poppy-like flowers and glaucous-blue
foliage.

Sepals 2; petals 4; stamens many; ovary with 2
(rarely 3) cells, the stigmas miter-shaped, the fr. becom-

ing a long silique-like caps.: Ivs. alternate, lobed or
dissected. — A dozen or more species of S. Eu. and W.
Asia.

Glauciums are low, branchy herbs, often some-
what succulent, with large flowers, mostly yellow or
orange, but varying to red and purple. The flowers are
usually short-lived, but they are borne in rapid suc-
cession. They are well adapted for foliage effects in
borders or edgings. Of easy culture in any good soil.
They prefer an open, sunny situation. Mostly propa-
gated by seed, but the perennial kinds by division;
however, the perennials are short-lived, and usually
had best be treated as biennials; they should be grown
from seed. Hybrids are announced by Burbank.

flavum, Crantz (G. luteum. Scop.). HORN POPPY,
or SEA POPPY. Fig. 1651. Sts. stout, 1-2 ft., pubes-
cent: radical Ivs. 2-pinnate and hairy, the upper clasp-
ing and sinuate-pinnatifid and cordate at the base: fls.
generally solitary, on long sts. 2-3 in. across, vellow
or orange. Eu. C.L.A. 1:139. Gn. M. 9:86.— Spa-
ringly naturalized E. Perennial or biennial; sometimes
grown as an annual. Var. tricolor, Hort. (G. tricolor,
Vilm.) has been advertised. It has parti-colored fls.
and is showy. G.C. III. 36:115. G.M. 48:697. Gn.
66, p. 59.

corniculatum, Curt. (G. phceniceum, Gaert. G.
rubrum, Hort.). Lower: radical Ivs. pinnatifid, pubes-
cent, the upper ones sessile and truncate at the base:
fls. red or purplish, with a black spot at the base of each
petal. Eu. — Mostly annual. G. Fischeri, Hort., is
probably a form of this.

leiocarpum, Boiss. A velvety perennial with oblong,
sinuate-dentate, or much-divided Ivs. which in the upper
part of the plant are sinuate-lobed : fls. yellow, the calyx
somewhat papillose. Medit. region. — Scarcely a showy
member of the genus. L jj jj

N. TAYLOR. t

GLAUX (Greek, sea-green). Primulacese. One small
little pale herb, seldom seen in gardens, G. maritima,
Linn. St. 9 in. or less high, erect or spreading, peren-
nial by slender creeping rootstocks, growing in salt
marshes and seacoasts from New Jersey and Calif,
northward, and also in Eu. and Asia: Ivs. oval to. oblong-
linear, entire and sessile, Hin- or less long: fls. purplish
or white, the corolla wanting; calyx with 5 petal-like
lobes; stamens and style exhibiting dimorphism: fr. a
5-valved few-seeded caps. L_ jj_ jj.

GLAZldVA: Cocos insignia.
GLECH6MA: Nepeta.

GLEDITSIA (after Gottlieb Gleditsch, director of
the botanic garden at Berlin; died 1780). Syn. Gle-
ditschia. Leguminbsae. HONEY LOCUST. Ornamental
trees grown chiefly for their handsome finely divided
foliage; also the large conspicuous pods and the branched
spines are attractive.

Deciduous, usually with large branched spines on
trunk and branches: Ivs. without stipules, alternate,
abruptly pinnate, often partly bipinnate on the same
If. or wholly bipinnate, both usually on the same tree:
fls. polygamous in racemes or rarely panicles; calyx-
lobes and petals 3-5, petals nearly equal, not much
longer than calyx, stamens 6-10; style short, with
large terminal stigma: pod compressed, mostly large
and indehiscent, 1- to many-seeded. — About 12 species
in N. Amer., E. and Cent. Asia, in Trop. Afr. and in
S. Amer.

The honey locusts are large trees with spreading
branches forming a broad graceful rather loose head,
with finely pinnate foliage, generally light green and
turning clear yellow in fall; the greenish flowers appear-
ing in racemes early in summer are inconspicuous, but
the large, flat pods are ornamental and the fertile tree
is therefore to be preferred for planting. G. triacanthos

GLEDITSIA

GLEDITSIA

1347

1652. Gleditsia triacanthos.
(X>fl

is a useful native and is hardy North; G. japonica is
almost hardy North, while G. Delavayi and G. sinensis
are tender. They are very valuable trees for park
planting and for avenues, and make almost impene-
trable hedges if planted
thickly and pruned se-
verely. The coarse-grained
wood is durable and
strong. The pulp of the
pods of G. triacanthos is
sweet when fresh, hence
the name honey locust,
but becomes bitter at
length; that of G. japonica
is used in Japan and that
of G. sinensis and G.
macracantha in China as a
substitute for soap. The
gleditsias are of vigorous
growth and thrive in
almost any soil; they
stand drought well. Prop-
agation is by seeds sown
in spring about 1 inch
deep; they should be
soaked in hot water be-
fore being sown; varie-
ties and rare kinds are
sometimes grafted on
seedlings of G. triacanthos
in spring.

A. Spines more or less compressed, at least at the base:
walls of pod papery or leathery: Ivs. pinnate with
more than 12 Ifts., or bipinnate.

B. Pod 1-2-seeded, oval, not pulpy.
aquatica, Marsh. (G. inermis, Mill., not Linn. G.
monosperma, Walt.). WATER or SWAMP LOCUST. Tree,
to 60 ft., with short trunk, spiny: Ivs. 12-18-foliolate or
doubly pinnate with 6-8 pinnae; Ifts. ovate-oblong,
usually rounded or sometimes emarginate at the apex,
slightly crenate and often entire below the middle,
glabrous except a few hairs on the petiolules, about 1
in. long: fls. in racemes; ovary glabrous: pods long-
stalked, 1-2 in. long. May, June. S. C. and Ky. to
Fla. and Texas. S.S. 3:127, 128.

BB. Pod many-seeded, elongated and usually more or

less twisted, pulpy.

c. Lfts. usually acute or acutish, often more than 20, not
over 1% in. long: ovary pubescent.

triacanthos, Linn. HONEY or SWEET LOCUST. THREE-
THORNED ACACIA. Fig. 1652. Tree, 70-140 ft., usually
with stout simple or branched spines 3-4 in. long: Ivs.
Q-S in. long, with pubescent grooved rachis; pinnate
with 20-30 Ifts., bipinnate with 8-14 pinnae; Ifts. oblong-
lanceolate, remotely crenulate-serrate, %-lM m- long:
fls. very short-pedicelled in 1^2-3 in. long, narrow
racemes; ovary pubescent: pod 12-18 in. long, slightly
falcate and twisted at length. May, June. From Pa.
south to Miss., west to Neb. and Texas. S.S. 3:125,
126. Gn. 32, p. 304. Var. inermis, Pursh. Unarmed
or nearly so, of somewhat more slender and looser
habit; var. inermis elegantissima, Grosdemange, is
an unarmed form of dense bushy habit and with smaller
Ifts. R.H. 1905, p. 513. Var. Bujdtii, Rehd. (G.
Bujotii, Neum. G. Bujotii pendula, Hort.). With slen-
der, pendulous branches and narrower Ifts.

CC. Lfts. obtuse or emarginate, usually less than 20: ovary

glabrous or only pubescent on the margin.
japonica, Miq. (G. hdrrida, Makino). Fig. 1653.
Tree, 60-70 ft., with somewhat compressed, often
branched spines, 2-4 in. long: Ivs. 10-12 in. long, with
grooved and slightly winged, puberulous rachis, pin-
nate with 16-20 Ifts., bipinnate with 8-12 pinna?; Ifts.

ovate to oblong, nearly lanceolate, obtuse, entire or
remotely crenulate, lustrous above, %-2 in. long: fls.
short-pedicelled, in slender racemes: pod 10-12 in.
long, twisted, bullate, with the seeds near the middle;
pulp acid. Japan, China. G.F. 6:165 (adapted in Fig.
1653). Var. purpftrea, Rehd. (G. sinensis var. pur-
purea, Loud. G. coccinea, Hort. G. sinensis var. ori-
entdlis, Hort.). Lfts. broadly oval to oblong-oval,
obtuse or emarginate, J£-l^ in. on the pinnate, smaller
on the bipinnate Ivs.

Delavayi, Franch. Tall tree: spines compressed at
the base, to 10 in. long: Ivs. 12-18-foliolate, only on
young plants partly bipinnate; Ifts. obliquely ovate or
ovate-oblong, obtuse or emarginate, slightly crenate
or nearly entire, dark green and lustrous above, gla-
brous, to 2% in. long, the lower much smaller, also
much smaller on young plants: fls. in slender racemes;
ovary glabrous : pod with leathery walls, to 15 or some-
times to 20 in. long and to 2 ^ in. broad, twisted. S. W.
China. — Very handsome; recently intro.

AA. Spines terete: walls of pod thick, woody; pod straight
or falcate, not twisted: Ivs. 8-16-foliolate, very
rarely bipinnate.

sinensis, Lam. (G. hdrrida, Willd.). Tree, to 40 ft.,
with stout conical often branched spines: Ivs. 5-7 in.
long, with grooved pubescent rachis, and 8-18 Ifts.;
Ifts. ovate or oblong-ovate, obtuse or acute, crenulate-
serrate, yellowish green, dull above, reticulate beneath,
%-2 in. long: fls. distinctly pedicelled, in slender
racemes; ovary glabrous: pod almost straight, thick,
4-7 in. long, 1-1 ^ in. broad. China. Var. nana, Loud.
Shrubby and less spiny, with smaller and narrower Ifts.

G. amorpholdes, Taub. (Garugandra amorphoides, Griseb. )•
Tree, to 50 ft., very spiny: Ifts. obliquely ovate to linear-oblong,
J£-l in. long: fls. in racemes: pod oblong, falcate, 3^-4 in. long, 1 in.
broad, J^in. thick. Argentina, Bolivia. Cult, in Calif. — G. australis,
Hemsl. Tree with large spines: Ifts. very oblique, oblong, crenate,
leathery, shining: pod with coriaceous walls, 4-5 in. long. S. China.
— G. cdspica, Deaf. (G. horrida var. caspica, Schneid.). Allied to
G. japonica. Lvs. pinnate with 12-20 ovate, crenulate Ifts., or bipin-

1653. Gleditsia japonica. ( X Ya)

1348

GLEDITSIA

GLOBULARIA

nate with &-8 pinnse: pod thin, pulpy, to 12 m. long. — G. ferox,
Desf. Allied to G. einensis. Spines very stout: Ivs. 16-30-foliolate;
Ifts. oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceolate, crenate, J^-l Vi in. long: pod
to 10 in. long. China. Most plants cult, under this name seem to
belong to G. japonica.— <7. Fontanksii, Spach=G. macracantha. — G.
heteroph$lla, Bunge. Allied to G. aquatica: Ifts. obliquely obovate,
pubescent below, Yy-y^va. long: pod oval, 2-3-seeded, slender-
stalked, about 1 in. long. N. China. Probably quite hardy. — G.
macracdntha, Desf. Allied to G. sinensia. Spines and Ifts. generally
larger: infl. paniculate; ovary pubescent: pod 4-6 in. long, %in.
broad, often almost cylindrical. China. — G. officinMis, Hemsl.
Allied to G. sinensis. Spiny tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 12-20, obliquely
elliptic to elliptic-oblong, acutish, to 3% in. long: pod oblong,
thick, falcate, 3—4 in. long and little over Hin. broad. Cent.
China. — G. texana, Sarg. Allied to G. triacanthos. Lvs. 12-22-
foliolate, often bipinnate: pod narrow-oblong, straight, 4-5 in.
long. Texas. S.S. 13:627. Possibly hybrid of G. aquatica and G.
triacanthos. ALFRED REHDER.

GLEICHENIA (W. F. Von Gleichen, 1717-1783).
Gleicheni&ceae. Ferns mainly from the tropical and south
temperate zones, growing naturally in dense thickets;
one species has recently been found in Louisiana, D.
flexuosa. (Amer. Fern Jour. 4:15).

The family is characterized by dorsal sori composed
of a few nearly sessile sporangia; each sporangium is
surrounded by a broad transverse ring, and opens
vertically. The most striking thing about the family
is the growth of the Ivs. The Ivs. of many of the species
are perennial and show an indeterminate growth. Dur-
ing the growing season, the end of the If. will keep
unrolling after the usual manner of ferns. During the
resting season this tip rests, but resumes its growth the
next season. The Ivs. of some species may thus become
over 100 ft. in length. The species after the third (AA)
are often catalogued under Mertensia, a name which,
because used for a genus of flowers, must give way to
Dicranopteris if they are separated and placed in a dis-
tinct genus, where they probably belong.

A. Ultimate lobes small, roundish.
B. Sorus of 3-4 sporangia, superficial.

rupestris, R. Br. Lobes rounded or obtusely quad-
rangular, the margins thickened and recurved, some-
what glaucous beneath. Austral. Var. glaucescens,
Moore, has Ivs. of thicker texture, which, when young,
are very glaucous on both sides, contrasting with the
reddish purple stalks.

circinata, Swartz. Lobes ovate or rotund, with the
rachides pubescent when young; 3-5 times forking, the
ultimate pinnules 1 in. long. Austral., New Zeal.

Var. speluncas, Hort. (G. speluncse, R. Br.). Lvs. pen-
dent but not curving; pinnules curved inward, form-
ing small cavities. Var. semivestita, Labill. (G. semi-
vestita, Hort.), differs in its close and very erect habit,
and flat, deep green pinnae. Var. Mendellii, Moore (G.
Mendellii, Hort.). More robust and compact than the
type, with flat, thicker and glaucous Ivs. Gn. 51, p. 472.

BB. Sorus of 2 sporangia concealed in slipper-shaped
lobes.

dicarpa, R. Br. Lvs. 2-4 times forked, with the
lobes strongly arched, rotund or narrow, with the
under surface rusty-hairy. Austral.

AA. Ultimate lobes pectinate: sori near the middle of
the veinlets.

B. Lf. after first forking, bipinnate.

glauca, Hook. Primary branches elongate, 2-3 ft.
long: rachises with rusty scales; pinnae 4-8 in. long,
with closely placed entire segms., glaucous beneath.
China and Japan.

BB. Lf. with fan-shaped divisions.

flabellata, R. Br. Lvs. 2-3 times forked, the divisions
ascending, 6 in. or more long, elliptic-lanceolate; ulti-
mate divisions linear. Austral.

longipinnata, Hook. Branches of the Ivs. repeatedly
dichotomous; pinnae up to 2 ft. long, 3 in. wide. Trop.
Amer.

AAA. Ultimate branches with a pair of forked pinnae:
If.-sts. zigzag, repeatedly dichotomous.

dichotoma, Willd. With a distinct pair of pinnae aris-
ing from the base of the forked branches; segms. not
decurrent. Tropical regions generally, but several
species have been confused here, as in many of the
widely distributed species. L. M< UNDERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT.!

GLIRICIDIA (rodent-poison, from the seeds) . Legumi-
ndsae. Eight or 10 woody plants, Cuba and Mex., to
S. Amer., differing from Robinia in the wingless or
marginless pods and coriaceous valves. Lvs. odd-pin-
nate, the Ifts. entire: fls. rose-colored, racemose or
fasciculate; calyx-teeth short and broad, the 2 upper
ones joined; standard large, reflexed; wings falcate-
oblong; keel incurved, obtuse; ovary stipitate, many-
ovuled, becoming a broad-linear 2-valved pod.
G. platycdrpa, Griseb., of Cuba, is offered in S. Fla.:
tree, to 25 ft. : Ifts. 7-9, ovate or ovate-oblong, glabrous,
the margins undulate: corolla pink or purplish; stigma
ciliate : pod sessile, piano-compressed, lanceolate-oblong,
8-seeded. G. maculata. HBK. (Lonchocdrpus maculd-
tus, DC.), Guatemala to S. Amer., is reported as in
cult, in S. Fla.: small tree: Ifts. about 17, oblong, obtuse,
somewhat appressed-pilose above and blackish-spotted
and glaucescent beneath: pod linear, compressed, with
thickened margin. L H B

GLOBE A (Malayan name). Zingiberaceas. Herba-
ceous conservatory plants with rhizomes and habit of
canna, and a singular floral structure.

Flowers in terminal panicles; bracts usually decidu-
ous; calyx funnel-shaped, 3-lobed; corolla-tube longer
than the calyx, the lobes nearly equal, ovate; stami-
noid petal-like and fastened to the corolla-lobes; ovary
1-celled, forming a globose, tardily dehiscing caps. —
Only one species is known to be cult, in Amer. This is
known as G. coccinea, which is really G. atrosanguinea,
figured at B.M. 6626. "Index Kewensis" is clearly in
error in referring G. coccinea to G. albo-bracteata, as is
plain from G.C. II. 18:71. Veitch intro. in 1881 a
plant under the provisional name of G. coccinea, as it
was supposed to be a new species, but the next year, it
was identified with G. atrosanguinea. This plant was
highly praised in 1893: "Plants in bloom the greater
part of the year: sts. much crowded, 12-18 in. long,
gracefully arching on all sides: fls. scarlet and yellow,
in dense racemes." The credit for the discovery of this
plant is generally given to F. W. Burbidge, but in G.C.
II. 18:407, Burbidge gives the honor to Curtis. For
cult., see Alpinia.

atrosanguinea, Teijsm. & Binn. (G. coccinea, Hort.,
Veitch). St. slender, becoming 2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 3-4
in. long, elliptic, acuminate at both ends; sheaths
purplish, pubescent, closely clasping the St.; lower
flowerless bracts distant, brown, 6-9 lines long, upper
and flowering bracts crowded, red: fls. 1J^ in. long;
corolla yellow, tubular, thrice as long as calyx. Borneo.
B.M. 6626. G.Z. 27, p. 121.— Little known in Amer.
outside of botanic gardens. j^ TAYLOR.!

GLOBE AMARANTH: Gomphrena.
GLOBE FLOWER: Trollius.
GLOBE HYACINTH: Muscari.
GLOBE THISTLE: Echinops.
GLOBE TULIP: Calochortus.

GLOBULARIA (the flowers in small, globular heads).
Globularidcese. Herbs, subshrubs and shrubs, with
small blue flowers mostly in spherical heads.

Leaves from the root or alternate, leathery, entire
or with a few sharp teeth: fls. small, blue, in dense
heads; calyx 5-lobed, sometimes obscurely 2-lipped;
corolla-tube usually short, broad at the throat, the

GLOBULARIA

GLORIOSA

1349

lobes oblique or unequal; stamens 4, didynamous,
attached at the throat: fr. small, included in the calyx.
— About a dozen species from the Old World. Probably
the commonest and best species is G. tricosantha, which
thrives at the front of well-drained borders, but is
particularly showy in the rockery. For this and G.
vulgaris and its forms, rather moist but well-drained
soil and partial shade are advised. Prop, by division
or seed.

A. Hardy herbaceous plants about 6-12 in. high.

B. Root-lvs. 1 -nerved.

trichosantha, Fisch. & Mey. Height 6 in.: root-lvs.
spatulate, 3-toothed at apex; st.-lvs. obovate or oblong,
mucronate, sessile. July, Aug. Asia Minor. Syria.

BB. Root-lvs. 5-nerved.

vulgaris, Linn. (G. nudicaulis, Hort.). Height 8-12
in.: root-lvs. obovate, petiolate, nearly entire, apex
entire, notched or mucronate; st.-lvs. lanceolate, sessile.
S. Eu., Caucasus. July, Aug. B.M. 2256.

1654. Gloriosa superba. ( X J 2)

AA. Prostrate, woody herb, forming mats.
cordifolia, Linn. A low prostrate perennial with
creeping, almost woody sts., and wedge-shaped, notched
Ivs., which form rosettes at the base of the solitary
pedicel: fls. in a close head, not showy. S. Eu. — Useful
for the rockery.

G. Alypum, Linn. Lvs. obovate-oblong, mucronate or 3-toothed
at apex. Medit. regions. — Cult, years ago in S. Calif, by Franceschi,
who says it is covered with fls. all winter; but not now in cult. Also
cult, abroad under glass.— G. bettidifdlia, Salisb. = G. spinosa. —
G. gpindsa, Linn. One ft. and more: radical Ivs. obovate, attenuate
into petiole. 3-7 -toothed at apex; st.-lvs. lanceolate and sessile:
head larger than in G. vulgaris; calyx 2-lipped, the tube ciliate and
throat barbed; upper lip of corolla 2-parted, lower 3-parted. Spain.

N. TAYLOR, f

GLOCfflDION (from Greek for point, the anthers
being long-pointed). Euphorbidcese. Tropical trees or
shrubs, rarely cult. Lvs. alternate, simple: fls. in axil-
lary clusters or singly; staminate calyx imbricate, of
3-8 sepals; pistillate fls. without disk, stigmas short
and thick, ovules 2 to each cell: fr. a caps. — About 135
species of Trop. Asia and Pacific islands, related to
Phyllanthus. j. 3. S. NORTON.

GLONERIA: Psychotria.

GLORIOSA (Latin for glorious). Syn., Methonica.
Liliaceae. Tall, weak-stemmed plants, supporting them-
selves by means of tendril-like prolongations of the
leaves. Odd and handsome plants, to be grown in
a warmhouse.

Leaves oblong, lanceolate or lance-ovate: fls.
many and showy, long-stalked, borne singly in the axils
of the upper Ivs.; perianth of 6 distinct long segms.
which are undulate or crisped, and reflexed after the
manner of a cyclamen, variously colored; stamens 6,
long and spreading, with versatile anthers; ovary 3-
loculed; style long, and bent upward near the base. — -
Five or perhaps more tropical species, all African, and
1 also Asian.

Gloriosas are not difficult to grow. The brightest
flowers are produced in sunlight. The plants grow from
tubers. These tubers should be rested in early winter,
and started in pots in January to March. The plants
bloom in summer and fall. When potting the old tubers,
offsets may be removed (when they occur) and grown
separately for the production of new plants. The tubers
may be cut in two for purposes of propagation. Let the
plants stand near a pillar or other support. Give freely
of water when the plants are growing. In this country
they are sometimes bedded out in summer. Gloriosas
are sometimes grown outdoors in summer in Massa-
chusetts, and the plants so treated are not much
inclined to climb and flower so freely as under glass.
In Florida, they may be grown permanently in the open.
Success with gloriosa depends on having strong
bulbs. Consult Bulbs.

A. Perionth-segms. about 2% in- long.

Carsonii, Baker. St. erect and climbing, the
Ivs. st. -clasping, about 4-5 in. long, bearing long
tendril-like processes: fls. very numerous, in a loose
cyme; perianth-segms. not more than 2J^ in. long,
usually less than that, recurved and crisped, the
margins yellow; style erect; stigmas 3. — F.S.R.
2, p. 355. A showy plant from Cent. Afr. Intro,
in 1904.

AA. Perianth-segms. longer than 3 in.
B. Segms. (or petals) much crisped.

superba, Linn. CLIMBING LILY. Fig. 1654. St.
5-10 ft. high: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate: segms. 2-3 in. long
and less than an inch wide, opening yellow, but chang-
ing to yellow-red and deep scarlet. Afr., Asia. B.R.
77. Gn. 38:576. B.H. 23:121. G.L. 18:277.— A
yellow-fld. form of unknown origin has been described
as G. lutea, Hort; it is scarcely known outside of
Kew. Var. grandiflSra, Hort., is advertised as "color
a yellow-red, changing to deep scarlet;" it is unknown
in the wild state.

BB. Segms. somewhat undulate, but not crisped.

simplex, Linn. (G. virescens, Lindl. G. Pldntii,
Loud.). Fls. opening yellow, and remaining so in shade,
but becoming deep yellow-red when exposed to the
sun; wider than in G. superba, barely undulate and
wavy, and not prolonged or hooked at the end as in
the latter species. Afr. B.M. 2539. G. 26:556. Var.
grandiflora, Nichols. (Methdnica grandiflora, Hook.),
has fls. 8 in. across. B.M. 5216. G. 27:477.

Rothschildiana, O'Brien. St. climbing, simple at
first, afterward branched: Ivs. bright green, glabrous,
oblong-acuminate, alternate or opposite: fls. solitary
in the axils, or peduncles 3-4 in. long, abruptly curved
near the ovary; perianth-segms. oblong-lanceolate,
recurved, over 33^ in. long, crimson, with a dark
purple mark near the base. Trop. Afr. — One of the
best species. G.C. III. 33:323. G.M. 47:377. Gn. 65,
p. 451. G.W. 9, p. 112; 13, p. 535. R.B. 34:339.
F.S.R. 2:248. Var. citrina, Hort., has fls. citron-yellow
and claret-purple. It is a splendid showy addition.
G.C. III. 38:211.

1350

GLORIOSA

GLOXINIA

G. abyssinica, Rich., said to be the largest-fld. species, seems not
to be in cult.— -G. Leopoldii, Hort., a beautiful form with yellow
and purple fls., is probably some form of G. simplex grandiflora.
G.C. III. 36:188. R.H. 1903:548. N. TAYLOR. t

GLORY-OF-THE-SNOW: Chionodoxa.

GLORY PEA: Clianthus.

GLOSSOCOMIA CLEMATfDEA: Codonopsis dematidea.

GLOXINERA (Gloxinia and Gesneria). Gesneriacese.
A bigeneric hybrid between Gesneria pyramidalis (seed-
parent) and Gloxinia Radiance, by Veitch and first
exhibited at the Royal Horticultural Society, London,
May 8, 1894. It has the habit of a garden gloxinia,
with inclined fls. of fair size, brilliant scarlet tinged
with magenta in the shadows. The foliage is recorded
as more nearly that of a gloxinia than a gesneria in
appearance, being very succulent and covered with fine
hairs. G.C. III. 17:145.

GLOXINIA (named for P. B. Gloxin, of Strassburg,
who wrote in 1785). Gesneridcese. The genus Gloxinia
was founded by L'Heritier in 1785 upon G. maculata
of Brazil. Early in last century a related Brazilian
plant was introduced, and it attracted much attention:
this plant was named Gloxinia speciosa by Loddiges in
his Botanical Cabinet in 1817, and it was there figured.
In the same year it was figured by Ker in the Botanical
Register, and also by Sims in the BotanicaF Magazine.
Sims wrote that the plant was "already to be found in
most of the large collections about town [London]."
These writers refer the plant to the Linnaean class
Didynamia, but Ker also suggests that it may belong
to the Campanulacese. This Gloxinia speciosa was the
forerunner and leading parent of the garden gloxinias,
but it turns out that the plant really belongs to Nees'
genus Sinningia, founded in 1825 on a Brazilian plant
which he named S. Helleri; but the rules of nomen-
clature make the tenable name to be Sinningia speci-
6sa, Benth. & Hook. (See Sinningia.) All the gar-
den gloxinias are
therefore sinning-
ias, but to gar-
deners they will
ever be known
as gloxinias; there-
fore, the evolution
of them may be
traced here.

stigma. The garden gloxinias belong to the subgenus
Ligeria (subgenus of Sinningia), which has a short st. or
trunk, and a broad-limbed bell-shape fl. Gloxinia has
perhaps a half-dozen species from Mex. to Brazil and
Peru; Sinningia has about 20 species, in Brazil.

Gloxinia has no
tubers: Sinningia has
a tuberous rhizome.
Gloxinia has a ring-like
or annual disk about
the ovary: Sinningia
has 5 distinct glands.
The sinningias are

either stemless or st.-bearing, with a trumpet-shape or
bell-shape 5-lobed and more or less 2-lipped corolla, a
5-angled or 5-winged calyx, 4 stamens attached to the
base of the corolla, and with anthers cohering at the
tips in pairs, and a single style with a concave or 2-lobed

1656. A good gloxinia plant.

The true gloxinias are not florists' flowers, and they
are little known in cultivation. They are apparently not
in the American trade. The old G. maculata is figured in
the Garden 39:801 (p. 364), and it is probably to be
found in choice collections in the Old World. It pro-
duces knotty rootstocks, which, as well as the leaves,
may be used for propagation. It is also figured in B.M.
1191. G. glabrata, Zucc., from Mexico, is the G. glabra,
Hort., Achimenes gloxiniaeflora, Forkel, and Plectopoma
gloxiniflorum, Hanst. It is a stemmy plant, bearing
white flowers with yellow-spotted throat; B.M. 4430,
as G. fimbriata, Hook. Plectopoma is now referred to
Achimenes, and the plant then takes the name Achi-
menes glabrata, Fritsch. It appears not to be in the
trade. Other related genera are Diastema, Dicyrta
and Isoloma.

The garden gloxinias (genus Sinningia) are nearly
stemless plants, producing several or many very showy
bell-like flowers, each on a long stem. G. (Sinningia)
speciosa originally had drooping flowers, but the result of
continued breeding has produced a race with flowers
nearly or quite erect (Figs. 1655, 1656). The deep bell
of the gloxinia is very rich and beautiful, and the erect
position is a decided gain. The flowers also have been
increased in size and number, and varied in shape and
markings; the leaves also have become marked with gray
or white. The color of the original Gloxinia (Sinningia)
speciosa was a nearly uniform purple. The modern
races have colors in white, red, purple and all inter-
mediate shades, some are blotched, and others are fine-
spotted or sprinkled with darker shades. It is probable
that the larger part of the evolution in the common
greenhouse gloxinia is a direct development from the
old G. speciosa, but hybridity may have played a
part. One of the earliest recorded series of hybrids
(1844) was with Sinningia guttata, which is a plant
with an upright stem and bearing rather small spotted
flowers in the axils of the leaves. (B. R. 1112.)
The issue of this cross showed little effect of the S.
guttata, except a distinct branching habit in some of
the plants (B.R. 30:48). It is possible, however, that
S. guttata has had something to do with the evolution
of the spots on the present-day flower, although the
original G. speciosa was striped and blotched in the
throat. The student who wishes to trace some of the

GLOXINIA

GLYCERIA

1351

older forms of garden gloxinias may look up the fol-
lowing portraits: B.M. 1937, speciosa itself; B.M.
3206, var. albiflora; B.M. 3934, var. macrophylla varie-
gata; B.M. 3943, var. Menziesii; F.S. 3:220, Teichleri
(hybrid); F.S. 3:268; F.S. 4:311, Fyfiana (hybrid);
F.S. 6:610; F.S. 10: 1002; F.S. 14:1434-6; F.S. 16:1699
and 1705; F.S. 17:1768, 1772-6; F.S. 18:1846, 1878,
1885, 1918, 1919; F.S. 19:1955, double forms; F.S.
21:2164; F.S. 22:2324. I.E. 42:39, 41. Gt. 47, p. 79;
Gt. 48, p. 80. Gn. 15:162; 43:392; 52, p. 268. R.H.
1846:301, teuchlerii; R.H. 1848:201, Fyfiana; 1877:70,
variabilis; R.H. 1883, p. 248. For florists' plants, see
A.F. 11:7; A.G. 14:49; Gng. 6:83. There are many
Latin-made names of garden gloxinias, but the plants
are only forms of the G. speciosa type. One of the
trade entries is G. crassifolia, a name applied to some
of the best and largest-growing strains.

There are double forms of gloxinia, in which an
outer but shorter corolla is formed. The forms are
more curious than useful. L. jj. 3.

Cultivation of gloxinia.

Few flowers can surpass the large tubular blooms of
gloxinia for richness and variety of coloring. The
colors range through all the shades of blues and purples,
pinks and crimsons, while some are pure white, and
others again white with tinted edges; still others have
the colors dotted on the lighter ground - color. The
foliage also of gloxinias is very beautiful, being of a
rich soft velvety texture. Gloxinias make a gorgeous
display, therefore, when in flower and are especially
valuable for the decoration of conservatories during
the summer and early fall months.

Gloxinias are native of tropical America and therefore
require a warm greenhouse or tropical temperature in
the growing season. When first introduced into culti-
vation, and even for many years after, the flowers of
gloxinias were all nodding, that is they hung down
instead of standing upright; no one now grows the
nodding-flowered kinds, the upright-flowered being so
much more attractive.

Though they may be grown so as to flower at almost
any season of the year, yet they are naturally summer-
flowering plants, and do best when treated as such.
They are propagated by seeds, or by cuttings made of
leaves or stems. Seeds are preferable, unless one wishes
to increase some very choice colored variety, when it is
best to propagate by leaf -cuttings, using partly matured
medium-sized leaves with a small portion of leaf-stalk
attached (Fig. 1176, p. 929). These may be inserted
in an ordinary propagating-bed, where if kept rather
on the dry side, they will soon root and form tubers,
when they may be potted and grown on. Seeds should
be sown in a warm temperature early in February, in
pans or shallow boxes containing a finely sifted mixture
of peat, leaf-mold and silver sand in about equal pro-
portions. The seedlings will begin to appear in about
ten days, when great care must be exercised in water-
ing, or they will "damp-off." In fact, success with
these plants throughout the year depends largely upon
the care exercised in watering. Even in their most
active growth the water always should be given from
the spout of a watering-can, taking care not to wet the
leaves, though they like a warm, humid atmosphere
during their growing season. As soon as the seedlings
can be conveniently handled, they should be potted
singly into thumb-pots and grown on rapidly; using
in subsequent shifts a mixture of two parts leaf-mold,
one part good fibrous loam and one part peat. The
plants must be well shaded from sunlight and placed in
a position free from draughts. The seedlings should
begin to flower by the middle of August, when they
should be given an abundance of air. After flowering,
the leaves will begin to mature, when water should be
gradually withheld. As soon as the leaves have all

ripened off, the pots should be stored away in some con-
venient place for the winter, in a temperature of about
45°, giving just sufficient water to keep the tubers from
shriveling. Toward the middle of February the tubers
will show signs of starting into growth. A batch should
be started at this time, choosing the tubers which ap-
pear most active, and the remainder should be held back
for another month; this will give a much longer period
of blossoming. The tubers should have all the old soil
shaken off and be potted again in clean well-drained
pots, using sizes just large enough to accommodate the
tubers, the compost being the same mixture as before
recommended. They should be given but little water
until active root-growth commences. As soon as the
pots are filled with roots, they should be shifted on at
once into the pots they are intended to flower in, as
frequent shifts would more or less damage their leaves,
which have a tendency to cling round the sides of the
pots. The first batch should come into flower in June.

When carefully grown, gloxinias are particularly free
from insect pests or fungous diseases, and the same
tubers can be grown for several years.

EDWARD J. CANNING.

GLYCERIA (Greek, glukeros, sweet). Graminex.
Marsh perennials with open (or rarely contracted)
panicles, sometimes grown for ornament.

Spikelets few- to many-fld.; lemmas convex, firm,
with a scarious margin or apex, usually obtuse, awnless,
prominently 5-9-nerved. — Species about 16 in temper-
ate regions of both hemispheres.

grandis, Wats. (Paniculdria ameri-
cdna, MacM.). REED MEADOW-GRASS.

1657. Glyceria grandis. (XK)

1352

GLYCERIA

GMELINA

Fig. 1657. Three to 5 ft.: lower sheaths rough and
overlapping; blades 3-8 lines wide; glabrous: panicle
8-16 in. long, many-fld., open and spreading; spikelets
4-7-fld., 3 lines long. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost. 7 : 286.
N. U. S.

nervata, Trin. (Panicularia nervata, Kuntze). FOWL
MEADOW-GRASS. One to 3 ft.: blades 1-2 J^ lines wide,
scabrous above: panicle 4-8 in. long, open, the branches
drooping; spikelets 3-7-fld., 1 line long. Ibid 287. —
Widely distributed in U. S. A. S. HITCHCOCK.

GLYCINE (Greek for sweet). Leguminbsse. The soy-
bean and related plants. The glycines are allied to
Dolichos, Vigna and Phaseolus: the cult, species are
distinguished by small and hairy fls. in short axillary
racemes: stipules very small and free from the petiole:
Ifts. 3, large. — Perhaps 40 species, mostly tropical, in
Asia, Afr., and Austral., nearly all twining vines. In
this country Glycine is known only in the soybean,
G. Soja, Sieb. and Zucc., which is an erect, hairy
annual from Japan and China. It is also known as
the soja or soya bean, coffee bean and coffee berry.
It grows 2-6 ft. high, making a rank, bushy herb, and
bearing axillary clusters of small hanging, hairy pods,
with constrictions between the seeds. Fls. small, white
or purple. The seeds are subglobose to oblong, yellow,
green, brown or black, but in some varieties parti-
colored. In China and Japan the beans are much used
for human food and for the production of oil. For the
latter purpose great quantities of seed have been
exported in recent years from Manchuria to Eu. In
this country the plant is grown for forage, its first use
for this purpose dating from 1854. Since 1882, and
especially since 1898, the crop has been steadily gaining
in importance. The beans may be used as a substitute
for coffee; and for this purpose the plant is often sold.
The erect form of soybean is unknown in a wild state.
It is clearly a domesticated form of G. ussuriensis,
Regel & Maack, which is wild in Japan, Manchuria,
China, and India. For the economic merits of soy-
beans, see various experiment station reports; also
Farmers' Bull. No. 372, U. S. Dept. of Agric. For a
technical exhaustive paper see Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, Bull. No. 197. The soybean has also been made
the basis of a distinct genus under the name of Soja,
Moench. Glycine was clearly used by Linnaeus to
refer primarily to the ground-nut, Apios tuberosa.
Botanists who accept Glycine in that sense use Soja
for the soybean and allied species. The plant named
Phaseoliis max by Linnaeus is the soybean, and as the
description is on a previous page to that of Dolichos
Soja, some authors use the specific name max and
designate the soybean as Soja max.

G. chintnsis = Wistaria sinensis. — G. frutescens = Wistaria
speciosa. — G. sinensis= Wistaria. /-i •y' PTPFT? t

GLYCOSMIS (from the Greek for sweet, and
smell). Rutdcese. Thornless shrubs or small trees,
grown for ornament.

Leaves persistent, alternate; Ifts. 1-9, alternate or
nearly opposite, dark green above, pale below, coria-
ceous, entire or obscurely crenulate: fls. in axillary or
terminal panicles, small, white, fragrant, urceolate,
5-merous; calyx pubescent (ciliate); ovary 2-5-celled
with 1 ovule in each cell; style very short, persistent;
stamens 10, free, inserted in 2 series on the disk: frs.
small, with a fleshy pulp in which are imbedded the
large rounded seeds; cotyledons epigeous in germina-
tion; first foliage-lvs. simple, opposite. — Several spe-
cies are known, occurring in India and Ceylon and
extending to Austral., the Philippines, and China. Only
one has as yet been intro. into cult, in this country.

pentaphylla, DC. (Limdnia pentaphylla, Retz. Tolui-
fera cochinchinensis, Lour. G. cochinchinensis, Pierre).
Small inermous shrubs with pinnate Ivs. having 1-7
Ifts.: fls. urceolate, very small, white, fragrant: berry

2-3-celled with 1 or 2 brownish green rounded seeds
imbedded in the fleshy pulp. — A very variable species
common throughout India, Indo-China, Philippine Isls.
and Malayan Archipelago. 111. Roxbg. PL Coroman-
del, 1:60, pi. 84. Talbot, For. Fl. Bombay, p. 192, fig.
117. — This species is sometimes grown as an ornamental
in greenhouses or out-of-doors in the southern states.
Because of its dark green glossy Ivs. and translucent
pinkish berries, it is a handsome shrub for warm semi-
tropical climates. WALTER T. SWINGLE.

GLYCYRRHIZA (Greek, sweet root). Leguminbsse.
LICORICE, also spelled LIQUORICE, and LICKORICE. This
genus contains the plant whose roots produce the
licorice of commerce.

The genus has about a dozen widely scattered spe-
cies of perennial herbs, often glandular: Ivs. odd-pin-
nate; Ifts. of indefinite number, rarely 3, entire, with
minute glands or teeth: fls. blue, violet, white or yel-
lowish, in axillary racemes or spikes, which are pedun-
cled or sessile. — About a dozen species in the Medit.
region, Trop. Asia, W. Amer. and S. Amer., only one
of which appears to be cult.

The roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, of southern Europe
and central Asia, are used extensively by druggists; in
America by brewers and manufacturers of plug
tobacco; in Turkey, Egypt and France to make cool-
ing drinks. Our supply — more than $1,500,000 worth
in 1899 — is derived mainly from Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Turkey and Russia (Transcaucasia), the roots from
Spain and Italy being considered best, and those from
Turkey poorest on account of their bitterness. The
soil for licorice must be deep, mellow, moist, rich and
free from stones. Plants are usually set in rows, 3
feet or more apart, and not less than 1 foot asunder.
After the plants have covered the ground, they are
allowed to shift for themselves for three or four years.
Harvesting is primitive, the roots being exposed by the
plow and pulled by hand. Large quantities of roots are
thus left to produce a succeeding crop or to overrun the
field as weeds. One ton to the acre is considered a fair
yield; 1.6 cents a pound an average price. In America
the only fields worthy the name are in California, where
licorice is not considered very paying. Experiment and
experience with it are, however, but little more than
begun. (M. G. Kains.)

glabra, Linn. Height 2-3 ft. : Ifts. ovate, subretuse,
subglutinous beneath, 4-8 pairs, with an odd one : spikes
peduncled, shorter than the Ivs.; fls. closely clustered,
the calyx glandular pubescent: pods glabrous, 3-4-
seeded. Summer and autumn. — Seeds in pods are listed
by a few dealers with miscellaneous agricultural seeds.

WILHELM MILLER.

GLYPTOSTROBUS (engraved or marked cone).
Pindcese. One or 2 species of trees of swamps and low
grounds in China, separated by some authors from
Taxodium, but here included in that genus. The basis
of separation from Taxodium lies mostly in the fact
that the cone-scales are deciduous, whereas in Taxo-
dium proper they are persistent; the mature cones are
obovoid with a long contracted base, the seeds scarcely
angled and stipitate or narrowed at the base into a wing.
G. heterophyllus, Endl". (Taxodium heterophyllum,
Brongn., which see), is a shrub to 10 ft. high, with lower
branches pendulous: Ivs. long, linear, 3-rowed or scat-
tered, on the fruiting branches short and rather obtuse
and spirally imbricate: cones ovoid, %in. long: tender,
and little cult.

GMELINA (after one of five distinguished German
botanists named Gmelin). Verbenaceae. Trees and
shrubs, bearing yellow or brownish irregular flowers
sometimes nearly 2 inches across. A very few plants
may be cultivated in European warmhouses, and in
America only in southern Florida and southern Cali-
fornia outdoors.

GMELINA

GODETIA

1353

Spiny or not : shoots tomentpse : Ivs. opposite, entire,
toothed or lobed: fls. in panicled cymes or racemes,
tomentose at least while young; calyx bell-shaped,
shortly 5-toothed or entire; corolla-tube slender below;
limb oblique, 5- or 4-lobed; stamens 4, didynamous,
nearly exserted: fr. a succulent drupe. — Eight or 10
species from E. Asia and N. Austral. The genus pro-
duces a fancy timber similar to teak, which is a prod-
uct of the same order. Vitex and Clerodendron are
better known congeners.

A. Plant not climbing.
B. Lvs. becoming 9 in. long, 6 in. wide.

arbdrea, Roxbg. (G. Rheedii, Hook.). Unarmed tree,
sometimes attaining 60 ft., deciduous, flowering with
the young Ivs.: Ivs. cordate-ovate, entire: panicles
often 1 ft. long, terminal. India, Malaya. B.M. 4395. —
Cult, apparently only in S. Calif, by Franceschi, who
keeps G. Rheedii separate.

BB. Lvs. }/%-! ^A, in. long.

asiatica, Linn. (G. parviflora, Pers., a typographical
error for G. parvifolia, Roxbg.). Shrubby, sometimes
spinescent: Ivs. ovate or obovate, entire or lobed: fls.
in racemose clusters, the corolla about 1^ in- across.
India, Ceylon.

AA. Plant scandent.

Hystrix, Kurz. A large spiny scandent shrub: Ivs.
3xlH in-> entire, glaucous beneath: fls. in dense
terminal cymes, the bracts very large and nervose,
colored; corolla about 2 in. across, yellow, but not
hairy on the outside as in G. asiatica. E. Indies. — A
sprawling plant with the habit of bougainvillea.

N. TAYLOR-f

GNAPHALIUM. See Leontopodium and Helichry-
sum. There are various native gnaphaliums, but they
are not in cultivation. G. lanatum of gardeners is
Helichrysum petiolatum.

GNIDIA (Gnidus, a place in Crete). ThymeUeaceae.
Trees, shrubs or subshrubs, of about 100 species in
Trop. and S. Afr. and E. India. Some of them have
been grown abroad as greenhouse evergreen woody
often heath-like subjects: Ivs. mostly small: fls. white,
yellow, red or violet, mostly in heads on the ends of the
branches; perianth-tube cylindrical, at length detach-
ing above the ovary, the lobes 4 and spreading, with
scales in the throat alternating with the lobes; stamens
8; ovary sessile, 1-celled: fr. small and dry, included
in the persistent base of the perianth. G. polystdchya,
Berg. Handsome shrub, to 6 ft., with many graceful
pubescent branches: Ivs. crowded-imbricate : fls. small,
yellow, in terminal heads. S. Afr. B.M. 8001. G.C.
III. 41:294. G. tomentosa, Linn. Three to 4 ft.: Ivs.
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, decussate and sometimes
reflexed: fls. yellow, fascicled with the Ivs. at the ends
of the branches, the tube slender and silky. S. Afr.
B.M. 2761. L. H. B.

GOAT'S - BEARD is usually Aruncus Sylvester
(Spiraea Aruncus) ; also the genus Tragopogon.

GODETIA (C. H. Godet, Swiss botanist). Ona-
gracese. Mostly erect annuals with very showy flowers
in leafy racemes or spikes.

Calyx-tube obconic or funnelform; petals rose, lilac-
purple or white, often marked with a large deep crim-
son or purple spot; stamens 8; ovary 4-celled, inferior:
fr. a many-seeded caps. — Twenty or more species in
the western parts of S. and N. Amer., especially Calif.

Seed may be surface-sown in the late fall in order to
be covered by the rains which follow, or in February
lightly covered in sunny or in half-shady places. G.
amcena is very popular and furnishes an abundance of
bloom in early summer when many late spring annuals

have succumbed to advancing heat. In the wild garden
the species come again freely but have a tendency to
move to new ground after the second year.

A. Plants tall, slender: fls. loosely spicate-paniculate.

amcena, Lilja. FAREWELL-TO-SPRING. Fig. 1658.
Slender, branching, 1-2 ft. high: Ivs. linear to lanceo-
late, y^-IYi in. long, often with smaller ones fascicled
in the axils: buds erect: calyx-lobes united and turned
to one side on expansion of the fl. ; corolla lilac-crimson
or red-pink, satiny, 1-2 in. broad : caps, teretish, sessile
or very shortly pedicelled. Cult, also in European gar-
dens (since 1818). Exhibits considerable variability,
especially in the size, and color-scheme of the fls.
G. rubicunda, Lindl. (B.R. 1856), is the lilac-crimson
form. G. vinosa, Lindl. (B.R. 1880), is a white-fld.
state. G. Schwdminii (Gn. 70:203), a double-fld. pink

1658. Godetia amoena
(G. rubicunda splendens
of the trade). (XH)

form. (Enothera Llndleyi, Douglas (B.M. 2832), has the
crimson petals with a large central blotch of deeper
color. (Enothera rdseo-dlba, Bernh. (Reichenbach, Icon.
Bot. Exot., pis. 47 and 150), is a prolific-flowering form.

Bottae, Spach. Similar to G. amcena: buds nodding:
petals pink or light crimson; stigmas united at base to
form a cup-like apex to the style: caps, long-stalked,
usually with flat sides. S. Calif, near the coast.

AA. Plants low: fls. in a short spike or cluster of spikelets.

grandiflora, Lindl. ((Enothera Whitneyi, Gray). Fig.
1659. Stout, simple and dwarfish, 4-12 in. high: lys.
oblong, tapering to base and apex: buds large, 1-2 in.
long; corolla 3-5 in. across, rose-red with a deeper
blush or blotch in center, varying into pure white
(Duchess of Albany), dark crimson (Lady Albemarle),
or bright carmine (Lady Satin Rose) : caps, sessile, 4-

1354

GODETIA

GOMPHRENA

sided, 8-ribbed. B.M. 5867. J.F. 318.— A highly prized
species.

G. decumbens, Douglas. Sts. ascending, strongly flattened,
whitish pubescent: ovary white-woolly. B.M. 2889. B.R. 1221.
— Not certainly known in a wild state. Seed originally from Ore.
Differs little technically from G. quadrivulnera or its forms but is
quite unchanged in its characters after 75 years or more of cult, in
European gardens. It is an excellent illustration of the manner in
which many strains of the smaller-fld. godetias maintain their
slight but distinctive characters, although subject for many years to
the varying conditions of garden cult. — G. magelldnica, Burbank,
a diffuse free-flowering species with lavender fls. the size of G.
amcena, has been recently intro. from Patagonia by Luther Bur-
bank. — G. quadrivulnera, Spach. Erect, slender, pubescent: Ivs.
obovate to linear or the uppermost lanceolate and half-condupli-
cate: petals lilac or pale crimson, usually with a spot at apex, 4-6
lines long: caps, sessile, 4-sided, lightly 8-ribbed. B.R. 1119.
Occasionally cult., but probably not in the trade. — G. Romanzdvii,
Spach, from the "northwest coast," not now known in a wild state,
has been cult, in Eu. nearly a century. Very leafy with young
parts white-pubescent: Ivs. oblong-oblanceolate. B.R. 562.

W. L. JEPSON.

1659. Godetia grandiflora, (Enothera Whitneyi of the trade. ( X H)

GOETHEA (Goethe, the great German poet,
who was also a botanist). Malvacex. Two Brazilian
evergreen shrubs, seldom grown in hothouses. Lvs.
alternate, simple, entire or nearly so: fls. showy, in
cymes from the leafless sts. or sometimes solitary in
the axils, subtended by large cordate red showy calyx-
like bracts; calyx 5-toothed, included within the
bracts; petals short; stamens united in a column,
which is 5-toothed below the apex; ovary 5-celled, each
1-ovuled. G. .strictiflora, Hook. (G. cauliflbra, Hort.),
is a small shrub or bush with large ovate Ivs. sinuate
on upper half, and aggregated fls. in yellowish white
red-tinged bracts; petals small, obcordate, veiny;
calyx whitish or greenish, the lobes ovate-acuminate;
fls. on short-peduncles that are aggregated in the axils
along the st. B.M. 4677. J.F. 4:365. G. muLtiflora,
Nichols., and G. semper flor ens, Nees & Mart., belong
in Pavonia. L H B

GOLDEN CHAIN: Laburnum vulgare.

GOLDEN FEATHER: Chrysanthemum Parthenium.

GOLDENROD: Solidago.

GOLDEN SEAL: Hydraslis.

GOLDFUSSIA: Strobilanthes.

GOLD THREAD: Coptis trifolia.

GOMBO, Gumbo, or Okra: Hibiscus esculentus.

GOMESA (named in honor of Bernardinus Anto-
nius Gomes). Orchidacese, Stove epiphytes.

Pseudobulbs 1- or 2-lvd.: racemes often many-fld.,
lateral; sepals free and spreading, or the lateral approxi-
mate or connate; petals equaling or wider than dorsal
sepal; lip affixed to base of column, continuous, spurless,
the lateral lobes small; pollinia 2. — About 5 or 6 species,
natives of Brazil.

planifdlia, Klotzsch (Odontoglossum planifolium,
Reichb.). Pseudobulbs ovoid, 1^-2 in. long, 2-lvd.:
Ivs. 4-5 in. long: racemes exceeding the Ivs.; fls. fra-
grant, light greenish yellow; sepals and petals oblong,
acute, the lateral sepals united nearly to the apex; lip
shorter than petals, broadly oblong, acute, reflexed.
B.M. 3504 (as Rodriguezia) . G.W. 14, p. 517.

G. Bindtii, Hort. Racemes 15-^30-fld. ; fls. small, orange, with
a white column. Brazil. — G. Glazidvii, Cogn. Climbing: st. elon-
gated: pseudobulbs 2-4 in. apart: fls. light green. Brazil.

GEORGE V. NASH.

G6MPHLA: Ouratea.

GOMPHOCARPUS (club-fruit). Asdepiaddcese.
Perennial herbs, or subshrubs, of more than 100 spe-
cies, mostly of the Old World, of which one has been
mentioned recently in horticultural literature abroad;
very closely allied to Asclepias, being distinguished
mostly by the absence of crests or appendages on the
hoods. G. textilis, Naudin, a warm-country species but
nativity unknown, is a semi-woody plant 3 ft. high with
slender branches: Ivs. opposite, linear-lanceolate: fls.
white, in terminal clusters, the lobes of the crown
violet: fr. large, obliquely oval in outline, bladdery,
pale green, long-hairy, to 4 in. long. R.H. 1902, p. 35.
— Described as a showy and worthy plant for the border.

L. H. B.

GOMPHOLOBIUM (name refers to club-shaped pod) .
Leguminosse. Two dozen Australian yellow- or red-fld.
shrubs, rarely cult. Lvs. simple or compound, the Ifts.
mostly narrow: fls. papilionaceous, solitary, few or
in short racemes; standard orbicular or reniform, exceed-
ing the other petals; wings falcate-oblong; keel mostly
broader than the wings, obtuse; stamens free: pod very
wide or nearly globular, inflated, bearing small seeds.
They are said to be excellent greenhouse shrubs; prop,
by cuttings of young shoots. G. polymorphum, R. Br.
Glabrous shrub or undershrub, variable in foliage and
habit: Ifts. 3, but sometimes 5 or 7 or 9, digitate, mostly
linear, to 1 in. long: fls. orange-yellow to bright crim-
son: pod much inflated, ovoid-globular. B.M. 1533,
4179. H.U. 1, p. 166. B.R. 1574 (as G. venulosum,
Lindl.). B.R. 1615 (as G. tenue, Lindl.). B.R. 25:43
(as G. versicolor, Lindl.). L, jj_ B.

GOMPHRENA (name suggested by Gromphraena,
Pliny's name for some amaranth, supposed to be
derived from grapho, to write or paint; alluding to the
highly colored or "painted" foliage). Amarantdceas.
Herbaceous plants grown as "everlastings."

Herbs erect or prostrate, pubescent to villous, with
or without a leafy involucre : fls. short or long, white or
colored: bracts short or long, concave, and keeled,
winged or crested on the back. — About 70 species,
mostly in the warmer parts of Amer. and Austral.,
but the globe amaranth is widely dispersed throughout
the tropics. For cult., see Annuals and Everlastings.

GOMPHRENA

GONGORA

1355

This genus includes the globe amaranth, a common
everlasting flower of easy culture. It is also known as
bachelor's button, though two other utterly distinct
plants (Centaur ea Cyanus and Ranunculus acris) have
the same popular name. The flower-heads are an inch
or less in diameter, globose, of many colors, and chiefly
remarkable for the showy bracts, which hide the true
flowers. In a family remarkable for brilliant foliage this
genus seems to be the only one valued for everlastings.
Nearly all the other everlasting flowers of importance
belong to the Composite.

globosa, Linn. GLOBE AMARANTH. BACHELOR'S
BUTTON. Height 18 in. or less: Ivs. elliptic to obovate,
the largest 4 in. long, 1% in. wide, tapering to a petiole.
July. B.M. 2815. R.H. 1890, p. 522. F.R. 1:333. The
following names of horticultural varieties indicate the
range of color: vars. alba, aurea, carnea, nana com-
pacta (=a#>a) purpurea, striata, violacea. Dwarf and
compact forms are likely to be associated with any
color. There is a narrow-lvd. form of this species
which Voss calls G. Haageana, Klotzsch (G. aurantwca,
Hort. G coccinea, Decne.), which has lanceolate Ivs.,
often 6 times as long as broad. The Ivs. are rarely %
in. wide. R.H. 1854:161. All are easily grown annuals.

G. gnaphalioides, Vahl=Pfaffia. WlLHELM MlLLEK.

GONGORA (after Don Antonio Caballero y Gongora,
Bishop of Cordova). Includes Acropera. Orchidacese,
tribe Vdndeae, subtribe Cyrtopddieae. A small group
of plants with curious spotted flowers, not common in
cultivation, and of little value except for collections.

Distinguished from the other members of the sub-
tribe by being epiphytic, having the
dorsal sepal adnate to the column, and
by its many-fld. raceme: dorsal sepal
erect, spreading, thus appearing to
spring from the base of the column;
lateral sepals spreading or reflexed from
the base of the column, wider; petals small, adnate to
the base of the column; labellum continuous with the
column, narrow and fleshy, with 2 thick lateral horned
or aristulate lobes, and a central one which is saccate
or even folded, forming a vertical plate; column
erect or ascending, not winged: pseudobulbs sulcate,
sheathed, bearing 1 or 2 large, plicate Ivs. : fls. borne in
a long, loose, pendent raceme arising from the base of
the pseudobulbs. — Over 20 species from Brazil to Mex.

Gongoras are extremely free-flowering, and grow
easily in a mixture of sphagnum and peat, with a little
charcoal added for drainage. During the growing
season they require plenty of water, and brisk heat. In
the winter they require little water, but should be kept
in a moist atmosphere in a cool, shaded house. They
grow well with cattleyas, or in a temperature of 60° in
winter and 80° in summer. Some growers prefer to use
fine fern root packed tightly and for a top finish a little
fine moss found in damp meadows, instead of sphagnum,
which in this climate is quick to decay. (Wm. Math-
ews.)

A. Lateral sepals ovate or oblong, truncate.

truncata, Lindl. Pseudobulbs deeply furcate: lateral
sepals rotund, oblong, truncate, the upper one ovate,
keeled; petals minute, ovate; sepals and petals pale
straw-color, spotted with purple; base of labellum com-

Eressed in the middle, 2-horned; apex ovate, canalicu-
ite. B.R. 31:56.

AA. Lateral sepals broad, ovate, pointed.
B. Fls. light sepia-brown; ovary much incurved.

galeata, Reichb. f. (Maxillaria galedta, Lindl. Acro-
pera Loddigesii, Lindl.). Fig. 1660. Pseudobulbs
ovate-conical, clothed with membranous scales: lys.
broadly lanceolate, 6 in. long: racemes drooping, 6-8 in.
long, with 6-12 pale sepia-brown fls.; dorsal sepal gal-
eate; petals small, oblong-truncate; labellum 3-lobed;

lateral lobes inflexed, middle one saccate. The plants
bear several short, rather large-fld. racemes. Aug.
Mex. B.M. 3563. L.B.C. 17:1645.

BB. Fls. yellow; ovary somewhat incurved.
armeniaca, Reichb. f. (Acropera armenlaca, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovate, sulcate, 2-lvd. : raceme loose, bear-
ing many yellow fls. ; sepals ovate, rounded, apiculate,
the lateral ones oblique; petals one-half as long as the
column; labellum fleshy; apex ovate, plane, acuminate,
base tuberculate, crested. B.M. 5501.

AAA. Lateral sepals lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate.

B. Fls. chocolate-brown, spotted.

atropurpurea, Hook. Pseudobulbs oblong-cylindrical,
deeply sulcate, 2-lvd. : Ivs. about 1 ft. long, lanceolate,
subplicate: racemes numerous, 2 ft. long, bearing many

chocolate-colored,
spotted fls. about 2
in. diam.; margins
of the sepals revo-
lute; petals small,
twisted at the apex;
labellum 4 -horned
at the base; apex
folded so as to form
a vertical triangular
plate. Trinidad.
B.M. 3220.— This
species is the most,
common in cult. It
is nearly always in
flower during the summer.

BB. Fk. yellow, spotted.
quinquenervis, Ruiz &
Pav. ( G. maculdta, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovate-ob-
long, deeply furrowed, 2-
Ivd.: Ivs. broadly lanceo-
late, 5-plaited : racemes
many, 2 ft. long, with
numerous yellow fls. spot-
ted with dark red; lateral
sepals reflexed, meeting in
the back; petals small,
linear -oblong, from the
middle of the column; lip
4-horned at base; apex
folded, tapering to a seta-
ceous point. May-Aug.
B.M. 3687. B.R. 1616.—
A curious plant, much
resembling G. atro pur-
purea except in color and
form of fls.

BBB. F Is. dutt red-purple spotted, with a yellow

labellum.

tricolor, Reichb. f. (G. maculata var. tricolor, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovoid, 2% in. long, deeply furrowed: Ivs.
ovate-oblong, acuminate, about 5-ribbed, 6 in. long:
raceme slender, pendulous, lax-fld., 6-10 in. long; pedi-
cels with ovary 1^-2 in. long, speckled like the rachis;
fls. about 2 in. long; dorsal sepals lanceolate, with revo-
lute margins, tip recurved, lateral sepals ovate-lanceo-
late, with revolute margins, dull red-purple, with a pale,
stout midrib; free portion of the petal spreading,
upcurved, lanceolate, speckled; labellum golden yellow,
base cuneiform saccate, truncate in front, with an awn
on each side, apical part broadly funnel-shaped, with a
spurlike, slender, speckled tip, gibbous behind; column
slender, speckled. B.M. 7530. B.R. 33:69.

G. Beyrodtiana, Schlecht. Allied to G. truncata. Infl. pendu-
lous, about 16 in. long; fls. pale yellow, spotted with purple. Colom-
bia.— G. bufdnia, Lindl. Resembles G. atropurpurea in habit, Ivs.
and pseudobulbs: fls. yellowish white, thickly spotted with dull

1660.
Gongora
galeata.

1356

GONGORA

GOODIA

purple. Brazil. B.R. 27:2. G.W. 13, p. 110. — G. fuscata, Hort.
(Acropera fuscata and luteola, Hort.), has been cult, for ^nany
years, but no description is available.— -G. Tracyana, Rolfe. Sepals
and petals greenish yellow, marked with brown; lip ivory-white.

Peru- H. HASSELBRING.

GONIOMA (Greek, gonia, angle, corner; the corona
cornered near the top) . Apocynacese. Shrub, introduced
for the warmer parts of the country.

A monotypic genus containing a S. African glabrous
plant with coriaceous Ivs. and terminal corymbose fls.:
calyx small, with 5 more or less herbaceous sepals;
corolla with 5 lobes, overlapping to the left; stamens
inserted at the middle of the corolla-tube. Gonioma
differs from Tabernsemontana in having the ovules
arranged in 2 series instead of an indefinite number of
series.

Kamassi, Mey. (Tabernsemontana Camdssi, Regel).
Height 16-20 ft.: Ivs. opposite or the upper ones inS's,
oblong -lanceolate, entire, leathery, 4-6 lines wide:
corymbs small, terminal, 8-10-fld.; fls. salver-shaped,
yellowish, 3 lines long; tube a little wider at the middle
and angled, constricted at top, pilose within from the
middle to the top; lobes a third as long as the tube,
ovate, cordate, twisted to the right in the bud; style
2-cut: fr. 1-2 % lines long. — Yields the hard yellow
Kamassi wood of S. Afr. .jj. TAYLOR, f

GONIOPHLEBIUM. A subgenus of Polypodium,
(or perhaps a distinct genus), with a special type of
anastomosing veins. For G. svbauriculatum and G.
vacdnisefolium, see Polypodium.

GONIOPTERIS (Greek, angled fern). Polypodidcese.
A generic name for a group of tropical ferns belonging
with Dryopteris, with naked rounded sori and the lower
veinlets of contiguous segments or lobes united. Has
been placed under Polypodium. For G. crenata, see
Dryopteris crenata.

GONIOSCJPHA (name refers to the angled peri-
anth). Liliacese. One species, G. eucomotdes, Baker,
an odd nearly stemless plant from the E. Himalayas,
producing 1 thick dense short-peduncled spike 3-5 in.
long, of small lurid green fls.: Ivs. few in a rosette,
10-15 in. long, 5-6 in. broad, elliptic or elliptic-oblong,
several-nerved; petiole 3-4 in. long, broad: perianth
open, somewhat fleshy; anthers 6, sessile; stigma some-
what 3-lobed: fr. a 1-seeded globose-ellipsoid dark
brown berry, becoming dry. B.M. 8078. G.C. III.
20:748. G.W. 12:750. — Blooms in late autumn; pro-
duces a short fleshy rootstock. L. jjg g_

GON(5LOBUS (name refers to the angled pod of one
of the original species). Asdepiadaceae. Mostly trail-
ing or climbing plants, herbaceous or woody, of Amer.,
chiefly tropical: Ivs. opposite and mostly cordate: fls.
dull or dark-colored, of medium or large size, in fas-
cicles or umbel-like cymes; corolla rotate to campanu-
late, 5-lobed; crown ring-like or cup-like, entire, lobed
or divided; anthers short and borne under the disk of
the stigma or on the margin of it; pollinia nearly or
quite horizontal; stigma flat-topped. — Seventy-five or
more species, only one of which seems to be in horti-
cultural lists. G. edftlis, Hemsl., of Guatemala and
Costa Rica, is a more or less rusty-hairy twining shrub,
with ovate-oblong deeply cordate Ivs., and 3-5-fld.
short peduncles: corolla of medium size, white, densely
bearded inside; crown short, with 5 interior longitudinal
lamellae: follicles the size of a swan's egg, edible. — It is
said to be hardy at Santa Barbara and to bloom pro-
fusely but to set no fr. It is the guayote of the natives
of Costa Rica.

G. Cundurdngo, Triana=Marsdenia. — G. MartiAnus, Hook., is
properly Fischeria Martiana, Decne. A handsome stove twiner
with pretty fls. in early summer: Ivs. oblong-ovate, hairy, acumi-
nate: fls. white with a green ring at base and a red hairy calyx.
Brazil. B.M. 4472. J.F. 1:33. T TT T>

Ll. Jtl. D.

GOOBER is a commoner name in the South than
"peanut," which is the universal name in the North.
For culture, see Peanut; for botany, see Arachis.

GOODENIA (Bishop Samuel Goodenough, England,
1743-1827, who wrote on Carex). Goodenidcese (some-
times written Goodenoviese). The family Goodeniacese
is allied to the Campanulaceae, differing in never having
milky juice, the style surrounded by an indusium or
cup-shaped or two-lipped expansion, the cells of the
ovary mostly more in number, and other technical char-
acters. There are a dozen genera of herbs and shrubs
and probably 300 species, mostly Australian. Proba-
bly none of them is in regular cultivation, although
Goodenia and Scaevola are sometimes mentioned in
horticultural literature.

About 100 species oi Goodenia occur in Australia:
calyx-tube adnate to the ovary, the lobes free or
adnate at the base; style undivided: caps, with 2 or
rarely 4 valves: herbs, subshrubs, or shrubs, with
yellow, purplish or blue fls. The species most likely
to be met with in horticultural literature are: G.
grandiflora, Sims. Erect herb, with large yellow fls.
more or less streaked purple, linear calyx-lobes, and
broadly ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
toothed Ivs. that sometimes have
small lobes along the petiole. B.M.
890. B.R. 31:29. G. Macmillanii,
F. Muell., very like the last but
with- purple fls. and lyrate Ivs. H.
F.II. 4:240. G. stclligera, R. Br.
Perennial herb: st. 12-18 in., almost
leafless: radical Ivs. linear or nearly
so, entire, 3-^6 in. long: fls. yellow,
nearly or quite sessile, in a long in-
terrupted spike. G. ovata, Smith.
Glabrous or viscid shrub or sub-
shrub, to 4 ft.: Ivs. lanceolate to
ovate or nearly orbicular, denticu-
late: fls. yellow, the corolla about
J^in. long. L. H. B.

GOODIA (after Peter Good, who
found the plant in New South
Wales). Leguminbsse. Australian
shrubs, with pea-like flowers.

There are 2 goodias; both species
have long been cult, in a few con-
servatories abroad, but the pubes-
cent species is now forgotten and
the glabrous one, in Amer. is cult,
chiefly in S. Calif, outdoors. Under
glass these shrubs are treated like
Cape heaths or Australian hard-
wooded plants. It has no near allies
of garden value. It belongs with
4 other Australian genera to sub-
tribe Bossisea, in which the Ivs. are
mostly simple: stamens coalesced
into a sheath, which is split above:
seeds strophiolate. From these 4
genera Goodia differs in having 3
pinnate Ifts. and its racemes ter-
minal or opposite the
Ivs. instead of axillary.
A. Schultheis writes
that goodias are occa-
sionally seen in florists'
windows in America.
Wm. Watson, of Kew,
says the flowers are
very fragrant, and re-
main on the plant a
long time. He adds
(G.F. 2:244): "Prob-
ably this plant, if taken 1661. Goodyera pubescens. (X>i)

GOOSEBERRY

1357

in hand by the florists, would prove quite as useful for
spring flowering as the popular Cytisus racemosus."

lotifolia, Salisb. Often misspelled "latifolia,"
but the name means "lotus-leaved." A tall much-
branched glabrous shrub: Ifts. ovate or obovate, very
blunt, about %in. long: racemes loose,
many-fld.; the fls. yellow with purple mark-
ings near the base. B.M. 958. J.H. III.
29:484. H.F. II. 6:358— Likely to be con-
fused with Argyrolobium Andrewsianum,
belonging to the Crotalaria subtribe, in
which the seeds are not strophiolate. In
Argyrolobium the 3 Ifts. are digitate and
the stipules, bracts and bractlets small but
persistent. A. Andrewsianum has sparsely
silky Ivs. In Goodia the stipules, bracts
and bractlets are very evanescent.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GOODYERA (after John Goodyer, British
botanist, who helped Johnson in his edition
of Gerarde's Herbal). Orchidacese, tribe
Polychondrese. Dwarf terrestrial orchids of
minor importance which are cultivated
chiefly for their variegated foliage.

Leaves radical, usually reticu-
lately veined: fls. in dense or loose
spikes; labellum saccate; anther
on the back of the column. — About
25 species. They have scapes 8-18
in. high at most. Difficult to grow;
require shade. Includes
the rattlesnake plantain.

A. Plants hardy natives.

B. Labellum strongly in-
flated, with a short tip.

pubescens, R. Br. RATTLE-
SNAKE PLANTAIN. Fig. 1661. Lvs.
ovate, deep green; veins netted,
white: scape stout; spike dense,
ovate in outline before anthesis;

fls. globular whitish; beak of 1662. Goodyera repens var. ophioides.
stigma short, obscure. Aug. New- s ^ denser than common. ( x ^
foundland to Fla., west to Mich,
and Minn. L.B.C. 1:1. B.B. 1:474. Mn. 2:54. F.S.
15:1555. A.G. 12:281; 13:520. C.L.A. 4:108. Gn.M.
4:15. — Should be grown in ordinary loam mixed with
pine needles and dry pine twigs. Not well suited for
greenhouse cult.

BB. Labellum saccate, with an elongated tip.
c. Beak of the stigma shorter than its body.

repens, R. Br. Lvs. ovate to oblong-lanceolate:
veins dark: spike 1-sided; labellum with a recurved
tip. L.B.C. 20:1987. Eu. Var. ophioides, Fern. (Fig.
1662), is the American form of this species, with very
broadly marked Ivs.

cc. Beak as long as or longer than the stigma.

tesselata, Lodd. (G. pubescens var. minor). Lvs.
broadly ovate to oblong-lanceolate; venation exceed-
ingly variable: scape slender; spike loose; fls. white;
labellum less saccate than in G. repens; tip straight.
N. U. S. and Canada. B.M. 2540. L.B.C. 10:952 —
Confused by tradesmen with the next. Should be
planted out in a rockery in shade, the roots being
firmly placed among dead pine needles and loam.

BBS. Labellum scarcely saccate, margin involute.

Menziesii, Lindl. Plant rather large, the st. some-
times 18 in. high, being taller than G. tesselata: Ivs.
ovate-lanceolate, dark green; veins netted: spike some-
what 1-sided, rather densely fld. W. U. S. to N. New
England. — Advertised by Dutch dealers.

AA. Plants tender exotics, cult, under glass.

B. Lvs. with a whitish midvein.

velutina, Maxim. Fls. whitish, tinged rose: Ivs. ovate,
velvety, purplish green, with white rib. Japan. F.S.
17:1779.

BB. Lvs. with white, netted veins.
Schlechtendaliana, Reichb. f. (G. japonica, Blume).
In general appearance like G. tesselata. Lvs. ovate:
spike loose; fls. white. Japan.

G. Dawsoniana and G. discolor. See Hsemaria. — G. nuda,
Thouars. Lvs. variegated: fls. whitish, with petals and midveins
of sepals light brown. Mascarene Isls. — -G. querdcola. See Physurus.
By some botanists, the name Goodyera is given up. The spe-
cies referred to Goodyera are then by some authors placed in Pera-
mium; by others the old application of the name Epipactis is used, and
in that case what we have been calling Epipactis goes in Serapias.
Following this latter disposition, the characterization of Epipactis
is the same as the characterization given here for Goodyera, the
name Epipactis merely supplanting Goodyera. — Under Epipactis,
the above goodyeras take names as follows: E. Willdenovii, House
(Goodyera pubescens, R. Br., Peramium pubescens, MacM., Epipac-
tis pubescens, A. A. Eaton, not Pursh). E. repens, Crantz (Good-
yera repens, R. Br.) E. tesselata, A. A. Eaton (Goodyera tessel-
ata, Lodd.). E. decipiens, Ames (Goodyera Menziesii, Lindl.).
E. velutina, A. A. Eaton. E. Schlechtendaliana, A. A. Eaton. —
Under Serapias, the following synonyny would occur: SERA-
PIAS, Linn. Sp. PI. 949, 1753. Helleborine, (Tourn.) J. Hill.,
Brit. Herbal 477, 1756. Epipactis, Zinn, Cat. PI. Hort. Goett. 85,
1757. Adans. Fam. 2:70. 1763. Amesia, Nelson & MacBride.
Bot. Gaz. 56:472. 1913. Species: Serapias Helleborine, Linn.;
Serapias atrorubens, Hoffm. Serapias gigantea, A. A. Eaton
(=Epipactis Royleana, Lindl.), and several others. — If Peramium
is used for Goodyera, the synonymy becomes: PERAMIUM,
Salisb. Trans. Hort. Soc. 1:301. 1812. Epipactis, (Haller) Boehm.
in Ludw. Definit. Gen. PI. 1760. Not Zinn 1757. Goodyera, R.
Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 2, 5:197, 1813. Species:
Peramium pubescens, MacM.; Peramium decipiens,
Piper (=Goodyera Menziesii, Lindl.); Peramium tessela-
tum, Heller; Peramium ophioides, Rydberg (=Goodyera
repens var. ophioides Fernald). QAKES AMES.

L. H. B.f

GOOSEBERRY. A bush-fruit,
grown for its large berries, which are
mostly consumed green in cookery.

The gooseberry has received com-
paratively little attention in America,
although in northern Europe, and
especially in the British Isles, it has
long been a prime favorite, and a
great improvement has taken place
in its size there during the last 200 or
300 years. When it was first culti-
vated in Europe — probably in the sixteenth century —
the wild fruit, if it was like what it is now, would be
only about % inch in diameter and less than one
quarter of an ounce each in weight. The largest goose-
berries which have been produced in recent years aver-
age several times this size, the largest one of which
there is a record weighing two ounces, although there
are doubtless larger specimens produced. The English
and European gooseberries are derived from a species
native of northern Europe, Ribes Grossularia (Figs.
1663, 1664). The varieties of Ribes Grossularia do not
succeed well in America as a general rule, although in
some places they do weU. The chief obstacle to their
successful culture is the gooseberry mildew, which it
has been found very difficult to control.

As late as 1846 no cultivated varieties of American
species of gooseberries were mentioned by writers, an
early reference, according to Bailey, being in 1849 in
the "Northern Fruit Culturist," by Goodrich, where the
author writes: "We have it from good authority that
native sorts have been discovered both in New Hamp-
shire and Vermont well adapted to garden culture." In
1847 the Houghton's Seedling was exhibited at a meet-
ing of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, this
being the first improved form of the native gooseberry
of which there is a record. This variety was originated
or found by Abel Houghton, Jr., Lynn, Massachu-
setts. It is probably a seedling of the native species,
Ribes hirtellum (Figs. 1665, 1666, 1667). The first
improvement on the Houghton was the Downing (Fig.

1358

GOOSEBERRY

GOOSEBERRY

1668), a seedling of the Hough ton, which was origi-
nated by Charles Downing, Newburgh, New York, and
first brought into notice in 1853. It is thought by some
authorities to have been a hybrid between Houghton
and Ribes Grossularia, the European species. The
Downing is still more largely planted in America than
any other variety of goose-
berry. This is doubtless
largely due to the fact that
comparatively little has been
done toward improving the
gooseberry in America during
the past fifty years. The
most work seems to have
been done by William Saun-
ders, late Director of the

1663. Ribes Grossularia in
bloom. (Natural size)

1664. Leaves of Ribes Grossularia.

(Natural size)

Dominion Experimental Farms, the originator of the
Pearl, Josselyn (Red Jacket), and many other seed-
lings and crosses not yet on the market. There is a
good field for work in improving the native goose-
berries, as there is no apparent reason why the size
should not be equal to the best English varieties. The
quality of the American varieties is considered by some
to be better than the average English gooseberry, but
the flavor is not nearly so good as the best of the
English sorts.

As the gooseberry is found growing wild almost or
quite to the Arctic circle, its culture will no doubt be
extended very far north. The most useful native species
is the smooth gooseberry, Ribes hirtellum, which is
found wild from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Next in
importance is the prickly gooseberry, Ribes Cynosbati,
which has not so wide a range. Both of these goose-
berries are of good quality. An interesting hybrid
gooseberry was originated by Saunders by crossing
Ilibes Cynosbati, with Warrington, a cultivated Eng-
lish variety. The size of the fruit was increased very
much, but the gooseberry although good in quality
remained prickly. If greater hardiness is desired it may
be got in Ribes lacustre, which grows almost or quite to
the Arctic circle. In its present state it is not nearly so
useful as the other two species, the fruit being smaller
and inferior in quality. There are other native species,
such as Ribes Lobbii, R. divaricatum, and R. rotundi-
folium, which may also play their part in the future
improvement of the native gooseberry.

There is a steady though limited demand for goose-
berries hi America, but the gooseberry has never been
generally popular on this continent. In England,
gooseberries are used in great quantities for eating out
of hand and for jam; in America few are used raw, most
of the fruit being picked green and put into pies, or
used as jam or canned. Those who are successful in
growing the English varieties in America are usually
enthusiastic in their praise as a fruit for eating raw.

Propagation.

Gooseberries may be propagated either from cut-
tings or by layering. The average person will usually
get the best results from layering, as cuttings are often
very unsatisfactory. To propagate by layering, the
bushes should be pruned severely in the autumn. This
will induce a strong growth of young wood the next
season. When these have made most of their growth,
which will be early in July, the earth is heaped up
around and through the bush until only the tips of the
young shoots are left uncovered. The soil is packed
down and then a covering of loose earth thrown over to
retain moisture better. Most of the American varie-
ties will have rooted well by autumn, and the young
plants may be detached and planted in nursery rows
either the same fall or the following spring, to be grown
there for one season. English varieties usually take two
years to root, and the soil must be left about the bushes
for that time. Cuttings of American varieties will
sometimes give fairly satisfactory results if made from
well-ripened wood and treated as currant cuttings.
The cuttings are made 6 to 8 inches or less in length,
and buried in soil over winter. In spring they are set
out in nursery rows, planting deep enough so that only
one or two buds are above ground. Both American
and English varieties may be propagated from green-
wood cuttings in a greenhouse, or hotbed with bottom
heat.

Soil, planting and culture.

The gooseberry is a moisture-loving plant, hence a
soil should be chosen in which there will be a constant
supply of water during the growing season. In dry
soils gooseberries suffer very much in a dry time, the
foliage often falling prematurely and the fruit being
scalded by the sun. The soil should be a cool one.
Moist soils are usually cool, but the surface of a sandy
loam soil gets very hot in the summer, hence is not the
best for this fruit. Well-drained, heavy clay loams are
the most suitable for gooseberries as these usually are
both cool and moist. The soil should have abundant
plant-food easily made available. A good application
of well-rotted manure thoroughly worked into the soil
will do much to bring about these favorable condi-
tions. The soil should be well prepared and made
mellow as for a crop of roots. As gooseberries start
to grow early in the spring it is usually preferable to
plant in the autumn, and as the leaves drop early they
may be planted in September and will be in good con-
dition when winter comes. Well-rooted cuttings or
layers may be used as plants. They should be set in
rows about 6 feet apart and 4 feet apart in the rows.

Cultivation should be thorough to retain moisture
and keep the soil cool, and as gooseberry roots near

1665. Ribes hirtellum
in bloom. ( X %)

1666. Leaves of Ribes hirtellum

(Natural size)

GOOSEBERRY

GOOSEBERRY

1359

the surface, tillage should be shallow. Mulching with
straw is sometimes advisable to keep the soil cool.

As the gooseberry makes much more wood than it is
desirable to leave, severe pruning is necessary. English
varieties are usually trained to a single stem, but this is
not necessary, although the freer circulation of air when
trained in this way may help to prevent the spread of
mildew. The usual custom in America is to grow the
gooseberry in bush form. The bush should at first be

York. He gives the probable range from 300 to 500
bushels an acre. Bailey gives the average as 100
bushels an acre.

European gooseberries.

In Great Britain the gooseberry is one of the most
popular fruits, and great quantities of the product are
grown there every year. They are used to a large
extent for eating out of hand when ripe, but are much

1667. An American gooseberry, Ribes hirtellum.

brought into a good shape by leaving a few of the
strongest shoots regularly distributed to make an
open head. Five or six of these shoots are quite suffi-
cient to leave at first. As the bush gets older, new shoots
are allowed to grow to take the place of the older ones,
as the pruning should be done with a view to having
only vigorous bearing wood. Fruit is borne on year-old
wood and from spurs on older wood. It usually is not
desirable to have any wood more than three years old.
The best time to prune is in the autumn or winter. The
weakest young shoots should be cut off at the ground,
also all the stronger young shoots not required for
fruiting or to take the place of the older branches to be
cut away. The side shoots from the older branches
should be headed back or cut out altogether so as to
maintain a fairly open head, making it as easy as pos-
sible to pick the fruit and yet leaving sufficient wood
to produce a good crop and shade the fruit from the sun,
as in a hot dry time gooseberries are liable to be injured
by scalding. When branches are more than three years
of age they should be removed to make way for
younger wood. It is advisable to cut out all branches
which touch the ground as there will then be a better
circulation of air, and the fruit will be kept off the
ground. Gooseberries will often begin to bear the second
year after planting, but there will not be a full crop
until the fourth season. If the soil is kept in good condi-
tion by an annual application of well-rotted barnyard
manure in the autumn, harrowed in the following spring,
and if the bushes are kept sprayed and well pruned,
the plantation will not need to be renewed for many
years. Sometimes a plant is trained to a single stem
(Fig. 1669), to secure extra fine fruit, but it is only a
home-garden practice and scarcely to be recommended

Yield of gooseberries.

The American gooseberry is a productive fruit and
averages a good crop if well cared for. It is, however,
very important to have good foliage to protect the fruit
from the sun, and unfortunately many let the currant
worm destroy a large proportion of the foliage, and if
the weather is hot the fruit suffers. Six bushes of the
Pearl have averaged at the Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada, in five years at the rate of 12,402
pounds an acre each year, or, at forty pounds to the
bushel, over 310 bushels an acre. The highest yield was
in 1905, when five bushes of Pearl 6x4 feet apart
yielded seventy-five pounds, or at the rate of 27,225
pounds an acre, equal to over 680 bushels.

The highest yield mentioned by Card in his work on
"Bush Fruits," is at the rate of 450 bushels an acre,
obtained at the Geneva Experiment Station, New

in demand for making jam. Owing to their large size
and good flavor, and their popularity in Great Britain,
they were early imported into America, but it was soon
found that owing to the gooseberry mildew the Euro-
pean varieties could not be successfully cultivated in
most places in which the gooseberry grows. Where the
climate approaches nearest to that of Great Britain,
and the northern and moister parts of Europe, and there
is considerable moisture in the air, not very high sum-
mer temperatures, and considerable cloudy weather,
the European gooseberry succeeds best. Even in gar-
dens in which there is a great deal of vegetation giving
off much moisture, and in which the soil is shaded and
cool, good success is often obtained and almost or quite
as fine gooseberries produced as in England, but such
instances are the exception.

Heavy clay soils are most suited to the gooseberry
and there is little use trying to grow the European
varieties IB light soils. Clay soils are cool, and with

1668. Downing gooseberry.

them it is easier to secure the conditions necessary to
success. Various methods are recommended for grow-
ing European gooseberries free from mildew. Mulch-
ing the soil heavily with straw is one. Mulching the
soil with coal-ashes is another. Shading the soil with
laths set on a frame 8 to 10 feet high is another. All
these methods are useful, but unless the air is moist
above as it is cool and moist below, the conditions will
be still more or less favorable for the development of
the disease. The conditions of a thickly planted garden,
where there is partial shade, seem the most favorable.

Varieties of gooseberries.

American: Pearl, Downing (Fig. 1668), Josselyn
(Red Jacket). Hough ton is the hardiest.

1360

GOOSEBERRY

GOOSEBERRY

European (of most general adaptation) : Whitesmith,
Industry (Fig. 1671).

European (least affected by mildew at Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada): Companion,
Eagle, Glenton Green, Queen of Trumps, Snowball.

European (grown by R. B. Whyte, Ottawa, Canada,
under garden conditions): Tri-
umph, Lofty, Green Ocean,
Conn, Weatherall, Sportsman.

Scalding of the fruit.

In a very hot dry time, goose-
berries are often scalded, become
unfit for use and fall to the
ground. If the gooseberries are
planted in heavy, cool soil and
the ground kept well cultivated
and the currant- worm prevented
from eating the foliage there will
be little trouble. Unfortunately,
in many plantations the foliage
is very scant, either on account
of poor cultivation or injury
from the currant-worm, and it is
under such conditions that the
greatest injury occurs.

Insects and diseases affecting the
gooseberry.

Currant - worm or imported
sawfly (Pteronus ribesii, Scop.). —
By far the best known of all the
insects which injure currants and
gooseberries is the currant- worm.
The black-spotted dark green
false caterpillars of this insect
may unfortunately be found in
almost every plantation of currants or gooseberries, every
year in almost all parts of the temperate regions of
North America. The white eggs are laid in rows along
the ribs of the leaf on the lower side, toward the end
of May. From these the young larvae hatch and soon
make their presence known by the small holes they
eat through the leaves. Unless promptly destroyed,
they will soon strip the bushes of their leaves, thus
weakening them considerably so as to prevent them
ripening fruit the first year, and also reducing the qual-
ity of the crop of the following season. There are at
least two broods in a season. The first appears just as
the leaves are attaining full growth, and the second just
as the fruit is ripening. The perfect insect is a four-
winged fly which may be seen flying about the bushes
early in spring. The male is blackish, with yellow legs
and of about the same size as a house-fly, but with a
more slender body. The female is larger than the male
and has the body as well as the legs yellow. Remedy:
For the first brood a weak mixture of paris green, one
ounce to ten gallons of water, may be sprayed over the
bushes, or a dry mixture one
ounce of paris green to six
pounds of flour may be
dusted over the foliage after
a shower or when the leaves
are damp with dew. For the
second brood paris green
must not be used, but white
hellebore; this is dusted on
as a dry powder; or a decoc-
tion of this powder, one ounce
to two gallons of water, may
be sprayed over the bushes. It
is, of course, far better to treat
the first brood thoroughly, so

1670. Crown Bob, an ^ to reduce the number of
Engish gooseberry. females which would lay eggs
( x *A) for the second brood.

1669. Gooseberry trained in tree form.

Gooseberry fruit-worm (Zophodia grossularise, Pack.).
— Just before gooseberries ripen, clusters of two or three
may sometimes be noticed, which are prematurely
colored, and which are joined together by the webs spun
by the caterpillar of a small moth. These caterpillars
are pale greenish white and sometimes have a reddish
tinge. They live inside the ber-
ries and, when the contents of
one berry are consumed, attack
another near at hand, joining it
to the first by a silken web.
When full grown they fall to the
ground and spin brown parch-
ment-like cocoons, just beneath
the surface of the ground. The
moths, which are pale gray,
marked with dark streaks and
bands, are very rarely observed.
They fly early in spring, and
there is only one brood in the
year. Remedy: The best method
of controlling this insect, which
fortunately is never very abun-
dant, is to pick by hand the
clusters of injured berries. It is
thought that chickens and other
poultry are useful in destroying
the larvae and chrysalids; and it
is certain that, while chickens
are very small, they are useful in
a garden in destroying a great
number of injurious insects. The
old hen, however, should be
kept securely cooped up and not
allowed to run at large.

Gooseberry mildew (Sphxro-
theca mors-uv&). — The goose-
berry mildew has prevented the general culture of
the European gooseberry in America. This disease
attacks the leaves, twigs and fruit. When the attack
is bad it destroys the foliage, covers the fruit and causes
most of it to drop. It saps the growing shoots to such
an extent that they do not ripen properly, and dry up
without setting fruit-buds. It thus practically destroys
the crop. The disease is apparent early in the season in
the web-like covering which coats the leaves, shoots and
fruit. This is the mycelium from which is given off the
spores which propagate this disease. It is usually
noticed first in the lower and most shaded parts of the
bush. When the spores are being given off, the mildew
has a powdery appearance. Winter-spores are formed
later which germinate in the spring. As the mycelium
and spores are both on the surface it might be thought
this disease could be easily controlled, but the weather
conditions in this country seem so favorable to the
development of spores that the gooseberry mildew
spreads with great rapidity, and constant and thorough
spraying is necessary to prevent it from doing so.
American varieties are seldom
affected by gooseberry mildew,
although occasionally they are
slightly attacked. Remedies:
So far, there has been no good
remedy for the gooseberry mil-
dew, but the most promising
remedy is the lime-sulfur wash
applied first when the buds
are breaking and then at inter-
vals during the growing sea-
son. So far, the best formulas
and the best times to spray
have not been accurately
worked out. Potassium sulfide
in the proportion of one ounce 1671 industry> one of
to two gallons of water has the English gooseberries,
controlled the mildew in some (Natural size.)

GOOSEBERRY

GOURD

1361

cases but to secure satisfactory results the weather must
be favorable and the bushes sprayed from four to six
times or more. In some cases it has been found that
it is not practicable to control the mildew with this
spray; furthermore under certain conditions the foliage
of some varieties is injured by the spray. Bordeaux
mixture when the leaf-buds are breaking and again
just before blooming is a partial preventive.

Leaf -spot, rust (Septoria ribis). — The disease which
causes the spotting of gooseberry leaves and their fall-
ing prematurely is the same as that which affects
currants, and may be dealt with in the same way.

W. T. MACOUN.

GOOSEBERRY, BARBADOES: Pereskia.
GOOSEFOOT: Chenopodium.

GORDONIA (after James Gordon, an English nur-
seryman; died 1780). Theacex. Including Franklinia.
Ornamental woody plants grown for their showy white
flowers and handsome foliage.

Evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs: Ivs. alter-
nate, petioled, entire or serrate: fls. solitary, axillary;
sepals and petals 5; stamens numerous; ovary superior,
3-6-celled, each cell with 4 or numerous ovules; style
slender, with a 3-6-lobed stigma: caps. 3-6-celled,
woody, dehiscent, with few or many winged seeds in
each cell. — About 15 species in Subtrop. and Trop.
Asia and 2 in the S. Atlantic States.

The gordonias have very handsome shining foliage,
and produce their large white flowers even on rather
small plants. Only G. alatamaha is hardy north to
Massachusetts, while the others are cultivated only in
subtropical regions. They grow best in a somewhat
moist, peaty, or sandy soil. Propagated by seeds, layers
or cuttings from half-ripened wood under glass.

A. Foliage deciduous.

alatamaha, Sarg. (G. pubescens, L'Her. Franklinia
alatamdha, Marsh.). Shrub or tree, to 30 ft.: Ivs. obo-
vate-oblong, narrowed into a short petiole, sparingly
serrate, bright green and shining above, pubescent
below, turning scarlet in fall, 5-6 in. long: fls. short-
pedicelled, pure white, about 3 in. across; petals
roundish obovate, with crenulate margin, concave:
caps, globular. Sept., Oct. Ga., but not found again
since 1790. S.S. 1:22. Mn. 6:201. Gng. 7:167.
M.D.G. 1899:25. F.E. 30:863. C.L. A. 2:34.— One of
the few trees that flower in autumn. It does well in
Mass, in sheltered positions or with slight protection,
and blooms freely every year. A large tree in the
Bartram garden, near Philadelphia, was long sup-
posed to be the only living specimen of G. alatamaha.
All other specimens in cult, are believed to have been
prop, from the Bartram tree, which has lately died.
All efforts since 1790 to rediscover this tree in the S.
have failed.

AA. Foliage evergreen.

Lasianthus, Ellis. LOBLOLLY BAY. Tree, to 60 ft.,
usually shrubby in cult.: Ivs. obovate-lanceolate, nar-
rowed into a short petiole, crenately dentate, dark green
and shining above, glabrous, 4-6 in. long: fls. long-
pedicelled, white, 2-2 H in. across; petals oblong-
obovate; stamens short: caps, ovate. July, Aug. Va.
to Fla. and Miss. S.S. 1:21. B.M. 668. I.T. 2:41.

axillaris, Szyszylowicz (G. anomala, Spreng.). Large
shrub: Ivs. oblanceolate, narrowed into a very short
petiole, entire or serrate, dark green above, 3-6 in.
long: fls. almost sessile, creamy white, 2-3 in. across;
petals roundish obovate. Nov. S. China. B.M. 2047;
4019 (as Polyspora axillaris). L.B.C. 7:675 and B.R.
349 (as Camellia axillaris).

G. grdndis, Andr6. Corymbs few-fld., terminal; fls. white,
large. R.H. 1906:520. — A handsome greenhouse species. — G.
jatdnica, Rollison. See Schima Noronhse.

ALFRED REHDBR.

87

GORSE: Ulex europxus.

GOSSYPIUM (ancient name of the cotton plant).
Malvdcese. COTTON. Perhaps thirty or more species
of herbs and shrubs of warm countries, although more
than 100 have been described; some authorities reduce
them to about three. They are grown for the fiber
that is borne on the seeds. See Cotton. They are
scarcely horticultural subjects, and therefore are not
treated fully in this work.

Gossypiums are tall stout herbs, or tree-form bushes :
Ivs. large, alternate, petiolate, mostly prominently
3-9-lobed but sometimes entire: fls. white, yellow or
purplish, provided with 3-5 large cordate calyx-like
bracts; calyx entire or somewhat 5-lobed; stamens
united into a column; ovary 3-5-celled, each cell 3-11-
ovuled; style 3-5-lobed: fr. a locuh'cidally dehiscent
caps., bearing seeds that are obovate, rounded or
slightly angular, sometimes smooth, but usually cov-
ered with a short down or fuzz and a longer coat of
brown, creamy or white hairs, called the lint.

The cottons of commerce belong, according to
Lewton, to about eight distinct botanical types and
may be divided into two main groups, the New World
and the Old World cottons. The New World group
includes American Upland cotton (G. hirsutum, Linn.);
Sea Island and Egyptian cottons (G. barbadense, Linn.);
and the tropical tree cottons of South America (G.
brasiliense, Macf. and G. peruvianum, Cav.). The
Old World cottons include the Levant cotton (G.
herbaceum, Linn.), cultivated in southern Europe and
western Asia; the oriental tree cotton (G. arboreum,
Linn.), with yellow or purple-red flowers; the common
cotton of India (G. neglectum, Todaro) ; and the Chinese
and Japanese cottons (G. nanking, Meyen.).

Cotton (probably G. herbaceum) was grown in gar-
dens in Delaware and Maryland in colonial times as
an ornamental plant.

Two species have been offered as ornamental plants.
G. Davidsonii, Kellogg, from Lower Calif, and
Cerros Isls., woody, with handsome yellow fls. purple
at the base, 1 in. long, and small cordate mostly entire
Ivs. G. Stftrtii, F. Muell., endemic in interior of
Australia; shrub, several feet high, more or less marked
with black dots: Ivs. broadly ovate, entire, 1-2 in. long,
glaucous: fls. large, purple with dark center; bracts to 1
in. long, cordate, entire, many-nerved, black-dotted.
The common fiber-cottons are sometimes planted in
northern gardens for curiosity, but they seldom make
attractive plants where the nights are cool; sometimes
they are seen in warm glasshouses, with other economic
plants. L H B

GOUANIA (Antoine Gouan, 1733-1821, professor of
botany at Montpelier, France). Rhamnacese. About
40 species of tropical shrubs, sometimes tall climbers,
tendril-bearing: branches long and slender: Ivs. alter-
nate, petiolate, penninerved, entire or dentate: fls. in
clusters, on axillary and terminal, elongated pedun-
cles; disk 5-lobed; style 3-fid: caps, with 3 indehiscent
berries. — This genus includes the "chawstick" of
Jamaica, a rapid-growing, shrubby vine, with pretty
heart-shaped Ivs., grown sometimes for ornament in
the extreme S. It is suitable for screening unsightly
objects. The sts. are chewed in the W. Indies. Tooth
brushes are made from the frayed ends and tooth-pow-
der from the pulverized wood.

domingensis, Linn. CHAWSTICK. Lvs. usually 13^-2
in. long, elliptical, glabrate, with distant serratures;
veins tapering toward the margin: fls. very small, in
slender interrupted axillary more or less leafy spikes:
caps, winged, emarginate. W. Indies. L H B

GOURD. In England, a generic name for species of
Cucurbita (which see). In America the term is used
to designate those cucurbitous fruits that are hard-

1362

GOURD

GRAFTING

shelled, and are used for ornament or for the making
of domestic utensils. The gourd of history is probably
Lagenaria. In the northern United States, the small
hard-shelled forms of Cucurbita Pepo (var. ovifera) are
commonly understood when the word gourd is used.
The gourds in the American trade are referable to their
species as follows:

Anaconda, Lagenaria, vulgaris. Mock Orange, CucurbitaPepo.

Apple-shaped, Cucurbita Onion - shaped, Cucurbita

Pepo var. ovifera. Pepo.

Bicolor, Cucurbita Pepo var. Orange, Cucurbita Pepo var.

ovifera. ovifera.

Bonnet, Luffa. Ostrich Egg, Cucumis dip-

Bottle-shaped, Lagenaria vulr saceus.

garis. Pear-shaped, Cucurbita Pepo

Calabash. Crescentia Cujete, var- ovifera. (Fig. 1134).

yields the true calabash; Powder Horn, Lagenaria vul-

but the calabash gourd ia garis.

Lagenaria vulgaris. Rag, Luffa.

Coloquinte, Cucurbita Pepo, Serpent or Snake (not Snake

var. ovifera (Colocynth is cucumber, which is a

CitruUus Colocynthis). Cucumis), Lagenaria vul-

Dipper, Lagenaria vulgaris. garis and Trichosanthes.

Dipsaceous, Cucumis dip- Sponge, Luffa.

saceus. Spoon, Lagenaria vulgaris.

Dish-cloth, Luffa. Sugar Trough, Lagenaria vul-

Egg, Egg-shape, Cucurbita garis.

Pepo var. ovifera. Tashkent, Cucurbita Pepo

Gooseberry, Cucumis Anguria. var. ovifera.

Hedgehog, Cucumis dipsaceus. Turk's Turban, Cucurbita

Hercules' Club, Lagenaria Pepo var. ovifera.

vulgaris. Vegetable Sponge, Luffa.

Mat6 Gourd, small form of Wax Gourd, Benincasa his-

Lagenaria vulgaris. pida.

L. H. B.

GOURLlfeA (Gourlie", a personal name). Legu-
minosse. One or two spiny shrubs or small trees of
Chile, one of which is listed in S. Calif., somewhat akin
to Sophora and Cladrastis: Ivs. odd-pinnate, the Ifts.
small: fls. small, orange-colored, in racemes or fascicles,
papilionaceous; standard orbicular, wings obovate and
undulate, keel short: pod short, indehiscent. G. spindsa,
Skeels (Lucuma spindsa, Molina. G. chilensis, Gay).
CHANAL. Tree, 12-15 ft., with long thick branches
ending in spines: Ifts. 3 pairs, ovate: fls. orange-yellow
streaked red, in short loose racemes: fr. about 1 in.
diam., brownish, the pulp the flavor of jujube: wood
yellow and hard, used for cabinet-making. Chile, at
elevation of 1,500-5,000 ft. L. H. B.

GOVENIA (J. R. Gowen, English gardener). Orchi-
ddccse. Terrestrial orchids of Trop. Amer., seldom cult.,
of perhaps a dozen species: rhizomes thickened into
tuber-like enlargements or pseudobulbs, the sts. erect
and few-lvd.: Ivs. large, narrowed at base: fls. in simple
racemes, medium in size, short-pedicelled, mostly
white, cream-colored or yellow and more or less red-
spotted; sepals and petals of about equal length, the
former connivent; lip very short, without spur, jointed
to column; pollinia 4, broadly ovate. G. tingcns,
Poepp. & Endl. Height 2-3 ft. : If .-blade elliptic, about
8 in. long: fls. yellowish, with transverse purple lines,
much larger than those of G. superba; segms. lanceo-
late to oblong. Peru. G. superba, Lindl. Two ft.:
fls. fragrant, yellow with red markings, sepals -and
petals acute: spike loose, erect. Mex. L.B.C. 18:1709.
G. sidphiirea, Reichb. f. An odd species with onion-
like pseudobulbs: If .-blade cuneate-lanceolate and
acuminate: fls. rather large; sepals sulfur-yellow; petals
white with yellowish margin and purple lines; lip cor-
date-oblong, white with dark brown at apex.

L. H. B.

GRABOWSKIA (H. E. Grabowsky, German apothe-
cary and botanical author). Solanacese. A half-dozen
or more spiny shrubs of Trop. and extra-Trop. S. Amer.,
with small violet or pale blue or whitish fls. borne
singly at the nodes and in clusters on the ends of the
branches, and oblong or obovate entire sometimes
fleshy Ivs.: calyx 5-toothed or becoming 10-toothed
after flowering; corolla funnelform, with short tube and

5-lobed spreading limb; stamens 5, exserted: fr. drupe-
like with 2 pyrenes. G. boerhaaviasfolia, Schlecht.
(G. glauca, Hort.), of Peru, is offered in Calif. It is a
lycium-like scrambling or wide-spreading bush with
small Ivs. alternate and tufted, with spines J4m- long
in the axils and the shorter branches often also sharp
and spine-like: fls. whitish or pale blue, not conspicu-
ous, in clusters of 3-5 or solitary: berries scarcely J^in.
long. B.R. 1985. — In Calif., the plant has a good gray-
green foliage and a graceful drooping habit, therefore
making it adaptable for planting compositions in
landscapes. L H. B.

GRAFTING, Multiplication by. Grafting is the
operation of inserting a part of one plant into another
plant or part with the intention that it shall grow and
produce its kind.

The practice of grafting, together with all the reasons,
consequences and results, constitutes a department of

knowledge known as
graftage. The term
grafting is ordinarily
restricted, in popular
speech, to propagation
by means of short
twigs or cions, and
budding is used to
designate the insertion
of single buds that are
severed from the
branch on which they
grew; but these dis-
tinctions are not funda-
mental. Stock is the
plant or part on which
the grafting is done.
Cion (scion, sion) is
the part inserted into
the stock, although
it is usually restricted
to cuttings of twigs,
and does not include
detached buds. In
many writings the
word is spelled scion, but the other is shorter and
it was a very early horticultural term, many old
horticultural writings using don and cyon. Scion is
apparently later, and usage is not uniform. The word
graft is sometimes used in the sense of don, but it
would better be used for the completed thing — the
new plant or part made by the joining of cion and
stock.

Grafting is not always employed for purposes of prop-
agation. It may be a reparative process. What is
known as bridge-grafting is of this kind. Wounds or
girdles may be bridged by cions, as in Fig. 1672 (after
Hedrick), for the purpose of supplying new tissue to
connect the parts. Here the edges of the girdle are
trimmed to the fresh firm tissue, cions whittled wedge-
shape at each end are inserted, bandages are drawn
around the trunk to hold the free edges of the bark and
the ends of the cions, and wax is poured over the work.
This operation is performed in spring, with dormant
cions. The buds should not be allowed to throw out
shoots. If the cions are placed close together, they
will soon unite along their sides and make a continuous
covering of the wound. Writing of bridge-grafting,
Hedrick says (N. Y. Sta. Circ. No. 17) : "Its most impor-
tant use is to preserve trees injured or girdled by rodents
or disease. Any ragged or diseased edges should be
cleanly cut away, a longitudinal slit should be made in
the bark, both above and below the wound, and the
edges of the slits loosened slightly. A cion should then
be cut 2 or 3 inches longer than the space to be bridged,
one side beveled off at both ends (Fig. 1672), and
inserted in the slits, its beveled face against the wood

1672. Bridge-grafting. At the left,
a cion; the cions in place; at the
right, the ends waxed.

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

1363

of the trunk. In order to guard against any accidental
displacement it would be well to drive a small tack or
nail through each end of the cion, which, however,
must not be split in the operation. Other cions in a
like manner may be inserted at intervals of about 2
inches over the entire injured surface. The ends of the
ciofls should be covered with wax but it is not neces-
sary to cover all the bridged portion of the trunk. If
the tree operated upon is small and likely to weave
in the wind it should be tied firmly to a strong stake as
such movements might tear apart the tender uniting
surfaces."

Cions are sometimes inserted freely in the stub left
by a large broken limb, for the double purpose of pro-
viding other shoots to take the place of the branch and
of facilitating the healing of the wound. Sometimes
cions are inserted in limbs on a one-sided or misshapen
tree for the purpose of securing better growth on that
side, the variety perhaps being the same as that of the
tree itself.

Another reason for grafting is to produce some radical
change in the nature of the cion, as rendering it more
dwarf, more fruitful, or otherwise changing its habit.
Still another office is to adapt plants to adverse soils
or climates. An example is the use of the peach root in
the southern states upon which to work the plum, as
the peach thrives better than the plum in sandy soils.
The practice in Russia of working the apple on roots
of the Siberian crab is an example of an effort to make
a plant better able to withstand a very severe climate.

In general, however, grafting is employed for the
purpose of multiplying or perpetuating a given variety,
mostly of woody plants. It is used with plants that
do not bear seeds, or in which the seeds do not come
true or are difficult to germinate, or when the plants do
not propagate well by cuttings or layers. It is also
employed to increase the ease and speed of multiplying
plants.

In common practice, the effect of the stock on the
cion is rather more mechanical or physical than physio-
logical or chemical. The influences are very largely
those associated with greater or less growth. As a rule,
each part of the combined plant — the stock and cion —
maintains its individuality. There are certain cases,
however, in which the cion seems to partake of the
nature of the stock; and others in which the stock par-
takes of the nature of the cion. There are recorded
instances of a distinct change in the flavor of fruit when
the cion is put upon stock that bears fruit of very dif-
ferent character. There are some varieties of apples and
pears which, when worked on a seedling root, tend to
change the habit of growth of that root. Examples are
Northern Spy and Whitney apples, which, when grafted
on a root of unknown parentage, tend to make that
root grow very deep in the soil. All these instances seem
to be special cases, or exceptions to the general rule
that each part maintains its individuality. Reasons
for this change of nature in these cases have not been
determined, and in most cases such results are not to
be predicted. The most marked effect of stock on the
cion is a dwarfing influence. Dwarfing may be expected
whenever the stock is of a smaller stature than the
cion. ^The most familiar example is the dwarf pear,
made by working the pear on quince stock. Supplying
a plant with a slow-growing root is only the beginning
of the making of a dwarf. The plant must be kept
dwarf by subsequent pruning and other care. There is
comparatively little demand for large-growing forms
of woody plants, whereas there is much demand for
dwarf forms. See Dwarfing, page 1082.

The limits within which grafting can succeed are to
be determined only by experiment. These limits are
often within the species, and usually within the genus,
but there are instances in which plants of distinct genera
intergraft with success, as in some of the cacti. In
general, the closer the affinity of cion and stock, the

better the union. When stock of the same species can
not be secured, it is allowable to chose another species.
Thus it was for a time impossible to secure Japanese
plum stocks upon which to grow the varieties of Japan-
ese plums, and peach, Marianna, myrobalan and
domestica plum stocks have been used, and are used to
this day. In some cases another species grows more
readily from seed, is cheaper, is less liable to fungous
injury in the nursery, or has some other practical
advantage. Thus, most domestica plums (Prunus
domestica) in the North are worked on the myrobalan
(P. cerasifera) ; many sweet and sour cherries (Prunus
Avium and P. Cerasus) are worked on the mahaleb
(P. Mahaleb); many kinds of roses are worked on
manetti and Rosa multiflora stocks.

From time to time there arises an agitation against
grafting, particularly in the Old World. Cases of poor
unions and the difficulties of sprouting from the root or
stock are cited as proofs that graftage is injurious and
devitalizing. But these are examples of poor results.
They show what should not be done. Properly per-
formed, on plants of proper affinity, graftage is not
devitalizing. It is essential to modern horticulture.

The ways or fashions of grafting are legion. There
are as many ways as there are ways of whittling. The
operator may fashion the union of the stock and the
cion to suit himself, if only he apply cambium to cam-
bium, make a close joint, and properly protect the work.
Thus, Thouin in his "Monographic des Greffes," 1821,
describes 119 kinds of grafting. All kinds of grafting
may be classified into three groups:

1. Bud-grafting or budding. In the old days called inoculation.

2. Cion-grafting, or what is now thought of as grafting proper.

3. Grafting by approach, sometimes called inarching.

Early practice.

Grafting is one of the oldest of the arts of plant-craft.
It is probable that the real art of grafting was held more
or less as a professional or class secret in the ancient
world, for the writers seem to have only the vaguest
notion of its possibilities and limitations. Virgil writes
(Preston's translation) :

But thou shalt lend

Grafts of rude arbute unto the walnut tree,
Shalt bid the unfruitful plane sound apples bear,
Chestnuts the beech, the ash blow white with the pear,
And, under the elm, the sow on acorns fare.

It seems to have been a popular misconception that
any kind of plant will grow on any other. Pliny asserts
that the art of grafting was taught to man by nature.
Birds swallow seeds, and these seeds, falling in "some
cleft in the bark of a tree," germinate and make plants.
"Hence it is that we see the cherry growing upon the
willow, the plane upon the laurel, the laurel upon the
cherry, and fruits of various tints and hues all spring-
ing from the same tree at once." This, of course, is not
grafting at all, but the implanting of seeds in earth-
filled chinks and cracks, in which the plants find a con-
genial foothold and soil. But the ancients have left us
abundant testimony that genuine grafting was em-
ployed with success. Pliny describes a cleft-graft. He
gives several precautions: the stock must be "that of a
tree suitable for the purpose," and the graft must be
"taken from one that is proper for grafting; the incision
or cleft must not be made in a knot; the graft must be
from a tree "that is a good bearer, and from a young
shoot;" the graft must not be sharpened or pointed
"while the wind is blowing;" "a graft should not be
used that is too full of sap, no, by Hercules! no more
than one that is dry and parched;" "it is a point most
religiously observed, to insert the graft during the
moon's increase."

Herein are seen the beginnings of the grafting
practices of the present day, together with some prac-
tices of layering. Sharrock treated the whole subject of

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

grafting under the head of "Insitions," and here he
minutely describes the cleft-graft, and speaks of it as
"the common way of grafting." The practice which we
now know as inarching or grafting by approach, he sig-
nificantly calls "Ablactation" (that is, suckling or wean-
ing). Now that so much is said about the proper and

1673. Sharrock's illustration of grafting. 1672.

careful selection of cions, it is interesting to read Shar-
rock's advice on this subject: "Good bearing trees are
made from Cyons of the like fruitfulness. . . . Cyons
are best chosen from the fairest, strongest shuits, not
from under shoots or suckers, which will be long ere
they bear fruit, which is contrary to the intention of
grafting." But we have seen that Pliny gave similar
advice before the Christian era, — which is only another
illustration of the fact that most of our current notions
have their roots deep in the past.

The accompanying cut (Fig. 1673) reproduced two-
thirds size from Robert Sharrock's "History of the Prop-
agation and Improvement of Vegetables," 1672, shows
various kinds of grafting in vogue over two centuries
ago. Following is the literal explanation of the plate:

o. Denotes the ordinary cutting of the bark for inoculation.
66. The sides of the bark, lifted up for the putting in of the shield,
c. The shield taken off with the bud, which lies under the stalk

of the leaf cut off.

In. The shield put into the stock to be bound up.
a. The bark cut out in an oblong square, according to another

usual way of inoculation.

g. The shield cut out for the fitting the disbarked square.
m. The same shield put into the stock.
/. A variation of the forementioned way, by cutting off the

upper part of the oblique square, and binding the lower

part down upon the shield.
o. The shield so put in to be bound up.
e. Another variation by slitting the bark, that the bud and

leaf may stand forth at e, and the bark slit be bound

down upon the shield.

k.
P-

g or q.
r7.

x.
u.
1 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

A cross cut for inoculation.

The same cross cut lifted up in this figure, somewhat too big.

The shield cut off to be put therein.

The shield put in.

The cut of cyon or stock for whip-grafting.

The cut of cyon and stock for shoulder-grafting.

The cut of the cyons, and slit of the stock for grafting in the

cleft.

The stock set for ablactation or approach.
The cyon of the branch for the same operation.
The branch that is to be taken off by circumposition.
The branch that bears up the mould to the disbarked place.
The branch of a carnation to be laid.
The joynt where the slit begins.
The' next joynt where the slit is propped open, with a piece

of a carnation leaf put in.

Budding.

The operation of budding consists of inserting a
single detached bud underneath the bark of the stock.
It is employed only in stocks of small diameter, and
preferably in those not more than one year old. The
operation may be performed whenever the bark will
peel and whenever mature buds may be secured. The
bark will peel in early spring and again in late summer
or early autumn, and the operation of budding in the
open ground is therefore performed at those times. In
the spring the buds are secured from twigs of the pre-
vious season's growth. At the second budding season,
in late summer or early autumn, the buds are secured
from growing twigs of the season. At that time of the
year the buds will be sufficiently developed to be
easily recognized and handled.

Budding is much employed in nurseries. Peaches,
cherries, plums, and most stone fruits, are habitually
budded rather than cion-grafted. In the East, apples
and pears are usually budded in the nursery; but in
the West apples at least are usually root-grafted.
Third-rate stocks are sometimes set in nursery rows and
budded the following July.

It is practicable to insert buds rather than cions in
the tops of young trees, for the purpose of changing the
tree into a different variety. Sometimes the buds are
inserted in limbs two and three years old; but it is
usually preferable, if the tree is of some age,
to cut back the tree somewhat heavily the
previous season or the previous spring, to get
a growth of suckers into which the buds may
be set.

The cutting from which the buds are taken
is known to budders as a stick (Fig. 1674). In
early spring-budding, this stick is the last
year's growth of the variety which it is desired
to rjropagate. Later in the season, the stick is
the twig grown in that season. Not all the
buds on the stick are strong enough or good
enough for budding. The budder will usually
discard the weak ones at the top and at the
bottom, unless he is very much pressed for
buds, as may be the case with new or rare
varieties. If the stick is taken late in the sea-
son the leaves will be on; but these are quickly
cut off to prevent too much evaporation from
the cutting. About % inch of the leaf-stalk is
left to serve as a handle to the bud.

Shield-budding.

The ordinary operation of budding is shown
in the illustrations. It is known as shield-bud-
ding, from the shape of the removed bud.
With a thin-bladed, sharp knife, the operator
slices off the bud by placing his thumb
beneath the bud and making a deft and quick
stroke of the blade. Just under the bud he
cuts a little into the wood. Some budders
afterward remove this bit of wood; but this is
not essential. If this wood is somewhat hard
and dry, or if it carries some pith, it may then
serve to dry out the bud or to prevent inti-

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

1365

1675. Wrong
way of cutting
a bud.

mate contact with the cambium of the stock. In ordin-
ary operations this truncheon of wood is not removed.
Most budders cut all the buds on a stick before they
insert any of them; but they are allowed to hang to
the stick by their upper ends, being
snipped off by the knife as fast as they
are needed (Fig. 1674).

Wester writes as follows on the re-
quirements in
budding citrus
fruits (Bull.
No. 27, Bur.
Agric., Philip-
pine Isls.), and
the directions
will apply to
other plants;
and he gives
pictures (Figs.
1675, 1676) of
part of the
manual opera-
tion: "Many
people are un-
der the impression that budding
is a very complicated operation,
correspondingly difficult to learn
and to perform. As a matter of
fact this is not true. Some judg-
ment must of course be exercised
in all phases of the work, but the
art of budding itself is a mere
matter of manual skill that anyone should be able to
master who is at all deft in the handling of a knife.
Necessary essentials for success are: (1) Stock plants
in condition for budding; i. e., the flow of sap must
be good so that the bark separates readily from the
wood. (2) A suitable budding-knife, the edge of which
should be sharp and keen as a
razor, and clean of all impuri-
ties; an ordinary pocket-knife will
hardly answer the purpose. (3)
Proper bud-wood; immature bud-
wood will not 'take' and the proper
cutting of buds from old and hard
bud - wood is
difficult. (4)
The bud-wood
should never
be allowed to
dry out by be-
ing exposed to
the air or sun.
(5) The buds
should be in-
serted immedi-
ately after be-
ing cut, and
the bud tied
at once. (6) No
foreign matter
or water should
be allowed to
enter the bud
incision. (7)

1676. Proper way of cutting a bud. The bud sh°5lld

be cut so that

there is no break or tear in its tissues."

The stock is first prepared by removing all the leaves
and twigs from the area to be budded. In the case of
nursery stock, it is customary for a boy to strip
the lower leaves of the stock a day or so in advance
of the budding. If the stripping is done three or
four days or a week before the budding, it will
sometimes cause the bark to set and, therefore,
interfere with the operation. Nursery trees are

usually budded as near the ground as the operator can
work — not more than 2 or 3 inches above the surface.
In most cases, the budder prefers to set the bud on
the north side of the stock, that it may be shaded from
the hot sun.

A T-shaped incision, just through the bark, is made
on the stock (Fig. 1677). The crosswise incision is
usually made first. As the operator takes his knife
from the last incision, he gives it a deft turn to right and
left and loosens the flaps of the bark, so that the bud
is easily inserted. The bud is now taken from the
stick and shoved into the matrix underneath the bark
until it is entirely within the cleft (Fig. 1678). A boy
follows and ties the bud, making four or five deft turns
and holding the strand by covering the lower end under-
neath one of the turns (Fig. 1679). No wax or other
mastic is used. Any soft strand may be employed
for the tying. It was the old custom to use bass-

1677. Shield-bud-
ding.

1678. The bud set in
the matrix.

1679. The bud
tied.

wood bark, which was taken in the spring from the
inner layers of the bark of the basswood tree. This
material was then macerated in water and afterward
pounded to make it soft. Yarn is also used. At present,
raffia is universally employed. This is the stripping of
an oriental palm, and it can be bought in the market
and is cheaper than home-made materials; it is also
better. It is customary to lay it on the ground or in a
damp place over night to soften it and to allow the
operator to flatten out the strands. This raffia is cut
in the length to suit before the tying is begun, and the
bunch of strands is then held underneath the belt or
carried in a box. For budding, the operator prefers a
small, thin-bladed knife, with a rounded or thumb-
shaped cutting surface (Fig. 1680). Budding knives
are regularly on the market.

When budding is performed late in the season, the
bud does not throw out a shoot until the following
spring. It merely grows fast or "sticks" to the stock.
Two or three weeks after the setting of the bud, the
bandage is cut so that it will not restrict the swelling of
the stock. If the stock grows very rapidly, it may be
necessary to cut the bandage before that time. Noth-
ing more is done with the tree until the following spring,
at which time the whole tree is cut off about 1 inch above
the bud. This one bud now throws out a shoot and
makes a very heavy growth, being impelled by the
strong root. In this first season of growth, a peach tree
will attain the height of 4 to 6 feet, and be ready for
market in autumn. If the bud is set early in the
spring it will throw out a shoot the same season; but
ordinarily it would not make the growth in one season
that the bud does in the other case. Spring-budding in
the open air is rarely employed in nursery practice. It
is sometimes used in the top-budding of established

1680. Budding knife. (X1A)

1366

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

plants. In all budding practices, it is important to keep
down the suckers from the stock.

In the South, a peach tree may be large enough in
June, if the seeds are planted in February or March, to
be budded. The bud will grow the same year, and by

1681. Rectangular patch-budding.

autumn will make a salable tree. This operation of bud-
ding in early summer on stocks which grow that year is
known as June-budding. As a rule, June-budded trees
are smaller than fall-budded trees; but they can be
secured one year sooner.

Other forms of budding.

There are many ways of shaping the bud. These
modes may have distinct advantage in certain plants,
because of the way in which the bark holds its shape,
of the relation to the drying out of the parts, and
otherwise.

The rectangular-patch method is illustrated by Shar-
rock (d, g, m, Fig. 1673). It is recently described by
Oliver as one of the successful methods of propagating
the mango. (Bulletin No. 46, Bur.
PI. Ind., U. S. Dept. Agric.): "The
only departure from Sharrock's
method of budding as used in the
case of the mango at the present time
is that the bud, instead of being taken
from new growth, must be selected
from wood old enough
to have lost its foli-
age. This means that
the bud -wood will
sometimes be over
two years old. The
use of bark of this
age and even older
insures success in
budding the mango,
as it unites rapidly
with bark of a similar age on
seedling stocks or on branches
of trees. To a certain extent
success depends upon the pre-
cision with which the section
of bark is removed from the
stock and also from the variety
to be propagated, as the more
neatly the bud section is fitted
into the space prepared for it
the greater the probability of a
successful union (Fig. 1681).
1682. The rectangular After the section of bark from
patch-bud growing. the bud-stick is nicely fitted in

place, and before tying, a small quantity of grafting-
wax should be smeared over the parts where they come
together and tied firmly in place with thick strands of
raffia. This effectually prevents the admission of air
to the spaces which, no matter how carefully the
operation be performed, exist between stock and cion;
it also serves to prevent moisture from gaining access
to the cut surfaces. The cut surfaces and all but the
bud should then be covered
with strips of cloth dipped in
melted paraffin, wrapping be-
ing begun at the lower part,
so that when finished water
will not gain entrance to the
wrapped section of bark. If
that part of the stock where
the bud is tied be exposed to
the sun, it is always advisable
to furnish shade which is best
supplied by strips of paper
tied above the bud and extend-
ing down over it. Two weeks
may be allowed to pass before
an examination is made. The
cloth wrappings may then be
removed and the raffia should
be loosened if there is danger of
its cutting into the bark. When
a sufficient time has elapsed to

1683. Spade-budding.

make certain that a union has taken place, part of the
top of the stock should be removed in order to encour-
age the bud to start. This it will do with very little
coaxing. When sufficient growth has been made, all
of the stock above the bud may be removed and the
cut part coated with liquid grafting -wax or tar to
exclude moisture and prevent rotting." Fig. 1682
shows the successful growth of the patch-bud.

The spade-shaped bud, shown in Fig. 1683, has been
employed with the mango and other plants. The
pointed end makes it possible, according to Oliver,
"to push the bark of the cion down tight against the
bark of the stock; the top part is then cut off square
with the transverse cut in the bark of the stock, and is
pressed firmly into position previous to tying and wax-
ing in the usual way." These two forms of budding are
given here only for the purpose of illustrating inter-
esting methods, and not necessarily to advise their use.

Improved methods of budding the pecan have been
developed in Texas by
Charles L. Edwards. He
prefers spring-set buds, as
they have the whole grow-
ing season before them and
make salable trees by au-
tumn. The summer -bud
makes only a start before
autumn, at best; most of
them remain dormant till
spring, and not a few dry
out and perish. One method
is shown in Figs. 1684, 1685.
The stocks are cut off bodily,
and straight across. A slit
is then made in the bark at
the top (A), and the bark
opened to receive the bud.
The buds are cut like shield-
buds for peaches and plums
(B, front and back views),
but in addition, the bark
is cut away from the lower
end of the bud (C), reduc-
ing it to a point so it will

slip into place easily (D) . By 1684 crown-budding the
removing the thick rim of pecan; 1685 (below), the
bark from the lower end of bud wrapped and tied.

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

1367

the bud, the sap from the stock will enter it easily, and
force it into immediate growth, whether put on in early
spring or as late as September. At E the bud is shown
in place, and the flaps pared. To put on the wrapper,
use an oblong little square of
waxed cloth with an eyelet in the
middle for the bud to emerge from
(F). In preparing the cloth for
these wrappers, use only beeswax,
not grafting-wax for this pur-
pose. Be sure to tie on the wrap-
pers firmly, and see also that they
cover the entire top of the stock,
leaving no part of the wounds
made by the knife uncovered.
A modified shield-bud is used
by Edwards. In Fig. 1686, the
part marked A shows the outside
and inside of the bud as com-
monly made for the pecan; B
shows the thick rim of bark at
the lower end. The modification
consists in trimming away the
lower end, as at C ; also in paring
away part of the flap, as at G.
At E is the regular slit ; F, the bark opened to receive bud ;
D, waxed wrapper; H, wrapper tied on. See Pecan.

Proper time to bud. (Hedrick.)

Inasmuch as the various kinds of trees used as stocks
for budding vary greatly in length of their growing
season, it naturally follows that the time during which
they may be budded will vary accordingly. In a nor-
mal season, the figures for New York are about as
follows:

Rose . July 1 to July 10.

Pear July 10 to July 15.

Apple July 15 to August 1.

Plum (St. Julien stock) July 15 to August 1.

Plum (Myrobalan stock) August 15 to September 1.

Cherry (Mazzard stock) July 20 to August 1.

Cherry (Mahaleb stock) August 20 to September 1.

Quince July 25 to August 15.

Peach August 20 to September 10.

Grafting.

Grafting proper is the operation of inserting a twig
or a woody cion into a stock. They may be classified in
respect to the place or position of the cion on the stock:

jy

1686. Modified
shield-bud.

1687. Cleft-
grafting.

1688. The cleft-
graft waxed.

1689. Cleft-
graft cion.

Root-grafting, or the insertion of the cion in the root
of the stock;

Crown-grafting, or the insertion of the cion at the
crown (surface of the ground) ;

Stem-grafting, or the insertion of the cion in any part
of the main stem or trunk;

Top-grafting, or the insertion of the cion in the top or
branches of the plant.

Grafting may again be classified in respect to the
maturity of the cion: dormant wood grafting; and soft-
wood or herbaceous grafting, in which the cion is taken
from green or growing wood.

It is customary to classify grafting on the way in
which the union is made. There are few general types
in common use in this country: as cleft-grafting, whip-
grafting, veneer-grafting (side-grafting, bark-grafting).

Cleft-grafting.

Cleft-grafting consists in splitting the stock and
inserting a wedge-shaped cion into the cleft. It is

1690. One way of cleft-grafting an old tree.

employed only in rather large stocks, preferably in
those an inch or more in diameter. The stock is cut off,
and it is split with a knife or tool made for the purpose.
The cleft is then held open by a wedge and the cions are
inserted in the side of the cleft in such position that the
cambiums of the stock and cion are in contact (Fig.
1687). The whole surface is then securely waxed, to
prevent evaporation and to protect the wounds from
the sun (Fig. 1688). Cleft-grafting is performed in
early spring. The cions are taken some time previously
from the last year's shoots. They are stored in a cellar
or other cool place in order that they may be perfectly
dormant. It is customary to cut them of three buds'
length; but if the shoot is very long-jointed and if the
variety is new or rare and the wood therefore scarce,
they may be made of one or two buds. The wedge-
shaped part should be somewhat thicker on the outside
so that it may be clasped tightly in the cleft (Fig. 1689).
It is customary to have one bud near the top of the
wedge. Although this bud is covered with wax, it is the
most likely to grow, since it is nearest the source of
food-supply and is less injured by external conditions.
It pushes through the wax. It is customary to insert
two cions in all stocks, even though only one branch is
desired. By inserting two cions, the chances of suc-
cess are doubled, and the wounds heal better if a twig
grows on either side. After a year or two, one of the
cions may be cut off if desired.

Cleft-grafting is the method usually employed in the
top-grafting of fruit trees, as apples, pears, plums and
cherries. Old peach trees are rarely changed over to a

1368

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

new variety. If they are, budding is employed, as
already suggested: the limbs are headed back so that
new wood is secured in which the buds may be set. It
is important, in all top-working of fruit trees, to keep
down the suckers which spring up around the
cion, and which sometimes completely choke
it. In changing over the top of a fruit tree, all
the leading branches should be grafted (Pig.
1690). It is well to stand at some distance
from the tree and make a mental picture of
how the tree will look when the new top is
secured : the grafts should be set in approxi-
mately a radius from the center of the tree.
It is rare that the stock should be larger than
2 inches in diameter where the cions are set.
On some of the main branches it may be
necessary to graft side branches lower down
in order to fill the top and to afford footholds
to pickers and pruners. It will require from
three to four years to change over a tree in
full bearing to a new variety. Each
year a little more of the original top
is removed, and the cions take more 11

and more of the space. Jj

Grafting-wax is of many kinds, ff
but the most serviceable for apply-
ing with the hands in the open air
is made by melting together one
pound (by weight) of rendered tal-
low, two parts of beeswax and four
parts of resin. The melted liquid is
poured into a pail or tub of water,
when it immediately
hardens. It is then pulled
until it is light-colored
and develops a grain.
It is then put away for
future use, and will keep
indefinitely. When the
J^.1' wax is used, the warmth
graft? of the hands will cause it
to soften. The hands
should be greased to prevent it
from sticking.

For a softer wax, more tallow
may be used; or linseed oil may
be substituted, but because of
adulteration of the oil
the results are not always reliable.

Alcoholic waxes, or plastics, are some-
times made, to be applied with a brush or
swab ; on application, the alcohol disappears
and the material hardens. A standard for-
mula (Lefort's) is: best white resin, one
pound; beef tallow, one ounce; melt, then
remove from fire and add eight ounces
alcohol. Keep in tightly closed bottles.
Sometimes a teaspoonful of turpentine is
added.

Whip-grafting.

Whip-grafting, or tongue-grafting, is em-
ployed in the nursery and on very small
stocks. It is not used in top-grafting
except now and then on small limbs.
The cion and stock should be of
approximately equal size. Each is
cut off in a slanting direction, and a
split or tongue is made near the
middle. The same shape is given to
cion and stock. The pictures sufficiently
illustrate how the work is done. (Figs.
1691-1693). The object of the tongue is to
1692. Whip- n°ld the parts together securely; it also
graft, before presents more contact. The cion is then
waxing. bound to the stock, preferably by means of

1694. Tree grown from a long-cion root-graft
The union is at D.

waxed cord. If the graft is above ground, the wounds
should be thoroughly waxed over the string. If the
graft is bekny ground, the tie will be all that is neces-
sary: the moist earth packed around the wound will
prevent evaporation and protect it.

The chief use of the whip-graft is in
root-grafting, which is employed largely
on apples and mostly at the West. In the
East, other things being equal, budded
apple trees are preferred to root-grafted
trees. In the West, however, it is neces-
sary to have apple trees on roots of known
hardiness. The seedling stocks are not of
known hardiness, even though the seeds
have come from the hardiest varieties. It
is therefore customary to use cions 6 to
12 inches long, grafted on pieces of roots
2 }4 to 4 inches long. (Fig. 1693.) The
graft is set so deep that only the top bud of
the cion projects above the surface. The
piece of root acts as a nurse, and roots
may start from the cion itself. (Fig.
1694.) When the tree is . transferred to
the orchard, the original root may be
cut off in case it is not very vigorous;
although this is not done if the union
seems to be good and the foster roots
are strong. This root-grafting is done
in winter (December and January pre-
ferred); the grafts are stored in clean
sawdust, sand or moss in a cool cellar,
and are set in nursery rows in the open
early in the spring, after the manner of
grape-cuttings.

The waxed string, with which
the whip-grafts are tied, may be
made by dropping a ball of yarn
into melted grafting- wax. In five
minutes the wax will have pene-
trated the ball, but the strand
can readily be unwound. The best
material for this purpose is No.
18 knitting-cotton. This is strong
enough to hold the work together,
and yet weak enough so that it
may be broken in the hands with-
out cutting the fingers. It will
ordinarily decay during the year,
and thereby not interfere with the growth of the tree.
If the grafting is performed in a room at a living tem-
perature, the waxed string should be soft enough to
stick to the stock without being tied. Four or five
turns are made around the union. Waxed manilla
paper, cut in narrow strips, is also used; also single
strand cotton "chain" or warp-thread, either waxed
or not waxed.

Any sharp knife with a handle large enough to be
grasped readily is useful for whip-grafting. The blade
should be thin, and the steel of best quality. The handle
should also be strong. Fig. 1695 shows a common form
of grafting-knife. Good shoe-knives may be used. This
and similar knives are in the market. A hone and whet-
stone should be near at hand, for the edge should be keen.

1695. Grafting-knife.

Veneer-grafting.

This style of grafting, which is considerably used
under glass with fancy and ornamental plants, consists
in simply champering the sufaces of cion and stock
and applying the one to the other. (Fig. 1696.) The
cion is bound to the stock by raffia or other material. If

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

1369

1696. Veneer-grafting.

the graft is in the open, the wounds are thoroughly
waxed; but in the house they may be covered merely
with moss. This style of union is used with herbaceous
plants, as well as on hard wood. Sometimes the stock
is severed at tne point of
union, as in Fig. 1696; but in
other cases it is not severed
nor headed back until the cion
has taken hold (Fig. 1697).
In the latter case, the stock
is not injured in case the
graft does not grow.

Writing of the propagation
of the tea plant under glass
(which is suggestive for other
plants in houses), Oliver says:
"Seedling stocks may be
grown in 4- or 5-inch pots
for the reception of cions by
the veneer method of graft-
ing. To have the plants in
perfect condition for work-
ing, it is necessary that they
be grown from the seedling
stage without a check, as the
healthier the plant the better
the chance of a successful
union. Another important
matter in this connection is that the stock plants
should not be allowed to form matted roots in small
pots; therefore, it will be found better to lift them
from the nursery and put them in pots previous to
the operation: or they may be grown and grafted
while in garden flats. If this last-named method is
chosen the plants should be situated far enough
apart in the flats to be easily handled. If the grafting
is performed while the stocks are in active growth,
the union will take place more quickly than when the
plants are in a dormant condition. The operation
should be performed in the early part of spring. Fig.
1698 shows how the incision in the stem should be pre-
pared. This should be made with a sharp knife and the
cut at the deepest part should not be more than one-
third of the diameter of the stem. The cion must be

shaped at the
base so that it
will fit neatly
into the place
prepared for it
on the stock.
It should then
^ be tied, and
afterward a
small quantity of sphag-
num moss should be tied
over the part where the
stock and cion come
together. Immediately
after the operation is
performed as above de-
scribed, the plants
should be placed in a
close shaded propagat-
ing-frame and kept there
until the union is
effected; this will take
place in a few weeks. The tem-
perature of the frame should
then be kept uniformly at 60°
to 65° F. If a layer of moss
be put under the pots and the
contents of the frame syringed
occasionally a favorably
humid atmosphere will result.
Where greenhouse accom-
1697. Veneer-grafting. modations are not available

for the propagating-frame a hotbed may be built out-
of-doors in a location where the sun will not have much
effect in raising the temperature. From 6 to 9 inches of
stable Utter and leaves will provide ample heat during
the spring. When it is found that the cions have made
connection with the stocks, air should gradually be

1698. Veneer-grafting.

admitted to the frames. Shortly after this the tops of
the stocks may be cut off close to the cions. Planting
out may be deferred till the cions have made their
first growth."

A form of veneer-graft is what is sometimes called
the side-graft. It is shown in Fig. 1699 (adapted from
Oliver).

Cion-budding.

When a woody cion is inserted underneath the bark
in the side of the stock, as a shield-bud is inserted, the
method is sometimes' known as cion-budding. In
describing a simple way of propagating the fig, Oliver
writes: "This method consists of preparing the stock
for the reception of the cion as in shield-budding. This
is done by making a transverse cut through the bark

1699. Side-grafting.

% inch in length. From the middle of this incision
another cut is made toward the main stem or root for
fully an inch. The bark is then pried up as seen in
Fig. 1700. Instead of inserting a single shield-bud, a
small twig having one terminal and one or two lateral
buds is used. The cion is prepared as follows: A long
scarf is made at one side through the pith and a thin
piece of the bark on the reverse side is removed. With

1370

GRAFTING

GRAFTING

the long cut facing the stock the cion is pushed deeply
into the place prepared for it, and is tied firmly with
raffia. The corners of the bark of the stock are brought
close to its own stem and bound firmly in that position.
Melted grafting-wax should then be put on, or narrow
strips of waxed cloth may be applied instead, to exclude
air and moisture. If possible, the cions should be
selected from branches not over Y<i inch in diameter
when they can be found of sufficient firmness of that
thickness. Small lateral shoots having a terminal bud
and only an inch or two in length and quite thin will
unite by this method very easily. It is not necessary
for the cions to be dormant, but they should be fully
matured and the leaves cut off to about ^ inch from
the buds. The bark slips readily from the time growth
begins in spring, so that the operation may be per-

1700. Cion-budding.

formed at any period during late spring and summer.
In the course of about two weeks after the operation
is performed, if the cions remain fresh, the probabilities
are that a union will have been effected. Part of the
top of the stock may then be removed to induce the
cion to start growth, and when it has made some head-
way the top of the stock may be cut off near the cion."

Bark-grafting.

Bark-grafting (Fig. 1701) is an excellent method of
grafting fairly large limbs, since it does not injure
the stock so much as does the cleft-graft. The cions are
cut thin and inserted between the bark and wood. The
bark is securely bound to hold it tight, and the entire
surface is waxed, as in cleft-grafting. This method is
called crown-grafting by the French and English.

This method is useful when it is necessary to graft
very large limbs, for the stub does not need to be split
and several cions may be set. When large limbs are
broken from apple and pear trees, the stub may be
trimmed and several cions set around it, to hasten the
healing and to afford strong shoots with which to renew
the part.

Herbaceous grafting.

Pelargoniums, chrysanthemums, cacti, and other
soft-wooded greenhouse plants are sometimes grafted
for the novelty of having more than one variety grow-
ing on the same root. Probably most herbaceous plants
can be grafted readily, with the exception of the
endogens, which do not lend themselves to the opera-
tion, although there are examples in which grafting
has been successful on them. To succeed with an her-

baceous cion, it is necessary that the room be rather
close and moist, so that evaporation will not be very
rapid. One should endeavor to secure the general con-
ditions that obtain in a good propagating-house. The
temperature should be kept rather below
the normal for that species until union has
taken place. It is usually best to cover the
union with moss or some other material
to protect the wound and to check
evaporation. Best results are secured
when the cion is firm in texture, as also in
the case of herbaceous cuttings. The kind
of graft is of less importance, although it
is customary to use the veneer-graft cions,
since there is less injury to the stock and
the outer surfaces are easily applied to
each other. The cion ordinarily consists
of one or two joints, and if the leaves are
large, they are cut in two, as in the mak-
ing of softwood cuttings.

Inarching, or grafting by approach.

In those cases in which union takes
place with much difficulty, it is possible
to effect the conjunction by allowing the
cion to grow fast to the stock before it is
severed from its own roots. The plant
which it is desired to have grow on the 1701. Bark-
stock is bent over to the stock, the sur- grafting,
faces of the two are exposed so that the
cambiums may be pressed close together, and the two
are then bound until union takes place. In some cases
a tongue is made in both the cion and the stock, much
as in whip-grafting, so that the surface of contact is
greater and the parts are held together more securely.
When the cion has become thoroughly established on
the stock, the cion is severed from its own root and the
top of the stock is cut off. This inarching or grafting
by approach is also used in the greenhouse when it is
desired to transfer the whole top or the whole branch
of one plant to another. The illustration (Fig. 1702)
shows such a case. Inarching is not much employed in
this country in a commercial way.

Inarching is sometimes employed to unite two
branches into one for the purpose of making a speci-
men fruit grow larger. If, for example, a twig of an
apple tree is inarched into a limb just back of a fruit,
the extra food-supply may cause that fruit to grow
larger, and a finer specimen may be secured. This use

of the graft is employed
only for the purpose of
securing extra-fine speci-
mens for exhibition or
other purposes.

The seedling - inarch
has recently been des-
cribed in detail by
Oliver (Bull. No. 202,
Bur. PI. Ind., U. S.
Dept. Agric.). Such
difficult subjects as the
mangosteen, litchi and
mango respond readily
to this method. The
idea is to inarch a very
young seedling on an
older stock, thereby sav-
ing time and securing
more wood for further
propagation. "Seedlings
raised from seeds of new
and rare trees, shrubs,
and vines may be induced
1702. Inarching the branches to grow very quickly if
of two plants. used as cions when a few

GRAFTING

GRAMMATOPHYLLUM

1371

weeks old by inarching to strong-growing plants of
other species of the same genus or in some cases on
species of other genera of the same family. This has
been done recently with such plants as chestnuts, wal-
nuts, hawthorns, oaks, and many others. It is not
necessarily done for the purpose of hastening the
flowering or the fruiting of new plants, but to give
quickly an abundance of material for propagation by
budding or grafting when the new material is assumed
to be valuable. If a hardwood seedling of hybrid origin
is tied to a large stock and they fail to unite, there is
little or no danger of losing the seedling, provided its
roots are kept damp during the period of making the
attempt. If the inarch is not successful, the seedling
can be repotted and grown in the usual way."

In Fig. 1703 is shown the method of seedling-inarch.
A rose seedling is grown near the side of a pot, it having

1703. Seedling-inarch of the rose.

been pricked off into a 2-inch pot shortly after the
cotyledons are developed; it is next shown, after two
or three weeks' growth, removed from the pot and tied
in a cloth to facilitate handling, a little fresh soil being
held in place by the covering; the ball is then secured
to the stock, and the seedling is inarched by chamfering
the surfaces in contact. When union is complete, the
root of the seedling is removed.

Literature.

For further discussion of the whole subject of graft-
ing, the reader is referred to current works on fruit-
growing; also to the two American special books on
the subject — Fuller's "Propagation of Plants" and
Bailey's "Nursery-Book." In English, Baltet's "Bud-
dins; and Grafting" is standard. It is an English version
of "L'Art de Greffer." L. H. B.

GRAHAMIA (Robert Graham, Scotch botanist, died
1845). Two genera have been made of this name. The
accepted one is of the Portulacacesc, comprising one
species (G. bracteata, Gill.) of extra-tropical South
America; this plant is not recorded in cultivation. The
other Grahamia (of Sprengel) is now referred to
Cephalophora; and Cephalophora is by Hoffmann
(Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien, iv:5) included in
Helenium. Of this Grahamia, G. aromatica is offered
abroad ; it is accounted for under Helenium.

GRAMMANGIS (Greek, gramma; perhaps referring
to the markings of the flowers). Orchidaceae, tribe
Vdndese. Epiphytic orchids grown in greenhouses.

Pseudobulbs short and thick, with foliage-lvs. only
at their summit, hence not inclosed in the If .-sheaths:
fl.-clusters from the base, many-fld., pendulous; fls.
not spurred; middle sepals strongly concave, lateral
sepals somewhat sac-shaped at base, free, spreading;
petals ascending, somewhat different in form and color;
lip 3-lobed, with erect lateral lobes and recurved middle

lobe; column slender, winged. — Species about 4, of
Madagascar and Java. Nearest Cymbidium, differ-
ing chiefly in having the foliage-lvs. only at the end of
the pseudobulb, and the rostellum crescent-shaped (in
Cymbidium it is triangular) . From Grammatophyllum
(which see), Grammangis differs in the attachment of
its pollen-masses and in the position of its foliage-lvs.
Best cult, in baskets hung near the glass, where the
light is most intense. The plants can also be grown
successfully in pots placed near the glass, or fastened
to blocks, but in the latter case they must be given more
water.

Ellisii, Reichb. f. (Grammatophyllum f!llisii, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs 7-11 in. long, each bearing 5-6 Ivs.: lys.
1J3-2 ft. long: sepals yellow, elegantly marked with
dark transverse lines; petals and lip pale pink, the latter
with a strong mid-nerve. Summer. Madagascar. B.M.
5179. C.O. 2.

G. Hiittonii, Benth. & Hook. (Cymbidium Huttonii, Hook. f.).
Pseudobulbs of a single internode, 3-5 in. long, elongated, obovoid,
green: Ivs. in pairs, 6-8 in. long, 2-2}^ in. wide, dark green, coria-
ceous: raceme about 10-fld., drooping; sepals obovate, recurved,
light brown outside, streaked transversely inside with chocolate-
color; lip greenish, with chocolate stripes. June. Java. B.M. 5676.
O.R. 14:153. G.M. 48:467. G.C. III. 38:63.

T. H. KEARNEY.

GRAMMANTHES (Greek, letter-flower; the petals of
the full-colored varieties have a darker mark like a
letter V, whence also the name of the synonymous
genus Vauanthes). Crassulacese. One small very vari-
able half-hardy, succulent annual, with thick fleshy
leaves and yellow flowers, growing about 6 inches high
and is used for edgings, baskets and pots.

Erect, forking: calyx bell-shaped, semi-5-fld.; corolla-
tube as long as the calyx; limb 5-6-lobed: carpels 5-6,
many-ovuled, with awl-shaped styles: scales minute,
or evanescent: follicles many-seeded. In sandy ground
in the western part of the Cape region, S. Afr.

dichotoma, DC. (G. gentianoides, DC.). Glabrous,
somewhat glaucous: branches forking: sts. rigid,
filiform: Ivs. opposite, distant, oblong, ovate or nearly
linear: fls. orange, yellow, or creamy white, and marked
as above described. F.S. 5:518. Var. vera, (Harv.),
has Ivs. ovate-oblong: limb of corolla ovate-oblong, a
third longer than the stamens. Var. chloraeflora, (Harv.),
has Ivs. oblong or linear: fls. a little larger; limb of
corolla ovate-lanceolate, twice as long as the stamens.
B.M. 4607, 6401. There are other named forms. Some
of them are very depauperate in their native region,
some of them only 1-2 in. high. WILHELM MILLER.

GRAMMATOCARPUS: Scyphanthus.

GRAMMATOPHYLLUM (Greek, gramma, a line or
streak, and phyllon, leaf; probably referring to the
parallel leaf- veins). Orchidacese, tribe Vdndese. A
group of perhaps 8 or 9 epiphytic species, of which
about half are well-defined, inhabiting the islands from
Madagascar to the Philippines and New Guinea. The
genus includes some of the largest and showiest of
cultivated orchids.

Roots numerous: sts. or pseudobulbs many-lvd.: Ivs.
long, ribbon-shaped, thick, evergreen: racemes long-
stalked, loosely many-fld., springing from near the base
of the pseudobulb; fls. large, not obviously spurred;
sepals and petals nearly equal, spreading; lip compara-
tively small, with margin entirely free, 3-lobed, with
erect lateral lobes; column slender. Allied genera are
Grammangis and Cymbidium, from both of which
Grammatophyllum differs in having the pollen masses
each borne upon an appendage of the stalk, while in
the two related genera they are attached to a common
stalk without special appendages.

The few species in cultivation are such infrequent
bloomers that the flowering of a fine example is some-
thing of an event. They are propagated from pieces of
the pseudobulbs. The plants are best grown in good-

1372 GRAMMATOPHYLLUM

GRAPE

sized and well-drained pots filled with peat, and need
considerable water while actively growing. They
should be allowed to rest occasionally. Season of bloom
and further cultural details with each species.

A. Pseudobulbs very long, comparatively slender.
speciosum, Blume (G. Sanderianum, Hort.). LETTER
PLANT. Fig. 1704. Pseudobulbs 6-10 ft. long, slender,

1704. Grammatophyllum
speciosum.

flexuous: Ivs. 2-ranked, 1-2 ft.
long: fl. -clusters open, some-
times 6 ft. long from the base
of the stalk; fls. numerous, 6
in. diam., clear yellow, spotted
with deep red purple. Winter.
Malayan region, notably
Java. G.C. III. 7:297; 13:1;
22:145, 147; 33:391; 40:86;
42:169, 170. B.M. 5157.—
This magnificent plant,
one of the very largest of its
family, has been well-named
the "queen of orchids."
A huge individual growing on
a tree in the open at the Botanical Garden of Buiten-
zorg, Java, has the following dimensions: diam. of
whole plant, 18 ft.; collar about the trunk of the tree
formed by the closely interwoven roots, 7% ft. diam.,
2]/z ft. thick, and over 3 ft. high; fl. -clusters (appearing
at the same time) 50-60, each 2 ft. or more in length
and bearing 70-100 fls. And it must be remembered
that this huge plant is an epiphyte! Temperature,
especially soil temperature, should be carefully regu-
lated in growing this plant. Owing to the brighter light,
it does better in American than in European hothouses.

AA. Pseudobulbs comparatively short and thick, leafy

only at summit.
B. Fls. greenish or yellowish, spotted with brown.

Fenzlianum, Reichb. f. (G. Measuresianum, Hort.).
Lvs. 4-6: fl. -clusters sometimes 15 at one time, each
over 5 ft. long and containing over 60 fls., sepals and
petals narrow, greenish yellow, tipped and spotted with
brown; lip streaked with purple. April. Isl. of Amboina,
Philippine Isls.(?). J.H. III. 29:123. G.M. 34:334.
Var. Measuresianum, Hort. (G. Measuresianum, Hort.).
Fls. larger and brighter; sepals and petals emerald-
green, marked with brown-purple. G.W. 2, p. 73.

Rumphianum, Miq. (G. Guilelmi II, Kranzl. ).
Pseudobulbs 6-8 in. long, ovoid or fusiform: Ivs. 1-2 ft.
long: raceme nodding or hanging, 3-4 ft. long from the
base of the stalk; fls. often 30-35, 3 in. diam., green out-
side, green blotched with brown-purple within; sepals
and petals similar; lip purple-veined, downy. Molucca
Isls., Borneo, New Guinea, and the Philippines (?).
B.M. 7507. C.O. 1. — A large, showy species.

BB. Fls. brown, streaked with green.

multifldrum, Lindl. Lvs. 3-4: fl. -clusters nearly 2 ft.

long. Summer. Philippine Isls. P.M. 6:217. — This

very desirable species has not yet found its way into

American trade. It is easily grown, either in a pot filled

with a well-drained "compost of heath soil and pots-
herds," or merely fastened to copper wire and hung
from the roof.

G. fillisii, Lindl. =Grammangis Ellisii. — G. indeterminate, Hort.
=(?).-G. levictum, Hort.= (?). T R KEARNEY-

GEORGE V. NAsn.f

GRAPE. Plants of the genus Vitis, and the berries
thereof, abundantly grown for fruit.

The grape is one of the oldest of domesticated fruits.
It is probable that wine was made from it before the
plant was brought into cultivation. It seems to have
been cultivated at the dawn of history. Its product
was apparently no rarity in Noah's time.

The grape of history is the Old World Vitis vinifera,
the "wine-bearing Vitis," probably native to Asia. The
paramount use of the grape always has been the pro-
duction of wine. A secondary value is the production
of raisins; and another is fruit for the dessert and for
culinary uses. Great efforts were made to introduce
the cultivation of the European grape into the Ameri-
can colonies, but they resulted in failure. It was not
until the latter part of the last century that the chief
causes of this failure became known: the depredations
of the phylloxera and mildew, — and even then the
causes were discovered largely because these American
parasites had made incursions into the vineyards of
Europe. In the meantime, one or two of the native
species of Vitis had been ameliorated, and American
viticulture had become established on a unique and
indigenous basis, and the fruits are grown to eat rather
than to drink. So fully did these early American ven-
tures follow European customs that the grapes were
usually planted on terraced slopes, as they are on the
Rhine and about the continental lakes. Those early
experiments finally failed because of the black-rot.

North America is richest in species of Vitis (see the
article Vitis). These species range from ocean to ocean
and from the British possessions to the tropics. The
species that has been most improved is Vitis Labrusca
of the Atlantic slope, although it seems to possess less
native merit than some of the southwestern species-

1705. The Labrusca or Fox-Grape type. Niagara (at left) ; Brighton.

GRAPE

GRAPE

1373

types. Of this species are the Concord and Catawba
types (Fig. 1705). To some extent it has been hybrid-
ized with Vitis vinifera (as in Agawam, Lindley, Barry,
and others of E. S. Rogers' varieties), and with native
species. Already a number of the popular varieties

1706. Horticultural product of Vitis aestivalis — Onderdonk, seed-
ling of Herbemont. ( X H)

represent such wide departures that they cannot be
referred positively to any species. Of these, Delaware
and Isabella are examples. The second most important
species, in point of amelioration, is Viiis sestwalis, from
which several of the best wine grapes have sprung
(Fig. 1706). The post-oak grape (Vitis Lincecumii, or
V. aestivalis var Lincecumii) of the Southwest, is one of
the most promising species, and already has given
excellent results in hybridization. See Fig. 1707. The
Muscadine (V. rotundifolia) of the South has given the
Scuppernong and a few less known forms. (Fig. 1708.)
Beyond these species, there are none which has given
varieties of great commercial importance, although con-
siderable has been done in improving them. Some of
the best of the wild species are practically untouched;
there is only a comparatively small area of our great
country which has yet developed large interests in
grape-growing: the grape-types of a century hence,
therefore, may be expected to be very unlike the present-
day varieties. For an extended sketch of American
grape history, see Bailey, "Evolution of Our Native
Fruits" (1898). The American grape literature is
voluminous. More than fifty authors have written on
the subject. Yet there is very little of this writing
which catches the actual spirit of American grape-
growing; this fact, together with the technicality and
diversity of the subject itself, makes it seem wise to
devote considerable space to the grape in this Cyclo-
pedia.

While the native grape was being ameliorated in the

East, the Old World Vitis vinifera was becoming
established on the Pacific slope. In fact, Vitis vinifera
has there run wild. The phylloxera and mildew are not
native there, and the climate better suits the species.
The Pacific coast viticulture, therefore, is of the Old
World kind.

We now know that the phylloxera or root-louse can be
evaded when the vinifera grape is grafted on native or
resistant stocks, and the mildew can be combated by
fungicides. Of late jrcars, therefore, new efforts have
been made to grow the wine grape in the eastern states,
and in the southern latitudes some of these experiments
promised well for a time. However, so great attention
is required to produce a satisfactory product as to dis-
courage the growing of vinifera varieties in the open in
the East. Vinifera types will always be special grapes
in the East, adapted only to particular conditions, for
it is not to be expected that they can compete with the
more easily grown and cosmopolitan varieties of the
native species. Under glass, however, the vinifera
varieties thrive; and a special discussion is given here-
with (page 1388) to this branch of the subject.

The greatest development of the native grape indus-
try has taken place in Ontario, New York, and Ohio,
bordering lakes and large streams. These areas are the
lower Hudson River Valley; the region of the central-
western New York lakes; the Lake Erie region of New
York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; the so-called peninsular
region of Ontario lying between Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario. There are also important grape interests in
Michigan, and other northern parts. There is consider-
able interest in grape-culture in the cooler parts of
Georgia and Alabama, and there are enlarging areas
in the country extending from the Ozark region south-
ward. Nearly all the country, excepting the northern-
most parts, raises grapes, but in most cases the grow-
ing of them can-
not be said to
be extensive
enough to be
called an indus-
try. Although
the grape sec-
tions of the
North follow the
water areas
where the land
is often steep,
all grape-grow-
ers prefer nearly
level land. The
Old World plan-
tations are
largely on very
steep lands ; such
lands, by virtue
of their warmth
and drainage,
are thought to
give an extra
quality of wine.
These ideas were
brought to this
country, and
many of our
early vineyards
were planted on
terraced slopes.
But we grow
grapes for a dif-
ferent purpose
from the Euro-
peans, and land
is cheap and
labor is dear. 1707. Hybrid of Vitis Lincecumii and a fox-
O 1 d World grape derivative— Husmann. ( X SA)

1374

GRAPE

GRAPE

methods cannot be followed in the American commer-
cial plantations.

The cosmopolitan American grape, of the native
type, is the Concord, which originated with Ephraim
W. Bull, of Concord, Massachusetts (Fig. 1709.) Other
varieties of leading prominence in the North are
Catawba, Delaware, Niagara, Worden.

1708. The Muscadine grape. — Vitis rotundifolia.

The ideal bunch of grapes is of medium size for the
variety, compact, uniformly developed and ripened
throughout, containing no small or diseased berries,
and with the bloom intact. A very dense or crowded
cluster is not the most desirable, for all the berries
cannot develop fully, and the cluster is not easily hand-
led when the fruit is eaten. Fig. 1710 shows a cluster
of good shape and compactness: Fig. 1711 is too broad
and irregular; Figs. 1712, 1713, are rather too dense
and compact.

The American grape is essentially a dessert fruit. It
is eaten from the hand. There are several manufactured
products, but, with the exception of wine, they have
been of minor importance until recent years, although
there are many large wine-cellars in New York and
Ohio, and the product is of excellent quality. Unfer-
mented grape juice is now manufactured in great quan-
tities and has become an important article of commerce
(see Cyclo. Amer. Agric. Vol. II, p. 178). The lack of
secondary domestic uses of the grape has been one
reason for the very serious gluts in the markets. How-
ever, one year with another, the profit on a good vine-
yard may be expected to exceed that on the staple
farm crops.

Pruning and training.

A. grape-vine is pruned in order to reduce the amount
of wood (that is, to thin or to limit the amount of fruit),
and to keep the plant within manageable shape and
bounds. A vine is trained in order to keep it off the
ground, out of the way of the workmen, and so to
arrange the fruit that it will be well exposed to light
and air. In order to understand the pruning of grapes,
the operator must fully grasp this principle: Fruit is
borne on wood of the present season, which arises from
wood of the previous season. To illustrate: A growing
shoot, or cane of 1914, makes buds. In 1915 a shoot
arises from each bud; and near the base of this shoot
the grapes are borne (one to four clusters on each).
This is shown in Fig. 1714. The 1914 shoot is shown
at the top. The 1915 shoot bears four clusters of grapes.

While every bud on the 1914 shoot may produce shoots
or canes in 1915, only the strongest of these new shoots
will bear fruit. The skilled grape-grower can tell by the
looks of his cane (as he prunes it, in winter) which buds
will give rise to t'he grape-producing wood the follow-
ing season. The larger and stronger buds usually give
best results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout,
or if it is very weak and slender, he does not expect
good results from any of its buds. A hard well-ripened
cane the diameter of a man's little finger is the ideal size.

The second principle to be mastered is this: A vine
should bear only a limited number of clusters, — say
from thirty to eighty. A shoot bears clusters near its
base : beyond these clusters the shoot grows into a long,
leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned
to a shoot. If the vine is strong enough to bear sixty
clusters, thirty good buds must be left at the annual
pruning. How much a vine should be allowed to bear
will depend on the variety, distance apart of the vines,
strength of the soil, age of the vine, system of pruning,
and the ideals of the grower. The Concord is one of the
strongest and most productive of grapes. Twelve to
fifteen pounds is a fair crop for a mature vine; twenty
pounds is a heavy crop; twenty-five pounds is a very
heavy crop. An average cluster of Concord will weigh
one-fourth to one-third of a pound. The vine may be
expected to carry from thirty to sixty clusters; and the
annual pruning will leave from fifteen to thirty buds.

Since the bearing wood springs from new canes, it
follows that the fruit of the grape is each year borne
farther from the main trunk of the vine. Observe that
the fruit of wild vines is borne beyond reach when they
climb over thickets and trees. It is a prime object of
the grape-grower to obviate this difficulty. The third
principle in the pruning of grape-vines is this: The
bearing wood should be kept near the original trunk or
head of the vine. When one cane is sending out fruit-
bearing shoots, another shoot is taken out from near
the main trunk or head to furnish fruit-bearing shoots

1709. Monument to the Concord grape and Ephraim W. Bull.
Erected by the town of Concord.

for the next year; and the other or older cane is entirely
cut away after the fruit is off. That is, the wood is con-
stantly renewed; and the new shoots which are to give
bearing wood the following year are called renewals.
Some systems of grape-training renew back to the root
every year or two, and these have been called renewal
systems; but every system of grape-pruning must
practise renewal in one way or another.

GRAPE

GRAPE

1375

1712. Moore Early.

1713. Massasoit.

1710. Grein Golden. A good grape cluster.

1711. Eaton.

An old system of renewal was by means of spurs.
Fig. 1715 illustrates this. The horizontal part is a per-
manent arm or branch. We will suppose that it grew in
1912. In 1913 a shoot grew upward. It bore two or
three clusters of fruit. In autumn it was cut back to a,
two buds being left to supply the shoots of the succeed-
ing year. This short branch is now called a spur. Only
one shoot was wanted for the next year, but two buds
were left in case one should be injured. In 1914, a
branch grew from one of these buds: it bore fruit: in
the fall it was cut back to b. In 1915 a shoot will grow
from one of the buds, c. Thus the spur elongates year
by year, becoming a forking, complicated, stubby
branch. After a few years it may become weak: the
grower sees this, and if a new shoot should start from
the main arm near the base of the spur, he encourages
it and cuts off all of the old spur: thus he renews back
again to the main vine. Shoots from adventitious or
secondary buds are likely to spring from the main arm
or the spur at any time. These are usually weak and
are removed, but now and then a strong one arises.
Spur-pruning is now rarely used except in grapes grown
on arbors or under glass, in which cases it is necessary
to have a long, permanent trunk. On arbors it is best
to carry one arm or trunk from each root to the top of

framework. Each year the lateral canes are
cut back to spurs of two or three buds. The prun-
ing of glasshouse grapes is discussed under Grapes
under glass (page 1389).

The current systems of pruning renew to a head— K>r
to the main trunk — each year. The trunk is carried
up to the desired height — to one of the wires of the
trellis — and one or more canes are taken out from
its top each year. The object is to keep the bearing
wood near the main trunk and to obviate the use of
spurs. This type of pruning is illustrated in Fig. 1716.
This engraving shows the head of a vine seven years
old, and on which two canes are allowed to remain after
each annual pruning. The part extending from b to f
and d is the base of the bearing cane of 1914. In the
winter of 1914-15, this cane is cut
off at d, and the new cane, e, is left
to make the bearing wood of
1915. Another cane arose from
/, but it was too weak to leave for
fruiting. It was, therefore, cut
away. The old stub, b, f, d, will
be cut away a year hence, in the
winter of 1915-16. In the mean-
time, a renewal cane will have
grown from the stub c, which is
left for that purpose, and the old
cane, b d, will be cut off just be-
yond it, between c and /. In this
way, the bearing wood is kept
close to the head of the vine. The
wound a shows where an old stub
was cut away this winter, 1914-15, while b shows where
one was cut off the previous winter. A scar on the
back of the head, which does not show in the illustra-
tion, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
years ago, in the winter of 1912-13. This method of
pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care
is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the head will
not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock
or trunk.

Two common styles of training are in use in the

1715. Pruning to a
spur.

1716. Head of a vine. Showing
the system of taking out the
renewals.

1714. Fruit-bearing of the grape.

1376

GRAPE

GRAPE

northern states, but each of them practises essentially
the system of renewals described in the last paragraph.
One style of training carries the trunk only to the lowest
wire of the trellis. The canes — usually two in number —
are tied horizontally on the bottom wire, and the bear-
ing shoots are tied, as they grow, to the two wires above

1717. Upright system of grape-training.

At the winter pruning, all the top will be cut away except two
canes near the center; these two will be laid down in opposite
directions on the bottom wire for the next season's fruiting.

(Fig. 1717). This is an upright system. The other style
carries the trunk to the top wire. The canes are tied
on the top wire, and the bearing shoots hang. This is
the drooping or Kniffin system. If the shoots run out
on the top wire by clinging to it by tendrils, they are
torn loose, so that they will hang: this is a very neces-
sary practice. There is controversy as to the compara-
tive merits of these systems, which proves that each
has merit. It is probable that the upright system is
better for the slender or shorter varieties, as Dela-
ware, and also for those whose shoots stand erect, as
Catawba. The Kniffin has distinct merit for strong-
growing varieties, as Concord; it is also cheaper, since
it requires no summer tying. This system is well
illustrated (as given by E. W. Williams in "Garden
and Forest," I: 461) in Figs. 1718-1720.

One- or two-year-old vines are planted either in the
fall or early spring. At planting, the vine is cut back
to three or four buds, and the roots are shortened (Fig.
1724) . If all buds start, the strongest one or two may be
allowed to grow. The canes arising from this bud should
be staked and allowed to grow through the season; or
in large plantations the first-year canes may be allowed
to lie on the ground. The second year this cane should
be cut back to the same number of eyes as the first
year. After growth begins in the second spring, one of
the strongest shoots should be allowed to remain. This
cane may be grown to a single stake through the
second summer. At the end of the second year the cane
may be cut back to the bottom wire of the trellis, if
upright training is to be employed. The cane may be
strong enough at this time to be made the permanent
trunk of the Kniffin training, but in most cases the
trunk is not carried to the top wire until the third year.

The main pruning is performed when the vine is
dormant. The ideal time is January and February in

the North, although

begun in Novem-
ber if the area is
large. Pruning in
spring causes the
vine to bleed, but
bleeding is not in-
jurious. But late
pruning interferes
with tillage, and
the buds are likely to be injured after they are
swollen. Summer pruning is now practised only to the
extent of pulling out suckers and weak shoots, and
even this is not always done. Heading-in the vine in
summer is likely to start side growths, which are
useless and troublesome.

1718. The Kniffin system of
grape-training.

Propagation.

The grape grows readily from seeds, which may be
kept over winter and germinated in the house early in
the spring. They may even be planted in beds in the
open, but the proportion of failures will be greater.
Seeds produce new varieties, and they are used only in
an experimental way.

The commercial propagation of grapes is accom-
plished by means of hardwood cuttings. These cuttings
are taken in the winter from the trimmings of vine-
yards. In all ordinary cases they are made of two or
three buds' length, preferably three (Fig. 1721). They
are cut as soon as the canes are trimmed, tied in small
bundles, and these bundles are then buried half their
depth in damp sand in a cool cellar. By spring the
cuttings will be more or less callused. The cuttings
are planted in the open on the approach of warm
weather. A loose loamy soil is chosen, and it is well
and deeply prepared. The cuttings are inserted until
only the upper bud stands at the surface of the ground.
These cuttings are placed 6 to 8 inches apart in rows,
and the rows are far enough apart to allow of horse
cultivation. These cuttings may give plants large
enough for sale the following autumn; but it is usually
preferred to let the plants grow two years before they
are put upon the market. In such cases it is customary
in many of the best nurseries, to transplant at the end
of the first season. When wood is scarce, the canes are
sometimes cut to single eyes. In this case about an
inch of wood is left on either side of the bud. Single-eye
cuttings are nearly always started under glass, prefera-
bly on the greenhouse bench. If they are started in
February, they will be large enough for transplanting

1719. The Kniffin vine before
pruning.

1720. The vine after
pruning.

in a well-prepared seed-bed very early in the spring.
Greenwood cuttings are sometimes used in the summer
with new and rare varieties, but they are not in general
favor. In California, rooted vines of one year are
preferred; and in soil in which cuttings root readily,
they are sometimes planted directly in the vineyard.
The grape is easily grafted. Because of the flexible
nature of the vine, however, it is customary to make the
graft below the surface of the ground. An ordinary
cleft-graft is usually employed. The whole vine is cut
off 4 or 5 inches below the surface, and the graft is
inserted in the same fashion as in apple or pear trees.
The surface may then be waxed or covered with clay
or other material, to keep the water out of the cleft,
although if the earth is firmly packed around the
graft and no water stands, the union may be perfectly
satisfactory without any cover. (Figs. 1722, 1723.)
Vines of any age may be grafted. It is important that
the cions be perfectly dormant. These cions are taken
and stored in the same way as cuttings. The grafting
should be done very early in the spring, before the sap
starts. Grafting may also be performed late in the
spring, after all danger of bleeding is over; but, in that
case, it is more difficult to keep the cions dormant, and

GRAPE

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1377

the growth is not likely to be so great the first season.
Vineyards composed of unprofitable varieties may be
changed to new varieties very readily by this means.
Vinifera varieties can also be grafted on our common
phylloxera-resistant stocks by the same method.
Almost any method of grafting can be
employed upon the grape-vine if the work is
done beneath the surface.

Insects and diseases.

• The grape is amenable to many insect and
fungous attacks. The most serious difficulty
is the phylloxera, which, however, is practi-
cally unknown as an injurious pest on the
native grapes. On the vinifera varieties it is
exceedingly serious, and it is working great
devastation in many of the vineyards of the
Old World and of the Pacific coast. The most
practicable means of dealing with this pest is
to graft the vinifera vines on native or resis-
tant roots.

The mildew and black-rot are the most seri-
ous of the fungous enemies in the central and
eastern parts of the continent. Both these
diseases cause the berries to decay. They
also attack the leaves, particularly the mildew,
causing the leaves to fall and preventing the
grapes from maturing. It is the mildew
that has worked such havoc in European
vineyards. The mildew is most serious on
thin-leaved and smooth-leaved varieties, as
the Delaware. It produces yellowish patches
on the leaves, with frost-like colonies on the
1721 under sides. It causes the berries to decay
Common with a gray and finally a brown rot, the
3-budcut- berries usually remaining small and firm but
grape! no^ P^tly wrinkled. The black-rot causes
the berries to become very hard, dry and shriv-
eled, and the epidermis is covered with minute pimples.
(Fig. 1286, Vol. II.) The treatment for both these
diseases is the same — spraying with bordeaux mixture.
In regions in which the diseases have not been very
prevalent, it is usually sufficient to begin the spraying
after the fruit has begun to set, and to spray two or
three times, as the case seems to require. When the
diseases have been very prevalent, however, it may be
well to begin before the buds swell in the spring. In
infested vineyards, the foliage and diseased berries
should be raked up and burned in the fall.

The anthracnose or scab (Sphaceloma ampelinurri) is
a very serious fungous disease. It is most apparent on
the fruit, where it makes a hard, scabby patch. Its
most serious work, however, occurs on the stems of the
clusters and on the young growth, where it makes
sunken, discolored areas, and where it interferes seri-
ously with the growth of the parts. It is not so easily
controlled as the mildew and the black-rot. Careful
attention to pruning away all the diseased wood and
burning it will help in controlling the disease. Before
growth starts, spray the vines, trellis and posts with
sulfate of iron solution. After the leaves open, use the
bordeaux mixture.

In grape-houses the powdery mildew (Uncinula spi-
ralis) often does much damage. It also occurs in the
open vineyard, but it is usually not serious there. It
appears as a very thin, dust-like covering on the leaves.
It sometimes attacks the berries, causing them to
remain small or to crack. This fungus lives on the sur-
face, and is therefore readily controlled in grape-houses
by dusting with flowers of sulfur or by the fumes of
evaporated sulfur.

The oidium is the most prevalent fungous disease in
California. It is controlled by dust-sprays of sulfur
(page 1387).

Many other insects and diseases prey upon the grape,
but those mentioned above are widespread and may be

88

considered as perhaps the standard parasites. (See Vol
II, pp. 1031, 1053.)

Literature.

The American book literature of the grape is nearly
as large as that of all the tree-fruits combined. Proba-
bly 100 books, counting the various editions, have been
published in North America since Adlum's volume in
1823 (see "Evolution of Our Native Fruits," pp. 117-
126). The earlier books were founded largely on Euro-
pean practices. The leading current works are: "Bush-
berg's Descriptive Catalogue and Grape Growers' Man-
ual;" Mitzky's "Our Native Grape;" Fuller's "Grape
Culturist;" Husmann's "American Grape Growing and
Wine Making." For the Pacific slope, Husmann's
"Grape Culture and Wine Making in California,"
Wickson's "California Fruits," and Eisen's "Raisin
Industry" are useful guides. Detailed discussions of
pruning and methods of training are contained in
"The Pruning-Book." A standard European mono-
graph is Foex's "Cours Complet de Viticulture." The
recent standard American works are Munson's "Foun-
dations of American Grape Culture," and Hedrick's
"Grapes of New York," which are notable contribu-
tions to horticultural literature. L jj g

Grapes in the North (Canada).

Any section in which grapes will thrive without
winter protection may be said to be a commercial
section. For home use they are grown far north by
covering with earth or litter during the winter. When
the leaves are falling or have fallen in autumn, the
vines are pruned — fan system, with the old stalks very
close to the ground, and laid flat upon the earth. Here
they are left under their straw or earthy covering
until danger of frost is past, the following spring, when
the covering is removed and the canes tied to the wires.
But this is expensive and the method is not commercial.
For market purposes, grapes are grown with one of
two main objects in view: either for wine (sweet or
fermented) or table and dessert purposes. The purpose
determines the variety. Concords and varieties ap-
proaching it in type and quality are the choice for
the former purpose, while for the latter the variety
is determined by the season and the
market demand. In the former case,
also, the number of varieties is limited,
while in the latter they are numerous,
ranging from the earliest, Champion,
to the latest, Vergennes, and inter-
mediate varieties of all colors and
grades.

1722. Cleft-graft-
ing the grape.

1723. Cleft-grafting the grape.

Grapes, unlike peaches and cherries, are not subject
to very great fluctuations in price and yield. They are
comparatively steady in their returns, and, while
never advertising themselves by enormous yields and
profits, are ever pushing to the front in acreage, yield
to the acre and importance. The acreage increase has
been very rapid until now New York, the leading
northern state of the United States, which thirty-five
years ago had but a small acreage, today has more

1378

GRAPE

GRAPE

1724. The trimming
of the grape-vine at
planting.

than 70,000 acres, and Ontario, the leading province
of the Dominion, has approximately 14,000 acres. The
rapid increase has not been because of high prices, but
rather steady average prices from $18 to $30 a ton,
delivered at the winery, or an equal price f.o.b. the

shipping-station. The
average yield has not
been over two tons to
the acre, but, under
good conditions, with
intelligent manage-
ment, an average of
four to six tons is not
uncommon.

Soils and location.

Grapes are grown on
all types of soils,
on many sites,
in various loca-
tions. But the
loams and clays
with good drain-
age, the sites
with good air-
circulation, and
the locations
that are reason-
ably free from
frost are preferred.
Quality is to a large
extent determined by
soil. Some of the
wineries will accept
only fruit that is grown
on clay soils. The prod-
uct is more uniform,
it ripens more regularly
and the sugar-content is higher. Also some cooperative
companies that are catering to a special trade, advise
their members to plant only on heavy soils because the
grapes are sweeter and of higher quality. The ideal
soil, however, is the rich, deep, alluvial, easily drained
loams that have taken centuries to build up from the
washing of the hillsides toward the margins of the
lakes and rivers.

The site is of importance for two reasons, those of
air-circulation and sunlight, both of which serve the
same purpose: to assist the grower in his fight against

disease. Disease can live only in conditions that favor
it, and light and air are its hereditary enemies. Site
is also often discussed with reference to early bud-
development and late spring frosts, but its importance
has been overdrawn. The number of vineyards injured
annually in this manner in the commercial districts is
very small.

Location (and by that is here meant the situation of
a district) is of extreme importance. In the Niagara
Peninsula, Ontario, — the largest grape-growing center
in Canada, — the aspect is north, with a hill in the rear,
and facing the waters of Lake Ontario. Here the crop
naturally varies, but it never fails. The same applies

1725. A vineyard in its first summer.

1726. Illustrating the bracing of the end post in a fence or trellis.

to the best parts of New York State, the commercial
sections of the one being but continuations of the other.
The favored spots in Ontario are not on the shore of
the lake but rather just below the escarpment where
the water has less influence. Grapes on the shore some-
times fail to ripen well and the quality is consequently
inferior. Because of this, many vineyards on the shore
have been removed in late years, while the interior
plantings have largely increased. If the volume of
water were smaller, the influence would be sufficient
only for frost-protection; but, where it is so large, it
retards early development. The water influence is strik-
ing, as the fruits (peaches, for example) ripen from six to
ten days later on the shore than two to four miles inland.

Stock and pruning.

One-year-old plants are the choice for planting.

These should be well grown and healthy. Two-year-
old plants are often only one-year culls. The
plants are set as early in the spring as pos-
sible on land that has been previously pre-
pared by growing a cultivated crop. Plants
set in sod or on unprepared land dp not
thrive, and poor growth the first year is not
made up two years later. The stock is
heeled-in as soon as it comes from the nur-
sery, but is left heeled-in only until the
ground is ready for planting, which is as early
as possible. When planting, time is saved by
plowing a furrow, sometimes by throwing out
two furrows, one each way. A man with a
spade deepens this, or loosens the soil in the
bottom, and then packs it again firmly around
the roots. Before planting, all broken and
damaged roots are cut away and sometimes
the healthy ones are cut back. (Fig. 1724.)
The tops are cut back to two to four buds.
Distances of planting vary greatly, depending
on the variety and the ideas of the planter.
The popular distances are 7 by 10 feet to
8 by 10 feet for the small-growing varieties,
to 9 by 11 feet for the larger-growing varie-
ties. A few of the small-growing varieties
are planted 6 by 9 feet, but this is excep-
tional. The first year the vines are allowed to

GRAPE

GRAPE

1379

1727. Tying with
wire. The first move-
ment.

run as they will. (Fig. 1725.) The posting is done the
second or third year. This consists of driving posts
sharpened at one end or digging holes and setting
them about 21 to 27 feet apart. One post is set for
each three vines. The end posts are either braced the
same as ordinary fence-posts or anchored. (Fig. 1726.)
Various anchors are used,
such as large stones buried
in the ground, cement used
the same as stones, or a
patent anchor which con-
sists of a V-shaped piece
of iron to which is attached
a wire. This is driven in
the ground to a depth of
30 to 36 inches. The posts
are 8 feet in length, usually
cedar or chestnut,
and cost from 15
. to 25 cents each —
an average of 20
cents. The wiring
is done the second or third
year, preferably the second
year, and consists of
stretching two No. 9 gal-
vanized wires the entire
length of the row. The

first is about 30 inches from the ground and the
second about 30 inches above this. Some use three
wires, but two are more popular. The wires slacken
easily and the posts heave some every winter. This
must be corrected regularly before tying the grapes.
Drive the posts to place with a ten- or twelve-pound
mallet and tighten the wire by turning the patent
stretcher on the anchored posts. When putting the
wire on the posts and tying the vines to the wire always
place them on the windward side, as they are less likely
to be blown down and damaged. The vines may be
secured with raffia or with wire. (Figs. 1727-1730.)

Pruning systems are many and varied, and the
advocates of each system claim for their ideal special,
merits. Kniffin, Improved Kniffin, Fan, Arm and
High Renewal systems are all used to some extent, but
the Fan and Improved Kniffin are the most popular.
Many growers believe that it is impossible to prune
to a definite system, but by others this is not found
to be the case. Many leave the necessary number of
strong healthy canes and tie them up as best they
can space them on the wires. From twenty-eight
to forty buds is the popular number to leave, and the
ideal of the grower is the only guide on which canes
to leave these buds. The preference is usually given
to the strong quality-looking canes on which the
buds are close together.

The system of pruning to be
followed should be started one
year after planting. As at plant-
ing-time, cut back to three or
four buds and after growth
starts, break or rub off the
weaker shoots. This gives the
stronger ones an opportunity to
thrive. Tie to the
lower wire. The sec-
ond season it may
be advisable to cut
- .•;• back similarly, espe-
cially if the growth
has been weak. From
this point train the vines accord-
ing to the system to be followed.
The work of pruning is usu-
ally done in the spring, from
February to April, before any
growth starts. If growth has

1729. The third movement.

1728.

The second
movement.

started, the vines will bleed. The brush is gathered, in
most cases, with a pole about 11 or 12 feet long, 3J^
inches in diameter at one end and tapering to about
\Y<i to 2 inches. This must be of strong material
that will bend without breaking. A chain is attached
from 24 inches to 36 inches from the large end, and
as it is drawn by the team
the brush collects between
the chain and pole. Other
methods are used, but this
is by far the most common.

Tillage and fertilizing.

Cultivation is thorough
for best results. The vines
are sometimes intercropped
with cultivated
crops the first
year after plant- ;j ;~^^~
ing, but later
they require all
the care. The vines are
plowed up in the fall and
disced and grape-hoed away
the following spring. Cover-
crops are sometimes used,
but the practice is not an
extensive one because of
damp conditions for har-
vesting in the fall. Cover-
crops are sometimes not plowed under till the follow-
ing spring. The tying is done by women and girls in
early spring before the buds are so swollen that they
are easily damaged. Many materials are used, but the
most common are wire and a soft wool twine made
for the purpose. The twine is most used, although the
wire is very handy. The canes are spaced when tying,
and thus held in place until the tendrils of the new
shoots secure them to the wire.

Fertilizing is still done in a haphazard way. Some of
the best men make a regular practice of mulching the
roots with farmyard manure in the fall. Some apply
no farmyard manure at all. The use of commercial
fertilizer is still in the experimental stage. Its value is
admitted but its use is not fully understood. On light
and gravel soils some potash compounds are being
used. On the deep alluvial soils some growers are using
it in the form of wood-ashes rather than the prepared
commercial product. Some bone-meal, at the rate of
300 to 600 pounds to the acre, is being used also. Some
state profitable results from their methods; others
think that with light applications of farmyard manure
and thorough cultivation the commercial fertilizers
are not required.

Harvesting and marketing.

The cutting of the fruit is
done for the most part by
women and girls, who are usu-
ally paid according to the
amount of work they do. In
some cases they are paid from
$1 to $1.25 a day, but 1 cent
for an eight- to ten-pound bas-
ket is more satisfac-
tory. Cutting starts

as soon as the earliest

grapes are ready for *•' ~*FF=ir-
themarket. InCanada,
Champions have of late years
been the first variety to reach
the wholesaler. This variety
colors before it is really ripe
and, though having a fair ap-
pearance in the baskets, is not
really ripe. Sharp criticism is 1730. The tie complete.

1380

GRAPE

GRAPE

leading the growers to be more cautious and to SOme Total expenditure for first three years:

extent drop the variety for the more satisfactory KnS^kr'. '. '. '. '. '.

Campbell and Moore Early. These varieties are Third year .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 37 39

later, but please the purchaser. For wine purposes the — — —

fruit is left on the vines as long as possible so that it Third year revenue... $52 20

becomes fully matured. Grapes, unlike apples and

especially pears, do not ripen off the vines and must be Net expenditure for three years $197 59

left until fully mature if the highest quality is expected, „
especially for dessert.

Of late years large acreages have been planted jyX,?*"

especially for the markets of the Canadian West. Gathering 'and'burning brush'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'. '. '.

Cooperative associations have been organized to han- Spraying 1 40

die all varieties extending over the season; but, in the Fe°tii?zfnand cultlvatins | j>°

case of one large company, one variety only, Worden, goo baskets at '12 cents'. .'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'. $96 00

is handled. This ripens before Concord and conse- Cost of 800 baskets at $34 a thousand 27 20

quently brings a high price. The location of the vine- Coveril 8°° basl"

yards of this particular company is ideal; the fruit is Delivering.....!...... l oo

of good quality and ripens early and it seems that under

those particular conditions the Worden is the most T> fit

r.. Front $37 lo

profitable grape to grow.

The forming of cooperative associations for the pur- The late J. W. Spencer, in his article in Cyclopedia

pose of marketing the fruit has the distinct advantage of American Horticulture, on "Grapes in the North,"

of improved distribution. It has also cut down the gave the following as submitted by A. B. Clothier,

handling expenses. Very few baskets, except special Silver Creek, N. Y.:

orders, are sent great distances by express. The coopera- plowi and marking an acre of land $3 M

tive associations have enabled the growers to secure Number of plants, 8x9 feet, 605 cost 12 10

car rates, and though prices have been comparatively Cost of planting l 50

low even as low u, 10 cents for an eight-pound basket j^&£^^^^:™:. «*<;;: ] jg

f.O.b. Shipping Station, the Cheap and rapid methods Of Number of pounds of wire for two-wire trellis, 600 pounds;

handling have made the industry profitable. staples, 6 pounds; cost 22 80

Number posts for trellis, 202; number braces, 20; cost 14 14

Returns. Cost of putting up trellis 3 00

Grapes, as grown at the present, might be considered Cost of acre of grapes, exclusive of land $70 54

a long-term investment with every prospect of regular v ...
dividends. The cost of planting, posting and early

cultivation is comparatively high, but the vines bear The prospective planter will do well to consider

early. Good crops are produced the third and fourth carefully the best-known and most popular varieties

years after planting and the following year the vines before planting. More than 75 per cent of the grapes

should be in full bearing. The cost of planting and grow- planted in the commercial sections of Canada are

ing an acre of grapes to three years of age can only be Concords and Wordens. The same is true of New

estimated. Men, methods and conditions vary so York State. The Concord almost alone is used in the

much that no figures can be taken as absolute; but -grape-juice industry. It is the leading fermented wine

the figures and calculations serve as a guide and as grape also. Worden is in second place, being a little

such they are given here: earlier, and although a smaller yfelder, is cutting into

the Concord market for ordinary purposes. Lindley,

FIRST YEAB. Wilder, Vergennes, Agawam, Catawba and some

Land $125 00 related varieties all hold a place for general market

S^cXvSVn^aridng-furrows-.:: ! S PurP.fe? and Jhe plantings are increasing. When

Cost of 435 vines at 4 cents 17 40 quality is expected, these are the varieties to grow, but

Planting. 3 oo the yield will not be so heavy as for the Concord.

Fal'f'plowing Delaware is in good demand because of its quality

when well grown. Moyer and Brighton are giving

Total expenditure for first year $154 90 way to better varieties.

The Niagara, in spite of its many drawbacks, is

SECOND YEAR. s^\ a favorite, and although a few years ago it suffered

Working soil in spring $1 so somewhat from over-advertising, it has again found

Prunirfg^nd 'tying/. V.'. '.'. '.'. l oo its proper place and is in steady demand. The newer

120 posts at 20 cents 24 oo varieties have not been tested long commercially and

120 posts (including digging and setting) at 5 cents a it is well for the new grower to plant them only hi

ire and wiring::. . 22 oo ^^ numbers until they have proved they are

worthy of a larger place.

Total $57 50 All the commercial varieties grown out-of-doors are

Labrusca or Labrusca-vinifera hybrids and seedlings,

THIRD YEAR. an(j no attempt is being made to grow the pure vinifera.

$150 F.M.CLEMENT.

Cultivating and plowing 5 50

Fertilizing 8 oo Grapes in the South.

Spraying twice 1 00

Average crop for third year 435 baskets an acre. The region south of the 38th degree north latitude

43o baskets at 12 cents. . $52 20 i_ OL i- • r

Cost of 435 baskets at $34 a thousand'. .'. 14 79 nas m jt more native species of grapes than all the

Picking 435 baskets at l cent a basket 4 35 world besides. This alone would lead one to suppose

Deiit-^y * 7? the South naturally adapted to vineyard culture. Yet

New York, Ohio and California up to the present far

Total expenditure for third year $37 39 excel it in vineyard area, although only three or four

Total revenue $52 20 species are native in these states. The cause of this is

Net revenue $14 81 that diligent experimenters and originators have pro-

XLIX. The Niagara grape.

GRAPE

1381

duced varieties of good marketable value adapted to
those regions, from natives of the regions, or hybrids
of natives with hardiest foreign kinds. In the case of
California, the vinifera varieties are mostly grown
because the climate and other conditions are so similar
to those of the native region of the vinifera. But the
South has chiefly planted the northern and foreign
varieties which succeed but indifferently in most south-
ern localities, and has neglected almost entirely its
native varieties until quite recently. Now experi-
menters have shown that most excellent and very
successful varieties of all colors and seasons can be and
have been produced by selection and hybridization
of some of the large fine-fruited varieties.

While the foregoing predicts by actual existence in
practical market vineyards in a number of localities in
the South what is in store for the South as a whole, the
present state of grape-culture in that region at large is
a different matter. Information gathered from best
sources throughout the South shows that grape-culture
is a very small industry.

Varieties.

The leading varieties cultivated in
the northern sections of the South are
Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Early
Victor, Elvira, Ives, Moore Early,
Moore Diamond, Niagara, Norton
Virginia, Perkins, Worden, Wyoming.
Favorable mention is made of America.
Beacon, Brilliant, Campbell Early, Gold
Coin, Green Mountain, Laussel, Ozark,
Presly.

East of Texas and south of Tennes-
see, the following are chiefly planted:
Brighton, Champion, Concord, Dela-
ware, Diana, Diamond, Elvira, Goethe,
Hartford, Herbemont, Ives, Missouri
Reisling, Moore Early, Niagara, Nor-
ton Virginia (Cythiana), Perkins, Wor-
den. Of the muscadine class for wine:
Flowers, James, Mish, Scuppernong,
Thomas. Favorable mention, of varie-
ties testing, is made of Brilliant,
Bertrand, Carman, Fern, Gold Coin,
Jaeger (Fig. 1731), Laussel, Margue-
rite, Superb. In the southwestern section, west of the
96th meridian, are chiefly planted the Herbemont,
Jacquez (Black Spanish, Lenoir), Niagara and Golden
Chasselas, Malaga and some other vinifera varieties
near the Gulf coast and in western Texas under irriga-
tion. By several who have had them under trial for
several years favorable mention is made of Bertrand,
Brilliant, Carman, Fern, Jaeger, Marguerite, Muench,
Neva, Perry, as furnishing successful table and wine
grapes for this region.

The following varieties are superior for commercial
and home planting in the South, especially the South-
west, and some in the North: Headlight, Brilliant,
President, Captivator, Hidalgo, Hernito, Delakins,
Salamander, R. W. Munson, Mericadel, Ericson,
Krause, Bailey, Extra, Blondin, Jaeger, Carman, Ellen
Scott, Armalaga, Edna, Fern, Last Rose, named in
order of ripening. These cover a season of ripening in
north Texas (latitude of Atlanta, Georgia), from June
25 until September 15 or later. They include white,
red and black colors in their different shades, many
comparing favorably in appearance and quality with
the better vinifera grapes, while the vines are all per-
fectly hardy in the South and some of them far north,
making a fine record in New York and even about
Boston. Some of these varieties are now planted
largely along the Gulf coast country, where vine-cul-
ture was supposed to be impossible a few years ago.

The section of Texas south of San Antonio, lying
between the Gulf and the Rio Grande River, as large

in area as the state of New York, has a climate and soil
excellently suited to the vinifera grapes, and in the
last six years, since railroads began to ramify that
section, and where irrigation facilities are afforded,
considerable plantations of vinifera grapes have been
made, the Flame Tokay, Malaga (Pense), Muscat of
Alexandria, Cornichon, Black Morocco, and so on,
being the varieties chiefly used. Of course these require
grafting upon resistant stocks, in all but the very
sandy soils.

Georgia.

For Georgia, Hugh N. Starnes contributes the fol-
lowing notes:

"Leading varieties of grapes for Georgia are as fol-
lows: Ives, Concord, Niagara, Delaware, Moore
Early, Goethe, Lindley; and for wine, Norton Virginia,
Scuppernong and Thomas.

"The general distance apart to plant is 10 by 10 feet;
Delawares 8 by 8 feet; Rotundifolias 30 feet. Single-

1731. Jaeger. — Hybrid of Vitis Lincecumii and an
sestivalis offshoot. (~X.1A)

stake spiral method of training is chiefly used, and
either spur-renewal or cane-renewal pruning employed,
according to circumstances. Some growers employ
trellises instead of single stakes, using either one or
two wires and adopting the umbrella Kniffin or low
wire arm spur Kniffin system of training.

"Very little wine is now made in this state, and that is
nearly all claret from Norton Virginia, Ives or Concord.
In southern Georgia a poor article of Scuppernong wine
is made, but it is not adapted to trained palates.
Delaware and Goethe blended are sometimes used
to make a very good Rhine wine, and when prop-
erly handled sometimes produce an excellent article.
Goethe must, reinforced with 20 per cent of Cali-
fornia brandy, makes a good pale sherry; yet it is
difficult to sell wine here profitably. When it can be
sold at all, prices range from 50 cents to $2 a gallon,
according to the grade. Grape vinegar, while generally
regarded as inferior to cider vinegar, will bring about
25 or 30 cents at retail and 20 cents wholesale, and at
these figures is more profitable than wine.

"When sold fresh, the grapes are generally shipped in
refrigerator cars in ten-pound baskets to different
northern points. Later shipments take a southerly
direction to Atlantic, and Gulf seaports. Sometimes
the regulation six- or nine-carrier peach-crates are used
for shipping grapes, but are not so satisfactory as the
ten-pound separate baskets. Delawares are generally
shipped in five-pound baskets. Returns are uncertain.
They vary from \}/2 cents a pound to 5 cents accord-

1382

GRAPE

GRAPE

ing to circumstances. Sometimes as high as 10 cents is
realized on very early and very late shipments or with
choice grapes, but this is seldom. Distilleries pay three-
fourths of 1 cent a pound delivered, or gather and pay
j^ cent a pound. If only one ton to the acre of grapes
is the yield, the gross return (and also the net return)
an acre would thus be from $10 to $15. This is more
than cotton ordinarily nets. With two tons to the
acre of grapes, which is not an enormous yield, the
return would be $30 an acre delivered at the still. To
those who have no scruples in regard to so disposing
of their crop, this is probably the most profitable
method. There are local stills in almost every county.
There is not much encouragement now for grape-
raising in Georgia, and vineyards are annually being
destroyed by hundreds of acres. Some planting, how-
ever, is still going on in southern Georgia, in the "wire
grass" country, where the industry is still found profit-
able by reason of the fact that the northern market may
be entered ahead of competition, and also that insects
and fungous pests have not yet put in an appearance in
that region.

Planting, training, and the like.

The vines of the true southern grapes, such as Herbe-
mont and the Post-oak grape hybrids, are planted
12 to 14 feet apart, in rows 9 feet apart, while such
northern varieties as are planted are set 8 feet apart
in row. The Muscadines, such as Scuppernong, are
mostly grown upon arbors about 7 feet high and rarely
or never pruned, although trained on trellis, as are
other grapes, and, pruned early in fall, after leaf-fall,
succeed excellently. The culture is mostly with the
plow, turning first away and then to the rows, hoeing
the space along the row not reached by the plow.
The trellis mostly used is the 3-wire trellis; first wire
at 18 to 24 inches from the ground, and the others
successively 1 foot apart, above the first. The
training is commonly an indifferent attempt at the
Kniffin system, and no system is generally carried out.
Some pinch back the leading shoots once, few twice.
Some use single posts and spur-prune. A few have
made the Munson canopy trough trellis of 3 wires, and
report most favorably of it.

Fungicides are used successfully by some. Others
plant only such as Ives, Norton Virginia, Moore Early,
Perkins, and some other varieties not subject to rot and
mildew, so as to avoid spraying. They also avoid,
thereby, having grapes of the finer qualities, and get
only the lowest prices. From such mostly come the
report that grape-culture with them is unprofitable. So
it should be, as such grapes in the market have the
effect to depress prices on all kinds of grapes. In the
moister parts of the South, black-rot, downy mildew
and ripe grape-rot are very prevalent, but, excepting
the ripe rot, are readily overcome by the bordeaux
mixture spray properly applied.

Few growers in the South use fertilizers in their
vineyards. Some use barnyard manure, but the more
intelligent use cotton seed or cotton-seed meal in con-
nection with ground bone, kainit and soluble phos-
phates.

Marketing and profits.

The crop is mostly marketed fresh in the local or
nearby markets, as the ordinary freight and express
rates will not permit profitable returns on the varieties
mostly grown. But it has been demonstrated that fine
grapes that will carry well can easily be grown in the
South, and, when handled in best manner in neat
baskets, are profitable.

There are a few established wineries in the South,
which use Ives, Norton Virginia, Herbemont, LeNoir,
and the Scuppernong and other Muscadine varieties.
The chief complaint of wine-growers is that legislation
brought about by the prohibition movement is adverse

and often entirely prohibitive. In consequence, some
have bottled the juice fresh under some sterilizing
process, but the people are not yet educated up to the
use of this excellent, healthful, nourishing beverage;
yet the demand for it is growing, and may be largely
increased by enterprising makers.

Reports collected from all parts of the South state the
profits all the way from nothing up to $150 an acre,
sometimes higher, and it is clearly evident that the
intelligence and enterprise of the planter are the chief
elements in controlling profits. Of course, localities,
soils and varieties play important parts, but an intel-
ligent grower would not select poor locality, situation,
soil and varieties to start with, just as he would not
pursue poor methods in the conduct of the business.

There appears no reason why the South may not
become one of the greatest grape countries in the world
and it promises everything to the wide-awake, intelli-
gent grape-grower, for its capabilities are unlimited in
the production in quality and season when no other
section competes with it, and it has vast markets at
home and in the great cities just north of it.

T. V. MUNSON.

Grapes on the Pacific slope.

Grape-growing was introduced into California by the
Franciscan Missions during the latter half of the
eighteenth century. At all the missions from San Diego
to Sonoma the same variety was cultivated practically
exclusively. This variety, now known generally as the
"Mission" or locally as the "California" and "El Paso,"
reached California from Mexico through the Jesuit
missions of lower California. It seems probable that it
was brought over from Europe as early as the time of
Cortez but it has never been completely identified with
any European variety. It is very close to the Monica of
Sardinia which it resembles in its great vigor, heavy
growth, the form of its leaves, the size, shape, color,
texture, and flavor of its fruit, and differs principally
in the less dense indument of its foliage. It seems prob-
able that it is a seedling of this variety selected by the
padres on account of its close resemblance to its parent,
which is a favorite with the monks of Sardinia. It was
admirably adapted for the purposes of the missions, for
besides being a good table grape, keeping well and not
sensitive to primitive methods of handling, it could be
used for the manufacture of white or red wine and was
especially adapted to the production of a sweet wine
of sherry type.

For a long time, even after the American occupation
of California, it remained the only variety grown in
vineyards, but, with the arrival of immigrants from
various grape-growing countries, other varieties were
introduced, and, at present, it is little grown in Cali-
fornia except as a good, cheap, easily handled table
grape for local supply and in some regions as an ingredi-
ent in the manufacture of sweet red and white wines.
It still forms the bulk of the vines grown on the Mexi-
can plateau and extends into New Mexico and south-
western Texas, but is gradually giving way even there
to varieties better adapted to special purposes. At
present, Zinfandel for wine, Muscat of Alexandria for
raisins, and Flame Tokay for shipping, constitute the
bulk of the grapes grown in California, although about
twenty-five varieties are grown on a large scale and over
twice that number in considerable commercial quanti-
ties. Including all the varieties which occasionally or
locally appear on the market as table, raisin or wine
grapes, there are over one hundred varieties of com-
mercial importance.

All these varieties, with one or two unimportant
exceptions, belong to the European type, Vitis vinifera,
Varieties of V. Labrusca and other American types
grow vigorously and bear well except in the hottest
and driest sections, but the grapes are unsuited for

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the main purposes of the industry in California. They
cannot be made into raisins, are inferior to vinifera for
wirie and are less suitable for distant shipment as table
grapes. Scattering, small patches of the variety Pierce
(an improved sport of Isabella) are grown in the
cooler parts of the northern coast counties, and an occa-
sional patch of Concord in the San Gabriel Valley.
The crop of these vines finds a market in San Francisco,
Los Angeles and other large coast towns and is often
very profitable, but the market is small and easily
over-stocked. These grapes attain regularly a higher
percentage of sugar and lower acidity than is usual in
the eastern states and they have been used successfully
in the manufacture of unfermented grape juice, for
which they are particularly adapted.

The vineyard industries of the Pacific slope, however,
will always be based principally on the growing of
vinifera grapes, owing both to their greater intrinsic
value for most purposes and to the fact that they cannot
be grown on a large industrial scale in any other part of
the United States.

Certain American species of vines are nevertheless
essential to the success of California grape-growing,
owing to their resistance to the phylloxera which rapidly
destroys all vinifera varieties whenever it secures a
foothold in the vineyard. They are useful as stock on
which to graft the vinifera varieties and are extensively
used in the northern and central coast counties and in
certain sections of the great valley and the Sierra foot-
hills. The insect has not yet become established in
southern California nor in Imperial. The chief resist-
ant stocks used are varieties of riparia and rupestris,
although certain hybrids of these species with Berlan-
dieri, and vinifera are also used for special conditions.
The Labrusca varieties are almost as susceptible to
injury from phylloxera in California as the vinifera and
also require grafting on resistant stock in infested
regions.

The most essential requirement for the successful
growth and bearing of vinifera varieties is a dry sum-
mer with abundant sunshine and a winter cold enough
to render the vines dormant for at least several weeks.
These conditions are found in California from the
Mexican to the Oregon borders, and in favored loca-
tions in several of the other Pacific slope states. Along
the coast north of Monterey Bay, the summer sea fogs
interfere with the ripening of the grapes and make the
control of the oidium difficult. These sea fogs cover a
belt which in the north extends considerably into the
interior but gradually becomes narrower as one pro-
ceeds south, until in the latitude of Santa Cruz, where
the mean annual precipitation falls below 20 inches,
grapes can be grown almost down to the sea. In the
remainder of California, grapes can be grown almost
everywhere that the elevation above sea-level is not
too great. In the latitude of Napa the limit is about
1,500 to 1,800 feet. Farther south, vineyards are found
at Ben Lomond in Santa Cruz County at 2,500 feet and
at Colfax in Placer County at 2,400 feet. At these
elevations vines succeed only in favored locations.
In others and at higher elevations, killing frosts often
occur both in spring and autumn.

Grape-growing in a large way began in California
soon after the American occupation. In 1858, accord-
ing to the State Register, there were 3,954,548 vines in
the state, equivalent to about 6,500 arces. Collections
of European varieties were introduced and state aid
was secured for the promotion of viticulture. By 1870,
the vineyard acreage had increased to nearly 30,000
acres. Wine was produced in fairly large quantities,
but its sale was at first attended by many disappoint-
ments which discouraged planting and for ten years the
new vineyards barely sufficed to compensate for the
loss of vineyards by phylloxera in the north and a
peculiar disease of unknown cause in the south.

In the meanwhile, the demand for Californian wines

increased and a propaganda for extension with more
suitable methods and better varieties was earnestly
taken up. Again the state granted funds liberally, and
the agitation resulted in vine-planting and cellar-con-
struction throughout the state. At the same time, vast
plantings were made in the new Fresno region and
between 1880 and 1883 the vineyard area of Cali-
fornia increased from about 35,000 acres to nearly
140,000.

This rapid expansion naturally led to over-supply
and inferior products, which restricted further exten-
sion. In the period from 1891 to 1897 the vineyard
area actually decreased owing to the rapid destruction
of the vines of the large Santa Clara section by phyl-
loxera and drought. In 1904 the vineyard area was
estimated to be about 200,000 acres and since then the
new plantings, especially of table grapes, have been
steady and the area in 1913 may be estimated roughly
at about 385,000 acres, of which about 75,000 consists
of table grapes, 130,000 of raisin grapes, and 180,000
of wine grapes.

The vineyard products of California, according to
the statistician of the California State Board of Agri-
culture, for 1912 were:
Wine, 47,491,772 gallons;
brandy, 8,721,693 gal-
lons; raisins, 185,000,000
pounds; table grapes, 6,363
(1913) carloads.

Vinifera varieties of
grapes have a very wide
range of adaptation. They
grow in all fertile soils,
but succeed best in light,
deep, warm loams in the
valleys and on the hillsides.
The American varieties
used as stocks are less
adaptable and some care
must be exercised in
choosing a stock suited to
the chemical and physical
character of the soil. The
extremes of temperature
and elevation endured by
vinifera vines are very great, especially if care is taken
in the selection of varieties.

In the Pacific coast states outside of California, the
growing of grapes is still largely experimental. In
parts of Oregon and near the confines of Idaho and
Washington almost to the borders of British Columbia,
vinifera varieties of table grapes are giving very promis-
ing results in favored locations. The vines need some
protection in the winter by covering with straw or
earth, but the hot, dry summer will ripen even such
southern and late varieties as Flame Tokay and Corni-
chon. The American varieties succeed in a much wider
territory in these states. The varieties most favorably
mentioned are Concord, Delaware, Diamond, Moore,
Niagara and Worden. In parts of Arizona and of southern
Nevada and Utah, vinifera vines have been planted
and promise to be profitable for local sale or, in special
locations, for early shipments.

Propagation and cultivation.

New vines are grown from cuttings of one-year-old
dormant wood. These cuttings should be from 10 to
18 inches long, the shorter cuttings for moist soils in the
cooler localities and the longer for drier soils in hot
regions. A 14-inch cutting is usually employed. It is
generally best to root the cuttings in a nursery and
plant them out in the vineyard the following spring.
In well-prepared, moist soil they may be planted
directly in place, only one bud being left above the sur-
face. Where phylloxera exists, resistant vines must be
used. These are obtained by grafting a one- or two-

1732. Trunk of a vinifera
grape, with the fruit-bearing
canes cut back.

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1733. The canes of a vinifera grape
before pruning.

bud cutting of vinifera on a 9- to 12-inch resistant
cutting from which the buds have been removed.
This graft is united in a callusing bed, rooted in the
nursery and planted out in place when one year old.
The resistant stock is often first rooted in the vineyard

and grafted in place
when one or two
years old. This
method is uncertain
and gives many
poor unions except
with a few stocks
and in very expert
hands.

The soil should
be plowed as deeply
as practicable be-
fore planting. The
best vineyardists
turn the soil 9 to
12 inches, often fol-
lowing with a sub-
soiler penetrating 6
or 8 inches deeper.
This treatment re-
sults in a more
complete "stand,"
quicker develop-
ment and full bear-
ing at three to five years. It is especially useful for
grafted vines.

Resistant stocks.

The principal phylloxera-resistant stock grown is the
rupestris St. George (=du Lot). It succeeds in a
wide variety of soils providing they are deep, permeable
and well supplied with water below. In shallow, com-
pact or very wet soils it often fails. It forms good unions
with most of the common vinifera varieties. Exceptions
seem to be, in some localities, Emperor, Cornichon and
Muscat. For the shallower soils of the coast counties,
riparia x rupestris 3309 is to be recommended; for
stiff clay soils, Berlandieri x rupestris 420 A; for rich,
moist, well-drained soils in the cooler locations, riparia
gloire de Montpellier. For varieties of difficult affinity
the Mourvedre x rupestris 1202 is promising in soils
similar to those suited to St. George.

Pruning and thinning.

It must be recognized that the vinifera grapes have
a different habit of growth from the native grapes
grown in the East. They are not always trained on
wire trellises. The old trunk (Fig. 1732) is short and
stump-like and supports itself. The cane-growth (Fig.
1733) is relatively short, and it is cut back to near the
head of the trunk, as shown in Fig. 1732, and also in
Fig. 1734.

In the first year, the vines need no attention except
thorough cultivation and one or two irrigations in dry
sections. In the following winter, the dormant growth
is thinned to one cane which is cut back to one or at
most two buds. The vines should then be staked. Red-
wood stakes, 3 to 4 feet long and 1^ inches thick, are
the best, placed 2 inches from the vine on the leeward
Bide. These are sufficient for the goblet system of
training, but longer stakes may be necessary when
canes are left at pruning.

During the second year, all buds or shoots but one
should be removed before they have made any con-
siderable growth. The whole energy of the vine is thus
forced into a single shoot which should be carefully
tied to the stake and, if vigorous, topped at about 3
feet to cause it to produce laterals. All suckers from
below ground should be carefully removed at their
origin and also any cion roots which may develop on
grafts. At the second winter pruning, all canes but one

should be cut off clean if more than one has been
allowed to grow. This cane should then be cut back to
the height at which it is desired to "head" the vine,
which will be about 15 inches for small-growing vines
such as Zinfandel and 24 to 30 inches for heavy-grow-
ing vines such as Flame Tokay. Table grapes, as a rule,
are headed higher than wine or raisin grapes. When
strong laterals have developed, these should be left
with one or two buds when they occur in positions where
it is desired to develop arms.

In the third year, no shoots should be allowed
to develop on the trunk of the vine within 8 to 15
inches of the soil, according to the height of the head.
It is usually necessary to pinch back all the shoots
from the head when they are 15 to 18 inches long to

Erptect them from wind injury while they are still
rittle. At the end of this year, the vine should have
developed sufficiently so that it can be given three
to six spurs in the positions desired for the permanent
arms. These spurs should consist of two to four buds,
the more vigorous the vine the more spurs and the
more buds.

In the future prunings, the number of spurs is grad-
ually increased until the vine reaches its adult stature.
The number will vary from four or five to fifteen or
twenty, according to the vigor of the variety and the
distance apart of the vines. During the first four or
five years, great attention should be given to forming
the vine with a clean vertical trunk and symmetrically
placed arms and also, with grafted vines, to the care-
ful removal of stock suckers and cion roots. As the
vines become older and less vigorous, the spurs left at
the annual winter pruning should be shorter, consist-
ing usually of only one or two complete joints.

This method of pruning, illustrated by Fig. 1734, is
known as the vase or goblet method and is adopted in
most of the vineyards of California. A few varieties,
notably the Sultanina (=Thompson Seedless) do not
bear satisfactory crops with this method. For such
varieties the treatment for the first three or four years
is the same, but at that time it is necessary to erect a
trellis. This consists usually of two No. 11 or No. 12
galvanized iron wires stretched along the rows at about
18 and 36 inches from the surface of the soil. These
wires are supported by redwood stakes 6 feet long and
about 2 inches in diameter. The vines are then pruned
by leaving a suitable number of "fruiting canes" about
4 to 6 feet long, which are tied to the wires. Near and
below the base of each fruiting cane is left a "renewal

7734. The common short-pruning goblet system used for the
vinifera grape in California.

spur" consisting of two buds, whose function is to
supply a fruit-cane and renewal spur for the following
year. Care should be exercised to choose fruit-canes
which originate from the spurs of the previous year and
not from older wood. The vines, instead of being
given the symmetrical goblet form described, should

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1385

be flattened fan-shape to facilitate cultivation, which
can take place only in one direction. This method of
pruning and training is shown in Fig. 1735.

Goblet-pruned vines are planted on the square system
from 7 to 12 feet apart, 8 feet apart being usual for
the northern coast counties and 9 or 10 feet for the
hotter regions. Muscat of Alexandria vines are usually
planted 6 by 12 feet to 8 by 14 feet to facilitate drying
the raisins, and trellised vines are usually planted in
the same way.

Some special practices and modifications of the usual
methods are found to be useful in the production of
table grapes for shipping. In general, the vines should
be raised a little higher and the arms given a some-
what wider spread. This is to keep the fruit from
contact with the soil and to spread out the bunches so
that they will develop, ripen and color evenly. The
removal of water-sprouts and sterile shoots, not needed
for new arms, before or soon after the grapes set is also
very useful. This tends to make the bunches and ber-
ries larger by concentrating the energies of the vine on
the bearing shoots. An equally important effect of this
practice is to facilitate the gathering of perfect bunches.
When neglected, the water-sprouts often grow through
the bunches. Such bunches cannot be gathered without
injury. Some of the grapes are pulled off, some broken
and, worst of all, some of them are slightly loosened
around the pedicel. Most of the broken berries can be
removed by the trimmers in the packing-house, but
many of those simply loosened escape their scrutiny
and are a fruitful cause of decay.

Many otherwise suitable grapes do not ship well on
account of the excessive compactness of the bunch.
A compact bunch is difficult to pack without injury
and cannot be freed from imperfect berries without
spoiling good berries.

This excessive compactness can be prevented by
thinning before the berries are one-third grown. Thin-
ning, moreover, increases the size of the berries, hastens
ripening, promotes coloring, and lessens some forms of
sunburn. The practice has been employed with suc-
cess by growers of Tokay, Black Morocco, and other

number of berries to be removed will depend upon how
compact the unthinned bunches usually become. In
general, it will vary from one-third to one-half of the
total number. The thinning is effected by cutting out
several of the side branchlets of the bunch. The
branchlets should be removed principally from the part

1735. The long-pruning of vinifera vines. The vine is trained on
two horizontal wires.

//, Fruit-canes growing out of the renewal spurs r2 the pre-
vious year; r1, renewal spurs to supply fruit-canes for the follow-
ing year; r°, replacing spurs to supply wood for use when the
over-elongated arms are cut back.

grapes in northern California. While apparently costly,
the expense is often more than counterbalanced by the
saving in trimming of the ripe grapes. The increase of
quality thus becomes a net gain.

The bunches are thinned at any time after the ber-
ries have set and before they have reached one-third
their mature size. No bunches are removed, but only
a certain proportion of the berries of each bunch. The

of the bunch which has most tendency to compact-
ness, usually the upper part. The work can be done
very rapidly as no great care is necessary in preserving
the shape of the bunch. However irregular or one-
sided the bunch looks immediately after thinning, it
will round out and become regular before ripening. A
long, narrow-bladed knife or a pair of grape-trimming
scissors can be used conveniently for this work.

Harvesting and packing.

The grapes should not be harvested until they con-
tain at least 17 to 19 per cent of sugar, varying with
the variety and the locality. Unripe grapes are dis-
tasteful to the consumer, spoil the market for later
and better grapes, and are more liable to deterioration
from wilting and decay. After every care has been
taken to produce good shipping grapes on the vines,
their proper handling is no less important. A bunch
of grapes which is perfect in the vineyard may easily
be ruined by careless gathering or hauling before it
reaches the packing-shed.

The grapes, in gathering and packing, should be
touched as little as possible and handled only by the
main stem. They should be placed carefully in wide,
shallow boxes in a single layer. Hauling to the packing-
house should be done very carefully, in wagons provided
with springs. The grapes should be protected from
the dust and the direct rays of the sun, and the boxes
should be so stacked that there is no danger of crushing
the grapes. Fig. 1736 shows two crates or boxes of
grapes.

The most usual way of packing table grapes in Cali-
fornia is in square chip baskets holding about five
pounds and placed in fours in open-sided crates. Extra-
large bunches or "clusters" are sometimes packed in
oblong baskets of twice this size, of which two are placed
in a crate. Experiments have been made with various
"fillers" to protect the grapes during transit and to
increase the time during which they will remain in
good condition. The cork-dust or waste used in Spain
for the grapes of Almeria is unavailable. Various sub-
stitutes have been tried. Early attempts to utilize
ordinary sawdust for this purpose proved unsuccessful
for the reason that the grapes failed to hold in good
condition and absorbed disagreeable flavors from the
wood. Recently it has been demonstrated that pure,
dry redwood sawdust, from which the chips and finest
particles have been removed by screening, is even
superior to ground cork for grape-packing. Redwood

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is neutral in odor and flavor and imparts no disagreeable
taste to the grapes packed in it and held in cold storage.
During the past three years this method of packing
and storing has received wide commercial application.
The shipments of Emperor grapes packed in sawdust
during 1913 amounted to nearly 300 carloads. Table
grapes for local markets are often shipped in the fifty-
pound "lug" boxes in which they are gathered.

Raisins.

Practically all the raisins in California are sun-dried.
Artificial driers were formerly used to some extent to
dry the second crop of Muscat and are still used occa-
sionally to finish drying in seasons of early rains. The
second crop is now utilized by the wineries.

Muscat grapes should not be gathered for raisin-
making until they show at least 24° Bal.* of sugar.
Better raisins are made at 26° to 27° Bal. The crop
increases with increasing ripeness. At 27° Bal. the yield
of raisins to the acre may be 40 per cent greater than
at 23° Bal. The grapes are gathered on wooden trays
with cleats, holding twenty-two pounds of grapes
which dry to five and one-half to seven pounds of
raisins. The trays are furnished with bottom and
top end cleats which allow a space of 2^ to 3 inches
for the grapes when they are stacked. The filled
trays are placed in alternate rows running east and
west where the soil has been given a slight inclina-
tion by means of a V-shaped scraper in order to expose
the grapes more directly to the rays of the sun. After
about nine to twelve days, the grapes are turned by

1737. Stacked trays of raisins.

placing an empty tray on top and inverting the two
trays together. In about three to four days after turn-
ing, they are dry in good weather, but the total time of
drying may yary from about ten days to nearly a
month according to the ripeness of the grapes and the
temperature and moisture of the air. The best raisins
are made when the average maximum daily temperature
lies between 85° and 90° F. Above 100° F. the grapes
are somewhat injured in flavor and appearance but still
make good loose or seeded raisins. If rain falls after
the grapes have begun to dry, especially after they
have been turned, they are liable to injury. When
rain threatens, it is sometimes necessary to pile the
trays up in stacks and to spread them out again as
soon as the rain or the danger is over. In some seasons
this stacking has to be repeated two or even three times,
much increasing the cost and time of drying. (Fig. 1737.)
When the grapes are nearly dry, the full trays are
stacked in piles of 12 or more and covered with an
empty tray. Here the drying is completed and the
moisture equalized. They remain in the stack for a
week or more and are then placed in large "sweat-
boxes" holding about ninety pounds of layers, or 125
pounds or more of loose raisins. When fine layer raisins

24° Bal. means that the juice has the same concentration as a
pure sugar solution of 24 per cent. The juice is tested by a Balling
hydrometer for sale by all chemical supply houses.

are made, these are picked out by hand before putting
in the sweat-boxes and the layers separated by sheets
of paper. The raisins are delivered to the packing-
houses in the sweat-box.

Sultanina and Sultana grapes are sometimes cured
in the same way as the Muscats, but the resulting raisins
are of a dark amber-color and cannot compete with
the light golden yellow Sultana raisins. These are made
by passing the grapes through a "dip" and then through
a sulfur-box before drying.

Various dips are in use, the commonest being com-
posed of one pound of good potash lye in twelve gallons
of water. This is kept boiling hot and after immersion
in it for an instant, the grapes are plunged in cold water
and placed on the trays. Some growers add an emulsion
made of three-fourths of a pound of lye, one quart of
olive or of the purest cottonseed-oil, and three quarts
of water. A gallon of this emulsion is added to each ten
gallons of the lye-dip. Some growers say that they secure
equally good results by dipping simply in boiling water.
Similar dips are sometimes used to facilitate the drying
of second-crop or inferior Muscats and such grapes as
Malaga and Feher Szagos.

After dipping, the grapes on trays are exposed to
sulfur fumes and spread out to dry. In hot weather
much of the drying is done in the stack, too much
exposure to the hot sun tending to darken the color of
the raisins.

Raisins or dried grapes are of four main classes:
(1) Raisins proper, of which the dried fruit of the Mus-
cat of Alexandria is the type. California produces more
than half the world's crop of this class. Most of them
are made from the Muscat of Alexandria or from its
variation, the Muscat Gordo Blanco. When the
demand is good, Malaga, Feher Szagos and occasion-
ally other large sweet white varieties are used. (2)
Sultana raisins are made from the Sultanina (= Thomp-
son Seedless or Oval Kechmish). California also pro-
duces large quantities of this class, the principal centers
of production being the upper San Joaquin Valley and
Sutter County in the Sacramento Valley. The Sul-
tana (= Round Kechmish), also a seedless grape, is
grown in large quantities, principally in the Sacra-
mento Valley. From it is produced a raisin resembling
a small Sultana in appearance but more allied to a
"currant" in flavor. Both of these varieties require
long pruning with fruit-canes of 4 to 8 feet. (3) Currants
which are made from the very small seedless Black
Corinth and to a less extent from the somewhat larger
White Corinth, are not produced on a commercial scale
in California. The Black Corinth does not bear and the
White Corinth produces a raisin which is too large to
pass as a "currant" and too small to secure a remunera-
tive price as a "Sultana." (4) Dried grapes are made
from almost any kinds and are occasionally produced in
large quantities when the price of fresh grapes is low.
They are used for various purposes, principally for the
manufacture of imitation wines in foreign countries.

Grapes for shipping.

Table grapes are grown all over California for family
and local consumption and include hundreds of varie-
ties, principally vinifera. The commercial growing of
table grapes, however, is for the purpose of shipping to
large centers of population, especially in the eastern
states. It is localized in certain regions and utilizes a
comparatively small number of varieties.

The earliest grapes come from Imperial County in
June, followed in July and early August from Fresno,
Kern and Tulare Counties and from the warm eastern
slopes of the inner coast range in Yolo County. The
earliest variety is the Luglienga, usually shipped under
the erroneous name of Madeleine; the next the Chas-
selas dore", usually called Sweetwater; both are white.
These varieties have not given satisfaction in Imperial,
where Persian No. 23, and allied varieties, promise

GRAPE

GRAPE

1387

better results for the earliest markets. The Khalili is
even earlier then the Luglienga and seems promising
for Imperial. Blue Portuguese is the only very early
black grape that appears on the market and is of poor
quality. Bellino is promising for Imperial County
but loses its extreme earliness farther north. By the
middle or end of July all varieties are ripe some-
where, the latest varieties ripening about that time in
the earliest localities. Distinctions regarding earliness
apply, therefore, more to districts than to varieties.

The Flame Tokay, which appears to be identical with
the Amar bou Amar of Algeria, is the chief shipping
grape of California. It fails to develop its bright red
color in Imperial so that the first shipments are from
the Winters and Vacaville region. The bulk of the crop
is raised in the middle part of the Great Valley from
Stockton to Sacramento, Lodi being the principal
center. There are numerous other smaller centers of
production, the latest being the Santa Cruz Mountains.
The next most abundant varieties are the Malaga, the
principal variety of the Imperial Valley, a white grape
raised largely also in the San Joaquin Valley from Tulare
to Stanislaus County, and the Emperor, a large, late
red grape raised chiefly in Tulare and Fresno but more
or less in several other counties from Los Angeles to
Sacramento County. In the cooler regions its color is
almost black. The Cornichon (=Ma|akoff Isjum), a
long, late, black grape, the Black Prince (=Rose of
Peru), a moderately early round grape, and the Verdal,
a very late white grape, are also largely raised, the last
only in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The Black Morocco
(=Trevoti), the Ferrara, the Gros Colman and the
Pizzutello are also raised in considerable quantities.
Promising new varieties are the Olivette de Cadenet,
Flame Muscat and some of the Persian varieties, espe-
cially the Paykani Razuki, a brilliant red grape which
bears well only when grafted, except in the Imperial
Valley. The Muscat of Alexandria and the Sultanina
(=Thpmpson Seedless), while primarily raisin grapes,
are shipped as table grapes in large quantities in most
seasons. The only-eastern variety grown for the market
is the Pigreey-^hich satisfies the small demand for a
"slip-skin."

All the varieties of table grapes mentioned succeed
with the goblet form of pruning, although some, such
as the Malaga, Cornichon and Emperor, require fairly
long spurs and in very rich soils even moderate long
pruning.

The grape season in California extends over at least
six months. The earliest varieties ripen in the Imperial
and Coachella Valleys by or before June 1 and the
latest varieties in the latest localities do not ripen
until November 1 and in dry autumns may hang on
the vines in good condition for a month longer.

Grapes for wine.

The great bulk of all the red wine, both dry and
sweet, is made from the Zinfandel. This variety was
introduced very early into California but its identity
has never been established. It has many good qualities.
It bears at an early age and with short pruning. If the
first crop is destroyed by spring frosts it produces
regularly a fair second crop. It succeeds best in the
warmer parts of Napa and Sonoma Counties. In the
cooler parts it fails to develop its color or flavor. In
the hot interior it is subject to sunburn and its peculiar
flavor becomes unpleasantly intense. Other widely
grown red wine grapes are Petite Sirah, Alicante Bous-
chet, Carignane, Mataro and, in southern California,
Blue Elbling. Varieties recommended for dry red wine
in the coast counties are Petite Sirah, Barbera, Beclan
and Cabernet Sauvignon; for the hotter interior, Valde-
pefias, Lagrain and St. Macaire; and for sweet reds of
Port type, Grenache, Alicante Bouschet, Tinta Madeira
and Trousseau.

The dry white wines are made from a large number of

grapes of which the chief heavy-bearing varieties are
Burger, Palomino, Feher Szagos and Green Hungarian
and the chief high quality varieties, Colombar, Semillon
and the Rieslings, — Johannisberg, Franken and Gray.
The sweet white wines are made from the above-men-
tioned heavy-bearing varieties and also from Mission,
Grenache and other light-colored red grapes. Large
quantities of wine and brandy are also made from the
culls of raisin and table grapes and in years of over-
production from the main crop. Varieties recommended
for dry white wine are the Rieslings in the coolest
localities, Semillon and Colombar for the warmer parts
of the coast counties, and Burger, Green Hungarian
and Vernaccia Sarda for blending wines in the interior.
For sweet wines Palomino, Beba, Mission and Grenache
are suitable.

Various degrees of pruning are needed for these dif-
ferent varieties but in a general way the heavy bearers
should be pruned short and the fine varieties long.

Diseases and insects.

Vines on the Pacific slope are remarkably free from
serious fungous diseases owing to the absence of sum-
mer rains. Oidium (Uncinula spiralis), the only excep-
tion, occurs everywhere but is controlled cheaply by
one or two thorough dustings with fine sulfur in the
warm interior and two to four in the coast regions.
The ubiquitous saprophytic blue, gray and black molds
sometimes injure late grapes in wet autumns.

Insect pests are more serious. The phylloxera ren-
ders resistant stock necessary in most of the older dis-
tricts. The vine-hopper (Typhlocypa comes) is often
very troublesome in the warmer regions, but its attacks
can be much lessened by complete clearing out of green
growth a week or two before the starting of the buds,
timely use of a hopper -cage to trap the over-win-
tering adults in early spring before they deposit their
eggs and by a nicotine spray in May or June
when the first brood appears. Much injury is done
locally by the grape root-worm, the larva of the grape
beetle, Adoxus vitis. It can be controlled by spray-
ing the vines in May with lead arsenate which kills
the adults before their eggs are laid. Erinose (Phytop-
tus vitis) is widely distributed but seldom harm-
ful and easily controlled with dry sulfur as used
for oidium. Climbing cut-worms (larvae of Noctuid
moths) are very generally harmful to the buds and
young shoots in many seasons. Most species can be
controlled by the use of poisoned bait. The bait most
used is made by mixing forty pounds of bran with two
gallons of molasses and five pounds of arsenic. A better
bait is made by mixing twenty-five pounds of bran and
twenty-five pounds of middlings with five pounds of
arsenic and applying dry. A pinch of the bait is placed at
the base of each vine or, with large vines, in the center of
the head. Grasshoppers and other general feeders are
sometimes troublesome, especially in new districts.

A number of imperfectly understood diseases whose
causes are unknown are recognized. The chief of these
is the Anaheim or Californian disease. This name is
inappropriate as it seems to occur also in southern
Europe and Algeria where it is ascribed to over-bearing
coincident with a series of dry seasons or other weaken-
ing causes. Another widely spread disease of a similar
nature but less fatal is known as Little-leaf. Various
causes for this disease have been suggested, but the
most plausible opinion seems to be that it is a case of
mal-nutrition due to unfavorable soil temperatures
during the spring.

References.

Publications of the Agricultural Experiment Station,
Berkeley, California, especially Viticultural Report for
1887-93, Bulletins Nos. 119, 180, 186, 192, 193, 210,
241-246 and Circulars Nos. 26, 76, 115. Also, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 172; Yearbook, United

1388

GRAPE

GRAPE

States Dept. of Agric., 1902, article on "Grape Raisin
and Wine Production in the United States;" Year-
book, 1904, article on "Some Uses of the Grape Vine
and its Fruit;" Farmers' Bull. No. 471; U. S. Dept. of
Agric. Bull. No. 35; Reports California State Viticul-
tural Commission; Gustav Eisen, "The Raisin Indus-
try." F. T. BIOLETTI.

Grapes under glass. (See, also, page 1261.)

Under glass, the European varieties alone are used.
This species, Vitis vinifera, is the vine of the ancients,
and is indigenous to the more salubrious parts of east-
ern Asia and southern Europe. It is referred to in the
earliest mythological writings of ancient Egypt and
thence on numberless occasions, notably in the Bible
and the New Testament. The story of the spies from
the promised land, with its generous illustration, has
excited the admiration and perhaps questioned the
credulity of many of us. It is only fair, however, to
state that the size of the cluster there represented has
been amply borne out in recent years. The type Vitis
vinifera, if there ever was a type, has become so merged
and modified by cultivation in different climates and
countries that it is difficult to trace it at the present
day. Over 2,000 varieties are described, covering the
widest range in size, color, texture and flavor, general
appearance and quality.

For disparity of size, we have the diminu-
tive Black Corinth, from which the Zante
currants are prepared, and the Giant
Gros Colman, now extensively
grown for commercial purposes
under glass in England; and
for contrast in color the
beautiful Rose Chas-
selas and the Pink
and White
Frontignans

• --

1738. A good lean-to grape-house. The roots run through the
wall to an outside border.

and Muscats, with their superb qualities and flavors,
growing by the side of the blue-black Alicante of thick
skin and coarser texture, but valuable for its late-
keeping quality; and worth more than all the others
put together, the Black Hamburgh, combining all the
good qualities easy of culture.

Probably in no branch of horticulture is the garden-
ers' skill more generously rewarded than in grape-
growing under glass. In England it has been an essen-
tial feature of horticultural work for more than a cen-
tury, resulting in fruit of a finer quality and flavor than
that grown in the open air and very often enormous
clusters, weighing from twenty to thirty pounds.
Started there as a matter of luxury, it has become of
late years a matter of profit, and vineries of large extent
have been erected for commercial purposes. Probably
this work has been retarded here by the introduction of
the many very excellent varieties of our native grapes,
V. Labrusca, so easily grown in the open air and so
constantly improved by hybridizing with the European,

and undoubtedly this work will yet result in a much
closer approach to the standard of European quality.

The essential difference between American and Euro-
pean kinds is that in the American the pulp separates
from the skin, is usually tough and more or less acid, so
that it is disagreeable to remove the seeds, while in the
European the pulp adheres to the skin, is tender and
sweet throughout, and the seeds are easily removed.
European grapes, when well grown, are valuable and
agreeable for the use of invalids, and, undoubtedly, in
the judgment of the majority of persons, surpass in
quality any other fruit grown.

The subject of grape cultivation under glass may be
divided under several heads, as follows: The houses;
The border; The vines; The fruit.

The houses.

Houses are mainly of two forms, span-roof and lean-to,
with occasional modifications between. Unless one
has ample time and a desire to study their construction,
it is better to have plans and estimates furnished by
professional builders.

Span-roof houses are adapted to large places with
spacious grounds, and especially where an ornamental
effect is desired. On account of their exposure on all
sides, they require very careful attention, especially if
used for early forcing of grapes. When early work is
not desired, or for use without artificial heat, their dis-
advantage is not so apparent. Houses without artificial
heat, known as cold graperies, were in earlier years in
more general use than those with heat, but have about
disappeared with the introduction of the modern eco-
nomical heating apparatus, and the very great advan-
tage in the use of the same, if only to a limited extent.

Lean-to houses, on account of their snug construc-
tion and protection from northerly or prevailing winds,
are especially desirable for early forcing of grapes (Figs.
1738, 1739). Often a stable or other building may be
utilized for the north side, but generally a wall of brick
or stone is erected for this purpose. Such a wall can be
covered on the outside with Parthenocissus tricuspidata,
or Crimson Rambler roses, producing a beautiful and
ornamental effect. A good house, on a small scale, can
be made of hotbed sash (Fig. 1739).

Foundations for the other three sides or for a span-
roof vinery can be constructed of masonry or wood.
Masonry is preferable, as the conditions of heat and
moisture requisite are very destructive to woodwork,
especially near the ground. With masonry, piers are
erected, starting from solid ground and up to near the
surface. They should be about 2 feet in length with
spaces of 2 feet between, and opposite each space a
vine is to be planted inside the house, as hereafter des-
cribed. Strong capstones thick enough to come slightly
above the surface of the border and about 18 inches
wide are then laid from pier to pier. On such a foun-
dation a superstructure can be erected with some con-
fidence. For the base of the superstructure masonry
is preferable, about 18 inches in height being necessary
before the glasswork begins. A hollow wall, con-
structed of hard brick and cement, is desirable, and
openings should be left for ventilation. The upper sur-
face of these walls should be covered with cement. If
constructed of wood, the same general plan should be
carried out, using the most durable kind only.

Aside from its durability, masonry has an advantage
over wood in being a better equalizer of temperature,
and the heavy back wall of a lean-to house can be made
of great value for this purpose. The general plans of
the superstructure are shown in the illustrations. It
should present as much glass surface as possible. The
frame can be of iron or wood, as preferred. Light, heat
and moisture are the great features desired, also a gen-
erous supply of air under favorable conditions. The
glass should be of good quality, otherwise blisters
will burn the foliage and fruit. Small ventilators

GRAPE

GRAPE

1389

should be built in foundation walls, and large ones at
the upper part of house. A special ventilator coveied
with wire gauze is desirable for the lower opening. Ven-
tilation should always be free from draft or sudden
change of temperature. A draft is as unpleasant
to a sensitive vine in a house as to a human being,
and if subjected to it disease is sure to follow, mildew
being the first evidence; and yet a generous supply of
air is a prime requisite in growing
grapes under glass, especially during
the ripening period. Previous to that
time the lower ventilators should be
very carefully used, some growers
never opening them until the
grapes begin to color, and the
new growth and foliage are
somewhat hardened. More
or less air is always admitted
around the glass in a very
equable manner and
thence to the upper ven-
tilators.

The modern heating
apparatus, consist-
ing of a boiler in an
adjacent pit for
heating water
with circulating
pipes through-
out the house,
as shown in illus-
trations, is a
very perfect and

1739. Lean-to grapery glazed with sash.

economical supplier of heat, and it should be erected
by a practical builder. A little heat at a critical time
will often save a house full of grapes, and, while it can
be dispensed with, its advantages are very material.

It is possible to fruit grapes in benches in pots,
removing the pots when the fruit is past, and using the
house for other purposes (Fig. 1740).

The border.

A good border is of great importance, as no perma-
nent success can be obtained without it; probably
the difference between success and failure more often
lies here than in any other feature.

It is a good plan to construct vineries so that their
borders can be somewhat elevated above the surround-
ing ground, as better drainage is thus secured, and good
drainage is imperative (Fig. 1738). The border should
fill the house inside and extend outside adjacent to where
the vines are planted at least 6 feet when first made,
and to this outside border additions should be made
every two or three years of 2 to 4 feet until a width
of 20 feet is secured. The border can hardly be made
too rich, provided the material is well decomposed.
A mixture of six parts good loamy turf from an old
pasture or piece of new ground, and one part of well-
prepared manure, one part old plaster or mortar, and
one part of ground bone, all to be well composted
together, will meet all the requirements. If the subsoil
is clay, a foundation of old brick and mortar is very
desirable to insure drainage. The border above this
should be from 2 to 3 feet in depth. No trees or shrubs
should be permitted to extend their roots into it, a very
common cause of trouble, and nothing whatever should
be grown on it, although the temptation to try a few
melons or some lettuce is often too great to be overcome,
and these probably do a minimum of damage. In such
a border, if properly supplied with water, the vine roots
will remain at home, and not go wandering off into
trouble. When extra -early work is not desired, no
attempt should be made to keep the fnJst entirely out of
the border during the winter, as this is apt to result in
a heavy, sodden surface in spring. It is better to spade
it up roughly just before winter and cover with a good

coat of manure, permitting the frost to enter the ground
some inches. In the spring, it is dug over again and,
when raked off, presents a rich, lively surface. The
inside border is to be covered with a coat of well-rotted
manure, and spaded up and well watered at the time of
starting the vines. For midseason work from February
15 to March 1 is the proper time to do this in New
York state, the inside border carrying the vines nicely
until the outside border is in shape a month or more
later. Then without hard forcing early grapes can be
brought in by the last of June or July, and the later ones
through the following two or three months. It is better
to store late grapes in modern grape-rooms, where they
can be kept fresh and plump for several months through
the winter, than to attempt extra-early work by starting
vines in heated borders in November afld December.

The vines.

The amateur should purchase plants from some
nurseryman of established reputation. Vines one or
two years old are better than older ones. For support-
ing the vines light cast-iron brackets are secured to the
rafters, and these support wires running lengthwise of
the house about 15 inches from the glass, and to these
wires the vines are tied as fast as they grow. The
vines are to be planted inside the house about a foot
from the front wall and about 4 feet apart, placing one
opposite each opening in the foundation as before
described. It is not desirable to plant them along the
back wall of a lean-to house. They should be cut back
to two or three buds near the ground, and when these
start the strongest shoot only is selected for training
and the others rubbed off. As this shoot advances it is
tied to the wires and it may reach the limit of the house
by July 1, or perhaps not until September 1, depending
on the care, the vigor of the vine, and the border. Once
there, the end is pinched and the cane continues to
strengthen and increase in size and store up material
in the lateral buds until the end of the season, when it is
taken down and pruned to one-third its length, laid on
the ground and covered from the sun for the winter.
Care should be taken that mice do not eat out the buds,
as once out they can never be restored. In the spring
of the second year, or as soon as it is desired to start the
vines, they are tied up again, and the terminal shoot
again trained to the top of the house, where it is stopped
as before. Any fruit appearing on this shoot should be
removed. The lateral shoots that start out each way

1740. Even-span house with the vines plunged in pots.

below the terminal should be thinned to about 12 or 15
inches apart on each side. This is an important fea-
ture, especially if one adopts the spur system of pru-
ning, which will be first considered, for the vine is being
established for a long term of years, and it is desirable
to have it symmetrical, with the side shoots and fruit
evenly distributed over its entire length. An example
of a well-balanced vine is the illustration of the Muscat
of Alexandria (Fig. 1743). A few clusters of fruit may be
taken from this part of the vine this second year, and the

1390

GRAPE

GRAPE

laterals should be pinched at two eyes beyond the
cluster, and as they break pinched again through the
season. As soon as the leaves fall the vines are again
taken down for pruning. The terminal should be
shortened about one-half and side shoots cut back to a
bud very close to the main stem, when it goes through
the winter as before.

At the beginning of the third year, the terminal again
goes^to the top of the house without fruit, when it is
stopped and the laterals are allowed to bear as before,
say not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of the
main stem. The vine is now established to the top of
the house, and the only pruning in after years is to cut
the laterals each year close to the main stem. A bud
will nearly always be found in the first Y% inch, some-
times several of them. When these start, the strongest
is selected and the others rubbed off, unless one is
desired for training to the opposite side to fill a vacancy
there. When the vines attain full strength, two pounds
of fruit to the foot of main stem can be grown, but
heavy loads require great care. Too heavy a load causes
shanking, and then all is lost. The stems of the berries
wither and the fruit turns sour before ripening. Rigid
pinching of the laterals is very important. Commence
at the second joint beyond the cluster, or about 18
inches from the main stem, and pinch thereafter as fast
as new shoots break and show a leaf. Pinch early and
often. It has been said that a good gardener can carry
the summer prunings from a large vinery for an entire
season in his vest-pocket. Some require a wheelbarrow.
At the place where the laterals start, a spur soon forms
on the main stem, from which the system takes its
name. It often becomes several inches in length and
quite ungainly. This spur system of pruning is reore-
sented in Figs. 1741-3.

1741. Pruning to spurs.
A long or old spur is shown
on the left.

In the other system of pruning, known as the "long
rod" or "long cane" system, a new cane is grown up
from a bud near the ground every year to replace the
old one, which is entirely removed. It is sometimes
desirable to replace an old cane fruiting on the spur
system in this manner. If the vine is well established,
this new cane can be fruited its entire length the first
season, the laterals being pinched, as before described.
It will produce finer fruit, but it is not so safe with a
heavy load as an old cane.

1742.
The spurs pruned.

An ample supply of water judiciously and freely
used, especially at the time of starting the vines, is an
absolute necessity. It should not be applied in the
house, however, during the period of blossoming, as a
dry air is advantageous for the transfer of the pollen
for fertilization.

An important feature is thinning
the clusters and establishing the load a
vine has to carry. This requires experi-
ence and judgment. As a rule, about
one-half the clusters should be re-
moved,— often more, — care being taken
to balance the load evenly on each
side. This should be done as early as
the general form of the clusters can be
seen, except with the Muscats and other
shy-setting kinds, when it may be well
to wait for the berries
to set, as some clus-
ters'set perfectly while
others fail.

Thinning the ber-
ries should be at-
tended to promptly,
selecting cool days
and mornings for this
work. Close-growing
kinds, like Alicante,

cannot be commenced on too early after
setting, and it is much better to crowd this
work than to have it crowd the operator. In
many varieties one-third to one-half the
berries have to be removed. Experience is
the only guide in this. A pointed stick is very useful
with the vine scissors, and never touch the clusters
with the fingers.

Tying up the shoulders of the clusters is necessary to
permit a free circulation of air and light, otherwise the
interior may decay, and, once started, the cluster is soon
gone. The principal diseases or troubles to guard
against are mildew and red-spider. The remedy for the
former is sulfur, and for the latter moisture. Mildew
is generally brought on by a sudden change of tempera-
ture. A vigorous condition of the vine has much to do in
resisting it. Red-spider will almost always appear in
the hot weather of July and August if the vines are
allowed to become too dry.

Thrips are sometimes very injurious, but can be
controlled with nicotine, which, if properly applied, will
not injure the fruit. Thrip and red-spider, if not taken
in time, multiply rapidly, and "an ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure" in these cases.

Perhaps, in a general way, the most important requi-
site of all is a large amount of enthusiasm and love for
the work. This is necessary to insure the continued care
and culture requisite to permanent success.

The fruit varieties.

As said before, very many varieties exist, but proba-
bly not one-half of these are in active cultivation at
the present time. Varieties are adapted to localities,
soils, climates, and the like. Perhaps fifty have been
grown under glass in this country. Of these we will
consider a few of the more prominent.

The Black Hamburg is more extensively grown and
of more value for this purpose than all others put
together, because it meets the requirements of the ordi-
nary cultivator and will stand abuse and neglect and
still give fair results, better than any other kind. It
rarely gives very large clusters, but is a free bearer, sets
fruit perfectly, will carry heavy loads and matures early.
Under better care the appearance and improvement in
quality is remarkable, and it can be made as good as the
best. It is the variety with which the novice begins.
Many houses consist entirely of Black Hamburgs, and
many would give far better satisfaction if they did.

L. The grapefruit. About one-third natural size.

GRAPE

GRAPEFRUIT

1391

[Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varie-
ties for general cultivation. It requires a higher tem-
perature and longer season than the Black Hamburgh
to come to perfection, and will keep longer after cutting
than that variety. When well grown and ripened it many
be taken as a standard of quality. (See Fig. 1743.)

Muscat Hamburgh is a black grape, probably a cross
between the two above-named varieties, and presenting
marked characteristics of each. It has beautiful taper-
ing clusters of fine quality.

Barbarossa is a good variety for those ambitious to
grow large clusters and when well grown is of fine
quality. It is a late black grape, requiring a long season
to ripen well, but repays for the trouble by keeping
thereafter for a long time. Clusters frequently grow to
8 or 10 pounds in weight, measuring about 24 inches
each way, and they have been grown to more than
double this weight.

Other large-growing varieties are the White Nice
and Syrian, the latter of which is said to be the kind
that the spies found in the land of
promise. Clusters of 20 to 30
pounds weight are common to
these two coarse-growing kinds,
but their quality is so poor that
they are now rarely grown.

Grizzly Frontignan is a beauti-
fully mottled pink grape, — quite
a deep pink sometimes, — and has
long, slender clusters. In quality
and flavor it is unsurpassed by any
other grape, and it ripens quite
early.

Royal Muscadine is an early
white grape of fair quality and
good habit quite common in Eng-
lish houses.

Gros Colman, a large black
grape of fine quality and a late
keeper, is now grown largely for
commercial purposes in England
and sent to this side to supply
our wants in this line in spring.
The berries frequently measure
43^ inches around, and it there-
fore requires early and severe
thinning.

Alicante is a black grape of
very distinct character, seeming to
depart somewhat from the vinifera
type, very juicy, and of fair quality. It has a very thick
skin, and is about the best for long. keeping.

Lady Downs is another late black grape of good
quality, but not adapted to all localities. Rose Chas-
selas, a small red grape, is the earliest and very beauti-
ful. Trentham Black, the earliest black grape, has small
clusters, but large, soft berries quite like Alicante.
Foster Seeding is a beautiful midseason, amber-
colored grape, with large clusters and berries some-
times liable to crack. Madresfield Court Muscat is a
midseason grape — fine in quality, but also inclined to
crack. This trouble can often be controlled by twisting
or slitting the stems of the clusters, thereby checking
the flow of sap. D. M. DUNNING.

GRAPEFRUIT (Citrus grdndis). Rutacese. Figs.
975, 1744. Plate L. A large globose fruit having
slightly bitter acid pulp; it is used as a breakfast fruit
and also for salads and desserts. It is grown in Florida,
California, Arizona, and the West Indies, and is now
extensively used by Americans. The name grapefruit,
under which this fruit is known commercially, seems
to have come from the West Indies and owes its origin
to the fact that the fruits are often borne in clusters of
three or four to twelve or more, much like a bunch of
grapes. This fruit is also known as pomelo. The

1743. Muscat of Alexandria, bearing on spurs
(as explained in Figs. 1741, 1742).

shaddock or pummelo is a distinct strain, not grown
for commerce in this country. See Citrus (page 782)
and Pomelo.

Grape fruit trees are large round-topped, with regu-
lar branches: Ivs. dark glossy green, ovate with broadly
winged petioles: spines slender, flexible, borne in the
axils of the Ivs.: fls. large, white, borne singly or in
clusters in the axils of the Ivs.; stamens 20-25; ovary
globose, sharply set off from the style, which is decid-
uous: fr. pale lemon-yellow, flattened spheroid or glo-
bose, 4-6 in. diam., segms. 11-14, filled with slightly
bitter acid pulp; seeds large, flattened and wrinkled;
peel 3^- Mm- thick, with numerous oil-glands.

The grapefruit appears to have been introduced into
Florida by the Spaniards in the early part of the six-
teenth century and until a quarter of a century ago it
was grown only by the Florida pioneers. Since its
culture has been undertaken on a commerical basis,
the acreage planted to this fruit has rapidly increased,
1,061,537 boxes having been produced in Florida in
1909 as compared with 12,306 in
1899, and 122,515 boxes in Cali-
fornia in 1909 as compared with
17,851 boxes in 1899. The total
value of the crop in 1909, as
reported by the Census, was over
$2,000,000.

An excellent appetizer, the
grapefruit is the most popular of
breakfast fruits. It is also prob-
able that it possesses valuable tonic
properties, and it has been recom-
mended by physicians in cases
of malaria and biliousness. The
sprightly flavor of the fruit, due to
its slightly bitter principle, makes
the grapefruit one of the most
refreshing of all citrous fruits.
' The grapefruit is more suscep-
tible to cold than ordinary citrous
fruits and its profitable culture is
consequently restricted to regions
below the frost line. The selection
of a location is a matter of supreme
importance in Florida where the
occasional freezes have wrought
so much damage in the past. The
grapefruit, like most citrous fruits,
prefers a light, well-drained soil,
sandy or porous, though, because of
its dense foliage, it grows better on poor soil than does the
orange. The trees must be well fertilized in order to
produce the best results, for it must be remembered that
the care and fertilizer given are important factors in deter-
mining the quality and character of the fruit produced.
Budded trees usually begin to bear in three to four
years and generally reach full bearing in about ten
years. They continue to bear for an indefinite period.
The trees may be set from 18 to 25 feet apart, depend-
ing upon the stock on which they are grown. The seed-
lings make excellent stocks because of their well-devel-
oped root-systems and are extensively used for this
purpose. They are hardier than the rough lemon but
not so hardy as the orange. Grapefruits are usually
propagated by budding because of the variations in
the different varieties.

One of the most extensively grown varieties in
Florida is the Duncan: fruits medium to large, oblate,
light yellow; pulp a pleasant bitter acid flavor with few
seeds; peel medium, firm; a late bearer, fruits keep
well on the tree. The Duncan is one of the hardiest
grapefruits, especially when budded on trifoliate
orange stock (Poncirus trifoliata) . Among others grown
in Florida are Hall (Silver Cluster): fruits yellow,
pleasantly bitter, globose, medium to large, in large
bunches; a heavy bearer. Pernambuco: fruits large,

1392

GRAPEFRUIT

GRAPTOPHYLLUM

smooth-skinned. Introduced from Pernambuco, Brazil,
by the United States Department of Agriculture.
Triumph: fruits medium size, heavy, smooth-skinned,
not very bitter; a prolific and a strong grower, but
rather tender; season early. The Bowen, Excelsior,
Josselyn, Leonardy, Manville, McCarty, McKinley,
May, Standard and Walters are Florida seedlings
cultivated locally in that state.

In California one of the best varieties is the Marsh
(Marsh Seedless) : fruit large (see Fig. 1744), subglobose,
light yellow, not very bitter, often seedless, tree low
and spreading. This variety originated in Florida but is
best adapted to California conditions. The popularity
of the grapefruit in California has been increasing dur-
ing the past few years and it seems certain that this
fruit is destined to become one of the standard fruits of
that state. It should be noted that in California the
grapefruit is really a summer fruit; in Florida it is a
winter and spring fruit.

Hybrids. — The tangelo, the result of a cross between
the tangerine orange and the grapefruit (pomelo) is a

have not been produced in a commercial way until
within recent years. Even at present, the product is
only a small fraction of that of the orange and lemon.
Perhaps not more than 400 or 500 cars are annually
shipped out of the state. All of the Florida varieties
have been tested, many of them proving unsuited to
the conditions. At present the Marsh, or Marsh Seed-
less as it is commonly called, is planted almost exclu-
sively. The Triumph and the Imperial are also grown
to some extent, while the Nectar and the Clayson are
new varieties which are attracting attention.

But little attention has been paid to the handling of
this fruit in California, and it is undoubtedly true that
many of the seedling and miscellaneous varieties which
have been inadvisedly put on the market have been very
much inferior to Florida-grown pomelos. Usually, on
account of the poor varieties grown, California pomelos
are shipped mainly to Pacific and intermountain states
where they do not come in such active competition with
the Florida product. It is undoubtedly true, however,
that certain varieties of the pomelo when well grown

1744. Grapefruit— The Marsh.

striking new citrous fruit. The Sampson tangelo,
obtained by the writer in 1897 by crossing the tangerine
with the Bowen grapefruit, is the first of this new
group of fruits to be grown commercially. Other tan-
gelos are now being tested. See Tangelo.

Diseases. — The grapefruit tree is decidedly resistant
to mal-di-gomma or foot-rot and is only slightly
affected by scab. It is, however, more susceptible than
any other citrous fruit to citrus canker. This disease
was first discovered near Miami, Florida, in July, 1913,
by E. V. Blackman. It is believed to have been intro-
duced from Japan. In appearance somewhat similar
to the scab, this disease has spread over a large area
in southern Florida. It is very infectious and has been
carried from one grove to another by wagons, birds,
and other means. No remedy is known, and Florida
growers, in order to check its spread, have been obliged
to burn hundreds of infected trees. Investigators differ as
to the cause of citrus canker. WALTER T. SWINGLE.

Grapefruit, or pomelo, in California.

Pomelos have been grown for many years in Cali-
fornia, but, although they succeed admirably, they

and intelligently handled are equal to the best Florida
product. There is no reason why the production of
pomelos in California should not be considerably
increased. Growers, however, seem to fear an over-pro-
duction and new plantings are at present quite small.

The pomelo, in its general growth, resistance to frost,
propagation, culture, fertilizing, irrigation, and the
like, is similar to the orange. The season in California is
from February 1 until September 1. j. ELIOT COIT.

GRAPE HYACINTH: Muscari botryoides.
GRAPE, SEASIDE: Coccoloba uvifera.

GRAPTOPHYLLUM (Greek words referring to the
variegated foliage). Acanthdcese. Tender shrubs, one
of which is cultivated in a very few American conserva-
tories for its variegated foliage, and is said to be very
popular in India and the tropics.

Leaves opposite, entire (in one species spiny-dentate),
often colored: fls. reddish purple, wide gaping, clus-
tered either in a terminal thryse or in the axils; calyx
divided to the base into 5 segms.; corolla-tube inflated
above; upper lip with 2 short recurved lobes; lower
lip 3-cut; stamens 2: fr. a club-shaped or oblong caps.

GRAPTOPHYLLUM

GRASS

1393

— About 5 species, oriental. No two Ivs. are marked
exactly alike, but the yellow color is near the midrib
rather than at the margins. The genus is close to Thyrs-
acanthus, but in Thyrsacanthus the fls. are not so
distinctly 2-lipped. For cult., see Justicia.

hortense, Nees (G. pictum, Griff. G. picturatum,
Hort. Justicia picta, Linn.). CARICATURE PLANT.
Height finally 6-8 ft.: Ivs. elliptic, acuminate, irregu-
larly marked with yellow along the midrib: fls. crim-
son, in axillary whorls; corolla pubescent. Habitat (?).
B.R. 1227. Lowe 45. B.M. 1870 shows a variety with
reddish brown coloring. — A yellowish -fld. form has
been offered under the name G. picturatum, but it does
not seem to differ otherwise. j^ TAYLOR.!

GRASS (Grammese) . 'Annual or perennial, mostly
herbaceous plants with usually hollow sts. (culms)
closed at the joints (nodes), and 2-ranked Ivs. Culms
woody in the bamboos and in a few other groups such
as the genus Lasiacis, sometimes solid as in maize:
Ivs. consisting of two parts, the sheath and the blade,
the sheaths enveloping the culm above each node, the
margins overlapping or occasionally grown together as
in Bromus and Melica, the blades parallel- veined,
usually linear or elongated (in some tropical grasses short
and broad), on the inside bearing at the junction with
the sheath a membranous or hyaline appendage or rim
called the ligule; in some tropical grasses, especially
bamboos, a petiole inserted between the sheath and
blade: infl. paniculate or contracted into a raceme or
spike, or more rarely into a head, the branches usually
bractless; fls. usually perfect, sometimes monoecious as
in maize, or dioecious as in salt-grass (Distichlis), small,

without a distinct peri-
anth, arranged in spike-
lets consisting of a short-
ened axis (rachilla) and 2
to many 2-ranked bracts,
the lowest pair (the

glumes) empty, one or
oth of these sometimes
absent; each succeeding
bract (lemma) including a
single fl. and, with its back
to the rachilla, a 2-nerved
bract or prophyllum
(palea), the fl. with its
lemma and palea being
termed the floret; stamens
usually 3, with delicate
filaments and 2 - celled
versatile anthers; pistil 1,
with a 1-celled, 1-ovuled
ovary, usually 2 styles
and plumose stigmas: fr.
a caryopsis with starchy
endosperm, and a small
embryo at the base on
one side; grain (caryopsis)
inclosed at maturity in
the lemma and palea (or
sometimes exceeding these
as in maize and pearl
millet), adherent to the
palea as in the oat, or free
as in wheat. Figs. 1745-
( 1748 show the structure
' of various grass florets.

The lemmas are some-
times empty and are then
termed sterile lemmas to
distinguish them from the

1746. Floret of a grass (rye). 81™' . The s p i k e 1 6 1 S
cc, lemma and palea: a, stig- may be inclosed in a spiny
mas: bbb, stamens. (Much involucre or bur as in the
enlarged.) sand-bur, or in an in-

89

1745.

Floret of June-grass,
showing the lemma,
palea, two feathery
stigmas, and three sta-
mens. (Enlarged.)

durated shell as in Job's tears (Coix), or the entire
spike in numerous husks as in maize.

The perennial species of grasses may produce creep-
ing underground stems (rhizomes) by which they
propagate. Kentucky blue-grass and
awnless brome-grass are examples of
this class. Such grasses usually form
// a sod. Those, such as orchard-grass,
V in which no rhizomes are produced
//t usually grow in bunches or tus-
socks and are known as bunch-

The true grasses (Graminese} may
be distinguished from other grass-
like plants such as sedges (Cyperacese)
and rushes (Juncacese) by the two-
ranked leaves and the cylindrical or
flattened stem. Sedges have three-

1747. Spike of a grass
(rye), containing many
spikelets.

1748. Staminate spikelet of a grass
(maize), showing two flowers, one of
which (with three stamens) is ex-
panded, i, i, glumes; 2, 2, palea.
(Enlarged.)

ranked leaves and usually a triangular stem. There
are also important differences in the floral structure.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

Uses of grasses.

Among the species most commonly known are timo-
thy, red top, June -grass, orchard-grass, meadow fox-
tail, the fescues, oat-grass, sweet vernal, quack-grass,
Bermuda-grass, sugar-cane, chess, and the cereals, such
as wheat, barley, rye, pats, rice, sorghum, Indian
corn. In number of species the grass family occupies
the fifth place with 3,500, while the composite, legumes,
orchids and madderworts are larger. In number of
individuals, the grasses excel any other family. Seed
plants are arranged in 200 to 220 families, and of all
these the true grasses are of greatest importance; in
fact, they are of more value as food for man and domes-
tic animals than all other kinds of vegetation combined.
None of these families is more widely distributed over
the earth's surface, or is found in greater extremes of
climate or diversity of soil.

The species are very numerous in tropical regions,
where the plants are usually scattered, while in a moist,
temperate climate, although the species are less numer-
ous, the number of plants is enormous, often clothing
vast areas. Where soil is thin or moisture insufficient,
the grasses grow in bunches more or less isolated.
Plants of one section of the family, Panicaceae, predomi-
nate in the tropics and warm temperate regions, while
plants of the other section, Poaceae, predominate in
temperate and cold regions.

Overstocking dry grazing districts checks the better
grasses, destroying many of them, and encourages the
bitter weeds which multiply and occupy the land.

1394

GRASS

GRASSES

A grass extends its domain by running rootstocks, by
liberating seeds inclosed in the glumes which are
caught by the breeze, by some passing animal, or the
nearest stream; the twisting and untwisting of awns
bury some of them in cracks, crevices or soft earth.
In case a growing stem is thrown down for any reason,
several of the lower nodes promptly elongate on the
lower side and thus bring the top into an erect position.
Each sheath supports and holds erect the tender lower
portion of the internode, where it is soft and weak; it
also protects the young branches or panicles. Thrifty
blades of grasses suitable for pasture and lawn elongate
from the lower end, so that when the tips are cut off
the leaves do not cease to elongate, but renew their
length. When exposed to sun or dry air, the blades
develop a thicker epidermis, and, by shrinking of some
of the delicate bulliform cells of the upper epidermis,
they diminish their surface as they roll their edges
inward or bring them together, like closing an open
book. When the plant is in flower the minute and
delicate lodicules become distended just in time to
spread the glumes and liberate the stamens.

Grasses are not so much employed for ornamenting
homes as their merits warrant. By selecting, some can
be found suited to every week of the growing season,
though many of them are in their prime during June,
the month of roses. Wild rice (Zizania) is fine for rich
soil in the margins of ponds, and masses of reed grass
for deep beds of moist muck. For massing or for bor-
ders the following and others are stately: Arundo
Donax, A. conspicua, maize, pampas-grass, Eulalia,
ribbon-grass, Andropogon formosus, A. halepensis,
Hystrix, Tripsacum. For glaucous blue-green, use
Elymus arenarius, Festuca glauca, and Poa cassia. For

Ktting and borders, there are striped varieties of
ictylis, Anthoxanthum, Holcus lanatus,H. mollis, Poa
trivialis, Phleum pratense, and others may soon be pro-
duced. For table decoration nothing is better than the
elegant, airy panicles of large numbers of wild grasses,
such as species of Poa, Kceleria, Sphenopholis, Panicum,
Paspalum, Eragrostis, Muhlenbergia, Bromus, Festuca,
Agrostis, Deschampsia, Uniola, Briza, Cinna latifolia.
For large halls and exhibitions, nothing surpasses sheaves
of wheat, barley, rice, oats or any of the wild grasses.
For decoration, grasses should be cut before ripe, dried
in the dark in an upright position, and may be used in
that condition or dyed or bleached. For paths, noth-
ing is more pleasing than strips of well-mown lawn.

Drainage keeps out sedges and encourages the better
grasses; manure and irrigation help the best grasses to
choke and diminish most weeds. Enough has already
been done to show that rich rewards are sure for him
who patiently and intelligently attempts to improve
grasses for any purpose whatever by selection and
crossing. Quack-grass is excellent for holding embank-
ments; Ammophila arenaria for holding drifting sands.
The grass family furnishes its full quota of weeds,
among them quack-grass, crab-grass, chess, June-grass,
sand-bur, stink-grass.

Turf-forming grasses are those that spread freely by
creeping rootstocks, such as June-grass, quack-grass,
Bermuda-grass, Rhode Island bent and redtop, while
most others are more or less bunchy. For northern
regions not subject to severe droughts, sow Rhode
Island bent and June-grass both, or either one alone;
for certain regions, which are liable to suffer from
dry weather, sow June-grass and plant Bermuda-grass.
These two on the same ground supplement each other
in different kinds of weather, securing a green carpet dur-
ing every part of each growing season. \\r. j. BEAL.

GRASSES, POPULAR NAMES OF. Few grasses
hold commanding positions as specimen plants, although
the agricultural values of grasses are transcendent.
Some of the commoner vernacular grass names (not all
of true grasses) are given with references to the proper

genera: Animated Oats, Avena. Artificial-G., some-
times used for certain forage plants, as sorghum, but
also leguminous plants, as clover, lucerne, sainfoin.
Awnless Brome-G., Bromus inermis. Beach-G., Am-
mophila arenaria. Bear-G., unusual name for Yucca
filamentosa. Beard-G., Andropogon; also Polypogon
monspeliensis. Bengal-G., Setaria italica. Bent-G.,
Agrostis. Bermuda-G., Cynodon Dactylon. Blue-eyed-
G., Sisyrinchium. Blue-G., Poa. Bluejoint-G., Blue-
stem-G.t Calamagrostis canadensis, Andropogon furcatus,
Agropyron Smithii. Bog-G., Carex. Bristly Foxtail-G.,
Setaria magna. Brome-G., Bromus. Canada Blue-G.,
Poa compressa. Canary-G., Phalaris canariensis.
Cat-tail-G., Phleum pratense. China-G., Bcehmeria
nivea. Citronella-G., Cymbopogon. Cocksfoot-G.,
Dactylis glomerata. Cotton-G., Eriophorum. Couch-G.,
Agropyron repens. Crab-G., Elemine and Digitaria
sanguinalis. Crested Dog's-tail G., Cynosurus
cristatus. Deer-G., Rhexia virginica. Dog's-tail-G.,
Cynosurus. Eel-G., Vallisneria spiralis. English
Rye-G., Lolium perenne. Esparto-G., Stipa tenacissima.
Feather-G., Stipa pennata. Feather Sedge-G., Andro-
pogon saccharoides. Fescue-G., Festuca. Finger-comb-
G., Dactyloctenium. Finger-G., Chloris. Fly Away-G.,
Agrostis hiemalis. Four-leaved-G., Paris quadrifolia.
Fowl M.ea.dovf-G.,Poatriflora. Golden-Top G.,Lamarckia
aurea. Guinea-G., Panicum maximum; also erroneously
used for Holcus halepensis. Hair-G., Agrostis hiemalis.
Hare's-tail G., Lagurus ovatus. Hassock-G., Deschamp-
sia csespitosa. Herd's-G., in New England is timothy
(Phleum pratense}; in Pennsylvania, fiorin (Agrostis
alba). Holy-G., Hierochloa borealis. Hungarian-G.,
Setaria italica. Italian Rye-G., Lolium multiflorum.
Japanese Lawn-G., Zoysia pungens. Job's-tears,
Coix. Johnson-G., Holcus halepensis. June-G., Poa
pratensis. Kentucky Blue-G., Poa pratensis. Large
Quaking-G., Briza maxima. Little Quaking-G., Briza
minor. Love-G., Eragrostis elegans. Lyme-G., of up-
holstery is Deschampsia csespitosa. Marram-G., Am-
mophila arenaria. Myrtle-G., Acorus Calamus. Oat-G.,
Arrhenatherum elatius; also various species of Avena.
Orchard-G., Dactylis glomerata. Palm-leaved G., Pani-
cum sulcatum. Pampas-G., Cortaderia. Pepper-G.,
Lepidium; also Pilularia globulifera. Plume-G., Erian-
thus Ravennse. Pony-G., Calamagrostis stricta. Purple
Bent-G., Calamovilfa brevipilis. Quack-, Quick-, or
Quitch-G., Agropyron repens. Quaking-G., Briza. Rat-
tlesnake-G., Briza maxima; also Glyceria canadensis.
Ray-G., Lolium perenne. Redtop G., Agrostis alba.
Reed-G., Arundo, Bamboo. Reed Bent-G., Calamagrostis.
Reed Canary-G., Phalaris arundinacea. Rescue-G.,
Bromus unioloides. Rhode Island Bent-G., Agrostis
canina. Ribbon-G., Phalaris arundinacea var. picta.
Rough Bent-G., Agrostis hiemalis. Roughish Meadow-
G., Poa trivialis. Roughstalked Meadow-G., Poa
trivialis. Rye-G., Lolium perenne. Sand-G., Cala-
movilfa longifolia. Scurvy-G., Cochlearia officinalis.
Scutch -G., Cynodon Dactylon. Seacoast Bent-G.,
Agrostis alba var. maritima. Seneca-G., Hierochloa
borealis. Sesame-G., Tripsacum. Sheep's Fescue-
G., Festuca ovina. Silk-G., Agrostis hiemalis. Sil-
ver Beard-G., Andropogon argenteus. Sour-G., local
name for Rumex Acetosella. Squirrel-tail-G., Hordeum.
Star-G., Callitriche; also locally for Hypoxis and Aletris.
Striped -G., Phalaris arundinacea var. picta. Sweet-
scented Vernal-G., Anthoxanthum odoratum. Tall
Meadow Oat-G., Arrhenatherum elatius. Tickle-G.,
Agrostis hiemalis. Tear-G.,CoixLachryma-Jobi. Texas
Blue-G., Poa arachnifera. Timothy, Phleum. Tufted
Hair-G., Deschampsia csespitosa. Vanilla-G., Hierochloa
borealis. Viper' s-G., Scorzonera. White Bent-G., Agros-
tis alba. Whitlow-G., Draba, especially D. verna, and
Saxifraga tridactylites. Wood Meadow-G., Poa nemora-
lis. Woolly Beard-G., Erianthus. Worm-G., Spigelia;
also Sedum album. YeUow-eyed-G., Xyris. Zebra-G.,
Miscanthus sinensis.

GRATIOLA

GREENHOUSE

1395

GRATIOLA (Latin, grace or favor, from its reputed
healing properties). Scrophularidceds. Low herbs, rarely
planted.

Plants with opposite Ivs.: fls. yellow or whitish,
peduncled, axillary, hypogynous, perfect; calyx 5-
parted, nearly regular; corofla gamopetalous, tubular-
funnelform, more or less 2-lipped; upper lip entire or
2-toothed, lower 3-lobed; perfect stamens 2, the
anterior pair wanting or rudimentary; ovary superior,
2-celled; style filiform; stigma dilated 2-lobed: fr. a
4-valved, many-seeded caps. — About 25 species in many
parts of the world, none of which is of commercial
importance. The following species has been advertised
for sale and would make a good plant for covering the
muddy borders of ditches and aquatic gardens. Most
species are perennial.

aurea, Muhl. GOLDENPERT. GOLDEN HEDGEHYSSOP.
Annual, prostrate, viscid, puberulent or glabrate:
Ivs. lance-oblong, 2-12 lines long, denticulate, sessile
by a broad base: fls. bright yellow, showy, 6-7 lines
long. Wet sandy shores, Maine and Ont. to Fla.,
mostly along the coast. B.B. 3:162.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GRAVESIA (after C. L. Graves, who collected in
Madagascar). Melastomacex. Dwarf warmhouse foli-
age plants, natives of Madagascar, and cultivated in a
few American conservatories.

Flower parts in 5's or the stamens 10, all equal; pet-
als obovate, obtuse or sometimes with a short spine-
like process: fr. a 3-yalved caps. — Three species. For
cult, and for distinctions from allied genera, see Berto-
lonia, under which name most of the varieties are still
known.

guttata, Triana (Bertolonia guttata, Hook.). Caules-
cent, erect: branches obtusely 4-angled: petioles 2^-3
in. long, densely scurfy-powdery: Ivs. membranous,
5-nerved, rotund at base, slightly scurfy above and
spotted, under side and calyx scurfy-powdery: cymes
terminal, several-fld. Intro. 1865, and first described
in B.M. 5524 as B. guttata, where the Ivs. are shown
with fairly well defined, double, longitudinal rows of
roundish pink dots. F.S. 16:1696 is probably a copy
of B.M. 5524. (See, also, Gt. 1865, p. 385, and B.H.
1865, p. 225.) Var. superba, Hort., I.H. 26:359 (1879),
is shown, with more and larger reddish purple spots,
which are less regularly arranged. Var. Legrelleana
(B. Legrelleana, Van Houtte). An alleged hybrid
obtained by Van Houtte and figured in F.S. 23:2407.
Coigneux refers this plate to Gravesia guttata, but no
fls. are shown, nor have the Ivs. any spots. The nerves
are outlined in white, and some of the cross-veins for
short distances. Var. Alfred Bleu is brilliantly spotted
and lined with bright red, the nerves boldly outlined,
the cross-veins interruptedly outlined. I.H. 41:13
(1894). Var. margaritacea, Nichols. (B. margaritacea,
Hort. W. Ru\\=Salpinga margaritacea. F.S. 16:1697).
See DC. Mon. Phan. 7:537. N_ TAYLOR.!

GRAVISIA (the name unexplained). Bromeliacese.
South American acaulescent herbs, differing from
^Echmea in the character of the pollen-grains and
other technical features, and requiring similar treat-
ment in cult. Lvs. densely rosulate, conspicuously
sheathing, brown-scurfy, the margin more or less spiny:
scape arising from the center of the rosette, bearing
a panicled or bipinnate infl.: petals yellow or orange.
G. exsudans, Mez (dZchmea exsudans, Baker.
Tilldndsia exsudans, Desf. Bromelia exsudans, Lodd.
Hohenbergia capitata, R. & S.) Fls. congested in sessile
heads composing a compound panicle, the floral bracts
spine-pointed: Ivs. whitish beneath, oblong, spiny.
L.B.C. 9:801. — Fls. said to exude a whitish greasy
substance, whence the name. Plant 2-3 ft. Appar-
ently very little grown. L, jj. B.

GREENHOUSE. In America the word greenhouse is
used generically for any glass building in which plants
are grown, with the exception of coldframes and hot-
beds. Originally and etymologically, however, it means
a house in which plants are kept alive or green: in the
greenhouse plants are placed for winter protection, and
it is not expected that they shall grow. The evolution
of the true greenhouse seems to have begun with the
idea of a human dwelling-house. At first larger win-
dows were inserted; and later, a glass roof was added.
In early times it was thought best to have living-rooms
above the greenhouse, that it might not freeze through
the roof. Even as late as 1806, Bernard M. Mahon,
writing in Philadelphia, felt called upon to combat this
idea. The old or original conception of a greenhouse as
a place for protecting and storing plants is practically
extinct, at least in America (Fig. 1749). In England,
the word greenhouse is mostly used for a house or
structure in which are kept or grown those plants that
do not require a very high temperature.

Other types of plant-houses are the conservatory
(which see), in which plants are kept for display; the
forcing-house (see Forcing), in which plants are forced
to grow at other times than their normal season; the

1749. The old-time greenhouse with opaque roof and sash-made
sides (Abercrombie, 1786).

stove or warmhouse; the propagating-pit. Originally
the warmest part of the plant-house, that part in which
tropical plants were grown, was heated by a stove made
of brick, and the house itself came to be called a stove.
This use of the word stove to designate the warmest
part or room of the range is general in England, but
in America we prefer the word warmhouse (and this
word is much used in this Cyclopedia). Originally,
hothouse was practically equivalent to stove, but this
term is little used in this country, and when used it is
mostly applied generically in the sense of greenhouse.

It will thus be seen that there is no one word that
is properly generic for all glass plant-houses. The word
glasshouse has been suggested, and it is often used in
this work; but there are other glass houses than those
used for plants. It seems best, therefore, to use the
word greenhouse for all glass buildings in which plants
are grown; and American usage favors this conclusion.

The long, low greenhouse range, of the type we now
know in our commercial establishments, probably had a
different origin from the high-sided greenhouse. The
glasshouse range appears to have developed from the
practice of protecting fruits and other plants against a
wall. In European countries, particularly in England,
it is the practice to train fruits and other plants on stone
or brick walls, that they may be protected from inclem-
ent weather and receive the greater sun heat that is
stored in the masonry. It occurred to Nicholas Facio
Duilhier to incline these fruit walls to the horizon so
that they would receive the greater part of the incident
rays of the sun at right angles. He wrote a book on the
subject of "Fruit-Walls Improved," which was pub-
lished in England in 1699. Facio was a mathematician,
and he worked put the principle of the inclined walls
from mathematical considerations. Such walls were
actually built, but according to the testimony of
Stephen Switzer, who wrote in 1724, these walls were
not more successful than those which stood perpen-
dicularly. Certain of these walls on the grounds of

1396

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

Belyoir Castle, and over which grapes were growing,
received the additional protection of glass sash set in
front of the inclined walls and over the vines. In addi-
tion to this, flues were constructed behind the wall in
which heat might be supplied. The construction of
hollow heated walls was not uncommon in that day.
The satisfactory results that followed this experiment
induced Switzer to design glass-covered walls. The
"glasshouse" which he pictured in the "Practical

1750. Switzer's glasshouse, built on an inclined wall (1731).

Fruit-Gardener" (1731) represents a greenhouse 3J^
feet wide in the clear (Fig. 1750). At the back of this
house is an inclined heated wall on which the grapes
are grown. Three and one-half feet in front of this a
framework is erected to receive the sash. There are
three tiers of openings or windows along the front, the
two lower ones of which are for window-sash, and the
upper one is vacant in order to provide for ventilation
and to allow space to receive the lower sash when they
are lifted up. The whole structure is covered with a
roof or coping. Switzer declares that the introduction
of these covered sloping walls "led the world" to the
"improvement of glassing and forcing grapes, which
was never done to that Perfection in any Place as it is
upon some of the great Slopes of that elevated and
noble Situation of Belvoir Castle." Johnson, in his
"History of English Gardening," quotes the remarks of
Switzer, and makes the statement that the use of these
walls "led to the first erection of a regular forcing struc-
ture of which we have an account." The immediate out-
come of these covered walls seems to have been the
lean-to greenhouse, and from that structure has per-
haps developed the double-span glass range of the pres-
ent day. Long before Switzer's time plants were forced
in a crude way, even by the Romans, mostly by being
placed in baskets or other movable receptacles, so that
they could be placed under
cover in inclement weather;
but the improvements of
Facio and Switzer seem to
have been among the earliest
attempts in England to make
low glass ranges for plants.

It was about the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century
that great improvements be-
gan to be made in the glass-
house. This new interest
was due to the introduction

1751. London's device for charging a greenhouse with air.

of new plants from strange countries, the improvement
of heating apparatus, and the general advance in the
art of building. The ideals that prevailed at the open-
ing of the century may be gleaned from J. Loudon's
"Treatise on Several Improvements Recently Made in
Hot-Houses," London, 1805. One of the devices recom-
mended by Loudon will interest the reader. It is shown
in Fig. 1751. The bellows is used for the purpose of
forcing air into the house, that the plants may be sup-
plied with a
fresh or non-
vitiated at-
mosphere. "By
forcing the air
into the house,
once a day or
so, double the
quantity of air
which " the
house usually
contains" can
be secured. The
house could be
"ch arged."
The tube lead-
ing from the
bellows is shown at b; it discharges at c. Curtains run
on wire, i; the curtain cord is at /.

Greenhouses are now built on the plan of the long
low glass range with sides varying from 5 feet 6 inches
to 7 feet in height. The tendency in commercial
structures is for a height of 7 feet from ground to eaves.
The taller glass structures are used for conservatory
purposes, housing such table plants as palms, tree-
ferns, or the like, or when an architectural feature is
desired. The general tendency of the building of glass
structures is toward extreme simplicity (Fig. 1547, p.
1256). In the extreme South, lattice-work buildings are
sometimes used for the protection of plants, both from
light frosts and from the sun (Fig. 1752). The heating
now employed in this country is of three different kinds:
hot water under very low pressure or in the open-tank
system; hot water in practically closed circuits; and
steam. Hot water under low pressure is an old-time
mode of heating, and is not now popular in this coun-
try except for conservatories and private establish-
ments. The heavy cumbersome pipes are not adapted
to laying over long distances and under varying con-
ditions. The commercial houses are now heated by
means of wrought-iron pipes, which go together with
threads. The comparative merits of steam and hot
water in these wrought-iron pipes are much discussed.
For large establishments, hot water under pressure is
now employed to some extent. Much progress has
been made in methods of heating in recent years, and
either steam or hot water gives good results when com-
petently installed. The merits of one system or the
other are very largely those of the individual estab-
lishment and apparatus, and the personal choice of
the operator (see page 1403; also pages 1400 and
1402).

The simple straight and direct house is now much
in favor with the commercial growers of carnations,
chrysanthemums, violets, roses, vegetables, and with
propagators. Most of the greenhouse construction
firms are designing houses most admirably adapted to
the growing of these plants. Each firm has a few
original forms worked into the detail plans, calculated
to appeal to the growers' fancy. Perhaps the ideal
structure for carnations, for example, is a single
detached house, about 50 feet wide and 500 feet or less
in length, with ventilators on each side of the ridge
and on each side below the eaves, and the eaves, or the
gutters, 6 feet above the grade.

With the refinements of architecture and the growth
of satisfaction in home-building, the glasshouse is

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1397

becoming an integral part of the residence. Sometimes
it takes the form of a sun-parlor, and in which certain
plants may be kept at least temporarily; sometimes it
is a real plant-house added to the residence, a glass or
covered garden that carries bloom and verdure
through the cold weather and enables the homemaker
to span the year. The best results in plant-growing are
secured when the structure is separate, with its own
heat, its normal exposure, and its own essential set of
conditions; but it is worth while to add a garden-room
to a residence even if the horticultural results are not
great. Some of the architectural combinations of glass
and other materials are very artistic and interesting.

L. H. B.

Greenhouse construction.

For convenience, this subject may be considered
under the following heads; i. e., Location, Plans, Gra-
ding, Foundations, Framework, Glazing and painting,
Plant-tables, Ventilation, Heating.

Location.

Greenhouses which are intended for use in
connection with the gardens should be placed,
for convenient attendance, within the garden
inclosure or along its boundary. A good loca-
tion for the garden will usually be found the J
best one for the greenhouse.

A conservatory or greenhouse designed for
a private place, where specimen and blooming
plants will be kept for the pleasure of the
family and entertainment of visitors, should
be attached to the dwelling or located as near
as possible in a well-kept part of the grounds.
A conservatory does not require a full south-
ern exposure. Most decorative plants thrive
as well or better and continue in bloom for a
longer time if kept in a house having plenty
of light, but so located as to receive but little
direct sunlight. Large ranges of glass adapted
to a variety of purposes are generally kept
separate from other buildings. In parks the location
should be near a main entrance.

The location of a range of glass for commercial pur-
poses, where the elements of expense and profit are to
have the first consideration, is of great importance.
The chief items that determine the desirability of a
suitable location are the adaptability and value of the
land, cost of fuel delivered, ample and inexpensive
water supply and proximity to a market. The top of a
bleak hill and the bottom of a valley should both be
avoided. Level land, or that having a southerly slope, is
the best.

Plans.

When a site for the proposed greenhouse has been
decided upon, full plans should be made before com-
mencing to build. The plans should embrace not only
the glass, which is required at once, but should provide
for the largest increase which can be anticipated. In
this way houses can be erected which are convenient
to work and have a good appearance, with small extra
cost for building only part at a time. Attention should
be given to the special peculiarities of the location, like
the exposure to the sun, grade of ground, shape of lot
and best location for the heating apparatus. Each com-
partment should have the proper form of house and
exposure to the light adapted to the plants for which it
is provided.

It will readily be seen that to locate and plan a range
of glass to the best advantage requires skill and
experience. In a communication received by the
writer from a superintendent of one of the most impor-
tant botanic gardens in the country, it was remarked
that "when the architect prevails, the gardener fails."

It is also true to a greater degree than in almost any
other class of buildings that the beginner or amateur
who undertakes to plan and construct his own green-
house is likely to pay well for his experience, and will
at least sympathize with the "lawyer who pleaded his
own cause and found he had a fool for a client." This
is perfectly true, as many know to their cost. To plan a
greenhouse satisfactorily, the designer must have a
practical knowledge of the requirements. To meet this
increasing demand, specialists can be found, known as
"horticultural architects," who devote their entire
time to this branch of work.

Grading.

The floor of the greenhouse should be a few inches
above the outside grade. As most greenhouses are
necessarily built low to accommodate the plants, a small
terrace around them adds to the elevation and the good
appearance of the structure. It will usually be best to
keep the floor of a greenhouse all on one level. When the

1752. A lattice-covered plant-house.

variation in the grade of the ground is not too great, the
floor line should be at the highest point of the grade.
In the case of a long house, the floor line is sometimes
made the same as the natural grade, but such an
arrangement is to be avoided when possible. For loca-
tions on a hillside, the different apartments may have
different floor-levels, with necessary steps between
them.

All the sod and loam should be removed from the
space to be covered by a greenhouse and all the filling
necessary made with subsoil. The latter should be laid
in thin layers and each wet down and thoroughly
tamped. Loam used for filling under a greenhouse is
likely to become sour, and will continue to settle for a
long time, causing much trouble and annoyance.

Foundations.

Too much care cannot be given to the preparation of
good foundations. These are usually of brick, but may
be made of stone or concrete. The brick walls take up
less room in the house than stone, and are usually less
expensive. The foundation walls should be extended
down to a point below the frost line, generally 3 or 4
feet deep, and are usually raised about 2 feet above the
grade. An inexpensive wall of rubble stone work or
of concrete is all that is needed in the ground. The part
of the wall showing above grade may be of plain brick,
or brick faced with stone, or the entire wall may be
built of concrete finished with cement plaster. It is
usual to construct the walls of the same material as
the surrounding buildings, or with some material that
will harmonize with them. Until a few years ago,
double boarding was used exclusively for the side walls
in greenhouses built by florists, the rafters being car-

1398

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

ried into the ground about 30 inches. Today, light con-
crete walls about 4 inches thick are built. The cost of
the concrete is almost the same as double boarding but
has the advantage of being iudestructible.

Framework.

The construction best adapted for conservatories,
park houses and greenhouses, and for private places
where the improvements are desired to be permanent
in character and attractive in appearance is the com-
bination of iron and wood. In this system, the main
frame which supports the weight and strain
is of iron, or steel, wood being used in the
frames as a setting for the glass and to
form a non-conductor of great advantage in
the heating of the house. The iron work in
this style of construction usually
consists of cast-iron sills capping
the foundation walls, wrought-iron
rafters setting on the sills, about 8
feet apart and running from sill to
ridge, forming the side post and
rafter in one piece, cast-iron gutters,
and angle iron purlins between the
rafters, all securely bracketed and
bolted together, forming a complete
framework of metal, light, strong
and durable. The wood used con-
sists of light sash-bars for support-
ing the glass, sashes for ventila-
tion and doors. This woodwork
being entirely supported by the
metal frame, and not being used
where it will be continually wet, will

method of securing the sash-bars in place is very con-
venient in case of repairs, and renders the structure
practically portable. A careful examination of any old
greenhouse will show that the parts of the frame which
decay first are those pieces of wood which are joined
together, for water penetrating the joints soon destroys

the wood. This trouble is
largely avoided by arrang-
ing the frame so that each
piece of wood is fastened

1753. Even-span curvilinear greenhouse, with cast-iron piping.

be found as durable as any other material, and for many
reasons better adapted for the requirements of a green-
house roof. This combination system of metal and wood
construction has been extensively adopted by florists,
growers of cut-flowers and also the progressive vegetable-
growers. In the houses built for the above, the masonry
foundation walls are omitted. Posts constructed of
wrought-iron are placed in the sides extending from
about 30 inches below grade to the height of the eaves.
These posts occur at every rafter, to which they are
connected with steel or cast-iron fittings. The posts
are embedded in concrete below grade, and 4-inch con-
crete walls built extending from 6 inches below grade up
to the under side of the glazing sill.

Gutters are seldom used at the eave line in this type
of house. An angle-iron eave-plate is substituted for
the gutter so framed as to allow the snow and ice to
slide over it, keeping the roof entirely clear from
such accumulations which darken a house in winter.

The first cost is somewhat increased over an all-
wood construction, but in view of its greater durability
and saying in repairs, it will be found in the end, the
better investment.

Cast-iron gutters are provided to collect the rain-
water from the roof. By exposing the inner side of
these gutters to the heat of the house, they are kept
free of ice in the winter. Small metal .----*
clips fastened with screws are used
to connect the wood sash-bars
to the cast-iron gutters,
angle-iron plates and
purlins. This

1754. A very wide plant-grower's house.

directly to the iron frame instead of to another piece
of wood. Joints between wood and iron do not rot the
wood, the latter being preserved by the corrosion of
the metal.

The curvilinear form of house (Fig. 1753) is ornamen-
tal and particularly well adapted for conservatories,
palm-houses and show-houses of all kinds. It is pre-
ferred for vineries and fruit-houses, as the form allows
the canes to be supported on the line of the roof with-
out a sharp bend at the plate line. The light in a
curved house, being admitted at different angles, is
better diffused and more natural than when reflected
through a long pane of straight glass. The cost of a
curved roof is slightly greater in the construction, but
the arched frame is stronger and will keep its shape
better than a house with straight lines, thus largely
compensating for the extra cost. For special purposes
and locations, special forms of frames may be used.
Good forms of commercial houses are shown in Figs.
1754-56.

The ridge-and-furrow type of house (Fig. 1757) is sel-
dom built now except in cases in which the amount of
land available is limited. The superior growing quali-
ties of greenhouses built separately has been thor-
oughly demonstrated, as has also the increased produc-
tiveness of wide houses. A florist now seldom builds a
house less than 30 feet wide. It is oftener 40 feet, and
houses 55, 65, 75 and 85 feet wide are not uncommon.
These wider houses cost less in proportion to build,
grow better crops and are more economical as to
labor (Fig. 1754).

Greenhouses with curved eaves (Fig. 1756)
are being built more and
more. This type presents a
pleasing appearance and
eliminates s h a d e - casting
members at the eaves. A
combination sill and gutter
is substituted for the plain
sill on top of masonry wall to
which the rafters and bars
are secured.

GREENHOUSE

1399

It is commonly admitted that the so-called "sash-bar
construction" is not the best or lightest method of con-
struction, but as the absence of most of the framing
reduces its cost so that it is the cheapest to build, it
remains a popular method of putting up a commercial

1755. A compact two-walk house.

greenhouse. Circulars showing the various methods
adopted by the dealers in greenhouse material can
readily be secured by applying to them.

The best wood to use for greenhouse framework and
plant-beds is undoubtedly cypress. In purchasing this
lumber, care should be taken that only that grown in the
states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico be selected.
This will be found of a dark red or brown color, quite
soft and easily worked. There is an inferior va-
riety of cypress growing farther north, which
is light in color, hard and springy, and
likely to be shaky. As the latter variety
is cheaper than red Gulf cypress it
is frequently used by those who
do not know the difference,
to the serious detriment
of the work and the
loss of reputation of
cypress for such pur-
poses.

In the market there
are three grades of
cypress lumber, and it
is important to know
which to choose. The
best grade is known

as "firsts and seconds," and calls for lumber with a
small extent of sap on the edges and occasionally a
small sound knot. This is the quality which should
be ordered for all the framework of the roof, sash-
bars, and so on. In order to make the material entirely
free from sap there will be a waste in cutting up this
quality of 10 to 20 per cent. The second grade
is known to the trade as "selects." This name indi-
cates that it has been graded so that one face of each
piece of lumber is of about the same quality as the
"firsts and seconds," the other face generally being
largely sap. This quality is fit only for outside board-
ing in greenhouse construction; it has too much sap.
The cost is usually about five dollars a thousand less
than the best grade. As it looks to the inexperienced
eye almost the same as the best grade, too much of it
finds its way into greenhouse structures. Such sap
lumber usually will not last more than two to five years.
Too great care cannot be exercised to avoid its use.
The third grade of cypress lumber is termed "cutting
up," and is so called because it embraces all the pieces
which have imperfections, such as large knots and splits,
which bar them from the better grades. This is a good
quality to purchase for base-boards and plant tables,
for by cutting out the sap and objectionable knots it
will be found satisfactory for these purposes. The
"cutting up" grade costs about ten dollars less a
thousand than the "firsts and seconds." The percent-
age of waste in cutting up will be somewhat greater

than in the other grades. Cheap timber is likely to
give unsatisfactory results in greenhouse work.

Cypress lumber which has been in use for gutters,
sash-bars, plates, and the like, in greenhouses where
high temperatures have been maintained is still, after
many years, apparently in as good condition as when
first used. Owing to the porous texture of the wood, the
paint, when applied, sinks in and does not make so fine
a coat as on some other woods, but because of this fact
the paint adheres to the wood better and lasts longer.

Glazing and painting.

Ordinary sheet or window glass is in general use for
greenhouse glazing. It is better to use only the thick-
ness known to the trade as "double -thick." This
weighs from twenty-four to twenty-six ounces a
square foot. The thickness known to the trade as
"single thick" weighs only about sixteen ounces to the
square foot, and is entirely too frail for the purpose.
There is very little difference at present in the quality
of the imported French or Belgian and the American
glass. The weight of most of the glass of American
manufacture is about 2 ounces greater a foot than the
imported, and therefore it is proportionately stronger.
This greater strength is of considerable importance in
the additional security which it affords from damage
caused by that enemy of the florists, the hail-storm.
There is a great difference in the quality of the glass
made by different manufacturers in its adaptation to
greenhouse use. This difference is caused chiefly
by the quality of the material used in the glass,
making it more or less opaque, and in the
variations in thickness causing lenses
which concentrate the sun's rays and
burn the foliage of the plants.
This last defect in the glass
cannot be wholly
guarded against, as the
product of a factory
does not always run
the same so that any
favorite brand cannot
be fully relied upon in
this respect. The waves
which burn will be
found in all the differ-
ent grades of glass,

firsts, seconds and thirds, with little, if any difference,
the grading being done chiefly for other defects, such
as affect the value of the glass for window purposes.
For these reasons, in selecting the glass for a green-
house, it requires experience to decide what make of
glass it will be best to purchase. It will be well to pur-
chase from someone who makes a specialty of furnish-
ing glass for greenhouses or call in the aid of some
friend who has had experience in building, and can give
intelligent advice.

The second quality of glass is usually selected for the
best greenhouse work. The standard widths are from
12 to 16 inches, and lengths vary from 16 to 24 inches.

1756. Section of curved-eave house.

1757. Ridge -and-furrow houses.

A favorite size is 16 by 24 inches. This is about as large
as it is practicable to use double thick glass, and makes a
roof with comparatively few laps.

It is not safe to purchase fourth quality of glass or
the so-called "greenhouse glass" frequently offered by
window-glass dealers, as both of the grades contain the

1400

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

culls and lights only fit to glaze cheap sash for market-
gardeners, and is of doubtful economy even for this
purpose. Rough plate and ribbed glass is used on large
palm-gardens and conservatories in which the maximum
of light is not an essential feature. Where this glass is
used larger roof-bars are needed and stock construction
has to be materially changed. Recently a few conserva-
tories have been glazed with thick, polished plate-
glass, making very handsome roofs, but rather expen-
sive.

To set glass properly in a greenhouse roof, it should
be bedded in the best putty on wood sash-bars and
lapped at the joints. The bars should be spaced accu-
rately, so that the glass will fit the rabbets with not
over r£ of an inch allowance, and the panes of glass
should lap each other not more than from % to ^ of
an inch. Zinc shoe-nails fasten the glass best, using
from four to six to each pane, according to the size of
the light. No putty should be used on the outside of
the glass. A comparatively new system of glazing has
been adopted by some florists in which no putty is
used, but the glass is placed directly on the rabbets of
the bars and the ends of the panes are butted together
and held in place by wood caps fastened to the sash-
bars. This system does not make a tight roof, allowing
considerable water to enter the house through the joints,
nor does it provide any means of escape for the con-
densed water from the under side of the glass, which is a
very serious objection. In ordinary glazing, where
each light laps over the one below, the condensed water

1758. Details of iron-frame benches.

passes through the joints to the outside, forming a
perfect remedy for this trouble. The difference in the
cost is very slight, if anything, provided the work is
equally well done, as the value of the putty omitted
is fully offset by the extra cost of the caps.

The painting of a greenhouse roof is a very impor-
tant part of the work. Owing to the extremes of heat,
cold, dryness and moisture to which it is exposed, the
conditions are decidedly different from ordinary build-
ings. Three-coat work is the best. The priming coat
on the woodwork should be mostly oil, and, as far as
possible, the material should be dipped into a tank of
paint. Iron and steel framing material should be primed
with a metallic paint. The priming coat should be
applied before the material is exposed to the weather.
The material of the second and finishing coat should
be pure linseed oil and white lead. Experience has
shown that this material is the best for this work. The.
color should be white or a light tint of any desired shade
may be used, but no heavy color should be adopted
which requires coloring matter in place of the lead in the
mixing. Each coat should be applied thin and well
rubbed out. While the appearance may not be quite
so fine when the work is first done, the paint will not
peel off, and will last longer and form a better protection
for the structure than when it is put on in thick coats.
It will also form a good base for repainting, and this
should be done in a similar manner. It is economical
to repaint a greenhouse every two years, and generally
one coat will be sufficient. Neglected unpainted green-
houses soon suffer, and are also very unattractive.

Plant-tables.

Stages for plants in pots, or raised beds for planting
out, usually cover the entire area of a greenhouse except
the walks, and their cost constitutes a considerable
proportion of the expense. Palms are usually grown in
solid beds or in pots or boxes sitting on the ground.
Many vegetables are grown in solid beds near the
ground-level. Roses and carnations are usually in
raised beds. Angle-iron frames supported on adjusta-
ble gas-pipe legs, with slate or tile bottoms, form the
best plant-tables (Fig. 1758). Wood bottoms which
can be readily renewed are frequently substituted, sav-
ing a part of the first cost. When the table supports are
of wood, care should be taken that they are not fastened
against any part of the framework of the house, unless
iron brackets are used so as entirely to separate the
woodwork.

Ventilation.

No greenhouse is complete without a good ventilating
apparatus. About one-tenth of the roof should be
arranged to open or close for ventilation, although this
percentage will vary according to the form of house and
the purpose for which it is used. It is not desirable to
open all the ventilators in a long house with one set
of apparatus, for frequently one end will not need so
much ventilation as the other end or may be affected
by the wind, forming a current lengthwise of the house.
To avoid this, a greenhouse 200 feet long should have
three or four sets of apparatus which can be operated
separately. In all greenhouses of considerable width
it is desirable that ventilation should be provided on
both sides of the ridge so that the ventilation can be
given on the "leeward" side, which will prevent the
wind from blowing directly into the house.

Heating.

The success of the florist, gardener or amateur in
the management of a greenhouse depends largely on
the satisfactory working of the heating apparatus.
There are two systems of greenhouse heating which,
when the apparatus is properly installed, are economi-
cal and satisfactory; viz., hot water and steam. The
open-tank hot-water heating has more advantage in
its adaptation to general use than any other, and is
so simple that its management is readily understood by
anyone. It is practically automatic and is capable of
maintaining an even temperature for ten hours without
attention. Low pressure steam-heating is well adapted
to large commercial ranges, and to large conservatories
in parks and private places where a night attendant can
be kept in charge of the fires to turn on and shut off
steam from the radiating pipes as the changing outside
temperature may require. The heating of greenhouses
to the best advantage, under the varying conditions of
climate and interior requirements, demands, like the
designing of greenhouses, the services of an experi-
enced specialist in horticultural work.

LORD & BURNHAM Co.

Vegetable forcing-houses.

The evolution of the vegetable forcing-house has
been rapid and very pronounced. From the low-built,
flue-heated, dark stuffy type of house to the high, well-
lighted, steam- or hot-water-heated, well-ventilated
house is a change that has come not only in a very
short time but which has been as marked as the transi-
tion from the ox-cart to the automobile.

Location.

In selecting a suitable location for vegetable forcing-
houses, one of the most important things to consider
is the marketing possibilities. It would be folly to go
to the expense of building a forcing-house in which to
grow vegetables to make money if they could not be

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1401

sold at a profit above cost of production. The most
desirable markets are those within easy driving dis-
tances. If it is necessary to ship the produce to be
grown, electric lines will usually be found more economi-
cal carriers than steam lines. A grower is nearly always
at a disadvantage if he has but one available road to
ship over. Competition insures cheaper and better
service. Cities with 25,000 to 50,000 population are
often more desirable markets than much larger cities.
Cities which are the chief shipping-points for south-
ern-grown vegetables are not so good markets for
forcing-house products as are the cities which are not
so accessible from the localities making a business of
growing winter vegetables for northern markets.

Another matter of importance to consider in choosing
a forcing-house site is the cost of fuel. If natural gas
can be secured at a reasonable cost it is a very satis-
factory fuel. Coal is used most commonly as a fuel.
When calculating the cost of coal, the hauling of it
from the nearest shipping-point to the forcing-house
should be included. It is expensive to move large
quantities of coal a long distance, especially if the road
is not good. When a dirt road must be used, it is usually
best to do the hauling in late summer rather than in
winter.

While any productive soil can be made suitable for
forcing purposes, it is easier and cheaper to prepare a
sandy soil than a heavy clay soil. Other things being
equal, therefore, a location where the soil is a sand or
sandy loam is to be preferred to a clay soil.

As large quantities of water are used in the forcing-
house, an abundant supply should be known to exist
before a site is selected for the houses. It is cheaper to
build and easier to operate a forcing-house on level
than on sloping land. A level site should, therefore,
be selected if possible.

It is also an advantage to have the houses protected
on the sides from which the prevailing winds come.
Trees, hills or buildings are suitable for this purpose,
providing they are not near enough to shade the
houses much of the time. The site should not be far
from the dwelling, and the closer it is to the market or
shipping-point the better. A location which cannot be
satisfactorily drained or which is subject to overflow
should of course be avoided.

Types of forcing-houses.

Of. the various types of forcing-houses, even-span,
three-quarter-span, hillside and lean-to, only two are
being built very generally at present. Many New
England growers prefer the three-quarter-span, while
the even-span is most popular in all other sections of
the country in which forcing-houses are commonly
erected. The three-quarter-span is used on sloping land
as much as the hillside type of house, or even more.
Good results are secured with either form.

Form of construction.

All-wood houses. — In the all-wood form of construc-
tion no iron is used except in the heating-plant. The
walls may be all wood, or wood and concrete. The posts
may or may not be set in concrete. The all-wood house
was by far the most common form of construction only
a few years ago and certain growers in various parts of
the country still prefer the all- wood houses. Red cedar
and cypress are the kinds of wood commonly used for
forcing-house erection.

Semi-iron houses. — In the semi-iron form of construc-
tion all supporting posts, purlins and braces are made
of iron pipes or angle-iron. The walls are usually made
of concrete and all interior posts are set in concrete.
The semi-iron houses are more expensive to erect than
the all-wood houses but they are more durable and most
growers think they are cheaper in the end.

All-iron houses. — In the all-iron construction the
entire framework is of iron. The various parts are put

together in such a way that the houses are very rigid.
This form of construction is the most durable of all and
will stand a greater weight of snow and more severe
winds than the semi-iron or all-wood houses. The first
cost of the all-iron houses is from one-third to one-half
greater than the semi-iron construction, and this fact
alone stands in the way of the general use of this
construction. In spite of this objection, a number
of large all-iron houses have been erected recently
and they seem to be increasing in popularity, especially
in the eastern part of the United States.

Trussed houses. — In the trussed form of construc-
tion, steel truss-rods are used to take the place of a
part or all of the iron or wooden posts and braces used
in the other forms of construction. The trussed houses
are very convenient to work in and very little shade is
cast by the framework. The truss-rods are frequently
made to support the heating-pipes. They are also
convenient supports for the wires upon which the
cucumber and tomato vines are supported. As built in
the past, trussed houses have not been strong enough, in
all cases, to resist the weight of heavy snows and the
force of severe winds. Several such houses have been
demolished. If this defect can be eliminated this type
of house will be very desirable.

Special features of forcing-house construction.

Width of houses. — The width of the forcing-houses
in general use varies from 12 to 150 feet. In the East
the tendency is to build houses 40 to 50 feet or more in
width. In most parts of the West, the preference is
for houses from 12 to 40 feet wide. However, there
are individual growers in most sections of the West
who prefer houses over 40 feet wide. The narrower
houses are cheaper to build and can be kept in repair
more cheaply and easily than wide houses. The wider
houses, it is thought, can be heated more economically
and are better adapated to the growing of warm plants
such as cucumbers and tomatoes in winter than the
narrower houses.

Length of houses. — The length of forcing-houses varies
from 50 to 800 feet. When the gravity system of hot-
water heating is used the houses are seldom over 200
feet in length. When either steam or hot water with
artificial means of circulating is used, the houses may be
of any length up to 1,000 feet. In most forcing centers
the length of the houses has not exceeded 500 feet.

Direction of houses. — Lean-to and hillside houses are
usually built with a southern exposure. Three-quarter-
span nouses are generally built to run east and west
with the long span to the south. Even-span houses
are built to run north and south, east and west and in
some cases northeast and southwest. While there is
not much difference in the results secured in even-span
houses run either direction, there is a better distribu-
tion of sunlight throughout the day in houses which
are run north and south.

Height of gutter. — Low gutters are almost entirely a
thing of the past. Modern houses are usually built
with gutters at least 6 feet high and 7-feet gutters are
not uncommon. The outside walls of modern houses
are very largely of glass construction. Connected
houses are commonly built with no dividing partition
except in case of extreme width when an occasional
glass partition is put in. Some of the advantages of the
high gutters combined with glass in the side walls and
few or no dividing partitions are: greater convenience in
working, better circulation of air and less shading. The
former belief that the glass must be close to the plants,
for best results has been found to be erroneous.

Pitch of roof. — The roofs of most even-span forcing-
houses are built with a pitch of 30° to 35°. Three-
quarter-span houses are usually built with the short
span of the roof steeper than the long span. Hillside
and lean-to houses are sometimes built with consider-
able less than a 30° pitch to the roof.

1402

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

Gla'ss and glazing. — Nothing but "A" quality glass
is used in modern forcing-houses. Single-strength has
been almost entirely replaced by double-strength
glass. The standard size is 16- by 24-inch glass. It is
usually laid the narrow way, although in sections of the
country in which the snowfall is light the glass is fre-
quently laid the 24-inch way. Twenty- by 24-inch
glass is used by some growers. Butted glass was
popular for a time and is yet with some growers, but
lapped glass is most commonly used at the present
time. When lapped, the glass is imbedded in putty
and secured in place by the use of glazing-points.
Butted glass is held in place by grooved strips of wood
placed over the edges and fastened to the sash-bars
with screws.

Ventilation. — An abundance of ventilation should
always be provided, as the health of the plants is
governed to a considerable extent by the ventilation
given or not given at the proper time. When the narrow
ridge-and-furrow type of forcing-house is used, provision
is made for ventilators on only one side of the roof. If
the houses are 30 or more feet in width, ventilators are
usually placed on both sides of the ridge. In some
cases, the ventilators are continuous, but owing to the
liability of binding when so built most growers use
separate ventilator sash. The sash are separated from
each other by one or two lines of fixed glass. They are
hinged on the ridge or on the header at the lower edge
of the sash. When they are hinged on the header and
open at the ridge the ventilation is more free, but cold
draughts of air and rain or snow are more liable to
enter than when the sash are hinged at the ridge and
open at the lower edge. Side ventilators are a decided
advantage in warm weather. When they are not pro-
vided, the air in the houses often becomes stale and
oppressive. In such a condition it is unsuitable for
normal plant-growth and unpleasant for those who are
obliged to inhale it. Easy-working ventilator machinery
should be provided for the ventilators both on the
sides and roofs.

Heating. — For small forcing-houses, hot water is
undoubtedly the most satisfactory method of heating.
Some of the advantages of hot water over steam heat
are : No night fireman is needed in small forcing-houses
as the fire can be left for several hours without atten-
tion. Less fuel is required, especially in mild weather.
The proper amount of moisture in the air can be main-
tained more easily. The heating-pipes if kept filled
with water will outlast steam-heated pipes. The chief
advantage of the steam heat over hot water is that it
is cheaper to install. The reason for this is that when
gravity is the means of circulating the water, larger
pipes are required for properly heating the houses with
water than are necessary where steam is the heat used.
The gravity system is the principal method used in
small hot-water-heated houses. Another advantage of
steam over hot water is that the heat can be regulated
more easily. When steam sterilization is practised it is
an advantage to be able to use the same boilers for this
purpose as are used for heating the houses. While a
larger part of the large ranges of houses are heated with
steam, some of the largest are heated with hot water.
A ten-acre range of houses near Toledo, Ohio, is heated
with hot water which is pumped through IJ^-inch
heating-pipes. The houses are 700 feet long and cover
a width of over 600 feet. There is but one heating-
plant and it is located at the center of one side of the
range. The heating-pipes are close to the ground and
are nearly level from one end of the houses to the other.
The water is pumped through the entire length of
pipes in a very few minutes. The installation of this
hot-water heating-plant cost little if any more than a
steam heating-plant would have cost and it can be
operated more cheaply than a steam plant which would
be large enough to heat a range of houses of the same
size.

Heating-pipes. — Practically all pipes used for heat-
ing purposes at the present time are of wrought-iron.
They are threaded and can be united by screwing them
into connections made for the purpose. This method
of connecting furnishes a tight joint and can be easily
put together. Two-inch pipes are used as a rule for
hot-water heating with gravity means of circulating.
For hot water with forced circulation and for steam,
IJ^-inch pipes are generally considered the best size
to use.

Benches vs. beds. — In nearly all vegetable-forcing
centers, except Chicago, raised benches are no longer
used except by an occasional grower. The cost of
building the benches is so great that most growers think
the added cost more than offsets the advantages of the
benches over the beds. Cement benches when arranged
for sub-irrigation are very satisfactory. They are
especially desirable for lettuce and tomatoes. Sur-
face-watered benches are not nearly so satisfactory
for these crops as sub-irrigated benches. Ground beds
are frequently made with concrete sides but the more
recent plan is to have nothing but narrow concrete
walks to separate one bed from another.

Service room. — One of the features which goes with
an up-to-date vegetable-forcing plant is a conveniently
arranged and well-lighted service room. Provision
should be made for washing vegetables and for other
operations which, go with a proper preparation of the
vegetables for the market.

Plant-house. — Another important adjunct to a modern
forcing-house is a plant-house which is independent
of the other part of the range so far as the heating
of it is concerned. To grow young plants successfully,
especially warm plants such as cucumbers and tomatoes,
it is important to be able to provide the proper tempera-
ture for each kind of plant. This can be done to best
advantage if the plants can be grown in a plant-house
built especially for that purpose. Q, \\r. WAID.

Greenhouse glass.

The selection of glass for greenhouses, and the nature
of the imperfections which render it undesirable for
such use, are questions which have received much
attention from, horticultural writers, and which have
brought forth a variety of answers. Three qualities
are essential in all glass to be used in greenhouse con-
struction: first, minimum of obstruction to solar rays;
second, strength sufficient to withstand the strain of
winds and storms, especially hail; and third, freedom
from defects that render it liable to burn plants grown
under it.

It is an established fact
that plants thrive best
under a clear and trans-
parent glass, which lets
through the greatest pos-
sible percentage of the
sun's rays. This includes
all the solar rays, calorific
or heat rays, and actinic
or chemical rays, as well
as the colorific or light
rays. Clear white glass of
the grade known as "single
thick" (twelve panes to
the inch) lets through
from 60 to 70 per cent of
the sun's rays; common
green glass of the same
thickness, 52 to 56 per
cent, and "double thick"
(eight panes to the inch)
common green glass, from

1759. Burned areas on a 50 to 52 per cent. This
begonia leaf. percentage is reduced by

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1403

other colors, dark blue glass letting through but 18
per cent. In connection with the matter of tint, it
should be noted that some glass, especially clear
white glass purified with arsenic acid, or that in which a
large amount of potash is used in proportion to the
amount of lime employed in manufacture, becomes dull
after long exposure to the weather, the dullness being
occasioned by the efflorescence of salts contained in
the glass. Before this disintegration has proceeded too
far, the crust or efflorescence may be removed with
muriatic acid.

The strength of glass depends upon its thickness and
upon the thoroughness of the annealing. Glass is
annealed by passing through a series of ovens, where it
is raised to a high heat and then gradually cooled;
whatever toughness and elasticity the finished product
may contain is due to this process. The thickness of
glass varies, not only with grades (single and double
thick), but also more or less within the grades, and
even in different parts of the same pane. Single thick
glass is too thin for use in greenhouses; in selecting any
glass for such a purpose it should be examined pane by
pane, and all showing marked variation in thickness,
either between panes or in different parts of the pane,
rejected. A pane of varying thickness is much more
liable to breakage from climatic changes or sudden
shocks than one which is uniform in this regard. From
the foregoing statements it will be seen that, in general,
the ordinary double-thick green glass is best as regards
both tint and strength, green glass being less liable to
change in tint than white, and the double-thick being
the stronger grade. By green glass is meant simply the
ordinary sheet glass, the green color of which is notice-
able only at the cut edge.

It has long been a common opinion that such visible
defects in sheet glass as the so-called "bubbles,"
"blisters," and "stones," produce a focusing of the
solar rays passing through them, thus burning the
foliage of plants grown under glass containing these
defects (Fig. 1759). This view has been held by glass
manufacturers and horticulturists alike, and seems not
to have been contradicted publicly until 1895 (Bulletin
No. 95, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station, page 278). In view of the erroneousness of
this theory, it is rather remarkable that it should have
gained such prevalence. Nearly all bubbles and blis-
ters are thinner in the middle than at the periphery,
being thus concave rather than convex lenses, and
actually diffusing the rays of light passing through
them rather than producing destructive foci. While it
is true that sand-stones or knots in glass may produce
foci, these points of focus scarcely ever exist more than
a few inches from the surface of the glass; consequently,
these defects can do no damage when occurring in
roofs several feet distant from the growing plants
below.

The only full and complete series of experiments
on this subject in this country (conducted at the
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station,
the Physical Laboratory of Cornell University, and a
glass factory in Ithaca, New York, but yet unpub-
lished) shows the true cause of the burning by glass to
be the variation in thickness of the entire pane, or a
portion of it, thus producing a prismatic or lens-like
effect (Fig. 1760), which causes a more or less distinct
focusing of the sun's rays at distances varying from 5
or 6 feet to 30 feet, or even more, from the glass.

This defect usually occurs along the side or end of
the pane and is not visible to the eye, but it may be
detected easily by using the micrometer caliper or by
testing in the sunlight. It may be found in all kinds of
glass, and is caused by the glass-blower while reducing
the upper or pipe end of the cylinder from which sheet
glass is made, thus facilitating the removal of the
"cap" or neck end of the cylinder, by which it is attached
to the pipe while being blown. The defect, as already

stated, is one which may be found in all grades and
qualities of sheet glass, of both foreign and domestic
manufacture. The fact is well known that differences
in the thickness of spectacle lenses, which are imper-
ceptible to the eye, may produce sufficient refraction
to vary materially the direction of rays of light passing
through such lenses, and it is not difficult to see that
the same effect may be produced by similarly imper-
ceptible variations in the thickness of sheet glass. That
this is the case has been conclusively shown by the
series of experiments mentioned above. These also

POINTS OF
REFRACTION

CONVERGENT RAYS

FOCAL DISTANCE '0 FT.

1760. Refraction of light rays by an irregular pane of glass.

show that burns on plants caused by defective glass
roofs occur in lines and not in isolated spots, burns of
the latter description being usually the result of a
weakening or deterioration of tissue, due to careless-
ness in the matter of ventilation, humidity of the
atmosphere, water, and temperature of greenhouses,
rather than to defects in the glass.

If, therefore, it is not possible to secure glass of
uniform thickness with certainty, it may be found
cheaper and often fully as satisfactory to purchase the
lower or common grades of double-thick glass, using
in the roof only those panes which show, after testing
in the sunlight for foci, an entire lack of the prismatic
character which makes them dangerous to plants
grown under them. j. c. BLAIR.

Greenhouse heating.

In all sections in which the temperature drops below
the freezing point, it is necessary to provide some
artificial means for heating greenhouses. Nearly all
modern structures are warmed either by steam or hot
water, although hot-air flues are occasionally used.
While hot water is preferred for small ranges of glass,
as it can be depended upon to furnish an even degree
of heat when left for a number of hours, steam is very
generally used for extensive plants, as the cost of piping
the houses is much less than when hot water is used.
Steam boilers require more attention than hot-water
heaters, but when there is more than 10,000 or 12,000
square feet of glass, it is best to have a night fireman
and watchman, and the extra expense can be made up
by the saving in the cost of fuel, as it will be possible
to use a lower grade of coal. Under these conditions the
cost of running a steam plant will be as low as with hot
water, but in small houses, where hard coal is used,
and the fires receive no attention for six to eight hours
during the night, hot-water heaters will be cheapest
to operate, and will be most satisfactory. Some of the
up-to-date ranges of the largest size make use of hot
water and are able to secure a perfect circulation by the
use of steam or electric pumps, which also make it pos-
sible to reduce the size of the piping, and as a higher
temperature is maintained in the water, the amount
of radiation required and consequently the cost of
piping the houses is reduced practically to that in steam
systems. Similar results can be secured in closed sys-

1404

GREENHOUSE

terns where some method of placing the water under
pressure is used. See, also, under Forcing-houses, p. 1402.
As the various flowers and vegetables grown under
glass require different temperatures, the piping of
greenhouses has to be varied accordingly. Thus,
although it may vary from 3° to 5° for different varie-
ties of the same species, our common plants require
the following night temperatures: violets and lettuce,
45° to 55°; radishes and carnations, 50° to 55°; roses
and tomatoes, 60° to 63°; cucumbers and stove plants,
70°.

Boilers.

For small ranges, whether steam or hot water is used
for heating, the best boilers are those constructed of
cast-iron as they will be found more durable than those
in which wrought-iron or steel is used. By using either
vertical or horizontal sections, it is possible to build
up boilers of considerable size, but, especially if to be
used for steam heating, it will be preferable to use
wrought-iron or steel boilers if they have a capacity
of more than 2,000 square feet of radiation. Except
for those of extremely large size, the ordinary tubular
boilers will be found adapted both for steam and hot-
water heating, although when used for hot water they
will be more effectual if the entire shell is filled with
tubes, as there is no occasion for leaving a steam space
at the top of the boiler. Such boilers are of low cost,
economical and durable.

There are also on the market several forms of wrought
tubular boilers which are giving good results for heat-
ing greenhouses with hot water. For ranges of the
A „ largest size,

where forced
draft is used,
water-tube boil-
ers are extremely
powerful and
very satisfac-
tory. When in-
stalling a heat-
ing-plant, it will
be safest to use
two or more boilers rather than one large one of the
same capacity, as when there is only a single boiler
serious losses may result if repairs to the boiler become
necessary in extremely cold weather, which might be
lessened or entirely prevented when there are two or
more boilers in the battery, and it is possible to cut out
the one which has become damaged. Especially in
mild weather during the spring and fall, the firing will
be more economical when it is possible to use a boiler
just large enough to heat the houses, rather than one
which is several times larger than is necessary at that
time, as would be the case when only one boiler is used.
The durability of the boiler and the economy of
heating will be greatly increased when the heating
capacity is considerably larger than is really necessary,
as when the firing is forced in extremely cold weather
it will not only result in a loss both in fuel and labor,
but will shorten the life of the boiler.

The size of hot-water boilers is usually expressed
in terms of radiation, or the number of square feet of
heating surface it can supply economically. In a given
boiler there is a fixed ratio between the size of the
grate and the area of the fire surface of the boiler, but
this will depend very largely upon its construction and
efficiency of the fire surface, as well as upon the size of
the boiler. In the case of small hot-water boilers the
ratio between the grate and fire surface is often as
small as 1 to 15, while it may be as much as 1 to 35 in
larger ones, and even more when the boilers have fre-
quent attention and hard coal is used. One reason for
using a relatively large grate in small boilers is because
it makes it possible to leave the fire for eight or ten
hours without care or attention, while for large boilers

1761. Horizontal tubular boiler for
hot water.

and where a night fireman is employed, the ratio
between the grate and fire surface may be much greater.

The capacity of steam boilers is usually rated in
horse-power, and it is considered that for each horse-
power a boiler will heat 100 square feet of radiation;
an average of 15 square feet of fire surface is con-
sidered equal to one horse-power, it being customary to
estimate that 10 or 12 feet in a large boiler will equal
one horse-power, while in a very small one as much as
18 feet would be required. Thus, in medium-sized
boilers an area of 10 square feet of grate will answer for
250 square feet of fire surface and this will be sufficient
for about 1,700 square feet of radiating surface when
steam is used; and as 75 to 100 per cent more radiation
will be required when hot water is used, a boiler of the
above size will answer for 2,800 to 3,400 square feet of
hot-water radiation. In the case of small boilers that
will not have attention at night, it is usually advis-
able to reduce the above estimates about 25 per cent,
and when a boiler is required for 1,000 square feet
of radiation, we should select one that is rated at 1,250
square feet.

Home-made coil boilers are sometimes constructed
for hot-water heating since the cost will generally be
considerably less than for tubular boilers. As a rule,
however, they will be found less durable and lacking
in efficiency as compared with the better class of green-
house boilers now on the market. For making such
boilers, 2-inch wrought-iron pipe in lengths of 4 to 6
feet is used. Formerly 1-inch pipe was used for coil
boilers but it is comparatively thin, and, especially where
the threads were exposed it was quickly eaten through
so that it proved far from being as durable as the larger
sizes of pipe. There was also more trouble from the
boiling over of the water than when larger pipes were
used and if the boilers are constructed of 1-inch pipe
it is necessary either to have an elevated expansion tank
or run it as a closed system. In making a coil boiler,
the pipes are cut of the desired length and the ends are
connected either by return bends or by manifolds so
as to form a number of vertical coils, each containing
from six to ten pipes. The upper ends of the manifolds
are joined at the front end of the heater and connected
with the main flow-pipe; while the lower ends of the
rear manifolds are joined to the returns. As a rule, the
grate is of the same width as the coils and from one-
half to two-thirds as long.

Although a box coil is much cheaper than a cast-
iron heater, when we have added the cost of the grate,
doors and other fittings, and of bricking it in, the
amount saved will not be large, and its use will often
be found less economical, especially as the coil boilers
are, as a rule, not more than one-half as lasting as cast-
iron boilers, most of which are complete in themselves
and require no brickwork or trimmings.

Hot^water piping.

When hot water first came into use for the heating
of greenhouses, 4-inch cast-iron pipes were used, but,
as the joints were packed with oakum, cement or iron
filings, they frequently gave trouble by leaking and it
was much more difficult to make changes or repairs
than in the present systems for which small, wrought-
iron pipes with screw joints are used. Owing to the
large amount of water in the cast-iron pipes, the circu-
lation was necessarily quite sluggish and it was not easy
to secure the high temperature in the water that can be
obtained with smaller pipes. Another objection to the
use of these large pipes is that it is not possible to carry
the flows overhead, while with smaller pipes one may
not only have the flows but some or all of the return-
pipes above the level of the benches. By elevating the
pipes above the level of the boiler, the rapidity of the
circulation and the temperature of the water in the
pipes can be considerably increased.

In case a number of houses are to be supplied from

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1405

one boiler, or if the heater is at some distance from the
coils, it is better to start from the boiler with one
large flow-pipe, or with two pipes leading from different
sides of the boiler, rather than carry an independent
pipe to each house. When there are several houses to
be heated, it is customary to have them side by side
and one large flow-pipe can then be run across the
nearest end of the houses from the boiler. If the houses
run north and south, the boiler may be located at one
corner or in the middle of the north end of the range,
and either a work- or storeroom, or some other form
of a head house, should be constructed in which the

I

1762. Supply-pipe for under-bench flows.

main heating-pipes can be carried, as well as to protect
the north end of the houses and facilitate getting from
one to another. Sometimes greenhouses run east and
west, in which case there should either be a head house
at the east end of the range, or if the houses are more
than 200 feet in length it may be run through the
center of the houses.

The size of the main feed-pipe as well as of the branch
pipes should be in proportion to the 'amount of radia-
tion they supply. In determining the amount that
can be handled by pipes of different sizes, it is always
advisable to use somewhat larger supply-pipes when
all of the radiation, both flow and return, are under
the benches, than when all of the flow-pipes, at least,
are overhead. A similar allowance should be made
when the boiler is partly above the level of the returns,
as compared with systems in which the coils are a num-
ber of feet above the top of the boiler, since in the latter
case a much smaller supply-pipe will suffice. In a gen-
eral way, the following sizes can be used as supply-pipes:

Size of Square feet

pipe. of radiation.

1 Yi-mch 75 to 100

2 -inch 150 to 200

2M-inch 250 to 350

3 -inch 400 to 600

3M-inch 600 to 800

4 -inch 1,000 to 1,200

5 -inch 1,500 to 2,000

6 -inch 2,500 to 3,500

The main supply-pipe or pipes should, if possible,
rise vertically from the heater to a point somewhat
higher than the highest point in the system, and then
as it runs out through the houses should be given a
slight fall, say 1 inch in 20 feet, so that there will be
no opportunity for the pocketing of air in the pipe.
While a slight downward slope will unquestionably
give better results than the uphill arrangement which
is sometimes used, the difference will be comparatively
slight and, if the circumstances make it preferable to
run the flow-pipes uphill, satisfactory results will be
obtained provided they are considerably elevated above
the boiler. Especially, if the flow-pipes run uphill,
it will be advisable to have them of good size.

When taking off the supply for each of the houses,
one large pipe of a size sufficient to provide the amount
needed may be used, or from two to five smaller pipes

may lead from the main flow-pipe into each of the
houses. For houses up to 250 feet in length, it will
generally be found desirable to run 2^-inch flow-pipes
through the house, but for longer houses 3-inch flow-
pipes should be used. Just how many flow-pipes will
be needed will depend not only upon the length of the
house, but upon the number of return-pipes to be sup-
plied. Thus, while a 2^-inch flow will supply two
2-inch returns in a house 250 feet long, the number of
returns which it will feed in shorter houses will be nearly
in inverse proportion to the length of the return coils.
When the amount of radiation to be supplied does not
exceed 250 to 350 square feet, one 23^-inch flow-pipe
in a greenhouse will be sufficient and this should pref-
erably be placed from 1 to 3 feet below the ridge. lor
slightly larger houses, two flow-pipes may be located
on the wall plates. If as many as five pipes are neces-
sary, the fourth and fifth pipe may be suspended from
the roof under the middle of the sash-bars. In the case
of houses so large that more than five 2^-inch flow-
pipes are required, 3-inch flows should be used.

The length of the coils and their height above the
boiler will determine the size of the pipe which should
be used for the returns, since a smaller size will answer
in short coils and in those that are considerably elevated
than for long coils which are but little, if any, above the
level of the boiler. For the construction of coils 75
feet or more in length, 2-inch pipe should be used, and
it will generally be found preferable to a smaller-sized
return-pipe when they are only 50 feet in length,
especially if the flows are under the benches or when the
coils are below the top of the boiler. For short coils,
pipes as small as IJ^-inch may be used where they are
somewhat elevated but for ordinary commercial green-
houses it will be better to use 2-inch pipe for the
returns, although 13^-inch pipe might answer in houses
up to 75 feet in length, as, while small pipe furnishes
the most effective radiation to the square foot, the
increased friction impedes the circulation.

In narrow houses, the return-pipes may be placed
upon the side walls, but as the width increases it will
be generally advisable to have from one-third to one-
half of the returns either under the benches or in the
walks when beds are used. From the fact that running
the pipes overhead will not only improve the circula-
tion but will prevent cold draughts of air upon the
plants, it is often desirable when but one overhead
flow-pipe is used to bring back one return upon each
of the purlins. When the end of the house is much
exposed, it is an
excellent plan to
drop down one
feed - pipe from
the end of the
main, or two
when there is a
door in the end
of the house,
and supply coils
running in either
direction to the
corner of the
house and thence

1763. Pipe work for modern greenhouse
heating. A wall coil.

along the walls toward the end where the heater is
located. Particularly when the pipes are but little, if
any, above the top of the boiler, the circulation will
be improved by carrying the return-pipes as high as
possible, but of course care should be taken when they
are under the benches not to have them so high that
they will dry out the soil.

The returns may be arranged in horizontal coils
under the benches, or in vertical coils on the walls, or
on the sides and supports of the beds and benches.
The pipes in the coils may be connected at their ends
either by means of manifolds, or by tees and close
nipples, but in either case provision should be made for

1406

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

expansion of the pipe which with vertical wall coils may
be done by running them partly across the ends of the
nouses and the same means may be used in horizontal
coils, or the headers at the lower ends of the coils may
be connected with the ends of the pipes by means of
nipples and right and left ells. Whenever possible,
there should be at least two returns supplied by each
of the flow-pipes and the number may be increased
until the capacity of the flow is reached. In determining
just how many returns may be supplied by a given flow-
pipe, one should always make allowance for the radia-
tion furnished by the flow-pipe itself and, as the fric-
tion will be greater in a large number of short returns
than for the same radiation with long returns, this
should be considered in adjusting the ratio between the
flow- and return-pipes.

Even greater attention should be given to the grading
of the small return-pipes than to the larger flow-pipes,
as the danger from pocketing of the air will be increased.
For the smaller sizes, it will be advisable to give them a
elope of at least 1 inch in 15 feet; but, if carefully
graded and securely supported at intervals of 10 feet,
good results can be obtained with 2-inch pipe with a
fall of 1 inch in 20 feet; and if no more than 1 inch in
30 feet is available even this light fall will generally
suffice to rid the pipes of air. This is really the main
object for which the pipes are eloped, as the circula-
tion would be fully as good, or better, if they
are run on a level from the highest point in
the system, provided the air did not .? ^
pocket.

By having the highest point in
the system near the boiler
and attaching the expan-
sion-tank at that point,
one secures a down-
hill arrangement
of the pipes
which not
only gives a
better circu-
lation than
when the
flow-pipes
run uphill,
but it does
away entirely
with a ir-

1764. Carnation-house, 100 x 23 ft. 6 in., piped for hot water.

valves which must be provided when the flow-pipe
runs uphill and which often give trouble.

The method of piping which has been advocated, i.e.
running one or more pipes in each house to the farther
end and there connecting them with the returns, will
give a more even temperature than can be secured in
any other way. Formerly, it was the custom to con-
nect the supply-pipes with the coils at the end of the
house nearest the boiler. In some cases, one-half of
the pipes in the coils served as flows to feed an equal
number of return-pipes, or all of the pipes in the coil
were connected at the farther end of the house with a
main return-pipe, of the same size as the feed-pipe,
which was brought back underneath the coil, or all of
the coils in the house were connected into one main
return. When the latter arrangement is used, the heat-
ing of the house is less uniform than with an overhead
flow-pipe, the farther end of the house being cooler than
the one near the heater.

Unless the heating system is connected directly with
the water-supply system, which is used as an expansion-
tank, a special tank must be provided and connected
with the highest part of the flow-pipe or with one of
the returns near the heater. While it would answer if
this tank is located at some point but slightly above
the heating system, it is always desirable to have it
somewhat elevated, as this will raise the boiling-point
of the water in the system and hence increase its effi-

ciency, as well as lessening the danger of its boiling over.
The pipe connecting the expansion-tank with the heat-
ing-pipes should not be less than %inch and this should
be increased to 13^ to 2 inches in large systems. The
size of the expansion-tank should be sufficient to equal
the amount which the water in the system will increase
in volume when it is raised from a temperature of 40°
to 200°, with a margin of perhaps 50 per cent. By con-
necting the expansion-tank with the highest part of
the system, one not only does away with the necessity
of using air-valves but also lessens the tendency of the
water to boil over.

When there are several houses in the range connected
with one system, it is always a good practice to have a
valve upon the supply-pipe leading to each house,
with other valves upon at least one-half of the coils.
It will thus be possible to reduce the radiation in each
house or to cut it out entirely if desired.

Hot water under pressure.

Especially in large ranges it is now becoming cus-
tomary to place the water under pressure, thus making
it possible to raise the temperature at which it will boil,
and in this way the circulation can be improved, and
instead of the water in the returns having an average
temperature of 150°, it can be maintained several
degrees above the ordinary boiling-point of water.
The principal objection to this plan is that the
water in the boiler being hotter, the gases of
combustion are not cooled down to the
same extent as when the water is at
160° or less. This results in lessen-
ing the economy of coal-con-
sumption, placing it upon
about the same plane as
when steam is used.
On the other hand,
this system has
the merit of
reducing the
amount of
radiation re-
quired in the
heating - sys-
tem, and in
this way
lessening the
cost of piping

the greenhouse fully twenty-five per cent.

Various methods of placing the water in the heating-
system under pressure have been employed. Among
them is to use a safety-valve and a vacuum-valve,
either upon the expansion-tank, or if this is not closed,
upon the expansion-pipe within the tank. The safety-
valve allows either the air or the water, as the case may
be, to pass out of the system when the pressure desired
is reached, while the vacuum-valve permits the air or
water to re-enter the system when the pressure drops.

What is known as the "mercury generator" or "cir-
culator" also serves the same purpose. In these a column
of mercury prevents the escape of the water in the
system until the pressure has reached the point desired,
when it allows a portion of the water to escape and,
later on, to re-enter the system when the pressure
decreases. It will be seen that this acts in exactly the
same way as the safety-valve and vacuum-valve
described above. By raising the boiling-point of water
and improving the circulation, it not only makes it pos-
sible to use smaller pipes both for flows and returns,
but the amount of radiation required will be consider-
bly reduced. In fact, although it is not advisable to
carry it to that extent, it is possible to reduce the
amount of radiation practically to that required for
steam-heating.

This system is of value particularly in sections of the
country in which the usual winter temperature is well

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1407

above zero but where the mercury drops 10° to 15°
for a short period each winter. By piping the houses
so that the desired temperature can be obtained for
the houses in ordinary weather by using an open
system, it will then be possible by using a "circulator"
to maintain the same temperature in the houses even
though the mercury drops 15° or 20° lower. This will
make a considerable difference in the cost of piping the
houses and the efficiency of the system so far as coal is
concerned will be affected only during the few days
when the use of the "circulator" is necessary.

The use of a closed system is also helpful when, owing
to local conditions, it is necessary to place the boiler
upon or slightly below the level of the walks in the
houses. While much can be done to secure a circula-
tion by using overhead flows and keeping the returns
as high as possible, the circulation can be still
further improved if it is run as a closed system.
Still another method of increasing the rapidity
of the circulation and the efficiency of the
heating-system is to place either upon
the main flow- or re turn -pipe a
pump, worked by steam or elec-
tricity, by which it will be pos-
sible greatly to accelerate the
circulation of the water, so that
such matters as the relative ele-
vation of the boiler and heating-
pipes will need but little con-
sideration and it will be pos-
sible to decrease to a consider-
able extent the size and number
of the heating-pipes.

Estimating hot-water radiation.

Owing to the great variations in temperature and the
differences in the construction of greenhouses, and also
in their exposures, it is impossible to give any explicit
rules regarding the amount of radiation that will be
required under all conditions; but experience has shown
that in well-built houses any desired temperature can
be secured. Knowing the minimum outside tempera-
ture and the temperature to be maintained within the
house, it is necessary only to install a heating-plant
with a radiating surface having a certain definite
ratio to the amount of exposed glass and wall
surface. It is, of course, understood that there
must be a proper adjustment between the size
of the boiler and the radiating surface and that the
system is so arranged as to give good results. Thus,
when a temperature of 40° is desired in sections in
which the mercury does not drop below zero, it will be
possible to maintain it when 1 square foot of radiating
surface is provided for each 5 square feet of glass; if
45° is required there should be 1 foot of radiation for
43/6 feet of glass. Under the same conditions, 50°, 55°,
60°, 65° and 70° can be obtained, respectively, by using
1 square foot of radiating surface for each 4, 3%, 3, 2%,
and 2 square feet of glass. When the outside tempera-
tures are slightly under or above zero, there should be
a proportionate increase or decrease in the amount of
pipe used; and, if the houses are poorly constructed or
in an exposed location, it will be
desirable to provide a still further
increase in the amount of radiating
surface. Under the very best con-
ditions, the tem-
peratures m e n-
tioned can be
obtained with a
slightly smaller
amount of radia-
tion, but the
greatest economy
so far as coal-
consumption and

labor are concerned will be secured when the amount
of radiation recommended is used.

In determining the amount of exposed glass surface,
the number of square feet in the roofs, ends and sides
of the houses should be added, and to this it will be well
to add one-fifth of the exposed wooden, concrete or
brick wall surfaces. If the amount thus obtained is

1765. Rose-house, 150 z 20 ft., piped for water.

divided by the number which expresses the ratio
between the area of glass and the amount of radiation
which will be required, it will give the number of square
feet of heating-pipe which must be installed. The
unit of measurement of wrought pipe is its interior
diameter, while its radiating surface is determined by
its outside circumference, and, although it will vary
slightly according to the thickness of the pipe, it is
customary to estimate that 1-inch pipe will afford
about .344 square feet of radiating surface to the linear
foot, while 1J4-, l^-» 2-, 2}^-, and 3-inch pipe will
furnish respectively .434, .497, .621, .759 and .916
square feet of radiation for each foot in length of pipe.
The following example will perhaps aid in determining
the amount of radiating surface and its arrangement
in a greenhouse. If a house is 32 feet in width and 200
feet in length, with 30 inches of glass in each side wall
and with one end only of exposed glass, and a concrete
wall 3 feet high on two sides and one end, there will be
about 9,000 square feet of glass. To heat this to 50° in
zero weather it will be necessary to use one-fourth as
much radiating surface, or 2,250 square feet. In a house
of this length it will be possible to supply this amount
of radiation by means of five 2^-inch flow-pipes, and
the remaining radiation will be provided by means of
ten 2-inch returns which will allow two for each of the
flow-pipes. These figures are intended to apply when
an open system is used but, if a "generator" is attached,
not to exceed four flows and eight returns will be
required.

The use of long, straight runs of pipe
will give the best results and, whenever
possible, ells and tees should be avoided,
but if they must
be employed spe-
cial hot-water fit-
tings should be
secured.

In conservato-
ries with high side
walls it is desir-
able to place the
flow-pipes at the

1766. Violet-house with hot-water heating.

1408

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

plate and the returns on the walls or under the tables.
Figs. 1764-1766 illustrate the lay-out of pipes in car-
nation-, rose-, and violet-houses.

Heating by flues.

When fuel is cheap, and when either a low tempera-
ture is desired in the house, or the outside temperature
does not drop much below the freezing point, hot-air
flues may be used but, while the cost of constructing
them is small, the danger of fire is so great that they
are often found to be far from economical. A brick
furnace is built at one end of the house and from this
a 10- or 12-inch flue is constructed to carry the smoke
and hot gases through the house to the chimney which
may be either at the farther end of the house or directly
over the furnace, the flue, in the latter case, making a
complete circuit of the house. When the houses to be
heated are more than 60 feet long, it is advisable to
have a furnace in each end, with the flue from each
extending only to the center of the house and returning
to the end from which it started. For the first 30 feet
the lining of the flue, at least, should be of fire-brick,
but beyond that the flue may be constructed of sewer-
pipe.

Piping for steam.

Except that it is possible to use smaller flow- and
return-pipes, the arrangement of the piping for steam-
heating is not very unlike that described for hot water.
Unless the houses are more than 30 feet wide and 150
feet in length, only one flow-pipe need be used and that
can be carried from 2 to 4 feet below the ridge. In
wider and longer houses, it is generally advisable to
put in two or more flows. One of these flows can be
carried on each wall-plate and in extremely wide houses
others may be under the ridge and purlins.

For determining the size of steam mains, a good rule
to use is to take one-tenth the square root of the radia-
tion to be supplied and consider this to be the diameter
in inches of the main required. Thus for supplying
400 square feet of radiating surface we would take one-
tenth the square root of 400 (>/ 400-5-10 = 2), which
will give 2 inches as the diameter of the main required.
As the amount of radiation increases, a slight reduction
can be made in the size of the mains and 2^-, 3-, 3^-,
and 4-inch supply-pipes will answer respectively for
700, 1,000, 1,400 and 1,900 square feet of radiation.
This is intended to apply with low-pressure steam, and
as the steam-pressure is increased above five pounds
a slight decrease in the size of the mains would be per-
missible.

The size of the pipes to be used for the coils will also
depend upon the length of the house. For ordinary
lengths 1^-inch pipe will be desirable, but, when they
are more than 250 feet in length, 1^-inch pipe may be
used with low pressure steam and, in those much less
than 100 feet, 1-inch pipe will answer. The location
and arrangements of the coils will necessarily be
determined by the openings in the walls and whether
beds or raised benches are used. One of the simplest
and most satisfactory ways of piping a greenhouse of
moderate 'size, say from 20 to 30 feet in width and up
to 150 feet in length, is to run the flow-pipe, which
would be either 2- or 2^-inch, overhead and bring back
the coils on the walls, or, if raised benches are used
and crops for which bottom heat will be helpful are to
be grown, from one-third to one-half of the return-
pipes may be distributed under the benches and the
remainder may be on the walls. The return-coils should
•of course be given a slight slope toward the boiler, care
being taken that no opportunity is afforded for the
air to pocket and prevent the free flow of the water
from the condensed steam back toward the boiler. A
fall of 1 inch in 10 feet will suffice, and even less will
answer if care is taken in grading and supporting
the pipes.

In order to prevent the water from backing up in the
coils, it is desirable that they should be at least 18 or
20 inches above the level of the water in the boiler,
while 3 or 4 feet would be even better and will be neces-
sary in large ranges. Unless this can be secured it will
not be possible to return the water of condensation to
the boiler by gravity and either a steam trap or pump
should be provided for the purpose. By means of
these, the water can be carried to a water feed-tank
from which it can be fed into the boilers.

There should be an automatic air-valve at the end
of each coil and, in order to regulate the amount of
steam, a shut-off valve should be placed upon both
flow- and return-pipes leading to each house. Unless
there are several coils in each house, one or more of
which could be cut off by means of valves, it will
always be well to have valves upon a number of the
pipes in the coils so that all but one or two can be cut
off if desired. To prevent the water from being forced
out from the boiler when the steam is turned into the
houses, there should be a check valve in the main
return-pipe near the boiler.

The amount of radiation which will be required to
secure a given temperature will vary to some extent
with the amount of pressure carried in the boiler, or
in the coils, when a reducing-valve is used, but as a
rule, this is not much more than five pounds and often
it is even less. It will be best to provide a sufficient
amount of radiation to furnish the temperature desired
in ordinary cold weather without carrying any pressure
and then, by raising
the pressure to five
to ten pounds, secure
the heat required
during the cold

1767. Rose-house, 150 x 20 feet, piped for steam.

In determining the amount of radiation for a steam-
heated house, for zero weather, it will answer if one con-
siders that 1 square foot of pipe will heat 9 square feet
of glass when 40° are desired, and will suffice for 7,
5 and 3 where 50°, 60°, and 70°, respectively, are,
required. Fig. 1767 illustrates the piping required for
heating a rose-house with steam. L. R. TAFT.

Greenhouse management.

Persons usually learn to grow plants under glass by
rule of thumb. Such practical knowledge is always
essential, but better and quicker results are secured
if underlying truths or principles are learned at the
same time. Even if no better results in plant-growing
were to be attained, the learning of principles could
never do harm, and it adds immensely to the intellectual
satisfaction in the work. There is no American writing
that essays to expound the principles of greenhouse
management, although there are manuals giving direct
advice for the growing of different classes of plants.
There are two kinds of principles to apprehend in
greenhouse management, — those relating to the man-
agement of the plants themselves, and those dealing
primarily with the management of the house.

The first principle to be apprehended in the growing

GREENHOUSE

GREENHOUSE

1409

of plants under glass is this: Each plant has its own
season of bloom. Every good gardener knows the
times and seasons of his plants as he knows his alphabet,
without knowing that he knows. Yet there are many
failures because of lack of this knowledge, particularly
among amateurs. The housewife is always asking how
to make her wax-plant bloom, without knowing that it
would bloom if she would let it alone in winter and let
it grow in spring and summer. What we try to accom-
plish by means of fertilizers, forcing and other special
practices may often be accomplished almost without
effort if we know the natural season of the plant. Nearly
all greenhouse plants are grown on this principle. We
give them conditions as nearly normal to them as pos-
sible. We endeavor to accommodate our conditions to
the plant, not our plant to the conditions. Some plants
may be forced to bloom in abnormal seasons, as roses,
carnations, lilies (see Forcing). But these forcing
plants are few compared with the whole number of
greenhouse species. The season of normal activity is
the key to the whole problem of growing plants under
glass; yet many a young man has served an apprentice-
ship, or has taken a course in an agricultural college,
without learning this principle.

The second principle is like unto the first: Most plants
demand a particular season of inactivity or rest. It is
not rest in the sense of recuperation, but it is the habit
or nature of the plant. For ages, most plants have been
forced to cease their activities because of cold or dry.
These habits are so fixed that they must be recognized
when the plants are grown under glass. Some plants
have no such definite seasons, and will grow more or
less continuously, but these are the exceptions. Others
may rest at almost any time of the year; but most
plants have a definite season, and this season must be
learned. In general, experience is the only guide as to
whether a plant needs rest; but bulbs and tubers and
thick rhizomes always signify that the plant was
obliged, in its native haunts, to carry itself over an
unpropitious season, and that a rest is very necessary,
if not absolutely essential, under domestication.
Instinctively, we let bulbous plants rest. They usually
rest in our winter and bloom in our spring and summer,
but some of them — of which some of the Cape bulbs,
as nerines, are examples — rest in our summer and bloom
in autumn.

The third principle from the plant side is this: The
greater part of the growth should be made before the
plant is expected to bloom. It is natural for a plant first
to grow: then it blooms and makes its fruit. In the
greater number of cases, these two great functions do
not proceed simultaneously, at least not to their full
degree. This principle is admirably illustrated in woody
plants. The gardener always impresses on the appren-
tice the necessity of securing "well-ripened wood" of
azaleas, camellias, and the like, if he would have good
flowers. That is, the plant should have completed one
cycle of its life before it begins another. From imma-
ture and sappy wood only poor bloom may be expected.
This is true to a degree even in herbaceous plants.
The vegetative stage or cycle may be made shorter or
longer by smaller or larger pots, but the stage of rapid
growth must be well passed before the best bloom is
wanted. Fertilizer applied then will go to the pro-
duction of flowers; but before that time it will make
largely for the production of leaf and wood. The
stronger and better the plant in its vegetative stage,
according to its size, the more satisfactory it should be
in its blooming stage.

Closely like the last principle is the experience that
checking growth, so long as the plant remains healthy, in-
duces fruitfulness or floriferousness. If the gardener
continues to shift his plants into larger pots, he should
not expect the best results in bloom. He shifts from
pot to pot until the plant reaches the desired size; then
he allows the roots to be confined, and the plant is set

90

into bloom. Over-potting is a serious evil. When the
blooming habit is once begun, he may apply liquid
manure or other fertilizer if the plant needs it. The rose-
grower or the cucumber-grower wants a shallow bench,
that the plants may not run too much to vine.

A carnation-grower writes that there is "little dif-
ference in the yearly average as to quality or quantity
of flowers, but plants grown on shallow benches come
into flower more quickly in the fall. Those grown in
solid beds produce an abundance of flowers later in
the season. The preference of commercial carnation-
growers is for raised benches so that there may be more
blooms early in the fall and at the Christmas holidays."

The natural habitat of the plant is significant to the
cultivator; it gives a suggestion of the treatment under
which the plant will be likely to thrive. Unconsciously
the plant-grower strives to imitate what he conceives to
be the conditions, as to temperature, moisture and sun-
light, under which the species grows in the wild.
We have our tropical, temperate and cool houses. Yet,
it must be remembered that the mere geography of a
plant's native place does not always indicate what the
precise nature of that place is. The plant in question
may grow in some unusual site or exposure in its native
wilds. In a general way, we expect that a plant com-
ing from the Amazon needs a hothouse; but the details
of altitude, exposure, moisture and sunlight must be
learned by experience. Again, it is to be said that
plants do not always grow where they would, but
where they must. Many plants that inhabit swamps
thrive well on dry lands.

Yet, the habitat and the zone give the hint: with
this beginning, the grower may work out the proper
treatment. Examples are many in which cultivators
have slavishly followed the suggestion given by a
plant's nativity, only to meet with partial failure. Be-
cause the dipladenia is Brazilian, it is usually supposed
that it needs a hothouse, but it gives best results in
a coolhouse. Persons often make a similar mistake in
growing the pepino warm, because it is Central and
South American. Ixia is commonly regarded in the
North as only a glasshouse subject because it is a Cape
bulb, yet it thrives in the open in parts of New England,
when well covered in winter.

The best method of propagation is to be determined for
each species; but, as a rule, quicker results and stockier
plants are secured from cuttings than from seeds. Of
necessity, most greenhouse plants are grown from cut-
tings. In most cases, the best material for cuttings is
the nearly ripe wood. In woody plants, as camellias
and others, the cutting material often may be com-
pletely woody. In herbaceous plants, the proper mate-
rial is stems which have begun to harden. Now and then
better results are secured from seeds, even with peren-
nials, as in grevillea and Impatiens Sultani.

Coming, now, to some of the principles that underlie
the proper management of the house, it may be said,
first of all, that the grower should attempt to imitate a
natural day. There should be the full complement of
continuous sunlight; there should be periodicity in
temperature. From the lowest temperature before
dawn, there should be a gradual rise to midday or later.
As a rule, the night temperature should be 10° to 15° F.
below the maximum day temperature in the shade. A
high night temperature makes the plants soft and tends
to bring them to maturity too early. It makes weak
stems and flabby flowers. The temperature should
change gradually : violent fluctuations are inimical, par-
ticularly to plants grown at a high temperature.

In greenhouse cultivation, every plant is to receive in-
dividual care. In the field, the crop is the unit: there
we deal with plants in the aggregate. In the green-
house, each plant is to be saved and to receive special
care: upon this success depends. There should be no
vacant places on the greenhouse bench; room is too

1410

GREENHOUSE

GREENS

valuable. All this means that every care should be
taken so to arrange the house that every plant will have
a chance to develop to its utmost perfection. Patient
hand labor pays with greenhouse plants. The work can-
not be done by tools or by proxy. Therefore, the gar-
dener becomes skilful.

Every caution should be taken to prevent the plants
from becoming diseased or from being attacked by in-
sects. The greater part of insect and fungous troubles
in the greenhouse is the result of carelessness or of
mistakes in the growing of the plants. Determine what
diseases or pests are likely to attack any plant; dis-
cover under what conditions these diseases or pests are
likely to thrive; then see that those conditions do not
arise. Keep the house sweet and clean. Destroy the
affected parts whenever practicable. Then if trouble
come, apply the fungicide or the insecticide. Remember
that the very protection which is given the plants, in
the way of equable conditions, also protects their
enemies: therefore, it is better to count on not having
the difficulties than on curing them. If uncontrollable
diseases or pests have been troublesome, make a com-
plete change of soil or stock before the next season, if
practicable. At least once every year there is an oppor-
tunity to rid the place of pests. Nematodes may be
frozen out. Many gardeners carry their troubles year
by year by trying to fight them, when they might suc-
ceed by trying to avoid them.

Of course, the greenhouse man must provide himself
with the best insecticides and fungicides, and with
good apparatus. The efficiency of these materials and
appliances has greatly improved in recent years, and
most of the old pests may now be controlled.

The higher the temperature and the more rapid the
growth, the greater the care necessary to insure good re-
sults. Plants grown under such conditions are soft and
juicy. They are easily injured by every untoward cir-
cumstance, particularly by drafts of cold air. Let a
draft of cold air fall on cucumbers or rapid-growing
roses, and mildew will result in spite of bordeaux mix-
ture and brimstone.

In dark weather, grow the plants "slow." If given too
much heat or too much water, they become soft and
flabby, and fall prey to mildew, green-fly and other dis-
orders. A stocky plant is always desirable, but particu-
larly in the dull weather and short days of midwinter:
at that time, extra precautions should be taken in the
management of the house.

Watering plants under glass requires more judgment
than any other single operation. Apply water when the
plants need it, is a gardener's rule, but it is difficult to
follow because one may not know when they need it.
Yet, if the gardener will put the emphasis on the word
need he will at least be cautioned: novices often apply
the advice as if it read: Apply water when the plants
will stand it. Water thoroughly at each application.
Mere dribbling may do more harm than good. Many
persons water too frequently but not enough. Remem-
ber that in benches evaporation takes place from both
top and bottom; and in pots it takes place from all
sides. Water on a rising temperature. This advice is
specially applicable to warmhouse stuff. Watering
is a cooling process. The foliage should not go into the
night wet, particularly if the plant is soft-growing or is
a warmhouse subject. Water sparingly or not at all when
evaporation is slight, as in dull weather.

In all greenhouse work, see that the soil is thoroughly
comminuted and that it contains much sand or fiber.
The amount of soil is small: see that it is all usable.
In the garden, roots may wander if good soil is not at
hand: in pots they cannot. The excessive watering in
greenhouses tends to pack the soil, particularly if the
water is applied from a hose. The earth tends to run
together or to puddle. Therefore, it should contain
little silt or clay. The practice of adding sand and leaf-
mold to greenhouse soil is thus explained.

Ventilation is practised for the purpose of reducing
temperature and of lessening atmospheric moisture.
Theoretically, it is employed also for the purpose of
introducing chemically fresh air, but with the opening
and shutting of doors, and unavoidable leaks in the
house, it is not necessary to give much thought to
the introduction of mere fresh air. Ventilating reduces
the temperature by letting out warm air and letting in
cool air. The air should be admitted in small quantities
and at the greatest distance from the plants in order to
avoid the ill effects of drafts on the plants. Many small
openings are better than a few very large ones. Ven-
tilate on a rising temperature.

Most plants require shading in the summer under
glass. Shading is of use in mitigating the heat as well as
in tempering the light. A shaded house has more uni-
form conditions of temperature and moisture. If
plants are grown soft and in partial shade, they are
likely to be injured if exposed to bright sunlight. Sun-
scalding is most common in spring, since the plants are
not yet inured to bright sunshine and strong sun heat.
The burning of plants is due to waves (not bubbles) in
the glass. Other things being equal, the larger the
house the easier is the management of it. It is less sub-
ject to fluctuations of temperature and moisture. Green-
houses built against residences are specially liable to
violent fluctuations; the body of air is small and
responds to all external changes. £,. H. B.

GREENS, CHRISTMAS. The Christmas greens
industry has developed to an enormous extent within a
few years. Some thirty years ago, when florists began
to use lycopodium, a dozen barrels were all that was
used in a single season in many of our larger cities.
Today the output in the United States is many full
carloads.

The materials now used, mentioned in something like
their order of commercial importance, are holly, lyco-
podium (also known as bouquet green, ground pine,
club moss), mistletoe, laurel, and cedar clippings.
Other articles of similar utility are wild smilax, hardy
ferns, needle pines, outdoor palm leaves, Florida moss,
galax leaves and leucothoe sprays: these all come
from the South.

Lycopodium is one of the oldest and commonest of
decorative materials. During seasons of long-continued
''Indian summer," a surplus is frequently gathered by
careless pickers and thrown on the market. The
choicest picked stock being obtainable only through
the regular and well-established trade channels, such
sources are usually the only ones in case of early snow-
storms, which prevent the gathering of it. Choice
stock from eastern Vermont, northern New York and
Pennsylvania has usually been handled in large sugar-
barrels, tied in carefully arranged bunches, weighing
perhaps one-half to one pound each. These bunches are
packed in the barrels in layers, with roots toward the
center. The quantity is always limited and the price
25 to 35 per cent higher than the Wisconsin and Michi-
gan stock. Lycopodium, as placed on the market from
western sources, comes from the north-central part of
the state of Wisconsin and is gathered mainly in the
section extending from the northwest shores of Lake
Michigan three-fifths of the way to the Mississippi
River. The activities in this direction are conducted
mainly in Oconto, Shawano, Marathon, Langlade,
Lincoln, Forest, Oneida, Taylor, Price and Vilas
Counties. The section from which lycopodium is
picked annually moves northward as the country
becomes settled and as the woods and swamps are
depleted. This article is also gathered in a few spots in
the northern peninsula of Michigan, and in Pine, and
Carleton Counties in Minnesota. Surplus stock of this
plant is sometimes carried over until the following
season when it is soaked and dyed green and made up
into wreathing. The same article carried over from

LI. A home greenhouse.

GREENS

GREENS

1411

Christmas in the usual 100-pound crates loses its fresh
color and dries down to a weight of about fifty pounds.
There is some foreign demand for this plant in the
German cities for use in the artificial-flower trade.
This plant seems to thrive best in moist, shaded locali-
ties, and when plucked out by the roots, as is done
when gathering, is not replaced by new growth of its
kind. More open situations and drier ground produce
lycopodium of a lighter and yellowish color, and conse-
quently of less decorative value. Indians pick the best
green, but are unreliable when exact dates must be
met. The average season's output from Wisconsin is
perhaps thirty-five carloads, or 150 to 200 tons.

The use of holly in a commercial way has grown from
a very small beginning to its present proportions within
fifteen years. Until the last twenty years most of the holly
was handled by wholesale seedsmen and florists. Within
that time the sale of holly has been taken up by the
produce commission houses in large cities, thereby treb-
ling the volume, but reducing the quality. Delaware
and Maryland furnish the best stock of what is known as
eastern holly, while Tennessee and some other parts of
the South ship what is usually an inferior quality.
Holly is almost always packed in uniform cases 2 by 2
by 4 feet. Freezing, while packed in cases, damages it
but little, provided the holly be allowed to thaw out in a
very cool and preferably dark place, where the tem-
perature is not allowed to exceed 45° F. If, however,
frozen holly is shipped in warm express cars, the foliage
may turn black in a night. English holly has occa-
sionally been imported into the United States and into
Canada, but never satisfactorily commercially. For red
winter berries, Ilex verticttlata, a deciduous holly which
grows in large quantities in Michigan, is now a much-
sought decorative material.

Both holly and lycopodium are becoming more
scarce every year, and the market has probably
advanced permanently 20 to 30 per cent in the last
two or three years.

Mistletoe branches as used in America (a very little
is imported from France) are collected chiefly in New
Mexico and Oklahoma, and small quantities from Ten-
nessee, Kentucky or Arkansas. It is now usual to ship
this in heavy pasteboard cases containing twenty-five
to fifty pounds. The western or central states probably
use 15,000 to 20,000 pounds from the states mentioned.
Mistletoe is easily very seriously injured from freezing
in transit.

Cedar clippings are now but little used during the
holiday season, but on other occasions, when open-air
decorations are desired, they are frequently made into
roping or wreaths.

Wild smilax, in light cases, usually in three sizes, is
shipped by express mostly from Alabama and Georgia.
It is as liable to injury by freezing as mistletoe, but is
not damaged if allowed to thaw out gradually before
removal from the case. The use of this article by the
wholesale cut-flower dealers is increasing. There is
probably $20,000 worth used annually and some car-
load shipments are made. It is readily perishable and
the wholesale dealers put it in ice storage where it
keeps for two to three weeks. They do not usually
keep it in stock except during the holiday season.

Boxwood clippings of lengths from 12 to 18 inches
have become quite an article of commerce. These are
gathered from Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and
other similar localities and are used mainly in the cut-
flower trade for making wreaths and for mixing with
fresh flowers. The gathering and shipping of this
article for the above purpose was begun four or five
years ago. The trade has increased rapidly and per-
haps fifty tons or more were used in 1911. It will
probably take but a short time to exhaust the old
gardens where this plant has been growing in the sec-
tions mentioned, as it is not to be had except around
old homesteads where it was planted years ago.

The use of laurel is increasing largely during the past
five years and it is now shipped from Maryland, Dela-
ware, Virginia and New Jersey, both in bulk in short
sprays in cases, similar to those used in holly cases, and
in wreathing in coils usually containing 100 yards.
Shipments are made from the above sections to the
northern and western states.

Hardy ferns are also marketed through the whole-
sale cut-flower merchants. These are gathered in
Massachusetts and Michigan and kept in storage the
entire year, not being so perishable as wild smilax. Wis-
consin is now producing as many ferns as Michigan, or
perhaps more.

Among the most artistic materials for Christmas
decoration are galax leaves and leucothoe sprays.
Galax grows in the mountains from North Carolina to
Georgia, and nowhere else in the world.

For further particulars concerning this industry, see
American Florist 14:598^600 (1898). For the artistic
side of Christmas decoration, see illustrated articles by
F. Schuyler Mathews in American Florist 8:484 and
9:493. j. C.VAUGHAN.

GREENS, EDIBLE, or POT-HERBS. This term
greens is generally applied in America to any pot-herb,
that is to say, to any green herbage which is cooked and
served separately from the other principal and second-
ary dishes of a square meal. The term "greens" is
commonly used for the mess of cookery which is brought
to the table. It is not so often applied to the plants
growing in the garden. In the garden, perhaps, they are
herbs — pot-herbs — although this term is not so much
employed as it conveniently might be. Greens are
served early in the spring, when the appetite craves
anything which tastes like out-of-doors.

All sorts of plants are used as pot-herbs. Almost any-
thing which shows a succulent growth in the spring ia
likely to be tried by somebody. Turnip tops, potato
leaves, pig-weeds, purslane, and many other apparently
impossible herbs, are often impressed into the service.
The really good pot-herbs are comparatively few, how-
ever. Probably the best are dandelion, spinach, mus-
tard (various species), endive, chard, beet-top and kale.

The following plants have been more or less used as
pot-herbs :

Buck's-horn Plantain, Plantago Coronopus.

California Peppergrass, Brassica japonica.

Cardoon, Cynara Cardunculus.

Chard, Beta vulgaris.

Chervil, Anthriscus Cerefolium.

Chicory, Cichorium Intybus.

Chinese Amaranth, Amarantus gangeticus.

Chinense Artichoke, Stachys Sieboldii (S. affinis or S. tuberifera).

Chinese Cabbage, Brassica Pe-tsai.

Chinese Cabbage, Brassica chinensis.

Chinese Mustard, Brassica juncea.

Chives, Allium Schoenoprasum.

Corn Salad, Valerianelta olitoria.

Cress, Lepidium sativa.

Meadow Cress, Cardamine pratensis.

Para Cress, Spilanthes oleracea.

Upland Cress, Barbarea vulgaris and B. prxcox.

Other so-called Cresses, as Lepidium chilense, Lepidium piscid-
ium, Lepidium virginicum, Senebiera pinnatifida, Nasturtium
indicum, Gynandropsis pentaphylla.
Dandelion, Taraxicum officinale.
Dock, Rumex, several species.
Endive, Cichorium Endivia.
Globe Artichoke, Cynara Scolymus.
Good King Henry, Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus.
Goosefoot, Chenopodium, mostly C. album.
Ice Plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum.
Italian Corn Salad, Valerianella eriocarpa.
Kale, Brassica oleracea.
Lettuce, Lactuca (especially the wild species, some of which are

excellent).

Malabar Nightshade, Basella alba and Basella rubra.
Mustard, Brassica species.
Nasturtiums, Tropseolum species.
Orach, Atriplex hortensis.
Parsley, Petroselinum.
Pepper-grass, Lepidium species.
Pigweed, Amarantus species.
Pokeweed, Phytolacca decandra.
Quinoa, Chenopodium Quinoa.
Rocket Salad, Eruca sativa.

1412

GREENS

GREVILLEA

Rosella, Hibiscus Sabdariffa.

Salad-Burnet, Porterium Sanguisorba.

Sorrels, various, Oxalis crenata, O. tetraphylla.

Spinach, Spinacia oleracea.

Tuberous-Rooted Chinese Mustard, Brassica napiformis.

Turnip, Brassica Rapa.

Winter Purslane, Monlia per/oliata.

Culture. — Pot-herbs are wanted at the earliest pos-
sible moment in the spring. They are, therefore, often
grown in hotbeds, frames, or in greenhouses (see
Spinach, Dandelion, Mustard, etc.). They must be suc-
culent and tender. It is necessary, on this account,
that they be quickly grown in loose, very rich, well-
drained soil, with plenty of water. Specific directions
for the cultivation of the various plants will be found
under the several heads. jr A. WAUGH.

GREG6RIA: Douglasia.

GREIGIA (Major-General Greig, Russian horti-
culturist). Bromelidcese. A few species of large Andine,
terrestrial or rock-loving herbs, allied to Cryptanthus,
from which it differs in its simple rather than panicled
inn. Fls. perfect; sepals free or lightly joined at the
base, linear or ovate-lanceolate or almost subulate;
perianth with free elliptical segms. rounded at apex;
stamens shorter than petals or scarcely exceeding them ;
petals rose-color or white suffused with rose, becoming
brownish. G. sphacelata, Regel (Billbergia sphaceldta,
R. & S. Bromelia sphacelata, Ruiz & Pav.). Stout
pineapple-like plant, 3 ft., with strong spiny-margined
spreading or recurving Ivs. : fls. rose-color, in dense heads
in the axils of the Ivs., the outer bracts spiny and very
acute. Summer. Chile. — A showy plant. L. jj g

GRENADIN or GRENADINE: A type of carnation.

GREVILLEA (Charles F. Greville, once vice-presi-
dent of the Royal Society of England, and a patron of
botany). Proteacex. Trees and shrubs, of about 200
species, mostly Australian, one of which is commonly
cultivated in this country as a decorative pot-plant and
also in the open in southern California and elsewhere
in warm regions.

Leaves alternate, very various: fls. small, perfect,
mostly in pairs in the clusters or racemes, apetalous,
the calyx with 4 recurved parts; stamens of 4 sessile
perfect anthers borne on the sepals; style 1, long and
curved: fr. a follicle, with 1 or 2 winged orbicular or
oblong flat seeds. The fls., sometimes showy and orna-
mental, are terminal and axillary, the racemes some-
times umbel-like. The fls. of some species produce
honey. Some species yield useful timber.

A. Racemes secund, many-fld.: Ivs. much cut or com-
pounded.

robusta, Cunn. SILK OAK. Fig. 1768. One of the
most popular of all fern-leaved pot-plants. When young
(from 2-5 ft. high) it makes a most graceful subject.
In glasshouses it is not grown to large plants, and, there-
fore, little is known of the great size which it attains
in its native forest. According to Von Mueller, it is
''indigenous to the subtropical part of E. Austral., ris-
ing to 150 ft., of rather rapid growth, and resisting
drought to a remarkable degree; hence one of the most
eligible trees even for desert culture, though naturally
a sylvan plant. The wood is elastic and durable, valued
particularly for staves of casks, also for furniture.
The richly developed golden yellow trusses of fls.
attract honey-sucking birds and bees through several
months of the year. The seeds are copiously produced
and germinate readily. Rate of growth in Victoria,
20-30 ft. in 20 years. In Ceylon it attained a stem-
circumference of 5 ft. in 8 years." In Calif, and S. Fla.
it is a street lawn tree, although the branches break
easily in exposed places. When grown in the open, it
will stand some frost. As a glasshouse plant it is grown
almost wholly from seeds, and is used in its young state;
as the plant becomes old, it loses its leaves and becomes

ragged below. It thrives in the temperature suited to
geraniums or roses, and it stands much hard usage and
neglect. It is popular as a window subject. Best results
with grevillea are usually secured by raising a fresh
stock every year, from seed sown late in winter or in
spring. The following winter or spring they will be in
4-6 in. pots, and will be in their prime. The young
plants need frequent repotting to keep them in good
condition. Grevillea robusta has come to be generally
known as a florists' plant within the past thirty years.
Lvs. twice-pinnatifid (or the pinnae deeply pinnatifid),
or nearly 3-pinnate under cult., the ultimate divisions
narrow and pointed and sometimes lobed, pubescent:
racemes 3-4 in. long, solitary or several together on
short leafless branches of the old wood; fls. orange,
glabrous, the tube J^in. long, the parts revolute: fr.
about %in. long, broad, very oblique. B.M. 3184.
G. 2:615; 8:680. G.L. 24:40. A.G. 14:115. A.F.
4:413. — In the W. Indies the plant is much grown, and
it is often trimmed to desired shape. In exposed places
the foliage becomes golden in cast. Var. compacta,
Hort., is a condensed dwarf form with handsome foliage,
G.C. III. 49:375. G.M. 54:452. G. 33:393. F. E!

1768. Grevillea robusta. ( X Ye,)

31:1259. Var. pyramidalis, Hort., is offered abroad.
Var. Fdrsteri (G. Forsteri, Hort.) is a form of G. robusta.
It has silvery foliage, large trusses of deep bright red
fls., and much stronger growth. R.B. 24:3.

Thelemanniana, Hueg.(G. Preissii, Meissn.). Spread-
ing shrub, the young growths soft-tomentose: Ivs. 1-2
in. long, pale or glaucous, pinnate, the lower pinnae
usually divided, segms. linear: racemes terminal,
rather dense, 13^ in. or less long; fls. pink with green
tips, few-hairy outside and bearded inside, the tube
about J^in. long: fr. about %in. long, smooth. B.M.
5837. R.H. 1882:456. J.H. III. 42:497. H.U. 6:193.
G.W. 5:499.— Now popular in Calif.

Banksii, R. Br. Tall shrub or slender small tree, with
branches rusty-tomentose : Ivs. 4—8 in. long, pinnate or
deeply pinnatifid, the segms. 3-11 and broad-linear or
lanceolate, margins revolute: racemes terminal, erect
and dense, 2^4 in. long; fls. red, tomentose outside and
glabrous inside: fr. about 1 in. long, obliquely ovate.
B.M. 5870. G.C. III. 16 : 15.— Offered abroad.

AA. Racemes not secund, dense and usually short, some-
times panicled: Ivs. less divided, often only lobed.
Hilliana, F. Muell. Large tree, with minutely
tomentose young branches: Ivs. 6-8 in. or more long,
sometimes entire and obovate-oblong or elliptical and
very obtuse, sometimes deeply divided or even pinnati-

GREVILLEA

fid: fls. red, small and very many in dense cylindrical
racemes 4-8 in. long, silky outside, glabrous or nearly
so inside: fr. nearly 1 in. long, slightly compressed.
B.M. 7524. — Pink and white varieties are mentioned,
glabrata, Meissn. (G. Manglesii, Hort.). Shrub,
glabrous, slender: Ivs. 1-1 ^ in. long, broadly cuneate,
shortly and acutely 3-lobed: fls. white, in axillary
racemes equaling the Ivs. or the upper racemes panicled,
the perianth glabrous, the tube much exceeding the
globular limb.— Offered abroad as a bright green orna-
mental foliage plant of drooping habit.

There are no other grevilleas in the American trade, but follow-
ing are accessible portraits of other species: G. acanthifolia, Cunn.
B.M. 2807. — G, alpestris, Meissn. (G. alpina var. Lindl.). B.M.
5007. R.H. 1887:108. R.B. 23:145. — G. annulifera, Muell. B.M.
6687. — G. arenaria, R. Br. (G. caneseens, R. Br.). B.M. 3185. — G.
asplenifdlia, Knight. B.M. 7070. R.H. 1882, p. 245 (as G. longi-
folia). — G.bipinnatifida,R.Br. B.M. 8510. — G. Caleyi, R. Br. B.M.
3133. — G. canteens, R. Br.=G. arenaria. — G. ericifdlia, R. Br.
B.M. 6361. — G. fasciculata, R. Br. B.M. 6105.— G. Hookeriana,
Meissn. B.M. 6879. — G. intricdta, Meissn. B.M. 5919. — G.
juniperina, R. Br. (G. sulphurea, Cunn.). G.C. II. 26:469. — G.
lai-andulacea, Schlecht. (G. rosea, Lindl.). I.H. 2:61. J.F. 3:288.—
G. linearis, R. Br. B.M. 2661. — G. longifdlia, R. Br.=G. aspleni-
folia.— -G. macrostylis, Muell. B.M. 5915. — G. pulch&la, Meissn.
B.M. 5979. — G. punicea, R. Br. B.M. 6698. — G. rosmarinifdlia,
Cunn. B.M. 5971. G.C. II. 5:529. G. 35:389. — G. sericea, R. Br.
(G. dubia, R. Br.). B.M. 3798. — G. sulphurea, Cunn.=G. junip-

erina- L. H. B.

GREWIA (Nehemiah Grew, of Coventry, 1628-1682,
author of a work on anatomy of plants). Tilidcese.
Two or three woody plants slightly cultivated in
southern Florida.

A genus of about 70 species of trees and shrubs in
the warmer parts of the world, often having stellate
pubescence: Ivs. entire or serrate, 1-9-nerved: fls.
yellow or rarely purple, in axillary, few-fid, cymes or
terminal panicles; petals 5, with pits or glands inside
at the base; stamens indefinite; ovary 2-4-celled:
drupe 1-4-stoned. G. Caffra, Meissn., from Natal,
was intro. by Reasoner Bros, in 1891. A bushy plant
with young shoots and lys. glabrous and with purple
star-shaped fls. borne during most of the year. G. den-
ticulata, Wall., from India, was never described. Under
this name Reasoner cult, a plant "resembling a mul-
berry in growth, which bears enormous quantities of
acid drupes, about the size of cranberries; used for
pickling." G. oppositifolia, Roxbg., is a rough, much-
branched tree, with distichous, crenate-serrate Ivs. and
fls. in umbellate cymes, borne opposite the Ivs.: fls.
yellowish, the oblong petals half the length of the
sepals. The species are little known in Amer.

N. TAYLOR.f

GREYIA (after Sir George Grey, once Governor of
Cape Colony). Often spelled Greya. Melianthacese.
A small tree from Natal, which bears large spikes of
pendulous, five-petaled, scarlet flowers, and is culti-
vated outdoors in southern California and abroad under
glass in many botanic gardens.

Species probably 3, but only 1 appears to be in cult.;
in R.H. 1894:252 this plant is shown at its best, with
a spike 6 in. long and 2-3 in. wide, containing probably
over 100 fls., each %in. across. In France this tree
flowered from the end of autumn throughout the
winter. The long-exserted stamens with reddish pur-
ple anthers make a striking feature. The structure of
the fls. is so peculiar that Harvey referred the genus
doubtfully to the saxifrage family. In European green-
houses, greyia is a shrub requiring full sunlight,
thorough ripening of the wood and a season of rest
before flowering. In Natal it flowers in Aug. or Sept.,
which is early spring there. Europeans recommend
a sandy loam. Prop, by seeds or by cuttings from half-
ripened wood.

Sutherland!!, Hook. & Harv. Small tree, with thick,
naked branches and light-colored bark: Ivs. clustered
at the ends of the branches, 2-3 in. long, orbicular,
ovate or oblong, deeply cordate at base, toothed ; petiole
9-12 lines long: fls. bright crimson; disk cup-shaped,

GRINDELIA

1413

with 10 marginal teeth, each crowned by a peltate
gland; stamens 10; ovary laterally 5-lobed, 5-celled;
ovules numerous, in 2 series in the inner angle of the
cells: fr. capsular, 5-valved; seeds albuminous. B.M.
6040. R.H. 1894:252. G.C. II. 19:625; III. 43:138.
J.H.III.30:101. N. TAYLOR.!

GRIAS (name refers to the fr. being edible). Lecyth-
iddcese. Tall W. Indian trees, with branches short or
none and very large alternate simple Ivs., one of them
known for its edible fr.: fls. large, white or yellow,
lateral; calyx entire in bud, but becoming 2-4-lobed or
torn; petals spreading, 4 or 5; stamens many, in many
or several rows on the disk, the inner ones smaller, the
fleshy filaments conniving into a globular involute
body, the anthers small and the cells distinct: fr. fleshy,
ovoid. — Species about 4. G. cauliflora, Linn., produces
the Anchovy pear: Ivs. 2-4 ft. long, lanceolate-acumin-
ate, entire, drooping, glossy, borne in palm-like tufts
or heads on the top of the st. or ends of branches.:
fls. on short branching peduncles from the old st. far
below the Ivs., fragrant, 2 in. across, yellow: fr. ovoid,
2-3 in. long, 8-grooved, brown, fleshy, with 1 seed, said
to be edible. W. Indies. B.M. 5622. L. H. B.

GRIFFINIA (after William Griffin, who brought these
plants from Brazil) . Amaryllidacese. Brazilian bulbs, with
distinct foliage, and flowers, about 2J^ inches across,
which are more or less tinged with lilac or rose.

Leaves usually petioled, and with a very broad
blade: perianth-tube none or very short, the 3 lower
segms. narrower than the upper; ovary 3-celled;
stigma capitate, rarely 3-fid; umbel 6-15-fld. Griffinia
is distinguished from many other genera by its 2
ovules, which are basal and collateral. — Seven species.
Like many other genera of the amaryllis family, bulbs
of flowering size are too costly for general use. Very
doubtfully in cult, in Amer.

A. Stigma capitate.

hyacinthina, Herb. Bulb globose: Ivs. 6-9 in. long,
2-3 in. broad, rounded at the base to a channeled peti-
ole as long as the blade: scape 1-2 ft. long; pedicels
none or very short; stamens much shorter than the
segms. B.R. 163 (as Amaryllis hyacinthina; upper
segms. tinged blue, lower ones nearly white). J.H.
III. 31: 371; 55: 325. G.M. 47:45. Var. maxima, Gn.
50, p. 209, is probably the best garden form. Called
"blue amaryllis" in some catalogues.

AA. Stigma distinctly S-cut.

Blumenavia, Koch & Bouche". Bulb ovoid: Ivs. 4-5
in. long, cuneately narrowed to a petiole, shorter than
the blade: scape 6-8 in. long; pedicels %m. long; sta-
mens as long as the perianth. B.M. 5666 (veins rose-
colored). R.H. 1867:32. Gn. 50:208 (veined and
flushed with rose). N. TAYLOR.!

GRINDELIA (Hieronymus Grindel, of Riga and
Dorpat; died 1836). Composite. Hardy plants sometimes
cultivated for their showy yellow flowers, which are 1 %
to 2 inches across and borne freely all summer.

Herbs, sometimes shrubby, of coarse habit, mostly
natives of the U. S. west of the Mississippi: Ivs. sessile
or partly clasping and usually serrate and rigid: heads
terminating the branches, solitary or in cymes or
panicles; involucre bell-shaped or hemispheric, the
bracts many-ranked. The plants often have a sticky
balsam, especially the heads before and during flower-
ing, whence they are called "gum-plants" in Calif.,
particularly G. robusta, which is the common one. The
two species first described below have roots that are
perennial and short-lived, but sometimes annual.
These plants are also glabrous, and have firm or rigid
Ivs. This genus contains 2 plants from which a fluid-
extract is obtained that is used externally as an anti-
dote for poisoning by "poison ivy." — Species about 25.

1414

GRINDELIA

GUAVA

Grindelias are of the easiest culture. They are propa-
gated by division, cuttings or seed. G. squarrosa is
hardy in the East: G. robusta is sold in California.
They are best for wild places and trying situations. G.
squarrosa grows freely in all soils but it does best in a
light, open, moderately rich soil. In California it is
common on dry hills. According to John S. Wright,
both species grow in salt marshes and on alkaline soil,
being indiscriminately gathered for medicinal purposes.
The extract is also tonic and sedative, and is used in
asthma. The rays are numerous, sometimes thirty,
about K-inch long.

squarrSsa, Dunal. Shrubby, smooth, branched from
base, 1-2 ft. high: Ivs. dark or bluish green with clasp-
ing bases: fl.-heads sticky: outer achenes usually
squarely truncate and even at summit. Manitoba to
Mex. B.M. 1706 (as Donia squarrosa). Mn. 10:145.

robusta, Nutt. GUM-PLANT. Herbaceous: Ivs. larger
and more rigid, broadly cordate-oblong, obtuse: achenes
all, or some outer ones, 1-toothed or bordered at the
summit. — Flowers throughout the Californian winter.
Collected stock is offered.

patens, Greenm. (G. robusta yar. patens, Gray). A
stiff erect perennial with many single-headed branches:
Ivs. rough-hairy, narrowly oblanceolate, toothed:
heads about 1 in. wide, the achenes thin, obcordate at
the summit. Calif. G.C. III. 27:59.

WILHELM MILLER.
N. TAYLOR.!

GRISEBACHIA: Howea.

GRISELINIA (after Franc Griselini, Venetian bota-
nist, middle of eighteenth century). Including Deeds-
tea. Cornacese. Woody plants with large, glossy, laurel-
like foliage, rarely cultivated in the South, and nearly
hardy at Washington.

Trees, shrubs or climbers from New Zeal.,
Chile and Brazil, with Ivs. alternate, often
unequal - sided, thick and leathery: fls.
minute, in glabrous or pubescent racemes
or panicles; calyx very small, 5-toothed, the petals 5,
imbricated; stamens 5, with subulate filaments: fr.
baccate, 1- or rarely 2-celled. — Six or seven species.
Related to Garrya, from which it differs in the alternate
Ivs. Little cult, in Amer.

littoralis, Raoul. Tree, 30-50 ft. high, with brown-
hairy twigs: Ivs. ovate or oblong, wedge-shaped or nar-
rowed into a petiole; veins obscure beneath: fls. in
axillary panicles, equaling or slightly shorter than the
Ivs. New Zeal. G.W. 14, p. 323.

lucida, Forst. f. Shrub, 3-25 ft. high: Ivs. obovate
or oblong, very unequal at the base; veins distinct
beneath: fls. in axillary panicles, usually shorter than
the Ivs. New Zeal. Not cult, in Amer. Var. macro-
phylla (G. macrophylla, Hort.), is a large, more orbicu-
lar-lvd. form. — G. lucida is prized in Eu. for apart-
ments or residences. Showy. Requires shade and
moisture. Sometimes epiphytic. ff. TAYLOR.!

GROMWELL: Lithospermum.

GROSSULARIA (from grossulus, a small fig, from
the resemblance of the fruit). Saxifragdcese. An old
name for the gooseberries recently (N. Amer. Fl. 22,
pt. 3. 1908) reinstated by Coville and Britton as a
genus coordinate with Ribes, the currants. As dis-
tinguished from Ribes, Grossularia is defined by the
flowers having an evident hypanthium or cup-shaped
receptacle, the pedicels not jointed and the fruit not
disarticulating, different disposition of bractlets on
the pedicel, and the plants bearing spines at the
nodes. Under this disposition, the English gooseberry
becomes G. redinata, Mill, or G. Uvacrlspa, Mill.,
and the native gooseberry of the Downing type is G.
hirtella, Spach. See Ribes. L H. B.

GROUND CHERRY: Physalis; in the Old World
Primus Chamsecerasus. Ground Hemlock or Ameri-
can yew: Taxus canadensis. Ground Ivy: Nepeta
Glechoma. Ground Laurel: Old World name for Epi-
gsea repens. Groundnut: Apios and Panax; also Old
World name for peanut or goober (Arachis). Ground
Pine : Lycopodium. Ground Pink : Phlox subulata.

GROUNDSEL: Senecio. Groundsel Tree: Baccharis fialimi-
folia.

GRUMICHAMA: Eugenia brasiliensis.

GUAIACUM (W. Indian name). Zygophylldcese.
Guaiacum (gwai-a-cum) is kept in drugstores, and
the tree which produces the resin used in medicine has
a hard, heavy wood. Both the species below are the
source of the lignum-vitse of commerce which is used
so extensively for blocks and pulleys, rulers, and the
like. It is cult, to a very slight extent in S. Calif, and
in Trop. Fla. for ornamental value. The genus has
about 4 species of trees or shrubs, Trop. American,
and all have hard wood and abundant resin: Ivs. oppo-
site, abruptly pinnate, leathery; Ifts. 2-14, entire:
peduncles borne in pairs between the deciduous stip-
ules, 1-fld.; fls. blue or purple, not showy; sepals 4-5,

1769. Cattley guava. ( X 1A)

deciduous, unequal; petals 4-5, broadly obovate;
stamens 8-10, inserted in the short, inconspicuous disk.

pfficinale, Linn. Middle-sized or low tree, inhabiting
arid plains from the Fla. keys to Venezuela: Ifts. in
pairs, evergreen, J^-J^in. long, obovate or oval, blunt:
sepals oval, hairy, thrice exceeded by the petals.

sanctum, Linn. Similar in aspect, but the Ivs.
obliquely lanceolate-elliptic, and the smooth sepals
about half as long as the petals. W. Indies. — Not
much cult, in Amer. The wood of both species is very
valuable. N. TAYLOR.!

GUAR. An annual forage plant (Cyamopsis tetragono-
loba, Taub.), of the Leguminosa?, has been tried some-
what in this country with promise. It appears to be
adapted to the warmer parts of the country, requiring
about the same conditions as the cowpea. It is from
India.

GUAVA. The name guava is applied to the fruit of
various species of Psidium, frequently with the addi-
tion of a qualifying word such as apple, pear, Cattley,
to distinguish different species and varieties. In Spanish
it is guayaba, in Portuguese goiaba, and in French
goyave (the plant goyavier). In Brazil the name araca,
with qualifying words, is applied to a number of wild
species.

GUAZUMA

1415

The common guava of the tropics is Psidium Gua-
java, Linn., of which there are numerous varieties.
Although the native home of this species is in tropical
America, it is now widely distributed throughout the
warmest regions of the globe. Under favorable con-
ditions it becomes a tree 25 to 30 feet in height; its
bark is smooth, greenish brown in color, while the
leaves are opposite, oval, smooth, light green, the veins
depressed above and prominent below. The flowers,
which are produced in the axils of the leaves, are about
an inch in diameter, with four incurved white petals
and a large tuft of white stamens tipped with yellow-
ish anthers.

The fruit varies in shape from spherical to pyriform,
and in diameter from 1 to 4 inches. Commonly it is
oval or slightly pyriform, and about 2 inches in diame-
ter. The thin light yellow skin surrounds a layer of
finely granular pulp, inside of which is a mass of softer
pulp in which the small hard seeds are embedded.
The color of the flesh varies from white through shades
of salmon to deep pink, according to the variety; its
flavor when fully ripe is sweet or slightly acid, and
nearly always somewhat musky. The aroma is charac-
teristic and rather penetrating; while objectionable to
some persons it is very agreeable to others.

The fruit is eaten in many ways, — out of hand,
sliced with cream, stewed, preserved, and in shortcakes
and pies, but it is most highly valued for the manu-
facture of jams and jellies. In several tropical coun-
tries the manufacture of guava jelly forms quite an
important industry. When well made, it is deep wine
color, clear, of very firm consistency, and retains
something of the peculiar musky flavor which charac-
terizes the fruit, and which gives guava jelly an
individuality which is its greatest asset. In Brazil a
thick jam, known as goiabada, is made from the fruit
and sold in large quantities throughout the country.
A similar product is manufactured in the West Indies
and Florida under the name of guava cheese.

The plant is cultivated to a limited extent in southern
California, where it is frequently listed under the name
of lemon guava. It is too tender for the colder sections
of the state. In Florida it is not only cultivated in
gardens, but is found in a semi-naturalized condition
in some sections and has become a pest. The same is
true in many other regions; the plant grows so readily
from seed that it is sometimes difficult to prevent its
spreading to places where it is not desired when the
seeds are scattered by birds or other agencies.

The Cattley or strawberry guava, P. Cattleianum,
Fig. 1769, is also a well-known fruit in this country. In
California it is widely cultivated because of its superior
hardiness, withstanding temperatures as low as 22° F.
without injury. It does not grow to such large size as
P. Guajava, but under favorable conditions forms an
arborescent shrub 15 to 20 feet in height. Unlike P.
Guajava, its leaves are thick, leathery, and somewhat
glossy, in size rarely over 2% inches in length and in
form obovate-elliptical. The fruit, which is usually
produced in great abundance, is broadly pyriform to
spherical, 1 to 1^ inches in diameter. The skin is deep
purplish maroon, the flesh translucent yellowish white,
very soft and melting in texture. The seeds are rather
numerous, irregularly oval in form. The flavor lacks
the pungency of P. Guajava, and a resemblance, real
or imagined, to that of the strawberry has suggested
the common name of "strawberry guava." Jelly made
from this fruit, while lacking the pronounced flavor of
that made from P. Guajava, is nevertheless highly
esteemed in California, most of the fruit being utilized
for jelly-making.

While rather slow in growth, the plant frequently
begins to bear fruit the second or third year from the
seed. A horticultural form of this species, P. Cat-
tleianum lucidum, generally listed by the trade as P.
lutidum, is grown both in Florida and California,

though not so extensively as P. Cattleianum itself. The
chief difference between this form and the type lies in
the color of the fruit, which in place of maroon is deep
sulfur-yellow. The flavor, if anything, is a little milder
and less pungent. It is a meritorious form, worthy of
wider cultivation.

The "pineapple guava," of California, is Feijoa
Sellowiana, a South American myrtaceous fruit
not properly called a guava, perhaps, but so closely
resembling some of the guavas in growth and fruit as
to suggest this name. See Feijoa. Several other spe-
cies of Psidium are grown in this country to a limited
extent, some of them having been recently introduced.
Tropical America is rich in species of Psidium, Brazil
alone possessing a large number of economic value.
Most of these are still in the wild state and capable of
vast improvement by selection and breeding.

The culture of the guavas presents few difficulties.
Nearly all species succeed on a variety of soils, requir-
ing only that good drainage be provided. While
propagation is nearly always by seed, some vegetative
method must be used to perpetuate desirable varieties.
This is especially important with P. Guajava, in which
there is more variation than in P. Cattleianum, and
desirable forms do not come true from seed. Grafting
has been successfully performed but never widely
practised. In California, budding has been quite suc-
cessful, with large stocks an inch or more in diameter
and square or oblong patch buds about 13^ inches in
length. This method, however, does not seem very
suitable for commercial use. Shield -budding has been
successful in a few instances, the operation being per-
formed as with citrus, and it is this method which
probably offers the greatest advantages. Propagation
by cuttings is also possible, when half-ripened wood is
used and bottom heat is available. All these methods
have been practised to a very limited extent, seed-
propagation being practically the only method used in
most tropical countries. Seeds retain their vitality for
some time, but should be planted as fresh as possible,
using a light sandy loam and taking care to avoid
over-watering when the young plants appear. When
the second leaves have formed, the plants should be
potted off and carried along in pots until they are
transplanted into permanent positions, since they are
somewhat difficult to transplant from the open ground.
Planting should be done in late spring.

In California P. Guajava frequently suffers from the
attacks of the black scale (Saissetia olese), which must
be kept in check by fumigation or spraying. In other
countries this plant seems remarkably free from insect
pests or fungous diseases, and this is true also of the
Cattley guava. The fruits are sometimes injured by
the Mediterranean fruit-fly, and a scab has been
observed in Brazil which affects them prejudicially.
As a rule, however, the plants require little atten-
tion, p. w. POPENOE.

GUAZUMA (name of Mexican origin). Sterculiaceae.
A few Trop. American trees, allied to Theobroma, with
small white, pink or yellow fls. in short-peduncled,
axillary cymes. Calyx mostly 3-parted; petals 5, 2-
parted; stamen-cup about 10-lobed, the lobes alter-
nating with petals and bearing 2-3 fertile anthers, the
staminodia 3-angled; style 5-parted: fr. a 5-valved nut
the size of a filbert: Ivs. 2-ranked, serrate: fls. small.
Theobroma has a berry-like fr., entire Ivs., fascicled or
solitary fls., and a different staminal column. G.
ulmifolia, Lam., the "guacima" of Mex., is offered in
Calif. It becomes a large tree: branchlets powdery:
Ivs. ovate to oblong-lanceolate, somewhat pointed,
oblique at base, powdery beneath when young but
becoming glabrous: nut nearly globular, with 5 fur-
rows. Said to yield medicinal preparations. G. tomen-
tosa,, Kunth, is a small tree in W. Indies, apparently
not cult. here. L H B

1416

GUETTARDA

GUMS

GUETTARDA (J. E. Guettard, 1715-1786, physician,
mineralogist and botanist in France). Rubiaceae. Forty
to fifty tropical and subtropical shrubs of both the
eastern and western hemispheres, chiefly the latter,
two of which are offered for ornament in southern Cali-
fornia.

Leaves opposite or verticillate, ovate or oblong,
petiolate or nearly sessile: fls. in axillary more or less
forked cymes, sometimes polygamo-dicecious, 4—9-
merous; calyx continued beyond ovary into a cup-
shaped or bell-shaped rim; corolla salverform, with
long tube and rounded or oblong segms.; stamens 4—9,
inserted in the tube or throat, not exserted; ovary
4-9-celled: fr. a thin-fleshed globular or obtusely
angled drupe.

uruguensis, Cham. & Schlecht. Lvs. 2 in. long, half
as wide, elliptic-oblong, somewhat pilose above and
more or less tomentose beneath; stipules lanceolate-
triangular, caducous: corolla-tube Mm- or less long, the
5 lobes roundish; calyx-limb very short: fr. an oblong
3-4-seeded drupe. — Cent. Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina;
a small tree, with sericeous corolla, and fr. the size of a
cherry which is said to.be edible.

speciosa, Linn. A littoral evergreen tree: Ivs. broadly
ovate with an obtuse or cordate base, acute at apex,
pubescent beneath, 5-10 in. long: fls. polygamous,
white, in long-peduncled cymes that usually arise in
the axils of fallen Ivs.; calyx villous; corolla pubescent,
\]/z in. or less long and the limb (with obovate segms.)
1 in. across: fr. orange, nearly globular, obscurely
lobed or angled, said to be edible. Tropics in eastern
hemisphere. B.R. 1393. L. H. B.

GUEVlNA: Gevuina.

GUICHENOTIA (Antoine Guichenot, French gar-
dener, according to some; from Guichen Bay, New
Holland, according to others). Sterculiacese. A few
tomentose shrubs in extra-tropical Austral., little
known in cult, as greenhouse shrubs. Lvs. narrow and
entire, revolute, with leafy stipules: fls. small, in simple
racemes opposite the Ivs.; petals 5, small and scale-like;
stamens 5; ovary 5-celled, the style simple: fr. a short
5-valved caps. G. ledifolia, Gay, has several white fls.
in the raceme: Ivs. oblong-linear, obtuse: calyx Mm-
or less long. G. macrdntha, Turcz., has much larger
purplish fls. in racemes of 2 or 3. B.M. 4651. J.F.
3:279. L.H.B.

GUILltLMA: Bactris.

GUIZOTIA (after Guizot, the celebrated historian).
Composite. Annual herbs (of about five species) from
tropical Africa, one of which has some economic inter-
est from its oil-producing seeds.

The plants have yellow heads, about 2 in. across, with
8 broad, 3-toothed rays and a leafy outer involucre.
Seeds can be secured by the pound from S. Fla., and
they are listed among miscellaneous agricultural seeds
in a few of the largest European catalogues. The plant
is cult, in India for the oil.

abyssinica, Cass. (G. oleifera, DC. Verbeslna saliva,
Roxbg.). Erect, annual, nearly smooth: Ivs. opposite,
lanceolate, clasping, remotely serrate: heads about
%in. wide in a dense cyme. B.M. 1017. — Doubtfully
in cult, horticulturally in Amer. jq- TAYLOR, t

GUMS AND RESINS. Of the many thousands of
vegetable substances falling under the denomination
of gums and resins, but a comparatively small number
are of such general importance as to warrant mention
here. Their economic value depends upon the physical
and chemical properties possessed by them and the
abundance in which they are produced. A gum, in
the ordinary use of the word, is a substance of a more
or less sticky nature or which was at one time of a
sticky or plastic consistency. The chemist, however,

restricts the term gum to certain products having very
definite properties, classifying other plant exudations
according to their properties and grouping them as
resins, gum resins, balsams, and the like. A gum in this
restricted sense, is a substance which dissolves or softens
in cold water, forming a mucilage, or at least a liquid
of gelatinous consistency, and when held in a flame
only chars with an odor of burnt sugar. It is insoluble
in 60 per cent alcohol, oil of turpentine, benzene or
fatty oils. A resin, on the other hand, is a lustrous
vegetable substance resembling a gum but which neither
dissolves nor softens in cold water and which burns
with a bright smoky flame, giving off an aromatic odor.
It is more or less soluble in alcohol, oil of turpentine,
benzene or warm oils.

Gums are related, chemically, to cellulose and are
not secretion products, as was formerly supposed, but
are formed directly from the plant tissues by a breaking
down of the cells themselves; sometimes this is a per-
fectly normal process but very often it may be con-
sidered pathological and is the result of bacterial action.
Humidity appears to be the principal controlling factor
in the production of gum. Volatile or essential oils are
secreted by the cells of many plants of widely divergent
relationships and are often characteristic of certain
families, like those to which belong the mints and the
pines. The resins are oxidation products derived from
certain of the volatile oils and thus may indirectly be
considered products of secretion. Some plants yield
only gum, others only resin, while others again may
yield both, in which case the gum and resin may come
from different parts of the same plant or may be exuded
as an emulsion or mixture. In many plants the resins
occur dissolved in volatile oil and though exuded in a
liquid state soon become solid through the evaporation
of more or less of the volatile oil. Some resins contain
aromatic acids and others consist of certain liquid
organic compounds of these acids in which is dissolved
a solid resin; such products are called balsams. The
camphors constitute another group of oxidation prod-
ucts derived from the volatile oils.

Uses of gums and resins.

Soluble gums, the most typical of which is gum
arable, are used for a great number of purposes in the
arts; the varieties having the least color, highest
adhesive power and viscosity being the most valuable.
They find application in confectionery and pharmacy,
in sizing and finishing textile fabrics and paper, in
calico printing and dyeing, and in the manufacture of
fine water-colors, ink, mucilage, and so on. The gums
which are more or less insoluble in water, but which
swell with it to form a mucilage, as for example traga-
canth, are used as thickening agents in calico-printing
and in pharmacy, and for pastes, pills and colored
crayons.

Resins are applied to a great variety of industrial
purposes but probably the most important of these is
the manufacture of varnishes and lacquers. For this
purpose they may be roughly divided into two classes:

(1) those which after melting can be combined with
Unseed oil and turpentine to form an "oil varnish," and

(2) those which dissolve more or less in alcohol, oil of
turpentine or other volatile solvents to form "spirit
varnishes." The important resins of the first class are
amber and the copals; while those of the second class
include rosin or colophony, benzoin, dammar, sandarac,
mastic and elemi. Aside from varnish-making, certain
resins are employed in medicine and pharmacy, for in-
cense, and in the manufacture of soap, and the like.

The gums and resins of greatest economic importance.

The following list of the plant exudations which are
of the greatest economic importance and which com-
prises one or more typical examples of each of the
groups already mentioned may be arranged as follows:

rr,

True gums

True resins

Balsams

GUMS

( Gum arabic
( Tragacanth
/Amber
| Copal

Gum-resins

I Mastic
V Rosin

Oleo-resins

( Balsam Peru
( Storax

Camphors

GUMS

1417

Gamboge
g^um
Galbanum
Turpentine

Isam

Camphor (Common
or Laurel Cam-
phor)

Menthol

Gum arabic. — The name still generally applied to the
most important gum produced in northern Africa and
which has been an article of commerce since the first
century of the Christian era. It was shipped from
Egypt to Arabia and then thence to Europe and was
therefore called "gum arabic." At present the gum is
usually known as "Sudan," "Kordofan" or "Senegal"
gum, depending upon the region from whence it is
shipped to market. The best gum is produced by the
gray-barked acacia tree, Acacia Senegal, and is col-
lected both from wild or unowned trees and from gar-
dens of acacia trees which are private property. In
the gardens the gum is obtained by making incisions
in the principal branches of the trees while from the
wild trees the naturally exuded gum is collected. Infe-
rior varieties are collected from Acacia Seyal, chiefly
from the forests of the Blue Nile, and from Acacia
arabica, A. stenocarpa and A. albida in Senegal. The
gum is cleaned from pieces of bark and other debris
before leaving Africa but the bulk of the product is
exported without grading and is sorted in Europe,
principally at Trieste and Bordeaux.

Tragacanth. — The most important of the so-called
insoluble gums, and the only one regularly found in
commerce, is obtained from several species of small
shrubs of the genus Astragalus, found in Asia Minor,
Syria, Armenia, Kurdistan and Persia. It is produced
chiefly by the following species: Astragalus adscendens,
A. gummifer, A. pycnocladus, A. kurdicus and A.
stromatodes. In order to obtain the greatest quantity
of gum, the shrubs are stripped of their leaves in July
or August and short incisions or slits are made in the
trunks. The gum flows out, forming flat ribbon-like
or vermiform pieces depending upon the shape and
size of the incision, and is dry enough for gathering in
three or four days. Smyrna is an important market for
gum tragacanth and it is there sorted into various
qualities for the European market.

Amber. — A fossil resin found principally on the
shores of the Baltic Sea. The larger and finer pieces
are used for jewelry, beads, trinkets, mouthpieces for
pipes and cigar-holders, while the smaller pieces and
the waste from carving or turning are used for varnish.

Copals. — The term "copal" is now used commercially
to designate a group of widely distributed hard resins
of high melting point having the common property of
being capable of being used for the manufacture of oil
varnishes. Aside from amber, Zanzibar, or true copal
was the first resin used for this purpose, hence arose
the custom of terming as "copal," each new resin
which was discovered to be useful for this purpose and
distinguishing it from others by prefixing its port of
shipment or other geographical name. Copals are
obtained in round tears, nodules or flat pieces of vary-
ing degrees of hardness, either from living trees (recent
or raw copals) or dug from the earth at spots, occupied
centuries before by trees long since disappeared (fossil
or ripe copals) . The most important are yielded by the
following plants: Zanzibar copal, Hymenaea Horneman-
niana; Sierra Leone copal, Copaifera Guibourtiana;
Gold Coast or Accra copal, Cyanothyrsus Ogea; Niger
copal, Daniella oblonga; Kauri copal, Agathis (Dammara)
australis; Manila or East Indian copal, Agathis (Dam-
mara) orientalis; West Indian or Demerara copal,
Hymensea Courbaril.

Dammar. — Dammar is the Malay term for all gums

and resins which exude from trees and solidify upon
exposure to the air, but as used commercially it desig-
nates a group of varnish resins obtained from Indian
or East Indian trees belonging to the Dipterocar-
paceae and Burseracese and thus does not include the
resins from the genus Agathis (or Dammara,) which
are known as copals. Indian dammar, Shorea robusta;
white dammar, Valeria indica; black dammar, Can-
arium strictum; rock dammar, Hopea odorata.

Sandarac. — The hard brittle resins produced by
several species of coniferous trees in North Africa and
Australia. Mogadore sandarac, yielded by a small
cypress, Thuya articulata, common on the southern
slopes of the Atlas Mountains, is shipped principally
from the port of Mogadore, Morocco. Australian
sandarac is the product of several species of cypress
pines, especially the Murray pine, Callitris verrucosa
and the red or black pine, Callitris calcarata.

Mastic. — A soft yellow resin obtained in brittle,
yellowish, glassy, rounded drops from Pistacia kntiscus,
a small tree indigenous to Asia Minor and the Greek
Archipelago but cultivated on the island of Chios.
Used for varnishing paintings, for incense and as a tooth
cement.

Common rosin or colophony. — This is the solid residue
obtained as a by-product in the distillation of oil
of turpentine from crude turpentine. For a list of
the most important sources, see Turpentine, below.
Rosin is used for cheap furniture varnishes, in the
sizing of paper, as a flux for solder, as a coating for
the inside of casks, and in the manufacture of laundry-
soap. It is the source for rosin-oil and rosin-spirit,
which are produced by the destructive distillation of
rosin. The first is used in the production of lubricants,
printing inks and paints, while the second is a substi-
tute for oil of turpentine.

Gamboge. — A hard brittle yellow gum-resin, composed
of a variable mixture of gum and resin, and produced
by several species of Garcinia, especially G. Hanburyi of
Siam and Indo-China and G. Morella of India and
Ceylon. It is used to color golden lacquers, as a water-
color pigment and in medicine as a drastic purgative.

Myrrh. — A fragrant gum-resin obtained in Arabia
and northeastern Africa from a burseraceous tree Bal-
samodendron Myrrha. It is used in medicine and for
dental preparations.

Olibanum or frankincense. — A fragrant gum-resin
obtained from the stem of several species of Boswelh'a,
especially B. Carterii, native to northeastern Africa
and the southern coast of Arabia. Its principal use is
for the incense used in the Roman Catholic and Greek
churches.

Galbanum. — A strong-smelling, yellowish brown
gum-resin exuded from the stem of certain species of
Ferula, especially F. galbaniflua and F. rubricaulis,
natives of Persia. It is mentioned by the earliest
writers on medicine and was an ingredient of the incense
used in the worship of the ancient Israelites. It is now
used only to a small extent in medicine.

Turpentine. — The crude oleo-resin obtained by tap-
ping any one of several species of coniferous trees
native to North America, Europe and northern Asia.
The most important varieties are yielded by the fol-
lowing species: American turpentine from the long-
leaf pine, Pinus palustris, and the Cuban pine, Pinus
heterophyUa; French turpentine from the maritime or
cluster pine, Pinus maritima; Russian turpentine from
the Scotch or Swedish pine, Pinus sylvestris; and Indian
turpentine from the Indian blue pine, Pinus excelsa,
the Himalayan long-leaf pine, Pinus longifolia and the
Burma pine, Pinus khasya. From these oleo-resins
there is distilled oil of turpentine, leaving behind rosin
or colophony. Venice turpentine, from the common
larch, Larix europsea, is about the consistency of clear
honey, and is used in fixing colors, enamel painting
and firing and in medicine.

1418

GUMS

GUNNERA

Canada balsam. — A thick, yellow, transparent, liquid
oleo-resin obtained in the northern United States and
Canada from the balsam fir, Abies balsamea. On
account of its great capacity for refracting tight it is
used to cement lenses and for mounting objects for
the microscope. It is also used in medicine.

Copaiba balsam. — A thick, transparent, brownish,
liquid oleo-resin obtained from several species of
leguminous trees belonging to the genus Copaifera and
native to northern South America. It is used in medi-
cine as an antiseptic and stimulant.

Elemi. — More or less soft resins yielded by bursera-
ceous trees belonging to the genera Protium and Can-
arium. Manila elemi from Canarium luzonicum is a
fragrant resin used for toughening varnishes.

Balsam Peru. — A dark brown molasses-like liquid
balsam obtained in Salvador and Guatemala from the
stem of a leguminous tree, Myroxylon Pereirse. It is
used in medicine, perfumery and chocolate manufac-
ture.

Styrax or storax. — A thick, grayish, sticky, liquid
balsam obtained in Asia Minor from the oriental sweet

Proserpinaca, Hippuris, Myriophyllum. These com-
prise small and mostly inconspicuous water- or bog-
plants. In the Australian region are the endemic gen-
era Loudonia and Meionectes; and there remain Ser-
picula, Gunnera, and Haloragis, with very wide and dis-
jointed distributions. Gunnera has 25 or more known
species in S. Afr., Abyssinia, Java, Tasmania, New
Zeal., Hawaii and S. Amer. In general appearance the
gunneras are wholly unlike our native haloragaceous
plants. The Ivs. are radical, ovate or orbicular, in cer-
tain species gigantic: fls. perfect or rarely imperfect
monoecious or polygamous, small, in simple or branched
spikes or panicles, often packed on a great cob-like
spike; petals 2-3, or none; calyx none, or with 2-3
lobes; stamens 1 or 2 or 3; ovary 1-loculed, bearing 2
filiform styles: fr. a drupe: plant rhizomatous.

Gunneras are striking herbs, and with protection the
two first species may be grown even in some of our
northern states. These two are amongst the noblest
of lawn foliage plants. To produce satisfactory effects,
rich moist ground is indispensable. The plants must
never suffer for want of water. Exposure to sun is

1770. Gunnera manicata.

gum, Liquidambar orientalis. It is used in perfumery,
pharmacy and in medicine.

Common or laurel camphor. — A white, crystalline,
pungent substance obtained by distilling with steam
the twigs and chips of the camphor tree, Cinnampmum
Camphora, native to China and Japan and cultivated
in the southern United States. It is used in medicine
and for the manufacture of celluloid, lacquers and
smokeless powders.

Menthol or peppermint camphor. — The principal con-
stituent of oil of peppermint, the essential oil of Mentha
piperita, from which it can be crystallized by chilling.
It resembles common camphor but has a strong pepper-
mint odor. Used in medicine and perfumery.

FREDERICK L. LEWTON.

GUM-TREE: Eucalyptus and Acacia; also Liquidambar.

GUNNERA (J. Ernst Gunner, 1718-1773, was a
Swedish bishop and botanist, and wrote a local flora).
Haloragidacese. Perennial herbs, some of them big-
leaved and used for subtropical effects; others small
and useful for bogs and rockeries.

The family Haloragidacese comprises above 100
widely scattered and heterogeneous species in 8 genera.
In the northeastern states are the aquatic genera,

advisable, but they should be sheltered from severe
winds, else the leaves will be damaged. Ample winter
protection should be provided. A liberal covering
of leaves or litter, held in place by brush or branches,
will generally keep them from harm. Apply the cover-
ing in December and remove early in spring. Propagate
by division. Seeds are also employed, and they can
usually be secured.

A. Lvs. very large and striking.

manicata, Lind. Fig. 1770. St. thick and very short,
the titanic crown of Ivs. rising from the ground : petioles
often as tall as a man, prickly: blades becoming 5-10
ft. across, orbicular in general outline, variously lobed,
crenate, furrowed and channeled along the great veins:
fls. green: spikos dense and tapering, often more than 1
ft diam. and 3-4 ft. tall. S. Brazil. I.H. 31:531. Gn.
45, p. 21; 50, p. 455; 54, p. 385; 59, p. 327; 63, p. 127;
70 p. 179; 74, p. 451. G.C. III. 14:589; 29, suppl.
Jan. 12. G.M. 54:101, 647. G.F. 8:55.— The crown of
Ivs. sometimes measures 25-35 ft. across, making a
magnificent plant. This is the better species.

chilensis, Lam. (G. scabra, Ruiz & Pav.). Not so
robust, the Ivs. smaller and less spiny, and the fl.-spikes
less tall: fls. reddish. R.H. 1862, p. 310; 1894, p. 397.

GUNNERA

GYMNOCLADUS

1419

Gn. 49, p. 151. G.C. II. 26:425; III. 8:665. G. 18:693;
21:661. G.W.5:367, 571; 12:413.— Thrives in drier
soil. Var. major, Hort., is a very strong-growing form.

AA. Lvs. of ordinary or even small size.

arenaria, Cheesem. Prostrate and creeping plant
making extensive patches in damp sandy land in New
Zeal., the rhizome stout and clothed with bases of old
foliage: Ivs. 2^ in- or IGSS l°ng> thick, only slightly
hairy, the blade less than 1 in. and broadly ovate
or oblong, crenate or somewhat lobed: male peduncles
usually longer than Ivs., and female much shorter
at flowering time; female fls. densely crowded into
a short oblong spike: drupes very small, fleshy, yel-
lowish red.

dentata, Kirk. More slender, forming extensive
patches in wet subalpine places in New Zeal. : Ivs. many
and tufted, prominently hairy, the blade 1 in. or less
long and varying from ovate to oblong and elliptic-
lanceolate, coarsely dentate: male spikes about equal-
ing the Ivs., the female short and hidden at the base of
the Ivs., but the spikes in fr. sometimes surpassing the
Ivs.: drupes minute (ruin, long).

magellanica, Lam. A very small species with dark
green Ivs.: stolonif erous : Ivs. orbicular-reniform, cre-
nate, 2]/z in. or less broad: male scape surpassing the
Ivs., female shorter: fls. apetalous, the male pedicelled,
the female sessile. Chile south, and Falkland Isls.

G. brephogea, Lind. & Andre. A large species: Ivs. tall-petiolate,
the limb peltate, concave, orbicular-reniform, rather shallowly
7-9-Iobed and the lobes again somewhat lobed or angled, the mar-
gin with many small acute inflexed teeth and black-purple: female
fls. in a lax spike-like panicle, on a purplish scape. Colombia.
I.H. 19:111. — -G. minima, Hort.=G. magellanica (?). — G. perpensa,
Linn. Lvs. long-petioled (12-18 in.), orbicular.-reniform, cordate
at base, 6-12 in. across, uniformly and closely crenate-toothed:
scape surpassing the Ivs., becoming 2-3 ft. high; fls. monoecious,
the males in the upper part of the slender spikes. S. Afr. in moist
places. B.M. 2376. L. H B

GURANIA (Anagram of Anguria). Cucurbitdcex.
Tall climbers, perennial herbs or shrubs, with simple
tendrils: Ivs. entire, lobed, or 3-5-f oliolate : fls. direcious
or rarely monoecious, small, bractless, the petals pale
yellow; male fls. in long-peduncled clusters, the calyx-
tube cylindrical or ventricose and the limb 5-parted,
the corolla 5-parted into linear or triangular papillose
thickened segms., the stamens 2 and free; female fls.
solitary on fascicled or capitate on the top of the
peduncle, staminodia none, ovary oblong and bearing
a bifid style: fr. oblong, terete, many-seeded, the seeds
ovate and compressed. There are about 50 guranias in
the American tropics, one of which, G. malacophylla,
Rodr. (G. eridntha, Andre, not Cogn.), has recently been
mentioned in horticultural literature abroad. This
is a strong villous climber with simple broadly ovate
sometimes 3- to 5-lobed Ivs. 4-8 in. long: male fls.
reddish, in a globose head on a peduncle 6-16 in.
long; petals linear-subulate, pubescent ; female fls.
not described. Upper Amazon. B.M. 8085. R.H.
1904:388. L. H. B.

GUSTAVIA (Gustavus III, King of Sweden).
Lecythidacese. Trees and shrubs of the American tropics
with large showy fls., of which G. speciosa, HBK., is
offered in S. Calif. It is a thick-lvd. tree with 6-petaled
white fls., suitable for planting in the open. For fuller
account, see Japarandiba.

GUTHNICKIA. Two plants now referred to
Achimenes, one of which, A. foliosa, is perhaps some-
times cult. (See Vol. I, p. 208.)

GUTIERREZIA (personal name). Compdsits:. Herbs
or subshrubs, often resinous, mostly western North
American, rarely planted in borders.

Much branched from the base, and have narrow
alternate entire Ivs. and clusters of small yellow heads
with flat receptacles and hairy achenes. — About 18

species. Easily cult, in Calif.; doubtfully hardy on
Atlantic coast north of Washington.

Euthamiae, Torr. & Gray. More or less wood}' at
base, seldom to \Yi ft. high: Ivs. linear, crowded:
involucre turbinate, 2 lines long; rays and disk-fls.
each 3-9: achenes silky-pubescent; pappus of about
9 chaffy scales. W. N. Amer. N. TAYLOR.t

GUZMANIA (A. Guzmann, Spanish naturalist). Bro-
melidcese. Includes Caraguata and Massdngea. Tropi-
cal American bromeliads, of which several are fairly
well known ornamental glasshouse subjects.

They closely resemble the erect-growing tillandsias,
but differ in technical characters: fls. in a simple spike-
like terminal cluster, tubular, the outer segms. or calyx
oblong and obtuse, the inner or petals shorter than
the tube; anthers inserted on the throat of the tube,
and united by their edges around the style. — About
75 species. Grown in the warmhouse, along with Bill-
bergia and Tillandsia, which see for culture. Closely
allied to ^Echmea. Many species are cult, in fanciers'
collections in the Old World. For G. picta, see Nidu-
larium. For G. Legrelliana, see Hohenbergia. G. rosea,
a name which has appeared in the American trade, is
probably an .Echmea.

A. Calyx corolla-like, exceeding the petals.

musaica, Mez. Lvs. strongly decurved, beautifully
and densely marked with undulating, interrupted, irregu-
lar brown lines: infl. 3-4 in. long, on a short peduncle,
the bracts golden, striped with rose; fls. l%-2 in. long.
Colombia. B.M. 6675. I.H. 24:268.

AA. Calyx not corolla-like, shorter than petals.

B. Corolla (or segms.) purple or red.
lingulata, Mez (Caraguata linguldta, Lindl. C.
splendens, Bouche. C. lingulata splendens, Hort.).
Epiphyte: Ivs. many, lanceolate or ensiform, 1J^ ft.
long, remotely toothed: spike becoming drooping,
showily red-bracted; expanded fl. about as long as the
long-pointed bracts, the tube yellowish and the limb
blue-purple. W. Indies, Cent. Amer., and S. Amer.
B.R. 1068. F.S. 11:1091.— Handsome. Var. cardinalis,
Andre (Caraguata cardinalis, Andr6). Bright scarlet:
very showy. Colombia. I.H. 27:374. R.H. 1883:12.

BB. Corolla (or segms.) white.

tricolor, Ruiz & Pav. (G. frdgrans, Hort., at least 'in
part. G. grdndis, Hort., in part. G. maculdta, Hort., in
part. G. monostdchya, Rusby). Lvs. several to many,
broad and more or less recurved, entire on the edges,
usually shorter than the stout, erect spike: lower bracts
green streaked with black, upper ones red-tinged:
corolla white. W. Indies, Cent. Amer., S. Amer.
L.B.C. 5:462. F.S. 9:918. B.M. 5220. Var. variegata,
Hort. Lvs. striped with white. S. Fla. — Interesting
because of its combination of green, red and white.
Some, at least, of the horticultural plants which pass as
G. fragrans belong to Mchmea eburnea, Baker (Canis-
trum Lindenii, Mez. Nidularium Lindenii, Regel). This
species is further mentioned under Nidularium.

Devansayana, Morr. (Caraguata Devansaydna,
Morr.). Lvs. about 20, narrow linear or ensiform,
brown-striped on the back: fls. white, in a dense, oblong
spike, the scarlet bracts oval. Ecuador.

BBB. Corolla (or segms.) yellow.

Melinonis, Regel (Caraguata Melindnis, Morr.). Lvs.
strap-shaped, green above and brown-tinted beneath:
fls. yellow, subtended by oblong red bracts. French
Guiana. GEORGE V. NASH.f

GYMNOCLADUS (from Greek naked, plus a branch,
which refers to the stout branches with few branch-
lets). Legiimindsx. Trees, useful for bold planting.

Flowers dioecious or polygamous, regular, not
papilionaceous; calyx tubular, 5-cleft; petals 5, oblong,

1420

GYMNOCLADUS

GYMNOSPORIA

perigynous, resembling the sepals, or slightly larger
and paler; stamens 10; filaments pubescent, distinct,
short, perigynous; pistil 1; ovary superior, simple,
1-celled; placenta parietal; ovules numerous; style
slender: fr. an oblong (2-10-in. long), thick, flat,
curved, dark brown legume; seeds lenticular, about 1
in. broad. — The genus contains 2 species, one American,
the other E. Asian. The American species, the Ken-
tucky coffee tree, is now frequently planted for orna-
mental purposes. Its ascending branches, coarse twigs
and pods give it a peculiar sturdy aspect, heightened in
summer by the immense compound Ivs. Prop, by seeds
and cuttings. Foliage appears in late spring.

dioica, Koch (G. canadensis, Lam.). KENTUCKY
COFFEE TREE. Fig. 1771. Tree up to 100 ft. high,
unarmed : Ivs. alternate, unequally twice-pinnate, 1 ^-3
ft. long; Ifts. ovate or oval, acuminate, stalked, entire,
glabrous, 1-3 in. long: fls. ^in. long, greenish white, in

1771. Gymnoctadus dioica. (XYs)

large panicles, which terminate the branches of the same
season : pods persistent through the winter. Rich woods,
Cent. N. Y., and Pa. to Minn., Neb., Okla., and Tenn.
S. 8.3:123, 124. R.H. 1897, p. 491. B.B 2:261. G.
6:215. — Seeds used for coffee west of the Alleghanies
before and during the Revolutionary war.

G. chinensis, Baill., with smaller more numerous Ifts. and much
thicker pods, is not cult. K. M. WlEGAND.

GYMNOGRAMMA. Ferns that belong in several
genera, to which they are here referred. The ferns
described under Gymnogramma in previous editions
are distributed in the present edition as follows:

For Gymnogramma hispida, see Gymnopteris; for G.
triangularis, G. chrysophylla, G. sulphured, G. decom-
posita, G. calomelanos, G. peruviana, G. tatarica, G.
pidchella, see Ceropteris; for G. aurea, see Ceropteris
argentea; for G. schizophylla, see Anogramma.

R. C. BENEDICT.

GYMNOLOMIA (naked border, because the pappus
is minute or none). Compdsitse. About 20 yellow-fld.
herbs or woody plants from Ga. to Mex., much like
small-fld. helianthus. Lvs. alternate or opposite on
erect branching sts. : fl.-heads on peduncles terminating

the branches; involucre hemispherical or bell-shaped,
with narrow bracts in 2 or 3 series; receptacle chaffy,
more or less conical; ray-fls. pistillate and sterile; disk-
fls. perfect, producing 4-angled achenes. Allied to
Viguiera, and distinguished by the obsolete or wanting
pappus. Probably none of the species is in cult. G.
Porteri, Gray, occurs on Stone Mt., Ga. : 1-2 ft. high,
slender, with 5-8 oval or obovate rays 3^in. or more long,
deep orange-yellow. The other species are of the Tex-
ano-Mex. region. L H B

^ GYMNOPETALUM (Greek, naked petal). Cucurbi-
taceae. Six species of tendril-bearing vines of tropical
Asia and Java, of which one, G. cochinchinense, is cul-
tivated chiefly for its ornamental gourds.

This species is a tender perennial plant, and is said
to have small white fls. borne in late summer and
autumn, as advertised in the seed catalogues, under the
name of Scotanthus tubiflorus. Scotanthus was formerly
thought to be a closely allied genus, differing in
the staminate fls. possessing bracts and 3 bristle-like
rudiments of an ovary, while the staminate fls. of
Gymnopetalum, by the old definition, have no bracts
or minute ones, and but 1 rudiment of an ovary.
Coigneaux includes Scotanthus in Gymnopetalum.

cochinchinense, Kurz (Scotanthus tubiflorus, Naudin).
Musk-scented: st. much-branched, slender, grooved,
creeping or climbing, 5-7 }/£ ft. long: tendrils filiform,
elongated, simple: Ivs. about l%-2% in. long, 1-2 in.
wide: fls. monoecious, white; calyx-teeth long linear-
awl-shaped; calyx shortly villous, not tomentose: Ivs.
ovate, angled or slightly lobed: fr. bright red, ovoid,
10-ribbed, rather acute at the base, produced at the
apex into a long point which withers and remains, 2 in.
long, more than 1 in. thick. £,. H. B.

GYMNOPSIS: Sclerocarpus.

GYMNOPTERIS (Greek, naked fern). Pplypodiacese.
A group of small tropical ferns with once-pinnate hairy
Ivs. with the sporangia forming long lines along the
veins without indusia; the If .-margins not rolled over
as in Cheilanthes, and to which the genus is related.

hispida, Underw. (Gymnogramma hispida, Mett.).
A low plant, 5-^8 in. high, with pentagonal, palmate Ivs.
1 in. or more either way, densely covered on both sides,
but especially below, with strigose hairs. Has been
incorrectly referred to Gymnogramma Ehrenbergiana.
Texas, Ariz., Mex.— Hardy. R. c. BENEDICT.

GYMNOSPORIA (gymnos, naked and sporos, seed;
the seed being sometimes without aril). Celastracese.
A genus of about 60 species widely distributed through
Trop. and Subtrop. Afr., Asia and Austral., S. Eu. and
Subtrop. S. Amer. Closely related to Celastrus, but
easily distinguished by their habit, being rigid, often
spiny shrubs or small trees with coriaceous rather small
Ivs. and perfect small whitish fls. in axillary cymes fol-
lowed by small capsular dehiscent frs. ; seeds wither with-
out aril. None of the species is hardy N.; G. variabilis
being probably the hardiest. They are of little or no
ornamental value and only occasionally and rarely cult.
in botanical collections. Except G. serrata which is cult, in
S. Calif., and recommended as a suitable shrub for ever-
green hedges. Prop, by seeds and probably by cuttings.

serrata, Loes. (Celastrus serratus, Hochst.). Ever-
green shrub; the branches with slender spines or
unarmed, puberulous or nearly glabrous at the extrem-
ities: Ivs. coriaceous, short-petioled, ovate or elliptic to
oblanceolate, obtuse, serrulate, glabrous, reticulate
beneath, 1^-3 in. long: cymes small on axillary, forked,
puberulous peduncles much shorter than the Ivs. : caps.
3-valved, smooth. Abyssinia. G. buxifdlia, Szyszylowicz
(Celdstrus buxifolius, Linn.). Usually spiny, several
feet high: Ivs. obovate, obtuse, crenately serrate, 1-2
in. long:

GYMNOSPORIA

GYNURA

1421

cymes dense, short-peduncled. Afr. B.M. 2070 (as
Celastrus cymosus) and 2114 (as C. buxifolius inermis).
G. variabilis, Loes. Lvs. oblong to oblong-lanceolate,
acute, serrulate, 2-3^ in. long: cymes slender, much
shorter than Ivs.: caps. 3^-/^in. across. Cent. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

GYMNOSTACHYS (Greek, naked spike, the scape
being leafless). Aracese. One interesting tuberous-
rooted herb with grass-like radical Ivs., from Queens-
land and New S. Wales, sometimes grown in choice
greenhouse collections, G. dnceps, R. Br. Scape 1 to
nearly 3 feet tall, flattened, slender: spikes 1-3 in. long,
slender and curved or drooping, in small clusters near
the apex, with a leafy bract subtending each cluster;
fls. small and sessile; perianth-segms. 4, obovate and
not exceeding the ovary; stamens 4: fr. a berry % or
Kin. long. L. H. B.

GYMNOSTACHYUM (naked spike). Acanthacese.
Some of the plants of this name are Fittonias (which
see). G. ceyldnicum, Arn. & Nees, is by Lindau (Engler
<fe Prantl Pflanzenfamilien) referred to Cryptophrag-
mium, becoming C. ceylanicum, O. Kuntze, but by
Bentham & Hooker is retained in the former genus. It
is an erect herb from Ceylon, suitable for growing in
the hothouse for its white-marked Ivs. and small whitish
fls. in clusters: Ivs. opposite, oval or obovate, obtuse,
somewhat serrate. B.M. 4706. J.F. 4:405. L. H. B.

GYMNOTHRIX: Pennisetum.

GYNANDROPSIS (Greek words: the stamens look
as if they were borne on the ovary). Capparidacex.
Annual herbs grown out-of-doors.

This genus includes a tender plant with 5-7 Ifts.,
and fls. resembling the spider flower, or Cleome. It is
known to the trade at present as a Cleome, but Gynan-
dropsis is distinguished by having a long torus (or
receptacle), which is produced into a slender body (or
gynophore) which is elongated at the middle, and bears
the pistil to which the filaments are united. Cleome has
a short torus, which often has an appendix on the back:
stamens about 6 in Gynandropsis : in Cleome 4-6,
often 10: Ifts. 3-7: fls. white or purplish; sepals decidu-
ous; petals entire or crenulate, obovate, with a slender
claw: fr. a silique, usually inclosed within the calyx;
seeds kidney-shaped or orbicular, compressed, with a
wrinkled or tubercled coat. — The species of Gynandrop-
sis are perhaps a dozen, in the warmer parts of the
world. Pedicellaria is an older name for the genus, but
it is not accepted by the "nomina conservanda" of the
Vienna code. For cult., see Cleome.

speciosa, DC. (Cleome speciosa, HBK.). Stiff annual,
or perhaps a perennial, usually about 2 ft. and rather
velvety toward the top: Ifts. 5-7, subserrulate, oblong,
acuminate: fls. violet, showy. Mex.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

GYNERIUM (Greek, gune, woman, and erion, wool).
Gramineae. Very large perennial grasses with broad,
sword-like blades and plume-like dioecious inflorescence.

Spikelets 2-fld., the florets equal, the rachilla not
produced beyond the upper floret; glumes of staminate
spikelets equal, of the pistillate spikelets unequal, the
upper twice as long as the lower; culms perennial, with
extensively creeping rhizomes, the plants growing
gregariously in large masses or areas in their native
habitat: Ivs. rather evenly distributed along the sts.,
the sheaths about equal, the blades as much as 3 in.
wide. — One species in Trop. Amer. Cortaderia of
Stapf differs in the 3^6-fld. spikelets, the upper florets
more or less reduced, in the equal glumes in both sexes,
in the biennial culms with only very short rhizomes, the
plants thus growing in large tussocks; in the Ivs.,
scarcely J^in. wide, being crowded at the base of the
plant, the sheaths increasing in length from base

upward. The difference in appearance between the
staminate and pistillate plumes is much more marked
in Gynerium than in Cortaderia.

saccharoides, Humb. & Bonpl. UVA-GRASS. Culms
perennial, as much as 40 ft. high: on the sterile shoots
the Ivs. are aggregated, fan-like at the summit; on
the fertile sts. they are scattered along the middle,
the basal and upper portions being naked: plume
white or tawny. B.M. 7352. — Cult, for ornament, the
plumes resembling those of pampas grass. Not hardy
outside the tropics. For pampas grasses see Cortaderia
and Pampas-Grass. A. S. HITCHCOCK.

GYNOPOGON (Greek, bearded stigma). Apocy-
nacese. Syn. Alyxia. Interesting tropical woody plants,
worth cultivating under glass.

The genus was established in 1776 by Forster, based
upon G. stellatus of Tahiti, and is now known to include
at least 50 species distributed in the islands of the
Pacific, Madagascar, Austral, and Trop. Asia. Ever-
green trees or shrubs, erect or twining, nearly all of
which have the agreeable fragrance of coumarin, with
entire, short-petioled, glossy, myrtle-like Ivs., usually
in whorls of 3 or 4, or sometimes opposite: fls. usually
fragrant, axillary or terminal, solitary or in umbellate
or spicate cymes; calyx 5- or 4-cleft; corolla salver-
shaped, its tube cylindrical, swollen above the middle,
or slightly contracted at the throat, without scales,
the 5 or 4 lobes sinistrose; anthers subsessile, as many
as the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them,
inserted on the tube; ovary of 2 distinct carpels united
by a single style with a capitate, or oblong stigma often
bearing hairs on its upper surface; ovules 4-6 in each
carpel in 2 series: fr. generally a single ovoid or oblong
drupe, usually monihform, consisting of 2 or more
1-seeded joints placed end to end, sometimes both
carpels maturing in the same fl., when the fr. becomes
geminate, as in many other Apocynaceae; seeds ovoid or
oblong, furrowed on the ventral side, remarkable for
their ruminate endosperm with erect embryo, in which
respect they differ from those of other Apocynacese and
agree with Annonaceze. Plants of this genus may be
prop, by seeds or cuttings. They are worthy of cult, hi
the conservatory, on account of their dark green lus-
trous foliage and their fragrant jasmine-like fls.

olivaeformis, Safford (Alyxia oliv&formis, Gaud.).
MAILE. A straggling or somewhat twining shrub with
opposite and ternate Ivs., blades ovate to oblong, obtuse
or acuminate at both ends, coriaceous glossy, with
evanescent veins and margins usually revolute over
an intramarginal nerve: peduncles axillary, 3- or 4-fld.;
corolla yellowish, salver-shaped, the tube slightly
dilated below the contracted throat, puberulous within
along the adnate filaments, limb 4- or rarely 5-lobed:
drupes often geminate, fleshy black, elliptic-oblong,
sometimes curved, acuminate at each end. Hawaiian
Isls., in the woods of the lower and middle regions.—
This is perhaps the most cherished plant of the Hawai-
ians, who weave its fragrant glossy foliage into garlands,
or leis, with which to adorn their friends, and with its
branches decorate their houses and lanais on festive
occasions; and they also celebrate its fragrance in their
songs. Other allied species are the laumaile of Samoa
(Gynopogon bracteolosus), the nanago or Loduson lahe of
the island of Guam (Gynopogon Torresianus), and the
maire of Tahiti (Gynopogon stellatus).

W. E. SAFFORD.

GYNURA (name refers to the tailed stigmas). Com-
posite. Tropical herbs, sometimes grown under glass
for the large showy foliage.

Rarely subshrubby: Ivs. alternate, entire or lobed,
numerous: heads discoid, the florets commonly all
fertile, not very showy; involucre cylindrical or some-
what bell-shaped, the narrow bracts in about 1 series:
achene narrow, 5-10-striate, with copious slender

1422

GYNURA

GYPSOPHILA

white pappus-bristles. The gynuras are attractive
glasshouse herbs, usually requiring a moderately high
temperature; prop, by cuttings. Genus allied to Senecio
and Cineraria; of about 40 species in Trop. Afr., Asia,
to Austral.

aurantiaca, DC. VELVET TREE. Stout and branchy,
2-3 ft., with almost succulent sts. densely clothed with
violet or purple hairs: Ivs. large and soft, ovate, jagged-
toothed, hairy, short-pet ioled or the upper ones clasp-
ing, overlaid with iridescent purple: heads in a terminal
cluster, yellow or orange. Java. I.H. 28:436. — A
handsome foliage plant. In winter it may be grown in
the conservatory or warmhouse, but in the summer it
may be bedded out in a warm and protected place. It
grows rapidly, and makes a most satisfactory display
of colored leafage. It is readily prop, by cuttings in the
house, as geraniums are.

Other species, but not known to be in the American trade, are:
G. auriculata, Cass. (G. ovalis, DC. Cacalia ovalis, Ker). Only
slightly villous: Ivs. oval, entire or repand, green both sides:
fls. yellow, fragrant. China. B.R. 101. — G. blcolor, DC. 2-3 ft.,
of looser growth than the above, glabrous: Ivs. lance-ovate, some-
what downy, short-petioled, deep-toothed or pinnatifid, green above
and purple beneath: fls. orange. Moluccas. B.M. 5123.— G. ovalis,
DC.=G. auriculata. — G. sarmentdsa, DC. Climbing, with purple
glabrous sts.: Ivs. narrow, ovate to lanceolate, acuminate, petioled,
remotely small-toothed, green and purple-ribbed. Warmhouse
plant from Malayan Isls. B.M. 7244. L H R

1773. Gypsophila

elegans.
(Natural size)

1772. Gypsophila muralis.

GYPSOPHILA (gypsum-loving, because it likes cal-
careous soils). Caryophyllacese. European and Asian
herbs, bearing a profusion of small flowers, and useful
for mist-like effects in mixed borders and as trimming
in bouquets.

Sepals 5, united below, but the calyx naked at the
base (not bracted, as in some related genera) 5-nerved ;
petals 5, clawed, very small, usually white, in some
horticultural forms pinkish; stamens 10; styles 2: pod
4-valved: Ivs. small, entire, opposite. — Perhaps 75
species. Very branchy or spreading, slender herbs,
with scant foliage when in bloom. Of easiest cult, in
open, rather dry places. They are desirable for rock-
work. They make an excellent effect as filling amongst
shrubbery; also good for covering unkempt places with
a mass of delicate bloom. Hardy.

A. Plant annual.

muralis, Linn. Fig. 1772. One to 1^ ft., very diffuse
and branchy, mostly with shorter joints than G. elegans,
of finer appearance, the st. rough-hairy near the base,
smooth above: Ivs. linear, spurry-like: fls. small, rosy,
the petals almost recurved, crenate. Eu. — Makes a
dense little mound when well grown.

elegans, Bieb. Fig. 1773. One foot, repeatedly
forked-branched, glabrous: Ivs. sessile, the uppermost
linear, the lower oblong or spatulate: fls. white or some-
times (G. rosea, Hort., and in rare wild forms) rosy;
petals truncate, almost recurved, 2-5 times as long as
the calyx. Caucasus. — Much cult., and handsome.

AA. Plant perennial.
B. Lvs. short, spatulate: plant pubescent.
cerastioides, D. Don. Low, densely pubescent: Ivs.
pubescent, the radical ones long-petioled, the others
spatulate or obovate, obtuse or nearly
so: fls. large (often %in. across), white
or lilac, pink- veined. Himalayas. B.M.
6699. Gn. 47, p. 422. G. 35:433.— Of
creeping habit; excellent for rockwork.

BB. Lvs. perfoliate.

perfoliata, Linn. (G. scorzonerifolia,
Hort.). A tall, thick and round-
stemmed perennial, usually glabrous,
but sometimes hairy near the summit:
Ivs. perfoliate, 5-nerved: fls. purplish,
the sepals only slightly shorter than
the petals. Medit. region.

BBB. Lvs. long, not perfoliate: plant

glabrous or nearly so.
paniculata. Linn. BABY'S BREATH.
Fig. 1774. Diffuse and rather tall-grow-
ing (2-3 ft.), forking: Ivs. linear-lan-
ceolate, the largest 3 in. long, but becoming smaller
toward the infl., sharp - pointed : fls. white, very
numerous; pedicels 2-3 times as long as the calyx.
Eu. Gn. 68, p. 162. — A very popular plant, especially
for use in the trimming of bouquets. A most grace-
ful subject. Sts. stiff and wiry, therefore excellent
for cutting. A picture of its use in floral arrange-
ment will be found in A.F. 6:340. Var. flore-pleno,
Hort., with double fls. has been advertised, but is
little known in Amer. Gn. 60, p. 103. A.F. 19:767.
In places where the double form is difficult of cult.,
it is recommended that it be grafted on roots of G.
paniculata.

acutifolia, Fisch. Very like the last, but the plant
greener, the Ivs. narrower (indistinctly 3-nerved)
and the pedicels scarcely longer than the calyx.
Caucasus. — G. paniculata seems sometimes to be
cult, under this name.

Stevenii, Fisch. (G. glauca, Hort.). Lower than
G. paniculata, glaucous-green: Ivs. linear-lanceolate
and carinate, mostly radical: fls. rather larger,

white, the panicles smaller than those of .G. paniculata.;

petals shorter than the

calyx. Caucasus,
repens, Linn. (G. pros-

trata, Hort., not of

Linn.). Sts. trailing or

prostrate, ascending at

the ends, not glau-
cous: Ivs. linear, sharp-
pointed, glabrous: fls.

rather large, white, the

petals about twice longer

than the sepals and the

pedicels usually much

longer. Alps and Pyre-
nees. B.M. 1448.— Best

adapted to the rockery,

and the mixed border;

blooms from midsum-
mer to autumn. Var.

monstr osa, Hort.. is

larger but otherwise the

same. Var. rosea, Hort.,

has rose-colored fls. and

is frequently sold as G.

prostrata rosea, also as G.

carminea, Hort., which

does not seem to differ.

N. TAYLOR.f 1774. Gypsophila paniculata.

H

HABENARIA (Greek, a rein or strap; referring to
the shape of parts of the flower). Orchidacese, tribe
Ophrydese. REIN ORCHIS. Terrestrial leafy herbs,
sometimes grown in bog -gardens and naturalized in
moist places.

Tubers usually undivided, rarely lobed: fls. in ter-
minal racemes or spikes, rarely solitary; sepals subequal,
free or cohering at base, erect or spreading; petals
usually smaller, often 2-lobed; lip spreading or drooping,
long- or short-spurred at base, its blade entire or 3-5-
fid.; column very short, sessile; rostellum usually 1-
toothed or lobed; glands naked; anther-cells parallel
or divergent: caps, ovoid or oblong, erect. The lateral
lobes are sometimes fringed, giving the
fl. a graceful appearance. — Species about
400, very widely distributed in temper-
ate and tropical regions.

Few species of Habenaria are of much
horticultural importance, especially in
this country. Some of the exotic kinds
enjoy some favor as stove plants in
England, while there are a number of
hardy North American species which can
be recommended for outdoor cultiva-
tion in boggy places. H . Susannas, H.
carnea, H. militaris and other East
Indian species are best grown in a moder-
ately warm house, needing good light
and a fair amount of water. It is recom-
mended to repot them after the resting
season in a compost of peat, moss, loam
and crock dust, with the tuber resting
upon the crocked-up bottom of the pot
and the growing point just beneath the
soil. They should then be given a good
supply of water until after flowering.
These habenarias are much like bletia
in their requirements. The most popular
species at present seem to be H. ciliaris,
H. fimbriata and H. psy codes, but these
give a very imperfect conception of the
beauties of the genus, although in the
opinion of some persons, H. ciliaris is
the showiest orchid in temperate North America. The
native species are procurable through collectors and
dealers in native plants: foreign species through Dutch
bulb-growers; and H. radiata through dealers in
Japanese plants.

INDEX.

bifolia, 29. gigantea, 17. obtusata, 27.

blephariglottis, 15. gracilis, 33. odoratissima, 2.

Bonatea, 19. Hookeriana, 30. orbiculata, 28.

bracteata, 24. Hookeri, 30. peramoena, 3.

carnea, 6. hyperborea, 31. psycodes, 5.

chlorantha, 20. Integra, 7. pusilla, 11.

ciliaris, 8. lacera, 23. radiata, 21.

cinnabarina, 10. leucophffia, 22. rhodocheila, 12.

conopsea, 1. leucostachys, 14. Susannse, 17.

cristata, 9. longecalcarata, 16. tridentata, 25.

dilatata, 35. militaris, 11. unalaschcensis, 34.

elegans, 32. nivea, 13. virescens, 26.

Elwesii, IS. nivosa, 6. viridis, 24.
fimbriata, 4.

A. Fls. purple; lip 3-parted: sis. leafy.

B. Segms. of lip entire: bracts nearly equaling the fls.

1. condpsea, Benth. (Gymnadenia condpsea, R. Br.
G. conopea, French authors). DEADMAN'S FINGERS.
Fls. violet-purple to flesh-colored, rarely white, fra-
grant, medium-sized; spur longer than ovary, some-

1775. Habenaria carnea.

(XM)

times twice as long. June, July. Eu., N. Asia. G.C.
III. 51:68. — There is an H. conopsea of Reichenbach
dating from 1854, whereas Bentham's dates only from
1880.

2. odoratissima, Franch. (Gymnadenia odoratissima,
A. Rich.). Fls. intensely red-purple, aromatic, only half
as large as in the preceding; spur shorter than ovary.
May, June. Eu.

BB. Segms. of lip toothed.

3. peramcena, Gray. Rather tall: fls. large and
showy, violet-purple; middle segms. of lip 2-lobed.
July, Aug. N. J. to Va. and 111. B.B. 1:466.

BBB. Segms. of lip deeply and copiously
fringed.

4. fimbriata, R. Br. Fls. lilac, rarely
white, fragrant; petals laterally toothed.
Summer. New Bruns. to Mich, and
mountains of N. C. A.G. 12:152. G.F.
10:483. B.B. 1:466.

5. psycddes, Gray. Three feet or less
high: fls. many, crowded, much smaller
than in G. fimbriata, lilac, rarely white,
fragrant. July, Aug. Newfoundland to
Minn, and high mountains of N. C.
B.B. 1:466.

AA. Fls. pink throughout? Ivs. all radical.

6. carnea, N. E. Br. Fig. 1775. Lvs.
dull green, spotted with white: fls. few,
loosely clustered, light pink, fading
nearly white; lip large; spur over 2 in.
long. Penang. G.C. III. 10:729; 34:323.
Gn. 47:182. G.M. 36:642. O.R.4:209;
9:297; ll:frontis.; 13:59. G.F. 4: 487.
J.H. III. 33:319; 49:299. R.B. 21, p. 44.
— One of the most beautiful of the genus;
apparently not in American trade. Var.
nivdsa, Hort., white. Gn.47:182.

AAA. Fls. orange.

B. Color orange-yellow throughout.

c. Lip nearly or quite entire.

7. Integra, Spreng. Two ft. or less high, leafy: fls.
small, crowded. July. N. J. to La., near the coast.
B-.B. 1:463.

cc. Lip fringed or lacerate.

8. ciliaris, R. Br. YELLOW FRINGED ORCHIS. Fig.
1776. Fls. crowded, brilliant orange; petals fringed at
apex; spur about twice as long as lip; lip long-fringed.
Aug. E. U. S. B.M. 1668. B.B. 1:464.— A striking
species.

9. cristata, R. Br. Smaller: fls. much smaller; petals
merely toothed; spur little exceeding the lip. July.
N. J. to La. near the coast. B.B. 1:464.

BB. Color cinnabar-orange, the sepals red-spotted
outside.

10. cinnabarina, Rolfe. Small: st. leafy: lip 3-lobed;
spur straight, nearly equaling ovary. Madagascar. —
Not in American trade.

AAAA. Fls. with green sepals and petals; lip brilliantly
colored.

11. militaris, Reichb. f. (H. pusilla, Reichb. f.).
Bluish glaucous: fls. numerous; lip scarlet, trifid, mid-

(1423)

1424

HABENARIA

HABENARIA

lobe bifid; spur long and very slender, greenish white.
Cochin-China. R.H. 1888:396. J.H. III. 33:53. G.M.
36:436. O.K. 4:209; 9:297.— The author says of this
fine plant: "No English soldier can boast a jacket of a
deeper scarlet than the lip of our plant." Not in
American trade.

12. rhodocheila, Hance. Nearly related to H.
militaris, but fls. fewer and subcorymbose : petals
almost helmet-shaped; lip varying from deep rose-
pink to cinnabar and madder; spur dull yellow. China.
B.M. 7571. — Not in American trade.

AAAAA. Fls. white to green or greenish yellow.

B. Color pure white.

c. Lip entire.

13. nivea, Spreng. Lvs., except 1 or 2 lowest, bract-
like: fls. numerous, loosely clustered, small; spur very
slender. Summer. Del. to Ala. B.B. 1:462.

14. Ieuc6stachys, Wats. Usually tall and stout: lys.
several: fls. many, rather large. Idaho to Ariz., Calif,
and Ore. Mn. 6:81. — Nearly related to H. dilatata, but
distinguished by its spur greatly exceeding the sepals.

cc. Lip fringed.

15. blephariglottis, Torr. Fls. much as in H. ciliaris,
but somewhat smaller; petals fringed or slightly erose
at apex; spur about 3 times as long as lip. July. New-
foundland to N. C. and Minn. B.B. 1:465. Mn. 8:113.
— One of our finest natives.

ccc. Lip 3-parted.

16. longecalcarata, A. Rich. Lvs. all radical: fls. 1-3,
large, long-stalked; middle lobe of lip narrow, lateral
ones broader, unevenly fringed; spur twice as long as
ovary, with pedicel. July, Aug. India. B.M. 7228. —
Not in American trade.

17. Susannae, R. Br. (H. gi-
gantea, Don). St. tall, stout, leafy:
fls. 3-5, very large, fragrant ; broad,
fan-shaped side lobes of lip deeply
fringed; midlobe tongue-shaped,
entire; spur more than twice as
long as ovary and pedicel. India,
Malaya, China. B.M. 3374. G.C.
III. 16:279. J.H. III. 29:226.
O.R. 4:209; 9:297.— This and the
preceding species are among the
largest-fld. and showiest haben-
arias. They appear not to be in
the North American trade.

BB. Color partly or wholly green,

or greenish yellow.

c. Lip deeply 8-lobed or 3-parted.

D. Petals cleft or parted into

2 lobes or segms.

18. Elwesii, Hook. Erect, leafy:
fls. few, large, greenish yellow;
petals cleft almost to base into
long, slender, sickle-shaped, hairy
segms.; lip smooth, the segms.
long and slender. India. B.M.
7478. — A remarkable species.

19. Bonatea, Reichb. f . (Bonatea
spedbsa, Willd . ) . Stout, leafy : fls.
rather large, light green and white;
lobes of lip, especially central
one, tubular toward base. S. Afr.
G.C. III. 17 : 743.— Cult, like Disa
grandiflora, in a cool greenhouse
with plenty of air, in a mixture
of fibrous peat and sphagnum

with perfect drainage Requires a Habeaaria ciliaris, or
liberal supply of water all the yeiiow fringed orchid,
year round.

DD. Petals not cleft or parted.
E. Spur sac-shaped; lobes of lip entire.

20. chlorantha, Spreng. Lvs. clasping: fls. not
exceeding bracts, greenish. Mascarene Isls.

EE. Spur long and slender.
F. Middle lobe of lip entire, the others fringed.

21. radiata, Spreng. Petals exceeding sepals; spur
greenish white, about equaling the ovary. Aug., Sept.
Japan.

FF. All lobes of lip deeply fringed.

22. leucophaea, Gray. Four ft. high or less: fls. large,
whitish or greenish, fragrant; petals erose; spur exceed-
ing ovary. July. N.Y. to Minn, and Ark. B.B. 1:465.

23. lacera, R. Br. RAGGED ORCHIS. Smaller: fls.
greenish yellow; spur not equaling ovary. June, July.
Nova Scotia to Ga. and Mo. B.B. 1:465.

ce. Lip merely toothed or slightly lobed; fls. inconspicuous.

D. Fls. much shorter than the conspicuous bracts; spur

sac-shaped, short.

24. bracteata, R. Br. (H. viridis, Cham.). Fig. 1777.
Fls. greenish; spur often white. Summer. N. E. U. S.
to Brit. Col., Eu. B.B. 1:463.

DD. Fls. nearly equaling or exceeding bracts; spur long

and slender.
E. Lvs. 1-2 near base of st.

25. tridentata, Hook. Fls. greenish, loosely clustered;
lip wide at apex, 3-topthed; spur incurved. July, Aug.
Newfoundland to Minn., Fla. and La. A.G. 12:153.
B.B. 1:463. Now known as H. clavellata, Spreng.

EE. Lvs. 3 or more.

26. virescens, Spreng. Leafy: fls. greenish; lip only
slightly exceeding petals, with 2 lateral teeth and a
nearly basal wart. July. Range of preceding. B.B.
1:464. The name is now H. flava, Gray.

ccc. Lip entire; fls. inconspicuous.

D. Large Ivs. all basal.

E. Lf. solitary.

27. obtusata, Richards. Spike loosely fld.; fls. yellow-
green; lip deflexed; spur about equaling lip. Summer.
Across Canada, south to N. Y. and Colo. B.B. 1:461.

EE. Lvs. 2.
F. Spur much exceeding ovary.

28. orbiculata, Torr. Lvs. orbicular, lying on the
ground: fls. numerous, loosely clustered, greenish; lip
white, obtuse. July, Aug. Across Canada and Minn,
to mountains of N. C. B.B. 1:461. Gn.M. 4:14.

29. bifdlia, R. Br. BUTTERFLY ORCHIS. Lvs. oblong:
fls. white, with tips of spur and lip greenish, fragrant in
the evening. May, June. Eu.

FF. Spur about equaling ovary.

30. Hookeriana, Gray (H. Hodkeri, Lindl.). Lvs.
oval, obovate or orbicular: fls. greenish yellow; lip
acute. Summer. Nova Scotia to N. J. and Iowa. B.B.
1:461.

DD. Large Ivs. several above the base.

E. Spike commonly dense.

31. hyperbdrea, R. Br. Fls. greenish; petals, obtuse
lip and slender spur all about equally long. Summer.
N. U. S. to Nova Scotia and Alaska. B.B. 1:462.

32. elegans, Boland. Large Ivs. all on lower part of
st.: fls. numerous, small, greenish; sepals 1-nerved,
all alike; spur filiform. Vancouver Isl. to Calif.

EE. Spike commonly loose.

F. Spur short, sac-shaped.

33. gracilis, Wats. Three feet high or less: spike
long, many-fld.; fls. greenish; spur about equaling lip
and sepals. Ore. and Wash.

HABENARIA

H^MANTHUS

1425

FF. Spur not sac-shaped.

34. unalaschcensis, Wats. Fls. white or greenish;
sepals, petals and lip about equal; spur slender, barely
to nearly twice longer than lip. Summer. Unalaska to
Calif, and Utah. — Near H.

elegans, but more slender,
with a longer and more
open spike. It is referred
by some to the genus
Herminium.

35. dilatata, Gray. Fls.
greenish white ; lip widened
or even auricled at base;
spur about as long, in-
curved. Summer. Cooler
parts of N. Amer. A.G.
12:153. B.B. 1:462.—
More slender and nar-
rower - leaved than H .
hyperborea.

H. geniculata, D. Don. Slen-
der-growing: fls. white with
green spur. Burma, Himalayas.
— H. idntha. Hook. (Platanthera
iantha, Wight) . Deciduous,
about 16 in. high: fls. shortly
stalked, creamy white; lip large,
rose-purple and white with
crimson-purple dots and streaks;
crest bright yellow. S. India.
G.C.III. 54:300.— H. Lugardii,
Rolfe. Lvs. 2, basal: raceme
many-fld.; fls. white, the sty-
lodes green; sepals ovate, acute;
petals divided into 2 slender
lobes. Bechuanaland. B. M.
7798. — H. Regnieri. Garden
hybrid of H. militaris and H.
carnea. — H. Roebelenii. Rolfe.
Similar to H. militaris but
dwarfer: fls. vermilion- scarlet;
lip broad, deeply cleft at the 1777. Habenaria bracteata. ( X 24)
sides. Annam. O.K. 1913:39.

— H. triquetra, Rolfe. Plant somewhat glaucous: racemes about
10-fld. ; petals white ; sepals light green. Burma.

T. H. KEARNEY, JR.
GEORGE V. NASH.f

HABERLEA (after Karl C. Haberle, professor of
botany at Pesth, who died in 1831). Gesneriacese. One
dainty little hardy herbaceous perennial plant, which
is tufted and bears in spring a few scapes 4 to 6 inches
high, with two to five nodding, violet-colored, five-
lobed, tubular flowers, each about 1 inch long and 1
inch across. Allied to Ramondia.

Haberlea has 4 included didynamous stamens and a
bell-shaped calyx; the corolla has a conspicuous tube,
which is thrust out of the calyx nearly Hm-> and 5
lobes, 2 of which are much smaller than the others,
while in Ramondia the fl. seems to be wheel-shaped,
with 5 equal petals, because the corolla-tube is very
short and inconspicuous and the lobes deeply cut.
Haberlea was intro. to cult, about 1881 by Leichtlin,
and few, if any, of our skilled amateurs know the plant.
It is not advertised in Amer. Only 1 species is known,
and it is found wild only in a few miles of a single val-
ley in Thrace, where it abounds on the southern slope of
the Balkans on shaded schistose rocks. Only 4 species
of Gesneriacese are found wild in Eu., and 3 of them, are
said to be confined each to one spot. The genus Ram-
ondia has the same habit and is equally desirable. For
cult., see Ramondia.

rhodopensis, Friv. Like a very small gloxinia, and
clothed everywhere with soft, spreading hairs, except
the corolla: Ivs. 2-3 in. long, obovate- or ovate-oblong,
obtuse, coarsely crenate, thick, leathery, few-nerved:
calyx 5-cleft; corolla pale lilac. B.M. 6651. Gn. 67, p.
71. G.W. 15:428. R.H. 1906, p. 231.

WILHELM MILLER.

HABRANTHUS: Hippeastrum.
HABROTHAMNUS: Oestrum.
91

HACKBERRY: CeUis.

HACKMATACK, or TAMARACK: Larix americana.

HACQUETIA (named after Balthasar Hacquet,
1740-1815, author of works on alpine plants). Umbel-
llferse. Syn. Dondia, Dondisia. A monotypic genus
consisting of an herbaceous perennial cult, in the alpine
garden and thriving in good stiff loam. Prop, by divi-
sion in spring, before growth commences. The species
is H. Epipdctis, DC. From 3-8 in. high: Ivs. radical,
palmate, deeply lobed: fls. polygamous, in umbels on
short pedicels, yellow; involucre of 5-6 large, green
Ivs. which are much longer than the umbels. Eu.
L.B.C. 19:1832. G.W. 14, p. 197.— Blooms in April
and May.

H/EMANTHUS (blood flower}. Amaryllidacess.
BLOOD LILY. African bulbous plants, of which the
greater part are natives of the Cape region; grown
indoors.

Flowers showy, often numerous, in umbels; perianth
straight and erect, with a short cylindrical tube;
segms. longer than the tube, narrow, equal; stamens 6,
inserted in the throat of the perianth, usually exserted,
the anthers versatile; style filiform and erect, on a 3-
loculed ovary: fr. berry-like, indehiscent. The fls. are
red or white, on a solid scape, which is little, if any,
longer than the cluster of root-lvs.; they lack the
corona of many amaryllidaceous plants. — Probably
above 60 species from S. and Trop. Afr.

Hsemanthuses, like most Cape bulbs, are summer-
and autumn-flowering; or, when started indoors or in
frames, blooming in spring or early summer. The
flowers often precede the leaves. The foliage is usually
large and luxuriant, and the scape is often handsomely
colored. The flowers are sometimes as much as 2
inches across, and produced in great ball-like heads
nearly or quite a foot through. Yet the species are
essentially curiosities in this country. The culture
given nerine suits them well. Their season of growth
is usually not more than three or four months, and the
remainder of the year they may be laid away in the
pots. When growing, give plenty of rather weak
liquid manure, keep in an intermediate or warm house,
and when in bloom keep them somewhat cooler. Avoid
overpotting.

They are increased by offsets, which should be
detached from the parent plants in the spring. The
bulbs may be potted singly, or several in a pot, in equal
parts of peat and loam, with enough sand to make the
compost have a gritty feeling when passed through the
hands. Cover the lower half of the bulb with soil and
pot them firmly. Leaf-mold may be used instead of
peat, if that soil is not available. Hsemanthus will
grow well in a night temperature of 50° to 55°. How-
ever, they are often grown 10° lower, but never with
the same success. Water the plants carefully until
they get into active growth, after which water may be
applied more liberally. Syringe the plants on all bright
days, morning and noon during their growing period.
During the summer months, shade them slightly; and
when they are in flower the shade may be much heavier.
This is of great assistance in making them last longer.
As soon as the plants show signs of going to rest, with-
hold water, letting the soil become quite dry. Start
them into growth in the spring about the first of March.
It is not necessary to pot these plants every year, as
they flower much better if not disturbed much at the
roots. If they are not repotted, water with weak liquid
manure once a week, after they are growing vigorously.
These plants are liable to attacks from green-fly and
red-spider. Fumigation with tobacco, in any form
generally used in greenhouses, will keep the former in
check; and on bright days, a careful syringing of the
under side of the foliage with clean water will keep the
latter from getting a foothold. (George F. Stewart.)

1426

H^EMANTHUS

H^MANTHUS

albiflos, 7.
candidus, 8.
Clarkei, 7.
ooarctatus, 9.
coccineus, 9.
imperialis, 4.
insignia, 6.

INDEX.

Kalbreyeri, 2.
Katherinse, 3.
Laurentii, 4.
Lescrauwaetii, 1.
Lindenii, 4.
magnificus, 6.
mirabilis, 4.

rnultiflorus, 2.
pubescens, 7.
puniceus, 5.
superbum, 2.
tenuiflorus, 2.
tigrinus, 10.

A. Lvs. membranous, not fleshy.
B. Perianth-parts and spathes spreading,
c. Peduncle lateral as regards the tuft of Ivs.
D. Segms. of perianth. %in. long or less.
1. Lescrauwaetii, Wildem. Lvs. sheathed at the base,
4-8 in a group, about 7-8 in. long, with 8-9 nerves on
each side of the midrib: infl. racemose, the ultimate,

1778. Haemanthus Katherinae. (XM)

umbellate clusters almost round, about 4 in. diam.;
fls. rose-colored, showy, the tube short, the segms.
linear, about J^in. long. Congo region. R.B. 30:217.
—Intro, in 1904.

DD. Segms. of perianth. %-l in. long.

2. multifldrus, Martyn (H. tenuiflorus, Herb. H.
Kalbreyeri, Baker). Bulb globose, 3 in. or less diam.:
Ivs. 3-4 on a short, separate St., the petiole short and
sheathing, the oblong blade 6-12 in. long, with 6-8
veins each side of the midrib: scape straight, 1-3 ft.
high, green or red-spotted; umbel often 6 in. diam.,
containing 30-100 fls., which are usually blood-red, with
linear 3-nerved segms. twice or more as long as the
tube; red filaments long-exserted, bearing prominent
yellow anthers. Trop. Afr. Variable. B.M. 961, 1995,
3870. L.B.C. 10:912; 20:1948 (erroneously as H.
puniceus). F.S. 1:58; 23:2377. I.H.26:354. G. 25: 445.
Gt. ^53: 1531. G.W. 4, p. 557. G.Z. 25, p. 170. Var.
superbus, Hort., is an improved brilliant-colored form.

3. KStherinae, Baker. Fig. 1778. Bulb globose, 2-3
in. diam.: Ivs. 3-5, on a short, separate st. appear-

ing with the fls., with a short, spotted petiole, the blade
oblong, 9-14 in. long and 4-6 in. broad, the lateral
veins 8-10: peduncle 1 ft. tall, spotted toward the base;
umbel sometimes 9 in. diam., densely many-fld.; fls.
bright red, 2-23^ in. long, the lanceolate reflexing
segms. little longer than the cylindrical tube; red fila-
ments exserted. S. Afr. B.M. 6778. G. 32:37. G.C.
111.43:72. — Name spelled both Katherinse and Kath-
erine', but the former spelling is the original and the
proper Latin form. In cult, the Ivs. become "about 3
ft. in length and of a bright pale green color — apple-
green, as it is usually called— and the venation is more
strongly marked than is usual in H. multiflorus, H.
cinnabarinus and other allied kinds." Burbidge, Gn.
49, p. 160, with figure.

cc. Peduncle central as regards the tuft of Ivs.

4. Lindenii, N. E. Br. Lvs. 6-8, in 2 ranks, arising
from a thick, solid rootstock, nearly or quite evergreen;
petioles long, winged; blade 10-12 in. long and 3-5 in.
wide, long-ovate, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, acute, the
base rounded or subcordate, with a longitudinal fold
either side of the midrib: scape IK ft. tall, arising from
the center of the Ivs., flattened on one side, more or less
spotted: umbel globular, 6-8 in. diam., with 100 or
more scarlet fls. opening in succession; fls. 2 in. across,
the tube %in. long, the lobes longer and linear-lanceo-
late and acute. Congo. G.C. III. 8:437; 13:483. I.H.
37:112; 40:173, f. 1; 41, p. 18. Gt. 46, p. 217. G.M.
36:220. J.H. III. 28:73. — Many forms are known in
the trade, as var. mirabilis, Hort., with salmon-colored
fls., a magnificent addition intro. in 1901. G. C. III.
29:332. Var. imperialis, Hort., differing from the type
in longer perianth-segms. G.C. III. 31 :99. G.M. 45 :85.
Var. Laurentii, Hort., also with longer perianth-segms.,
and salmon-colored fls. R.H. 1911, p. 443. There are
many other forms of this popular favorite, such as
"Fascinator," "Queen Alexandra," and the like.

BB. Perianth-parts and spathes ascending.

5. puniceus, Linn. Bulb nearly globular, 2-3 in.
diam.: Ivs. 2-4, from the bulb, the petiole half the
length of the blade, the blade 6-12 in. long and 2-4 in.
broad, oblong, strongly undulated, the main veins
about 6 on each side the rib : scape 6^-15 in. tall, spotted;
umbel globose and dense, 3-4 in. diam., bearing many
scentless, pale scarlet, yellowish red or rarely white fls.
1 in. long; perianth-tube cylindrical, shorter than the
lanceolate 3-nerved segms.; filaments red, 1 in. long.
S. Afr. B.M. 1315.

6. magnificus, Herb. Bulb globose, 3^4 in. diam.:
st. leafy, reaching a length of 2 ft., not developed until
after flowering time: Ivs. 6-8, oblong, 12-15 in. long,
narrowed to a clasping base: peduncles stout, about a
foot long, the umbel globose, about 5 in. diam.; fls.
bright scarlet, the segms. about twice the length of the
tube. Perhaps only a variety of H. puniceus and so
treated in B.M. 3870. B.M. 4745 figures a var. insignis,
Hook., with long green bracts.

AA. Lvs. thick and fleshy.
B. Bracts and fls. white.

7. albiflos, Jacq. Bulb or tuber compressed sidewise,
with thick, 2-ranged scales: Ivs. 2-4, appearing with the
fls., nearly erect, obtuse, 6-8 in. long and nearly half as
broad, narrowed to the base, green and glabrous, but
ciliate on the edges: scape less than 1 ft. tall, pale green,
bearing a dense, globular umbel 2 in. diam.; fls. %in.
long, the linear segms. much exceeding the tube. S.
Afr. B.M. 1239. L.B.C. 7:602. Var. pubescens,
Baker, has Ivs. hairy above. L.B.C. 8:702. B.R. 382.
H. Clarkei, Hort., is a hybrid of this species and C.
coccineus.

8. candidus, Bull. Bulb large, globose: Ivs. 2, appear-
ing with the fls., fleshy, strap-shaped, about 1 ft. long,
4-5 in. wide, hairy on both sides: peduncle as long as

H^MANTHUS

HAKEA

1427

the Ivs., very hairy; heads when expanded 5 in. diam.,
very showy, white; perianth-tube cylindrical. Natal.

BB. Bracts and fls. red.

9. coccineus, Linn. Bulb compressed sidewise, 3 in.
diam., the scales many, thick, 2-ranged: Ivs. 2, suberect,
lingulate, reaching 2 ft. long and 8 in. broad, narrowed
to the base, green and glabrous, not ciliate : scape 6-10
in. tall, compressed, mottled; bracts large and thick,
ascending and forming a cup, in which the red fls. are
borne; fls. 1 in. long, with linear segms. and a short
tube. S. Afr. B.M. 1075. L.B.C. 3:240. Var. coarc-
tatus, Baker, has smaller Ivs. and shorter bracts.
B.R. 181.— Odd plants.

10. tigrinus, Jacq. Lvs. ciliate on the margins, 1 ft.
or less long, spotted on the lower part of the back : scape
6 in., red-spotted; umbel dense, 2 in. or less in diam.:
bracts shorter than in the last (not over 2 in. long),
bright red; fls. 1 in. or less long, with very short tube.
S. Afr. B.M. 1705.

Many hybrids and forms are known in horticulture. Among the
best is H. Andrdmeda which is H. Katherinse X H. magnificus. Fls.
crimson. Gn. 76, p. 437. G.M. 55:589. — H. <<m'cdn'us=Buphane
disticha. L H B

N. TAYLOR.f

I-LEMARIA (Greek, referring to the blood-red under
surface of the leaves). Orchidacese. Terrestrial orchids,
known to the trade chiefly as Goodyera. They are
really dwarf stove foliage plants, and are to be culti-
vated like Ancectochilus.

In Hsemaria the lower lip is swelled above its base
into a wide claw and is provided with a pouch-like sac
at base, and a blade of 2 divergent lobes; in Goodyera
the blade of the lip is small and not clawed. Both
genera belong to a large group in which the lip either
has no spur or sac, or if the latter is present, it is
included between the sepals; while in Ancectochilus the
lip has a prominent sac or spur projecting between the
lateral sepals. — Four species, in China and Malaya.

The leaves of H. discolor are green above and red
below. It is, however, not nearly so brilliant as
H&maria Dawsoniana, which has the same red color
beneath, and is beautifully netted above with red or
yellow. In both species a dozen or more small flowers,
chiefly white, are borne on a densely hairy scape.
These plants seem much easier to cultivate than
ancectochilus and can be grown in large, shallow pans,
with the rhizomes creeping in sphagnum.

A. Lvs. not netted-veined above.

discolor, Lindl. (Goodyera discolor, Ker). Fig.
1779. Blade of Ivs. oblong, 3 in. long, %in. wide.
China (Brazil, according to Loddiges). B.M. 2055. B.R.
271. — Some plants have white longitudinal markings.

AA. Lvs. brilliantly netted-veined above.
Dawsoniana, Hassl. (Goodyera Ddwsonii, Boxall.
Ancectochilus Dawsonianus, Low). Blade of Ivs. elliptic,
3 in. long, 1 y± in. wide. Burma, Philippines. B.M. 7486
(veins of 2 Ivs. blood-red; of the other almost wholly
yellow). G. 34:101. G.C. III. 35:387.

HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

KEMATOXYLON (from the Greek for blood and
wood, in reference to the color of the latter). Legu-
minbsx. Two or 3 species of trees from Mex., Cent.
Amer. and W. Indies, of which the most important,
H. campechianum, Linn., furnishes the logwood of com-
merce. It is a medium-sized tree, reaching 30-45 ft.,
with a short crooked trunk: Ivs. abruptly pinnate; Ifts.
obversely egg-shaped: fls. small, yellow, in axillary
racemes; petals 5, oblong, expanding; stamens free,
rather upright, with filaments hairy at base; ovary
short-stiped, free, with 2-3 seeds: pod lanceolate,
flattened, dehiscing along the median valve in 2
boat -shaped pseudo- valves. — The wood is very
hard and heavy, the heart-wood, from which the sap-

wood has been removed, being used for making the
dye. The wood takes on a beautiful brownish red color
on -exposure to the air. This tree is known as Cam-
peachy wood, logwood, and in Porto Rico as Palo de
Campeche. L. jj. B.

ILEMODORUM (blood-gift, a fanciful name).
HsemodoracesB, which is closely allied to Amaryllidaceae.
Nearly 20 Australian perennial herbs, with sheathing
equitant Ivs. and different colors of fls. in heads, cymes
or spikes, a few of which have
been mentioned abroad as
greenhouse subjects. Plant with
a thickened bulb-like base:
perianth persistent, with 6 deep
segms.; stamens 3, attached at
the base of the inner segms.;
ovary nearly or quite inferior,
but the caps, becoming nearly
or hau" superior. They are erect
plants with fls. black, red, pur-
plish, yellow, or livid green,
usually fragrant. Prop, by divi-
sion. H. teretifolium, R. Br.
St. 2-3 ft.: Ivs. very long and
slender, terete or nearly so: fls.
very numerous in a rather dense
or compact panicle, greenish
purple. H. planifdlium, R. Br.
St. 2-3 ft., scarcely branching
below: lower Ivs. flat and grass-
like, to }4in. broad: fls. many,
in a compact panicle, greenish
purple. L. H. B.

HAIRBELL, or HAREBELL: Cam-
panula rotundifolia.

1779. Haemaria discolor. (X}i)

HAKEA (after Baron von Hake, a German friend of
botany). Proteacese. Australian evergreen shrubs
cultivated indoors abroad, much used for ornamental
planting in the open in California.

The foliage of the various species of Hakea is exceed-
ingly diverse; in some the Ivs. are flat and broad, and
then entire or merely toothed, in others they are.
terete, and then either simple and entire or pinnately
parted: fls. in pairs, the pairs commonly crowded in
close racemes or globose clusters, these mostly sessile
in the If .-axils; corolla-tube slender, usually recurved
beneath the limb, which is mostly globose, the 4 lobes
cohering long after the tube has opened; lobes concave
and bear sessile anthers; the single style either long or
short but always dilated at the end: fr. a hard woody
caps, opening in 2 valves and bearing 2 compressed
winged seeds. — Ninety-five species are fully described
in English, with a key in Flora Australiensis 5:489
(1870). Eleven species grown in Calif, are described
and discussed, with a key and 8 illustrations in Univ.
Calif. Pub. Botany 4:14-20 (1910).

Hakeas are drought-resistant plants which endure

1428

HAKEA

HALESIA

moderate frost and are therefore well adapted to the
drier parts of the South and Southwest. In California
they are grown as far north as Sacramento. One of
these, H. laurina, produces strikingly handsome fls.;
H. elliptica is prized for the bronze color of its young
foliage; while the spiny-leaved species are serviceable
for planting in public parks or in any place where it
is necessary for shrubs to protect themselves from
pedestrians or vandals.

Hakeas may be propagated by cuttings taken from
ripened shoots but they are almost universally grown
from seeds. These are gathered from year-old capsules
which are very hard and must be dried for some time
before they will open. The seeds are sown in winter or
early spring in the ordinary mixture of sand, leaf-mold,
and loam; they germinate easily, even without heat.
The young seedlings are pricked off into boxes and held
in the lathhouse for a season before planting in the
open. For best results hakeas should be grown in
light, well-drained soil and need but little water after
they are once established; much moisture is injurious
except during the summer months.

A. Lvs. %in. or more wide.
B. Margins of Ivs. flat, entire.

saligna, Knight. A pale shrub, to 8 ft. high, glabrous
except the young shoots: Ivs. oblong or lanceolate,
3-6 in. long, obtuse, often callous-tipped, tapering to
a short petiole, pinnately veined: fl. -clusters white,
small but numerous, dense, sessile; corolla glabrous,
recurved: fr. about 1 in. long, }>fa-%\&. broad, with
short incurved beak, roughish.

laurina, R. Br.(#. eucalyptoides, Meissn.). SEAURCHIN.
Fig. 1780. Tall shrub, to 30 ft., and tree-like in Austral. :
Ivs. elliptic or lanceolate, 5 or 6 in. long, J^l in. wide,
tapering to a petiole; princi-
pal veins 3-7,nearly parallel :
fls. crimson, in a globular
inyolucrate head, l%-2 in.
thick, from which the numer-
ous showy golden yellow
styles project 1 in. or so in
every direction: fr. ovoid,
about 1J^ in. long by %in.
broad, short-beaked. B.M.
7127. G.C. II. 23:149.—
The only species with showy
fls. here described; equally
satisfactory for shrubberies
and for hedges; always
highly ornamental. In Italy
it has been called "the
glory of the gardens of the
Riviera."

BB. Margins of Ivs. undulate.
elliptica, R. Br. Fig. 1781.
Erect shrub, 6-15 ft.: Ivs.

sessile, 2-3 ^ in. long, 1-1 %
in. wide, undulate-margined; veins 5-7, parallel, con-
nected by cross- veinlets : fls. white, in globose sessile
clusters: fr. ovoid, 1-1 ^ in. long, %in. broad, obliquely
beaked. — Foliage by far the finest of all intro. kinds,
the rich bronze color of the young shoots hardly rivaled
among other shrubs. The compact, erect habit makes
it eminently suitable for general lawn and shrubbery
planting.

AA. Lvs. or their lobes }/%in. or less wide, mostly

terete.

B. Lj '.-veins several: Ivs. linear, flat.

ulicina, R. Br. Shrub with erect branches and

dense foliage resembling ulex: Ivs. narrowly

linear, acute, flat, entire, 1-8 in. long, rarely

over J^in. wide, prominently 1-3-nerved beneath:

1780. Hakea laurina.

1781. Hakea elliptica. ( X H)

fls. very small, glabrous: caps, mostly under
the beak short and straight. Var. carinata, F. Muell.
(H. carinata, F. Muell.). Lvs. mostly 1-nerved beneath,
nerveless above.

BB. Lf. -veins none.

suaveolens, R. Br. (H. pectinata, Colla). Rounded
shrub, 8-15 ft.: Ivs. 2-4: in. long, terete, with rigid
spine-like tip, occasionally entire, usually branched
into 1-5 rigid terete lobes of unequal lengths: pedicels
and perianth glabrous; fls. white, fragrant: fr. ovoid,
about 1 in. long by %in. broad, narrowed
at apex and with a small conical horn
near the end of 1 or both of the valves.
— Easily grown, drought-resistant, self-
protective, and therefore a favorite for
depot grounds, public parks, impene-
trable hedges, and
the like. Makes a
suitable covering
for dry hillsides,
although not
deep-rooted and
sometimes in-
clined to become
top-heavy.

acicularis, R.
Br. Tall shrub,
more slender than the preceding: mature twigs glab-
rous: Ivs. awl-like, simple and entire, 1-3 in. long:
pedicels white, silky; the corolla glabrous: fr. ovoid,
about 1 in. long, fully J^in. broad, rough, narrowed to a
thick beak, each valve with a conic brown horn near
apex. — Used for purposes indicated under H. suaveolens.

gibbosa, Cav. Spreading shrub, 6-10 ft., with char-
acters of H . acicularis but twigs and young Ivs. short-
hirsute and fr. larger, about IK m- long, nearly 1 in.
broad, abruptly narrowed to a short oblique beak,
similarly horned. Bot. Cook's First Voy. 266.

pugioniformis, Cay. Near H. acicularis and H.
gibbosa but to 20 ft. high and corolla as well as pedicels
pubescent: fr. much more slender, lanceolate, acumi-
nate, 1 in. long by Mm- broad, rough around the
middle, with an obliquely transverse crest, each valve
tapering to a slender point. L.B.C. 4:353. Bot. Cook's
First Voy. 265. — Often labeled H. suaveolens in nur-
series but distinguished from that by the simole Ivs.
and thicker frs.

H. aquifdlia, is a garden name sometimes applied to H. saligna.
— H. cyclocdrpa, Lindl. Foliage as in H. laurina but Ivs. and fr.
larger, the fl.-heads not involucrate: corolla silky-pubescent. Once
offered by Franceschi. — H. multiline&ta, Meissn. Related to H.
laurina: If .-veins more numerous: fl. -clusters oblong: fr. only }^n.
broad. G.C. III. 19:85 (var.). Reported but apparently never
intro. — H. nitida, R. Br. Lvs. bright green, oblong, entire or
toothed: fls. white, in stalked clusters: fr. 1 in. long by %in. broad.
B.M. 2246. — H. undulata, R. Br. Lvs. glabrous, obovate or rarely
lanceolate: fls. small, in axillary clusters: fr. recurved at base, IJi
in. long by Min. broad, distinctly beaked. — H. varia, R. Br. Some
Ivs. with nearly terete lobes, then resembling H. suaveolens, but
varying to flat and holly-like, 1-2 in. long, obscurely veined or
veinless, always tapering at the base: fls. in small clusters, the
rachis villous, pedicels and small corolla glabrous: fr. %in. long by
J^in. broad. Offered by Franceschi.

HARVEY MONROE HALL.

HALESIA (Stephen Hale, 1677-1761, author of a
famous work on "Vegetable Statics"). Syn. Mohr-
odendron. Styracdcese. SILVER - BELL.
SNOWDROP-TREE. Trees or large shrubs
grown for their handsome white flowers,
appearing in spring.

1782. Halesia Carolina.

HALESIA

HALIMODENDRON

1429

Deciduous and more or less stellate-pubescent: Ivs.
short-petioled, without stipules, involute in bud,
denticulate: fls. in axillary clusters or short racemes on
branchlets of the previous year; calyx-tube obconical,
slightly 4-ribbed, with 4 minute teeth; corolla cam-
panulate, 4-lobed or nearly 4-parted, white; stamens

1783. Halesia Carolina var. Meehanii. ( X J^)

8-16; style slender; ovary inferior, 2-4-celled, with 4
ovules in each cell: fr. an oblong, dry drupe with 2j-4
longitudinal wings; stone 1-3-seeded. — Three species
in N. Amer.

The snowdrop -trees are large shrubs or trees with
rather large bright green generally oblong and short-
stalked leaves and white slender-stalked drooping
bell-shaped flowers appearing before or with the
leaves and followed by winged light brown fruits.
Halesia Carolina is hardy as far north as Massachusetts
and is very handsome in spring when covered with its
white flowers. Halesia diptera is hardy as far north as
Philadelphia and is usually a smaller plant, but has
larger flowers and leaves. They thrive in almost any
good soil, but prefer a rich well-drained soil and a
sheltered position; they are easily transplanted. Prop-
agation is by layers or root - cuttings in spring or
autumn; also by greenwood cuttings taken from
forced plants. Seed should be sown at once or stratified;
if allowed to become dry, it does not germinate until
the second or sometimes the third year.

Carolina, Linn. (H. tetrdptera, Ellis. Mohrodendron
carolinum, Brit.). Fig. 1782. Large shrub or small
tree, usually not higher than 40 ft., with spreading
branches and often irregular in habit: Ivs. ovate or
elliptic to ovate-oblong, acute or acuminate, cuneate
or rounded at the base, finely serrate, glabrous above,
stellate-pubescent below, 2-4 in. long: fls. in clusters
of 2-4; corolla 4-lobed, lA-%vb. long; stamens 10-16;
ovary 4-celled: fr. 4-winged, 1-1 1A in. long. April,
May. W. Va. to Fla., west to 111. and E. Texas. B.M.
910. Mn. 5, p. 194. S.S. 6:257. Gng. 2:247. A.G.
14:211; 18:438. M.D.G. 1899:352, 353. G. 3:526;
10:485. G.C.III. 51: suppl. Feb. 3. Gn. 75, p. 582.
Gn.M. 8:22. J.H. III. 44:140. G.W. 5, p. 79. G.M.

55:823. Var. dialypetala, Schneid. Corolla divided
nearly to the base. Var. monticola, Rehd. Pyramidal
tree to 90 ft.: Ivs. larger, generally oblong-obovate,
glabrescent or nearly glabrous below, more sharply
serrate: pedicels and calyx glabrous; corolla large: fr.
1^-2 in. long, obcordate at the apex, wings broad.
N. C. to Ala., in the mountains. Apparently hardier
than the type. Var. Meehanii, Perkins (H. Meehanii,
Meehan). Fig. 1783. Bushy upright shrub or small
tree: Ivs. thicker, smaller, more rugose, darker green,
more distinctly serrate, pubescent below: fls. smaller,
cup-shaped, shorter pedicelled. A very peculiar form of
garden origin; very unlike the species and less orna-
mental; suggests a hybrid of some kind. G.F. 5:535
(adapted in Fig. 1783).

diptera, Ellis (Mohrodendron dipterum, Brit.). Shrub
or small tree, to 30 ft.: Ivs. ovate to obovate, rarely
oblong, remotely serrate, soft-pubescent beneath, 3-5
in. long: fls. 2-4, in short racemes; corolla deeply lobed
nearly to the base, puberulous outside; stamens usually
8; ovary usually 2-celled: fr. oblong with 2 broad wings
and often with 2 or sometimes 3 obsolete supplementary
ones, lJ'2-2 in. long. April. S. C. and Tenn. to Fla.
and Texas. S.S. 6:259.

H. corymbdsa, Nichols. =Pterostyrax corymbosa. — H. Mspida,
Mast.=Pterostyrax bispida. — H. parvifl6ra, Michx. Shrub, resem-
bling H. Carolina: Ivs., pedicels, and calyx densely pubescent:
corolla \i-l/^n. long: fr. 2-winged. Ga. to Fla.

ALFRED REHDER.

HALIMODENDRON (Greek, maritime tree; refer-
ring to its habitat in saline soils). Legumindsse. Orna-
mental shrub grown for its handsome profusely pro-
duced flowers.

Deciduous: Ivs. slender-stalked, with 1 or 2 pairs of
Ifts. and with the persistent petiole becoming usually
spinescent: fls. in lateral slender-stalked, 2-3-fld.
racemes; calyx cup-shaped with 5 short teeth; corolla
papilionaceous; petals of nearly equal length; standard
orbicular with the sides reflexed; keel obtuse, curved;
stamens diadelphous; ovary
stipitate with many ovules,
style filiform, curved: pod
stipitate, ellipsoid or obovoid,
inflated, tardily dehiscent,
with few kidney-shaped glossy
brown seeds. — One species
in the salt steppes of Cent.
Asia from Transcaucasia to
the Altai.

This is a wide -spreading
shrub with slender branches
and small bluish green foliage,
covered in early summer with
numerous pale violet or rosy
purple flowers. The small pale
foliage and the slender-stalked
drooping flowers combined
with the spreading habit give
to the plant a gracef ulness and
airiness of its own and make
it a very desirable ornamental
shrub. It is perfectly hardy
North, resists drought and
heat well and thrives in sandy
as also in saline and alkaline
soils. Propagation is by seeds
and by layers which root
slowly; it also may be grafted
on laburnum or caragana.

halodendron, Voss (H. ar-
genteum,Fisch.}. SALT TREE.
Fig. 1784. Shrub, to 6 ft. ; the
young growth silky-pubes-
cent: Ifts. 2 or 4, oblanceolate,

rounded and mucronate at the 1734. Halimodendron

apex, grayish or bluish green, halodendron. ( x 1A)

1430

HALIMODENDRON

HAMAMELIS

minutely silky, becoming sometimes nearly glabrous
with age, H-1M in- ^ng: fls. 2-3, on slender peduncles
about %in. long, lilac or pale purple, about %in. long:
pod %-l in. long; seeds about H'm. long. June, July.
B.M. 1016. Var. purp&reum, Schneid. (H. argenteum
fi. purpureo, Hort. H. speciosum, Carr.). Fls. bright
rosy purple. R.H. 1876:30. ALFRED REHDER.

HALLERIA (Albrecht von Haller, 1708-1777, Swiss
physician and naturalist, and professor at Gottingen).
Scrophularidcex. About 6 species of shrubs or small
trees from Afr. and Madagascar with opposite, ovate or
elliptic, entire or serrate Ivs. and axillary, solitary or
fascicled fls.: calyx cup-shaped, 3-5-cleft; corolla
trumpet- or funnel-shaped with short 4-5-lobed oblique
limb; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted about the middle
of the tube, about as long as or longer than the corolla;
ovary 2-celled ; style slender : fr. a berry with several or
numerous compressed seeds. Only the following species
is sometimes cult, in S. Calif . and as a greenhouse plant
abroad for its red fls. and the lustrous nearly evergreen
foliage. It is easily prop, by cuttings under glass and
by seeds. H. lucida, Linn. Shrub or small tree, to 30
ft., glabrous: Ivs. petioled, ovate, acuminate, serrate,
1-4 in. long: fls. in axillary clusters on stalks J£— J£ in.
long, tubular, curved and bulged on one side, shortly
2-hpped, red, sometimes yellowish at the base, about
1 in. long; stamens and style exserted: berries subglo-
bose, deep purple, edible. S. and Trop. Afr. B.M. 1744.
Sometimes called African honeysuckle.

ALFRED REHDER.

HALOPHfTUM: Hoplophytum.

HAMAMELIS (Greek, hama, together, and melon,
apple or fruit: fruits and flowers at the same time).
Hamamelidacese. WITCH-HAZEL. Ornamental woody
plants chiefly grown for their yellow flowers appearing
late in autumn or in the winter.

1785. Witch-hazel, Hamamelis virginiana, showing flowers
and fruits. (Natural size)

Deciduous shrubs or small trees; stellate-pubescent:
Ivs. alternate, short-petioled, stipulate, sinuate-dentate:
fls. in short-peduncled, nodding, axillary, few-fld.
clusters, perfect; calyx 4-parted; petals 4, linear,
crumpled; stamens 4, very short, alternating with 4
scale-like staminodes; styles 2, short: fr. a dehiscent,

woody, 2-celled caps., with 2 shining black seeds. The
seeds are shot out with considerable force. — Four
species, 2 in E. N. Amer. and 2 in China and Japan.
Occasionally writers spell the common name "wych
hazel," but there seems to be little historical reason for
it. Witch, as used in witch-hazel and witch-elm, is
probably allied to "weak," referring to a drooping or
straggling habit.

The witch-hazels are hardy ornamental shrubs with
medium-sized generally ovate or obovate leaves and
yellow flowers with strap-shaped spreading petals in
axillary clusters appearing late in fall or in the winter
and followed by capsular fruits. Hamamelis virginiana
is perfectly hardy North, and the other species have
proved hardy at least at the Arnold Arboretum.

They are valuable on account of their blooming at a
time when hardly any other shrub outdoors is in flower.
H. japonica, H. mollis, and H. vernalis are the only
truly winter-blooming shrubs in northern latitudes and
are striking objects in the wintry landscape with their
bright yellow flowers which are not injured even if
the temperature goes down to zero. They are well
adapted for shrubberies; of compact, bushy habit and
with handsome foliage, turning bright yellow, orange or
purple in fall.

They thrive best in somewhat moist, peaty and
sandy soil. The Japanese species likes a more sunny
position than the American, and is less moisture-
loving. Propagation is by seeds, which do not germi-
nate until the second year, or by layers; rarer kinds also
by grafting on seedlings of H . virginiana in spring in the
greenhouse.

A. Lvs. pubescent below while young, glabrescent or

glabrous at maturity.

B. Fls. in autumn when the Ivs. fall; calyx brownish

yellow inside.

virgini^na, Linn. Fig. 1785. Shrub or small tree,
attaining 25 ft.: Ivs. oblique and cordate at the base,
obovate, coarsely crenate, pubescent on the veins
beneath, 4-6 in. long: petals bright yellow, %-%in.
long; calyx dull brownish yellow inside: fr. surrounded
by the calyx to one-half. Sept., Oct. Canada to Fla.,
west to Neb. and Texas. Em. 472. S.S. 5:198. B.M.
6684. L.B.C. 6:598. A.G. 11:657; 17:771; 44:657
(1890). Gn. 33, p. 589; 39, p. 547.

BB. Fls. in winter or early in spring; calyx red or purple
inside.

vernalis, Sarg. Shrub, rarely exceeding 6 ft., suck-
ering: Ivs. obovate or oblong-obovate, cuneate and
entire below, sinuate-dentate above the middle, pale
or glaucescent beneath and glabrous or rusty-pubes-
cent on the veins, only 3-4 in. long: calyx dark red
inside; petals light yellow, about Hm- long; ovary
one-half superior: fr. surrounded by the calyx about
the middle. Jan.-March. Mo. to La. and Okla. S.T.S.
2:156. R.H. 1913, p, 131. B.M. 8573.

japonica, Sieb. & Zucc. Fig. 1786. Shrub or small
tree, to 30 ft. : Ivs. roundish to oblong-ovate or obovate,
sinuately crenate, prominently veined beneath, gla-
brous or pubescent, 2-4 in. long: petals %in. long,
yellow; calyx-lobes revolute, purplish or yellow inside;
ovary three-fourths superior: fr. surrounded at the
base only by the calyx. Jan.-April. Japan. G.F.
4:257 (adapted in Fig. 1786). Gt. 49:1481; 61, p. 136.
G.W. 7, p. 405. S.I.F. 2:25. Var. arborea, Rehd. (H.
arborea, Mast.). Lvs. larger, usually more roundish and
of firmer texture: petals golden yellow; calyx deep
purple inside: of more vigorous growth. B.M. 6659.
R.H. 1891:472. G.C. II. 1:187; 15:205; III. 9:247.
G.M. 34:94. Gn. 57, p. 103; 65, p. 59; 69, p. 105. Var.
Zuccariniana, Arb. Kew. Differs little from the type;
it has pure canary-yellow fls., smaller than those of the
preceding variety and opening about 3 weeks later.
Gn. 17, p. 251. R.B. 28:62.

HAMAMELIS

HARDENBERGIA

1431

AA. Lvs. densely tomentose below: calyx brownish purple

inside.

mollis, Oliver. Shrub or small tree, to 30 ft. : Ivs. orbic-
ular-obovate or obovate-oblong, cuspidate, obliquely
cordate at the base, dentate, somewhat rough above,
grayish white below, 4-5 in. long: calyx purplish red

1786. Hamamelis japonica. ( X ' 3)

inside, petals golden yellow, %in. long; ovary nearly
one-half superior. Jan.-March. Cent. China. B.M.
7884. G.C. III. 52:488. Gn. 75, p. 20. H.I. 18:1742.

ALFRED REHDER.

HAMELIA (Henry Louis Duhamel du Monceau,
1700-1782, prominent French botanical author). Ru-
biacese. Ornamental woody plants grown chiefly for
their handsome scarlet or yellow flowers and for the
attractive black or purple berries.

Evergreen shrubs with terete branches: Ivs. mem-
branous, opposite or sometimes in whorls, petioled,
entire, with interpetiolar stipules: fls. short-stalked or
sessile in terminal forking cymes; sepals 5, upright;
corolla tubular or bell-shaped, 5-ribbed, contracted at
the base, limb with 5 short lobes; stamens 5, with the
filaments connate at the base and inserted above the
base of the tube ; ovary inferior, 5-celled ; style slender
with spindle-shaped stigma : fr. a small ovoid or globu-
lar berry with numerous minute seeds. — About 13
species, by some reduced to 6, in Trop. and Subtrop.
Amer.

These are upright shrubs with herbaceous shoots,
rather large, generally ovate-oblong acute leaves and
yellow or scarlet flowers in terminal clusters followed
by small black or purple berries. They can be culti-
vated outdoors in subtropical and tropical regions only.
Propagation is by seeds and by cuttings of half-ripened
wood in early summer under glass.

Of the best-known species much prized in Florida

and recommended for northern conservatories under the
name of "scarlet bush," E. N. Reasoner writes:

"Hamelia patens, a native of the West Indies and
Southern Florida, along the coast, a beautiful and
almost unknown plant, should become a favorite in
greenhouse culture. The leaves have a purplish hue at
some seasons of the year, and the flowers are of a bright
orange-red color. In Florida it must surely become a
favorite for open-air planting, as it is there rarely
killed down by frost, and when it is it sprouts up readily
from the root, and blooms the following summer. It is
in bloom for many months, and without doubt could
be forced at any season. With age it becomes a woody
shrub, 5 to 12 feet in height. The flowers are succeeded
by handsome black berries, which are retained a long
while."

A. Plant glabrous or minutely pubescent.

patens, Jacq. Shrub, to 12 ft. : Ivs. opposite or usually
in whorls of 3, elliptic-ovate to oblong, acute or acumi-
nate at both ends, minutely pubescent or glabrous,
3-6 in. long; petiole Yr-^-Yi in- long: infl. 2-5 in. across;
sepals triangular, short; corolla with narrowly cylindric
tube about %in. long, scarlet-orange: fr. ovoid, black,
Kin. long. Fla. to Brazil. B.M. 2533.

ventricdsa, Swartz. Shrub or small tree: Ivs. usually
in whorls of 3, rarely 4, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate,
glabrous, 3-5 in. long: fls. yellow, about 1^ in. long,
tubular-campanulate, constricted above the base in a
terminal few-fld. infl.: fr. ovoid. W. Indies. B.M.
1894. B.R. 1195. — The similar H. chrysdntha, Swartz
(L. B.C. 11:1098) has smaller fls. and smaller more
obovate Ivs.

AA. Plant hirsute.

sphaerocarpa, Ruiz & Pav. Shrub, to 12 ft.: Ivs.
usually in whorls of 3, oblong, acute, undulate, hirsute
on both sides, 3-4 in. long: fls. in large terminal cymes,
orange-yellow, tubular, about 1 hi. long: fr. subglo-
bose, hirsute, purplish black. Peru.

ALFRED REHDER.

HAPLOCARPHA (probably from Greek for single
chaff, in reference to the 1 -rowed chaffy pappus).
Composite. Stemless perennials with a woody rhizome:
radical Ivs. short-petioled, entire or lyrato-pinnatifid,
white-tomentose beneath: scapes 1-headed, longer than
Ivs.: fr. 3-5-ribbed, provided at base with tufts of
hairs, naked or hairy above, with a crown of small,
pointed pappus-scales. — Four or five species from the
Cape region. H. scapdsa, Harv., resembles an acaules-
cent species of Arctotis: Ivs. lanceolate to elliptic,
3-9 in. long, green above, white-woolly beneath:
peduncles many times longer than Ivs., bearing a soli-
tary clear yellow fl.-head, 1^-2^ in. across. G.C. III.
40:124. Sometimes planted in the open, but not
hardy N. L. H. B.

HAPLOPAPPUS: Aplopappus.
HAPLOPHfLLUM: Ruta.

HARDENBERGIA (after Franziska, Countess of
Hardenberg, sister of Baron Huegel, a well-known
traveler.) Leguminosse. Vines, grown chiefly for their
handsome flowers.

Twining herbs or subshrubs: Ivs. pinnate with small
stipules; Bts. 3 or 5, sometimes reduced to 1, entire,
with stipels: fls. papilionaceous, small, on long racemes,
ranging from white through pink and rosy purple to
violet-blue, often with 1 or 2 green or yellowish spots
on the standard; calyx 2-lipped, the upper 2 teeth con-
nate; standard orbicular, with inflexed auricles; keel
obtuse, shorter than wings; ovary sessile; style short
and thick: pod linear, flat or turgid, with several
strophiolate seeds. — Three species in Austral, often
referred to Kennedya, which has larger and differently
colored fls. solitary or in short racemes, with the keel
usually about as long as the wing. The two species in

1432

HARDENBERGIA

HATIORA

cult, are grown abroad under glass by those who are
skilled in managing Australian woody plants; they
prefer peaty and porous soil, as they are, like most
Australian plants, impatient of too much or stagnant
moisture. The species first mentioned is cult, outdoors
in Calif. These plants can be trained into bush form.
Prop, is by seeds or by greenwood cuttings of lateral
shoots under glass in spring.

A. Lfts. solitary: pods flat, ivith dry pulp inside.
mpnophylla, Benth. (Kennedya monophylla, Vent. K.
longiracemosa, Lindl. K. corddta, Lindl. K. ovdta,
Sims). Lfts. usually reduced to 1, ovate to narrowly
lanceolate, rounded or cordate at the base, obtuse,
reticulate, 2-3 in. or sometimes 4 in. long: fls. less than
J^in. long, in 2's or rarely 3's, as many as 35 in a raceme,
and the upper racemes often forming a terminal
panicle. B. 2:84. B.M. 263, 2169. L.B.C. 8:758 and
20:1940. B.R. 944; 1336. R.H. 1896, p. 431. R.B.
22 : 169. — The fls. range from white through rose and
purplish to pure violet, but are never distinctly blue.
Var. alba and var. rdsea are cult.

AA. Lfts. 3 or 5: pod turgid, without pith or pulp.
Comptoniana, Benth. (Kennedya Comptonidna, Link.
K. macrophylla, Lindl.). Lfts. 3 or 5, and in the latter
case the lateral ones close together in 2 opposite pairs,
not opposite in distant pairs, oval to linear-lanceolate,
rounded or truncate at the base, obtuse, 1^-3 in. long,
rarely longer: fls. similar to those of the preceding spe-
cies, but usually blue or violet-blue and in pairs or
clusters of 3-4 along the racemes. B.R. 298; 1862;
26:60. R.H. 1882, p. 344. J.H. III. 30:361; 44:253.
P.M. 8:27, 267. H.U. 5:236. Var. alba is cult.

H. retusa, Benth., is an anomalous species not cult. All other
names in this genus are synonyms of the 2 species described above.

ALFRED REHDER.!

HARDBACK: Spiraea tomentosa.

HARDY PLANTS. The word "hardy" covers many
distinct ideas. It is used to distinguish plants that can
be cultivated outdoors the year round from plants that
must be grown under glass part or all of the year. For
example, in this Cyclopedia plants are spoken of as
hardy as far north as Washington, D. C., New York,
Boston or Montreal, meaning that the plants are not
killed by the winters at these places. In its widest
sense, "hardy" indicates resistance to all kinds of
unfavorable conditions. Thus, while all the common
geraniums are tender plants, one variety may be hardier
than another because it withstands intense heat and
drought and general neglect. In general, however, the
unqualified word "hardy" indicates that the plant is
able to withstand the winter of the given place. See
the articles Border and Landscape Gardening. Smaller
divisions of the subject of hardy plants are discussed
under Alpine Plants and Aquatics.

HAREBELL: Campanula rotundifolia.

HARICOT (French name for Phaseolus vulgaris).
Same as kidney bean of the English. It is the common
garden bean of America, as distinguished from the
Windsor or broad bean, lima bean, and others. See .Seem.

HARlNA: Wallichia.
HARI6TA: Hatiora.
HARLEQUIN FLOWERS: Sparaxis.
HARPALIUM: Helianthus.

HARPEPHYLLUM (from the Greek for sickle and
leaf, in reference to the falcate Ifts.). Anacardiacese.
KAFIR PLUM. Two species, of which H. caffrum,
Bernh., is cult, in Fla. and S. Calif. It is a tall, glabrous
tree with hard, heavy wood: Ivs. thick, lustrous,
imparipinnate, alternate, aggregate at top of branches,
stalked; Ifts. sessile, falcate-lanceolate: fls. small, in

compact axillary panicles, dioecious; calyx with 5
obovate segms.; petals 5, narrow-ovate, imbricate in
the bud; stamens 10 in the male fl., somewhat shorter
than the petals, inserted below margin of the disk: fr.
obovate, with thick woody endocarp, 4-celled, with 2
small, sterile cells, and 2 large fertile cells, dark red,
size and shape of a large olive, the very thin pulp hav-
ing a subacid taste; edible. S. Afr. L jj g

HARRISIA (named for William Harris, Superintend-
ent of Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica). Cac-
tdcese. Upright tall cacti, little planted.

Stems rather slender, sometimes weak: branches
fluted and having 8-11 rounded ribs: areoles bearing
slender needle-like spines: fls. tubular, rather large,
growing from near the tips of the branches, night-
blooming: fr. naked, globose, yellow. — About 8 species
known; these confined to the W. Indies.

gracilis, Brit. (Cereus repdndus of Cyclo. of Amer.
Hort., not Cactus repdndus, Linn.). Sts. said to be 20 ft.
long: ribs 8-10: spines in clusters of 9-12: fls. white,
the bracts on the tube filled with long white hairs.

J. N. ROSE.

HARTWEGIA (Theodor Hartweg coUected in
Mex. for the Horticultural Society of London, and
found these plants near Vera Cruz). Orchiddcese.
Tender epiphytic orchids from Trop. Amer., growing
about a foot high and bearing purple fls. The genus
has the habit of Epidendrum, section Amphiglottis,
but differs in having the labellum saccate at the base,
in which respect the genus approaches Ponera; however,
Ponera has a very different habit. — Two species.
Rest them in a coolhouse Oct. to March. Growing
temperature should be 65-90°.

purpurea, Lindl. Lvs. solitary, leathery, ovate-lanceo-
late, equally terete with the st., many times shorter
than the thread-like peduncle: fls. small, purple; sepals
acute, a little larger than the petals; limb of the lip
white at the base, callous. Mex.

H. gemma, Reichb. f. "This is a most lovely gem," wrote
Reichenbach, and "much better than its predecessor." Gemma,
therefore, probably does not mean "twin," in this case. Lvs.
solitary, semi-terete, thick, acute, channelled, blotched with
blackish violet: fls. amethyst-purple, in a small, 1-branched panicle;
odd sepal acute, obtusely strap-shaped, equal sepals oblong-acute.
Cent. Amer. T TT R

HASTINGSIA (S. Clinton Hastings, San Francisco,
promoter of Calif ornian botany). Lilidcese. Two bul-
bous plants of the Pacific slope, separated by Sereno
Watson from the genus Schcenolirion (the Oxytria of
Rafinesque), offered by collectors but little known in
cultivation.

Plants with white or greenish fls. in many-fld. dense
panicles or racemes: perianth-segms. distinct, each
obscurely 3-nerved; stamens 6; style short; ovary
oblong-ovate and not deeply lobed (so differing, among
other things, from Schcenolirion, which has a depressed-
globose deeply 3-lobed ovary and fr.). Hastingsias
have strong, nearly naked sts., arising from a tunicated
bulb: Ivs. lather fleshy. Treatment as for camassia.

alba, Wats. Mostly stout, 2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 1>£ in.
or less wide: racemes simple or nearly so, 1 ft. long,
densely fld., the fls. Mm- °r less long, white or greenish
white; stamens equaling the segms. Dry hillsides, N.
Calif . northward.

bractedsa, Wats. Bracts narrow and nearly equaling
the fls., which are larger than in the other, and white;
stamens half as long as segms. : Ivs. narrower. S. Ore.,
in marshes. L jj. B.

HATIORA (an anagram of Hariota). Cactdcese.
Upright cacti, allied to Rhipsalis.

Plants erect, branching: branches short, arising
in 2's or 3's from tops of older branches, smooth and
spineless, bearing several abortive areoles along their
sides and each a large woolly terminal one from which

HATIORA

HAWORTHIA

1433

arise the fl. and succeeding branches: fls. terminal;
ovary globular, naked or nearly so; sepals usually in 2
rows, the outer ones broader a.nd short, the inner ones
larger and more petal-like; petals distinct, narrow
toward the base; stamens distinct, erect, borne on the
disk; stigmas 5, erect, white. Closely related to Rhip-
salis, with which as Hariota it is often united, as it was
in the Cyclo. of Amer. Hprt. — Some 6 or 7 species of
Hariota have been described, but most ' of these are
true species of Rhipsalis; 2 were recognized by K.
Schumann. The following is in cult. Hariota, DC.
(1834) is a homonym of Hariota, Adans. (1763), and
hence the name Hatiora has been substituted.

salicornioides, Brit. & Rose (Hariota salicornioides,
DC. Rhipsalis salicornioides, Haw.). Plant upright,
reaching a height of 18 in., richly branched: areoles
hardly setulose or lanate: sts. cereiform, with cylindric
or oblong-elliptic joints; mature or fruiting branches
with verticillate, club- or flask-shaped joints, with
slender base, all apparently, as well as the fls. and fr.,
growing from the tops of joints : fls. yellow, funnelf orm,
3^in. long: berry small, whitish. Brazil. B.M. 2461.

J. N. ROSE.

HAW, or HAWTHORN: Cratxgus. BLACK HAW: Viburnum
prunifolium.

HAWKWEED : Hieracium. Various species of Crepis are known
as HAWKSBEAKD.

HAWORTHIA (A. H. Haworth, an English botanist
of the beginning of the last century, who wrote much
and well on succulents). Lilidcese, tribe Aloineae.
Acaulescent or shortly caulescent small succulents.

Leaves usually small, crowded on the st. or in mostly
somewhat elongated rosettes: fls. white, green or rosy-
striped, tubular with somewhat irregular recurving
limb and included style and stamens; segms. of perianth
6, oblong, nearly equal ; stamens 6, shorter than perianth ;
ovary sessile, 3-angled : fr. a loculicidally 3-valved caps.,
bearing many compressed angled seeds. S. Afr. Mono-
graph by Berger in Engler, Das Pflanzenreich, hft.
33, 1908. — Species 60, occurring in S. Afr. They are
interesting condensed or cespitose plants with thick and
succulent keeled often tuberculate and sometimes
toothed Ivs., and fls. in simple or panicled racemes.

Cultivation, propagation and decorative uses as for
Aloe, under which, with Apicra and Gasteria, the
species were formerly placed. See Aloe and Succulents.

albicans, 13.

hybrida, 3.

ramifera, 13.

altilinea, 22.

indurata, 1.

recurva, 15.

arachnoides, 24.

inflexa, 14.

Reinwardtii, 5, 6.

argyrostigma, 11.

ten's, 13.

reticulata, 21.

aristata, 22.

limpida, 22.

retusa, 18.

asperula, 17.

major, 2, 7.

rigida, 4.

attenuate, 11.

margaritifera, 7.

rugosa, 9.

csespitosa, 8.

minima, 7.

semimargaritifera, 7.

clariperla, 11.

minor, 5, 7.

subalbicans, 7.

coarctata, 6.

mirabilis, 16.

sub fasciata, 11.

concara, 20.

mucronata, 22.

subrigida, 2.

concinna, 1.

mutica, 18.

subulata, 10.

corallina, 7.

obtusa, 20.

tesselata, 14.

cuspidata, 23.

parva, 14.

torquata, 1.

(.•ymbiformis, 20.

perviridis, 9.

tortella, 2.

crecta, 7.

polyphylla, 22.

tortuosa, 2.

expansa, 4.

pseudorigida, 2.

turgida, 19.

fasciata, 5, 8.

pseudotortuosa, 1.

virescens, 13.

granata, 7.

radula, 9, 10, 12.

viscosa, 1.

A. Foliage crowded on an elongated st. (aspect of Apicra).
B. Lvs. never coarsely white-dotted.

c. The Ivs. S-ranked, concave.

1. viscSsa, Haw. (Aloe viscbsa, Linn. A. triangularis,
Lam. Apicra viscosa, Willd.). St. with Ivs. \% x 4-8
in., occasionally forked, clustered: Ivs. dull green,
Y<2, x 1 in., appressed with spreading tips, minutely
scabrous: infl. 1 ft. high, slender and curving, simple;
fls. green-lined. Cape. DC., PI. Gr. 16. B.M. 814.
Salm, Aloe §3, f. 3. — The type, with straight ranks of
Ivs., varies into a form with larger less-crowded Ivs.,

var. indurata (H. indurata, Haw., Aloe indurata, R. &
S., A. viscosa indurata, Salm), Salm, Aloe §3, f. 36; a
small form with more spreading Ivs. in somewhat spiral
ranks, var. pseudotortuSsa, Baker (H. pseudotortuosa,
Haw., Aloe pseudotortuosa, Salm, A. subtortuosa, R. &
S., Apicra tortuosa, Willd.), Salm, Aloe §3, f. 5; a dwarf
form with straight-ranked, longer, more spreading,
nearly smooth Ivs., var. concinna, Baker (H. concinna,
Haw., Aloe concinna, R. & S., A. viscosa major, Salm),
Salm, Aloe §3, f. 4. Berger 24; and a taller form with
more or less spiral ranks of outcurving Ivs. 2 in. long,
var. torquata, Baker (H. torquata, Haw., Aloe torquata,
Salm), Salm, Aloe §3, f. 6.

2. tortuSsa, Haw. (Aloe tortuosa, Haw.). St. 4-5 in.,
more or less clustered: Ivs. dull green, ^xlj^ in.,
ascending in 3 irregularly oblique crowded ranks,
somewhat rough on the back: infl. about 1 ft. high,
slender, occasionally forked; fls. rosy-lined. Cape.
Salm, Aloe §4, f. 2. B.M. 1337. Berger 25.— Varies in
a form with fleshier Ivs., 2 in. long, rough on both
faces, var. pseudorigida, Berger (H. subrigida, Baker,
Aloe pseudorigida, Salm, A. subrigida, R. & S., Apicra
pseudorigida, Haw., Apicra rigida, Willd.), Salm,

1787. Haworthia Reinwardtii.

Aloe §4, f. 1. Jacq. Fragm. 108; a still larger, greener,
rougher, and more succulent form, var. major, Berger
(A. pseudorigida major, Salm), Salm, Aloe §4, f. 2/3;
and a smaller form with the more spirally arranged Ivs.
smooth above, var. tortella, Baker (H. tortella, Haw.).

cc. The Ivs. more or less irregularly 5-ranked, spreading.

3. hybrida, Haw. (Aloe hybrida, Salm). St. with Ivs.
2^x4-5 in-j more or less cespitose: Ivs. dull green,
•^xlj^ in., plump, wrinkled above and roughened:
infl. 2 ft. high, branched; fls. brown or rosy lined.
Cape (?). Salm, Aloe §4, f. 4. — Possibly a hybrid
between the preceding and following species.

4. rigida, Haw. (H. expdnsa major, Haw. Aloe
rigida, DC. A. cylindrica rigida, Lam. Apicra expdnsa,
Willd.). St. with Ivs. 4 x 3-5 in., more or less cespitose:
Ivs. green or browning or rosy-margined, V<r-% x 2-2 J^
in., concave, wrinkled beneath: infl. 2 ft. high, more or
less branched; fls. striped with brownish green. Cape.
Salm, Aloe §4, f . 3. DC., PI. Gr. 62. Berger 26. L.B.C.
15 :1430. — Varies into a smaller form with slightly glossy,
smoother, very spreading Ivs., var. expansa, Baker (H.

1434

HAWORTHIA

HAWORTHIA

expdnsa, Haw., Aloe expdnsa, Haw. A. rigida expdnsa,
Salm, Apicra pdtula, Willd.), Salm, Aloe §4, f. 36.

BB. Lvs. spirally many-ranked, erect, biconvex, white-
warty.

5. Reinwardtii, Haw. (H. fascidta, Haw. Aloe
Reinwdrdtii, Salm). Fig. 1787. St. with Ivs. 1H-2 x 4-6
in., somewhat cespitose: Ivs. lanceolate, )4 x 1-1)4 in.,
coarsely white-warty in rows on the back: infl. 1-1)4
ft. high, somewhat nodding, simple; fls. lined with rose.
Cape. Salm, Aloe §6, f. 16. Berger 27. J.H. III. 59,
p. 628. — A smaller form is var. minor, Baker.

6. coarctata, Haw. (Aloe coarctdta, R. & S. H.
Reinwdrdtii viridis, Hort.). St. with Ivs. 3x6-8 in.,
somewhat cespitose: Ivs. triangular, )4*2 in., sparingly
and finely white-dotted in lines beneath: infl. 1 ft. high,
nodding, simple; fls. lined with red. Cape. Salm,
Aloe §6, f. 17. Berger 27.

AA. Foliage in a spirally subradical rosette.

B. Lvs. not pellucid, dull and firm.

c. The Ivs. not hard-margined, with prominent white

tubercles.

7. margaritifera, Linn. (H. major, Duval. Aloe
margaritifera, Mill. A. piimila margaritifera, Linn. A.
margaritifera major, Haw. Apicra margaritifera major,
Willd.). Somewhat cespitose: Ivs. upcurved-spreading,
biconvex, %-l x 3 in., with scattered large pearly
tubercles often turning green in age: infl. 2 ft. high,
branched; fls. sessile, green-lined. Cape. DC., PI.
Gr. 57. Salm, Aloe §6. f. 5. Berger 28.— The type,
with green Ivs. coarsely warty on both faces, varies
into a form with smaller more spreading Ivs., var.
granata (H. grandla, Haw., H. minima, Haw., Aloe
margaritifera minima, Ait., A. granata, R. & S., A.
piimila margaritifera, Linn., A. brevis, R. & S.), Dill.,
Eltham. 16, f. 18. Salm, Aloe §6, f. 6; a large form
with smaller closer warts, var. erecta, Baker (H.
erecta, Haw., H. minor, Duval, Aloe margaritifera minor,
Haw., A. margaritifera media, Ait., A. minor, R. & S.,
A. erecta, Salm), Dill., Eltham. 16, f. 17. B.M. 815.
Salm, Aloe §6, f. 7; also into forms with little if any
roughening on the upper face, var. semimargaritif era,
Baker (H. semimargaritffera, Haw., Aloe semimar-
garitif era, Salm), otherwise resembling the type; var.
corallina, Baker, with smaller tubercles; and var.
subalbicans, Salm, with whitened Ivs., Salm, Aloe
§6, f. 1.

8. fasciata, Haw. (Aide fasciata, Salm. Apicra
fascidta, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. erect, flattened above,
)4 x 1-1)4 in., somewhat .glossy, with the coarse white
tubercles in cross-bands: infl. scarcely 1 ft. high,
branched; fls. rosy-lined. Cape. Salm, Aloe §6, f. 15.
Berger 28. — A supposed hybrid with H. attenuata,
which it approaches, is var. caespitosa, Berger.

9. rugdsa, Baker (H. rddula asperior, Haw. Albe
rugdsa, Salm., A. rddula minor, Salm). Somewhat
clustered: Ivs. ascending, long-pointed, flattened
above, ^-1 x 3-4 in., dull green with smaller white
tubercles: infl. 2-3 ft. high, branched; fls. rosy with
green veins. Cape(?). Salm, Aloe §6, f. 9. — A deeper
green form is var. perviridis, Salm.

10. subulata, Baker (H. rddula Isevior, Haw. Albe
subuldta, Salm. A. rddula major, Salm). Somewhat
clustered: Ivs. ascending or outcurved at end, long-
attenuate, flattened above, %-l x 4-5 in., green with
numerous very small white tubercles beneath: infl.
3 ft. high, somewhat secundly branched; fls. green-
nerved. Cape(?). Salm, Aloe §6, f. 10.

11. attenuata, Haw. (Aide attenuata, Haw. Apicra
attenuata, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. falcately spreading,
pointed, biconvex, % x 2-3 in., green with the upper
face rough with minute often green points and the back
with larger white often banded tubercles or ridges:
infl. 2 ft. high, somewhat branched; fls. rosy. Cape.

Salm, Aloe §6, f. 12. B.M. 1345 (as A. radula.).— Varies
into a form with smaller more scattered tubercles, var.
argyrostigma, Berger (H. subfascidta argyrostigma,
Baker), and one with larger and more confluent tuber-
cles, var. clariperla, Baker (H. clariperla, Haw., Aide
attenuata clariperla, Salm), Salm, Aloe §6, f. 12/3.

12. radula, Haw. (H. rddula multiperla, Haw.
Aloe rddula, Jacq. v A. rddula media, Salm. Apicra
rddula, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. upcurved-spreading,
very long-acuminate, flattened above, % x 2)4-3 in.,
green, with irregularly crowded minute tubercles ofl
both faces: infl. 1)4 ft. high, branched; fls. green- and
rosy-lined. Cape. Jacq., Schoenbr. 422. Salm, Aloe
§6, f. 8. Berger 28.

cc. The Ivs. with cartilaginous margin and keel not
tuberculate.

13. albicans, Haw. (H. lievis, Haw. H . ramifcra, Haw.
Aloe albicans, Haw. A. margindta, Lam. Apicra
albicans, Willd.). Simple: Ivs. ascending or outcurved,
pungently acute, concavely triquetrous, 1^x3-4 in.,
glossy, pale, neither roughened nor mottled: infl. 1 ft.
high, branched; fls. green- and rosy-lined. Cape.
B.M. 1452. Salm, Aloe §5, f. 1. Berger 29.— A greenish
form, less margined than in the nearly white type, is
var virescens, Baker (H. virescens, Haw. Aloe vires-
cens, R. & S.).

BB. Lvs. thick, watery-pellucid.
c. The Ivs. rigid, veiny above, scabrous on the back.

14. tesselata, Haw. (Aloe tesseldta, R. & S.). Little
clustered: Ivs. bristly toothed, spreading, mucronately
short-pointed, % x 1)4 m-> glossy dull green or red-
dening above, 5-nerved with an open network of
veins, the back scabrous with whitish points: infl.
1-1 % ft- high, simple; fls. nerved with green. Cape.
Salm, Aloe §8, f. 1. — Two varieties are distinguished:
var. parva, Baker (Aloe pdrva, R. & S.), smaller, with
the broad Ivs. 7-nerved. Salm, Aloe §8, f. 12. Berger
31; and var. inflexa, Baker, differing from it chiefly
in its more concave Ivs. with incurved margin.

15. recurva, Haw. (Aloe recurva, Haw. A. anomala,
Haw. Apicra recurva, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. denticu-
late, recurved, gradually acute, % x 1)4 in., olive-
green or purplish, 3- or 5-nerved, the back scabrous
with green points: infl. 1 ft. high, simple; fls. red-lined.
Cape. B.M. 1353. Salm, Aloe §7, f. 3. Berger 31.

cc. The Ivs. softer, scabrous on the back in the first only.
D. Upper face of Ivs. abruptly truncately spreading.

16. mirabilis, Haw. (Apicra mirdbilis, Willd.).
Somewhat clustered : Ivs. denticulate, erect, the smooth
acute tip almost truncately 3-sided, % x 1)4 m-> light
green or the back purplish, 3- or 5-nerved: infl. 1 ft.
high, simple; fls. red-keeled. Cape. B.M. 1354. Salm,
Aloe §9, f. 1. Berger 32.

17. asperula, Haw. (Aloe asperula, R. & S.). Little
clustered: Ivs. denticulate, erect, the 7- to 9-nerved tip
scabrid above, %xl)4 in., green: infl. 1 ft. high, nod-
ding; fls. rosy-keeled. Cape. Salm, Aloe §9, f. 2.

18. retusa, Haw. (Aloe retusa, Linn. Apicra retusa,
Willd.). Little clustered: Ivs. subentire, spreading in
age, the 5- to 8-nerved mucronate tip smooth,,
%x 1)4-2 in., light green: infl. 1 ft. high, simple;
fls. nearly sessile, green-keeled. Cape. DC., PI. Gr.
45. B.M. 455. Salm, Aloe §9, f. 3— With scarcely
mucronate less regularly nerved Ivs. it is var. mutica,
Haw.

19. turgida, Haw. (Aloe turgida, R. & S.). Cespitose:
Ivs. subentire, ascending, the acute smooth biconvex
or 3-sided Ivs. truncately spreading, tip 3- to 7-nerved
and somewhat dotted, )i x )4~% in., glossy light green:
infl. 8-10 in. high, simple; fls. green-nerved. Cape.
Salm, Aloe §9, f. 5. Berger 32.

HAWORTHIA s

HAZEL-NUT

1435

DD. Upper face of Us. obliquely or obscurely if at all
subtruncate, not aristate.

20. cymbiformis, Haw. (H. concava, Haw. Aloe
cymbiformis, Haw. A. cymbsefblia, Schrad. Aplcra
cymbsefblia, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. entire, smooth,
ascending, oblong, the point often abruptly deciduous,
leaving a scar, about 7-nerved with cross- veins, M x 1 ^
in., pale and glaucescent: infl. 1 ft. high, simple; fls.
red-keeled. Cape. Icon. Sel. Horti Thenensis, 105.
B.M. 802. Neues Journ. Bot. 2:2. Jacq., Fragm. 112, f.
1. Salm, Aloe §11, f. 1. Berger 33 .—A smaller form with
blunter more conspicuously lined Ivs. 1 in. long is var.
obtusa, Baker (H. obtiisa, Haw. Aloe hebes, R. & S.).

21. reticulata, Haw. (Aloe reticulata, Haw. A.
arachnoides reticulata, Ker. A. herbacea, DC. Apicra
reticulata, Willd.). Cespitose: Ivs. smooth j finely
denticulate, acute, with about 10 connected nerves,
% x 1 in., light green: infl. 1 ft. high; fls. rosy-lined.
Cape. Salm, Aloe §10, f. 1. B.M. 1314.

DDD. Upper face not truncately spreading at end, aristate.

E. Shape of Ivs. broad, acute, not scabrous, denticulate

or ciliate.

22. altilinea, Haw. (H. mucrondta, Haw. H. limpida,
Haw. H. aristata, Haw. H. polyphylla, Baker. Aloe
altilinea, R. & S.). Cespitose: Ivs. upcurved, biconvex,
reticulated, %x2 in., light green: infl. 1 ft. high,
simple; fls. green-lined. Cape. Salm. Aloe §11, f. 3.

23. cuspidate, Haw. (A Ibe cuspidata, R. & S.).
Nearly simple: Ivs. ascending, abruptly pale-tipped,
turgid, with 3 connected nerves, ^ x 1 in., pale green:
infl. 1 ft. high, simple. Cape.

EE. Shape of Ivs. narrow, long-pointed.

24. arachnoides, Haw. (Aloe arachnoides, Ait. A.
pumila arachnoides, Linn. Apicra arachnoides, Willd.).
Simple: Ivs. upcurved, rather 3-sided, toothed on the
keels, with 8 or 9 somewhat connected nerves, % x 2-3
in., glaucescent: infl. 1-1 H ft- high, simple; fls. sessile,
rosy-lined. Cape. DC., PI. Gr. 50. B.M. 756. Salm,
Aloe §12, f. 2. Jacq., Schoenbr. 421(?).

H. atrdvirens. Haw. Leafy st. very short, the rosettes stolo-
niferous: Ivs. 30-40, dense, oblong-lanceolate, J^Jiin. long, dull
green, reddish brown when old, with 3-5 vertical green lines:
scape simple, 6 in. S. Afr. B.M. 1361.— H. Pkarsonii, C. H.
Wright. Stemless: Ivs. crowded, 1A x 1 J4 in., pale green, with 2
rows of cilia on back, each with bristle on apex: scape 10 in. long.

S. Afr.

WILLIAM TRELEASE.

HAWTHORN: Crateegus. Hawthorn, East Indian: Raphiolepis.

HAYLOCKIA (Matthew Haylock, gardener to Dean
Wm. Herbert, the latter authority on amaryllids).
Amaryllidaceas. A small bulb, not unlike a crocus in
habit, blooming in spring; allied to Zephyranthes.

South American: Ivs. linear, all radical: scape very
short bearing a solitary fl., with a slender tube 1-1 ^ in.
long and a limb of about equal length; stamens affixed
in the throat and shorter than the lobes; ovary 3-celled,
with the filiform style included in the perianth-tube
and the stigmas short-linear. H. pusilla, Herb., the
only species, is likely to appear in the American trade.
The fl. has a greenish tube, the limb whitish or straw-
colored and stained outside with purple, apparently
somewhat variable in color (sometimes pale rose) : bulb
globose, with brown appressed scales: Ivs. appearing
•after the fls., the latter coming in England in July to
Sept. and ephemeral. Extra-trop. S. Amer., in the
region of Montevideo and Buenos Ayres. B.R. 1371.
B.M. 7693. From Zephyranthes it differs in the very
short or almost wanting scape, the ovary being prac-
tically in the bulb-neck. L jj. B.

HAZARDIA (Barclay Hazard, Calif ornian botanist).
Composite. Small shrubs, with silvery leaves and pecu-
liar, not pretty, heads of flowers, borne in August. One
is suitable for rockeries and bedding out, but there are
better woolly-leaved plants in cultivation.

The genus has about 4 speces of stout, tomentose,
deciduous subshrubs of Calif., and at least 1 species from
the islands off the coast : heads white-tomentose, numer-
ous, in large cymose panicles, which terminate the
branches; rays 5-8, neutral, very short, ligulate or
irregularly 5-toothed or lobed, pale yellow changing
to brownish purple. In 1887, E. L. Greene made this
new genus, remarking that it differs from Diploste-
phium mainly in habit, the paucity, reduced size, and
different color of its rays. It also lacks the tuft of hairs
characteristic of the style-tips of Corethrogyne.

detonsa, E. L. Greene (Corethrdgyne detdnsa,
Greene). Branches very leafy up to the base of the
loose panicle: Ivs. of firm texture, 2-4 in. long, obovate-
oblong, coarsely serrate; upper surface of older Ivs.
partly divested of the white tomentum which covers
all other parts of the plant. G.C. III. 28:470.

N. TAYLOR.f

HAZEL-NUT. The nuts of Corylus (which see). In
North America, the term is mostly applied to the native
species of Corylus, and the word filbert is used more or
less indiscriminately for the nuts of the Old World
species. (See Filbert.) In the present article, the term
hazel-nut is used generically for the fruits of all the
species. Fig. 1788.

The three native hazels, Corylus americana, C.
californica and C. rostrata, have been sparingly intro-
duced to cultivation, but have not developed varieties
worthy of naming or propagating. The foreign species,
C. Avellana, C. pontica and C. maxima, and perhaps
others, were introduced along the Atlantic seaboard
at an early day and are maintained in gardens
throughout the 'New England and Middle Atlantic
States. Efforts to make extensive culture profitable in
the eastern United States have hitherto failed,
probably from attacks of a fungous disease, Cryp-
tosporella anomala, common on C. americana, but not
specially injurious to that species. It attacks and
destroys the young branches, and later the older
branches and trunk, without killing the root. Bor-
deaux mixture has been suggested as a preventive, but
recorded successful experiments are lacking. Experi-
mental planting?- on the Pacific slope indicate greater
success with imported hazels there than in the East,
but they have not developed commercial importance.

The requirements of the filbert in America, so far as
known, are: moderately rich, well drained soil; absence
of Corylus americana from vicinity; freedom from mild
periods in winter and late frosts in spring. It is specially
subject to frost-injury, as both staminate and pistil-
late catkins develop in fall and quickly swell and open
under the influence of mild weather in winter. The
staminate catkins commonly bloom first. If they are
destroyed by frost, fertilization can be accomplished by
suspending branches from other localities, even of
other species.

Propagation by seeds is easily done by stratifying in
fall and planting in nursery rows in early spring. Seed-
lings vary exceedingly, and varieties are perpetuated by
budding, grafting, suckers or layers, commonly by the
last two methods. A considerable supply of well-
rooted suckers can be secured from fruiting trees by
banking in summer with rich soil or stable manure to
promote root-formation. Stools for layering should be
heavily manured to force long and slender shoots
suitable for bending. These should be staked down in
winter or spring and covered with earth. They may be
removed to nursery rows or orchard at end of first
season.

Planting should be at a distance of 10 to 20 feet in
well-prepared soil, in fall or spring. Ground may be
cropped with low-growing, cultivated plants while
trees are young, but should be maintained in good
tilth and fertility.

Pruning is of special importance with this nut. Trees

1436

HAZEL-NUT

HEBENSTREITIA

are usually headed at height of 1 or 2 feet, though often
permitted to take natural form, which is that of a
many-stemmed bush, designated a "stool." Trees are
classified according to height of clear
trunk into "standard," "half-stand-
ard," and "dwarf standard." A short
trunk, with vaseform head of six or
more branches, is preferred. Suckers
should be kept down, unless desired
for propagation. Both sexes of blos-
soms are borne on one-year-old lateral
twigs or spurs. March or April, after
flowers of both sexes have bloomed, is
considered best time for pruning, as
unnecessary sacrifice of pollen can thus
be avoided. Strong shoots should be
headed back to promote spur-forma-
tion, and old wood that has borne
fruit should be removed annually.

The nuts should not be gathered
until ripe, a condition indicated by
the browning of the edges of the husk.
If left until fully ripe, many of the
fruits will rattle out and be lost. The
highest prices are obtained for freshly
gathered nuts in the husks. To pre-
vent husks from molding, they should be
well dried or slightly sulfured. Hazel-
nuts may be held for considerable
periods in tight receptacles, as
casks or jars by sprinkling salt
over them and storing them in a
cool, dry place, or in a refrigerated
compartment.

Few insects trouble the European
hazel-nuts in America, the nut-
weevil of Europe, Balaninus nucum,
not having yet been naturalized.
B. nasicus sometimes does con-
siderable injury to the native
species.

Nuts and filberts are terms
loosely used abroad, especially
in England, to designate cer-
tain rather indefinite forms of
Corylus Avellana and C. max-
ima. In general, such varieties
as have husks shorter than
their fruits are termed nuts,
while such as have husks as
long as or longer than their
fruits are designated filberts.

But few varieties are known
in America, most of the hazels grown
being seedlings from imported nuts.
Varieties of Corylus Avellana and C.
maxima are not clearly distinguishable,
but in general those with husks longer than
the nuts are assigned to C. maxima, and those
with short husks to C. Avellana. tz

Alba (White Filbert). — Regarded in England as one
of the best varieties. Can be kept in husk longer than
most others because of constricted form of husk. Kernel covered
with a white skin. Known as Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham Park,
etc. Succeeds in California.

Cosford (Miss Young's, Thin-shelled). — Nut oblong, thin-shelled,
of excellent quality; in a hirsute, laciniated husk, about the same
length as nut.

Crispa (Cape Nut, Frizzled Filbert). — Nut thin-shelled, some-
what flattened, late; in husks curiously frizzled throughout and
wide open at the mouth. Very productive.

Downton Ijarge Square. — Nut very large, semi-square, thick-
shelled and well filled, of the highest quality; husk smooth, shorter
than nut.

Du Chilly. — A fine, large, compressed-cylindrical variety, with
moderately thick shell, and of fine quality. Introduced from
France by Felix Gillet, of California. The largest filbert grown in
America so far as known.

Grandis (Round Cobnut). — Nut large, short, slightly com-
pressed, of good quality when fresh, with a thick and hard shell;

in a short husk, much frizzled and hairy. One of the best varie-
ties; considered the true Barcelona nut of commerce. Also known
as Downton, Dwarf Prolific, Great Cob, Pearson's Prolific and
Round Cob.

Jones. — A short, roundish nut, of me-
im size and good quality, somewhat
>wn for several years in central Dela-
,re. Bush hardy and vigorous, produc-
suckers freely, and thus far free from
ease.

Lambert (Lambert's Filbert, Lambert's
it, Filbert Cob; Kentish Cob, errone-
sly). — Nut large, oblong, somewhat
mpressed; shell rather thick; kernel
mp and of rich flavor; an excellent
;per. Husk quite smooth, longer than
and but slightly cut in margin. Tree
•oductive. Considered the best variety
wn in England, where it has been
>wn since 1812.

Purple-leaved. — Nut large and of
excellent quality; in a husk longer
than the fruit. Planted for ornament,
and productive of good nuts under

E roper treatment. The leaves and
usks are of a deep purple color, which
is retained until frost. The staminate
catkins are tender and often injured
by frosts in winter, but when supplied
with pollen from some more hardy
variety it yields large crops.

Red Aveline (Avelineer Rouge, Red
Hazel). — Nut large, ovate, thin-
shelled, with a smooth, red-skinned
kernel, and of sweet nutty flavor.
This variety is prized in eastern
California as a productive sort of
good quality.

Spanish. — Nut very large, oblong,
thick-shelled, with a smooth husk
longer than the fruit. Sometimes con-
founded with Grandis.

W. A. TAYLOR.

HEAL- ALL: Brunella.

HEART'S EASE: Old English
name for pansy, Viola tricolor.

HEATH, HEATHER. The

common heather of Old World
literature is a hardy plant, Calluna
vulgaris; the greenhouse heaths are
from the Cape of Good Hope and
Europe, and belong to the genus
Erica. For St. Dabeoc's heath, see
Dabcecia.

HEATING: Greenhouse heating.
HEBECLfNIUM: Eupatorium.

HEBENSTREITIA (named for
John Ernst Hebenstreit, 1703-
1757, professor of medicine in the
University of Leipzig). Selagin-
acex. Annual herbs, subshrubs or
shrubs, mostly grown in green-
houses: Ivs. alternate or opposite
often narrow, entire or often den-
tate: spikes terminal, often dense,
short or elongated; fls. sessile,
white, yellow or pink; stamens 4
didynamous, included, filaments
short; anthers oblong or linear,
1-loculed; ovary 2-loculed: fr.
with 2 cells, often one not well
developed. — About 30 species,
mostly from S. Afr. H. com6sa,
Hochst., is grown as a half-
hardy annual (plant
perennial). One to 4
ft. high: Ivs. numerous,
lanceolate or elliptic-
lanceolate, glabrous,
J^-2 in. long; spikes
elongate, 2-6 in. long,
mignonette - like ; cor-

1788.

Filberts and
hazels.

(Nat. size)

1. American-
grown filberts;
2. Corylus ameri-
cana, form with
open involucre; 3. C.
americana, closed invo-
lucre; 4. C. californica;
5. C. rostrata.

HEBENSTREITIA

HEDERA

1437

olla yellow or white, with an orange-red blotch on the
limb; tube slender; lobes oblong, inner pair much
narrower and scarcely longer than the outer. B.M.
7895. May be safely sown outdoors in April. Fls.
fragrant. L. H. B.

HECHTIA (J. G. H. Hecht, who died in 1837). Bro-
meliacese. Mexican succulent plants, one species of
which is perhaps cult, in a very few fanciers' collec-
tions of tender plants for its dense rosettes or recurved
spiny Ivs., which are purple above from the middle to
the tip and silvery beneath. The genus is distinguished
by having dioecious fls. The fls. have no decorative
value, being }^in. across, white, in small sessile, axil-
lary, yellow-bracted heads, borne at intervals of an
inch or so on a very slender scape 2 ft. long. — Fifteen
species. Give perforated pots and high temperature.

glomerata, Zucc. (H. Ghiesbreghtii, Lena.). Lvs.
10-18 in. long, rigid, leathery, 9-12 lines wide at base,
narrowed gradually to the sharp-pointed apex: bracts
sheathing, acuminate: corolla 3-lobed nearly to the
base; stamens 6; ovary 3-celled. B.M. 5842. I.H.
10:378.— Soil of chopped moss, old manure and
charcoal.

argentea, Baker. Lvs. about 1 ft. long, stiff and
spiny, more or less shining silvery: infl. many-fld.; fls.
subsessile; petals elliptic, white, concave; style want-
ing. Habitat doubtful, perhaps Mex. — Well worth
growing as a foliage plant in choice collections.

L. H. B.

HECKERIA (named for a German botanist). Piper-
acese. About 8 S. American and 1 Old World woody
plants, distinguished in Piper (with which it is often
united) by the many more or less umbellate elongated
dense spikes, perfect sessile fls., 2-3 stamens, small
anthers with confluent 2-valved cells, obtuse ovary, 3
etigmas: Ivs. large, sometimes peltate. H. umbelldta,
Kunth (Piper umbellatum, Linn. Pothomorphe umbel-
lata, Miq.), is probably not now in the trade. It is a
shrub with roundish-reniform not peltate 11-13-
rierved petioled Ivs., and 4-7 spikes in an umbel; it
occurs from Cuba to Brazil. G.W. 9, p. 445.

L. H. B.

HEDEOMA (Greek, sweet smell). Labiatae. AMERI-
CAN PENNYROYAL. Small aromatic annuals, not of
horticultural importance.

Leaves opposite, small: fls. very small, blue or purple,
in loose clusters in the axils, the clusters becoming
terminal; calyx tubular or ovoid, 13-nerved, the mouth
contracted in fr.; corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect
and entire or lobed; perfect stamens 2, ascending under
the upper lip ; staminodia 2 or 0. — The genus has about
16 species, all American. The pennyroyal of the Old
World is Mentha Pulegium, sometimes cult, for its Ivs.
and tops, which are used as culinary herbs.

pulegioides, Pers. AMERICAN PENNYROYAL. Annual,
6-18 in, high: st. very slender, much branched, pubes-
cent: Ivs. opposite, ovate to oblong-obovate, sparingly
serrate in the upper portion, mostly obtuse at the apex
and narrowed at the base, 3/£-lH in. long: fls. in axil-
lary clusters; corolla purple, 2-lipped, the lower one
with 3 large lobes. July-Sept. B.B. 3:106.— This is
of no ornamental value, but the seeds are offered by
dealers to those who desire to cult, the plant for its
medicinal oil, which is sold in drugstores. It is said to be
offensive to mosquitos. The plant can be easily natu-
ralized in dry, sandy spots. It is common in woods and
along roads. L. jj_ 3.

HEDERA. (ancient Latin name of the ivy). Aralia-
cese. IVY. Ornamental woody root-climbing vines
grown for their handsome persistent foliage.

Evergreen shrubs, climbing by aerial rootlets: Ivs.
alternate, long-petioled, entire or coarsely dentate or
3-7-lobed: fls. perfect, pedicelled, in umbels arranged in

terminal racemes or panicles; calyx 5-toothed; petals
and stamens 5; ovary 5-celled; style short, cylindric:
fr. a 3-5-seeded berry. — Five species (or 6, if H. helix
chrysocarpa is considered a distinct species) in Eu., N.
Afr. and from W. Asia through Cent. Asia to Japan.
Monograph by Fr. Tobler, Die Gattung Hedera (1912);
a good popular monograph is Shirley Hibberd's "The
Ivy : A monograph, comprising the history, uses, char-
acteristics, and affinities of the plant, and a descriptive
list of all the garden ivies in cultivation." London,
1872. Many araliads have been described formerly
as species of Hedera which are now referred to other
genera.

The ivies are climbing shrubs, with inconspicuous
greenish flowers appearing in fall, and black, rarely
yellow, red or whitish berries ripening the following
spring. Hedera helix is hardy in sheltered places as
far north as Massachusetts; at the Arnold Arboretum
a form introduced from the Baltic provinces, Russia,
under the name H. helix baltica has proved hardier
than any other form. All other species, also most of
the variegated forms of H. helix and its var. hibernica,
are tender, but the Japanese species has not yet been
sufficiently tested.

The ivy is a very valuable plant for covering walls,
rocks, trunks of trees and trellis-work, and sometimes
climbs very high. It may also be used for covering
walls in cool greenhouses, for screens in drawing-
rooms and for hanging-baskets. It is a popular win-
dow-garden plant, enduring many uncongenial con-
ditions and thriving without bright sunlight. In shady
places under trees it makes a handsome evergreen car-
pet, and is also often used for borders of shrubberies or
flower-beds.

It grows in almost any soil, but best in a somewhat
moist and rich one, and in shaded positions. The
climbing or creeping branches do not flower; flowers
are produced on erect, bushy branches, appearing on
old, high-climbing plants only. Propagation is by
cuttings of half-ripened wood at any time of the year
in the greenhouse or in frames, or, in more temperate
regions, in the open ground in fall; gentle bottom heat
will hasten the development of roots considerably; also
increased by layers and by seeds which must be sown
soon after ripening and germinate slowly, usually not
until the second year. The slow-growing forms, espe-
cially the shrubby ones, are often grafted on cuttings
of strong-growing varieties, as they do not grow readily
from cuttings.

A. Pubescence of the infl. and the young growth grayish,
stellate.

helix, Linn. IVY. ENGLISH IVY. Fig. 1789. High
climbing or creeping: Ivs. usually 3-5-lobed, dark green
above, pale or yellowish green beneath, — those of the
flowering branches entire, generally ovate: calyx with
minute teeth; calyx, pedicels and tips of young branches
covered with grayish white stellate hairs with 5 or 6 rays:
fr. black, sometimes yellow. Eu., Canaries, N. Afr., Asia.
— A very variable species, of which more than 60 varie-
ties are cult, in European gardens. The first 3 varieties
enumerated below are geographical varieties found
growing wild, while the others are merely horticultural
forms of garden origin. Var. hibernica, Kirchn. (var.
scotica, Hort., var. irldndica, Hort.). Lvs. larger and
broader, of lighter color and thinner texture, with
short and broad lobes, often subcordate at the base:
umbels and frs. larger; stellate hairs more often with
8 or occasionally 12 rays. Ireland. Var. chrysocarpa,
Tenore (H. poetarum, Bertol. H. chrysocarpa, Walsh).
Lvs. less deeply lobed, bright or yellowish green, often
undulate, those of the flowering branches narrower:
fr. yellow. Turkey, Greece, Asia Minor. Var. taurica,
Rend. (H. poetarum var. taurica, Tobler. H. taurica,
Hort.). Lvs. narrower, usually undulate, bright green,
those of the sterile shoots usually sagittate, with elon-

1438

HEDERA

HEDGES

gated middle lobe and 1 or 2 short spreading lobes on
each side at the base: rather more pubescent, stellate
hairs with about 8 rays. Crimea. Possibly hybrid of
H. helix and H. colchica. — The following are some of
the most remarkable of the horticultural forms: Var.
arborescens, Loud. (H. arborea, Hort.). Not climbing,
forming an erect, low shrub: Ivs. ovate to elliptic,
entire. This variety is gained by using flowering
branches for prop. There are also some variegated
forms, as Silver Queen, with silvery variegated Ivs.
Var. baltica, Hort. A small-leaved form hardly differ-
ing from the type; the hardiest or one of the hardiest
of the forms in cult. Var. Cavendishii, Koch (var.
marginata minor, Hort.). Slow-growing, with rather
small dull green Ivs., edged creamy white, striped red
or pink in fall. Var. conglomerata, Nichols. Slow-
growing: Ivs. crowded, small, entire or 3-lobed, undulate.
R.H. 1890, p. 163. Var. crenata, Hibberd (H.
vitifdlia and H. digitdta nova, Hort.). Similar to var.
digitata, but lobes shorter and broader, crenate at the

1789. Hedera helix. Form with white-ribbed leaves.

margin, light green. Var. deltoidea, Hibberd (var.
hastata, Hort.). Lys. rather small, bluntly deltoid,
almost entire, blackish green, changing to dull purplish
bronze in fall. Gn. 25, p. 141; 34, p. 493 (as A. hastata).
Var. digitata, Loud. Lvs. rather large and broad,
digitately lobed with 5 triangular-oblong lobes, some-
times with 2 small additional basal lobes, truncate at
the base, dark green. Gn. 25, p. 141; 34, p. 493. Var.
gracilis, Hibberd. Lvs. rather small, with broad,
short lobes, dull green, bronzy in fall. Gn. 59, p. 154.
Var. lobata major, Hibberd. Similar to var. hibernica,
but Ivs. somewhat smaller, more deeply lobed and
lobes narrower. Var. lucida, Hibberd. A form of var.
chrysocarpa, with large deltoid Ivs. not lobed or partly
or slightly 3-5-lobed, glossy above: a vigorous grower.
Gn. 25, p. 141; 34, p. 492. Var. lusitanica, Hesse.
Similar to var. palmata. Lvs. large, to 5 in. across, light
green, palmately 5-lobed with triangular lobes. Var.
maculata, Hort. (H. latifblia maculata, Hort.). Similar
to var. hibernica: Ivs. spotted and striped yellowish
white. Var. marginata, Hort. Lvs. broadly triangular-
ovate, irregularly bordered yellowish white, striped
red or pink in fall: of somewhat slow growth. F.E.
31:318. Var. marmorata, Hort. Similar to var.
hibernica, but Ivs. irregularly blotched yellowish white.
Var. minima, Hibberd (var. donerailensis, Hort.). Lvs.
small, 3-lobed or pedately 5-lobed, with short and
spreading basal lobes, dull purplish brown in winter.
Gn. 59, p. 154. M.D.G. 1897:229 and S.H. 2:237 (as
var. digitata). Var. palmata, Hort. Similar to var.
digitata, but Ivs. 3-5-lobed with broader distinctly

triangular lobes, the lateral ones more spreading, dull
green. Var. pedata, Hibberd. Lvs. pedately 5-lobed,
the middle lobe long and narrow, the lateral lobes
much shorter, dark green with whitish veins. Gn. 25,
p. 141; 34, p. 493; 59, p. 154. Var. sagittifSlia, Koch.
Lvs. rather small, with triangular middle lobe and short,
broad and obtusish lateral lobes, deeply cordate at the
base, dull dark green. Var. tesselata, Nichols. Lvs.
3-lobed with short and broad lobes, with a distinct
reticulate variegation. J.H. III. 28:209; 45:99. Var.
tortuSsa, Hibberd. Lvs. ovate or rhombic, entire or
obscurely 3-lobed, more or less curled and twisted, the
curling increasing during cold weather. Gn. 55, p. 336.
Var. tricolor, Hibberd (var. marginata rubra, Hort.,
var. elegantissima, Hort., var. Cullisii, Hort.). Like
var. marginata, but edges of Ivs. becoming red in fall.

canariensis, Willd. (H. helix var. canariensis, DC.
H. algeriensis, Hort. H. maderensis, Hort. H. azbrica,
Hort.). High-climbing: pubescence more scaly, hairs
with 12-20 rays: Ivs. large, bright green, roundish
ovate, usually cordate at the base, entire or with 3-7
rather short lobes of almost equal size: umbels larger,
often solitary or few; calyx-lobes broader: frs. black,
sometimes J-iin. thick. Canary Isls., Madeira, N. Afr.
Gn. 25, p. 141; 34, pp. 492, 496. G.M. 54:319. Var.
arborescens, Koch. Not climbing, forming an upright
low shrub. G.M. 54:957. Var. variegata, Hort. (H.
maderensis variegata, Hort.). Lvs. entire or slightly 3-
lobed, edged yellowish white. G.C. II. 15:657. G.M.
54:320.

AA. Pubescence scaly, golden yellow.

colchica, Koch (H. Rcegneriana, Hort. H. coriacea,
Hibberd). High-climbing: Ivs. large, broadly ovate,
cordate, almost entire, rarely slightly 3-lobed, bright
green, of firm texture, those of flowering branches
generally oblong-ovate: calyx-lobes triangular-ovate,
conspicuous; calyx, pedicels and tips of young branches
coated with golden yellow scales with about 20 or 25
rays: fr. black. Asia Minor, Caucasus, Persia. Gn. 25,
p. 141; 34, p. 492. Gt. 11:360. Var. dentata, Hib-
berd (H. dentata, Hort.). Lvs. with remote small teeth,
of somewhat thinner texture. G.M. 30:388; 54:318.
Gn. 36, p. 7. Var. purpurea, Hibberd. Lvs. purplish.
Var. arborescens, Koch. Not climbing, of upright
shrubby habit. Gn. W. 20:467.

H. glomerulata, DC., belongs to the genus Brassaiopsis and its
correct name is B. glomerulata, Regel (B. speciosa, Decne. &
Planch.). A glabrous tree, with large digitate Ivs.; Ifta. 5-7, ob-
long-lanceolate, stalked: fls. in long pendulous panicles consisting
of long-stalked globular heads of small fls. S. Asia. B.M. 4804.
Gt. 12:411. G.M. 32:367.— H. himalaica, Tobler (H. helix auran-
tiaca, Andr6). High-climbing: pubescence scaly, gray or yellowish,
the scales with many rays: Ivs. of the sterile branches pinnately
lobed with 2-5 lobes or teeth on each side, those of the flowering
branches oblong-ovate to oblong- lanceolate, cuneate at the base:
fr. yellow. Himalayas. R.H. 1884:84. Var. sinensis, Tobler. Lvs.
of sterile shoots entire or 3-lobed, of fertile branches elliptic or
elliptic-oblong. W. China. — H. japdnica, Tobler (H. helix var.
rhombea, Sieb. & Zucc.). Not high-climbing: scales of pubescence
with many rays: Ivs. elliptic-ovate to rhombic-ovate, those of the
sterile shoots 3- or rarely 5-lobed, with broad middle lobe and
small lateral lobes: fr. black, about Hin- °r less across. Japan,

Korea.

ALFRED REHDER.

HEDGES. Living green fences are used for two dis-
tinct purposes — defense and ornament. Ornamental
hedges may be rendered defensive by stretching tightly
two or three strands of barbed wire through the center
of the hedge. So far, no plant has yet been tested that
meets all the requirements of the farmer for a truly
impassable barrier, although the Osage orange (Madura
pomifera) possesses more recommendable features
than any other hardy tree. This tree, however, is not
hardy in the northernmost states. For regions south
of Washington, D. C., Kentucky, and Missouri,
Poncirus (or Citrus) trifoliata is of equal value. Both
have the serious drawback of being subject to the
attacks of the San Jose" scale, but no satisfactory sub-
stitute has yet been found.

Next to these, perhaps, ranks the honey locust

HEDGES

HEDGES

1439

(Gleditsia triacanthos) , with many warm admirers and
advocates. The hawthorn of Europe (Cratsegus
Oxyacantha) may not be planted in this country with
much chance of success, owing to fungous enemies.

Crateegus Crus-galli is fairly satisfactory, but is not
likely to make a tight hedge close to the ground. Other
large thorny shrubs also fail in important particulars.

A perfect thorn hedge requires unremitting care,
and must conform to an established rule, the most
important being entire freedom from weeds and a
systematic pruning. The preparation of the soil for a
hedge consists of thoroughly plowing and cultivating
an area 6 feet wide and the length the hedge is proposed
to extend; or else to dig a trench 2 feet deep and 2 or
3 feet wide, and fill it with good top-soil thoroughly
enriched. If this space should be fertilized and cropped
the year previous growth will be greatly accelerated.

Deciduous plants must have the tops well shortened,
and the root-tips of all plants should be given a clean
cut, as they are planted. The plants should be set in a
single row as close together as they can be set. For
hedges a foot high or less, the plants should not be
over 4 inches apart. For hedges 3 or 4 feet high, the
plants should be 6 inches to a foot apart.

The double row, as formerly advised by some growers,
is now practically obsolete and justly so, being difficult
to cultivate and preserve free from weeds. The single
row gives the plants a chance to be somewhat balanced,
as the two opposite sides will have nearly equal freedom
to develop.

A trench or furrow is opened through the center
of the cultivated strip of a sufficient depth to admit the
roots without bending. In setting, the soil must be
made firm with the aid of a rammer, a practice unex-
celled for aiding growth, and, indeed, preserving plant-
life after removal. Pruning is simply an annual neces-
sity from the first, excepting when the hedge is intended
to be plashed, and even in such cases, after the laying
process, pruning must never be omitted during summer.
This work is greatly accelerated and consequently
cheapened by shearing when the plants are young and
tender, say during the month* of July.

As to the best outline, a plain triangle, or what may
be more sightly, the curvilinear or Gothic arch, is desir-
able, and a flat top is to be discouraged, as a body of
snow lodged on it invariably injures the symmetry and
beauty of any hedge. Another advantage of the trian-
gular and Gothic arch types is that the sun can better
reach the bottom of such hedges and keep them cov-
ered with foliage down to the ground. A rectangular
hedge is liable to have bare spots at the base, while a
hedge wider at the middle or top than at the bottom,
is almost sure to be without foliage near the ground

Material available for defensive hedges has already
been discussed. For ornamental hedges, there are a
large number of plants available, both deciduous and
evergreen. Of these the half-evergreen California
privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium) is probably more
largely used than anything else, and in the eastern
United States possibly more largely used than all other
material combined. Its advantage over its competitors
is its low first cost, and its responsiveness to pruning
and training. These are offset by its liability to kill
to the ground every few years, even toward the South.
Probably the best hedge plant, all things considered,
is Thunberg's barberry (Berberis Thunbergii).

Of the evergreen hedges, the arbor- vitse (Thuya
occidentalis) is one of the most widely adaptable and
deservedly popular. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
makes one of the handsomest but it succeeds in a com-
paratively restricted area. Its reputation as a slow
grower should not prevent the box being more largely
planted than it is. The Monterey cypress is much
used as a hedge in California (Fig. 1790). There
are many other evergreens that may be used to ad-
vantage.

Among the deciduous flowering plants are a great
many that are desirable. A discussion of a few of these
is included in the list that follows.

Where room at all permits, mass plantings or even
untrimmed tree rows are better than a high hedge
for barriers and screens. Plants with variegated or
unusually colored foliage should be avoided for hedges.

The most serious annoyance to the hedge-grower is
the presence of unwelcome woody vines, such as poison
ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron), Japan evergreen honey-
suckle (Lonicera japonica), and so on, and the only
remedy is persistently to remove them by hand as
soon as discovered. The attacks of insects may be
treated similarly to those which injure other trees and
shrubs.

Material especially adaptable for hedges.

Abelia grandiflora. Broad-leaved evergreen. Suita-
ble for hedges up to 4 feet. Not hardy north of Wash-
ington and St. Louis.

Acer campestre. Deciduous. Adapted for hedges
from 4 to 10 feet high in the northern half of the
United States.

Azalea (Rhododendron) amcena. Evergreen. Good
for hedges up to 2 feet. Good as far north as New
York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and St. Louis. Attrac-
tive foliage and showy flowers.

Berberis Thunbergii. Deciduous, thorny, slow-grow-
ing. Cannot be relied on for hedges over 4 feet high.
Adapted to all sections of the United States, except
the non-irrigated arid regions. Responds to pruning,
but makes a more attractive hedge when shears are
not used. Naturally makes a tight bottom. Foliage
small and most attractive. Bears annual crops of
scarlet berries that hang on all winter, even in the
South. Will grow within reach of salt-water spray.
The best of the deciduous ornamental hedge plants,
and has no superior in any class.

Berberis vulgaris. Deciduous, thorny. Useful for
hedges from 3 to 6 feet high. Adapted to the northern
half of the United States. Not so tight and compact
as the foregoing. Bears berries that hang on half the
winter. There is also a purple-leaved variety.

Buxus sempervirens (boxwood; tree box). The box
of colonial gardens. Evergreen; slow-growing; adapted
for hedges up to 20 feet. Thrives as far north as central
New York, southern Ohio, and Missouri. Stands
shearing well. Probably the best evergreen hedge-
plant in the regions in which it grows.

Buxus suffruticosa (dwarf box) . Evergreen. Suitable
for use where a small hedge of the last-mentioned could
be used.

Carpinus caroliniana (hornbeam). Deciduous. Good
for hedges up to 10 feet. Makes a dense, strong hedge.
Suitable for use as far south as Virginia and Kentucky.

Carpinus Betulus. Same adaptabilities as the last.

Ch&nomeles japonica (Japonica; Japan quince).
Deciduous; somewhat spiny. Grows North and South
and even hi comparatively dry regions. Boy- and dog-
proof, with handsome flowers. Somewhat subject to
San Jose scale. Excellent.

Cinnamomum Camphora (camphor tree). Broad-
leaved evergreen for high or low hedges. Hardy only
near the coast from Charleston, South Carolina to
Texas.

Cratsegus Crus-galli (cockspur thorn). Deciduous.
Has long spines. Can be used all over the country,
except in the arid regions, but it is best adapted to the
North. Flowers and fruits both attractive. Needs
careful pruning when young to keep sides clothed to
the ground.

Cratxgus Oxyacantha. Similar to above. Not quite
so dense a grower, but rather more showy flowers and
fruits.

Deutzias. Deciduous, flowering shrubs of various
heights from 30 inches to 6 feet, making rather loose

1440

HEDGES

HEDGES

hedges. Especially handsome when in flower. Some
varieties hardy as far north as Chicago and northern
New York; others only as far as St. Louis and New
York City.

Elseagnus angustifolia. Deciduous. Adapted for
hedges or low windbreaks to a height of 20 feet. Thrives
in all parts of the United States. One of the best for the
semi-arid regions. Summer fruits attractive.

1790. Monterey cypress hedge.

Elseagnus parvifolia. Deciduous. Similar to the
preceding, but not so widely adaptable.

Evonymus japonica. Broad-leaved evergreen. Use-
ful for hedges up to 3 or 4 feet at its northern limits and
double that height in the South. Occasionally winter-
kills as far north as Philadelphia and Cincinnati but
well adapted for regions farther south. There is a
variety with yellow-edged leaves.

Fagus sylvatica (beech). Deciduous. Suitable for
high hedges or screens. Thrives in the northern half of
the country.

Gardenia jasminoides (Cape jessamine). Evergreen.
Flowering. Used for hedges up to 5 feet. Hardy in
South Carolina, Georgia and the states bordering on
the Gulf of Mexico.

Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust). Deciduous.
Thorny. A good defensive hedge; succeeds over the
whole United States. Especially valuable in the semi-
arid regions and beyond the northern limits of the
Osage orange (Madura maculata).

Hibiscus syriacus (rose of Sharon). Deciduous.
Flowering. Useful for hedges and screens under 10
feet where an open bottom is not objectionable. Will
grow successfully except in the most northern tier of
states. Transplant only in spring where the ground
freezes in winter.

Ilex Aquifolium (English holly). Broad-leaved
evergreen with spiny leaves. Useful for hedges from
2 to 6 feet. Desirable south of Philadelphia and St.
Louis. There are many varieties. Handsome.

Ilex crenata (Japanese holly). Broad-leaved ever-
green. Leaves smaller than either the preceding or
following species and without spines on the leaves.
Good for hedges not exceeding 4 feet. Hardy except
in the extreme northern states.

Ilex opaca (American holly). Broad-leaved ever-
green with spiny leaves. Useful for hedges and screens
up to 30 feet. Native near the coast from New Jersey
southward and along the Gulf of Mexico. Will grow
inland on light soils and thrives on poor ground. Pistil-
late plants filled with scarlet berries all winter.

Juniperus virginiana (red cedar). Coniferous ever-
green. Adapted for hedges and screens up to 30 feet.
Thrives almost everywhere. There are several forms
in cultivation, but the type is most suitable for hedges.

Ligustrum amurense (Amoor River privet). Broad-
leaved evergreen. Leaves smaller than L. japonica

or L. ovalifolium. Better for hedges than L. ovali-

folium. Hardy as far north as Virginia and Missouri.

Ligustrum Ibota. Deciduous. Adapted to hedges 10

feet and under. Hardy except in the most northern

sections. Var. Regelianum. Dwarf. Makes hedges

4 feet and under. Filled with blue berries all winter.

Ligustrum japonicum. Broad-leaved evergreen. Useful

for hedges up to 6 feet. Not reliably hardy as far

north as Washington, D. C., and St. Louis.

Ligustrum ovalifolium (California
privet) . Broad-leaved half-evergreen shrub.
Useful for hedges from 6 inches to 12 feet.
Tops liable to freeze to the ground every
few years as far south as North Carolina
and Oklahoma. Rapid grower. Stands
pruning well and needs it frequently.
Ranks with dwarf box as a low edging for
flower-beds, except it requires weekly or
fortnightly pruning. Its low first cost has
led to its use in many places where other
plants would have been more attractive
and more economical. Thrives near salt-
water, even within reach of the spray.

Madura pomifera (Osage orange). De-
ciduous. A defensive hedge. Hardy as far
north as central New York and Nebraska.
Subject to attacks of San Jose" scale.

Osmanthus (Olea) fragrans (sweet olive).
Broad-leaved evergreen, bearing sweet-
scented flowers. Adapted to low hedges in the Gulf
states and as far north as Wilmington, North Carolina,
on the Atlantic coast.

Osmanthus Aquifolium. Broad-leaved evergreen.
Much like Ilex Aquifolium in general appearance, but
blooms in late summer. Has showy winter berries on
pistillate plants. Sometimes winterkills as far north as
Washington, D. C., and St. Louis.

Picea alba (white spruce). Coniferous evergreen.
Formal in habit. Good for high hedges and screens.
More pleasing in color than the next species. Good
for the northern half of the country even in compara-
tively dry regions.

Picea excelsa (Norway spruce). Coniferous ever-
green. Same adaptability as the last and more used
than it, but not so desirable.

Pittosporum Tobira. Broad-leaved evergreen. Thrives
in the South Atlantic and Gulf states.

Poncirus trifoliata (hardy orange). Almost evergreen
South; deciduous in its northern range. Spiny. Good
for defensive hedges from 3 to 10 feet high. Large
glossy foliage. Attractive. Succeeds as far north as
Philadelphia and Cincinnati. Subject to San Jose scale.
Populus nigra var. fastigiata (Lombardy poplar).
Deciduous. Adapted for hedges and screens up to 30
feet. Useful in the northern half of the United States.
Prunus caroliniana (mock orange of the South).
Broad-leaved evergreen adapted to the southern
states from Norfolk south. Excellent.

Retinosporas. Coniferous evergreens adapted to
hedges under 6 feet. Suitable for use south of the
40th parallel and in special localities north of it. Not
suitable for the semi-arid regions.

Rhamnus cathartica. Deciduous. Good for hedges to
6 feet. Most useful in the northern half of the country.
Rosa rubiginosa (sweetbriar rose). Deciduous,
thorny. Adapted for hedges up to 3K feet. Thrives
everywhere except in the most arid sections. It bears
attractive flowers and hips, but does not make so close
a hedge as many other plants.

Rosa rugosa. Deciduous, thorny. Adapted for hedges
of 5 feet and under. Will grow both North and South
and is promising for use in the semi-arid regions.
Flowers and hips both attractive. For a summer
hedge it is excellent, but its winter appearance is not
hedge-like although quite effective as a deterrent to
intruders.

HEDGES

HEDYSARUM

1441

Spiraeas. Deciduous shrubs. A group of beautiful
flowering shrubs adapted for use as low hedges North
and South and promising for use in the semi-arid regions.
Spirsea Bumalda var. Anthony Water er would make a
hedge 2 feet high with flat-topped pink blossoms in
early summer. Spirsea Thunbergii grows 5 feet high
with white flowers in early spring. It has fine foliage,
but the tips of the branches are apt to winterkill even
as far south as Virginia and Missouri. Spirsea Van
Houttei is white, about intermediate between the other
two in season. The finest of the spireas in flower. It
has beautiful foliage and is adapted for hedges.

Syringas (lilacs). Deciduous shrubs. A group of
beautiful flowering shrubs adapted to all parts of the
United States, some species being especially promising
for the semi-arid regions. Syringa amurensis is espe-
cially well adapted for use on the Great Plains. It
grows 10 feet high. Syringa persica is about as adapta-
ble as the last but more dwarf, growing but 5 feet high.
Syringa vulgaris has many named varieties, both double
and single, in a wide range of colors and habit of
growth.

Thea Bohea (Chinese tea plant). Broad-leaved ever-
green. Low-growing. Blooms in winter. Useful near
the seacoast from Charleston, South Carolina, to
Texas.

Thuya occidentalis (arbor- vite). A coniferous ever-
green with many forms, of which the type is as useful
as any for hedge purposes. Adapted to all sections of
the United States. Much used and deservedly so.

Thuya orientalis (Chinese arbor-vitie; Biota). Conif-
erous evergreen with many forms. Useful over nearly
the same range as the foregoing.

Tsuga canadensis (hemlock). Coniferous evergreen.
Useful for low and high hedges and screens to 50 feet.
Adapted to moist and medium soils in the northern
half of the United States. One of the handsomest in
the regions in which it thrives.

Viburnums. Deciduous and evergreen shrubs.
Many-berried and handsome. Among the desirable
deciduous species that thrive all over the United States
except in the extreme South and the drier regions are
V. cassinoides, V. dentatum, V. nudum, V. Opulus, V.
plicatum, and V. prunifolium. The handsome ever-
green species V. Tinus is tender and not likely to succeed
north of the Carolinas and the Gulf States, but where it
succeeds it is most desirable. p\ L, MULFORD.

HEDRjEANTHUS, HEDRANTHUS: Wahlenbergia.

HEDYCHIUM (Greek, sweet snow; the large white
flowers are sweet-scented). Zingiberdcese. BUTTER-
FLY LILY. GINGER LILY. GARLAND FLOWER. Leafy,
rhizomatous herbs allied to Kaempferia and ginger,
grown under glass and in the open far South.

Flowers in a terminal spike or thyrse; calyx tubular,
more or less 3-lobed at the summit; corolla-tube slen-
der, scarcely longer than the calyx, all half concealed
by the usually showy bracts; upper corolla-segm. often
enlarged and lip-like; stamen 1, with a 2-loculed
anther surrounding the style; staminodia always
present, usually well developed. — Thirty-eight tropical
species, Asian and one Madagascar. From the ginger
Hedychium differs in having broad, almost petal-like
staminodia, which in Zingiber is minute or lacking.
The best botanical account is by K. Schumann in
Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 20 (1904).

Hedychiums are strong-growing plants, very orna-
mental, both in foliage and in flower. They are essen-
tially fall bloomers, although they may be made to
bloom more or less continuously under glass. After
blooming, gradually dry off the rhizomes, and let them
rest for a time. Pot them up in spring or early summer,
and give them rich soil and plenty of water and an
occasional supply of liquid manure. The rhizomes may
be divided every two or three years. They need an

92

abundance of water. In fact, the pots may be set half
their depth in water, and H. coronarium is often
immersed until only the crown is emersed. The com-
mon white-flowered species is H. coronarium. This
requires warmhouse treatment for best results, although
it often flowers well when plunged in a warm, half-
shady place in the open. The species do not stand frost,
but they may be left out in the South if well protected.
The flowers are very fragrant; in fact, their odor may
be too heavy for a small room.

A. Fls. white.

coronarium, Koenig. Three to 6 ft.: Ivs. canna-like,
green, pointed, smooth above, hairy beneath: fls. very
large (3-4 in. across), long-tubed, pure white or the lip
sometimes blotched green, the 3 outer segms. narrow,
the lip large and erect and more or less lobed. Trop.
Asia, and naturalized in some parts of Trop. Amer.
B.M. 708. L.B.C. 6:507.— Handsome and worthy.
Needs warm quarters. Said to have been sold as
Myrosma carnsefolia, but that name belongs to a wholly
different plant.

thyrsif orme, Hamilton. Usually 5 ft. tall : If. sometimes
1 ft. long and 3-4 in. wide, finely hairy and pale
beneath: spike very dense, the lower empty bracts
ovate, the upper and fl.-bearing cylindric, green, about
1J/2 m-5 corolla-tube not much longer than the bract,
its segms. linear, white; lip distinctly clawed. Trop.
Himalaya. B.R. 767 (as H. heteromallum) . — Not much
known, but advertised (1914) by Montarioso Nursery.

AA. Fls. yellow or red.

B. Infl. usually broader than long.

flavum, Roxbg. About 5 ft. tall: Ivs. sessile, oblong,

glabrous above, pale and hairy beneath: spike dense,

the bracts broadly ovate or elliptic; fls. large,

orange; corolla-tube cylindrical, 2% in. long; segms.

spreading, the outer ones linear and acute and an inch

or so long, the Up very large and rounded, retuse;

stamen not exserted. India. B.M. 3039 (and 2378?).

BB. Infl. usually much longer than broad.

Gardnerianum, Roscoe. Tall: Ivs. sessile or the upper
petioled: fls. light yellow, odd, short-stalked in the
terminal spike, but the red filament long-projected
beyond the segms.; lip oval and short, 3-toothed, the
other segms. narrow: fr. red and showy. India. B. M.
6913. B.R. 774. J.H. III. 32:239 (in fruit). G.C. III.
11:176 (plate erroneously labeled H. coronarium);
46:126. G.W. 12, pp. 649, 650.— The best of the
genus, and hardier than H. coronarium.

coccineum, Buch.-Ham. St. about 6 ft. tall: Ivs. all
sessile, linear-lanceolate and sharp-pointed, glabrous
above, glaucous beneath: fls. rather small, scarlet, the
filament long-projected; lip nearly or quite entire; fl.-
bracts conspicuous, acute or obtuse, triangular. India.
L.B.C. 8:705.— A hybrid between this and H. Gard-
nerianum has been advertised as H. Moorei.

H. Bousigoni&num, Pierre. A species from Cochin-China with
sts. about 3 ft., with small bright green Ivs. and about 18-25 pale
yellow fls. and red anthers has been recently intro. It is scarcely
known outside England. R.H. 1906:400. — H. cdmeum, Carey.
Fls. flesh-colored, scentless: height 3-4 ft.: Ivs. over 1 ft. long,
acuminate. E.Indies. B.M. 2637. L.B.C. 7:693.

N. TAYLOR, f

HEDYSARUM (Greek for sweet smell). Leguminosse.
Perhaps a dozen North American herbs, and about
sixty in the Old World, sometimes planted for orna-
ment.

Perennial herbs or subshrubs, with odd pinnate Ivs.,
and often showy racemes of red, purple or white, small
pea-like fls.: calyx 5-cleft, the teeth nearly equal and
pointed; standard obcordate or obovate; keel nearly
straight and longer than the wings; stamens 9 and 1: fr.
a flattened jointed pod. — Very closely allied to Des-
modium, but the latter genus has 3-foliolate Ivs. Many
of the hedysarums are attractive border plants. They

1442

HEDYSARUM

HELENIUM

are of easiest cult, in a light and open, well-drained soil.
Give a sunny place; hardy. Prop, by division and seeds.
For the sainfoin, sometimes known as H. Onobrychis,
see Onobrychis.

A. Fls. normally red (varying to white).
coronarium, Linn. FRENCH HONEYSUCKLE. Peren-
nial or biennial, 2-4 ft. tall, branchy: an old garden
plant with deep red, fragrant fls., crowded in axillary
spikes or racemes: Ivs. with 3-7 pairs of elliptic or
roundish, somewhat pubescent Ifts. Eu. Summer.
Var. album, Hort., has white fls. — H. humile, Linn., is
by some regarded as a form of this species, with rather
more and narrower Ifts., and wings only half as long as
the keel.

AA. Fls. normally purple (varying to white).

multiiugum, Maxim. Hardy perennial of angular,
straggling growth, 2-5 ft. high, very showy, and worthy
of general cult.: fls. violet or purplish magenta, with
yellow blotches, in racemes 8-18 in. long, all summer:
Ivs. 4-6 in. long, containing 6-12 pairs of grayish green
oval, small Ifts. Mongolia. Gn. 53:408. G.C. III.
18:8, 9. Excellent for rockwork. Var. apiculatum,
Sprague, has fewer Ifts., which are apiculate, and gla-
brous above: perhaps the plant cult, as H. multijugum.
B.M. 8091.

boreale, Nutt. (H. americanum, Brit.). Erect or
half -decumbent herb: sts. simple or nearly so, 1-3 ft.:
Ifts. 5-10 pairs, glabrous, oblong or oblanceolate : fls.
violet-purple, varying to white, the calyx-teeth ovate-
acute and shorter than the tube. Labrador and N.
New England across the continent.

Mackenzii, Richards. Much like the last, but some-
what pubescent: fls. larger, violet-purple; calyx-teeth
awl-like and acuminate, and longer than the tube, or
at least equaling it: Ifts. 5-9 pairs. Colo., north and
west.

sibiricum, Poir. Height 3-4 ft. : Ifts. ovate-lanceolate,
glabrous, apiculate: fls. purple, drooping in long axillary
racemes. Siberia. B.M. 2213 (as H. alpinum).

obscurum, Linn. (H. neglectum, Ledeb.). Small,
usually about 6-12 in. high: Ifts. 5-9 pairs, ovate,
glabrous : fls . purple, pendulous in long spikes. Eu . B.M.
282. — It is said to vary to white. L. jj_ g_

HEDYSCEPE (Greek, sweet covering). Palmaceae,
tribe Arecex. UMBRELLA PALM. A tall hothouse
palm known to the trade as a Kentia, and resembling
that genus in habit and foliage, but distinct in flower.

In Kentia the fls. are arranged in 4 ranks, and the
ovule is fastened at the bottom of the cell, while in
Hedyscepe (and its cult, allies, Kentiopsis, Veitchia,
Nenga, Archontophcenix, Rhopalostylis and Dictyo-
sperma) the fls. are spirally arranged in the branches of
the spadix, and the ovule is fastened at the side. From
the allies above mentioned Hedyscepe is distinguished
by the following characters: staminate fls. with nar-
rowly lanceolate sepals, 9-12 stamens, with long
filaments; pistillate fls. with petals like the sepals and
yalvate at the apex. As a house plant, H. Canterburyana
is dwarf er and more spreading than the two howeas, and
has a lighter shade of green. G.C. II. 24:587.

H. Canterburyana, a very handsome palm, is the only
species belonging to the genus, and, like the important
howeas (or kentias of commercial horticulture), is known
in a wild state only on Lord Howe's .Island, where it
is known as the "umbrella palm" from the recurving
habit of its foliage. It grows at a greater altitude than
the howeas, not appearing below the 900-feet level, and
from this it may be inferred that a slightly lower tem-
perature is more suitable for this palm; but in a general
way the same conditions as those required by the so-
called kentias will give good results with this subject,
namely, a night temperature of 60° to 62° F., moderate
shading throughout nearly the whole year, plenty of

water, and a rich and rather heavy soil. These palms
respond freely to generous treatment. As a commercial
palm, H. Canterburyana is not very popular as yet,
partly owing to the higher cost of seeds and the fre-
quently low percentage of germination, and partly
from the fact that in a young state this palm is by no
means a rapid grower. In regard to hardiness of foliage,

1791. Hedyscepe Canterburyana.

it is fully equal to the kentias, and for gracefulness and
symmetry of growth will compare favorably with any
of the commercial species. In southern California it
is cultivated outdoors. (W. H. Taplin.)

Canterburyana, Wendl. & Drude (Kentia Canter-
buryana, F. Muell. Vektchia Canterburyana, Hort.)
UMBRELLA PALM. Fig. 1791 (adapted from Martius).
Tall, spineless palm, with a thick, stout caudex: Ivs.
terminal, dense, equally pinnatisect, the numerous
segms. linear-lanceolate, acuminate, the lower nerves
recurved at the base, rather remote from the margin;
rachis arched, recurving: spadix with a short peduncle,
and thickened, flexuose branches; areoles lax: fls.
medium: fr. ovoid, large. R.H. 1873, p. 218. F.R.
1:85. G. 2:418; 5:592; 16:414. G.W. 12, p. 207 (the
last four all as Kentia). N. TAYLOR.!

HEERIA: Heterocentron. H. elegans: Schizocentron.

HEIMIA (Geheimerath. Dr. Heim, Berlin, died
1834). Lythrdcese. Two shrubs of the New World,
differing from Decodon in the yellow mostly 6-merous
trimorphous fls. borne in spikes: stamens 10-18.
H. salicifolia, Link (Nesaea salicifolia, HBK.), native
from Mex. to Buenos Ayres, is offered abroad: sub-
shrub, about 5 ft.: Ivs. opposite or in 3's, or the upper
alternate, lanceolate and acute: fls. yellow, with obo-
vate petals. This is said to be prized as an antisyphiiitic
and for other purposes. L. jj. B.

HELENI6PSIS: Heloniopsis.

HELENIUM (possibly from Helenus, the son of
Priam, but there is no clear record of the application
of the name). Composite. SNEEZEWEED. Hardy
annual and perennial herbs, bearing yellow flowers
from early summer to late autumn; only the perennials
are in cultivation.

Stem erect, usually branching above: Ivs. alternate,
narrowly to broadly lanceolate, entire or toothed,
glandular-dotted; the frequently decurrent petiole and
st. sometimes winged: heads solitary or corymbose,
yellow or brownish; disk-fls. perfect, fertile, their
corollas 4-5-toothed; the ray-fls. pistillate or neutral,
the rays wedge-shaped, 3-5-lobed.— About 30 species,
N. Amer., Mex. Closely resembles Helianthus, but dif-
fers in having elongated, often top-shaped frs., which
are never compressed and are usually silky villose; while

HELENIUM

HELIAMPHORA

1443

the frs. of Helianthus are generally more or less 4-
sided and are smooth. In Helenium the receptacle is
naked; in Helianthus it bears paleaceous bracts.

Heleniums thrive best in a rich, moist soil, with a
sunny aspect, and are propagated by seeds, cuttings or
division. All the species are very easily grown, the only
serious difficulty being a white aphis which sometimes
attacks the roots. If plants look unhealthy they should
be lifted, washed with an insecticide and reset in a new
place. The commonest species in cult, is H. autumnale,
but perhaps the most valuable species for general plant-
ing is H. Hoopesii, which is one of our earliest blooming
composites, and is also desirable for the border or for
cut-flowers. H. Hoopesii, H. Bolanderi and H. autum-
nale will give bloom in succession from May to October.
The first two are also attractive when grown in pots,
but they do not flower from seed the first year, either in
pots or in the open.

A. Heads rayless.

aromaticum, Bailey, n. comb. (Graemia aromdtlca,
Hook. Grahdmia aromdtica, Spreng. Cephalophora aro-
mdtica, Schrad.). Erect, glaucous: st. herbaceous, much
branched: Ivs. alternate, linear-lanceolate, somewhat
undulate and partially amplexicaul, the lower ones
pinnatifid but the upper ones scarcely toothed: head
discoid, terminating leafless branches; receptacle
naked; florets yellow. Chile, in pastures and shrubby
hills.— -Offered abroad; fragrant. Listed in the trade as
Grahamia aromatica, but all agree in referring Gra-
hamia to Cephalophora; and Hoffmann now refers Ceph-
alophora to Helenium. Whether the present species
should really go under Helenium, is to be determined.

1792. Helenium autumnale.
(X)fl

AA. Heads with rays.
B. St. and branches winged.

c. Disk yellow.

autumnale, Linn. (H. grandi-
fldrum, Nutt.). SNEEZEWEED. Fig. 1792. St. 2-6 ft.
high, roughish, leafy: Ivs. mostly toothed, smooth:
heads \-\}/% in. across, numerous, borne at the end of
short, very leafy stalks; rays drooping, 3-cleft, lemon-
yellow to bright yellow ; disk yellow. July-Oct. Moist
places, Canada to Fla. and west to S. D., Kans. and
Ala. B.M. 2994. Gn. 29:190; 55:218. A.G. 12:682.

G.C. III. 10:433; III. 32:405.— Very showy. It has
distinct merit for the back of borders, but is more
appreciated in Eu. than in Amer. There are several
garden forms: var. pftmilum is 1-2 ft. high, a very
free bloomer, and is largely grown for cut-fls. in some
places. J.H. 111.59:109. Var. grandifldrum and var.
superbum, (H. superbum, Hort.), are unusually vigor-
ous and large-fld.; var. stria turn, has a maroon and
gold disk, with veUow rays variously striped and
splashed with rich crimson. J.H. III. 31:293. This
should be distinguished from the striped forms of H.
nudiflorum. Var. grandicephalum atropurpureum has
almost entirely crimson fl.-heads. Var. rftbrum has
deep red fls. A form known in the trade as H. grandi-
cephalum compactum bicolor is also advertised. It seems
to belong here.

cc. Disk brown or purplish.

D. Lvs. all entire, heads solitary or few, long-stalked.

Bigelovii, Gray. St. 2-3 ft. high, nearly smooth:
upper Ivs. narrow to oblong-lanceolate, lower spatulate:
heads commonly 1M-2J/2 in. broad; rays %in. long;
fl.-stalk slender. Aug. Wet ground, Calif. S.H.
1:373.

Bolanderi, Gray. St. 1-2 ft. high, stout, somewhat
pubescent: Ivs. oblong to ovate-lanceolate, the lower
obovate: heads commonly 3 in. wide; rays often 1 in.
long; fl. -stalks thick, hollow. June-Sept. Low ground,
N. E. Calif. Gn. 24, p. 157; 29, p. 191. R.H. 1891, p.
377. — Sometimes grown as H. grandiflorum.

DD. Lower Ivs. toothed: heads numerous, corymbose,
short-stalked.

nudifldrum, Nutt. St. 1-3 ft. high, roughish, leafy:
lower Ivs. spatulate, toothed: heads 1-1 ^ in. across;
rays wedge-shaped, drooping, yellow, brown-purple or
striped with both colors. July-Oct. Moist soils, N. C.
to Fla., west to 111. and Texas. — A garden form, var.
grandicephalum striatum, has fls. over 2 in. across.
This form is also sold under the trade name H . cupreumt
a name of no botanical significance.

BB. St. and branches not winged.
HoSpesii, Gray (Dugdldia Hoopesii, Rydb.). St.
1-3 ft. high, stout, slightly tomentose when young,
but soon smooth, branching above into an umbel of
several to many fls.: Ivs. thickish, entire: heads usually
borne singly on long stalks, commonly 3 in. wide; rays
but slightly drooping; disk yellow. May-Sept. Rocky
Mts. — A very fine border plant, and especially valu-
able for cut-fls.

H. Doiiglasii, Hort.=Monolopia major. — H. tenuifdlium, Nutt.
Annual. A weed in the S. Atlantic and southwestern states. St.
8 in. to 2 ft. high, very leafy: Ivs. thread-like, entire, sessile, often
whorled. Va., Fla., west to Mo. and Texas. B.M. 7721.

S. W. FLETCHER.
N. TAYLOR.!

HELEOCHARIS: EUocharis.

HELIAMPHORA (Greek compound, meaning sun
pitcher). Sarracenidcese. One of the three genera com-
prising this singular family, consisting of a single
species from the upper lands of British Guiana, and
rarely grown in choice glasshouse collections.

Heliamphdra niitans, Benth., is a perennial, 1-2 ft.
high: Ivs. all radical and pitcher-form; pitcher tubular
and enlarging above, with a flaring open erect oblique
mouth and a very small rudimentary lid terminating
the midrib, hairy inside and winged down the front, in
its native habitat conspicuously veined with red: fls.
several on a slender scape, nodding, white or pale rose,
each pedicel subtended by a prominent bract; perianth
in 4-6 parts which are ovate-pointed; style straight,
scarcely enlarging at the stigma. B.M. 7093. G.C. III.
37:194. — This unusual plant was first discovered in
1839 by the brothers Schomburgk, and was redis-
covered in 1881 by Burke, an English orchid-collector

1444

HELIAMPHORA

HELI ANTHEM UM

who brought plants to England. It is a rhizomatous
plant, and is prop, by single crowns. The plant is
described as growing well in small pots in a mixture of
peat, sphagnum and sand, surfaced with sphagnum,
the pot plunged to the rim in moss and kept under a
bell-glass. It requires much moisture. £,. H. B.

HELIANTHELLA (the plant resembles Helianthus).
Composite. Hardy perennial herbs from North
America, with showy yellow heads borne in autumn.

Stem commonly unbranched: Ivs. mostly scattered
and sessile, linear or lanceolate, entire: heads solitary
or few, with yellow infertile rays and a yellow or brown-
ish disk. — Thirteen species. Helianthella belongs to a
group of genera distinguished from Helianthus by
having the frs. laterally compressed instead of thick
and obtusely angled. Other cult, genera of this group
are Actinomeris, Encelia and Verbesina, which are dis-
tinguished from one another by combinations of fr.
and pappus characters.

The single species in cultivation is easily grown in a
variety of soils, and is propagated by seeds or by
dividing the rootstocks.

quinquenervis, Gray. St. 2-4 ft. high, nearly
smooth: Ivs. mostly opposite, 4-9 in. long, the upper
sessile: heads 3-5 in. broad, long-stalked, solitary or a
few below in the axils of the Ivs., with an involucre of
large, leafy bracts; rays 15-20, pale yellow, 1H in-
long. June-Sept. Rocky Mts. g. \\r. FLETCHER.

HELIANTHEMUM (Greek for sunflower). Includ-
ing Halimium, Tuberdria and Fumana. Cistacese. SUN
ROSE. Ornamental woody or herbaceous plants grown
chiefly for their showy flowers.

Half-evergreen or evergreen low,
upright or prostrate shrubs or
perennial herbs, rarely annual: Ivs.
usually opposite, or the upper ones
alternate, rarely
all alternate,
small, entire,
with or without
stipules: fls. in
terminal race-
mose, umbellate
or subcapitate cymes,
rarely solitary, mostly
yellow, sometimes of
2 kinds, earlier fls.
with large petals and
later fls. with small
or without petals;
sepals 3, or 5 and
unequal; petals 5;
stamens many; ovary
1 - celled or imper-
fectly 3-celled, with
slender or short style;

caps. 3-valved with 1793 Helianthemum Chamsecistus.
many or several (XM)

seeds; embryo curved

like a ring or hook (subgen. Halimium), or straight
or folded (Helianthemum proper). — About 110 species
in N. Amer. (and 3 in. S. Amer.), Eu., N. Afr. and W.
Asia. Monograph by Grosser in Engler, Das Pflan-
zenreich, hft. 14. Cistaceae, pp. 33-131 (1903) ; another
important work is Sweet's Cistinese (1825-30) where
many species are figured, quoted below as S. C.

The helianthemums are mostly suffruticose or
shrubby, less often herbaceous plants, either upright
and low, or cespitose or prostrate, with small and
usually narrow, often grayish foliage and with yellow
or white, less often pink or red, usually profusely pro-
duced flowers in terminal racemes or clusters, rarely
solitary, appearing during the summer and followed by
a capsular fruit inclosed or surrounded by the persistent

sepals; the flowers open only in the sun and the delicate
petals soon drop. Most of the species are not hardy
North without protection and are particularly suited
to warmer and drier climates, but H. Chamsecistus is
fairly hardy North, though in exposed situations it
also profits by a protection of mulch: the' hardiest of
the species mentioned below is H. canadense, but it is
at the same time the least attractive. They all thrive
well in poor sandy or rocky soil, most of them being
partial to limestone soil, and demand a sunny position
to bloom profusely. They are especially adapted for
rockeries and borders particularly the numerous forms
of H. Chamsecistus which form dense mats; most of the
other species are of low twiggy habit. Propagation
is mostly by division, also by greenwood cuttings and
by seeds which germinate readily, but if several species
are grown together the seeds are liable to produce
hybrids.

INDEX.

algarvense, 2.
angustifolium, 7.
appeninum, 6.
canadenae, 1.
Chamaecistus, 7.
cupreum, 7, 8.
diversifolium, 7.
formosum, 3.
grandiflorum, 7.

hyssopi folium, 7.
lasianthum, 3.
macranthum, 7.
multiplex, 7.
mutabile, 7.
ocymoides, 2.
pilqsum, 5.
polifolium, 6, 7.
puherulentum, 6.

rhodanthum, 6.
roseum, 6, 7, 8.
stramineum, 7.
sulphureum, 8.
tomentosum, 7.
umhellatum, 4.
variabile, 7.
venustum, 7.
vulgare, 7.

A. Style short and straight, or almost wanting: Ivs. with-

out stipules. (Halimium.)

B. Fls. of 2 kinds, the larger solitary or rarely in 2's, the

smaller apetalous ones clustered on lateral branch-

lets; sepals 5.

1. canadense, Michx. (Halimium canadense, Grosser).
FROSTWEED. Upright, 1-2 ft., hoary pubescent: Ivs.
nearly sessile, oblong to linear-lanceolate, acutish, pale
beneath, K~l/^ in- long: the larger fls. 1 in. across, yel-
low; sepals 5, the outer linear, the inner ovate, tomen-
tulose. June-Aug. Maine to Mich., south to N. C. and
Miss. — Occasionally offered by dealers in native plants.

BB. Fls. all large and showy, 1%-% in. across; sepals 8.
c. Color of fls. yellow.

2. ocymoides, Pers. (H. algarvense, Dun. Cistus
algarvensis, Sims). Nearly erect, twiggy shrub, 2-3
ft., hoary-pubescent: Ivs. short-petioled, oblong-lanceo-
late to oblong-spatulate, recurved at the apex, grayish,
those of the flowering branchlets sessile, green, %-%,
rarely to 1^ in. long: fls. yellow with purple eye, \Yi
in. across, in loose, long-stalked corymbose clusters;
sepals ovate-lanceolate. Spain and Portugal. B.M.
627, 5621. S.C. 40, and vars. 26, 65, 96.

3. lasianthum, Pers. (H. formosum, Dun. Cistus
formosus, Curtis). Spreading upright shrub, tomen-
tose: Ivs. short-stalked, oval to ovate-oblong or lanceo-
late, obtuse or acutish, often revolute on the margin,
white-tomentose while young, ^-1 in. long: fls. yellow,
the petals often spotted purple at the base, 2 in. across,
in 1-5-fld. cymes; sepals ovate. Spain and Portugal.
B.M. 264. S.C. 50. Gn. 26:420; 53, p. 131. G.M.
34:246. F.S.R. 2, p. 45. G. 16:382.— The most showy
species of the genus.

cc. Color of fls. white.

4. umbellatum, Mill. (Cistus umbelldtus, Linn.).
Low shrub, upright or procumbent, 1-2 ft. : Ivs. sessile,
linear or linear-lanceolate, grayish tomentose beneath,
pubescent above, later glabrescent, more or less viscid,
%-l y± in. long: fls. about 1 in. across, in whorls or race-
mose whorls; sepals ovate. Cent. S. Eu. N. Afr. S.C. 5.

AA. Styles slender, often curved; sepals 5, the 2 outer ones
smaller. (Helianthemum proper.)

B. Stipules subulate, the lower and middle ones about as
long as petioles: fls. white or pink.

5. pilosum, Pers. Low nearly upright or ascending
subshrub : Ivs. short-petioled, linear or oblong, revolute,

HELIANTHEMUM

HELIANTHUS

1445

grayish tomentose on both sides or green above,
}/jj-%in. long: fls. white, the petals with yellow blotch
at the base, about 1 in. across, in 4-8-fld. cymes; outer
sepals oblong or linear, inner ones broadly oval, ^-
Kin. long. S. W. Eu., N. Afr. S.C. 49.

6. apenninum, Lam. (H. polifdlium, Pers.). Upright
or procumbent subshrub, hoary - pubescent : Ivs.
petioled, elliptic to linear-oblong, grayish tomentose
on both sides or green above, %-%, rarely to \]/z in.
long: fls. white, the petals with yellow blotch at the
base, 1 in. across in 3-10-fld. cymes; outer sepals
linear-oblong, inner ones broadly oval, about J^in.
long. W. and S. Eu., W. Asia. S.E.B. 2:159. S.C. 62.
R.F.G. 3:33 (4554). Var. rdseum, Grosser (H. rho-
ddnthum, Dun. H. pulverulentum var. rdseum, Willk.).
Lvs. lanceolate, acutish, i^-lj^ in. long: fls. over 1
in. across, pink to crimson. S.C. 7.

BB. Stipules lanceolate or subulate, all longer than the
petioles: fls. normally yellow, also white or pink.

7. Chamaecistus, Mill. (H. vulgare, Gartn. H.
varidbile, Spach). Fig. 1793. Low procumbent sub-
shrub, rarely upright: Ivs. petioled, usually flat,
ovate to linear-lanceolate, green on both sides, hairy
or nearly glabrous, %-!% in. long: stipules lanceolate:
fls. normally yellow, about 1 in. across, in many-fld
loose racemes; outer sepals much shorter than the inner
broadly oval ones. Eu., W. Asia., N. Afr. L.B.C. 3:202.
R.F.G. 3:30 (4547, as var. concolor). G.W.H. 111.—
This is an exceedingly variable species and numerous
forms are cult, in European gardens; the following are
perhaps the most noteworthy: Var. grandiflorum, Fiek
(H. grandiflorum, Lam.). Lvs. ovate to oblong, green
on both sides: fls. yellow, 1J^ in. long. Var. cupreum,
Grosser (H. hyssopifdlium var. cupreum, Sweet). Lvs.
oval to lanceolate, green on both sides: fls. copper-
colored, darker toward the base, 1J^-1J^ in. across.
S.C. 58. Var. tomentosum, Grosser (H. tomentosum,
Dun. H. angustifdlium, Pers. H. polifdlium, Hort.).
Lvs. oblong to oblong-lanceolate, flat or revolute at the
margin, white-tomentose beneath, M~/^in- long: fls.
yellow. S.E.B. 2:158 and S.C. 34 (as H. vulgare).
R.F.G. 3:30 (4547, as var. discolor). There is a double-
fld. form, var. tomentosum multiplex, Grosser. S.C. 64.
Var. rdseum, Grosser (H. rdseum, Sweet). Lvs. lanceo-
late, white-tomentose beneath: fls. pink, 1J^ in. across.
A form with semi-double fls. is var. rdseum multiplex.
S.C. 86. Var. venustum, Grosser. Lvs. lanceolate,
revolute, white-tomentose beneath: fls. crimson with
yellow eye, over 1 in. across. S.C. 10. Var. mutabile,
Grosser. Lvs. ovate-oblong, flat, grayish tomentose
beneath: fls. at first light rose, changing to lilac, finally
nearly white. S.C. 106. R.F.G. 3:35 (4556). Var.
stramineum, Grosser. Lvs. oval to oblong-lanceolate,
flat, white-tomentose below: fls. bright straw-yellow,
over 1 in. across. S.C. 93. There is a double-fld. form,
var. stramineum multiplex. S.C. 94. Var. diversifolium,
Grosser. Lvs. oval to oblong- or linear-lanceolate,
white-tomentose beneath: fls. purplish pink, the petals
with a darker copper-colored blotch at the base. S.C.
95. A double-fld. form with purplish red fls. is var.
diversifolium multiplex. S. C. 98. Var. macranthum,
Grosser. Lvs. ovate-oblong, rather large, thinly grayish
tomentose beneath: fls. white, nearly 1% in. across, the
petals blotched yellow at the base. S.C. 103. There is
a form with very double fls., var. macranthum multi-
plex. S.C. 104.

8. sulphureum, Willd. (H. apenninum x H. Chamae-
cistus). Procumbent sub-shrub: Ivs. petioled, lanceo-
late, hairy on both sides, dark green above, grayish
beneath, }/?-%m. long; stipules subulate: fls. sulfur-
yellow, darker toward the base, about 1 in. across; the
2 outer sepals very small, narrow-lanceolate, the inner
ovate. S.C. 37. There is a form with pink fls., var.
roseum (S.C. 51 as H. canescens), and one with copper-
colored fls., var. cupreum (S.C. 66).

H. alpfstre, Dun. (H. oelandicum var. alpestre, Benth.). Ces-
pitose subshrub: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, hairy or
glabrescent, l/z-%\n. long: fl. yellow, lAva.. across. Mountains of
S. Eu. S.C. 2. — //. globularixfolium, Pers. (Tuberaria globularii-
fotia, Willk.). Perennial; Ivs. mostly radical, long-stalked, ovate,
hairy, 1-2 in. long: fls. in simple or branched racemes, yellow with
purple eye, 1 % in. across. S. Eu., N. Afr. B.M. 4873 (as H.
Tuberaria). — H. lunulatum, Lam. Cespitose subshrub: Ivs. ellip-
tic-oblong, green on both sides, glabrescent or sparingly hairy,
Ji-Kin. long: fls. solitary, yellow, J^in. across; petals with crescent-
shaped spot at the base. Italy. R.F.G. 3:26 (4529). — H. Tuberaria,
Mill. (Tuberaria vulgaris, Willk.). Perennial: Ivs. mostly radical,
oval-lanceolate to obovate, grayish tomentose beneath, 1-3 in. long:
fls. in simple or branched racemes, yellow, 1 Yi in. across. S. Eu.,
Afr. S.C. 18. — H. Tuberaria, Hook. f.=H. globularisefolium.

ALFRED REHDER.

HELIANTHUS (Greek, helios, the sun, and anthos,
a flower). Composite. Including Harpdlium. SUN-
FLOWER. Hardy herbaceous perennial and annual
plants, rather coarse in habit, with yellow flowers
which are mostly large, numerous and borne in autumn.

Leaves generally opposite below and alternate above,
but this is not a constant character : heads pedunculate,
solitary or corymbose, terminating the st. or branches;
disk-fls. perfect, yellow, brown or purplish, with a
tubular 5-limbed corolla; rays neutral, yellow. — Alto-
gether there are about 60 species, mostly N. American,
and many of the plants grown for sunflowers are now
considered as belonging to other genera. The genus
is very variable, and there are also many natural
hybrids; hence the species are difficult to delimit.
The old notion that the flower-heads follow the sun from
east to west has been substantiated for H. annuus. (See
Botanical Gazette, vol. 29:197.) Garden monographs
are found in Gn. 27, p. 66; 45, p. 372; 49, p. 326 and
55, p. 146.

Sunflowers are of the easiest culture, and are adapted
to a variety of soils. They are seen to best advantage
when planted in masses, rather than as solitary speci-
mens, and should be given plenty of room, being gross
feeders. Most sunflowers, especially H. annuus, are
too coarse to be harmonious near the house, but find an
effective setting in the background, against the shrub-
bery border. A few species, however, especially H.
orgyalis and H. debilis, are worth growing for their
foliage alone. The annual species are propagated by
seeds or cuttings; the perennial chiefly by division.
All varieties of H. multiflorus root readily from both
soft and hardwood cuttings. The double forms rarely
produce fertile seeds and must be propagated by
division. The seeds of annuals may be planted directly
in the border, but it is best to start them indoors in
March. Perennial kinds, particularly forms of H.
multiflorus, should be taken up in late fall or early
spring, every two years, and the rootstocks divided
and replanted; otherwise the roots will ramble away,
and the flowers will deteriorate. All thrive in a light,
dry soil; but H. annuus and H. giganteus may be used
to advantage for drying malarial spots. Sunflowers
do not thrive in very shady places.

Commercial uses and cultivation of the common sunflower.
(M. G. Kains).

Sunflowers (H. annuus) are cultivated extensively
in Russia, India and Egypt; less widely in Turkey, Ger-
many, Italy and France. The seeds from the large-
seeded variety are sold upon the streets in Russia as we
do peanuts, except that they are eaten raw. The small-
seeded variety is preferred for the manufacture of oil.
When cold-pressed, a citron-yellow sweet-tasting oil,
considered equal to olive or almond oil for table use, is
produced. The resulting oil-cake, when warm-pressed,
yields a less edible fluid, which is used for lighting, and
in such arts as woollen dressing, candle- and soap-mak-
ing. The oils dry slowly, become turbid at ordinary
temperatures and solid at 4° F. For stock and poultry
feeding, and for other purposes, sunflower oil-cake is
about equal in value to that of flax- and cotton-seed.
The cake is largely exported by Russia to Denmark and

1446

HELIANTHUS

HELIANTHUS

Sweden, and to some extent to other European markets.
Sunflower stems and heads make an excellent paper,
and the stems furnish a fine fiber that compares favor-
ably with silk. They are, however, generally used for
fuel, since the above industries have not been developed.
— Sunflowers grow readily in many soils, but best
results are secured upon light, rich, calcareous or allu-
vial land, well supplied with moisture and unshaded by
trees. White, clayey and poor
soils are unfavorable. Prep-
aration of the soil should be
thorough, deep fall plowing
followed by spring harrowing
being preferred to spring prep-
aration. The seeds are gener-
ally sown in drills running
north and south,
30 inches apart,
9 inches asunder
in the drill, and
1 inch deep.
Sometimes they
are transplanted
from nursery
beds when 4 to
6 inches tall.
About a week
after the plants
appear they are
thinned to 18
inches apart.
From four to
six pounds of the
seed will sow
an acre. Culti-
vation is the
same as for corn,
except that when the plants
reach a height of 3 to 4 feet,
the inferior flower-heads should
be removed, leaving only four
or five on the principal stem.
In windy climates hilling is
sometimes necessary to pre-
vent blowing down. — On some
farms the heads are harvested
as they ripen and placed upon
floors or movable pole-racks to
dry. Upon larger areas they
are cut to the ground when
most of the heads have ripened
and piled, heads up, to cure.
The former method insures a
much higher grade of oil, and
is therefore preferred. Every
effort is made to prevent fermentation, either in the
heads or in the pile of seeds, since this injures the
quality of the oil. When thoroughly dry the heads are
either placed on racks or piled, face downward, on a
floor and beaten with flails. The seeds are then spread
thinly, shoveled over occasionally, and allowed to
become perfectly dry before being sent to the mill.
The average yield is about fifty bushels to the acre.
The percentage of husks ranges from 40 to 60; and the
oil from 15 to 28. As a general rule, 100 bushels of
seed will yield 33 bushels of kernels, 100 bushels of
kernels from 280 to 320 gallons of oil of both qualities.
Russian sunflower, a large-seeded variety, producing a
single head, grows 8 feet tall, but is less esteemed for
oil-production than the small-seeded varieties. In
America the sunflower industry is small.

The red sunflower. (T. D. A. Cockerell.)

In the summer of 1910 Mrs. Cockerell found a red
sunflower growing by the roadside close to her home
at Boulder, Colorado. It was a variation of the native

1794. Helianthus

debilis. (Nearly

half size)

sunflower of the plains (Helianthus annuus var. lentic-
ularis, or H. lenticularis) , having the rays suffused with
chestnut-red. It was named var. coronatus, the arrange-
ment of the red, with the black disk, suggesting the sun
in eclipse, with its corona. Since the sunflower is sterile
with its own pollen, it was necessary to cross the red
one with yellow-rayed kinds, such as the garden H.
annuus, and the yellow-rayed wild plant. The next sum-
mer, it was found that about half the progeny had red
rays: it was determined that red was dominant, and
assumed that the plant originally found was hetero-
zygous for red, through variation occurring in a germ-
cell. Crossing red with red, homozygous or pure-bred
reds were obtained, with very rich colors. Most sun-
flowers carry a factor for marking, which affects the
distribution of red, so that many of the flowers were
bicplored with the ends of the rays yellow (var. bicolor)
while others had a ring of red (var. zonatus). Some
had the rays entirely chestnut-red (var. ruberrimus).
A variety obtained in 1914 had the rays practically
black. So far, the red of the red sunflowers was a
chestnut, or brown-red. The pigment, however, be-
longs to the anthocyan group, and is chestnut only
because seen on a background of orange. In order to
obtain a new color, the homozygous red was crossed
with Sutton's primrose variety (var. primulinus, Ckll.,
"Science," August 29, 1913, page 312). In the first gen-
eration (raised in the greenhouse during the winter) the
flowers were all red on orange, or chestnut-red. These
crossed together gave seventy-one chestnut-red, nine-
teen yellow, twenty-five wine-red and eight primrose;
theoretical expectation, according to Mendel's law,
being sixty-nine, twenty-three, twenty-three, and
eight. The wine-red is due to the same anthocyan
pigment, but on a primrose-yellow (pale yellow) back-
ground. In good examples, the color is nearly that
known as "old rose." The various patterns are as in
the chestnut-red forms. The wine-red sunflower was
named var. vinosus. In addition to the above, various
other varieties have been developed, including red and
wine-red semi-doubles and doubles. There are also
hybrids with Helianthus cucumerifolius, of relatively
small stature and with shiny foliage. One of these
hybrids, represented in the 1914 cultures by a number
of plants, may be described as follows: About 4 feet
high, spreading, much branched: stems speckled with
purple: leaves dark green, very shiny; blades broad
and short, strongly dentate: involucral bracts with
long tapering ends (but not so long as in true H.
cucumerifolius'); disk small (about 1 inch diameter);
rays ample, broad, numerous, with basal half rich
chestnut, apical half bright lemon; disk very dark.
This is a plant of the second generation from the origi-
nal cross. For further details see "Popular Science
Monthly," April 1912; "Science," August 29, 1913,
pages 312, 313; August 21, 1914, pages 283-285,
November 13, 1914, pages 708, 709 and January 1,
1915, pages 33, 34. "Garden Magazine," July, 1914.
The red sunflower is now offered by the trade in
America, England, Germany and Italy. It has also been
grown successfully in Australia and New Zealand.

sestivalis, 6.

grandiflorus, 6, 11.

pumilus, 18.

angustifolius, 5.

grosse-serratus, 9.

purpureus, 3.

annuus, 1.

hirsutus, 21.

rigidus, 6.

argophyllus, 2.

laetiflorus, 20.

ruberrimus, 1.

atrorubens, 7.

Isevigatus, 8.

scaberrimus, 6.

bicolor, 1.

lenticularis, 1.

sparsifolius, 7.

californicus, 1, 19.

macrophyllus, 10.

semi-plenus, 6, 20.

citrinus, 1,

major, 11.

simplex, 11.

cordatus, 17.

Maximilianii, 14.

strumosus, 10.

cucumerifolius, 3.

maximus, 11.

subtuberosus, 13.

debilis, 3.

missouriensis, 6.

texana, 2.

decapetalus, 11.

mollis, 17.

trachelifolius, 22.

divaricatus, 12.

multiflorus, 11.

tuberosus, 15.

doronicoides, 16.

nanus, 1.

variegatus, 1.

duplex, 11.

niger, 1.

vinosissimus, 1.

flore-pleno, 11.

orgyalis, 4.

vinosus, 1.

giganteus, 13.

plumosus, 3.

zonatus, 1.

globosus, 1.

primulinus, 1.

HELIANTHUS

HELIANTHUS

1447

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Plants annual: Ivs. long-petioled: disk

brown or purplish.

B. St. erect, stout, simple or branching
above.

c. Pubescence rough 1. annuus

cc. Pubescence usually silky 2. argophyllus

BB. St. diffuse, slender, branching freely

from the base 3. debilis

AA. Plants perennial by creeping root-
stocks: Ivs. sessile or short-petioled.
B. Disk brown or purplish.

c. Lvs. linear, entire (except the
lower), sessile.

D. St. rough 4. orgyalis

DD. St. usually smooth 5. angustifolius

cc. Lvs. ovate to broad-lanceolate,
mostly toothed, narrowed at
the base into a winged petiole.
D. Rays numerous, the fls. 2%~4

in. broad 6. scaberrimus

DD. Rays 10-16, about 1 in. long.. 7. atrorubens
BB. Disk yellowish.

c. St. smooth below, the branches
often slightly rough or pubes-
cent.
D. Foliage pale beneath.

E. Lvs. prevailingly lanceolate.
F. The Ivs. glabrous on both

FF. The Ivs. roughened be-
neath 9.

EE. Lvs. prevailingly ovate 10.

DD. Foliage green on both sides.

E. Lvs. stalked <11.

EE. Lvs. sessile or nearly so . 12.

cc. St. rough or hairy below.

D. Rootstocks thickened into one

or more fleshy tubers.
E. Lvs. prevailingly lanceolate.

F. The Ivs. rough only above.13.
FF. The Ivs. rough both sides. .14.

EE. Lvs. prevailingly ovate 15.

DD. Rootstocks all slender.

E. Lower Ivs. sessile or with a
clasping base.

F. Lvs. sessile 16.

FF. Lvs. cordate, clasping .... 17.
EE. Lower Ivs. short-petioled.

F. St. 1-2 ft., not branching.. 18,
FF. St. usually over 3 ft.,

branching.
G. The st. smooth and

glabrous 19.

GG. The st. usually rough

and hispid.
H. Foliage equally rough

on both sides 20.

HH. Foliage rougher above

than beneath.
i. The Ivs. short-peti-
oled 21.

n. The upper Ivs. nar-
rowed at the base.22.

laevigatus

[ratus
grosse-ser-

strumosus

decapetalus
divaricatus

giganteus

Maximilianii

tuberosus

doronicoides
mollis

pumilus

californicus

laetiflorus

birsutus
tracheliifolius

1. annuus, Linn. COMMON SUNFLOWER. St. 3-12
ft., rough-hairy, often mottled: Ivs. 4-12 in. long,
broadly ovate, acute, the lower cordate, coarsely ser-
rate, rough on both sides, 3-nerved: fls. 3-6 in. wide in
wild specimens, often 14 in cult. July-Sept. Minn, to
Texas, west to Wash, and Calif. Gn. 27, p. 68. Gt.
43, p. 95 and B.R. 1265 (as H. lenticularis). — A val-
uable economic and ornamental plant. The Ivs. are
used for fodder, the fls. yield a yellow dye, the seeds
furnish an oil and are used for food. It is grown for
food chiefly in Russia. H. annuus has long been in cult,
as an ornamental, and has varied into many distinct
forms. Common varieties are: Var. californicus, Hort.,
very large and double; var. citrinus, Hort., with prim-
rose-colored rays (Gn. 49, p. 327) ; var. globdsus fistu-
losus, Hort., enormous globular heads (Gn. 27, p. 68);
var. nanus fl. pi., Hort., (Globe of Gold), dwarf and
double, valuable for borders; Russian Giant, 10-12

ft. high, single, grown mostly for seed; var. variegatus,
Hort., with variegated Ivs.

The H. lenticularis, Douglas, is commonly referred
to H. annuus. Cockerell supposes, however, that H.
lenticularis is the wild species from which the cultivated
forms of H. annuus are derived. Even so, H. annuus,
being a Linnaean name, must stand. The many inter-
esting mutations and hybrids observed and produced
by Cockerell are based on the wild H. annuus (or H.
lenticularis). Placing his variants under H . lenticularis,
he names them as follows: Var. bicolor, Ckll., rays red,
tipped yellow; var. zondtus, Ckll., rays red-banded;
var. ruberrimus, Ckll., rays chestnut-red throughout;
var. primulinus, Ckll., primrose-yellow; var. vinosus,
Ckll., rays wine-red; var. vinossissimus, Ckll., rays
entirely dark wine-red; var. niger, Ckll., rays practically
black above and slightly red at tip. This group of
variants comprises the red sunflowers, now in cult.
(See account also by Cockerell, page 1446.)

2. argophyllus, Torr. & Gray. SILVERY-LEAVED SUN-
FLOWER. St. usually solitary, 4-5 ft. high, soft gray,
with a dense, silky pubescence, especially the upper
branches. Otherwise like H. annuus, into which it
seems to vary under cult, if the seedlings are not con-
stantly selected for their silky character. Texas. The

1795. Clump of Helianthus orgyalis.

1448

HELIANTHUS

HELIANTHUS

var. texana, Hort., which does not differ botanically
from the type, is an attractive form of this species.
R.H. 1857, p. 431. Gn. 12, p. 280; 27, p. 67; 55, p. 147.
3. debilis, Nutt. (H. cucumerifblius, Torr. & Gray).
CUCUMBER-LEAVED SUNFLOWER. Fig. 1794. St. 1-4 ft.
high, usually several together, hairy throughout:

1796. Helianthus decapetalus var. multiflorus.
(See species No. 11)

branches often mottled with purple or white, each one
bearing a fl. : Ivs. 1-4 in. long, ovate to triangular,
generally with a cordate base, thin, glossy, irregularly
toothed or entire : fls. 2-3 in. wide, on slender peduncles.
July-Sept. Fla. to Texas and westward. G.C. III. 17:
167. Gt. 44, p. 571. B.M. 7432. Gn. 49:326.— This is
one of the best for cut-fls. It needs a sandy soil. Var.
plum&sus, Hort. Disk-florets ligulate, from pale to
deep yellow. Var. purpftreus, Hort. Ray-floreta vary-
ing in color from light pink to deep purple.

4. orgyalis, DC. Fig. 1795. St. 8-10 ft. high, strict,
smooth, very leafy to the top: Ivs. 8-16 in. long, acumi-
nate, slightly rough, drooping: fls. numerous, lemon-
yellow. Sept., Oct. Dry plains, Neb. to Texas and
westward. Gn. 27, p. 67; 55, p. 147. F.R. 2:146.—
This species has distinct and attractive foliage, which
is not at all coarse. A well-grown plant will produce
spikes of fls. nearly 4 ft. long.

5. angustifolius, Linn. SWAMP SUNFLOWER. St.
2-6 ft. high, simple or branching above, slightly rough:
Ivs. 2-7 in. long, somewhat tufted, drooping, in dried-
up specimens with rolled edges, smooth or slightly
rough: fls. 2-3 in. wide, few or solitary. Aug.-Oct.
Wet land, N. Y. to Fla., west to Ky. and Texas. B.M.
2051.

6. scaberrimus, Ell. (H. rigidus, Desf. H. missiouri-
ensis, Schwein.). St. 1-3 ft. high (rarely 5-8 ft.),
strict, sparingly branched, rough or hairy: Ivs. 6-12 in.
long, oblong to ovate-lanceolate, firm, thick, rough-
hairy, entire or slightly toothed: fls. 2^-4 in. wide,
showy, long-stalked; rays numerous, about 1^ in.
long; disk sometimes yellow at first, turning brown.
Aug.-Oct. Minn, to 111., Ga., and Texas prairies.
B.R. 508 (as H . atrorubens). B.M. 2020 (as H. diffusus) ;
2668 (as H. atrorubens). Gn. 27, p. 68. G. 3:391; 17:

544 (both as Hurpalium rigidum). — After H. decape-
talus this species is one of the best perennial sunflow-
ers. It varies under cult, chiefly in the direction of
doubling and in lengthening the blooming period.
Some of the best garden varieties are aestivalis, grandi-
fldrus, semiplenus and Miss Mellish.

7. atrorubens, Linn. (H. sparsifolius, Hort.). PUR-
PLE-DISK SUNFLOWER. St. 2-5 ft. high: Ivs. usually
thin, sometimes hoary beneath: fls. about 2 in. across;
rays few (10-16), rarely over 1 in. long; disk dark red.
Otherwise like H . rigidus, to which it is inferior. Va. to
Fla., west to Ohio and La. G.M. 52:827 (as H. sparsi-
folius).— Suitable for dry shady places.

8. laevigatus, Torr. & Gray. St. 2-5 ft., simple or
branched above: Ivs. 3-6 in. long, lanceolate, smooth,
entire or slightly toothed: fls. 1-1 ^ in. broad, few or
solitary; rays 6-10, usually less than 1 in. lone;. Aua;.-
Oct. Va. toN. C.

9. grosse-serratus, Mart. St. 6-10 ft. high, very
smooth, glaucous, the smaller branches strigose: Ivs.
long-lanceolate, slender-petioled, rough above, densely
hairy or canescent beneath: fls. many, cymose, 1-3 in.
broad; rays 10-20, deep yellow. Aug.-Oct. N. Y. and
Pa. to Mo., south to Texas. — Passes into H. giganteus.

10. strumdsus, Linn. St. 3-7 ft. high, usually branch-
ing, often glaucous: Ivs. 3-8 in. long, ovate-lanceolate,
rough above, entire or toothed: fls. 2^4-4 in. across;
rays 8-15, 1-1^4 in. long. July-Sept. Open woods,
Canada t:> Ga. and west to Wis. and Ark. Var.
macrophyllus, Britt. Lvs. downy beneath. B.M. 3689
(as H. mollis.).

11. decapetalus, Linn. WILD SUNFLOWER. St. 2-5
ft. high, branched above: Ivs. 3-8 in. long, ovate-
lanceolate, sharply serrate, thin, rough above, finely
pubescent beneath: fls. 2-3 in. across, numerous; rays
light yellow, generally more than 10, in spite of the
specific name. July-Sept. Moist soils, Que. to Ga.,
west to Mich, and Ky. G.C. II. 16:601.— Under cult,
it has given rise to the horticultural var. multiflSrus,
(H. multiflorus, Hort.). Fig. 1796. B.M. 227. G.C.
III. 10:421. Gn. 27:66, pp. 71, 74; 45, p. 373. Gt.
43, p. 554. Gng. 3:83. F.R. 2:413. G. 21:592. G.W.
47:627. — The many garden forms of var. multiflorus
differ mainly in the extent of doubling, season of bloom-
ing, habit of plant and size of fl. Among the best are:
Var. fldre-pleno (sometimes adver-
tised as var. duplex) and var. grandi-

florus, almost completely double
(G. 4:427; 11:231); var. major, fls.
larger than common (G. 4:163); var.
maximus, very large, single fls. with
pointed rays; var. simplex, an alleged
single form; Soliel d'Or, with quilled
florets, like a cactus dahlia. Multi-
florus varieties are the most popular of
perennial sunflowers, and deservedly
so. If the double forms are grown on
poor soil, or are allowed to remain for
several years without being divided,
they become single.

12. divaricatus, Linn. Fig. 1797.
St. 1-6 ft. high, glabrous or slightly
rough at the summit: Ivs. sessile,
rough above, pubescent beneath, 3-
nerved, standing out nearly at right
angles to the st. : fls. few or soli-
tary, 2 in. across; rays 8-15.
July-Sept. Dry woodlands, Can-
ada to Fla., west to Neb. and La.

13. giganteus, Linn. INDIAN
POTATO. St. 3-12 ft. high, stout:
Ivs. 3-7 in. long, lanceolate, very

rough, serrate or nearly entire: 1797. Helianthus

fls. usually several, l^i-3 in. divaricatus.

HELIANTHUS

HELICHRYSUM

1449

broad, mostly long-stalked; rays 10-20, barely 1 in.
long, cupped, pale yellow: seeds smooth. Aug.-Oct.
Wet ground, Canada to Fla., west to Neb. B.M. 7555.
G.W. 2, p. 44; 7, p. 451; 8, p. 469. Var. subtuberosus,
Brit. A northern form with unusually fleshy roots,

1798. Helianthus mollis var. cordatus.

which were formerly collected by Indians for food;
hence "Indian potato."

14. Maximflianii, Schrad. St. generally 2-4 ft. high,
sometimes 8-10: Ivs. inclined to be trough-shaped: fls.
on short, densely pubescent peduncles; rays 15-30, gen-
erally \Yi in. long, deep yellow. Otherwise like H.
giganteus, of which it is probably the western form.
Aug.-Oct. Dry plains, west of Mississippi River. V.
20:169.

15. tuber&sus, Linn. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. St.
5-12 ft., branched above: Ivs. 4-8 in., usually ovate,
acuminate, serrate, rough above, finely pubescent
beneath: fls. several or numerous, 2-3 in. across; rays
12-20: seeds pubescent. Gn. 27, p. 68. B.M. 7545.—
Frequently cult, for its edible tubers. See Artichoke,
Jerusalem.

16. doronicoides, Lam. St. 3-7 ft. high: Ivs. 4-8 in.
long, ovate-oblong, narrowed toward both ends, rough
on both sides, finely toothed: fls. numerous, in loose
panicles; rays 12-20, broad. Otherwise as H. Isetifolius.
Aug., Sept. Dry soils, Ohio to Mich., Mo., and Ark.
B.M. 2778 (as H. pubescens).

17. mollis, Lam. St. 2-5 ft. high, stout, very leafy,
hoary villose, at least when young: Ivs. 3-5 in. long,
ovate-lanceolate, white-pubescent or rough on upper
side: fls. solitary or few, 2-3 in. broad; rays 15-25.
July-Sept. Barren soils, Ohio to Ga., west to Iowa
and Texas; also on L. I. Gn. 55:146. Var. cordatus,
Fig. 1798, has recently been discovered. It has broader,
thicker and cordate Ivs. G.F. 2:137 (adapted in Fig.
1798).

18. pumilus, Nutt. St. rough and hairy throughout:
Ivs. only 5-7 pairs, 1-4 in. long, ovate-lanceolate: heads
few, short-peduneled; disk yellow. E. Rocky Mts. and
adjacent plains.

19. calif ornicus, DC. St. 3-8 ft. high: Ivs. lanceo-
late, serrate, rough on both sides : fls. loosely paniculate,
about 2% in. wide. Calif. — Very suitable for low moist
situations. Most of the plants grown under this name
are garden forms of H, annuus.

20. laetiflorus, Pers. SHOWY SUNFLOWER. St. 4-8 ft.
high, leafy and rough-hairy: Ivs. 4-10 in. long, ovate-
lanceolate, more or less serrate, rough on both sides: fls.
several, 2-4 in. broad, short-peduncled ; rays 15-25,
about 1^2 in. long, showy. Prairies, Ind., 111., Wis. Gn.
45:372. G.M. 31:204.— A desirable he! ianthus. The
garden form H. semi-plenus is better than the type.
Resembles tall-growing forms of H. rigidus, but disk
yellow.

21. hirsutus, Raf. St. 2-4 ft. high, densely hairy:
Ivs. ovate-lanceolate, thick, very rough, pubescent and
pale beneath: fls. several, 2-3 in. across; rays 12-15.
July-Oct. Dry soils, Pa. to Ga., west to Wis. and Texas.

22. tracheliifolius, Mill. Resembles H. strumosus, but
st. and fl.-stalks usually rough-hairy and Ivs. thinner,
green on both sides: branches and fl.-stalks rough-
hairy. Aug., Sept. Dry soil, Pa. to Wis.

H. ciliaris, DC. Fl.-heads large; rays bright golden-yellow; disk-
florets dark brown. A pretty floriferous species. Texas, Ariz.,
Mex.— H. coloradensis, Ckll. Allied to H. fascicularis and H. grosse-
serratus: 6 ft., in clumps: sts. strict, reddish and glaucous: Ivs.
elongate-lanceolate, rough, margins remotely dentate, the upper
ones alternate and the lower opposite: bracts of involucre very
long and slender, long-ciliate at base: disk yellow, and rays bright
orange. Colorado. Var. Andrewsii, Ckll. Rays deep orange, much
richer in color. — H. macrophyllus sativus of horticultural literature,
with tubers edible and in taste resembling Jerusalem artichoke, is
probably H. strumosus var. macrophyllus, Britt., or possibly H.
giganteus var. subterosus, Britt. There are many forms of wild
sunflower that may come into cult., through dealers in native
plants. These should be sought in the regular manuals of botany.
The genus allows of different botanical interpretations.

S. W. FLETCHER.

N. TAYLOR.f

HELICHRtSUM (Greek for sun and gold; referring
to the flower-heads). Syn., Elichrysum. Composite.
Old World herbs or shrubs, mostly African and Aus-
tralian ; some of them are grown for everlastings, being,
with Helipterum, amongst the most important plants
for that purpose; annuals and perennials.

Flower-heads large, solitary, with fls. of 2 kinds, the
outermost ones with pistils only; involucre dry and
chaff-like, the stiff overlapping scales glabrous, often
colored ; heads large, terminating the branches, normally
yellow, but now varying into many colors in long-cult,
forms. — Probably 400 species. Easily grown as hardy
annuals in any garden soil but doing best in a rich
loamy soil. Very few are grown in U. S., except /f.
bracteatum.

A. Lvs. oblong or narrow: grown for everlastings.

B. Heads large, solitary.

bracteatum, Andr. Fig. 1799. Stout annual, 1^-3
ft. tall, somewhat branched, the terete sts. nearly or
quite glabrous: Ivs. many and rather large, oblong-lan-
ceolate, narrowed to a short petiole, entire, green:
heads terminating the branches, 1-2 }/% in. across, yellow
or orange, the short and obtuse involucre-scales imbri-
cated. Austral. — Perhaps the most important single
everlasting fl. grown in this country, particularly for
bold or heavy design work. It is very variable, particu-
larly in color. R.H. 1896:551. The heads are pure
white in var. album, Hort. (H. album, Hort. H.
niveum, Graham. B.M. 3857); scales tipped with red in
var. bicolor, Hort. (Elichrysum bicolor, Lindl. B.R.
1814); dark scarlet in var. atrococcmeum, Hort. (H.
atrococcineum, Hort.); dark blood-red in var. atrosan-
guineum, Hort. The forms with very large heads are
often known as H. macrdnthum, Hort. The double

1450

HELICHRYSUM

HELICONIA

forms are often known as H. monstrbsum, Hort. Other
portraits of this species will be found in B.R. 24:58.
R.H. 1851:101.

BB. Heads medium to small, in clusters,
c. Color yellow or orange.

arenarium, DC. YELLOW EVERLASTING. A foot or
less high, herbaceous: Ivs. plane, white-woolly, the
lower ones oblong-obovate and long-attenuated into a
petiole, the upper ones linear-lanceolate and acute:
heads globular, in compact little corymbs, bright yellow.
Perennial, in sand, France. — Apparently not cult, in
this country. See Everlastings, p. 1183.

orientale, Gaertn. (Gnaphalium orientdle, Linn.).
St. simple, 1^ ft. or less tall: Ivs. oval-oblong to lanceo-
late, obtuse, sessile, rather small: heads bright yellow,
small, globular, in corymbs. S. Eu. to Asia Minor.
G. 1:805. — Much cult, in Medit. regions, but little
known in this country.

apiculatum, D. Don. Perennial, 1-2 ft., tomentose,
leafy below: Ivs. lance-spatulate, the base more or less
spatulate: heads ^in. across, in small heads or clus-
ters, orange-yellow, the scales sharp-pointed. Austral.
— Little known in this country, and doubtfully hardy
north of Philadelphia.

1799. Helichrysum bracteatum. One of the choicest
everlastings.

cc. Color white or nearly so.

grandifldrum, Less. Perennial, somewhat woody,
decumbent at the base : Ivs. crowded near the base, ses-
sile, obovate to oval or oblong, obtuse, woolly on both
sides: heads hemispherical, in corymbose clusters,
glossy, cream-color, J^in. across. S. Afr. — Greenhouse
plant north of Washington.

diosmaefdlium, Sweet (Ozothdmnus rosmarinifblius,
Hort.). Tall, upright: Ivs. very small, narrow-linear
(3^in. or less long), the margins revolute: heads small
and numerous, white. Austral., sometimes grows 20
ft. high. Gn. 34:409; 55:222.— Cult, in S. Calif, by
Franceschi.

AA. Lvs. ovate or broader: border and vase plants.

bellidioides, Willd. Slender-stemmed, trailing, nearly
woody perennial: Ivs. light green above, woolly be-
neath, ovate-spatulate, Y^rY"^- long, flat: heads soli-
tary, about J^in. diam., of the "everlasting" type;
receptacle convex or nearly conical. New Zeal. G.C. III.
53:266,436. Gn. 77, p. 253. G. 35:341. G.M. 56:286.
— Not common in cult, but useful as a prostrate per-
ennial; not hardy N.

hftmile, Andr. (Aphelexis humilis, Don). A low
spreading, greenhouse perennial, with Ivs. lacking
tomentum, but sometimes woolly in the axils: Ivs.
round-backed, usually K-Mm- long: scales of the
involucre rosy. S. Afr. — A showy, but little-known
species.

petiolatum, DC. (Gnaphalium landtum. Hort.).
Tender perennial, cult, for its long, woolly sts. and
woolly Ivs., either as an edging in ribbon borders or as
an ornament in lawn vases: Ivs. petiolate, ovate and
broad at the base, obtuse: heads (not often seen in
cult.) in branched cymes, the involucre scales obtuse,
cream-white. S. Afr. — An old garden plant. Prop, by
cuttings from stock plants carried over winter.

H. Codperi, Harvey. Bush with golden yellow fl.-heads. Afr. —
H. Guilelmii, Engler. A robust perennial covered with white wool
except the fl.-heads. E. Trop. Afr. B.M. 7789. Var. Meyeri, G.C.
III. 31, p. 4, note. Fls. arranged more loosely. — H. Selago, Benth.
& Hook. f. Small, much-branched shrub: fl.-heads small, terminal,
sessile, Min. across. New Zeal. — H. Volkensii, O. Hoffm. Shrubby,
with sts. and branches covered with white shaggy hairs: outer bracts
bright rose, inner whitish and longer. E. Afr. G.C. III. 31: 169, desc.

L. H. B.

N. TAYLOR, f
HELIC6DEA: Billbergia.

HELICODICEROS (Greek, spirally %-horned).
Aracese. Odd spathe-bearing plant, from a tuber,
sometimes grown as pot specimens; odor offensive.

The extraordinary plant shown in Fig. 1800 is known
as the "hairy arum" and sold by the bulb-dealers as
Arum crinitum. When in flower it has a disgusting
odor which attracts carrion flies and bright green insects
as uncanny as the plant itself. The plant is the only
species in its genus, the hairiness of the spadix being a
very distinct character. Helicodiceros and Dracuncu-
lus are alike in having few ovules, which are fastened
at the top and bottom of the cell, but in the latter the
staminate and pistillate fls. are close together, while in
the former they are separated by a sterile portion.
Arum differs from both genera in having the ovules
fastened in 2 series at the side of the cell. The Ivs. of
Arum are spear- or arrow-shaped, while in the other
two they are pedately cut.

This plant is worth growing once, since it is one of
the curiosities of horticulture. It may be secured from
bulb-dealers in the autumn and flowered under glass
in the spring. It is a most vile-smelling plant when in
full flower. The plucky artist who drew the accom-
panying picture of this arum wrote at the bottom of his
drawing, "Air 'em."

muscivorus, Engler (H. crinitus, Schott. Arum crini-
tum, Ait. Dracunculus crinitus, Schott.). Fig. 1800.
Height 1 Yi ft. : spathe-limb purple, covered with purple
hairs. Corsica. B.R. 831. F.S. 5:445. G. 11:585;
19 : 515. WILHELM MILLER.

HELICONIA (Mt. Helicon, in Greece, seat of the
Muses). Musacese. Foliage plants allied to Musa,
grown in a warmhouse along with alocasias, anthur-
iums and calatheas.

From Musa, Heliconia differs chiefly in having a dry,

HELIOPHILA

1451

often dehiscing, 3-loculed, 3-seeded fr.: fls. in clusters
below the Ivs., subtended by bracts after the way of
Musa; sepals 3, linear, free or somewhat joined to the
corolla; corolla short-tubed; stamens 5; staminodium
1: Ivs. large and striking, often beautifully marked:
sts. arising from a strong rootstock. — Perhaps 35 species
in Trop. Amer., various of which have been intro. into
cult., but the following are the only ones appearing in
the American trade. Many species are being described
from trop. Asia, and there is doubt about the Ameri-
can nativity of the genus. Some writers consider the
Old World species as of the genus Heliconiopsis, which
in the absence of evidence is not maintained here.
For the botany of this very much perplexed genus, see

1800. Helicodiceros muscivorus.

Griggs, Bull. Torrey Club 30:640-664. Baker, Ann.
Bot. 7 : 189-200. K. Schumann in Engler's Pflanzen-
reich, hft. 1 (1900). H. N. Ridley, G.C. III. 44: 13.

A. Bracts of the infl. ovate-acuminate, deeply boat-shaped.

Bihai, Linn. (H. caribxa, Lam.). BALISIER. WILD
PLANTAIN. Becoming 10-15 ft. tall, banana-like: Ivs.
oval or oblong-oval, long-petioled, transversely ribbed,
the blades 3-5 ft. long: blossom-sheaths very large,
scarlet and black, the fls. red or orange. W. Indies and
south. B.R. 374. L.B.C. 3:252.— A most striking
plant, often seen in glasshouse collections. It is natu-
ralized in the Old World tropics, and is the parent of
many horticultural forms, of which the next two are
almost surely examples.

a&reo-striata, Bull. Perhaps a form of the preceding:
Ivs. beautifully striped along both midrib and trans-
verse veins with golden yellow: sts. striped with yellow
and green: If .-limb oval-acuminate not decurrent: fr.
Y2m. long, obconic, orange. I.H. 29:464; 42, p. 289
(where a list of the best kinds will be found). S.H.
2, p. 133. F.R. 3:493. G.Z. 26, p. 123.— Very hand-
some. The best-known kind. Ridley considers this
distinct from H. Bihai, but says he knows no native
country for the species.

illustris, Bull. (H. rubro-stridta, Hort.), is of the
general style of the last, but the rib and veins are
marked with pink and the If.-bases are somewhat
decurrent. Var. rubricaftlis, Hort., has more red, the
petiole being bright vermilion; fr. red about J^in. long.
R.H. 1896:36 (where a review is made of the species).
R.B. 21, p. 69. Gn. 52, p. 359. G. 20:369; 29:431.
G.W. 2, p. 115; 7, p. 389.

AA. Bracts of infl. lanceolate-acuminate, not boat-shaped.

Micholitzii, Ridley. A very large plant forming
large tufts: sts. 2 ft. or more tall, 3 in. across, pale green,
marbled with gray: Ivs. pale green, blade about 3 ft.

long and about 1 ft. wide: infl. about 12 in. long on a
hairy peduncle: rachis yellow, dotted with green: fls.
14 or more in each bract, the latter long-acuminate,
white; sepals and petals acute, brownish; stamens
slender, anthers linear: fr. orange, pear-shaped. New
Ireland. — May not be a true Heliconia.

angustifdlia, Hook. (H. bicolor, Benth.). Dwarfer,
whole plant not over 4 ft. tall: Ivs. long and narrow,
13^-23^ ft. long, 3-6 in. wide, green: peduncle erect,
glabrous; fls. yellowish green, 6-10 in each glabrous
red bract. S. Amer. B.M. 4475.

H. insignis, Hort., intro. by F. Sander & Son in 1912, is of
uncertain botanical origin. It is described as "with dark bronzy-
green Ivs." and may be some form of H. metallica, Planch., which
is described as dark shining green and purple beneath when young.
B.M. 5315. — H. Lehmannii variegiita, Hort., advertised by Royal
Palm Nurseries, is of doubtful botanical position. It is described
as "a stocky, broad-lvd. plant, somewhat resembling a miniature
banana, with Ivs. striped with creamy yellow, and having yellow

N. TAYLOR.f

HELICOPHYLLUM (spiral leaf; lateral segments of
the pedatisect leaves sometimes twisted). Aracese.
Nine or ten arisaema - like herbs of western Asia and
delta of the Nile, of which one species may appear in
collections; very little planted in the coolhouse, or in
the open in mild climates with some protection.

Tuberous-rooted herbs, with radical Ivs. and fls.
appearing together: scape shorter than Ivs., bearing a
single inflorescence : spathe with an oblong tube and an
erect or more or less hooded limb ; spadix tailed, mostly
included or short, the middle part with neutral fls.;
apetalous; stamens 2; ovary 1, 1 -celled, 2- or 4-ovuled:
fr. an ovoid or globose berry. H. Alberti, Regel, is a
stemless plant with a dark maroon-purple spathe 7 in.
long: spadix 5 in. long, the appendix protruding and
blackish purple: Ivs. of young plants simple, oblong-
lanceolate; of mature plants oddly divided, the "blade
hastate, acuminate, undulate, concave at the base,
with 2 lateral spreading horn-like horizontal basal
lobes, and between them 2 long linear erect ones that
are nearly as long as the blade, and face it; these front
lobes have each on the outer margin below the middle a
curved horn-like process." E. Bokhara. B.M. 6969.
G.C. III. 36, suppl. Oct. 29. — Blooms in late spring,
and requires protection. L H. B.

HELIOCEREUS (sun and cereus). Cactacese. Pro-
cumbent plants with weak stems clambering over rocks
and bushes.

Branches strongly angled : ribs usually 3 or 4, bearing
clusters of spines from all the areoles: fls. diurnal, large
and showy, with a short tube; petals elongated; sta-
mens long and numerous, declined; ovary and fr.
spiny. — The four species known all come from Mex.
The species of this genus readily hybridize with species
of Epiphyllum (Phyllocactus) and other related genera,
giving rise to many horticultural varieties.

specidsus, Brit. & Rose (Cereus specidsus, Cav.).
Sts. freely branching at base, 1 in. diam., with a few
aerial roots: spines in fascicles of 5-8, needle-like: fls.
. appearing from the older growth of the sts., 6 in. diam.,
remaining open for several days, purple-red: fr. 1^-2
in. long.

amecaensis, Brit. & Rose (Cereus amecaensis, Heese).
A recent introduction similar to the above, but with
perfectly white fls. It is not common in this country,
but is common in Eu. j j^ ROSE

HELIOPHILA (Greek, sun-loving; grows in the open
country of the Cape). Cruciferse. This genus includes
a blue-flowered half-hardy annual that grows mostly
a few inches high and is sometimes advertised in cata-
logues of flower seeds.

Heliophila contains about 80 species of annual and
subshrubby perennials, natives of S. Afr. The trans-
versely twice-folded cotyledons are an important char-
acter of the genus: other important generic characters

1452

HELIOPHILA

HELIOTROPIUM

are pods sessile or pedicelled, 2-celled, 2-valved, dehis-
cent: seeds in a single row, often winged: racemes
long and leafless, and fls. yellow, white, rosy or sky-
blue: Ivs. various.

pilosa, Lam. A very variable species, with st. 6-24
in. high, erect or diffuse, simple or unbranched from the
base: lower Ivs. often opposite, the rest alternate: fls.
normally sky-blue, with a yellow center, but the natural
varieties include lilac and yellow. The typical H. pilosa
has a st. that is rough with spreading hairs: Ivs. hairy,
either oblong or linear, entire or sometimes lobed near
apex, cuneate at base: pods linear, erect or spreading.
Var. incisa, Sonder, has Ivs. linear-cuneate, 3-cut at
the apex, rarely 5-cut, the lobes linear or acuminate.
B.M. 496 (as H. arabioides). WILHELM MILLER.

HELIOPSIS (Greek, like the sun). Composite.
Hardy herbaceous plants, bearing numerous yellow
flowers in autumn.

Stem erect, loosely branching: heads yellow, long-
stalked, borne in loose terminal or axillary panicles
both radiate and discoid: Ivs. opposite, petioled, 3-
ribbed, oblong-ovate to ovate-lanceolate, coarsely
toothed. Heliopsis has no pappus, while in Helianthus
the pappus has 2 awns. In Heliopsis the rays have
pistils, but may be fertile or sterile. In Helianthus the
rays have no pistils at all. — About 10 species, all native
of N. Amer. They are all perennials except one, and
that is not cult. They are not common in gardens
because of the more attractive forms in Helianthus.
H. helianthoides var. Pitcheriana, however, deserves
wider popularity. For cult., see Helianthus.

helianthoides, Sweet (H. Isevis, Pers.). St. 3-5 ft.
high: Ivs. 3-5 in. long, thinnish, smooth on both sides
or roughish above, opposite or sometimes in 3's: fls.
numerous, 1^-2^ in. broad, long-stemmed. July-
Oct. Open places, Canada to Fla., west to 111. and Ky.
B.M. 3372. Gn. 25, p. 237. Var. Pitcheriana (H. Pitch-
eriana, Hort.). A dwarf, more branching and bushy
form, 2-3 ft. high, with a spread of 3-4 ft. : fls. produced
much more freely than in the preceding and a deeper
yellow. One of the best hardy plants for the perennial
border, being especially valuable for cutting and for
planting in dry places. A.G. 16:323. F.R. 2:259.

scabra, Dunal. Differs from H . helianthoides, chiefly
in being rough throughout: upper Ivs. sometimes
entire: heads few, often solitary. B.R. 592 (as H. can-
escens). Var. gratissima, Hort. Fl.-heads large, bril-
liant pale yellow. Var. imbricata, Hort. "A dwarf
form with fls. 3 in. diam., golden yellow." Var. major,
Hort. Larger in every way than the type. J.H. III.
33:359. Var. zinniaefldra, Hort. "A double form,
there being several series of ligulate florets." R.H.
1908, p. 419. Dry soils, Maine to N. J. and west to Mo.

S. W. FLETCHER.

N. TAYLOR.f
HELIOTROPE: Heliotropium.

HELIOTROPIUM (heliotropic; turning to the sun).
Boraginacex. HELIOTROPE. Popular glasshouse plants,
prized for their flowers and fragrance.

Herbs or rarely shrubs, with small fls. in terminal,
forking often scorpioid clusters and alternate simple
Ivs. : corolla short funnelform or salver-shape, the throat
mostly open (sometimes constricted); stamens 5,
attached to the tube, not exserted, the filaments very
short; ovary 4-loculed and splitting into 4 nutlets
(or two 2-loculed nutlets) when ripe, surmounted by a
simple style. — Species upward of 250, in the warmer
regions of the globe, many of them annuals. There is a
heliotrope (H. curassdvicum, Linn.) native to the U. S.,
from Del. and S. 111. southward on seashores and in
salty soils, with white or bluish fls. and oblong or linear
Ivs.; another species (H. tenellum, Torr.) in open dry
lands from Ky. to Kans. and southward, with white

scattered or somewhat umbellate fls. and very narrow
revolute Ivs.; several species in the southern states and
southward ; also a naturalized species (H.indicum, Linn.)
with bluish scented fls. and oval or ovate-rugose Ivs.

The garden heliotropes seem to be derived from 2
species. H. peruvianum, Linn., is perhaps the leading
species. Fig. 1801. Lvs. oval or oblong-lanceolate, very
veiny, not conspicuously narrowed at the base: fls.
small, in a close cyme, the corolla-tube little longer than
the calyx. Peru. B.M. 141. G. 8:252. Vanilla-scented.
H. regale is a garden race of this, with very large clus-
ters and fls. of variable color. Gt. 50, p. 163. H.
corymbdsum, Ruiz & Pav. (H. grandiflorum, Don),
has longer and relatively narrower Ivs., which are dis-
tinctly narrowed to the base, fl. -clusters larger and
more open, fls. nearly twice larger and the corolla-tube
nearly twice longer than the calyx; calyx-teeth longer
and narrower. Peru. B.M. 1609. Narcissus-scented.
Many of the large-trussed and large-fld. garden varie-
ties are apparently of this species rather than of the
former; or possibility the two are hybridized. Originally
both species were violet-fld. but the colors are now in

various shades of pur-
ple, and there are
white-fld. forms. H.
Voltaireanum, Hort.,
is a compact garden
form, and said to be
a hybrid. P.M. 16:
100. Another species,
H. europaeum, Linn.,
is rarely seen in old
collections, and it is
sparingly naturalized.
It is a hoary-downy
annual herb 6-30 in.
high, with long-peti-
ole d oval Ivs., and
white fls. in scirpioid
racemes. H. incanum,
Ruiz & Pav., of W. S.
Amer., is perhaps in
cult, as a greenhouse
shrub: 2-3 ft.: Ivs. thick, ovate, crenulate, more or less
silky, hoary beneath: fls. white, in forking spikes, the
corolla twice exceeding the calyx. Var. glabrum, G.C.
II. 22:809, has Ivs. rough, nearly destitute of silky
covering, broader and more ovate, a denser infl., a larger
and more hairy calyx and purple fls. H. anchusaef olium,
Poir., of Brazil to Argentina, is said sometimes to be
found in gardens and it is recorded as spontaneous in
parts of this country; it is odorless: perennial, with 4-
angled hispid st.: Ivs. lanceolate to linear-lanceolate,
sessile, entire: fls. violet, about Mm- across. B.M. 8480.

L. H. B.

Heliotrope, apart from its use as a border plant and
for bedding, being a universal favorite, usually forms
part of the stock in trade of florists who do a local busi-
ness, ranking next to the geranium as a pot-plant for
spring trade. For cut-flowers in winter it is equally pop-
ular, but its lasting qualities when cut are uncertain.
Successful growers think that for best results, strong
stems and good keeping qualities, it should be grown
in a moderately cool, airy house. Some of the best are
grown in a house suited to violets and mignonette,
where the temperature seldom rises to 50° F. at night.
Stout, soft cuttings make the best plants, and root
easily in a temperature of 60° F. From the time they
are inserted, sufficient water must be given to prevent
wilting. A propagating-bed is not required. Ordinary
flats will do — the medium half -leaf soil and sand. They
must be well shaded for a week or so. They are very
liable to the cutting-bench fungus, and should be potted
or boxed off as soon as rooted, which should be in ton
or twelve days. Any light soil will do, and it need not
be rich for the first shift.

1801. Heliotropium peruvianum.

LII. Heliotrope, an old-time favorite.

HELIOTROPIUM

HELIPTERUM

1453

For winter flowers, cuttings may be taken in July and
treated as above. Some of the plants among the spring
batch with straight stems may be grown along for
standards by taking out the side shoots until 2 feet high.
These make handsome drooping specimens. By prun-
ing about midsummer they may be kept in good con-
dition for years.

Heliotropes may be grown in the .same pots for sev-
eral years, by using fairly rich top-dressing or weak
liquid manure in growing season.

Stock intended for spring cuttings is better grown
continuously in pots, as the plants lift badly in the
autumn. A few left-over bedding-plants may be grown
along in pots, purposely for stock. As a matter of fact,
stock taken from these pot-plants root more readily
than those taken from plants grown outdoors. A good
plan is to prune them rather closely a few weeks
before the time for taking cuttings comes, say in Jan-
uary. In this way we secure an even lot of cuttings,
and all at one time.

Heliotrope is extensively used as a bedding-plant, is
a favorite in window-gardens, and is much grown by
florists for cut-flowers. The ease with which it may be
grown either in pots or the garden, the color and
fragrance of its dainty flowers, and the continuity of
bloom, have all contributed to make it a general favorite.

There have been numerous garden varieties and a
number of hybrids — white and the different tints of
blue predominating. Floral catalogues rarely men-
tion, however, more than six to eight varieties. Madame
de Blonay has been a favorite white for years, while
Queen of Violets is perhaps the finest of the blues.
Chieftain is a lighter tint. Albert Delaux is a variety
with golden variegated foliage, but variegated helio-
tropes are undersirable. Among seedlings double
forms occasionally appear. They have no special merit,
and are seldom perpetuated. T. D. HATFIELD.

HELIPTERUM (Greek for sun and wing; said to refer
to the light-plumed pappus) . Including Acrodinium and
Rhoddnthe. Composite. Half-hardy annual or perennial
herbs cultivated as everlastings or immortelles.

Flowers mostly perfect, with 5-toothed open corollas:
achenes woolly, bearing a pappus of many plumose
bristles: involucre glabrous, obovate or top-shaped,
silvery or rose-colored : plants mostly glabrous. — About

60 species in Austral,
and S. Afr. This and
Helichrysum, from
which it is distin-
guished by its plumose
not roughened pappus-
hairs, are amongst the
most important of ever-
lasting fls. The cult,
kinds are annual herbs
(or grown as such), of
easiest cult, in any gar-
den soil.

A. Heads large,

many-fld.
B. Lvs. broad.
Manglesii, Muell.
(Rhoddnthe Manglesii,
Lindl. Roccdrdia Mdn-
glesii,Voss). Fig. 1802.
Neat glaucous annual,
12-18 in. tall, with very
slender, long pedicels,
bearing pretty nodding
showy heads : Ivs. thin,
oval or elliptic, clasp-
ing: involucre silvery-

1802. Helipterum Manglesii. Gener- chaffy, the ray-florets

ally known as Rhodanthe. ( x 1A) originally clear hand-

some pink, but now varying to white (R. alba, Hort.),
and to dark red (R. atrosanguinea, Drumm.). R.H.
1852:141. Var. maculatum (R. maculata, Drumm. Roc-
cdrdia Manglesii var. mac-
ulata, Voss), is usually
larger, with shorter lys.
and involucre flecked with
red: rays pink or white.
Austral. F.S.22:2291. B.
R. 1703. — A charming
plant, and one of the few
everlastings which retains
much of its grace and
beauty after being dried.
There are double -fld.

1803. Helipterum 1804. Helipterum Humboldti-

roseum. (X1A) anum. (XJi)

forms, i.e., those with all or nearly all the florets ligu-
late. Excellent also for pot culture. Seeds of the mixed
varieties are sometimes sold under the name Rhodanthe
varius.

BB. Lvs. linear.

r6seum, Benth. (Acrodinium roseum, Hook. Roc-
cdrdia rbsea, Voss). Fig. 1803. Annual, 1-2 ft. high,
glabrous, with many strict simple branches from the
crown, each st. terminated by one large head: Ivs.
numerous, alternate, small and linear: rays many,
pointed, bright pink (or varying to white in H . album,
Hort.). Austral. B.M. 4801. — A serviceable plant.

AA. Heads small, clustered.

Humboldtianum, DC. (H. Sdnfordii, Hook. Roc-
cdrdia Humboldtidna, Voss). Fig. 1804. Annual (or
cult, as such), erect or with a decumbent base, the sts.
somewhat branching: Ivs. (and sts.) white-tomentose,
at least when young, linear or lance-linear, pointed,
alternate: heads small, oblong, yellow, in a dense
terminal corymb. Austral. B.M. 5350. V. 3, p. 160.
corymbiflorum, Schlecht. (Roccdrdia corymbiflbra,
Voss). Annual, lower than the last, more branchy: Ivs.
broader: heads 2-3 times larger, top-shaped, in small
corymbs, the prominent rays white. Austral.

L. H. B.
N. TAYLOR, f

1454

HELLEBORUS

HELLEBORUS

HELLEBORUS (ancient name of H. orientalis, mean-
ing unknown). Ranunculdceae. HELLEBORE. Hardy
herbaceous perennials, admired for their very early
flowers and also their attractive leaves.

Erect, with large palmately divided Ivs., the basal
long-petioled, the upper sessile and sometimes reduced
to bracts: fls. large, white, greenish, red, purple, or
yellowish; sepals 5, broad, petal-like, mainly persistent;
petals small, tubular, furnished with claws; stamens
many: carpels 3-10, sessile, forming leathery, many-
seeded caps., dehiscent at the apex. — About 8 species,
natives of Eu. and W. Asia. Monographs by J. G.
Baker in G.C.II. 7:432 (1877) and by Thos. Moore in
G.C. II. 11:431 (1879).

All the kinds will thrive in ordinary garden soil, but
for the best results use a soil of rich loam and coarse
sand, with a top-dressing of rotten manure. A moist,
well-drained, partially shaded situation is preferable.
The species may be planted in shrubbery borders, and
in rockeries, or if wanted for cut-flowers they should be
planted in beds. An important point is not to disturb
the plants when once established, as they are very
sensitive to frequent changes of location. All the

1805. Christmas rose, Helleborus niger. ( X H)

species bloom before spring arrives; a few mild days
in December or January will bring out the buds and
flowers of H. niger varieties, and the others are not
far behind. White hellebore is not of this genus: see
Veratrum.

They are easily forced under glass. Strong plants
should be taken up into large pots and gradually inured
to a warm temperature. Blossoms may thus be brought
forth at any time desired in winter. Propagation is
best by division of roots in fall or spring. Gardeners
prefer to divide the roots in late summer or fall, as this
does not come at the flowering season. If seeds mature
they will germinate well if planted immediately in
boxes or in rich, open ground. Seedlings should bear
flowers the third season.

A. Lvs. dying annually, thin.

viridis, Linn. St. scapose: rootstock creeping: 1
basal If. 8-12 in. broad, on petiole 6-10 in. long; segms.
7-11, oblong, acute, sharply serrate: fl.-st. hardly
exceeding the basal If., bearing 3-6 fls. and large, lf.-
like bracts: fls. large, yellowish green; sepals broadly
oblong, obtuse, spreading: caps, about 4, as long as

the sepals, transversely ribbed; style erect. Eu.
Naturalized in eastern states. G.C. II. 25:553. — Not
so much used as the other species here given. Var.
purpurascens, Waldst. & Kit. Differs chiefly in the
central If.-segms. being deeply palmately cleft, and the
fls. much tinged with purple, especially on the outside.
Hungary. B.M. 3170.

AA. Lvs. evergreen, coriaceous.
B. Fl.-st. never more than once forked; fls. 1 or 2.

niger, Linn. CHRISTMAS ROSE. Fig. 1805. Stemless:
rootstock short, black: only 1 If. somewhat irregularly
divided into lobes, toothed on the outer half; petiole
5-7 in. long: fl-st. simple or once branched; fls.
very large; sepals white, or flushed with purple:
caps. 6-8. Rocky places, Eu. B.M. 8. Gn. 55, p. 13.
J.H. III. 51:591; 61:583. G.W. 10, p. 245. Gn.M.
8:279. G. 27:534. C.L.A. 9:288. Var. angustifolius,
Hort. (var. minor, Hort.). Plant and If. similar, but
fls. smaU. Very pretty. G.C. II. 21 :85, and III. 21 : 19.
G.M. 50:933. G.W. 2, p. 230. Gn.W. 23:45. Var.
altifolius, Hayne (var. major, Hort. Var. mdximus,
Hort.). Petiole reaching 1 ft. long: fls. the largest in
the genus, 3-5 in. across, and often several on same
st. Gn. 14:178; 48:6. G.C. II. 20:693. A.G. 11:63;
21:41. G. 1:657; 8:537; 11:395; 6:367; Var.
praecox, Hort. Fls. smaller than in type, from Sept.
to Feb.

BB. Fl.-st. forked 2 or 8 times; fls. several or many,
c. Without Ivs. on st. below infl.

orientalis, Lam. Stemless; short creeping rootstock:
1 radical If., 7-9-lobed; segms. 6 in. long, 1^-2 in.
broad, acute, serrate in the outer half, pubescent, with
strongly raised veins beneath; petiole 1 ft. long: fl.-st.
over 1 ft. high, forked above, 2-6-fld., large, If.-like
bracts; sepals roundish, imbricated, white, purple
beneath and purple edges, spreading: caps, oblong,
shorter than the sepals, transversely ribbed; style erect
or incurved. Asia Minor. Gn. 47, p. 136. G. 18:79. —
There are numerous varieties of this beautiful species.

Purple-fld. varieties of H. orientalis.

Var. colchicus, Regel. St. purple-spotted, quite
glaucous: 1 If. to each fl.-st.: fls. 3-6 on a st., deep
bright purple, both inside and out. Asia Minor. B.M.
4581. J.F. 2, pi. 140 (both as H. atrorubens). Gt.
1860:293. Var. cdlchicus-punctatus, Moore. Fls.
deeper plum-purple, more glaucous, exquisitely mot-
tled inside with innumerable dark dots. Gn. 16:60,
f. 8. — One of the handsomest of all the hellebores.

Var. abchasicus, A. Braun. Much like var. Colchicus,
but differing in having 2 or more Ivs. to a fl.-st: Cau-
casus region. Gt. 1866:496 (as H. caucasicus var.
abchasicus, Regel).

Var. atrorubens, Waldst. & Kit. Only 1 If. on a
fl.-st. glabrous, thinner in texture than in the rest
of the orientalis group: segms. narrow: fls. 2-4 on a st.;
sepals dark purple outside, greenish purple within.
Hungary. R.H. 1865:231. — A connecting link between
the viridis and orientalis groups.

Var. r&bro-purpftreus, Hort. (H. atropurpurea, Hort.).
A seedling of var. atrorubens, with bold foliage and
purple fl.-sts. : fls. spreading, deep purple. Characters
well fixed and very handsome. Gn. 16:60, f. 1. R.H.
1884:564.

Purple-fld. hybrids of the varieties of H. orientalis
are found in the trade under the following names: Var.
elegans; var. iridescens; F. C. Heinemann, fls. very
large, imbricated, deep purple and mottled; Frau Irene
Heinemann, fls. rose-purple outside, greenish white,
with dark lines and dots inside; Gretchen Heinemann,
red-fld., strong grower; Hofgarten-Inspector Hartwig,
fls. rose-purple without and greenish within; Apolheker
Bogren, rose-purple, very large.

HELLEBORUS

HEMEROCALLIS

1455

White-fid, varieties of H. orientalis.

Var. olympicus, Lindl. Glabrous: fls. small, but
spreading, very numerous; sepals green on outer sur-
face, white within. Bithynia. B.R. 28:58. — Hybrids
closely allied to this have been given the trade names:
Willy Schmidt and Prof. Dr. Schleicher.

Var. guttatus, A. Braun. Glabrous, green st.: sepals
green outside, white within and elegantly spotted with
purple-crimson dots. Caucasus region. — Two allied
hybrid forms are named: Commerz Benary and Albin
Otto. Gn. 16:60, f. 4. G.M. 54:73.

Var. antiquorum, A. Braun. Glabrous, green mottled
st.: fls. as in var. olympicus, but more imbricated,
maintaining the bell-shaped form. B.R. 28:34 (as H.
orientalis, Lindl.). Gn. 16:60, f. 3.

Green-fld. variety of H. orientalis.
Var. caucasicus, A. Braun. Lvs. very glossy; segms.
more oblong than in the type, often 3 or 4 in. broad:
sepals round, pale green, much imbricated. Caucasus
region. G.M. 51:873. Gn.W. 24:44.

cc. With Ivs. on st. below infl.

fcetidus, Linn. True st. 1 ft. high, marked with
If .-scars near the base: Ivs. coriaceous, with petioles
3-6 in. long: fl.-st. branched low down; sepals green or
bordered with bright purple, under 1 in. long, stamens
of same length. Fls. in late winter and early spring.
W. Eu.

H. cdrsicus, Willd. (H. lividus, Auth.). Lvs. trifoliate, dirty
yellowish green in color; Ifts. broad-ovate, sharply toothed on
margins. Blooms March to April. Corsica, Sardinia. — H. lividus,
Ait. Under cult, a robust plant with thick, fleshy sts. : radical Ivs.

simple, cordate; cauline trifoliate: fls. 2% in. across, dull purple-

fray, tinged with green, nodding, in panicles of 6-8. Balearic
K. C. DAVIS.

HELONIAS (Greek, referring to swamp). Liliacese.
SWAMP-PINK. STUD-PINK. A hardy perennial bulbous
plant in wet places from northern New Jersey to North
Carolina and is sold by dealers in native plants for
bog-gardening.

Rootstock stout and tuberous: scape hollow, bracted,
bearing at the top a short dense spike of rather showy
purple fls.: segms. 6, persistent; stamens 6: caps.
obovoid, 3-lobed, dehiscent above. — One species.

bullata, Linn. Lvs. several or numerous, thin, dark
green, clustered at the base of the scape, 6-15 in. long,
3^-2 in. wide, with fine parallel nerves: scape stout,
bracted below: in very early spring it bears a hollow
scape 1-2 ft. high, crowned by a raceme 1-3 in. long,
composed of perhaps 30 pink or purplish fls., each ^ in.
across, 6-lobed, and with 6 blue anthers. B.M. 747.
L.B.C. 10:961. B.B. 1:402.— Helonias, which is per-
fectly hardy, is so easily prop, by division that it is
hardly worth while to grow from seed. Under cult., also,
it seems rarely to mature perfect seed. It multiplies
itself rapidly from offsets, a single plant often providing
a dozen others in a season. It is found growing in dense
shade and also in the full glare of the sun, always in
wet sphagnum bog in the latter case, while in the shade
it sometimes spreads to dry ground. Although one of
the showiest of all American bog-plants, it is compara-
tively little known here, though better in England. It
makes an elegant pot-plant. HARLAN P. KELSEY.

WILHELM MILLER.

HELONIOPSIS (Greek, like Helonias). Liliacese.
Herbaceous plants resembling the swamp-pink, Helon-
ias bullata, in the color of flowers, but the flowers are
larger and fewer, and the leaves numerous and tufted.

Scapose plants, with fls. few in a raceme or sometimes
solitary: style a conspicuous feature, being long and red,
tipped with a purple undivided stigma, while in Helonias
the style is very short and 3-cut. Both genera are
separated from numerous allied genera by the septicidal
dehiscence of their caps. The fls. are bell-shaped, droop-
ing, deep pink, 6-lobed, with 6 red filaments and purple-

blue stamens. — The genus has about 4 species in Japan
and Formosa.

japonica, Maxim. Rootstock short, stout, with long
root-fibers: Ivs. oblanceolate, persistent, green tinged
brown or purple: fls. pink or rose-colored, on rather long
pedicels, in few-fld. racemes: seeds small, very numer-
ous, with a conspicuous tail at each end. Japan. B.
M. 6986. — It grows in the mountains of Japan at an
altitude of 2,000-7,000 ft., and is presumably hardy.

breviscapa, Maxim. (H. grandiflora, Franch. & Sav.).
Rootstock praemorse, thick and short: radical Ivs.
spatulate, acuminate; scape-lvs. short: pedicels very
short; perianth blush- white, the segms. obovate; style
and stamens scarcely exserted: seeds appendaged.
Japan. G.C. III. 37:178. Gn. 68.52. — Recom-
mended in England for early spring bloom and hardy;
requires a damp and shady position. — Entire plant 6-8
in. high.

H. umbellata, Baker, from Formosa, has oblanceolate mucronate
Ivs., st. 3-5 in. high, and 3-10 fls. in an umbel, the segms. obtuse
and scarcely 1 line wide. T TT R

HELWINGIA (after G. A. Helwing, 1666-1748, a
German clergyman, who wrote on the botany of Prus-
sia). Aralidcese. A curious deciduous shrub, remark-
able for the reason that the small, inconspicuous
greenish flowers are borne in clusters on the midribs
of the leaves at about the center of their upper
surfaces.

Flowers dioecious, short-pedicelled, with obsolete
calyx, 3—5 petals and stamens and 3-4-celled ovary:
fr. a berry-like, 3-4-seeded drupe. — Two species in
Japan and Himalayas. Of not much decorative value
and therefore rarely cult., but interesting on account
of the unusual position of the fls.; hardy as far north as
Boston. It seems to grow in any soil that is somewhat
moist. Prop, by greenwood cuttings under glass.

jap6nica, Dietr. (H. rusciflora, Willd.). Bushy
shrub, 3-5 ft. high: Ivs. petioled, ovate or elliptic-ovate,
acuminate, serrate, stipulate, 1^-3 in. long: fls. in
June, the staminate generally with 3, the pistillate with
4 petals. Japan. S.Z. 86. A.G. 13:8.

A. PHELPS WYMAN.

HELXINE (from the Greek to tear, because the
seeds catch on the clothes). Urticacex. A small creep-
ing herb with filamentous branches: Ivs. alternate,
small, entire, roundish: fls. monoecious, pistillate in the
axils of the lower Ivs., staminate in axils of upper. One
species, H. Soleirolii, Req., from Corsica and Sar-
dinia. Sts. slender, reddish: Ivs. bright green, cordate-
reniform: fls. inconspicuous. — A good plant for the
alpine garden, to be grown in moderate shade.

HEMEROCALLIS (Greek, beautiful^ for a day;
because the blossoms fail at night). Liliacese. YELLOW
DAY LILY. Popular yellow- and orange-flowered
stout-rooted glabrous perennials with abundant radical
foliage, prized for their hardiness and the showy bloom
in spring and summer.

Erect with more or less branching scapes overtopping
the long keeled Ivs. which are both radical and 2-ranked
at the base of the scape: fls. lily-like, mostly horizon-
tal or oblique; tube short, inclosing the ovary; segms. 6,
much exceeding the tube, oblong or spatulate; stamens
6, inserted in the throat, declined, the filaments slender,
the style simple; ovary oblong, 3-celled, becoming a
loculicidally 3-valved caps.: seeds black, spherical.
— Species about a half-dozen, Eu. to Japan.

Hemerocallis includes the lemon lily (H. flava), one of
the hardiest and best of herbaceous perennials. All the
blue and white day lilies belong to the genus Hosta;
all the yellow and orange day lilies belong to Hemero-
callis. The yellow day lilies have narrow, grass-like
foliage, and their flowers have wider funnels; the blue
and white day lilies have very broad foliage, which is
not at all grass-like. The plants are all remarkably free

1456

HEMEROCALLIS

HEMEROCALLIS

from enemies, and need no protection of any kind, even
in the severest winters. The roots are bundles of fleshy
tubers, and are sometimes classed with bulbs in cata-
logues of nurserymen. Small plants will bloom the first
year from the nursery. Clumps can often be left undi-
vided for four or five years without loss in size or num-
ber of flowers, but as a general thing all robust-growing
herbaceous perennials should be divided frequently.
In old clumps the roots often become firmly matted

••^'fclVtfj,- v,

.-....- -V^£/" XL.:,

1806. Hemerocallis flava.

near the middle, and the wasteful competition between
the too-numerous roots weakens the vitality of the
plant and the flowers are likely not to be good. Next
to H. flava, the oldest garden favorites among the yellow
day lillies is H. fulva, sometimes called brown day lily,
and erroneously in some catalogues the lemon lily. H.
fulva is a taller plant, with later and orange-colored
flowers and wavy inner segments. H. aurantiaca has
come into prominence, and its var. major by some con-
noisseurs is considered the finest of all day lilies. As a
rule, double forms are not so popular as the types, and
they lack the simplicity and definite character of the
single flowers. Yellow day lilies have a wholesome
fragrance. The individual flowers are short-lived, but
there is a good succession. The plants thrive in almost
any garden soil, but are most luxuriant along the bor-
ders of ponds or moist places, and in partial shade. The
flowers are excellent for cutting. Plants propagated by
division. R. B. Whyte gives the succession of bloom at
Ottawa, Canada, as follows: H. Dumortierii, June 4;
H. minor, H. MiMendorfii and H. Thunbergii, June 11;
H. rutilans, June 18; H. fulva, July 2; H. aurantiaca var.
major, July 9; H. fulva var. Kwanso, July 23, and H.
disticha fl.-pl., July 30. The common species, particu-
larly H. fulva, often colonize about yards, and along
roadsides, sometimes making great areas of foliage and
very little bloom. There are several worthy hybrids in
cultivation in the choice collections of plants (see
supplementary list).

^u-/zgv"

aurantiaca, 8.
citrina, 5.
crocea, 6.
Cypriani, 9.
disticha, 9.
Dumortierii, 7.
flava, 1.
flore-pleno, 7, 9.

INDEX.

fulva, 9.
fframinea, 6.
gramini folia, 6.
hupehensis, 9.
Kwanso, 9.
longituba, 9.
luteola, 3.
maculata, 9.

major, 3, 8.
Middendorffii, 4.
Minor, 6.
pallens, 3.
rutilans, 7.
Sieboldii, 7.
Thunbergii, 2.
variegata, 9.

A. Group of yellow-fld. species: fragrant.

1. flava, Linn. LEMON LILY. Fig. 1806. Lvs. 18-24
in. long, 6-8 lines wide: scapes longer than the Ivs.;
corymb 6-9-fld.; pedicels 12-24 lines long; tube 6-15
lines long. Eu., Temp. Asia. B.M. 19. A.G. 17:437;
24:363. Gn. 48, p. 400. G.W. 8, p. 277.— Blooms in
June in the N. U. S.

2. Thunbergii, Baker. Except for its later flowering,
according to Baker, this species does not differ mate-
rially from H. flava: Ivs. 6-7 % lines wide:
corymb loose, 8-10-fld., with 1 or 2 fls.
lower down; tube nearly 1 in. long; fls.
lemon-yellow, opening widely, 3 in. across;
segms. membranous, crisped. Japan. Intro.
1890. — Said to differ from all "others in
having the upper 6-10 in. of the scape
thickened and flattened.

3. luteola, Hort. Hybrid of H. auran-
tiaca var. major x H. Thunbergii: fls. gol-
den-yellow, 6 in. across, on stout branch-
ing sts. 4 ft. high. Midway between
parents in habit and in size of bloom.
G. 25:346.— Raised at Colchester Nurser-
ies, England. There is a var. major, Hort.,
large. Var. pallens, Hort., is a hybrid
between H. citrina and H. luteola: vigor-
ous, many-fld. : fls. large, fragrant, canary-
yellow.

4. Middendorffii, Traut. & Mey. Height
\-\Yz ft.: Ivs. 15-18 in. long, 8-12 lines
wide: scapes about as long as the Ivs.;
corymb 2-4-fld.; pedicels almost none;
tube 5-6 lines long; inner segms. 9-12
lines wide. Amur region. Gt. 522. R.H.
1897, p. 139.

5. citrina, Baroni. Fls. lemon-yellow or
pale sulfur-yellow: differs from H. minor
in the Ivs. being twice as broad and the fls.

much larger; from H. Dumortierii in having a longer
scape and Ivs. three times as long, and fls. twice the
size and longer-tubed. China. — Tall-growing, very
fragrant; considered to be a fine species; excellent for
cutting.

6. minor, Mill. (H. graminea, Andr., not Schlecht. H.
graminifolia, Schlecht.) Fls. golden-yellow: Ivs. 15-18
in. long, 2-3 lines wide, darker green than in the other
species: scapes about as long as the Ivs.; corymb 3-6-
fld.; pedicels 3-24 lines long; inner segms. membranous
and wavy at the margin. July, Aug. N. and E.
Asia. B.M. 873. Var. crdcea, Hort., is saffron-
yellow.

AA. Group of orange-fid, species: the last not fragrant.

7. Dumortierii, Morren (H. rutilans, Hort. H.
Sieboldii, Hort.). Height 1^-2 ft.: Ivs. 12-15 in. long,
6-8 lines wide: scapes hardly as long as the Ivs. ; corymb
2-3-fld.; pedicels 3-6 lines long; fls. 2-23^ in. long, while
they are 3-4 in. long in the other species; inner segms.
5-6 lines wide; tube very short. Japan. B.H. 2:43.
Gn. 31:280. Var. flore-pleno is less cult.— This
species is the earliest to blossom. This species is con-
fused; some authors consider it to be a form of H.
minor.

8. aurantiaca. Baker. Height 23^-3 ft.: Ivs. more
than 12 lines wide: corymb 6-8-fld.; fls. bright orange,
opening less widely than any other species, fragrant.
July. Japan or E. Siberia (?). — The type was intro. to
cult, in 1890 and has rapidly given way to var. major,
Baker, intro. 1895, which is larger in all parts. Lvs.
12-18 lines wide: tube 9 lines long; fls. when expanded
5-6 in. across. July-Sept. Japan. G.C. III. 18:71.
Gn. 48:400; 50, p. 17. J.H. III. 31:157. A.G. 18:179.
— Closest to H. Dumortierii, from which it is chiefly
distinguished by its much larger, later and more red-
dish fls. with longer tube.

HEMEROCALLIS

HEMITELIA

1457

9. fulva, Linn. (H. disticha, Donn). Lvs. 18-24 in.
long, 9-15 lines wide: corymb 6-12-fld.; fls. orange;
pedicels short; inner segms. with wavy margins, with
numerous veins joined by cross veins. July, Aug. Eu.,
Temp. Asia. B.M. 64 (central band of white). Mn.
5, p. 193. Var. Kwanso, Hort. (H. Kwdnso, Hort.), the
"double orange lily," blooms longer than any single-
fld. form. Gt. 500. It has a sub-variety with variegated
Ivs. Var. maculata, Baroni. Fls. with a red-purple
blotch inside. China. Var. longituba, Hort. Perianth-
tube half as long as segms. Gt. 34:1187. Japan. Var.
fldre-pleno, Hort., is shown in F.S. 18:1891, with a
red spot on the middle of each segm. Gn. 48, p. 401.
R.H. 1897, p. 139. Var. variegata, has a stripe of white
down the middle of each If. Var. hupehensis, Hort.
Fls. very bright coppery red, with yellow throat;
segms. undulate, reflexed. China. Var. Cypriani, Hort.
Dwarf er and more floriferous than the type: fls. cop-
pery red with golden center and a golden line in the
middle of the segms. China.

H. Baroni, Hort. (H. Thunbergii X H. citrina). Pale yellow;
segms. narrow and pointed. — H. corona, Hort. (H. flava X H. auran-
tiaca var. major). Floriferous, golden yellow. — H. elmensis, Hort.
(H. minor and H. citrina).—//. Florham is said to be a variety of
American origin, with large golden yellow fragrant fls. in June and
July. H. Forrestii, Diels, recently intro. from W. China, is allied
to H. fulva, but readily distinguished by its narrow perianth which
has a remarkably short tube: fls. deep reddish orange: Ivs. 8-14 in.
long and % in. or less broad. — H. fulcitrina, Hort. (H. fulva var.
maculata and H. citrina). — H. hippeastroides, Hort. (H. minor var.
crocea and H. Thunbergii.) — H. Muetteri, Hort. (H. Thunbergii
and H. citrina). — H. ochroleitca, Hort. (H. Thunbergii and H. cit-
rina). Pale primrose-yellow. — H. vomerensis, Hort. (H. Thunbergii
and H. minor var. crocea). WlLHELM MlLLER.

L. H. B.f

HEMIANDRA (half anther or male, referring to the
1-celled anthers). Labiatse. Three shrubs or sub-
shrubs in W. Austral., with opposite, rigid and narrow
entire sharp-pointed Ivs., and solitary axillary white or
pink fls.: corolla with a short erect broadly 2-lobed
upper lip, and a longer spreading 3-lobed lower lip with
the middle lobe often 2-lobed; stamens 4, didynamous;
style briefly 2-lobed, H. pungens, R. Br., is recorded in
European horticultural literature: rigid shrub, 1-2 ft.
or less, glabrous or nearly so : Ivs. sessile, linear or linear-
lanceolate, with 1 or 2 prominent veins beneath: fls.
white or pink with darker spots; corolla-tube exserted
and dilated. J.F. 2:126. — Mentioned as a greenhouse
subshrub. L. H. B.

HEMICYCLIA (Greek, semi-circular, referring
to the seed-scar or the half-circular stigma).
Euphorbidcese. Shrubs or trees, one cultivated
in southern California for its holly-like leaves
and red fruits.

Leaves alternate, simple, entire, leathery: fls.
dioecious, in axillary clusters or the pistillate
singly; sepals of the staminate fls. 4-5, imbri-
cate, sometimes somewhat petal-like, petals
none; stamens numerous from a disk; stigma
sessile, broad, flat; 2 ovules in the single cell: fr.
a 1-seeded, indehiscent drupe. — About 9 species
of E. Indies to Austral. Related to Drypetes
and Putranjiva. H. australasica is distinguished
from the other 2 Australian species by its very
short filaments and glabrous ovary.

australasica, Muell. Arg. Lvs. broadly ovate
to ovate-oblong, obtuse, 1^-3 in. long, finely veined
below: fr. nearly %in. long, very smooth, red and suc-
culent, inclosing a stone. j 3 g NORTON.

HEMIGRAPHIS (half written, of some obscure or
fanciful application). Acanthdceae. Diffuse or pros-
trate, mostly herbs, grown for foliage and fls. The
genus, comprising perhaps 30 species in Trop. Asia,
China, Japan and the Philippines, is allied to Strobi-
lanthes and more remotely to Ruellia. From the
former it is distinguished by the 3-oo ovules in each
cell, linear caps, with base scarcely constricted, and in

93

the prostrate or trailing habit. Fls. in short terminal
crowded spikes, the bracts usually herbaceous and
imbricated; calyx deeply 5-cut; corolla slender-tubed
with 5 rounded more or less unequal lobes; stamens 4,
didynamous: Ivs. opposite, simple, entire or dentate.
H. colorata, Hallier (Ruellia colorata, Blume; once
listed as Amaglyptus), from Java, is a name listed in
S. Fla., as a good subject for baskets and for cover: Ivs.
of H. colorata are ovate, shallowly cordate at base,
crenate and bullate, purplish: fls. white or whitish,
about %in. long. There is likely to be confusion in the
trade plants in this and related groups. L. jj 3.

HEMIONITIS (Greek, mule; the plants erroneously
supposed to be sterile). Polypodidcese. A group of
small tropical ferns, with copiously netted veins and
naked lines of sporangia following the veins. Eight or
9 species occur in the tropics of both hemispheres.
The plants are dwarf, and are grown in Wardian cases
by a few fanciers in the Old World. For cult., see
Ferns.

palmata, Linn. STRAWBERRY FERN. Fig. 1807.
Lf.-blades borne on tall stalks, palmate, 2-6 in. wide,
with 5 nearly equal triangular divisions, those of the
sterile Ivs. less acute; surfaces pubescent. Reproduces
by numerous buds as well as by spores. W. Indies,
Mex., S. Amer.

elegans, Davenp. Lvs. 4-10 in. wide, with a broad
sinus at the base and 5 long slender, lanceolate divisions:
plant smooth. Mex. G.F. 4:485.

L. M. UNDERWOOD.
R. C. BENEDICT.!

HEMIPHRAGMA (half partition, referring to struc-
ture of the capsule). Scrophularidceae. One trailing
perennial herb, H. heterophyl-
lum, Wall., sometimes grown
abroad for rockwork and
ground-cover, requiring pro-
tection in England. It is pros-
trate, with wiry branches, pilose
or becoming glabrous: lys. on
main st. opposite, petiolate,
orbicular and crenate; on
branches small and fascicled,
linear and ciliate : fls.
sessile in the axils,
small, pink; calyx
5-parted, with linear
segms.; corolla-tube
short, the limb 5-
lobed and nearly
equal; stamens 4: fr.
a fleshy caps, or
berry, shining, red.
Himalaya region.
L. H. B.

HEMIPTELIA: Zelkom.

HEMITELIA (Greek, with half
a roof; referring to sori). Cya-
thedcese. Tree ferns of the tropics,
with round or semiglobose sori
and an inferior indusium, con-
sisting of a scale which is often
indistinct and deciduous. Some
20 species occur in both hemi-
spheres. This genus is not very
well distinguished from Cyathea
and Alsophila, differing only in
technical characters of the in-
dusium. For cult., see Cyathea
and Alsophila; also article on
Tree ferns, under Ferns.

guianensis, Hook. Rachis

1807. Hemionitis palmata.

(X1A)

slightly scaly and hispid: Ivs.

1458

HEMITELIA

HERACLEUM

bi-tripinnate, the secondary rachis distinctly winged,
especially at the upper portion: sori few in each segm.,
usually 2-4; indusium ciliate and often lobed. Var.
Paradae, Hort., is the form commonly in cult. British
Guiana. I.H. 24:280.

Lindenii, Hook. Lys. pinnate, the pinnae distant and
slightly stalked, 6-12 in. long, 1-1 M m- broad, the base
truncate or wedge-shaped: sori in 2-3 irregular lines
near the margin. Venezuela. I.H. 42:46.

L. M. UNDERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT.!

HEMLOCK in Old World literature is what is
known as poison hemlock, an umbelliferous herb, Con-
ium maculatum. By hemlock, Americans mean hem-
lock spruce, an evergreen tree, Tsuga canadensis,

HEMP: common hemp is Cannabis sativa (which see); Bow-
string H., Sansevieria; Manilla H., Musa textilis; Sisal H., Agave
rigida var. Sisalana.

HEN-AND-CHICKENS. A proliferous form of the
English daisy, Bellis perennis; also the thick-leaved
rosettes of Cotyledon, used in carpet-bedding, usually
as Echeveria.

HENBANE: Hyoscyamus niger.
HENFREYA: Asystasia.

HEPATICA (liver-like, from the shape of the leaves).
Ranunculdcese. HEPATICA. LIVER-LEAP. MAYFLOWER
(incorrectly). Stemless low perennials sometimes
grown in the wild border for very early spring bloom.
Leaves 3-lobed and sometimes toothed, appearing
after the fls. and remaining green over winter: scapes
1-fld., with an involucre of 3 small sessile Ivs. simu-
lating a calyx; sepals petal-like, white, pink or purple:
achenes short-beaked, pubescent. (Fig. 1808.) — A
genus of 3 species, natives of the north temperate
zone, grown in open flower-beds for their attractive
fls., which appear in early spring; the peculiar foliage is
also much admired.

The plants prefer shade, but do fairly well in open
places. They should remain undisturbed from year to
year, in rich well-drained loam. Well suited to the
north or east slope of a rockery. Plants kept in pots
in a coldframe until midwinter will quickly bloom at any
time desired if removed to a warm room or greenhouse.
Propagation of old plants is easily accomplished by
division of the roots. Seeds may be sown very shallow
in a moist, shaded soil. The seed is sometimes started
in frames in very early spring and the plants trans-
planted to the garden later, but little is gained by this
as the flowers will not show until the next season.

triloba, Choix (Hepdtica
Hepdtica, Karsten. Ane-
mone Hepatica, Linn. A.
triloba, Hort.). Scapes 4-6
in.: lobes of Ivs. obtuse: fls.
J^j-1 in. across; sepals oval
or oblong, obtuse. Earliest
spring. E. U. S., Eu., and
Asia. B.M. 10. B.R. 387
(as H. americana). White-,
blue-, and pink-fld. forms
have been fixed in cult.,
and are known as var. alba,
Hort.; var. caeriilea fl.-pl.,
Hort.; var. riibra fl.-pl.,
Hort. Gn. 26:24. Gn. M.
15:306. G.C. 1873, p. 645
(var. marmorata, Moore).

acutfloba, DC. (H. triloba
var. acuta, Pursh. Ane-
mone acutiloba, Laws, H.

1808. Flower of Hepatica. acuta, Brit.). Fig. 1809.
(Natural size) Much like H. triloba, but

with the lobes of the Ivs. ovate and acute, occasion-
ally the lateral lobes 2-cleft (rarely the middle one):
achenes slightly stipitate. E. U. S.

angulosa, DC. (Anemone angulosa, Lam.). Plant
tufted as in the other hepaticas, hairy: Ivs. 3-5-lobed,
lobes often serrate: involucre near the fl. toothed;
fls. large, blue, whitish or reddish. Hungary. B.M.

1809. Hepatica acuti-
loba. The flowers of
hepatica droop and close
at night.

5518. G.C. 1865:698. Gn. M.4:190. Gn. 26, p. 25.
G. 2:551. Var. alba, Hort. Fls. large, pure white,
var. rdsea, Hort. A rose-colored form. Var. lilacina,
Hort. A free-flowering variety with lilac-colored fls.

K. C. DAVIS.

HEPTAPLEURUM: Schefflera.

HERACLEUM (dedicated to Hercules, who used it in
medicine, according to Pliny). Umbelliferae. COW-
PARSNIP. Perennial or biennial herbs, some of which
are used in bold planting effects where there is ample
space.

Mostly tall and coarse herbs, with prominent and
often very large lobed or pinnate or dissected Ivs.: fls.
in large umbels, white or purplish, with mostly obcor-
date petals and the outer ones often larger and cleft and
forming rays: fr. obovate, oval or orbicular, dorsally
flattened, the oil-tubes extending scarcely below the
middle. — Probably 70 species, in the northern hemis-
phere, one reaching Abyssinia.

Heracleums are not suited for general gardening, but
are sometimes grown in wild gardens or parks, or as
single specimens on lawns, where a very bold and
striking object is desired. The garden species are
coarse herbs, growing 5 to 10 feet high, with broad foli-
age, which is their chief beauty. They are adapted to

HERACLEUM

HERBARIUM

1459

all soils, but prefer a rich moist soil, and often do well
at the edge of running water. They should not be
allowed to go to seed. If these plants are grown on an
open, sunny lawn, they should be liberally supplied with
moisture at all times. Propagated by division or seed.

A. Plant biennial (or biennial-perennial).
sibiricum, Linn. Lvs. scabrous to hirsute, pinnate or
deeply pinnatifid; Ifts. oblong or ovate; segms. lobed or
palrnately parted, serrate: fls. yellowish, without rays;

clear white, large, in umbels 4 ft. across, produced in
great number. Gn. 59, p. 148; 74, p. 526. G.W. 12,
p. 410; 15, p. 636. — This noble species comes from
the Caucasus. Seeds were sown at Geneva, Switzer-
land, in 1893, germinated in 1894, and the plants were
8 ft. high, in 1896. It grows 9 ft. high, and perhaps
more. Said to be of easy cult., preferring deep rich
soil that is cool and damp; the roots, and especially
the tap-root, should remain uninjured, and it is said

Ha,iiiia,u^j- HCUW^A, ov^ic*^. ™. JY*""*"") ,T*Uiiwu<, ic*j.c,, that it thrives better if not transplanted, although the
petals about equal: fr. subrotund-oval, deeply notched seedlings may be handled in pots. T H R t

at the apex. Eu., N. Asia.— Height 5-6 ft., blooming in
summer, forming a handsome plant with the much-cut
foliage.

platytaenium, Boiss. (H. eminens, Lange). Lvs. often
2 ft. across, tomentose beneath, the lower ones trisect
and the upper ones less deeply cut, segms. stalked and
obtusely palmate-lobed : fls. white, in harry umbels
sometimes 1 ft. across: fr. large, hairy. W. Asia. — Said
to be specially valuable for
woods and wild-gardens : 4-5 ft.
Sometimes perennial.

persicum, Desf. Lvs. large,
once- or twice-pinnate, gla-
brous above and pubescent
beneath, the segms. in 3 or 4
pairs, much cut into narrow
divisions: fls. white, in large
somewhat pubescent umbels.
W. Asia. — Reaches 12 ft. in
height. Sometimes perennial.

pubescens, Bieb. (H. caucd-
sicum, Stev.). Lvs. pinnatisect,
pubescent beneath and gla-
brous above, the segms. 2 or 3
pairs, with elliptic lobes: fls.
white, the setulose umbels
many-rayed: fr. elliptic, pilose,
only the margin aculeate. Asia
Minor. Sometimes perennial.
Var. Wahelmsii, Boiss. (H.
Wilhelmsii, Fisch. & Mey.)
differs in its prominently acu-
leate fr.

Lehmannianum, Bunge. St.
stout: Ivs. glabrous above and
pubescent beneath, the lower
ones pinnatisect; segms. 2-3
pairs and pinnatifid and at
apex 3-parted, the lobes short-
ovate and acute and coarsely
toothed: fls. many, dull pink,
in large umbels. Turkestan;
3-7 ft. Gn. 66, p. 259.

AA. Plant perennial.

lanatum, Michx. Lvs. trisect, tomentose beneath;
segms. petiolulate, rotund, cordate, lobed and sharply
serrate; Ifts. of the involucel lanceolate: fr. oval-orbicu-
lar. N. Amer., W. Asia. Mn. 4, p. 164. — A striking
coarse pubescent plant of low or moist grounds, 4-8 ft.
high.

villdsum, Fisch. (H. giganteum, Hort.). Lvs. sinuate-
pinnatifid, sharply serrate, acuminate, woolly-tomen-
tose beneath; Ifts. of involucres short, bristly, deflexed:
fls. white or whitish, in umbels sparingly rayed: fr.
elliptic, ciliate, woolly on the back. Caucasus. G.C.
III. 3:437; 20:271. J.H. III. 49:115. G. 7:537. G.W.
7, p. 357. Gn.W. 20:47. Gn.M. 14:171.— A bold spe-
cies, reaching 8-12 ft. in height. Said to be sometimes
biennial.

1810. The Goose Tree of the herbalists.

Mantegazzianum, Sommier & Levier. A recent intro.
into cultivation 'and said to be the finest of the
genus: Ivs. 3 ft. long, deeply cut into many oblong-
lanceolate notched lobes, making a gigantic clump: fls.

HERBA IMPIA of the old herbalists is Gifola
germanica.

HERBALS. Books on plants, published from the
fourteenth to the middle of the eighteenth century,
were largely written from the medicinal point of view,
and were often called herbals. The scientific point of
view of plant - knowledge is
conveniently dated from 1753,
when Linnaeus published his
"Species Plantarum." Of the
herbalists, John Gerarde is
probably read most at the pre-
sent time. His style is chatty,
quaint and personal. One of
the notions accepted by the
early herbalists was that of the
vegetable lamb, which is pic-
tured in this work under Cibo-
tium (Fig. 961). Another idea
that fascinated these worthy
plant-lovers was that of the
barnacle goose tree. Fig. 1810
is reproduced from a book by
Duret, 1605, and shows how
the fruits that fall upon dry
land become "flying birds,
while those that fall into the
water become "swimming
fishes." Other conceptions of
this goose tree are reproduced
in the "Gardeners' Magazine,"
35:749 (1892). Almost every
large library possesses a few
herbals, as Matthiolus, Bauhin,
L'Obel and Fuchsius. The
largest collection of herbals in
America is the one given by
the late E. Lewis Sturtevant to
the Missouri Botanical Garden
at St. Louis. See Agnes Arber
(Mrs. E. A. Newell Arber),
"Herbals: Their Origin and

Evolution," a recent British work. The herbals are
invaluable in tracing the growth of ideas about plants.

HERBARIUM. An herbarium is a collection of dried
plants systematically named, and arranged in cases
for ready reference and protection. In the study of
systematic botany such collections have existed for
many years, and they are an absolute necessity to the
student, supplementing field work. Indeed, without
an herbarium, scientific systematic work would be
practically impossible, for the identification of species,
the study of the plants of any given area and the
comparison of the flora of different regions can be con-
ducted thoroughly only where specimens of the plants
under consideration are at hand and can be readily
consulted. Type specimens of new species are deposited
in herbaria, and reference is constantly being made to
these types to settle the identity of species when meager
descriptions only are available. Floras of distant regions
have been written by those who have never visited
the places, but have worked on the collections that

1460

HERBARIUM

HERBARIUM

have been brought back. It is only through such col-
lections of dried plants that publications of the plants
of a region are possible. It is a vital supplement to
actual work in the field. Large and important herbaria
exist at many centers of botanical activity in this
country and abroad, while private collections are
countless.

There are few collections of pressed specimens of
plants embracing the wide range of horticulture, and
there should be more of them. The advantage of such
herbaria in identifying plants under cultivation and in
comparing the many forms that are constantly being
evolved, and that do not occupy a place in collections
of native plants, must be obvious to everybody. Every
horticulturist should have a good herbarium, for it
increases very largely the value of his work besides
giving much pleasure in the preparation and use of it.

1811. A common method of mounting herbarium specimens.

It is like a reference library and it enables a nursery-
man to keep his stock true to name. One of the most
difficult problems for a systematic botanist or a horti-
culturist to meet is that of nomenclature, and much
trouble and waste time can be avoided by having at
hand an authentically named collection, embracing as
many forms as possible. A good working herbarium
can be made by pressing the cultivated plants at hand
and by securing from others specimens of additional
forms.

In collecting plants for the press it must be remem-
bered that they are to be mounted on paper 11 J^ by
16% inches in size. These are standard dimensions.
Take up small plants by the roots, and of larger plants
secure a branch that will show typical leaves and flower
or fruit according to what is desired. Note with each
plant, on a label or on a tag slipped on the end of the
stem, the important characters that are to be entered
on the final label, such as trade name, color of flowers,
whether it is annual, biennial or perennial, date, local-

ity, collector, and so on. These should be kept care-
fully with the plant.

The specimens are then laid for pressing between
sheets of unsized paper that will readily absorb the
moisture. Newspaper will do, but prepared sheets can
be bought at very small cost of any botanical dealer,
from whom also can be obtained collecting-boxes,
trowels, presses and all other details used in making
an herbarium. Plants can be folded once or even twice
to be adapted to the size of the sheet, unless too many
leaves overlap, in which case two specimens, or even
more, can be made of the same plant and pressed
separately. A little skill will enable one to lay out
his plants artistically, showing upper and under sur-
faces of the leaves, and the various sides of the flowers.
Sometimes it is best to section a thick stem or root.
The folder with its inclosed plant or plants and accom-
panying data is then put between driers, which are
sheets of a heavy felt paper, very absorbent. On
this is placed another folder, and so on until a pile
a foot or more high is reached. This pile is then
placed in a press. The best kind of press is a simple,
portable one, composed of two frames, each made
of strips of hard wood arranged at right angles to
each other. The press is then tightened by strong
straps. The driers should be changed daily for a
few times, and the specimens examined, and then
less frequently till they are perfectly dry. Most
excellent results in quick drying can be secured by
means of sheets of corrugated card board with one
side flat. (See J. F. Collins, Rhodora xii. 221, 1910).
By placing a sheet between the various driers each
plant is isolated from its neighbors, and the circula-
tion of ah* through the pores speedily dries the plants.
Put the press in the sun when possible. The old-
fashioned method of using plain boards and a heavy
weight on top is not to be recommended.

The specimens should then be mounted on sheets
of stiff, white, calendered paper, 11H by 16%
inches, eighteen pounds to the ream being standard
weight. This is for a perfectly appointed herbarium.
The plants can be kept in the original folders and
filed in that way, but, for safety and ease in hand-
ling, the specimens should be properly secured to
the sheets. The regular method is by gluing them
down, fish glue being used, and supplementing this
with strips of gummed paper, surgeon's isinglass
plaster being the best material. These strips are
put over portions of the plant that are liable to
separate from the sheet. In some large herbaria
gummed strips are used entirely. Each mounted sheet
must contain but one species, variety or form, but
two or more different collections may be on a single
sheet. A label accompanies each collection composed
of one or more specimens. A convenient size is 3H
by 1% inches. On it should be written the name,
locality, date, collector and any useful data such as
have been mentioned above.

The mounted sheets are put loose into genus covers
of stiff manila paper, 16 l/i by UK inches, each cover
devoted to a single genus. The name of the genus is
written in the lower left-hand corner, and that of the
species in the lower right-hand corner. More than one
species of the same genus can be put into the same
cover. These covers are placed systematically in the
herbarium case fitted with pigeon-holes wide and deep
enough to hold the covers easily and 6 inches between
shelves. The doors must close tightly to keep out
insects and dust. The cases are of varying heights,
according to convenience, and are generally of wood.
The most approved have two rows of about thirteen
pigeon-holes each, and are made of steel, thus securing
absolute safety.

An herbarium was called "Hortus siccus," or dry
garden, by the ancients, but, although in one sense
true, it does not convey the correct idea. To the true

HERBARIUM

HERB

1461

scientific lover of plants, whether botanist, horticul-
turist, florist, or nurseryman, a carefully equipped
collection of dried plants is not only a great and neces-
sary aid, but a true delight. In them he sees the living
plants that they represent, and to dissect a flower,
however old it may be, he has but to boil it for a few
seconds in a retort, and it can be as easily dissected as
if fresh. WALTER DEANE.

HERB, HERBS. An herb is a plant that dies to the
ground each year, or at least that does not become
woody. It may be annual, as bean, pigweed; biennial,
as mullein, parsnip; perennial, as dictamnus, rhubarb;
many of the perennials live only three or four years
effectively. To the gardener, however, the word "herb"
is ordinarily synonymous with herbaceous perennial;
and he usually has in mind those particular perennial
herbs grown for ornament, and which remain where
they are planted. Goldenrod, bleeding-heart, sweet
wilh'am, hollyhock, daffodil are examples. To many
persons, however, the word herb is synonymous with
sweet herb, and it suggests sage and tansy.

Herbs are grown in an herbary, which, as here
understood, is a garden or collection of herbs, and par-
ticularly of perennial herbs, since the collection may
then be more readily and certainly continued.

Herbs have two kinds of values, — their intrinsic
merits as individual plants, and their value in the com-

Eosition or the mass. It is usually possible to secure
oth these values at one and the same time. In fact,
the individual beauty of herbs is enhanced rather than
diminished by exercising proper care in placing them.
Planted with other things, they have a background, and
the beauties are brought put the stronger by contrast
and comparison. It is quite as important,therefore, to
consider the place for planting as to choose the particu-
lar kinds of plants. The appreciation of artistic effects
in plants is a mark of highly developed sensibilities.
Happily, this appreciation is rapidly growing; and this
fact contributes to the increasing popularity of land-
scape gardening and ornamental gardening. Some of the
best effects in herb-planting are to be seen in the wild,
particularly along fences, roads and streams. The
planter must remember that herbs are likely to grow
larger and more bushy in cultivation than in the wild.

A strip or border along the side of a lawn, or bounding
an area, is the best place for a collection of herbs —
whether annual or perennial — that are grown for orna-
mental effect. (See Fig. 597, Vol. I.) About any place
there will be special uses of herbs. (See the plans, Figs.
1812, 1813.) The home-maker should cover the bare

and unseemly places about the borders of his place
(Fig. 1814). He may utilize a rock or a wall as a back-
ground (Fig. 1815). He may hide the ground-line about
a post (Fig. 1816) or along a fence. Some of the com-
monest herbs, that excite the least admiration, are
handsome when well grown and well placed. (See
Fig. 1817.) One should always plant where the herbs
will have relation to something else, — to the general
design or handling of the place. This will usually be

1812. Plan of a residence area on uneven ground. The heavy
planting against banks and borders provides areas for herbs as
well as for shrubs. The location is indicated of library, dining-
room and kitchen.

1813. Planting areas hi a home ground. The general center is
kept open. There are trees along the streets and two on the lawn.
About the residence and on the boundaries, as well as in the
parking at one side, there is opportunity for herbs and shrubs.
D.R., dining-room; L.R., living-room; K., kitchen.

about the boundaries. The hardy border is the unit in
most planting of herbs. (See Figs. 1814, 1818.) A
rockwork herb border (Fig. 1819) is often useful in the
rear or at one side of the premises. It is well to fill some
of the corners by the house (Fig. 1820). In remote
parts of the grounds, half-wild effects may be allowed,
as in Fig. 1821. A pond or pool, even if stagnant, often
may be utilized to advantage (Fig. 1822). A good herb
out of place may be worse than a poor herb in place.
But when herbs are grown for their individual effects,
give plenty of room and good care (Figs. 1823, 1824).
Other discussions of herbs in relation to planting will be
found under Annuals, Biennials, Border, Landscape Gar-
dening; also, for special uses, Alpine Plants, Autumn-
Gardening, Kitchen-Garden and Flower-Garden, Spring-
Gardening, Wild-Gardening, and others. j^ H. B.

Herbaceous perennials in landscape planting.

No clear definition can be drawn between herbaceous
perennials, biennials and annuals, between herbs and
woody plants, for there are tender herbs that in a
warmer climate would become shrubs or even trees,
biennials that become perennials from stolons or offsets,
and annuals that become biennials from seed germinat-
ing late in the season. Strictly speaking, however, her-
baceous perennials are plants having perennial roots
with tops that die to the ground annually, such as the
columbines, larkspurs, day lilies, peonies, and most
sedges, grasses and ferns. It is customary, however,
in publications relating to this class of plants as well as
in actual use, to include closely allied species with ever-
green foliage, such as statice, yucca, sempervivums and
certain pentstemons, together with plants having more
or less woody and persistent above-ground stems, such
as the suffruticose artemisias and the evergreen creep-
ing species of phlox, veronica, vinca, the iberis, the

1462

HERB

HERB

helianthemums, and many alpine plants, while most
bulbous-rooted plants which are true herbaceous peren-
nials are separately classified and grown as bulbs.

Herbaceous perennials are an exceedingly important

element of landscape, for they predominate in the mat

^of grassy or sedgy plants, covering dry or wet open

1814. An informal herb border.

fields, and in the surface vegetation under woods and
shrubby thickets, either as a grass crop, composed of a
comparatively few species cultivated for economic pur-
poses, or as a wild growth made up of many species.
The most attractive of these native plants are being
cultivated and unproved more and more from year to
year for ornamental purposes, and are planted in the
flower-garden, in artificial plantations of shrubbery and
in the wild-garden. It is to such natives and to exotics
of the same class, which are cultivated for a similar
purpose, that reference is to be made hereafter.

Fifty years ago nearly every well-to-do family main-
tained a flower-garden, in which there were from fifty to
one hundred and fifty species and varieties of herbaceous
perennials, and there were few of the humbler families
that did not have a dozen or more species established
about their homes. Such plants were distributed by
exchange among neighbors and were propagated and
offered at retail by dealers, who, however, gradually
allowed their stock of plants to run low or abandoned
them altogether, until many kinds dropped out of culti-
vation or were neglected in favor of the tender "bedding
out" plants that were brought suddenly into favor by
the displays at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposi-
tion. Then they gradually declined in favor until the
interest was newly revived at the period of the Chicago
Exposition.

Since that time there has been such a constantly
increasing interest in herbaceous perennials that there
are now offered in catalogues of American nurserymen
and collectors of native plants, nearly 3,000 species and

1815. Planting against a rock background.

varieties, exclusive of the many garden forms that are
distinguished chiefly by the color of their flowers.

In use, the species and varieties of herbaceous peren-
nials may be broadly separated into three groups.

First, plants for the garden requiring the favorable
conditions of a highly cultivated ground, and careful
attention to attain perfection and to persist and increase
from year to year. This would include many exotics,
some native species and most of the horticultural varie-
ties. Many of such species which would find a congenial
place only in the garden have attractive flowers which
are so fugitive that they can be enjoyed only on the
plant. Other species which are suitable to cut flowers
from can hardly be grown in the flower-garden in suffi-
cient quantity liberally to meet the floral requirements
of the home, and they should be grown in quantity in
the kitchen-garden or in a special cut-flower garden, for
their crops of flowers. Included among plants of diffi-
cult cultivation with fugitive flowers are the rock or
alpine plants, many of which are offered in European
catalogues. (See article on Rock Gardens.)

Second, plants for the shrubbery, having aggressive
habits, which make them rather objectionable in the
flower-garden, but fit them to withstand successfully the
crowding of shrubs. This class of plants will give va-
riety and prolong the flowering season of shrub borders
about lawns, and would be made up chiefly of strong-
growing natives and a few of the more persistent
exotics.

Third, plants for the wild garden, including the spe-
cies that require for success some one of the many
special conditions
prevailing in un-
cultivated or un-
cultivable land,
or which are so
rampant as to re-
quire the restraint
that some one of
these natural con-
ditions will pro-
vide. This class of
plants would be
made up chiefly
of natives and a
few of the more
persistent exotics,
and they would be
used to enrich
groups of native
plants under
woods, hi mea-
dows, along
streams, ponds and hedge-rows and on poor soil. There
are attractive plants that will and do grow successfully
under all these conditions without special cultivation,
and many of them may be already on the ground. If
every plant in a group of natives is watched for at least
a year, it will be found that many are so attractive at
one season or another that they will be retained and
developed in beauty by the gradual removal of the less
desirable kinds, for which others that are more desirable
may be substituted.

In arranging plants in new plantations, or in modify-
ing existing plantations in gardens, lawns or woods,
much more effective landscape compositions and more
agreeable color effects can be secured by using large
quantities of a few sorts than by using a few individuals
of many kinds. Groups of different species should be
chosen that will give from period to period during the
flowering season effective and dominating masses of
foliage and color, and all other plants of the garden
which appear at the same time should be made subor-
dinate to these.

Herbaceous perennials are propagated by divisions
and from offsets, cuttings and seed. Some kinds, as

1816. The ground line is hidden by
herbs or shrubs.

HERB

HERB

1463

dictamnus and papaver, may be propagated by root
cuttings. The exotic species of gardens and many of the
more readily grown natives can be obtained in wholesale
quantities from nurserymen. A few exotics and a very
large number of attractive native species can be pro-
cured in wholesale quantities from collectors of native
plants, many of whom also offer nursery-grown plants
of the best natives and of a few exotics. The attractive
native plants in any region can be transplanted with
little difficulty if they are collected with a good sod of
earth about the roots. WARREN H. MANNING.

The culture of herbaceous perennials.

A good number of the herbaceous perennials grown in
gardens are exceedingly easy of cultivation, thriving
well in any moderately rich soil of suitable physical
condition, and enduring winter cold and changeable-
ness and summer heat and drought. There are, however,
other species that do not grow well in the American
climate, except in more moderate seasons or when
placed where the climate is locally modified. Whether
the plants one desires to grow be easy or difficult of
culture, one should aim first of all for a luxuriant growth,
for any time or labor saved by poorly preparing the soil,
or any money saved by the use of weak or stunted
plants will be regretted later. Unless it is intended to
imitate the effect of certain barrens in nature, a garden
without luxuriance is lacking in essential quality.

The preparation of ground for planting consists, in
the order of importance: in making the soil by openness
and fineness suitable for root-penetration to a depth of
18 inches to 2 feet; in providing underground drainage
at a depth of at least 2^ feet; in making the soil suf-
ficently fertile; and in making the surface soil not liable
to "baking."

Depth and physical condition of soil are very impor-
tant, and should be one's first care. If the season is
short and work must be rushed, it is better to omit the
manuring and to devote all one's energy to securing a
deep feeding-area for the roots and a fine physical con-
dition of the soil. In the hardy border the roots are
able to penetrate far more deeply into the soil than they
do usually in a wild state or in ordinary field culture.
This vigor of root-growth reaching to good depth, as
compared with that of equal vigor but nearer the sur-
face, gives not only greater endurance of drought but
aids the plant to endure changeableness of weather, and

Earticularly contributes to hardiness. Many plants are
ardy only if protected until the roots are thoroughly

established. This is more often noticed with trees and
strong-rooted plants that are able to penetrate deeply
into the subsoil, but the same applies to herbaceous
plants, except that it is usually necessary to loosen the
subsoil to ensure penetration by their finer roots to a
satisfactory extent. It is not necessary to make the sub-
soil equal in richness to the upper part, but it should
preferably be mixed with a portion of the surface soil.

1817. A good effect with a species of Rheum.

1818. A mixed herbaceous border.

The fine roots are the feeding roots and the surfaces
of the soil-particles are their feeding-ground, so that in
making the soil-particles smaller the feeding-surface is
vastly increased, thus allowing for more roots and
closer planting. A fine physical condition can usually
be obtained by turning the soil over a few times. No
soil should be turned or handled when too moist to
crumble, as the clay in the soil is quick to become pud-
dled, and therefore impervious to feeding-roots.

Underground drainage is necessary, since most
plants cannot grow in soil filled with stagnant water.
When the natural subsoil drainage is not sufficient,
artificial means should be used. Unless the drainage is
good, many plants will be injured in the rainier seasons
or killed in winter. Plants that are not firmly established
are often easily killed by excess of moisture about the
roots during their dormant season; for example, many
bog-plants otherwise perfectly hardy will winterkill
if planted late in the fall. A further fact showing the
effect of water on dormant roots is that many plants if
cut down low enough in the fall to allow water, as from
melting snow, to reach the root through the hollow
stems, will often be entirely rotted by spring. Thus,
when it is necessary to destroy goldenrod, the dry-
stems may be mown in late autumn with a sharp scythe.
The vulnerability of the root to water coming through
the stem may be easily seen by comparing in the spring
roots of corn, the stalks of which were cut at different
heights the previous fall.

In the hardy border, no large amount of coarse or
highly fermentable material should be used. The
enrichment of the land should, if possible, be made
while preparing the border, and any fertilizers used
should be well mixed with the soil. Even if a liberal
quantity of stable manure is available, it is well to
use some potash or phosphoric acid in connection
with it. A light top-dressing of manure given in
the fall will keep up the fertility, correct the soil
% in various ways, and afford a slight winter protec-
tion, which is appreciated by even the hardiest
plants. Over-richness as well as poverty of soil
tend to make plants in general less hardy, but usu-
ally a great abundance of plant-food should be
given, especially for the hardier species with vigor-
ous constitutions and long season of growth.
Many plants having a season of rest in late sum-
mer do best in land not overly rich, especially if
the position is moist.

A loose and open surface soil prevents baking after

1464

HERB

HERB

rains and waterings; saves some of the labor necessary
to keep the soil open and friable; allows the growth of
many smaller, finer-rooted or creeping plants that can-
not grow well in a stiff soil; permits the sowing of many
annuals in the border. Many low-growing plants are
injured on clayey soil by having the under surfaces of the
leaves coated with earth by spattering of rain. A clay
soil may be made more loose by the addition of manures,
sawdust, coal-ashes, sand or almost any such material.
A light, fine mulch should be kept on the surface of a
clay soil.

The points to be borne in mind in planting should be
healthy plants, careful planting and sufficient thickness
of planting. Plants should be obtained which have not
been stunted, as a weakened plant will seldom make as
good a specimen as if rightly treated from the start.
When plants are received from the nursery they may
be heeled-in if necessary, but every day plants are left
where they have no root-hold on the soil is an injury to
them, in proportion to the suitableness of the weather
for root-growth. If plants must remain any considerable
length of time before being placed in their permanent
position it is best to plant them in reserve ground, and
to remove them when desired with balls of earth.

Symmetry of top-growth is to some extent, at least,
dependent on symmetry of root-growth, so that by
careful planting the roots not only become more quickly
and strongly active, but give us hope for a more sym-
metrical plant than can be secured by careless planting.
The proper way to place a plant in the ground is to
distribute the roots equally about the plant, leaving the
tips pointed downward, and then to firm the soil suffi-
ciently about the roots.

A perennial border should be planted rather thick, so
that when in foliage it shall appear as one mass. Any
showing of soil between plants is not only unnatural
but destroys the beauty of the border as a whole. Of
course, if plants are wanted for their individual or
separate merits, they should be given full room.

Winter protection of herbaceous perennials.

The protection of species not reliably hardy may be
accomplished with any material suitable for keeping
out frost which is not naturally too moist or close. The
material should preferably be heaped over the crown
of the plant to shed part of the rain as well as to prevent
quick changes of temperature, or wholly to exclude
frost, as the plant may need.

The material to be used will be determined for the
plants to be protected, by what is on hand or easily
obtainable, and by the presence or not of mice or other
vermin, which often work under such material as straw.
Protected plants should be examined frequently in the
winter, and if mice are present they may be killed or

1819. An herb-covered rockwork.

driven away by placing a few drops of carbon bisul-
fide in each hole found. (This is also a good way to
rid coldframes of these pests. Plenty of ventilation
should be given at the time, as the gas evaporated is
destructive to vegetation. As the gas is heavier than air
it sinks for the most part down the holes.) If, however,
mice are not troublesome, there is no better material
for keeping out cold and
shedding water than
straw. Nature's plant-
protection is to use the
foliage and stems of the
plant themselves, the
whole ground surface be-
ing covered as the weather
grows colder with succes-
sive coatings of snow,
which protection again
grows lighter as spring
approaches. This is still
the ideal winter protec-
tion for plants, but snows
are likely to disappear in
midwinter and mice are
well adapted to live under
heavy litter. Where mice
are troublesome, a light
material may be made by

composting leaves, ma- i82o. A rear corner, embellished
nure rakings from lawns, with weeds,

greenhouse waste, weeds

not in fruit as pulled during the season, and the like.
The material should be earthy enough to keep mice
out, and loose enough to permit of easy removal in
spring. It should also be loose enough not to hold too
much water in winter. Sawdust and charcoal are
examples of such material.

Most of the plants that are largely cultivated need
no protection, but all herbaceous perennials, unless they
are evergreen or easily smothered, are benefited by a
slight covering to protect the soil from alternate freez-
ing and thawing. If the plants are evergreen, a cover-
ing to supply shade is often desirable. Other plants,
such as Helianthus decapetalus fl. pi., really need pro-
tection, not to exclude frost but to lessen considerably
the severity of the winter. Still others, as many of the
lilies, are best covered to the exclusion of frost. In gen-
eral, the plants that need complete protection have
crowns below the surface, and so may be covered with
any amount or kind of material. When it is desired
thoroughly to protect crowns on the soil surface, flats
may be first placed over the crowns before adding the
protection. In most cases, late fall plantings should be
protected to some extent, since plants are less hardy

when poorly established in the soil. See

Winter Protection, Vol. VI.

Propagation of herbaceous perennials.

The methods of propagation most used
are by seed, by division of the plant, and by
cuttings.

Propagation by seed is commonly not of use
for the perpetuation of horticultural varieties,
.;:>, although to a varied extent with different
"* species any variety tends to reproduce its
characteristics more perfectly the longer it
becomes established as a variety. However,
some of the garden plants have been sepa-
rated into their present number of varieties
or forms mainly by continual propagation by
seed- and plant-selection, and such may be
satisfactorily increased by seed. An example
might be taken in the hollyhock, although, if
a group be left to resow itself, or no seed-
selection be maintained, it will soon become
mainly composed of single-flowered plants

HERB

HERB

1465

1821. 'A tame-wild corner, asparagus and boneset.

by reason of their greater seed-production. In gen-
eral, propagation by seeds is satisfactory for all estab-
lished species and for such varieties and forms as have
been thoroughly established by selection.

Seed-sowing is not, however, always an easy way to
increase many of our garden plants, as there are often
a few small items necessary to know concerning a
species before success can be assured. Seeds of some
perennials remain dormant for a long period after sow-
ing, and, in general, they are very much slower in
starting than annuals. Some require more heat than
others to germinate, while others require a very cool
soil. Many plants brought into cultivation from foreign
countries or milder parts of our own land do not pro-
duce seed that will remain sound over winter hi the
earth, nor do seedlings of all hardy perennials with-
stand the colder season: for example, Papaver orientate,
a hardy plant itself, produces a great quantity of seed
which germinates readily as it falls, but the seedlings
will not survive the winter in the northern United
States unprotected.

A general rule for seed-sowing would
read: Sow the seed when ripe, and then
maintain such conditions of temperature
and moisture as the seed would receive in
the native habitat of the plant. Native
American plants not from decidedly milder
parts, and many foreign species, may be
easily increased by sowing of seed when
ripe in the open ground. Among such might
be included rudbeckia, aquilegia, coreopsis,
monarda, asters (perennial), delphiniums,
digitalis, Dianthus barbatus, and phlox, all
of which will bloom the following season.

Plants usually have one or rarely two
particular seasons for blooming, and unless
of sufficient size and suitable condition
when that season approaches, they will
wait for its recurrence before showing
flowers, so that by sowing seed early in
the spring and giving good cultural atten-
tion to the plants, we may expect to
flower the first year many plants naturally
blooming late in the year, or such as are
somewhat floriferous at nearly all seasons:
for example, Lobelia cardinalis and other
lobelias, many of the native asters, Gail-

lardia aristata var. grandiflora,
Bellis perennis, hollyhocks, platy-
c o d o n, delphiniums, hardy
chrysanthemums, salvias, rud-
beckia, dahlias. See Seeds, Vol.
VI.

Propagation by division is
simply the separation of a larger
clump of roots and crowns into
smaller plants. In the case of
plants producing buds on the
roots, this division may be car-
ried further, and small pieces of
the root used to grow other plants.
The separation of plants as
practised in the garden is not
usually so much for the purpose
of increase as to avoid over-
crowding of roots and crowns,
with loss of vigor to the plant;
for example, a plant of iris, hav-
ing been undisturbed for a num-
ber of years, becomes a tangled
circular mat of rootstocks, which
in the center cannot find room
to grow, and so the plant appears
as a large mass of rootstocks,
throwing up foliage only on the
outer ring. The period in which
a plant may remain in any one place without needing
separation will vary with the vigor of growth of the plant
in each position; a group of plantain lily in a favorable
situation will need separation every two years, while in
a poorer place it might remain four. However, the aver-
age length of time for a few typical species may be
given thus: Bellis perennis, pompon chrysanthemums,
and other strong-spreading, shallow-rooted and easily
established plants do best with yearly separation;
Phlox maculata and monarda every two years; helian-
thus, asters and many of the compositae and Phlox
decussata about every three years; Convattaria majalis
and many spring-flowering bulbs every four years;
such plants as peonies may be left for a longer period.

In general, better flowers are secured from a plant
with but one crown than when two or more are left, but
unless the new growths are crowding out the central
parts or are themselves too numerous to make a vig-
orous growth possible, division is not necessary. In
fact, many plants require a better establishment in the
soil than can be given by transplanting or than they can

1822. Pool made attractive by planting of herbs.

1466

HERB

HERB

quickly secure, and such are best undisturbed until
quite overcrowded. The question is whether by divi-
ding a plant better flowers and foliage may be obtained
than by allowing it to become more thoroughly estab-
lished.

The time of year
for separation will
vary as to the
blooming season
of the plant; that
is, for early-bloom-
ing plants late
summer or early
fall, and for late-
blooming plants
either late fall or
spring, preferably
the latter, as many
otherwise hardy
plants are either
weakened or killed
if disturbed in fall.
See Separation,
Vol. VI.

Propagation by
cuttings is rarely
useful for the ama-

1823. A good subject — Eupatorium.

teur, in the case of herbaceous perennials, but it is an
important commercial method. Plants may be obtained
from almost any plant having foliage-stems by taking a
short piece of the growing wood with a bud, either lateral
or terminal, and placing the lower end in moist sand or
other material suitable for root-growth. It is usually
necessary to have the lower end of the cutting a node or
joint of the stem, and to make the temperature of the
material in which it is placed higher than that of the
atmosphere (which is the relation of the soil and air in
sunshine), and to diminish the evaporation from the ex-
posed parts of the cutting by maintenance of a moist
atmosphere and by removal in part of the foliage on the
cutting. Some experience will be necessary to know the
best temperatures for sand and atmosphere and the
most desirable degree of ripeness in the wood to be
taken, as they will vary somewhat with species. In gen-
eral, any cutting of growing wood will form roots in
moist sand at a temperature suitable for vigorous root-
growth of the plant. See Cuttings. Vol. II.

The increase of plants by cuttings has the advantages
of being rapid and of allowing the perpetuation of any
variation noticed on a portion of any plant.

Whichever method of propagation is used, selection of
stock for increase should be practised. If by seed, then
the best seed from the best plant should be taken. It is
considered that seeds borne the
least number of nodes from the
root tend to produce dwarf er and
earlier-blooming plants, while
the opposite is equally certain.
All plants vary, and often the
seeds that will produce the most
striking variations are the slower
to germinate and are weaker as
seedlings, but any mistreatment
of young plants is likely to be
against any desirable improve-
ment. The double-flowered and
highly colored forms of garden
plants are generally the results
not only of intercrossing
of species or selection,
or both, but of intense
and perfect culture. A
poor, starved plant may
not retrograde itself, but

1824. A good subject— Yucca it is likely to produce
filamentosa. seed which will vary.

Variations in plants are the result of climatic, soil,
cultural, and other conditions, and such plant forms
are unstable when the conditions which caused them
are radically changed. Any new variety naturally
reproduces itself best in the region in which it orgi-
nated, and may easily revert or otherwise change
when grown under different conditions. This is espe-
cially true in the reproduction by seed of plant varia-
tions. See Breeding, Vol. I.

In propagating by division, the aim should be not
only to secure vigorous plants but to select for increase
such plants as appear to be the best. Cuttings also
should be taken from selected plants — and the more so
since the method is rapid. p\ \y\ BARCLAY.

Herbs for the northeastern states.

Selections for special purposes. — The following lists
are to be taken as merely suggestive, and are far from
being complete. Nearly all are to be found in the
American trade.

1. FOR MOIST AND WET PLACES. Those marked with
an asterisk (*) will also thrive under drier conditions.

A. Near the water's edge. Actual flooding will not injure
any of these.

Acorus japonicus.

Actsea.

Anemone apennina.

Anemone rivularis.

Anemone virginiana.

Caltha palustris.

Carex riparia.

Cyperus alternifolius.
*Cyperus Papyrus.
*Filipendula palmata.
*Filipendula rubra var. ve-

nusta.
*Iris Kaempferi.

Iris Pseudacorus.
*Iris sibirica.
*Monarda didyma.

Myosotis palustris.

AA. Moist ground preferred.

*Achillea Ptarmica, The Pearl.
*Aconitum.

Anemone alpina.

Anemone palmata.
*Arenaria balearica.

Arenaria purpurascens.
*Artemisia lactiflora.

Arundo Donax.

Asarum europseum.

Asperula odorata.
*Astilbe Arendsii var. hybrida.
*Astilbe Davidii.
*Astilbe grandis.
*Astilbe rivularis.
*Astilbe Thunbergii.

Astrantia carniolica.

Butomus umbellatus.

Caltha palustris.

Caltha polypetala.

Carex Fraseri.

Carex Gaudichaudiana.
*Chelone.

*Chryspbactron Hookeri.
*Cimicifuga racemosa.

Claytonia virginica.
*Cypripedium acaule.

Cypripedium spectabile.
*Dodecatheon Meadia.
*Doronicum.

Eomecon chionantha.

Epilobium angustifolium.

Epimedium macranthum.

Eryngium aquaticum.

Eupatorium purpureum.

Filipendula camtschatica
(Spiraea gigantea).

Filipendula hexapetala.

Gunnera chilensis.
*Heleniums.

Hibiscus Moscheutos.
*Hosta cserulea (Funkia
*Hosta Sieboldiana. [ovata).

Hpustonia caerulea.

Iris cristata.

Iris Delavayi.

Iris Monnieri.

Iris setosa.

Peltandra virginica.
Polygonum amphibium.
Polygonum sachalinenae.
Pontederia cordata.
Primula pulverulenta.
Ranunculus aquatilis.
Ranunculus fluitans.
Ranunculus graminifolius.
Ranunculus hederaceus.
Ranunculus Lingua var.

grandiflorus.
Rheum palmatum.
Rodgersia sesculifolia.
Rumex.

*Thalictrum aquilegifolium.
Typha latifolia.
Zizania aquatica.

Ligularia.

*Lobelia cardinalis.
*Lobelia syphilitica.
*Lysimachia clethroides.

Lysimachia punctata.

Lysimachia thyrsiflora.

Lythrum.
*Mertensia virginica.

Mimulus cardinalis.

Miscanthus saccharifer.

Nierembergia rivularis.
*CEnothera fruticoa var.
*CEnothera speciosa. [major.

Ourisia coccinea.

Pennisetum latifolium.
*Phlox divaricata.

Podophyllum peltatum.

Polygonatum multiflorum.

Polygonum amphibium.

Polygonum sachalinense.

Polygonum Weyrichii.

Primula japonica.

Primula rpsea.

Primula sikkimensis.

Rheum palmatum var. atro-
sanguineum.

Rhexia virginica.

Rumex Hydrolapathum.

Sarracenia Drummondii.

Sarracenia purpurea.
*Saxifraga peltata.
*Saxifraga virginiensis.

Senecio cliyorum.

Senecio Veitchianus.

Senecio Wilsonianus.

Soldanella alpina.

Spartina cynosuroides var.

aureo-marginata.
*Stenanthium rpbustum.
*Thalictrum adiantifolium.
*Thalictrum dipterocarpum.
*Thalictrum flavum.

Trillium.
*Trollius asiaticus.

Trollius europasus.
*Troll|us excelsior.

Trollius giganteus.

HERB

HERB

1467

2. FOB DRY PLACES. The following plants will grow
in dry localities, withstanding considerable
neglect and drought. Some are for this reason
well adapted for naturalization.

*=Flower in spring. ^=Flower in summer. §=FZower in autumn.

4. SUITABLE FOR CARPETS AND EDGINGS, continued.

*Alyssum saxatile var. com-
pactum.

*Anemone caroliniana.

*Anemone Pulsatilla.

*Antennaria dioica.

tAnthericum Liliago.

*Aquilegia canadensis.

tAsclepias tuberosa.
t§ Asters, many kinds.
t§Callirhoe involucrata.
*tCampanula, many kinds.

fCentaurea dealbata.

tCentaurea montana.

tCerastium tomentosum.
*tCheiranthus Allionii.

*Cheiranthus alpinus.
*tCheiranthus, Harpur Crewe.

tCoronilla cappadocica.

§Coronilla varia.
t§Daphne Cneorum.

fDianthus arenarius.

fDianthus deltoides.

fDianthus neglectus.

tDianthus sylvestris.

fDictamnus albus.

fDictamnus albus var. cau-
casicus.

?Draba azoides.
Draba pyrenaica.

tEchinops Ritro.

tEchinops sphserocephalus.
*tErinus alpinus.
tJErodium.

*Erysimum pulchellum.

tEuphorbia corollata.

tEuphorbia epithymoides.

tGenista sagittalis.
*tGeranium.

fGeum mpntanum.

tGypsophila acutifolia.
t §Gypsophila paniculata.

tHelianthemum. [eriana.

t§Heliopsis Isevis var. Pitch-

3. FOR SHADY PLACES.

A. The following plants require quite heavy shade;
many others succeed almost equally well in sun-
shine and shade.

t §Hemerocallis.

*Hepatica.
t§Hieracium.

*Hutchinsia alpina.

*Iberis sempervirens.
t§Inula.

f Iris germanica.

flris pumila.

*Iris unguicularis.
t§Kniphofia.

*Lathyrus (Orobus) vernus.

tLeontopodium alpinum.

fLmarias.
t§I'inum perenne.

Muehlenbeckia complexa.

tCEnothera Lamarckiana.

*Ononis rotundifolia.
t §Onopordon bracteatum.
T §Onopordon pplycephalum.
*t§Papaver nudicaule.

*Phlox amcena.

*Phlox pilosa.

*Phlox subulata.

fPlantago maxima.

fPlatycodon.

fReseda glauca.

fRudbeckia laciniata.

tRudbeckia Newmanii.
t§Saponaria caucasica.

fSappnaria ocymoides.

*Saxifraga.

t §Sedum.

*Sempervivum.
*tSilene.

§Solidago.

§Statice latifolia.
t§Thymus.
tlTunica Saxifraga.

fVerbascum.

*Vicia (Orobus) oroboides.

? Yucca filamentosa.
Yucca flaccida.
fYucca gloriosa.

Anemone alpina.
Anemone canadensis.
Anemone nemorqsa.
Anemone rivularis.
Anemone sylvestris.

Cortusa Matthioli.

Cypripedium.

Hepatica.

Horminum pyrenaicum.

Ourisia coccinea.

AA. Doing better in partial shade; a number of them
will stand a moderate amount of sunshine.

Actffia spicata.

Adonis amurensis.

Adonis pyrenaica.

Adonis vernalis.

Anemone apennina.

Anemone ranunculoides.

Arnebia echioides.

Arum italicum.

Arum maculatum.

Asarum europseum.

Asperula odorata.

Astilbe.

Astrantia carniolica.

Claytonia virginica.

Convallaria majalis.

Cypripedium.

Digitalis purpurea.

Dodecatheon.

Doronicum.

Goodyera.

Habenaria.

Helleborus niger.

Helleborus niger var. altifolius.

Liparis.

Myosotis alpestris.

Myosotis palustris.

Omphalodes cappadocica.

Omphalodes verna.

Orchis spectabilis.

Polygonatum multiflorum.

Primula.

Ramondia Nathalise.

Ramondia pyrenaica.

Ranunculus aconitifolius.

Sanguinaria canadensis.

Saxifraga Camposii.

Saxifraga muscoides.

Saxifraga Rhei.

Spigelia marilandica.

Spiraea.

Tiarella.

Trillium.

Vancouveria hexandra.

Viola canina.

Viola pedata.

4. SUITABLE FOR CARPETS OR EDGINGS. The following
are of compact habit and mostly low; some are
also almost continuous bloomers.

Lavandula nana var. com-

pacta.

Linaria hepaticsefolia.
Myosotis.
Nepeta Mussinii.
Phlox amoena.
Phlox divaricata.
Phlox frondosa.
Phlox ovata.
Phlox reptans.
Phlox subulata.
Polemonium reptans.
Scabiosa graminifolia.
Silene acaulis.
Silene alpestris.
Silene maritima.
Silene Saxifraga.
Silene Schafta.
Tellima grandiflora.
Thymus citriodorus.
Veronica csespitosa.
Veronica repens.
Veronica rupestris.
Viola cornuta var. alba.
Viola cornuta var. purpurea.

5. FOR CUT-FLOWERS. The following varieties are
well adapted for cutting.

*=Spring-flowering. ^=Summer-flowering.

§= A ut umn-flowering.

Arenaria csespitosa.
Armeria latifolia var. rosea.
Armeria plantaginea var.

leucantha.
Armeria vulgaris.
Armeria vulgaris var. Lau-

cheana.

Artemisia lanata.
Asarum europseum.
Aubrietia deltoidea.
Belhs perennis flore-pleno.
Campanula carpatica.
Cerastium tomentosum.
Daphne Cneorum (treated

as an herb).
Dianthus caesius.
Dianthus chinensis.
Dianthus deltoides.
Dianthus sylvestris.
Erodium Manescavi.
Erysimum pulchellum.
Helianthemum mutabile.
Heuchera sanguinea.
Iberis sempervirens.

fAchillea Ptarmica, The

Pearl.
fAchillea Ptarmica, Perry

White,
t §Aconitum.
fAlstroemeria. '

t Anemone japonica.
Anemone sylvestris.
SAnthericum.
Anthurium.
Aquilegia.
Armeria vulgaris var.

Laucheana.
§Artemisia lactiflora.
*t§Aster.
T§Astilbe.

*Baptisia australis.
t§Belamcanda chinensis

(Pardanthus).
t §Boltonia.
fCampanula latifolia var.

macrantha.
tCampanula Medium.
•(•Campanula persicifolia.
t ICampanula pyramidalis.
fCentaurea montana.
tCentaurea ruthenica.
tICeratostigma plumbagin-

fChelone Lyonii. [oides.

t§Chrysanthemum maximum,

in variety.
J§Chrysanthemum, Autumn

Glory.

fCimicifuga racemosa.
1 'Clematis Davidiana.
"Clematis recta.

• 'Clematis recta flore-pleno.

• 'Convallaria majalis.
"Coreopsis grandiflora.

t §Delphinium.
*fDianthus.
*tDicentra spectabilis.

tDictamnus albus.

jDigitalis purpurea.

*Doronicum.

tEpilobium angustifolium.
t§Erigeron.

§Eupatorium.

fEuphorbia corollata.
t§Gaillardia aristata.

tGaillardia grandiflora.
t§Geum coccineum, Mrs.
Bradshaw.

tGypsophila acutifolia.

tGypsophila paniculata.

fHelleborus niger.

§Helenium autumnale var.
superbum.

§Helenium autumnale var.
pumilum.

t §Helianthus. [eriana.

t§Heliopsis Isevis var. Pitch-
t §Hemerocallis.
f§Hesperis matronalis.

fHeuchera sanguinea.

§Hosta plantaginea var.

grandiflora.
t§Hypericum Moserianum.

*Iberis sempervirens.

tlncarvillea Delavayi.

flris germanica.

flris Kaempferi.

flris sibirica.
t§Kniphofia (Tritoma).

Lathyrus latifolius.
flLiatris pycnostachya.

ILobelia cardinalis.
t§Lobelia syphilitica.

tLupinus polyphyllus.

fLychnis.

t §Lysimachia clethroides.
t §Lythrum Salicaria var.

roseum superbum.
*tMyosotis.

fffinothera speciosa.

fPseonia.
*tPapaver.
t §Pentstemon.

tPhlox Arendsii.

*Phlox divaricata.
t §Phlox paniculata.

tPhlox suffruticosa.
t §Physostegia virginiana.

fPlatycodon grandiflorum.
t§Plumbago Larpentse.
*t Polemonium.

fPotentilla.

*Primula.

fPyrethrum hybridum.

§Pyrethrum uliginosum.

tRehmannia angulata.
t§Rudbeckia.

falvia azurea.
alvia pratensis.
axifraga pyraniidalis.
t§Scabiosa caucasica.
fSedum spectabile.
fSidalcea Candida.
fSidalcea malvaeflora var.
§Solidago. [Listeri.

tSpirsea.

§Statice latifolia.
§Stokesia cyanea.
§Thalictrum adiantifolium.
§Thalictrum dipterocarpum.
fThermopsis caroliniana.
*tTrollius.
tValeriana officinalis.
Veronica longifolia var. sub-
Veronica spicata. [sessilis.
fYucca filamentosa.

Acsena, species.
Achillea Claveme.
Achillea tomentosa.
Achillea umbellata.
jEthionema iberidium.
Ajuga reptans.

Alyssum argenteum.
Alyssum saxatile var. com-

pactum.
Arabis albida.
Arabis aubrietioides.
Arenaria balearica.

fHelenium Hoopesii.

In addition to the foregoing list, there are a number
of other plants usually accepted and often listed
as herbaceous plants, such as montbretias, ere-
murus, lilium, which are suitable for cutting.
These will be found under Bulbs.

1468

HERB

HERB

6. FOR BOLD EFFECTS. The following plants are
striking in their habit and for this reason are
very serviceable in groups or as single speci-
mens. Some are foliage plants with compara-
tively inconspicuous flowers.

*—Tatt varieties, growing 5 feet or more in height.
f= Medium varieties, growing from 2 io 4 feet.
§=Varieties with striking foliage.

*Aoanthus mollis var. lati-

folius.

t Anemone japonica.
t Artemisia lactiflora.
t§Aruncus Sylvester.
*Arundo Donax.

* Astilbe Arendsii.

* Astilbe Davidii.
*Astilbe grandis.
IBambusa.
fBaptisia australis.
tClematis recta.
*Crambe cordifolia.
*Delphinium hybridum.
tDictamnus albus.
fEchinacea purpurea (Rud-

beckia).

§Elymus glaucus.
§Eryngium amethystinum.
fFifipendula rubra var. ven-
§Gunnera chilensis. [usta
*Helenium autumnale var.

superbum.

tHelenium, Riverton Beauty.-
*Helianthus mollis.
tHelianthus decapetalus, Soleil

d'Or.

*Helianthus prgyalis.

fHemerocallis aurantiaca var.
major.

fHemerocallis flava.

tHemerocallis Thunbergii.

§Heracleum villosum.
t §Hosta plantaginea var.
grandiflora.

tHypericum Moserianum.

fKniphofia Uvaria var.
nobilis.

tKniphofia Pfitzeri.

fPaeonia.

fPapaver orientale.

tPhlox paniculata.
*tPolygonum sachalinense.
*§Polygonum Sieboldii.

§Rheum palmatum var. atro-

sanguineum.
*§Rodgersia sesculifolia.
*§Rodgersia pinnata.

*Rudbeckia, Golden Glow.

*Rudbeckia maxima.

*Thalictrum dipterocarpum.

tVeronica longifolia var. sub-

sessilis.
*§ Yucca filamentosa.

7. FOB FORCING AND GREENHOUSE DECORATION. The
following species are suitable for forcing. As a
general rule, they succeed best in a temperature
not exceeding 50° at night. Many of these can
be potted, but some of the more robust sorts are
better grown in boxes or benches. The astilbes
and spireas will thrive in a higher temperature
than other varieties named.

Alyssum saxatile var. com-
Aquilegia caerulea. [pactum.
Aquilegia chrysantha.
Arabis alpina.
Aster alpinus.
Aster subcseruleus.
Astilbe Arendsii.
Astilbe Davidii.
Astilbe grandis.
Aubrietia, all varieties.
Campanula carpatica.
Campanula Medium.
Campanula pyramidalis.
Cheiranthus Allionii.
Cheiranthus alpinus.
Coreopsis grandiflora.
Cypripedium acaule.
Cypripedium pubescens.
Cypripedium spectabile.
Delphinium grandiflorum.
Delphinium hybridum.
Dianthus csesius.
Dianthus deltoides.
Dianthus, Napoleon III.
Dianthus neglectus.
Dicentra spectabilis.
Digitalis purpurea.
Digitalis purpurea var. glox-

iniaeflora.

Dodecatheon Meadia.
Francoa ramosus.
Gerbera Jamesonii.

Geum coccineum, Mrs. Brad-

shaw.

Helleborus niger var. major.
Hepatica angulosa.
Hepatica triloba.
Hesperis matronalis.
Heuchera sanguinea.
Hosta lancifolia var. albo-

marginata.
Iberis sempervirens.
Incaryillea Delavayi.
Iris cristata.
Iris pumila.
Myosptis, all kinds.
Pseonia, all varieties.
Papaver nudicaule.
Phlox amcena.
Phlox Arendsii.
Phlox divaricata.
Phlox subulata.
Phlox suffruticosa, Miss Lin-

gard.

Polygonatum multiflorum.
Primula, all species.
Pyrethrum hybridum.
Saxif raga, all species.
Sisyrinchium angustifolium.
Spiraea, many species.
Trillium, all species.
Trollius, all species.
Vicia oroboides (Orobus).
Viola, all kinds.

8. NEW AND VERY DESIRABLE SPECIES. The follow-
ing list comprises some of the best introductions of
recent years, up to and including 1914.

Achillea Ptarmica, Perry
White.

Aconitum Fischeri var. Wil-
sonii.

Aconitum Hemsleyanum.

Anchusa italica, Dropmore.

Anchusa italica, Opal.

Anchusa italica, Perry va-
riety.

Anchusa mypsotidiflora.

Anemone vitifplia.

Arabis aubrietioides.

Artemisia lactiflora.

Aster Amellus, Beauty of
Rowdorf.

Aster, Beauty of Colwell.

Aster, Feltham Blue.

Aster novse-angliae, L. Fardel.

Aster novi-belgii, St. Egwin.

Aster, Peter White.

Astilbe Arendsii, Ceres.

Astilbe Arendsii, Pink Pearl.

Astilbe Arendsii, Queen
Alexandra.

Astilbe Arendsii, Salmon
Queen.

Astilbe Arendsii, Vesta.

Campanula carpatica, Kiln-
field White.

Campanula, Warley.

8. NEW AND VERY DESIRABLE

Chrysanthemum, Autumn
Glory.

Chrysanthemum maximum,
Etoile de Nouvelles.

Chrysanthemum maximum,
King Edward VII.

Chrysanthemum maximum,
Mrs. Tersteeg.

Chrysanthemum, Rosy Gem.

Clematis recta flore-pleno.

Delphinium Belladonna
semi-plena.

Delphinium, J. S. Brunton.

Delphinium, Rev. E. Lar-
celles.

Delphinium Moerheimei.

Delphinium, Persimmon.

Geum coccineum, Mrs.
Bradshaw.

Gypsophila paniculata flore-
pleno.

Helenium autumnale, River-
ton Beauty.

Helenium autumnale, River-
ton Gem.

Heuchera gracillima,
Perry var.

Heuchera, Nancy Perry.

Heuchera, Scarlet Spray.

Heuchera, Shirley.

Kniphofia, John Benary.

Kniphofia, Twilight.

Kniphofia, Unique.

VARIETIES, continued.
Iris germanica, Kashmir

White.

Iris germanica, King of Iris.
Iris germanica, Lady Foster.
Iris germanica, Lohengrin.
Iris germanica, Miss Will-

mptt.

Iris interregna, varieties.
Lupinus polyphyllus var.

Mosrheimei.

Phlox Arendsii, all varieties.
Phlox paniculata, Frau A.

Buchner.
Phlox paniculata, Eliz.

Campbell.
Phlox paniculata, Rhein-

lander.

Phlox paniculata, Rynstrom.
Phlox paniculata, G. A.

Strohlein.
Primula Beesiana.
Primula Bulleyana.
Primula Forrestii.
Primula pulverulenta.
Primula sikkimensis.
Primula Veitchii.
Salvia virgata var. nemprosa.
Sedum spectabile, Brilliant.
Senecio clivorum.
Senecio tanguticus.
Thalictrum dipterocarpum.
Viola cornuta var. purpurea.

W. N. CRAIG.

Herbs in Canada.

Many species and varieties of herbs succeed admi-
rably in Canada, the covering of snow which they have
in winter, in most places, affording them excellent pro-
tection from extreme cold and sudden changes of tem-
perature. The conditions are thus, in many places, more
favorable than farther south, where they are exposed,
for long periods, to cold and changeable weather.

Following are lists of best herbaceous perennials.

One hundred best hardy herbaceous perennials for the

Dominion of Canada, except prairie provinces.

*=Best twenty-four.

Delphinium cashmerianum.
*Delphinium grandiflorum

(D. chinense).
*Delphinium hybridum and

varieties.
*Dianthus plumarius, Mrs.

Sinkins.

*Dicentra spectabilis.
Dictamnus albus.
Doronicum plantagineum

var. excelsum.
Echinacea purpurea.
*Epimedium alpinum var.

rubrum.
Erigeron speciosus var.

superbus.
Filipendula hexapetala var.

flore-pleno.
Filipendula rubra.
Gaillardia aristata.
Gypsophila paniculata.
Helenium autumnale vnr

pumilum magnificum.
Helenium autumnale var.

striatum.

Helenium Hoopesii.
Helianthus multiflorus,

Meteor, or Soleil d'Or.
Helianthus multiflorus, Mrs.

Moon.
Helianthus rigidus, Miss

Mellish.

*Hemerocallis aurantiaca var.
*Hemerocallis flava. [major.
Hemerocallis Thunbergii.
Heuchera brizoides var. gra-
cillima.
Heuchera sanguinea var.

splendens.
Hibiscus Moscheutos and

varieties.

Hosta plantaginea.
Iberis sempervirens var.

Garrexiana.
Iberis sempervirens var.

superba, Snowflake.

Achillea Ptarmica fl.-pl.,

The Pearl.
Aconitum Fischeri.
Aconitum Napellus var. bi-

colpr.

Adonis vernalis.
.flSthionema grandiflorum.
Althaea rosea (Hollyhock).
*Anemone japonica varieties.
Anemone patens var. Nut-

talliana.

Anemone sylvestris.
Aquilegia chrysantha.
*Aquilegia cserulea and hy-
brids.
Aquilegia flabellata var. nana

alba.

Aquilegia glandulosa.
Aquilegia pxysepala.
*Arabis albida var. flore-
pleno.
Aruncus Sylvester var.

Kneiffi.

Aster alpinus var. superbus.
Aster Amellus var. amel-

loides.
Aster Amellus var. bessa-

rabicus
Aster novae-angliae, Mrs. J.

F. Rayner.
Campanula carpatica and

varieties.

Campanula lactiflora.
Campanula latifolia var.

macrantha.
*Campanula persicifolia and

varieties.

Campanula pyramidalis.
*Chrysanthemum maximum,

varieties.

Cimicifuga americana.
*Clematis recta.
Convallaria majalis.
*Coreopsis grandiflora.
Delphinium Belladonna (a

name for garden forms).

HERB

HERB

1469

Hardy herbaceous perennials for the Dominion of Canada,
continued.

Incarvillea Delavayi.
Iris aurea.
*Iris germanica, in great

variety.
*Iris tevigata (Kaempferi), in

great variety.
Liliuin auratum.
Lilium croceum, or L. dauri-

cum (davuricum).
Lilium longiflorum.
Lilium speciosum and varie-
ties.

*Lilium superbum.
*Lilium tenuifolium.
Lilium testaceum..
Lilium tigrinum.
Lupinus polyphyllus.
Mertensia yirginica.
Monarda didyma.
Myosotis alpestris.
CEnothera fruticosa var.

Youngii.
*Pseonia albiflora and P. offi-

cinalis, in great variety.
Pseonia tenuifolia var. flore-

pleno.
*Papaver nudicaule.

Papaver orientale and varie-
ties.

Phlox amcEna.
Phlox divaricata.
Phlox glaberrima var. suf-

fruticosa, Miss Lingard.
*Phlox paniculata (P. decus-

sata), in great variety.
*Platycodon grandiflorum.
Platycodon grandiflorum

var. album.
Polemonium humile.
Primula elatior.
*Rudbeckia laciniata

Golden Glow.
Rudbeckia maxima.
Rudbeckia speciosa

Newmanii).
Salvia azurea var. grandi-

flora.

Statice latifolia.
Trillium grandiflorum.
Trollius asiaticus var.

plenus.
Trollius europaeus, Orange

Globe.

Veronica subsessilis.
Yucca filamentosa.

(R.

Best hardy herbaceous perennials for the prairie prov-
inces of Canada.

Achillea Ptarmica fl.-pl.,

The Pearl.

Aconitum, in variety.
Anemone patens var. Nut-

talliana.

Aster noyse-anglise.
Coreopsis lanceolata.
Delphinium, in variety.
Dianthus, in variety.
Dicentra spectabilis.
Dictamnus albus var. pur-

pureus.
Doronicum caucasicum.

Filipendula Ulmaria.

Gaillardia aristata.

Hemerocallis flava.

Iris germanica, in variety.

Lilium tigrinum.

Pseonia, in variety.

Papaver nudicaule.

Papaver orientale.

Phlox paniculata, in great

variety.

Platycodon grandiflorum.
Pyrethrum uliginosum.

W. T. MACOUN.
Western perennials for western gardens.

A leading principle in the prairie style of landscape
gardening is restoration of the native flora. The
history of every country shows three stages in the
development of taste. First, the native flora tends
toward extermination by agriculture, drainage, fires,
and the growth of cities. Second, cosmopolitanism
spreads everywhere, until the gaudiness of temporary
plants, like cannas and coleus and the artificiality of
complicated geometric beds tends to make all parts
of the world look alike. Third, people recognize that
the greatest variety and highest beauty come from
restoring and intensifying the "local color" originally
impressed upon each distinct region by eons of experi-
ment on the part of nature. This "return to nature,"
which has taken many centuries in Europe has begun
in Illinois within a single century, owing largely to the
high percentage (89 per cent) of its arable land. The
process of banishing native vegetation went so fast
and far that, a few years ago, the secretary of the
Illinois Horticultural Society declared, "It is probable
that no equal area of the earth's surface has been
degraded to such utter ugliness and monotony as
Illinois.'.' But, in 1906 to 1909, nearly $4,000,000 was
spent on the West Side parks of Chicago under the
direction of Jens Jensen, with restoration as the leading
idea. The largest and most impressive restorations in
the Middle West are, "the Prairie River" in Humboldt
Park, and "Chicago during the carboniferous era"
in the greenhouses at Garfield Park. In all western
restorations, perennials are often more important
than trees or shrubs, because the former are the char-
acteristic vegetation of prairies, or treeless areas, and
because there are more species of western herbs than
of western woody plants.

Perennials that do not cross the Alleghanies. —
Of the 179 plants that do not cross the Alleghanies,
according to Brendel ("Flora Peoriana," pp» 76-78),

thirty-four are perennials cultivated for ornament.
Of western origin, he thinks, are the following: Anem-
one caroliniana, Chrysopsis villosa, Clematis Simsii (C.
Pitcheri), Echinacea angustifolia, Helianthus Isetiflorus
and H. scaberrimus (H. rigidus), Lithospermum lin-
earifolium (L. angustifolium) , Lythrum alatum, Peta-
loslemon candidus and P. violaceus, Camassia escu-
lenta, (Quamasia hyacinthina) , and Solidago glaber-
rima (S. missouriensis, Hort. not Nutt.). The above
came originally from the Great Plains. Of southern
origin are: Amsonia Tabernsemontana (A. Amsonia),
Baptisia leucantha, Boltonia asteroides, Coreopsis lan-
ceolata, Liatris (or Lacinaria) cylindracea and L.
pycnostachya, Lepachys (or Ratibida) pinnata, Rud-
beckia subtomentosa and R. triloba (biennial), Silphium
laciniatum, S. perfoliatum, and S. terebinthaceum. The
origin of the eleven following species is not stated:
Cypripedium candidum, Echinacea purpurea, Eupa-
torium altissimum, Filipendula rubra (Ulmaria rubra,
Spiraea lobata), Helianthus doronicoides, Heuchera
hispida, Hibiscus militaris, Jeffersonia diphylla, Phlox
glaberrima and P. maculata, and Solidago ohioensis.

State flowers. — Before a legislature chooses a state
flower, lists like the above should be carefully studied
by impartial observers, to make sure that the flowers
recommended are really characteristic, easy of culti-
vation, and lend themselves to the decorative arts.
When sentiment alone is allowed to decide these
matters, plants are often chosen which it is impractica-
ble to grow. Yet, it is a great advantage to choose a
flower that can be grown in every garden. One prairie
state chose the "prairie violet." Doubtless the showy
Viola sororia was meant, yet this is a.native of the woods,
and it is as common East as West. The bird's-foot
violet (V. pedatd) is showy on the dunes, and, even
when conventionalized by the decorative arts, would be
distinct, but it is not confined to the West. Its western
representative (V. pedatifida) is a genuine prairie
plant, but infrequent and presumably impracticable
for cultivation. Unfortunately, V. sororia makes its
response to good soil by producing leaves instead of
flowers.

City flowers. — The western cities have now definitely
begun the practice of choosing city flowers to be grown
in every yard and woven into their civic art. Perhaps
the most appropriate way to symbolize the history or
ideals of each locality is to choose a flower character-
istic of its peculiar scenery or soil type. The soil type
can be determined by correspondence with the Bureau
of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture.
The prairie states belong chiefly to the Upper Austral
zone, but there are a few cities and counties that can
choose their public planting motives from the Lower
Austral and some from the Transition zones. "Life
Zones and Crop Zones," by C. H. Merriam (Bulletin
No. 10, Division of Biological Survey), gives the trees
characteristic of each zone, and these may be helpful
in suggesting the most characteristic plant-associations
of each locality. The nearest local botanist will usually
give invaluable help.

The best garden perennials.

The following are all sun-loving plants, succeeding
in ordinary garden soil without special care. They are
arranged according to the month in which they ordi-
narily begin to bloom, although, of course, consider-
able variation in season may be expected.

White. — April: Sanguinaria canadensis. May: Phlox
divaricata var. alba grandiflora. June: Anemone cana-
densis, Pentstemon Cobsea var. albus. July: Eu-
phorbia corollata, Phlox paniculata vars. Miss Lingard,
Snow Queen, White Queen, Albion, Diadem, Her-
mione, Helena Vacaresco, and Von Lassburg, Physos-
teo/ia virginiana, Thalictrum polygamum. August:
Boltonia asieroides, Hibiscus Moscheutos var. albus,
Salvia azurea var. alba, Aster ptarmicoides. September:

1470

HERB

HERB

Eupatorium urticse folium. October: Aster commutatus.
A. ericoides var. Sensation, A. Tradescantii.

Blue. — April: Iris cristata and /. verna, Phlox Stel-
laria. May: Amsonia Tabernsemontana, Baptisia aus-
tralis, Phlox divaricata, Polemonium reptans, Camassia
esculenta. June: Tradescantia virginiana, Clitoria mari-
ana. July: Delphinium carolinianum (bluish white).
August: Eupatorium codestinum. October: Aster lasvis
and A. amethystinus.

Pink. — June: Tradescantia virginica var. delicata.
July: Phlox paniculata yars. GreVin, Lady Molly,
Sonnenkind, and I<e Soleil, Echinacea purpurea var.
rosea (Rudbeckia elegans rosea), Physostegia virginiana
var. speciosa. August: Hisbiscus Moscheutos and H.
militaris. September: Boltonia asteroides, Aster longi-
folius, A. ericoides var. Sensation, A. novse-anglise var.
Ryecroft Pink, A. paniculatus var. Triumph.

Rose and rosy purple. — July: Physostegia virginiana.
August: Liatris (Lacinaria) pycnostachya, L. scariosa,
and L. squarrosa. September and October: Aster novse-
anglise var. roseus, Ly thrum alatum.

Purple and violet. — May: Clematis Simsii (C. Pitch-
en}, Sedum pulchellum. July: Phlox paniculata var.
Ryecroft Purple, Echinacea purpurea. August: Aster
Shortii. September: Aster patens.

Crimson. — June: Callirhoe involucrata. July: Phlox
paniculata var. Lord Kelvin. September: Aster novse-
anglise var. coccineus.

Magenta. — May: Phlox pilosa, P. stolonifera (P.
reptans). June: Phlox glaberrima, P. maculata. July:
Phlox paniculata yars. Champs Elyse"es, Eclaireur and
Obergartner Wittig.

Scarlet. — May: Aquilegia canadensis. June: Lilium
canadense var. rubrum, L. umbellatum, Pursh. not Hort.
July: Pentstemon barbatus var. Torreyi (from the Great
Plains), Phlox paniculata var. Stendahl, Lilium cana-
dense var. rubrum. August: Gaillardia aristata var.
Glory.

Yellow. — May: Caltha palustris var. flore-pleno,
Aquilegia canadensis var. flavescens, Ranunculus repens
var. flore-pleno, Viola Nuttallii. June: (Enothera missou-
riensis, Lepachys pinnata, Baptisia tinctoria, Coreop-
sis lanceolata and C. grandiflora. July: Coreopsis verti-
ciUata, Helianthus mollis, H. Isetiflorus and H. strumosus
(H. macrophyllus) , Silphium perfoliatum, Chrysopsis
villosa, Asdepias tuber vsa, Rudbeckia speciosa and R.
Newmanii, Heliopsis helianthoides, H. Uevis and var.
Pitcheriana, H. scabra var. zinni&flora. August: Rud-
beckia fulgida and R. subtomentosa, Coreopsis tripteris,
Helenium autumnale and var. pumilum magnificum,
Helianthus decapetalus vars. multiflorus, maximus, and
Soleil d' Or, Helianthus scaberrimus (H. rigidus) var.
Miss Mellish. September: Helianthus orgyalis. Octo-
ber: Helianthus Maximilianii.

Orange. — May: Lithospermum canescens. July:
Asdepias tuber osa.

Perennials classified by height. — It is easy to get
flowers of medium height any month from the color
lists given above. The prairie has also produced many
tall perennials suitable for gardens, especially in the
genera Helenium and Helianthus, which furnish many
species that grow taller than a man. Many asters
and the boltonias will attain 5 feet under favorable
conditions, and so will Lilium canadense and L. super-
bum, if they have shade and unfailing moisture. The
prairie has produced no edging plants equal to the
pinks, alyssums, or rock cresses. Perhaps the best
western garden plants growing 12 inches high or less
are: April: 7m cristata and 7. verna, Sanguinaria cana-
densis. May: Fragaria virginiana var. illinoiensis,
Lithospermum canescens, Ranunculus repens var.
flore-pleno. June: Sedum pulchellum and S. ternatum,
(Enothera missouriensis, Callirhoe involucrata, and the
plant known to the trade as Erigeron glabellus, which
blooms in October, and is presumably different from
the spring-blooming Erigeron asper, to which E. glabel-

lus has been referred (although some retain E. asper as
a synonym of E. glabellus) .

Perennials for special uses and soils.

Perennials for cut-flowers. — The ideal subject for cut-
ting lasts a long time, has long stems, is fragrant, and
has large or numerous flowers. About the only peren-
nial that comes up to this standard is the garden phlox,
but long stems and large flowers are produced by many
species of Gaillardia, Helianthus, Heliopsis, and Rud-
beckia. Smaller flowers in abundance are produced by
Aster, Boltonia, and Coreopsis. Long and effective
spikes are produced by Liatris, and Physostegia. For
lightening bouquets, Galium boreale is an excellent
substitute for Gypsophila paniculata.

Perennials for fragrance. — The phloxes are fragrant
at dusk, but otherwise the prairie seems to have pro-
duced no fragrant flowers of the first importance for
cultivation.

Perennials for the collector. — The groups that appeal
most to collectors' are those having the greatest variety
in form, color, and size. Perennial phlox (P. panicu-
lata) has produced more varieties in cultivation than
any other American flower, one Scotch catalogue
offering 346 kinds. The color range is from purple
through crimson-pink to white, and the chief forms are
the large-flowered, large-trussed, and halo. Gaillardia
aristata has produced 102 varieties, ranging from yellow
to red, the chief forms being toothed, laciniate, quilled,
and reflexed, with some double varieties (e.g. G.
splendidissima plena) and a maximum size of 5^ inches
(James Kelway). The perennial sunflowers make a
very impressive collection, but require much space
unless only a few of each kind are grown. They are
all yellow-flowered, and offer no great variety of form
but they vary in season from July to October, and in
height from 3 to 12 feet, with single or double flowers
and yellow or brown disks. The best twelve species of
sunflower are native to the prairie. The coneflowers
(comprising Rudbeckia and Lepachys) make a more
elegant and varied collection with a wider range of
color, the prominent disks being green, yellow, brown,
or purple, while the rays range from yellow to red-
dish brown and purple. Thirty-nine species and
seventy-one varieties of perennial asters or Michaelmas
daisies are offered by a single English dealer. There
are thirty-nine species native to the prairie, and in
cultivation. The New Jersey aster (A. novi-belgii),
which is not native to the prairie, has produced the
greatest number of varieties, viz., forty-five. Asters
are more satisfactory in borders by themselves than
in the garden.

Perennials for light soils. — All the artists of the
prairie school have been deeply influenced by the sand-
dunes near Chicago, to which the Prairie Club has
conducted several hundred excursions. The flowers
of the dunes have been introduced into the gardens of
Chicago, a large part of which is built on dunes. In
perhaps a third of the city, the conventional material
of the nurseries fails to give satisfaction, but the plants
of the dunes succeed admirably. The greatest color
shows at the dunes are produced by Lupinus perennis
and Viola pedata, which bloom by the thousands in
sand, but commonly fail in rich soil. Other showy
perennials of these and other inland dunes are, Asdepias
tuberosa, Euphorbia corollata, Liatris scariosa, Lathy-
rus maritimus, Lithospermum canescens, the fleshy-
leaved Solidago Virgaurea, Tephrosia virginica, and
Physostegia virginiana, which assumes fleshy leaves and
dwarf habit in sand. One of the best grasses is Cala-
movilfa longifolia, and one of the best gray-leaved
plants is Artemisia canadensis.

Perennials for the roadside. — The greatest opportunity
for the public use of perennials in the prairie states is
connected with the roadsides, which can be turned into
a public park without the cost of buying the land.

LIII. Good use of spring flowers. — Mertensia virginica.

HERB

HERB

1471

The roadside is the chief sanctuary of the native flora,
and if the movement to preserve and restore the prairie
flowers has progressed farther in the prairie states than
others it may be because the prairie states must, to a
great extent, create their own scenery. The following
list contains very characteristic and beautiful flowers
that can be bought or collected cheaply, and are easy
of cultivation, but not weedy. Many of them are
excellent for cut-flowers, but few of them would be
likely to encourage vandalism. To this list should be
added three important bulbous plants which can be
used to edge the shrubbery, viz., dodecatheon, mer-
tensia, and camassia. The following plants are all
sun-loving species, and most are well adapted to stand
drought: May: Phlox divaricata. June: Callirhoe
involucrata, Tradescantia virginica, Phlox glaberrima
and P. maculata, Eryngium aquaticum. July: Phlox
paniculata, Echinacea purpurea, Helianthus mollis,
H. Isetiflorus, H. helianthoides, Asclepias tuber osa,
Rudbeckia speciosa, Heliopsis scabra. August : Gaillardia
aristata, Boltonia asteroides, Liatris pycnostachya, Aster
novx-anglise, Rudbeckia subtomentosa, Helenium autum-
nale, Helianthus decapetalus, September: Aster eri-
coides, A. paniculatus, and A. patens, Helianthus orgy-
alis. October: Aster amethystinus, A. Isevis, and A.
commulatus, A. Tradescantii, Helianthus Maximilianii.

Perennials for shade. — A great problem in the prairie
states is restoration of wild flowers to woodlots that
have been pastured. The chief wooded areas are along
streams and whenever they exist elsewhere they furnish
the only scenic foil to, or relief from", the prairie. The
western woods are scarcely differentiated from the
eastern woods in spring unless by greater abundance
of American bluebells (Mertensia virginica), and wild
blue phlox (P. divaricata). The snow or early wake-
robin (Trillium nivale) is often the first flower, pre-
ceding the hepaticas. Perhaps the most character-
^istic spring wild flower of the woods is Erythronium
'albidum, which replaces the yellow adder's-tongue of
the East. In summer, the most characteristic species,
probably, are Helianthus decapetalus and H. divaricatus.
Lilium canadense and L. superbum grow taller and pro-
duce more flowers in moist woods than open places.
At the edge of the woods, Anemone virginiana and
A. canadensis bloom freely. Phloxes appear to much
better advantage in woods where their magenta color
is toned down by the shade, especially when they are
seen amid grass. The best planting policy ordinarily
is to spend money chiefly near the trails, a favorite
foliage plant beside trails being the maidenhair fern
(Adiantum pedatum). Perhaps the best large masses
of color are produced by colonies of Cimictfuga race-
mosa and Aralia racemosa, the berries of which change
from green through purple to scarlet during the summer.

In autumn, many species of aster and goldenrod fill
the woods, notably Aster cordifolius and A. divaricatus,
and Solidago csesia.

Perennials for rock-gardens. — Natural rocks are so
rare in the West that rock-gardens hardly seem appro-
priate. Among the best flowers native to western
rocks are Aquilegia canadensis, Campanula rotundi-
fplia, Eupatorium codestinum, Fragaria virginiana var.
illinoiensis, Heuchera americana, Oxalis violacea,
Sedum pulchellum and S. ternatum, and Silene virginica.

Perennials for bog-gardens. — Sphagnum bogs in
convenient locations are getting rare in the West, but
western people are beginning to buy them because they
contain some of the most beautiful flowers, especially
orchids, pitcher-plants, and members of the heath
family. Many of these plants and the fringed gentian
require sphagnum moss or peat. They present a higher
type of beauty than the plants that grow in ordinary
muck or wet soil, which are named in the next list.

Water-loving perennials. — The following are suitable
for the margins of ponds, lakes, brooks, rivers, and
water-gardens. They require more water than it is

convenient to give them in ordinary flower-gardens,
and even if they thrive they are likely to look out of
place: April: Caltha palustris. May: Chamselirium
luteum, Senecio aureus, Menyanthes trifoliata. June:
7ns versicolor, Parnassia caroliniania, Angelica atro-
purpurea. July: Angelica hirsuta, Aster puniceus, Caltha
palustris, Lilium canadense and L. superbum, Thalic-
trum polygamum (T. Cornuti). August: Lobelia cardi-
nalis, Aster paniculatus, Eupatorium purpureum, Hibis-
cus Moscheutos. September: Gentiana Andrewsii, Hele-
nium autumnale, Pontederia cordata. October: Helian-
thus orgyalis and H. Maximilianii. Colored water-lilies
are not used in the prairie style of landscape garden-
ing as they spoil the purity of the composition, since
the white water-lily is the only one native to prairie
rivers. Perhaps the finest aquatic plant yet to be nat-
uralized in western water-gardens is the yellow lotus
(Nelumbo lutea).

Bird-pools. — Few, if any, perennials are worth plant-
ing around bird-pools to furnish food, but water-loving
perennials are important for finishing such com-
positions. Where the gardenesque style uses German or
Japanese iris, variegated calamus, eulalia, and eastern
cattail, the prairie style uses Iris versicolor, green
calamus, bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), and
western cattail (Typha angustifolia). Several wild
flowers of the lily family suggest the flight of birds by
their habit, e.g., Polygonatum giganteum. In the prairie
school, the motive is often to reproduce something like
the characteristic local spring. Among the original
plants native to springs which Brendel records are,
Archangelica atropurpurea, Aster corymbosus and A.
umbellatus, Caltha palustris, Parnassia caroliniana,
Cypripedium spectabile and C. candidum, the last of
which is distinctly western.

Bibliography. — H. C. Cowles, "The Plant Societies
of Chicago and Vicinity" (1901) ; Frederick Brendel,
"Flora Peoriana (1887); Brendel in Fred Gerhard,
"Illinois as It Is" (1857), pp. 271-8; H. A. Gleason,
"A Botanical Survey of the Illinois River Valley Sand
Region" in Bot. Gaz. 7:149-194 (1907); and "The Veg-
etation of the Inland Sand Deposits of Illinois," Bull.
111. State. Lab. Nat. Hist. 9:23-171 (1910).

WILHELM MILLER,
L. E. FOGLESONG and
FRANZ A. AUST.

Perennial herbs for the South.

1. Piedmont Zone extends from the Mountain Zone to
the "Fall Line," which follows approximately the fol-
lowing cities :Weldon and Raleigh, North Carolina; Cam-
den and Columbia, South Carolina; Augusta, Milledge-
ville, Macon and Columbus, Georgia; Montgomery,
Alabama; Columbus and Holly Springs, Mississippi.

Sun-loving plants for Piedmont Zone.

Acanthus mollis.
Achillea Millefolium.
Adonis vernalis.
Agave.

Alyssum saxatile.
Amaryllis.
Anchusa italica.
Anemone japonica.
Anthemis tinctoria.
Antigonon leptopus.
Aquilegia.
Arabis alpina.
Arenaria grandiflora.
Armeria vulgaris.
Artemisia.
Arundp Donax.
Asclepias.

Asters, grandiflprus, etc.
Astilbe chinensis.
Astilbe japonica.
*Astragalus tennesseensis.
Bamboo.

Baptisia australis.

Belamcanda chinensis.

Bocconia cordata.

Boltonia.

Caladium esculentum.

Callirhoe involucrata.

Campanula.

Canna.

Centaurea.

Chrysanthemums.

Clematis.

Clerodendron macrosiphon.

Coreopsis lanceolata.

Coronilla.

Crinum.

Dahlia.

Dianthus barbatus.

Dianthus deltoides.

Dianthus latifolius.

Dianthus plumarius.

Dictamnus albus.

*Astragalus tennesseensis, Gray, from Tenn. and Ala. Hirsute:
fls. in a short spike or head, cream-color, often tinged with purple:
fr. pointed, strongly wrinkled. April, May.

1472

HERB

HERB

Sun-loving plants, continued.

Bog- and moisture-loving plants, continued.

Digitalis. Nierembergia rivularis.

Iris hexagona. Pancratium.

Dioscorea. Climber. CEnothera.
Dolichos. Climber. Oxalis. [Ground cover.
Doronicum plantagineum Pachysandra terminalis.

Iris Isevigata. Pogonia ophioglossoides.
Iris versicolor. Rhexia virginica.
Lilium tigrinum. Sagittaria.

var. excelsum. Paeonia.

Echinacea purpurea. Papaver orientale.
Erianthus. Pennisetum longistylum.
Eryngium amethystinum. Pentstemon.

ijuueiid, u<ti umcuis. naururus cernuus.
Lobelia syphihtica. Solidago patula.
Lythrum. Stenanthium robustum.
Mertensia. Thalictrum.

Erythrina herbacea. Phalaris.
Eulalia (Miscanthus). Phlox amcena.

Myosotis. Typha latifolia.

Eupatorium. Phlox decussata.
Euphorbia corollata. Phlox divaricata.
Festuca glauca. Phlox paniculata.

2. Coastal Zone extends from the "Fall Line" as out-
lined under the Piedmont Zone (p. 1471) to the Atlan-

Gaillardia. Phlox subulata.
Geranium maculatum. Physalis.
Gilia coronopifolia. Physostegia virginiana.
Gynerium (Cortaderia). Platycodon.

tic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, but exclusive of Florida
south of a line drawn across the state from St. Augus-
tine to Cedar Keys.

Gypsophila. Plumbago Larpentae.
Helenium. Polygonum Sieboldii.

Sun-loving plants for Coastal Zone.

Helianthus. Pyrethrum uliginosum.
Heliopsis laevis. Rudbeckia.
Hemerocallis. Salvia azurea.
Heuchera sanguinea. Salvia Greggii.
Hibiscus. Salvia Pitcheri.
Hosta (Funkia). Santolina.
Hydrangea. Saxifraga crassifolia.
Iberis. Scabiosa.
Incarvillea Delavayi. Sedum acre.
Indigofera decora. Sempervivum.
Ipomoea. Silene Schafta.
Iris germanica. Silene virginica.
Iris verna. Solidago.
Lathyrus latifolius. Spiraea chinensis.
Lavandula vera. Stachys lanata.
Lespedeza japonica. Stokesia.
Lespedeza Sieboldii. Thalictrum aquilegifolium.
Liatris. Thermopsis fabacea.
Lilium. Thymus carnosus.
Linum perenne. Tradescantia.
Liriope spicata. Tritoma (Kniphofia).
Lupinus polyphyllus. Trollius caucasicus.
Lychnis. Tunica Saxifraga.
Lysimachia clethroides. Veronica incana.
Malvaviscus Drummondii. Veronica longifolia.

Achillea. Helenium.
Agave. Helianthus.
Alocasia macrorhiza. Hemerocallis.
Aloe arborescens. Hibiscus.
Althaea rosea. Hosta (Funkia).
Alyssum saxatile. Hydrangea.
Amaryllis. Hymenocallis caribaea.
Amsonia angustifolia. Ipomcea. Climber.
Anchusa italica. Iris germanica.
Antigonon leptopus. Climber. Kaempferia Gilbertii.
Armeria vulgaris. Lantana.
Artemisia. Lathyrus latifolius.
Arundo Donax. Leonotis Leonurus.
Asclepias. Lespedeza japonica.
Aster. Liatris.
Asystasia bella. Lippia citriodora.
Bamboo. Liriope spicata.
Baptisia australis. Lupinus villosus.
Belamcanda chinensis. Lynchis.
Bellis perennis. Malvaviscus arboreus.
Bocconia cordata. Malvaviscus Drummondii.
Boltonia. Mirabilis Jalapa.
Caladium esculentum. Montbretia.
Callirhoe' involucrata. Moraea iridoides.
Canna. CEnothera.

Alarshallia. vinca.
Monarda didyma. Viola.
Montbretia. Yucca.

Capsicum baccatum. Oxalis.
Centaurea. Pancratium.
Chrysanthemum. Papaver orientale.

Shade-loving plants for Piedmont.

Clerodendron foetidum. Pennisetum longistylum.
Clerodendron fragrans. Phalaris.

Aconitum. Hepatica.

Clerodendron macrosiphon. Phlox amcena.

^Egopodium. Heuchera.

Clerodendron Siphonanthus. Phlox decussata.

Agapanthus umbellatus. Hosta (Funkia).

Clerodendron trichotomum. Physostegia virginiana.

Allium. Iberis sempervirens.

Colocasia. Platycodon.

Amaryllis. Iris.

Coreopsis lanceolata. Plumbago capensis.

Amsonia angustifolia. Lilium tigrinum.

Crinum. Plumbago Larpentae.

*Amsonia ciliata. Linaria Cymbalaria.

Dahlia. _ Polygonella ericoides.

Apios tuberosa. Climber. Liriope spicata.
Aquilegia. Lobelia cardinalis.

Delphinium. Polygonum cuspidatum.
Desmodium pendulifolium. Reineckia carnea.

Arundo Donax. Lysimachia nummularia.

Dianthus barbatus. Richardia africana.

Asarum. Ground-cover.

Dianthus deltoides. Rudbeckia.

Asperula. Mentha spicata.

Dianthus latifolius. Salvia azurea.

Aster corymbosus. Mitchella repens.

Dianthus plumarius. Salvia Greggii.

Aster macrophyllus. Hardy Myosotis.

Digitalis. Salvia Pitcheri.

native. Oxalis.

Dioscorea. Climber. Santolina.

Bambusa. Pachysandra.

Dolichos. Climber. Scabiosa.

Boltonia asteroides. Paeonia.

Echinacea purpurea. Silene Schafta.

Carex (weedy) . Phlox maculata.

Erianthus. Solidago.

Clematis crispa. Climber. Phlox reptans.

Eryngium amethystinum. Statice latifolia.

Coreopsis. Podophyllum peltatum.

Erythrina Crista-galli. Stokesia.

Crinum. Polemonium.

Eulalia (Miscanthus). Thymus carnosus.

Cypripedium. Polygonatum.
Delphinium. Rhexia virginica.

Eupatorium. Tradescantia.
Euphorbia corollata. Tritoma (Kniphofia).

Dicentra. Sanguinaria.

Euphorbia splendens. Verbena.

Digitalis purpurea. Saxifraga crassifolia.

Furcraea. Vinca.

Dodecatheon. Spigelia marilandica.

Gaillardia. Viola.

Erythronium. Tradescantia.

Gilia coronopifolia. Xanthosoma bataviensia.

Eulalia (Miscanthus). Trillium.

Gynerium. Xanthosoma violaceum.

Eupatorium. Vinca.

Hedychium coronarium. Yucca.

Gentiana. Viola.
Geranium maculatum. Waldsteinia lobata.

Shade-loving plants for Coastal Zone.

* Amsonia ciliata, Walt., from N. C. and Ark. to Fla. and Texas.

Aconitum. Hosta (Funkia).

Sts. and branches pubescent: Ivs. numerous: calyx-lobes acute;
corolla glabrous.

Agave. Hymenocallis.
Amaryllis. Iris verna.

Anemone. Lantana.

Bog- and moisture-loving plants for Piedmont.

Anthemis. Liatris gracilis.
Aquilegia. Lilium.

Acorus Calamus. Chelone glabra.

Asclepias incarnata. Lobelia cardinalis.

Agapanthus umbellatus. Cyperus.

Astilbe. CEnothera.

Amaryllis. Eriophorum polystachyon.

Caladium. Papaver orientale.

Apios tuberosa. Climber. Eriophorum virginicum.

Caltha. Phlox decussata.

Arundo Donax. Eulalia (Miscanthus).

Canna. Physalis.

Asarum. Eupatorium purpureum.
Asclepias incarnata. Gynerium (Cortaderia).
Aster pumceus. Habenaria blepharioglottis.

Chrysanthemum maximum. Plumbago.
Coreopsis. Pyrethrum.
Crinum. Rudbeckia.

Aster surculosus. Habenaria ciliaris.

Euphorbia. Sagittaria.

Bambusa. Helonias bullata.

Gaillardia. Sanguinaria.

Boltonia asteroides. Hibiscus incanus.
Calopogon pulchellus. Hibiscus Moscheutos.

Hedychium coronarium. Sedum.
Hemerocallis. Solidago.

Carex. Houstonia.

Hibiscus, Mallows.

HERB

HERB

1473

Shade-loving plants, continued.
Stokeaia cyanea.
Tradescantia.
Trillium.
Tritoma (Kniphofia).

Plants for the seaside.

Armeria.

Aster carolinianus.
Eryngium amethystinum.
Eryngium planum.
Hibiscus coccineus.
Hibiscus grandiflorus.
Hibiscus militaris (H. caro-
linensis, Muhl.).

Vinca.
Viola.
Xanthosoma,

Ipomcea dissecta.
IpomcBa Jalapa.
Ipomcea Pes-caprse.
Kosteletzkya virginica.
Rosmarinus.
Solidago sempervirens.
Statice latifolia.
Tradescantia virginica.

Shade-loving plants, -continued
Tradescantia species.
Trautvetteria carolinensis.
Tricyrtis species.
Trillium species.
Trollius species.

Uvularia species.

Veratrum viride.

Vinca.

Viola species.

Xanthorrhiza,

Bog- and moisture-loving plants for Coastal Zone.

Asclepias lanceolata.

Aster carolinianus.

Brunella grandiflora.

Calopogon.

Castilleja.

Coreopsis integrifolia*.

Eichhornia.

Gerardia.

Habenaria ciliaris.

Hedychium.

Hibiscus.

Hydrophyllum.

Hymenocallis lacera.

Iris versicolqr.

Liatris graminifolia.
^Coreopsis integrifdlia, Poir
entire; heads 1-1 Yz in. broad
Ga. and Fla.

Liatris spicata.

Limodorum multiflorum.

Lobelia cardinalis.

Lobelia syphilitica.

Nelumbo.

Nymphaea.

Pogonia.

Pontederia.

Rhcxia.

Sabbatia.

Sagittaria.

Sarracenia.

Zephyranth.es Atamasco.

Zingiber.

. Perennial, 2-3 ft.: Ivs. opposite,
including rays, the ray-fls. about 8.

3. Mountain, or Upper Zone includes all the territory
above Salem, Morgantown, and Rutherfordton, North
Carolina; Spartanburg and Pendelton, South Carolina;
Gainesville and Cartersville, Georgia; Huntsville,
Alabama; and Murfreesboro, Tennessee; thence north
to the Kentucky line.

Shade-loving plants for Mountain Zone.

Habenaria ciliaris.
Helleborus.
Hemerocallis species.
Hepatica species.
Hesperis matrpnalis.
Heuchera species.
Hosta (Funkia) speciea.
Houstonia serpyllifolia,
Incarvillea Delavayi.
Iris species.
Jasione perennis.
Jeffersonia diphylla.
Liatris species.
Lilium speciea.
Linaria Cymbalaria.
Linum perenne.
Liriope spicata.
Lobelia speciea.
Lychnis species.
Lysimachia species.
Mentha species.
Mertensia virginica.
Mitchella repens.
Monarda didyma.
Montbretia.
Myosotis palustris.
Nierembergia rivularia.
CEnothera species.
Opuntia.

Ornithogalum umbellatum.
Platycodon species.
Podophyllum peltatum.
Polygonatum commutatum

(P. giganteum).
Polygonum amplexicaule.
Primula officinalis.
Sanguinaria canadensis.
Santolina Chamaecyparissus.
Sappnaria species.
Saxifraga species.
Scutellaria montana.
Sedum speciea.
Shortia galacifolia.
Silene virginica.
Smilacina racemoaa.
Solidago species.
Spigelia marilandica.
Spiraea species.
Streptopus roseus.
Thauctrum species.
Thermopsis caroliniana.
Thermopsis fraxinifolia,
Tiarella cordifolia.

Aconitum species.
Actjea alba. •

Adonis species.
Ajuga species.
Alstroemeria aurantiaca.
Anemone species.
Aquilegia species.
Aralia nudicaulis.
Arisaema Dracontium.
Arisaema triphyllum.
Aruncus.
Asarum speciea.
Asclepias.
Asperula odorata.
Asphodelus.
Aster species.
Astilbe biternata.
Aubrietia species.
Boykinia aconitifqlia.
Buphthalmum salicifolium.
Calopogon pulchellus.
Campanula species.
Carex species.
Cerastium species.
Chimaphila maculata.
Cimicifuga species.
Clintonia species.
Convallaria majalis.
Coreopsis pubescens.
Cypripedium.
Delphinium species.
Dicentra species.
Dictamnus albus.
Digitalis species.
Diphylleia cymosa.
Dodecatheon Meadia.
Doromcum species.
Epigsea repens.
Epilobium angustifolium.
Epimedium species.
Erythronium species.
Eupatorium species.
Ferns.

Galax aphylla. [bilis.

Galeorchis (Orchis) specta-
Gaultheria procumbens.
Gentiana species.
Geum species.
Gillenia stipulata.
Gillenia trifouata.
Glechoma.
Goodyera pubescens.
Gynerium (Cortaderia).

94

Sun-loving plants for Mountain Zone.

Acanthus.
Achillea species.
Actsea alba.
Adonis species.
jEgopodium Podograria var.

variegatum.
Ajuga species.
Aletris farinosa.
Althaea rosea.
Alyssum species.
Amsonia species.
Anaphalis margaritacea.
Anchusa italica.
• Angelica hirsuta.
Anthemis species.
Anthericum species.
Aquilegia species.
Arabia alpina.
Arenaria species.
Armeria species.
Artemisia species.
Arundp Donax.
Asclepias species.
Aster apeciea.
Baptisia species.
Belamcanda chinensis.
Bellis perennis (the English

Daisy) .

Bocconia cordata.
Boltonia species.
Calimeris incisa.
Callirhoe involucrata.
Campanula species.
Caryopteris incana.
Cassia marylandica.
Centaurea species.
Centranthus species.
Cephalaria species.
Cerastium species.
Ceratostigma plumbagi-

noides.

Chamaelirium luteum.
Chrysanthemum, Hardy.
Chrysopsis mariana.
Clematis species.
Coreopsis.
Coronilla varia.
Delphinium species.
Dianthus species.
Dicentra species.
Digitalis species.
Dorpnicum species.
Echinacea purpurea.
Echinops Ritro.
Eremurus robustus.
Erianthus Rayennae.
Erigerpn species.
Eryngium species.
Eupatorium urticaefolium.
Euphorbia corollata.
Festuca glauca.
Gaillardia grandiflora.
Gentiana.
Geum species.
Gillenia species.
Gypsophila species.
Habenaria ciliaris.
Helenium species.
Helianthemum species.
Helianthus species.
Heliopsis species.
Helleborus.
Hemerocallis.
Heuchera sanguinea.
Hibiscus species.
Hieracium aurautiacum.
Hosta (Funkia) species.
Houstonia serpyllifolia.
Hypericum species.

Hyssopus.

Iberis sempervirens.
Iris species.

Lathyrus (Orobus) vernus.
Lathyrus species.
Lavandula yera.
Lepachys pinnata.
Liatris species.
Lilium species.
Linum species.
Lobelia species.
Lupinus polyphyllua,
Lychnis.

Lysimachia species.
Lythrum species.
Marshallia grandiflora.
Mentha species.
Mertensia virginica.
Miscanthus species.
Molinia (Aira) casrulea.
Monarda didyma.
CEnothera species.
Ophiopogon.
Opuntia.

Origanum vulgare.
Pachysandra.
Paeonia.
Papaver.
Pardanthus.
Pentstemon species.
Phlox.
Physalis.

Physostegia species.
Platycodon species.
Plumbago Larpentse.
Pogonia species.
Polygonatum giganteum.
Polygonum species.
Potentilla tridentata.
Pulmonaria.
Pyrethrum.
Ranunculus species.
Rhexia virginica.
Rudbeckia species.
Salvia species.
Saxifraga species.
Scabiosa species.
Sedum species.
Sempervivum.
Silene species.
Silphium species.
Sisyrinchium grandiflorum.
Solidago species.
Spigelia marilandica.
Spiraea apeciea.
Stachys species.
Stenanthium robustum.
Stipa pennata.
Stokesia cyanea.
Symphytum asperrimum

var. aureo-variegatum.
Tanacetum species.
Thalictrum species.
Thermopsis caroliniana.
Thermopsis fraxinifolia.
Thymus species.
Tradescantia species.
Tritoma (Kniphofia) species.
Tunica Saxifraga.
Valeriana species.
Verbascum olympicum.
Vernonia species.
Veronica species.
Vinca.

Viola species.
Xerophyllum setifolium.
Yucca nlamentosa.
Yucca flaccida.

Bog- and moisture-loving

Acprus Calamus.
Apios tuberosa.
Asclepias.
Aster puniceus.
Aster surculosus.
Calla palustris.
Calopogon pulchellus.
Caltha palustris.
Chelqne species.
Cypripedium spectabile.

plants for Mountain Zone.

Decodon (Nesaea) verticil-

latus.

Eupatorium purpureum.
Habenaria ciliaris.
Helonias bullata.
Heuchera species.
Hibiscus species.
Houstonia serpyllifolia.
Impatiens pallida.
Iris species.

1474

HERB

HERB

Bog- and moisture-loving plants,

Liatris species.
Lilium species.
Lobelia species.
Mimulus ringens.
Monarda didyma.
Orontium aquaticum.
Parnassia asarifolia.
Pogonia species.
Rhexia virginica.
Rodgersia podophylla.
Sarracenia species.

continued.
Saxifraga species.
Senecio aureus.
Senecio clivorum.
Solidago patula.
Stenanthium robustum.
Symplocarpus fcetidus.
Thalictrum species.
Typha latifolia.
Veratrum viride.
Viola palmata var. cucullata.
Xerophyllum setifolium.

L. A. BERCKMANS.

Herbs for California (mostly perennial) .

Border or low edging plants.

The following plants produce the appearance of
neatness and finish by more clearly defining edges of
beds, walks or drives, and by serving as connecting
elements between taller plants and the greensward.
In so doing they may also screen the lower, more or less
bare leafless stems of other plants.

Achillea santolinoides.
Agrostis nebulosa.
Allium neapolitanum.
Alyssum marit imum.
Alyssum saxatile.
Arabia alpina.
Armeria vulgaris (A. mari-

tima).

Asperula odorata.
Aubrietia deltoidea var.

graeca.
Aubrietia deltoidea var.

Leichtlinii.
Baeria chrysostoma var. gra-

cilis. Thrives in sunshine.
Begonia Erfordii.
Bellis perennis, English

Daisy.

Bulbs of various kinds.
Calendula officinalis, Pot

Marigold.

Cerastium tomentosum.
Chsenostoma hispidum.
Chrysanthemum Tchihat-

chewii. Turfing Daisy.
Convolvulus mauritanicus.
Dianthus, Pinks.
D. barbatus. Sweet William.
Echinopsis Eyriesii.
Erigeron mucronatus, Mexi-
can Daisy.
Festuca glauca.
Freesia.

Gazania splendens.
Geranium, Ivy.
Geranium, Madam Salleroi.
Godetia, dwarf.
Gypsophila muralis.
Gypsophila paniculata,

Baby's Breath.
Helianthemum vulgare var.

mutabile, Sun Rose.
Heuchera sanguinca, Coral

Bells.

Iberis sempervirens, Ever-
green Candytuft.
Impatiens Sultani.
Iresine Lindenii (Achyran-

thes acuminata).
Iris, small blue.
Kalanchoe flammea.
Lantana, dwarf.
Lobelia Erinus.
Lotus Bertholetii (L. pelio-

rhyncus), Coral Gem.
Mahernia verticillata (M.

odorata), Honey Bells.

Marigold, African (Tagetes

erecta).
Marigold, French (Tagetes

patula).
Mesembryanthemum cordi-

folium, Dew Plant.
Mignonette (Reseda odo-
rata).
Morsea iridioides, Natal

Lily.

Myosotis, Forget-me-not.
Nasturtium, dwarf.
(Enothera ovata, Sun-Cups.
(Enothera rosea, Mexican

Primrose.

Omphalodes linifolia.
Ophiopogon japonicus.
Oxalis.

Oxalis cernua.
Oxalis oregana.
Oxalis purpurea.
Oxalis tetraphylla.
Pansy.
Pennisetum villosum (P.

longistylum).
Phlox, dwarf.
Portulaca grandiflora, Rose

Moss.
Primula.

Primula malacoides, pink.
Santolina Chamacyparissus,

Lavender Cotton.
Sanvitalia procumbens var.

flpre-pleno.
Saxifraga crassifolia.
Scilla.

Scirpus cernuus. For shade.
Sempervivum globiferum,

Hen-and-Chickens.
Specularia Speculum (Cam-
panula Speculum), Venus'

Looking-G 1 ass.
Specularia Speculum var.

procumbens.
Spergula.
Stachys alpina.
Stachys lanata.
Sweet Pea, Cupid.
Vinca minor.
Viola cornuta.
Viola odorata.

Viola odorata, Marie Louise.
Viola odorata, Princess of

Wales.
Zaluzianskya selaginoides

(Nycterinia selaginoides).
Zinnia, dwarf.

For dry places.

The following are fairly drought-resistant and may be
grown in dry situations, where they will bloom freely
with little attention.

Abronia umbellata.
Achillea santolinoides.
Antirrhinum Coulterianum.*

Argemone platyceras.
Artichoke (Cynara Scoly-
mus).

For dry places, continued.

Bidens ferulsefolia*.

Calla lily (Zantedeschia
ffithiopica).

Cheiranthus Cheiri, Wall-
flower.

Cistus, Rock-Rose.

Coreopsis lanceolata.

Coreopsis tinctoria.

Cornflower (Centaurea

Cotyledon. [Cyanus).

Crassula.

Encelia californica.

Eriogonum fasciculatum.

Eriogonum latifolium.

Eriogonum umbellatum.

Eschscholtzia californica,
California Poppy.

Gazania splendens.

Gilia californica.

Gilia chamissonis.

Godetia grandiflora.

Goldenrod (Solidago cali-
fornica).

Helianthus annuus. Sun-
flower.

Helichrysum petiolatum.

Helippsis Isevis var. Pitch-
eriana.

Kniphofia Uvaria, Red-hot-
poker Plant.

Layia elegans, Tidy-Tips.

Layia glandulosa, White
Daisy.

Lippia repens.

Lupinus arboreus, Yellow
Tree Lupin.

Marigold, French and Afri-
can.

Mimulus brevipes, Yellow
Monkey-Flower.

Mimulus glutinosus, Sticky
Monkey-Flower.

Nasturtium (TropEeolum).

Nigella damascena, Love-in-
a-Mist.

Ophiopogon japonicus.

Pelargonium.

Pentstemon antirrhinoides.

Pentstemon gloxinioides.

Pentstemon heterophyllus.

Pentstemon spectabilis.

Petunia hybrida.

Phacelia grandiflora.

Phacelia Whitlavia.

Romneya Coulteri, Matilija
Poppy.

Romneya tnchocalyx.

Salvia carduacea, Thistle
Sage.

Sansevieria zeylanica, Bow-
string Hemp.

Scabiosa atropurpurea,
Mourning Bride.

Sedum acre.

Sedum album.

Sedum Anacampseros.

Sedum nic»ense.

Sedum pulchellum.

Sedum spectabile.

Shirley poppies (Papaver
Rhceas).

Trichostema lanatum.

Turfing Daisy (Chrysanthe-
mum Tchihatchewii).

Verbenas.

Wild flowers of many kinds.

Zauschneria californica, Cali-
fornia Fuchsia.

Mentzelia Lindleyi.
Mesembryanthemum.

*Bidens ferulsefolia, DC., from Mex., although perennial, blooms
the first year from seed. It has bright orange-yellow rather small
heads, and very finely cut pinnatisect or pinnate Ivs., the ultimate
segms. small and linear or linear-oblong: plant diffuse, the sts.
16-30 in. long. B.M. 2059.

Cut-flowers and greenery.

The following plants are well adapted for use in a
garden when quantities of flowers and greenery are
wanted for interior decoration and other purposes.

*Anfirrhinum Coulterianum, Benth., of S. Calif., 2-4 ft., has
spicate infl and rather large corolla with protuberant yellowish
palate ; violet-purple or white : the slender branches and the linear
or oval Ivs. act as support for the plant.

Adiantum Croweanum.

Adiantum cuneatum.

Adiantum gracillimum.

Adiantum grandiceps.

Allium neapolitanum.

Amaryllis.

Anemone japonica.

Anthemis tinctoria.

Antirrhinum majus, Snap-
dragon.

Asparagus plumosus.

Asparagus scandens var.
deflexus.

Asparagus Sprengeri.

Asperula hexaphylla.

Aster, China.

Bellflower (Campanula).

Bermuda lily (Lilium).

Bidens ferulsefolia.

Bleeding-heart (Dicentra).

Boltonia latisquama.

Brake, common (Pterisaqui-
lina).

Briza maxima.

Bromus brizffiformis.

Browallia demissa.

Calceolaria.

Calla lily.

California wild flowers.

Campanula Medium.

Campanula Medium var.
calycanthema.

Campanula persicifolia.

Candytuft.

Canna.

Carnation.

Centaurea imperialis, Sweet
Sultan.

Chrysanthemum, pompons.

Clarkia.

Coreopsis tinctoria.

Cornflower (Centaurea Cy-
anus).

Cosmos.

Cyclamen.

Daffodil.

Dahlia.

Delphinium cardinale.

Doronicum caucasicum.

Erythronium.

Eschscholtzia californica,
California Poppy.

Euphorbia corollata.

Everlasting flowers.

Felicia amelloides.

Ferns, Maidenhair and
Sword-Fern.

Feverfew, double white.

Gaillardia aristata.

Gaillardia aristata var.

grandiflora, var. maxima.

Gaillardia picta, Loren-
ziana, amblyodon.

Galax.

Geranium, scarlet.

Gerbera Jamesonii, Trans-
vaal Daisy.

Geum coccineum.

Gilia liniflora.

Gladiolus.

Godetia.

Goldenrod (Solidago).

Gypsophila paniculata.

Helenium autumnale var.
pumilum.

Heliopsis Isevis var. Pitcher-
iana.

Heliotrope (Heliotropium).

Hesperis matronalis.

Heuchera rubescens.

Hollyhock.

Honesty (Lunaria annua).

Hunnemannia fumariae-
folia, Mexican Poppy.

Hydrangea hortensis.

Iberis sempervirens.

Indian pink.

Iris.

Iris Isevigata (Kaempferi),
Japanese Iris.

Ixia.

Kniphofia Uvaria, Red-hot-
poker Plant.

Larkspur (Delphinium).

HERB

HERB

1475

Cut-flowers and greenery, continued.

Moist soils, bogs, or edges of water, continued.

Lilium Humboldtii.
Lily, Bermuda.
Lily-9f-the-Valley (Conval-

laria majalis).
Maidenhair fern (Adian-

tum).
Marguerite (Chrysanthemum

frutescens).
Marigold, African (Tagetes

erecta).
Marigold, French (Tagetes

pa tula).
Mexican ivy (Vancouveria

hexandra).

Mignonette (Reseda).
Mimulus.

Myosotis, Forget-me-not.
Narcissus.

Nasturtium (Tropseolum).
Nigella.
Orchids (Cattleya and

others).

Panicum atrosanguineum.
Panicum plicatum.
Pansy.
Pentstemon.

Petunia, double and single.
Phlox Drummondii.
Phlox grandiflora.
Pink (Dianthus).
Polygala apopetala.
Poppy.

Russelia juncea var. Le-

moinei.
Russelia sarmentosa (R. mul-

tiflora).

Salvia azurea var. grandi-
Salvia, scarlet. [flora.

Scabiosa, Mourning-Bride.
Schizanthus.
Scilla.

Shasta daisy.
Smilax.

Snapdragon (Antirrhinum).
Snowflake (Leucojum).
Statice f ruticans (S. arborea).
Statice Suworowi.
Stock.

Sunflower (Helianthus).
Sweet alyssum.
Sweet pea.

Sweet sultan (Centaurea).
Tritonia croeosmseflora.
Tuberose.
Tulip.
Verbena.
Vinca, white with red eyes,

pure white.
Violet.
Volutarella muricata (Am-

berboa muricata).
Water-lily.
Woodwardia.
Zinnia grandiflora.

Herbaceous hedge plants (some of them shrubby) .

The following plants range from 1^ to 3 to 4 feet
high and may be used to give a profusion of color and
brightness to a home place; to make low boundary
lines between property lines; partially to hide some
disagreeable object; to give a touch of privacy about
some garden feature; to plant around a vegetable-
garden to make it more attractive; they are very effec-
tive treated as temporary plant material.

Achillea santolinoides.

Artichoke (Cynara Scoly-
mus).

Atriplex Breweri.

Calceolaria integrifolia.

Calla lily (Zantedeschia).

Eriogonum fasciculatum.

Feverfew (Chrysanthemum
Parthenium).

Fuchsia arborescens.

Fuchsia corymbifolia.

Geranium.

Helichrysum petiolatum
(Gnaphalium lanatum).

Heliotrope, Queen Marguer-
ite.

Lantana, Dwarf.

Lantana Sellowiana.

Lavandula vera, Lavender.

Leonotis Leonurus, Lion's-
Tail.

Mahernia verticillata,
Honey-Bells.

Malvaviscus mollis.

Marguerite (Chrysanthe-
mum frutescens).

Pelargonium.

Rock rose (Cistus).

Rosemary (Rosmarinus offi-
cinalis).

Salvia splendens.

Santolina Chamsecyparissus.

Streptosolen Jamesonii.

Teucrium fruticans.

Valerian, red (Centranthus
ruber).

White valerian (Centranthus
ruber var. albus).

For naturalizing.

Plants that will grow year after year without much
attention, and therefore good to naturalize and leave
alone.

Aquilegia truncata.
Aquilegia vulgaris var. nivea.
Brodiaea.
Calochortus.
Camassia Cusickii.
Camassia esculenta.
Camassia Leichtlinii.
Ceratostigma plumbagi-

noides.
Cow parsnip (Heracleum

lanatum).

Cynoglossum grande.
Daffodil.

Delphinium nudicaule.
Dicentra spectabilis.
Dwarf bamboo.

Eriogonum.

Erythronium californicum.

Ferns.

Freesia refracta var. alba.

Iris.

Micromeria Chamissonia,

Yerba Buena.
Mimulus glutinosus.
Narcissus.

Nierembergia rivularis.
(Enothera ovata.
Pentstemon barbatus var.

Torreyi.
Pentstemon, California Blue-

Bedder.
Saxifraga crassifolia.

Moist soil, bogs, or edges of water.

For wet grounds, bogs or near edges of water the fol-
lowing have been found to be successful.

Achillea Ptarmica, The Pearl.
Anemopsis californica, Yerba
Mansa.

Aquilegia eximia (probably

a form of A.formosa).
Boykinia occidentalis.*

Calla lily (Zantedeschia).

Calochortus nitidus.

Camassia Cusickii.

Camassia esculenta.

Camassia Leichtlinii.

Cat-tail (Typha latifolia).

Cyperus alternifolius, Um-
brella Plant.

Cyperus alternifolius var.
gracilis.

Cyperus Papyrus, Papyrus.

Cypripedium californicum,
Lady's Slipper. A rare bog-
plant.

Dodecatheon Jeffreyi, Shoot-
ing Star.

Elephant's Ear (Colocasia
antiquorum var. esculenta ;
Caladium esculentum).

Epipactis Royleana. Banks
or in moist soil.

Gunnera chilensis (G. scabra).

Hemerocallis aurantiaca.

Hemerocallis aurantiaca var.

major.

Hemerocallis Thunbergii.
Iris laevigata (I. Kaempferi).
Iris orientalis (I. ochroleuca).
Miscanthus sinensis (Eulalia

japonica).
Miscanthus sinensis var.

gracillimus.
Miscanthus sinensis var.

yariegatus.
Miscanthus sinensis var.

zebrinus.

Nierembergia rivularis.
Pampas-grass (Cortaderia

argentea).
Rudbeckia nitida.
Sagittaria sagittsfolia.
Tolmiea Menziesii.
Tule (Scirpus lacustris var.

occidentalis).
Water-cress (Nasturtium

officinale).

Almost continuous bloomers in some parts of California.

The following plants are almost continuous bloomers;
i.e., flowers usually can be had most of the year in
most parts of California.

Alyssum maritimum, Sweet

Alyssum.
Anchusa capensis.
Begonia Erfordii.
Begonia gracilis.
Begonia semperflorens var.

Vernon.
Begonia luminosa (a garden

form).

Bidens ferulsefolia.
Canna.

Carnation, Corbett.
Chaenostoma hispidum.
Convolvulus floridus or Rho-

dorhiza florida.
Convolvulus mauritanicus.
Cuphea hyssopifolia.
Cuphea ignea.
Cuphea Llavea.
Cuphea micropetala.
Dwarf lantana.
Erigeron mucronatus.
Erigeron speciosus.
Eschscholtzia californica.
Felicia amelloides.
Feverfew (Chrysanthemum

Parthenium).

Geraniums, Ivy-leaved, Chas.
Turner, Etincelant, Carlos
Uhden, Gringoire, Leop-
ard.

Geranium sanguineum.

Gerbera Jamesonii.

Geum, Mrs. Bradshaw.

Heliotrope, La Duse.

Heliotrope, Queen Margue-
rite.

Hemerocallis aurantiaca.

Hollyhock (Althaa rosea).

Marguerite (Chrysanthe-
mum frutescens).

Pelargonium odoratissimum,
Nutmeg Geranium.

Pennisetum Ruppellii.

Pentstemon antirrhinoides.

Pentstemon gloxinioides.

Petunia hybrida.

Primula obconica.

Primula sinensis.

Saxifraga crassifolia.

Shasta daisy.

Snapdragon.

Statice macrophylla.

Stokesia cyanea.

Vinca rosea.

Rock-gardens in shade.

A selection from the following will enable one to
bring into the garden some of the dainty beauty of
wildwood plants:

Aquilegia.
Asarum caudatum.
Boykinia occidentalis.
Epimedium.
Fuchsia procumbens.
Heuchera micrantha.
Heuchera pilosissima.
Heuchera rubescens.
Heuchera sanguinea.
Linaria Cymbalaria, Ken-

ilworth Ivy.
Micromeria Chamissonis,

Yerba Buena.
Myosotis, Forget-me-Not.
Nierembergia rivularis.
Oxalis oregana.

Phlox subulata.
Primula kewensis.
Primula malacoides.
Primula obconica.
Primula sinensis.
Sagina subulata.
Saxifraga crassifolia.
Saxifraga integrifolia.
Saxifraga Mertensiana.
Saxifraga sarmentosa.
Saxifraga umbrosa.
Tellima grandiflora.
Tiarella unifoliata.
Tolmiea Menziesii.
Vancouveria hexandra.
Vancouveria parviflora.

For shady places.

Many plants that grow freely in the direct rays of the
sun in middle California, require shade in southern
California and must be protected from the fierce sum-
mer heat of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys.
Therefore, plant them under lath-houses or in the
shade of trees or on the north side of a house.

*Boykinia occidentalis, Torr. & Gray. Calif, to Wash. Erect or
declined 1-2 ft.: Ivs. round-cordate, 3-9-lobed: fls. many, the pet-
als white.

Acanthus Carpli-Alexandrse.

Acanthus mollis.

Acanthus mollis var. lati-

folius.

Acanthus spinosus.
Aconitum, Monkshood.

Agapanthus umbellatus.
Allium neapolitanum.
Alsophila australis.
Alyssum saxatile.
Amomum Cardamon.
Anemone japonica.

1476

HERB

HERMANNIA

For shady places, continued.

Anemone japonica var. alba.

Anemone coronaria.

Anemone fulgens.

Aquilegia, Columbine.

Asarum caudatum.

Asparagus crispus (A. de-
cumbens).

Asparagus asparagoides,
Smilax of florists.

Asparagus plumosus.

Asparagus plumosus var.
comorensis.

Asparagus plumosus var.
nanus.

Asparagus plumosus var.
robustus (A. Hatcheri).

Asparagus plumosus var.
tenuissimus.

Asparagus retrofractus.

Asparagus scandens var.
deflexus.

Asparagus Sprengeri.

Asperula odorata, Woodruff.

Aspidistra lurida.

Asystasia bella (Mackaya
bella).

Balm, Moldavian (Draco-
cephalum Moldavica).

Begonia argenteo-guttata.

Begonia coccinea (B. rubra).

Begonia Erfordii.

Begonia floribunda (a gar-
den form).

Begonia fuchsioides.

Begonia luminosa.

Begonia Margarita.

Begonia nitida var. odorata

Begonia Rex. [alba.

Begonia rosea.

Begonia rubella.

Begonia Sandersonii (B.
Digswelliana).

Begonia semperflorens.

Begonia Templinii.

Begonia weltoniensis.

Bellis perennis, English
daisy.

Calla lily (Zantedeschia).

Cibotium Barometz, Scyth-
ian Lamb.

Cinerarias.

Clivia miniata. It will not
stand frost.

Convolvulus mauritanicus.

Crinum Moorei.

Cyclamen.

Cyperus alternifolius.

Cyrtomium falcatum.

Dsedalacanthus nervosus.

Daffodil.

Dicentra spectabilis, Bleed-
ing Heart.

Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove.

Dog's-tooth violet (Ery-
thronium californicum).

Doronicum magnificum.

Eremurus Elwesii.

Eremurus himalaicus.

Eremurus robustus.

Rock-gardens in the sun.

For rock-gardens in the sun,
may be grown, instead of the
and curious desert plants.

Alyssum saxatile.
Aubrietia deltoidea var.

Leichtlinii.

Calandrinia umbellata.
Cerastium tomentosum.
Chtenostoma hispidum.
Convolvulus mauritanicus.
Cotyledon.
Crassula.
Echeveria.

Edelweiss (Leontopodium
Eriogonum. [alpinum).

Flax (Linum).
Gazania splendens.
Geranium sanguineum.
Geum chiloense.
Geum coccineum.
Helichrysum petiolatum

(Gnaphalium lanatum).
Lewisia Cotyledon.
Lewisia Howellii.

Erigeron mucronatus.
Felicia amelloides.
Ferns.

Foxglove (Digitalis pur-
purea).

Haworthia atrovirens.
Haworthia cymbiformis.
Haworthia margaritifera.
Haworthia rugosa.
Helleborus niger, Christmas

Rose.

Heuchera micrantha.
Heuchera pilosissima.
Hyacinth.
Linaria Cymbalaria, Ken-

ilworth Ivy.

Kniphofia Uvaria, Red-hot-
poker Plant.
Larkspur (Delphinium nudi-

caule).

Lily (Lilium).
Lily-of-the-Valley (Conval-

laria majalis).
Mentha piperita.
Mimulus glutinosus.
Myosotis, Forget-me-not.
Nephrolepis exaltata var.

bostoniensis.
New Zealand Flax (Phor-

niium tenax).
CEnothera csespitosa.
Onychium japonicum.
Oxalis oregana.
Pansy (Viola).
Papaver heterophylla.
Pentstemon cordifolius.
Paeonia.

Petasites palmata.
Pilea microphylla, Artillery

Plant.

Primula (P. obconica).
Pteris cretica albo-lineata.
Pteris quadriaurita argyrsea.
Pteris tremula.
Salvia patens.
Saxifraga crassifolia.
Saxifraga umbrosa.
Senecio Kaempferi aureo-

maculatus.
Star Flower (Trientalis euro-

psea var. lati folia).
Star of Bethlehem (Tellima

affinis).
Solomon's Seal, False (Smi-

lacina amplexicaulis; also

S. sessilifolia).
Thalictrum Delavayi.
Tiarella unifoliata.
Tradescantia fluminensis.
Trillium.
Tulip. Shade one-third to

one-half day.
Vancouveria hexandra.
Vancouveria parviflora. For

partial shade.
Violet (Viola odorata). For

half shade.
Wallflower (Cheiranthus

Cheiri). For partial shade.

many interesting plants
more gaudy succulents

Lewisia Leana.

Lewisia oppositifolia (Calan-
drinia).

Lewisia rediviva.

Lewisia Tweedyi.

Lychnis Haageana.

Mahernia verticillata.

Nierembergia gracilis.

CEnothera, America.

CEnothera ovata, Sun-Cups.

Othonna capensis.

Pentstemon cseruleus.

Pentstemon Menziesii.

Santolina Chamsecyparissus,
Lavender Cotton.

Sanvitalia procumbens.

Sedum.

Statice.

Synthyris rotundif olia.

JOHN WM. GREGG.
R. T. STEVENS.
KATHERINE D. JONES.

HERBERTIA (Wm. Herbert, 1778-1847, Dean of
Manchester, distinguished botanist, author of "Amaryl-
lidaceae," and ardent lover of bulbs). Iridaceae. Bulb-
ous plants, native from Texas to Chile and southern
Brazil, with fugitive blue or lilac flowers borne in
summer; allied to Tigridia.

Stems simple or forking, from a tunicated corm:
Ivs. mostly basal, few, long and narrow, somewhat
folded or plicate: fls. several from a single terminal
spathe, pedicelled; perianth showy, without tube and
segms. 6 in 2 very unlike series, the inner being much
smaller; stamens 3, united by their filaments into a
tube; ovary long, 3-celled; styles partially united, the
3 branches forked: fr. an oblong locuhcidally 3-valved
exserted caps., with many small angled seeds. —
About a half-dozen species, of secondary value horti-
culturally. There is some confusion in the generic
name; but the situation is: Herbertia, Sweet, 1827;
Alophia, Herbert, 1838; Trifurcia, Herbert, 1840. The
herbertias thrive in usual garden soils; sometimes
started in coldframes; prop, by seeds and offsets.

pulchella, Sweet. Bulb or corm globose, J^in. or
more thick; tunics brown: Ivs. about 4, linear, plaited,
3-6 in. long: spathes 1^ in. long: fls. lilac; outer segms.
obovate, with a white claw spotted lilac. Chile,
Argentina, Brazil. B.M. 3862.

platensis, Hort. Franceschi. Bulb or corm very
large: Ivs. sword-shaped, glaucescent, ribbed, 2 ft. and
more long: scapes to 4 ft.; fls. large, light porcelain-
blue, produced in 8 months of summer. La Plata.

H. amatdrum, C. H. Wright. Bulb or corm globose, with brown
scales: Ivs. lanceolate, acuminate, plicate, 8 in. long: scape 18 in.,
very slender, branched: spathes herbaceous, the inner twice longer
than outer: fls. violet; perianth 2 in. across; outer segms. with
white midrib inside, 3 times longer than inner, the latter brown-
spotted at base. Uruguay. — H. cxriilea, Herb.=H. Drummond-
iana. — H. Drummondiana, Herb. Corm small and ovoid, with
brown tunics: st. 1 ft. or less high, simple or forked; fls. blue, 2 in.
across; outer segms. obovate, with white claw; inner segms. oblan-
ceolate, acute. Prairies, Texas. B.M. 3862. — H. Wdtsonii, Baker.
Lower: fls. purple; outer segms. oblanceolate, 1 in.; inner segms.
obovate, %in. long. Damp prairies, Texas. L H B

HERBS, Pot: Greens. Salad: Greens and Salad Plants.

HERCULES' CLUB: Aralia spinosa; also Zanthoxylum Clava-
Herculis.

HERfNCQUIA: Gesneria. The plant once known in horti-
cultural literature as H. floribunda is probably Gesneria libanensis.

HERITIERA (Charles Louis L'Heritier de Brutelle,
174&-1800, French botanist). Sterculiacese. About 4
species of trees on the tropical seacoasts of the Old
World, little known horticulturally : Ivs. thick, simple,
entire, silvery or shining beneath: fls. small, unisexual,
in axillary panicles; calyx 4-6-toothed or -cleft; petals
none; stamens united into a column, bearing 5 anthers
at top; ovaries mostly 5, nearly free, bearing short
style and 5 stigmas: carpels woody and indehiscent
when ripe, cornered, keeled or winged. Called "looking-
glass tree," from the shining under-surface of the Ivs.
H. littordlis, Dry. Moderate-sized tree: Ivs. oblong,
acute, 3-8 in. long: staminate fls. small, in axillary
branched clusters, with an urn-shaped downy calyx;
pistillate fls. larger with bell-shaped calyx: carpels or
follicles 1-4 in. long, smooth or tubercled. Afr., Asia,
Pacific islands. L, jj_ B_

HERMANNIA (Paul Hermann, 1646-1695, botanical
traveler, professor of medicine at Leyden). Stercu-
liacese. Shrubs, mostly small, growing chiefly in Afr.,
but a few in Amer. from Texas south, some 150 species
in all. They are little known horticulturally. Lvs.
alternate, entire, toothed or pinnatifid, sometimes
laciniate: fls. many, yellow, orange, cream-color or
reddish, on axillary peduncles or panicled; calyx cam-
panulate, 5-cleft, often inflated, without involucre;
petals 5, clawed; stamens 5, standing opposite the
petals, the filaments joined at the base: fr. a coriaceous
5-celled and 5-valved many-seeded caps. H. texana,

HERPESTIS

1477

Gray, occurs in dry or rocky places in Texas and
adjacent Mex.: 2-4 ft.: Ivs. tomentose, suborbicular
to oval, serrate or dentate: fls. dull scarlet or crimson.
H. cdndicans, Ait., is a variable species of S. Afr.:
erect or diffuse, tomentose: Ivs. long-petioled, elliptic
or ovate-oblong, obtuse, nearly entire: fls. more or
less tomentose, bright yellow, the petals twice as long
as calyx. Gn. 71, p. 15, where the name "cowslip
bush" is proposed, its fls. closely resembling those of a
small cowslip; blooms spring to fall. Other species
of Hermannia are likely to be mentioned in horticul-
tural literature. L. H. B.

HERMINIERA (name refers to the stout thorns
and stamens). Leguminosse. One species, in Trop. Afr.:
by some included in ^Eschynomene. Fls. papilionace-
ous; calyx 2-lipped; standard orbicular, short-clawed;
wings about equaling the standard, obliquely obovate;
keel broad, obtuse or somewhat beaked : pod linear and
nearly flat, curved spirally, separating at the square
articulations. H. Elaphroxylon, Guill. & Perr. (jEschy-
nomene Elaphroxylon, Taub.), the ambash or pith-tree
of the upper Nile and beyond, may possibly be planted
somewhere in our region: erect thorny shrub, to 20 ft.:
Ivs. bristly; Ifts. 10-20 pairs, J/£in. or less long, linear-
oblong: fls. bright orange, subcorymbose, the peduncles
bristly; standard \1A in. broad. G.W. 14, p. 605.— It
grows in wet places, sometimes choking streams.

L. H. B.

HERMODACTYLUS (Greek, Mercury's or Hermes'
fingers; from the arrangement of the tubers). Iridaceae.
SNAKE'S-HEAD IRIS. A hardy tuberous plant closely
allied to Iris, the fls. purplish black and green, of a
quaint and peculiarly attractive beauty. The plant is
procurable from European growers. The genus differs
from Iris in the 1-celled ovary with 3 parietal placentae ;
Iris has a 3-celled ovary: rootstocks digitate. — One
species, S. France to Greece. Cult, of the tuberous
irises. Flowers April, May.

tuberSsus, Salisb. (Iris tuber 'dsa, Linn.). Tubers 2-4,
about 1 in. long: st. 1-fld., 1 ft. or more high: Ivs. 2-3,
glaucous, 4-angled, 1-2 ft. long: spathe usually with
only 1 large lanceolate valve: outer perianth-segms.
2 in. long, black-purple; inner ones green. April. B.M.
531. F.S. 11:1083. G.C. II. 23:672.— H. longifblius,
Sweet, is a form, according to Baker, with Ivs. 3-4 ft.
long; and H. bispathdceus, Sweet, a form with 2 valves
in the spathe. H. tuberosus is sometimes called the
"widow iris" or "mourning iris," from its fls. of apple-
green and velvet-black. j N. GERARD.

L. H. B.f

HERNANDIA (Francisco Hernandez, physician to
Philip II of Spain, traveled in West Indies and Mexico,
1593-1600, and wrote on natural history of Mexico).
Hernandidcese, formerly included in Laurdcese. JACK-
iN-A-Box. Ornamental trees, grown chiefly for their
large handsome foliage.

Evergreen: Ivs. alternate, long-petioled, often pel-
tate, entire, 3-7-nerved, without stipules: fls. monoe-
cious, small, in loose terminal corymbs or panicles; the
extreme branches terminated by 3-fld. cymes with a
4-5-leaved involucre at the base; their central fls. pis-
tillate and sessile, the lateral staminate and stalked;
pistillate fls. with a lobed cupula; sepals 8-10; ovary
inferior, 1-ovuled; style short, with a large lobed stig-
ma; staminate fls. with 3-4 stamens shorter than the
6-8 sepals: fr. globose, ribbed, indehiscent, inclosed in
an inflated often colored involucre. — Eight species in
the tropics.

These are handsome trees with large glossy foliage
and with small yellowish or greenish white flowers in
terminal corymbs followed by yellowish or whitish
subglobose or ovoid fruits. H. sonora is much used in
Europe for subtropical bedding, and produces a juice
that removes hairs from the face without pain. H.

ovigera is cultivated in southern California by Frances-
chi, who says it has light green, glossy leaves with a
red spot in the center, and large, whitish, egg-shaped
fruits. Propagation by cuttings of half-ripened wood
under glass, which root easily with bottom heat.

son6ra, Linn. Tree, to 60 ft. : Ivs. chartaceous, ovate
to oblong-ovate, usually peltate, or cordate at the base,
acuminate, entire, glabrous, penninerved, 7-12 in.
long: corymbs grayish tomentulose; fls. yellowish, ^in.
across; stamens 3-4; filaments with 1 gland at the base:
fr. ovoid, yellow, about 1 in. long. W. Indies. — The
similar H. Moorenhoutiana, Guill., from the Pacific
islands, has smaller, more coriaceous, palmately 3-5-
nerved Ivs. and larger fls. Min. across. B.M. 5839.

ovigera, Linn. Tree, to 40 ft. : Ivs. coriaceous, broadly
ovate to ovate-oblong, not peltate, acuminate, sub-
cordate at the base, palmately 7-nerved, glabrous,
4-7 in. long: corymbs grayish tomentulose; filaments
with 2 glands at the base: fr. whitish, subglobose, about
1 in. long. Trop. Asia and Afr. ALFRED REHDER.

HERNIARIA (Greek; supposed to cure hernia or
rupture). Caryophylldcese. HERNIARY. RUPTURE-WORT.
Trailing or sprawling little small-leaved herbs, one of
which is grown as a carpeter.

Herniaria has about 15 species, scattered from the
Canaries to W. Asia, but all grow in sandy places,
chiefly near the sea. It has no near allies of much
garden value, but 2 species of Paronychia are cult, for
the same purpose and are easily distinguished by gen-
eral appearance. Herniaria and Paronychia are alike in
their 5-parted perianth and 2 stigmas, but in Herniaria
the segms. are blunt, while in Paronychia they are
hooded near the apex and have a horn or small sharp
point on the back near the apex. Herniaria is composed
of annuals or perennials with roots of short duration,
and they are all much branched, trailing plants, either
glabrous or hirsute: Ivs. opposite, alternate or clustered,
small, entire: fls. minute, crowded in the axils; sepals,
petals and stamens 5: seed solitary.

glabra, Linn. Lvs. obovate, rarely orbicular, glabrous
except a few hairs at edges, which are usually recurved :
fls. small arid green, in a leafy spike or the lower ones
at considerable intervals. July, Aug. Eu., Asia.— A
hardy herbaceous perennial which grows about 2 hi.
high and produces inconspicuous greenish fls. in sum-
mer. It makes a dense mat of moss-like foliage, which
turns a deep bronzy red in winter. It is much used in
carpet-bedding and to a less extent in rockeries and for
edgings of hardy borders. Recommended for covering
graves. It thrives in the poorest soils, makes a solid
covering, and is by some regarded as one of the most
valuable of hardy trailers. Prop, by division or seed.
Grows wild in England, and is kept in many large col-
lections of hardy plants. H. hirsftta, Linn., Eu., has
narrow hirsute Ivs.: sometimes planted.

WILHELM MILLER.

HERPESTIS (name refers to the creeping habit of
some species). Scrophularidcese. About 60 herbs, mostly
of warm and tropical parts of the world, 1 or 2 of which
may be transferred to cult, grounds now and then. The
name Herpestis is now given up by systematic botanists,
the "nomina conservanda" of the Vienna code using
Aublet's Bacopa for the genus and others adopting P.
Browne's Monniera or Lamarck's Bramia. Allied to Mim-
ulus, but differs in short corolla and in unequally toothed
calyx: low herbs, blooming in summer, sometimes
rather succulent: Ivs. opposite: fls. small, peduncled,
mostly solitary in the axils, blue, purple or white;
corolla 2-lipped or nearly regular; stamens 4, didyna-
mous, not protruding; style slender; stigma 2-lobed or
capitate. H. Monnieria, HBK., or Bacopa Monnieria,
Wettst., grows near the sea and along river-banks, Md.
to Texas and south: glabrous, creeping, perennial,
somewhat fleshy: Ivs. spatulate to cuneate, entire or

1478

HERPESTIS

HESPERETHUSA

sparingly toothed, sessile: fls. pale blue, about J/^in.
long or less, the corolla only obscurely 2-lipped. Other
native species with 2-lipped corolla are H. ampkxicaulis,
Pursh, blue; H. rotundifolia, Pursh, white or pale blue;
H. nigrescens, Benth., whitish or purplish. L. jj. B.

HERPETOSPERMUM (name refers to some char-
acter of the seeds). Cucurbitacese. Two annual tendril-
climbers, one from the Himalaya region and one from
China, allied to Abobra, but differing in the usually
racemose sterile fls. and the long-tubular calyx. Lys.
long-petioled, ovate, nearly entire or angled: tendrils
bifid: fls. rather large, yellow; corolla broadly cam-
panulate, very deeply parted, the segms. elliptical and
entire; stamens 3, included, inserted on calyx-tube,
the filaments short and free: fr. medium-size, broadly
oblong and 3-angled, costate, more or less 3-valved.
H. grandiflorum, Cogn., from China, has been cult,
abroad: Ivs. broadly ovate-cordate, more or less
angular, 4-5 in. long: staminate fls. 3-6 at the apex of
a 3-5-in. peduncle, with large golden - yellow petals;
pistillate fls. solitary or in pairs, short-stalked, slightly
smaller than the staminate: fr. about 2K in. long,
densely hairy and greenish, 7-8-ribbed. H. caudigerum,
Wall., the other species, has very lightly crenulate ovate
Ivs. to 6 in. long: staminate fls. usually on twin pedun-
cles, one single-fld. and one 5-10-fld.; pistillate fls. on
stout peduncles less than 1 in. long: fr. sparsely hairy,
about 3 in. long. L H. B.

HESPERALOE (Latin, western Aloe). Liliacese,
tribe Yuccese. Acaulescent plants with filiferous leaves
like many yuccas, but ephemeral diurnal greenish or
red flowers, recalling those of the true aloes. Culti-
vated somewhat in the open in warm dry regions, but
elsewhere under glass. Treatment much as for agaves.

Leaves outcurved, soft-pointed, with coarse marginal
threads: infl. usually few-branched; fls. oblong; fila-
ments slender, attached to base of perianth; pistil with
ovoid ovary, slender style and small stigma: caps.
3-celled, 6-valved, rugose, beaked; seeds thin, flat and
smooth. — Two species from Texas to Mex.

parviflSra, Coult. (H. yuccsefblia, Engelm. Aloe
yuccsefblia, Gray. Yucca parvifldra, Torr. Y. parvi-
folia, Hemsl.). Cespitose: Ivs. concave, striate on back,
1 in. x 3-4 ft., green: infl. 3-4 ft. high, glabrous and
somewhat glaucous; fls. nodding, rosy, 1^ in. long;
style exserted: caps, round, 1 in. long. S. W. Texas.
Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 13:1, 85.— With more bell-
shaped fls. 1 in. long, and scarcely protruding style it is
var. Engelmannii, Trel. (H. Olngelmannii, Krauskopf).
G.C. II. 18:199. B.M. 7723. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard.
13:1.

funifera, Trel. (H. Davyi, Baker. Yucca funifera,
Koch. Agave funifera, Lem.). Larger: infl. 6-8 ft.
high; fls. purplish green, 1 hi. long; style scarcely pro-
truding: caps. 1-2 in. long. N. Mex. — The source of
Zamandoque fiber, one of the kinds of "Tampico
temp." WILLIAM TRELEASE.

HESPERANTHA (Greek, evening flower). Iridacex.
Bulbs, sometimes grown indoors.

These plants belong to the Ixia tribe and are much
inferior to ixias for general cult., but have fragrant fls.,
opening at evening ; the style is short with long subulate
branches, and the spathe-valves are green rather than
brown. The genus is still more closely allied to Geis-
sorhiza, and differs in having shorter style and longer
style-branches and spathe-valves always green instead
of sometimes brownish above. The corms are ^in.
thick or less: Ivs. 2-5, narrow and distichous: fls. 2-10
in a lax, distichous spike; perianth rotate and a cylindri-
cal tube; inner segms. white; outer ones red outside;
stamens inserted on the throat. — Species about 40,
in Trop. Afr. and the Cape, mostly the latter. For cult,
see Ixia and Bulbs.

A. Foliage hairy.

pilosa, Ker. Corm globose: Ivs. 2, linear, erect,
strongly ribbed, 3-6 in. long: st. slender, erect, 6-12
in.: outer segms. claret-red or green. B.M. 1475 (outer
segms. speckled with color).

AA. Foliage not hairy.

falcata, Ker. Corm conic: Ivs. 2-4, lanceolate,
spreading, 2-3 hi. long: st. slender, 1 ft. or less, simple
or forked: outer segms. claret-red. B.M. 566 (as
Ixia falcata).

graminifolia, Sweet. Corm globose: Ivs. 3-5, linear,
erect, 4-6 in. long: st. slender, 1 ft. or less, simple or
rarely forked: outer segms. reddish brown or reddish
green outside. B.M. 1255 (as Geissorhiza setacea).

L. H. B.

HESPERETHUSA (from Latin Hesperethusa, one
of the Hesperides). Rutaceae, tribe Citrese. A slender,
spiny tree or shrub: Ivs. persistent, pinnate: fls. 4-
merous; stamens 8, free: frs. small, 4-celled, a single
seed in each cell but with no pulp- vesicles; seeds hard
and rounded, cotyledons epigeous in germination: the
first foliage-lvs. simple, opposite. — Only 1 species is
now recognized.

crenulata, Roem. (Limonia crenulata, Roxbg. L.
acidissima, Auct., not Linn.) NAIBEL. Fig. 1825. Lvs.
5-9-foliate, the Ifts., winged petiole and broadly winged
segms. of the rachis crenate-margined: fls. small,
white, fragrant, 4-merous; ovary 4-celled, 1 ovule in
each cell: frs. small (lA-l/ftn- diam.), globose, dark-
colored when ripe, containing 1-4 hard smooth seeds
imbedded in a scanty very bitter pulp which is not
composed of pulp-vesicles: cotyledons epigeous in
germination, remaining smaU, caducous: first foliage-
lvs. simple, opposite, ovate, crenate-margined. 111.
Roxbg. PI. Corom. 1:60, pi. 86. Talbot, For. fl. Bom-
bay, p. 198, fig. 121. — This plant is usually but erro-
neously called Limonia acidissima, Linn., which name
was originally applied to the wood-apple, Feronia
Limonia, Swingle, which see. The genus Limonia is
invalid and hence the oldest valid name for this plant
is the one used here. A handsome spiny shrub or small

tree with beautiful light
green foliage, native to
dry hills in Ceylon, India,
Burma and Indochina. It
is easily grown under
greenhouse conditions and
should be better known
as an ornamental. The
frs. are sometimes used as
a condiment in India and
Arabia; they are bitter,
not sour. The tree has a
vigorous root-system and
is deserving of trial as a
stock on which to graft
citrous fruit
trees. In the
greenhouses of
the Dept. of
Agric. at Wash-
ington, D. C., it
has been found
to grow readily
when grafted
on grapefruit
(Citrus grandis), lemon
(Citrus Limonia) and on
the tabog (Chsetosper-
mum glutinosa) and it is
probable that it could
be used as a stock for
these and other species.
WALTER T. SWINGLE.

1825. Hespere-
thusa crenulata.
(XM, fruit X%)

HESPERIS

HETERANTHERA

1479

HESPERIS (Greek, evening, same root as vesper;
flowers more fragrant at evening). Cruciferse. This
includes the dame's rocket, a vigorous old-fashioned
hardy herbaceous perennial.

Herbs, biennial or with a st. that is perennial at the
base, pilose, the hairs simple, forked or glandular: st.-
Ivs. usually sparse,
ovate or oblong, entire,
dentate or lyrate: fls.
white or purple, in
loose racemes, often
fragrant ; petals 4, long-
clawed; stigma lobed
and erect: pods long,
linear, cylindrical or
nearly so; seeds in 1
row in each cell, usu-
ally wingless. The
genus is allied to the
stocks, but has a some-
what different habit
and the cotyledons in-
cumbent not accum-
bent. — Species about 2
dozen in the Medit.
region to Cent. Asia.

matronalis, Linn.
ROCKET. SWEET
ROCKET. DAME'S VIO-
LET. DAMASK VIOLET.
Fig. 1826. Lvs. ovate-
lanceolate, 2-3 in. long,
toothed: pods 2-4 in.
long, straight, much
contracted between the
seeds. Eu., N. Asia. Escaped from
gardens. Gn. 53, p. 293; 49, p. 339
(a lovely garden view). — Forms
clumps 2-3 ft. high, branched from
the base, and covered with showy
terminal pyramidal spikes of 4-
petaled fls. resembling stocks. The
colors range from white through lilac
and pink to purple. The double
forms are most popular. The plant
blooms from June to Aug., and has
long been cult, in cottage gardens.
The ordinary single forms are not
worth growing in the border, but
may be used in wild gardens. The
double rockets are amongst the best
hardy plants, very productive of
bloom and useful for cutting. The
double-fld. white, var. alba-plena,
Hort., very fragrant, is much prized.
G. 25:283; 28:701. Gn. W. 22. suppl. Apr. 29. Var.
purpilrea, Hort., is a purple-fld. garden form.^ Var.
pumila, Hort., is a dwarf form. Var. nana candidissima,
Hort. , is a pure white garden form. WILHELM MILLER.

L. H. B.f

HESPEROCALLIS (Greek, evening beauty). Lili-
aceae. Leafy stemmed bulbous plant of the Colorado
desert, and the desert sections of southern California,
sometimes planted in California and elsewhere.

Of the tribe Hemerocallidea?, and characterized by
Watson as having a large white perianth cleft to below
the middle, the segms. several-nerved: anthers linear:
caps, ovate-oblong, deeply lobed : fls. few in a raceme,
the stout pedicels jointed at the top; seeds many,
horizontal, flattened, black. — One species.

undulata, Gray. Bulb large, corm-like: st. stout,
1-2 ft. high, 5-8-fld. : Ivs. linear, fleshy, keeled, 3-6 lines
wide, wavy margined: fls. 1H~2 in. long; style exserted:
caps. l/ivs\. long. — The fls. very fragrant, waxy-white or
greenish; bulb should be deeply planted. L. H. B.

1826. Dame's Rocket
or sweet rocket —
Hesperis matronalis.

HESPERO CHIRON (Greek, hesperps, originally
evening, but here western, i.e., in the direction of the
setting sun, and Chiron, a centaur distinguished for his
knowledge of plants; hence "Western Centaury," these
plants being at first placed in the Gentian family).
Hydrophylldcese. Northwest American tufted peren-
nial herbs with scapes bearing solitary, rather large
whitish flowers, % inch or less long. The nearest allied
genera of recognized garden value are Phacelia and
Emmenanthe, which are very distinct in color of
flowers, general appearance and cymose inflorescence.

Dwarf, stemless perennials or possibly biennials:
peduncles all radical and 1-fld.: Ivs. entire, spatulate or
oblong: fls. purplish or nearly white, with parts nor-
mally in 5's rarely in 6's to 7's; style 2-cut: caps. 1-
celled, loculicidal, 15-20-seeded; seeds minutely netted
or wrinkled. — Two species that have been procurable
through Calif ornian specialists and collectors.

A. Corolla-lobes shorter than the tube.
calif ornicus, Wats. (Capnbrea nana, Raf.). Lvs.
numerous in a radical tuft: corolla somewhat oblong
bell-shaped. Hills and meadows, Utah to Wash, and
Calif. H. latifblius, Kellogg, is a large form. B.R.
833 (as Nicotiana nana).

AA. Corolla-lobes longer than the tube.
pumilus, Porter (Capnbrea pumila, Greene). Lvs.
fewer: corolla nearly wheel -shaped; tube densely
bearded within. Springy and marshy grounds in mount-
ains, Idaho and E. Wash, to Calif.

WILHELM MILLER.

HESPEROSCORDUM: Brodixa.

HESPEROYUCCA (Latin, western yucca).
Liliacese, tribe Yuccese. Yucca-like nearly
acaulescent plants, forming a very character-
istic feature of the coast-range flora of Cali-
fornia when in bloom. Hardy only in mild
regions: frequently planted out-of-doors like
yuccas in California, but elsewhere requiring house
protection. Cultivated much like agaves.

Leaves narrow, rigid, pungently pointed, rough-
edged: infl. panicled; fls. vespertine, cup-shaped as
in Yucca, usually white; filaments clavate, attached
to base of perianth; pistil with short oblong ovary,
abrupt slender style, and fimbriate capitate stigma:
caps, incompletely 6-celled, 3-valved through the
laciniate false septa; seeds thin, flat and smooth. —
Only the following species:

Whipplei, Baker (Yucca Whipplei, Torr. Y. gramini-
fblia, Wood. Y. Ortgiesiana, Roezl. Y. californica,
Groenl.). Simple or cespitose: Ivs. more or less 3-sided,
finely striate, rough-edged, J^in. x 1-3 ft., glaucous:
infl. 6-15 ft. high, oblong, long-peduncled, glabrous;
fls. nodding, fragrant: caps, broad, 2 in. long. S. Calif.
G.C. II. 6:197. Gn. 35, p. 561. R.H. 1886, p. 63.
B.M. 7662 Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 3:11, 12, 54; 4:17,
23; 13:4, 5, 85. — With extremely glaucous Ivs. it is
var. glauca, Hort. With decidedly violet-shaded fls. it
is var. violacea (Y. Whipplei violdcea, Andre1). R.H.
1884:324. G.C. III. 39:154; 51:106 and suppl. With
flatter, broader and smoother-edged Ivs. it is var. mtida
(Y. nitida, Wright). G.C. III. 39:153. G. 30:33. Gn.
69, p. 161. WILLIAM TRELEASE,

HETERANTHERA (name refers to the unlike or
different anthers). Pontederiacese. A few American
bog herbs, one of which now and then occurs in horti-
cultural literature. Sts. creeping, ascending or floating:
Ivs. long-stalked, grass-like or the blades ovate, oval or
reniform: fls. white, blue or yellow, small, arising from
the sheathing base of the petiole; perianth with slender
tube, the segms. narrow and nearly or quite equal; sta-
mens 3, unequal or equal: fr. a 1-celled or 3-celled caps,
inclosed in the withered perianth-tube. H. limbsa,
Willd., has blue fls. : spathe 1-fld. : Ivs. oblong to lance-

1480

HETERANTHERA

HETEROSPATHE

oblong, obtuse. H. renifdrmis, R. &. P., has smaller
white or pale blue fls. : spathe 3-5-fld.: Ivs. orbicular-
reniform to cordate, acute. Both these species have
unequal anthers. H. dubia, MacM., has equal anthers
and small pale yellow fls. All these are natives in E.
U. S. and southward, and are useful- for transferring
to wet grounds and shallow pools. L jj g

HETEROCENTRON (unlike spurs, referring to
structure of anthers). Melastomacese. Includes Heeria
of Schlechtendal, not of Meissner. About 6 Mexican
and Central American species, sometimes grown under
glass.

Herbs or shrubs, erect or prostrate, with opposite
membranaceous pinnately nerved (rarely 3-nerved)
entire Ivs., and white, rose or purple irregular fls. in
panicles or rarely solitary: stamens 8, very unequal, the
4 larger ones with long appendages or connections;
ovary loculed; petals 4. — Not to be confounded with
Centradenia, which has winged sts. unequal-sided
Ivs., and calyx-teeth small and much shorter than
the calyx-tube. — Warmhouse plants, requiring the
cult, of centradenia, but grown chiefly for the fls.,
whereas centradenias are grown also for foliage.

roseum, A. Br. (H. mexicdnum, Naudin. Heeria
rosea, Triana) is the only species in general cult.: 1
ft. or more high, with 4-angled (but not winged) St.:
Ivs. elliptic, obtuse or acute, pinnate-nerved : fls. bright
rose, in a large, terminal panicle, showy, in autumn and
early winter. B.M. 5166. I.H. 3:97. Var. dlba, Hook.,
is a white-fld. form.

subtriplinervium, A. Br. (Heeria subtriplinervia,
Triana). Little branched, the branches sharply 4-
angled, the young foliage and calyx sparsely pilose: Ivs.
oblong-lanceolate, acute at apex, narrowed into long
petiole, the margin entire, blade 9-13-nerved: fls.
white, the petals broadly obovate with retuse apex.
Mex.

H. elegans, O. Kuntze (Heeria elegans, Schlecht. H. procum-
bens, Naudin), will be found under Sehizooentron. L H B

HETER6MELES: Photinia.

HETEROPAPPUS (Greek, two kinds of pappus).
Composite. A hardy herbaceous perennial that bears
azure-blue aster-like flowers in summer.

Herbs, erect, branched above: lys. alternate, entire
or coarsely toothed: heads in loose irregular panicles or
solitary at the tips of branches, rays white or sky-
blue. The genus is closely related to Aster, having the
habit of the asters of the section Calimeris. The plant
in the trade is known as Calimeris tatarica. Hetero-
pappus is closely related to Boltonia and is not far
from Callistephus, which contains the China asters.
The chief botanical distinction resides in the pappus,
which in the large group containing Callistephus and
Aster is composed of numerous bristles arranged in
one or more series, while Boltonia and Heteropappus
belong to a group in which the pappus is anomalous.
In Boltonia it is composed of very short, somewhat
chaffy bristles, with the addition usually of 2-4 awns
not longer than the achene. In Heteropappus the
pappus of the rays is composed of very short, some-
what chaffy bristles, while in the disk-fls. it consists of
numerous slender bristles arranged in 1 or 2 series. — A
genus of 2-4 species from Japan and China.

hispidus, Less. (Calimeris tatarica, Lindl. Aster
hispidus, Thunb.). St. roughish: Ivs. linear, acute,
pubescent and ciliated on the margins : branches spread-
ing, usually unbranched and bearing 1 head: inyolucral
scales acuminate, hirsute, herbaceous, not white-mar-
gined, rays blue. Japan, Mongolia. L. jj. B.

HETEROPHRAGMA (Greek, different and septum;
alluding to the peculiar 4-angled septum of the typical
species). Bignonidcese. Three species of E. Indian
trees, with large opposite pinnate Ivs. and large yellow

or pink fls. in terminal panicles or from the old wood:
calyx campanulate, irregularly 3-5-lobed; corolla cam-
panulate-funnelform; ovules in several series in each
cell of the broadly linear ovary: caps, cylindric or
compressed, falcate or twisted, loculicidally 2-valved;
septum flat or 4-angled. The 2 African species referred
by some writers to this genus belong to Fernandia.
Only the following species has been offered in this
country. H. adenophyllum, Seem. (Bignonia aden-
ophylla, Wall.). Tree, 30-^50 ft.: young growth tomen-
tose: Ifts. 5-7, broadly elliptic, acute or obtuse, entire,
tomentose, 7-9 in. long: fls. in terminal panicles; calyx
irregularly 5-lobed; corolla brownish yellow, densely
woolly outside, with spreading 5-lobed limb, 2 in. wide :
caps, twisted, resembling a cork-screw, 1-3 ft. long;
septum flat. Wight, 111. 160 (as Spathodea adenophylla).
— Little known in cult, and adapted for subtropical or
tropical countries only. Prop, probably like Rader-
machia by cuttings and air-layering.

ALFRED REHDER.

HETEROPTERIS (various winged, referring to the
fr.). Malpighidcese. Shrubs, erect or rarely climbing,
of Trop. Amer. and 1 in W. Afr. Fls. small, yellow or
purple, in panicles or racemes: Ivs. opposite, nearly or
quite entire. The calyx is 5-parted, some or all the
lobes with a pair of sessile glands; petals clawed; sta-
mens 10, all perfect but unequal; ovary 3-celled, with
3 subulate styles, the stigma on an angle of the style:
fr. 1-3 samaras, with a somewhat semi-circular wing. —
Species 90 or more. The climbing species may be found
in choice collections. H. purpiirea, Kunth, is a low
cumber among shrubs, according to Grisebach, in the
farther W. Indies and Venezuela: Ivs. oval, glabrous,
somewhat glaucous beneath, the petiole with 2 glands
at the middle: fls. purple, corymbose or racemose, on
slender pedicels that are jointed below the middle: fr.
1 in. long, with semi-obovate oblique wings. H. chry-
sophylla, HBK. Twining: Ivs. oval or oval-oblong,
entire, glabrous above and golden pubescent beneath:
fls. orange, becoming reddish. Brazil. B.M. 3237.
An interesting plant for the warmhouse, long-climbing.

L. H. B.

HETEROSMILAX (Greek, another kind of Smilax).
Lilidcese. This includes an ornamental climber with the
habit of smilax, but the perianth is undivided (instead
of 6-parted, as in smilax) and the mouth is minutely
2-5-dentate. It resembles smilax in having dioecious
fls. borne in umbels, and tendril-bearing petioles. The
genus contains 5 species of woody climbers from India,
Malaya, China and Japan: Ivs. 3-5-nerved: fls. small
or very small. Little known culturally outside the
far East.

japonica, Kunth. Lvs. with stalks about Kin. long,
blades about 4-5 in. long. Japan, where it is cult, for
the roots, which are used in medicine; Hemsley writes
that it is said to have been intro. into Japan from China
but that no Chinese specimens are known to exist
(1903). L. H. B.

HETEROSPATHE (Greek, a different kind of spathe).
Also written Heterospatha. Palmdcese, tribe Arecese.
A rare and highly ornamental palm, with graceful,
spreading habit and pinnatisect leaves, the segments
being long, slender and tapering.

Its nearest allies of garden value are Verschaffeltia
and Dypsis, in which the stigmas are basal in fr., while
Heterospatha belongs to a group in which the stigmas
are eccentric or lateral in fr. Other important generic
characters are the 6 stamens with versatile anthers
and the 1-celled ovary. — Only 1 species, native of the
small island of Amboyna, the Dutch headquarters in
the E. Indies. Intro, from the Java botanic garden in
1879 to England. The plant is procurable from import-
ers and from S. Fla., but is cult, in Amer. only in
botanic gardens.

HETEROSPATHE

HEUCHERA

1481

elata, Scheff. (Metroxylon datum, Hort.). Tall,
unarmed: Ivs. terminal, long-petioled, equally pinna-
tisect; segms. numerous, lanceolate, narrowed at both
ends, acuminate, 1-nerved, margins thickened and
recurved at the base; rachis round on the back, flat on
the face; sheath short, fibrous, swelled at the base:
spathes 2, the lower 2-crested, the upper much longer. —
A very worthy palm, valuable chiefly for its graceful
habit while still quite young. Must be grown in a
moist hot house. N. TAYLOR.!

HETEROTOMA (name refers to the unequally cut
corolla). Campanulacese. About 10 species of Mexican
annuals and perennials, one of which has come some-
what into cult. Lvs. alternate: fls. blue, yellow or
orange, in terminal racemes; calyx tubular with an
unequally 5-parted limb, the 2 anterior lobes usually
adnate to the spur of the corolla; corolla-tube split to
the base on the back, in front produced into a hori-
zontal or deflexed spur, the limb short and incurved
and with either nearly equal or unequal lobes; stamen-
tube free from corolla; ovary inferior, 2-celled, many-
ovuled: caps. 2-valved. H. lobelioides, Zucc. Erect,
branching, the st. pubescent: Ivs. alternate, ovate-
lanceolate, distantly toothed, acuminate: fls. about 2
in. long, single on slender axillary peduncles, odd;
corolla-spur blood-red, the limb golden yellow and 3-
lobed; lower lip of calyx adnate to the corolla-tube
and the 2 subulate green lobes projecting beyond it;
staminal column erect, as long as the corolla-limb, and
prominent. Mountains in Mex. and Cent. Amer. B.M.
7849. R.H. 1905, p. 9. — An interesting showy perennial,
sometimes called "bird flower," to be grown in a cool
greenhouse in winter and in the open in summer.

L. H. B.

HETEROTRICHUM (name refers to the variable
hairs on the Ivs.). Melastomacese. Ten or a dozen
hispid, or glandular shrubs in Trop. Amer., with white
or pink fls. in terminal or lateral panicles; calyx cam-
panulate or globular, with 4-8 teeth; corolla of 6-8
petals; stamens 8-12 or more: Ivs. large, ovate or oblong,
cordate at base, entire or toothed. H . mdcrodon, Planch.,
is sometimes mentioned in horticultural literature. A
very handsome shrub, 7-9 ft., flowering when small: Ivs.
opposite, large, the 2 in the pair unequal, cordate-ovate,
abruptly acuminate, serrate, 7-nerved: fls. 10-12 in a
terminal cyme, white with red at base of petals, 1 % in.
across, the 8 petals obovate and flat-spreading; calyx
and young parts hispid or villous. Venezuela. B.M.
4421. G.W. 14, p. 652. — Requires hothouse treatment.

L. H. B.

HEUCHERA (Johann Heinrich von Heucher, 1677-
1747, professor of botany at Wittenberg). Saxifragaceae.
Herbs resembling the dainty wild flower, the bishop's
cap (Mitella) in their habit, as they have a tuft of
heart-shaped, five- to nine-lobed, crenate leaves, from
which spring a dozen or so slender scapes a foot or more
high with small flowers borne in panicles, giving a
delicate and any effect. This includes H. sanguinea
which probably ranks among the best low perennials
with small, red flowers. It is very desirable for the
hardy border, where it blooms from spring to late fall.
It is also useful to florists for cut-flowers and autumn
forcing.

Heuchera belongs to a group of genera including
Mitella and Tiarella, in which the ovary is 1-celled.
There is a well-developed hypanthium often bell-
shaped, sometimes urceolate, cylindrical, turbinate, or
saucer-shaped, often more or less oblique, and adnate to
the lower part of the pistil. Most of the distinguishing
characters of this difficult genus are found in the shape
of the hypanthium. In Heuchera the petals are 5 or
none, and entire; in Mitella 5, 3-fid or pinnatifid; in
Tiarella 5 and entire. Heuchera has 5 stamens; Mitella
5 or 10; Tiarella 10. The caps, of Heuchera is inferior,

2-beaked; in Mitella superior, not beaked; in Tiarella
superior, compressed. — Heuchera has 72 species, all
N. American and ranging from Mex. to the arctic
regions. A full botanical treatment is by P. A. Ryd-
berg, in N. Amer. Flora. 22:97-117 (1905), which has
been followed in the account below. Many of the
species are distinguished only by rather technical
botanical characters, but only a few of them are
known horticulturally.

The attractive and petal-like part of H. sanguinea
is the calyx, the petals being small in all heucheras
(often shorter than the calyx). The other species are
attractive by reason of their general habit, and particu-
larly the graceful, open panicle. H. sanguinea came
into prominence about 1884 and is now deservedly
one of the most popular of hardy perennials. The
others are procurable from the largest dealers in
native plants and from western collectors. They range
from 3 inches to 3 feet high, averaging about 13^ feet,
and bloom in summer, having greenish white or purplish
flowers. Almost any good garden soil suits them, and
they are not particular as regards exposure to sunlight
(though an open situation is preferable) ; and they look
well in borders, rockeries, separate beds and elsewhere.
Propagate by division or seed.

alba, 10.
americana, 3.
braeteata, 7.
brizoides, 10.
cylindrica, 9.
erubescens, 2.
gracillima, 10.
grandiflora, 10.

INDEX.

hispida, 6.
hybrida, 10.
maxima, 10.
micrantha, 2.
parvifolia, 8.
pubescens, 5.
ribifolia, 5.

robusta, 10.
rosea, 10.
rubescens, 4.
rubifolia, 5.
sanguinea, 10.
splendens, 10.
villosa, 1.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Stamens equaling or exceeding the

sepals.
B. Panicle open, not spike-like.

c. Hypanthium not strongly ob-
lique.
D. Breadth af hypanthium about

as the length.
E. Lobes of the If. -blade broadly

triangular, acute 1. villosa

EE. Lobes of the basal If. -blades,

at least, rounded.
p. The hypanthium, with the

sepals 1-1 Yi lines long. . . 2.
PP. The hypanthium, with the

sepals 1^2~4 lines long. . 3.
DD. Breadth of hypanthium about

twice the length 4.

cc. Hypanthium strongly oblique;
stamens equaling or slightly ex-
ceeding the sepals.
D. Flowering branches more or less

leafy 5.

DD. Flowering branches leafless or

practically so 6.

BB. Panicle dense, contracted, almost

spike-like 7.

AA. Stamens much shorter than the sepals.
B. Hypanthium and sepals l}^—2}^

lines long 8.

BB. Hypanthium and sepals 2%-5 lines
long.

c. Infl. contracted and spike-like 9.

cc. Infl. open, not spike-like 10.

micrantha
americana
rubescens

pubescens

hispida

braeteata

parvifolia

cylindrica
sanguinea

1. villfisa, Michx. Height 1-3 ft.: If .-blades nearly
round, deeply 5-7-lobed, the lobes triangular acute:
scape mostly leafless; calyx and hypanthium about
1 line long; petals pinkish, twice as long as the sepals.
Rocky places, Va. to Ga. and Tenn. B.B. 2:179.— A
good border plant.

2. micrantha, Douglas. Height 1-2 ft., the flowering
branches 1-4-lvd. or almost scape-like.: Ivs. slightly
hairy, the blades round-cordate, about as long as broad,
long-stalked: infl. glandular-hairy; petals oblanceolate,
whitish, not very showy. Calif, to Brit. Col. B. R.

1482

HEUCHERA

HEVEA

1302. R.H. 1898, p. 431.— The H. erubescens of the
gardeners seems certainly to belong here.-

3. americana, Linn. ALUM ROOT. Height 2-3 ft.:
scape leafless or with a few small Ivs. : basal Ivs. round-
cordate, hirsute on the veins beneath, often glabrous
above, at least when mature: infl. glandular hairy; the
petals about equaling the sepals, greenish white; sta-
mens at least 3 times the length of the sepals. Dry
or rocky woods, Ont. to La. and Minn. B.B. 2:179.
R.H. 1898, p. 431. — Has mottled foliage when young,
but becomes plain green in age.

4. rubescens, Torr. Acaulescent: height 8-15 in.:
scape usually leafless: Ivs. kidney-shaped or round-
cordate, perfectly glabrous or sometimes slightly
glandular, thick and often shining: sepals pinkish,
green-tipped; petals almost twice as long as the sepals,
linear-oblanceolate. Mountains of Utah and New Mex.
to Ore and E. Calif. — Useful for the alpine-garden.

5. pubescens, Pursh (H. ribifolia, Fisch. & Ave-Lall.
H. rubifolia, Hort., also seems to belong here). Acau-
lescent: height 9-12 or 15 in.: scapes densely glandular
pubescent, at least above:

Ivs. round - cordate, 7-9-
lobed, the lobes broad and
rounded, sharp-toothed,
ciliate; sepals oblong, ob-
tuse, somewhat shorter than
the broadly spatulate, pur-
plish petals. Rich woods,
in mountains of Pa., to
N. C. B.B. 2:179.— Ever-
green foliage marbled with
bronzy red.

6. hispida, Pursh. Acau-
lescent : height 2-4 ft. : Ivs.
round-cordate or kidney-
shaped, 5-9-lobed, the shal-
low, rounded lobes with
broad teeth, ciliate: sepals
spatulate, very blunt, the
petals spatulate, equaling or
shorter than the sepals.
Woods, Va. and N. C. in
the mountains. B.B. 2 : 180.

7. bracteata, Ser. Acau-
lescent and densely
cespitose: flowering
branches usually
about 4-6 in. tall,
usually with a few
minute Ivs. : basal Ivs.
round-kidney-shaped,
more or less round-
lobed and with cuspi-
date teeth : sepals

oblong, obtuse, the petals oblanceolate or spatulate,
slightly exceeding the sepals. Alpine regions of Colo,
and S. Wyo. — Useful only in alpine collections.

8. parvifSlia^ Nutt. Acaulescent and cespitose:
flowering branches scape-like and quite naked: lys.
kidney-shaped, usually with an open sinus, and with
7-9 shallow, rounded lobes: infl. ultimately elongated;
sepals broadly ovate, somewhat shorter than the spatu-
late, yellowish petals. Alberta to N. Mex. and Ariz.

9. cylindrica, Douglas. Acaulescent: height 10-24
in. : the infl. spike-like and naked or with a few minute
bracts: Ivs. round-cordate, with a few shallow lobes and
ovate, cuspidate teeth; sepals oblong, the yellowish
green petals minute or sometimes lacking. Brit. Col. to
Ore. and Idaho. — Grown chiefly for its foliage.

10. sanguinea, Engelm. CORAL BELLS. CRIMSON
BELLS. Fig. 1827. Height 1-1 ^ ft.: scapes pilose
below, glandular pubescent above: fls. typically bright
red, but in horticultural varieties ranging from white

1827. Heuchera sanguinea

through pink and rose to dark crimson. New Mex.,
Ariz, and N. Mex. Very good pictures are B.M. 6929.
Gn. 26:360; also those in Gt. 45, p. 577. I.H. 43, p
334. Mn. 8 p. 75. A.G. 17:201. R.H. 1898, p. 431.
R.B. 22, p. 246. S.H. 2:120. G.C. III. 4:125. P.G.
4:35. Var. alba (//. alba, Hort.) has pure white
fls., and was intro. about 1896 by Haage & Schmidt.
Var. splendens, intro. 1898 by the same firm, has dark
crimson fls. Var. robusta, or grandifldra, Hort., accord-
ing to J. B. Keller, is an improvement on the type, the
bells being larger and the color brighter. Var. hybrida
("Rosy Morn"), Hort., according to D. M. Andrews, is
"more robust than the type, foliage deeper cut and the
divisions more pointed: fls. rosy pink." Andrews adds
that var. Slba comes true from seed. Var. rdsea,
and var. maxima with dark crimson fls. are advertised.
— Under the name H. brizoides, Hort., there is a widely
cult, plant with red sts. and pale pink fls. It is chiefly
interesting because it is a bigeneric hybrid, it apparently
being a cross between Heuchera sanguinea and Tiarella
macrophylla. It is a garden hybrid first noticed in
1897. Var. gracillima, Hort., seems merely a more
slender form.

The following names are seen in trade catalogues or in Ryd-
berg's monograph: H. convalldria, Hort. About 2^2 ft., with long-
stalked panicles of fls. somewhat like the lily-of-the-valley. There
is a pink-fld. form, H. cdrnea.= (?) — H. cristata has been listed
in Calif, as "a wonderfully pretty crested variety, originated by
Luther Burbank." — H. macrophylla, Hort., not Lodd., may be
Tiarella macrophylla. — H. pilosissima, F. Muell. 1-2 ft. high: fls.
in close clusters; calyx globular. Calif. — H. purpurdscens was adver-
tised 1898. — H. Whe&leri, Hort., was found in the S. some years
ago, and resembles a form of H. canadensis with variegated Ivs. —
H. Zabelliana, Hort., has pale pink fls. on long fl.-stalks.

N. TAYLOR.!

HEURNIA: Huernia.

HEVEA (from the Brazilian name). Euphorbidcese.
Tropical trees; some yield rubber and are cultivated
for that reason.

Juice milky: Ivs. alternate, long-petioled, the 3 Ifts.
entire: fls. small, monrecious, in loose panicles; calyx
valvate, 5-lobed or 5-toothed; petals none; stamens
5-10, filaments united into a column; ovary 3-celled,
1 ovule in each cell: fr. a large caps.; seeds about 1 in.
long. — About 17 species chiefly in the Amazon region.

The milky juice of some species is rich in caoutchouc,
and they are among the most important sources of
rubber; otherwise rarely cultivated except in economic
and botanical collections. H. braziliensis, especially var.
janeirensis, Pax, is the chief source of the South Ameri-
can or Para rubber. The various species are closely
related and difficult to separate. The rubber plant com-
monly cultivated as a house-plant is Ficus elastica.

Damp, hot climates, such as the tropical rain forest
region, without a dry season, are best suited for the cul-
ture of hevea, though it will stand some drought. It is
best grown from seeds, but can be propagated by cut-
tings. The seed should be planted as soon as ripe, as
they live but a short time. The trees grow rapidly,
and attain their full height of 60 feet in about eight
years, but live for many years longer. A six-year-old
tree will yield as much as a pound of rubber a year and
more when older. For further directions on culture,
see "Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," Vol. II, p.
555. See M. T. Cook, "Diseases of Tropical Plants,
p. 191, for rubber plant diseases.

brasiliensis, Muell. Arg. SOUTH AMERICAN RUBBER
TREE. PARA RUBBER TREE. CAOUTCHOUC TREE.
BRAZIL RUBBER. SERINGUEIRA. Tree, to 60 ft. high:
petioles slender, 3-10 in. long; Ifts. elliptical-lanceolate,
6 in. long, straigh t- veined : branches of the panicle and
fls. finely and closely pubescent: staminate buds acute;
stamens 10 in 2 whorls. Amazon region of Brazil.
Quite variable. H.I. 2573, 2575. Gn. 18, p. 564.

paucifl&ra, Muell. Arg. (H.confiisa, Hemsl.). Tree, to
60 ft. high: Ifts. obovate, cuneate, obtuse acuminate,
4-6 in. long: staminate buds obtuse; stamens 10 in 2

HEVEA

HIBISCUS

1483

whorls. British Guiana. H.I. 2574, 2575. — Some-
times used for rubber.

guianensis, Aubl. (Siphbnia Cahuchu, Willd. S.
eldstica, Pers.). SERINGA. Tree, to 60 ft. high: Ifts.
obovate, base acute, apex obtuse, 3-5 in. long: panicle
tomentose: staminate buds obtuse; stamens 5 in 1
whorl. French Guiana to the Amazon. H.I. 2573. —
Intro, but rarely cult, for rubber, j; g. gt NORTON.

HEXACENTRIS: Thunbergia.

HEXADESMIA (name alludes to the 6 pollen-
masses). Orchidaceas. About a half-dozen Trop. Ameri-
can epiphytic orchids, rarely grown in hothouses. They
are like Scaphyglottis, but differ in having 6 pollinia
in 2 series rather than 4. The fls. are small, in fascicles
or racemes: Ivs. fleshy. Apparently none of the spe-
cies is in the trade.

HEXASTYLIS: Asarum.

HEXISEA (Greek, six equal things; because the
attractive and bright-colored parts of the fls. are 6,
and of equal size.) Should have been written Hexisia.
Orchiddcese. This includes a small epiphytic plant
which was once advertised as "bearing profuse panicles
of bright vermilion fls. twice a year." The genus belongs
to a subtribe closely related to Epidendrum but with
different pollinia. Sts. terete or angled, with usually
2 Ivs. at the apex of each annual growth. New growths
arise in the axils of the Ivs., the entire st. being thus
made up of long, fusiform, apparently superimposed
pseudobulbs, with 2 Ivs. at each node: Ivs. few, narrow:
racemes terminal, the short-peduncled furnished with
overlapping, leathery scales; fls. orange or purple;
anthers semi-globose; pollinia 4, in 1 series. — Four
species, ranging from Mex. to Guiana.

bidentata, Lindl. Height 6"-8 in.: st. branched,
forming spindle-shaped, many-grooved internodes: Ivs.
in pairs, 2-4 in. long, 3 lines wide, channelled, notched.
Panama. B.M. 7031. G.M. 37:19.

HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

HEYDERIA: Libocedrus.

HIBBERTIA (George Hibbert, English patron of
botany, died 1838). Dillenidcess. Shrubs or subshrubs
with yellow or white showy flowers, suitable for the
greenhouse or for growing in the open in the warm
parts; apparently none is in the American trade.

Erect, procumbent or climbing, sometimes almost
herbaceous, some species reaching 5 or 6 ft. : Ivs. mostly
small, entire or dentate, often heath-like, strongly
1-nerved with obscure or rarely prominent reticulations,
some of them usually crowded beneath the blossoms:
fls. solitary, terminal, sometimes approximating into
clusters; sepals 5, sometimes united at base; petals 5,
spreading and usually making an open fl.; stamens
usually 12 or more, sometimes with staminodia: carpels
usually 2-5, dehiscent at the top when ripe. — Species
about 100, nearly all Australian, a few from Madagas-
car. Any of these species is likely to appear in lists,
but only 2 or 3 are regularly known as horticultural
subjects.

dentata, R. Br. Woody only at base, trailing or
twining, with rather large dark yellow pedunculate
fls. (to 2 in. diam.): Ivs. stalked, oblong, to 2 in., dis-
tantly toothed or sinuate, coppery: petals obovate,
entire or nearly so; stamens slender and very numerous;
staminodia present/ New S. Wales and Victoria. B.M.
2338. B.R. 282. G. 32:127. L.B.C. 4:347.

perfoliata, Hueg. Sts. trailing, procumbent, ascend-
ing or becoming erect: Ivs. ovate, usually somewhat
toothed, perfoliate: petals obovate, entire, pale yellow,
the fls. peduncled; stamens numerous, with a few
Btaminodia. W. Austral. B.R. 29:64. J.H. III. 43:147.

volftbilis, Andr. Sts. woody, trailing, or climbing
2-4 ft.: Ivs. obovate to lanceolate, to 3 in., clasping:
fls. large, yellow, somewhat fetid, sessile or nearly so;
petals obovate, entire; stamens very numerous, no
staminodia. Queensland and New S. Wales. B.M.
449. — This and H. dentata are offered in England.

L. H. B.

HEBISCADELPHUS (brother of Hibiscus). Malvaceae.
Under this name, J. F. Rock founds three species of
Hawaiian small trees; of two of the species only one
individual tree is in existence, while of the third several
may still be found on the slopes of Mt. Hualalai, in the
forest of Waihau, in North Kona, Hawaii. From
Hibiscus the genus differs in the deciduous calyx and
other floral characters: fls. 2 H in- or less long, yellow-
ish, magenta, or green: lys. cordate, unevenly 3-5-
pointed or rounded and entire. H. Giffardianus, Rock,
is a medium-sized tree with peculiarly shaped deep
magenta fls. and cordate-orbicular Ivs.; a single tree
known in 1913 and in danger of extinction. H. Wilderi-
anus, Rock, is a tree 15-18 ft. high with yellowish fls.
and 3-lpbed wavy Ivs. of orbicular outline; one tree
known in 1912 and in a dying condition, one on which
the collector was able to find 1 open fl. and a few more
or less developed buds. H. hualalaiensis, Rock, has
green fls. somewhat reddish inside, and somewhat
reniform Ivs.; a few trees are still in existence. These
rare trees are not in the trade, but they are likely to
appear in collections in the tropics if they can be
rescued before destruction. See Rock, "Indigenous
Trees of the Hawaiian Islands." Lt jj, g.

HIBISCUS (old Latin name). Including Abel-
moschus and Paritium. Malvaceae. ROSE-MALLOW.
Showy-flowered garden and greenhouse herbs and
shrubs; in the tropics some of them are trees.

Hibiscus is a polymorphous genus, allied to Gossy-
pium, Abutilon, Althaea and Malva, the species widely
distributed in temperate and tropical countries: herbs
or shrubs, or even trees, with Ivs. palmately veined or
parted: parts of the fl. in 5's; calyx gamosepalous,
5-toothed or 5-cleft, subtended by an involucel of
narrow bracteoles; corolla usually campanulate, showy,
of 5 distinct petals; stamens united into a 5-toothed
column; ovary 5-loculed, bearing 5 styles: fr. a dry,
more or less dehiscent caps (Fig. 1828). — Between 150
and 200 species, of which perhaps
20 occur in the U. S. Horticultur-
ally, there are 4 general groups of
Hibiscus — the annuals, the peren-
nial border herbs, the hardy
shrubs, and the glasshouse shrubs,
to which might be added the tree-
like species of tropical countries
that are often planted along road-
sides and about dwellings. The
perennial herbaceous species are
among the boldest subjects for
planting in remote borders or in
roomy places, particularly in soil
that is damp. These plants, of the
H . Moscheutos type, are commonly
known as marsh-mallows, but this
name properly belongs to Althaea officinalis.

In recent years, improved and valuable hardy forms
of the native herbaceous rose-mallows have been intro-
duced. They bloom throughout a long season. (Fig.
1829.) The Meehan Mallow Marvels were introduced
in 1905, the first successful cross having been made in
1898. They are stated to be hybrids of H. coccineus,
H. militaris, and H. Moscheutos. They are in pink,
shades of red, and white; the flowers often have an eye
of different color. The Giant-flowering marsh-mallows
of Bobbink & Atkins, now catalogued as H. Moscheu-
tos hybrids, were first offered in 1909 at retail and in

1828. Capsule of
Hibiscus syriacus.

1484

HIBISCUS

HIBISCUS

1911 to the trade. They are stated to be hybrids of
H. coccineus and H. Moscheutos, the first cross being
made in 1905, first plant flowered in 1906. The colors
range from white to crimson, sometimes with an eye.
The culture of such a various group as hibiscus cannot
be described in detail. In general, the species present
no special difficulties. They are strong and profuse
growers, and mostly thrive under a variety of condi-
tions.— The herbaceous perennial species are late sum-
mer and fall bloomers, with hollyhock-like flowers.
They send up new strong shoots or canes each year.
Many of them are perfectly hardy in the North, but
even these profit by a mulch covering. Others are
tender in the North, and the roots should be taken

1829. A garden rose-mallow. White. (XH)

up after frost and stored in a dry, warm cellar. Keep
them just moist enough to maintain life in them. Many
times the roots of these herbaceous species are set in
large pots in the spring, and they then make excellent
specimens. All the species require a deep rich soil and
a good unfailing supply of moisture. — The only popu-
lar glasshouse species in this country is H. Rosa-sinen-
sis, a showy and floriferous summer bloomer, of many
varieties. The culture of this species is indicated
under No. 28.

INDEX.

Abelmoschus, 4.

esculentus, 5.

oculiroseus, 14.

aculeatus, 8.

Fauriei, 25.

pxoniflorus, 29.

africanus, 1.

flore-purpureo, 16.

palustris, 13.

amplissimus, 29.

fulgens, 28.

purpureus, 29.

anemonxflorus, 29.

fulgidus, 28.

radiatus, 16.

Arnottianus, 25.

Genevii, 24.

ranunculx floras, 29.

atrorubens, 29.

grandiflorus, 11.

Rosa-sinensis, 28.

bicolor, 29.

Hamabo, 19.

rosella, 2.

brilliantissimus, 28.

heterophyllus, 18.

roseus, 13.

californicus, 12.

incanus, 15.

ruber, 29.

Calleri, 28.

kermesinus, 28.

Sabdariffa, 2.

calycinus, 22.

lasiocarpos, 12.

Schizopetalus, 23.

camelliseftorus, 29.

Leopoldii, 29.

sinensis, 28.

cannabinus, 3.

liliiflorus, 24.

speciosus, 10, 29.

carminatus, 28.

Lindlei, 16.

splendens, 28, and

chrysanthus, 22, 28.

luteolus, 28.

suppl.

cisplatinus, 17.

luteus, 28.

sub-violaceus, 28.

coccineus, 10.

major, 1.

syriacus, 29.

cadestis, 29.

Manihot, 6.

tiliaceus, 21.

Cooperi, 28.

Meehanii, 29.

tot us albus, 29.

Denisonii, 26.

militaris, 9.

Trionum, 1.

dissectus, 6.

miniatus, 28.

Van Houttei, 28.

diversifolius, 7.

Moscheutos, 13.

vesicarius, 1.

elatus, 20.

mutabilis, 27.

violaceus, 29.

elegantissimus, 29.

occidental's, 12.

zebrinus, 28.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Plant annual or biennial (sometimes
perennial in the case of Nos . 3 and 6).

B. Habit low and diffuse l. Trionum

BB. Habit erect, the plants mostly tall,

strict and stout.

C. Calyx 5-cleft, not ventricose or
spathe-like.

D. St. not prickly 2. Sabdariffa

DD. St. prickly 3. cannabinus

cc. Calyx long and spathe-like, split-
ting on one side, deciduous.
D. Bracteoles linear.

E. Caps, short (Sin. or less) 4. Abelmoschus

EE. Caps, long and large (5 in. or

more} 5. esculentus

DD. Bracteoles broad and leafy 6. Manihot

AA. Plant obviously perennial, herbaceous
(or sometimes woody below).

B. Branches and petioles prickly 7. diversifolius

BB. Branches and petioles not prickly.

c. Bracteoles lobed or forked 8. aculeatus

cc. Bracteoles entire, not enlarged at

apex.

D. Foliage glabrous or essentially
so.

E. Lvs. toothed or lobed 9. militaris

EE. Lvs. deeply divided 10. coccineus

DD. Foliage pubescent or tomentose.
E. Calyx-lobes ovate or ovate-
lanceolate.

p. Lvs. hastately S-lobed 11. grandiflorus

FF. Lvs. only obscurely angle-

lobed 12. lasiocarpus

EE. Calyx-lobes with triangular
outline.

F. Fls. rose-color 13. Moscheutos

FF. Fls. white with reddish cen-
ter 14. oculiroseus

EEE. Calyx-lobes ovate to triangular-

Ifinceolate; fls. often yellow. 15. incanus
AAA. Plant distinctly woody, being a shrub

or a tree.

B. Branches and petioles prickly. (No.
18 may sometimes lack prickles.)

c. Fls. yellow 16. radiatus

cc. Fls. pink 17. cisplatinus

ccc. Fls. white 18. heterophyllus

BB. Branches and other parts usually

not prickly or spiny.
c. Color of fls. on the order of yellow.
D. Involucre an 8-10-toothed cup.

E. Species Japanese: a shrub ... 19. Hamabo
EE. Species tropical; usually

small trees.
F. The involucre deciduous

with the calyx 20. elatus

FF. The involucre persistent

with the calyx 21. tiliaceus

DD. Involucre of 5 separate bract-

eoles 22. calycinus

cc. Color of fls. pink, scarlet, white.

D. Petals deeply cut 23. schizope talus

DD. Petals entire or essentially so.
E. Lf. -mar gins practically entire
(sometimes toothed at apex),
or only obscurely crenulate.

F. Fls. red 24. liliiflorus

FF. Fls. white, axillary 25. Arnottianus

FFF. Fls. white, terminal 26. Denisonii

EE. Lf. margins lobed or toothed.

o. Lvs. downy 27. mutabilis

QO. Lvs. essentially glabrous.
H. Stamens prominently

exserted 28. Rosa-sinensis

HH. Stamens not exserted... 29. syriacus

1. Tridnum, Linn. (H. vesicarius, Cav. H. afri-
canus, Hort.). FLOWER-OF-AN-HOTJR. BLADDER KET-
MIA. TRAILING HOLLYHOCK. Fig. 1830. Annual, 1-2
ft. high, bushy-spreading, the main branches becoming
prostrate, usually hispid-hairy: Ivs. 3-5-parted, the
upper ones 3-parted, with the middle lobe much the
largest, the lobes linear-oblong or sometimes widening

HIBISCUS

HIBISCUS

1485

upward, coarsely notched, the rpot-lvs. undivided:
fls. solitary in the upper axils, opening wide in the sun-
shine but closing in shadow, 1-3 in. across, sulfur-
yellow or white, usually with a brown eye; pedicel
elongating in fr., and the calyx becoming much inflated.
Cent. Afr. B.M. 209.— An
interesting annual, bloom-
ing freely throughout the
hot weather of summer, and
thriving in any open, warm
place. Seeds are usually
sown where the plants are
to stand. Excellent for rock-
work. It is sometimes a
weed in cult, grounds. H.
Trionum as sometimes de-
fined, has much wider and
more spatulate and rela-
tively shorter If. - lobes,
which are round-toothed or
lyrately lobed: fls. smaller:
and in this case the above
description would apply to
H. ttestcarms; but there
seems to be insufficient rea-
son for keeping the two
distinct. Var. major, Hort.,
is offered: 2 ft.: fls. prim-
rose-yellow with deep violet
center.

2. Sabdariffa, Linn. (H.
roseWa, Hort.). JAMAICA
SORREL. ROSELLE. Strong
annual, 5-7 ft. high, nearly
glabrous, the sts. terete and
reddish : root-lvs. ovate and
undivided, the upper ones
digitately 3-parted, the side
lobes sometimes again
lobed; lobes lanceolate-ob-
long and crenate-dentate:
fls. solitary and almost
sessile in the axils, much
shorter than the long lf.-
stalks; calyx and bracts red
and thick, less than half
the length of the yellow
corolla. Old World tropics.
Gn. 66, p. 428. — Widely cult, in the tropics, and now
grown somewhat in S. Fla. and S. Calif, for the fleshy
calyxes, which, when cooked, make an excellent sauce
or jelly with the flavor of cranberry. The green seed-
pod is not edible. The juice from the calyxes makes a
cooling acid drink. It thrives in hot, dry climates.

3. cannabinus, Linn. Annual, or sometimes peren-
nial, the st. glabrous and prickly: lower Ivs. cordate
and not lobed, the upper deeply palmately lobed into
narrow serrate parts: peduncle short: bracteoles 7-10,
narrow: fls. large, yellow with crimson center, on very
short axillary peduncles; sepals lanceolate, bristly,
with gland on back of each; corolla spreading: caps,
nearly globose, bristly. Old World, and widely grown
for a coarse fiber which is known as "Bimlipitam
jute."

4. Abelmoschus, Linn, (yl&efrndsc/zus moscM/ws,
Moench). Annual or biennial, 2-6 ft., hispid: Ivs.
various, usually palmately 5-7 -lobed, the lobes spread-
ing and oblong-lanceolate and coarsely toothed: brac-
teoles 6-12, linear, %in. or less long: fls. 4 in. diam.,
yellow with crimson center; calyx 15-toothed: caps.
3 in. or less long, oblong-lanceolate in outline, setose.
India. — Grown in tropical countries for the musk-
scented seeds, which are also sometimes used medicin-
ally; also for the fls. Varies greatly, some of the forms
having no lobed Ivs.

1830. Hibiscus Trionum.
(XJO

5. esculentus, Linn. (Abelmoschus esculentus,
Moench). OKRA. GUMBO. Annual: mostly strict,
2-6 ft. or more, the sts. terete and more or less hispid:
Ivs. cordate in outline, 3-5-lobed or divided, the lobes
ovate-pointed and coarsely toothed or notched:
bracteoles very narrow, about 1 in. long: fls. solitary
and axillary, on inch-long peduncles, yellow, with a
red center: fr. a long ribbed pod (5-12 in. long), used
in cookery. Trop. Asia. — For cult., see Okra. A large-
fld. form (var. spetiosus, cf. H. Manihot) in Gt. 43, p.
623.

6. Manihot, Linn. Fig. 1831. Tall and stout (3-9 ft.),
glabrous or somewhat hairy: Ivs. large, palmately or
pedately 5-9-parted into long and narrow oblong-
lanceolate dentate lobes: bracteoles oblong-lanceo-
late, falling after a time (as does the calyx) : fls.
large (4-9 in. across), pale yellow (sometimes white),
with a purple eye, very showy : caps, oblong and hispid.
China and Japan; widely spread in the tropics, and
naturalized in the southern states. B.M. 1702; 3152;
7752. S.H. 2:263.— This is apparently the Sunset
hibiscus of the trade; also the Queen of the Summer
hibiscus. In botanical works, H. Manihot is said to be
an annual, but as known to horticulturists it is peren-
nial in mild climates, although not persisting long and
making its best bloom on young plants. For a discussion
of this point as related to the limitations of the species,
see G. C. III. 22:249; Gn. 53, p. 127 (and plate 1157).
Botanically, the species is allied to H. esculentus. Not
hardy ha the open in the N., but the roots may be
taken up in the fall and carried over whiter in a warm
dry cellar. In the Middle States and S., it may be
expected to survive if well mulched. Grows readily
from seeds, blooming late the first year if the seeds are
started under glass. Var. dissectus, Hort., has the Ivs.
cut almost to the petiole into narrow lobes.

7. diversifdlius, Jacq. Tall and rigid, herbaceous
or subshrubby, stiffly pubescent, the branches and
petioles bearing stout and short conical prickles: Ivs.
variable, mostly broad-cordate or nearly orbicular,
angular or somewhat 5-lobed, toothed: fls. in axillary
or terminal racemes, primrose-yellow with dark red
center; sepals linear-lanceolate, bristly; corolla much

1831. Hibiscus Manihot. (XK)

1486

HIBISCUS

larger than calyx: caps, ovoid, pointed and hispid;
seeds glabrous Trop. Afr., Pacific islands, and Aus-
tral., and cult, in E. India. B.R. 381.— -Offered in
S. Calif.

8. aculeatus, Walt. Herbaceous perennial, not very
stout, 2-6 ft. tall, hispid all over but not tomentose
nor whitish: Ivs. roundish or roundish-ovate in out-
line, 3-5-lobed or -parted into linear or oblanceolate
cut or toothed blunt segms., the sinuses often rounded
and enlarging: bracteoles 10-12, linear, forking and
bristly, not so long as the calyx: fls. 3-4 in. across,
yellow or cream-colored with purple in the base, the
petals about 3 in. long and the calyx-lobes lanceolate
and bristly. S. C. south in sand, frequently near
swamps. — Not hardy N.

9. militaris, Cav. Herbaceous perennial, 4-6 ft.,
strong-growing, glabrous or very nearly so: Ivs. rather
small, usually hastate (2 short lobes at base), the mid-
dle lobe ovate-lanceolate or triangular-lanceolate, long-
acuminate, equally crenate-toothed; upper Ivs. hal-
berd-form : bracteoles linear or awl-like, nearly or quite
half as long as the calyx: fls. 3-5 in. across, white,
blush or pale rose, purple-eyed: fr. inclosed in inflated
calyx; seeds hairy. Wet places, Pa. to Minn, and south
to the Gulf. B.M. 2385.— A hardy and fine species.
Forms occur with Ivs. not lobed.

10. coccineus, Walt. (H. speciosus, Ait.). Perennial
herb, green and glabrous throughout, glaucous, 3-10
ft. : Ivs. palmately lobed, or the lowest and sometimes
all of them palmately compound, the divisions long-
linear-lanceolate and remotely toothed: bracteoles
about 1% in. long, curved: fls. very large (5-6 in.
across), rose-red, the petals obovate and conspicuously
narrowed at the base; column of stamens very long.
Ga. south in swamps. B.M. 360. R.H. 1858, p. 575;
1866:230. — This fine species is apparently not hardy
in the northern states, although there are reports that
plants have lived in the open in the neighborhood of
Philadelphia. The roots should be stored in a cellar
in winter. Plants have been carried over winter under
glass when used in hybridizing.

11. grandifldrus, Michx. Perennial herb, tall and
stout (3-8 ft.), the terete reddish st. becoming glabrous:
Ivs. large, 3-lobed, the lobes ovate-acuminate or ovate-
oblong-acuminate, the side ones widely spreading,
blunt-toothed or even again lobed: bracteoles linear, 1
in.: fls. very large (6-8 in. across), white or rose, with
deeper eye. Ga., Fla. west, in swamps. — Aside from
the large fls. and lobed Ivs., this is very like H. Moscheu-

tos. It is doubtful
whether the true H.
grandiflorus is in
the trade.

12. lasiocarpos,
Cav. Fig. 1832.
Perennial herb, to 6
ft. : st. : and Ivs. pu-
bescent: Ivs. ovate,
more or less cor-
date, acuminate,
toothed, often an-
gular or slightly
3-lobed, the upper
ones narrower:
bracteoles linear-
subulate and
bristly: fls. white
or pale rose with
darker center, the
petals 3-4 in. long:
caps, very hairy.
Swamps, Ky., west
and south. G. F.
1 : 426 (reduced in
Fig. 1832).

1832. Hibiscus lasiocarpos. ( X M)

HIBISCUS

Var. calif 6rnicus (H. calif ornicus, Kell. H. lasio-
carpos var. occidentalis, Gray). Lvs. more uniformly
cordate: caps, less hairy; seeds papillate: marshy places
along San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. It is strong-
growing, to 7
ft., the st. -te-
rete or slightly
grooved above,
more or less
pubescent: Ivs.
distinctly cor-
date, ovate,
acute, shallow-
toothed and
not lobed, dull
ashy gray beneath :
involucre-bracts
hairy: corolla white
or rose, with a pur-
ple eye, 3-5 in. across :
caps, pubescent. Al-
though the name H.
californicus is com-
mon in the trade, it
is a question how
much of the stock, if
any, is this species.
Certainly some of it
is H. Moscheutos. From H.
Moscheutos this species is distin-
guished by its cordate ashy-
tomentose Ivs. and hairy-ciliate
involucre - bracts. The plant
known to the trade as H. cali-
Jornicus is hardy.

13. Moschefttos, Linn. (H.
palustris, Linn.). SWAMP ROSE-
MALLOW. Strong-growing peren-
nial 3-8 ft., the terete st. pubes-
cent or tomentose: Ivs. mostly
ovate, entire in general outline
or sometimes shallowly 3-lobed

at the top, crenate-toothed, very soft-tomentose beneath
but becoming nearly or quite glabrous above, the long
petiole often joined to the peduncle: bracteoles linear,
nearly or quite as long as the tomentose calyx: calyx-
lobes triangular-ovate; fls. very large (4-7-8 in. broad),
light rose-color: caps, globose-ovoid, glabrous. Marshes
along the coast from Mass, to Fla. and west to Lake
Michigan. B.M. 882. B.R. 1463; 33:7. Mn.
2:161. Gng. 2:227. F.S. 12:1233. R.H. 1907, p. 203
(as var. palustris). G.W. 6, p. 63. H. roseus, Thore, of
Europe, is considered to be a naturalized form of this
American species. R.H. 1879:10.— One of the best of
the rose-mallows, thriving in any good garden soil. Of
easiest cult, and perfectly hardy. Blooms in Aug. and
Sept. The foliage is strong and effective. The most
generally cult, of the hardy herbaceous kinds.

14. oculirSseus, Brit. CRIMSON-EYE ROSE-MAL-
LOW. Resembles H. Moscheutos: differs in fls. being
white with dark crimson center, calyx-lobes triangular-
lanceolate and nearly twice as long as broad, caps,
ovoid-conic and long-pointed. Marshes near the coast,
N. J. southward.

15. incanus, Wendl. Much like H. Moscheutos, and
probably sometimes passing for it in the trade: Ivs.
smaller 'and narrower, ovate-lanceolate, rarely lobed,
serrate-toothed : fls. sulfur-yellow, pink or white with a
crimson eye: caps, ovoid and beaked, stellate-tomentose
and loosely hairy. Md. and south in swamps. — Seems
to be hardy in the N. with a mulch protection.

16. radiatus, Willd. (not Cav.). Woody shrub, 3-4
ft., armed on branches and petioles with small prickles:
Ivs. rather narrow, deeply palmately divided, 3-5-
lobed, or uppermost simple, the lobes broad-lanceo-

1833. Hibiscus schizo-

petalus. (X1A)

HIBISCUS

HIBISCUS

1487

1834. Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis. (XH)

late and serrate; stipules linear: bracteoles 8-10, linear,
forked: fls. axillary and solitary, yellow with crimson
center; calyx not glandular. India, Java. Widely cult.
in tropics. Var. fldre-purptlreo, Hook., has rose-purple

fls. B. M. 5098.
Var. Lindlei (H.
Lindlei, Wall.) has
deep purple fls.
B.R. 1395.

17. cisplatinus,
St. Hil. Bushy,
3-5 ft.: sts. gla-
brous but prickly:
Ivs. deltoid - lan-
ceolate or deltoid-
ovate, 3-lobed,
coarsely toothed,
sparsely hairy on
the veins: fls. soli-
tary, 4-5 in.
across, light pink,
with darker color
in the eye and
sometimes darker
on the margins.
Brazil (this side the Platte River, whence apparently the
specific name). R.H. 1898:480. Gng. 7:50.— Little
known in this country. It is a handsome late fall
bloomer, and may be planted out in summer. It seeds
freely, and these, sown as soon as ripe, will give blooming
plants for the following fall.

18. heterophyllus, Vent. Tall shrub, glabrous except
on inn. and very young shoots, the branches often
prickly: Ivs. varying from linear to lanceolate and
elliptic-oblong and from entire to 3-lobed, 5-6 in. long,
usually serrulate and sometimes white beneath: fls.
large (3-4 in. long), white with a deep crimson eye, the
calyx tomentose: caps, hairy; seeds glabrous. Austral.;
intro. in S. Calif., where it is a free and showy bloomer.

19. Hamabo, Sieb. & Zucc. Shrub, 6-10 ft. high,
closely pubescent: Ivs. roundish, with an abrupt short
point, irregularly shallowly toothed, or wavy, white
tomentose beneath and green or grayish hairy above:
involucre of scales united at the base: fls. solitary in
the upper axils, large, yellow, with a darker base, about
3 in. across. — A Japanese species offered by importers
but not yet tested in this country, and probably not
hardy south of the southern-middle states. Said to be
cult, in Japan.

20. elatus, Swartz (Paritium elatum, Don). MOUN-
TAIN MAHOE. Spreading small tree: Ivs. round-cordate,
short-cuspidate, entire, hoary beneath: involucre
deciduous with the calyx, 8-10-toothed : fls. 4 in. long,
opening primrose-color in the morning, then changing,
as the day advances, to orange and deep red: seeds
hairy. W. Indies. — This species, the next, and probably
others, yield the Cuba bast, used for tying cigars and
for other purposes. Lvs. and shoots medicinal: wood
durable.

21. tiliaceus, Linn. (Paritium tiliaceum, Juss.).
Round-headed tree, 20-30 ft. high, sometimes a tall
shrub: Ivs. round-cordate and short-acuminate, entire
or obscurely crenate, hoary beneath: involucre per-
sistent with the calyx, 10-toothed or -cut: fls. 2-3 in.
long, yellow: seeds glabrous or very nearly so. Fla.
keys and W. Indies, but widespread in tropics and
probably of Old World origin. Sprouts from the base
if frozen.

22. calycinus, Willd. (H. chrysdnthus, Hort.). Small
slender shrub: pubescent: Ivs. long-stalked, round-
cordate, somewhat 3-5-angled and 5-7-nerved, cre-
nate, hairy or velvety: stipules subulate: fls. on axillary
peduncles which are shorter than the petioles, large,
yellow, with a dark center: involucre bracts 5, bristle-

pointed: caps, tomentose. S. Afr. — To be grown
indoors, but may be planted out in the summer with
good results. Probably valuable for permanent plant-
ing in the extreme S.

23. schizopetalus, Hook. f. Fig. 1833. Tall gla-
brous shrub with slender drooping branches: Ivs.
ovate-elliptic, toothed: bracteoles minute: fls. pendu-
lous, on long jointed peduncles, red or orange-red, the
recurved petals beautifully and deeply cut; calyx
tubular; stamens long-exserted : fr. long, bearing
smooth seeds. E. Trop. Afr. B.M. 6524. F.S. 23:2397,
2398. G.Z. 25, p. 241. — A beautiful species, for the
warmhouse; grown in the American tropics.

24. liliifldrus, Cav. (H. Genevii, Bojer). Shrub, gla-
brous: Ivs. petioled, ovate, 2—4 in. long, entire or cre-
nate, often few-toothed at apex, obtuse or acute,
rounded at base, the young ones sometimes deeply
parted: bracteoles 5, linear, connate at base: fls. soli-
tary in upper axils, long-peduncled, bright red; sepals
1^2 in. or less long, lanceolate, connate above the mid-
dle; corolla funnel-shaped; stamens equaling corolla
or somewhat exserted. Mauritius and Seychelles
Islands. B.M. 3144. — An excellent glasshouse spe-
cies, of several

varieties.

25. Arnottia-
nus, Gray (H.
Fauriei, Leveil.)
Tree, 20-30 ft.:
Ivs. large, ovate,
short-acumi-
nate, entire, 3-
nerved, stiffish,
shining : brae-
teoles 5-7, tri-
angular to lan-
ceolate: fls. axil-
lary and soli-
tary, very large,
white, some-
times with pink-
ish veins; calyx
tubular, 5 -
toothed; sta-
mens long - ex-
serted, white or
red. Hawaii;
cult, there, and
intro. in S. Calif.

26. Denisonii,
Burb. Small
glasshouse
shrub, flowering
when very small,
glabrous: Ivs.
thick and rather
stiff, slender-
stalked, elliptic-
ovate, entire or
obscurely crenu-
late, acuminate,
dull green : fls.
terminal, large,
white, 4-5 in.
across. Nativity
unknown, but
intro. from Aus-
tral. F.M.1876:
232. G.Z. 22:
217. — A good
greenhouse
plant, requiring
warm tempera-
ture; apparently

little grown. 183S. Hibiscus syriacus. (XH)

1488

HIBISCUS

HICKORY-NUT

la

27. mutabilis, Linn. Tree-like: Ivs. cordate, 5-
angled and toothed, downy : -"toracteoles shorter than
calyx: fls. axillary, opening white or pink but changing
to deep red by night, 3-^ in. across; sepals ovate-lanceo-
late, joined below the middle: caps, globose, hairy;
seeds hispid. China. H.F. II. 11:80. — Cult, in tropical
and subtropical regions. Intro, in S. Fla. under the
name of "cotton rose" and "confederate rose."

28. R6sa-sinensis, Linn. (H. sinensis, Hort.). CHI-
NESE HIBISCUS. Fig. 1834. In glasshouses a shrub
3-8 ft. high, but reaching 30 ft. in subtropical regions
and becoming tree-like: glabrous: Ivs. rather large,
thin and shining green, broad-ovate to lance-ovate,
somewhat tapering to the base, acuminate, coarsely
and unequally toothed: bracteoles linear, free, as long
as the calyx: fls. solitary in the upper axils of the new
growth, on peduncles which exceed the petioles, bright
rose-red, 4-5 in. across, with a projecting red column of
stamens and pistil; sepals lanceolate, joined below the
middle: caps, ovoid, glabrous, the valves terminating
in a short beak. Asia, probably China: now distribu-
ted in warm countries, and one of the best known old-
fashioned conservatory pot-plants, and one of the
characteristic plants in tropical countries. B.M. 158.
I.H. 29:441. G.C. III. 2:529. Gn. 53, p. 127.— It is

now immensely
variable. Forms
are double-fld.,
and others are
orange, yellow,
bright red, ma-
genta, and parti-
colored. Var.
Co&peri, Hort.
(H . Cooperi,
Hort.), has nar-
row white-
marked Ivs. and
distorted scarlet
fls. G.Z.8:176. H.F. II. 6: 210.
F.W. 1877:225. Var. Calleri,
Hort. Fls. buff-yellow with
crimson-scarlet base. Var. Van
Hoftttei, Hort., deep crimson.
Trade names belonging to H.
Rosa-sinensis are brilliantis-
simus; carmindtus, chrysdnthus;
ftilgidus, fulgens; kermesinus;
luteblus; luteus; miniatus; splen-
dens; sub-violaceus; zebrlmis.
H. Rosa-sinensis is a summer-
flowering shrub which always
attracts attention. It is often
plunged in the open with
other subtropical stuff. It is
easy to grow in ordinary pot-
ting soil. In winter keep it
slow by withholding water and
keeping in a temperature not
above 50°. In spring head the
plants in and start them up to
get the new wood on which the
fls. are borne. Give plenty of
water when growing, and
syringe frequently. Prop,
readily by softwood cuttings in
spring, or by hard cuttings in
fall. The fls. of this plant are
said to be used in some places
for dyeing hair and also for
blacking shoes, whence the
name "shoeblack plant." The
species seldom seeds in culti-

1836. Forms of Carya vation, although it is reported
ovata. l, la, Meriden; 2, as seeding freely in some tropi-
Jackson; 3, 3a, Milford. cal regions.

29. syriacus, Linn. (Althaea frutex, Hort.). SHRUBBY
ALTHEA. ROSE OF SHARON. Figs. 1828, 1835. Shrub,
6-12 ft. high, sometimes almost tree-like, much
branched, nearly or quite glabrous: Ivs. rather small,
short-petioled, strongly 3-ribbed, triangular- or rhom-
bic-ovate, lower ones mostly 3-lobed and with many
rounded teeth or notches: bracteoles linear, 6 or 7: fls.
solitary in the axils on the young wood (late in the sea-
son), short-peduncled, somewhat bell-shaped, 2-3 in.
long, rose or purple, usually darker at the base; sepals
ovate-lanceolate, exceeding the bracteoles: pod short,
splitting into 5 valves. Asia. B.M. 83. R.H. 1845:133
(var. spedosus, with double fls.). Gn. 75, p. 604. J.H.
111.55:473. G.W. 13, p. 65. G.Z. 24:97. J.F. 4: pi.
370. G.7:149; 11:167. F.E. 25:459; 32:127.— One of
the commonest of ornamental shrubs, and hardy in
Ontario; commonly known as althea. It is immensely
variable in character of fls., the colors ranging from
blue-purple to violet-red, flesh-color and white; also
full double forms. There are forms with variegated Ivs.
Colored plates of some of the dpuble-fld. forms will be
found in Gn. 52:504. The species thrives in any good
soil. Prop, by seeds, by cuttings of ripened wood taken
in the fall, and named varieties by grafting on the com-
mon seedling stock. Nativity uncertain, but probably
not Syrian, as Linnaeus supposed: probably native in
China. To this species belongs the trade name H.
Leopoldii. There are many horticultural forms of this
interesting late summer-flowering shrub. Var. Meehanii,
Hort., is a variegated-lvd. form of somewhat dwarf
habit, and single fls. 3-4 in. across, lavender, and pur-
ple-blotched. Other trade names that belong with H.
syriacus are: amplissimus, double, purple-pink with car-
mine center; anemonaeflorus; atrdrubens; tricolor, semi-
double, white with dark center; camellias flbr us; coelestis;
elegantissimus; Leopoldii; pseoniflorus; purpureus;
ranuncul&flbrus; riiber; specidsus; lotus dlbus; violaceus.

H. aponeurus, Sprague & Hutch. Shrub, to 4 ft.: Ivs. small,
ovate or elliptic, sometimes slightly 3-lobed: fls. solitary, axillary,
\, in. across, brilliant scarlet. Trop. E. Afr. B.M. 8231.— tf.
Archeri, Hort., is a hybrid of H. Rosa-sinensis and H. schizopetalus,
raised by A. S. Archer, Antigua, W. Indies. Much like H. Rosa-sinen-
sis. Fls. red. Gn. 55:310. — H. Cdmeronii, Knowles & West. Tall
shrub, with heart-shaped 3-lobed Ivs. and large, solitary, cream-
colored, red-veined fls. Madagascar. B.M. 3936. H.U. 3, p. 42.
The plant figured under this name in Gn. 53:280 is probably a
form of H. Rosa-sinensis. — H. cupreus, Pampan. Allied to H.
Rosa-sinensis: branches coppery purple in color: Ivs. lanceolate,
undulate and usually entire: bracteoles 6-8, linear: fls. nearly 2 in.
long, purple with carmine eye. Ceylon. — H. K6kio, Hildeb. Tree:
Ivs. ovate or elliptic-oblong, crenate, glabrous: fls. axillary and
solitary, red, the petals to 2 % in. long; staminal column red, not
long-exserted. Hawaii. — H. Pdtersonii, R. Br.=Lagunaria. —
H. puniceus, Hort., apparently has no botanical standing: still
offered abroad. G.Z. 19:1. — H. Scdttii, Balf. Large bush or small
tree from Isl. of Socotra: Ivs. ovate, entire, 3-lobed, or toothed:
fls. 3}^ in. across, bright golden yellow with carmine eye. B.M.
7816. — H. spltndens, Fras. Shrub, 12-20 ft., soft-tomentose,
prickly: Ivs. cordate-ovate, palmately 3-5-7-lobed: fls. very large,
rose-red. Austral. B.M. 3025. B.R. 1629. Handsome. — H. sur-
attensis, Linn. Trailing, with palmately 3-5-parted Ivs.: fls. yel-
low: involucre-bracts with odd nail-like spines. India, but widely
distributed. G.C. III. 9:529. — H. veniistus, Blume. Very like H.
mutabilis, but involucre - bracts broad. Java. B.M. 7183. — H.
villdsus, undetermined trade name. — H. Waimex, Heller. Tree,
20^30 ft.: Ivs. suborbicular, crenate, pubescent on both sides: fls.
axillary near ends of branches, large, white or tinged with pink;
staminal column red, long-exserted. Hawaii. G. C. III. 57:8.

L. H. B.

HICKORY-NUT. Notwithstanding the high esteem
in which the nuts of several species of hickory have
been held since the settlement of America by the white
men, but little progress has been made in their domes-
tication and improvement. Out of the nine or ten spe-
cies recognized by botanists, not more than three or
four have been found sufficiently promising from an
economic standpoint to justify conspicuous effort at
amelioration. Of these the pecan (Carya Pecan)
stands easily first, followed in order of apparent value
by the shagbark (little shellbark), C. ovata; the shell-
bark (big shellbark), C. laciniosa, and the pignut, C.
glabra. The pecan differs in its requirements of soil
and climate from the other species, and is described

HICKORY-NUT

HICKORY-NUT

1489

separately under Pecan. For the botany of the hick-
ories, see Carya.

In flavor and quality of kernel, the shagbark is
esteemed by most Americans as the choicest of native
nuts, though in these respects the shellbark is but lit-
tle inferior to it. The thinner shell and larger propor-
tion of kernel have given the former precedence over the
latter in most cultural efforts; though the thrifty
growth, symmetrical form and luxuriant foliage of the
latter render it one of the most handsome and useful of
native trees for roadside or lawn
planting. The shagbark has the
broader area of natural distribu-
tion; being found in localities
throughout most of the United
States to the eastward of the Great
Plains, except on the lowlands of
the South Atlantic coast and Gulf
states. The shellbark is mainly
confined to the valley of the Mis-
sissippi and its larger tributaries,
extending eastward, however, into
eastern Pennsylvania and western
New York.

The pignut, which is similar to
the shagbark in area of distribu-
tion, is much inferior to the others
in quality, but shows wider varia-
tion than either in this respect,
and has disclosed at least one
variety of distinct cultural merit.

As the hickories, other than the
pecan, are slow-growing species at
best, they should not be planted
on other than fertile soil. The
shellbark is native to river bot-
toms, and requires richer land
than the others, which endure a
rather wide range of soil character-
istics, provided there is sufficient
depth and good drainage. Deep,
well-drained fertile loams, either
of sandy or clayey nature, are
acceptable to all the species.

Propagation.

All the species are propagated
by seed. Planting is frequently
done in autumn, but, to lessen the
destruction by rodents, is more
safely done in early spring. In
such case the freshly gathered
nuts, after removal from the hulls,
should be stored in slightly damp-
ened sand during the winter or
stratified, as other tree seeds. Uni-
formity of growth is promoted by
planting nuts where trees are to
stand, as the transplanting process
in ordinary seasons is accompanied
by a considerable loss. If trees must be transplanted,
it is probably best to transplant annually in nursery
rows, in rich soil, to promote growth of fibrous roots
and lessen the shock of final transplanting to the
permanent location.

The propagation of the hickories (except the pecan)
by budding and grafting, is exceedingly difficult, even
the most experienced propagators securing but a partial
stand in the nursery, under favorable conditions. This
fact coupled with the comparatively high mortality
in transplanting such trees from the nursery has greatly
retarded the dissemination of the many choice varieties
that have been located in the form of seedling trees,
during the past quarter-century.

One of the simplest methods of multiplying the
stock of a choice tree, to a limited extent, and thus to

95

5 5a

1837. Forms of hickory-nut. 1, la, Kentucky;
2, 2a, Kirtland; 3, 3a, Rieke; 4, 4a, Swain; 5, So,
Weiker.

insure the preservation of the variety, is that sug-
gested by Fuller in his" "Nut Culturist," which was
apparently one of the first methods successfully
employed in shagbark propagation. This consists in
the "turning up or exposing at the surface of the
ground of side roots, severed from the parent tree."
The severed side roots are straightened up and tied to
stakes to hold them in position with their cut ends about
level with the surface of the ground to stimulate the
formation of shoots from adventitious buds, one of
which is eventually made the
trunk of the new tree. The lower
end of the root is not severed until
the top has formed, when the new
tree should be transplanted to its
permanent location in rich and
mellow soil and kept well mulched
until thoroughly established. The
method is slow and sharply limited
in extent of application but is per-
haps the surest in the hands of
the amateur grower.

The late Jackson Dawson, the
very skilful propagator of woody
plants at Arnold Arboretum,
achieved a considerable degree of
success in propagating the shag-
bark by side-grafting on specially
grown bitternut (C. minima) seed-
lings. He grew the seedlings in
boxes 4 inches deep, for one or
two years until of sufficient size
for grafting. The seedlings were
then transferred to pots in autumn
and taken into the greenhouse
about January 1. They were side-
grafted, close to the collar. As
soon as the roots began to start,
the potted trees were plunged in
sphagnum to the top bud of the
cion and left until March to
callus.

As improvement in method and
technique in pecan-propagation
has been accomplished by south-
ern nurserymen during the past
ten years, considerable attention
has been given to the hickory by
some of them, with the result that
a certain degree of success has
been attained with the annular
and patch-bud methods, both in
nursery propagation and top-
working. Unfortunately, in many
cases, the shagbark has been bud-
ded upon southern pecan seed-
lings, the ability of which to
endure the minimum temperatures
of the northern regions where the
principal interest in shagbark

planting exists Is at least very doubtful.

The cleft-grafting of thoroughly established stocks at
the crown, in early spring, has thus far proved the most
practical method for the average propagator. This is
accomplished by removing the earth to a depth of 3
to 4 inches from the base of the tree. The stock is cut
off with a fine saw about 2 inches below the ground-line
or at the top of the root-swelling. Cions having terminal
buds should be inserted by either center or side-graft
methods. The entire stump should then be carefully
mounded over to the top buds of the cion with fine
earth of a texture that will retain moisture without
baking. The cjons should be cut when entirely dormant
and held in sphagnum or sawdust in an ice-house or
elsewhere to keep the buds from swelling until the
stocks are starting. The young growth needs to be

1490

HICKORY-NUT

HIERACIUM

carefully staked until the wood has hardened, as it is
soft and easily broken. See Grafting.

Planting.

The hickories are transplanted with such difficulty
that the utmost care in preparing the soil for them is
required. This should be rich, deep and thoroughly
drained. Planting may be done either in autumn or
early spring. Pruning should be restricted to the
removal of bruised or injured roots. Heavy mulch
should be applied and maintained until trees are
thoroughly established. After that little attention
is required.

Production and use.

The fairly abundant supply of shagbarks and shell-
barks in our markets is derived entirely from seedling
trees. By far the larger part of this is from second-
growth trees in fence-rows or the open fields where the
conditions are more favorable to nut-production than
in the forests. In southern New England, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana, the shag-
bark product is a highly prized supplemental crop on
many farms. In some sections, as in southeastern
Pennsylvania, the nuts are cracked by the women and
children, the shelled meats being marketed in con-
siderable quantities at satisfactory prices, many con-
sumers preferring them to any other nut.

Varieties.

As the attention of amateurs has been concentrated
on the subject in recent years, many wild trees yielding
choice nuts have been located and preserved. A con-
siderable number of these have received varietal names,
but only a few have actually been propagated in such
way that trees are obtainable at nurseries even in
small numbers.

The qualities that should be considered in shagbarks
and shellbarks from the commercial viewpoint are: (1)
cracking quality, including easy release of the kernel:
(2) thinness of shell; (3) size of nut; (4) plumpness and
flavor of kernel; (5) productiveness.

The following sorts are worthy of consideration by
those who are interested in testing representative sorts.
Not all of them are yet to be had from nurseries.

Shagbarks.

Curtis. — Connecticut. A smooth nut of medium size, slightly
compressed; kernel plump, light in color and of good quality; shell
thin; cracking quality good.

Dover. — Pennsylvania. A medium-sized angular nut, rather
broad at the base, but having a long and sharp basal point; shell
moderately thin; cracking quality good; quality good.

Eliot. — ^Connecticut. Of medium size, compressed, angular,
ovate, with prominent tip; kernel plump; flavor mild and pleasant;
shell thin; cracking quality good.

Hales (Hales PapersheU). — New Jersey. Large, quadrangular,
slightly compressed, with a peculiar wavy surface; kernel rather
deeply corrugated, but plump and of good quality, retaining its
sweetness for two years or more; shell thin and of fair cracking
quality. The Hales nut is the first-named variety of hickory, having
been described and illustrated by A. S. Fuller in "The Rural New
Yorker" in 1870. It is probably the only sort now obtainable at
the nurseries. The original tree bears a fair crop annually, and
numerous younger trees grafted from it are now in bearing.

Jackson. — Ohio. A compressed oval nut of large size; kernel
large, plump, and of excellent quality; shell thin; cracking quality
medium. Fig. 1836.

Kentucky. — Northern Kentucky. A nut of medium size, with
quite angular and somewhat lumpy surface, short, sharp apex and
flattened base, having a very short tip: shell moderately thin, kernel
very plump, rich and sweet. Fig. 1837.

Kirtland. — Quadrangular, above medium size, slightly ridged
and having a rather lumpy surface; shell thin, with excellent
cracking quality; kernel plump, rich and of good flavor. Fig. 1837.

Learning. — Missouri. A large nut of fine flavor and excellent
cracking quality; the kernel coming out in unbroken halves.

Meriden. — Connecticut. Large, oblong, compressed; kernel
large and of good quality; shell rather thick but cracks well. Fig.
1836.

Milford. — Massachusetts. A compressed ovate nut, medium to
large in size, with large, plump kernel of excellent quality; cracks
well; one of the best nuts yet brought to notice. Fig. 1836.

Rice. — Ohio. Angular, ovate, medium to large in size; kernel
plump, bright and of fine quality; shell thin and of good cracking
quality; tree regular'v productive.

Swain. — Indiana. A rather long nut of medium size, with sharp
apex and irregularly pointed base; surface rough; shell thin; crack-
ing quality fair; kernel plump and sweet. Fig. 1837.

Vest. — Virginia. Of medium size, distinctly quadrangular with
very lumpy surface; shell very thin and papery; kernel deeply
corrugated but plump and of good quality.

Woodbourne. — Pennsylvania. Long, compressed ovate, large
and smooth; kernel tender and of very high quality; shell rather
thick but cracks well.

Shellbarks.

Lefevre. — Pennsylvania. Large, quadrangular, slightly ridged;
shell thin, cracking fairly well; kernel very large, plump, rich and
sweet.

Rieke. — Illinois. Above medium size, elongated, with a long,
sharp apex and flattened base; shell moderately thick, cracking
quality very good; kernel fairly plump and sweet. Fig. 1837.

Weiker. — Pennsylvania. Large, elongated, with moderately
thick shell, cracking easily; kernel plump, rich and of good flavor.
Fig. 1837.

Pignut.

Of the somewhat numerous sweet-flavored forms found in this
species, the following one at least has been deemed worthy of
perpetuation because of its delicate flavor, thin shell, and excellent
cracking quality.

Brackett. — Iowa. Roundish compressed, smooth and of grayish
color, medium to large in size; kernel plump, sweet and of delicate
flavor; shell very thin, and easily freed from the kernel.

WM. A. TAYLOK.

HICORIA: Carya.

HIDALGOA ("after the Mexican Hidalgo"). Syn.,
Chlldsia. Composite. A tender herbaceous vine, allied
to Dahlia, with scarlet flowers about 2J^ inches across,
introduced in 1899 by John Lewis Childs, under the
name of Childsia Wercklei, or "treasure vine."

Hidalgoa is closely allied to Dahlia and Coreopsis,
but differs from both in the large, fertile achene of the
rays and in the sterile disk-fls., the styles of which are
entire or very shortly 2-lobed. — Only 2 species were
hitherto recognized, both from Cent. Amer. From
these H. Wercklei differs in its more compound Ivs.
and much larger heads. Suitable for cool, shady ver-
andas but cannot be grown north of Washington
out-of-doors; quite hardy in S. Calif.

Wercklei, Hook. (Childsia Wercklei, J. L. Childs).
CLIMBING DAHLIA. Tall, woody at base, much
branched, climbing by petioles: Ivs. opposite, pin-
nately ternatisect, 1^-2^ in. long, 2 in. wide, the
teeth tipped reddish brown; petiole lJ^-2 in. long,
coiled at base: peduncle axillary, as long as the Ivs.,
1-fld.; rays about 10, "dazzling orange-scarlet." Costa
Rica. B.M. 7684. J. L. Childs' Cat. Rare Flowers,
etc., 1899, p. 1, with colored plate. A.G. 20:570.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

HIERACIUM (Greek, a hawk; it is said the ancients
thought that hawks sharpened their eyesight by using
the sap of these plants). Composite (Cichoriaceae).
HAWK-WEEDS. Hardy herbaceous perennials, some of
which are bad weeds in the eastern states.

Leaves often toothed, but never deeply lobed:
heads usually small, loosely paniculate or cymose, rarely
solitary; receptacle flat, usually quite naked; rays
truncate, 5-toothed at the apex; anthers sagittate at
the base; style-branches slender: seeds angular. — Over
400 species mostly native to Eu. and S. Amer. The
genus passes into Crepis, from which it is distinguished
by having stiff, usually brownish, rarely white pappus,
and oblong or columnar seeds.

The cultivated species bear in summer and autumn
a succession of small yellow or orange-colored flowers.
There is one white-flowered species, H. nivole. They
are often worth growing in rockeries and waste places,
but care should be taken to prevent them from crowd-
ing out more desirable plants. In some parts of the
East H. aurantiocum has become one of the worst
weeds ever introduced into America. It is magnifi-
cently colored, and makes very attractive patches.
H . villosum is the most desirable species. Hawkweeds
will grow in almost any soil or aspect. They are prop-
agated chiefly by dividing the stolons, or by seeds, and

HIERACIUM

HIGGINSIA

1491

if left to themselves will soon form a dense mat of
herbage over the poorest of soils. The Old World
species are much confused.

A. Flowering st. leafless or with 1-5 Ivs.: Ivs. mostly
in a rosette at base of st.

B. Scapes unbranched above, bearing but a single head.

Pilosella, Linn. MOUSE-EAR HAWKWEED. St.
slender, 4—12 in. high, stoloniferous, densely hairy
throughout: Ivs. entire, oblong or spatulate, narrowed
into a petiole: fls. 1 in. broad, pale yellow, sometimes
striped or tinged with red or purple. — Commonly
flowers the whole season. Intro, from Eu. and common
in dooryards and fields; often as a troublesome weed.
Ont. to Pa. and Mich.

BB. Scapes branched above, bearing several to many

heads.

c. Basal Ivs. coarsely toothed.

vulgatum, Fries (H. umbrbsum, Jord.). St. 1-3 ft.
high, slightly glaucous: basal Ivs. 2-5 in. long, oblong
to lanceolate, acute at both ends, petioled; petioles
usually pubescent: fl.-stalks straight, sticky. July-
Sept. Intro, from Eu. and Asia. Lab. to N. J.

cc. Basal Ivs. entire or very finely toothed.
D. Lvs. mostly obovate to ovate, purple-veined.

vendsum, Linn. RATTLESNAKE WEED. St. 1-3 ft.
high, slender, smooth or nearly so: Ivs. 1-4 in. long,
obovate to spatulate, subsessile: fls. }^-%in. wide,
bright yellow. Aug., Sept. Dry woods, Maine to Ga.
and west to Manitoba and Neb. — A common plant in
woods and, as an escape, a very troublesome weed.
Advertised by one dealer in native plants.

DD. Lvs. mostly spatulate to oblong, green-veined.

aurantiacum, Linn. ORANGE HAWKWEED. DEVIL'S-
BIT. St. 6 in. to 2 ft. high, slender, somewhat hairy:
heads J^-l in. across, short-stalked, orange to orange-
red. June-Oct. Naturalized from Eu. by roadsides
and in fields, Ont. to Pa. — A bad weed if allowed to
spread. It is worthy of being established in high and
dry parts of a rockery, where few other plants can
grow.

praealtum, Vill. (H. stploniferum, Bess.). Plants usu-
ally spreading very rapidly by stolons: st. 2-3 ft. high,
slender, glaucous, hairy at base: basal Ivs. entire:
heads */£in. across, in an open cyme, bright yellow.
June-Sept. — Naturalized from Eu. along roadsides in
N. Y.; sometimes troublesome in cult. land.

AA. Flowering st. leafy, at least below.

B. St. branching from the base.

ramdsum, Waldst. & Kit. Lvs. ovate to lanceolate,
narrowed at the base, toothed, hairy on margin and
beneath; lower Ivs. petioled, upper ones subsessile.
July-Sept. Eu.

nivale, Froel. WHKTE HAWKWEED. Differs from H.
ramosum chiefly in having white fls. and glaucous,
somewhat leathery Ivs., which are not hairy on the
margin. A white hawkweed is advertised and, accord-
ing to some, this is the only white-fld. species in the
genus. Tyrolese Alps.

BB. St. unbranched below,
c. Whole plant silky-villose.

vU16sum, Jacq. SHAGGY HAWKWEED. St. 1-2 ft.
high, often 4 ft. under cult.: basal Ivs. oblong-lanceo-
late to lanceolate, narrowed at the base, finely toothed;
st.-lvs. sessile, the upper half clasping: fls. lJ^-2 in.
across, bright golden. June-Aug. Eu. Gn. 46:542".
G.M. 44:596. — The silvery foliage and showy fls. of
this species make it more desirable for the garden than
any other hieracium now in cult. It is easily kept
from spreading.

cc. Plant smooth or slightly pubescent.

canadense, Michx. St. 1-5 ft. high, slender: Ivs.
ovate-oblong to lanceolate, acute, serrate or deeply
incised, sessile, the upper with clasping base: fls. 1 in.
across, the outer involucral bracts spreading. June-
Aug. Dry woods, Nova Scotia to Pa., west to Brit.
Col. and Ore.

Grondvii, Linn. St. 1-3 ft. high, stiff: Ivs. hairy, the
upper oval or oblong, broadly sessile, the lower obovate
to spatulate, narrowed into a short petiole: fls. M-Mm-
wide. Sandy soils. Canada to Fla., west to Mo. and La.

H. al-pinum. Linn. Lvs. oblong or lanceolate, slightly toothed:
fl.-sts. about 6 in. high, bearing 1-3 small, narrow Ivs. and a single
rather large head of bright yellow fls. Mountains of N. Eu. and
Asia and the higher ranges of Cent, and S. Eu. — H. BGrnmuelleri,
Freyn. Resembling H. villosum but Ivs. thicker and more woolly,
and fl.-heads larger and brighter yellow. Asia Minor. — H. mar-
gindtum, Froel. A glaucous erect perennial, the leafy branches
widely spreading: Ivs. linear-lanceolate, st. -clasping at the base,
the margins toothed and the under side reticulated: peduncles
quite naked. Habitat(?). Little known in U. S.

S. W. FLETCHER.

N. TAYLOR.f

HIEROCHLOE (Greek, hieros, holy, and chloe,
grass). Graminese. Fragrant perennial grasses with
flat blades and terminal
panicles; only rarely
planted. Spikelets with
1 terminal perfect and 2
lateral staminate florets,
usually shining brown. —
Species about 13, tem-
perate and arctic regions
of both hemispheres.
This genus contains the
fragrant vanill a - grass,
the sterile shoots of
which are woven by
the North American
Indians into small mats,
baskets and boxes. These
retain their fragrance
for years. The seed
seems to be nowhere ob-
tainable, and only one
American dealer adver-
tises plants of it. The
odor is like that of the
common perennial sweet
vernal grass, Anthoxan-
thum odoratum, but is
more powerful. Hierc-
chloe is closely allied to
Anthoxanthum, but is
distinguished by the
staminate lateral florets
and rather loose pani-
cles, Anthoxanthum hav-
ing sterile lateral florets
and contracted panicles.

odorata, Wahl. (H.
borealis, Roem. & Schult.
Savastdna odorata,
Scribn.). VANILLA-
GRASS. HOLY - GRASS.
SENECA-GRASS. SWEET-
SCENTED GRASS. Fig.
1838. Rather slender,
smooth, 1-2 ft. high: Ivs.
short: panicle brownish,
spreading, 2-4 in. long.
June, July. Eu., N.
Amer. B. B. 1:132.
Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost.
20:56. A.S.HITCHCOCK.

HIGGfNSIA: Hoffmannia.

1838. Hierochloe odorata.

1492

HILLEBRANDIA

HIPPEASTRUM

HILLEBRANDIA, (Wm. Hillebrand, author of a
flora of Hawaii) . Begoniacese. One of the 4 genera of the
family, represented by a single Hawaiian species, H.
sandwicensis, Oliver. It is a begonia-like succulent herb
with alternate long-petioled obliquely cordate 5- to 9-
lobed Ivs. and bright pink or rose^colored showy fls. in
a peduncled corymb: from Begonia it differs in having
the ovary free in its upper third, and bearing petaloid
organs in the female fls.: petals 5 in both male and
female fls.; stamens many; styles 5, fleshy: caps, globose,
opening at apex, not winged. The plant grows 2-5 ft.
high, from a tuberous rhizome, sparsely hairy or gla-
brate. It inhabits deep ravines or near waterfalls in
different islands of the Hawaiian group. B.M. 6953.
G.C. III. 44 : suppl. Dec. 12. — Requires the treatment of
shrubby or branching begonias, as in all regards but its
technical botanical characters it is a begonia.

L. H. B.

HILLIA (Sir John Hill, 1716-1775, British botanist).
Rubiaceae. Shrubs of Trop. Amer., sometimes epiphytic,
2 of which are rarely grown as greenhouse or warmhouse
evergreen subjects. Smooth, branches often rooting:
Ivs. opposite, simple, more or less fleshy: fls. large and
rather showy, terminal and solitary, white and fra-
grant; corolla, salverform, the tube long; stamens 4-7,
inserted at the throat of the corolla: fr. a follicle. —
Species about 10, W. Indies to S. Amer. H. tetrandra,
Swartz. Plant 3-4 ft., the root bearing tubers: Ivs.
obovate to lanceolate, cuneate at base and rounded
at top: lobes of corolla 4, roundish-oboyate, not more
than one-third length of tube. Mountains of Jamaica,
Cuba; June in cult. B.M. 7355. H. longifibra, Swartz,
has elliptical pointed Ivs., and 6-7 lanceolate bluntish
reflexed corolla-lobes. W. Indies; apparently not now
in the trade. L. H. B.

HIMALAYA BERRY. The Himalaya berry is one
of the evergreen blackberries of Asiatic origin. It is
reported to have been introduced by Luther Burbank
in the early nineties, the seed being received by him
from an English traveler who secured it from the
Himalaya Mountains. The vine is heavily thorned
and a vigorous grower, making from 20 to 40 or 50 feet
in a season and continues to grow until cold weather. It
is of a trailing habit of growth, like the dewberry. The
fruit begins to ripen in midsummer and gradually
matures during a long period. As fruited in the Middle
West, the berries are medium or below medium in size,
decidedly tart unless dead ripe and with a more tender
core than is usually found in the blackberry. The
quality of the fruit is fair though not delicate in flavor.
The fruit is of firm texture and on the Pacific coast it
is reported as being a good shipper.

The Himalaya berry, like ah1 of the evergreen black-
berries, does not properly ripen its wood for winter and
is not sufficiently hardy to be adapted for planting in
the Upper Mississippi Valley and the other sections in
which the winters are severe. Where covered with a
heavy blanket of snow, the vines come through the
winter in fair condition but in open winters they are
completely killed back.

The Himalaya berry has been widely planted in the
last three or four years, but it has not as yet established
itself as a commercial berry in competition with several
of the best standard varieties of blackberries with which
it would be compared. See Rubus. A. T. ERWIN.

HIMANTOGL6SSUM: Orchis.
HlMANTOPHtLLUM: ImantophVUum=Clima.

HIPPEASTRUM (knight or horse and star, from some
fancied resemblance in H. equestre, perhaps of the
equitant leaves and the star-shaped corolla-opening).
Amarylliddcese. Includes Habrdnthus. Showy bulbous
plants, blooming in late winter to early summer;
handled under glass in frosty climates. Some of them

are frequently grown as spring- or summer-blooming
house-plants.

Bulb tunicate: scape hollow: Ivs. linear or strap-
shaped: fls. large and showy, usually two to several
being borne on a stout, leafless scape; perianth-tube
evident, often long, dilated in the throat; segms. erect-
spreading, nearly or quite equal; filaments (6) distinct,
often with small scales between; throat of perianth often
closed or provided with scales or a corona: fr. a loculi-
cidally 3-valved caps.; seeds black, usually flattened
or compressed. — From 60 to 70 Trop. American bul-
bous plants, much cult, and now much hybridized.
Closely allied genera are Amaryllis (African), Crinum,
Sprekelia, Brunsvigia, Zephyranthes, Lycoris, Stern-
bergia, Vallota. The genus divides itself into the nar-
row-lvd. (Ivs. linear) and broad-lvd. sections. All the
common garden sorts belong to the latter section. The
species chiefly known hi cult., or which have been
parents of hybrid races, are contrasted in this account,
although the kinds commonly seen are hybrids or
derivatives. In some species the fls. precede the Ivs.

The hippeastrums are usually known in gardens
under the general name of amaryllis; and their culture
is given in full under that name. Many of them are
noble garden plants, but the high price of the bulbs
prevents them from becoming popular. Most of the
species were first described in the genus Amaryllis, but
that genus differs in its solid scape and absence of scales
between the filaments. Gardeners sometimes secure
blooming plants hi two years from seeds, by keeping the
plants growing nearly continuously. The seeds are sown
in flats and pricked off into small pots at the two-leaf
stage. By the close of summer, they are shifted into 4-
or 5-inch pots and grown through the winter. They go
into about 6-inch pots when one year old, where they
grow till the second winter, when they are then partially
rested; in late winter, they begin active growth again,
and can be brought into flower in spring.

Very many of the names in trade catalogues are of
horticultural forms; and many of them cannot be
referred positively to any of the original species. For the
Belladonna lily, see Amaryllis; for Atamasco lily, see
Zephyranthes; for Josephine lily, see Brunsvigia. For
Amaryllis aurea, see Lycoris; for A. Candida, see
Zephyranthes; for A. formossissima, see Sprekelia;
for A. gigantea, see Brunsvigia; for A. longifolia, see
Crinum; for A. lutea, see Sternbergia; for A. Nerine,
see Nerine; for A. orientalis, see Brunsvigia (B. gigantea) ;
for A. ornata, see Crinum; for A. speciosa or purpurea,
see Vallota. Following are Latin-form trade names,
probably of hybrids: atrosanguineum, cardinalis, crocea,
delicata, formosa, Lindenii, macrantha, refulgens, rubis
(hybrid), rubra striata, Williamsii. Other trade names
may be expected in the lists of dealers.

Ackermanni, 5.
acuminatum, 13.
Alberti, 10.
aulicum, 4.
citrinum, 13.
crocatum, 13.
equestre, 7.
Forget!!, 3.
fulgidum, 7, 13.
Gravinx, 10.
ignescens, 7.
Johnsonii, 15.
Leopold!!, 11.

INDEX.

major, 7.
maranensis, 9.
miniatum, 13.
nudum, 9.
pardinum, 2.
platypetalum, 4.
procerum, 12.
psittacinum, 6.
pulcherrimum, 5
pulverulentum, 13.
pyrrochroum, 7.
Rayneri, 12.

Reginse, 10.
reticulatum, 8.
Roezlii, 7.
rutilum, 13.
oolandriflorum, 1.
spathaceum, 7.
Spectabile, 10.
splendens, 7.
striatifolium, 8.
stylosum, 9.
vittatum, 14.
Walteri, 7.

A. Perianth-tube 4~5 in. long, very slender.

1. solandrifldrum, Herb. Bulb ovoid, 3-4 in. diam.,
with a short neck: Ivs. appearing with the fls., 1-2 ft.
long, 1-2 in. wide, blunt : scape somewhat flattened, 2-3
ft. tall, bearing 2—4 declined greenish white fls. ; perianth-
tube cylindrical, nearly as long as the obovate some-
times purple-ribbed segms.; stamens not exserted. S.
Amer. B.M. 2573; 3771. L.B.C. 12:1200. I.H. 35:58.
— Little known in gardens, but the parent of hybrids.

HIPPEASTRUM

HIPPEASTRUM

1493

AA. Perianth-tube short (usually not more than 1 in. long).

B. Throat constricted or closed by a neck or collar.

c. Stigma capitate.

2. pardinum, Dombr. Bulb globular, 2-3 in. diam.,
with a short neck: Ivs. 5-7, appearing with the fls. but
not fully developed until after the fls. are gone, becom-
ing 2 ft. long and 2 in. broad, narrowed to the base:
scape nearly terete, \Y^ ft. tall, glaucous, usually bear-
ing 2 spotted fls. ; perianth-segms. 4-5 in. long, oblong
but much narrowed at the base, acute, greenish yellow
and much spotted with red, not striped, the lowest
inner segm. narrowest; stamens declined, shorter than
the perianth. Peru. B.M.

5645. G.W. 12, p. 654.— A
handsome species, with fls. 6-7
in. across, offered in the trade,
and also a parent in the
modern spotted hybrids.

cc. Stigma S-parted.

3. Forgetii, Worsley. Differs
from H. pardinum in the fls.
being only partially striped,
unspotted, and with narrower
segms.: pedicels somewhat
longer (about 3 in.); perianth
dull crimson (color of H. ruti-

lum), the segms. keeled in the lower half, the base
green, about 6 in. across; stamens not exserted;
stigma 3-lobed. Peru; a recent introduction.

4. aulicum, Herb. LILY-OF-THE-PALACR. Bulb
ovoid, 3-4 in. diam., with a short neck: Ivs. 6-9,
1-2 ft. long, 2 in. broad, bright green, the end
blunt or nearly so, appearing with the fls. : scape
scarcely longer than the Ivs., stout, terete, usually
bearing 2 large red fls., of which the segms. are
green at the base; segms. 5-6 in. long, the 2
upper inner ones much broader than the others,
all of them obovate and somewhat pointed; corona
in the throat green; stamens shorter then the
perianth; filaments red. Brazil. B.M. 3311. B.R.
444. Gt. 45, p. 417. Gn.M. 2:225.— One of the
best, and common in the trade. The form known
as var. platypetalum, Lindl., B.R. 1038, with broader
petals and more robust habit, is in cult.

5. Ackermanni, Hort., is a garden hybrid, with
large crimson fls., near H. aulicum. The var.
pulcherrimum, Hort., with crimson, green-striped
fls., is best known.

6. psittacinum, Herb. Bulb 3-4 in.
diam., with a long neck: Ivs. with the
fls., 6-8, lightly glaucous, becoming
nearly or quite 2 ft. long: scape stout,
2-3 ft. tall, bearing a 2-4-fld. umbel;
perianth-segms. 4-5 in. long, oblong
and acute, undulate, the edge crimson,

the main part green but crimson-striped ; stamens much
shorter than the perianth. S. Brazil. B.R. 199. L.B.C.
13:1204. — Apparently little known in cult., but it has
been a parent in hybridizations.

BB. Throat not constricted.

c. Stigma capitate or only obscurely lobed.

D. Tube of perianth %-l in. long.

7. equestre, Herb. (Amaryllis equestris, Ait.).

1839. Hippeastrum vittatum.

9, p. 368. — An old garden species, one of the best for
winter and spring blooming. There are several garden
forms and hybrids, with larger and better fls. Var.
splendens, Truff., R. H. 1895:578 (var. Wdlteri,
Wittm., Gt. 44, 1418), is larger in all its parts, fls. red,
and the pedicels are longer. Var. fulgidum, Hort. (not
H. fulgidum, Herb.), has brilliant orange segms. mar-
gined with white. Var. ignescens, Hort., is deep clear
scarlet, with white throat and white bars on the segms.
Var. major, Hort., has very large, bright orange fls.,
with a green central star. B.R. 234. H. Roezlii, Regel,
H. pyrrochroum, Lem., I.H. 11:420, and H. spathaceum,
Sims, B.M. 2315, are regarded by Baker as forms of

this species. There are double-

fld. forms.

8. reticulatum, Herb. Bulb
nearly globular, with a short
neck: Ivs. appearing with the
fls., rather short and broad for
the genus, being oblanceolate,
1 ft. long and 2 in. broad, thin,
and bright green: scape about
1 ft. tall, nearly terete, bear-
ing 3-6 tesselated or check-
ered fls. 4-5 in. across; fls.
bright mauve or purple-red, with cross lines and
bars of crimson, the segms. obovate and much nar-
rowed below; stamens shorter than the perianth,
declined. S.Brazil. B.M. 657. R.H. 1912:448.
G.W. 5, p. 187. Var. striatifdlium, Baker, has
still broader Ivs., with a white keel or stripe. B.M.
2113. B.R. 352. G.C. III. 4 :477— Handsome.
Blooms normally in late summer.

9. styldsum, Herb. (Amaryllis maranensis, Ker-
Gawl). Bulb globular, 3 in. diam., with a short
neck and pale coverings: Ivs. 4-6, mostly appear-
ing with the fls., bright green, becoming nearly 2
in. wide: scape 1-2 ft., bearing 3-8 light red or
flesh-colored fls. 4 in. across; perianth-tube J^in.
long; segms. oblong-acute, less than 1 in. wide,
tawny pink or flesh-red; stamens somewhat ex-
serted, the style much so (whence the specific
name). Guiana and Brazil. B.M. 2278. B.R. 719.
— Apparently not much cult., but it has been a
parent of hybrids. Var. nftdum, Worsley. Sta-
mens much exserted and spreading.

DD. Tube mostly very short (or scarcely any).

10. Reginae, Herb. Bulb globular, 3 in. diam.:
Ivs. developing after the fls., 2 ft. long and 1^-2
in. broad, green: scape 10-20 in., bearing 1-4 red

declined fls. ; perianth-segms. 4-5 in. long,
obovate and acute, the lowest innermost
one narrower, all bright red, a large
whitish star in the throat; tube sometimes
nearly or quite 1 in. long; stamens shorter
than the perianth. Mex. to Peru and
Brazil. B.M. 453. — An old garden plant, still much
cult. There are double-fld. forms: Amaryllis Alberti,
Lem., I.H. 13:498, Baker considers to be one of these.
H . Grainnse, Melaz., is a hybrid resembling this species
(Amaryllis Graveanaf). G.W. 5, p. 187. H. Spectdbile,
Hort., is a hybrid near H. Reginae. L.B.C. 159.

11. Leopoldii, Dombr. Bulb globular, 2-3 in. diam.,
with short neck: Ivs. with the fls. or nearly so, often
2 ft. long: scape stout, 1^-2 ft., nearly terete, bearing

Tj T T"> 11_ 1 1_ 1 * l* — '•••/A" t*i *-J v^i v w/j V^M 1A*&

BARBADOS LILY. Bulb globular, 2 in. diam., producing about 2 large; very regular and parti-colored fls., meas-

offsets freely, with brown scales and a short neck: Ivs.
6-8, developing fully after the fls., 12-20 in. long and

uring 6-7 in. across; perianth-tube without any corona
or constriction at the throat; segms. obovate, 2 in.

becoming about 2 in. wide, narrowed to the point: broad, the lower half dull crimson, the tips greenish

Rf*£lT\f* 1 — V rt •foTO+o rrlaii/»/MiQ • flo O A A K i« « n-w*s-*.ctci ,,!.!». + I., i— A . I* A. .j_ i_ . • i i i ».i i» i

scape 1-2 ft., terete, glaucous; fls. 2-4, 4-5 in. across,
the green tube 1 in. long, the segms. obovate-pointed,
bright red with green at the base, the 3 inner ones
narrower than the outer; stamens shorter than the
perianth. Mex. to Chile and Brazil. B.M. 305. G.W.

white, the intermediate part bright red, with a forked
white mark at the base of each, and a green-white
throat; stamens declined, mostly exceeding the peri-
anth, the filaments white; style exserted. Peru. G.C.
1870:733. G.Z. 14:160.

1494

HIPPEASTRUM

HIPPOPHAE

12. prdcerum, Lem. (Amaryllis Rdyneri, Hook. f.).
Bulb ovoid, with a neck 10-12 in. long, on the apex of
which — as on a trunk — the drooping, curling, buff-
edged Ivs. are borne (the Ivs. 16-20 in. long): scape
12-18 in. high, 2-edged, green, bearing 2-3 horizontal
pale lilac fls. 4-5 in. across; segms. oblanceolate, acute,
not 1 in. broad; throat without a star; stamens much
shorter than the perianth; stigma capitate. Brazil.
I.H. 11:408. F.S. 20:2077, 2078. B.M. 5883. Gn.
45: 350; 76, p. 93. G.C. III. 52: suppl. July 27. A.G.
22:713.— <)ne of the most distinct of the genus. In
the American trade. Sometimes called "blue amaryllis"
and "empress of Brazil." Plant out for late summer or
autumn bloom, in a warm, sunny place. Keep bulb dry
until late spring.

cc. Stigma markedly 8-parted.

13. rfttiluin, Herb. Bulb nearly globular, 2-3 in.
diam., stoloniferous, with short neck: Ivs. 6-8, elongat-
ing after flowering, bright green, 1 ft. long and an inch
or more wide: scape as long as the Ivs., somewhat com-
pressed, glaucous, bearing 2-4 red fls.; perianth-tube
%in. long, green, with a minute crown in the throat;
segms. oblong, acute, crimson and green, keeled;
stamens shorter than the perianth, the filaments red.
Brazil. B.R. 23. L.B.C. 15:1449.— In cult, chiefly
known in the yar. fulgidum, Baker (H. fulgidum,
Herb.), which is in all parts larger, deep crimson, the
fl.-segms. 3-5 in. long. B.R. 226. B.M. 1943 (as
Amaryllis miniata); 2475 (as H. subbarbatum) . Var.
crocatum, Baker (Amaryllis crocata) is as large as var.
fulgidum, except in its fls., which are smaller, with
undulate segms., saffron-colored. B.R. 38. Var.
citrinum, Baker, has bright yellow fls. Var. acuminatum,
Roem. (A. and H. pulverulentum) . Fls. pink and segms.
acute. B.R. 534; 1188. L.B.C. 5:484. B.M. 2273.

14. vittatum, Herb. Figs. 1839, 1840. Bulb globular,
3 in. diam.: Ivs. 6-8, usually appearing after the fls.,
bright green, 2 ft. long: scape often 3 ft. high, bearing
3-6 horizontal or declined striped white-edged fls.
4-5-in. across; tube about 1 in. long, with an obscure
crown or crest at the throat; segms. obovate-oblong and
acute, 1J^ in. or less broad, the under-color whitish
but overlaid with red stripes, the keel white; sta-
mens shorter than the limb. Peru; but once thought
to be S. African. B.M. 129. G.C. III. 24:119.— The
commonest species-type in American gardens, now cult,
in many forms. It seems to have entered freely into
hybrids, and some of the forms now passing as H. vitta-
tum are perhaps mon-
grels. The double red
feathery stripes on
each side of the more
or less irregular-edged
segms. distinguish this
species from its con-
geners.

15. J6hnsonii, Bury.
Fig. 1841. Fls. deep
dull red, each segm.
with a white stripe
down the keel. A very
profuse bloomer, and
withstands much
abuse. It is the most
popular single amaryl-
lid in this country, and
is particularly prized
for window-gardens. It is the oldest hybrid, having
been raised by one Johnson, an English watchmaker,
who, in 1799, crossed H. Regime with H. vittatum. Dis-
tinct and one of the best. Apparently not in American
trade, but it has been used in hybridizing. G.W. 12,
p. 653.

H. ddvenum, Herb. Belongs to the narrow-lvd. section of the
genus: Ivs. linear, glaucous: fls. 2-6, about 2 in. long, yellow or

red, on slender pedicels, the segms. oblong-linear and acute;
stigma 3-parted. Chile. B.M. 1125. B.R. 849.— A form with
pale yellow fls. is var. pdllidus, Herb. L.B.C. 18: 1760. — H.
aulictre, Worsley. Garden hybrid of H. aulicum and H. equestre. — •
— H. iguapense, Wagn. Bulb small, ovate: Ivs. lanceolate, 6-9 in.
long and 2 Yi in. broad: scape about 6 in. high; fls. several, nodding,
white with red or lilac stripes on upper segms. S. Brazil. — H.
Mdndevillei, Worsley. Hybrid, quaint and beautifully marked. —
H. prat£nse, Baker. Also linear-lvd. : fls. 2-4, bright scarlet, the
very short tube with small scales in the throat, the segms. 2 ^ in.

1840. A flower of Hippeastrum
vittatum. (X1A)

1841. Hippeastrum Johnsonii. ( X M)

long; stigma capitate. Chile. B.R. 28:35. — H. rdseum, Baker.
Lvs. narrow-linear, glaucous, 1 ft. long, with the fls.: scape 6 in.
high, bearing 1 or 2 small bright red fls.; stigma 3-parted. Chile.
— H. teretifdlium, C. H. Wright. Distinguished by nearly terete
Ivs. : fls. rosy pink, 2 in. long, campanula te, few in an umbel. Mon-

L. H. B.

HIPPOCREPIS, (from the Greek for horse and shoe, in
reference to the shape of the pod) . Leguminbsse. Herbs,
subshrubs or rarely shrubs, suitable for culture in the
alpine garden.

Leaves impari-pinnate; Ifts, entire, exstipellate;
petioles rarely spinescent, persistent: fls. yellow, nod-
ding, in racemes or axillary pedunculate spikes; ovary
sessile, 1-2-ovuled; style filiform: pod flattened, inde-
hiscent valves nearly horse-shoe-shaped. — Twelve
species in Medit. region, Canary Isls., and 1 as far
north as S. Scotland. Of easy cult, in ordinary garden
soil. Prop, by division of the root or by seeds.

comosa, Linn. Perennial, 8-24 in. high: st. herba-
ceous, prostrate: Ifts. 7-11, obovate, obtuse: fls. yellow,
in 4-8-fld. umbels. May- July. Cent, and S. Eu. —
Grows on sunny slopes and prefers lime. L H. B.

HIPPO MANE (Greek, horse-mania, transferred from
an ancient tree name). Euphorbiacese. A poisonous
tropical tree, rarely cult, in European gardens. Juice
milky: Ivs. simple, alternate: fls. monoecious; stami-
nate calyx 2-3-lobed, imbricate; ovules 1 in each of the
6-9 cells: fr. a drupe. — One species. Related to Sapium
and Stillingia. The juice is poisonous internally
and externally, though some persons seem to be im-
mune. It was formerly supposed that even the shade of
the tree was poisonous. It was used by the natives for
arrow poison, and the like. Prop, by cuttings in sand
with heat. The tree needs a sandy loam soil.

Mancinella, Linn. MANCHINEEL. MANZANILLO. A
much-branched tree, 20-40 ft., with thick naked twigs,
terminated by the thick, smooth, broad-ovate, short-
acuminate, minutely sharp-serrate, pear-like Ivs. and
thick spikes: fr. berry-like, about 1 in. thick. Coasts
of Cent. Amer., W. Indies and adjoining S. Amer. and
S. Fla. Gt. 15:510. j. B. S. NORTON.

HIPPOPHAE (Hippophaes, ancient Greek name of a
spiny plant, possibly derived from hippos, horse, and
pheos, a spiny plant, probably Poterium spinosum).
Also spelled Hippophaes. Elseagnacex. SEA BUCK-
THORN. Ornamental woody plants grown for their
silvery gray foliage and the brightly colored berries.

Deciduous shrubs or trees with spiny branches; the

HIPPOPHAE

HOFFMANNIA

1495

young growth covered with silvery scales or stellate
hairs: Ivs. alternate, narrow: fls. dioecious, from the
axils of last year's branches in short racemes, the axis
of which mostly develops into a branchlet or thorn in
the pistillate plant, but is mostly deciduous in the
staminate one; staminate fls. sessile, with 2 valvate
sepals and usually 4 stamens with short
filaments; pistillate fls. short-stalked;
the 1-ovuled ovary inclosed by a recep-
tacle bearing 2 minute sepals at its
apex, style filiform with a cylindric
stigma: fr. drupe-like, with a bony
ovate stone. — Two species in Eu. and
W. and C. Asia.

The sea buckthorns are suckering
shrubs or small trees with spreading
usually spiny branches clothed with
silvery gray narrow and rather small
foliage, with insignificant yellow flowers
appearing in spring before the leaves
and followed in the pistillate plant by
small but numerous bright orange-yel-
low berries persisting through the win-
ter. The common sea buckthorn is
perfectly hardy North, while the Himal-
ayan species is tenderer and but rarely
planted. The former inhabits the sandy
banks of rivers and the seashore and
also the steppes of central Asia. It
grows well in almost any kind of soil
including limestone and saline soil; in
poor sandy soil it remains shrubby and
spreads freely by suckers and has there-
fore been used successfully for the
fixation of shifting-sand dunes; in better
soil it grows into a small tree. It also
is used sometimes for hedges in Europe.
The pistillate plant is strikingly hand-
some in autumn when covered with
its orange berries, which often are so
numerous as to weigh down the
branches. To insure a good setting of
berries it is necessary to plant one or
a few staminate plants with each group
of pistillate ones; the staminate and
pistillate plants may be distinguished
even without flowers or fruits fairly
well by their habit, the former being of
more upright growth, while the pistil-
late ones are more spreading and twiggy.
The berries are somewhat poisonous
and but rarely eaten by birds. Propa-
gation is by seeds sown at once or
stratified, by cuttings of mature wood
in spring, and also by root-cuttings, suckers and layers,
rhamnoides, Linn. Shrub or tree, occasionally to 30
ft.: branches gray, usually spiny: winter-buds golden
brown: Ivs. linear-lanceolate, short-petioled, obtusish,
covered on both sides with silvery scales, at maturity
above often glabrescent, %-2}/2 in. long: fls. appearing
before the Ivs., very small, yellowish: fr. subglobose or
ovoid, orange-yellow, Y^-y^m. long, ripening in Sept.
Eu. through W. and Cent. Asia to the Altai, W. China
and N. W. Himalayas. B.M. 8016. Gn. 49:62. G.M.
37:791. Gn.W. 21:110. J.H. III. 51:161. G.W. 15, p.
345. Var. angustifdlia, Loud., a form with pendulous
branches and narrow Ivs. Var. procera, Rehd. Tree,
to 50 ft.: young growth villous: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate
to lanceolate, with stellate hairs above, finally glabrous
above. W. China.

H. salicifblia, D. Don. Tree, to 40 ft.: Ivs. lanceolate, acute,
green aboye, white villous-tqmentose beneath, 1 J^-4 in. long: fr.
lge, Kin. long. Temp. Himalayas. ALPRED REHDER.

HIPPURIS (horse-tail from the looks of the plant).
Halorngidacese. Perennial aquatic herbs, one some-
times used in bog-gardening. Sts. simple: Ivs. small,

1842. Hippuris
vulgaris. (XYz)

simple and entire, verticillate : fls. small and incon-
spicuous, perfect or polygamous, sessile in the axils;
petals none; calyx entire; stamen 1; nearly or quite ses-
sile, with the thread-shaped style lying between the
2 anther-lobes: fr. nut-like, 1 -seeded. — Three species,
very widely dispersed in temperate and frigid regions.
H. vulgaris, Linn. (Fig. 1842), may be transferred to
wet grounds and pools: to 2 ft. (or more in deep water) :
Ivs. 6-12 in a whorl, acute, usually withered at the
apex. In ponds and streams, Greenland, and Alaska
to N. Y., New Mex., Calif.; also in Eu., Asia and in
Patagonia. — It produces an attractive effect with the
simple shoots standing above the water in ponds.

L. H. B.

HOBBLEBUSH: Viburnum lantanoides.

HODGSONIA (B. H. Hodgson, British scientist).
Cucurbitacese. One species, a showy tendril-climbing
shrub, in its native places in India sometimes extend-
ing 100 ft.; H. macrocdrpa, Cogn. (H. heteroclita, Hook,
f. & Thorn.), hardly to be expected in cult. Lvs. cori-
aceous, 6-8 in. long, deeply 3-5-lobed, the lobes entire
or slightly dentate: fls. dioecious, white, tinged yellow
within, the limb of the deeply 5-parted corolla bearing
curling fringes 4 in. long; male fls. in long racemes,
females solitary; calyx very long-tubular and slender;
stamens 3, exserted; stigmas 3 and 2-fid, exserted: fr.
berry-like, spherical, 4-10 in. across, red-brown and
tomentose; seeds 2-3 in. long. F.S. 12:1262.— This
odd and showy plant is said to require the conditions
provided by a temperate greenhouse, although some
report it as requiring hothouse treatment. L. jj_ 3.

HOFFMANNIA (Georg Franz Hoffmann, 1760 or
1761-1826, professor of botany at Goettingen). Includ-
ing Campyldbotrys and Higginsia. Rubiacese. Tropical
American herbs or shrubs, with opposite or verticillate
leaves and small white, yellow or red flowers, cultivated
for the very showy foliage.

Branches either terete or 4-angled: Ivs. simple:
corolla tubular, with 4 (rarely 5) oblong or linear-obtuse
lobes; stamens mostly 4; disk ring-like about the 2-3-
loculed ovary or cushion-like; style filiform, the stigma
2-lobed: fr. an oblong or narrow many-seeded berry. —
Species above 30, Cent, and S. Amer. The hoffmannias
require warm temperature, although they may be
plunged in the open in the summer. Well-grown speci-
mens are also adapted to the decoration of window-
gardens and living-rooms. Prop, by cuttings. Hoff-
mannias are very showy foliage plants.

1843. Hoffmannia
discolor. A loose-
growing sprig. ( X M)

1496

HOFFMANNIA

HOLCUS

A. Fl.-clusters on long stalks.

discolor, Hemsl. (Campylobotrys discolor, Hook.).
Fig. 1843. About 6 in. high, but lopping over the side
of the pot or pan and making a mat, slightly hairy, the
branches purplish: Ivs. short-petioled, oblong-obovate,
entire, satiny green above and rich light purple to green
beneath: fls. small, red, in recurving racemes, on red
peduncles. Mex. B.M.4530. — Excellent little plant.

refulgens, Hemsl. Much like the former, but twice or
more as large, the Ivs. sessile and almost succulent, nar-
row-obovate, with many parallel veins running from the
midrib to the margin, the under-surface pale red or
wine-color and the upper surface dull green, with iri-
descent shades of purple and brown: fls. 1 in. across,
pale red. Mex. B.M. 5346 (as Higginsia refulgens).
H.F. II. 5:78. — A most beautiful plant.

AA. Fl.-clusters crowded in the axils.

Ghiesbreghtii, Hemsl. (Campylobotrys Ghiesbreghtii,
Lem.). Half-shrubby, 2-4 ft. tafi, nearly glabrous: st.
acutely 4-angled : Ivs. usually 1 ft. or less long, oblong-
lanceolate-acuminate, entire, the short winged petiole
somewhat decurrent, very strongly veined, purple-red
beneath and dark velvety green above : fls. yellow, with
a red spot in the center. Mex. B.M. 5383 (as Higginsia
Ghiesbrechtii). I.H. 8:279 (as Campylobotrys). G.W.
15, p. 330. — A form with handsomely mottled Ivs. is
var. variegata, Hort. (I.H. 30:498).

regalis, Hemsl. (Campylobotrys regalis, Lind.).
Shrubby, strong-growing, glabrous, the branches
obtusely 4-angled and somewhat fleshy: Ivs. large,
round-ovate and abruptly acuminate, entire, plicate
with arched nerves, glabrous, purple-red beneath and
dark rich green above: fls. yellow, sessile. Mex. B.M.
5280 (as Higginsia).

H. phcenicopoda, K. Schum. Lvs. ovate to oblong, violet-red
beneath: fls. inconspicuous. Cent. Amer. T H T5

HOFFMANSEGGIA (Joh. Centurius, Count von
Hoffmansegg, born 1766; wrote on plants of Portugal).
Leguminosx. Thirty and more dwarf mostly glandular
herbs and subshrubs from Kans. and Calif, to Pata-
gonia, and in S. Afr., perhaps not cult. : Ivs. bipinnate,
with or without black glands: fls. yellow in naked
racemes opposite the Ivs. or terminal; petals 10 and
nearly equal; stamens 10 and distinct: pod flat, oblong,
sometimes falcate. The genus is allied to Cassia, from
which it differs in its bipinnate rather than pinnate Ivs.,
and to Csesalpinia, which is distinguished by its prick-
les, woody stature, and other characteristics.

HOHENBERGIA (personal name). Bromelidcese.
Interesting hothouse subjects grown in pots, closely
allied to JEchmea.

Leaves forming a dense rosette, spiny-margined,
often terminated with a stout spine: panicle on a tall
scape, bi- or tripinnate, of short, dense, sessile or
etipitate spikes; fls. sessile in the axils of large bracts,
white or blue. — A Trop. American genus of about 20
species.

augusta, Mez (Mclnmea augusta, Baker. Hoplo-
phytum augustum, Beer). Lvs. up to 3 ft. long and 3
in. broad, spiny, with pale scales on both sides: panicle
pyramidal, much exceeding the Ivs., floccose; fls. a
little less than J^in. long, the petals blue. Brazil.

stellata, Schult. (jEchmea glomerata, Hook.). Lvs.
up to 3 ft. long, and 3 in. wide, marginal spines long:
panicle interrupted, equaling or little exceeding the
Ivs. ; fls. about 1 in. long, the petals blue. Trinidad and
Brazil. B.M. 5668.

Legrelliana, Baker (Mckmea Legrelliana, Mez. Guz-
mania Legrelliana, Hort.). A strong billbergia-like
plant, with 7-12 strong, entire, brown-scaly Ivs. and a
simple dense spike of red fls. standing 4-7 ft. high:
floral bracts serrate. Uruguay. GEORGE V. NASH.

HOHERIA (from the New Zeal, vernacular name
hoheri). Malvaceae. Small trees or shrubs native to
New Zeal.: Ivs. variable, alternate, serrate, petiolate:
fls. numerous, white, in axillary fascicles; peduncles
jointed at the middle; bracteoles wanting; calyx hemi-
spherical, 5-toothed; petals oblique, notched near the
apex; staminal column split at the top into numerous
filaments, usually arranged in 5 bundles: fruiting car-
pels 5, indehiscent, furnished with a broad membranous
wing at the back. — Three or 4 species; by some regarded
as one variable species. H. populnea, A. Cunn. A
small, handsome tree, 10-30 ft., glabrous except the
young shoots, peduncles and calyxes, which are more
or less pubescent: Ivs. very variable, especially in young
plants: fls. snow-white, produced in great profusion:
carpels produced outward and upward into a mem-
branous wing, longer than broad. G.C. III. 30:384;
52:355. Gn. 62, p. 309; 76, p. 580. Scarcely cult.

HOIBRENKIA: Staphylea.

HOLBOELLIA (Frederick Louis Holboell, once
Superintendent of Botanical Garden, Copenhagen).
Lardizabalacese. Ornamental vines grown chiefly for
their handsome evergreen digitate foliage.

Twining shrubs: Ivs. coriaceous, long - pet ioled,
digitate, with 3-9 stalked entire Ifts. : fls. monoecious,
in few-fld. racemes; sepals 6, petal-like, obtusish, fleshy;
between the sepals and the 6 free stamens 6 small
nectaries sometimes called petals; the staminate fls.
with rudimentary ovaries; the pistillate with small
stamens and 3 distinct carpels developing into 1-3
large oblong pods with numerous black seeds. — Five
species in China and Himalayas.

The holboellias are quick-growing evergreen vines
very similar in foliage to Akebia quinata but the flowers
are quite different; they are either white or the pis-
tillate are purplish and the staminate which are borne
in separate racemes whitish or greenish white; they
appear with the young leaves in spring and are not
showy, but the large purple pods are conspicuous.
None of the species is hardy North, but the plants
should be tried outdoors in the South where an ever-
green quick-growing climber is desired, as they make
annual shoots 10 to 12 feet long, and the foliage is
distinct and beautiful. For the cool greenhouse they
are too rampant and produce too few flowers. Propa-
gation is by seeds which germinate readily; also by
layers and by softwood cuttings. For further cultural
notes, see Stauntonia.

coriacea, Diels. Lfts. always 3, coriaceous, ovate to
oblong-lanceolate or narrow-oblong, acute, rounded
or broadly cuneate at the base, light green below with
the veinlets not visible, 2-3K in- long: fls. M-Hjn-
long; the staminate whitish, on pedicels about 1 in.
long, the pistillate purplish on pedicels to 2 in. long.
Cent. China.

latifolia, Wall. Lfts. 3-7, ovate-oblong to elliptic-
oblong, acuminate, pale green below and reticulate,
2/4~3J^ in. long: fls. about Hin. long, in short-pedun-
cled racemes, on pedicels %-/^iri. long; the pistillate
purple, the staminate greenish white, fragrant: fr.
consisting usually of 2 oblong carpels, each about 4
in. long and 2 in. thick, rosy purple, edible. Himalayas.
B.R. 32:49. J.F. 2:144. R.H. 1890:348. Gn. 8, p.
548; 14, p. 369.

H. cuneata, Oliver=Sargentodoxa cuneata. — H. Fdrgesii, R6au-
bourg. Lfts. 5-9, usually oblong-lanceolate, glaucescent below: fls.
%in. long, purplish and greenish white. Cent. China. — H. grandi-
fldra, R6aubourg. Lfts. 5-7, usually lanceolate, reticulate and
grayish green below: fls. nearly 1 in. long, waxy white. W. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

HOLCUS (Latin name for a kind of grass, from holkos,
attractive). Graminese. This genus, named Holcus
by Linnaeus, was called Sorgum by Adanson (Sorghum,
Moench). The name Holcus was accepted by some
botanists while by others the genus was united with

LV. Hollyhock.

HOLCUS

HOLLYHOCK

1497

Andropogon. It seems best, however, to restore the
Linnsean name. They are important fodder grasses.

The genus differs from Andropogon in having spike-
lets in 3's in an open or contracted panicle. The various
cult, varieties known as sorghum or sorgo, broom-
corn, Jerusalem corn, milo maize or milo, durra, and
so on, are considered by some botanists to have been
derived from the wild species, H. halepensis, Linn.
(Andropogon halepensis, Brot. Sorghum halepense,
Pers.). Others maintain these cult, forms as varieties
of a distinct species, H . Sorghum, Linn. (Andropogon
Sorghum, Brot. Sorghum vulgdre, Pers.). The cult,
forms are annuals, with tall jointed sts. bearing large
terminal panicles. Depending upon their uses, they
fall naturally into 3 groups: (1) Broom-corn, in which
the branches of the panicle are elongated and are thus
adapted to the manufacture of brooms; (2) the sugar
or saccharine sorghums, having loose panicles, with
drooping branches and red-brown spikelets, cult, for
the sweet juice and for forage. Amber and Orange are
leading forms of sugar sorghum. (3) The remaining
varieties are grouped together as non-saccharine sor-
ghums. They are grown for forage and for the seed.
Gn. 4, p. 83 (as S. tricolor). The common forms grown in
this country and offered in the trade are: Kafir corn,
with sts. 4-5 ft. high, stocky growth, and dense,
upright panicles; milo or milo maize, or African millet,
similar but about twice as tall; durra (variously spelled
doura, dhoura, and so on), including Egyptian rice
corn, and Guinea corn, with compact panicles on an
often recurved stalk. The wild species, H . halepensis,
Linn., JOHNSON-GRASS, has a large open panicle of
smaller spikelets. Gn. 13, p. 305. Dept. Agric., Div.
Agrost. 14:12. — It is a perennial, spreading by stout
rhizomes and very difficult to eradicate from cult,
ground. For history of sorghums see Dept. Agric.
Bur. PL Ind. Bull. No. 175 (1910) and Bur. PL Ind.
Circ. No. 50 (1910). Sudan-grass and Tunis-grass are
varieties of sorghum that resemble Johnson-grass in
aspect but are annuals devoid of rootstocks. They
have recently been intro. in the U. S. and give prom-
ise of value as forage plants in the southern states.
See "Some New Grasses for the South," Yearbook
U. S. Dept. Agric., 1912.

H. Zand<uS=NotholcuS lanatus. A g> HlTCHCOCK.

HOLLY: Ilex.

HOLLYHOCK (Althaea rosea, which see). Figs. 1844,
1845. The hollyhock is one of the very oldest of culti-
vated flowers and is today an inhabitant of most gar-
dens, and is known by its common name not only to all
cultivators of plants but even to school-children. Its
showy blossoms in July after the larger number of
plants have ceased flowering has much helped to make
it known to all, while its history, its place in poetry
and folk-lore, and its associations in the past drama of
the world have been forgotten or vaguely remembered.
Its beauty causes its cultivation today.

The hollyhock is a native of China, botanically
described as a biennial and evidently a cultivated plant
in China when first brought to the attention of Euro-
pean cultivators, since it is said to have been "of many
colors and forms." Very probably its colors in a wild
state, as now often seen in mixed retrograde seedlings,
were rose-pink tending to red and white. The real reds
and the present deep maroon shades would naturally
be obtained rather easily by selection. The yellow color
is, in the opinion of some, a much later acquired one,
and the least liable to come true from seed.

The dpubleness of the flower has undoubtedly been
an acquired character under cultivation. The holly-
hock has been propagated almost entirely from selected
seed for so many years that both in color and double-
ness it comes true from seed which has not been cross-
fertilized with other colors or forms.

The bees delight in the plentiful pollen of the holly-

hock so that in a mixed group of plants the seed will
be indiscriminately crossed, and naturally a few poor
single-flowered plants may affect the seed from a whole
group. The color of the flower is, however, much
influenced by the seed-bearing parent. The pollen on
the hollyhock is so plentiful that the bee soon gets a
load and goes home, in many cases not having visited
more than one plant. For this reason a short distance
between groups, especially if separated by some barrier,
very much prevents cross-fertilization. Purchased seed
comes about 75 per cent true to color and possibly 40
per cent fairly double.

The hollyhock, while called
in botanical history a bien-
nial, is at least a short-lived
perennial. Its heavy type of
root with very short stolons or
rather side crown-buds at the
head of the root-system would
naturally lead to its description
as a biennial. It belongs, be-
cause of its root-system, to a
horticultural class of plants,
which, while truly perennial
under proper conditions become
biennial or even annual under
other circumstances . Other
plants haying very similar
root-formations are the dande-
lion, digitalis, aquilegia, platy-
codon and delphinium. These
are more or less short-lived
perennials since their perma-
nency depends on the preserva-
tion of an easily de-
stroyed crown-bud or
rather the head of the
root-system. Heaving
of the plant by frost
exposes the main root-
stem below the side
buds and causes the
plant to die after flow-
ering. In like manner
the removal of soil
from about the plants,
as by rains, shortens
the life by exposing the
root below its natural
level with the soil.
The seed of the holly-
hock, as well as the
other genera mentioned
with this root-system,
germinate very quickly
— five to ten days.

Hollyhock seeds sown in the greenhouse or frame
during March or earlier and given plenty of root-room
will flower the first year from seed although somewhat
later than established plants. Plants grown as above
in pots are likely to show less perennial character of the
root and are more liable to disease. The seed should
be sown outdoors during June or July in soil with suffi-
cient clay and surface soil-water to cause the seedlings
to form a system of strong side tap-roots, rather than
one or two main roots as will occur in too sandy or dry
soil, or on the other hand too many fibrous surface-
roots as when grown in pots or in a too-wet soil.

Plants from outdoor spring- or early summer-sown
seed should be moved to their permanent positions early
the following spring, care being taken to dig the plant
with all the main roots, and in planting to place these
roots in a natural position, i.e., pointing downward.
The crown of the plant should be a little below the
surface of the ground (this is important) . Fall planting,
with the heaving by frost, especially of tap-rooted

K

~V

1844. The hollyhock.

1498

HOLLYHOCK

HOLODISCUS

plants, means replanting in the spring to the proper
depth or the usual loss of the plant after one year's
bloom.

Hollyhocks may be propagated in the spring by
placing a plant in sand so as to cover the crown of the
root which will cause a number of suckers to be sent
up about the crown, which may be removed and rooted.

The hollyhock rust (Puccinia malvaceserum) bothers
very little in deeply dug and drained beds with plants
grown outdoors and planted with the tap-roots properly

1845. Semi-double hollyhock. ( X 1A)

placed and the crowns in the proper place in reference to
the soil-surface. An appreciation of the deep-rooting,
drainage-liking habit and qualifications of the plant
will do more to combat this disease than any amount
of bordeaux mixture. In the United States Experi-
ment Station Record, Vol. XXXI, No. 3, note is made
from an article in a French publication (Compt. Rend.
Acad. Sci. 158, No. 6) which declares the hollyhock rust
to have been successfully combated during a three-
year trial by supplying as water to the roots a 3 per
cent solution of copper sulfate.

In landscape work, the hollyhock best belongs to the
herbaceous perennial groupings, but it can be well
used alone in groups adjoining shrubbery, or in many
places in place of shrubbery. It can seldom be used to
advantage in mixture with woody plants, since the
hollyhock needs light on its lower basal leaves. Further,
the foliage of the hollyhock neither resembles nor con-
trasts well with that of the larger number of shrubs,
although there are exceptions, for example, hydrangeas
of the arborescens type and hollyhocks form a pleasing
mixture. F. W. BARCLAY.

HOLLY, SEA: Eryngium.

HOLMSKIOLDIA (Theodpr Holmskiold, 1732-1794,
Danish nobleman and scientist). Verbenacese. Shrubs,
one of which is offered, suitable for growing under glass.

Leaves opposite, entire or dentate: fls. racemose or
cymose; calyx membranaceous and colored; corolla
cylindric and curved, the oblique limb with 5 short
lobes; stamens 4, didynamous, the anthers exserted:
fr. an obovoid drupe, 4-lobed, included in the enlarged
calyx. Probably 3 species, African and Asian. H.
sanguinea, Retz., is a straggling shrub 10-30 ft. high,
in the subtropical Himalayan region: Ivs. 3 in. long,
ovate, acuminate, entire or toothed: corolla 1 in. long,
brick-red to orange: drupe J^in. or less long, the calyx
1 in. diam. Offered abroad; an evergreen shrub.

L. H. B.

HOLODISCUS (Greek holos, entire, and discos; the
disk is entire). Syn., Schizonotus, Sericotheca. Rosacese.
Ornamental shrubs, cultivated for the showy panicles
of creamy white flowers.

Deciduous, more or less pubescent: Ivs. alternate,
petioled, without stipules, incisely serrate or pinnately

lobed: fls. in terminal panicles, perfect; calyx cup-
shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5; stamens about 20; ovaries
5, surrounded by an entire disk, developing into 5
distinct, pubescent, 1-seeded achenes. Formerly usu-
ally referred to Spiraa, but more nearly related to
Exochorda. — About 14 closely related species ranging
from Brit. Col. through Mex. to Colombia, and east
to Idaho, Colo, and New Mex., have been distinguished;
by some botanists they are reduced to 5 or even to
only 2 species.

These are ornamental free-flowering shrubs with
rather small dull green foliage and small, whitish
flowers in ample showy panicles: fruit insignificant.
H. discolor is a very graceful plant, with its drooping
feathery panicles of creamy white flowers, and well
adapted for borders of shrubberies or for single speci-
mens on the lawn; it is hardy in favorable localities as
far north as Massachusetts. They grow in almost any
well-drained soil, and do best in a sunny position.
Propagation is by seeds usually sown in boxes in fall
and only slightly covered with soil, or by layers; some-
times also increased by greenwood cuttings under glass
taken with a heel, but usually only a small percentage of
them take root.

discolor, Maxim. (Spirsea discolor, Pursh. Serico-
theca discolor, Rydb.). Fig. 1846. Shrub, to 20 ft., with
slender, arching branches: Ivs. ovate or oblong, trun-
cate or narrowed at the base, pinnately lobed, lobes
dentate or nearly entire, usually glabrous above,
pubescent or tomentose beneath, J^-3 in. long: fls.
creamy white, small, in ample drooping panicles 3-9
in. long. July. Brit. Col. to Calif., east to Idaho and
Mont. Gn. 45, p. 56; 47, p. 188; 49, p. 104; 50, p. 278;
63, p. 195; 74, p. 41; 76, p. 556. G.C. III. 25:21; 32:
suppl. Oct. 11. G.W. 8, p. 302. G.F. 4:617. G. 25:
363. B.R. 1365. R.H. 1906, p. 440.— The typical
form has the Ivs.
whitish tomentose
below; var. ariae-
folius, Aschers.
& Graebn. (Spi-
raea arisefplia,
Sm.), which is the
commonly cult,
form, has the Ivs.
grayish green and
pubescent below.

dumdsus,
Heller (H .
discolor var.
dumdsus, ^
D i p p . Spi- f
rssa dumdsa,
Nutt. H. australis,
Heller). Erect shrub,
8 ft. high: Ivs. obovate,
acute or obtuse,
cuneate at the base,
coarsely toothed, pu-
bescent above, whitish-
tomentose beneath, 1-2
in. long: panicle ovoid
or conic, 2-7 in. long,
with ascending or
spreading branches.
Wyo. and Utah to
New Mex. and Mex.
Bull. TorreyBot. Club.
25:338.

H. Boursieri, Rehd. (Spirsea
Boursieri, Carr. Sericotheca
Boursieri, Rydb.). Allied to H.
dumosus, but Ivs. flabellate or
roundish, smaller and infl. usually
simple or sparingly branched, 2-3
in. long. Calif. R.H. 1859, p.

1846. Holodiscus discolor.

519.

ALFRED REHDER.

HOLOTHRIX

HOMOGYNE

1499

HOLOTHRIX (from the Greek for whole and hair;
in reference to the st. being covered with hairs).
Orchidacese. A group of 50-60 species of terrestrial
orchids from S. Afr. and Madagascar. Lvs. 1 or 2, ses-
sile, ovate or orbicular-reniform, radical: scapes slen-
der, usually hairy and without sheaths; fls. small, in
slender, usually secund spikes; sepals conniyent, some-
times hairy; petals smaller and longer, entire or vari-
ously divided at the apex ; lip erect or spreading, adnate
to the base of the column; column very short, usually
auricled at the sides of the stigma: caps, ovoid or
oblong. These plants require the temperature of a
warm greenhouse and thrive in a mixture of peat,
sphagnum and charcoal. H. vittosa, Lindl. Lvs. round,
fleshy, hairy, borne close to the surface of the soil:
infl. about 9 in. high; fls. about 30, small, yellowish
green, slightly fragrant. S. Afr.

HOMALANTHUS (Greek homalos, like, and anthos,
flower). Euphorbiacese. Tropical trees, sometimes cul-
tivated in warmer regions or in greenhouses for the
foliage.

Juice milky: Ivs. simple, alternate, petioled, entire,
glabrous, usually triangular-ovate : fls. apetalous, incon-
spicuous, in terminal racemes, the pistillate at the base;
staminate calyx of 1-2 sepals, stamens 5-50: ovules
1 in each of the 2-3 cells. — Nineteen species distributed
from S. E. Asia and Pacific islands to Austral. Related
to Sapium and Stillingia. Some species closely resemble
species of Sapium in foliage and habit. Sometimes
spelled Omalanthus. The cult, and propagation are
about the same as for the tree-like euphorbias.

populifolius, Graham (Carumbium populifdlium,
Benth.) QUEENSLAND POPLAR. Lvs. 2-1 or more in.
long and as wide, slender petioled, glaucous, copper-
colored when young, rarely subpeltate: racemes slen-
der, 3-4 in. long; sepals of staminate fls. 2; stamens
5-6; stigmas without glands. Austral. B.M. 2780.

H. populneus, Pax=H. Leschenaultianus, Juss., of Malay region,
sometimes confused with H. populifolius but separated by Pax on
the glandular stigmas, may be in cult.; as also the following: H.
fatudsus, Vill. Lvs. peltate. Gt. 15:504. — H, giganteus, Zoll.
Monosepalous, stamens 10-20. — H. polydndrus, Cheesem. Mono-
sepalous, stamens 40-50. j g g NoRTON-

HOMALOMENA (Greek, variously explained). Also
written Homalonema. Aracese. Tender foliage plants,
variegated after the fashion of the well-known dieffen-
bachias, and the rarer aglaonema and schismatoglottis.

Robust herbs, with a thick rhizome: st. short or
none: Ivs. ovate- or triangular-cordate, or lanceolate,
nerves reaching the margin; petiole mostly long and
sheathing: stamens distinct: fr. included within the
persistent spathe; ovules anatropous, adnate to the
septa. — About 80 species, natives of Trop. Asia and
Amer. It is probable that the plants seldom produce
fls. or fr. in cult. They are known to the trade as Cur-
meria, which is now regarded as a section of Homa-
lomena, in which the spathe has a distinct tube and the
Ivs. are either glabrous or pilose, while in the section
Euhomalomena the spathe has an indistinct tube, and
the Ivs. are always glabrous. For cult., see Diefferibachia.
Latest Monograph by Engler in Das Pflanzenreich, hft.
55. 1912. The species described below belong to the
subgenus Curmeria, with 4 other species, American; the
other species are Asian and of Pacific islands.

A. Lvs. irregularly Matched.

Wallisii, Regel (Curmeria Wdllisii, Mast.). Fig.
1847. Lvs. glabrous throughout, the base obtuse or
acute, not notched; petiole 1J^ in. long; blade 5 in.
long, 2-2 H in. wide. Colombia. G.C. II. 7:108. B.M.
6571 (midrib outlined in light color). I.H. 25:303.
R.H. 1878, p. 193.— The blotches are pale yellowish
green, becoming greenish gray. None of these pictures
shows a white-bordered If. with golden blotches, as one
dealer advertises.

AA. Lvs. with midrib bordered with white.

picturata, Regel (Curmeria picturdta, Lind. &
Andre). Lvs. with petiole and midrib pilose; petiole
4 in. long; blade 10-12 in. long, 8 in. wide. Colombia.
I.H. 20:121.— Blotched only near the midrib.

WILHELM MILLER.

HOMERIA (said to be from homereo, alluding to the
meeting or joining of the filaments). Iridacese. Half-
hardy bulbs that can be set out in spring, and bear
orange-colored or red flowers in summer.

It is an endemic Cape genus of about 6 species:
st. erect from a tunicated corm, producing 1 or more

1847. Homalomena Wallisii.

peduncles above: developed If. usually 1, linear, sur-
passing the st. : fls. in one or few clusters, successive and
fugaceous; perianth funnelform, very deeply cut, the
segms. narrow and nearly equal or sometimes the 3
inner ones narrower; stamens united by their filaments
into a column: fr. a clavate caps. — Homeria is allied to
Sparaxis, requires the same cult., and the bulbs are
dormant from Aug. to Nov. It belongs to the Moraea
tribe, in which the fls. are stalked and more than 1 to
a spathe, and the style-branches placed opposite the
stamens. It differs from Iris and Morsea in having
style-branches furnished with terminal stigmas not
overtopping the anthers. Nearer allies of garden value
are Tigridia, Herbertia and Ferraria, from all of which
it differs in the 2 petaloid stigmatose crests at the ends
of the style-branches.

collina, Vent. (Morsea cottkna, Thunb.). Corm glo-
bose, %-l in. diam.: If. linear, rigid, lH>-2 ft. long,
overtopping the fls.: st. bearing \-k clusters of fls.;
perianth-limb \l/i~llA in. long, typically bright red,
as in B.M. 1033; G.C. III. 4:163; 50:476. Var. auran-
tiaca, Baker, has a slenderer habit and yellow-clawed,
bright red segms. which are narrower and more acute
than the type. B.M. 1612. Var. ochroleuca, Baker, has
the habit of the type and pale yellow fls. B.M. 1103.

The other species of Homeria are as follows: H. elegans, Sweet.
Outer segms. tawny, the others or sometimes all 6 yellow, the 3
outer with large green or yellow-brown blotch in middle. — H.
line&ta, Sweet. Fls. copper-red, with small yellow-dotted blotch
at base inside.—//, macul&ta, Klatt. Fls. yellow, the segms. with a
greenish claw and greenish blotch above the base. — H. mineata,
Sweet. Fls. tawny or fulvous-red throughout. — H. pdllida, Baker.
Fls. pale yellow. L H B

HOMOCfiLTIS: Aphananthe.

HOMOGYNE (from homos, similar, and gyne, female,
because of similarity of male and female fls.). Com-
posite. A small and little-known group of hardy
perennials grown for their attractive white or purple
heads of showy flowers.

Leaves more or less white-woolly, radical broad,

1500

HOMOGYNE

HORSE-RADISH

cordate or sometimes sinuate-dentate, usually smaller
than those in Tussilago and Petasites, to which the
genus is related : scapes 1-2-headed, usually all of disk-
fls. : achenes Linear, 5-10-ribbed. — There are only 3
known species, all from the mountains of Cent. Eu., and
they prefer moist garden borders in cult. Prop, by
division in spring. Perhaps not in cult, in Amer.

alpina, Cass. (Tussilago alpina, Linn.). About 6
in., the st. simple: the lower Ivs. cordate-reniform,
those of the st. ovate-lanceolate, the radical ones
withering before flowering time: fls. in solitary heads,
terminating the st., all discoid, light purple. B.M. 84
(as Tussilago alpina). — Perhaps better treated as a
partial alpine. N. TAYLOR.

HONCKENYA (named after G. A. Honckeny,
1724-1805, author of a flora of Germany). Tiliacese.
Trees or shrubs covered with stellate pubescence: Ivs.
entire or lobed: fls. large, blue- violet, showy, in terminal
racemes; calyx of 4-5 sepals; petals 4-5, glandless at
the base: caps, oblong, loculicidally 4-8-valved; seeds
numerous, horizontal, compressed. — Two or 3 species
in Trop. W. Afr. H . fidfolia, Willd., is offered abroad.
Shrub, with purplish branches: Ivs. cordate, roundish
or oblong, more or less deeply 3-7-lobed: fls. numerous,
in terminal racemose cymes; sepals 3-5, oblong; petals
roundish, stalked ; ovary 4-8-celled,with numerous ovules
in each cell: caps. 1-2 in. long; valves covered with
numerous, spreading ciliated bristles, each terminated
by a small, white deciduous point. Guinea. B.M. 7836.
— A handsome-fld. shrub. Prop, by cuttings of young
wood inserted in sand under glass with bottom heat.
Thrives in a mixture of loam and peat. L jj_ g_

HONESTY: Lunaria annua.

HONEY LOCUST: Gleditsia triacanthos. Honeysuckle:
Lonicera. Honeywort: Cerinthe.

HOODIA (from a personal name). Asdepiadacese.
Stout low perennial succulents of Trop. and S. Afr.,
sometimes seen in choice amateur collections; species
about 10 or 12: allied to Huernia and Stapelia: plant
usually branched, with spine-tipped tubercles, cactus-
like: fls. large and showy, solitary or in small clusters,
springing from the grooves toward the top of the st.,
yellowish, purplish or tawny; limb of corolla entire or
slightly 5-lobed, the lobes subulate-pointed; corona
double, arising from the staminal column, each part of
5 lobes. Require greenhouse treatment, probably
similar to related genera. L H. B.

HOOKER A: Brodixa.

HOP: Humulus. Hop Hornbeam: Ostrya. Hop, Wild : Bryonia
dioica.

HOPLOPHYTUM. Several bromeliads have been
described under this name, but the species are now
referred to Mchmea. Halophytum of one trade catalogue
is apparently an error for Hoplophytum.

HORDEUM (an ancient Latin name for barley).
Graminese. Annual or perennial grasses with terminal
bristly spikes.

Spikelets 1-fld., 3 together at each joint of the rachis,
the middle one sessile and. perfect, the lateral usually
pedicelled, often reduced to awns: the rachis breaking
up at maturity into single joints with the cluster of
spikelets attached. — Species about 16, temperate
regions of both hemispheres. Elymus, some species
of which resemble Hordeum, differs in having 2 devel-
oped, several-fld. spikelets at each node. Hordeum
includes the cult, barley (H. vulgare, Linn.) and several
troublesome weeds. Among the latter may be men-
tioned, H. murinum, Linn., called WILD BARLEY,
BARLEY-GRASS and FOXTAIL on the Pacific slope; H.
nodosum, Linn., common throughout the U. S., and
H. jubatum, Linn. SQUIRREL-TAIL GRASS, called FOX-

TAIL in Wyo. and TICKLE-GRASS in Nev. The first
two are annual. The last, a perennial, is also cult, for
ornament.

jubatum, Linn. SQUIRREL-TAIL GRASS. WILD
BARLEY. Erect, simple, usually smooth and glabrous,
10 in. to 2 ft. high: Ivs. 1-5 in. long: only the central
spikelet in each cluster perfect; awns of empty glumes
1-2^ in. long, spreading. In dry soil, N. U. S. and
Canada. B.B. 1:229. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost.
17:307. — Sometimes cult, for ornament on account
of the feathery heads. A. S. HITCHCOCK.

HOREHOUND: Marrubium.

HORMINUM (old Greek name for sage). Labiatse.
One herbaceous perennial, H. pyrenaicum, Linn.,
adapted to borders and rock-gardens: sts. simple and
nearly leafless: Ivs. mostly radical, ovate, toothed or
crenate, the floral Ivs. reduced to bracts: fls. medium
size, purple-violet, nodding, in secund verticils or
whorls; calyx campanulate, 2-lipped, about 13-nerved;
corolla-tube exserted, the Limb somewhat 2-lipped, the
upper lip truncate-emarginate, the lower or anterior
3-parted; stamens 4, didynamous; style 2-lobed: nutlets
ovoid. The plant grows 8-12 in. high; Pyrenees to the
Tyrol; it makes a tuft of foliage; blooms in midsummer;
hardy in England. Vars. album and grandifldrum pur-
pur eum are offered. Other plants sometimes referred
to Horminum are properly salvias. L. H. B.

HORNBEAM: Carpinus.
HORNED POPPY: Glaudum.

HORSE, in combination with other names of plants,
usually signifies something large and coarse, not
necessarily eaten by horses.

HORSE BALM: Collinsonia. Horse Bean: Vicia Faba. Horse-
Chestnut: dSsculus. Horse Mint: Monarda. Horse-radish Tree:
Mpringa pterygosperma. Horse Sugar: Symplocos tinctoria. Horse-
tail: Equisetum. Horseweed: Collinsonia.

HORSE-RADISH (Fig. 1848), the well-known condi-
ment used so much with roast beef and oysters, is a
member of the natural family Cruci-
ferae, to which belong cabbage, turnip,
wallflower, stock, charlock, mustard,
and many other vegetables, flowers
and weeds. It comes to us from Great
Britain, where it is thought to have
been naturalized from some more
eastern European country. It is often
found growing wild in moist loca-
tions, such as the margins of streams,
in cool woods and damp meadows,
and, in some places, notably in the
state of New York, is troublesome as
a weed.

The root is perennial, fleshy, whitish
externally, pure white within, conical
at the top, cylindrical, and, unlike the
tap-roots of parsnips, is abruptly
branched below. When bruised, it
emits a volatile oil of strong, pungent
odor and hot, biting taste. If eaten
before this oil evaporates, it "is highly
stimulant, exciting the stomach when
swallowed, and promoting the secre-
tions, especially that of urine. Exter-
nally, it is rubefacient. Its chief use
is as a condiment to promote appetite
and invigorate digestion; but it is
also occasionally employed in medi-
cine." (U. S. Dispensatory.) As a
/table relish, the consumption of horse-
radish is increasing, and greater atten-
1848. Good root tion is being paid to its cultivation
of horse-radish. than formerly. Under the old methods^,

HORSE-RADISH

HORTICULTURE

1501

profitable returns were often secured, but under the new,
profits are generally highly satisfactory where enemies
are not very troublesome. The season of fresh-grated
horse-radish runs almost parallel to that of oysters,
with which the root is most frequently eaten in this
country. Ungrated roots are, however, kept in cold
storage for summer use, since roots dug at that season
have an unpleasant taste.

Horse-radish will do well upon almost any soil
except the lightest sand and the heaviest clay, but a
deep loam of medium texture and moderate richness,
well supplied with humus and moisture, will produce
roots of the best quality and the largest size. In dry
soils the roots will be small, woody and deficient in
pungency; in wet soils, small, succulent, strong-tasting.
Drainage is essential, and so is a fairly open subsoil.
Hard subsoil induces excessive branching of the root.
Applications of nitrogenous ma-
nures should be rather light, com-
mercial fertilizers rich in potash
being given the preference. Rolfs
recommends a mixture containing
10 per cent potash, 7 per cent
phosphoric acid, 4 per cent nitro-
gen, 600 pounds drilled in to the
acre. A heavier application broad-
cast and deeply plowed under, it
is thought, would give better re-
sults, since the shaft of the root
is less likely to become unduly
branched when the food is below
instead of above and around it,
especially when the sets are placed
horizontally. A weeder should be
used after the harrow periodically
until the plants are an inch or so
tall. Thorough preparation of the
Boil is essential.

Since horse-radish rarely pro-
duces seeds, cuttings are made
from the roots not less than
Y± inch thick and 4 to 5 inches long
(Fig. 1849). To facilitate planting
the large end up, the upper end
is cut off square and the lower
oblique. If set small end up, no
growth may result. In horizontal
planting this special cutting is un-
necessary. Root-crowns are sometimes used, but since
these develop a large number of roots too small for
profitable grating, they are employed only for increas-
ing stock.

The land having been prepared, shallow furrows are
laid off 30 inches apart and 2 to 5 inches deep, accord-
ing to the method of planting. Sets are planted hori-
zontally, vertically, and at all intervening angles, the
large ends being made to point in one direction to
facilitate cultivation and digging. The angle is a mat-
ter of choice, good returns being secured in each. The
usual distance between sets is about 12 inches. Culti-
vation is given after every rain, or once in ten days,
until the leaves shade the ground.

Double-cropping is common in horse-radish growing,
early cabbage, turnip beets and other quick-maturing
plants being used. The sets are dibbled in two to four
weeks after the first crop, vertically, 18 inches asunder,
between the rows of cabbage, which are not less than
2 feet apart. One management answers for both crops
until the first is removed, when, after one cultivation,
the horse-radish usually takes full possession. Deep
burying of the sets at the time the first crop is planted
is also practised, the object, as in the first case, being
to prevent the appearance of the former until the latter
is almost mature.

Horse-radish makes its best growth in the cool
autumn, steadily improves after September, and, not

1849. Root-cuttings of
horse-radish.

being injured by frost if undug, is usually left until late
before harvesting with plow or spade. Storage in pits
is best, since the roots lose less of their crispness, pun-
gency and good appearance than if stored in cellars.
In trimming for storage, the lateral roots are saved and
buried for next season's planting. Exposure to air, sun
and frost robs the roots of their good qualities and
injures then- vitality.

The insect enemies of this plant are those that attack
other members of the cabbage family, the harlequin
bug being the most dreaded. Remedies are the same as
for other pests of this group of plants. Only two dis-
eases have been reported, and these are seldom trou-
blesome.

In the neighborhood of cities, especially where oysters
are cheap, this crop is generally profitable, the usual
retail price being 10 cents a pint, freshly grated, but
without vinegar. This quantity weighs a scant half-
pound. The cost of growing an acre is about as follows:

Cuttings, 10,000, at $2 $20 00

Fertilizer, 1,000 pounds 17 50

Cultivation, six times 6 00

Rent of land 5 00

Plowing, wear of tools, and so on 3 50

Setting roots, at 30 cents a 1,000 3 00

Total $55 00

A marketable crop varies from 3,000 to 6,000 pounds,
which may sometimes be sold as high as 5 cents a
pound for first-class roots, and 2}^ cents for second
grade. Usually, however, prices seldom rise above 4
cents and 2 cents for the two grades. Under good culti-
vation, the proportion of No. 1 to No. 2 root is about 1
to 1 by weight. Lower prices may rule in well-supplied
markets, and higher in poorly furnished, and when
sold in small lots to retail graters, even 7 cents may be
obtained. See Radicula. M. Q4 KAINS.

HORTtNSIA: Hydrangea.

HORTICULTURE (hortus a garden, originally an
inclosure; colere, to care for or to cultivate). Horticul-
ture is the growing of flowers, fruits and vegetables, and
of plants for ornament and fancy. Incident to the grow-
ing of the plants are all the questions of plant-breeding,
variation of plants under domestication, the bearings
and applications of many biological and physical
sciences, and the manufacture of many products.
Primarily, horticulture is an art, but it is intimately
connected with science at every point. From agricul-
ture it has no definite boundary. It is, in fact, a depart-
ment of agriculture, as forestry is; for agriculture, in
its largest meaning, is the business of raising products
from the land. It is customary, however, to limit the
word agriculture to the growing of grains, forage,
bread-stuffs, textiles, and the like, and to the raising of
animals. In this restricted application it is practically
coordinate, in a classificatory sense, with forestry and
horticulture. The nursery business, as understood in
North America, is considered to lie within the field of
horticulture.

Etymologically, agriculture is the tending or cultiva-
tion of the fields (ager, field). Horticulture apparently
was concerned with the area within the inclosure.
Equivalent to horticulture in etymology is gardening
(Anglo-Saxon gyrdan, to inclose, to which the verb to
gird is allied). By custom, however, garden and gar-
dening denote more restricted areas and operations than
are implied in the term horticulture. The word paradise
is connected with the idea of an inclosure and a garden
or park. Early gardening books of the cyclopedia type
are sometimes known as paradisse. Parkinson's famous
"Paradisus," or account of "a garden of all sorts of
pleasant flowers," was published in England in 1629.

The only demarcation between horticulture and agri-
culture is the line of custom. Sweet potatoes are usu-
ally considered to be a horticultural crop in North

1502

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

America, particularly in the northern states, but round
or Irish potatoes are usually classed as an agricultural
crop. Nor is there a definite division between horti-
culture and botany. The science of plants is botany;
yet some of the most significant problems relating to
plants — their response to the needs of man — have been
resigned by the botanist to the horticulturist. Horti-
culture is a composite of botanical and agricultural
subjects.

But horticulture is more than all this. It is a means
of expressing the art-sense. Plant-forms and plant-
colors are as expressive as the canvas work of the
painter. In some respects they are more expressive,
since they are things themselves, with individuality
and life, not the suggestions of things. The painter's
work excels in its power to suggest, and in its con-
densed portrayal of expression. But the essentials of a
good landscape painting often can be presented in an
artificially-made landscape. This effort to plant what
the artist paints is modern. It is strictly not horticul-
ture, although horticulture is contributory to the
results, as paint-making is contributory to painting.
Landscape-making is fundamentally a fine art. In this
work it is treated under Landscape Gardening.

Horticulture divides itself into four somewhat coordi-
nate branches, each branch comprising not only the
raising of the crops but also such home or plantation
manufacture as goes with the handling and the market-
ing of the materials (Annals Hort. 1891, 125-130) :

Pomology, or fruit-growing;

Olericulture, or vegetable-gardening;

Floriculture, or the raising of ornamental plants for
their individual uses or for their products;

Landscape horticulture, or the growing of plants for
their use in the landscape (or in landscape garden-
ing).

In the world at large, floriculture is the most impor-
tant as measured by the number of persons interested,
and by the number of species of plants that are grown
(see Floriculture). In North America, pomology is the
most important in commercial supremacy. North
America is one of the great fruit-growing countries of
the world (see Fruit-Growing). The growing of vege-
tables has been the last of these divisions to organize
itself in the New World and to reach a commanding
position (see Vegetable-Gardening). Landscape horti-
culture and landscape-gardening appeal to a constantly
enlarging constituency with the growth of culture and
of leisure and the deepening of the home life (see Land-
scape Gardening).

The occupation.

Strictly speaking, there are few horticulturists. The
details are too many to allow any one person to cover
the entire range. It is only those who look for princi-
ples who survey the whole field. Practitioners must
confine themselves to rather close bounds. Consider
that no less than 25,000 species of plants are in cultiva-
tion, each having its own requirements. Consider the
great number of species which are actually on sale
as registered in this Cyclopedia. The most important
species vary immensely, the named and recorded forms
often running into the thousands; and each of these
forms has particular merits and often particular
requirements. Consider that the requirements are
likely to be different in any two places, and that the
plants are profoundly modified by changes in conditions
or in treatment. Consider the insect pests and fungous
diseases and the many other kinds of hindrance that
confront the cultivator. Consider, also, the vagaries of
markets, which are ruled by questions of fancy more
than by questions of necessity. There is probably no
art in which the separate details are so many as in
horticulture.

There is considerable diversity in the definition of
the word "gardener." As understood by the gardening

fraternity, it is described as follows by Patrick O'Mara:
"In this country [North America] the man who grows
vegetables for a livelihood is called a gardener, a mar-
ket-gardener, and, in some sections, a trucker and a
truck-farmer. We also have the florist, which embraces
the man and woman who keep a flower-store, as well
as those to whom the title properly belongs, viz., the
persons who are cultivators of flowers. We have also
the nurseryman, a calling separate and distinct from
these, and yet the three must be combined in one
individual to make a qualified gardener, or what is
generally known as the 'private' gardener. Occasion-
ally the so-called 'private' gardener is known as a
'manager' or 'superintendent,' but it may well be ques-
tioned if he gains honor thereby. When he leaves
the place where the title was assumed or thrust upon
him, it very frequently is left behind, but he still
remains a gardener. It also tends to create an artificial
distinction between many who are equals, and many
in and out of the ranks believe it should be discouraged.
Gardeners who have charge of public parks, cemeteries
and botanic gardens, it has always been admitted,
may with perfect propriety assume the name of super-
intendent, but the fact remains that no man who loves
his craft need be ashamed to be known professionally
by the 'grand old name of gardener.' . . .

"However, as there may be some danger of a man's
true position in gardening not being defined in that
word, I would suggest that the word professional be
used to qualify it. In the eyes of some outside the
ranks, it might have weight, and it would certainly be a
proper distinction from the amateur gardener, the
trucker, the nurseryman and the commercial florist.
It would be well also to have all gardeners' societies
known as an association of professional gardeners. It
might operate to classify properly those who are
entitled by education, experience and natural ability
to bear the title from those who, lacking all these, are
yet bold enough to call themselves gardeners and to
become candidates for positions which they are unable
to fill with credit to themselves, with justice to their
prospective employers or with a proper regard for the
responsibilities they are so willing to assume. That
class would be bolder than I imagine them to be if they
would, under such circumstances, assume the title of
professional gardener, and the well-merited ridicule
which would inevitably follow the discovery of their
false pretenses would be a salutary check upon others.
To have a claim upon the title, a man should be able
to grow flowers, fruits and vegetables both outdoors and
under glass, care for trees and shrubs, lawns and roads,
in short attend to every detail connected with his
calling. If in addition he knows how to attend to the
details of gentlemen's farming, his services should be all
the more valuable. He could then assume entire charge
of a place where both farming and gardening are done,
and we would, if more men were capable of this, be
spared the pain of seeing one or both suffer either from
incompetence or want of cooperatoin between the
gardener and farmer."

Proceeding to a discussion of the gardener's work,
O'Mara continues, in his address "The Professional
Gardener's Mission in Horticulture" before the Lenox
(Massachusetts) Horticultural Society in 1897, as
follows: "It is to that class, then, that we must look
for developments of an upward tendency and they will
be held responsible for any retrogression in ornamental
horticulture, for they are before all others the recog-
nized exponents of the art. It is their mission to
improve, and the general opinion is that there is room
for improvement, more especially in indoor horticul-
ture. The overwhelming tendency during the past
ten to fifteen years has been to make the so-called
'private place' nothing more nor less than a cut-flower
establishment and a hospital for the decorative plants
which are used in the dwelling-house and for outside

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1503

decoration in summer; so pronounced has this become
that the only difference between the commercial estab-
lishment of today and the average private greenhouse
is one of size and architecture. The latter instead of
being maintained, as it should be, purely to gratify
esthetic tastes, is devoted to an utilitarian purpose
mainly. The product is counted and reckoned at so
many dollars and cents. The most the average owner
sees of them is the daily or semi-weekly cut which is
sent to the house. This is not as it should be, and
while it is not the gardener's fault, and may not be
within his power to control, yet by well-timed sugges-
tion and persistence, he should be able to effect a grad-
ual and much-to-be-desired change.

1850. Early picture of an American plant. Monardes (1571).

"The greenhouses should be a place of recreation
for the owners, who should be induced to visit them
daily, to look forward with pleasure to that visit, and
the best way to accomplish this is to induce them to get
a good collection of plants. A house of roses, carna-
tions, violets or chrysanthemums has not the attrac-
tion of a varied collection, a collection, too, that
embraces in their season gloxinias, tuberous begonias,
cinerarias, cyclamens, caladiums, ixias, sparaxis,
primulas, and other seasonable pot-plants, both flower-
ing and ornamental foliage. It is freely admitted that
variety is the soul of gardening and not less so in small
than in large places. The individual preferences of
the proprietor or gardener should therefore in some
measure be rendered subservient to the amount of
pleasure which visitors are sure to obtain from a variety
of plants. I am well aware that in many places the
proprietor's residence is of short duration and very
often during the summer months only, so that it is
difficult, nay, well nigh impossible, for the gardener to

influence him in the right direction; but if all earnestly
try, some are sure to succeed, and the example once set.
it will soon become general."

Of horticulture there are two general types, — that
associated immediately with the home life, and that
undertaken primarily for the gaining of a livelihood.
The former is amateur horticulture. Those things are
grown that appeal to the personal tastes: they are
grown for oneself. The latter is commercial horticul-
ture. Those things are grown that the market demands :
they are grown for others. In all countries, commercial
horticulture is a relatively late development. General
agriculture is usually the primary means of earning a
living from the soil. For the most part, horticulture
comes only with the demand for the luxuries and
refinements of life; it does not deal with what we call
the staple food-stuffs.

It is not the purpose of this sketch to trace the gen-
eral history of horticulture. If one desires such out-
lines, he should consult the Bohn edition of Pliny's
"Natural History;" Loudon's "Encyclopaedia of Garden-
ing;" G. W. Johnson's "History of English Gardening;"
Amherst's "History of Gardening in England;" Sievek-
ing's "Gardens, Ancient and Modern;" Jager's "Gar-
tenkunst und Garten, sonst und jetzt;" Hvittig's
"Geschichte des Gartenbaues;" the historical chap-
ters of Andr6's "L'Art des Jardins." Mangin's "His-
toire des Jardins Anciens et Modernes." For the his-
tories of cultivated plants, see DeCandolle's "Origin of
Cultivated Plants;" Hehn & Stallybrass' "Wanderings-
of Plants and Animals from their first Home;" Picker-
ing's "Chronological History of Plants."

Early American history.

In North America there was little commercial horti-
culture before the opening of the nineteenth century.
There were excellent home gardens more than a century
ago, in which many exotic plants were growing; yet, in
proportion to the whole population, these gardens were
isolated. The status of any modern time is accurately
reflected in its writings. It may be well, therefore, ta
bring in review the leading early horticultural writings
of this country. Few studies have been made of our hor-
ticultural history. The best is the introductory sketch,
by Robert Manning, in the "History of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society," 1880. For its field, Slade's
"Evolution of Horticulture in New England," 1895, is
interesting. In a still narrower field, Boardman's
"Agricultural Bibliography of Maine" is critical and
invaluable. The chapter on "American Horticulture,"
by Alfred Henderson, in Depew's "One Hundred Years
of American Commerce," 1895, presents the commer-
cial side of the subject. Another fragment of the his-
tory is presented in the writer's "Sketch of the Evolu-
tion of our Native Fruits," 1898. Histories from sev-
eral points of view are presented in the "Florists'
Exchange" for March 30, 1895; and the writer has
incorporated parts of his own contribution to that his-
tory in the sketch that follows. One may find valua-
ble historical material in the reports of societies
devoted to horticulture and agriculture; and the files
of the early journals must not be overlooked. Local
histories are important. All these sources have not yet
been carefully explored.

The history of the subject needs to be written from
the economic side, as one part in the industrial history
of North America, but this has not yet been attempted.
The best that may be done here is to trace some of the
events from the side of the literature.

The earliest writings on American plants were by
physicians and naturalists who desired to exploit the
wonders of the newly discovered hemisphere. The
earliest separate writing is probably that of Nicolo
Monardes on the products of the New World, which was
published in Seville in parts, from 1565 to 1571. The
completed treatise was translated into Italian, Latin,

1504

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

English and French. An English edition of 1577 was
entitled, "Joyfull Newes out of the newe founde worlde,
wherein is declared the rare and singular vertues of
diverse and sundrie Hearbes, Trees, Oyles, Plantes, and
Stones. . . . Also the portrature of the saied hearbes.
. . . Englished by J. Frampton." Monardes is now
remembered to us in the genus Monarda, one of the
mint tribes. He wrote of the medicinal and poisonous
plants of the West Indies, and gave pictures, some of
them fantastical. His picture of tobacco is not greatly
inaccurate, however; and it has the distinction of
being probably the first picture extant of the plant, if
not of any American plant. This picture is here repro-
duced (Fig. 1850) exact size, to show the style of illus-
tration of three and one-third centuries ago. Jacques
Cornutus is generally supposed to have been the first
writer on American plants. His work, "Canadensium
Plantarum . . . Historia," appeared in 1635, and it
also had pictures.

One of the earliest writers on the general products
and conditions of the northern country was John
Josselyn, who, in 1672, published a book entitled "New
England's Rarities discovered in Birds, Beasts, Fishes,
Serpents, and Plants of that Country," and in 1674 a
second volume, "An Account of Two Voyages to New
England, made during the years 1638, 1663." The
"Rarities" gives specific accounts of many plants,
together with pictures of a few of them, as for example,
the pitcher plant. He mentions the plants which had
become naturalized from Europe. There is also a list
"Of such Garden Herbs (amongst us) as do thrive
there, and of such as do not." This list, perhaps the
earliest record of the kind, is here transcribed:

Cabbidge growes there exceeding well.

Lettice.

Sorrel.

Parsley.

Marygold.

French Mallowes.

Chervel.

Burnet.

Winter Savory.

Summer Savory.

Time.

Sage.

Carrats.

Parsnips of a prodigious size.

Red Beetes.

Radishes.

Turnips.

Purslain.

Wheat.

Rye.

Barley, which commonly degenerates into Oats.

Oats.

Pease of all sorts, and the best in the World; I never heard
of, nor did see in eight Years time, one Worm eaten Pea.

Garden Beans.

Naked Oats, there called Silpee, an excellent grain used insteed
of Oat Meal, they dry it in an Oven, or in a Pan upon the fire,
then beat it small in a Morter.

Spear Mint.

Rew, will hardly grow.

Fetherfew prospereth exceedingly.

Southern Wood, is no Plant for this Country. Nor

Rosemary. Nor

Bayes.

White Satten groweth pretty well, so doth

Lavender Cotton. But

Lavender is not for the climate.

Penny Royal.

Small edge.

Ground Ivy, or Ale Hoof.

Gilly Flowers will continue two Years.

Fennel must be taken up, and kept in a warm Cellar all Winter.

Houseleek prospereth notably.

Holly hocks.

Enula Campana, in two Years time the Roots rot.

Comferie, with white Flowers.

Coriander, and

Dill, and

Annis thrive exceedingly, but Annis Seed, as also the Seed of
Fennel, seldom comes to maturity; the Seed of Annis is com-
monly eaten with a fly.

Clary never lasts but one Summer, the Roots rot with the
Frost.

Sparagus thrives exceedingly, so does

Garden Sorrel, and

Sweet Bryer, or Eglantine.

Bloodwort but sorrily, but

Patience, and

English Roses, very pleasantly.

Celandine, by the West Country men called Kenning Wort,
grows but slowly.

Muschata, as well as in England.

Dittander, or Pepper Wort, flourisheth notably, and so doth

Tansie.

Musk Mellons are better than our English, and

Cucumbers.

Pompions, there be of several kinds, some proper to the Country,
they are dryer then our English Pompions, and better tasted; you
may eat them green.

Tuckerman, who edited an edition of Josselyn in
1865, comments as follows on the foregoing lists:
"The earliest, almost the only account that we have of
the gardens of our fathers, after they had settled them-
selves in their New England, and had tamed its rugged
coasts to obedience to English husbandry. What with
their garden beans, and Indian beans, and pease ('as
good as ever I eat in England/ says Higginson in 1629);
then- beets, parsnips, turnips, and carrots ('our turnips,
parsnips, and carrots are both bigger and sweeter than
is ordinary to be found in England,' says the same rev-
erend writer); their cabbages and asparagus, — both
thriving, we are told, exceedingly; their radishes and
lettuce; their sorrel, parsley, chervil, and marigold, for
pot-herbs; and their sage, thyme, savory of both kinds,
clary, anise, fennel, coriander, spearmint, and penny-
royal, for sweet herbs, — not to mention the Indian
pompions and melons and squanter-squashes, 'and other
odde fruits of the country,' — the first-named of which
had got to be so well approved among the settlers when
Josselyn wrote in 1672, that, what he calls 'the ancient
New England standing dish' (we may call it so now!)
was made of them; and, finally, their pleasant, familiar
flowers, lavender-cotton and hollyhocks and satin ('we
call this herbe, in Norfolke, sattin,' says Gerard; 'and,
among our women, it is called honestie') and gilly-
flowers, which meant pinks as well, and dear English
roses, and eglantine, — yes, possibly, hedges of eglantine,
— surely the gardens of New England fifty years after
the settlement of the country, were as well stocked as
they were a hundred and fifty years after. Nor were
the first planters long behindhand in fruit. Even at
his first visit, in 1639, our author was treated with
'half a score of very fair pippins,' from the Governor's
Island in Boston Harbor; though there was then, he
says, 'not one apple tree nor pear planted yet in no
part of the country but upon that island.' But he
has a much better account to give in 1671 : 'The quinces,
cherries, damsons, set the dames a work. Marmalad
and preserved damsons is to be met with in every
house. Our fruit trees prosper abundantly, — apple
trees, pear trees, quince trees, cherry trees, plum trees,
barberry trees. I have observed, with admiration, that
the kernels sown, or the succors planted, produce as
fair and good fruit, without grafting, as the tree from
whence they were taken. The countrey is replenished
with fair and large orchards. It was affirmed by one
Mr. Woolcut (a magistrate in Connecticut Colony), at
the Captain's messe (of which I was), aboard the ship
I came home in, that he made five hundred hogsheads
of syder out of his own orchard in one year.' — Voyages,
pp. 189, 190. Our barberry-bushes, now so familiar
inhabitants of the hedge-rows of eastern New England,
should seem from this to have come, with the eglan-
tines,from the gardens of the first settlers. Barberries 'are
planted in most of our English gardens,' says Gerard."

The foregoing lists and comments show that the
colonists early brought their familiar home plants to
the new country; and there are many collateral evi-
dences of the same character. There was long and ardu-
ous experimenting with plants and methods. Several
things which were tried on a large scale failed so com-
pletely, either from uncongenial conditions or for
economic reasons, that they are now unknown to us as
commercial crops; amongst these are indigo, silk and the
wine grape. The histories of these things can be traced

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1505

only as a refrain in contemporary writing. Indian
corn, tobacco and cotton early became the great staple
crops.

The Indians cultivated corn, beans, pumpkins and
other plants when America was discovered. They soon
adopted some of the fruits which were introduced by
the colonists. William Penn and others found peaches
among the Indians. Orchards of peaches and apples
were found in western New York by Sullivan's raid
against the Six Nations in revolutionary times.
Josselyn, Roger Williams, Wood and others speak of
the corn and squashes of the Indians. The word squash
is adopted from the Indian name, squontersquash,
askutasquash, or isqouter squash. C. C. Jones, in his
"History of Georgia," in describing the explorations of
De Soto, says that before reaching the Indian town of
Canasagua (whose location was in Gordon County,
Georgia), DeSoto "was met by twenty men from the
village, each bearing a basket of mulberries. This
fruit was here abundant and well flavored. Plum and
walnut trees were growing luxuriantly throughout the
country, attaining a size and beauty, without planting
or pruning, which could not be
surpassed in the irrigated and well-
cultivated gardens of Spain." For
critical notes on the plants culti-
vated by the American aborigines,
see Gray and Trumbull, "American
Journal of Science," Vol. XXV
(April, May),Vol. XXVI (August).
For an account of plant products
used by the Indians, see G. K.
Holmes, "Cyclopedia of Ameri-
can Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 24.

"Fruit-growing among the In-
dians of Georgia and Alabama in
the early history of these states,"
writes Berckmans, "is demon-
strated by the large quantity of
peaches which the Indian traders
of the early colonial period found
growing in the Creek, Cherokee
and Choc taw villages. It is on
record that Indians often made
long trips to other tribes for ex-
changing various articles of their
making, and thus the seed from
those peach trees was undoubtedly
procured from the Florida Indians,
who, in turn, procured these from
the trees planted by the Spanish
explorers. The peculiar type of
'Indian peaches,' found throughout
the South and recognized by the downy and striped
fruit and purple bark on the young growth, was intro-
duced from Spain and gradually disseminated by the
Indians. Apple-growing was quite extensively carried
on by the Cherokee Indians in the mountain regions
of Georgia, Alabama and North Carolina. The trees
being all seedlings, as grafting was likely unknown to
the Red Man, vestiges of old apple trees originally
planted by these denizens of the South are still occa-
sionally found in upper Georgia. Sixty years ago a
large collection of apples was introduced into cultiva-
tion, and today many of the best southern winter apples
owe their origin to the Indians, who procured the first
seeds from traders."

One of the earliest glimpses of plant-growing in the
New World is an account in the "Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society," early in the eighteenth
century, by Chief Justice Paul Dudley, of Roxbury,
near Boston. In the "Abridgement of the Transac-
tions" are the following notes, amongst others, under the
date 1724: "The plants of England, as well as those of
the fields and orchards as of the garden, that have been
brought over into New England, suit very well with the

96

soil, and grow to perfection. The apples are as good as
those of England, and look fairer, as well as the pears;
but they have not all of the sorts. The peaches rather
excel those of England, and there is no trouble or
expence of walls for them; for the peach trees are all
standards, and Mr. Dudley has had, in his own garden,
700 or 800 fine peaches of the rare-ripes, growing at a
time on one tree. . . . The peach trees are large and
fruitful, and commonly bear in three years from the
stone. . . . The common cherries are not so good as
the Kentish cherries of England; and they have no
dukes, or heart-cherries, unless in two or three gardens."
It was reported that people of "late years have run
much upon orchards." The product of these orchards
was chiefly cider. "Some of their apple trees will make
six, some have made seven barrels of cider; but this is
not common; and the apples will yield from seven to
nine bushels for a barrel of cider: a good apple tree will
measure from 6 to 10 feet in girt." Dudley mentions
a bloomless apple, and "the tree was no graft." In
common with other new countries, New England
astonished persons with the luxuriant growth of the

1851. Bertram's house as it was in 1895. Built in
!|| 1730-31. In the margin is the Petre pear, raised by
Bartram from a seedling sent from England in 1760 by
Lady Petre.

plants. "An onion, set out for seed, will rise to 4 feet
9 inches in height. A parsnip will reach to 8 feet; red
orrice [orach will mount 9 feet; white orrice 8. In the
pastures he measured seed mullen 9 feet 2 inches in
height, and one of the common thistles above 8 feet."
Record is made of a pumpkin vine which grew unat-
tended in a pasture. It made a single stem which "ran
along over several fences, and spread over a large piece
of ground far and wide." "From this single vine were
gathered 260 pumpkins; one with another as large as a
half peck; enough in the whole, to fill a large tumbrel,
besides a considerable number of small and unripe
pumpkins." Indian corn was "the most prolific grain."
The observations and experiences of John Lawson in
North Carolina should not be overlooked. He was in
the country 1700 to 1708, and wrote a history of the
state, describing its natural productions. He found
considerable success there in grape-growing.

The colonial ornamental gardens were probably
unlike our o.wn in the relative poverty of plants,
absence of landscape arrangement, rarity of green-
houses, and lack of smooth-shaven lawns (for the lawn-
mower was not invented till last century) . These gardens

1506

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

were of two general types: the unconventional personal
garden, without form but not void, in which things
grew in delightful democracy; the conventional, box-
bordered, geometrical garden, in which things grew in
most respectful aristocracy. There were many inter-
esting and elaborate private gardens in the colonial
days. One of the earliest and best was that of Governor
Peter Stuyvesant, of New Amsterdam (New York,
near Third Avenue), known as the "Bouwerie," where
forty or fifty negro slaves, and also white servants,
were kept at work. "The road to the city has been put
in good condition, and shade trees were planted on each
side where it crossed the Governor's property." The
Bowery of these degenerate days has lost the Eden-
like features that distinguished its illustrious progen-
itor.

Excellent gardens were attached to the residences of
wealthy persons by the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, and probably earlier, and they were said to have
been encouraged by the example and precept of Wash-
ington. There are records of many meritorious collec-
tions of plants a century and more ago. William Ham-
ilton's collection at Philadelphia was one of the best,
and it contained a large collection of exotics. It flour-
ished toward the close of the eighteenth century, and
was broken up in 1828. William Jackson began "a
highly interesting collection of plants at his residence in
Londongrove," Pennsylvania, in 1777. About 1800
Joshua and Samuel Pierce, East Marlborough, Pennsyl-
vania," began to adorn their premises by tasteful cul-
ture and planting," and by the establishment of an arbo-
retum of evergreens. The most famous botanic garden
which North America has had was John Bartram's,
established at Philadelphia in 1728 (p. 530). It con-
tained a great collection of native plants, and some of
the trees are now amongst the most valued landmarks
of the city. Bartram was a skilful farmer and gardener,
and his sons, John and William, inherited his tastes and
continued the garden. The elder Bartram was probably
the first American to perform successful experiments in
hybridization. Bartram's house (Fig. 1851), built by
himself , is still one of the sights of the environs of Phila-
delphia, and the site of the garden, with many of the old
trees standing, is now happily a public park. Bartram's
cousin, Humphry Marshall, established a botanic gar-
den at West Bradford, in Chester County, Pennsylvania,
in 1773 (p. 348) . John Bartram's name is preserved in
the moss Bartramia, and Marshall's in the genus Mar-
shallia, applied to small Composite of the eastern states.
The Elgin botanic garden, near New York, was estab-
lished in 1801 by David Hosack, a man of great learn-
ing and of the keenest sympathies with rural occupa-
tions. He is now remembered in the interesting genus
Hosackia, one of the LeguminosaB. A botanic garden
was established at Charleston, South Carolina, about

1804, and one in Maryland about the same time. The
Botanic Garden at Cambridge, Mass., was begun in

1805, an institution which, together with the Profes-
sorship of Natural History at Cambridge, was founded
largely through the efforts of the Massachusetts Society
for Promoting Agriculture. The society subscribed
$500 for the purpose, and raised more by subscription.

Development of horticulture in Canada in particular.
(W. T. Macoun.)

Horticulture in Canada is about 300 years old. Its
development began with the French who settled in
Acadia (now the province of Nova Scotia), and along
the banks of the St. Lawrence River, and planted seeds
and trees brought with them from France. Owing to
the small population and the difficulty in transporta-
tion, it was not until about sixty years ago that com-
mercial horticulture may be said to have begun (say
about 1850), but with the rapid increase of population
and transportation facilities the development in recent
years has been rapid. The growth of the fruit industry

in the province of Ontario may be given as an example
of how rapidly horticulture is developing in Canada.
In 1859 the Ontario Fruit-Growers' Association was
formed. In 1881 the first cooperative shipments of
fruit were made, but cooperation was slow in developing
for some years after. Spraying with paris green for the
control of codlin-moth was practised in 1889 and shortly
afterward spraying with bordeaux mixture for the
control of apple-scab was begun. In 1895 the Depart-
ment of Agriculture began to give demonstrations in
spraying. Now spraying is very general throughout
Canada. In 1894, fruit experiment stations, mainly for
testing varieties of fruits, were established in different
parts of Ontario by the provincial government. By
1904, the cooperative movement was developing
rapidly, by 1908 there were thirty-five cooperative
organizations in the province, and in 1914 there were
fifty-seven. In 1904, the first provincial fruit and
flower show was held in the city of Toronto and there
has been one annually ever since, its importance
increasing every year. The agricultural college at
Guelph, through its horticultural courses, has been of
great assistance in the development of this industry.
The district representatives who carry demonstration
work and diffuse information throughout the counties
have been of great service in the different provinces.
In other provinces, especially in the provinces of Nova
Scotia and British Columbia, there has also been great
development in fruit-culture in recent years.

The Dominion government has done much to aid
horticulture in Canada. The Experimental Farms were
established in 1887, on an Act passed in 1886, and now
there are eighteen scattered from the Atlantic to the
Pacific (page 1195). The Fruit Marks' Act (now the
Inspection and Sales Act), passed in 1901, has mate-
rially helped the fruit industry in establishing definite
grades of apples and requiring more careful packing
than in former years. Other Acts passed by the Domin-
ion government in recent years have been a great aid.
In recent years, fruit crop-reports have been pub-
lished monthly, part of the year, which have been of
great assistance to the fruit-growers.

The canning of fruit is developing rapidly in Canada
and the outlook for still more extensive growth in
this branch of the industry is very bright.

The census of Canada for 1911 gives the total number
of fruit trees in Canada as 20,812,556; the area occu-
pied by fruit trees as 376,322 acres and the estimated
capital value of fruit trees as $127,000,000.

As Canadians have become better off, there has been
a growing demand for flowers and vegetables out of
season and there has been a fairly rapid increase in the
area under glass. It is estimated that there are now
over 6,000,000 square feet devoted to floriculture, with
an estimated capital invested of $1,500,000, and an
annual output of $1,800,000; but this will soon be
much larger.

The growing of vegetables began with the first set-
tlement of Canada, and as the villages, towns and
cities multiplied, the vegetable-growers supplied their
needs. Now there are large areas devoted to the com-
mercial culture of vegetables. In the province of
Ontario many vegetables are canned and large quanti-
ties of corn and tomatoes particularly are grown for
this purpose. In recent years the vegetable-growers
have organized and in Ontario there is a provincial
association.

For further information, see British North America,
Vol. I, pp. 559-76.

Early horticulture in California in particular.
(Charles Howard Shinn.)

California horticulture is in the main patterned after
the south-European types, and to this extent it orig-
nated from Spanish-Mexican sources. The horticul-
ture of California's high mountain valleys approxi-

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1507

mates more closely to that of colder regions, while the
horticulture of the Pacific slope, north of California,
becomes more and more different from the south-
European types, but still has many characteristics of
its own separating it sharply from that of the Atlantic
slope. The first horticultural experiments in Cali-
fornia were at the Missions of the Peninsula (Bajo or
Lower California), where twenty-two Missions were
founded between 1697 and 1797 (Fig. 1852). Here
the Mission Fathers introduced the date palm; also
oranges, lemons, limes, pineapples, bananas, olives, figs,
pomegranates, peaches, quinces, plums, apples, pears
and grapes. They shipped to Monterey and the northern
missions large quantities of dried figs, grapes, dates, and
peaches. The Upper California missions received seeds,
cions, and so on, from those of Lower California, as
well as from Mexico. The first of these missions was
established in 1769 at San Diego by the Franciscans,

1852. One of the early California missions, where were the early promoters of horticulture
on the western coast. — San Juan Capistrano,

under the leadership of Father Junipero Serra, whose
name visitors to the California State Building at the
World's Fair will recall in connection with the great
date palm from the Mission Valley of San Diego. This
palm was raised from seed which Junipero Serra planted
about 1770. Twenty-one missions were founded by the
Franciscans, the last one in 1823, and at all but one or
two of them there were important collections of the
fruits of southern Europe — olives, figs, oranges, lemons,
pomegranates, wine grapes, and also apples, pears and
peaches. Early in this century the Mission of San
Gabriel had over 2,000 fruit trees, and others had more
than a thousand. Fig. 1852 shows the yard of San
Juan Capistrano Mission, as it existed in 1889. There
are also some traces in California of the fruits of the
few early Russian settlements. With the American
occupation and the immigration from the east, came

of potatoes, onions, beets, turnips and tomatoes was
134,200 bushels. The same report noted an onion
weighing twenty-one pounds, and at the Fair of 1853
the committee on vegetables reported a "white flat
turnip" weighing thirty-three pounds, a squash that
weighed one hundred and twenty-one pounds, and a
tomato weighing five and one-half pounds. Thus early
California began to boast of the mammoth productions
of her soil. The first official report printed in California
appeared in a document issued by the secretary of state
for 1852. The capital then employed in "fruits and
orchards" was given at $366,910. The market-garden
interests were surprisingly large; among single items
were "460.000 pumpkins, worth $46,000;" upward of
5,000,000 pounds of onions, "worth $186,000;" 30,000
bushels of beans, "worth $72,000." Santa Barbara
County reported "1,370 barrels of olives, worth $27,-
500." Horticultural statistics are continued in the
reports of the state surveyor
general. In December, 1853, the
State Agricultural Society of
California was organized, after
a successful exhibition in San
Francisco, where almonds, figs,
olives, walnuts, and many other
fruits, as well as vegetables and
flowers, were shown.

Fairs were held in 1854 and
1855, but were not officially
reported. The state began to
publish the proceedings of the
agricultural society in 1858, when
its membership was 856, and
annual reports have continued
till the present time. The Cali-
fornia Horticultural Society was
organized April 5, 1881; in 1883,
the State Board of Horticulture
was established. Reports of
these bodies and of the state
fruit-growers' conventions have
appeared annually or biennially
since 1882. The State Viticul-
tural Commission was organized
in 1881, and its reports continued
until 1894. Upward of one
hundred octavo volumes repre-
sent the official output of Cali-
fornia since 1858 in lines of horticulture, including, of
course, the California Experiment Station reports.

Among the special California horticultural literature
that appeared prior to 1900, are the following: "Cali-
fornia Fruits," E. J. Wickson, first edition, 1889;
second edition, 1891; third edition, 1900. So many
changes and additions have occurred in this book
that all three editions will be found very useful
in libraries. "California Vegetables," E. J. Wickson,
1897. "Gardening in California," Wm. S. Lyon, Los
Angeles, 1897. This is a small volume of 156 pages.
"Olive Growing," Pohndorff, San Francisco, 1884.
"Olive Culture," A. Flamant, San Francisco, 1887.
The Olive," Arthur T. Marvin, San Francisco, 1888.
"The Raisin Industry," Gustav Eisen, San Francisco,
1890. "The Wine Press and Cellar," E. H. Rixford, San
Francisco, 1883. "Grape Culture, a Handbook for Cali-

the eastern American types of fruits, and the state is forma," T. Hart Hyatt, San Francisco, 1876. "Orange

now the seat of a wonderfully varied fruit-culture,
although the small-fruits have not yet attained that
prominence which they enjoy in older countries.

The first official horticultural reports from California
appeared in the second part of the United States Patent
Office Report for 1851. In this report, A. Williams,
of San Francisco, presented statistics from the Horner
Ranch, near the Mission San Jose, Alameda County,
where 800 acres were planted in vegetables and the
crop of 1851 sold for upwards of $200,000. The crop

Culture in California," Thomas A. Garey, San Fran-
cisco, 1882. Contains appendix on grape-culture, by
L. J. Rose. "Orange Culture," W. A. Spalding, Los
Angeles. "The California Farmer," established in
January, 1854, and maintaining a spasmodic existence
for a number of years, printed the first pomological
and horticultural reports of committees, and the like.
"The Pacific Rural Press" was established in 1871, in
San Francisco, and still continues. "The Rural Cali-
fornian," of Los Angeles, still in existence, was estab-

1508

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

lished in 1877. "The California Fruit-Grower," began
in 1888, and survives as the "California Fruit News."
'The California Cultivator," of Los Angeles, estab-
lished in 1884, is still published. "The Pacific Tree and
Vine," of San Jose, established in 1884, is no longer
published.

Sometimes we are inclined to think that the litera-
ture of the garden began on the Pacific coast in the
age of steam presses, telegraphs and transcontinental
railroads. It is not so; and we should go farther back
than the excellent writings listed above. The "first
fine rapture" of discovery and conquest gave birth to a
splendid enthusiasm for the flowers and plants of the
vast unfenced wilderness stretching from Texas to
Oregon, and one finds its expression in hundreds of
books of travel, in ponderous government reports, in
forgotten periodicals and, to some extent in the whole
outdoor literature of Europe and America during the
exciting period of the gold rush to California.

We once had many and very quaint publications in
California, all dead and forgotten now, but still worth
studying in the libraries. There was the old "Alta
California," the "California Farmer," the "Golden
Era," the "Hesperian," the "Pioneer," "Hutching's
Pioneer Magazine." They contained stilted essays,
sketches and stories, often modeled after forgotten
literary patterns of New York and Paris. But their
descriptive writings first broke away from these hamper-
ing traditions, and shaped themselves anew under Cali-
fornia skies. Ewer, "Shirley," Hutchings, Wadsworth,
Dr. Kellogg and a few others wrote of things as they
saw them, and in some degree caught the outdoor
charm of the new land as it was slowly yielding to
spade and plow.

But there had been a still earlier discovery of the
floral wealth of the Pacific coast. Long before
Marshall's mill-race gleamed with that fateful flake of
gold, the botanists and collectors had sent forth a cry
of delight that stirred the pulses of Europe. The
letters, journals and various contributions to descrip-
tive and scientific literature, made by the long line of
botanical explorers who visited this coast between 1790
and 1848, should be a part of this record. Among these
enthusiasts were men like Langsdorf, who accom-
panied that unfortunate Count Rozanoff of Bret Harte's
beautiful poem, and Chamiso and Eschscholtz. The
last two, friends close-linked in literature and science,
gave our orange-hued poppy its consonantal name.

The starting-point, however, for most students of the
floral resources of California is with the extensive work
done by David Douglas (1825-1833), under the
auspices of the Royal Horticultural Society of England.
In the proceedings of that Society one finds some of his
reports and the first colored plates ever issued of many
California bulbs. The second volume of Hooker's
"Companion to the Botanical Magazine" contains his
fascinating letters. After Douglas came Coulter, Nut-
tall, Hartweg and others, and then the famous groups
of botanical explorers whose work appears in govern-
ment publications, such as the Pacific Railroad and
Boundary Survey reports. Men like Gray, Thurber,
Newberry, Torrey, Engelmann and Parry wrote much
that was a real gift to the literature of the period, and
in many cases they had for illustrations those wonder-
ful pen-and-ink drawings made by T. C. Hilgard.

But, if one says that government reports are only
the "raw material" of outdoor literature, then turn to
Edinburgh, in 1859-1860, when Dr. Andrew Murray
published his two parts of "Notes on California
Trees," compiled chiefly from the letters of his brother
Wm. Murray of San Francisco, and illustrated with
superb lithographs of the sequoias. It was in 1860,
also, that Thomas Starr King wrote a very charming
account of a trip "Around the Bay in the season of
flowers," when, as he expressed it, there were "flowers
by the acre, flowers by the square mile."

Here we begin to reach the modern way of looking
at things. All through the pages of the publications of
the State Agricultural Society between 1856 and 1860,
the early reports of the State Surveyor General, the
"State Register" for 1857-60, the rambling surveys of
Dr. Trask, the first state geologist, we have had some-
what obscure glimpses of a land overflowing with growth
and blossom. We have seen the pioneer surveyors, Day
and Goddard and the rest, camping in the lily-beds of
the high Sierra valleys; we have watched pioneer com-
mittees going around, away back in the early fifties, to
tell us, all too briefly, of the glories of Shell Mound
Nurseries, the New England Gardens, Hook Farm,
Fontainbleau, and other places now, alas! in ruins. We
hear of Fox, Sontag, Prevost, Macondray, Lewelling.
These reports, though hardly the literature of the gar-
den, are very excellent materials out of which, some of
these days, the right man or woman will reconstruct
the whole story, and give us our long-needed book on
"California Floriculture."

The "modern note" in our garden literature, aside
from the glowing essays of Thomas King, was also
manifest in some of the California writings of Dr.
Bushnell. Then it found fuller expression in the pages
of the "Overland Monthly," where Muir, the LeContes,
A very, Williams, Miss Coolbirth, Bartlett and Sill, and
a little later, some of Professor Sill's pupils, made for a
few years a very striking presentation of the life, color,
strength and beauty of outdoor California. Much of
the best writing of this period between 1868 and 1875
appeared in the "Bulletin," "Argonaut," "California
Horticulturist" and "Rural Press." It is notable his-
torically, because it covers the whole field. Nothing
that is now being written about gardens and flowers is
in its way any better than some of the work, signed and
unsigned, that appeared in the "Overland Monthly,"
and in other San Francisco publications in the days
before the gaudy splendors of the sensational Sunday
newspapers.

In the way of distinctive floral publications we have
had two of importance: The first, the "California
Horticulturist," founded by F. A. Miller in 1870, lasted
ten years. One of its most interesting editors was the
late E. J. Hooper, one of the owners of the "Western
Farmer and Gardener," established by him in Cincin-
nati in 1839 and 1840. Plates of fruit and flowers,
colored by his hands, appear in early volumes of the
"California Horticulturist." The still earlier and yet
more rare "California Culturist" of W. Wadsworth,
which began with June, 1858, and continued two years,
contained a good deal of floriculture.

In May, 1888, at Santa Barbara, appeared the "Cali-
fornia Florist," an attractive publication which soon
moved to San Francisco and there continued until May,
1889. Since that date, outside of trade publications,
catalogues, and occasional pamphlets, the floral
interests of California have been, most of the time,
without a separate publication, but they have never
lacked for space, whenever required, in other periodicals.

There have been few books in the past twenty-five
years which deal other than casually with the floral
field, but there have been many and excellent botanies,
chiefly local, and more are being written, so that before
long the whole field will be covered, and brought down
to date with revised nomenclature and description.
In these brief limits, one cannot expect even a partial
bibliography, of either the popular or the technical
writings of California botany or floriculture. Begin-
ning with the writings of Kellogg, Bolander, Lemmon,
Miller, Ludeman, Sievers,Wickson, Rixford, and others,
the list ends with the many bright people who write
for the press on these topics at the present time. The
standard early wrork on California plants is Brewer and
Watson's "Botany of California," comprising two
volumes of the State Geological Survey, published 1876-
1880. Books like Bartlett's "Breeze from the Woods,"

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1509

and Mary Elizabeth Parson's "Wild Flowers of Cali-
fornia," and such pamphlets as Lyon's "Gardening in
California" and Krause's "Sweet Pea Review" have a
real historial value. Prominent among our notable
books are Kellogg's "Forest Trees," his "West Ameri-
can Oaks," and Green's "Flora Franciscana." Later
is Jepson's "Flora of Western Middle California,"
1901, with a second edition in 1911. He is now prepar-
ing a "Flora of California," several parts of which have
been issued.

Native species of fruits and vegetables.

Before passing to a discussion of the departments or
subdivisions of the subject, we may pause to consider
the general contribution that the North American con-
tinent has made to the species of food-plants of a
horticultural character. The remarks are taken from
Hedrick (presidential address, Society of Horticultural
Science, 1913), who has presented an excellent running
summary: "The continent is a natural orchard. More
than 200 species of tree, bush, vine and small fruits
were commonly used by the aborigines for food, not
counting nuts, those occasionally used, and numerous
rarities. In its plums, grapes, raspberries, blackberries,
dewberries, cranberries and gooseberries North America
has already given the world a great variety of new fruits.
There are now under cultivation 11 American species
of plums, of which there are 433 pure-bred and 155
hybrid varieties; 15 species of American grapes with
404 pure and 790 hybrid varieties; 4 species of rasp-
berries with 280 varieties; 6 species of blackberries
with 86 varieties; 5 species of dewberries with 23 varie-
ties; 2 species of cranberries with 60 varieties and 2
gooseberries with 35 varieties. Here are 45 species of
American fruits with 2,226 varieties, domesticated
within approximately a half-century.

"Few plants grow under such varied conditions as
pur wild grapes. Not all have been brought under sub-
jugation, though nearly all have horticultural possi-
bilities. It is certain that some grape can be grown hi
every agricultural region of the United States. The
blueberry and huckleberry, finest of fruits, and now the
most valuable American wild fruits, the crops bringing
several millions of dollars annually, are not yet domesti-
cated. Coville has demonstrated that the blueberry
can be cultivated. [See Blueberry, Vol. I, p. 515.]
Some time we should have numerous varieties of the
several blueberries and huckleberries to enrich pine
plains, mountain tracts, swamps and waste lands that
otherwise are all but worthless. A score or more native
species of gooseberries and currants can be domesti-
cated and should some time extend the culture of these
fruits from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Circle.
There are many forms of juneberries widely distributed
in the United States and Canada, from which several
varieties are now cultivated. The elderberry is repre-
sented by a dozen or more cultivated varieties, one of
which, brought to my attention the past season, pro-
duced a half hundred enormous clusters, a single clus-
ter being made up of 2,208 berries, each ^ inch in
diameter.

"These are but a few of the fruits — others which can
only -be named are: the anonas and their kin from Flor-
ida; the native crab-apples and thorn-apples; the wine-
berry, the buffalo-berry and several wild cherries; the
cloud-berry, prized in Labrador; the crow-berry of cold
and Arctic America; the high-bush cranberry; native
mulberries; opuntias and other cacti for the deserts;
the paw-paw, the persimmon, and the well-known and
much-used salal and salmon berries of the West and
North.

"The pecan, the chestnut and the hickory-nut are
the only native nuts domesticated, but some time
forest and waste places can be planted not only to the
nuts named, but to improved varieties of acorns, beech-
nuts, butternuts, filberts, hazels, chinquapins and nut-

pines, to utilize waste lands, to diversify diet and to
furnish articles of food that can be shipped long dis-
tances and be kept from year to year. The fad of
today which substitutes nuts for meat may become a
necessity tomorrow. Meanwhile it is interesting to note
that the pecan has become within a few decades so
important a crop that optimistic growers predict in
another half-century that pecan groves will be second
only to the cotton-fields in the South. A recent bulle-
tin from the United States Department of Agriculture
describes sixty-seven varieties, of which more than
1,500,000 trees have been planted."

"There are a number of native vegetables worth cul-
tivating. The native beans and teparies in the semi-
arid- and subtropical Southwest to which Freeman,
of the Arizona station, has called attention, grown per-
haps for thousands of years by the aborigines, seem
likely to prove timely crops for the dry-farmers of the
Southwest. Professor Freeman has isolated seventy
distinct types of these beans and teparies, suggesting
that many horticultural sorts may be developed from
his foundation stock. The ground-nut, Apios tuberosa,
furnished food for the French at Port Royal in 1613,
and the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620, and as a crop
for forests might again be used. There are a score or
more species of Physalis, or ground-cherries, native to
North America, several of which are promising vege-
tables and have been more or less used by pioneers.
Solanum nigrum, the nightshade, a cosmopolite of
America and Europe, recently much advertised under
several misleading names, and its congener, Solanum
triflorum, both really wild tomatoes, are worthy of cul-
tivation and in fact are readily yielding to improve-
ment. Amaranthus retroflexus, one of the common pig-
weeds of gardens, according to Watson, is cultivated
for its seeds by the Arizona Indians. In China and
Japan the corms or tubers of a species of Sagittaria are
commonly sold for food. There are several American
species, one of which at least was used wherever found
by the Indians, and under the name arrowhead, swan
potato and swamp potato has given welcome sustenance
to pioneers. Our native lotus, a species of Nelumbo,
was much prized by the aborigines, seeds, roots and
stalks being eaten. Sagittaria and Nelumbo furnish
starting-points for valuable food-plants for countless
numbers of acres of water-covered marshes when the
need to utilize these now waste-places becomes
pressing."

Early general writings.

The progress of horticulture may be traced in the
books devoted to the subject. The earliest writings did
not separate horticulture from agriculture.

It is difficult to determine the first North American
book on agriculture. In 1710 "The Husbandman's
Guide" was printed in Boston "by John Allen, for
Eleazar Phillips." It is a small 12mo of 107 pages, in
four parts. The first part contains "Many Excellent
Rules for Setting and Planting of Orchards, Gardens
and Woods, the times to Sow Corn, and all other sorts
of Seeds." A second edition was "printed for & sold
by Elea. Phillips Book-seller, in Boston, 1712." It is
usual to begin the history of indigenous American
book literature on agriculture with Jared Eliot, but the
beginnings should have a special search. The preface
to Eliot seems to indicate that he knew no writings
applicable to North America. The "Essays upon Field-
Husbandry," by Rev. Jared Eliot, of Killingworth,
Connecticut, grandson of the famous apostle Eliot, were
begun in 1748 and completed in 1759. (See "Cyclopedia
of American Agriculture," Vol. IV, pp. 568, 569.) "There
are sundry books on husbandry wrote in England,"
said Eliot, in his preface. "Having read all on that
subject I could obtain; yet such is the difference of
climate and Method of Management between then and
us, arising from Causes that must make them always

1510

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

differ, so that those Books are not very Useful to us.
Besides this, the Terms; of Art made use of are so un-
known to us, that a great deal they Write is quite
unintelligible to the generality of New England
Readers."

Just at the close of the Revolution, J. Hector St.
John's "Letters from an American Farmer" appeared,
although "the troubles that convulsed the American
colonies had not broken out when . . . some of the
. . . letters were written." For a period of twenty-
five years following the close of the war the condition
of our agriculture, and of all American institutions, was
minutely unfolded to the world through the writings
of many travelers, English and French, who made
inquisitive journeys into the new country. Strickland,
an English traveler, wrote in 1801 that "land in America
affords little pleasure or profit, and appears in a prog-
ress of continually affording less. . . . Land in New
York, formerly producing twenty bushels to the acre,
now produces only ten. . . . Little profit can be
found in the present mode of agriculture of this coun-
try, and I apprehend it to be a fact that it affords a
bare subsistence. . . . Decline has pervaded all the
states." There is abundant evidence, including a pains-
taking inquiry made by Washington, to show that
agriculture was at a low state at the close of the cen-
tury. It was in striking contrast to its status a hundred
years later, notwithstanding the pessimistic writings of
the later time.

There was early development of the garden desire in
the South as well as in the North. In South Carolina
appeared the earliest American horticultural book of
which we have any record. This book is no longer
extant, and it is known to this generation chiefly or
wholly from the following page in Ramsay's "History
of South Carolina," 1809: "The planters of Carolina
have derived so great profits from the cultivation of
rice, indigo [see Indigo] and cotton that they have
always too much neglected the culture of gardens. The
high price of their staple commodities in every period
has tempted them to sacrifice convenience to crops
of a marketable quality. There are numbers whose
neglected gardens neither afford flowers to regale
the senses, nor the vegetables necessary to the comfort
of their families, though they annually receive con-
siderable sums in money for then1 crops sent to market.
To this there have been some illustrious exceptions of
persons who cultivated gardens on a large scale, both
for use and pleasure. The first that can be recollected
is Mrs. Lamboll, who, before the middle of the eigh-
teenth century, improved the southwest extremity of
King Street [Charleston], in a garden which was richly
stored with flowers and other curiosities of nature, in
addition to all the common vegetables for family use.
She was followed by Mrs. Logan and Mrs. Hopton,
who cultivated extensive gardens hi Meeting, George
and King Streets, on lands now covered with houses.
The former reduced the knowledge she had acquired by
long experience and observation to a regular system,
which was published after her death, with the title of
'The Gardener's Kalendar;' and to this day regulates
the practice of gardens in and near Charlestown."
Ramsay records that Mrs. Martha Logan was the
daughter of Robert Daniel, one of the last proprietary
governors of South Carolina. "Mrs. Logan was a
great florist, and uncommonly fond of a garden. She
was seventy years old when she wrote her treatise on
gardening, and died in 1779, aged seventy-seven years."

Mrs. Logan's book was perhaps only a pamphlet.
The first regular American gardening book, if Mrs.
Logan's is excluded, is apparently Robert Squibb's
"Gardener's Kalender," published in Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1787 (see pp. 1520-1).

The opening of the nineteenth century may be taken
as a convenient starting-point for a narrative of the
evolution of American horticulture. At that time hor-

ticulture began to attain some prominence as distinct
from general agriculture, and the establishment of
peace after the long and depleting war with England
had turned the attention of the best citizens afresh to
the occupation of the soil. The example of Washington,
in returning to the farm after a long and honorable
public career, no doubt exerted great influence. His agri-
cultural correspondence was large, and much of it was
published at the opening of the century. His correspon-
dence with Arthur Young and Sir John Sinclair will be
found in volumes published in London in 1800 and 1801,
in Alexandria in 1803, and in Washington in 1847.
Details respecting the management of his plantations
comprise Vol. IV of the "Memoirs of the Long Island
Historical Society," 1889.

Apparently, it was not until 1790 that an indigenous
and distinctly general agricultural treatise after
Eliot's appeared in America. At that time, the Rev.
Samuel Deane, vice-president of Bowdoin College, pub-
lished his "New England Farmer, or Georgical Dic-
tionary," a cyclopedic work of the state of American
agriculture. This passed to a second edition in 1797,
and to a third in 1822. As showing both the contents
of this important book and the methods of reviewing
of that day, the following comment is transcribed
from the "Columbian Centinel," for 16th of June, 1790,
printed in Boston. It is in the guise of a communi-
cation from a correspondent, as was then the. custom.
It must be one of the earliest reviews of an agricultural
book to appear in this country:

"Nothing has been more wanting in this Country than a book of
Practical Husbandry. The late Dr. Elliot of Connecticut wrote
some short essays, which were well received, but it was reserved for
Mr. Deane, of Portland, to give the publick a System of Husbandy for
New England. This valuable book is now published and on perusal
exceeds the expectation which had been formed of it. It is founded
on solid principles of natural philosophy and practical experiment.
All that is valuable in European books of husbandry is selected and
accommodated to the climate and seasons of this country. Many
new and curious observations are introduced; and the whole is
cast in such a form and expressed in such language as must render
it useful to the plain husbandman, while the enlightened naturalist
will find it an agreeable entertainment.

"It not only contains a general system of agriculture, but treats
of everything which usually falls under the care of the husband-
man and his family, such as cattle, horses, sheep, bees, timber —
gives the best directions for the care of the garden, the dairy and
the cellar — and much of what is said may be extremely useful in all
families where bees, cyder, fruit, milk and other necessary articles
are preserved. In short it is a book which does honor to the ingenu-
ity, and industry of its author, and deserves to be read by every
person who wishes well to the best interest of this country."

In the Georgetown, South Carolina, "Gazette,"
March 13, 1799, is a half-column of proposals for
publishing by subscription " 'Notes on Agriculture
adapted to the soil, climate, and markets of South
Carolina,' by Louis DuPre. To be put to press as
soon as 200 copies are subscribed for. Price one dollar
specie." (See page 1520.)

In 1799, J. B. Bordley published in Philadelphia
"Essays and Notes on Husbandry." Other early works
need not be mentioned here. As early as 1785, Varlo's
"New System of Husbandry" was printed in Philadel-
phia. It is in many ways a remarkable book, and it was
written by a man who had had remarkable experiences.
He was not an American, and the work first appeared
in the old country; but Varlo had lived in this country,
and was in sympathy with the American people. The
book contained a "Farmer's and Kitchen1 Garden Cal-
endar." In 1792 there appeared anonymously, from
Burlington, New Jersey, the third edition of Arthur
Young's "Rural Economy." He argues strongly for
experiments and for the establishing of agricultural
journals. This book first appeared in London, in
1770.

At the opening of the century (1800), Sir Humphry
Davy had not illumined the science of agricultural
chemistry, and men were even disputing as to what the
food of plants is. The "burn-baking" or "devonshiring"
of the land — burning the sod and scattering the ashes

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1511

over the field — was still recommended; and in 1799
James Anderson's "Essays on Quick-lime as a Cement
and as a Manure," was given an American edition
in Boston. It is easy to see from these facts that
the fundamental conceptions of the science of agricul-
ture were vague and crude a century ago. Near the
close of the last century, Deane wrote that "the alarm-
ing effect of the present low state of husbandry is,
that we are necessitated to import much of our food
and clothing, while we are incapable of making propor-
tionable remittances in the produce of the soil, or in
anything else."

Green's book on flowers, published in Boston in 1828,
enables us to determine what were the leading orna-
mental plants in that early day. The full title of the
book is "A Treatise on the Cultivation of Ornamental
Flowers; Comprising Remarks on the Requisite Soil,
Sowing, Transplanting, and General Management;
with Directions for the General Treatment of Bulbous
Flower Roots, Greenhouse Plants, etc." It comprises
only sixty pages. The introductory pages give general
directions, then follow two annotated lists, one of
annuals and biennials and the other of greenhouse
plants. These lists are interesting, also, for what they
do not contain. All the plants they mention are here
set down, under the names and with the spelling there
employed:

ANNUAL AND BIENNIAL FLOWERS.

Althaea frutex.

Almond, double-flowering.

Amaranthus superbus.

Amaranthus tricolor.

Animated oata.

Aster, China.

Auricula.

Azalea nudiflora.

Box.

Brier, Sweet.

Canterbury Bell.

Carnation.

Cassia marylandica.

Catalpa.

Cherry, double-flowering.

Chrysanthemum indicum.

Clematis, Austrian (C. integ-

rifolia).
Clethra.
Columbine.
Convolvulus.
Corchorus japonicus.
Crocus.
Cupid's Car, or Monk's Hood

fAconitum).
Dahlia.
Daisy.

Dwarf Basil.
Egg Plant.
Eupatorium, blue.
Euphorbia Lathyris.
Fading Beauty, or Morning

Bride (Scabiosa).
Fir (Pinus balsamea).
Foxglove.
Fringe Tree.

Geranium (Pelargonium).
Garden Angelica.
Glycine, cluster-flowering.
Golden Coreopsis.
Golden Everlasting (Xeranthe-

mum, lucidum).
Hollyhock.
Honeysuckle.
Hyacinth.
Hydrangea.
Ice Plant.

Impatiens Balsamina.

Iris.

Lagerstroemia indica.

Laurel, broad-leaved (Kalmia

latifolia).
Laburnum.
Larkspur.
Lilac.
Lily.
Lime Plant (Podophyllum pel-

tatum).

Lychnadia (Phlox).
Mezereon (Daphne mezereum).
Mountain Ash.
Musk Geranium.
Myrtle, evergreen (Vinca minor).
Narcissus.
Nasturtium.
Passion Flower.
Pseony.
Pea, sweet.

Peach, double-flowering.
Pink.

Perennial Sunflower, double.
Polyanthus.

Pyrethrum parthenium.
Poppy-
Purple Hyacinth Bean.
Roses.

Rose Acacia.
Rose-colored Hibiscus.
Rudbeckia.
Scarlet Cacalia.

Scarlet Lynchis (L. chalcedonica).
Siberian Crab.
Snow-ball Tree.
Snpwberry.

Spice-wood (Laurus Benzoin).
Spiderwort (Tradescantia).
Spiraea.

Syringa, or Mock Orange.
Strawberry Tree (Euonymus).
Sweet Bay (Laurus nobilis).
Sweet William, or Poetic Pink.
Tulip.

Venetian Sumac, or Fringe Tree.
Violet, blue fragrant.

GREEN HOUSE PLANTS.

Lilies of the valley.

Ranunculuses.

Anemones.

Single and Double Jonquils.

White Lilies.

Roses.

Tuberoses.

Persian Iris.

Mignionette.

Verbena trifoliata, or Sweet

Vervain.
Fuhsia coccinea.
Cobsea scandens.
Camellia japonica, or Japanese

Rose.
Myrtles (Myrtus communis).

These lists are much less ample than those of M'Ma-
hon, over twenty years earlier, but they may be sup-

posed to include the popular and most easily grown
things. They will be suggestive to those who wish to
make "old-fashioned gardens." M'Mahon's list was
evidently largely compiled from European sources.
Green says that the first list (strangely called "annual
and biennial flowers") contains "such plants, shrubs
and trees as are of easy cultivation, generally hardy."
The second list comprises "a few different sorts of
green house plants" "which are commonly grown in
rooms."

The early writings clearly portray the tendencies of
the floricultural interests, — from the formal-flower
ideals of the dahlia and camellia to the enormous devel-
opment of the cut-flower interest, and the growth within
the last few years of the greater love of plants them-
selves. Palms and decorative plants are now almost
household necessities, whereas seventy-five years ago
they would have been luxuries. "There has been a radi-
cal change in the character of the flowers used for cut-
flower purposes," wrote Alfred Henderson in 1895.
"Fifty years ago, camellia flowers retailed freely for a
dollar each, and during the holidays Philadelphia used
to send thousands to New York florists, getting $500
per 1,000; while roses went begging at one-tenth these
figures. Now, the rose is queen, and the poor camellia

finds none so poor to do her reverence I

confidently believe that the time is not far distant
when we shall compete seriously with the foreign
grower in the production of new varieties of roses."
William Scott, of Buffalo, in 1900 made the following
comments on floriculture: "About the year 1880, tulips
and narcissuses began to be forced, and during the
next fifteen uears immense quantities of these bulbs
were imported annually from Holland. As the methods
of forcing were perfected the market became over-
stocked, and, although large quantities are still forced
for the winter and spring months, they are not now
in the same favor as formerly, and the rose, carnation,
violet, lily-of-the-valley and mignonette are still the
favorites. Orchids are not yet the flower for the mil-
lion, but there is a yearly increasing demand for them,
and at present the showy orchids, such as the Cat-
tleyas and Laelias, are far short of the demand. As
their cultivation is more generally understood, we look
for a very steady increase in the number grown, and
are confident that the supply will not soon exceed the
demand. Within the past five or six years a marked
increase is noticeable in the use of plants to adorn the
home, and the demand is for an expensive class of
plants, — palms, dracenas, araucarias and ferns being
among those mostly used. Now few homes with any
pretension to luxury or even comfort are without a few
fine plants scattered through the rooms, and many of
our modern houses are provided with either a bay
window or small conservatory for the accommodation
of plants." (See Cut-Flower Industry and Floriculture.)

America has not been favored with horticultural
annuals to the extent equally with England and other
countries. The first attempt of the kind seems to have
been Woodward's "Record of Horticulture," edited by
A. S. Fuller, which appeared in 1866 and 1867. The next
venture was the "American Horticultural Annual,"
New York, for the years 1868 ,1869 and 1870, under the
general editorial care of George Thurber. The attempt
was not made again until the "Annals of Horticul-
ture," was issued by Bailey, in 1889, and which was
published for five years, the last volume containing an
account of the horticulture of the Columbian Exposition.

Fruit-growing in particular.

Horticulture, in its commercial aspects, was nothing
more than an incidental feature of farm management
at the opening of the century. In fact, it is only in
the past generation that the field cultivation of horti-
cultural crops has come to assume any general impor-
tance in the rural economy of the nation. And even

1512

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

now, horticultural operations which are projected
as a fundamental conception of land occupation are
confined to relatively few parts of the country. It is
only in certain regions or with certain persons that the
farmer starts out with horticulture as a base, and with
grain and stock and hay as accessories; and even in
these places, many horticulturists are still drawing
their practices and the reasons for them from the opera-
tions of general mixed agriculture. The history of fruit-
growing in most of the older parts of North America is
the history of the apple, and the subject is developed
under that heading; but before proceeding to the apple
specially we may pause to consider some of the dates in
the extension of fruit-growing westward.

"It may not occur to many of our people," writes
Charles W. Garfield, "that the horticulture of Michi-
gan may have had its beginning as early as that of
Massachusetts, as the French Jesuit missionaries
visited Detroit the same year that the Mayflower
landed its pilgrims at Plymouth Rock." The influence
of the French missionaries must be well considered
when the history of American horticulture is written,
particularly of those parts that lie along the great
waterways. The old pear trees along the Detroit River
and in eastern Michigan attest the early French dis-
semination. The first planting of orchards in Michigan,
according to Garfield, "were made at Detroit from
stock secured across the river, the stock having origi-
nally come from France to Montreal, and progressed
westward with the settlements. The varieties were
Fameuse, Pomme Grise, and Red and White Colville."
The first large importation of orchard trees was made
about 1825, the stock having come from Grant Thor-
burn of New York. The spread of tree-planting to
the westward followed regularly with the progress of
settlement.

The above remarks about the Jesuits indicate that
the early American fruit-growing was not all derived
from British sources. Much of the influence was cer-
tainly French; on the Pacific coast and probably in
parts on the southern borders of the present United
States it was Spanish. It would be interesting to try to
trace the influence of the Dutch and other colonizers.

The reader who desires to trace the beginnings of
fruit-planting in some of the territory from Nebraska
south and southwest should consult the "Proceedings

of the Ameri-
can Pomologi-
cal Society"
for 1905
(pages 74-98).
In Nebraska,
apples were
planted in
1853. It ap-
pears that in
Kansas apple-
tree planting
has been re-
corded near
Shawnee-
town, John-
son County,
as early as
1827 by Rev.
Thomas
Johnson, the
variety being
the Newtown
Pippin. In
1836, he
planted pear
trees. In Ar-
kansas, J. B.

1853. Relic of early days— apple tree Russell, of

at probably 250 years. Cane Hill, had

a small nursery of apple trees in 1835. A little after this
date, Isaac Shannon originated the apple that bears his
name. Before the close of the seventeenth century,
the French at St. Genevieve, Missouri, had planted
pears, grapes and a few apples. In New Mexico, the
agricultural industry developed to some extent under

1854. Bartram's cider-mill, a relic of the last century.
It is said that the apples were placed in the circular groove in
the rock and crushed by means of a weight rolling over them. The
juice ran out the gutter at the farther side and was caught in a
rock-hewn cistern.

Spanish rule, and continued under the Mexican rule
from 1822 to 1845, but little reference is made to fruit.
It is recorded that the Bishop of Santa Fe, early intro-
duced apricots and apples from the States, and John
Clark planted apple trees from Missouri in Rio Arriba
County in 1859.

The development of fruit-growing in the Northwest
is sketched for this occasion by C. I. Lewis. The first
authentic introducton of fruit into the Pacific North-
west (of the United States) was in 1824, when seed
was brought from England by members of the Hudson
Bay Company. This seed was planted near what is
now Vancouver, Washington, then a trading-post of
the Hudson Bay Company. Seeds of apples, grapes,
pears, and peaches were planted. The apple trees which
resulted from this seed are still standing on govern-
ment lands occupied by the Vancouver barracks. There
were other introductions by various persons, but they
probably had no influence on the growth of the fruit
industry in the Northwest. In 1847, Henderson Lewel-
ling, of Iowa, brought several hundred yearling grafted
sprouts of mixed fruits. The same year William Meek
brought a sack of apple seed and a few grafted trees.
These two men established the first nursery in the Pacific
Northwest at Milwaukee, Oregon, and laid the founda-
tion of our commercial fruit industry. In the following
ten or fifteen years, many men brought trees and seed,
and nurseries were started. From 1850 to 1870, fabu-
lous prices were received for fruit, one box of apples
selling for $75, while in 1855, 6,000 bushels of apples
sold for prices ranging between $20 and $30 a bushel.
The period between 1850 and 1870 also marked the
introduction of plums and prunes into the Northwest
country. The first Italian prune orchard was set in
1858 by Seth Lewelling. Between 1870 and 1890 was a
period of decline. The former demand from Cali-
fornia ceased and railroads were few, the freight rates
being exorbitant. Beginning early in the 1890's the
fruit industry of the Northwest began to revive. About
1900, the apple industry began to recover. In 1896,
the Lambert cherry was introduced commercially,
and has proved to be the greatest commercial cherry

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1513

for shipping. J. R. Cardwell has been the princi-
pal historian of Northwest horticulture. He came out
in the early days of the fruit industry and is still living.
He has been very influential in building up the fruit
industry in the Pacific Northwest.

The apple.

There was practically only one general horticultural
commodity, at least in the northern states, a hundred

1855. An early cider-mill in Pennsylvania.

years ago, and that was the apple. Pears, peaches, cher-
ries, quinces and some other fruits were common, but
there was little thought of marketing them. Even the
apple was an incidental or even an accidental crop.
Little care was given the trees, and the varieties were
few, and they were rarely chosen with reference to
particular uses, beyond their adaptability to cider and
the home consumption. In parts of the East, very
ancient apple-tree relics still stand, some of them per-
haps existing from Colonial times (Fig. 1853).

Thacher, writing from Plymouth in 1821, says that
"the most palpable neglect prevails in respect of proper
pruning, cleaning, and manuring round the roots of
trees, and of perpetuating choice fruits, by engrafting
from it on other stocks. Old orchards are, in general,
in a state of rapid decay; and it is not uncommon to
see valuable and thrifty trees exposed to the depreda-
tions of cattle and sheep, and their foliage annoyed by
caterpillars and other destructive insects. In fact, we
know of no branch of agriculture so unaccountably and
so culpably disregarded." Were it not for the date of
Thacher's writing, we might mistake this picture for
one drawn at the present day.

If one may judge from the frequent and particular
references to cider in the old accounts, it does not seem
too much to say that this sprightly commodity was held
in greater estimation by our ancestors than by our-
selves. In fact, the cider barrel seems to have been the
chief and proper end of the apple. Of his thirty chapters
on fruit-growing, Coxe (1817) devotes nine to cider, or
forty-two pages out of 253. John Taylor's single epis-
tle devoted to horticultural matters in the sixty and
more letters of his "Arator" is upon "Orchards," but it
is mostly a vehement plea for more cider. "Good
cider," he says, "would be a national saving of wealth,
by expelling foreign liquors; and of life, by expelling the
use of ardent spirits." In Virginia, in Taylor's day,
apples were "the only species of orchards, at a distance
from cities, capable of producing sufficient profit and
comfort to become a considerable object to a farmer.
Distilling from fruit is precarious, troublesome, trifling
and out of his province. But the apple will furnish
some food for hogs, a luxury for his family in winter,
and a healthy liquor for himself and his laborers all the
year. Independent of any surplus of cider he may
spare, it is an object of solid profit and easy acquisition."
As early as 1647, twenty butts of cider were made in
Virginia by one person, Richard Rennet. Paul Dudley
writes of a small town near Boston, containing about

forty families, which made nearly 3,000 barrels of
cider in the year 1721; and another New England town,
of 200 families, which supplied itself with "near ten
Thousand Barrels." Bartram's cider-mill, as it exists
at the present day, is shown in Fig. 1854. An old mill
in Pennsylvania is shown in Fig. 1855. It is a ponderous
pine log, more than three feet through, raised and low-
ered by means of a great screw. "These presses"
according to C. F. Shaw, "were 'neighborhood' affairs
in cider-making time and the farmers would rise very-
early that they might reach the press before their
neighbors, and so not have to wait long before their
turn to have their cider made." It was not until well
into the past century that people seem to have escaped
the European notion that fruit is to be drunk. Jarvis
writes (1910) of Connecticut conditions that in "the
first half of the last century many commerical orchards
of modest size were in existence, but they were com-
posed mostly of seedling trees or 'native fruit,' the prod-
uct of which was used largely in the manufacture of
cider."

There have been several marked alternations of fervor
and neglect in the planting of apples since the first set-
tlement of the country. Early in the eighteenth century
there appears to have been a great abundance of the
fruit; but in 1821 Thacher declared that "it is a remark-
able fact that the first planters bequeathed to their
posterity a greater number of orchards, in proportion
to their population, than are now to be found in the
old colony," and he attributes the decline in orcharding
largely to the encroachment of the "poisonous liquor"
of the later times. Under the inspiration of Thacher,
Coxe, Kendrick, Prince, Manning, and the Downings,
orchards were again planted, and later there was
another period of decline in the East, following the
aging of these plantations. Two reminders of the
Downings are shown in Figs. 1856 and 1857, made
from photographs taken by the writer some twenty or
more years ago.

Apple trees were very early planted in the New
World. On Governor's Island, in Boston harbor, a few
apples were picked in 1639. Trees were carried far
into the frontiers by the Indians and probably also by
the French missionaries, and the "Indian apple
orchards" are still known in many localities even east of
the Mississippi (see, also, Appleseed, Johnny page, 1563).
At the opening of the nineteenth century, the Early
Harvest, Newtown Pippin, Swaar, Spitzenburg, Rhode
Island Greening, Yellow Bellflower, Roxbury Russet,
and other familiar apples of American origin were widely
disseminated and much esteemed. Apples had begun
to be planted by settlers in Ohio before 1800. In 1817,
Coxe could recommend a list of "one hundred kinds
of the most estimable apples cultivated in our coun-

1856. One of the old Downing test apple trees as it stood
about 25 years ago.

1514

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

try;" and in 1825 William Prince offered 116 varie-
ties for sale; — at 37 Y<> cents a tree — of which seventeen
were set aside — after the custom of the time — as par-
ticularly adapted to the making of cider. Of these 116
varieties, sixty-one were considered to be of American
origin. In 1872, Downing's list of apples which had
been fruited and described in America, had swollen to
1,856 varieties, of which 1,099 were of known American
origin. Of this great inventory, probably not over one-

1857. The fruit-house of Charles Downing.

third were actually in cultivation at any one time, and
very many of them are now lost. In 1892, the trade-
lists showed that 878 varieties were actually offered for
sale by the nurserymen of North America.

The style of illustration in these old books is well dis-
played in Fig. 1858, from Coxe, original size.

There has been a noticeable tendency toward the
origination of varieties of apples in this country, and
the consequent exclusion of varieties of European ori-
gin. As early as 1760, cions of American varieties were
sent to England. Before the Revolution, apples were
exported. The origination of indigenous varieties was,
of course, largely accidental, and was a necessary result
of the method of growing apple trees directly from
seeds, and top-grafting them in case they should turn
out profitless. A critical study of American horti-
culture will show that all species of plants which have
been widely cultivated in this country have gradually
run into indigenous varieties, and the whole body of our
domesticated flora has undergone a progressive evolu-
tion and adaptation without our knowing it. By far the
greater number of the apples of the older apple-growing
regions of the country are indigenous varieties, and the
same process is now operating in the Northwest, where
the American seedlings of the Russian stock are prov-
ing to be more valuable than the original importations.

Pears were amongst the earliest fruits introduced into
the New World, and the French, particularly, dissemi-
nated them far and wide along the waterways, as wit-
nessed by the patriarchal trees of the Detroit River
and parts of the Mississippi system (p. 1512). Bar-
tram's Petre pear (Fig. 1851) is one of the patriarchs of
the last century, although the tree is not large. The
first American book devoted exclusively to the pear was
Field's, published in 1859. The Japanese type of pears
had been brought into the country from two and per-
haps three separate introductions, early in the fifties,
but they had not gained sufficient prominence to
attract Field's attention. From this oriental stock has

come a race of promising kinds represented chiefly by
the Kieffer, LeConte and Garber.

Peaches were early introduced into the New World
by various colonists, and they thrived so well that they
soon became spontaneous. Nuttall found them natu-
ralized in the forests of Arkansas in 1819, and the spe-
cies now grows in waste and forest lands from Georgia
and the Carolinas to the westward of the Mississippi.
There is probably no country in which peaches grow
and bear so freely over such a wide territory
as in North America. The old Spanish or
Melocoton type is now the most popular
race of peaches, giving rise to the Craw-
fords and their derivatives.

Of late years there has been a contraction
of some of the original peach areas, and
many good people have thought that the
climate is growing uncongenial, but it is only
the natural result of the civilization of the
country and the change in methods. Peaches
had never been an industry, but the or-
chards were planted here and there as very
minor appendages to the general farming.
For generations insect pests were not com-
mon. There were no good markets, and the
fruit sold as low as 25 cents a bushel from
the wagon-box. In fact, the fruit was grown
more for the home-supply than with an idea
of shipping it to market. Under such con-
ditions, it did not matter if half the crop
was wormy, or if many trees failed and died
each year. Such facts often passed almost
unnoticed. The trees bore well, to be sure;
but the crop was not measured in baskets
and accounted for in dollars and cents, and
under such conditions only the most pro-
ductive trees left their impress on the
memory. The soils had not undergone such a long
system of robbery then as now. When the old
orchards wore out, there was no special incentive to
plant more, for there was little money in them. Often
the young and energetic men had gone West, there to
repeat the history perhaps, and the old people did not
care to set orchards. And on this contracting area, all
the borers and other pests which had been bred in the
many old orchards now concentrated their energies,
until they have left scarcely enough trees in some locali-
ties upon which to perpetuate their kind. A new coun-
try or a new industry is usually free of serious attacks
of those insects that follow the crop in older communi-
ties. But the foes come in unnoticed, and for a time
spread unmolested, when finally, perhaps almost sud-
denly, their number becomes so great that they threaten
destruction, and the farmer looks on in amazement.

Oranges. — The orange is another tree that has thrived
so well in the new country that the spontaneous
thickets of Florida, known to be descendants of early
Spanish introductions, are supposed by residents to be
indigenous to the soil.

As to oranges and similar fruits on the Pacific coast,
Coit writes in "Citrus Fruits" (1915) as follows:
"Citrus seeds were first brought into California from the
peninsula of Lower California, where peoples of Spanish
descent have cultivated various kinds of European
fruit frees and vines since the year 1701. In 1768 the
Jesuit missionaries were supplanted by the Franciscans,
some of whom under the leadership of Junipero Serra
pushed northward into the territory which is now the
state of California. These hardy pioneers founded the
first Mission in Upper California at San Diego in 1769,
and proceeding northward established a chain of Mis-
sions extending 400 miles along the coast, the last
being established at Somoma in 1823."

Plums and cherries. — The progress of the plum in
America nearly equals that of the grape in historic
interest. The small spontaneous plums, known as

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1515

Damsons, the offspring of introductions from Europe,
were early abundant in New England. Plum-culture
has never thrived far south of Mason and Dixon's
line or west of Lake Michigan, except, of course, on the
Pacific slope and parts of the far southwestern country.
There are climatic limitations which more or less
restrict the area of plum-growing, and the leaf-blight
fungus, black-knot, and fruit-rot have added to the
perplexities. In these great interior and southern areas
various native plums, offshoots of several indigenous
species, have now spread themselves, and they have
already laid the foundation of a new type of plum-cul-
ture. The first of these novel plums to receive a name
was that which we now know as the Miner, and the
seed from which it sprung was planted by William
Dodd, an officer under General Jackson, in Knox
County, Tennessee, in 1814. The second of these
native plums to come into prominence, and the one
which really marks the popularization of the fruit, is the
Wild Goose. Some time before 1830, it is related, a
man shot a wild goose near Columbia, Tennessee, and
where the remains were thrown this plum sprang
forth. It was introduced to the trade about 1850. by
the late J. S. Downer, of Fairview, Kentucky. Over
200 named varieties of these native plums are now
described, and some of them are widely disseminated
and deservedly popular. In the South and on the
plains, these natives are a prominent horticultural
group. The complexity of the cultivated plum flora is
now further increased by the introduction of the Japa-
nese or Chinese type, which first came in by way of
California in 1870. Finally, about 1880, the apricot
plum, or Prunus Simonii, was introduced from China
by way of France; and the American plum industry,
with no less than ten specific types to draw upon and
which represent the entire circuit of the northern hemi-
sphere, is now fairly launched upon an experimental
career which already has produced remarkable results.

The cherry was early introduced from Europe. In
1641 trees were planted in Virginia in the orchard of
Governor Berkeley. As early as 1663 it was grown in
Massachusetts. The commercial cherries of this coun-
try are derived from the same species as those of
Europe, although the dwarf sand-cherry of the Plains
has been improved or cultivated to some extent.

Grapes. — In America, no crop has been the subject of
so much book-writing as the grape. Counting the
various editions, no doubt a hundred books have
appeared, being the work of at least fifty authors.
Since the American grape is a product of our own woods
within about a century, the progress in grape-growing
has been ahead of the books. Most of the books
are founded largely on European advice, and therefore
are not applicable to American conditions. In general
pomology, the books seem to have had much influence
upon fruit-growing; but in the grape the books and
actual commercial grape-growing seem to have had ,
little relation one to the other. Some of the later books
have more nearly caught the right point of view.

The grape of North America is of two unlike types, —
the natives, which comprise all commercial outdoor
varieties in the interior and eastern states; and the vinif-
era or Old World kinds, which are grown under glass
and in California. The native types were developed
within the nineteenth century. The oldest commercial
variety is the Catawba, which dates from 1802; the
cosmopolitan variety the Concord, which first fruited
in 1849 (see p. 1374). A full review of the history is
made in "Evolution of Our Native Fruits." With the first
settlement of the country, efforts were made to grow
the European wine-grape. Thus in 1619 vine-dressers
and vines were sent from France to Virginia; the
subsequent history of the wine-grape in North America
is a record of repeated attempts and continuous fail-
ures; and these failures, due largely to phylloxera and
mildew, finally forced the cultivation of the native

species of Vitis. In Mexico and on the Pacific slope,
however, the wine-grape established itself readily
about the missions, and it is now the foundation of the
grape-culture of California. It is very likely that these
introductions of the padres preceded those in the
eastern American colonies.

A very interesting error appears to have crept into
North American history in connection with the native
grapes. The "wineberry" found by the Norsemen on
the American coast in the eleventh century has pre-
vailingly been identified as grapes, and this interpre-
tation has made it apparent that the explorers came
south as far as the present New England. Recently,
however, M. L. Fernald has concluded (Rhodora,
xii, 17-38, Feb., 1910), that the wineberries of the Norse-
men were certainly not grapes, but most likely the
mountain cranberry, Vaccinium Vitis-Idsea.

To show how far we have come in grape-culture,
the examples in Fig. 1859 will be interesting. This
cut is from S. W. Johnson's "Rural Economy," 1806,
published in New Jersey. It shows the method with the
European wine-grape. Just twenty years later appeared
Dufour's book on the grape; he also represents a foreign
method (Fig. 1860).

Strawberry. — There was no commercial strawberry-
culture in America, worthy of the name, until the
introduction of the Hovey (Fig. 1861) late in the
thirties of last century. This and the Boston Pine
were seedlings of C. M. Hovey's, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts. They first fruited in 1836 and 1837, and
from them are supposed to have descended many of the
garden strawberries of the present day. These were
seedlings of the old Pine type of strawberry, which is
apparently a descendant of the wild strawberry of Chile.
The Wilson, or Wilson's Albany, which originated with
John Wilson, of Albany, New York, began to attract

1858. Example of the earliest illustrations of American fruits.
Esopus Spitzenberg, figured by Coxe in 1817.

attention about 1856 or 1857, and it marked the begin-
ning of the modern epoch in American strawberry-
growing. In the Middle West, strawberry-growing was
given a great impulse by Longworth and Warder.

Bramble fruits. — Raspberries were grown in North
America in the eighteenth century, but they were of the
tender European species, of which the Antwerps were
the common types. This type of raspberry is now
almost wholly superseded by the offspring of the

1516

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

native red and black species, which first began to
impress themselves upon cultivation about 1860.

The blackberry, an indigenous American fruit, first
commended itself to cultivation with the introduction
of the New Rochelle or Lawton, toward the close of the
1850's. The first named variety of native blackberry of
which we have any record was the Dorchester, which
was exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society in 1841.

The dewberry, a peculiarly American fruit, first
appeared in cultivation early in the 1870's in southern
Illinois under the name of the Bartel, which is a large
form of the common wild dewberry of that region. It
was first brought to the attention of the public in 1875.
The following year the Lucretia, the most popular of
dewberries, was introduced into Ohio from West Vir-
ginia, where it had been found wild some years before
by a Union soldier.

Gooseberries. — The history of the gooseberry in
America recalls that of the grape. It is a characteristic
fruit of England and the Low Countries, and it was
early introduced into America. But, like the European
grapes, the gooseberries were attacked by a fungous
sickness which rendered the cultivation precarious.
An improved form of the native species must be intro-
duced, and this was accomplished by Abel Houghton,
of Massachusetts, who, from the seed of the wild berry,
produced the variety which now bears his name (Fig.
1862). This variety began to attract some attention a

1859. An early American picture of grape- training (18C5)

little previous to 1850, although it was not planted
freely until several years later. From seed of the
Houghton sprang the Downing, still the most popular
gooseberry in America, although Houghton is still
much grown from Philadelphia south; and our goose-
berry-culture is, therefore, but two removes from
nature. With the advent of the bordeaux mixture
and its related specifics, however, the English goose-
berries are again coming to the fore. Hybrids of the
English and American types, as in the Triumph or
Columbia and the Chautauqua, may be expected to
become more popular for home use and special markets,
but the Americans will probably remain in favor for
general market purposes.

The cranberry, most singular of American horticul-
tural products, was first cultivated, or rescued from
mere wild bogs, about 1810. Its cultivation began to
attract attention about 1840, although the difficulties
connected with the growing of a new crop did not begin
to clear away until about 1850. Cape Cod was the
first cranberry-growing region, which was soon fol-
lowed by New Jersey, and later by Wisconsin and other
regions. The varieties now known are over a hundred,
and the annual product from tame bogs in North
America is now upward of 1,000,000 bushels.

The nursery and seed business.

It is impossible to fix a date for the beginning of the
nursery business in North America. Trees were at
first grown in small quantities as an
adjunct to general farm operations.
Gov. John Endicott, of the Mas-
sachusetts Colony, was one of the
best fruit-growers of his time, and
he grew many trees. In 1644, he
wrote to John Winthrop as follows:
"My children burnt mee at least
500 trees this Spring by setting the
ground on fire neere them;" and in
1648 he traded 500 apple trees, three
years old, for 250 acres of land. The
first nursery in Maine is thought
by Manning to have been that of
Ephraim Goodale, at Orrington,
established early in the present cen-
tury. Other early nurserymen of
Maine were the brothers Benjamin
and Charles Vaughan, Englishmen,
who settled at Hallo well in 1796.
An early nursery in South Carolina
was established by John Watson,
formerly gardener to Henry Laurens,
before the Revolution. In Massa-
chusetts, there were several small
nurserymen toward the close of the
eighteenth century, amongst others,
John Kenrick, of Newtown, whose
son William wrote the "New Ameri-
can Orchardist," published in 1833,
and which passed through at least
eight editions. The trees were usu-
ally top-grafted or budded, some-
times in the nursery and sometimes
after removal to the orchard.
Deane writes in 1797, that "the
fruit trees should be allowed to
grow to the height of 5 or 6 feet
before they are budded or grafted."
Stocks were sometimes grafted at
the crown, and even root-grafting
was known, although it is gener-
ally said that this operation origi-
nated with Thomas Andrew Knight,
in 1811. It is probable, however,
that the root-grafting of the eigh-
teenth century was only grafting

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1517

at the surface of the ground, and that it had little
similarity to the method now in vogue.

One of the new trees something over one hundred
years ago was the Lombardy poplar. John Kenrick
had two acres devoted to it in 1797; and Deane writes,
in 1797. that "the Lombardy poplar begins to be planted

I860. Dufour's picture of grape-training (1826). Patterned after the
South-European fashion of employing mulberry trees for supports.

in this country. To what size they will arrive, and how
durable they will be in this country, time will discover."
He does not mention it in the first edition, 1790. The
tree is said to have been introduced into America by
William Hamilton, of Philadelphia, in 1784, although
Mr. Meehan wrote that he remembered trees over
sixty years ago that seemed to be a century old.

Manning quotes a bill of sale of nursery stock in
1799, showing that the price of fruit trees
was 33 l/i cents each. Deane speaks of
raising apple trees as follows: "The way
to propagate them is by sowing the
pomace from cydermills, digging, or hoe-
ing it into the earth in autumn. The
young plants will be up in the following
spring; and the next autumn, they should
be transplanted from the seed-bed into
the nursery, in rows from 2 to 3 feet apart
and 1 foot in the rows, where the ground
has been fitted to receive them." Noth-
ing is said about grafting the trees in the
nursery.

The first independent general nursery
in the New World, in the sense in which
we now understand the term, appears to
have been that established by W'illiam
Prince at Flushing, Long Island, and which
was continued under four generations of
the same family. The founder was William
Prince. The second Prince was also
William, the son, and author of the first
regular American treatise on horticulture,
1828. The third generation was William
Robert Prince. He was the author of "A
Treatise on the Vine" (1830), "ThePomo-
logical Manual" (1831), and "Manual of
Roses" (1846). In the first two he was
aided by his father, the second William.
This William Robert Prince is the one
who first distinguished the types of the
prairie strawberry into the two species,
Fragaria illinoensis and F. iowensis. From

a large catalogue of William Prince, second, published
in 1825 — and which contains, amongst other things,
lists of 116 kinds of apples, 108 of pears, 54 of cherries,
50 of plums, 16 of apricots, 74 of peaches and 255 of
geraniums — the following account is taken of the
founding of this interesting establishment: "The Lin-
nsean Garden was commenced about the
middle of the last century by William
Prince, the father of the present proprietor,
at a time when there were few or no estab-
lishments of the kind in this country. It
originated from his rearing a few trees to
ornament his own grounds; but finding,
after the first efforts had been attended
with success, that he could devote a por-
tion of his lands more lucratively to their
cultivation for sale than to other pur-
poses, he commenced their culture more
extensively, and shortly after published a
catalogue, which, at that early period,
contained several hundred species and
varieties, and hence arose the first exten-
sive fruit collection in America." The
elder Prince died in 1802, "at an advanced
age." In October, 1790, a broadside was
issued in New York, printed by Hugh
Gaine, giving a list of a large collection of
fruit trees and shrubs for sale by William
Prince at Flushing Landing, on Long
Island. The twenty-second edition of this
broadside appeared in 1823. In Thomas
"History of Printing," second edition,
reference is made to an edition printed in
1771.

Amongst the nurseries which were prominent from
1820 to 1830 were Bloodgood's, Floy's, Wilson's, Par-
mentier's, and Hogg's, near New York; Buel and Wil-
son's at Albany; Sinclair and Moore's, at Baltimore.
David Thomas, a man of great character, and pos-
sessed of scientific attainments, was an early horti-
culturist of central or western New York. His collec-
tion of fruits at Aurora on Cayuga Lake, was begun

1861. The original picture of the Hovey strawberry. "Magazine of Horticulture,'
August, 1840. (Original size)

1518

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

about 1830. His son, John J. Thomas, nurseryman and
author of the "American Fruit Culturist," which first
appeared in 1846, died at a ripe old age in 1895. The
nursery of Thomas Hogg, referred to above, was an
important establishment. In a "Catalogue of the
ornamental trees and shrubs, herbaceous and green-

1862. The original picture of the Houghton gooseberry.
From the "Horticulturist" for September, 1868. (Original size)

house plants, cultivated and for sale by Thomas Hogg,
nurseryman and florist," 1834, there are sixteen small
pages, double columns, of mere lists of species and
varieties, comprising no less than 1,200 entries of great
variety. These were offered at "The New York Botanic
Garden in Broadway, near the House of Refuge."
The first Thomas Hogg, an Englishman, procured land
in 1822 in upper Broadway (where Twenty-third Street
now is), and began business as florist and nurseryman.
In 1840 they were removed to Seventy-ninth Street and
East River, and here the sons, Thomas and James,
assisted the father, who died in 1855. Later, James had
a garden at the foot of Eighty-fourth Street, and here
he grew many plants sent from Japan, by his brother
Thomas, who resided and traveled in that country
(page 1580).

The nursery firm of Parsons & Co., on Long Island,
was founded in 1838. It was instrumental in distribut-
ing great quantities of fruit and ornamental stock at a
formative time in American horticulture, and it was a
pioneer in several commercial methods of propagation
of the more difficult ornamental stock. It was a
leading distributor of Japanese plants in the early days.
Between 1840 and 1850 arose the beginnings of that
marvelous network of nurseries, which, under the lead
of Ellwanger & Barry, T. C. Maxwell & Brothers, W.
& T. Smith, and others, has spread the name of western

New York throughout North America. In 1857, Pros-
per J. Berckmans, who had then been a resident of the
United States seven years, removed to Georgia, and
laid the foundation of the very important business now
conducted by his sons.

The oldest American seed house, David Landreth's,
in Philadelphia, was established in 1784. Another was
John Mackejohn's, 1792; others, William Leeson, 1794,
and Bernard M'Mahon, 1800, all of Philadelphia. In
1802, Grant Thorburn's was established in NewYork,
the first catalogue of four pages being published then.
The first and last of these businesses still exist under
the family names. M'Mahon did a large business in
exporting seeds of native plants, and it was through his
work that many American plants came into cultivation
in Europe. His catalogue of seeds of American plants
in 1804, for the export trade, contained about 1,000 spe-
cies of trees, herbs and shrubs. He also announced at
that time that he had "also for sale an extensive variety
of Asiatic, South Sea Islands, African and European
seeds of the most curious and rare kinds." "The prices
shall be moderate, and due allowance will be made to
those who buy to sell again." M'Mahon, through
business and writing, had great influence on American
horticulture in its formative period. He distributed
seeds of the very important Lewis and Clark expedi-
tion; but Landreth is said to have shared these seeds,
and also those collected by Nuttall. Those were days
of the enthusiastic exportation of the seeds of Ameri-
can plants.

The development of the seed trade is coincident with
the development of the postal service. Burnet Land-
reth writes that "it was not until 1775 that the New
York city post office was first established, the mail
passing once every two weeks between New York and
Boston. In 1775, a through mail was established by
Postmaster Franklin between Boston and Savannah,
the letters being carried by post riders, each man cov-
ering 25 miles. Previous to that date, sixty days would
frequently pass without a mail from Virginia."

The number of seed firms in North America is now
in the hundreds. With the development of the plant-
breeding enterprises, local or regional firms and associa-
tions are springing up, to do commerce with particular
strains or lines of breeding. The demand for good
seeds, with recognized merit, is one of the most hopeful
developments in American agriculture. It is of the
same order of excellence as the demand for pedigreed
and well-bred live-stock.

Greenhouses.

The first glasshouse in North America was probably
erected early in the century before last, in Boston, by
Andrew Faneuil, who died in 1737. This house passed
to his nephew, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall.
The greenhouse which is commonly considered to be the
first built in the country was erected in 1764 in New
York, for James Beekman. A picture of this, from
Taft's "Greenhouse Construction," is shown in Fig.

1863. One of the earliest American greenhouses (1764).

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

1519

1863. Glasshouses were fully described in 1804 by
Gardiner and Hepburn, and in 1806 by M'Mahon, but
these authors do not state to what extent such struc-
tures existed in America. In Doctor Hosack's bo-
tanic garden, 1801, extensive glasshouses were erected,
Compare Figs. 1749 and 1750. Fig. 1864 shows
one of the earliest American pictures of a greenhouse.
It is copied, full size, from Squibb's "Gardener's
Calendar," Charleston, South Carolina, 1827. Fig.

1864. Greenhouse front.

With glass lights and door of glass at the end, to be 7 feet high,
35 in length by 12 in breadth. Brick foundation 2 feet high, half
a foot of which to be underground. — Robert Squibb, "Gardener's
Calendar," Charleston, S. C. (1827).

1865 shows the first greenhouse in Chicago, as illus-
trated in "American Florist." Note the small panes,
and the sash-construction. This was built in 1835
or 1836. With these pictures should be compared
the modern greenhouses as shown in Fig. 1866; also in
the pictures in the articles on Greenhouse.

These early houses were heated by flues or ferment-
ing substances. The use of steam in closed circuits
began in England about 1820. Hot-water circulation
seems to have been a later invention, although it drove
out steam heating, until the latter began to regain its
supremacy in this country thirty to forty years ago.
The "New England Farmer" for June 1, 1831, contains
a description of hot-water heating for hothouses, a
matter then considered to be a great novelty.

Most of the early houses had very little, if any, glass
in the roof, and the sides were high. It was once a
practice to build living-rooms over the house, so that
the roof would not freeze. In the "modern" construc-
tion of the greenhouse of M'Mahon's day, 1806, he
advised that "one-third of the front side of the roof,
for the whole length of the house, be formed of glass-
work," and in order that the tall, perpendicular sides of
the house should have as "much glass as possible," he
said that "piers between the sashes are commonly made
of good timber, from 6 to 8 or 10 inches thick, accord-
ing to their height." "The width of the windows for
the glass sashes may be 5 or 6 feet; . . . the bottom
sashes must reach within a foot or 18 inches of the floor
of the house and their top reach within 8 or 10 inches of
the ceiling." The panes in the roof should be 6 inches
by 4, this size "being not only the strongest, but by
much the cheapest, and they should lap over each other
about Yi inch." But the sides or "front lights must be
made with large panes of glass." Many or most of
the early plant-houses had removable tops, made of
sash. On the change from the old to the new ideas,
Alfred Henderson writes as follows: "The first pub-
lished advocacy of the fixed-roof system was made
by Peter B. Mead, in the 'New York Horticulturist,'
in 1857. Before that, all greenhouse structures for com-
mercial purposes were formed of portable sashes, and
nearly all were constructed as 'lean-tos,' with high
back walls, and none were connected. All were separate

and detached, being placed at all angles, without plan
or system. Then, too, the heating was nearly all done
by horizontal smoke-flues, or manure fermenting,
although there was a crude attempt at heating by hot
water by some private individuals as early as 1833.
The first use of heating by hot water on anything like a
large scale, however, was in 1839, when Hitchings & Co.,
of this city, heated a large conservatory for Mr. William
Niblo, of New York; and yet for nearly twenty years
after this time heating by hot water was almost exclu-
sively confined to greenhouses and graperies on private
places, as few professional florists in those days could
afford to indulge in such luxuries. All this is changed
now. The use of steam, hot water under pressure, and
the gravity system of hot-water heating are almost uni-
versally in operation, the hot-air flue having been rele-
gated to the past. The best evidence of progress is in
the fact that the florist has not waited for the trades-
man, but has brought about these improvements
himself."

Much attention was early given to the slope of the
roof, in order that the greatest amount of sunlight may
be secured. Early in the past century the curvilinear
roof came into use, as the various angles which it pre-
sents to the sun were supposed to catch the maximum
number of the incident rays. The sides of the house
remained high, for the most part, until near the middle
of the century. All this shows that the early glass-
house was modeled after the dwelling or other buildings,
and that it had not developed into a structure in which
plants were grown for commercial purposes.

The modern commercial forcing-house, with direct
roof, low sides, and heated by steam or hot water in
closed circuits, is mostly a development of the last forty
years. Its forerunner was the propagating-pit of the
nurseryman. If anything is lost in sunlight by adopting
a simple roof, the loss is more than compensated by the
lighter framework and larger glass. In the forcing-
house, all architectural ambition is sacrificed to the one
desire to create a commercial garden in the frosty
months.

Lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, carnations, violets,
and various other plants are now grown as crops under
glass roofs, whereas a generation ago they were usually
not forced at all for market or were grown mostly under
frames. With the simplifying and cheapening of the
glasshouse, amateur flower- and vegetable-growing has
acquired a new impetus, and the business of the retail
florist has grown amazingly.

Some idea of the increase of the demand for plants
may be obtained from the sale of flower-pots. A. H.
Hews, of Cambridge, Mass., whose ancestors began
the manufacture of pots before 1765, once reported that
for a period of twenty-two years, from 1788 to 1810 the
accounts of the sales of pots "cover about as many pages
as we now often use in one day; and the amount in

1865. First greenhouse in Chicago (1835 or 1836).

dollars and cents does not compare with single sales of
the year 1894." He also compared the sales for 1869 and
1894 and "found the increase as ten to one; or, in round
numbers, 700,000 flower-pots in the former year and
7,000,000 in the latter; and if the same factory can in
1920, twenty-five years later, produce and sell 70,000-,
000, we shall verily be living in a land of flowers."

One of the earliest greenhouse builders was Frederic
A. Lord, who built his first houses, according to Taft,

1520

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

in Buffalo in 1855, and who, in 1872, entered into part-
nership with W. A. Burnham, at Irvington, on the Hud-
son. Several firms now make greenhouse building and
heating a specialty. In very recent years a new impetus
has been given to glasshouse building and work by the
establishment of the agricultural experiment stations
and the extension of horticultural teaching hi the
colleges.

The growing literature.

An important feature of American horticulture is its
living literature. Persons may care nothing for books;
yet the literature of any subject is the measure of its
ideals. Persons may say that the books are theoretical
and beyond them; yet good books are always beyond,
else they are not good. There is no reason for literature
if it does not inspire and point to better things. We
measure the aspirations of any time by its writings.
Whether the fact be recognized or not, the literature of
our horticulture is an underlying force which slowly
dominates the thoughts and ideals of men. A book is a
powerful teacher. It states its propositions, and is
silent; and in the silence its lessons sink into the mind.

1866. Interior of a modern commercial greenhouse. — Carnations.

Very many books have enriched American horti-
culture. Many of them have been poor, but even these
may have challenged controversy and have done good.
The early books were largely empirical and dogmatic.
Downing, for example., in 1845, says that tillage makes
better orchards, and he cites cases; but he does not
give reasons. He does not mention nitrogen, potash,
soil moisture, chemical activities. He does not even
mention plant-food in connection with tillage. The
horizon has widened since then. Men do not take up
things actively until they know the reasons. The poor
farmer, not knowing reasons for anything, has no
inspiration and goes fishing. Forty years ago, Colonel
Waring was the apostle of deep-plowing; yet one should
plow neither deep nor shallow until he knows why. Our
literature has been singularly devoid of principles and
analysis. The great writer is he who catches the signifi-
cant movements and ideas of his time and portrays
them to inspire his reader. Henderson first caught the
rising commercial spirit of our vegetable-gardening; his
"Gardening for Profit" was the greatest American vege-
table-gardening book, even if now out of date as a
book of practice. American pomology has several
strong names amongst its writers. Most of these writers
have sacrificed fundamental considerations to varieties.
The first sustained effort to write on fruit-growing from
the point of view of underlying principles was by Charles
R. Baker, who in 1866 published his "Practical and
Scientific Fruit Culture." But the time was apparently
not yet ready for a solid book of this kind, and much of

the discussion lacked vital connection with the orchard.
The book was suggestive of the study and the com-
piler. Coxe, Kenrick, Manning, Downing, Thomas,
Warder, Barry, Fuller, are significant names in Ameri-
can pomological literature. In floriculture there have
been many excellent treatises, but there is not yet a
single great or comprehensive book. In recent years,
the making of technical horticultural literature is pass-
ing more and more from the working horticulturist to
the specially trained student and writer, particularly to
those who are connected with colleges of agriculture
and experiment stations. At the same time, the
amateur and strictly popular writings are increasing
rapidly, and the modern publisher has made many
of the books very attractive in their mechanical
execution.

The periodical literature is not to be overlooked,
although we do not now have in America horticultural
magazines and journals comparable with those of
Europe. These serial writings, however, are volumi-
nous and important, and must be taken into account
when any complete estimate is made of American horti-
cultural literature. On the writing of "gardening litera-
ture," Henry Ward Beecher wrote nearly fifty years
ago: "We, hi America especially, need men to write
who devote time, thought and knowledge to this ele-
gant department of knowledge as they do to the
sciences of law, of medicine, or theology; and, although
we are glad of transient and cursory writing, rather than
none, I feel the want, in American horticultural maga-
zines, of writing that is the result of long and close
observation, and of ripe reflection." L H. B.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF. The written
record of American horticulture has not yet been care-
fully studied, although the collecting of books has
lately assumed much interest and importance. There are
no full lists of these writings; and it is to make a prelim-
inary contribution to such lists that the present compila-
tion is presented. The written word persists long after
the word of mouth has been lost; and it admits of no
doubt as to dates and statements of fact. It is essential
that any people arrive at an appreciation of its records
in a given subject, that it may have perspective and
develop sound judgments.

In the preceding pages something has been said
about the development of writing on horticulture in
North America. The early general writings are dis-
cussed beginning on page 1509. The fruit-growing
literature is reviewed from page 1513. The periodical
literature occupies considerable space, beginning page
1559. The reports of horticultural societies are recorded
from page 1553. In the present discussion, the regularly
printed horticultural books are listed in detail, from
the first book on horticulture in North America, so
far as it may be known, to the current date. In the
preceding accounts, some of the early writings on gen-
eral agriculture are discussed, as bearing on the history;
many other early writers might have been mentioned,
if the subject had taken a wider field, as Binns (Fred-
erick, Maryland, 1803), Spurrier (Worcester, 1792),
Parkinson (Philadelphia, 1799), George Logan (Phila-
delphia, 1797), Du Pre ("Culture of Cotton," 1799, per-
haps the book mentioned on page 1510), and others.

North American horticultural books.

In the introduction to the "History of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society" (1880) it is said that Mrs.
Martha Logan, in South Carolina, "when seventy
years old, wrote a treatise on gardening called the
'Gardener's Kalendar,' which was published after her
death in 1779, and as late as 1808 regulated the prac-
tice of gardening in and near Charleston. She was a
great florist, and uncommonly fond of a garden" (page
1510) . In the Charleston library there is no separate

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1521

book of this kind, but the "Gardener's Calendar by
Mrs. Logan" appears in succeeding issues of the "Car-
olina and Georgia Almanac," comprising six pages.
The earliest date there available is in the Almanac for

1798. It has been spoken of as a pamphlet, and it may
have been reprinted separately. The first almanac
printed in South Carolina was Tobler's for 1752. This
almanac contains a "Gardner's Kalender, done by a
Lady of this Province and esteemed a very good one."
Perhaps this work was by Mrs. Logan. There does not
appear to be any book by Mrs. Logan in the antiquarian
libraries or lists, although, following Allibone, Evans
apparently erroneously included it in Vol. IV of his
"American Biblography" as of the date of 1772. Mrs.
St. Julien Ravenel, in "Charleston, the Place and the
People" (1906), writes that "Mrs. Logan was the
daughter of the gallant Colonel Daniel. Her 'Garden-
ers' Chronicle,' written when over seventy, was in great
demand formerly, but seems to have utterly perished,
the most careful search failing to produce a copy."

The almanacs were important mediums of informa-
tion in the early days, and it is probable that some of
the first instruction in horticulture was given in them.
In "Poor Will's Almanack" for 1787, printed in Phila-
delphia in 1786, there is a "Gardener's Kalender; or
useful memorandums of work necessary to be done,
monthly, in the gardens and orchards of the Middle
States," according to Evans. The "Southern States
Ephemeris" for 1788, printed in Charleston in 1787, con-
tains "a new and copious gardener's calendar" for the
southern states. In Isaac Brigg's "Georgia and South
Carolina Almanac" for 1800, printed in Augusta in

1799, there is a calendar, according to Evans, by Robert
Squibb. The agricultural matter in the New England
almanacs is well known.

In 1796, there was printed at Newburyport, Massa-
chusetts, by Blunt and March, for John Dabney, Salem,
"An Address to Farmers' ' on a number of interesting sub-
jects. It contains a part or chapter on the character of a
complete farmer; one on the profits of a nursery; another
on the advantages of an orchard. There are references
in the appendix to apples, barley, cabbages, carrots,
clover, and other subjects. The parts were "extracted
principally from a variety of authors."

Apparently the earliest separate book on a horticul-
tural subject published in North America (if the Logan
is not counted), was Robert Squibb's "The Gar-
dener's Kalender for South Carolina and North Caro-
lina," published in Charleston in 1787, and again in
1809, 1827, and 1842 (Fig. 1864). The second work
appears to be an American edition of Marshall's "Intro-
duction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening,"
Boston, 1799. The second indigenous horticultural book,
apparently, appeared in 1804, "The American Gar-
dener," by John Gardiner and David Hepburn (Fig.
1867). It was published at Washington. This book
had an extensive sale. It was revised by "a citizen of
Virginia," and republished in Georgetown, D.C., in 1818
(see Hepburn, p. 1579) . A third edition appeared in 1826.

This book was followed in 1806 by Bernard M'Mahon's
excellent and voluminous "American Gardener's Calen-
dar," in Philadelphia. This work enjoyed much popu-
larity, and the eleventh edition appeared as late as 1857.
For fifty years it remained the best American work
on general gardening. M'Mahon, remembered in the
Mahonia barberries, was an important personage. He
was largely responsible for the introduction into cultiva-
tion of the plants collected by Lewis and Clark. These
early books were calendars, giving advice for the suc-
cessive months. They were made on the plan then
popular in England, a plan which has such noteworthy
precedent as the excellent "Kalendarium Hortense" of
John Evelyn, which first appeared in 1664, and went
to nine regular editions. Other early books of this type
wore "An old gardener's 'Practical American Gar-
dener,'" Baltimore, 1819 and 1822; Thorburn's "Gen-

97

tleman's and Gardener's Kalendar," New York, the
third edition of which appeared in 1821.

As throwing some light on the processes of book-
making in those days, the following announcement
by Squibb in the "Charleston Evening Gazette,"
July 4, 1786, will be interesting:

To THE PUBLIC.

From the frequent solicitations of a number of Gentlemen of
this and adjoining states, the subscriber has been induced to under-
take a work, entitled, "The South Carolina, Georgia, and North
Carolina Gardeners Calendar," which, from its general utility, he
flatters himself, will meet the approbation of the Public at large.
The English publications hitherto made use of to point out and
direct the best methods of Gardening by no means answer the
purpose, as they tend to mislead instead of instruct, and suit only
the European parts for which they were designed. — This work is
deduced from practice and experience in this climate, wherein
the most certain and simple methods are clearly pointed out, so as
to render the art of Gardening easy and familiar to every capacity.

The work will be comprised in an octavo volume of about 200
pages, which will contain ample directions for whatever is necessary
to be done in the Kitchen and Fruit Garden for every month in
the year.

Terms of subscribing One Dollar; half on subscribing, the
remainder on the delivery of the book, which will be printed with
all possible dispatch. Robert Squibb Nursery and Seedsman.

Subscriptions will be received at the subscriber's Garden, the
upper end of Tradd street, at the Printers of this Paper, at Bower
& Markland's Printing-office, Church street, and at the principal
Taverns.

The first indigenous book written on the topical plan,
treating subject by subject, is apparently Coxe's fruit
book, 1817; the second appears to have been Cobbett'a
"American Gardener," published at New York in 1819,

THE

AMERICAN GARDENER,

CONTAINING AMPLS DIRECTIONS FOR WORKING

A KITCHEN GARDEN,

EVERY MONTH IN THE YEAR J

And copious inftruch'ona for the cultivation of

FLOWER GARDENS, VINEYARDS, NURSE,

RIES, HOP-YARDS, GREEN HOUSES,

AND HOT HOUSES.

BY JOHN GARDINER 8c DAVID HEPBURN,
Late Gardener to Gov. Mercer 8c Gen. Mafon.

CIT* OF WASHINGTON
PRINTED BY SAMUEL H. SMITH,

FOR VHB AVfJlQRS.

1804.

1867. Tide-page, exact size, of what is supposed to be the second
or third indigenous American horticultural book.

1522

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

in London in 1821, and which passed through subse-
quent editions. This William Cobbett is the one who
edited the federalist paper in Philadelphia known as
"Peter Porcupine's Gazette," and whose attack upon
Dr. Rush's treatment of yellow fever brought against
him a judgment for damages, and which decided him
to return to England in 1800, whence he had come, by
way of France, in 1792. In London he again took up
political writing, and in 1817 he retreated to America
to escape political penalties, and resided upon a farm
on Long Island until 1819. He kept a seed store in
New York in 1818, and we find Grant Thorburn dis-
puting with him in the "Evening Post" as to which sold
the better rutabaga seed at one dollar a pound. Cob-
bett, it seems, claimed to have been the introducer of
this vegetable, also known as the Russian turnip, into
this country; but Thorburn retorts that "in the year
1796 a large field of these turnips was raised by Wm.
Prout on that piece of ground now occupied by the navy
yard, at the city of Washington." He completed his
life in England, becoming a voluminous author upon
political and economical subjects. It is interesting to
note, in connection with this dispute about the turnips,
that the kohlrabi was introduced about the same time,
and Deane says of it in 1797, that "whether this plant,
which has but newly found its way into our country, is
hardy enough to bear the frost of our winters, I suppose
is yet to be proved." It was recommended to be grown
as a biennial, which accounts for Deane's fear that it
might not pass the winters.

Fessenden's "New American Gardener," made upon
the topical plan, appeared in Boston in 1828, and went
to various editions; and from this time on, gardening
books were frequent. Some of the leading early authors
are Thomas Bridgeman, of New York; Robert Buist,
of Philadelphia, and Joseph Breck, of Boston.

The first American book devoted wholly to flowers
was probably Roland Green's "Treatise on the Cultiva-
tion of Flowers," Boston, 1828 (p. 1511). Edward
Sayers published the "American Flower Garden Com-
panion," in Boston, in 1838. From 1830 to I860 there
appeared many of those superficial and fashionable
books which deal with the language of flowers, and
which assume that the proper way to popularize bot-
any is by means of manufactured sentiment.

The first book devoted to a special flower was prob-
ably Sayers' treatise on the dahlia, Boston, 1839, which
appeared only a year later than Paxton's well-known
book in England. Sayers' book also included the cactus.
The next special flower-book seems to have been Buist's
"Rose Manual," Philadelphia, 1844, although a senti-
mental book on the "Queen of Flowers" had appeared
in the same city in 1841. Buist's book went to at least
four editions. It was followed by Prince's in 1846, and
by S. B. Parson's "The Rose: Its History, Poetry, Cul-
ture and Classification," 1846. Parson's book went to a
revised edition. Of later-date flower-books there are
several of importance, but it is not the purpose of this
paragraph to trace more than the beginnings of Ameri-
can floricultural writings.

In 1838 appeared a book in French in New Orleans.
This was Lelievre's "Nouveau Jardinier de la Louis-
iane." It was a small book of 200 pages, with a calendar
and brief directions for the growing of vegetables, fruits
and flowers. Singularly enough, a French book also
appeared at the other extreme of the country. This was
Provancher's "Le Verger-Canadien," published in
Quebec in 1872.

It is in the pomological writings that North America
has made the greatest contributions to horticultural
literature. William Forsyth's excellent "Treatise on
the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees" appeared
in London in 1802, and it was widely read, "an impres-
sion of 1,500 copies (of the first edition) in 4to having
been sold in a little more than eight months." An
American edition, by William Cobbett, appeared in

New York and Philadelphia in 1802, and in Albany in
1803, and an epitome of it by "an American farmer,"
was published in Philadelphia in 1803. The first Ameri-
can pomological book was William Coxe's "View of the
Cultivation of Fruit Trees," published in Philadelphia
in 1817, a work known to students of horticultural
literature for the uniform completeness and accuracy
of its descriptions. A feature of this excellent work
are the many woodcuts of varieties of fruits. Although
not answering the requirements of the present day,
they were considered to be very good for the time and
for a new country. One of them is reproduced in Fig.
1858 to show the style of workmanship. Coxe had 100
woodcuts of apples, 63 of pears, 15 of peaches, 17 of
plums, 3 of apricots, 2 of nectarines. This makes 200
engravings, which would be considered liberal illustra-
tion even at the present day.

James Thacher's "American Orchardist" appeared in
Boston in 1822, and the second edition at Plymouth in
1825. The first edition was also bound with William
Cobbett's "Cottage Economy," and the double volume
was issued in New York in 1824 as "American Orchard-
ist and Cottage Economy." "The Pomological Man-
ual," New York, 1831 (second edition 1832), is a com-
pilation of descriptions of varieties, by William Robert
Prince and William Prince, son and father respectively.
William Kendrick's "New American Orchardist" was
published in Boston in 1833. The eighth edition ap-
peared in 1848. Like all early works, it devotes most of
its space to varieties. Robert Manning published his
admirable "Book of Fruits," at Salem, in 1838, being
aided by John M. Ives. Upon the death of Manning,
Ives published a second edition in 1844 under the title
of "The New England Fruit Book," and a third in 1847
as "The New England Book of Fruits." Downing'a
"Fruits and Fruit Trees of America" appeared in 1845
in two forms, duodecimo and octavo, although both
issues were printed from the same type. One issue of the
octavo form contained colored plates. Thomas' "Fruit
Culturist," which is known in subsequent editions as
"The American Fruit Culturist," appeared in 1846.
Other pomological writings which appeared before 1850
are Sayers' "American Fruit Garden Companion," Bos-
ton, 1839; Hoffy's "Orchardist's Companion," Philadel-
phia, 1841; Bridgeman's "Fruit Cultivator's Manual,"
New York, 1845; Floy's American edition of George
Lindley's "Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden,"
New York, 1846; Jaque's "Practical Treatise on the
Management of Fruit Trees," Worcester, 1849; Good-
rich's "Northern Fruit Culturist," Burlington, Vt.,
1849; Cole's "American Fruit Book," and others.
Barry's "Fruit Garden" appeared in 1851.

Of these pomological books, the first place should be
given to those of Coxe, Kendrick, Manning, Downing,
Thomas and Barry. The influence of Downing's "Fruits
and Fruit Trees of America" probably has been greater
than that of all others in extending a love of fruits and
a critical attitude toward varieties. Begun by Andrew
Jackson Downing — perhaps the fairest name in Ameri-
can horticultural literature — it was continued and re-
vised by the elder brother, Charles, after the untimely
death of the former. Most of these works were largely
compilations. A notable exception was Manning's
"Book of Fruits." In the introductory remarks to this
volume is the following statement: "There is one cir-
cumstance to which we venture to call the attention
of our readers — that while some recent works on
pomology are compiled from earlier authors, or from
information derived at second-hand, the writers them-
selves seldom having the means of observation in their
power, we have in these pages described no specimen
which we have not actually identified beyond a reason-
able doubt of its genuineness." It was Manning who
chiefly made known to Americans the pears of the
Belgian, Van Mons. He was one of the most careful
observers amongst American pomologists.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1523

The awakening pomology of the region west of the
Alleghanies found expression in Elliott's "Fruit Book,"
1854, whose author wrote from Cleveland, and which
went to a new edition in 1859 as "The Western Fruit
Book," with the preface dated at St. Louis; and Hoop-
er's "Western Fruit Book," 1857, written at Cincinnati.
John A. Warder was a guiding spirit of the opening
West.

The earliest separate grape book was published in
Washington in 1823, by the prophetic Adlum, "A
Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America."
This went to a second edition in 1828. Before this time
(1806), S. W. Johnson had devoted much space to the
grape in his "Rural Economy," published at New Bruns-
wick, N. J., and he published interesting pictures of
grape-training (Fig. 1859). Adlum's book was followed
in 1826 by the "American Vine Dresser's Guide," by
Dufour. This important work also gave pictures of
grape-training, one of which is reproduced in Fig. 1860.
The larger number of the grape books appeared before
the close of the Civil War, although the larger part of
the development of the subject has taken place since
that time.

LIST OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL BOOKS

The purpose of the following list is to record all the
regular publishers' or book-trade books, and their
editions, on fruit-growing, flower-growing, vegetable-
gardening, and closely related subjects, that have been
published in the United States and Canada to the close
of the year 1914. It does not include British or other
imported books that apparently are printed abroad
and then bound up in this country with a new title-
page, or even those of foreign authorship that are
merely reprinted in this country, for the reason that
they do not represent American experience and are
really not American works. Neither does the list con-
tain all excerpts or separates of articles or addresses
that may be put in pamphlet form, nor the reports and
publications of government departments. Revisions
and modified editions, as indicated by new copyright
or changed title-page, are included, but not new
impressions or re-issues.

The entries comprise the name of the author (or
editor) as given on the title-page, the exact title, the
phraseology of the subtitles, whether illustrated, place
of publication, date (n. d. means that no date is given on
the title-page), date of copyright (n. c. means that there
is no copyright imprint), publisher, number of pages
(roman numerals are those of prefatory pages), and size
of the bound volume to one-quarter of an inch. It is
intended that the capitalization and punctuation of the
original shall be followed, but as the list has been com-
piled from several sources it has been impossible to be
consistent in these details. The name of the author is
intended to be given in the form in which it appears in
the given book, on the assumption that the author's
wishes and usage are to be respected.

Every pains has been taken to make this list accu-
rate and complete. It was first put in type more than
two years ago, and it has been gone over by many
persons. Revised proofs have been taken and these
have again been gone over. Special aid has been given
by the Library of the United States Department of
Agriculture, Library of Congress, and the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society.

ABBOTT, FRANCIS B. Hand-Book of Small Fruits. Illus. Chicago.

111. n. d. Paper 5 MX 3 K- [1889?]
ADAMS, H. S. Flower Gardening. Illus. New York. 1913. [c.

1913.] McBride, Nast & Co. 253pp. 5x7^-
. Lilies. Being one of a series of flower monographs. Illus.

New York, 1913. [c. 1913.] McBride, Nast & Co. 116 pp.

o x 7.

ADLUM, JOHN. A Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America,
and the Best Mode of Making Wine. Washington. 1823.
[c. 1823.] Davis & Force. 142 pp.

. The same. 2d ed. Washington. 1828. [c. 1828.] William

Greer. 180 pp.

AGAR, MADELINE. Garden Design in Theory and Practice. Illus.
Philadelphia. 1912. J. B. Lippincott Company. 272 pp. 9 in.

AGRICOLA, P. The New York Gardener; or, twelve letters from a
farmer to his son, in which he describes the method of laying
out and managing the kitchen garden. White Creek. 1827.
[n. c.] Published by A. Crosby. G. M. Davison, Printer,
Saratoga Springs. 96 pp. 7x4 >£.

ALBAUGH, BENJAMIN F. The Gardenette; or, City Back Yard
Garden by the Sandwich System ... a complete Guide for
the Amateur Gardener. Illus. Piqua, O. 1912. The Magee
Bros. Co., Printers. 64 pp. 9 in.

ALBEE, HELEN R. Hardy Plants for Cottage Gardens. Illus. New
York. 1910. H. Holt & Co. vi + 309 pp. 8 in. (American
Nature Series. Group IV. Working with Nature. )

ALDEBMAN, W. H. See Hedrick, U. P. The Plums of New York.

ALLEN, C. L. Bulbs and Tuberous-rooted Plants; their history,
description, methods of propagation and complete directions
for their successful culture in the garden, dwelling and green-
house. Illus. New York. 1893. [c. 1893.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. vi+311pp. 8x5H-

. Cabbage, Cauliflower and Allied Vegetables from Seed

to Harvest. Illus. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] Orange Judd
Company, xvi + 127 pp. 7 % x 5.

ALLEN, JOHN FISK. The Culture of the Grape. Embracing Direc-
tions for the Treatment of the Vine, in the Northern States of
America, in the open air, and under glass structures, with and
without artificial heat. Illus. Boston. 1847. Dutton <fe Went-
worth, Printers. 55pp. 9J^in.

. A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Treatment of the

Grape Vine; embracing its history, with directions for its
treatment, in the United States of. America, in the open air,
and under glass structures, with and without artificial heat.
Illus. 2ded., enlarged. Boston. 1848. [c. 1848.] Dutton & Went-
worth. 247 pp.

. The same. Illus. 3d ed., enlarged and revised. New

York. 1853. [c. 1853.] C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 330 pp.

.Victoria Regia; or, the great water lily of America. With

a brief account of its discovery and introduction into cultiva-
tion. With illustrations by William Sharp, from specimens
grown at Salem, Mass., U. S. A. Colored plate. Boston.
1854. [c. 1854.] Dutton & Wentworth. 17 pp. 27 x 21.

ALLEN, LEWIS F. Rural Architecture; being a complete descrip-
tion of farmhouses, cottages, and outbuildings, comprising
wood houses, workshops, tool houses, carriage and wagon
houses, stables, smoke and ash houses, ice-houses, apiary or
bee house, poultry houses, rabbitry, dovecote, piggery, barns
and sheds for cattle, etc., together with lawns, pleasure grounds
and parks; the flower, fruit and vegetable garden; also, useful
and ornamental domestic animals for the country resident, etc.;
also, the best method of conducting water into cattle yards
and houses. Beautifully illustrated. New York. 1863. [c. 1852.1
C. M. Saxton. 378 pp. 8x5.

. The same. A. O. Moore ; also by Orange Judd & Co. 7 H * 5.

. See Smith, C. H. J. Landscape Gardening.

ALLEN, PHOEBE, and GODFREY, DR. Miniature and Window Gar-
dening. New York. 1902. J. Pott & Co. 100 pp. 7 Yt in.

ALLEN, WALTER Fox. English Walnuts; what you need to know
about planting, cultivating and harvesting this most delicious
of nuts. Illus. Lawrenceville, N. J. [c. 1912.] W. F. Allen.
29 pp. 6J^ in-

ALWOOD, WM. B. A series of bulletins on Orchard Technique.
Bulletins 97-101, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.
With notes on insecticides by J. L. Phillips and H. L. Price.
Illus. Roanoke, Va. 1900. Stone Printing and Manufacturing
Company. 125 pp. "Orchard Technique" on cover.

AMERICAN CHRYSANTHEMUM ANNUAL, 1895. See Barker, Michael.

AMERICAN FLORIST COMPANY'S DIRECTORY of Florists, Nursery-
men and Seedsmen of the United States and Canada. Chicago.
1890. [c. 1890.] Published by the American Florist Company.
123pp. 8%x6.

. The same. 1892. 195 pp.

. The same. 1894. 270 pp.

. The same. 1896. 335 pp.

. The same. 1898. 351 pp.

- The same. 1899. 358 pp.

. Making a Rock Garden. Illus. New York. 1912. [c.

1912.] McBride, Nast & Co. 52pp. 6^x4^. (House and
Garden Making Books.)

-. The same. 1900. 384 pp.

-. The same. 1901. 397 pp.

-. The same. 1902. 416 pp.

-. The same. 1903. 415 pp.

-. The same. 1904. 407 pp.

-. The same. 1905. 451 pp.

-. The same. 1906. 475 pp.

-. The same. 1907. 496 pp.

-. The same. 1908. 507 pp.

1524

-. The same. 1909. 544 pp.

-. The same. 1910. 566 pp.

-. The same. 1911. 586pp.

-. The same. 1912. 645 pp.

AMERICAN FRUITS POCKET DIRECTORY for the year 1910. Roches-
ter, N. Y. 1910. American Fruits Publishing Company. 168
pp. 6^x3}£.

AMERICAN FRUITS YEAR BOOK AND DIRECTORY OF NURSERYMEN
for the year 1912. Portraits. Rochester, N. Y. [c. 1912.]
American Fruits Publishing Company. 190 pp. 7 M * 4.

AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL ANNUAL. A yearbook of horticultural
progress for the professional and amateur gardener, fruit-
grower, and florist. Illus. New York. 1867. [c. 1867.] Orange
Judd Company. 152pp. 7J^x5.
— . The same, for 1868. 164 pp.

. The same, for 1869. 152 pp.

• . The same, for 1870. 152 pp.

. The same, for 1871. 152 pp.

AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST, THE. Being a practical treatise on
the propagation, cultivation, and management of the rose in
all seasons; with .a list of choice and approved varieties adapted
to the climate of the United States. To which are added full
directions for the treatment of the dahlia. Illustrated with
engravings. New York. n. d. [c. 1856.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. 96 pp. 7 y± x 5.

. The same. 1866. [c. 1852.] C. M. Saxton & Co. 96 pp.

8 x 5J^. (Bound sixth in Saxton's Rural Handbook, 2d series.)

. The same. 1866. [c. 1856.] Orange Judd Company.

96pp. 7M*5.

ANDERS, J. M. House-Plants as Sanitary Agents; or, the relation
of growing vegetation to health and disease; comprising, also,
a consideration of the subject of practical floriculture, and of
the sanitary influences of forests and plantations. Philadelphia.
1887. [c. 1886.] J. B. Lippincott Company. 334 pp. 7 M x 5.

ANDERSON JAMES. See Marshall, Charles. An Introduction to the
Knowledge and Practice of Gardening.

ANDRAE, E. H. A Guide to the Cultivation of the Grape- Vine in
Texas, and Instructions for Wine-Making. Illus. Dallas, Texas,
[c. 1889.] Texas Fa/m and Ranch Publishing Company. Paper,
45 pp. 8Ji in.
— . The same. 1890. [c. 1890.]

ANDREWS, WALTER E. See Farmer, L. J. Fall-bearing Strawberry
Secrets.

ANGIER, BELLE SCMNEH. The Garden Book of California. Decora-
tions by Spencer Wright. San Francisco and New York,
[c. 1906.] P. Elder & Co. vii + 141 pp. 8% in.

AHAI, S. See Canada, J. W. How to Plant and Cultivate an Orange
Orchard.

ARLIE, C. H. See Greiner, T., and Arlie, C. H. How to Grow
Onions.

ARNOLD, GEORGE. How to Grow Asters; a Manual on Asters.
6th ed., revised. Illus. Rochester, N. Y. 1912. J. Vick's Sons.
40 pp. 8% in.

ASPINWALL, BRITT. Loganberry Culture. Loganberry Juice, by
C. I. Lewis. Written specially for use in the Pacific Horticul-
tural Correspondence School, Portland, Ore. 1913. 15 pp. 9 in.

ASPINWALL, JOHN. Hints on the Culture of Pineapples. 2d ed.
Eau Gallie, Fla. 1893. [c. 1893.] Published by John Aspinwall.
16 pp. 3x5.

BAILEY, L. H. American Grape Training. An account of the
leading forms now in use of training the American Grapes.
Illus. New York. 1893. [c. 1893.] The Rural Publishing Com-
pany. 95 pp. (Republished and extended in The Pruning-Book.)

• . Annals of Horticulture in North America for the Year

1889. A witness of passing events and a record of progress.
Illus. New York. 1890. [c. 1889.] The Rural Publishing
Company. 249 pp. 8 x 5 Vi.

— . The same, for 1890. 1891. [c. 1891.] 312 pp. 8%x5H-
. The same, for 1891. 1892. [c. 1892.] 415pp. 8x5Ji

. The same, for 1892. 1893. [c. 1893.] 387pp. 8^x5^

-. The same, for 1893, with an account of the horticulture

of the Columbian Exposition. 1894. [c. 1894.] Orange Judd
Company, vii + 179 pp. 7%x5.

— . Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing. The philosophy of the
crossing of plants, considered with reference to their improve-
ment under cultivation; with a brief bibliography of the sub-
ject. New York. 1892. [c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Com-
pany. 44 pp. 8x5 H. (Vol. I, No. 6 of The Rural Library.) In-
corporated in Plant-Breeding.

— . Cyclopedia of American Horticulture; comprising sug-
gestions for cultivation of horticultural plants, descriptions
of the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental
plants sold in the United States and Canada, together with
geographical and biographical sketches. Assisted by Wilhelm
Miller. Illustrated with over two thousand original engravings.
New York. 1900-1902. [c. 1900.] The Macmillan Company.
4 vols. 2,016pp. 11x8. 2d ed. 1904. 3rd ed. 1904. 6th ed. 1909.
. The same. 4th ed. (bound in 6 vols. with additional pref-
ace, extra plates and a synopsis of the vegetable kingdom).
New York. 1906. Doubleday, Page & Co.

— . Field Notes on Apple Culture. Illus. New York. 1886.
[c. 1886.] Orange Judd Company. 90 pp. 7 H x 5.

. The Forcing-Book. A manual of the cultivation of vege-
tables in glass houses. Illus. New York. 1897. [c. 1897 ] The
Macmillan Company, xiii + 266 pp. 7x4 %. (The Garden-
Craft Series.)

. Garden-Making. Suggestions for the utilizing of home

grounds. Illus. Aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh Ernest
Walker. New York and London. 1898. [c. 1898.) The Mac-
millan Company, vii + 417 pp. 7x5. (The Garden-Craft
Series.) Vegetables by Waugh.

. The same. 3d ed., revised. 1899. vii + 417 pp.

The same. 4th ed., revised. 1901. vii + 417 pp. 10th

ed., 1906.

— — . The Horticulturist's Rule-Book. A compendium of useful
information for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and
others. Completed to the close of the year 1889. New York.
1889. [c. 1889.] Garden Publishing Company. 236 pp. 6 Yi x 4 Y*

. The same. 2d ed., revised. Completed to the beginning

of the year 1892. [c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Company.
221 pp. 7%x5.

-. The same. 3d ed., revised and extended. New York and

London. 1895. [c. 1895.] The Macmillan Company, ix + 302
pp. 7x4 \i. (The Garden-Craft Series. )
. The same. 4th ed. 1896. [c. 1895.] ix + 312 pp. 7x4.

The same. New and rev. ed. 1904. ix + 312.

. Farm and Garden Rule-Book. A manual of ready rules

and reference with recipes, precepts, formulas, and tabular,
information for the use of general farmers, gardeners, fruit-
growers, stockmen, dairymen, poultrymen, foresters, rural
teachers, and others in the United States and Canada. New
York. 1911. [c. 1911.] The Macmillan Company, xxiv + 587
pp. 8x5*4 The 17th ed. of the Horticulturist's Rule-Book.

. The same. 18th ed. 1912.

. See Long, Elias. How to Plant a Place.

Manual of Gardening. A practical guide to the making of

home grounds and the growing of flowers, fruits, and vegetables
for home use. Illus. New York. 1910. [c. 1910.1 The Mac-
millan Company, xvi + 539 pp. 8 x 5 Yz. Founded on Garden-
Making and the Practical Garden-Book.

. The Nursery-Book. A complete guide to the multiplica-
tion and pollination of plants. Illus. New York. 1891. [c.
1891.] The Rural Publishing Company. 304pp. 7J^x5^.

. The same. 3ded. New York and London. 1896. [c. 1896.]

The Macmillan Company, xi + 365 pp. 7x4 Yz- (The Garden-
Craft Series.) 4th ed., 1900. llth ed., 1907.

. Plant-Breeding; being five lectures upon the ameliora-
tion of domestic plants. New York and London. 1895. [c. 1895.]
The Macmillan Company, xii + 293 pp. 7x4}^. (The Garden-
Craft Series.) In French as La Production des Plantes, trans-
lated by 3. M. et E. Harraca. Paris. 1901.

. The same. 2d ed. 1902. xii + 355 pp.

. The same. 3d ed. 1904. xiii + 334 pp.

. The same. 4th ed., with a new chapter on current plant-
breeding practice. 1906. xiv + 483 pp. Trans, into Japanese
by D. Karashima. [Rev. ed., Bailey & Gilbert, 1915].

and C. E. HUNN. The Practical Garden-Book; containing

the simplest directions for the growing of the commonest
things about the house and garden. Illus. New York. 1900.
[c. 1900.] The Macmillan Company, vi + 250 pp. 6% x4%.
(The Garden-Craft Series. )

. The same. 2ded. 1901. vi +250 pp.

The Principles of Fruit-Growing. Illus. New York and

London. 1897. [c. 1897.] The Macmillan Company, xi + 508

pp. 7 x4%. (The Rural Science Series.)
. The same. 2d ed. 1898. [c. 1897.] xvii + 514 pp. 3rd

ed. 1900. 4th ed. 1901. [The 20th ed. appeared early in 1915.]
. The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. Illus. New York.

1901. [c. 1901.] The Macmillan Company, x + 458 pp.

7x5. Trans, into Marathi by L. Paranjpe, 1903. 2nd ed. 1903.

3rd ed. 1904.
. The Pruning-Book. A monograph of the pruning and

training of plants as applied to American conditions. Illus.

New York and London. 1898. [c. 1898.] The Macmillan

Company.! x + 537 pp. 7x5. (The Garden-Craft Series. ) 2nd

ed. 1899 (ix + 545). 3rd ed. 1901. 4th ed. 1902. 6th ed. 1904.

8th ed. 1907.

Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits. Illus.

New York and London. 1898. [c. 1898.] The Macmillan Com-
pany, xiii + 472 pp. 8 x 5 J^.

The Survival of the Unlike. A collection of evolution

essays suggested by the study of domestic plants. New York
and London. 1896. [c. 1896.] The Macmillan Company.
515pp. 8x5^.

. The same, second issue. [Preface dated Nov. 17, 1896.]

. The same. 2d ed. 1897.

BAKER, CHARLES R. Practical and Scientific Fruit-Culture. Illus.

Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.] Lee & Shepard. 523pp. 8J4x5J4
BAKER, TARKINGTON. Yard and Garden. A book of practical

information for the amateur gardener, in city, town or suburb.

Illustrated with photographs and diagrams. Indianapolis.

n. d. [c. 1908.] The Bobbs-Merrill Company. 418 pp. 7H*5.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1525

BARBARA (pseud.). See Wright, Mrs. Mabel Osgood.

BARCLAY, J. O'C. (Trans.) See Persoz. New Process for the Cul-
ture of the Vine.

BARKER, MICHAEL, Editor. The American Chrysanthemum An-
nual. Portrait of John Thorpe. Illus. New York. 1895. [c. 1895.]
The Mayflower Publishing Company. 44 pp. 10 x 7 Yz.

BARKERS, SAMUEL D. See Cleaveland, H. W. Village and Farm
Cottages.

BARKERS, WILLIAM. See Cleaveland, H. W. Village and Farm
Cottages.

BARNARD, CHARLES. Charles Barnard's Works. My Ten-Rod
Farm, etc. Household Library. Four volumes in one. Con-
taming: I. My Ten-Rod Farm; or, how I became a florist. II.
Ten Per Cent on the Investment; or, farming by inches. III.
A Simple Flower-Garden. IV. $550 Net Income; or, the straw-
berry garden. New York. 1882. [n. c.] R. Worthmgton.
345 + 224 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

. Farming by Inches; or, "with Brains, Sir." Boston.

[c. 1869.] Loring, Publisher. 123 pp. 8 in. (Market-Garden-
ing.)

. Gardening for Money. How it was done, in flowers,

strawberries, vegetables. Boston, n. d. [c. 1869.] Loring,
Publisher. 345 pp. 8x5 Vi. (Comprises My Ten-Rod Farm.
The Strawberry Garden, Farming by Inches.)

-. My Handkerchief Garden. Size, 25 x 60 feet, Results:

A garden, fresh vegetables, exercise, health and 820.49. 1st ed.
New York. n. d. [n. c.] E. H. Libby. 69 pp. 7 M x 5.
- . The same. [c. 1889.] Garden Publishing Company.

- . The same, 2d ed. Illus. 1893. [c. 1893.] The Rural Pub-
lishing Company. 75 pp. 7 H x 5. (The Rural Library, Vol. I,
No. 17, April.)

- . My Ten-Rod Farm; or, how I became a florist. By Mrs.
Maria Oilman. Boston. 1869. [c. 1869.] Loring, Publisher.
119 pp. 8x5.

- . A Simple Flower Garden; for country homes. A prac-
tical guide for every lady. How to start it; what it will cost;
how to stock it to have flowers the year round. Boston, n. d.
[c. 1870.] Loring, Publisher. 76 pp. 8x5.
— . The Strawberry Garden; how it was planted; what it
cost; what came of it financially and sentimentally. A "very
practical story. Boston, n. d. [c. 1871.] Loring, Publisher.
104 pp. 8x5. (Another copy with "$2,000 a Year" printed
on cover.)

- . Talks about Our Useful Plants. A book of observations
and experiments for the use of schools, students, and all who
are interested in the culture of plants for pleasure or profit.
New York. 1894. [c. 1886.] Funk & Wagnalls Co. xvi + 133
pp. 6Mx4Ji.

$2,000 a Year on Fruits and Flowers; or, My ten-rod farm

and how I became a florist. To which is added: $550 a Year
from the Strawberry Garden. Farming by Inches and with
Brains. The Flower Garden and How to Manage It. Phila-
delphia, n. d. [n. c.J The Keystone Publishing Company. 345
+ 76 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

— . The same. Contains: My Ten-Rod Farm (118 pp.);
The Strawbeiry Garden (104 pp.); Farming by Inches (121 pp.);
A Simple Flower Garden for Country Homes (76 pp.). H. T.
Coates & Co.

BARNES, PARKER T. House Plants and How to Grow Them.
Illus. New York. 1909. [c. 1909.] Doubleday, Page & Co.
236pp. 7^x5^.

. The Suburban Garden Guide. New York and Harrisburg,

Pa. [c. 1911.] The Suburban Press. 64 pp. 8 in.

-. The same. New York. 1913. The Macmillan Company.

147 pp. 7 in. (The Countryside Manuals.)
BARRON, LEONARD. Lawns and How to Make Them. Together

with the proper keeping of putting greens. Illus. New York.

1910. [c. 1906.1 Doubleday, Page & Co. 174pp. 7^x534

, editor. See Roses and How to Grow Them.

BARRY, P. Barry's Fruit Garden. Revised, enlarged, and newly

electrotyped. Illus. New York. n. d. [c. 1872.] Orange Judd

Company, xvi +491 pp. 7 YL x 5.
. The same. New edition. Revised and brought down to

date, by the author. Illus. New York. 1883. [c. 1883.] Orange

Judd Company, xvi + 516 pp. 7 % x 5.

-. The Fruit Garden. A treatise intended to explain and

illustrate the physiology of fruit trees, the theory and practice
of all operations connected with the propagation, transplanting,
pruning and training of orchard and garden trees, as standards,
dwarfs, pyramids, espaliers, etc., the laying out and arranging
different kinds of orchards and gardens, the selection of suit-
able varieties for different purposes and localities, gathering and
preserving fruits, treatment of diseases, destruction of insects,
descriptions and uses of implements, etc. Illustrated with up-
wards of 150 figures, representing different parts of trees, all
practical operations, forms of trees, designs for plantations, im-
plements, etc. New York. 1851. [c. 1851.] Charles Scribner.
xiv +398 pp. 7Jix5K.

-. The same. Auburn and Rochester. 1857. Alden & Beards-

ley.

BA8SETT, MARK S. The Cranberry: its cultivation, and how to

turn the cedar bog of New Jersey into a profitable investment.

Philadelphia. 1870. Brinckloe & Marot, Printers. 45 pp. 4 *i

in.
BATEMAN, LEE LA TROBE. Florida Trucking for Beginners. De

Land, Fla. [c. 1913.] The E. O. Painter Printing Company.

205pp. 7 »4 in.
BATES, FRANK A. How to Make Old Orchards Profitable. Illus.

Boston. 1912. The Bali Publishing Company. 123pp. 7% in.

BATSON, MRS. STEPHEN. Summer Garden of Pleasure. With 36
illustrations in color by Osmund Pittman. Chicago, 111. 1909.
[c. 1909.] A. C. McClurg & Co. xiv + 213 pp. 9x6.

BEACH, S A., BOOTH, N. O., and TAYLOR, O. M. The Apples
of New York. Report of the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station for the year 1903. Illus. Albany. 1905. J. B.
Lyon Company, Printers. 409 + 360 pp. 9 Y2 x 6 Y2. In 2 vols.

BEADLE, D. W. Canadian Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Gardener.
A guide in all matters relating to the cultivation of fruits,
flowers and vegetables, and their value for cultivation in this
climate. Illus. Colored plates. Toronto. 1872. [c. 1872.]
James Campbell & Son. xvi +391 pp. 9x6.

BEALBY, J. T. Fruit Ranching in British Columbia. Containing
thirty-two full-page illustrations from photographs. New York.
1909. The Macmillan Company, xii + 196 pp. 8 x 5%.

. How to Make an Orchard in British Columbia. A Hand-
book for Beginners. New York. 1912. The Macmillan Company,
viii +86 pp. 7^x5)4

BEATTIE, W. R. Celery Culture. A practical treatise on the prin-
ciples involved in the production of celery for home use and
for market, including the selection of soil, production of plants,
cultivation, control of insects and diseases, marketing and
uses. Illus. New York. 1907. [c. 1907.] Orange Judd Com-
pany, x + 143 pp. 7 % x 5.

BECKER, JOHANN. Der Weinbau. Eine Anleitung zur Anlage und
Behandlung der Rebe und des Weins in den Mittleren Staaten
von Nordamerika. Illus. Evansville, Ind. 1860. Gedruckt in
der Offizin des "Volksboten." viii + 111 pp. &1A in.

BEECHER, HENRY WARD. Plain and Pleasant Talk about Fruits,
Flowers and Farming. New York. 1859. [c. 1859.] Derby &
Jackson. A. O. Moore & Co. viii + 420 pp. 7 yz x 5.

. The same. New edition, with additional matter from

recent writings, published and unpublished. New York. 1874.
[c. 1873.] J. B. Ford & Co. vii + 498 pp. 7 % x 5.
-. See Best, G. W. Best's Potato Book.

BEEDE. Strawberry Culture. Exeter, N. H. Published by the

author. 23 pp.
BELL, JOSEPH T. Work on Fruit and Fruit Growing. Toledo. 1875.

Toledo Printing and Publishing Company. 148 pp. 8 in.

BENNETT, CHARLES L. See Popenoe, Paul B.

BENNET, IDA D. The Flower Garden. A handbook of practical
garden lore. Illus. New York. 1903. [c. 1903.] McClure,
Phillips & Co. ix + 282 pp. 8 J4 x 6.

. The same. A manual for the amateur gardener. Illus.

New York. 1910. [c. 1903.] Doubleday, Page & Co. ix + 282
pp. 7^2 x5H-

. The Vegetable Garden. A manual for the amateur vege-
table gardener. Illus. New York. 1909. [c. 1908.] Doubleday,
Page & Co. 260 pp. 7 Vi x 5 1A.

. The same. 1908. The McClure Company. 8% in.

. See Dreer's Hints on the Growing of Bulbs.

- The same. New York. 1860. [c. 1851.] C. M. Saxton,

Barker & Co.

— . The same. Rochester, N. Y. 1863. Published by the
author.

BEHCKMANS, L. E. Pear Culture in the South. An essay written
at the request of the Aiken Vine-Growing Association, of South
Carolina, and read before that body '-n Thursday, July 7, 1859.
Augusta, Ga. 1859. Steam power press of the Chronicle and
Sentinel. '3pp. 8>i in.

BERLESE, ABBE. See Dearborn, Henry A. S. Monograph of the
genus Camellia.

BERNEAUD, THIEBAUT DE. The Vine-Dresser's Theoretical and
Practical Manual; or, the art of cultivating the vine; and mak-
ing wine, brandy, and vinegar. With descriptions of the species
and varieties of the vine; the climates, soils, and sites in which
each can be successfully cultivated, with their times of blossom-
ing and bearing; the diseases of the vine and means of preven-
tion. With instructions for the preservation of wines, brandies,
vinegars, confections, etc., of the grape; for the care of the wine-
cellar; the economy of the vine-yard; and a brief sketch of the
diseases incidental to the vine dresser. From the second
French edition, by the translator of Le Solitaire, etc. Illus.
New York. 1829. Published by P. Canfield. iii + 158 pp.
8Jix5V2.

BEST, GEORGE W. Best's Potato Book, containing Henry Ward
Beecher's essay on the potato mania written especially for this
work. Also, experiments in potato-culture, engravings and
descriptions of new varieties, etc. Utica,1 N. Y. 1870. G. W.
Best. 96 pp. 9 in.

BIDWELL, H. E. See Phillips, Norman.

BIGGLE, JACOB. Biggie Berry Book. A condensed treatise on the
culture of berries. With leaves from the experience of many
practical berry-growers in all parts of the United States. Illus.
Philadelphia. 1894. [c. 1894.] Wilmer Atkinson Company.
126pp. 5^x4.

1526

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

. Biggie Berry Book; small fruit facts from bud to box, con-
served into understandable form. Illus. Philadelphia. 1911.
Wilmer Atkinson Company. 144pp. SJiin. (On cover: Biggie
Farm Library. )

. The same. 5th ed., 50th thousand. 1913.

. Biggie Garden Book; vegetables, small fruits and flowers

for pleasure and profit. Iljus. Philadelphia. 1908. W. Atkinson
Company. 184 pp. 5l/z in. (On cover: Biggie Farm Library.)

. The same. 3d ed., 30th thousand. 1912.

. Biggie Orchard Book; fruit and orchard gleanings from

bough to basket, gathered and packed into book form. Illus.
Philadelphia. 1906. W. Atkinson Company. 144pp. 5J^ in.
(On cover: Biggie Farm Library.)

. The same. 2d ed., 20th thousand. 1908.

. The same. 3d ed., 30th thousand. 1911.

BISSETT, PETER. The Book of Water Gardening. Giving in full
detail all the practical information necessary to the selection,
grouping and successful cultivation of aquatic and other plants
required in the making of a water garden and its surroundings,
and covering all conditions from that of the amateur with a few
plants in tubs to the large estate or park. Profusely illustrated
with 120 halftones, 17 diagrams, and 2 double-page plates.
New York. 1907. [c. 1905.] A. T. De La Mare Printing and
Publishing Company. 199 pp. 10 x 7 V^.

BLACK, JOHN J. The Cultivation of the Peach and the Pear on
the Delaware and Chesapeake Peninsula. With a chapter on
quince culture and the culture of some of the nut-bearing trees.
With plates. Wilmington, Del. 1886. [c. 1886.] The James &
Webb Co. 397 pp. 8x6.

- . The same. New York. 1887. [c. 1886.] Orange Judd
Company.

BLACKNALL, O. W. New and Enlarged Manual on Practical
Strawberry and Berry Fruit Culture, also of Grapes, Asparagus,
Rhubarb, etc. Illus. Kittrell, N. C. 1900. 118 pp. 8 in.

- . The same. 3d ed. 1902. 7K in.

BLANCHAN, NELTJE. The American Flower Garden. Planting lists
by Leonard Barron. Illustrated with 92 full-page photographs.
New York. 1909. [c. 1909.] Doubleday, Page & Co. xv +
368pp. 10x8.

BI.EASDALE, JOHN I. See Heyne, E. B. Catalogue of European
Vines.

- - . The Olive Tree and Its Products; and the suitability of

the soil and climate of California for its extensive and profitable
cultivation. Illus. San Francisco. 1881. Dewey & Co. 15 pp.

BLINN, PHILO K. Cantaloupe Culture; a treatise on cantaloupe-
growing, under irrigation in Colorado. 1st ed. Illus. Rocky
Ford, Colo. [c. 1910.] The Rocky Ford Cantaloupe Seed
Breeder's Association. 32 pp. 9 y\ in.

- . The same. The Facts about Cantaloupes; a treatise on
cantaloupe-growing, giving the best cultural practice and
experience of growers in the special cantaloupe-growing dis-
tricts of the United States. 3d revision, [c. 1912.] 35 pp.

BLOOMFIELD, L. M. Fertilizer Experiments on Horticultural
Crops. Reprint from Columbus Horticultural Journal. 1895.
Paper. 77 pp. 9x6.

BOARDMAN, ROSIN A C. Lilies and Orchids: a series of drawings
in color of some of the more interesting and beautiful species
of these families, together with descriptive text. Illus. New
York. 1906. R. G. Cooke, Inc. 48pp. 10M*8K.

BOCHOVE, G. VAN, and brother. See Van Bochove, G., and Bro.
(p. 1550, two issues.)

BOOTH, N. O. See Beach, S. A. The Apples of New York; and Hed-
rick, U. P. The Grapes of New York.

BORDEN, MRS. A. E. See Good, J. M., and Borden.

BOSSON, CHARLES P. Observations on the Potato, and Remedy for
the Potato Plague. In two parts; containing a history of the
potato, its cultivation and uses; also, a treatise on the potato
malady, its origin and appearances in different countries, a
view of various theories concerning it, with the remedies pro-
posed, and an inquiry into the causes producing the disease,
with directions for staying its further progress. Boston. 1846.
[c. 1846.] Published by E. L. Pratt, ii + 118 pp. 8Jix5.

BOULTON, WILLIAM. The Family Strawberry Patch and the Way
to Make it a Success. Alpena, Mich. [c. 1911.] 62 pp. 5% in.
(Running title at top of page: Strawberry Culture.)

BOURNE, H. Flores Poetici. The Florist's Manual. Designed as an
introduction to vegetable physiology and systematic botany,
for cultivators of flowers. With more than 80 beautifully col-
ored engravings of poetic flowers. 1833. [c. 1833.] Boston:
Munroe & Francis. New York: Charles S. Francis, viii + 288
pp. 954x6.

BOYER, MICHAEL K., Compiler. Everything You Want to Know; a
boiled-down treatise on poultry and gardening subjects; hints
for beginners . . . compiled by "Uncle Mike" (pseud.).
Illus. Hammonton, N. J. 1903. The Farm-garden and Poultry
Publishing Company. 124 pp. 7 in.

BRAY, MRS. MARY MATTHEWS. My Grandmother's Garden, and
An Orchard Ancestral. Boston. 1911. R. G. Badger. 95 pp.
6 in.

BRECK, JOSEPH. The Flower-Garden; or, Breck's book of flowers;
in which are described all the various hardy herbaceous peren-
nials, annuals, shrubby plants, and evergreen trees, desirable
for ornamental purposes, with directions for their cultivation.
Boston. 1851. [c. 1851.] John P. Jewett & Co. xii + 336 pp.
8x4%.

— . The same. New edition, revised and enlarged. 1856.

[c. 1851.] Boston: John P. Jewett & Co. Cleveland, Ohio:
Jewett, Proctor & Worthington. New York: Sheldon, Blake-
man & Co. xii + 395 pp. 8x5 %.

— — . The same. New edition, revised and enlarged. New

York. 1858. [c. 1851.] A.O.Moore, xii + -395 pp. 7%x5M-
•. The same. New York. 1863. [c. 1851.] C. M. Saxton &

-. New Book of Flowers. Newly electrotyped and illustrated.
(Revision of Flower-Garden. ) New York. n. d. c. 1866 j
Orange Judd Company, xii + 480 pp. 7 ^ x 5 %.

-. The Young Florist; or, conversations on the culture of

Co.

flowers, and on natural history, with numerous engravings,
from original designs. Boston. 1833. [c. 1833.] Russell,
Odiorne & Co. 168 pp. 5x5 %.

BREHAUT, REV. T. COLLINGS. Cordon Training of Fruit Trees;
diagonal, vertical, spiral, horizontal, adapted to the orchard-
house and open-air culture. With a supplement containing
remarks on cordon training, the cultivation and pruning of peach
trees in pots, the best varieties of fruit for pot-culture, and
general remarks on orchard-houses adapted to the climate of
the United States. By C. M. Hovey. Illus. Boston. 1864.
[n. c.] Hovey & Co. 112pp. 9x5%- (The supplement, pp. 79-
112, is by Hovey.)

BREMER, FREDERIKA. See Downing, A. J. Rural Essays.

BRIDGEMAN, THOMAS. The American Gardener's Assistant. In
three parts, containing complete directions for the cultivation
of vegetables, flowers, fruit trees, and grape-vines. New edition,
revised, enlarged and illustrated by S. Edwards Todd. Part I.
Kitchen-Gardening, 152 pp.; Part II. Fruit-Gardening, 211 pp.;
Part III. Flower-Gardening,' 166 pp. 1867. [c. 1866.] (The
work is a revision of The Young Gardener's Assistant. )

. The same. New York. 1872. [c. 1866.] William Wood &

Co. 7J^x5.

. The Florist's Guide; containing practical directions for the

cultivation of annual, biennial, and perennial flowering plants,
of different classes, herbaceous and shrubby, bulbous, fibrous,
and tuberous-rooted; including the double dahlia, greenhouse
plants, etc. New York. 1835. [c. 1835.] Printed and sold bv
W.Mitchell. 120pp. 6^x4.

. The same. 2d ed. New York. 1836. [c. 1836.] Printed

and sold by Mitchell & Turner, viii + 128 pp. 7^x4^.

. The same. 3d ed., enlarged and improved. New York.

1840. [c. 1840.] For sale by the author and many others.
viii + 180 pp. 7 H x 4 H-

. The Florist's Guide; containing practical directions for

the cultivation of annual, biennial, and perennial flowering
plants, of different classes, herbaceous, shrubby, bulbous,
fibrous and tuberous-rooted, including the double dahlia, with
a monthly calendar, containing instructions for the manage-
ment of greenhouse plants throughout the year. The whole
adapted to the climate of the United States. A new and im-
proved edition. Portrait. New York. 1844. [c. 1844.] For sale
by the author, xi + 175 pp. 7 J^ x 5.

. The same. New and improved edition. 1847. [c. 1847.J

xi + 175 pp.

. Flower-Gardening; containing complete practical direc-
tions for the cultivation of flowers. Philadelphia, n. d. Henry
T. Coates&Co. 166pp. 7%x5.

. The Fruit Cultivator's Manual; containing ample direc-
tions for the cultivation of the most important fruits, including
the cranberry, the fig, and grape, with descriptive lists of the
most admired varieties, and a calendar, showing the work
necessary to be done in the orchard and fruit-garden every
month of the year. The whole adapted to the climate of the
United States. Portrait. New York. 1844. [c. 1844.] Pub-
lished by the author, vi + 175 pp. 7 Ji x 4 J&

. The same. 1845. A. Hanford.

. The same. New York. 1847. [c. 1847.] vi + 189 pp.

7H*4H.

. The same. New York. 1857. [c. 1847.] C. M. Saxton & Co.

. Fruit-Gardening; containing complete practical directions

for the selection, propagation and cultivation of all kinds of
fruit. Illus. Philadelphia, n. d. Henry T. Coates & Co. 211
pp. 7M*5M-

-. The Kitchen Gardener's Instructor; containing a catalogue

of garden and herb seed, with practical directions under each
head for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and herbs.
With a calendar, showing the work necessary to be done in a
kitchen garden every month throughout the season; also,
directions for forcing or forwarding vegetables out of the ordi-
nary season. The whole adapted to the climate of the United
States. New York. 1836. D.Mitchell. 128pp. 7%x5.

. The same. 1844. [c. 1844.] For sale by the author.

-. The same. New York. 1857. [c. 1847.] C. M. Saxton &

-. The same. A new and improved edition. New York. 1860.
[c. 1847.] C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. xii + 164 pp.

Co.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1527

-. The same. 1864.

. The same. 1864.

. Kitchen-Gardening; containing complete practic

tions for the planting and cultivation of all kinds of ve
Illus. Philadelphia, n. d. Henry T. Coates & Co.

ical direc-
planting and cultivation of all kinds of vegetables,
elphia, n. d. Henry T. Coates & Co. 152 pp.
.

. The Young Gardener's Assistant; containing a catalogue

of garden and flower seeds, with practical directions under
each head for the cultivation of culinary vegetables, some
of which are not generally introduced into the United States.
Brooklyn. 1829. [c. 1829.] Printed by Nichol & Mathews.
96 pp. 7x4.

. The same. 3d ed., with an appendix; containing directions

for cultivating fruit trees and the grape vine. New York. 1832.
[c. 1832.] Printed by Geo. Robertson, vi + 272 pp. 7x4 H-
-. The same. The Young Gardener's Assistant; containing a

pp.

catalogue of garden and flower seeds, with practical directions
under each head, for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and
flowers; also, directions for cultivating fruit trees, the grape
vines, etc. ; to which is added a calendar, showing the work neces-
sary to be done in the various departments of gardening in every
month of the year. 7th ed., improved. New York. 1837.
[c. 1837.] Mitchell & Turner, vi + 360 pp. 8M * 5.

The same. 8th ed., improved. 1840. [c. 1840.] vi + 408
. 8Mx5M-

. The same. 10th ed., improved. In three parts. New York.
1844. For sale by the author. (Each part paged separately).
9 in.

- . The same. 12th ed., with an appendix. In three parts,
containing catalogues of garden and flower seed, with practical
directions under each head for the cultivation of culinary
vegetables and flowers: also, directions for cultivating fruit
trees, the grape vine, etc. To which is added a calendar to
each part, showing the work necessary to be done in the various
departments each month in the year. The whole adapted to
the climate of the United States. 1847. [c. 1847.] (Each part
paged separately.)

- . The same. The whole adapted to the climate of the United
States. New edition, with an appendix, containing remarks on
the alleged disease of the potato, etc. Part I. Vegetable depart-
ment. New York. 1865. [c. 1847.] William Wood & Co. 7J^x5.
(The three parts were also published separately as "Kitchen
Gardener's Instructor," "Fruit-Cultivator's Manual," and
"Florist's Guide.")

BRIGHT, WILLIAM. Bright's Single Stem, Dwarf and Renewal
System of Grape Culture; adapted to the vineyard.the grapery,
and the fruiting of vines in pots, on trellises, arbors, etc. New
York. 1860. [c. I860.] C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 123 pp.

- . The same. 2d ed. New York. 1861. [c. I860.] C. M
Saxton, Barker & Co. 155 pp.

BRILL, FRANCIS. Cauliflowers and How To Grow Them; with
plain, practical and explicit directions in minute detail for the
cultivation and management of this crop, from the sowing of
the seed to the marketing of the product. Riverhead, N. Y.
1886. [n. c.] Published by the author. 16pp. 9x5%.

- . Farm-Gardening and Seed-Growing. New and enlarged
edition. With suggestions to seed-growers. By George Thur-
ber. New York. 1884. [c. 1883.] Orange Judd Company. 166
pp. 7J^x5.

- . The same. 1886.

- . The same. New York. n. d. [c. 1872.] Orange Judd
Company. 157 pp.

BRINCKLE, WILLIAM D., Editor. Hoffy's North American Pomolo-
gist; containing numerous finely colored drawings, accompanied
by letter press descriptions, etc., of fruits of American origin.
Portrait. Book No. 1. Philadelphia, 1860. [c. I860.] Prepared
and published by A. Hoffy. vi + 44 pp. 10 % x 8.

BROOKS, SARAH WARNER. A Garden with House Attached. Illus.
Boston. 1904. R. G. Badger. 118pp. 9 Kin.

- . The same. 1911. [c. 1911.]

BROWN, GLENN, Editor. European and Japanese Gardens. Papers
read before the American Institute of Architects: Italian
Gardens, by A. D. F. Hamlin. English Gardens, by R. Clipston
Sturgis. French Gardens, by John Galen Howard. Japanese
Gardens, by K. Honda. Edited for the American Institute of
Architects by Glenn Brown, Secretary. Illus. Philadelphia.
1902. [c. 1902.] Henry T. Coates & Co. 9^x7.

BROWN, JAMES B. Reference book explanatory of Brown's im-
proved above-ground storehouse, for the keeping over winter of
fruit, sweet and Irish potatoes, etc., together with a prize essay
on the propagation, cultivation, and preservation of the sweet
potato. M'Minnville, Term. 1886. Standard Printing House.
20 pp. 9 in.

BROWN, WALDO F. Gardener's Pocket Manual. A short, practical
treatise on gardening. Illus. Springfield, O. [c. 1878.] T. H.
Edwards & Co. 105 pp. 6 in.

BRYANT, W. C. See Field, F. E. The Greenhouse as a Winter
Garden ; see Turner, Mrs. Cordelia Harris. The Floral Kingdom.

BUCHANAN, ROBERT. The Culture of the Grape, and Wine Mak-
ing; with an appendix containing directions for the cultiva-
tion of the strawberry, by N. Longworth. Illus. Cincinnati.
1852. [c. 1852.] Moore & Anderson. 142 pp.

- . The same. Illus. 2d ed. Cincinnati. 1852. [c. 1852.]
Moore & Anderson. 142 pp.

•. The same. Illus. 3d ed. Cincinnati. 1852. [c. 1852.]

. The same. Illus. 4th ed. Cincinnati. 1853. [c. 1852.]

Moore, Anderson & Co. 142 pp.
. The same. Illus. 5th ed. Cincinnati. 1855. [c. 1852.]

Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co. 142 pp.
. The same. Illus. 6th ed. Cincinnati. 1860. [c. 1852.]

Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co. 142 pp.
. The same. Illus. 7th ed. Cincinnati. 1861. fc. 1852.]

Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co. 142 pp.
. The same. Illus. 8th ed. Philadelphia, n. d. Crawford

& Co. 142 pp.

-. The same. 8th ed. Cincinnati. 1865. Moore, Wilstach

& Baldwin. 142 pp. 8 in.

BUCHANAN, W. D. See Tritschler, C. H. A Practical Treatise on
How to Grow Flowers.

BUDD, J. L. A Horticultural Handbook. Illus. Des Moines,
Iowa. March, 1900. Wallace Publishing Company. 160 pp.
6x4H

- and HANSEN, N. E. American Horticultural Manual.
Part I. Comprising the leading principles and practices con-
nected with the propagation, culture, and improvement of
fruits, nuts, ornamental trees, shrubs, and plants in the United
States and Canada. Illustrated with over one hundred figures
and explanatory designs. New York. 1902. [c. 1902.] John
Wiley & Sons, xx + 417 pp. TYz x 5.

. The same. Part II. Systematic Pomology; containing

descriptions of the leading varieties of the orchard fruits, grapes
small fruits, subtropical fruits, and the nuts of the United
States and Canada. Illustrated by hundreds of outlines of the
leading commercial fruits and nuts. 1903. vi + 491 pp.

BUELL, J. S. The Cider Makers' Manual. A practical handbook,
which embodies treatises on the apple; construction of cider
mills, cider-presses, seed-washers, and cider mill machinery in
general; cider making; fermentation; improved processes in
refining cider, and its conversion into wine and champagne;
vinegar manipulation by the slow and quick processes; imita-
tion ciders; various kinds of surrogate wines; summer beverages;
fancy vinegars, etc. Illus. Buffalo. 1869. [c. 1869.] Pub-
lished by Haas & Kelley. viii +174 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

- . The same. Revised edition, with alterations. Buffalo,
1874. [c. 1869.] Haas, Nauert & Co. 183 pp. 7yz x 5.

BUIST, ROBERT. American Flower-Garden Directory;- containing
practical directions for the culture of plants, in the flower-
garden, hot-house, green-house, rooms or parlor windows, for
every month in the year; with a description of the plants most
desirable in each, the nature of the soil and situation best
adapted to their growth, the proper season for transplanting,
etc.; with instructions for erecting a hot-house, green-house,
and laying out a flower-garden; also, Table of Soils most con-
genial to the plants contained in the work — the whole adapted
to either large or small garden; with instructions for preparing
the soil, propagating, planting, pruning, training, and fruiting
the grape-vine, with descriptions of the best sorts for cultivating
in the open air. 2d ed., with numerous additions. Philadelphia.
1839. [c. 1839.] E. L. Carey and A. Hart, viii +379 pp.

. The same. 3d ed., with numerous additions. Philadelphia.
1845. [c. 1845.] Carey & Hart, xi + 345 pp. 7%x4M-

. The same. 4th ed., with numerous additions. Phila-
delphia. 1851. A. Hart (late Carey & Hart), xvi + 339 pp.

. The same. 5th ed., with numerous additions. Philadel-
phia. 1852. [c. 1851.] A. Hart (late Carey & Hart), xvi + 339
pp. 8x5.

. The same. 6th ed., with numerous additions. 1854.
[c. 1854.] xvi + 342 pp. 7 Y2 x 5.

. The same. 6th ed., New York. 1859. A. O. Moore.
. The same. New edition, with numerous additions. New
York. n. d. [c. 1854.] Orange Judd Company, xvi + 342 pp.

Moore & Anderson. 142 pp.

. For 1st ed. see Hibbert. The American Flower Garden

Directory.

. The Family Kitchen Gardener; containing plain and accu-
rate descriptions of all the different species and varieties of culi-
nary vegetables; with their botanical, English, French, and
German names, alphabetically arranged, and the best mode of
cultivating them in the garden or under glass; with a descrip-
tion of implements and medicinal herbs in general use. Also,
descriptions and characters of the most select fruits, their
management, propagation, etc. Illustrated with twenty-five
engravings. New York. 1852. [c. 1847.] C. M. Saxton. 216
pp. 7%x5.

. The same. New York. 1867. [c. 1847.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. 216pp. 7%x5.

. The Rose Manual; containing accurate descriptions of all

the finest varieties of roses, properly classed in their respective
families, their character and mode of culture, with directions
for their propagation, and the destruction of insects. With
engravings. Philadelphia. 1844. [c. 1844.] For the author
and Messrs. Carey & Hart, xii + 182 pp. 7 H x 5.

. The same. 2d ed., with additions. 1847. [c. 1844.]

xii +192 pp. 7^x5.

. The same. 3d ed., with additions. 1851. Published by the

author, xii + 188 pp. 7}^ in.
. The same. 4th ed., with additions. 1854. [c. 1844.] For

the author, A. Hart, and Lippincott, Grambo, & Co. xvi +

196pp. 7^x4%.

1528

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

BULOS. See Fisher, S. I. Observations on the Character and the
Culture of the European Vine.

BURBERRY, H. A. The Amateur Orchid Cultivator's Guide Book.
With a preface by Dr. J. M. W. Kitchen. American edition.
With illustrations. New York and Liverpool, n. d. [1899.]
Illus. (with black and colored plates.) G. P. Putnam's Sons.
Blake & Mackenzie, viii +172 pp. 9x6.

BURPEE, W. ATLEE. How to Grow Melons for Market. Illus.
Philadelphia. 1888. [c. 1888.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. x + 81
pp. 7 J£x 5.

. The same. 8th ed. 1897. [c. 1888.]

. See Pedersen, J., and Howard, G. H. How to Grow Cab-
bages and Cauliflower Most Profitably. See Darlington, E. D.,
and Moll, L. M. How and What to Grow in a Kitchen Garden
of One Acre. See Greiner, T., and Arlie, C. H. How to Grow
Onions.

. Root Crops for Stock Feeding and How to Grow Them;

Compiled from the prize essays and practical experience.
Illus. Philadelphia. 1888. [c. 1888.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co.
viii + 72 pp. 7^x5.

-. Vegetables for the Home Garden. Illus. Philadelphia.

1896. [c. 1896.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. 127 pp. 7Yz x 5.

. The same. 3d ed. 1898. [c. 1896.]

. The same. Revised edition. 1912.

BURR, FEARING, Jr. The Field and Garden Vegetables of America;

containing full descriptions of nearly eleven hundred species and

varieties, with directions for propagation, culture and use. Illus.

Boston. 1863. [c. 1863.] Crosby & Nichols, xv + 674 pp.

9x6.
. The same. New York. 1865. [c. 1863 and 1865.] J. E.

Tilton & Co. xv + 667 pp. 8x5.

-. Garden Vegetables, and How to Cultivate Them. Illus.

Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.] J. E. Tilton & Co. 12 + 355 pp.
7 % x 5. (Abridgement of the above. )

BURRITT, M. C. Apple growing. New York. 1912. Outing Pub-
lishing Company. 177 pp. 7 in. (Outing Handbook Series.)

BUSBY, JAMES. Grapes and Wine. A visit to the principal vine-
yards of Spain and France; giving a minute account of the
different methods pursued in the cultivation of the vine and the
manufacture of wine; with a catalogue of the different varieties
of grape; an attempt to calculate the profits of cultivating the
vine; an estimate of the profits of Malaga fruit, etc. New
York: C. S. Francis & Co. Boston: J. H. Francis. 1848.
166 pp.

. Journal of a Recent Visit to the Principal Vineyards of
Spain and France. With some remarks on the very limited
quantity of the finest wines produced throughout the world, and
their consequent intrinsic value; an attempt to calculate the
profits of cultivating the vine; a catalogue of the different varie-
ties of grape; and an estimate of the profits of Malaga fruits;
together with observations relative to the introduction of the
vine into New South Wales. Philadelphia. 1838. J. Snider, Jr.
xi 4- 177 pp. Sin. (Reprinted from the London edition of 1834.)

BUSCH, S. S., and GUSTIN, E. E. Manual of Horticulture for Grade
and High Schools. Illus. North Yakima. [c. 1913.] Printed
by the Republic Print. 223 pp. 9 in.

BUSCHBAUER, HANS. Amerikanisches Garten-buch fiir Stadt und
Land. Eine an der amerikanischen Bediirfnissen angepasste,
durch zahlreiche Original-aufsatze vermehrte Zusammenstellung
der in Christ's "Gartenbuch," Riimpler's "Gartenblumen" und
andern einschlagenden Werken enthaltenen Einleitung, des
Hausgartens und zur Kultur der Gemiise Obstbaume, Reben,
Forstbaume und Blumen. Mit einem Anhange uber Blumen-
zucht im Zimmer. Illus. Milwaukee, Wis. 1892. G. Brum-
der. xii + 502 pp. 8M in.

BUSH, ISIDOR, & SON. Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of Grape
Vines, Small Fruit, and Seed Potatoes, cultivated and for sale
at the Bushberg vineyards and orcnards, Jefferson County, Mo.,
with brief directions for planting and cultivating. Illus. St.
Louis. 1869. R. P. Studley & Co., Printers. 58 pp. 10 M in.

BUSH & SON & MEISSNER. Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of
American Grape Vines, with brief directions for their culture.
By Bush & Son & Meissner, successors to Isidor Bush & Son,
grape growers, and proprietors of the Bushberg vineyards and
grape nurseries, Bushberg, Mo. Illus. St. Louis. 1875. The
R. P. Studley Co., Printers. 80 pp. 10 M in.

. Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of American Grape

Vines. A grape growers' manual. Illus. 3d ed. St. Louis. 1883.
[c. 1883.] R. P. Studley & Co. 153 pp

. The same. Illus. 4th ed. St. Louis. 1895. [c. 1894.]

R. P. Studley & Co. 208 pp.
BUTTERFIELD, W. H. Making Fences, Walls and Hedges. Illus.

New York. 1914. [c. 1914.] McBride, Nast & Co. 66 pp.

4Mx6J-i.
CALKINS, JOHN S. Gleanings in Olive Culture. New method of

propagating the trees; transplanting; pruning; soil; climate;

the olive as a street and avenue tree; irrigation; insect pests;

olive oil; olive pickles; varieties; the outlook for the industry.

Los Angeles. [1892.] Press of The Rural Californian. 8 pp.

CANADA, J. W., and ARAI, S. How to Plant and Cultivate an Orange
orchard: a summary of the main points. Houston, Texas.
[c. 1909.] 16pp. 9%in.

CARD, FRED W. Bush-Fruits. A horticultural monograph of
raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, currants, gooseberries,
and other shrub-like fruits. Illus. New York. 1898. [c. 1898.]
The Macmillan Company, xii + 537 pp. 7x5. (Rural Science
Series. )

-- . The same. 2d ed., revised. 1901.

. The same. 5th ed. 1909. [c. 1898.]

CARMAN, ELBERT S. The New Potato Culture; as developed by the
trench system, by the judicious use of chemical fertilizers, and
by the experiments carried on at the rural grounds during the
past fifteen years. New York. 1891. [c. 1891.] The Rural
Publishing Company. 165 pp. 8 ^ x 5 %.

- . The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 1893. 200 pp.
CARS, A. DES. See Des Cars, A.

GARY, AUGUSTUS G. Cranberry Culture on a Western Plan, with
valuable items and recipes from growers and members of the
Wisconsin Cranberry Association. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1891.
Razall & Co. 77 pp. 9 in.

CASEY, J. P. A treatise on the culture and growth of different
sorts of flower roots, and of greenhouse plants kept in rooms,
etc. To which is added a table, of the Linnsean classes of
botany, with their orders and examples. Baltimore. 1821.
[c. 1820.] Published by the author. 99 pp. 5^x3 1A.

CELLON, GEORGE BEAUREGAHD. Commercial Varieties of Mango
and Avocado Trees. Illus. Miami, Fla. [c. 1912.] Tropical
grove, Nursery department. 45 pp. 10 \i in.

CHADWICK, L. The Cultivator's Hand Book on Universal or
Planetary Law of the Plants, Sun, Moon and Signs. What it is ;
how it operates; how it affects nations; the animal and vege-
table kingdom, and especially, how it affects man. Portrait.
Chicago, [c. 1895.] R. R. Donnelly & Sons Co., Printers. 110
pp. 8x5^.

CHAPMAN, J. B. The Grape Grower's Guide. A short treatise on
grape culture in central Kentucky. Giving the easiest and sim-
plest mode of successfully cultivating the native grape. Eliza-
bethtown, Ky. 1875. W. Chapman. 134pp. 7}^in.

CHAPPUIS, BRUN. See Fisher, S. I. Observations on the Character
and Culture of the European Vine.

CHASE, C. THURSTON. The Prairie Fruit Culturist: or, What to
plant and how to cultivate in the West, a reliable treatise on
fruits. 3d thousand. Illus. Chicago. 1859. S. C. Griggs & Co.
96 pp. TYi in. (Chase's Handbooks of Knowledge for Prairie
Life. No. 1.)

CHAZOTTE, PETER STEPHEN. Facts and Observations on the Cul-
ture of Vines, Olives, Capers, Almonds, etc., in the Southern
States, and of Coffee, Cocoa, and Cochineal in East Florida.
Philadelphia. 1821. J. Maxwell. 24 pp. 8M in.

CHILDS, JOHN LEWIS. Guide to Lily Culture; with descriptions of
all the known species and distinct varieties; also a complete
chapter on Amaryllis. Illus. 7th ed. New York. 1888. [n. c.]
Charles T. Ketcham & Co. 26 pp. 10 x 7.

CHORLTON, WILLIAM. The American Grape Grower's Guide. In-
tended especially for the American climate. Being a practical
treatise on the cultivation of the grape vine in each department
of hothouse, cold grapery, retarding house, and outdoor cul-
ture; with plans for the construction of the requisite buildings,
and giving the best methods of heating the same. Illus. New
York. 1856. [c. 1852.] C. M. Saxton & Co. 171pp. 7 Kin.

- . The same. New edition. With descriptions of the later
exotic grapes, by Dr. George Thurber. Illus. New York. 1883.
[c. 1883.] Orange Judd Company. 208 pp. 7 % in.

-. The same. New edition. With descriptions of the later

exotic grapes, and a select list of the native varieties, by Dr.
George Thurber. Illus. New York. 1890. [c. 1887.] Orange
Judd Company. 211 pp.

. Chorlton's Grape Grower's Guide. New ed. With descrip-
tions of the later exotic grapes, and a select list of the native
varieties, by Dr. George Thurber. Illus. New York. 1887.
[c. 1887.] Orange Judd Company. 211 pp. 7M x 5M-

-. The Cold Grapery, from Direct American Practice; being

. Olive Culture in California. Illus. Los Angeles. 1894.
Los Angeles Printing Company. 16 pp. 9 J4 x 6.
CAMAK, DR. JAMES. See White, William, N. Gardening for the
South.

a concise and detailed treatise on the cultivation of the exotic
grape vine, under glass, without artificial heat. Illus. New
York. 1853. [c. 1853.] J. C. Riker. 95 pp. 7 \i in.

CHURCH, ELLA RODMAN. The Home Garden. Illus. New York.
1881. [c. 1881.] D. Appleton & Co. 121 pp. 7%x5. (In
Appleton's Home Book Series.)

CLARK, JOHN T. C. The Amateurs' Guide and Flower-Garden
Directory; containing every requisite detail for the successful
cultivation of the flower-garden, embracing the classification of
the best varieties of roses, and all plants requisite for the garden,
with directions for their propagation, and remedies for the
destructions of insects; to which is added the Vegetable Garden
Manual. Illus. Washington, D. C. 1856. [c. 1856.] Taylor &
Maury. 158 pp. 8 x 5 Yi.

CLARKE, S. A. Prune Industry in the Pacific Northwest. Portland,
n. d. J. K. Gill Co.

CLEAVELAND, HENRY W., BARKERS, WILLIAM, and BARKERS,
SAMUEL D. Village and Farm Cottages. The requirements of
American village homes considered and suggested; with designs
for such houses of moderate cost. Illus. New York. 1856.
[c. 1855.] D. Appleton & Co. xii + 189 pp. 9x6.

1529

CLEMMENS, JANE E. The Luscious Strawberry. Springfield, Ohio,
[c. 1900.] 32 pp.

CLEVELAND, H. W. S. A Few Hints on Landscape Gardening in
the West. The Relation of Engineering to Landscape Garden-
ing, by W. M. R. French. Illus. Chicago. 1871. Hazlitt &
Reed, Printers. 20 pp. 9x6.

. Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the

West; with an essay on forest planting on the great plains.
Chicago. 1873. [c. 1873.] Jansen, McClurg & Co. 147 pp.
7x5.

CLEVES, W. B. Success With Seeds and Seedlings. Portrait.
Binghamton, N. Y. [c. 1903.] The Modern Press. 38 pp.
6x3^.

CLINE, JOSEPH L. Climate of Texas and the cultivation of the
Apple. Read before the Texas State Horticultural Society, at
Tyler, Texas, July. 1896. Galveston, Texas. 1896. Knapp
Bros., Printers and Stationers. 7 pp. 9^x6.

CLUTE, WILLARD NELSON. Agronomy; a course in practical gar-
dening for high schools. Illus. Boston, New York. [c. 1913.]
Ginn & Co. xvi + 296 pp. 8 in.

COBBETT, WILLIAM. The American Gardener. A treatise on the
situation, soil, fencing and laying-out of gardens; on the making
and managing of hotbeds and greenhouses, and on the propaga-
tion and cultivation of the several sorts of vegetables, herbs,
fruits and flowers. Baltimore and Frederick, Md. 1823.
[Preface 1819.] J. Robinson, and J. Robinson & Co. ix + 252
pp. 5H*3Ji

. The same. New York. n. d. [preface 1819.] Orange Judd

Company. 230 pp. 6 Yi x 4.

. The same. Claremont, N. H. [1819.] Manufacturing Co.

-. The same. New York. 1835. John Doyle. 230 pp.

6^x4.

. The same. American stereotype edition. Concord, N. H.

1842. [c. 1842.] Boston: L. Hamilton. New York: Saxton &
Pierce, Saxton & Miles, x + 271 pp. 6 % x 4 %.

-. The same. New York. 1856. [preface 1819.] C. M. Sax-

ton & Co. 230 pp. 8x4

. American Orchardist and Cottage Economy; containing

information relative to the brewing of beer, making bread,
keeping of cows, pigs, bees, ewes, goats, poultry, and rabbits,
and relative to other matters deemed useful in the conducting
of the affairs of a laborer's family; to which are added instruc-
tions relative to the selecting, the cutting, and the bleaching
of the plants of English grass and grain, for the purpose of mak-
ing hats and bonnets. First American from the first London
edition. New York. 1824. [n. c.] Published by Stephen
Gould and Son, and Joseph P. Gould. 226 pp. 8x5.
(Bound with Thacher's American Orchardist, as American
Orchardist and Cottage Economy. )

. Garden Flowers: containing a full description of all impor-
tant plants and shrubs for the garden. Also, the best method of
cultivating flowers and vegetables, preparing hotbeds, green-
houses, etc. Illus. New York. 1853. 48pp. 1Yi in. (This is
an abridgment of the American Gardener, and has the latter
title printed at the head of pages. )

-, Editor. See Forsyth, William. A Treatise on the Culture

and Management of Fruit Trees.
COLE, S. W. The American Fruit-Book; containing directions for
raising, propagating, and managing fruit-trees, shrubs, and
plants; with a description of the best varieties of fruit, including
new and valuable kinds; embellished and illustrated with nu-
merous engravings of fruits, trees, insects, grafting, budding,
training, etc. 18th thousand. 1850. [n. c.] Boston: John
P. Jewett & Co. New York: C. M. Saxton. 288 pp. 6x4.

. The same. Title abridged. 1849.

. The same. New York. n. d. [1849.] Orange Judd Com-
pany.

-. The same. New York. 1859. [c. 1849.] A. O. Moore & Co.

COLLINGWOOD, HERBERT W. See Hall, Bolton. The Garden Yard.

. Editor. The Farmer's Garden: Health, happiness and

money out of the soil. A story of just how men and women
have turned their own labor into garden products for the
family table. New York. n. d. [c. 1905.] Published by Rural
New Yorker. Paper. 128 pp. 8x5 Vi.

. Fertilizers and Fruit. A trip among growers in the famous

Hudson River fruit district. Best quality in fruit. New York.
1893. [c. 1893.] The Rural Publishing Company. 27 pp.
7^2 * 5. (The Rural Library, Vol. I, No. 25, December.)

COLLINS, W. C. An Agricultural Treatise. Fifty dollars per acre
from cucumbers, [c. 1905.] Lincoln Publishing House. 10 pp.
9 in.

COMPLETE FLORIST, THE. A manual of gardening, containing
practical instruction for the management of greenhouse plants,
and for the cultivation of the shrubbery, the flower garden,
and the lawn; with descriptions of those plants and trees most
worthy of culture, in each department; with additions and
amendments adapted to the climate of the United States.
Philadelphia. 1844. [c. 1844.) Lea & Blanchard. ix + 108 pp.
7 % x 4 %. (An American edition of an English work. Bound with
The Kitchen and Fruit Gardener.)

-. The same. Separate, as The Complete Florist or Flower

COMPLETE GARDENER AND FLORIST, THE; containing an account

of every vegetable production cultivated for the table, with

directions for planting and raising flowers. 9th ed. New York.

1849. [n. c.] Dewitt & Davenport, iv + 92 pp. 7M*4}^.

(Bound with the Flower Gardener.)
COMPLETE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDENER, THE, for popular and

general use ... By one of the oldest and most experienced

gardeners in the United States. Philadelphia. 1851. T. B.

Peterson. 118 pp. 8 in.

COMPTON, D. H. See Cultivation of the Potato.
CONARD, HENRY S. , and HENRI Hcs. Water-Lilies and How to

Grow Them. With chapters on the proper making of ponds and

the use of accessory plants. Illus. New York. 1907. [c. 1907.]

Doubleday, Page & Co. 228 pp. 7 ' £ x 5 J4
COOK, H. A. Ten Years' Experience in Raising Carrots and Cab-

bage. New York. 1866. Brown & Hewitt, Printers. 31 pp. 9 in.
COOKE, MATTHEW. See Spalding, W. A. The Orange.
COOPER, ELLWOOD. A Treatise on Olive Culture. San Francisco.

1882. Cubery & Co., Steam Book and Job Printers. 26 pp.

8^x5^.
COPE, ELIPHAS. A Practical Treatise on Plum Growing. New

Lisbon, O. 1888. [c. 1888.] Buckeye State Print. Paper. 45 pp.

6x4.

COPE, F. J. See Saunders, Wm.
COPELAND, ROBERT MORRIS. Country Life. A handbook of agri-

culture, horticulture, and landscape gardening. Illus. 5th ed.,

revised. Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.] x + 912 pp. 9x6.

- . The same. 6th ed., revised, with supplement. New York.
1867. [c. 1866.] Orange Judd Company, x + 912 pp.

- • — . The same. Boston. 1859. [c. 1859.] John P. Jewett & Co.
813 pp.

CORBETT, LEE CLEVELAND. Garden Farming. Illus. Boston.
[c. 1913.] Ginn & Co. x + 473 pp. 6 x 9,%

COUTS, CHABLES ORIE. Cleft Grafting. 1st ed. Illus. Newcom-
erstown, Ohio. 1910. 48pp. 6J4in.

COXE, WILLIAM. A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the
Management of Orchards and Cider; with accurate descriptions
of the most estimable varieties of native and foreign apples,
pears, peaches, plums, and cherries, cultivated in the Middle
States of America; illustrated by cuts of two hundred kinds
of fruits of the natural size; intended to explain some of the
errors which exist relative to the origin, popular names, and
character of many of our fruits; to identify them by accurate
descriptions of their properties, and correct delineations of the
full size and natural formation of each variety; and to ex-
hibit a system of practice adapted to our climate, in the suc-
cessive stages of a nursery, orchard, and cider establishment.
Philadelphia. 1817. [c. 1817.] Published by M. Carey & Son.
D. Allinson, Printer, iv + 268 pp. 8 % x 5 %.

CRAWFORD, MATTHEW. Crawford's Strawberry Culture with
Catalogue. Free to all. Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. 1881. Matthew
Crawford. 28pp. 8Jix6.

- . Strawberry Culture. Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. 1902.
[c. 1902.] M. Crawford Company. 62pp. 5M*4.

. The Gladiolus; a practical treatise on the culture of

.

the gladiolus, with notes on its history, storage, diseases,
etc. With an appendix by Dr. W. Van Fleet. 1st ed. Illus.
Chicago and New York. . 1911. Vaughan's Seed Store. 98 pp.
Sin.

CREIGHTON, W. O. Fruit-Growing for Profit; comprising a com-
plete history of apple culture, from the time the seeds are
planted until the proceeds are pocketed; with chapters on the
plum, pear, cherry, strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, currant
and gooseberry. Halifax, N. S. 1891. [n. c.] Nova Scotia
Printing Company. 52 pp. 8^*5 Yt-

CRIDER, MRS. H. M. How to Grow Fine Celery. A new method.
York, Pa. 1884. [c. 1884.] H. M. Crider, publisher. 14 pp.

Stt*5)i

CROSIER, WILLIAM, and HENDERSON, PETER. How the Farm Pays.
The experience of forty years of successful farming and garden-
ing. New York. 1884. Peter Henderson & Co. 400 pp.

CROZIER, A. A. The Cauliflower. One plate. Ann Arbor, Mich.
1891. [c. 1891.] The Register Publishing Company. 230 pp.
7H*5M.

- . How to Cook Cauliflower. Ann Arbor, Mich. n. d.
[c. 1891.] The Register Publishing Company. 28pp. 7}ix5.

- - . Popular Errors about Plants. Ann Arbor. 1891. The

Register Publishing Company. 169 pp. 7 1A in.

-. The same. New York. 1892. Rural Publishing Company.

Gardener, [c. 1851.]

CULTIVATION OP THE POTATO, Prize Essay on. Prize offered by
W. T. Wylie and awarded to D. H. Compton. How to Cook
the Potato, furnished by Prof. Blot. Illus. New York. 1870.
Orange Judd Company. Paper. 40 pp. 9 % x 6.

CULVER, S. The Fruit Preserver's Manual ; reviewing the different
theories and describing the best method of preserving green
corn and peas by drying, and other fruits and berries by enclos-
ing in jars or cans, with full instructions for successfully per-
forming the requisite operations, accompanied by numerous
practical suggestions respecting the comparative merits of dif-
ferently constructed cans. Rochester. 1860. [c. I860.] E. Dar-
row & Bro. 33 pp. 7x4 Y2.

CUMMINS, D. See Day, J. W. Tomato Culture.

1530

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

CUNNINGHAM, S. A., and LEAVENS, GEORGE D. Lawns, Golf
Courses, Polo Fields, and How to Treat Them. Illus. New
York. 1914. The Co-Mortimer Company. 31 pp. 9 in.

CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM. See Downing, A. J. Rural Essays.

CUTTER, ELIZABETH H. See Muench, Frederick.

DARLINGTON, E. D. Flowers for Every Home. Illus. 6th ed.
Philadelphia, [c. 1895.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. viii + 82 pp.
7^x4^.

and MOLL, L. M. How and What to Grow in a Kitchen

Garden of One Acre. Edited by W. Atlee Burpee. Illus. Phila-
delphia. 1888. [c. 1888.] Published by W. Atlee Burpee,
vii + 198 pp. 7 ^2 x 5.
— . The same. 6th ed. 1893. [c. 1888.] vii + 198 pp. 7>ix5.

. The same. 8th ed. 1895. [c. 1888.]

. The same. 10th ed.

-. Rare Flowers from Seed. How to grow tuberous begonias,

calceolarias, cinerarias, Chinese primroses, coleus, cyclamens,
single and double petunias, fuchsias, and other rare flowers.
Illus. 8th ed. Philadelphia. 1898. [c. 1895.] W. Atlee Burpee
& Co. 37 pp. 3 Yi x 6.

D ARROW, J. W. Flower Queries; 500 questions on practical flori-
culture answered and topics discussed. A practicaj book,
written in the form of questions and answers on the cultivation
and care of indoor and outdoor plants and flowers. Chatham,
N. Y. 1896. [c. 1896.] The Courier Press. 48 pp. 9x6.

DAVEY, JOHN. The Tree Doctor. A book on tree culture. Illus-
trated with photographs. Akron, Ohio. 1902. [c. 1901.] Pub-
lished by the author. 88 pp. 9 M x 6.

DAVIS, GEORGE W. A Treatise on the Culture of the Orange,
together with a Description of some of the Best Varieties of the
Fruit, Gathering, Curing and Preparing the Fruit for Shipment
and Market. Jacksonville, Fla. 1881. C. W. Dacosta. 60 pp.
8 in.

DAVIS, J. R. Up-to-date Truck Growing in the South. Edited by
G. F. Hunnicutt. Illus. Atlanta, Ga. 1910. The Cultivator
Publishing Company. 188 pp. 7 % in.

DAVIS, Lucius D. Ornamental Shrubs for Garden, Lawn, and
Park Planting; with an account of the origin, capabilities, and
adaptations of the numerous species and varieties, native and
foreign, and especially of the new and rare sorts, suited to culti-
vation in the United States. Fully illustrated. New York and
London. 1899. [c. 1899.] G. P. Putnam's Sons. The Knicker-
bocker Press, vi + 338 pp. 10 x 7 %

DAY, J. W. Treatise on Tomato Culture. Crystal Springs, Miss.
1891. [n. c.] 25pp. 8%x5}i

, CUMMINS, D., and ROOT, A. I. Tomato Culture; in three

parts. Part I: Tomato culture in the south. Part II: Tomato
culture especially for canning factories. Part III: Plant-grow-
ing for market, and high-pressure gardening in general. A
practical book for those who work under either glass or cloth as

Protection from frost. Illus. Medina, Ohio. 1892. [n. c.] A.
. Root. 135 pp. 6^x5.

DEAN, MARK. Dean's System of Greenhouse Heating; by steam or
hot water; with formulas for obtaining different temperatures;
tables giving radiation necessary per square foot of glass;
tables giving glass surface; sizes of flow and return pipes; list
prices of pipe and fittings, and other useful information. Bos-
ton, Mass. n. d. [c. 1901.] Published by Mark Dean. 46 pp.

DEARBORN, HENRY A. S. Monography of the Genus Camellia;
or, an essay on its culture, description and classification.
Illustrated by two synoptical tables: the first containing the
names of two hundred and seventy varieties, with the color
and form of the flowers, the species or variety which have
produced them, the place of their origin, and the period of
their introduction into Europe; and the second presents two
ascending gamuts, in which are painted the shades of color
peculiar to the known camellias, with their specific denomina-
tions. By the Abbe Berlese. Translated from the French by
Henry A. S. Dearborn. Boston. 1838. [c. 1838.] Published by
Breck & Company. 102 pp. 4 colored charts. (This was serially
published in the Horticultural Register.)

DE BERNEAUD, THI^BAUT. See Berneaud, Thi6baut de.

DE CARADEUC, A. Grape Culture and Wine making in the South,
with a description of the best varieties of grapes for the vine-
yard; soils; aspect, preparation of the ground, planting, etc.
Also remarks on the best methods of propagation ; the making,
bottling, and keeping of wine, distillation of brandy, making
raisins, etc. Published by the "Aiken Vine Growing Associa-
tion." Augusta, Ga. 1858. D. Redmond. 20 pp. 9 in.

DE COUHTENAY, J. M. Canada Vine Grower. How every farmer
in Canada may plant a vineyard and make his own wine. 1866.
Toronto. 58 pp.

DENNISTON, G. Grape Culture in Steuben County, N. Y. Albany.
1865. C. Wendell. Maps. 22 pp. (Reprint from Transactions
New York State Agricultural Society, XXIV.)

DBS CARS, A. A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees.
Translated from the seventh French edition. With an intro-
duction by Charles S. Sargent. Illus. Boston. 1881. [c. 1881.]
Published by the Society, xiv + 65 pp. 7 Yi x 5. (Massachu-
setts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture.)

. The same. 2d ed. 1884. [c. 1881.] Cupples, Upham & Co.

• . The same. 3d ed. 1894. [c. 1881.] Published by the

Society.

The Oper

DICK, J. HARRISON. Sweet Peas for Profit. Cultivation — under glass
and outdoors; a practical guide to modern methods of growing
the sweet pea for market purposes. Illus. New York. 1914.
[c. 1914.] A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Com-
pany, Ltd. 147 pp. 5 x 7K-

DOLLINS, JOHN. The Art of Pruning Trees and Arbor Vines. Char-
lottesville, Va. 1883. Peck & Allan. 16 pp. 9 in.

- . Art of Transplanting Trees, Vines, etc. Illus. Charlottes-
ville, Va. 1887. Charlottesville Jeffersonian Piint. 8pp. 8% in.

DOOGUE, LUKE J. Making a Lawn. Illus. New York. 1912.
[c. 1912.) McBride, Nast & Co. 51pp. 6^x4}^. (On cover:
House and Garden Making Books. )

DORNER, HERMANN B. Window Gardening in the Schoolroom.
Illus. La Fayette, Ind. 1905. Purdue University. 23 pp. 7 l/i
in.

- . Window Gardening. With illustrations from photographs.
Indianapolis, n. d. [c. 1908.] The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
153pp. 7^x5H-

DORSEY, M. J. See Hedrick, U. P. The Grapes of New York.

DOWNING, A. J. Cottage Residences; or, a series of designs for
rural cottages and cottage villas, and their gardens and grounds.
Adapted to North America. Part I. Illustrated by numerous
engravings. 2d ed. New York and London. 1844. [c. 1842.]
Wiley & Putnam, viii + 187 pp. 9 ^ x 6.

- . The same. 4th ed., revised and improved. 1852. J.
Wiley, xii + 215 pp. 9 in.

- . Editor. See Loudon, Mrs. Gardening for Ladies.

- . See Lindley, John. The Theory of Horticulture.

- . The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America; or, the culture,
propagation, and management, in the garden and orchard, of
fruit trees generally; with descriptions of all the finest varieties
of fruit, native and foreign, cultivated in this country. Illus-
trated with many engravings. New York and London. 1845.
[c. 1845.] Wiley & Putnam, xiv + 594 pp. 8x5.

- . The same. With colored plates. 9>£in.

- . The same. 5th ed. 1845. [c. 1845.] xiv + 594 pp. 8x5.

- . The same. 6th ed. 1846. [c. 1845.] xiv + 594 pp. 8x5.

- . The same. 7th ed. 1847. [c. 1845.] xiv + 594 pp. 8x5.

- . The same, with wide margin and colored plates. 1847.
[c. 1845.] xiv + 594 pp. 10 x 6 1A.

The same. 9th ed. 1849. [c. 1845.] John Wiley, xiv +

594 pp. 8x5.

The same. Illustrated with colored engravin

New
x 6.

York. 1850. [c. 1845.] John Wiley, xiv + 594 pp.

— . The same. 1851. [c. 1845.] On cover: 12th ed.

. The same. 14th ed. 1853. [c. 1845.] John Wiley.

. The same. Revised and corrected by Charles Downing.

1857. Wiley and Halsted. xiii + 760 pp. 8x5.
. The same. 1857. [c. 1857.] Wiley and Halsted. xix + 760

pp.

. The same. 3d thousand, with corrections. 1858.

The same. 1860. [c. 1857.] John Wiley, xi + 760 pp.

. The same. 1861. xix + 760 pp.

. The same. 1864. [c. 1857.] xix + 760 pp. 8x5.

. The same. Revised and corrected by Charles Downing.

Third thousand, with corrections. New York. 1860. xi +
760 pp.

. The same. Revised and corrected by Charles Downing.

1866. xix + 760 pp.

. The same. Second revision and correction, with large ad-
ditions, by Charles Downing. 1869. John Wiley & Son. xxiv
+ 1,098pp. 10x6}£

. The same. Second revision and correction, with large

additions and an appendix of 1872, including many new varie-
ties, by Charles Downing. Apples. 1872. xx + 464 + 42 pp.

. The same. Appendix of 1872. Cherries, Grapes, Peaches,

Pears, etc. 1872. 1,07 1+19 pp.
. The same, appendices I, II, III. 1881. [c. 1881.] xii + 189

pp. 9x5%.

The same. Second revision and correction, with large

additions, including the appendices of 1872 to 1881, and con-
taining many new varieties, by Charles Downing, with nearly
400 outline illustrations of fruit. 1890. [c. 1872.] John Wiley &
Sons, xxiv + 1,098 + ix + 189 pp. 9K x 6.

. The same. 1892. xxiv+ 1,098 + xii + 187 pp.

The same. 9th thousand. 1900. [c 1872.]

. Rural Essays; horticulture, landscape gardening, rural

architecture, trees, agriculture, fruit, etc. Edited, with a memoir
of the author, by George William Curtis, and a letter to his
friends, by Frederika Bremer. Illus. New York. 1853. [c.
1853.] Geo. P. Putnam & Co. xxi + 557 pp. 9 % x 6.

-. The same. 1881. [c. 1869.] R. Worthington. 71 + 557

pp. 10x6H.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1531

. A Treatise on the Theory and Practise of Landscape

Gardening; adapted to North America; with a view to the
improvement of country residences. Comprising historical
notices and general principles of the art, directions for laying
out grounds and arranging plantations; the description and
cultivation of hardy trees; decorative accompaniments to the
house and grounds; the formation of pieces of artificial water,
flower gardens, etc. With remarks on rural architecture. Illus-
trated by engravings. New York and London. 1841. [c. 1841.]
Wiley & Putnam. 451 pp. 9}^ x 6.

. The same. 2d ed., enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.

1844. 497 pp.

. The same. 4th ed., enlarged, revised, and newly illustrated.

1849. G. P. Putnam. 532 pp. 10 in.

— . The same, othed., enlarged, revised, and newly illustrated.

New York. 1854. [c. 1849.] Ricker, Thorne & Co. 532 pp.

. The same. 5th ed. 1853. G. P. Putnam & Co. 9 in.

— . The same. 6th ed., enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.
With a supplement, containing some remarks about country
places, and the best methods of making them; also, an account
of the newer deciduous and evergreen plants, lately introduced
into cultivation both hardy and half-hardy. By Henry Win-
throp Sargent. Portrait. New York. 1859. [c. 1859.] A. O.
Moore & Co. 576 pp.

. The same. 6th ed. 1860. C. M. Saxton. San Francisco.

H. H. Bancroft & Co. 9 in.

. The same. 7th ed , enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.

With a supplement ... by Henry Winthrop Sargent. New
York. 1865. Oiange Judd Company. 576pp. 9 14 in.

. The same. 8th ed., enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.

With a supplement by Henry Winthrop Sargent [c. 1859.].

. The same. New edition. With a supplement . . . and

a second supplement ... by Henry Winthrop Sargent. Illus.
New York. [c. 1875.] Orange Judd Company. 592pp. 9^ in.

DOWNING, CHARLES. See Downing, A. J. The Fruits and Fruit
Trees of America. 1857-1900.

. Guide to the Selection of Fruit, with reference to the time

of ripening. Addenda Downing's Selected Fruits. New York.
1871. J. Wiley & Son. 17pp. 71A in.

-. Selected Fruits; from Downing's Fruits and Fruit-Trees
of America. With some new varieties; including .their culture,
propagation, and management in the garden and orchard.
Illustrated with upwards of 400 outlines of apples, cherries,
grapes, plums, pears, etc. New York. 1871. [c. 1871.1 John
Wiley & Son. x + 679 pp. 8x5 y*

DOYLE, MARTIN. The Flower Garden; or, monthly calendar of
practical directions for the culture of flowers. First American
edition. Adapted to the climate of the United States; with
notes and observations by L. D. Gale. New York. 1835.
[c. 1835.] Moore & Payne. 180 pp. 7 1A x 5.

DREER, HENRY A. Dreer's Vegetables Under Glass. A little hand-
book telling how to till the soil during twelve months of the
year. Illus. Philadelphia. 1896. [c. 1896.] Henry A. Dreer.
96pp. 8x5^-

— . Dreer's Open-Air Vegetables. A handbook based on
recent field observations and talks with gardeners. Philadelphia.
1897. Henry A. Dreer. 148 pp. 7 M x 5 ^.
— . Dreer's Hints on the Growing of Bulbs; a book for ama-
teurs, written by our own experts and including a number of
cultural notes by the well-known horticultural writer, Miss Ida
D. Bennett and others. Illus. Philadelphia, [c. 1914.] Henry
A. Dreer. 64 pp. 8 in.

DRENNAN, GEORGIA TORREY. Everblooming Roses for the Out-
door Garden of the Amateur; their culture, habits, description,
care, nativity, parentage, with authentic guides to the selection
of ever-blooming varieties of roses. Illus. New York. 1912.
Duffield & Co. xii + 250 pp. 7 % in.

DTJBOIS, RAYMOND. See Viala, P. American Vines.

Du BRETJIL, A. The Thomery System of Grape Culture. From
the French. Illus. New York. n. d. Excelsior Publishing
House. 60 pp. 7x5.
— . The same. New York. 1876. G. E. Woodward & Co.

. See Warder, John A.

DUFOUR, JOHN JAMES. The American Vine Dresser's Guide; be-
ing a treatise on the cultivation of the vine, and the process
of wine making, adapted to the soil and climate of the United
States. Illus. Cincinnati. 1826. [c. 1826.] S. J. Browne. 317 pp.

DUNCAN, FRANCES. Mary's Garden and How It Grew. With illus-
trations by L. W. Zeigler. New York. 1904. [c. 1904.] The
Century Company, vi + 261 pp. 7x5.

— . When Mother lets us Garden; a book for little folk who
want to make gardens and don't know how. Illus. New York.
1909. Moffat, Yard & Co. Ill pp. 8M in.

DURAND, E. W. Instructions in Strawberry Culture. Newark,
N. J. 1876. Press of Williams & Plum. 64pp. 6% in.

DWYER, T. J. Guide to Hardy Fruits and Ornamentals. Illus.
Cornwall, N. Y. 1903. [c. 1903.] Published by T. J. Dwyer &
Son. 125pp. 7^x5^.

DYGERT, H. ARTHUR. Crops that Pay. Pecans, pomelos, ginseng;
what they are; where and how they grow; what profit they give;
history, commercial value and trade statistics; cost of establish-
ing plantations; methods of cultivation and preparation for
market: and evidence that their culture affords a safe, perma-
nent and very profitable investment. Philadelphia, [c. 1903.]
60pp. 7Mx5M-

- . The same. Crops that pay; pecans, mangoes, avocados,
pineapples; what they are; how and where they grow; what
profit they give; history and commercial value and trade
statistics. Twenty-five half-tone illustrations. Philadelphia.
[c. 1908.] 64pp. 7 Kin.

EAKIN, JOHN R. Rudiments of Grape Culture. Little Rock. 1868.
81pp.

EARLE, ALICE MORSE. Old Time Gardens Newly Set Forth. A
book of the sweet o' the year. Il|us. New York. 1901. [ c. 1901.]
The Macmillan Company, xviii + 489 pp. 8x6.

- ;. Sun Dials and Roses of Yesterday. Garden delights
which are here displayed in very truth and are, moreover,
regarded as emblems. Illus. New York. 1902. [c. 1902.]
The Macmillan Company, xxiii + 461 pp. 8x6.

EAHLE, MRS. C. W. Pot-pourri from a Surrey Garden. With an
appendix by Lady Constance Lytton. 10th ed. Illus. New
York. 1898. E. P. Dutton & Co. xii + 381 pp. 8% in.

EASTWOOD, B. A Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the
Cranberry; with a description of the best varieties. Illus. New
York. 1856. [c. 1856.] C. M. Saxton & Co. vii + 120 pp.

The same. 1857.

EDGEWORTH, MRS. MARY L. The Southern Gardener, and Receipt-
Book; containing valuable information, original and otherwise,
on all subjects connected with domestic and rural affairs, gar-
dening, cookery, beverages, dairy, medical, veterinary, and
miscellaneous. 3d ed., revised and corrected. Philadelphia.
1860. [c. 1859.] J. B. Lippincott & Co. xi + 478 pp. 7 1A x 5.

EGAN, W. C. Making a Garden of Perennials. Illus. New York.
1912. [c. 1912.] McBride, Nast & Co. 52 pp. 6Jix4}£.
(House and Garden Making Books.)

EGLESTON, NATHANIEL H. Hand-Book of Tree-Planting; or why
to plant, where to plant, what to plant, how to plant. New
York. 1884. [c. 1884.] D. Appleton & Co. 126 pp. 7x5.

EISEN, GUSTAV. The Fig; and its culture and curing, with special
reference to California. An essay prepared by request of the
California State Board of Horticultural Commissioners, and
read at the Convention of California Fruit Growers in Los
Angeles, Cal., Nov. 19, 1895. San Francisco, n. d. [n. c.]
Dewey & Co. Pacific Rural Press. 8 pp. 10^ x 6M-

- . The Raisin Industry. A practical treatise on the raisin
grapes, their history, culture and curing. Illus. San Francisco.
1890. [c. 1890.] H. S. Crocker & Co. 223 pp.

ELDER, WALTER. The Cottage Garden of America; containing
practical directions for the culture of flowers, fruits and vege-
tables, the natures and improvement of soils, manures, and
their application, wounds, diseases and cures, monthly calendar,
insects, botany, etc. Philadelphia. 1849. [c. 1848.] Moss &
Bros, v + 233 pp. 7^x4 Y2.

- . The same. 2d ed. Revised- and improved. 1850.
[c. 1848.] viii + 233 pp.

ELEY, JAMES NORMAN. The American Florist; or, a guide to the
management and cultivation of plants in conservatories, green-
houses, rooms, and gardens; to which are added directions for
the culture of annual, biennial, and perennial flowers, trees,
shrubs, bulbs, etc. Hartford. 1845. [c. 1845.] Printed by
Elihu Geer. vi + 183 pp. 6 U x 4.

ELLIOTT, F. R. Fruit Book; or, the American fruit-grower's guide
in orchard and garden. Being a compend of the history, modes
of propagation, culture, etc., of fruit trees and shrubs, with
descriptions of nearly all the varieties of fruits cultivated in
this country; notes of their adaptation to localities and soils,
and also a complete list of fruits worthy of cultivation. Illus.
New York. 1854. [c. 1854.] C. M. Saxton. ix + 503 pp. 8x5.
-. The same. Elliott's Fruit Book. 4th ed., revised, enlarged

and improved. Illus. New York. -1859. A. O. Moore &
528pp. 7% in.

. The same. The Western Fruit-Book; new edition [4th ed.],

revised, enlarged and improved. New York. n. d. [c. 1859.]
Orange Judd Company, xi + 528 pp. 7^*5.

The same. Western Fruit Book, 4th ed. 1859. A. O.

Moore & Co.

. Hand-Book for Fruit-G rowers; containing a short history

of fruits and their value, instructions as to soils and locations,
how to grow from seeds, how to bud and graft, making of
cuttings, pruning, best age for transplanting, etc.; with a list
of varieties suited to climate. Made for those who grow fruit for
their own use. Illus. New edition, enlarged. Rochester, n. d.
[c. 1876.] Rochester Lithographing Company. 144pp. 7x5J^.

. The same. Rochester. 1876. [c. 1876.] D. M. Dewey.

iv + 128 pp. 7x5.

. Hand-Book of Practical Landscape Gardening, designed

for city and suburban residences, and country school-houses;
containing designs for lots and grounds, from a lot 30 x 100 feet
to a 40-acre plot. Each plan is drawn to a scale, with schedule to
each, showing where each tree, shrub, etc., should be planted.
Also, condensed instructions of how to form lawns, and the care
thereof; the building of roads, turfing, protection of trees,
pruning and care of, making cuttings, evergreens, hedges,
screens, etc. ; perennials, herbaceous plants, etc. Also, condensed
descriptions of all the leading trees and shrubs, with remarks
as to soil and position in which they should be grown. Illustra-
tions not only of the ground plans and elevations are given, but
illustrations of various trees, shrubs, winter gardening, etc.
Rochester, N. Y. 1877. [c. 1877.] D. M. Dewey. 96 pp. 9x6.

1532

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

- . Popular Deciduous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs, for
planting in parks, gardens, cemeteries, etc. Illus. New York.
1870. [c. 1868.] Geo. E. Woodward. 125 pp. 7 Vi x 5. (Bound
as Elliott's Lawn and Shade Trees.)

- . The same. New York. n. d. [c. 1868.] The American
News Company.

-. The same. New York. 1868. [c. 1868.] Francis W. Wood-

ward.

ELLIOTT, J. WILKINSON. A Plea for Hardy Plants; with sugges-
tions for effective arrangement. Reprinted from the Trans-
actions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Part I,
1895, with additional plans and copious illustrations by J.
Horace McFarland and others. New York. 1902. Doubleday,
Page & Co. Paper. 76 pp. 10 % x 8.

. The same. 1907. [c. 1907.] 96 pp.

ELLIOTT, WILLIAM R. Practical and Comprehensive Treatise on
Fruit and Floral Culture, and a few hints on landscape garden-
ing. Illus. n. d. 100 pp. 7 x 4 J^. (Philadelphia advertise-
ments interspersed.)

ELLW ANGER, GEORGE H. The Garden's Story, or Pleasures and
Trials of an Amateur Gardener. Illus. New York. 1889. D.
Appleton & Co. vii + 345 pp. 6 % in.

. The same. 5th ed. 1893. 356 pp.

. See Ellwanger, H. B. The Rose.

ELLWANGER, H. B. The Rose. A treatise on the cultivation, his-
tory, family characteristics, etc., of the various groups of roses,
with accurate descriptions of the varieties now generally grown.
New York. n. d. [c. 1882.] Dodd, Mead & Co. 293 pp. 7x4 %.
. The same. Revised edition, with an introduction by
George H. Ellwanger. 1892. [c. 1882.] 310 pp. 6 H x 4 %.

ELY, HELENA RUTHERFURD. Another Hardy Garden Book. With
illustrations made from photographs taken in the author's
garden by Prof. C. F. Chandler. New York. 1905. [c. 1905.]
The Macmillan Company, xv + 243 pp. 8 x 5 J^.

. The Practical Flower Garden. With illustrations made
from photographs taken in the author's garden, and in the
"Connecticut Garden." New York. 1911. [c. 1911.] The
Macmillan Company, xiii + 304 pp. 8 x 5 J^.

•. A Woman's Hardy Garden. With illustrations from

ph

Cl

photographs taken in the author's garden by Prof. C. F.
Chandler. New York. 1903. [c. 1903.] The Macmillan Com-
pany, xv + 216 pp. 7^x5}^.
EMERSON, EDWARD R. The Story of the Vine. New York and
London. 1902. [c. 1901.] G. P. Putnam's Sons. The Knicker-
bocker Press, ix + 252 pp. 8 x 5%

EMERSON, G. See Neill, Patrick. The Practical Fruit, Flower and
Vegetable Gardener's Companion.

EMMONS, EBENEZER. Agriculture of New York; comprising an
account of the classification, composition and distribution of
the soils and rocks, and the natural waters of the different
geological formations; together with a condensed view of the
climate and the agricultural productions of the state. 81 colored
plates. Vol. Ill (comprising an account of the fruits), in two
parts, — -text and plates. New York and Boston. 1851. D.
Appleton & Co., Gould Kendall & Lincoln. Charles Van Ben-
thuysen, Printer, Albany, viii + 340 pp. 11 x 9. (In Natural
History of New York.)

ENGELHARDT, H. A. The Beauties of Nature Combined with Art.
Montreal. 1872. [c. 1872.] John Lovell. 174pp. 6^x5.

ENGELMANN, G. The True Grape Vines of the United States, and
the diseases of the grape vines. Illus. St. Louis. 1883. R. P.
Studley & Co., Printers, Lithographers and Stationers. 14 pp.
10 x Ql/i. ("Reprinted from the Bushberg catalogue.")

ERWIN, A. T. The Bush Fruits. Also an appended chapter con-
taining notes on their preparation as food products, by Miss
Georgetta Witter. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1905. Fruit-grower
Company. 41 pp. 5 % in. ("Brother Jonathan" Series, No. 6.)

EVERY MAN His OWN GARDENER. An account of every vegetable
production cultivated for the table by the plough and the
spade. New York. 1846. [c. 1845.] Homans & Ellis. 92 pp.
6J^x4.

ETEBRIGHT, DAISY (pseud.) See Johnson, Mrs. S. O. Every
Woman Her Own Flower Gardener.

FALCONER, WILLIAM. Mushrooms: How To Grow Them. A
practical treatise on mushroom culture for profit and pleasure.
Illus. New York. 1891. [c. 1891.] Orange Judd Company.
169pp. 7^x5.

FARMER, LAWRENCE J. Farmer On the Strawberry. A series of
papers on the subject of strawberry culture. Illus. Pulaski, N.
Y. 1891. [n. c.] Democrat Print. 53 pp. 9x5 H-

. The same. Farmer on the Strawberry. The new straw-
berry culture and fall bearing strawberries. 1912. 94 pp.

. Fall-bearing strawberry secrets gathered from personal

experience and now disclosed for the first time. Edited by
Walter E. Andrews. Illus. Philadelphia. 1912. Wilmer At-
kinson Company. 62 pp. 9 in.

FAVOR, E. H. The Fruit-grower's Guide-book. Illus. St. Joseph,
Mo. 1911. [c. 1911.] The Fruit-grower. 285 pp. 5x7.

. See Howard, W. L. The Home Garden.

FERNOW, BERNHARD E. The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and
Park. Illus. New York. 1910. Henry Holt & Co. 392 pp.

FERREE, BARR. American Estates and Gardens. Illus. New York.
1904. [c. 1904.] Munn & Co. xvi + 306 pp. 13^x11.

FESSENDEN, THOMAS G. The American Kitchen Garden; contain-
ing practical directions for the culture of vegetables; also gar-
den fruits, strawberry, raspberry, gooseberry, currants, melons.
etc. Revised from the 35th edition, and adapted to the use of
families, by a practical gardener. New York. 1855. [c. 1852.]
C. M. Saxton & Co. viii + 120 pp. 8 x 5%. (Bound fifth in
Saxton's Rural Hand-Books. 2d. series.)

- . The same, separate. 1852.

- . The New American Gardener; containing practical direc-
tions on the culture of fruits and vegetables; including landscape
and ornamental gardening, grape-vines, silk, strawberries, etc.
Boston 1828. [c. 1828.] J. B. Russell. 307 pp. 7x4 J£.

- . The same. 4th ed. Boston. 1833. [c. 1828.] Carter &
Hendee. 307 pp. 7 H x 5.

- . The same. 6th ed. Boston. 1832. [c. 1828.] Carter &
Hendee, and John B. Russell. 312 pp. 7 x 4^-

- . The same. 7th ed. Boston and Cincinnati. 1833. [c.
1828.] Russell, Odiorne & Co. ; Carter, Hendee & Co. ; H. L. and
H. S. Barnum. 307 pp. 7lAis. 5.

- . The same. 13th ed. Boston and Philadelphia. 1839.
[c. 1828.] Otis Broadars & Co.; Thomas Cowperthwaite & Co.
307pp. 7^x5.

- . The same. 16th ed. 1843. [c. 1828.] 306pp. 7Kx4H-

. The same. 19th ed. 1847. [c. 1828.] 306 pp. 7 Vi x 5.
. The same. 20th ed. 1850. [c. 1828.] 306pp. 7^x4
. The same. 30th ed. 1857. [c. 1828.] 306pp. 8x5J4

FIELD, F. E. The Green-house as a Winter Garden. A manual for
the amateur; with a list of suitable plants and their mode of
culture; with a preface by W. C. Bryant. Illus. New York.
1869. [c. 1869.] G. P. Putnam & Son. vi + 86 pp. 7^*4 Y*

FIELD, HENRY, compiler. The Book of a Thousand Gardens:
being the true accounts of the trials and tribulations and suc-
cesses in a dry year of something less than a thousand gardens
in many states and climates. As told in a bunch of letters to
Henry Field by his loyal friends — his customers. Illus. Shen-
andoah, Iowa. [c. 1912.] The Henry Field Seed Company.
95 pp. 9 in.

FIELD, THOS. W. Pear culture. A manual for the propagation,
planting, cultivation, and management of the pear tree; with
descriptions and illustrations of the most productive of the
finer varieties, and selections of kinds most profitably grown
for market. Illus. New York. 1858. [c. 1858.] A. O. Moore.
viii +286 pp. 7M*5M-

FISH, A. C. The Profits of Orange Culture in Southern California.
Illus. Los Angeles, [c. 1890.] 25pp. 7M*5M- (2ded.)

FISHER, S. I. Observations on the Character and Culture of the
European Vine, during a residence of five years in the vine-
growing districts of France, Italy and Switzerland. To which
is added, The Manual of the Swiss Vigneron, as adopted and
recommended by the Agricultural Societies of Geneva and
Berne, by Mons. Brun Chappuis, and The Art of Wine Making,
by Mons. Bulos. Philadelphia. 1834. [c. 1834.) Key & Biddle.
244pp. 7}^ in.

FISKE, G. BURNAP, Compiler. Prize Gardening. How to derive
profit, pleasure, health from the garden. Actual experience of
the successful prize winners in the American Agriculturist
garden contest. Fully illustrated from original photographs
and drawings. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. xiv + 307 pp. 7 Yz x 5.

- . See Morse, J. E. The New Rhubarb Culture.

FITCH, JOHN M. Practical Suggestions on Vegetable Culture. For
the market-gardener, the farmer, and any one interested in good
things to eat. Written expressly for F. Barteldes & Co. Law-
rence, Kan. 1898. Journal Publishing Company. 32 pp.
83A*.5%.

FITZ, JAMES. The Southern Apple and Peach Culturist; adapted
to the soil and climate of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas,
Georgia, and farther south, including portions of the West and
West Virginia; containing full and practical instructions in
successful culture, grafting, budding, training, transplanting,
mulching, pruning, fruit -gathering, etc., together with descrip-
tive catalogues of the most esteemed orchard fruits, suitable
for the table, the kitchen, and for market purposes; with illus-
trations; also, a treatise on insects and their extermination.
Edited by J. W. Fitz. Richmond, Va. 1872. [c. 1872.] J. W.
Randolph & English, viii + 336 pp. 8^x5}^.

- . Sweet Potato Culture; giving full instructions from starting
the plants to harvesting and storing the crop, with a chapter
on the Chinese yam. New York. 1882. [c. 1882.] Orange Judd
Company. 58 pp. 7 % x 5.

-. The same. New and enlarged edition. New York. 1886.

[c. 1886.] Orange Judd Company, David W. Judd, President.
86pp. 7J^x5:

FLAGG, WILLIAM J. Three Seasons in European Vineyards; treat-
ing of vine-culture; vine disease and its cure; wine-making and
wines, red and white; wine drinking, as affecting health and
morals. Illus. New York. 1869. [c. 1869.] 332 pp. Harper &
Bros.

FLAMANT, ADOLPHE. A Practical Treatise on Olive Culture, Oil
Making and Olive Pickling. San Francisco, n. d. [c. 1887.]
Louis Gregoire & Co., Booksellers. 76 pp. 9 x 5}^.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1533

FLETCHER, RUFUS R. The Peach Tree. How to plant, grow, prune
and cultivate successfully on New England soil. Illus. Nashua,
N. H. 1881. C. B. Felch Printing House. 30 pp. 9 in.

FLETCHER, S. W. How to Make a Fruit Garden. A practical and
suggestive manual for the home garden. Illustrated from photo-
graphs mostly by the author. New York. 1906. [c. 1906.]
Doubleday. Page & Co. xix + 283 pp. 10 J^ x 8.

FLINT, EDWARD DuBois. The Garden Patch. San Francisco.
1912. Hicks-Judd Co., printers. 87 pp.

. The same. New York. 1914. [c. 1912.] John Lane

Company. S7 pp. 7 x 43^.

FLINT, LILLIAN C. Small Gardens for Small Gardeners; or, What
little hands can do with plants. Illus. Chicago, [c. 1910.]
A. Flanagan Company. 118 pp. 7 x 5J^.

FLORAL DESIGNS DE LUXE. 6th ed., 1913-1914. Illus. New York.
[c. 1913.] The Florists' Exchange. 120 pp. 13 in.

FLORAL KEEPSAKE, THE, for 1850. With forty-six beautiful
colored engravings. Edited by John Keese. New York. 1850.
Leavitt & Co. 112 pp. 9}i in.

FLOWER GARDEN, THE. Annuals; Bedding Plants; Spring and
Summer Flowering Bulbs. Chicago, [c. 1882.] Published by
E. H. Libby. 24pp. 7^x5.

. Part II. Herbaceous Plants, Shrubs, Vines and Native

Ornamental Plants. 20 pp. (The Farm Library.)

FLOWER GARDEN, THE. Containing practical instructions for the
cultivation and management of shrubs and flowers, adapted to
American gardens. New York. 1849. [n. c.] Dewitt & Daven-
port. 52 pp. 7 Vi x 4 y-i. (Bound with the Complete Gardener
and Florist.)

FLOY, MICHAEL. See Lindley, George. A Guide to the Orchard and
Fruit Garden.

FOLLEN, CHAS. Suggestions in Landscape Gardening. Thorough
Drainage, by J. Herbert Shedd. Boston. 1859. [n. c.] Phillips,
Sampson & Co. Paper. 20 pp. 9 x 5 }4

FORSTTH, WILLIAM. An Epitome of Mr. Forsyth's Treatise on
the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees; also, notes on
American gardening and fruits; with designs for promoting the
ripening of fruits and securing them as family comforts; and
further, of economical principles in building farmers' habita-
tions. By an American farmer. Philadelphia. 1803. [n. c.]
Printed by T. L. Plowman for John Morgan. 186 +6 pp. 8 y&& %.

. The same. 1804. W. Poyntell & Co. 9 in.

. A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit

Trees; in which a new method of pruning and training is fully
described; together with observations on the diseases, defects,
and injuries in all kinds of fruit and forest trees; as also, an
account of a particular method of cure, made public by order
of the British government. To which are added an introduc-
tion and notes, adapting the rules of the treatise to the climate
and seasons of the United States of America. By William Cob-
bett. Plate. New York. 1802. [n. c.] Ezra Sargeant & Co.
viii +259 pp. 8Kx5Ji

. The same. Philadelphia. 1802. Printed for J. Morgan.

xii +259 pp. 8^in.

— . The same. Albany. 1803. [n. c.] D. &. S. Whiting,
xii + 280 pp. 8 % x 5 ]^. (Contains at the close a commendatory
letter from Peter W. Yates, of Albany.)

FOWLER, A. B. Hints on the Heating of Greenhouses; hot-water
heating; low pressure steam-heating. Exeter, N. H. n. d [n c ]
Gazette Publishing House. 32 pp. 9x6.

FOWLER, J. H. Florida; its Soil, Climate, and Resources. Orange
culture in Florida. Together with "A few facts from Florida,"
being an exhaustive treatise upon Florida: its soil, climate, and
resources. Compiled from the columns of The Florida Agri-
culturist. Jacksonville, Fla. 1874. C. H. Walton & Co. 28 pp.
9l/z in.

1832. New York Farmer and Horticultural Repository.
Albany. W. Thorburn. ii + 20 pp. 7% in.

FRASER, SAMUEL. A Practical Treatise on the Potato; its charac-
teristics, planting, cultivation, harvesting, storing, marketing,
insects, and diseases and their remedies, etc. Illus. New York.
1905. [c. 1905.) Orange Judd Company, xvi + 185 pp. 7^x5.

. See Hall, Bolton. The Garden Yard.

FRENCH, ALLEN. The Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs. A
practical handbook and planting-table for the vegetable gar-
dener. Illus. New York. 1907. [c. 1907.] The Macmillan
Company, xxvi + 312 pp. 8x5}^.

. The same. How to Grow Vegetables and Garden Herbs.

FROTHINGHAM, JESSIE PEABODT. Success in Gardening; work in

the flower garden week by week. Illus. New York. 1913.

Duffield & Co. 333 pp. 8 in.
FCLD, MAURICE. The Twentieth Century Method; growing bulbs

for winter and spring blooming. New York. [c. 1914.1 Knieht

& Struck Co. 78pp. SJ^in.
FULLER, ANDREW S. The Grape Culturist. A treatise on the

cultivation of the native grape. Illus. New York. 1864.

[c. 1864.] Davies & Kent. 262 pp.
• — . The same. New and enlarged edition. Illus. New York.

Ic. 1867.] Orange Judd Company. 286 pp.

. The same. New, revised and enlarged edition. Illus.

New York. [c. 1894.] Orange Judd Company. 282 pp.

. The Illustrated Strawberry Culturist; containing the

history, sexuality, field and garden culture of strawberries,
forcing or pot culture, how to grow from seed, hybridizing;
results of extensive experiments with seedlings, and all other
information necessary to enable everybody to raise their own
strawberries; together with a full description of new varie-
ties and a list of the best of the old sorts, with receipts for dif-
ferent modes of preserving, cooking, and preparing strawberries
for the table. Fully illustrated by new and valuable engravings.
New York. [c. 1862.] Orange Judd Company. 48pp. 7J^x5.

. The same. 8th thousand. 1865. [c. 1862.] 48 pp.

. The same. 10th thousand. 1866. [c. 1862.] 48 pp.

. The Illustrated Strawberry Culturist; containing the

history, sexuality, field and garden culture of strawberries,
forcing or pot culture, how to grow from seed, hybridizing, and
all other information necessary to enable everybody to raise
their own strawberries, together with a description of new
varieties and a list of the best of the old sorts. Fully illustrated.
New York. 1887. [c. 1887.] Orange Judd Company. 59 pp.
7x5.

. The same. With receipts for different modes of preserving,

cooking, and preparing strawberries for the table. Fully illus-
trated by new and valuable engravings. Brooklyn, N. Y. 1862.
[c. 1862.] 48pp. 7M*4H-

-. The Nut Culturist. A treatise on the propagation, plant-

ing and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to
the climate of the United States; with the scientific and com-
mon names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or other-
wise useful nuts. Illus. Portrait. New York. 1896. [e. 1896.]
Orange Judd Company, viii + 289 pp. 7 K * 5.

The Propagation of Plants; giving the principles which

govern the development and growth of plants, their botanical
affinities and peculiar properties; also, descriptions of the process
by which varieties and species are crossed or hybridized, and
the many different methods by which cultivated plants may be
propagated and multiplied. Illustrated with numerous engrav-
ings. New York. 1887. [c. 1887.] Orange Judd Company,
David W. Judd, President, x + 349 pp. 7 ^ x 5.

The Small Fruit Culturist. Beautifully illustrated. New

York. n. d. [c. 1867.] Orange Judd Company, iv + 276 p
7£ x 5. (Translated into German by Heinrich Maurer as A. S.
Fuller's Kultur der Fruchtstraucher, als der Erdbeeren, Him-
beeren, Brombeeren, Johannisbeeren, Stachelbeeren, Kornel-
kirschen, Preiselbeeren, Heidelbeeren, Berberitzbeeren, Zwerg-
kirschen, etc. Nebst einer Anleitung zum Einsammeln, zur
verpackung und versendung der Fruchte. Mit 27 Tafeln, en-
thaltend 103 Abbildungen. Weimar. 1868. [n.c.] Voight.
ix + 142 pp. 27 plates. 8M * 5%.)

- . The same. New, rewritten, and enlarged edition. 1881.
[c. 1881.] 287pp. 7^*5.

- . The same. New, rewritten, and enlarged edition; with an
appendix. 1887. 297 pp.

— . The same. 3d ed. 1897. [c. 1887.] 298 pp.

- , Editor. Woodward's Record of Horticulture for 1866.
Illus. New York. 1867. [c. 1867.] George E. and F. W.
Woodward. 125 pp. 7 V^ x 5.

The same. Woodward's Record of Horticulture. No. II.

[for 1867.] New York. 1868. [c. 1868.] Francis W. Woodward.
128pp. 7^x5.

FULLERTON, EDITH LOSING. How to Make a Vegetable Garden.
A practical and suggestive manual for the home garden. Illus-
trated by H. B. Fullerton. New York. 1905. [c. 1905.] Double-
day, Page & Co. xix +347 pp. 10^x7M-

. Small Gardens for Small Folks. Illus. Philadelphia. 1912.

W. A. Burpee & Co. 31 pp. 7% in.

FULTON, JAMES ALEXANDER. Peach Culture. Illus. New York.

n. d. [c. 1870.] Orange Judd Company. 190 pp. 7 ^ x 5.
. The same. New, revised, and enlarged edition. 1882.

[c. 1882.] 192 pp.

-. The same. New, revised, and greatly enlarged edition.

1889. [c. 1889.] 204pp.

GALLESIO, GEORGE. Orange Culture. A treatise on the citrus
family. Translated from the French expressly for The Florida
Agriculturist. Jacksonville, Fla. 1876. [c. 1875.] Printed at
office of The Florida Agriculturist. 65 pp. 6x9)^.

GALLOWAY, B. T. Commercial Violet Culture. A treatise on the
growing and marketing of violets for profit. Illus. New York.
1899. [c. 1899.] A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing
Company. 224 pp. 7x4 %.

. The same. 2d ed., revised. New York. 1903. [c. 1903.]

239 pp.

. The same. 3d ed., revised. 1914. 244 pp.

GALUSHA, p. B. Luscious Fruits. How to grow strawberries,
raspberries, blackberries, grapes, currants and gooseberries in
abundance and economically, on a small scale. Chicago,
[c. 1882.] Published by E. H. Libby. 24 pp. 7l/2 x 4H- (Farm
Library, Vol. I, No. 5. March 1, 1882.)

GARCELON, G. W., and LELONG, B. M. Citrus Fruits. Part I:
Fifteen years with the Lemon. By G. W. Garcelon. Part II:
New varieties of Citrus Fruits. By B. M. Lelong. Illus. Sacra-
mento. 1891. [n. c.] State Office, A. J. Johnston. Superintend-
ent State Printing. 38 pp. 9x5 %.

1534

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

GARDEN, THE. A pocket manual of practical horticulture; or,
how to cultivate vegetables, fruits and flowers; embracing an
exposition of the nature and action of soils and manures, and
the structure and growth of plants; directions for the forming
of a garden; description of implements and fixtures; instruc-
tions for sowing, transplanting, budding, grafting, and cultivat-
ing vegetables, fruits and flowers, with a chapter on ornamental
trees and shrubs by the author of How to Write, How to Behave,
etc. No. 1. Illus. New York. 1858. [c. 1858.] Fowler and
Wells, xi + 166 pp. 7x4.
— The same. No. 3. 7^X5.

GARDEN, You, AND I, THE. See Wright, Mrs. Mabel Osgood.

GARDEN OF A COMMUTER'S WIFE, THE. See Wright, Mrs. Mabel
Osgood.

GARDINER, JOHN, and HEPBURN, DAVID. The American Gardener;
containing ample directions for working a kitchen garden every
month in the year; and copious instructions for the cultivation
of flower gardens, vineyards, nurseries, hop-yards, greenhouses,
hothouses. Washington. 1804. [c. 1804.] Samuel H. Smith.
204 pp. 7x4 yz.

• . The same. A new edition, much enlarged, to which is

added a treatise on gardening, by a citizen of Virginia; also, a
few hints on the cultivation of native vines, and directions for
making domestic wines. Georgetown, D. C. 1818. [c. 1818.]
Joseph Milligan. ix + 348 pp. 6 % x 4.

. The same. 3d ed. Washington. 1826. W. Cooper, Jr.

304 pp. 7 in.
GARDINER, JOHN, & Co. Mushrooms for the Million. Philadelphia,

Pa. n. d. Paper. 16pp. 6M*3Ji

. The same. Paper. 8pp. 6x3J£

CARET, THOMAS A. Orange Culture in California; with an appendix

on grape culture by L. J. Rose. Published for A. T. Garey. San

Francisco, Cal. n. d. [c. 1882.] Printed and sold at the office

of the Pacific Press. 227 pp. 7^x4%.
GILBERT, RALPH D. The Gilbert System of Orchard Planting.

Illus. Boston. 1913. Bowker Fertilizer Company. 12 pp.

9 14 in.
GILLET, FELIX. Fragariculture; or, The culture of the strawberry.

A practical treatise on the culture, propagation, management

and marketing of strawberries. Illustrated with photographs,

representing average size of best varieties. Especially adapted

to the family garden. San Francisco. 1876. Spaulding & Barto,

Printers. 32 pp. 8 in.
GILLETTE, C. P. See Shields, O. D., Compiler. A Western Book

for Western Planters.

GILMAN, MRS. MARIA (pseud.). See Barnard, Charles. My Ten-
Rod Farm.

GIPSON, A. E. Horticulture by Irrigation. Illus. Denver, Colo.
1888. [c. 1888.] The Republican Publishing Company. 138
pp. 7x5M-

GLEANINGS FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED BOOKS ON HUSBANDRY,
GARDENING, AND RURAL AFFAIRS . . . From the London
2d ed. of 1803. Interspersed with remarks and observations
by a gentleman of Philadelphia. Illus. Philadelphia. 1803.
viii +365 pp. 8% in.

GODFREY, DR. See Allen, Phcebe. Miniature and Window Garden-
ing.

GOFF, E. S. Investigation of Flower Buds. Extracted from Seven-
teenth Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. 1900. Democrat Printing Company. Madison,
Wis. 265-284 pp. 9x5%.

. Lessons in Commercial Fruit Growing. A text-book for

beginners. Illus. Madison, Wis. 1902. [c. 1902.] University
Cooperative Association, vi + 221 pp. 8x5%.

. Lessons in Pomology. Madison, Wis. 1899. University

of Wisconsin. 136 pp.

. Principles of Plant Culture. An elementary treatise
designed as a text-book for beginners in agriculture and horti-
culture. Illus. Madison, Wis. 1897. [c. 1897.] Published by
author. 276 pp. 7 % x 5 1A.

. The same. 3rd revised ed. Madison, Wis. 1906. Univer-
sity Cooperative Co. 303 pp. 8 in. (Preface by Frederic Crane-
field.)

-. A Syllabus of Horticulture. For the use of classes. Madi-

son, Wis. 1891. [c. 1891.] State Journal Printing Company.
110pp. 9x6.

GOOD, JOHN M., and BORDEN, MRS. A. E. The Rose. Illus.

Springfield, Ohio. 1898. Miss Ella V. Baines. 30pp. S%x5H-

(The Home Florist, I, No. 1.)
GOODRICH, CHAUNCEY. The Northern Fruit Culturist; or, the

farmer's guide to the orchard and fruit garden. Illus. Burling-

ton. 1849. [c. 1849.] Chauncey Goodrich, viii + 108 pp.

- . The same. 2d ed. Corrected and enlarged. Burlington.
1850. [c. 1849.] Chauncey Goodrich, viii + 112 pp. 7^x4^.

GRANT, C. W. Descriptive Catalogue of Vines, etc; with explana-
tory remarks, and indications for cultivation. Illus. 4th ed.
New York. n. d. [c. 1859.] C. M. Saxton. 56 pp. 10 x 7.

- — . Manual of the Vine; including Illustrated Catalogue of
Vines (8th ed.); and, Grape Vines: Description of stock of
vines for sale at lona Island (3d ed.). Illus. lona. n. d. [c. 1864.1
C. W. Grant. Paper. 101 pp.

GRAY, A. See Lindley, John. The Theory of Horticulture.

GRAY, JOHN C. Essay on Orchards. Reported to the Massachu-
setts Board of Agriculture. Boston. 1853. Printed bv Dutton
& Wentworth. 24 pp. 9 Yi x 6.

GREEN, CHARLES A., Editor. The Apple and Pear; Green's Fruit
Grower. Devoted to the fruit farm, garden and nursery Illus.
Rochester. April, 1887. [c. 1887.] 48pp. 9^x6.

, Editor. The Grape; Green's Fruit Grower. Devoted to

the fruit farm, garden and nursery. Illus. Rochester, N. Y.
October, 1886. [c. 1886.] 48 pp. 9 Y± x 6.

. Green's Four Books. Devoted to: (1) How we made the

old farm pay. (2) Peach culture. (3) How to propagate fruit-
plants, vines and trees. (4) General fruit instructor. Illus.
Rochester, N. Y. 1897. [c. 1895.] Green's Nursery Company.
119 pp. 9x6. (New edition of 1897.)

. Green's Fruit Grower. Devoted to strawberry culture,

grape culture, apple and pear culture, plum and cherry culture,
raspberry and blackberry culture. Special issue. Rochester.
1887. [c. 1888.] 28 pp. 6x9.

. Green's Fruit-Grower, special issue of. Devoted to straw-
berry culture, grape culture, apple and pear culture, plum and
cherry culture, raspberry and blackberry culture. Illus. Roches-
ter, July and October, 1886; April, July and October, 1887.
[c. 1888.] 81pp. 9J^x6. (Five issues under one cover.)

. Green's Six Books. Devoted to apple culture, pear culture,

plum and cherry culture, raspberry and blackberry culture,
grape culture, strawberry, currant, gooseberry and persimmon
culture. Illus. Rochester, N. Y. 1896. [c. 1894.] Green's
Nursery Company. 142pp. 9x6. (New edition of 1896.)

. How to Propagate and Grow Fruit. Two colored plates-
Over fifty illustrations. Rochester, N. Y. n. d. [c. 1885.)
80pp. 9Mx6.

. The same. Rochester, N. Y. 1885. Union & Adv. Co'a.

Print. 64pp. 9J4 in.

. The Strawberry; Green's Fruit Grower; special issue

devoted to. Rochester, N. Y. July 1, 1886. [c. 1886.1 48 DO.
9Mx6.

GREEN, ROLAND. A Treatise on the Cultivation of Ornamental"
Flowers; comprising remarks on the requisite soil, sowing,
transplanting, and general management; with directions for
the general treatment of bulbous flower roots, greenhouse
plants, etc. Boston. 1828. [c. 1828.] New York. John B.
Russell. G. Thorburn & Son. 60pp. 7x4J^.

GREEN, SAMUEL B. Amateur Fruit Growing. A practical guide to
the growing of fruit for home use and the market ; written with
special reference to colder climates. Illus. Minneapolis. 1894.
[c. 1893.] Farm, Stock and Home Publishing Company. 132 pp.
7H*5.

. The same. St. Paul, Minn. 1905. [c. 1893.] Webb Pub-
lishing Company. 138 pp. 7*4x5.

. Farm Wind-Breaks and Shelter Belts: Their formation

and care. Illus. St. Paul, Minn. 1906. [c. 1906.] Webb Pub-
lishing Company. Paper. 69 pp. 7%x5%.

. Popular Fruit Growing. Illus. St. Paul, Minn. 1909.

Webb Publishing Company. 298 pp. 7 Y± in.

. The same. Prepared especially for beginners and as a

text-book for schools and colleges. 4th ed., revised. Illus. St.
Paul, Minn. 1912. [c. 1909, 1910, 1912.] Webb Publishing
Company. 328pp. 8x5H-

. Vegetable Gardening. A manual on the growing of vege-
tables for home use and marketing. Prepared especially for the
classes of the School of Agriculture of the University of Min-
nesota. With 115 illustrations. St. Paul. 1896. [c. 1896.]
Author. Webb Publishing Company, agents. 224 pp. 7x5.

. The same. 2d ed., revised. With 122 illustrations. 1899.

[c. 1899.] 7x5.

. The same. 5th ed. 1903. 249 pp. 7 % in.

. The same. 7th ed., revised. 1905. 252pp. 7%in.

— . The same. 10th ed., revised. 1912. [c. 1901, 1905, 1908,

1909.] 240pp. 252pp. 8x5^.
. The same. 12th ed., revised. 1912.

GREENING, CHARLES E. The Greening Pictorial System of Land-
scape Gardening; being a system of decorative planting based
on pictorial art . . . designed for the easy comprehension of
amateur gardeners and as a reference book for landscape archi-
tects. The illustrations contained are true photographs. To-
ledo, Ohio. 1910. The Blade Printing and Paper Company.
165pp. UMin.

. Greening's Twentieth Century Fruit Growers' and Land-

scapers' Guide. Illus. Monroe, Mich. 1904. The Greening
Bros. Nursery Company. 32 pp. 9}£ in.

GREGG, THOMAS. A Hand-Book of Fruit-Culture; being a guide to
the cultivation and management of fruit trees; with condensed
descriptions of many of the best and most popular varieties in
the United States. Illustrated with 90 engravings. With an
appendix containing a variety of useful memoranda on the sub-
ject, valuable household receipts, etc. New York. n. d. [c.
1857.] Fowler & Wells, viii + 163 pp. 7 Yt x 4 yz.

. How to Raise Fruits: A hand-book of fruit-culture; being

a guide to the proper cultivation and management of fruit trees,
and of grapes and small fruits; with condensed descriptions of
many of the best and most popular varieties. Fully illustrated.
New York. 1877. [c. 1877.J S. R. Wells & Co. viii + 183 pp.
7y2x5.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1535

GREGORY, JAMES J. H. Cabbages: How to grow them. A practical
treatise on cabbage culture, giving full details on every point,
including keeping and marketing the crop. Salem, Mass. 1870
[c. 1870.] Observer Steam Printing Rooms. 72pp. 73^x5.

. The same. New York. [c. 1870.] Orange Judd Company.

. The same. Cabbages: How to grow them, etc. Marble-
head, Mass. 1877. [c. 1870.] N. Allen Lindley & Co.

. The same. Marblehead, Mass. 1881. [c. 1870.] J. J. H.

Gregory. 72pp. 7^*5.

. Cabbages and Cauliflowers: How to grow them. A prac-
tical treatise, giving full details on every point, including keep-
ing and marketing the crop. Illus. Boston. 1889. Cashman
Keating & Co., Printers. 88 pp. 7 J^ x 5.

. The same. Revised edition. Marblehead, Mass. 1907.

[c. 1889.] J. J. H. Gregory. 93 pp.

— . Carrots, Mangold- Wurtzels and Sugar Beets: How to

raise them, how to keep them, and how to feed them. Mar-
blehead, Mass. 1877. [c. 1877.] N. A. Lindley & Co. 61 pp.

. The same. 1882. J. J. H. Gregory.

. The same. Boston. 1900. J. J. Arakelyan. 65 pp.

. Fertilizers. Where the materials come from; where to get
them in the cheapest form; how to compound formulas, etc.
Marblehead, Mass. 1886. [c. 1885.] J. J. H. Gregory. Paper.
iv + 116pp. 7^x5^-

. Onion Raising: What kinds to raise, and the way to
raise them. Illus. Boston. 1865. A. Williams & Co. 32 pp.

- . The same. 7th ed. Salem. 1869. G. W. Pease & Co.,
Printers. 35 pp. 7 % in.

- . The same. 7th ed., revised. Marblehead, Mass. 1881.
[c. 1864.] J. J. H. Gregory. 42 pp. 7M * 5.

— . The same. 14th ed. N. Allen Lindley & Co.

- . The same. 18th ed., revised.

— . The same. 19th ed., revised. Boston. 1888. Rand Avery
Company, Printers. 55 pp.

- . Squashes: How to grow them. A practical treatise on
squash culture, giving full details on every point, including
keeping and marketing the crop. Illus. New York. 1867.
Orange Judd Company. 69 pp.

— . The same. n. d. [c. 1867.] 70 pp.

- . The same. New, revised and enlarged edition. 1889.
[c. 1883.] 83pp. 71AX5.

GHEINER, T. Celery for Profit: an expose1 of modern methods in
celery growing. Illus. Philadelphia. Spring, 1893. [c. 1893.]
W. Atlee Burpee & Co. viii + 85 pp. 7 % x 5.

- . The same. 2d ed. 1893.

- . The same. 9th ed. Spring, 1898.

- . The Garden Book for Practical Farmers. Illus. Phila-
delphia. April, 1901. [c. 1901.] The Farmer Company. 190pp.
SyzxSH. (Part I, Published as No. 2, Vol. Ill, of The Practi-
cal Farmer's Library. Paper. Part II, 200 pp. Published as
No. 4, Vol. Ill, of the Practical Farmer's Library, and the two
bound in one volume in cloth, October, 1901.)

- . How to Make the Garden Pay. Illus. Philadelphia.
1890. [c. 1890.] Wm. Henry Maule. 272 pp. 9x6.

-. The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 1894. [c. 1890.]

319 pp. 9x6.

. The New Onion Culture. A story for young and old

which tells how to grow 2,000 bushels of fine bulbs on one acre.

The new system fully explained. Illus. La Salle, New York.

1891. [c. 1891.] vi+62pp. 7M*5}i

— . The same. Buffalo, N. Y. 1891. Haas & Klein, Printers.
. The same. A story for gardeners young and old. 4th

revised ed. Illus. Portrait. 1896. [c. 1870.] 89 pp.
. The same. Rewritten and greatly enlarged. Illus. New

York. 1903. Orange Judd Company. 114 pp.

. The same. A complete guide in growing onions for profit.

1911. [c. 1903.]

. Onions for Profit; an expose1 of modern methods in onion

growing Illus. Philadelphia. 1893. [c. 1893.] W. Atlee
Burpee & Co. vi + 104 pp. 7 H x 5.

. The Young Market-Gardener- beginner's guide. Part I.

A little pit well built. Part II. A little plat well tilled. Part III.
A little purse well filled. Illus. La Salle, New York. Spring,

1896. [c. 1895.] iv + 119pp. 7%x5J£ (T. Greiner's Garden
Series, No. 2.)

— . The same. Buffalo, N. Y. 1896. J. W. Klein Printing
Company.

, and ARLIE, C. H. How to Grow Onions; with notes on

varieties. Edited by W. Atlee Burpee. Philadelphia 1888.
[c. 1887.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. viii + 71 pp. 7}^ x 5.
-. The same. 5th ed.

GROSVENOR, ELLEN SAGE. Some Facts for Strawberry Consumers;

with suggestions for serving, canning, preserving, etc., by a

grower. New York. 1902. The Knickerbocker Press. 31 pp.

6}4 in-
GROWER'S GUIDE, THE ... a compilation of useful information

for the grower. Nashville, Tenn. 1898. The Grower's Guide

Company. 416 pp.

GRUBB, EUGENE H., and GUILFORD, W. S. The Potato; a Compila-

tion of Information from Every Available Source. Illus. Gar-

den City, N. Y. 1912. Doubleday, Page & Co. 545 pp. 9 in.

(The Farm Library.)
GRUNDY, FRED. A Fortune in Two Acres. How to Find It. A Good

Home, Health, Comfort and Independence of Workingmen.

Illus. New York. 1893. [c. 1893.] The Rural Publishing Com-

pany. (Vol. 1. No. 24. The Rural Library.)
GUILFORD, W. S. See Grubb, E. H. The Potato.
GURNEY, C. W. Northwestern Pomology. A treatise on the grow-

ing and care of trees, fruits and flowers in the northwestern

states. Concord, Neb. 1894. [c. 1894.] Published by author.

293 pp. 8x5 M-
GUSTIN, E. E. See Busch, S. S.
HAINES, R. H. The Fruit-Grower's Friend. An easy guide for

the raising of fruits, for pleasure or profit. New York. 1880.

American News Company. 31 pp. 9J£ in.
HALL, BOLTON. The Garden Yard; a handbook of intensive farm-

ing. With an introduction by N. O. Nelson; revised by Herbert

W. Collingwood and Samuel Fraser. Illus. Philadelphia, [c.

1909.] D. McKay. 321 pp. 8 in.
HALL, D. M. A Practical Handbook on the Culture of Small

Fruits, and Guide to Success, in Raising the Various Small

Fruits for Home Use and for Market. Illus. Bangor. 1881.

Dirigo Rural Printing Establishment. 104 pp. 7 % in.
HALL, GEORGE P. Garden Helps. Portrait. San Diego, Calif.

[c. 1911.] Elite Printing Company. 120 pp. 9^ in.
HALLIDAY, ROBERT J. Practical Azalea Culture. A treatise on

the propagation and cultivation of the Azalea Indica. Illus.

Baltimore, Md. 1880. [c. 1880.] 110pp. 7%x5.

- . Practical Camellia Culture. A treatise on the propagation
and culture of the Camellia Japonica. Illus. Colored plates.
Baltimore, Md. 1880. [c. 1880.] 141 pp. 8x5.

HALSHAM, J. Every Man's Book of Garden Flowers. New York.

n. d. Geo. H. Doran Company.
HALSTED, DR. BYRON D. The Vegetable Garden. A guide for any-

one who would grow with profit the best of foods for the table.

Illus. Chicago. 1882. [c. 1882.] Published by E. H. Libby.

30 pp. 7x4 J^. (The Farm Library.)
HAMLIN, A. D. F. See Brown, Glenn. European and Japanese

Gardens.
HAMM, DR. W. Das Weinbuch. Wesen, Cultur und Wirkung des

Weins; Statistik und Charakteristik sammtlicher Weine der

Welt; Behandlung der Weine in Keller. St. Louis. C. Witter.
HANSEN, GEORGE. The Orchid Hybrids. Enumeration and classi-

fication of all hybrids of orchids published up to October 15,

1895. 1895. [c. U. S. 1895.] London: Dulan & Co. Berlin:

Friedlander & Sohn. Printed in San Francisco. 245 pp. 9x6.

- . First supplement, recording additions to list of hybrids
published up to October 15, 1895. pp. 247-257. n. d. (Bound
with The Orchid Hybrids.)

- . Second supplement, recording knowledge gained about
orchid hybrids in the period from October 15, 1895, to April 1,
1897. Berkeley, Cal. May 1, 1897. Published by author.
pp. iv +258-334. 9x6. (Printed on one side of paper.)

HANSEN, NIELS E. Haandbog om Frugtavl og Traeplanting for de
Nordvestlige Stater. Chicago. 1890. Skandinavens Boghandel.
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HARASZTHY, A. Grape Culture, Wines and Wine-Making; with

notes upon agriculture and horticulture. Illus. New York.

1862. [c. 1862.] Harper & Bros. 420 pp.
HARCOURT, HELEN. Florida Fruits, and How to Raise Them.

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8x5M-
HARD, M. E. The Mushroom. Illus. Columbus, Ohio. 1908.

Ohio Library Company. 609 pp. 10 % in.
HARDING, A. R. Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants. Columbus,

Ohio. 1908. [c. 1908.] A. R. Harding Publishing Company.

301 pp. 7x5.
HARGRAVE, BASIL. A Year's Gardening. Illus. New York. 1912.

C. Scribner's Sons, viii +271 pp. 9 in.
HARKER, CHARLES C. The Queen of Fruits. Peach culture. Troy,

Ohio. 1884. 3 pp. 8 in.
HARRING, WM. See Millard, Miss Hannah. Grapes and Grape

Vines of California.
HARRIS, JOSEPH. Gardening for Young and Old. The cultivation

of garden vegetables in the farm garden. Illus. New York.

1883. [c. 1882.] Orange Judd Company. 191pp. 7J^x5.
HARRISON, C. S. Evergreens: How to grow them. Including

varieties and characteristics of the principal evergreens of

the United States. Illus. St. Paul, Minn. 1906. [c. 1905.]

Webb Publishing Company, vi + 95 pp. 7 Yt x 5 J£

- . The Gold Mine in the Front Yard, and How to Work It;
showing how millions of dollars can be added to the value of
prairie farms. St. Paul, Minn. 1905. [c. 1905.] Webb Pub-
lishing Company. 279 pp. 7 Yt x 5 %•

. A manual on the Iris; giving a description of the different
varieties; also, their classification, with directions for propagation
and cultivation. Colored plate. York, Neb. n. d. [n. c.j Published
by C. S. Harrison and S. H. King. Paper. 30 pp. 8 *4 x 6.

1536

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

. A Manual on the Phlox. For the nurseryman and amateur;

showing how to grow them; also, how to originate new and
choice varieties. York, Neb. 1906. Published by the author.
31 pp. 9 in.

. The same. St. Paul, Minn. n. d. [c. 1910.] Webb Pub-
lishing Company. Paper. 40 pp. 9x6.

. A Manual on the propagation and cultivation of the

Peony. Illus. York, Neb. 1903. Republican. 64pp. QJ^in-
-, Editor. A Peony Manual; giving up-to-date information

regarding beautiful flowers; showing how to raise from seed,
how to increase by divisions, how to plant and cultivate.
This is designed to be a complete guide to the florist and ama-
teur. Illus. 2d ed. York, Neb. n. d. [c. 1907.] Published by
practical peony growers. Paper. 64 pp. 9x6.

HARWOOD, W. S. New Creations in Plant Life. An authoritative
account of the life and work of Luther Burbank. Illus. New
York. 1905. [c. 1905.] The Macmillan Company, xiv + 368
pp. 8x5^.

. The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 1907. viii +

430 pp.

HASKELL, GEORGE. An Account of Various Experiments for the
Production of New and Desirable Grapes, and an Account of
Forty Varieties obtained by Hybridization. Ipswich, Mass.
1877. Paper. 18 pp. 9 in.

. A Narrative of the Life, Experience, and Work of an
American Citizen. (Autobiography. Contains an account of
the author's work with American grapes.) Ipswich, Mass.
1896. 156pp.

HASSARD, ANNIE. Floral Decorations for the Dwelling House. A
practical guide to the home arrangement of plants and flowers.
American edition, revised; with many illustrations. London and
New York. 1876. [c. 1876.] The Macmillan Company, x +
166 pp. 7 }/i x 5.

HATFIELD. T. D. Greenhouses for Amateur Flower Growers.
Illus. Springfield, Ohio. 1898. The Floral Publishing Com-
pany. 15pp. 8^x5%. (The Home Florist, I, No. 4.)

HATTON, W. J. Secrets of Rose Culture. Illus. Huntington, N. Y.
1891. [c. 1891.] Published by the author, iv +162 pp. 7Mx5J£

HAWTHORNE, HILDEGARDE. The Lure of the Garden. Illustrated
in full color by Maxfield Parrish, Jules Guerin, Sigismond de
Ivanowski, Anna Whelan Betts, and others, and with photo-
graphs. New York. 1911. The Century Company, x + 259
pp. 10% in.

HAYS, HELEN ASHE. A Little Maryland Garden. Illustrated by
Zulma De L. Steele. New York and London. 1909. G. P. Put-
nam's Sons, v + 201 pp. 8 in.

HAYWARD, WALTER B., Editor. The Commuter's Garden. Illus-
trated with photographs. New York. 1914. Thomas Y.
Crowell Company, vii + 219 pp. 7% in.

HAZLITT, W. CAREW. Gleanings in Old Garden Literature. New
York. 1887. G. J. Coombes. vii + 263 pp. 7 in. (The Book-
Lover's Library. Edited by H. B. Wheatley.)

HEDRICK, U. P., assisted by Booth, N. O., Taylor, O. M., Wel-
lington, R., and Dorsey, M. J. The Grapes of New York.
Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for
the year 1907. Illus. Albany. 1908. J. B. Lyon Company,
State Printers, xv + 564 pp. 12x9^.

, assisted by Wellington, R., Taylor, O. M., Alderman,

W. H., and Dorsey, M. J. The Plums of New York. Report of
New York Agricultural Experiment Station for year 1910.
Illus. Albany 1911. J. B. Lyon Company, State Printers.
12 x 9 Ji

. A Laboratory Manual in Systematic Pomology, an effort

to place before the students of pomology in the Michigan
Agricultural College a means by which an intimate and accu-
rate knowledge of pomology may be acquired. 1903. 91 pp.

HEIKES, W. F. How to Start a Nursery. 1st ed. Dayton, Ohio.
1871. W. F. Heikes. 12 pp. 8 in.

. The same. 2d ed. Dayton, Ohio, 1871. W. F. Heikes.

16 pp. 8 in.
HEINRICH, Juiaus J. The Window Flower Garden. Handsomely

illustrated. New York. 1880. [c. 1879.] Orange Judd Company.

vi +93 pp. 7^x5.
. The same. New and enlarged edition. 1892. [c. 1887.]

vi + 123 pp. 7 Vt x 5.

. The same. New and enlarged edition. 1887. [c. 1887.)

HEMENWAY, H. D. Hints and Helps for Young Gardeners. A

treatise designed for those young in experience as well as

youthful gardeners. Illus. Hartford, Conn. 1906. [c. 1906.]

Published by the author. 59 pp. 9 Yz x 6.
. How to Make Home and City* Beautiful, prepared to help

those interested in making attractive homes and beautiful

cities. Illus. Northampton, Mass. [c. 1911.] 104 pp. 9J£ in.
-. How to Make School Gardens. A manual for teachers and

pupils. Illus. New York. 1903. [c. 1903.] Doubleday, Page
& Co. xvi + 107 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

HENDERSON, ALFRED. Peter Henderson, Gardener, Author, Mer-
chant. A memoir. Porti-ait. New York. 1890. Press of Mcll-
roy & Emmet. 48 pp. 8 % in.

HENDERSON, CHARLES. Henderson's Picturesque Gardens and
Ornamental Gardening. Illus. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.)
Published by Peter Henderson & Co. 158 pp. 10 x 12.

HENDERSON, PETER. Garden and Farm Topics. Illus. Portrait.
New York. 1884. [c. 1884.] Published by Peter Henderson &
Co. 244 pp. 7 yz x 5.

. See Crosier, Wm. How the Farm Pays.

. Gardening for Pleasure. A guide to the amateur in the

fruit, vegetable and flower garden, with full directions for the
greenhouse, conservatory and window garden. Illus. New
York. 1880. [c. 1875.] Orange Judd Company, v + 250 pp.
7^x5.

. The same. New and enlarged edition. 1880. [c. 1874.]

. The same. New enlarged edition. 1888. [c. 1887.] Orange

Judd Company, vi + 404 pp. 7 }^ x 5.

- — . Gardening for Profit. A guide to the successful cultiva-
tion of the market and family garden. Illus. New York. n. d.
[c. 1867.] Orange Judd Company, viii + 243 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

. The same. New and enlarged edition. 1885. [c. 1874.]

vi + 276 pp.

. The same. Entirely new and greatly enlarged. Illustrated

with numerous new engravings. 1887. [c. 1886.] xii + 376 pp.
7^4 in.

. Henderson's Handbook of Plants. New York. 1881.

[c. 1881.] Peter Henderson & Co. 411 pp. 10^x7^.

. New edition. Handbook of Plants and General Horticul-
ture. New York. 1890. [c. 1890.] Peter Henderson & Co.
526 pp. 10 y% x 7 J^.

; — . Practical Floriculture. A guide to the successful cultiva-
tion of florists' plants, for the amateur and professional florist.
Illus. New York. n. d. [c. 1869.] Orange Judd Company,
vi +249 pp. 7^x5.

. The same. New and enlarged edition. 1874. 288pp. 7%.

. The same. 3d ed., greatly enlarged. Illus. New York.

1879. [c. 1878.] Orange Judd Company, viii +311 pp.
7^x5.

. The same. 4th ed., new and enlarged. Illus. New York.

1879. [c. 1887.] Orange Judd Company. 325 pp. 7 Y2 x 5.

HENDERSON, PETER, & Co. Henderson's Bulb Culture. Illus. New
York. 1904. Peter Henderson & Co. 68pp. 91A in.

. Henderson's Garden Oracle. New York. Peter Henderson

&Co.

-. The culture of Water-Lilies and Aquatics. Revised and

enlarged edition. Illus. New York. Peter Henderson & Co.

HENDRICK, J. R. Western Fruits and How to Grow Them. Cawker
City, Kan. 1888. Orchard Vineyard and Berry Garden Print.
31 pp. 9 in. (At head of title: The fruits in Their Purity and
Excellence. )

HEPBURN, DAVID. See Gardiner, John. The American Gardener.

HERRICK, R. S. Orchard Heating and Frost Prevention. Written
specially for use in the Pacific Horticultural Correspondence
School. Portland, Ore. [c. 1913.] Pacific Horticultural Corres-
pondence School. 11 pp. 9 in.

HERRINGTON, ARTHUR. The Chrysanthemum: Its culture for
professional growers and amateurs. A practical treatise in its
propagation, cultivation, training, raising for exhibition and
market, hybridizing, origin and history. Illus. New York.
1905. [c. 1905.] Orange Judd Company, viii + 160 pp. 7 Vt x 5.

HERRMANN, H. French Method of Intensive Cultivation and
Asparagus Forcing; a treatise on the French method of garden-
ing. Illus. Louisville, Ky. 1910. [c. 1910.] 50pp. 8% in.

HERENDEEN COMPETITION, THE. A discussion on the best methods
of heating greenhouses. This pamphlet contains thirteen
essays and the accompanying diagrams illustrate all the
systems advocated. Reproduced from the columns of the
Florist's Exchange. New York. 1893. [n. c.] A. T. De La
Mare Printing and Publishing Company. 12 pp. 13 % x 10 }/i.

HEXAMER, F. M. Asparagus. Its culture for home use and for
market. A practical treatise on the planting, cultivation, har-
vesting, and preserving of asparagus, with notes on its history
and botany. Illus. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] Orange
Judd Company, viii + 168 pp. 7%x 5.

HEYNE, E. B. Catalogue of European Vines; with their synonyms
and brief descriptions. Compiled by E. B. Heyne, from the
ampelographies of Count Odart and Rendu, and the works of
Babo, Hogg, and Mackintosh; continued from Portugese trea-
tises on vines and wine-making; also, some account of phyl-
loxera-proof vines, and others indigenous to the United States
found profitable for wine-making, by Rev. John I. Bleasdale.
San Francisco. 1881. Dewey & Co. 63pp. 9x6^-

HIBBEHT and BUIST. The American Flower Garden Directory;
containing practical directions for the culture of plants in the
hothouse, garden-house, flower garden, and rooms or parlors for
every month in the year; with a description of the plants most
desirable in each, the nature of the soil and situation best
adapted to their growth, the proper season for transplanting,
etc.; instructions for erecting a hothouse, greenhouse, and laying
out a flower garden; also, table of soils most congenial to the
plants contained in the work. The whole adapted to either
large or small gardens; with lists of annuals, biennials, and
ornamental shrubs, contents, a general index, and a frontispiece
of Camellia fimbriata. Colored plates. Philadelphia. 1832.
[c. 1832.] Adam Waldie. ix + 375 pp. 9 Ji x 6.

HIGGINS, MYRTA MARGARET. Little Gardens for Boys and Girls.
Illus. Boston and New York. 1910. [c. 1910.] Houghton,
Mifflin Co. 153 pp. 8x6.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1537

HILLHOUSE, LIZZIE PAGE. House Plants and How to Succeed
with Them. A practical handbook. Illus. New York. 1897.
[c. 1897.] A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Company,
ix +220 pp. 7^x5.

HILLS, WILLIAM H. Small Fruits. Their propagation and cultiva-
tion, including the grape; containing practical directions for
the selection of soil and its preparation; the use of manures and
fertilizers; crossing, hybridizing, and growing new varieties
from seed; transplanting, pruning, and training; gathering,
packing and marketing fruit; descriptions of varieties, their
origin, diseases, and insect enemies. Illustrated with numerous
engravings. Boston. 1886. [c. 1886.] Cupples, Upham & Co.
138 pp. 9x6.

HOARE, CLEMENT. A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the
Grape Vine on Open Walls. Illus. 2d American ed. Boston.
1840. [c. 1837.] William D. Ticknor. 144 pp.

. The same; to which is added a descriptive account of an

improved method of planting and managing the roots of grape
vines. Illus. 3d American ed. Boston. 1845. [c. 1837.]
William D. Ticknor & Co. 192 pp.

. The same. Illus. 4th American ed. Boston. 1848.

[c. 1837.] William D. Ticknor & Co. 180 pp.

-. A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine

on Open Walls; with a descriptive account of an improved
method of planting and managing the roots of grape vines; to
which is added an appendix containing remarks on the culture
of the grape vine in the United States. Illus. New York. 1847.
H. Long & Bro. 209 pp.

HOFER, A. F. Grape Growing. A simple treatise on the single
pole system; or how grapes are cultivated in the upper Rhine
valley. Illus. New York. 1878. E. H. Libby. Paper. 32 pp.

HOFFY, A. See Brinckl6, William. Hoffy's North American Pomol-
ogist.

HOGG, JAMES. The Vegetable Garden. A complete guide to the
cultivation of vegetables; containing thorough instructions for
sowing, planting, and cultivating all kinds of vegetables; with
plain directions for preparing, manuring and tilling the soil to
suit each plant; including, also, a summary of tfce work to be
done in a vegetable garden during each month of the year.
New York. n. d. [c. 1877.] Dick & Fitzgerald. 137 pp. 7x4 Y2.
(Cover has the legend, Dick's Garden Hand-Books. The
Vegetable Garden.)

HOLE, S. REYNOLDS. A Book About Roses: How to grow and
show them. New York. 1883. Wm. S. Gottsberger. 326 pp.
6 Vi x 4 y?, (An American issue of the 7th edition of an English
work. )

HOLLISTER, E. J. Livingston's Celery Book. Conclusions at the
close of twenty years' extensive experience by the author on
best methods of preparation of soil, cultivating and marketing
the crop. Illus. Columbus, Ohio. n. d. [c. 1898.] A. W. Liv-
ingston's Sons. 96 pp. 7l4x.5H.

HOLMES, EBER. Commercial Rose Culture, under glass and out-
doors; a practical guide to modern methods of growing the rose
for market purposes. II jus. New York. 1911. A. T. De La
Mare Printing and Publishing Company, Ltd. 165 pp. 7 % in.

HOLMES, FRANCIS S. The Southern Farmer and Market-Gardener;
being a compilation of useful articles on these subjects, from
the most approved writers; developing the principles and point-
ing out the method of their application to the farming and gar-
dening of the South, and particularly of the low country. New,
improved and enlarged edition. Charleston, S. C. n. d.
[c. 1852.] Wm. R. Babcock. vii + 249 pp. TYfa^A.

HOLMES, JAMES H. A Manual on Window Gardening; for popular
use. Montpelier, Vt. 1877. J. H. Holmes. 184 pp. 7 in.

HONDA, K. See Brown, Glenn. European and Japanese Gardens.
HOOPER, CHAS. EDW. The Country House. A practical manual of

the planning and construction of the American country home

and its surroundings. Illustrated by E. E. Soderholtz and others.

New York. 1905. [c. 1904, 1905.] Doubleday, Page & Co.

xxiii + 330 pp. 10^x8.

HOOPER, E. J. Hooper's Western Fruit-Book. A compendious
collection of facts, from the notes and experience of successful
fruit culturists, arranged for practical use in the orchard and
garden. Colored plates. Cincinnati. 1857. [c. 1857.] Moore,
Wilstach, Keys & Co. x + 333 pp. 8x5.

. The same. 3d ed., completely revised. 1858. [c. 1857.]

x + 355 pp. 8x5.

HOOPER, LUCY, Editor. The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry;
to which are added a botanical introduction, a complete floral
dictionary, and a chapter on plants in rooms. Illus. New York.
1842. J. C. Riker. 263 pp. 7 Y-i in.

HOOPES, JOSIAH. The Book of Evergreens. A practical treatise
on the coniferse, or cone-bearing plants. Illus. New York,
n. d. [c. 1868.] Orange Judd Company, vi +435 pp. 7^x5.

HOOPS, H. How to Make Grape Culture Profitable in California,
with explanation of California vine or Anaheim disease. Illus.
San Jose, Calif. 1904. Press of the Pacific Tree and Vine. 40
pp. 9^ in.

HORTICOLA. See Mohr, Frederick. The Grape- Vine.
HORTICULTURAL ANNUAL. See American Horticultural Annual.

98

HOVEY, C. M. The Fruits of America; containing richly colored
figures, and full descriptions of all the choicest varieties culti-
vated in the United States. Boston. Vol. I, Hovey & Co. 1852.
[c. 1851.] viii + 100 pp. Vol. II, Hovey & Co. 1856. [c. 1851.]
iv + 96 pp. 10 y<i x 7. (In Cornell University Library, 24 pp.
of Vol. Ill, without a title-page, are bound with Vol. II. The
Library of Congress has Vol. Ill, Parts 1, 2, and 3, in original
covers, undated, each containing 4 colored plates with descrip-
tive text. These parts are unbound and untrimmed, measur-
ing about 15 MX 11 M inches. There are other variations.
Vol. Ill was never completed.) Another edition of Vol. I has
the same title-page as above, but the imprint reads: Boston,
C. C. Little & Jas. Brown, and Hovey & Co.; New York, D.
Appleton & Co. This title is undated, but has copyright date
1851 on the reverse. The volume has 2 frontispieces (portraits
of C. M. Hovey); 2 leaves (title-page and dedication); pp.
vii, viii (preface) ; ix, x (subscribers) ; xi, xii (contents) ; 1-100
(descriptive) text referring to the 48 colored plates which are
interspersed). 14 MX 11.

. The same. 1st vol. Forty-eight richly colored plates.

New York. 1853. D. Appleton & Co. viii + 100 pp. 11x7 %.
-. See Brehaut, Rev. T. Collings. Cordon Training of Fruit

Trees.

HOWARD, G. H. See Pedersen, J. How to Grow Cabbages and
Cauliflowers Most Profitably.

HOWARD, JOHN GALEN. See Brown, Glenn. European and Japan-
ese Gardens.

HOWARD, W. L. Propagating Trees and Plants; simple directions
for propagating many of the common fruits of orchard and gar-
den ; for use by the farmer and others who grow fruit in a small
way. With illustrations by E. H. Favor. St. Joseph, Mo. 1905.
The Fruit-Grower Company. 44 pp. 5% in. ("Brother Jona-
than" Series, No. 1.)

- . and FAVOR, E. H. The Home Garden; a brief discussion of
garden soils and how they are built up, together with suggestions
for growing the more common vegetables. Also a monthly
planting calendar. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1905. The Fruit-
Grower Company. 58pp. 5% in. ("Brother Jonathan" Series,
No. 4.)

HOWE, WALTER. The Garden; as considered in literature by cer-
tain polite writers; with a critical essay. Portrait. William
Kent. New York and London, n.d. [c. 1890.] G.P.Putnam's
Sons, iv + 309 pp. 5 y2 x 3 Y2.

How TO GROW ASTERS. A manual on asters, their culture and care.
Rochester, N. Y. 1906. James Vick's Sons. 24 pp. 5}^ x 3}^.
("In the preparation of this booklet we are largely indebted to
Mr. Frederick S. Fisher." — Publishers' introductory note.)

How TO GROW FLOWERS, FRUIT AND VEGETABLES. New York.
n. d. N. L. Munro. 62 pp. 6% in. Contents: I. The Flower-
Garden. II. Orchard and Kitchen-Garden.

How TO GROW FRUIT, FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES; and the language
of flowers. New York. n. d. Norman L. Munro. Paper. 68 DD.

How TO GROW STRAWBERRIES AND OTHER FRUITS. Brentwood,

N. Y. [c. 1888.] Putney & Woodward. 16 pp. 6 in.
How TO MAKE A FLOWER GARDEN. A manual of practical informa-

tion and suggestions. Illus. New York. 1903. [c. 1901, 1902,

1903.] Doubleday, Page & Co. xxii + 370 pp. 10 J^ x 8.
HUBER, JULIUS H. The Work in the Garden. Chicago. 1903. G.

B. Van Dort. 57 pp. 7 ^ in.
HULL, GEO. S. Electro-Horticulture. New York. n. d. [c. 1898.]

The Knickerbocker Press. 45 pp. 7 % x~4 %.
HUME, H. HAROLD. Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Illus. Jack-

sonville, Fla. 1904. [c. 1904.] The H. & W. B. Drew Co.

xxii +597 pp. 7Hx5M-

— . The same. 3d ed. revised and enlarged. New York. 1909.
[c. 1909.] Orange Judd Company ^ xii + 587 pp.

- . The Pecan and Its Culture. Illus. Petersburg, Va. 1906.
[c. 1906.] The American Fruit and Nut Journal. 159 pp. 8x5>&

— . The same. 2d ed. Glen St. Mary, Fla. 1910. [c. 1910.]
Published by the author, xi + 159 pp.

- . The same. 3d ed., revised and enlarged. 1912. [c. 1912.]
195 pp.

HUMPHREYS, PHEBE WESTCOTT. The Practical Book of Garden
Architecture. With frontispiece in color and 125 illustrations
from photographs by S. Walter Humphreys. Philadelphia and
London. 1914. [c. 1914.] J. B. Lippincott Company. 330 pp.
9 x 6 }4.

HUNN, C. E., and BAILEY, L. H. The Amateur's Practical Garden-
Book; containing the simplest directions for the growing of the
commonest things about the house and garden. Illus. New
York. 1900. [c. 1900.] The Macmillan Company. vi+250pp.
6 M x 4 M. (The Garden-Craft Series. )

- . The same. 2d ed. 1901. vi + 250 pp.

— . The same. 5th ed. New York. 1906. [c. 1898.] Grosset
& Dunlap.

HUNNICUTT, G. F. See Davis, J. R. Up-to-Date Truck Growing
in the South.

HUNT, M. A. How to Grow Cut Flowers. A practical treatise on
the cultivation of the rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, violet,
and other winter flowering plants; also, greenhouse construction.
A book for the florist and amateur. Illus. Terre Haute, Ind.
1893. [c. 1893.] Published by the author. iii+228pp. 7J^x5K-

HURST, B. F. The Fruit Grower's Guide. Illus. Boise, Idaho.
1905. [c. 1905.] 144 pp. 7 in.

1538

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

Hcs, HENRI. See Conard, H. S. Water-Lilies.

HUSMANN, GEORGE. American Grape Growing and Wine Making;

with contributions from well-known grape growers, giving a

wide range of experience. Illus. New York. 1880. [c. 1880.]

Orange Judd Company. 243 pp. 7 % x 5 }£.
. The same. New and enlarged edition, with several added

chapters on the grape industries of California. 1883. 310 pp.
• . The same. 4th ed., revised and rewritten. 1896. viii +

269 pp.
• . The Cultivation of the Native Grape, and Manufacture of

American Wines. Illus. New York. 1866. G. E. & F. W.

Woodward. 192 pp. 7 % in.
. The same. 1870. fc. 1866.] Geo. E. Woodward. (The

backstamp is Grapes and Wine, and the book is often quoted

under that title.)
• . The same. 4th ed., revised and rewritten; with several

added chapters on the grape industries of California. Illus.

New York. 1896. [c. 1895.] Orange Judd Company. 269 pp.
. Essay on the Culture of the Grape in the Great West.

Hermann, Mo. 1862. 43 pp.

• . Grape Culture and Wine-Making in California. A prac-
tical manual for the grape-grower and wine-maker. Illus. San
Francisco. 1888. [c. 1887.] Payot, Upham & Co. xi + 380 pp.
7^x5M.

HUTCHINS, W. T. All about Sweet Peas. An art monograph.
Illus. Philadelphia, n. d. [c. 1892.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co.
25pp. 5^x4^.

. The same. 2d. ed. A complete epitome of the literature

of this fragrant annual. 1894. [c. 1894.] 131pp. 5^x4J^.

. The same. Revised and enlarged. 1894. 131 pp.

. Sweet Peas Up-to-Date; with a complete description of

all known varieties, including novelties for 1897. Illus. Phila-
delphia. 1897. [c. 1897.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. 72 pp.
7Ji*5.

HYATT, T. HART. Hyatt's Hand-Book of Grape Culture; or, why,
where, when, and how to plant and cultivate a vineyard, manu-
facture wines, etc. Especially adapted to the State of Cali-
fornia, also, to the United States generally. San Francisco.
1867. [c. 1867.] H. H. Bancroft & Co. 279pp. 7J^x5.

. The same. 2d ed., with an appendix recording the progress,

improvements and statistics of grape culture in California up
to the Centennial year. 1876. 279 pp.

ILLUSTRATED PEAR CULTURIST, THE: containing plain, practical
directions for planting, budding, grafting, pruning, training,
and dwarfing the pear tree . . . By an amateur. 2d ed. Illus.
New York. 1859. O. A. Moore & Co. New London. Starr &
Co. 106pp. 9*4 in.

IVES, JOHN M. See Manning, Robert. The New England Fruit-
Book.

JACK, ANNIE L. The Canadian Garden. A pocket help for the
amateur. Toronto. 1903. [c. 1903.] William Briggs. viii + 121
pp. 7x4}4

JACKSON, A. V. Secrets of Mushroom Growing simply explained,
by the largest grower in America. Chicago, [c. 1906.] 44 pp.
8Min-

. The same. The secrets of Mushroom Growing simply

explained; a practical handbook of the whole science of mush-
room culture, from the preparation of materials to the market-
ing of the crop, with fifty illustrations from photos by the
author; twenty years' experience owning and operating the
largest mushroom plant in America. 5th ed. Boston, [c. 1913.]
Hooper Printing Company. 68 pp. 8% in.

JACOB, EDW. H. A Study of Mushrooms and Mushroom Spawn.
Illus. Philadelphia, [c. 1914.] F. McManus, Jr. & Co. 15 pp.
"ly-i in.

JACQUES, D. H. The Garden. A manual of practical horticulture;
or, how to cultivate vegetables, fruits and flowers; embracing
an exposition of the nature and action of soils and manures and
the structure and growth of plants; directions for the forming of
a garden; description of implements and fixtures; instructions
for sowing, transplanting, budding, grafting, and cultivating
vegetables, fruits, and flowers; with a chapter on ornamental
trees and shrubs. Revised edition. Illus. New York. [c. 1866.]
Geo. E. and F. W. Woodward, xii + 166 pp. 7%x 5.

• . The same. Revised edition, [c. 1870.] Geo. E. Woodward.

Bound with Jacquea' "The Farm" and "The Barn Yard" with
title page: "Jacques" New Manual of the Garden, Farm and
Barn-yard; embracing practical horticulture, agriculture, and
cattle, horse and sheep husbandry."

JAQUES, GEORGE. A Practical Treatise on the Management of
Fruit Trees; with descriptive lists of the most valuable fruits for
general cultivation; adapted to the interior of New England.
Worcester. 1849. [c. 1849.] Erastus N. Tucker. 256 pp.
6 % x 4 Ji (Bound as Jaques' N. E. Fruit Trees.)

. The same. Adapted to northern states. New York. 1856.

[n. c.] Edward Livermore.

JENKINS, E. N. The Hardy Flower Book. Illus. New York.
Chas. Scribner'a Sons. 143 pp. 9 x 5 y^.

JENKINS, J. Art of Propagation. A hand-book for nurserymen,
florists, gardeners, and everybody. Illus. Winona, Columbia
Co., Ohio. 1886. [c. 1876.] Jenkins' Grape and Seedling
Nursery. 31 pp. 9x6.

JENKINS, THOMAS B. Roses and Rose Culture. Illus. Rochester,
N. Y. [c. 1892.] Stecher Lithographic Company. 25 pp.
9 in.

JOHNSON, CHARLES. The Seed Grower. A practical treatise on
growing vegetable and flower seeds and bulbs for the market.
Frontispiece. Marietta, Pa. 1906. 191pp. 7}^ in.

. The Seedsman's Assistant. Compendium of the growing

sources of seeds, vegetables and flowers. Showing addresses,
alphabetically ananged, of more than one hundred and thirty
of the most prominent seed-growing establishments in America
and Europe. Classification of the different varieties with names
of growers. Marietta, Pa. 1904. 94pp. 7J^in.

JOHNSON, EDWIN A. Winter Greeneries at Home. Illus. New
York. n. d. [c. 1878.] Orange Judd Company, viii +113 pp.
7^x5.

JOHNSON, GEORGE WILLIAM. A Dictionary of Modern Gardening.
180 wood cuts. Edited, with numerous additions, by David
Landreth. Philadelphia. 1847. [c. 1847.] Lea & Blanchard.
635 pp. 8x5.

JOHNSON, Jos. FORSYTE. Residential Sites and Environments:
their conveniences, gardens, parks, planting, etc. Illus. New
York. 1898. A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Com-
pany, Ltd. 118pp. 12Mx9J^.

JOHNSON, LOUISA. Every Lady Her Own Flower Gardener.
Addressed to the industrious and economical; containing sim-
ple and practical directions for cultivating plants and flowers
in the garden and in rooms. Revised from the 14th London
edition, and adapted to the use of American ladies. Illus. New
York. 1856. [c. 1854.] C. M. Saxton & Co. vi + 119 pp.
8 x 5 y±. (Bound first in Saxton's Rural Hand-Books, 2d. Series.

. The same. New York. 1860. C. M. Saxton. San Fran-
cisco. H. H. Bancroft & Co.

JOHNSON, MARK W. How to Plant and What to Do with the
Crops; together with valuable hints for the farm, garden, and
orchard. Illus. New York. 1886. [c. 1886.] Orange Judd
Company. 89 pp. 7 J^ x 5.

JOHNSON, S. ARTHUR. See Shields, O. D., Compiler. A Western
Book for Western Planters.

JOHNSON, MRS. S. O. Every Woman Her Own Flower Gardener.
A handy manual of flower gardening for ladies. New York.
1871. [c. 1871.] Henry T. Williams.

. The same. 5th ed. New York. 1875. [c. 1871.] Henry T.

Williams. 8x5)^.

. The same. 7th ed. New York. 1885. [c. 1871.] Ladies

Floral Cabinet Company, iv + 148 pp. 8 ^ x 6.

JOHNSON & STOKES. Farm Gardening; with hints on cheap manur-
ing. Quick cash crops and how to grow them. Illus. Philadel-
phia. 1898. Johnson & Stokes. 124 pp. 7 in.

. $100 Piize Essays. How and what to grow in the South

for northern markets. Culture of cabbage and onions, with
hints for storing and marketing. The family vegetable garden.
Illus. Philadelphia. 1890. 64 pp. 8 in.

JURANEK, THOMAS. Ovocna zahrada cili: Nauka o pestovani
ovocnfch stromu . . . Die vlastnich zkusenosti mnoholetych
sepsal Tomas Jurdnek. Milwaukee, Wis. 1878. Nakladem
spisovatelovym. 183 pp. 7 y± in.

KAINS, M. G. Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation, Harvesting,
Curing and Uses. New York. 1912. [c. 1912.) Orange Judd
Company. 143 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

. Ginseng: Its Cultivation, Haivesting, Marketing and

Market Value, with a short account of its History and Botany.
Illus. New York. 1899. [c. 1899.] Orange Judd Company.
iv + 53 pp. 7 y-i x 5.

The same. New Edition. Revised, enlarged and Brought

Down to Date. 1903. [c. 1899, 1902.]

. The same. Revised and enlarged. 1902. [c. 1902.] 144 pp.

-. Editor. Making Horticulture Pay; experiences in garden-

Illus. New York. 1899. [c. 1899.] Orange Judd Company.

iv + 53 pp. 7^x5.
KECHT, J. S. Der verbesserte praktische Weinbau in Garten, und

vorziiglich auf Weinbergen. Mit einer Anweisung den Wein

ohne Presse zu keltern. Den amerikanischen Weinbauern

gewidmet von Heinrich B. Sage. Illus. Reading. 1828. Ge-

driickt bey G. A. Sage, viii + 84 pp. 7 in.
. The same. Siebente vermehrte Auflage mit 15 Kupfer-

sticken und 7 Holzschnitten.
KEECH, J. The Grape Grower's Guide, a plain and practical work

upon the management of the grape vine. Illus. Auburn, N. Y.

1869. W. J. Moses. 15 pp. 9 in.
KEELER, HARRIET L. Our Garden Flowers; a popular study of their

native lands, their life histories, and their structural affiliations.

Illus. New York. 1910. Chas. Scribner's Sons, xxxi + 550 pp.

Sin.

KEESE, JOHN, Editor. See The Floral Keepsake.
KELLAWAY, HERBERT J. How to lay out Suburban Home Grounds.

1st ed., 1st thousand. Illus. New York. 1907. J. Wiley &

Sons, x + 112 pp. 9^ in.

KELLEY, CHARLES FABIENS. See Root, Ralph Rodney.
KEMP, EDWARD. How to Lay Out a Garden. Intended as a general

guide in choosing, forming, or improving an estate, from a

quarter of an acre to a hundred acres in extent, with reference

to both design and execution. From the 2d London edition,

greatly enlarged. Illus. New York. 1858. Wiley & Halsted.

xxxi + 403 pp.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1539

. The same. Greatly enlarged and illustrated with numerous

plans, sections, and sketches of gardens and garden objects.
2ded. New York. 1860. [n. c.] John Wiley. 7^x5J4.
-. Landscape Gardening: how to lay out a garden. Edited,

xxu -f zyz pp. / -,\ in. vr u
Lay Out a Small Garden. )

KEXNERLY, C. H. Facts and Figures; or The A. B. C. of Florida
Trucking. Illus. St. Augustine, Fla. 1911. The Record Com-
pany. 137pp. TYi in.

. The same. Palatka, Fla. 1911. [c. 1911.] C. H. Kennei ly.

KENRICK, WM. The New American Orchardist; or, an account of
the most valuable varieties of fruit, adapted to cultivation in
the climate of the United States, from the latitude of 25° to
54°, with their uses, modes of culture, and management; reme-
dies for the maladies to which they are subject, from noxious
insects, and other causes, etc.; also, a brief description of the
most ornamental forest trees, shrubs, flowers, etc. Boston.
1833. [c. 1832.] Carter, Hendee & Co., and Russell, Odiorne &
Co. xxxvi + 428 pp. 7^x4?^.

-. The New American Orchardist; or, an account of the most

valuable varieties of fruit, of all climates, adapted to cultiva-
tion in the United States, with their history, modes of culture,
management, uses, etc.; and the culture of silk; with an appen-
dix on vegetables, ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. 2d
ed., enlarged and improved. Boston. 1835. [c. 1835.) Russell,
Odiorne & Metcalf. 418 pp. 7y2-&4%.

. The New American Orchardist ; or, an account of the most

valuable varieties of fruit, of all climates, adapted to cultiva-
tion in the United States; with their history, modes of culture,
management, uses, etc. With an appendix on vegetables, orna-
mental trees, shrubs and flowers, the agricultural resources of
America, and on silk, etc. 3d ed., enlarged and improved.
Boston. 1841. [c. 1841.] Otis, Broaders & Co. 449pp. 7^x4%.

. The same. 5th ed., enlarged and improved. 1842. [c.

1841.] 449pp. 71A*5.

. The same. 6th ed., enlarged and improved; with a supple-
ment. 1843. [c. 1841.] 450pp. 7^x5.

. The same. 7th ed., enlarged and improved; with a supple-
ment. 1844. [c. 1841.] 450pp. TYii. 5.

-. The same. 8th ed., enlarged and improved; with a supple-

ment. 1848. [c. 1841.] 450pp. 7^x5.

KERN, G. M. Practical Landscape Gardening; with reference to
the improvement of rural residences, giving the general princi-
ples of the art; with full directions for planting shade trees,
shrubbery and flowers, and laying out grounds. Illus. Cincin-
nati. 1855. [c. 1885.] Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co. 328 pp.

. The same. 3d ed. 1855.

KERN, MAXIMILIAN G. Rural Taste in Western Towns and Country
Districts, in its relation to the principles of the art of landscape
gardening. Columbia, Mo. 1884. Herald Printing House.
141 pp. 8% in.

KERR, G. W., Compiler. Sweet Peas Up-tp-Date. With a com-
plete description of all known varieties, including novelties for
1910. Illus. Philadelphia. 1910. [c. 1910.] W. Atlee Burpee &
Co. 80 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

- . The same. Including novelties for 1914. 1914. 88 pp.

KIEI.Y, P. M. Southern Fruit and Vegetable Shippers' Guide and
Manual. What to grow for northern markets; how to pack,
ship, etc. St. Louis, Mo. March, 1890. Paper. 103pp. 5%x4%.

• - . The same. March, 1888. Southern Fruits and Vegetables

for Northern Markets. What to grow; how to ship and pack;
the best varieties; the prices prevailing in St. Louis throughout
the year, and a variety of information to Southern growers and
shippers. Paper. 91 pp. 6x4%.

-. The same. St. Louis [c. 1912.] W. E. Carreras Printing

Company. 200 pp. (Cover title: Southern Fruit and Vegetable
Shippers' Guide and Manual.)

KINO, MITCHELL. The History and Culture of the Olive. The
anniversary address of the State Agricultural Society of South
Carolina, delivered in a hall of the House of Representatives,
November 26, 1846. Published by the Society. Columbia, S. C.
1846. I. C. Morgan, Printer. 25 pp. 9 in.

KIRBY, A. M. Daffodils, Narcissus, and How to Grow Them as
hardy plants and for cut-flowers; with a guide to the best varie-
ties. Illus. New York. 1907. [c. 1907.] Doubleday, Page &
Co. 234pp. lym^Vt.

KIRKEQAARD, JOHN. A Practical Handbook of Trees, Shrubs,
Vines and Herbaceous Perennials. Illus. Boston, Mass,
[c. 1912.] The Bullard Company. 407pp. 9%'m.

KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDENER, THE. A select manual of kitchen
gardening and culture of fruits, containing familiar directions
for the most approved practice in each department, descrip-
tions of many valuable fruits, and a calendar of work to be per-
formed each month in the year. The whole adapted to the climate
of the United States. Philadelphia. 1844. [c. 1844.] Lea &
Blanchard. xii + 118 pp. 7% x 4 %. (An American edition of
an English work. Bound with the Complete Florist.)

KITCHEN, J. M. W. See Burberry, H. A. Orchid Cultivator's Guide
Book.

KNAPP, GEO. R. How to Grow Strawberries. A complete and prac-
tical treatise designed as a reliable guide to the successful cul-
tivation of strawberries. Illus. Greenfield, Mass. 1886. H. D.
Watson Company. 63 pp. 71A in. (Pp. 55-63, advertising
matter.)

KNOWLTON, D. H. Fruit Culture: Its possibilities in Maine. A
paper delivered before the winter meeting of the Maine State
Pomological Society, held in Bangor, February 24 and 25, 1891.
Farmington, Maine. 12 pp. 6x3. (Separately printed.)

KNOWLTON, J. M. Our Hardy Grapes; what to plant; how to plant»
train, and manage them. Illus. New York. 1863. Coutant &
Baker. 96 pp. ll/i in. (Pp. 81-96, advertising matter.)

KRUHM, ADOLPH. The Home Vegetable Garden. Illus. New York.
1914. [c. 1914.] Orange Judd Company. 104pp. 7^x5.

LACY, T. JAY. Fruit Culture for the Gulf States, south of latitude
32°. Alexandria, La. 1888. [c. 1888.] Press of Town Talk.
50pp. 6^x4M-

LAMBORN, LEEROY L. Carnation Culture (Dianthus Caryophyllus
semperflorens): Its classification, history, propagation, varie-
ties, care, culture, etc. Illus. Alliance, Ohio. 1887. [c. 1887.]
151 pp. 8x5Ji

. The same by L. L. Lamborn. 2d ed. 1890. [c. 1887.] 182

pp. 8x5}^. B.

. The same. American Carnation Culture; 3d ed. 1892.

[c. 1887 and 1892.] 216 pp. 7^x5.

-. The same. 4th ed., rewritten and brought completely

up-to-date. 1901. [c. 1901.] 174 pp.

LANDRBTH, BURNET. Market-Gardening and Farm Notes. Experi-
ences and- observations in the garden and field, of interest to
the amateur gardener, trucker and farmer. New York. 1893.
[c. 1892.] Orange Judd Company, iv + 215 pp. 7^x5.

. 999 Queries, with Answers upon Agricultural and Horti-
cultural Subjects. Published by David Landreth & Sons.
Philadelphia, [c. 1895.] Press of MacCalla & Co. 200 pp.
9Jix6.

LANDRETH, DAVID. See Johnson, George William. A Dictionary
of Modern Gardening.

LANDRETH, DAVID, & SONS. The Cabbage Family, its varieties,
qualities and culture. Illus. Philadelphia. 1877. [c. 1877.]
McCalla & Stavely, Printers, vii + 34 pp. 9J4 x 6.

. Landieth'g Prize Essays on Onion Culture. Illus. Phila-
delphia, n. d. Press of MacCalla & Co. 80 pp. 9% x 6. (On
cover: "Fourth edition," Pp. 72-80, advertising matter.)
-. Prize Essays on Celery Culture, written for D. Landreth

& Sons. Philadelphia, n. d. Press of MacCalla & Co. 58 pp.
9M x 5%. (Pp. 1-4, 55-58, advertising matter.)

. Seeds for Midsummer and Autumn Sowing in the Gulf

States. Philadelphia, n. d. MacCalla & Co., Printers. 24 pp.
9x6. (Caption title: Market Gardening for Northern Ship-
ment. )

-. On the Value and Culture of Roots for Stock-feeding.

Edition 1888. Illus. Philadelphia. 1888. MacCalla & Co.,
Printers. 40pp. 9^x5%.

LAHOQUE, G. Manuel d'horticulture pratique et d'arboriculture
fruitier. Illus. Levis [Quebec]. 1880. Mercier & Cie. 168 pp.
9 in.

. The same. 2d ed., revue, corrigee et augmentie. Quebec.

1883. J. A. Langlais. 252 pp. 7 1A in.

LARSEN, HENRY. Manual for the Pruning and Culture of all Kinds
of Fruit Trees; and directions for the destruction of the curculio
and other insects. Philadelphia. 1860. [c. 1859.] James Challen
& Son. 75 pp. 6x4.

LAWRENCE, W. H. Apple Growing. Written specially for use in
the Pacific Horticultural Correspondence School, Portland, Ore-
gon. Orenco, Ore. [c. 1913.] H. V. Meade. 31pp. 8% in.

LAWSON, WILLIAM. A new Orchard and Garden; or, The best way
for planting, grafting, and to make any ground good, for a rich
orchard. Particularly in the north, and generally for the whole
kingdom of England, as in nature, reason, situation, and all
probabilitie, may and doth appeare. With the country house-
wife's garden for herbs of common use, their vertues, seasons,
profits, ornaments, varietie of knots, models for trees, and plots
for the best ordering of grounds and walkes. As also the hus-
bandry of bees, with their several uses and annoyances, all
being the experiences of 48 years' labour, and now the third
time corrected and much enlarged, by William Lawson. Where-
unto is newly added the art of propagating plants, with the true
ordering of all manner of fruits, in their gathering, carrying
home, and preservation. Printed at London by J. H. for Francis
Williams. 1626. Illus. Philadelphia. 1858. [n. c.] Robert
Pearsall Smith. 39pp. 9J^x6. (Reprint.)

LAWTON, THE OR NEW ROCHELLE BLACKBERRY: Its origin, history,
characteristics and culture. 4th ed. New York. 1857. Published
by Drew & French and Fowler & Wells. 24 pp. 9x5.

. The same. 5th ed. 1858.

LEAVENS, GEORGE D. See Cunningham, S. A. Lawns, Golf-courses,
Polo-fields.

LELAND, E. H. Farm Homes In-doors and Out-doors. Illus. New
York. 1882. [c. 1881.] Orange Judd Company. 216pp. 7^x5.

LELJEVRE, J. F. Nouveau Jardinier de la Louisiane; contenant les
instructions necessaires aux personnes qui s'occupent de jar-
dinage. Nouvelle-Orleans. 1838. [n. c.] J. F. Lelievre. viii +
200pp.

1540

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

LELONG, B. M. California Walnut Industry. Commercial import-
ance, longevity, pollination, varieties, planting, soil, propaga-
tion, budding, grafting, pruning, harvesting; enemies of the wal-
nut, and remedies; area of walnut cultuie in state, in America,
and in Europe, etc. Illus. Sacramento. 1896. A. J. Johnston,
Superintendent State Printing. 44 pp. 9 in.

. California Prune Industry. — History and importance of

the prune industry, methods of cultivation, varieties, picking,
curing, packing, and production. Illus. Sacramento. 1892.
[n. c.] State Office, A. J. Johnston, Superintendent State
Printing. 33pp. 9x5?^.

. Culture of the Citrus in California. Research by B. M.

Lelong, assisted by experienced horticulturists. Illus. Sacra-
mento. 1900. A. J. Johnston, Superintendent State Printing.
206 pp. 9x6.

. The same. Revised by State Board of Horticulture. 1902.

Published by State Board of Horticulture. 269 pp.

. Fruit Culture. Sour orange stock; fertilizing and methods

of compounding fertilizers; injurious insect pests; parasites; and
observations. Illus. Sacramento. 1890. J. D. Young, Super-
intendent State Printing. 20 pp. 9% in.

. The Olive in California. Varieties, budding, grafting,

new methods, and general observations. Illus. Sacramento.
1888. State Office. 21pp. 9x5^-

. The same. 1889. J. D. Young, Superintendent State

Printing. 19 pp.

. Orange Culture. The orange "from seed to grove." Illus.

Sacramento. 1890. [n. c.] State Office, J. D. Young, Super-
intendent of State Printing. 19 + 10 pp. 9x6.

. Propagation. The rearing of citrus and deciduous trees

from seed; budding, grafting, and appliances. Illus. Sacra-
mento. 1892. [n. c.] State Office, A. J. Johnston, Superin-
tendent State Printing. 38 pp. 8x6.

•. A Treatise on Citrus Culture in California; with a descrip-

tion of the best varieties grown in the state, and varieties grown
in other states and foreign countries; gathering, packing, curing,

§ runing, budding, diseases, etc. Illus. Sacramento. 1888.
tate Office, J. D. Young, Superintendent State Printing.
96 pp. 9x6.

See Garcelon, G. W. Citrus Fruits.

LE MOYNE, Louis V. Country Residences in America and Europe.
Illus. New York. 1908. [c. 1908.] Doubleday Page & Co.
vii + 459 pp. 14 x 11.

LEOPOLD, REV. PERE, O. C. R. La Culture FruitiSre dans la Pro-
vince de Quebec. Traite complet de la propagation des arbres
et arbustes fruitiers cultives dans la province de Quebec — de
la creation d'un verger de pommes et de son entretien pour le
commerce comme pour la famille, — -d* aprSs les m^thodes
les plus modernes — avec un sommaire de la culture du Prunier,
du Cerisier, du Poirier, et des petits arbustes fruitiers. Deuxidme
edition, revue et corrig6e. 15 Juillet, 1914. Illus. La Trappe,
Que. Institut Agricole d' Oka. 269 pp. 5x8.

LEUCHARS, ROBERT B. A Practical Treatise on the Construction,
Heating, and Ventilation of Hot-houses; including conserva-
tories, greenhouses, graperies, and other kinds of horticultural
structures; with practical directions for their management, in
regard to light, heat, and air. Illustrated with numerous
engravings. New York. n. d. [c. 1850.] Orange Judd Company,
vi + 366 pp. 7 % x 5.

. The same Boston. 1851. [c. 1850.] John P. Jewett & Co.

. The same. 1860. [c. 1850.] New York: C. M. Saxton,

Barker & Co. San Francisco: H. H. Bancroft & Co.

LEWIS, C. I. See Aspinwall, Britt.

LINDLEY, GEORGE. A Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden; or,
an account of the most valuable fruits cultivated in Great
Britain, with additions of all the most valuable fruits cultivated
in America, with directions for their cultivation, budding,
grafting and propagation, pruning and training of standard,
open dwarf and espalier fruit trees. Adapted to the climate of
the United States of America. A new edition, with an appendix,
describing many American fruits not mentioned in the former
edition. Illus. New York. 1846. [c. 1846.] J. C. Riker.
xi + 420 pp. 7 % x 4 H.

LINDLEY, JOHN. The Theory of Horticulture; or, an attempt to
explain the principal operations of gardening upon physiological
principles. 1st American ed., with notes, etc., by A. J. Downing
and A. Gray. Illus. 1841. [c. 1841.] New York: Wiley &
Putnam. Boston: C. C. Little & Co. xi+346pp. 8x5.

. The same. 2d American ed., with notes, etc., by A. J.

Downing. New York. 1881. [c. 1852.] John Wiley & Sons,
xv +364 pp. 7)^x5.

•. The same. 2d American ed., with notes, etc., by A. J.

Downing. New York. 1859. [c. 1852.] Wiley & Halstead.
LIVINGSTON, A. W. Livingston and the Tomato; being a history

of experiences in discovering the choice varieties introduced by

him, with practical instructions for growers. Illus. Columbus,

Ohio. n. d. [c. 1893.] Published by A. W. Livingston's Sons,

Seedsmen. 176 pp. 7 1A * 5 H-

. Livingston's Celery Book. See Hollister, E. J.

LIVINGSTON, L. S. My Garden Record. New York. 1907. [c.

1907.] Dodd Mead & Co.
LLOYD, JOHN W. Productive Vegetable Growing. 193 illustrations

in the text. Philadelphia, [c. 1914.] J. B. Lippincott Company.

xiii + 339pp. 6x8)4

LODEMAN, E. G. The Spraying of Plants. A succinct account of the

application of liquids and powders to plants for the purpose of

destroying insects and fungi; with a preface by B. T. Galloway.

Portrait of A. Millardet. Illus. New York and London. 1896.

[c. 1896.] The Macmillan Company, xvii + 399 pp. 7x5.

(The Rural Science Series, edited by L. H. Bailey.)
LONG, ELIAS A. The Home Florist. A treatise on too cultivation,

management and adaptability of flowering and ornamental

plants, designed for the use of amateur florists. 2d ed., revised

and enlarged. (See Long Bros. The Home Florist.) Illus.

Springfield, Ohio. [c. 1885.] Chas. A. Reeser. iv + 319 pp.

7^x5)4
. How to Plant a Place. Illus. New York. 1892. [c. 1892.]

The Rural Publishing Company. 28pp. 7Hx5. (The Rural

Library, Vol. I, No. 4, February.)
. The same. A brief ijlustrated guide, suited to popular use,

to which is added an article on spraying to combat insects and

diseases, by L. H. Bailey, llth ed., revised and enlarged, n. d.

[c. 1890, 1892 and 1894.] J. Horace McFarland Company.

29pp. 8x5M-

-. Landscape Gardening. A collection of plans illustrating

the improvement of home grounds, town lots, real estate, sub-
divisions, public squares, cemeteries; with copious explanations.
Illus. Buffalo, N. Y. n. d. [c. 1891.] Popular Gardening Pub-
lishing Company. 29 pp. 9 % x 6 %.

. The same. New York. [c. 1891, 1893.] The Rural Pub-
lishing Company.

-. Ornamental Gardening for Americans. A treatise on

beautifying homes, rural districts, towns, and cemeteries.
Illus. New York. 1885. [c. 1884.] Orange Judd Company.
381pp. 7Mx5H-

LONG BROS. The Home Florist. Illus. Buffalo, [c. 1874.] Long
Bros., Seedsmen and Florists. 88 pp. 9 x 5J.

LONGWORTH, N. The Cultivation of the Grape, and Manufacture
of Wine; also, character and habits of the strawberry plant.
Illus. Cincinnati. 1846. L'Hommedieu & Co. Paper. 19 pp.

LOUBAT, ALPHONSE. The American Vine Dresser's Guide. New
York. 1827. [c. 1827.] G. & C. Carwill. 138 pp. (Pages
alternately English and French.)

. The same. New and revised edition. Portrait. New York.

1872. [c. 1872.] D. Appleton & Co. 123 pp. (Pages alternately
English and French.)

LOTJDON, MRS. Gardening for Ladies; and companion to the flower-
garden. 2d American ed., from the 3d London ed. Edited by
A. J. Downing. Illus. New York. 1849. [c. 1843.] John Wiley,
iv +430 pp. 8^x5.

LOUNSBERRY, ALICE. The Garden Book for Young People. Illus.
New York. 1903. [c. 1903.] F. A. Stokes Company, xi + 290
pp. 8 in.

. Gardens Near the Sea; the making and care of gardens

on or near the coast with reference also to lawns and grounds
and to trees and shrubbery. With eight full-page color-plates
from paintings by H. W. Faulkner, and from photographs,
together with sixty-four full-page illustrations from photo-
graphs in black-and-white. New York. 1910. [c. 1910.] Fred-
erick A. Stokes Company, xv +274 pp. 9% in.

LOWELL, GUY, Editor. American Gardens. 1902. [c. 1902.]
Bates & Guild Co. 12 x 10.

LOWTHER, GRANVILLE, Editor, and WORTHINGTON, WILLIAM,
Assoc. Ed. The Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture. A
Reference System of Commercial Horticulture. Illus. In 3
vols. North Yakima, Wash. [c. 1914.] The Encyclopedia of
Horticulture Corporation, xv + 2,037 pp. + index. 7 x 10 }^.

LUPTON, J. M. Cabbage and Cauliflower for Profit. 53 illustra-
tions. Philadelphia. 1894. [c. 1894.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co.
vii + 122 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

LYON, WM. S. Gardening in California. A brief treatise on the best
methods of cultivating common flowers in the California home
garden. Designed chiefly for the use of amateurs. Los Angeles,
Cal. n. d. [c. 1897.] Geo. Rice & Sons. 156 pp. 7x5.

. The same. Published by the author. 180 pp. 6x4.

MACGERALD, WILLIS, Editor! Practical Farming and Gardening.
Illus. Chicago and New York. 1902. Rand, McNally & Co.
500pp. 8x6.

McCAULEY, LENA MAY. The Joy of Gardens. Illus. Chicago,
New York. [c. 1911.] Rand, McNally & Co. x + 239 pp. 8^in.

McCoLLOM, WILLIAM C. Vines and How to Grow Them. A manual
of climbing plants for flower, foliage and fruit effects, both
ornamental and useful, including those shrubs and similar
forms that may be used as vines. ' Illus. Garden City, N. Y.
1911. [c. 1911.] Doubleday, Page & Co. 315pp. 4>ix5H.

McCREDiE, A. L. See Skinner, H. M. Library of Agriculture.

MCGREGOR BROS. New Book on Growing Flowers. A book of
practical suggestions and helpful hints on the care and manage-
ment, in the house and garden, of the many beautiful and popu-
lar flowers of the day; with cultural directions for such plants
as require more than ordinary treatment. Springfield, Ohio,
[c. 1897.] McGregor Bros. 104 pp. 7x4 %.

M'KAY, H. E. Fruit Lands, Strawberry Culture and Varieties,
practically considered from a Southern Standpoint. Jackson,
Miss. 1880. Clarion Steam Print. 8pp. 8Mx5%.
McLAREN, JOHN. Gardening in California, Landscape and Flower.
Illus. San Francisco. 1909. [c. 1909.] A. M. Robertson, xiii +
399pp. 9% in.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1541

MCLAURIN, JOHN. The Model Potato: an exposition of the proper
cultivation of the potato; the cause of its diseases, or "rot-
ting;" the remedy therefore; its renewal, preservation, produc-
tiveness, and cooking. Edited, with annotations, by R. T.
Traill. Frontispiece. New York. 1872. S. R. Wells. 102 pp.
7 in.

M'MAHON, BERNARD. The American Gardener's Calendar.
Adapted to the climates and seasons of the United States; con-
taining a complete account of all the work necessary to be done
in the kitchen-garden, fruit-garden, orchard, vineyard, nursery,
pleasure-grounds, flower-garden, greenhouse, hothouse, and
forcing-frames, for every month in the year; with ample practi-
cal directions for performing the same; also, general as well as
minute instructions for laying out, or erecting, each and every
of the above departments, according to modern taste and the
most approved plans; the ornamental planting of pleasure-
grounds, in the ancient and modern style; the cultivation of
thorn-quicks and other plants suitable for live hedges, with the
best methods of making them, etc. To which are annexed
extensive catalogues of the different kinds of plants which may
be cultivated either for use or ornament in the several depart-
ments, or in rural economy; divided into eighteen separate
alphabetical classes, according to their habits, duration, and
modes of culture; with explanatory introductions, marginal
marks, and their true Linnaean or botanical, as well as English
names; together with a copious index to the body of the work.
Philadelphia. 1806. [c. 30th year of the independence of the
United States.] B. Graves, v + 666 pp. 8^x5}i
- . The American Gardener's Calendar. Adapted to the
climates and seasons of the United States; containing a com-
plete account of all the work necessary to be done in the kitchen-
garden, fruit-garden, orchard, vineyard, nursery, pleasure-
grounds, flower-garden, greenhouse, hothouse, and forcing-
frames, for every month in the year; with ample practical
directions for performing the same; also, general as well as
minute instructions for laying out, or erecting, each and every
of the above departments, according to modern taste and the
most approved plans; the ornamental planting of pleasure-
grounds, in the ancient and modern style; the cultivation of
thorn-quicks and other plants suitable for live hedges, with
the best methods of making them, etc. To which are annexed
catalogues of kitchen-garden plants and herbs; aromatic, pot
and sweet herbs; medicinal plants; and the most important
grasses, etc., used in rural economy, with the soil best adapted
to their cultivation; together with a copious index to the body
of the work. 4th ed., improved. Philadelphia. 1820. [c. 1819.]
T. P. M'Mahon. 618 pp. 8J^ x 5^.
-- . The same. 9th ed. 1839. [c. 1839.]

. - . The American Gardener's Calendar. Adapted to the
climates and seasons of the United States; containing a com-
plete account of all the work necessary to be done in the kitchen-
garden, fruit-garden, flower-garden, orchard, pleasure-grounds,
vineyard, nursery, greenhouse, hothouse, and forcing-frames,
for every month in the year; with practical directions and
copious index, llth ed., with a memoir of the author, revised
and illustrated under the supervision of J. Jay Smith. Philadel-
phia. 1857. [c. 1857.] J. B. Lippincott & Co. ix + 637 pp.
9>£x6.
MCMILLAN, WILLIAM. See Powell, Edwin C. Street and Shade

Trees.

McMiNN, J. M. See Saunders, Wm.

McMuLLEN, THOMAS. Hand-Book of Wines, practical, theoretical,
and historical; with a description of foreign spirits and liqueurs.
New York. 1852. [c. 1852.] D. Appleton & Co. xii + 327 pp.
9x6.

McMuRTRiE, WM. Report upon Statistics of Grape Culture and

Wine Production in the United States for 1880. Washington.

1881. Government Printing Office. Paper. 104 pp. (Special

Report No. 36, United States Department of Agriculture.)

MCNEIL, J. W. Fruits and Vegetables. Hazlehurst, Miss. 1888.

[n. c.] Copiah Signal print. 21 pp. 9 x 5 %.

MAETERLINCK, MAURICE. Old-Fashioned Flowers, and other out-
of-door studies. With illustrations by Charles B. Falls. New
York. 1905. Dodd, Mead & Co. 105 pp. 7 % in.
MAIN, THOMAS. Directions for the Transplantation and Manage-
ment of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to
their Being Set in Hedges. With some practical observations
on the method of plain hedging. Washington. 1807. A. & G.
Way, Printers. 38 pp. 7 % in.

MANNING, ROBERT. Book of Fruits; being a descriptive catalogue
of the most valuable varieties of the pear, apple, peach, plum,
and cherry, for New England culture; to which is added the
gooseberry, currant, raspberry, strawberry, and the grape, with
modes of culture; also, hardy ornamental trees and shrubs.
With plates. First series for 1838. Salem. 1838. [c. 1838.]
Published by Ives & Jewett. 120 pp. 7 Vi x 4 %.

-- . The New England Fruit Book; being a descriptive cata-
logue of the most valuable varieties of the pear, apple, peach,
plum and cherry, for New England culture; to which are added
other varieties; also, the grape, quince, gooseberry, currant, and
strawberry; with outjines of many of the finest pears, drawn
from nature; with directions for pruning, grafting, budding,
and general modes of culture. 2d ed., enlarged by John M.
Ives. 1844. [c. 1844.] Salem: W. & S. B. Ives. Boston. B. B.
Mussey. 133 pp. 7 MX 4%.

. The New England Book of Fruits, being the 3d ed., revised

MANNING, WARREN H. Directions for Surveying and Arranging
Home and School Grounds. Boston, Mass. 1900. [c. 1900.]
Published by the author. 12 pp. 7 l/i x 5.

. A Hand Book for Planning and Planting Small Home

Grounds; with a list of native and commonly cultivated plants
that are represented in the collection upon the Stout Manual
Training School grounds. Menominee, Wis. 1899. [c. 1899.]
Stout Manual Training School. 76 pp. 7 % x 5 J^.

. The same. Issued by Talbot Mills, North Billerica, Mass.

1907. 74pp.

MANVILLE, A. H. Practical Orange Culture; including the culture
of the orange, lemon, lime, and other citrus fruits, as grown in
Florida. Jacksonville. 1883. [n. c.] Ashmead Bros. 122 pp.
7M.x5.

MARSHALL, CHARLES. An Introduction to the Knowledge and
Practice of Gardening. 1st American from the 2d London
edition, considerably enlarged and improved. To which is
added an essay on quick-lime, by James Anderson. Vol. I.
Boston. 1799. [n. c.] Samuel Etheridge. ii + 276 pp. 7x4 K-
MARVIN, ARTHUR TAPPAN. The Olive: Its culture in theory and
practice. San Francisco. Payot, Upham & Co. 1888. [c. 1888. ]
146pp. 10 MX 7.

MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, History of the, 1829-
1878. Portrait of H. A. S. Dearborn. Boston. 1880. [c. 1880.]
Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 545 pp. 9 }/i x 6.
MATCHETTE, W. H. Potatoes; how to grow more and better
potatoes, a guide for the business farmer. Illus. Waterloo,
la. [c. 1913.] The Galloway Bros.-Bowman Company. 47
pp. 9^in.

MATHEWS, F. SCHUYLER. The Beautiful Flower Garden: Its
treatment, with special regard for the picturesque; with notes
on practical floriculture by A. H. Fewkes. Illus. Philadelphia.
1894. [c. 1894.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. xi + 191 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

. The Golden Flower — Chrysanthemum. Verses by Edith

M. Thomas, Richard Henry Stoddard, Alice Ward Bailey,
Celia Thaxter, Kate Upson Clark, Louis Carroll, Margaret
Deland, Robert Browning, Oliver Wendell Holmes, collected,
arranged and embellished with original designs. Illustrated,
with reproductions of studies from nature in water color by
James Sidney Callowhill, Aloiz Lunzer, and T. S. M. Borton.
n. d. [c. 1890.] L. Prang & Co. Pages unnumbered. 12 x 10.
MAYNARD, SAMUEL T. Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home
Decoration. 1st ed. 1st thousand. Illus. 1899. [c. 1899.]
New York: John Wiley & Sons. London: Chapman & Hall,
xvi +338 pp. 7^x5}^.

. The Practical Fruit Gardener. Illus. Springfield, Mass.

1894. [c. 1885.] The Phelps Publishing Company. 124 pp.
7}ix5.

. The Practical Fruit Grower. Illus. Springfield, Mass.

1886. The Phelps Publishing Company. 108 pp. 7\i in.
(American Agriculture. No. 1.)

. The same. Profusely illustrated. 1898. [c. 1885.] 128 pp.

7Y2x5.
. The same. New York. 1909. [c. 1885.] Orange Judd Com-

. The Small Country Place. Illus. Philadelphia. 1908.

J. B. Lippincott Company. 320 pp. 8 ^ in.

-. Successful Fruit Culture. A practical guide to the culti-

vation and propagation of fruits. Illus. New York. 1905.

[c. 1905.] Orange Judd Company, xi + 274 pp. 7 Yz x 5.
ME\D, PETER B. An Elementary Treatise on American Grape

Culture and Wine Making. Illus. New York. 1867. [c. 1867.]

Harper & Brothers. 483 pp. 9H in.
MEECH, W. W. Quince Culture. An illustrated hand-book for the

propagation and cultivation of the quince; with descriptions of

its varieties, insect enemies, diseases and their remedies. Illus.

New York. 1888. [c. 1888.] The American Garden. 143 pp.

and enlarged. By John M. Ives. 1847. viii + 144 pp.

. The same. 1888. Orange Judd Company.

. The same. Revised and enlarged edition. 1896. [c. 1896.]

Orange Judd Company, viii + 180 pp. 7 }/% x 5.

MEEHAN, THOMAS. The American Handbook of Ornamental Trees.
Philadelphia. 1853. [c. 1853.] Lippincott, Grambo & Co.
xv +257 pp. 6^x4.

MEIER, W. H. D. School and Home Grounds. Illus. Boston,
New York. [c. 1913.] Ginn. & Co. 319 pp. 8 in.

MELL, P. H. See White, W. N. Gardening for the South.

MENAND, L. Autobiography, and recollections of incidents con-
nected with horticultural affairs, etc., from 1807 up to this day,
1892; with portrait and allegorical figures; with an appendix
of retrospective incidents omitted or forgotten in the above,
miscellaneous, etc. Albany, N. Y. 1892. [c. 1892.] Weed,
Parsons & Company, xii + 200 pp. 7 1A x 4 %.

. The same. 2d ed. Cohoes, N. Y. 1898. [c. 1898.] L'Ind6-

pendant Printing Office, xviii + 350 pp. 7 Yi x 5.
— . The same. From 1807 up to this day 1898.

. Miscellaneous documents on divers subjects as a sequel

to my Biography, etc. From 1807 to 1896. 146 pp.

MERCHANT, L. J. Fruit Garden of the West. Catalogue of fruit
growers and shippers in the great fruit region of Michigan. St.
Joseph, Mich. 1873. L. J. Merchant. 60pp. 7% in. (Adver-
tising matter interspersed )

1542

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

MERRICK, J. M. The Strawberry and Its Culture; with a descrip-
tive catalogue of all known varieties. Illus. Boston. 1870.
[c. 1870.] J. E. Tilton & Co. 128 pp. 7 J£ x 4 %.

MEYER, ANNIE NATHAN. My Park Book. New York. 1898.
[c. 1898.] E. W. Dayton. Ill pp. 6 in.

MEYER, G. N. H., Editor. A New Instructor for Garden, Orchard
and Field Culture. Illus. Kansas City, Mo. 1887. 132 pp.
8^in.

MILLARD, Miss HANNAH. Grapes and Grape Vines of California.
Published under the auspices of the California State Vini-
cultural Association. Oleographed by Wm. Harring. From
original water color drawings by Miss Hannah Millard. San
Francisco. 1877. [c. 1877.] Edward Bosqui & Co. (Quarto,
19 }/k x 14 Yi, with 10 superb colored plates. Pages unnumbered.
The text is unsigned. It is apparently by some member of the
Vinicultural Association.)

MILLER, CLAUDE H. Making a Garden with Hotbed and Cold-
frame. Illus. New York. 1912. McBride, Nast & Co. 62 pp.
6Ji in. (House and Garden Making Books.)

. Making Paths and Driveways. Illus. New York. 1912.

[c. 1912.] McBride, Nast & Co. 52 pp. 5)^x4^.

MILLER, LOUISE KLEIN. Children's Gardens for School and Home;
a Manual of Cooperative Gardening. Illus. New York. 1904.
[c. 1904.] D. Appleton & Co. xiv + 235 pp. 7% in.

MILLER, T. B. Farm and Garden Compendium. Agriculture.
Horticulture. Floriculture. Soil and its analysis; grafting,
budding fruit and garden culture; live stock; dairying; sheep,
hogs, poultry, etc. A compendium of much useful and valuable
information. With a preface by Mr. James H. Nichols, gardener
and florist. Philadelphia. August 1, 1893. [c. 1893.] 87 pp.
8Mx5M-

MILLER, WILHELM. What England can Teach us About Gardening.
Illus. Garden City, N. Y. 1911. [c. 1911.] Doubleday, Page &
Co. xviii+359pp. 10 H in.

MILLIKEN, HARRY EUGENE. The Secrets of Profitable Mushroom
Culture; a practical treatise on the successful and profitable
culture of the market mushroom. Illus. Brighton, Mass. 1904.
The Eastern Importing Company. 38 pp. 6 J4 in.

MINER, HARRIET STEWART. Orchids, the Royal Family of Plants.
Illus. Boston. 1885. Lee & Shepard. 90 pp. 14 in.

MINNESOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. History of the Minne-
sota State Horticultural Society, from the first meeting held at
Rochester in 1866, to the last at St. Paul in 1873. Comprising
debates, addresses, essays, and reports. St. Paul. 1873. St.
Paul Press Co. iv + 208 pp. 9 in.

MITCHELL, EDWARD. Five Thousand a Year; and How I Made it
in five years' time, starting without capital. Boston, [c. 1870.]
Loring. 125 pp. 7 % in.

MITCHELL, S. H. Tomato-Growing for Profit; being a practical
treatise showing in detail how to grow tomatoes by new methods,
from the sowing of the seed to the marketing of the crop, so as
to leave, when sold, the largest amount of profit to the producer;
the whole being the result of over thirty years' extensive practi-
cal experience by the author. Toronto. 1895. [n. c.] Dudley
& Burns. 24 pp. 9^x6 V?..

MITZKY & Co., C. Our Native Grape. Grapes and their culture;
also, descriptive list of old and new varieties. Illus. Rochester.
1893. [c. 1893.] W.W.Morrison. 218pp. 9J<in.

MOHR, FREDERICK. The Grape Vine. A practically scientific
treatise on its management. Explained from his own experi-
ence and researches, in a thorough and intelligible manner,
for vineyardists and amateurs in garden and vine culture.
Translated from the German, and accompanied with hints on
the propagation and general treatment of American varieties.
By Horticola (Charles Siedhof). Illus. New York. 1868.
[c. 1867.] Orange Judd Company. 129 pp.

MOLL, L. M. See Darlington, E. D. How and What to Grow in a
Kitchen Garden of One Acre.

MOORE, SHEPARD WELLS. Practical Orcharding on Rough Lands.

Illus. Akron, Ohio. 1911. The New Werner Company. 289

pp. 7 H in.
. The same. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1911. [c. 1911.] Stewart &

KiddCo. 7^x5Ji
MOORE, REV. T. W. Treatise and Handbook of Orange Culture

in Florida. 1st ed. Jacksonville, Fla. 1877. [c. 1877.] Printed

at the Sun and Press Job Rooms. 73 pp. 9 x 5 %.
. The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged, n. d. [c. 1881.)

New York: E. R. Pelton & Co., Jacksonville, Fla.: Ashmead

Bros, ix + 184 pp. 7x5.

. The same. 3d ed. 1883. [c. 1881.] ix + 184 pp. 7x5.

. The same. 4th ed., revised and enlarged. 1886. [c. 1881.]

New York: E. R. Pelton & Co., Jacksonville: Horace Drew.

184pp.

. The same. Treatise and Handbook of Orange Culture in

Florida, Louisiana and California. 4th ed., revised and en-
larged. New York. 1892. [c. 1881.] E. R. Pelton & Co. 189
pp. 7x5.

MORRIS, BEN A. A Guide to Successful Fruit Culture, Embodying
such information as the farmer and gardener requires in the
management of fruit trees and plants, with special instructions
for the varieties usually grown in our country. Canton, Ind.
1877. Salem, Ind., Democrat Steam Print. 28 pp. 9% in.

MORSE, J. E. The New Rhubarb Culture. A complete guide to
dark forcing and field culture. How to prepare and use rhubarb.
Fully illustrated with original photographs taken expressly
for this work. Part II. Additional chapters on other methods
by G. Burnap Fiske. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] Orange
Judd Company, x + 130 pp. 7 ]/% x 5.

. The Vegetable Garden. A Valuable and helpful book for

every one who has a garden. Rochester. 1903. Vick Publish-
ing Company. 30 pp. 9 in.

MORTON, JAMES. Chrysanthemum Culture for America. A book
about chrysanthemums, their history, classification and care.
New York. 1891. [c. 1891.] The Rural Publishing Company.
126 pp. "IVi-a 5. (The Rural Library Series.)

. Southern Floriculture. A guide to the successful cultiva-
tion of flowering and ornamental plants in the climate of the
southern states. Illus. Clarksville, Tenn. 1890. [c. 1890.)
W. P. Titus. 312 pp. 6 M x 4 M-

MOULSON, SAMUEL. Brief Instructions for Orchard-Planting and
Culture of Fruits; with Hints for Selecting Trees. To which is
added a descriptive list of some select varieties of the most
useful fruits; with a synopsis of M. d'Albret's mode of forming
pyramidal trees (translated from the French); also, some re-
marks on transplanting evergreens, and deciduous ornamental
trees, with a description of some of the most desirable sorts; etc.
Rochester, N. Y. 1853. Heughes' Book Press. 38 pp. 9 in.

MUENCH, FRIEDRICH. Amerikanische Weinbauschule. Kurze',
doch hinreichend ausfiihrliche Anleitung zur Anlegung des
Weinberges, zur Behandlung der Reben und zur Gewinnung
des Weines in Nordamerika. Zweite vermehrte und verbesserte
auflage. St. Louis, Mo. 1867. C. Witter. 140 pp. 6 M in-

. The same. Dritte, vollig umgearbeitete Auflage. 1877.

142 pp.

-. School for American Grape Culture. Brief but thorough

and practical guide to the laying out of vineyards, the treat-

ment of vines, and the production of wine in North America.

Translated from the German by Elizabeth H. Cutter. St. Louis.

1865. [c. 1865.] Conrad Witter. 139 pp.
MULERTT, HUGO. House Plants and Their Care; also, hints for the

care of goldfish and canary birds. Illus. Cincinnati, Ohio.

1887. 80 pp. 6J£ in. (Advertising matter included in paging.)
MUNRO, NORMAN L., Publisher. See How to Grow Fruit, Flowers

and Vegetables.
MUNSON, T. V. Foundations of American Grape Culture. Illus.

Denison, Texas n. d. [c. 1909.] T. V. Munson & Son. 252 pp.

. The same. New York. Orange Judd Company.

MURMANN, EUGENE O. California Gardens; how to plan and
beautify the city lot, suburban grounds and country estate,
including 50 garden plans and 103 illustrations of actual gar-
dens from photographs by the author. Los Angeles, Calif.
[c. 1914.] Published by the author. 116pp. 10>im.

MUSHROOMS FOR ALL: How to grow and how to cook them. Illus.
Philadelphia. 1896. [c. 1894.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. 22 pp.

MY VINEYARD AT LAKEVIEW. By a western grape grower (A. N.
Prentiss). Illus. New York. [c. 1866.] Orange Judd Company.
143 pp. 7% in.

NARRIOAN, DANIEL. Pomology: a Treatise on the Culture of Fruit
and Fruit Trees. Giving explanations how to apply certain
chemicals and minerals to fruit trees to insure their health and
perfect bearing qualities. Founded on fifteen years of observa-
tion and experiments. Columbus. 1865. Ohio State Journal
Book and Job Office. 7 pp. 8 y% in.

NATIONAL APPLE SHIPPERS ASSOCIATION YEARBOOK. 1900. 78 pp.
9Ji x 6.

NEILL, PATRICK. The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden. Adapted
to the United States, from the 4th edition, revised and im-

g'oved by the author. Illus. Philadelphia. 1851. [c. 1851.]
enry Carey Baird. ix + 427 pp. 7 % x 4 %.

. The Practical Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Gardener's

Companion, with a calendar; adapted to the United States,
from the 4th edition, revised and improved by the author.
Edited by G. Emerson. With notes and additions by R. G.
Pardee. Elegant illustrations. New York. 1858. [c. 1855.]
A. O. Moore, xiv + 408 pp. 7^x5^.
. The same. New York. 1855. C. M. Saxton & Co.

NESSLER, DR. FR. Der Wein, seine Bestandtheile und seine
Behandlung. Zweite Auflage. St. Louis. C. Witter.

NEW ILLUSTRATED RURAL MANUALS. Comprising: The House,
The Garden, The Farm, Domestic Animals. Complete in one
volume. By D. H. Jaques. New York. 1859. Fowler & Wells.
176 + 166 + 156 + 168 pp. 8 x 514.

NEW TREATISE on the culture, management, and insects, relating
to the pear tree; with two remedies for the curculio, or plum-
weevil; being mostly a collection of articles recently published
in The Country Gentleman, signed by the initials T. S. C. New
York. 1858. Baptest & Taylor, Steam Book and Job Printers,
Sun Bldg. vii + 67 pp. 8x4 l/2.

NEWMAN, JOHN B., M.D. Boudoir Botany; or, the parlor book of
flowers; comprising the history, description, and colored
engravings, of twenty-four exotic flowers, twenty-four wild
flowers of America, and twelve trees with fruits; with an intro-
duction to the science of botany. Illustrated with 250 engrav-
ings. New York. 1847. [c. 1846.] Harper & Bros, ix + 296
pp. 10 Ji x 7. (Bound as Parlor Book of Flowers.)

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1543

NEWMAN, J. S. Southern Gardener's Practical Manual. Published
by the author. Harrisburg, Pa. 1906. Mount Pleasant Press,
J. Horace McFarland Company, xii + 220 pp. 7 in.

NIVEN, ROBERT, and others. The New Celery Culture. No banking
UD required. The practice of practical men. Illus. New York.
1892. [c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Company. 29 pp.
7 % x 5. (The Rural Library, Vol. I, No. 7, May.)

NOLEN, JOHN. See Repton, Humphry. The art of Landscape
Gardening.

NORDIN, J. GREEN. The Sweet Potato, how to grow and keep it.
Illus. Russellville, Ark. 1912. Courier-Democrat Print. 50
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NORTHROP, S. J. The Science and Art of Grafting and Budding
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NURSERYMAN'S DIRECTORY, THE. A reference book of the nursery-
men, florists, seedsmen, tree dealers, etc., for the United States.
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. The same. 1883. [c. 1883.] 328 pp.

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OEMLER, A. Truck-Farming at the South. A guide to the raising
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. The same. New and revised edition. 1888. 265 pp.

. The same. 1900. 274 pp.

OLCOTT, HENKY S., Editor. See Roessle, Theophilus. How to
Cultivate and Preserve Celery.

OLIVER, GEORGE W. Plant Culture. A working handbook of every-
day practice for all who grow flowering and ornamental plants
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A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Company, Ltd.
193pp. 1Yi x 5.

. The same. 2d ed. 1909. 308 pp. 8 in.

. The same. 3d ed. 1912. 312pp. 7% in.

ONION BOOK, THE. A practical guide to the profitable culture of
the crop. By some twenty experienced growers. Illus. New and

f reatly enlarged edition. New York. n. d. [c. 1887.] Orange
udd Company. 36 pp. 10 x 6 %,

ONIONS: How to Raise Them Profitably. Details of experience,
from the selection of seed and preparation of the ground to
harvesting and marketing the crop. Statements of seventeen
practical onion growers residing in different sections of the
country, most of whom have been engaged from ten to thirty
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. The same. Abridged title.

OSBORN, JOHN. Vineyards in America: with remarks upon temper-
ance (its foundations); intemperance (its causes and remedies),
the culture of the grape vine in the United States, and other
matters of importance to rich and poor. New York. 1855.
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OUR NEIGHBORHOOD; or letters on horticulture and natural phenom-
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PABOR, WILLIAM E., Compiler. Fruit Culture in Colorado. A
manual of information. Illus. Denver. 1883. W. E. Pabor,
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PADDOCK, WENDELL, and WHIPPLE, ORVILLE B. Fruit-Growing in
Arid Regions. An account of approved fruit-growing practices
in the inter-mountain country of the western United States,
comprising the States of Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Utah,
Nevada, and in northern Arizona and New Mexico, with appli-
cations to adjacent regions. Illus. New York. 1910. [c. 1910.]
The Macmillan Company, xx +395 pp. 8x5H- (Rural
Science Series, edited by L. H. Bailey.)

• . See Shields, O. D., Compiler. A Western Book for Western

Planters.

PAGE, CHAS. N. Page's Home Floriculture; a complete guide for
the growing of flowers in the house and garden. Cut-flower
work — landscape gardening, etc. Illus. Des Moines, Iowa.
[c. 1911.] Published by the author. 173 pp. 7 in.
PAINE, ALBERT BIGELOW. A Little Garden Calendar for Boys and
Girls. Illus. Philadelphia. 1905. H. Altemus Company. 329
pp. 7 Yi in.

PALMER, JULIUS A., JR. About Mushrooms. Illus. Boston. 1894.
Lee & Shepard. xiv + 100 pp. 9 J^ in-

. Mushrooms of America, Edible and Poisonous. 12 plates.

Boston, [c. 1885.] L. Prang & Co. 4pp. 10^x7^.
PARDEE, R. G. A complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Straw-
berry; with a description of the best varieties; also, notices of
the raspberry, blackberry, cranberry, currant, gooseberry, and
grape; with directions for their cultivation, and the selection of
the best varieties; with a valuable appendix, containing the
observations and experience of some of the most successful
cultivators of these fruits in our country. New York. 1854.
[c. 1854.] C. M. Saxton. viii + 144 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

. The same. 3d revised ed. Illus. New York. 1856.

[c. 1856.] C. M. Saxton & Co. vi + 157 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

. The same. 6th ed. New York. 1858. [c. 1856.] A. O.

Moore, xii + 157 pp. 7^x5. Second copy. 1860.

. The same. New and revised ed. New York. n. d.

[c. 1856.] Orange Judd Company, xii + 157 pp. 7)^x 5. (Con-
tains a "preface to the tenth edition," dated January, 1865.)
-. See Neill, Patrick. The Practical Fruit, Flower and

Vegetable Gardener's Companion.

PARKER, E. and C. See Warder, John A.

PARKER, S. C. Editor. Profits and Costs of Fruit-Growing in
Nova Scotia. 1893. 16 pp. 8 Y2 x 6.

PARKMAN, FRANCIS. The Book of Roses. Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.]
J. E. Tilton & Co. 225pp. 8x5*4

PARRISH, MAXFIELD. See Wharton, Edith. Italian villas and
their gardens.

PARRY JOHN R. Nuts for Profit. A treatise on the propagation
and cultivation of nut-bearing trees adapted to successful cul-
ture in the United States, with extracts from leading authors.
Illus. Parry, N. J. 1897. [c. 1897.] Pub. by author. 157 pp.
7Hx5H-

PABRY, WILLIAM. Fifty Years Among Small Fruits; telling what
and how to plant. Illus. Parry, N. J. n. d. [c. 1885.] Published
by the author. 64 pp. 9x6.

. Forty Years' Experience in Pear Growing; telling how to

avoid the blight and insure good crops. Portrait. Cinnaminson,
N. J. 1880. [n. c.] William Parry. 20pp. 9^x5%.

PARSONS, HENRY GRISCOM. Children's Gardens for Pleasure,
Health and Recreation. Illus. New York. 1910. Sturgis &
Walton Co. 226pp. 7% in.

PARSONS, S., JR. How to Plan the Home Grounds. With illus-
trations drawn by W. S. Spader under the direction of the
author and of G. F. Pentecost, Jr. New York 1899. [c. 1899.]
Doubleday & McClure Co. xv + 249 pp. 7 ^ x 5.

. Landscape Gardening. Notes and suggestions on lawns

and lawn planting; laying out and arrangement of country
places, large and small parks, cemetery plots, and railway-
station lawns; deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs; the
hardy border; bedding plants; rockwork, etc. Illus. New York,
and London. 1891. [c. 1891.] G. P. Putnam's Sons. (The
Knickerbocker Press. ) xxii + 329 pp. 10 x 7 Y2.

. Landscape Gardening Studies. Illus. New York. 1910.

John Lane Company. 107 pp. 8 ^2 in.

PARSONS, S. B. The Rose: Its history, poetry, culture, and classi-
fication. Colored plate. New York. 1847. [c. 1847.] Wiley &
Putnam, vi + 280 pp. 10^x7.

. The same. 1 plate. 1860. [c. 1847.] John Wiley, iv +

280 +36 pp. 8J4x5}i.

. The same. New and revised edition, [c. 1869.] 215 pp.

. The same. New revised, and enlarged edition. 1883. 236

-. Parsons on the Rose. A treatise on the propagation, cul-

pp.

ture, and history of the rose. New and revised edition (of The
Rose). Illus. New York. 1896. [c. 1888.] Orange Judd Com-
pany, vi + 211 pp. 7y% x 5.

-. The same. New and revised edition. 1910. [c. 1888.]

211pp.

PEACOCK, LAWRENCE K. The Dahlia. A practical treatise on its
habits, characteristics, cultivation and history. Beautifully
illustrated. Atco, N. J. n. d. [c. 1896.] W. P. Peacock. 56 pp.
9x7.

PECK, CHARLES H. Mushrooms and Their Use. Reprinted by
permission from the Cultivator and Country Gentleman, of
Albany, N. Y., May 31 to Sept. 20, 1894. Illustrated by 32 cuts
loaned by the publishers of that journal. Cambridge, Mass.
1897. Cambridge Botanical Supply Company. 80pp. 9x5%.

PEDERSEN, J. (BJERGAARD) and HOWARD, G. H. How to Grow
Cabbages and Cauliflowers Most Profitably. Illus. Edited by
W. Atlee Burpee, Philadelphia. 1888. [c. 1888.] W. Atlee
Burpee & Co. v + 85 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

PEEK, S. W. The Nursery and Orchard. A practical treatise on
fruit culture. Illus. Atlanta, Ga. 1885. [c. 1885.] Jas. P.
Harrison & Co. 208 pp. 7 % x 5.

PEETS, ELBERT. Practical Tree Repair. The physical repair of
trees — bracing and the treatment of wounds and cavities. Illus.
New York. 1913. [c. 1913.] McBride, Nast & Co. 265 pp.
5^x8.

PEIRCE, DARIUS. New System of Agriculture and Horticulture.
A treatise on the failure of crops, the decline and decay of
orchards, the cause thereof and the remedies therefor, founded
upon fifty years' experience and experiments by the writer.
Detroit. 1869. Tribune Job Office. 42pp. 8% in.

PERKINS, WM. T. Ginseng from Seed to Market. Little York, N.
Y. [c. 1902.] Royal Ginseng Gardens. Paper. 16pp. 6x3^2-

PERSOZ. New Process for the Culture of the Vine. Translated by
J. O'C. Barclay, Surgeon United States Navy. Illus. New York.
1857. [c. 1856.] C. M. Saxton & Co. Paper. 58 pp. (Also in
Saxton's (or Moore's) Rural Hand-Books, Fourth Series (with-
out the plates.)

PHELAN, CHARLES. Dried Fruit; its care, protection from worms,
packing, storing, etc. Illus. Seattle, Wash. [c. 1902.] Phelan
& Co. 44 pp. 6H in.

PHELPS, R. H. The Vine: Its culture in the United States; wine-
making from grapes and other fruit; useful recipes, etc. Illus.
Hartford. 1855. [c. 1855.] Case, Tiffany & Co. Paper. 83 pp.

1544

PHILLIPS, NORMAN. History of Fruit-Growing in South Haven,
Mich. President Phillips' second annual address. (Read before
the South Haven Pomological Society, December 30, 1872.)

PHIN, JOHN. Open Air Grape Culture. A practical treatise on the
garden and vineyard culture of the vine, and the manufacture
of domestic wine. Designed for the use of amateurs and others
in the Northern and Middle States. Profusely illustrated with
new engravings from carefully executed designs, verified by
direct practice. To which is added a selection of examples of
American vineyard practice, and a carefully prepared descrip-
tion of the celebrated Thomery system of grape culture. New
York. 1862 (also 1863). [c. 1862.] C. M. Saxton. 375 pp.
(The back-stamp is Grape Culture and Wine Making.) 7J^in.

. The same. New York. 1867. Sheldon & Co. 7% in.

. Open Air Grape Culture. A practical treatise on the

garden and vineyard culture of the vine. Illus. New York.
1876. [c. 1876.] Geo. E. Woodward & Co. and Orange Judd
Company. 266 pp.

PLATT, CHARLES A. Italian Gardens. Illus. New York. 1894.
Harper & Bros, xiii + 153 pp. 11 x 8.

POHNDORFF, F. A Memoir on Olive Growing. Read before the
State Horticultural Society, in Grangers Hall, San Francisco,
February 29, 1884. Illus. San Francisco. 1884. [n. c.] The
Bosqui Engraving and Printing Company. 41 pp. 9}£x6.

POOLE, MRS. HESTER M. Fruits, and How to Use Them. A practi-
cal manual for house-keepers; containing nearly seven hundred
recipes for wholesome preparations of foreign and domestic
fruits. New York. 1890. [c. 1889.] Fowler & Wells. 242 pp.
7^x5.

POPENOE, PAUL B. Date Growing in the Old World and the New;
with a chapter on the food value of the date, by Charles L.
Bennett. Illus. Altadena, Calif. 1913. West India Gardens,
xviii +316 pp. 8M in.

POWELL, E. C., Editor. Fruit Packages. The current styles of
baskets, boxes, crates and barrels used in marketing fruits in
all parts of the country. Fully illustrated. New York. 1893.
[c. 1893.] The Rural Publishing Company. 62 pp. 7}£x5.
(The Rural Library, Vol. I, No. 19, June.)

POWELL, EDWIN C. and MCMILLAN, WILLIAM. Street and Shade
Trees. Practical Essays on the Subject of Trees for Street and
Lawn Planting with Directions for Transplanting, and a List
of Desirable Trees. Illus. New York. 1893. The Rural
Publishing Company. (Vol. I, No. 16, The Rural Library.)

POWELL, E. P. The Country Home. Illus. New York. 1904.
(c. 1904.] McClure, Phillips & Co. 383 pp. 8x6.

. Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters, and Live Fences. A treat-
ise on the planting, growth and management of hedge plants
for country and suburban homes. Ijlus. New York. 1900.
[c. 1900.] Orange Judd Company, xiii + 141 pp. 7}ix5.

-. The Orchard and Fruit Garden. Illus. New York. 1910.

[c. 1905.] Doubleday, Page & Co. 322 pp.

. The same. New York. 1905. [c. 1905.] McClure, Phillips

POWELL, GEORGE T. The Apple: King of Fruits. Practical facts
and suggestions about its culture. Boston, n. d. Munson-
Whitaker Company. 21 pp. 9 in.

- . Garden Clubs; the kitchen-garden, the flower-garden and
the lawn. New York City. [c. 1913.] Consumers Fertilizer
Company. 23 pp. 6% in.

- . How to Establish and Maintain an Apple Orchard. Illus.
New York. [c. 1913.] Consumers Fertilizer Company. 32 pp.

POWELL, I. L. Chrysanthemums and How to Grow Them; as
garden plants for outdoor bloom and for cut flowers under glass.
Illus. Garden City, N. Y. 1911. [c. 1911.] Doubleday, Page
&Co. 201 pp. 7^x5}^.

PRACTICAL AMERICAN GARDENER, THE; exhibiting the time for
every kind of work in the kitchen-garden, fruit-garden, orchard
nursery, shrubbery, pleasure-ground, flower-garden, hop-yard,
greenhouse, hothouse and grape vines for every month in the
year. By an old gardener. Baltimore. 1819. [c. 43d year of
the independence of the United- States.] Fielding Lucas, Jr.
xii +424 pp. 5y2x3y2.

PRACTICAL FLORIST THE; or, A description of the plants usually
cultivated in the flower garden; together with their habits and
mode of cultivation. The whole being a compilation from the
best authors, and intended for common use. Newburyport.
1823. E. Stedman. 72pp. 6M in. (Binder's title: The Young
Florist's Manual.)

PHANGE, N. M. G. Citrus culture for profit. Practical directions.
2d ed. Illus. Jacksonville, Fla. 1913. Wilson & Toomer.
80 pp. 7 in.

PRATT, ARTHUR L. How to Grow Celery. Kalamazoo, Mich. 1886.
Kalamazoo Publishing Company. 23 pp. 7 in.

PHEYER, HUGO. Ten Years' Practical Experience in Grape and
Small Fruit Culture. Canton, Ohio. 1875. Bascom & Saxton,
Printers. 77 pp. 8 % in.

PRICE, E. M. The Walnut ... a comprehensive treatise on
how to grow it. Illus. Sacramento, Calif. 1910. The Jos. M.
Anderson Company. 68 pp. 7 M in.

PRICE, R. H. Sweet Potato Culture for Profit. A full account of
the origin, history and botanical characteristics of the sweet
potato. Full and complete instructions from how to grow the
plants to harvesting and storing the crop for both southern
and northern latitudes. Complete discussion of the diseases
and insects which injure the crop. A description of 47 varie-
ties, with a new system of classifying them. The Chinese
yam and the vineless variety are discussed. Latest improved
machinery discussed, etc. Illus. Dallas, Texas, n. d. [c. 1896. j
Texas Farm and Ranch Publishing Company. 110pp. SJ^xSJa.

PRINCE, WILLIAM. A Short Treatise on Horticulture; embracing
descriptions of a great variety of fruit and ornamental trees and
shrubs, grape-vines, bulbous flowers, greenhouse trees and
plants, etc. Nearly all of which are at present comprised in the
collection of the Linnsean Botanic Garden, at Flushing, near
New York. With directions for their culture, management,
etc. New York. 1828. [c. 1828.] T. and J. Swords, ix + 196
pp. 8x4^.

PRINCE, WILLIAM ROBERT. Prince's Manual of Roses; comprising
the most complete history of the rose, including every class, and
all the most admirable varieties that have appeared in Europe
and America; together with ample information on their culture
and propagation. New York. 1846. [c. 1846.] Published by
the author, and Clark & Austin, Saxton & Miles, Wiley & Put-
nam, and Stanford & Swords, viii + 213 + 50 pp. 7 % x 4 M-

, aided by William Prince. The Pomological Manual; or,

a treatise on fruits; containing descriptions of a great number of
the most valuable varieties for the orchard and garden. Parts
I and II. 1831. [c. 1831.] New York: T. & J. Swords, G. &
C. & H. Carvill, E. Bliss, Collins & Co., G. Thorburn & Sons.
Philadelphia: Judah Dobson. Boston: J. B. Russell. Balti-
more: Gideon B. Smith. Richmond: James Winston. Charles-
ton, S. C.: Joseph Simmons, vi + 200 and vi + 216 pp. 9 x 5M-
(Parts separately bound.)

. The same. Parts I and II, 2ded. 1832. [c. 1831.] vi + 200

and xvi + 216 pp. 9 x 5H- (Bound together.)

-, aided by William Prince. A Treatise on the Vine; embra-

cing its history from the earliest ages to the present day; with
descriptions of above two hundred foreign and eighty American
varieties; together with a complete dissertation on the estab-
lishment, culture, and management of vineyards. Illus. 1830.
[c. 1830.] New York: T. & J. Swords, G. &. C. & H. Car-
vilj, E. Bliss, Collins & Co., G. Thorburn & Sons. Philadel-
phia: Judah Dobson. Boston: J. B. Russell. Baltimore:
Gideon B. Smith. Richmond: James Winston. Charleston,
S. C.: Joseph Simmons. 355pp. 9 in.

PROVANCHER, L'ABBE L. Le Verger. Le potager et le parterre
dans la Province de Quebec, ou culture raisonne'e des fruits,
16gumes et fleurs qui peuvent r6ussir sous le climat de Quebec.
Ouvrage orne' de nombreuses gravures sur bois. Quebec. 1881.
[Preface dated 1874.] C. Darveau. 332pp. 6%x4>i

PURDY, A. M. Purdy's Small-Fruit Instructor; containing plain
and practical directions for planting, growing and marketing
small fruits; equally adapted to the family garden as well as
the field. Illus. Palmyra, N. Y. 1870. [c. 1870.] Published
by the author. 64 pp. 9x5}^.
— . The same. 1887. 28 pp.

. Small-fruit Instructor; containing plain and practical

directions for planting, growing and marketing small fruits.
Equally adapted to the family garden as well as the field. Illus.
South Bend, Ind. 1869. Purdy & Hance. 32 pp. 9 in.

-. The same. New edition. Illus. Palmyra, N. Y. 1887.

[c. 1887.] Published by the author. 128 pp. 9 x
QUINN, P. T. Money in the Garden. A vegetable manual, pre-
pared with a view to economy and profit. Illus. New York.
1871. [c. 1871.] Tribune Association, x + 268 pp. 7%x5.
(Later published by Orange Judd Company, 1886.)

. Pear Culture for Profit. Illus. New York. 1869.

[c. 1869.] The Tribune Association, xii + 136 pp. 7J/6x5.
-. The same. New edition, revised by the author. New York.

1883. [c. 1883.] Orange Judd Company, xix + 136 pp. 7^x5.

RAE, SAMUEL, & Co. Prima Arborum. Illus. New York(?).
[c. 1887.] Francis H. Leggett & Co. 28 pp. 9% * 7.

. The same. New York. 1887. The DeVinne Press. 26 pp.

10 in.

RAFINESQUE, C. S. American Manual of the Grape Vine and the
Art of Making Wine; including an account of sixty-two species
of vines, with nearly three hundred varieties; an account of
the principal wines, American and foreign; properties and uses
of wines and grapes; cultivation of vines in America, and the
art of making good wines. Illus. Philadelphia. 1830. Paper.
64pp. 7»4in.

RAND, AMY CAROL. The Commuter's Garden Record, compiled
and designed by Amy Carol Rand. Illus. New York and
Boston, [c. 1907.] H. M. Caldwell Company. 88 pp. 8x8.

RAND, EDWARD SPRAGUE, JR. Bulbs. A treatise on hardy and
tender bulbs and tubers. Illus. Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.]
J. E. Tilton & Co. 306 pp. 7 Y?, x 5.

. The same. Boston. 1873. [c. 1866 and 1872.] Shepard

& Gill. 357 pp. 7^x5.

. The same. Boston. 1873. [c. 1866 and 1872.] Shepard &

Gill. 361 pp. 10x7H- (Special edition, with wide margins
and colored plates; only twenty copies printed, this being
No 13.)

1545

. The same. 10th ed. Illus. New York. 1876. [c. 1866,

1872 and 1876.] Hurd & Houghton. 370 pp. 73^x5^.

. The same. 10th ed. Boston. 1884. Houghton, Mifflin

& Co. 369 pp.

. Bulbs. A treatise on hardy and tender bulbs and tubers.

Illus. Boston. 1876. Henry L. Shepard & Co. 142pp. 6^x4^.
("The present volume is by no means a new book, but a con-
densation, to meet a popular want of the larger work by the
same author, upon the same subject." — Preface.)

. Flowers for the Parlor and Garden. Illustrations by John

Andrew and A. C. Warren. Boston. 1863. [c. 1863.] J. E.
Tilton & Co. 411 pp. 7^ x 5.

. The same. New York. 1876. [c. 1876.] Hurd & Hough-
ton. 444 pp. 7^x5.

. Garden Flowers. How to cultivate them. Boston, n. d.

[c. 1866.] Tilton & Co. yiii + 384 pp. 7% x 5M- (An alpha-
betic arrangement of entries.)

. The same. A treatise on the culture of hardy ornamental

trees, shrubs, annuals, herbaceous and bedding plants. Boston.
1866. [c. 1866.] J. E. Tilton & Co.

. Orchids. A description of the species and varieties grown

at Glen Ridge, near Boston, with lists and descriptions of other
desirable kinds. Prefaced by chapters on the culture, propa-
gation, collection, and hybridization of orchids; the construc-
tion and management of orchid houses; a glossary of botanical
terms and significance of their names; the whole forming a com-
plete manual of orchid culture. Illus. New York. 1876. [c.
1876.] Hurd & Houghton. xxii + 476 pp. 7^*5.

. The same. Boston and New York. 1888. Houghton,

Mifflin & Co. 8 in.

. Popular Flowers; and how to cultivate them. Illus.

Boston. 1874. [c. 1870 and 1873.] Henry L. Shepard & Co.
208 pp. 7 J^ x 5 £i.

. The same. New York. 1876. [c. 1876.] Hurd & Hough-
ton. 230 pp. 8x6.

. The Rhododendron and American Plants. A treatise on

the culture, propagation, and species of the rhododendron;
with cultural notes upon other plants which thrive under like
treatment, and descriptions of species and varieties; with a
chapter upon herbaceous plants requiring similar culture. Bos-
ton. 1871. [c. 1871.] Little, Brown & Co. x + 188 pp. 8x5.

. The same. Colored frontispiece and wine-colored plates.

10^ in.

-. Seventy-five Popular Flowers and How to Cultivate

Them. Illus. Boston. 1870. [c. 1870.] J. E. Tilton & Co. 209
pp. 8x5^.

. The Window Gardener. Illus. Boston. 1872. [c. 1863

and 1872.] Shepard & Gill. 132 pp. 7 ^ x 4 %.

. The same. New York. 1876. [c. 1876.] Hurd & Hough-
ton, vi + 152 pp. 7*4*5.

RANDOLPH, CORNELIA J. The Parlor Gardener. A treatise on the
house culture of ornamental plants. Translated from the
French and, adapted to American use. Illus. Boston. 1884.
[c. 1861.] Lee & Shepard, Publishers. 158 pp. 6 x 4 %.

. The same. Boston, [c. 1861.] J. E. Tilton & Co. 5*4m.

RAVAZ, L. See Viala, P. American Vines.

RAWSON, HERBERT. Success in Market Gardening; a new vegetable
growers' manual. Revised and enlarged edition. Illus. 1910.
[c. 1910.] Doubleday, Page & Co. xiv + 271 pp. 7% in. (Pref-
ace states that this is a revision of the work of the same title
by the author's father, W. W. Rawson. )

RAWSON, W. W. Celery and Its Cultivation. Revised edition.
Illus. Boston. 1900. [c. 1891 and 1900.] W. W. Rawson. 24
pp. 7Mx5.

. Success in Market-Gardening, and vegetable growers,'

manual. Illus. Boston. 1887. [c. 1887.] Published by the
author, iv + 208 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

. The same. 7th ed., revised and enlarged; with new matter

and illustrations. Boston. 1892. [c. 1892.] Published by the
author, vi + 240 pp. 7 Yi x 5.

. See Rawson, Herbert.

REEMELIN, CHARLES. The Vine Dresser's Manual. An illustrated

treatise on vineyards and wine making. Illus. New York. 1855.

[c. 1855.] C. M. Saxton & Co. 103 pp. (Also, in Saxton's

Rural Hand-Books, Third Series, New York. 1856.) 7H in.

. The same. New York. 1859. A.O.Moore. 7^2 in.

. The Wine-Maker's Manual. Illus. Cincinnati. 1868.

[c. 1868.] Robert Clarke & Co. 123 pp.
REINERT, WILLIAM S. Reinert's Instantaneous Peach Culture

Guide. Reinerts, Pa. [c. 1891.] William S. Reinert. 30 pp.

5 % in.
REPTON, HUMPHRY. The Art of Landscape Gardening, by

Humphry Repton, Esq., including his Sketches and Hints on

Landscape Gardening and Theory and Practice of Landscape

Gardening; edited by John Nolen. Illus. Boston and New York.

1907. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. xxiii + 252 pp. 9>4 in.
REXFORD, EBEN E. The A B C of Successful Floriculture. Illus.

Springfield, Ohio. 1898. Miss Ella V. Baines. 16pp. 8^x5Ji.

(The Home Florist, Vol. I, No. 2.)
. Amateur Gardencraft, a book for the home-maker and

garden lover. Illus. Philadelphia. 1912. J. B. Lippincott

Company. 300 pp. 8 % in.

. The Amateur's Greenhouse. Illus. Springfield, Ohio.

1900. The Floral Publishing Company. 16 pp. 8H in. (The

Home Florist. Vol. Ill, No. 2.)
. Fall Work in the Flower Garden. Illus. Springfield,

Ohio. 1898. The Floral Publishing Company. 16 pp. 8Jix

5M- (The Home Florist, Vol. I, No. 3.)

. Flower Bulbs, and How to Grow Them. Revised and pub-
lished by J. C. Vaughan. Illus. Chicago and New York. 1892.

[c. 1892.] Vaughan's Seed Store. 71 pp. 8 in.
. The Flower Garden, the Lawn and House Plants. Illus.

Boston, [c. 1896.] Bradley Fertilizer Company. 28 pp. 7 1A in.
. Flowers: How to grow them. Philadelphia. 1898. [c. 1898.]

The Penn Publishing Company, iv +175 pp. 6 x 4 %.

Flowers in Winter. How to have beautiful flowers in the

house; one pot of geranium; flower stand; window garden;
fernery, etc. Chicago. December 24, 1881. [c. 1881.] E. H.
Libby. 28pp. 7}^x4^. (The Farm Library.)

. Four Seasons in the Garden. With twenty-seven illustra-
tions and with decorations by Edward Stratton Holloway.
Philadelphia and London. 1907. [c. 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903,
1904, 1905, and 1907.] J. B. Lippincott Company. 307 pp.
8x5^.

. Home Floriculture. A familiar guide to the treatment of

flowering and other ornamental plants in the house and garden.
Illustrated with numerous engravings. Rochester. 1890.
[c. 1890.] James Vick, Seedsman, vi + 226 pp. 7 1A x 5.
(Bound as Vick's Home Floriculture.)

. The same. Revised and republished in 1903 by Orange

Judd Company, New York, as Home Floriculture: A practical
guide to the treatment of flowering and other ornamental plants
in the house and garden, xii + 300 pp. 7 ]/i x 5.

. The Home Garden. A book on vegetable and small-fruit

growing, for the use of the amateur gardener. With illustra-
tions. Philadelphia and London. 1909. [c. 1909.] J. B. Lip-
pincott Company. 198 pp. 8x5.

. Indoor Gardening. Illus. Philadelphia. 1910. J. B. Lip-
pincott Company. 317pp. SJ^in.

. The Practical Guide to Floriculture. Illus. New York.

1894. F. M. Lupton. 60 pp. 8 J^ in. (The People's Handbook
Series, No. 29.)

RICHARDS, A. H. The Cranberry and Its Culture. Hammonton,
N. J. 1870. [c. 1870.] George F. Miller. 24pp. 7^\4^.

RIEHL, EDWIN H. Growing Grapes. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1906.

The Fruit-grower Company. 39 pp. 6 in. ("Brother Jona-
than" Series, No. 7.)
RION, HANNA. Let's Make a Flower Garden. Decorations by

Frank Verbeck. Illus. New York. 1912. [c. 1912.] McBride,

Nast & Co. 208pp. 8x5}^.
. The Garden in the Wilderness by a hermit; illustrated by

author and Bentley. New York. 1909. The Baker & Taylor

Co. 209 pp. 8 in.
RION, MARY C. Ladies' Southern Florist. Columbia, S. C. 1860.

[c. I860.] Peter B. Glass. 138 pp. 7x5.
RISIEN, E. E. Pecan Culture for Western Texas. Illus. San Saba,

Texas. 1904. Published by the author. 55 pp. 8 in.

RIVERS, THOMAS. The Miniature Fruit Garden; or, the culture of
pyramidal and bush fruit trees. From the 13th English ed.
Illus. New York. n. d. Orange Judd Company, x + 133 pp.
7 J^ x 5. (Publisher's preface dated 1866.)

-. The same. With instructions for root-pruning, etc. 15th

ed. Boston. 1870. J. E. Tilton & Co. x+156pp.
(Printed from the English plates.)

The Orchard House; or, Culture of fruit-trees in pots under

glass. Containing plans and estimates for construction, details,
of management and culture, and a list of fruits best adapted to
the purpose. Also an appendix, containing additional direc-
tions for growing trees and vines in orchard houses. By William
Saunders. Illus. New York. 1860. C. M. Saxton, Barker
& Co. 58 pp. 9^ in.

RIXFORD, E. H. The Wine Press and the Cellar. A manual for the
wine-maker and the cellar-man. Illus. 1883. [c. 1883.] San
Francisco: Payot Upham & Co. New York: D. Van Nos-
trand. xxii + 240 pp. 8x5}^.

ROBINSON, JOHN. Ferns in Their Homes and Ours. Illus. Salem.
1878. S. E. Cassino. xvi + 178 pp. (American Natural His-
tory Series.)

. The same. 5th ed. Boston. 1894. [c. 1878.] Bradlee

Whidden. 8x5^-

ROCKWELL, F. F. Gardening Indoors and Under Glass; a practical
guide to the planting, care and propagation of house plants,
and to the construction and management of hotbed, coldframe
and small greenhouse. Illus. New York. 1912. [c. 1911, 1912.]
McBride, Nast & Co. 210 pp. 71A x 51A.

. The Gardener's Pocket Manual. Illus. New York. 1914.

McBride, Nast & Co. 90 pp. 7 ^ in.

. Home Vegetable Gardening. A complete and practical

guide to the planting and care of all vegetables, fruits and
berries worth growing for home use. Illus. New York. 1911.
[c. 1911.] McBride, Winston & Co. 262pp. 8 x5M-

Making a Garden of Small Fruits. Illus. New York. 1914.

McBride, Nast & Co. 56 pp. 6% in. (House and Garden Mak-
ing Books 1

1546

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

ROE, EDWARD P. The Home Acre. New York. 1889. [c. 1886,

1887, and 1889.] Dodd, Mead & Co. 252 pp. 8x5.
. A Manual on the Culture of Small Fruits. Newburgh,

N. Y. 1877. [c. 1876.] Journal Printing Establishment. 82 pp.

9x514
. Play and Profit in My Garden. New York. n. d. [c. 1873.1

Dodd & Mead. 349 pp. 7*4-

— . New edition. New York. 1893. [c. 1886.] Orange Judd

Company. 349 pp. 7 ]/% x 5.

— . The same. New York. n. d. [1873.] Orange Judd Com-
pany.

. Success with Small Fruits. Illus. New York. 1880.

[c. 1880.] Dodd, Mead & Co. 313pp. 9}^x7M- (The illustra-
ted quarto edition.)

. The same. New edition; preface dated 1886. (Different

form.) n. d. [c. 1881.] 388pp. 7J^x5M-

ROEDING, GEORGE C. The Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad; a
treatise on practical Smyrna fig culture, together with an
account of the introduction of the wild or Capri fig, and the
establishment of the fig wasp (Blastophaga grossorum) in
America. Illus. Fresno, Calif,. 1903. Published by the author.
87 pp. 10 Y2 in.

ROESSLE, THEOPHILUS. How to Cultivate and Preserve Celery.
Edited, with a preface, by Henry S. Olcott. Colored plates.
Albany. 1860. [c. I860.] Theophilus Roessle, Delavan House,
New York; C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. xxvi + 102 pp.

ROGERS, E. A. Practical Potato Culture. Illus. Philadelphia.
1913. J. B. Haines. 126 pp. 8 in.

ROGERS, JULIA ELLEN. The Book of Useful Plants. Illustrated by
thirty-one pages of half-tones from photographs. Garden
City, N. Y. 1913. Dpubleday, Page & Co. xiv + 374 pp.
7?'4in. (The Garden Library.)

ROGERS, W. 8. Garden Planning. Illustrated by the author.
Garden City, N. Y. 1911. [c. 1911.] Doubleday, Page & Co.
423pp. 7>ix5H.

ROLFS, P. H. Vegetable-Growing in the South for Northern
Markets; being concise directions for the preparation of the
soil, use and amounts of fertilizers, and the planting of vege-
table crops to obtain the earliest vegetables; also the best
methods of packing for shipping, the raising of seed for market,
and preserving it for home use. Illus. Richmond. 1896.
[c. 1896.] The Southern Planter Publishing Company, xi +
255pp. 7^x5.

ROOT, A. I. See Day, J. W. Tomato Culture.

ROOT, RALPH RODNEY, and KELLEY, CHARLES FABIENS. Design
in Landscape Gardening. Illus. New York. 1914. The Cen-
tury Co. 278 pp. 9 in.

ROPER, WILLIAM N. The Peanut and Its Culture. Illus. Peters-
burg, Va. [c. 1905.] American Nut Journal. 62 pp. 9 in.

ROSE, L. J. See Garey, Thomas A. Orange Culture in California.

ROSE, N. JONSSON. Lawns and Gardens. How to plant and
beautify the home lot, the pleasure ground and garden. With
numerous plans and illustrations by the author. New York and
London. 1897. [c. 1896.] G. P. Putnam's Sons, xi + 414 pp.
10 x 7 H-

. Window and Parlor Gardening. A guide for the selection,

propagation and care of house plants, with illustrations by the
author. New York. 1895. [c. 1895.] Charles Scribner's Sons.
xi + 164pp. 8x5M-

ROSES AND How TO GROW THEM. A manual for growing roses in
the garden and under glass. Illus. New York. 1910. [c. 1901,
1902, 1903, 1904, and 1905.] Doubleday, Page & Co. x + 189
pp. IVi^^Vi.

ROWLES, W. P. Every Man's Book of Garden Difficulties. New
York. n. d. Geo. H. Doran.

RUBENS, J. F. Die Gahrung des Weines und seine Behandlung;
die Kellerwirtschaft. Fur Wurzer Weinhandler, Weinwerthe,
Liqueurfabrikanter etc. Mit Benutzung der neuesten und
besten Quellen bearbeitet. Mit 11 in der Text gedruckten
Holzschmitten. St. Louis. C. Witter.

RURAL ANNUAL AND HORTICULTURAL DIRECTORY, THE; containing
directions for the preparation of the ground for the orchard
and fruit-garden, planting, pruning, etc., with lists of fruits rec-
ommended by the American Pomological Society and the several
state societies; also, plain directions for making and planting the
lawn and flower garden, and a catalogue of nurserymen, in the
United States and Canada. Illustrated with 60 engravings,
representing various forms of trees, leaves, and fruits, pruning,
designs for plantations, etc. Rochester, N. Y. 1856. [c. 1855.)
James Vick, Jr. 114 pp. 7x4}^.

— . The same, continued, with titles somewhat modified, for
the years 1857, 119 pp.; 1858, 119pp.; 1859, 108pp.; 1860, 100
pp.; 1861, 100 pp.; 1862, 100 pp.; 1863, 98 pp. All after the
first volume were published by Joseph Harris, Rochester,
office of the Genesee Farmer.

RUSTON, EDWIN. A Comprehensive Guide to Floriculture and
Calendar of Monthly Operations. Illus. Syracuse, N. Y. 1892.
Press of D. Mason & Co. 58 pp. 10 in.

— . Floral Talks. A manual of floriculture. New York. 1892.
W. N. Swett & Co. 96 pp. 7 ^ in. (The Central Square Series,
No. 34.)

RUTTER, JOHN. The Culture and Diseases of the Peach. A com-
plete treatise for the use of peach growers and gardeners, of
Pennsylvania, and all districts affected by the "yellows,"and
other diseases of the tree. Harrisburg, Pa. 1880. [c. 1880 ]
Every Saturday Night office. 95 pp. 7 V?. x 4 %.

SALTFORD, GEORGE. How to Make Money Growing Violets
Illus. New York. 1902. [c. 1902.] The Violet Culture Company.
45 pp. 6 Y% x 5.

SAMPSON, F. A. History and Publications of the Missouri State
Horticultural Society. From the thirty-third annual report of
the Society. Jefferson City, Mo. 1891. Tribune Printing Com-
pany. 15 pp. 9 in.

SARGENT, CHARLES S. See Des Cars, A. A Treatise on Pruning
Forest and Ornamental Trees.

SAUNDERS, WILLIAM. Both Sides of the Grape Question. Com-
prising: An Essay on the Culture of the Native and Exotic
Grape, by William Saunders; Physiography in its Application
to Grape Culture, by F. J. Cope; and A Contribution to the
Classification of the Species and Varieties of the Grape Vine,
with Hints on Culture, by J. M. McMinn. Illus. 1860
[c. I860.] Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. and A. M.
Spangler. New York: C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. Paper.
96 pp.

. The same. 2d ed. 1860. Being apparently only a reprint.

SAWYER, JOSEPH DILLAWAY. How to Make a Country Place.

Illus. New York. 1914. Orange Judd Company. 430 pp.

6 x 8J^.

SAYERS, EDWARD. The American Flower Garden Companion;

adapted to the northern states. 1838. [c. 1838.] Boston:

Joseph Breck & Co. New York: G. C. Thorburn. xii + 179

pp. 7M*4>i
. The same. 2d ed., revised, with additions. Boston. 1839.

[c. 1838.] Weeks, Jordan & Co.

. The same. 3d ed., revised and enlarged. 1846. [c. 1846.]

Cincinnati: J. A. James. Philadelphia: J. W. Moore. New
York: J. S. Redfield. xii + 207 pp. 7^x4}^.

. The American Fruit Garden Companion ; being a practical

treatise on the propagation and culture of fruit; adapted to the
Northern and Middle States. Boston. 1839. [c. 1838.] Weeks,
Jordan & Co. xv + 174 pp. 7x4}^.

-. A Manual on the Culture of the Grape; with a dissertation

on the growth and management of fruit trees; adapted to the
Northern States. Newark, N. J. 1837. [c. 1837.] Published
by the author. 48 pp. 7 }^ x 4.

. A Treatise on the Culture of the Dahlia and Cactus.

Boston. 1839. [c. 1839.] Weeks, Jordan & Co. vi + 72 pp
6x3%.

SAYLOR, HENRY H. Making a Rose Garden. Illus. New York.
1912. [c. 1912.] McBride, Nast & Co. 53pp. 6J^in.

. The Book of Annuals. A pictorial guide to the choice and

culture of fifty of the most dependable plants that flower the
first year from seed. Illus. New York. 1913. [c. 1913 ] Mc-
Bride, Nast & Co. 127 pp. 7^x4%.

SCHENCK, PETER ADAM. The Gardener's Text-Book; containing
practical directions upon the formation and management of
the kitchen-garden, and for the culture and domestic use of its
vegetables, fruits, and medicinal herbs. Illus. New York
1860. [c. 1851.] C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. 306 pp. 6x4.

. The same. New York. n. d. [c. 1851.] Orange Judd .

Company.

. The same. 1854. [c. 1851.] Boston: John P. Jewett & Co.

Cleveland, Ohio: Jewett, Proctor & Worthington.

-. The same. New York. 1857. [c. 1851.] A. O. Moore.

SCHUUR, PETER J. How to Grow Celery Anywhere. Giving the
principles which govern the growth of celery. Illus. Kalamazoo,
Mich. 1896. Union Seed Company. 112 pp. 8 in.

SCHWAAB, ERNEST F. The Secrets of Canning. A complete exposi-
tion of the theory and art of the canning industry. Baltimore.
1890. [c. 1890.] John Murphy & Co. 150pp. 7^x5^.

. The same. Baltimore, Md., New York. 1899. John

Murphy Company. 142 pp.

SCOTT, D. W. & Co., Publishers. See Nurseryman's Directory.

SCOTT, FRANK J. The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds
of Small Extent; the advantages of suburban homes over
city or country homes; the comfort and economy of neighboring
improvements; the choice and treatment of building sites; and
the best modes of laying out, planting, and keeping decorated
grounds. Illustrated by upward of 200 plates and engravings
of plans for residences and their grounds, of trees and shrubs,
and garden embellishments; with descriptions of the beautiful
and hardy trees and shrubs grown in the United States. New
York. 1870. [c. 1870.] D. Appleton & Co. 618 pp. 9 % x 7.

SCOTT, TEMPLE, Compiler. In Praise of Gardens. Frontispiece.
New York. 1910. The Baker & Taylor Co. 240 pp.

SCOTT, WILLIAM. The Florists' Manual. A Reference book for
commercial florists. Illus. Chicago. 1899. [c. 1899.] Florists'
Publishing Company. 235 pp. 11 ^ x 8 1/2.

. The same. 2d ed. 1906. 255 pp. (Advertising matter

interspersed. )

SEARS, FRED C. Productive Orcharding. Modern methods of
growing and marketing fruit. Illus. Philadelphia, [c. 1914.]
J. B. Lippincott Company. 315 pp. 8 J£ x 6.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1547

SEDGWICK, MABEL CABOT, assisted by Robert Cameron. The
Garden Month by Month; describing the appearance, color,
dates of bloom and cultivation of all desirable hardy plants for
the formal or wild garden, with additional lists of aquatics,
vines, etc. With over 200 half-tone engravings from photo-
graphs of growing plants, and a chart in colors. New York. n. d.
[n. c.] Frederick A. Stokes Company, xvii + 516 pp. 9 J^ x 6 Vi.

SELDON, CHARLES A. Everyman's Garden, every Week. New
York. 1914. Dodd, Mead & Co. xiv + 338 pp. 7 ^4 in..

SEVEY, GLENN C. Bean Culture. A practical treatise on the pro-
duction and marketing of beans, with a special chapter on
commercial problems by Albert W. Fulton. A book for grower
and student alike. Illus. New York. 1907. [c. 1907.] Orange
Judd Company, xiv + 130 pp. 7 J^ x 5.

- . Peas and Pea Culture; a practical and scientific discussion
of peas, relating to the history, varieties, cultural methods,
insect and fungous pests, with special chapters on the canned pea
industry, peas as forage and soiling crops, garden peas, sweet
peas, seed breeding, etc. Illus. New York. 1911. [c. 1911.]
Orange Judd Company, xi + 92 pp. 5x7.

SEWELL, CORNELIUS V. V. Common Sense Gardens: How to
plan and plant them. Illus. New York. 1906. [c. 1906.] The
Grafton Press, Publishers, xviii + 396 pp. 8x6.

SEYMOUR, E. L. D. Garden Profits, Big Money in Small Plots.
Illus. Garden City, N. Y. 1911. Doubleday, Page & Co. 245
pp. 7Min.

SHAKER, SARA ANDREW. A White-Paper Garden. Illus. Chicago.
1910. A. C. McClurg & Co. xxi + 292 pp. 9 in.

SHAW, ELLEN EDDY. Gardening and Farming. Illus. Garden City,
N. Y. 1911. Doubleday, Page & Co. 376 pp. 8M in- (The
Children's Library of Work and Play.)

SHAW, HENRY. The Rose; historical and descriptive; gathered

from various sources. St. Louis. 1879. [n. c.j R. P. Studley &

Co. 29pp. 6M*4Ji

— . The same. 1882. 64 pp.
SHAYLOR, SIDNEY J. Joys of the Garden. With ten illustrations.

New York. 1911. Frederick A. Stokes Company. 152pp. 7 in.

SHEEHAN, JAMES. Your Plants. Plain and practical directions for
the treatment of tender and hardy plants in the house and in
the garden. New York. 1893. [c. 1884.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. 79 pp. 7 M x 5.

SHELT9N, LOUISE. The Seasons in a Flower Garden. A handbook
of information and instruction for the amateur. Illus. New
York. 1906. [c. 1906.] Chas. Scribner's Sons, x + 117 pp.

. The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 1907.

SHIELDS, O. D., Compiler. A Western Book for Western Planters;
practical instructions for propagating, planting, growing and
caring for fruit, shade and ornamental trees. With contribu-
tions from Wendell Paddock, C. P. Gillette, S. Arthur Johnson.
1st ed. Illus. Loveland, Colo. [c. 1905.] O. D. Shields. 147
pp. 7%in.

SHINN, CHAS. H. Pacific Rural Hand-Book; containing a series of
brief and practical essays and notes on the culture of trees,
vegetables and flowers, adapted to the Pacific coast. Also hints
on home and farm improvements. San Francisco, n. d.
[c. 1879.] Dewey&Co. Pacific Rural Press. 122 pp. 7^x4%.

SIEDHOF, CHARLES. See Mohr, Frederick. The Grape-Vine.

SIMSON, ALFRED. Garden Mosaics, philosophical, moral, and horti-
cultural. Illus. New York. 1903. D. Appleton & Co. ix + 219
pp. 7 1A in.

SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN. The Code of Agriculture; including observa-
tions on gardening, orchards, woods, and plantations. 1st
American edition with notes. Illus. Hartford. 1818. Printed
for Hudson & Co. 424 pp. 8 % in.

SKIN-NER, CHARLES M. Little Gardens. How to beautify city
yards and small country spaces. Illus. New York. 1904.
[c. 1904.] D. Appleton & Co. 250 pp. 7 ^ x 5.

SKINNER, HUBERT M., and MCCREDIE, A. L., Editors. Library of
Agriculture. Volume IV. Horticulture and Truck Farming.
Illus. Chicago, [c. 1912.] Cree Publishing Company. 539 pp.
9 in.

— . The same. Volume VII. Forestry and Landscape Gar-
dening. Illus. Chicago, [c. 1912.] Cree Publishing Company.
343pp. 9 in.

SLADE, DANIEL DENISON. The Evolution of Horticulture in New

England. New York and London. 1895. [c. 1895.] Putnam's

Sons. 180 pp. 7x4 y2.
SMILEY, SARAH F. Garden Graith, or Talks among my Flowers.

New York. [c. 1880.] A. D. F. Randolph & Co. 195 pp. 7 Y^

in.

SMITH, CHARLES H. J. Parks and Pleasure Grounds; or, practical
notes on country residences, villas, public parks, and gardens.
Philadelphia. 1852. [n. c.] Henry Carey Baird. xi + 290 pp.
8x5.

— . The same. Landscape Gardening; or parks and pleasure
grounds, etc; with notes and additions. By Lewis F. Allen.
New York. 1853. [c. 1853.] C. M. Saxton. 367pp. 8x5^-

SMITH, ELMER D. Smith's Chrysanthemum Manual. Illus. Adrian,
Mich. 1904. Finch, the Printer. 78 pp. 7 in.

. The same. Revised edition. Many of the important chap-
ters have been revised and enlarged, giving more complete
detail with additional illustrations. The work is practical, not
only to florists who have every facility, but to the amateur. Fully
illustrated. Adrian, Mich. 1906. [c. 1906.] Nathan Smith &
Son. vi + 98 pp. 63^x5.

. The same. 3d ed. 1913. E. D. Smith & Company. 106

pp. 7 in.

SMITH, EMMA A. See Stewart, J. T. Shade Trees, Indigenous
Shrubs and Vines, and Insects that Infest Them.

SMITH, EMORY EVANS. The Golden Poppy. Illus. Palo Alto,

Calif. 1902. 230pp. 8H in.
SMITH, F. F. Tomatoes from the Seed to the Table. Aurora, 111.

1876. Knickerbocker & Hodder, Printers. 31pp. 6}£m.

SMITH, JOHN. Fruits and Farinacea the Proper Food of Man ; being
an attempt to prove, from history, anatomy, physiology, and
chemistry, that the original, natural, and best diet of man is
derived from the vegetable kingdom. With notes and illustra-
tions by R. T. Trail. From the second London edition. Illus.
New York. 1854. [c. 1854.] Fowler & Wells, six + 314 pp.
7^x5.

SMITH, M. O. Instructions for Digging Strawberry Plants.heeling
in, cultivating, picking, handling pickers, tallying, packing
berries, crates. Where to obtajn pickers, carriers, packing
shanties and how to market. Chicago. 1885. The Baker-Col-
lings Company. 19 pp. 8 in.

SNIDER, J. C. How to Raise a Large Crop of Strawberries.
Akron, Ohio. 1869. City Times Printing House. 24pp. 9}^ in.

SOLLY, GEO. A., & SON. Wm. T. Gale, assistant. Designs for
Flower Beds. Springfield, Mass. n. d. [c. 1887.] Geo. A. Solly
& Son. 8 x 10.

SOLOTAROFF, WILLIAM. Shade Trees in Towns and Cities. Illus.
New York. 1911. John Wiley & Sons, xviii + 287 pp. 9M in.

SPALDING, WM. A. The Orange: Its Culture in California; with a
brief discussion of the lemon, lime, and other citrus fruits.
Illus. With an appendix on Insects Injurious to Citrus Trees,
and How to Combat Them, from the work of Hon. Matthew
Cooke. 1885. Riverside Press and Horticulturist Steam
Print. 97pp. 9Jix6H.

SPANGLER, A. M., Publisher. See Year Book of the Farm and
Garden.

SPOONER, ALDEN. The Cultivation of American Grapes Vines, and
Making of Wine. Illus. Brooklyn. 1846. [c. 1846.] A. Spooner
& Co. 96 pp.

. The same. 2d ed. Brooklyn. 1858. E. B. Spooner. New

York. A. O. Moore. 7M in.

SQUIBB, ROBERT. The Gardener's Kalender, for South Carolina,
and North Carolina, containing an account of all work neces-
sary to be done in the kitchen and fruit gardens every month in
the year, with instructions for performing the same; also particu-
lar directions relative to soil and situation, adapted to the differ-
ent kinds of plants and trees most proper for cultivation in these
states. Charleston, 1787. Printed for A. Timothy. 108 pp.

. Gardener's Calendar for North Carolina, South Carolina,

and Georgia. With amendments and additions. Charleston. 1809.
Printed and sold by W. P. Young. 162 pp. 7 in. Also 1813.

. The Gardener's Calendar for the states of North Carolina,

South Carolina, and Georgia. With an appendix containing a
variety of particular and general information on husbandry
and horticulture. Charleston, S. C. 1827. [n. c.] Published
by P. Hoff and E. Gibbs. 176 pp. 7 x 4J£.

. Second ed., by a lady of Alabama. With alterations and

improvements. 1842. Mobile: S. W. Allen. 108 pp. (See H. A.
Morrison, Check-List of American Almanacs.)

STARK, WILLIAM H. The Stark Orchard Planting Book. Illus. St.
Joseph, Mo. [c. 1911.] The Fruit Grower. 29pp. 9M*4.

STARR, W. H. The Cranberry Culturist; being a concise, practical
treatise on the cranberry; its history, culture, varieties, etc.;
also, with special reference to the bed variety and its culture on
upland soils. East New London nurseries, New London, Conn.
Illus. New London. 1860. Starr & Co. Paper. 32 pp. 8 & x 5 Ji.

STEBBINS, C. A. The Principles of Agriculture through the School
and the Home Garden. Illus. New York. 1913. The Mac-
millan Company, xxviii + 380 pp. 8 in.

STEDMAN, J. M. A Treatise on Spraying, with description of insects
attacking apple, peach and strawberry, and treatment recom-
mended for holding them in check. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1905.
The Fruit-Grower Company. 123 pp. 5% in. ("Brother
Jonathan" Series, No. 2.)

STEUART, SIR HENRY. The Planter's Guide; or, a practical essay
on the best method of giving immediate effect to wood, by the
removal of large trees and underwood; being an attempt to
place the art, and that of general arboriculture, on fixed and
phytological principles; interspersed with observations on gen-
eral planting, and the improvement of real landscape. Originally
intended for the climate of Scotland. First American, from the
second London and Edinburgh edition. Illus. New York. 1832.
[n. c.] G. Thorburn & Sons. 422 pp. 10 x 6.

STEWART, HENRY. Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.

With numerous illustrations. New York. 1883. [c. 1877.]

Orange Judd Company. 264 pp. 7 Vi. x 5.
. The same. Revised and enlarged. 1886. [c. 1886.1 276 pp.

1548

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

STEWART, HOMER L. Celery Growing and Marketing a Success.
With portrait of the author; also ijlustrated with 13 plates,
showing new tools and appliances in celery culture and the
care of the crop. This is the only book ever written which covers
the whole period of growing, marketing and caring for the crop,
with explicit directions. Tecumseh, Mich. 1891. [c. 1891.]
The Blade Printing and Paper Company. 151 pp. 7 H x 5 K-

. The Pecan, and How to Grow it. Where they grow wild,

where they are being cultivated, what lands are best and all
about it. By the Stuart Pecan Company. Illus. Chicago. 1893.
Woman's Temperance Publishing Association, 90 pp. 7M in-

STEWART, J. T. Shade Trees, Indigenous Shrubs and Vines, by J.
T. Stewart, M.D., and Insects that Infest Them, by Miss Emma
A. Smith. Illus. Peoria, 111. 1877. Transcript Company,
Printers and Binders. 55 pp. 8% x 5 J^.

. The same. 2d ed., revised and improved. Peoria, 111. 1883.

[n. c.] Transcript Publishing Company. 37 pp. 8 Yi x 5 %.

STORKE, E. G., Editor. The Farm and Gardens; embracing (In)
The Farm: Its management and products. (II) The Kitchen
Garden: What to grow, and how to grow it. (Ill) The Fruit-
Garden: How to cultivate choice fruits. (IV) The Flower-
Garden: How to cultivate all out-door flowers. From the latest
authorities. Auburn, N. Y. n. d. [c. 1859.] The Auburn
Publishing Company. 291 pp. 8 x 5 H-

. The same. 261 pp. (Issued in volume entitled: Domestic

and Rural Affairs). The family, farm and gardens, and the

domestic animals. 1860.
STRAWBERRY REPORT. Read before The Cincinnati Horticultural

Society, August, 1847, and ordered to be . published. Illus.

Cincinnati. 1848. Morgan & Overend, Printers. 16 pp. 9 x 5 %.

(Contains report of Committee to report on Sexual Characters
of the Strawberry.)
STRINGFELLOW, H. M. Fruit and Vegetable Growing in Galveston

County, Texas. Being a series of letters. Galveston. [c. 1890.]

17 pp. 6 in.
. How to Grow Fruits and Vegetables in the Coast Country,

and What Varieties to Grow. A practical treatise. Galveston.

1890. Clarke & Courts, Printers. 16 pp. 8 in.
. The New Horticulture. Illus. Portrait. Galveston,

Texas. 1896. [c. 1896.] Published by the author. 216 pp.

9 M x 6. (Translated into German by Friedrich Wannieck, as

Der Neue Gartenbau. Frankfurt a. O. 1901.)

-. The same. New and revised edition. Dallas, Texas. 1906.

Farm and Ranch Publishing Company. 146 pp.
STRONG, W. C. Culture of the Grape. Illus. Boston. 1866.
[c. 1866.] J. E. Tilton & Co. 355 pp. 8x5.

- . Fruit Culture, and the laying out and management of a
country home. Illus. Boston. 1885. [c. 1885.] Houghton,
MifHin & Co. v + 202 pp. 7x4 }^.

- . The same. New York. 1892. [c. 1885.] The Rural Pub-
lishing Company, xiv +231 pp. ly^ x 5.

STURGIS, R. CUPSTON. See Brown, Glenn. European and Japanese

Gardens.
SUFPA, GEORGE A. Suffa's Practical Experience with the Cauli-

flower. Illus. Greenville, R. I. 1884. 6 pp. 6 % in.
SUNSET SEED AND PLANT COMPANY. Sweet "Pea Review. Illus.

San Francisco. 1896. [c. 1896.] Sunset Seed and Plant Com-

pany. 31 pp. 8x5}^.

- . The same. 1896. The Murdock Press.

- . The same. 2ded. 1897. [c. 1896.] 33+ivpp. 8x5Ji

- . The same. 3d ed. 1898. [c. 1898.] 48pp. 7%x5%.
TABOR, GRACE. The Landscape Gardening Book, wherein are set

down the simple laws of beauty and utility which should guide
the development of all grounds. Illus. New York. 1911.
[c. 1911.] McBride, Nast & Co. 180 pp. 10^ * 7>i

- . The same. 1912. 196 pp.

- . Making a Bulb Garden. Illus. New York. 1912. [c. 1912.]
McBride, Nast & Co. 64pp. 6H*5H- (House and Garden
Making Books.)

. Making a Garden to Bloom This Year. Illus. New York.

1912. [c. 1912.] McBride, Nast & Co. 54 pp.
(House and Garden Making Books.)

. Making the Grounds Attractive with Shrubbery. Illus.
New York. 1912. [c. 1912.) McBride, Nast & Co. 53pp.
(House and Garden Making Books.)

-. Old-fashioned Gardening; a history and a reconstruction.

Illus. New York. 1913. McBride, Nast & Co. ix + 263 pp.

. Suburban Gardens. Illus. New York. 1913. Outing

Publishing Company. 207 pp. 7 in.

, and TEALL, GARDNER. The Garden Primer; a practical

handbook on the elements of gardening for beginners. Illus. New
York. 1910. McBride Winston & Co. 118 pp. 8 in.

. The same. Philadelphia. 1910. fc. 1910.] John C. Win-
ston & Co.

. The same. New edition, revised and enlarged. 1911.

McBride, Nast & Co. 164 pp.

TAFT, L. R. Greenhouse Construction. A complete manual on the
building, heating, ventilating and arrangement of greenhouses
and the construction of hotbeds, frames and plant pits. Illus.
New York. 1894. [c. 1893.] Orange Judd Company, viii + 208
pp. 7^x5.

. Greenhouse Management. A manual for florists and

flower lovers on the forcing of flowers, vegetables and fruits in
greenhouses, and the propagation and care of house plants.
Illus. New York. 1898. [c. 1898.] Orange Judd Company.
x + 382 pp. 7 Yt x 5.

. See Bailey. Garden-Making.

TAYLOR, HORACE. Tomato Raising in Common Gardens. From
fifteen years' personal experience. Canandaigua, N. Y. 1870.
[c. 1870.] 16pp. 7Mx4M-

TAYLOR, O. M. See Beach, S. A., The Apples of New York, and
Hedrick, U. P., The Grapes of New Yoik.

TEAGUE, R. M. The Citrus Fruits, historically — horticulturally —
commercially. Illus. San Dimas. 1007-08. 48 pp. llJiin.

TEALL, GARDNER. See Tabor, Grace. The Garden Primer.

TEAT, JOHN THOMAS. The Farmer's Garden, and Its Management.
A practical guide to successful gardening. Cardington, Ohio.
1896-98. [c. 1898.] 107 pp.

TEN ACRES ENOUGH. A practical experience, showing how a very
small farm may be made to keep a very large family. With
extensive and profitable experience in the cultivation of the
smaller fruits. By Edmund Morris. New York. 1864. J.
Miller. 255 pp. 7>£ x 5.

. The same. 26th ed. New York. n. d. [c. 1864.] The

American News Company.

-. The same. With introduction by Isaac Phillips Roberts.

New York. 1905. Consolidated Retail Booksellers. 273 pp.
. The same. 1905. [c. 1905.] Orange Judd Company.

TENBROOK, JOHN W., Publisher. The Sweet Potato Culturist:
giving practical instructions for its cultivation and preservation
for family use and for market, by the sweet potato men of the
Northwest, containing the best mode of sprouting, planting,
cultivating, digging and storing for winter, with directions for
selecting soil and varieties, to which is appended the agricul-
tural and horticultural advertiser. Illus. Rockville, Ind. 1860.
Magill & Kline, Printers. 96pp. 6^ in. (Pp. 77-96, adver-
tising matter.)

TERRY, T. B. The A B C of Potato Culture. How to grow them in
the largest quantity, and of the finest quality, with the least
expenditure of time and labor. Carefully considering all the
latest improvements in this branch of agriculture up to the
present date. Illustrated by 20 engravings. Medina, Ohio.
1885. A. I. Root. 42 +8 pp. 10x6^-

. The same. 2d ed., revised, and largely rewritten. 1893.

212pp. 6}ix5.

. The same. Fully illustrated. 3d ed., revised, and largely

rewritten. 1901.

. The A B C of Strawberry Culture; for farmers, village

people, and small growers. A book for beginners. 2d ed.,
revised and enlarged. Illus. Medina, Ohio. 1902. 235 pp.
6 H x 5 J^. (A second edition of How to Grow Strawberries. )

, and ROOT, A. I. How to Grow Strawberries; for farmers,

village people, and small growers. A book for beginners. Illus.
Medina, Ohio. 1890. [n. c.] A. I. Root. 144pp. 6^*5%. (Pp.
102-144 "by the publisher.")

TESCHEMACHER, J. E. A Concise Application of the Principles of
Structural Botany to Horticulture; chiefly extracted from the
works of Lindley, Knight, Herbert and others, with additions
and adaptations to this climate. Boston. 1840. [c. 1840.]
Charles C. Little and James Brown, v + 90 pp. 6 % x 3 %.

THACHER, JAMES. The American Orchardist; or, a practical treatise
on the culture and management of apple and other fruit trees;
with observations on the diseases to which they are liable, and
their remedies; to which is added the most approved method
of manufacturing and preserving cider, compiled from the
latest and most approved authorities, and adapted to the use
of American farmers. Boston. 1822. [c. 1822.] vi + 226 pp.
9x5.

. The American Orchardist; or, a practical treatise on the

culture and management of apple and other fruit trees, with
observations on the diseases to which they are liable, and their
remedies; to which is added the most approved method of manu-
facturing and preserving cider, and also wine from apple juice
and currants. Adapted to the use of American farmers, and all
lovers and cultivators of fine fruit. 2d ed., much improved.
Plymouth, Mass. 1825. [c. 1825.] Published by Ezra Collier.
iv + 234 pp. 7x4 J£.

[James Thacher, 1754-1844, was eminent as physician and
author. He is the author of "Military Journal during the
American War, from 1775 to 1783," "American New Dispen-
satory," "Observations on Hydrophobia," and other medical
works. He is also author of a work on bees and one on
demonology.]

-. The same, bound with American Orchardist and Cottage

Economy. By William Cobbett.

THAXTER, CELIA. An Island Garden ... with pictures and
illuminations by Childe Hassam. Boston and New York. 1894.
Houghton, MifHin & Co. ix + 126 pp. 9M in.

THOMAS, GEORGE C., JR. The Practical Book of Outdoor Rose
Growing for the Home Garden. With 96 plates in color, charts,
and half-tones. Philadelphia. 1914. J. B. Lippincott Company.
156 pp. 9 in.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1549

THOMAS, JOHN J. The American Fruit Culturist; containing direc-
tions for the propagation and culture of fruit trees in the nursery,
orchard and garden. With descriptions of the principal Ameri-
can and foreign varieties cultivated in the United States. Illus.
Auburn. 1849. Derby, Miller & Co. 410 pp. (Originally pub-
lished under title of Fruit Culturist.)

. The same. Illustrated with 300 accurate figures. 4th ed.

1850. [c. 1849.] xiv +420 pp. 7^x5.

. The same. 18ol. [c. 1849.] xiv + 410 pp. 7^x5.

. The same. Auburn and Buffalo. 1854. [c. 1849.] Miller,

Orton & Mulligan, xiv + 421 pp. 7% x 5.

— . The same. New York. 1857. [c. 1849.] Miller, Orton &

Co. xiv + 424 pp. 8x5.

. The same. New York. 1858. [c. 1849.] C. M. Saxton.

xiv + 424 pp. 7 % x 5. Same, also, by Miller, Orton & Mulligan.

— — . The same. New York. 1863. [c. 1849.] C. M. Saxton.

. The same. Illustrated with 480 accurate figures. New

York. 1867. [c. 1867.] William Wood & Co. vi +511 pp.

. The same. New edition. New York. 1871. W. Wood &

Co. 511 pp. 8^2 in.

. The American Fruit Culturist; containing practical direc-
tions for the propagation and culture of all fruits adapted to the
United States. A thoroughly revised edition (8th), illustrated
with 508- accurate figures. Colored frontispiece. New York.
1875. [c. 1875.] William Wood & Co. vi + 576 pp. 9x6 }4.

. The same. A thoroughly revised edition, illustrated with

519 accurate figures. New York. 1885. [c. 1875 and 1885.]
William Wood & Co. vi + 593 pp. IVi x 5.

. The same. 20th ed., revised and enlarged by William H.

S. Wood. Illustrated with nearly 800 accurate figures. 1897.
[c. 1875, 1885, and 1897.] xv + 758 pp. 8}£ x 5%.

. The same. 21st ed., revised and enlarged by William H. S.

Wood. New York. 1903. [c. 1875, 1885, 1897, 1903.] William
Wood & Co. xvii + 823 pp. 9x6.

• . The same. 21st ed., entirely rewritten and greatly en-
larged by William H. S. Wood. Illustrated with over 800
accurate figures. 1903. [c. 1903.] Orange Judd Company.

. The Fruit Culturist; adapted to the climate of the northern

states; containing directions for raising young trees in the
nursery, and for the management of the orchard and fruit
garden. Illus. New York. 1846. M. H. Newman. 220 pp.

. The same. 4th ed. 1847. [c. 1846.] Mark H. Newman

& Co. 216 pp.

THOMAS, MRS. THEODORE. Our Mountain Garden. Illus. New
York. 1904. The Macmillan Company. 212 pp. 8 in.

THOMPSON, FRED. S. Rhubarb or Pie-Plant Culture. The best varie-
ties. Essential points in growing good rhubarb. How rhubarb
pays, compared with certain crops. The first and only edition
on this subject. Illus. Milwaukee, Wis. 1894. [c. 1894.] J. N.
Yewdale & Sons Co. 76 pp. 7 Vi x 5.

THOMPSON, W. W. A Plain and Simple Treatise on Growing,
Gathering and General Management of the Le Conte and
Kieffer Pears, and other fruits of the South. Illus. Clarksville,
Tenn. 1889. [c. 1889.] W.P.Titus. 66pp. 5^x3^.

THORBURN, GRANT. Forty Years' Residence in America; or. The
doctrine of a particular providence exemplified in the life of
Grant Thorburn . . . Written by himself. Boston. 1834.
Russell, Odiorne & Metcalf. 264pp. 7}^ in.

. The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalendar, for the Middle

States of North America. 2d ed., corrected and improved.
New York. 1817. Printed by E. B. Gould. 117 pp. 7 in.

. The same. The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalendar;

containing ample directions for the cultivation of the kitchen
and flower garden, greenhouse, nursery, orchard, etc., for the
United States of America. 3d ed., corrected and improved.
Price, 50 cents. New York. 1821. [c. in the 3Gth year of the
independence of U. S. A.] B. Young. 132 pp. 7 x 4 H-

. LAWRIE TODD. Life and Writings of Grant Thorburn.

Prepared by himself. Portrait. 276 pp. 7 % in.

-. Life and Writings of. Prepared by himself. Portrait.

New York. 1852. [c. 1851.] Edward Walker. 308pp. 7x5.

THORNTON, A. W. The Suburbanite's Dwarf Fruit Trees Garden
(preliminary bulletin). Illus. Ferndale, Wash. n. d. 8 pp.
9^x6.

. The Suburbanite's Handbook of Dwarf Tree Culture, their

training and management, with a discussion on tbe'r adap-
tability to the requirements of the commercial orchardist both
in connection and in competition with standard trees. Illus.
Bellingham, Wash. 1909. Press of S. B. Irish & Co. 115 pp.
9^in.

TILLJNGHAST, ISAAC F. A Manual of Vegetable Plants; contain-
ing the experiences of the author in starting all those kinds of
vegetables which are most difficult for a novice to produce
from seeds, with the best methods known for combating and
repelling noxious insects, and preventing the diseases to which
garden vegetables are subject. Factoryville, Pa. 1878. [c. 1877.]
Tillinghast Bros. 102 pp. 6 % x 4 }4.

• . The same. La Plume, Pa. 1881. I. F. Tillinghast. 101 pp.

TILLINGHAST'S PLANT MANUAL. A guide to the successful propaga-
tion of cabbage and celery plants. Illus. La Plume, Pa. Janu-
ary, 1888. Published by the author. 32 pp. 9x6.

TODD, SERENO EDWARDS. The Apple Culturist. A complete trea-
tise for the practical pomologist. To aid in propagating the
apple, and cultivating and managing orchards. Illustrated
with engravings of fruit, young and old trees, and mechanical
devices employed in connection with orchards and the manage-
ment of apples. New York. 1871. [c. 1871.] Harper & Bros.
334pp. 7}ix5.

. See Bridgeman. American Gardener's Assistant.

TOMES, ROBERT. The Champagne Country. New York. 1867.
[c. 1867.] George Routledge & Sons. 231 pp. 7 1A x 5.

TOTTY, CHARLES H. Chrysanthemums for the Million. A Record
of Notes on the Culture of the Chrysanthemum, by growers
situated in every section of the United States, with an intro-
duction by the author, [c. 1911.] Charles H. Totty, Madison,
N. J. Paper. 55pp. 6^x4^.

TRACY, WILL W. Tomato Culture. A practical treatise on the
tomato, its history, characteristics, planting, fertilization,
cultivation in field, garden, and greenhouse, harvesting, pack-
ing, storing, marketing, insect enemies and diseases; with
methods of control and remedies, etc. Illus. New York. 1907.
fc. 1907.] Orange Judd Company, x + 150 pp. TYfx. 5.

TRALL, R. T. See Smith, John. Fruits and Farinacea.

A TREATISE ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE GRAPE, IN VINEYARDS.
By a member of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society (Robert
Buchanan). Cincinnati. 1850. Wright, Ferris & Co., 48 pp. 9 x 5 V2.

THICKER, WILLIAM. Making a Wrater Garden. Illus. New York.
1913. McBride, Nast & Co. 51 pp. 7 in. (House and Garden
Making Series.)

. The Water Garden; embracing the construction of ponds,

adapting natural streams, planting, hybridizing, seed-saving,
propagation, building an aquatic house, wintering, correct
designing and planting of banks and margins; together with
cultural directions for all ornamental aquatics. Profusely
illustrated with 9 plates, 18 full-page descriptive views, and
numerous other sketches in the text. New York. 1897. [c.
1897.] A. T. De La Mare Company, vi + 120 pp. 10^x8.

TRITSCHLER, CHARLES H., and BUCHANAN, W. D. A Practical
Treatise on How to Grow Flowers, Fruits, Vegetables, Shrubbery,
Evergreens, Shade Trees, Ornamental Trees. Plant pests,
diseases and remedies. Two portraits. Nashville, Tenn. 1910.
[c. 1910.] McQuiddy Printing Company. 167 pp. TY2 in.

TROOP, JAMES. Melon Culture; a practical treatise on the principles
involved in the production of melons, both for home use and for
market: including a chapter on forcing and one on insects and
diseases and means of controlling the same. Illus. New York.
1911. [c. 1911.] Orange Judd Company, xii + 105 pp. T}/? in.

TROWBRIDGE, F. The Cranberry Culturist; being a concise, practi'
cal treatise on the cranberry, its history, culture, varieties, etc.
Also, with special reference to the Bell variety, and its culture
on marsh and upland soils. New Haven. 1869. From Press of
Hoggson & Robinson. 18 pp. 8 % x 5 %.

TROWBRIDGE, J. M. The Cider Makers' Hand Book. A complete
guide for making and keeping pure cider. Illus. New York.
1890. [c. 1890.] Orange Judd Company. 119pp. 7%x5.

TRYON, J. H. A Practical Treatise on Grape Culture; with instruc-
tions how to prune and train the vine on the horizontal-arm
system. Illus. Willoughby, Ohio. 1887 Paper. 22 pp.

. The same. Illus. 2d ed. Willoughby, Ohio. 1893.

Paper. 27 pp.

TUBEROUS BEGONIAS. Culture and management of a most prom-
ising race of plants new to American gardens. By numerous
practical growers, reproduced from The American Garden,
with the addition of much new matter. Illus. New York. 1891.
[c. 1891.] The Rural Publishing Company. 20pp. 7J^x5. (The
Rural Library. Vol. I, No. 1, February 19.)

TURNER, MRS. CORDELIA HARRIS. Cyclopedia of Practical Flori-
culture. New York. 1884. T. MacCoun. xv + 424 pp. 11 in.
(Same as her Floral Kingdom, which first appeared in 1877.)

. The F oral Kingdom, its History, Sentiment, and Poetry.

A dictionary of more than three hundred plants, with the genera
and families to which they belong, and the language of each
illustrated with appropriate gems of poetry. With an autograph
letter and introductory poem by William Cullen Bryant. And
a practical treatise for amateurs on the cultivation and analysis
of plants. Chicago. 1877. M. Warren, xv + 424 pp. 11 in.
-. The same. Chicago. 1891. Standard-Columbian Com-

pany. Boston. J. Q. Adams & Co. xv + 410, 463-476 pp.
(Differs from above in addition of plates.)

TURNER, WILLIAM. Fruits and Vegetables under Glass; apples,
apricots, cherries, figs, grapes, melons, peaches and nectarines,
pears, pineapples, plums, strawberries; asparagus, beans, beets,
carrots, chicory, cauliflowers, cucumbers, lettuce, mushrooms,
radishes, rhubarb, sea kale, tomatoes. Illus. New York. 1912.
A. T. De La Mare Company, Ltd. 255 pp. 10 M in.

TWIGHT, EDMUND H. See Viala, P. American Vines.

UNDERWOOD, J. P. Onion Culture . . . treated in a scientific
manner by a practical onion expert of over twenty years' experi-
ence. Andover, Ohio. 1900. Citizen Press. 49 pp.

UNDERWOOD, L. Garden, Dairy and Country Home Guide. New
York. 1908. [c. 1908.] Frederick A. Stokes & Co.

UNDERWOOD, LORING. The Garden and Its Accessories. With
explanatory illustrations from photographs by the author and
others. Boston. 1907. [c. 1906.] Little, Brown & Co. xiv +
215pp. 7^x5^.

1550

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

URBAN, ABBAM LINWOOD. The Voice of the Garden; with decora-
tions by Grace Lillian Urban. Author's edition. Philadelphia.
1912. T. Meehan & Sons. 93 pp. 9 in.

My Garden of Dreams; with decorations by Grace Lillian

Urban. Author's edition. Philadelphia. 1913. T. Meehan &
Sons. 148 pp. 9 in.

UTTER, DELBERT. Making Special Crops Pay. Illus. Springfield,
Mass. 1913. The Phelps Publishing Company. 60pp. 7% in.
(The Practical Farm Library.)

VAN BOCHOVE G., and BRO. Kalamazpo Celery: its cultivation and
secret of success. Kalamazoo, Mich. 1886. Kalamazoo Pub-
lishing Company, Printers and Engravers. 30 pp. 7 in.

. The same. Kalamazoo. 1896. [c. 1886.] C. H. Barnes &

Co., Printers and Engravers. 32 pp. 6% x 4%.

VAN BUREN, J. The Scuppernong Grape, its history and mode of
cultivation, with a short treatise on the manufacture of wine
from it. Illus. Memphis, Tenn. 1868. Printed at the South-
western Publishing House. 62 pp. 6 y± in. (Pp. 54-62, adv.)

. See White, William N. Gardening for the South.

VAN CAMP, WILL A. Tomato Cultivation; a practical treatise on
the growing and cultivation of the tomato. Illus. Indianapolis,
Ind. [c. 1913.] United Printing Service Co. 36pp. 6^in.

VAN ORNAM, F. B. Potatoes for Profit. 3d ed. With 27 illustra-
tions. Philadelphia. 1896. [c. 1895.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co.
84pp. 7^x5.

VAN RENSSELAER, MRS. SCHUTLER. Art Out-of-doors. Hints on
good taste in gardening. New York. 1893. [c. 1893.] Charles
Scribner's Sons. 399 pp. 7x5.

VAN VELZER, A. C. Fig Culture; being a statement of the history,
varieties and botany of the fig, in Asia, Africa and America,
and a special treatise on its propagation, cultivation and curing
in North America. Illus. Houston, Texas. 1909. J. V. Dealy
Company. 218 pp. 7 in.

VAUGHAN'S CELERY MANUAL. Illus. Chicago. 1889. [c. 1889.]
Vaughan's Seed Store. 39pp. 7^x5^.

VAUX, CALVERT, and PARSONS, SAMUEL, JR. Concerning Lawn
Planting. New York. 1881. Orange Judd Company. 36 pp.
9 in.

VER BECK, MRS. HANNA RION. See Rion, Hanna.

VERPLANCK, VIRGINIA E. A Year in My Garden; a manual on the
cujture of flowers, vegetables and fruits. Illus. New York. 1909.
Williams Printing Company. 80 pp. 8J^ >n-

• . The same. Fishkill, N. Y. 1909. [c. 1909.] Mrs. Virginia

E. Verplanck.

. Every Day in My Garden; a practical guide for the culti-
vation of flowers, fruits and vegetables. Illus. New York,
[c. 1913.] William R. Jenkins Company, xxiv + 174 pp. 9J4
in.

VERRILL, A. HYATT. Harper's Book for Young Gardeners; how to
make the best use of a little land. With many illustrations.
New York and London. 1914. Harper & Brothers, xix +389
pp. 8 in. (Harper's Practical Books.)

VIALA, P., and RAVAZ, L. American Vines (resistant stock); their
adaptation, culture, grafting and propagation. Complete
translation of the 2d ed., by Raymond Dubois and Edmund H.
Twight. Illus. San Francisco, Calif. 1903. Press of Freygang-
Leary Company. 299 pp. 9 in.

VICK, JAMES. Vick's Flower and Vegetable Garden. Illus. Roch-
ester, N. Y. n. d. Published by James Vick. 166 pp. 9^ x 6J^.

WAIT, FRONA EUNICE. Wines and Vines of California. A treatise
on the ethics of wine drinking. Illus. San Francisco. 1889.
[c. 1889.] The Bancroft Company. Paper. 215 pp. 9x6.

WALDIN, WALTER. Truck Farming in the Everglades. Illus.
Chicago, [c. 1910.] 139pp. 8% in.

. The same. Miami, Fla. 1910. [c. 1910.] W. Waldin.

. The same. Chicago, [c. 1912.] Printed by E. F. Harman

&Co. 141pp.

WALKER, ERNEST. See Bailey. Garden-Making.

WANNIECK, FRIEDRICH. See H. M. Stringfellow. The New Hor-
ticulture.

WARD, CHARLES WILLIS. The American Carnation: How to
grow it. Illus. New York. 1903. [c. 1902.] A. T. De La Mare
Printing and Publishing Company. 296 pp. 10 y% x 8.

WARDER, JOHN A. American Pomology. Apples. Illus. New
York. [c. 1867.] Orange Judd Company, vii + 744 pp.
7^x5M.

. Hedges and Evergreens. A complete manual for the

cultivation, pruning and management of all plants suitable for
American hedging; especially the maclura or Osage orange.
Fully illustrated with engravings of plants, implements, and
processes. To which is added a treatise on evergreens; their
different varieties; their propagation, transplanting, and cul-
ture in the United States. New York. 1858. [c. 1858.] A. O.
Moore, vii + 291 pp. 7 % x 5.

. Vineyard Culture Improved and Cheapened. By A.

Du Breuil. Translated by E. and C. Parker, of Longworth's
Wine House. With Notes and Adaptations to American Cul-
ture by John A. Warder. Illus. Cincinnati. 1867. [c. 1867.]
Robert Clarke & Co. 337 pp. 8x5.

WARING, WM. G. The Fruit Growers' Handbook. Illus. Boals-
burg, Pa. 1851.

WARNER, ANNA. Gardening by Myself. New York. [c. 1872.]
Anson D. F. Randolph & Co. Paper. 223 pp. 7x5.

• . Miss Tiller's Vegetable Garden and the Money She Made

by It. New York. n. d. [c. 1875.] Anson D. F. Randolph &
Co. 140pp. 6^x4^.

WARNER, C. D. My Summer in a Garden. New York. n. d.
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

WASHBURN & Go's Amateur Cultivator's Guide to the Flower and
Kitchen Garden; containing a descriptive list of two thousand
varieties of flower and vegetable seeds; also, a list of French
hybrid gladiolus, raised and imported by Washburn & Co.
Boston. 1868. 148pp. 9Mx6M-

WATSON, ALEXANDER. The American Home Garden; being prin-
ciples and rules for the culture of vegetables, fruits, flowers, and
shrubbery; to which are added brief notes on farm crops, with
a table of their average product and chemical constituents.
Illus. New York. 1859. [c. 1859.] Harper & Bros, ix + 531
pp. 8x5Ji

WATTS, RALPH L. Market Garden Guide; containing reminders
and timely hints for every month. Practical suggestions for
growing and marketing the principal vegetable crops. With
glimpses into some important trucking regions and successful
market gardens. Compiled from letters and notes. Illus.
Louisville, Ky. [c. 1912.] The Weekly Market Growers Journal.
123 pp. 9 in.

. Vegetable Gardening. Illus. New York. 1912. Orange

Judd Company, xiii +511 pp. 8 in.

WAUGH, F. A. The American Apple Orchard. A sketch of the
practise of apple growing in North America at the beginning of
the twentieth century. Fully illustrated. New York. 1908.
[c. 1908.] Orange Judd Company, x + 215 pp. 7 J^ x 5.

. The American Peach Orchard. A sketch of the practice of

peach growing in North America at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century. Fully illustrated. New York. 1913. [c. 1913.]
Orange Judd Company. 238 pp. 7 Yt x 5.

-. Beginners' Guide to Fruit Growing; a simple statement

of the elementary practices of propagation, planting, culture,
fertilization, pruning, spraying, etc. Illus. New York. 1912.
[c. 1912.] Orange Judd Company, xi + 120 pp. 7% in.

- . Dwarf Fruit Trees: Their propagation, pruning, and
general management; adapted to the United States and Canada.
Illus. New York. 1906. [c. 1906.] Orange Judd Company.
xii + 125 pp. 7}^x5.

- . Fruit-Harvesting; storing; marketing. A practical guide
to the picking, sorting, packing, storing, shipping, and market-
ing of fruit. Illus. New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] viii + 224 pp.

. House Plants; and how to grow them. Rutland, Vt.

n. d. [c. 1896. ] A. W. Perkins & Co. 21 pp. 5^x

- . The Landscape Beautiful; a study of the utility of the
natural landscape, its relation to human life and happiness, with
the application of these principles in landscape gardening, and
in art in general. Illustrated by Members of the Postal Photo-
graphic Club. New York. 1910. [c. 1910.] Orange Judd Com-
pany. 336 pp. 8Jix6.

- . Landscape Gardening. Treatise on the general principles
governing out-door art ; with sundry suggestions for their appli-
cation in the common problems of gardening. Illus. New York.
1899. [c. 1899.] Orange Judd Company, viii + 152 pp. 7J^x5.

- . The same. 1912. [c. 1912.]

- . Packing and Marketing Fruits; how fruits should be
handled to carry to market in best condition and present most
attractive appearance. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1905. The Fruit-
Grower Company. 62pp. 5% in. ("Brother Jonathan" Series,
No. 5.)

- . Plums and Plum Culture. Monograph of the plums cul-
tivated and indigenous in North America; with a complete
account of their propagation, cultivation and utilization. Illus.
New York. 1901. [c. 1901.] Orange Judd Company, xix + 371
pp. 7 Y-i x 5.

- . Rural Improvement. The Principles of Civic Art Applied
to Rural Conditions, Including Village Improvement and the
Betterment of the Open Country. Illus. New York. 1914.
Orange Judd Company. 320 pp. 5x7.

- . Success with Stone Fruits, including chapters on the plant-
ing and cultivation of cherries, peaches, plums, apricots, etc.,
with description of some of the best-known varieties. Illus. St.
Joseph, Mo. 1905. Fruit-Grower Company. 68 pp. 5% in.
("Brother Jonathan" Series, No. 10.)

- . Systematic Pomology. Treating of the description,
nomenclature, and classification of fruits. Illus. New York.
1903. [c. 1903.] Orange Judd Company, x + 288 pp. 71A x 5.
-. See Bailey. Garden-Making. Also Kemp, Edward.

Landscape Gardening.
WEBB, JAMES. Cape Cod Cranberries. Illus. New York. 1886.

[c. 1886.] Orange Judd Company. Paper. 41pp. 7J^x5.
WEED, CLARENCE MOORES. The Flower Beautiful. Illus. Boston

and New York. 1903. [c. 1903.] Houghton, MifHin & Co.

x + 137 pp. 9 V£ x 6.
• . Spraying Crops; why, when, and how. Illus. New York.

1892. The Rural Publishing Company. 110 pp.
. The Fame. 2d (revised) ed. New York. 1894. [c. 1891.]

Special edition of the Field Force Pump Company, Lockport.

130pp. 6x4K-

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1551

• . The same. 4th ed., revised, rewritten, and greatly enlarged.

1903. Orange Judd Company.

, and EMERSON, PHILIP. The School Garden Book. Illus.

New York. 1909. Charles Scribner's Sons, ix -f- 320 pp. 7% in.

WEED, HOWARD EVARTS. Spraying for Profit; a practical hand-
book of the best methods for suppressing the more common
injurious insects and fungous diseases. Illus. Griffin, Ga.
1899. [c. 1899.] The Horticultural Publishing Company. 72
. pp. 6x4^.

. The same. "Sprayology" simplified. Revised and rewrit-
ten. Illus. Rogers Park, Chicago. 1906. [c. 1899, 1906.] The
Horticultural Publishing Company. 61 pp.

WEIDENMANN, J. Beautifying Country Homes. A handbook of
landscape gardening. Illustrated by plans of places already
improved. New York. 1870. Orange Judd & Co. 40 pp. 13 H in-

WELLCOME, MRS. M. D. An Essay on Roses; historically and de-
scriptively considered. Classification of roses; what roses to
Elant; mode of culture; list of best hybrids; list of best ever-
looming. Illus. Yarmouth, Maine, n. d. [c. 1881.] J. C.
Wellcome. 24 pp. 7x5.

. Talks about Flowers. Illus. Yarmouth, Maine. Preface.

1881. [c. 1881.] J. C. Wellcome. 161pp. 8x5%.

WELLINGTON, R. See Hedrick, U. P. The Grapes of New York.

WHARTON, EDITH. Italian Villas and Their Gardens. Illustrated
with pictures by Maxfield Parrislh and by photographs. New
York. 1904. Century Company.

WHIPPLE, ORVILLE B. See Paddock, Wendell. Fruit-Growing in
Arid Regions.

WHITE, JOSEPH J. Cranberry Culture. Illus. New York. n. d.
[c. 1870.] Orange Judd Company. 126 pp. 7 *4 x 5.

. The same. New and enlarged edition. New York. 1885.

[c. 1885.] Orange Judd Company. 131 pp. 7 Yz x 5.

WHITE, WILLIAM N. Gardening for the South; or, the kitchen and
fruit garden; with best methods for their cultivations, together
with hints upon landscape and flower-gardening. Containing
modes of culture and descriptions of the species and varieties
of the culinary vegetables, fruit trees and fruits, and a select
list of ornamental trees and plants found by trial adapted to
the states of the Union south of Pennsylvania; with gardening
calendars for the same. Illus. New York. 1856. [c. 1856.]
C. M. Saxton & Co. Athens, Ga. Wm. N. White, vi + 402
pp. 7 % x 5 ]4.

. The same. New York. 1859. A. O. Moore & Co.

. Gardening for the South; or, how to grow vegetables and

fruits. With additions by Mr. J. Van Buren and Dr. James
Camak. Illus. New York. n. d. [c. 1868.] Orange Judd
Company. 444 pp. 1*A x 5. (Second edition of above.)

. The same. 3d ed., revised and enlarged. By P. H. Mell.

With many illustrations. Richmond, Va. 1901. [c. 1901.]
B. F. Johnson Publishing Company. 683 pp. 8% x 6*4.

WHITNER, J. N. Gardening in Florida. A treatise on the vegetables
and tropical products of Florida. Illus. Jacksonville, Fla.
1885. [n. c.] C. W. DaCosta. xv + 246 pp. 7*4x5*4.

. A Manual of Gardening in Florida. Fernandina, Fla. 1881.

[c. 1881.] Published by the Florida Mirror. 73pp. 6^x4 14

WHITTEN, J. C. Apple Culture, with a Chapter on Pears; sugges-
tions for the planting and care of apple and pear orchards.
Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1906. The Fruit-Grower Company.
88 pp. 6 in. ("Brother Jonathan" Series, No. 9.)

. Hints on Pruning; some suggestions which will be found

helpful in shaping and training fruit trees and plants and orna-
mental shrubs. Illus. St. Joseph, Mo. 1906. Fruit-Grower
Company. 73pp. 5% in. ("Brother Jonathan" Series, No 8.)
How to Grow Strawberries; a booklet designed to help

those interested in the culture of this most excellent fruit. Illus.
St. Joseph, Mo. 1905. The Fruit-Grower Company. 61 pp.
5% iQ- ("Brother Jonathan" Series, No. 3.)

WICKSON, EDWARD J. California Illustrated, No. 1. The Vaca-

ville early fruit district of California. 2d ed. Colored plates.

San Francisco. 1888. [c. 1888.] California View Publishing

Company, viii + 149 + viii pp. 10J4 x 7.
. The California Fruits, and How to Grow Them. A manual

of methods which have yielded greatest success; with lists of

varieties best adapted to the different districts of the state.

1st ed. Illus. San Francisco. 1889. [c. 1889.] Dewey & Co.

vi + 575 pp. 9x6.
. The same. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 1891. [c. 1889.]

viii + 599 pp. 9x6.
. The same. 3d ed., largely rewritten. 1900. [c. 1899.]

Pacific Rural Press, viii + 477 pp. 9x6.
. The same. 4th ed., revised and extended. 1909. [c. 1908.]

433 pp. 10 3A in.
. The same. 5th ed., revised and extended. 1910. 604 pp.

-. The same. 6th ed., fully revised. 1912. [c. 1912.] 602 pp.
-. The same. 7th ed., fully revised. 1914. [c. 1914.] 513 pp.

-. Th,

. The same. 2d ed., revised and extended. 1910. 367 pp.

9J^in.

. The same. 3d ed., revised and extended. 1913. 326 pp.

WIGHT, J. B. Pecans: the what, when, how of growing them. Illus.
Cairo, Ga. 1906. 15 pp. 9 in.

WILCOX, JOHN. Peach Culture. A complete treatise for the use of
peach growers; comprising the experiences of many of the
largest growers in the country, describing the best mode of
cultivation and how to ward off and cure the "yellows" and
other diseases peculiar to the peach. Bridgeton, N. J. n. d.
[n. c.] 86 pp. 7x5.

WILD, HENRY. The Making of a Country Estate; practical sug-
gestions and professional advice for planning and planting of
the gardens and development of the landscape features for
country homes and estates. Illus. New York. [c. 1913.]
American Bank Note Company. 31pp. llj^in.

WILDER, GERRIT PARMILE. Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands.
(Revised edition, including Vol. 1, 1906.) Illustrated by 121
half-tone plates with descriptions of same. Honolulu, T. H.
1911. [c. 1906, 1911.] Published by the Hawaiian Gazette
Company, Ltd. 247 pp. 7 x 10*/i.

WILDER, MARSHALL PINCKNEY. The Horticulture of Boston and
Vicinity. Substantially the same as the chapter prepared for
the Boston Memorial Series, Vol. IV. Boston. 1881. Privately
printed. Tolman & White, Printers. 85 pp. 9x6.

WILKINSON, ALBERT E. Modern Strawberry Growing. Illus. Gar-
den City, N. Y. 1913. [c. 1913.] Doubleday, Page & Co. 210
pp. 7^x5.

WILLAHD, ELEANOR WITHEY. The Children's Garden. With
illustrations from photographs by Fedora E. D. Brown. Grand
Rapids, Mich. 1904. The Michigan Trust Company. 39 pp.
9}^ in.

WILLIAMS, DORA. Gardens and Their Meaning. Illus. Boston,
New York. [c. 1911.] Ginn & Co. ix + 235 pp. 8*A in.

WILLIAMS, E. Address on Pruning and Training the Vine. An
illustrated paper read before the American Horticultural
Society, at New Orleans, January 16, 1885, and published in
full in the transactions of the Society for 1885. Indianapolis.
1885. Carlon & Hollenbeck, Printers. 13 pp. 9x6.

WILLIAMS, HENRY T. Window Gardening. Devoted specially to
the culture of flowers and ornamental plants, for indoor use
and parlor decoration. Illus. New York. 1872. [c. 1871.]
Henry T. Williams. 302 pp. 8*A x 6.

. The same. 4th ed. 1873. [c. 1871.] 302 pp. 8^x6.

.The same. 6th ed. 1873. [c. 1871.] 302pp. 8Hx6.

.The same, llth ed. 1875. [c. 1871.] 302pp. 8^x6.

-^. The same. 12th ed. 1876. [c. 1871.] 302pp. 8^x6.
—.The same. 13th ed. 1877. [c. 1871.] 302pp. SlAx6.
—. The same. 14th ed. 1884. [c. 1871.] 302pp. 8^x6.

e California Vegetables in Garden and Field. A manual
of practice, with and without irrigation, for semi-tropical
countries. Illus. San Francisco. 1897. [c. 1897.] Pacific
Rural Press, viii + 336 pp. 9x6.

WILSON, WILLIAM. Economy of the Kitchen Garden, etc. New

York. 1828.
WINKLEH, HERBERT G. Vegetable Forcing; Parts I, II, and III.

Columbus, Ohio. 1896. [c. 1896.] The Winkler Book Concern.

157pp. 7%x5}i
WINTER, T. A Guide to Floriculture; containing instructions to

the young florist, for the management of the most popular

flowers of the day. Illustrated with colored plates. Cincinnati.

1847. [c. 1846.] Derby, Bradley & Co. iv + 226 pp. 6%x4H.
WINTER GARDENING IN A BAY WINDOW. By an amateur. East

Saginaw, Mich. 1879. L. S. Laing, Printer. 33pp. 8*4 in.

WITTER, GEORGETTA. See Erwin, A. T. The Bush Fruits.

WOOD, WILLIAM H. S. See Thomas, John J. The American Fruit
Culturist. 1897.

WOODS, DAVID R. Successful Floriculture. Illus. New Brighton,
Pa. 1881. Published by the author. 108 pp. 9 in.

WOODWARD, GEO. E. and F. W. Woodward's Graperies and Horti-
cultural Buildings. Illus. New York. [c. 1865.J Geo. E. Wood-
ward & Co.; Orange Judd Company. 139 pp.

. The same. New York. 1865. G. E. & F. W. Woodward.

7% in.

WOODWARD, R. T. Woodward's Book on Horticulture. The rais-
ing of large and small fruits. The diseases of the same, and the
making and care of lawns. Boston, n. d. [c. 1897.] 74 pp.
7Mx5}i.

WOODWARD'S RECORD OF HORTICULTURE. See Fuller, Andrew S.

WOOLSON, G. A. Ferns and How to Grow Them. Illus. New
York. 1905. [c. 1905.] Doubleday, Page & Co. 156pp. 7J^x5H-

WOOLVERTON, LINUS. The Canadian Apple Grower's Guide.
Part I. A complete guide to the planting, culture, harvesting
and marketing of apples. Part II. Apples of Canada carefully
described and illustrated from specimens of the varieties grown
in the Dominion. Part III. Varieties of apples recommended
for planting in the various apple districts of the Dominion.
Illus. Toronto. 1910. [c. 1910.] . William Briggs. 264 pp.
9^x7.

WORTHINGTON, JAMES T. Manual of Fig Culture in the Northern
and Middle States. Chillicothe, Ohio. 1869. [c. 1869.] Scioto
Gazette Office. 10 pp. 7 H x 5M-

WORTHINGTON, WILLIAM. See Lowther, Granville.

1552

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

WRIGHT, MKS. MABEL OSGOOD. The Garden of a Commuter's
Wife, recorded by the gardener; with eight illustrations in
photogravure. New York. 1901. The Macmillan Company.
ix + 354 pp. 8 in.

. The Garden, You, and I, by Barbara (pseud.). Illus. New

York. 1906. The Macmillan Company. xii + 397pp. Sin.

WRIGHT, WALTER P. The New Gardening; a guide to the most
recent developments in the culture of flowers, fruits, and vege-
tables. Illus. New York. 1913. Doubleday, Page & Co. 400
pp. 8 in.

YATES, LUCY H. The Gardener and the Cook. Illus. New York.
1913. McBride, Nast & Co. 260pp. 7^x5}^.

YEAH BOOK, THE, of the Farm and Garden. A reliable guide to
all important rural occupations, embracing concise directions
for the improvement of the soil by draining, subsoil plowing,
and trenching; implements of culture — their history, cost, and
relative value; rural architecture, with directions for the embel-
lishment of the mansion by ornamental gardening; laying out
and cropping the esculent garden, fruit culture, with directions
for planting; lists of fruits, seeds, plants; insects injurious to
farm and garden; bee culture, and other valuable miscellaneous
matters. With new and beautiful illustrations. Philadelphia.
1860. [c. 1860.[ A. M. Spangler. 108pp. 7^*4.

YOUNG, ERMENTINE. Canning and Preserving Fruits and Vege-
tables, and preparing fruit pastes and syrups. New York.
1892. [c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Company. 31pp. 7H*5.
(The Rural Library, Vo. I, No. 8, June.)

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION, PORTLAND, ORE. Apple
Growing in the Pacific Northwest, a condensation of lectures,
experiments and discussions conducted by the educational
department of the Portland, Oregon, Young Men's Christian
Association. Illus. Portland, Ore. 1911. The Portland, Oregon,
Young Men's Christian Association. 215pp. 9}^ in.

ZVOLANEK, ART. C. Culture and History of Winter Flowering
Sweet Peas. Illus. Bound Brook, N. J. n. d. Printed by
A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Company. Paoer.
65pp. 7M*5>i

Subject index to the foregoing lists.

To aid the consultant to find the books on special
subjects in the preceding bibliography, the following
classified list is appended. It is impossible so to classify
the titles as to organize them into definite and distinct
groups, but the index may nevertheless afford the
reader some relief. Many of the books cover a great
variety of subjects; these are mostly placed under
"General gardening and horticulture." Many of the
titles are of such a nature that they cannot be entered
in the index, as here constituted. The index designates
only the books wholly or chiefly devoted to the given
subject, and does not refer to chapters or parts in the
miscellaneous or general books.

Evergreens and hedges. — Butterfield; Harrison; Hoopes; Main;

Powell, E. P.; Warder.
Flowers and flower-gardening. — Adams; Allen, J. F.; Arnold;

Barnard; Bennett; Blanchan; Bourne; Breck; Bridgeman; Buist;

Casey; Clark; Cobbett; Complete Florist; Crawford; Darling-
ton; Darrow; Dearborn; Doyle; Eley; Elliott, W. R.; Ely;

Flower Garden; Frothingham; Green, R.; Halliday; Halsham;

Harrison; Hassard; Hatfield; Henderson; Hibbert; Hooper, L.;

How to Grow Asters; How to Make a Flower Garden; Hunt;

Jenkins, E. N.; Johnson, L.; Johnson, S. O.; Keeler; Kirby;

Long; Long Bros.; Loudon; McGregor; Maeterlinck; Mathews;

Morton; Newman, J. B.; Page; Peacock; Practical Florist;

Rand, E. S.; Rexford; Rion, H.; Rion, M. C.; Ruston; Sayers;

Saylor; Scott, W.; Shelton; Smiley; Smith, E. E.; Solly; Tabor;

Tuberous Begonias; Turner, C. H.; Vick; Washburn & Co.;

Weed, C. M.; Wellcome; Winter; Woods.
Bulbs, special books: Allen, C. L.; Dreer; Fuld; Henderson; Rand,

E. S.; Rexford; Tabor.

Carnation, special books: Lamborn; Ward.

Chrysanthemum, special books: Barker; Herrington; Mathews;

Morton; Powell, I. L.; Smith, E. D.
Lily, special books: Adams; Boardman; Childs.
Orchids, special books: Boardman; Burberry; Hansen; Miner;

Rand, E. S.
Rose, special books: American Rose Culturist; Buist; Drennan;

Ellwanger, H. B.; Good; Hatton; Hole; Holmes, E. ; Jenkins,

T. B.; Parkman; Parsons, S. B.; Prince, W. R.; Roses and How

to Grow Them; Saylor; Shaw, H.; Thomas, G. C.; Wellcome.
Sweet pea, special books: Dick; Hutchins; Kerr; Sunset Seed and

Plant Company; Zvolanek.
Violet, special books: Galloway; Saltford.
Fruits and fruit-growing. — Alwood; Aspinwall, J.; Bailey; Baker, C.

R.; Barry; Bates; Bealby; Bell; Biggie; Brehaut; Bridgeman;

Brinckle; Budd; Cellon; Chase; Cobbett; Cole; Collingwood;

Complete Kitchen and Fruit Gardener; Coxe; Creighton;

Culver; Downing, A. J.; Downing, C.; Dwyer; Dygert; Elliott,

F. R.; Elliott, W. R.; Favor; Fletcher, S. W.; Forsyth; Galusha;
Gilbert; Goff; Goodrich; Gray; Green, C. A.; Green, S. B.;

Greening; Gregg; Gurney; Haines; Hansen, N. E.; Harcourt;

Hedrick; Hendrick; Herrick; Hooper, E. J.; Hovey; Hurst;

Jaques; Kenrick; Kiely; Kitchen and Fruit Gardener; Knowlton,

D. H.; Lacy; Larsen; Lawson; Lelong; Leopold; Lindley;

McNeil; Manning, R. ; Maynard; Merchant; Moore, S. W.;

Morris; Moulson; Narrigan; Pabor; Paddock; Parker; Phelan;

Phillips; Poole; Powell, E. C.; Powell, E. P.; Prince, W. R.;

Rivers; Rockwell; Sayers; Sears; Smith, J.; Stark; Stedman;

Stringfellow; Strong; Teague; Thacher; Thomas, J. J.; Thorn-
ton; Turner, W.; Warder; Waring; Waugh; Wickson; Wilder,

G. P.; Young.
Apples, special books: Bailey; Beach; Buell; Burritt; Cline; Fitz;

Green, C. A.; Lawrence; Powell, G. T.; Todd; Waugh; Whitten;

Woolverton; Young Men's Christian Association.
Date, special book: Popenoe.

Fig, special books: Eisen; Roeding; Van Velzer; Worthington.
Grape, special books: Adlum; Allen, J. F. ; Andrae; Bailey; Barclay;

Becker; Berneaud; Bright; Buchanan; Busby; Bush; Chap-
man; Chazotte; Chorlton; De Caradeuc; De Courtenay; Den-

niston; Du Breuil; Dufour; Eakin; Eisen; Emerson, E. R.;

Engelmann; Fisher; Flagg; Fuller; Grant; Green, C. A.; Hamm;

Haraszthy; Haskell; Hedrick; Heyne; Hoare; Hofer; Hoops;

Husmann; Hyatt; Kecht; Keech; Knowlton, J. M.; Longworth;

Loubat; McCollom; McMullen; McMurtrie; Mead; Millard;

Mitzky; Mohr; Muench; Munson; My Vineyard at Lakeview;

Nessler; Osborn; Persoz; Phelps; Phin; Preyer; Prince, W. R.;

Rafinesque; Reemelin; Aiehl; Rixford; Rubens; Saunders;

Sayers; Spooner; Strong; Tomes; Treatise on Cultivation of

Grapes; Tryon; Van Buren; Viala; Wait; Warder; Williams, E.;

Woodward, G. E.
Nuts, special books: Allen, W. F.; Dygert; Fuller; Hume; Lelong;

Parry, J. R.; Price, E. M.; Risien; Roper; Stewart, H. L.; Wight.
Olive, special books: Bleasdale; Calkins; Chazotte; Cooper; Fla-

mant; King; Lelong; Marvin; Pohndorff.
Oranges, lemons, and other citrous fruits, special books: Canada;

Davis, G. W.; Fish; Fowler, J. H.; Gallesio; Garcelon;

Garey; Hume; Lelong; Manville; Moore, T. W.; Prange;

Spalding.
Peach, special books: Black; Fitz; Fletcher, R. R.; Fulton; Harker;

Reinert; Rutter; Waugh; Wilcox.
Pear, special books: Berckmans; Black; Field, T. W.; Green, C. A.;

Illustrated Pear Culturist; A New Treatise .... the pear

tree; Parry, W.; Quinn; Thompson, W. W.
Plum and prune, special books: Clarke; Cope; Hedrick; Lelong;

Waugh.

Quince, special book: Meech.
Small-fruits, special books: Abbott; Aspinwall, B.; Barnard;

Bassett; Beede; Biggie; Blacknall; Boulton; Card; Gary; Clem-

mens; Crawford; Durand; Eastwood; Erwin; Farmer; Fra-

garia; Fuller; Galusha; Gillet; Green, C. A.; Grosvenor; Hall,

D. M.; Hills; How to Grow Strawberries and other Fruits;
Knapp; The Lawton or New Rochelle Blackberry; M'Kay;
Merrick; Pardee; Parry, W.; Preyer; Purdy; Richards; Roe;
Smith, M. O.; Snider; Starr; Strawberry Report; Terry; Trow-
bridge; Webb; White, J. J.; Whitten; Wilkinson.

General gardening and horticulture. — Adams; Agricola; Albaugh;
Albee; Angier; Bailey; Baker, T.; Barnard; Barnes; Batson;
Beadle; Beecher; Biggie; Bray; Bridgeman; Brooks; Brown,
W. F.; Budd; Busch; Buschbauer; Church; Cleves; Clute;
Cobbett; Collingwood; Copeland; Crosier; Davis, L. D.; Duncan;
Earle; Edge worth ; Egan; Elder; Elliott, F. R.; Elliott, J. W.;
Elwanger, G. H.; Ely; Fessenden; Field, F. E.; Field, H.; Fiske;
Flint, E. D.; Flint, L. C.; Fullerton; The Garden; Gardiner;
Gipson; Goff; Grundy; Hall, B.; Hall, G. P.; Hargrave; Harris;
Harrison; Hawthorne; Hays; Hayward; Heikes; Hemenway;
Henderson; Higgins; How to Grow Flowers, Fruit and Vegeta-
bles; Howard; Howe; Huber; Hunn; Jack; Jacques; Johnson, C.;
Johnson, G. W.; Johnson, M. W. ; Johnson & Stokes; Kains;
Kirkegaard; Landreth; Laroque; Lelievre; Lindley, J. ; Living-
ston, L. S. ; Long; Lounsberry; Lowell; Lyon; MacGerald;
McCauley; McLaren; M'Mahon; Marshall; Miller, C. H.; Miller,
L. K.; Miller, T. B.; Miller, W.; Munro; Neill; Newman, J. S.;
Oliver; Paine; Parsons, H. G.; Peek; Pierce; Powell, G. T.;
Practical American Gardener; Prince, W. ; Rand, A. C. ; Rex-
ford; Rion, H.; Rockwell; Roe; Rogers, J. E.; Rowles; Schenck;
Scott, T.; Sedgwick; Seldon; Sewell; Seymour; Shafer; Shaw,

E. E.; Shaylor; Sheehan; Shields; Shinn; Simson; Sinclair;
Skinner, C. ; Skinner, H. ; Slade; Squibb; Stebbins; Stewart;
Stewart, H.; Stewart, J. T.; Storke; Stringfellow; Tabor; Teat;
Ten Acres Enough; Thaxter; Thomas, Mrs. T. ; Thorburn;
Tritschler; Underwood, L.; Urban; Utter; Verplanck; Warner,
A.; Warner, C. D.; Watson; Weed, C. M.; White, W. N.;
Whitner; Wilder, M. P.; Willard; Williams, D.; Woodward,
R. T.; Woolson; Wright, M. O.; Wright, W. P.; Yates; Year
Book of Farm and Garden.

Greenhouses. — Bryant; Dean; Field, F. E.; Fowler, A. B.; Hat-
field; Herendeen; Leuchars; Rexford; Taft.

Landscape Gardening. — Agar; Allen, L. F.; Barren; Brown, G.;
Cleaveland; Cleveland; Cunningham; Doogue; Downing, A. J.;
Elliott, F. R. ; Ferree; Follen; Greening; Hemenway; Hooper,
C. E. ; Humphreys; Johnson, J. F. ; Kellaway; Kemp; Kern,
G. M.; Kern, M. G.; Leland; LeMoyne; Long; Manning, W.
H.; Maynard; Meier; Meyer; Miller, C. H.; Murmann; Oakey;
Parsons, S.; Platt; Powell, E. P.; Repton; Rogers, W. S.;
Root; Rose; Sawyer; Scott, F. J.; Skinner, H.; Smith, C.;
Tabor; Underwood, Loring; Van Rensselaer; Vaux; Waugh;
Weidenmann; Wharton; Wild.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1553

Mushrooms. — Falconer; Gardiner; Hard; Jackson; Jacob; Milliken;

Mushrooms for All; Palmer; Peck.
Plant-breeding. — Bailey; DeVries; Harwood.
Propagation. — Bailey; Fuller; Howard; Jenkins, J.; Lelong.
Pruning, grafting, and spraying. — Bailey; Gouts; Des Cars; Dol-

lins; Larsen; Lodeman; Northrop; Sargent; Stedman; Weed, C.

M.; Weed, H. E.; Whitten.
Trees. — Davey; Des Cars; Dollins; Egleston; Fernow; Meehan;

Peets; Powell, E. C.; Roe; Solotarofl.

Vegetables and vegetable-gardening. — Allen, C. L.; Bailey; Bate-
man; Bennett, Ida; Bridgeman; Buist; Burpee; Burr; Complete

Kitchen and Fruit Gardener; Cook; Corbett; Darlington;

Davis, J. R.; Dreer; Every Man His Own Gardener; Fessenden;

Fitch; French; Fullerton; Green, S. B.; Gregory; Greiner;

Halsted; Hogg; Holmes, F.; Kennedy; Kiely; Kitchen and Fruit

Gardener; Kruhm; Landreth; Lloyd; McNeil; Morse; Oemler;

Provanpher; Quinn; Rawson, N.; Rawson, W. W.; Rockwell;

Rolfs.; Sevey; Skinner, H.; Stringfellow ; Thompson, F. S.;

Tillinghast; Turner, W.; Vick; Waldin; Warner, A.; Wash-
burn & Co.; Watts; Wickson; Wilson; Winkler; Young.
Asparagus, special books: Herrmann; Hexamer.
Cabbage, special books: Allen, C. L. ; Cook; Gregory; Landreth;

Lupton; Pedersen; Tillinghast's Plant Manual.
Cauliflower, special books: Allen, C. L. ; Brill; Crozier; Gregory;

Lupton; Pedersen; Suffa.
Celery, special books: Beattie; Crider; Greiner; Hollister; Landreth;

Livingston; Niven; Pratt; Rawson, W. W.; Roessle; Schuur;

Stewart, H. L. ; Tillinghast's Plant Manual; Van Bochove;

Vaughan's Celery Manual.
Cucumber, special book: Collins.
Melons, special books: Blinn; Burpee; Troop.
Onion, special books: Gregory; Greiner; Landreth; Onion Book;

Onions; Underwood, J. P.
Potato, special books: Best; Bosson; Carman; Cultivation of the

Potato; Fitz; Fraser; Grubb; McLaurin; Matchette; Price, R.

H.; Rogers, E. A.; Tenbrook; Terry; Van Ornam.
Squash, special book: Gregory.
Tomato, special books: Day; Livingston; Mitchell; Smith, F. F.;

Taylor, H.; Tracy; Van Camp.
Water-gardening. — Bissett; Conard; Tricker.
Window-gardening. — Allen, Phoebe; Barnes; Casey; Dorner; Hein-

rich; Hillhouse; Holmes, J. H.; Mulertt; Rand, E. S.; Randolph;

Rexford; Rockwell; Rose; Waugh; Williams, H. T.; Winter

Gardening in a Bay Window.

Reports of horticultural societies and organizations.

Although the present discussion aims only to supply
librarians and collectors with information as to what
reports and series have been published, a brief sketch
of the beginnings of horticultural societies hi North
America may supply a useful background or setting.

Although the year 1785 witnessed the establishment
of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture
and the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, 1889 the
Nova Scotia Society, and 1792 the organization of the
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, it
was apparently not until 1818 that the first horticultural
organization came into existence; this was the New
York Horticultural Society, now extinct. The second,
organized in 1827, was the Pennsylvania Horticultural
Society, which is still in vigorous existence. The third,
according to Manning, was the Domestic Horticultural
Society, organized at Geneva, New York, in 1828, and
which was the forerunner of the Western New York Hor-
ticultural Society, the latter having continued for more
than fifty years. The next organization was apparently
the Albany Horticultural Society, established in 1829,
but which expired long ago. In 1829, also, the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society was organized, an associa-
tion which, in the character of the men who have been
members and in the large service it has rendered to the
advancement of rural taste, stands without a rival in
the country. The American Pomological Society was
organized in 1850 by a union of the North Ameri-
can Pomological Convention and the American Con-
gress of Fruit-Growers, both of which were established
in 1848. The Congress of Fruit-Growers was a meeting
held in New York on the 10th of October, 1848, at the
call of the Massachusetts, Philadelphia, New Jersey
and New Haven Horticultural Societies and the Board
of Agriculture of the American Institute of the City of
New York. The Pomological Convention held its first

99

meeting on the 1st of September in Buffalo. The
American Pomological Society is undoubtedly the
strongest organization of pomologists in the world.
A. J. Downing wrote in 1852, that "within the last ten
years the taste for horticultural pursuits has astonish-
ingly increased in the United States. There are, at the
present moment, at least twelve societies in different
parts of the Union devoted to the improvement of gar-
dening, and to the dissemination of information on the
subject." At the present time there are over 500 such
societies, and the average attendance at the meetings
cannot be less, in the aggregate, than 20,000. From a
careful estimate made in 1891, it was concluded that
the aggregate attendance for that year at the national,
state, provincial and district societies "probably
exceeded 5,000."

There are now more than a dozen national societies
devoted to horticulture or some branch of it. The most
gratifying feature of this movement toward organiza-
tion, however, is the establishment of great numbers of
local societies, florists' clubs, and the like, which sus-
tain the interest in horticultural pursuits and foster
pride in the personal surroundings of the members. All
this great body of societies is proof enough that there is a
rapidly expanding and abiding love of horticulture in
America, and that it must increase with the increasing
amelioration of the country.

There are few state or provincial departments of
horticulture, but most of the states and provinces have
bureaus of agriculture and these may publish horti-
cultural matter. In this discussion, however, only
those official establishments that are specially organized
for horticultural work are included.

REPORTS OF BOARDS AND SOCIETIES.

In the following paragraphs an effort is made to give
such information as a librarian needs in the collecting of
the published annual reports of existing national, state,
provincial and regional horticultural societies in the
United States and Canada, and of the reports of state and
provincial boards, commissions, or departments of horti-
culture. The publications of these various bodies follow
so many methods and there is often such lack of continuity
in them that it is difficult to follow them as a whole
and, particularly, to know when sets and series are com-
plete. As an aid in determining some of these points,
corollary information of the societies and boards is given:
these pieces of information are intended only as secondary
aids to the librarian and not as descriptions or histories
of the organizations.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF NURSERYMEN. An annual report is
published by the society. The first report was published in
1890 under the title, "Proceedings of the American Associa-
tion of Nurserymen." The publication is continuous under the
same title. Total number of volumes, 24. There have been no
special reports. Organized 1876. Address, 204 Granite Build-
ing, Rochester, N. Y.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PARK SUPERINTENDENTS. This associa-
tion has published six reports for the years 1908-43 inclusive.
It has also issued eleven bulletins on special subjects relating
to roads, walks, planting of parks, and the like. Address,
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

AMERICAN CARNATION SOCIETY. Annual reports are issued by the
society. The first report was published in 1891 under the title,
"Annual Repprt of the American Carnation Society." The
publication still continues under this title. Total number of
volumes, 23. There have been no special reports. Address,
Indianapolis, Ind.

AMERICAN CRANBERRY GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. A semi-annual
report is issued by the society. The first report was published
in 1879 under the title, "New Jersey Cranberry Growers'
Association." The publication has been continuous with one
exception. Report of January meeting is entitled, "Proceedings
of the Annual Meeting;" report of August meeting, "Proceed-
ings of Annual Convention." Total number of volumes, 70.
Address, Hammonton, N. J.

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION, formerly called the American
Breeders' Association. Annual reports were published for the
years 1905-12, under the title, "Annual Report of the American
Breeders' Association." Total number of volumes 8. From
1910-13, the "American Breeders' Magazine" was published
quarterly. Beginning January, 1914, its name was changed to
the "Journal of Heredity," which is published monthly, and the
reports of meetings are published herein. Address, Washington,
D. C.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

AMKKICAN GLADIOLUH SoriETY. This se>e-ie-ty issue-s a bulletin from
time to lime. The fir.*! annual leport was published in Bulle-
tin No. I, August,, I91O; the seconil in Bulle-tm No. 7. Tin- pub-
li.-ahon is still continued in the "Modem Gladiolus Grower."
Adelress MS < Vdnr St., Syi aeuse, N. Y.

AMKKK.'AN PKONV Socurrv. This soe-iety issue-s no regular publicu-
tioiiH. The Nomenehil lire ('ommillee of I he .society, in coopera-
tion with a re-prese-nlulive- of the New York Stale (',,!!, re of
Agriculture, li:i-i pn-pan-d lour bullet.iliM which have been pub-
lished by Ceirnell University. The; lirst, appeared in l'.H)7 under
the title "A Peony Checklist;" the second in 1908, on Bulletin
No. 2.r>9, "The- IVony;" the third in I9KI, tin I'.nll.-t in No. 27K,
"The Classification of the I'eony;" Uie fourth in 1011 HH Bulle-
tin No. .'MM!, "The Classification of the Peony." The society
holds itn annual meeting and exhibition in June. Address,
Clinton, N. Y.

AMERICAN POMOLOOICAL SOCIETY. Biennial reports are published
by the society. The first report (for 1850) was published in 1851
under the title, "Report of the American Pomological Congress,"
and was published by the Ohio State Board of Agriculture.
The next report wus issued in l.H.r>2 under the title, "Proceedings
of the Second Session of the American Pomological Congress."
The publication has been continuous under the title "Proceed-
ings of the American Pomological Society," with the exception
of the years 1800 and 1893, when no reports were published.
Total number of volumes, 29. There has been one special report
entitled, "The Cherry, together with reports and papers on
pear, plum, pencil, grape-, and Kinall fruit." A "Catalogue of
Fruits has also been published by this society. Organized in
1850 by the union of two other societies, both organized in
1848. Address, 2033 Park Road, Washington, D. C.

AMERICAN ROSE SOCIETY. This society issues an annual bulletin
under the title, "Annual Proceedings and Bulletin," the first
bulletin being issued in 1905. From April, 1912, until the middle
of the year 1913, it also issued a quarterly journal entitled,
"The Rose Journal." Organized 1899. Address, Beacon, N. Y.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS. Has published one
report of the transactions for the years 1899-1908 inclusive.
The official organ of the society is ti quarterly journal entitled

"Landscape Architecture." Address, 15 Kast -Kith St., New

York City.

AMERICAN SWEET PEA SOCIETY. This society was originally organ-
ized in Now York, July 7 and 8, 1909, as the "National Sweet
Pea Society of America." Annual exhibitions and conventions
are held every summer. Extensive trials of aweet peas are
carried on under the auspices of the horticultural department
of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Bulletins are issued by
Cornell University, which go to the members of this Society.
Address, New York City.

CANADIAN SEED GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Annual reports are issued
by the Association. The first report was published in 1904,
under the title "Report of First Annual Meeting of the Canadian
Seed Growers' Association." The publication still continues
under this title. Special bulletins are issued from time to time,
the last one being "Plant Breeding in Scandinavia." Address,
Ottawa.

CHRYSANTHEMUM SOCIETY OF AMERICA. Annual meetings and
exhibitions are held in November of each year of which an
annual report is published together with the work of the com-
mittees. The first annual report was published in 1902. Address,
Morgan Park, 111.

INTERNATIONAL APPLE SHIPPERS' ASSOCIATION. This society
issues an annual year-book, and a monthly bulletin. The first
report was published in 1896 under the title, "International
Apple
have
Associ

national Apple Shippers' Association;" those for 1910-14,
"Official minutes of the International Apple Shippers' Asso-
ciation." A monthly bulletin began February, 1911, under the
title, "The Spy." Both are continuous. There are special
monthly reports issued for members only. Address, 612 Mercan-
tile Bldg., Rochester, N. Y.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GARDENERS. Official organ is the
"Gardeners' Chronicle of America," which contains all the
association news. Address, Madison, N. J.

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF HORTICULTURE. Has issued no regular
report except in 1907 of the Jamestown Congress of Horti-
culture. Copies of short articles on horticultural topics are sent
to several thousand newspapers each spring.

NATIONAL NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This association issues
an annual volume of proceedings and also a journal, "The
Nut Grower," which is the official organ of the society, and con-
sists of 24 pages monthly. It began publication in August, 19HL'.
The first report was published in 1903 under the title, "Pro-
ceedings of the Second Annual Convention." There have been
seven issues under the title "Proceedings of the Annual ('.in-
ventions." There have been no special reports. Address, ( 'airo,
Ga. Northern Nut Growers' Association. See Nuts, Vol. IV.

RAILWAY GARDENING ASSOCIATION. Reports of the mmual meet-
ings are published. The seventh report was issued in 1913.
Address, Sewickley, Pa.

SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FLORISTS AND ORNAMENTAL HORTICUL-
TURISTS. An annual report is published by the society. The
first report was published in 1885 as "Proceedings of the Society

of American Florists." After 1901, the title was changed to

"Proceedings of Society of American Florists and Ornamental
Horticulturists." Have also published a list of plants registered
from July, 12, 1908 to August 1, 1914. National charter given
March 3, 1901. Address 53 West 28th St., New York City.

SOCIETY rent HORTICULTURAL SriKNCK. This society issues an
annual report entitled, "Proceedings of the Society for Horti-
cultural Science." The first report was published in I'.IOf. under
the title, "Proceedings of the Society for Horticultural Science.
Preliminary meeting, September, 1903; first annual meeting,
December, 1903; second annual meeting, 1901." Proceedings
have; been published annually since with tin' exception ol tin-
year I '.(OS, which was published with 1909. Total number of
volumes, it. Address, College Park, Md.

VEGETABLE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. The first report

was published in I'.MI'.I under I he title, "Year Book of the (ireen-
house Vegetable (IrowerH1 and Market, Gardeners' Association
of America." The next, report contained the proceedings of the
conventions of 1909, 191(1 and 1911 and appeared under I he
title-, "Oflicial Proceedings of the Vegetable Crowery' Associa-
tion of America." The proceedings of the 1912 convention will
probably be published with those of 1913 and 1914. Addi- H,
Ixjuisvilie, Ky.

ALABAMA

ALABAMA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The first report was
published in 1903-4 under the title, "Kirst Annual Report of
the Alabama Ktate Board of Horticulture." < Inly the first two
reports have been published and these by the state;. They have
been published under one cover and al.-.o separately. Those from

1905-0 to 1911-12 are typewritten reports Mil. milled to the
Governor. There have been no volumes or re-ports on special
subjects. This board is chiefly concerned with nursery inspec-
tion and the enforcement of the horticultural law approved
March 5, 1903. The board consists of the Commissioner of
Agriculture, president of the States Horticultural Soe-ie-ty,
elirector of the experiment, station (ex-off.). The- horticulturist
of the experiment statiem is secretary of the board and State
Horticulturist. Addre-ss, Auburn.

ALABAMA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues
annual reports which are published by both the slate and
the society. The first report was published in 1901 under the
title, "I'rocee'dingsof the Alabama Slate; Horticultural Socie-ty,
First, Annual Me-e-ling." The publication is slill cemlinue-d under
the title, "Proceedings of the Alabama State Horticultural
Society." The first, second, third, and fourth annual reports
were publishe-d by the society; the fifth, sixth ami se-ve-nth we-re)
published in one- volume by the- I )e-partment e>f Agriculture,
Montgomery, as serial No. 36, and the eighth annual report as a
I Vpartment, bulletin, si-rial No. l~. The ninth, te-nlli and

eleventh annual reports have recently boon issue;d by the
society. Total numibor of volumes, 11. There have been no
separate reports on special subjects. Organized January 27,
1903. Address, Auburn.

ARIZONA

ARIZONA COMMISSION OF AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. This
commission issues annual reports and circulars, published by
the state. The first report was published in August, 1909,
under the title, "First Annual Report of the Arizona Horti-
cultural Commission." Four reports have- be-en published under
the title;, "Annual He-port of the- Arizona Horticultural Com-
mission." In 1912, the name of the organization was changed as
above and two reports have been published under the title
"Annual Report Arizona Commission Agriculture and Horti-
culture." The annual reports e>f the- State Kntenneilogist are
included in the reports of the commission. Sixteen e-in-ulars
have been published on various entomological subje •< I .-<.
Address, Phoenix.

ARKANSAS

Second Annual Reports, 1893—4). At that time, a new pe>e-iety
hail been oi|'ani/,eil under I he same name as t he- old horticull nral
He>e-ie-ty founded in Is79. The second socie-ty was finally merged
.into tne first. Address, Horticultural Department, University
of Arkansas, Fayettevillo.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

BRITISH COLUMBIA FRUIT GROWERB' ASSOCIATION. An annual
report is publishe-el by the province-. The- first repe>rt was pub-
lished in 1890 under the title, "First Annual Report of the
British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association." The; re-ports
fre>m 1892-1895 have the title, "Annual report of the He>rti-
cultural Society and Fruit Growers' Association of British
Columbia;" those from May, 1895, to August, IS97, "Id-port
eif the British Columbia I'Vuit ([rowers' and Horticultural
Society;" those from 1908-9, "Annual and (^uarte-rly Meetings
of the British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association." The
twenty-fourth annual report was issued in 1913. There- have
been no special repe>rts, except a "Pest anel Remedy" supple-
meni , 1895-6, issued separately- Address, Victoria.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1555

CALIFORNIA

CALIFORNIA AHHOCIATION OF NIJHHKKYMKN. Tins organization haa
published four reports, the first entitled, "Tr.-m ••ad ion and Pro-
ceedings of tlic First, Annual Meeting of tin- California Associa-
tion ol Nurserymen, held . . . 1911." Address, Lou Angeles.

CALIFORNIA STATK HOAKD OK HOKTICDI.TIJIIK. The reports of this
board have been published in fix series. The. first, series consisted
of one aiiniliil report, published in IHS.'i; the .second of unnum-
bered biennial re-ports; the third of unnumbered annual i.-pojl <;
the fourth of numbered biennial reports beginning with No. 4;
the fifth of numbered biennial reports beginning with No. 1.
A series of bulletins have been published from 1X83-1900 num-
bered from 1-71. It is doubtful, however, whether any were
issued between X and "<0. Five non -dial report1-- were i u. d
between 1XXO and 1901 consisting of reports of eommitiees,
library catalogues and the, like. Separate n-poit have al o In en
issued of the proceedings of the l-'ruit (irowcrs* Convention.
The first report issued by this board was published in 1883
under the title, "Third Annual Convention of the Frui I, Growers
of the State of California." Hi-ports of succeeding conventions
have been published, either in M-jiaiale loim or in the repoit of
the State Hoard (later in the repoit ol the Slate ( 'ommission),
with the exception of the twentieth to twenty thiid conven-
tions which were never published. At least three Htatc conven-
tions of olive-growers have been held undr-r the an -pie. .; ol the
State Hoard of Horticulture, 1891-3, for which separate reports

have |,,-en i--ucd. TheM- have appeared under the title "Olive

Indu.-try. Proceedings of the State Convention of Olive
(irowers, held under the auspices of the State Hoard of Horti-
culture." Organised March 4, 1881, as a subsidiary board to the
State Hoard of Viticultural Commissioners. On March 13, 1883,
became independent by Act of Legislat m- .

CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURAL COMMISSIONERS.
This board published a report in 1882 entitled, "First Report
of the Board of State Horticultural Commissioners," covering
the work from 1880-2; also proceedings of first and second
Fruit Growers Convention.

CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF VITICULTURAL COMMISSIONERS.
Published seven annual reports for the years 1880-94. Of
the first report, 1880, two editions were issued. The third
report, 1882-4, was published in, or rather was identical with,
the report of the chief viticultural officer for those years. There
were also issued separately two annual reports of the chief
viticultural officer, the first for 1881, published 1882, the second
for 1882-3 to 1883-4 (being the one just mentioned). Later
reports of the viticultural officer are contained in the annual
reports of the board. Two publications, "Grafting to Muscats"
and "Wines, Their Care and Treatment," jssued in 1888 and
1889, are called Appendix 4 and 5 respectively of the report
for 1888, but no report for 1888 seems to have appeared. How-
ever, there was issued a report of proceedings 01 sixth annual
viticultural convention and the report of the president of this
board. These may have constituted the report for this year.

CALIFORNIA STATE COMMISSION OF HORTICULTURE. This
organization has grown out of the original Htatc Board of Horti-
culture. It publishes a biennial report. The first report, 1903-4,
was issued under the title, "First Biennial Report of the Com-
missioner of Horticulture." Total number of volumes, 6.
Reports of the forty-third and forty-fourth State Fruit Growers'
Conventions were not published. Monthly bulletins have been
published since December 1911. Address, Capitol Building,
Sacramento.

COLORADO

COLORADO STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. The first report was
issued in 1884. Reports have been published continuously since
then, with the exception of the year, 1895-6, which was never
published. There has been considerable variation in the title,
and the reports have been sometimes annual, sometimes bien-
nial, the first, covering three years. Up to 1880, the name of
the body was Colorado State Horticultural Society; 1HH7 90,
Colorado State Horticultural and Forestry Association; 1H91-2,
Colorado State Bureau of Horticulture; 1893 to 1913, Colorado
State Board of Horticulture. In 1913, the State Board of Horti-
culture was abolished, and the office of State Horticulturist
created. The report of the State Horticulturist will take the
place of the Annual Report of the Board of Horticulture. Total
number of volumes, 24. Address, Fort Collins.

CONNECTICUT

STATE POMOLOOICAL SOCIETY. This society has published an
annual report for the pant 15 years. The first report was issued
under the title "A brief record of the work of the Conneetiottt
Pomological Society, " in I'.XXI. Total number of volumes, 10.
Organized in 1891. Address, Milford.

DELAWARE

PENINSULA HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is pub-
lished by the society. The first report was published in 1888
under the title, "Transactions of the Peninsula Horticultural
Society." The publication is still continued under thin title.
Total number of volumes, 27. Volume XIV was issued in two
parts, Part I, the Proceedings of the annual session of 1901
and Part II, a pamphlet of HO paj/e-, on "The I'rincipal Pests
and Diseases of the Apple Orchard." Addrews, Dover. (This
society includes also a part of Maryland and Virginia.)

FLORIDA

FLORIDA STATK HOHTHTI.TIMIAI, SOCIETY. An annual report is
published by the society. The first report wa.s published in
1892 under the title, "Transactions of Florida State Horti-
cultural Society." This title wa- continued up to IIMI'l when it
changed to "Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural
Society." The publication ha., been continuous. Total numbei
of volumes, '22. .Special pap.-is on flowers, fruits, vegetable-, and
the like appear in the reports but are not published separately
Organized in 1887. Address, Jacksonville.

GEORGIA

GEORGIA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Annual reports are
issued, now published by the society. The first report was
published in 1877 under the title, ''Proceedings of Oco

,

State Horticultural Society." The publication is still continued.
The first to thirtieth reports were published by the society.
The next five were published by the State Board of Entomol-
ogy,— Bulletins Nos. 25, 27, 30, 33, 35. The report for 1912 was
published by the State College of Agriculture as a part of the
report of the Fourth Annual Farmers' Conference held in 1912.
The thirty-eighth report, for 1914, was published as a bulletin
of the State College of Agriculture, Vol. 2, No. 12. This report
was afterward published separately by the society. Total
number of volumes, 38. There have been no special reports.
Address, College of Agriculture, Athens.

NORTH GEORGIA FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. The society has
issued two reports, the first entitled, "Proceedings of the Sixth
Annual Session of the North Georgia Fruit Growers' Associa-
tion . . . 1902." A report of the seventh session for 1904 is
also published.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

There is no separate horticultural organization, only the Board
of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry.

IDAHO

IDAHO STATE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. An annual report is
published by the society. The first report was published in
1904 under the title, "Annual Report of the Idaho State Horti-
cultural Association." The publication has been continuous
under this title. Total number of volumes, 9. There have
been no special reports. Address, Boise.

ILLINOIS

ILLINOIS STATE HOBTICULTUBAL SOCIETY. Annual reports are
published by the society. The first report was published in
1856 under the title, "Transactions of the Illinois Horticultural
Society." The publication is still issued under this title. The
report of the first annual meeting was published in Volume II
of the Illinois Agricultural Society Transactions. There was
no report of the second annual meeting. The third meeting
was published in Volume III, Illinois Agricultural Society
Transactions, the fourth in tin- Prairie Farmer, the fifth in
Volume IV, Agricultural Society Transactions, sixth, seventh
(these two bound in one volume), and eighth in pamphlet form,
ninth in Volume V, Agricultural Society Transact ions, tenth in
pamphlet form and the eleventh in a bound volume. The pro-
ceedings of the twelfth annual meeting were issued as Volume I
New Series. There have been 47 issues in this series to date.
Total number of volumes is as follows: Four reports bound in
the Transactions of the Illinois Agricultural Society, 1 in the
Prairie Farmer, 4 pamphlets and 40 bound volumes. The only
special report ever published was of the Society's Kxhibit at the
World's Fair in 1893. Beginning with March, 1913, has issued
a quarterly journal entitled "Illinois Horticulture." Address,
Normal.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OK CENTRAL ILLINOIS. This society
issues annual reports that are published in the Transactions
of the State Horticultural Society.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY or NORTHERN ILLINOIS. The annual re-
port of this society is published in the transactions of the rtate
society. The transactions of the first and fourth meeting, 1867-8,
1871, were also published in separate form. The first has the title,
"Transactions of the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society
embracing the first organization and meeting . . . December
18, 1807. With the proceeding- and • :.ys at the first annual
meeting . . . February 13, 1868."

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS. The annual
report of this society is also published in the report of the
state society.

INDIANA

INDIANA HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues an annual
report published by the state. The first report was published
in 1866 under the title, "Transactions of the Indiana Horti-
cultural Society." The publication has been continuous under
the one title. Total number of volumes, 53. Bulletins on special
subjects were published by the society from 1904-11. Or-
ganized 1860. Address, W. Lafayette.

1556

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

IOWA

IOWA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Annual reports, published
by the state, are issued by this society. The first report was
issued in 1868 under the title, "The Proceedings of the Iowa
State Horticultural Society, for 1866-7." From 1871-7, the
reports have the title "Annual Report;" from 1878-90,
"Transactions;" and from 1891 to the present time, "Report."
Total number of volumes, 47. The reports from 1866-70
were bound with the agricultural report and also in paper
separates; since that time, they have been bound as separate
volumes. The society has issued seven bulletins: "Forestry
Manual," 1881; "Plants of Iowa," 1907; "Iowa Horticulture,"
1908; "Proceedings Iowa Park and Forestry Association,"
1904, 1905, 1906, 1907." Address, Des Moines.

KANSAS

KANSAS STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues
biennial reports published by the state. The first report was
published in 1871 under the title, "Condensed Transactions of
the Kansas State Pomological and Horticultural Society from
its organization to its last annual meeting, and in full for the
year 1871." From 1877-86, the reports were issued under the
title, "Kansas Horticultural Report;" from 1887-95, "Biennial
Report of the Kansas State Horticultural Society." The reports
up to 1887 and for 1896-1901 were published annually. Total
number of volumes, 32. Special reports have been published on
forestry, apple, peach, plum, grape, cherry and apricot. Address,
State House, Topeka.

KENTUCKY

KENTUCKY STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. A few publications
have been issued by this society at long intervals, but no com-
plete records of these are available. In 1865, a report was pub-
lished under the title "Report of the Kentucky State Pomologi-
cal Society;" in 1881, "Proceedings of the Kentucky Horti-
cultural Society at its annual meeting, Jan. 13, 14 and 15, 1880."
The Proceedings for 1907 were published in the Report of the
Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Statistics for 1907. The
report for 1911 was issued as "The Report of the Kentucky
State Horticultural Society" and was also published in the
Report of the Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Statistics for
1911. There was no report for 1912. The report for 1913 was
also published in the Report of the Bureau of Agriculture,
etc. The report for 1914 was issued as "The Report of the
Kentucky State Horticultural Society." Address, College of
Agriculture, Lexington.

LOUISIANA

LOUISIANA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues no
reports at present and held no meetings from 1908-1912. Pre-
vious to this time, however, annual reports were issued by the
state. The first report was published about 1901 under the
title, "State Horticultural Society Proceedings." From 1904-8,
five volumes were issued as "Proceedings of the Annual Meet-
ing." The last meeting of the old horticultural society was held
in 1908 and in 1912 it was reorganized and holds annual meet-
ings at the State University, Farmer's Short-course in January
of each year. Address, Baton Rouge.

MAINE

MAINE STATE POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Annual reports are pub-
lished by the society. The first report was published in 1873
under the title, "Annual Report of the Maine State Pomological
Society." Reports have been published continuously except
for the years 1879, 1880 and 1881. Abstracts from the Trans-
actions of these years were published as an appendix to the
Transactions for 1890. In 1882, the title was changed to
"Transactions of the Maine State Pomological Society." In
most cases, these reports have also been contained in the report
of the Commissioner of Agriculture. Organized in 1873. Ad-
dress, Bowdoinham.

MANITOBA

MANITOBA HORTICULTURAL AND FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. Annual
reports are published by the association. The first report was
issued in 1898 under the title, "Report of Proceedings of the
Western Horticultural Society for the years 1896-8." The
publication is still continued but in 1911, the name of the
society was changed to "Manitoba Horticultural and Forestry
Association." They were published as biennial reports from
1896-8 and 1901-2, as a triennial report for 1902-5 and as
annual reports from 1898-1900 and 1906-9. No report for 1910.
Annual report for 1911 and biennial report for 1912-13 and 1914
have been published. Total number of volumes, 12. A few short
papers have also been published by the Association. In April
1914, a monthly publication known as the "Manitoba Horti-
culturist" was issued by the association. Future annual reports
will consist of bound copies of the year's issue of this monthly,
together with a short account of the annual meeting. Address,
Agricultural College, Winnipeg.

MARYLAND

MARYLAND STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report
is issued, published by the society. The first report was pub-
lished in 1898 under the title, "Report of the Maryland State
Horticultural Society." The publication is continuous under
this title. Total number of volumes, 16. There have been no
special reports. Address, College Park.

MASSACHUSETTS

MASSACHUSETTS ASPARAGUS GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Formed in
1906 to promote the restoration of asparagus to its immunity
from rust, or the discovery of a species that shall be rust-resist-
ant, and the dissemination of information in relation to its
growing and marketing. Is in close touch with the cooperative
experiments carried out at Concord by the United States
Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment
Station at Amherst. The association holds an annual field-day
in September and publishes a report of the proceedings. Bulle-
tin No. 263, United States Department of Agriculture by J. B.
Norton is devoted to these experiments. Address, Concord.

MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society publishes
its own annual report. The first report was issued in 1829
under the title, "Massachusetts Horticultural Society." One
number, March, 1859, was published under the title, "The Jour-
nal of the Proceedings." The publications have been continuous
since 1839. It was formerly published in one volume once a year,
but since 1874 it has been published in two parts annually or
occasionally in three, as in the case of 1895-7. There are
numerous special articles in the Transactions on the culture of
flowers, fruits and vegetables. The society has also issued the
following publications: in 1862, "Properties of Plants and
Flowers;" in 1864, "Proceedings on the occasion of the laying of
the corner-stone of the new hall;" in 1873, a "Catalogue of the
Library;" in 1880, "History of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, 1829-78;" in 1889, "Window Gardening, and a list of
some of the flowers found growing naturally in the vicinity of
Boston." Address, Horticultural Hall, Boston.

MICHIGAN

MICHIGAN STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues an
annual report published by the state, and also a monthly
journal called "Michigan Horticulture." The first report was
published in 1870 under the title, "Annual Report of the Michi-
gan State Pomological Society." The publication has been con-
tinuous with the exception of the year 1904, when no report was
published. The report for 1905 is in the back of the report for
1906. The title was changed in 1881 to "Annual Report of the
State Horticultural Society." Total number of volumes, 42.
Address, Fennville.

MINNESOTA

MINNESOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report
and a monthly magazine entitled, "Minnesota Horticulturist,"
are published by the state. The first report was published in
1873 under the title, "History of the Minnesota Horticultural
Society from the first meeting in 1866, to the last in 1873, com-
prising debates, addresses, essays and reports." Reports for
1874-82 have the title, "Transactions." The Minnesota
Horticulturist began publication in February, 1894, with Vol.
22, the volume number of the annual report for that year, and
continues this system of numbering. The publication is still
continued, but in 1899 the title was changed to "Trees, Fruits
and Flowers of Minnesota." This comprises the 12 monthly
journals and the annual report of the society, bound together.
Total number of volumes, 43. There have been no special
reports. Address, 207 Kasota Block, Minneapolis.

MISSISSIPPI

A State Horticultural Society existed about twenty-five years
ago and published one or two reports.

MISSOURI

MISSOURI STATE BOARD or HORTICULTURE. The Board issues an
annual report published by the state. The first report was
published in 1907 under the title, "Annual Report of the State
Board of Horticulture." The publication has been continuous
under the same title. The publications of the State Horticul-
tural Society since 1907 have been included in the Reports
of the State Board. Total number of volumes, 7, the last being
chiefly taken up by orchard census of the state of Missouri
taken in 1913. There have been 67 bulletins published on vari-
ous phases of fruit-growing, vegetable-growing and the like,
most of which are reprints of special articles from the reports.
Two circulars and ten pamphlets have also been issued Ad-
dress, Columbia.

MISSOURI STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. From 1857-1907,
annual reports were issued. These comprise 50 volumes,
published by the state. They were published under the title,
"Reports of the State Horticultural Society.". The report is
now embodied in the Report of the State Board. In the past
ten years, this society has issued a number of special bulletins.
Address, Mountain Grove.

MONTANA

MONTANA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Biennial reports are
published by the state. The first report was published in 1900
under the title, "First Biennial Report of the State Board of
Horticulture." The publication is still continued under the
above title. Total number of volumes, 6. There have been no
special reports. Address, Missoula. The 1914 report will be
combined in the volume of the report of the Horticultural
Society.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1557

MONTANA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues
annual reports published by the state. The first report was
published in 1907 under the title, "Proceedings of the Ninth
Annual Session of the Montana Horticultural Society." The
publication has been continuous under the same title. In con-
nection with the fifteenth report, is the first report of the
Country Life Commission. In January, 1902, there was printed
a series of papers in pamphlet form, including the constitution
and by-laws of the society. Total number of volumes, 8. There
have been no special reports. Address, Missoula.

NEBRASKA

NEBRASKA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is
published by the society. The first report was published in 1870
under the title, "Annual Report of the State Horticultural
Society," and was printed in the same volume as the report of
the State Board of Agriculture. The publication is still pub-
lished under this title. Thirty-two bulletins on particular phases
of horticulture have been published. Since February, 1911, the
society has published a monthly journal, "Nebraska Horti-
culture." Total number of reports, 45. Address, Capitol
Building, Lincoln.

NEVADA
There are no horticultural societies in Nevada.

NEW BRUNSWICK

NEW BRUNSWICK FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This society
issues annual reports published by the province. The first
report was published in 1905 in the "Report on Agriculture
for 1904," issued by the Department of Agriculture. The pub-
lication is continuous. Up to 1911, the reports were published
in the annual report of the Department of Agriculture. The
Report of the Horticultural Division, Department of Agricul-
ture, was combined with the report of the association for 1910
and published as a separate document in that year. Total num-
ber of reports, 9. No special reports. Address, Fredericton.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION, NEW ' BRUNSWICK DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE. The first annual report was published in 1910 in
the general report of the Department. In 1911, a separate report
was published with the association report. The division pub-
lishes leaflets and bulletins on special subjects. Established in
1910. Address, Fredericton.

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW HAMPSHIRE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Annual reports are
published by the society. The first report was published in
1908 under the title "Annual Report of the New Hampshire
Horticultural Society." The publication has been continuous
under the same title, except for the year 1911. There have
been no special reports. Organized in 1893. Address, Goffs-
town.

NEW JERSEY

NEW JERSEY STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues
an annual report published by the state. The first report was
published in 1876 under the title "Proceedings of the New
Jersey State Horticultural Society at its Annual Meeting."
The publication is continuous under the same title. Total
number of volumes, 39. There have been no special reports.
Organized in 1875. Address, Riverton.

NEW YORK

EASTERN NEW YORK HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This organization
is now a part of the New York State Fruit Growers' Association.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK. A quarterly journal con-
taining the reports of proceedings and the like is published by
the society. Also memoirs devoted to special subjects are Issued.
Vol. I. "Report of Second International Plant Breeding Confer-
ference," 1902; Vol. II. "Report of International Confer-
ence on Acclimatization," 1900. Address, New York Botanical
Garden. Society organized 1900; incorporated 1902.

NEW YORK STATE FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Annual reports
and crop bulletins are issued, published by the society. The
first report was published in 1903 under the title, "Proceedings
of the Annual Meeting." The publication is still continued
under this title. Total number of volumes, 13. There have
been no special reports. Address, Penn Yan.

NEW YORK STATE VEGETABLE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Organ-
ized 1911; has published two volumes of proceedings. Address,
Ithaca.

WESTERN NEW YORK HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. The first annual
report was issued in 1874 under the title, "Proceedings of Western
New York Horticultural Society." The publication still continues
under the same title. Total number of volumes, 40. There have
been no special reports. Established 1855. Address, 204 Granite
Building, Rochester.

NORTH CAROLINA

DIVISION or HORTICULTURE OF THE NORTH CAROLINA DEPART-
MENT OF AGRICULTURE. The reports of the Division of Horti-
culture are included in the Department reports. Biennial
reports have been published since 1900, making seven to date.
Monthly bulletins have been issued since 1879 by the Depart-
ment, only a few of which are strictly horticultural. There are
35 volumes in this series. Special horticultural circulars are
also issued from time to time. Address, Raleigh.

NORTH CAROLINA STATE ^RTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society
has not been in active existence for some years but it is now in

Erocess of reorganization. A few annual reports, however,
ave been issued, those for 1886, 1893, 1894, 1898 and 1906.
There have been issued separately five reports of the Exper-
imental Farm of the society at Southern Pines. They have
also published the following special bulletins: "The Cow Pea,"
"Plant Food," and "Truck Farming."

NORTH DAKOTA

NORTH DAKOTA HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. No reports published.
Members receive those published by the Minnesota Horticul-
tural Society.

NOVA SCOTIA

NOVA SCOTIA FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. An annual report is
published by the society. The first report was published in
1875 under the title, "Report of the Fruit Growers' Association
and International Show Society of Nova Scotia." No other
reports were published until 1883. Those from 1883-1894 bore
the title, "Transactions and Reports of the Fruit Growers'
Association and International Show Society of Nova Scotia;"
those from 1895 to the present time,"Annual Report of the Fruit
Growers' Association of Nova Scotia." The publication is con-
tinuous under the same title. Total number of volumes, 31.
Address, Port Williams.

OHIO

COLUMBUS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Annual reports published
by the society are issued. From 1845^-1886, the proceedings of
the monthly meetings were published in Columbus newspapers.
From 1886-1890, a journal was issued monthly and from 1890-
1895, this journal was issued as a quarterly. These publications
were entitled "Journals of the Columbus Horticultural Society."
From 1890 to the present time, the society has published an
annual report under the title, "Proceedings of the Columbus
Horticultural Society." Total number of volumes, 27. Address,
Columbus.

DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE OF THE OHIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRI-
CULTURE. This organization has issued at least three bulletins,
1907-1909.

OHIO STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society was organized
in 1847 as the "Ohio Pomological Society," whose first report
was published in 1848. In 1866, the name of the society was
changed to the "Ohio State Horticultural Society." Thia
society issues an annual report. The first report was published
in 1868 under the title "Annual Report of the Ohio State Horti-
cultural Society (late Pomological Society)." Reports for 1907-8
are published in Bulletins Nos. 1 and 3 of the Division of Horti-
culture of the Ohio Department of Agriculture. Since 1908,
the annual reports have been issued independently. Quarterly
bulletins have been issued during the past three years. Total
number of volumes, 47. Address, Newark.

OKLAHOMA

OKLAHOMA STATE FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Issues no
publications.

ONTARIO

FRUIT BRANCH OF THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
Annual reports, published by the province, are issued. The
first report was published in 1909 under the title, "Annual
Report of the Fruit Branch of the Ontario Department of
Agriculture." This publication is now incorporated in the
annual report of the Minister of Agriculture. From 1894-1907,
a separate report, "The Fruit Experiment Stations of Ontario,"
was published by the Department. This was merged with the
Fruit Branch in 1908. Total number of volumes, 14. A special
report on "Fruits of Ontario" was published in 1906 and revised
in 1914. Special reports on fumigation and, orchard spraying
were issued for a few years but are now combined with the
Report of the Fruit Branch. Complete bulletins of every fruit
grown in Ontario and also on special horticultural subjects are
issued and revised from time to time as part of a regular series
of bulletins published by the Ontario Department of Agricul-
ture. Address, Parliament Buildings, Toronto.

FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION OF ONTARIO. This society issues
an annual report published by the province. The first report
was published in 1863 under the title, "Report of the Fruit
Growers' Association of Upper Canada." The publication is
continuous, but "Ontario" has been substituted for "Upper
Canada." Total number of volumes, 49. Address, Parliament
Buildings, Toronto.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES OF ONTARIO. This organization pub-
lishes an annual report. The first report was published in 1907
under the title, "First Annual Report of the Horticultural
Societies of Ontario." Total number of volumes, 8. Address,
Parliament Building, Toronto.

ONTARIO VEGETABLE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This society was
organized in 1909 and has held annual meetings since that
time. Proceedings of all the meetings are published. Address,
Parliament Buildings, Toronto.

1558

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

OREGON

OREGON STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. This board issues bien-
nial reports published by the state. The first report was pub-
lished in 1891 under the title, "Biennial report of State Board
of Horticulture." The publication is continued under the above
title. Total number of volumes, 12. There have been special
bulletins issued on fruits, spraying, orchard management and
the like. They have issued at least nine numbered bulletins of
which 1-3 may be found in the first biennial report and 5-7 in
the second. Address, Portland.

OREGON STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is
published by the state. The first report was published in.?1909
under the title, "Proceedings and Papers of the Twenty-fifth
Annual Meeting of the Oregon State Horticultural Society."
In 1892, one report was published in connection with the Report
of the State Board of Horticulture. The publication is con-
tinued under the title "Proceedings and Papers of the Annual
Meeting of the Oregon State Horticultural Society." Total
number of volumes, 5. There have been no special reports.
Address, Portland.

PENNSYLVANIA

STATE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. Annual
reports are published, usually by the society, but from 1878-

1894 they were published in connection with the reports of the
State Board of Agriculture of Pennsylvania. The report for

1895 was issued as Bulletin 8 of the State Board of Agriculture;
those for 1896 and 1899-1906 were published in the annual
report of the Department of Agriculture. The first report
was published sometime between 1860 and 1867 under the

vania." The publication has been continuous with the excep-
tion of the year 1897, which was never published. There have
been no special reports. Organized in 1860. Address, Flora
Dale.

PORTO RICO

PORTO Rico HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Only one report has been
published, that of 1911-12, under the title, "First Annual
Report of the Porto Rico Horticultural Society." From July,
1908, to October, 1910, the "Porto Rico Horticultural News"
was issued monthly as the official organ of the Porto Rico Horti-
cultural Society. In December, 1910, this journal was merged
with "Porto Rico Progress" which has since been issued weekly.
Address, Mayaguez.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. This
society issues annual reports published by the Department of
Agriculture. The first report was published in 1896 under the
title, "First Annual Report of the Fruit Growers' Association
of P. E. I." The publication is still continued under this title.
Some of the reports are bound with the Report of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and are not published separately. Total
number of volumes, 15. There have been no special reports.
Address, Charlottetown.

QUEBEC

MONTREAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND FRUIT GROWERS' ASSO-
CIATION OF THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. This society published
its first annual report in 1876 under the title, "First Report of
the Fruit Committee of the Montreal Agricultural and Horti-
cultural Society." The second report was entitled "Transac-
tions and Second Report of the Fruit Committee, etc," and was
published in 1877. From 1877-1882, the reports have the title
"Report of Montreal Horticultural Society and Fruit Growers'
Association of the Province of Quebec." Later reports have the
same title with the words "Annual Report" substituted for
"Report." The society has not been in active existence since
about 1893 and no recent reports have been published.

POMOLOGICAL AND FRUIT GROWING SOCIETY OF THE PROVINCE OP

QUEBEC. Annual reports and pamphlets are issued, published
by the society but paid for by the Government. The first
report was published in 1895 under the title, "Annual Report
of the Pomological and Fruit Growing Society of the Province
of Quebec." The publication is continuous under this title.
Total number of volumes, 21. There have been no special
reports. Chateauguay.

RHODE ISLAND

RHODE ISLAND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues no
publications except premium lists for its exhibitions. Address,
Providence.

SOUTH CAROLINA

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH CAROLINA. This society is not
now in existence. It published only one report in 1889 entitled
"Report of the First Meeting of the State Horticultural
Society."

SOUTH CAROLINA FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This society was
organized about six years ago but has held only one meeting.
No publications have as yet been issued. Address, Greenville.

SOUTH DAKOTA

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society
issues an annual report published by the state. The first
report was published in 1904 under the title, "First Annual
Report of the Thirteenth Meeting." The publication is continu-
ous under the title, "Annual Report." Total number of volumes,
11. There have been no special reports. Incorporated under
state law, January 9, 1890. Address, Brookings.

TENNESSEE

TENNESSEE STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Annual proceedings

are issued, beginning with 1914.
TENNESSEE STATE NURSERYMEN'S ASSOCIATION. Proceedings are

issued annually, the first appearing in 1914. Address, Knoxville.

TEXAS

TEXAS NURSERYMEN'S ASSOCIATION. This association holds annual
meetings, reports of which are published in the reports of the
Texas Farmers' Congress. No special reports are issued.
Address, Sherman.

TEXAS NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This association was organ-
ized in 1904 and continued until July, 1910, when it was merged
into the State Horticultural Society. One bulletin on pecans
was published with the proceedings of the Texas Farmers'
Congress; "Pecans and Other Nuts in Texas," 1908. "The
Pecan and Hickory in Texas," by E. J. Kyle was published by
the Texas Department of Agriculture in bulletin form in 1911.

TEXAS STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is pub-
lished in the general proceedings of the Texas Farmers' Con-
gress, published by the Department of Agriculture, bulletin
form. In 1889, there was a report published by the society
containing the reports of meetings from 1886-1889 under the
title, "Initial Report of the Texas State Horticultural Society."
No other reports were published until about 1905 when they
were included in the Farmer's Congress Report. There are no
special reports. Address, College Station.

UTAH

UTAH STATE HORTICULTURAL COMMISSION. This organization
publishes a biennial report. The first report was issued in 1897
under the title, "Report of the State Board of Horticulture."
Reports from 1897-1908 have the title, "Biennial Reports of
the State Board of Horticulture;" 1909-1910, "Biennial Report
of the State Horticultural Commission." Total number of
volumes, 9. There have also been at least 9 numbered bulle-
tins, the first six numbers of which appear also in the annual
reports. Address, 412 Vermont Building, Salt Lake City.

UTAH STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is issued
by the society. The first report was published in 1912 under the
title, "Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Convention of the Utah
State Horticultural Society." A report of the eighth annual
convention, 1912, has been issued. Organized 1905. Address as
above.

VERMONT

VERMONT STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This society issues
annual reports published by the state in "Vermont Agricul-
ture" and also as separates. The first report was published
in 1896 under the title, "Report of First Annual Meeting of
Vermont State Horticultural Society." No other report was
published until 1905, when there was issued the "Second Annual
Report of the Vermont State Horticultural Society, Proceed-
ings of the Tenth Annual Meeting." The publication is con-
tinuous. Total number of volumes, 12. There have been no
special reports. Address, Burlington.

VIRGINIA

VIRGINIA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report is
issued by the society (which has state appropriation). The
first report was published in 1898 under the title, "Annual
Report of the Virginia State Horticultural Society." The
publication is still continued under this title. The society issues
four quarterly bulletins each year, the first issue containing a
revised "Spray Calendar." Have also published "Fruit Grow-
;,,«. ir, v; ,-„;,,;., •• an)j| "Packing Apple Book." Address,

ing in Virginia,'
Crozet.

WASHINGTON

WASHINGTON STATE HORTICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. Annual
reports and bulletins are published by the society. The first
repprt was issued in 1901 under the title, "Report of the Wash-
ington State Horticultural Association." The publication still
continues under the same title. Total number of volumes, 9.
There have been no special reports. Address, State Secretary's
Office, Walla Walla.

WEST VIRGINIA

WEST VIRGINIA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Up to 1913
this society issued an annual report published by the State
Board of Agriculture as one of its quarterlies. The first report
was published in 1894 under the title, "Special Bulletin No. 2,
State Experiment Station." The second, third, fourth and fifth
annual meetings were reported in the "Farm Reporter" (no
longer published), sixth, seventh and eighth in the "Farm Re-
view" (no longer published), ninth in pamphlet form, tenth,

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1559

eleventh and twelfth in "Farm Review," and the thirteenth
to nineteenth have been issued by the State Board of Agri-
culture. The twentieth report is published by the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture, as the Board of Agriculture has been
disbanded. There have been no special reports. Address, Mor-
gantown.

WISCONSIN

WISCONSIN STATE CRANBERRY GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. This
association has issued twenty-seven annual reports and ten
semi-annual reports. The first report was issued in 1887.

WISCONSIN STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. An annual report
is published by the state. The first regular report was published
in 1871 under the title, "Transactions of the Wisconsin State
Horticultural Society." Beginning with the report for 1889,
the publication bore the title, "Annual Report." Since 1910,
the report has been issued in two parts: Part I, containing
constitution, by-laws, business transactions and list of members
which are for distribution to members only. In 1868, a report
was published entitled, "Report for the years 1864-8, with a
short historical sketch since its organization." This society
also issues a monthly magazine entitled, "Wisconsin Horticul-
ture," the first issue of which appeared in September, 1910.
Between 1896 and 1903, a monthly periodical, entitled "The
Wisconsin Horticulturist," was issued. Nineteen numbered
bulletins have appeared between March, 1903, and April, 1910.
Address, Madison.

WYOMING

WYOMING STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. Biennial reports are
issued. The first report was published in January, 1907,
under the title, "Biennial Report of the Wyoming State Board
of Horticulture." The publication is continued under the same
title. Special bulletins, alternating with the reports, are pub-
lished—four have been issued thus far, — 1908, 1910, 1912, 1914.
Address, Laramie.

WYOMING STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Proceedings are issued
in publications of the above board, those bearing the odd num-
bers in the biennial reports, and the others in the special bulle-
tins.

North American horticultural periodicals.

The periodicals of any subject are supposed to chroni-
cle all the fleeting events of the days and years, and to
preserve them for future generations, but it is the most
difficult thing to remember and record the journals
themselves. Horticultural journals probably have lived
and died in this country without having attracted the
attention of a single library or collector of books. It is
probably no exaggeration to say that more than 500
horticultural journals have been started in North
America. There are more than sixty in continuance at
the present moment.

The "Massachusetts Agricultural Repository" was
started in 1793, but it was as late as 1821 that a horti-
cultural department was added to it. This was an
organ of a society rather than a journal in the present
sense. American agricultural journalism is usually
dated from the establishing of the original "American
Farmer" in Baltimore in 1819. The first journal to
devote any important extent of its space to horticul-
tural matters was the original "New England Farmer,"
which was established in Boston in 1822, and which was
one of the chief instruments in the organization of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Its first editor
was Thomas G. Fessenden, author of the "New Ameri-
can Gardener," a book which appeared in 1828, and
passed through at least six editions.

A "Floral Magazine" was started in Philadelphia in
1832 and continued sometime afterward. It contained
colored plates of ornamental plants. The entire work,
except the illustration, was done by the two David
Landreths and it was published by them. Tradition
says that it was not a paying venture and after several
years it was discontinued. The volume of 1832 com-
prises eighty pages, with descriptions and colored illus-
trations of thirty-one stove and other ornamental
plants. The full title is "The Floral Magazine and
Botanical Repository. Published by D. & C. Landreth,
Nursery and seedsmen, Philadelphia." The bound
volume is 8% x 11 inches. The "Horticultural Register
and Gardener's Magazine," established in Boston in
1835, and edited by Fessenden and Joseph Breck, and
"Hoyey's Magazine," were among the first distinct
horticultural periodicals. The former, although a mag-

azine of more than ordinary merit, did not persist
long. The latter was founded by C. M. Hpvey and
P. B. Hovey, Jr., and was called the "American Gar-
dener's Magazine and Register of Useful Discoveries
and Improvements in Horticultural and Rural Affairs, "
a journal which, in the third volume, became the
"Magazine of Horticulture," and which enjoyed an
uninterrupted existence until 1868, thus covering a
third of a century of one of the most critical and inter-
esting periods in American horticulture.

The next important journalistic venture was the
"Horticulturist," begun in July, 1846, and continued
under many changes and vicissitudes for some thirty
years, and was finally represented, in line of descent,
by "American Gardening," which ceased to exist in
November, 1904. The "Horticulturist" had been pub-
lished in Albany, Rochester, Philadelphia and New
York. The first seven volumes were edited by A. J.
Downing; the eighth and ninth by Patrick Barry;
the tenth by Barry and J. J. Smith; the eleventh to
fourteenth by J. J. Smith; fifteenth and sixteenth by
Peter B. Mead; seventeenth and eighteenth by Mead
and G. E. Woodward. Later it was continued by Henry
T. Williams, in New York, until the close of 1875, when
the "Horticulturist" was united with the "Gardeners'
Monthly," of Philadelphia. This latter magazine
started January 1, 1859, as a quarto, but became an
octavo with its second volume. It continued until the
close of 1887, when, upon the death of its publisher,
Charles Marat, it passed into the hands of "American
Garden," New York. It had a long and useful career
under the editorial management of one of the most
accomplished and conscientious of American horti-
culturists, Thomas Meehan, whom all the succeeding
generation had learned to love.

The "American Garden"as such, before it absorbed the
"Gardeners' Monthly," traced an independent descent
from two other journals. The senior of these was "The
Ladies' Floral Cabinet," the first number of which was
issued January 1, 1872, by H. T. Williams, who was also
editor and publisher of the "Horticulturist," at 5 Beek-
man Street, New York. Mr. Williams' idea was that
the cultivation of flowers properly belonged to women,
that they were by nature eminently fitted for it, and
that a journal adapted to their wants would greatly
aid them in their work, and prove a financial success to
the publisher. For some time "The Floral Cabinet"
was well sustained and well edited, but after about
three years Mr. Williams became wholly absorbed in
religious publications and his interest was gradually
withdrawn from floriculture. In January, 1880, the
"Cabinet" and all the personal effects of Mr. Williams
passed into the hands of Adams & Bishop, who con-
tinued the publication with varied success, and who
intended to close up the business as soon as they could
do so to the best advantage. In June, 1882, the paper
and good will were sold to Ralph H. Waggoner, who
gave it new life; he secured the services of C. L. Allen
as an advisory editor, the active work falling upon
Miss S. A. Fraser. The last number under Waggoner's
management was issued January 1, 1887, when it was
absorbed by the "American Garden." The other
independent journal absorbed by "American Garden"
was known as the "Flower Garden," and the first num-
ber was published October 1, 1872; it was edited by
C. L. Allen, and published quarterly by C. L. Allen
& Co., 76 Fulton Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. It existed
one year and was then sold to Beach, Son & Co., seed
and bulb merchants, who removed its publication office
to Barclay Street, New York, and changed its name to
"The American Garden," the late Mrs. C. V. Beach
becoming its editor. Beach & Son continued the publi-
cation as a quarterly till the year 1880, when B. K.
Bliss & Sons secured possession of both the paper and
the seed business. It was at this epoch that F. M.
Hexamer became editor. Two years later (1882) the

1560

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

publication again became a monthly. In 1883, E. H.
Libby secured possession of the property, but its publi-
cation was continued under the same editorial control
till the end of 1885; during some part of this period the
publication office was at Greenfield, Mass. Things
stood as they were till 1890, when the magazine shape
was adopted. In that year, L. H. Bailey became editor
and continued in that capacity till 1893. In January,
1892, soon after the absorption of "Popular Gardening,"
of Buffalo, N. Y., the title was altered to "American
Gardening," so as to unite and typify both names.
Prior to this amalgamation, after having had a career
of seven years under Elias A. Long, its founder, "Popu-
lar Gardening" had absorbed many minor magazines.
For a time E. A. Long, in association with T. Greiner,
edited the combined journal. After 1893, Leonard
Barren assumed the editorship, the periodical having
been taken over by the A. T. De La Mare Publishing
Company, publishers of "The Florists' Exchange." In
October, 1898, James Withers took over the publi ca-
tion. The American Gardening Publishing Company
succeeded to the ownership in 1901. In 1903, the Ameri-
can Gardening Co., was organized, the business mana-
ger being Thomas B. Meehan; and with this organi-
zation the regular continuity of the periodical as a
general horticultural magazine came to a close. The
"Fruit Grower" of St. Joseph, Mo., took over the mailing
list.

The "Philadelphia Florist" completed its first volume
in 1852-3. The subsequent volumes (at least three)
were known as the "Florist and Horticultural Journal."
It was a very creditable monthly magazine, with col-
ored plates. An early journal in the new West was
Hooper and Elliott's "Western Farmer and Gardener,"
Cincinnati, September, 1839-45, with plates colored
by hand.

The first pomological journal was probably Hoffy's
"Orchardist's Companion," a quarterly, established in
Philadelphia in 1841, and edited by Dr. Brinckle". It
was a pretentious quarto, with colored plates, of which
only one volume was issued. This was followed in 1860
by the "North American Pomologist" by Dr. Brinckl6,
an abler publication than the other. Other early horti-
cultural periodicals were "Western Horticultural Re-
view," Cincinnati, 1851-3, edited by John A. War-
der; "American Journal of Horticulture," later known
as "Tilton's Journal of Horticulture," Boston, 1867-
71 (9 vols.), edited in its last three years by the
younger Robert Manning; "Western Pomologist," Des
Moines, Iowa, and Leavenworth, Kansas, 1870-72,
by Mark Miller, J. Stayman, and others. The first
attempt to establish a weekly, after the pattern of the
great English journals, was "Garden and Forest," which
appeared in New York in 1888, under the management
of Professor Charles S. Sargent, of Harvard University.
This journal continued till the close of 1897, compris-
ing ten completed volumes of very high character and
entitled to rank as one of the noteworthy undertak-
ings in the entire field (see Stiles, p. 1597). Probably
the first journal devoted to a particular fruit or plant
was Husmann's "Grape Culturist)," St. Louis, 1869-71.

The first florists' trade paper to persist is "The Ameri-
can Florist," issued August 15, 1885; this was followed
by "Florists' Exchange," in 1889; and "Florists'
Review," 1895. "Horticulture," established 1904, is
also practically a trade paper. All of these are continu-
ing.

On the Pacific coast, the earliest distinct horticultural
periodical was the "California Culturist," the first num-
ber of which appeared in January, 1859. This ran
through four volumes, and it records the marvels of the
first era of modern fruit-growing upon the Pacific slope.
Before this, however, "The California Farmer," had
been established (January, 1854). It maintained a
spasmodic existence for a number of years, and printed
the first pomological and horticultural reports of com-

mittees. "The Pacific Rural Press" was established
in 1871, in San Francisco, and still continues, devoted
very largely to the horticultural interests. The "Cali-
fornia Horticulturist" was established in 1870, and
ran through ten yearly volumes, when, in 1880, it was
merged into "The Pacific Rural Press." "The Rural
Californian," of Los Angeles, still in existence, was
established in 1877. "The California Fruit-Grower,"
commenced in 1888, still survives (1912) as "The
California Fruit News." "The California Florist,"
first issued in Santa Barbara, then in San Francisco,
began in May, 1888, and stopped in 1889. "The Cali-
fornia Cultivator," of Los Angeles, established in 1884,
is still published. See pages 1507, 1508 for further
discussion of California journals.

EXTANT HORTICULTURAL JOURNALS
(WITH DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT)

IN CANADA

BRITISH COLUMBIA FRUIT AND FARM MAGAZINE. John Nelson, ed.
M. 1909. Vancouver, B. C.

THE CANADIAN FLORIST. H. B. Cowan, ed. Pub. by Horticul-
tural Publishing Company. Every second Friday. SI. 1903.
Peterboro, Ont.

THE CANADIAN HORTICULTURIST. H. B. Cowan, ed. Pub. by
Horticultural Publishing Company. M. SI. 1878. Peterboro,
Ont.

FRUIT GROWER AND FARMER. James A. Livingston. S.-M. $1. 1907.
Grimsby, Ont. (Formerly "Fruit Grower, Market Gardener
and Poultryman.")

LB JOURNAL D' AGRICULTURE ET D'HORTICULTURE. Pub. by
Minister of Agriculture of Quebec. H. Nagant, ed. M. SI.
1879. Quebec, Que.

MANITOBA HORTICULTURIST. Published by Manitoba Horticul-
tural and Forestry Associations. M. SI. 1914. Winnipeg.

MARITIME APPLE. 1912. Kentville, N. S.

IN THE UNITED STATES

ACKER UNO GARTENBAUZEITUNG. The Herold Company. W.

SI. 1869. Milwaukee, Wis.
AMERICAN FLORIST. The American Florist Company, ed. and pub.

W. SI. (Canadian subscription, $2.) 1885. Chicago, 111.
AMERICAN FRUIT AND NUT JOURNAL. H. Harold Hume. S-Q.

SI. 1904. Petersburg, Va.
AMERICAN FRUITS. R. T. Olcott. M. $1.50. 1903. Rochester,

N. Y.

AMERICAN NUT JOURNAL. R. T. Olcott. M. S1.25. 1914. Roches-
ter, N. Y.
AMERICAN POMOLOGIST. Pub. by American Pomological Society.

Q. 45 cts.
APPLE WORLD, THE. U. G. Border. M. SI. 1914. Baltimore. Md.

Official organ of the Apple Advertisers of America.
ARKANSAS FRUITS AND FARMS. E. N. Hopkins. Fort Smith, Ark.

(First appeared under title "Ozark Produce Journal," then

"Ozark Fruits and Farms.")

BETTER FRUIT. E. H. Shepard. M. $1. 1906. Hood River, Ore.
CALIFORNIA CULTIVATOR. C. B. Messenger, ed. W. SI. 1884.

Los Angeles.
CALIFORNIA FRUIT NEWS. H. C. Rowley, ed. and pub. W. $3.

1888. San Francisco. (Formerly "California Fruit Grower.")
CALIFORNIA GARDEN. Alfred D. Robinson, ed. M. SI. 1908.

San Diego, Calif.

CAROLINA FRUIT AND TRUCKER'S JOURNAL. Z. W. & W. S. White-
head. S-M. SI. 1897. Wilmington, N. C.

EASTERN FRUIT. S. M. Paschall. M. 50 cts. 1912. Philadelphia.
FARM AND ORCHARD. R. W. Thrush, ed. M. $1 for 3 yrs. 1913.

Keyser, W. Va.
FLORIDA GROWER. Florida Grower Publishing Company. W.

$1.50. 1908. Tampa, Fla.
FLORISTS' EXCHANGE, THE. A. T. De La Mare Printing and

Publishing Co. W. SI. 1888. New York.

FLORISTS' REVIEW. H. B. Howard, ed. W. SI. 1897. Chicago, 111.
FRUIT AND PRODUCE DISTRIBUTOR. Distributor Publishing Co.

W. $2. 1913. Portland, Ore.
FRUIT BELT. Geo. W. Welsh. M. 50 cts. 1905. Grand Rapids,

Mich.
FHUITMAN AND GARDENER. L. McCutcheon, ed. and pub. M.

50 cts. 1897. Mount Vernon, Iowa.
FRUITMAN'S GUIDE. Fruitman's Guide, Inc. W. $1. 1896. New

York.
FRUIT GROWER AND FARMER. W. G. Campbell, ed. M. $1. 1897.

St. Joseph, Mo. (Known as "Western Fruit Grower" until

October, 1912.)
FRUIT TRADE JOURNAL AND PRODUCE RECORD. Fruit Trade

Journal Company. W. SI. 1889. New York.
GARDENERS' CHRONICLE OF AMERICA, THE. Chronicle Press, Inc.

M. $1.50. 1905. Madison, N. J.
GARDENING. The Gardening Company, ed. and pub. S-M. $2.

1892. Chicago, 111.
GARDEN MAGAZINE. Doubleday, Page & Co. M. $1.50. 1905.

Garden City.N - Y.

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

1561

GREEN'S FRUIT GROWER. Chas. A. Green, ed. M. 50 cts. 1881.

Rochester, N. Y.

GULF COAST CITRUS FRUIT GROWER AND SOUTHERN NURSERY-
MAN. Albert S. Leecraft. M. $1. December, 1910. Houston,
Texas.
HORTICULTURE. W. J. Stewart. W. $1. 1904. Boston.

HOUSE AND GARDEN. McBride, Nast & Co. M. S3. 1901. New
York, N. Y.

ILLINOIS HORTICULTURE. Pub. by Illinois State Horticultural
Society. Q. 1913. Normal.

INTERMOUNTAIN FRUIT JOURNAL AND INTENSIVE AGRICULTURIST.
R. E. Turpin, ed. Alfred Patek, pub. $1. 1910. Grand
Junction and Denver, Colo. (Now consolidated with "Western
Farm Life.")

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE. Official organ of the American
Society of Landscape Architects. Published by Lay, Hubbard
and Wheelright. Q. $2. 1910. New York.

MARKET GROWERS' JOURNAL. S. W. Severance. S.-M. $1. 1907,
Louisville, Ky.

MICHIGAN HORTICULTURE. Pub. by Michigan State Horticultural
Society. M.

MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST. Minnesota State Horticultural
Society. M. $1. 1894. Minneapolis, Minn.

MODERN GLADIOLUS GROWER, THE. Madison Cooper, ed. and pub.
M. 50 cts. 1914. Calcium, N. Y.

NATIONAL NURSERYMAN. National Nurseryman Publishing Co.,
Inc. M. $1. 1893. Rochester, N. Y.

NEBRASKA HORTICULTURE. Published by Nebraska State Horti-
cultural Society. M. $1. 1911. Lincoln.

NORTHERN FRUIT GROWER. M. 1911. Howard Lake, Minn.

NORTHWEST FARM AND ORCHARD. R. E. White. M. 50 cts.
Spokane, Wash.

NORTHWEST HORTICULTURIST AND DAIRYMAN. C. A. Tonneson, ed.
and pub. M. 50 cts. 1888. Tacoma, Wash.

NUT-GROWER. J. F. Wilson. M. SI. 1902. Waycross, Ga.

ORCHARD AND FARM IRRIGATION. A. Dixon. M. $1. 1886.
San Francisco, Calif. (Formerly "Orchard and Farm.")

PACIFIC FRUIT WORLD. M. V. Hartranft. W. S2. 1895. Los
Angeles, Calif.

PACIFIC GARDEN. P. D. Barnhart, ed. M. $1. 1907. Pasadena,
Calif.

PARK AND CEMETERY AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING. Allied Arts
Publishing Co. M. $2. 1891. Chicago, 111.

PARK'S FLORAL MAGAZINE. Geo. W. Park. M. 10 cts. 1871.
La Park, Pa.

PEACH GROWERS' JOURNAL AND APPLE TRADE REVIEW. W. John
Hinchey, ed. and pub. M. $1. 1899. Middleport, N. Y.

SOUTHERN FRUIT GROWER, THE. R. S. Walker, ed. M. 50 cts.
1896. Chattanooga, Tenn.

SOUTHERN ORCHARDS AND FARMS. J. W. Canada. M. 50 cts. 1907.
Houston, Texas. (First appeared under title "Texas Fruits."
From 1909-11 had the title "Southern Orchard and Homes.")
Now appears under title "Southland Farmer," La Porte, Texas.

TREE GOLD. Benjamin W. Douglass, ed. M. 50 cts. 1914. India-
napolis, Ind.

TRUCKER AND FARMER. H. J. Hill, e_d. M. $1. 1906. New
Orleans, La. (Now "Modern Farming." A. B. Gilmore, ed.
Established 1870.)

TRUCK FARMER OF TEXAS. J. C. Loving. M. $1. 1899. Dallas.

VEGETABLE GROWER. H. L. Freking, ed. M. 50 cts. 1911.
Spencer, Ind.

WISCONSIN HORTICULTURE. Pub. by the Wisconsin State Horti-
cultural Society. M. 1910. Madison.

ACADIAN ORCHARDIST. H. G. Harris, ed. and pub. W. $1. 1873.

Kentville, N. S.
COURIER AND OKANAGAN ORCHARDIST. Geo. C. Rose, ed. and

pub. W. $1.50. 1904. Kelowna, B. C.
FARM AND GARDEN CULTURIST. Richard Burke, ed. 1888-9.

P. E. I.
POULTRY, GARDEN AND HOME ADVOCATE. H. B. Donovan. M.

50 cts. 1898. Toronto, Ont. (Now "Poultry Advocate.")

IN THE UNITED STATES

AMERICAN FARM AND HORTICULTURIST. L. J. Thompson. Q.
25 cts. 1889-94. Lakewood, Ohio. Pub. at Richmond, Va.,
from 1891-93.

AMERICAN FARM AND ORCHARD. W. D. Bassford, ed. M. 1901-6.
Mexico, Mo.

AMERICAN FRUIT AND FARM. American Publishing Company. M.
$1. 1908. Paonia, Colo.

AMERICAN GARDEN. F. M. Hexamer and others. M. 1874-91.
New York, N. Y.

AMERICAN GARDENING. Rural Publishing Company. $1. M.
1892-1904. New York. (Merged into "Western Fruit Grower"
now "Fruit Grower.")

AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL ADVERTISER.

AMERICAN HORTICULTURIST. Leavenworth & Burr Co. M. $1.
1885-6. Detroit, Mich. (Established as "Michigan Horti-
culturist." Combined with "Popular Gardening.")

AMERICAN HORTICULTURIST. M. 1891-8. Wichita, Kans. (Estab-
lished as "Smith's Small Fruit Farmer.")

AMERICAN HORTICULTURIST. W. Douglas, ed. W. $1.50. 1910-
11. Fowler, Ind.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND FLORISTS' COM-
PANION. 1867. (Later changed to "Tilton's Journal of Horti-
culture.")

AMERICAN TRUCK FARMER. W. T. Burkam, ed. M. October,
1903 to December, 1905. St. Louis, Mo. (Changed to "Farm
Money-Maker. ' ' )

APPLE SPECIALIST. James McKinnay. M. 50 cts. 1903-8. Quincy,
111. (Merged into "Green's Fruit Grower.")

ARKANSAS FRUITS. D. E. Debou, ed. 50 cts. 1912-14. Fayette-
ville, Ark. (Now merged with "Arkansas Fruits and Farms.")

BOSTON FLOWER MARKET AND NEW ENGLAND FLORIST. (Changed
to "New England Florist ")

BOWDITCH'S AMERICAN FLORIST AND FARMER. M. 1881-5. Boston.
(Merged into "Orchard and Garden.")

CACTUS JOURNAL. M. 1894-8. Baltimore, Md.

CALIFORNIA CULTURIST. M. 1858-63. San Francisco.

CALIFORNIA FLORIST AND GARDENER. E. E. Smith, ed. M.
1888-9. San Francisco. (Merged into "Pacific Rural Press.")

CALIFORNIA FRUIT EXPORTER. Scott & Wood. M. $1. 1891.
San Francisco.

CALIFORNIA HORTICULTURIST. M. 1871-80. (Merged into "Pacific
Rural Press.")

CENTRAL STATES FRUIT GROWER. 1896-9. (Later "National Fruit
Grower.")

CITROGRAPH. Redlands, Calif.

COLORADO FRUIT GROWER. Paonia and Grand Junction, Colo.
(Title changed to "Irrigation Fruit Grower.")

CRANBERRY GROWER. W. H. Fitch, ed. M. $1. 1903-5. Cranmoor,
Wis.

DAHLIA NEWS. New England Dahlia Society. M. $1. 1907-11.
Boston.

EASTERN NEW YORK HORTICULTURIST. Q. 1897-9. Chatham.
N. Y.

EASTERN SHORE FARMER AND FRUIT CULTURIST. M. 1893-1902.
Salisbury, Md., and Georgetown, Del. (Established in 1893 as
the "Strawberry Culturist.")

FANCY FRUIT. Granville Lowther, ed. and pub. M. $1. 1907-9.
North Yakima, Wash. (Later changed to "Washington Fruit
Grower.")

FARMER AND FRUIT GROWER. Florida Publishing Co. W. Jackson-
ville, Fla.

FARM, GARDEN AND POULTRY. Farm, Garden and Poultry Com-
pany. M. 50 cts. 1902. Hammonton, N. J.

FIELD, LAWN AND GARDEN. W. B. Davis, ed. M. 1874-5.
Madison, Wis.

FLORAL INSTRUCTOR. M. 1880-91. Ainsworth, Iowa.

FLORAL LIFE. Young & Bennett Co. M. 50 cts. 1903-8.
Springfield, Ohio. (Merged into "Household Journal and Floral
Life.")

FLORAL MAGAZINE. John Lewis Childs. Floral Park, N. Y.

FLORIST AND HORTICULTURAL JOURNAL. H. C. Hanson. M.
1852-5. Philadelphia. (Established as "Philadelphia Florist
and Horticultural Journal.")

FLOWER GARDEN, THE. 1872-1. Brooklyn, N. Y.

FLOWERS, F. W. Stack, ed. Pub. by Suburban Press. M. $1,
1912. New York.

FRUIT AND GRAPE GROWER. A. R. Blakey, ed. M. $1. 1886-9.
Charlotteville, Va.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWER. M. 1889-90. Cheswold, Del.

FRUIT GROWER. W. $2. 1892. Macon, Ga.

FRUIT GROWER AND HORTICULTURIST. E. R. McKenny, ed. M.
$1. 1890-1. Lacon, 111.

FEUIT GROWER'S JOURNAL. O. O. Buck, ed. and pub. W. from
1883-6.; S.-M. from 1887-1907; M. 1908. 50 cts. 1883.
Pub. at Cobden, 111., 1883-1907; at Treynor, Iowa. 1908.
(Merged into "Green's Fruit Grower.")

FKUIT RECORDER AND COTTAGE GARDENER. A M. Purdy. M. $1.
1869-86. Palmyra, N. Y. (Established as "Small Fruit
Recorder and Cottage Gardener." Absorbed by "Popular
Gardening.")

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. D. H. Stearns, pub. M. $2. 1891-2.
Portland, Ore.

FRUITS AND FLOWERS. A. W. Dyer. M. 10 cts. 1906. Chautau-
qua, N. Y. (Absorbed by the "Vegetable Grower.")

GARDEN AND FOREST. C. S. Sargent. W. $4. 1888-97.
New York, N. Y.

GARDENERS' MAGAZINE. Joseph Breck. 1835. Boston.

GARDENERS' MAGAZINE. M. 1854-5. Boston.

GARDENERS' MONTHLY. Thomas Meehan. M. January 8, 1859 to
January, 1888. Philadelphia. (Absorbed by "American Gar-
den.")

GRAPE CULTURIST. Geo. Husmann. M. 1869-71. St. Louis,
Mo.

HOME AND FLOWERS. M. 1896-1904. Springfield, Ohio. (Estab-
lished as "How to Grow Flowers." Continued under following
title.)

HOME AND FLOWERS, formerly "How to Grow Flowers," consoli-
dated with "Success with Flowers." M. 1890-1906. West
Grove, Pa. (Established as "Success with Flowers." Merged
into "Vick's Magazine.")

HOME FLORIST. Q. 1898-1901. Springfield, Ohio. (Merged into
"Home and Flowers.")

HORTICULTURAL ART JOURNAL. T. B. Jenkins, ed. $2. 1886-91.
Rochester, N. Y.

HORTICULTURAL MARKETPLACE. John S. Gallagher. W. Septem-
ber, 1910, to October 31, 1910. Rochester, N. Y.

HORTICULTURAL REGISTER. Thomas G. Fessenden. M. 1835-9.
Boston.

HORTICULTURAL REVIEW AND BOTANICAL MAGAZINE. J. A.
Warder, ed. M. 1853-4. Cincinnati, Ohio. (Established as
"Western Horticultural Reveiw.")

1562

HORTICULTURE, LITERATURE OF

HORTICULTURAL VISITOR. (See "Our Horticultural Visitor.")
HORTICULTURIST. A. J. Downing and others. M. 1846-75.
Albany, Rochester, Philadelphia and New York. (United with
"Gardeners' Monthly.")

HOUSEHOLD JOURNAL AND FLORAL LIFE. W. A. Martin, ed.
M. 25 cts. 1903. Central Publishing Company, Springfield,
Ohio.

HOVEY'S MAGAZINE OF HORTICULTURE. C. M. Hovey. M. 1835-
68. Boston. Seems never to have had this title on title page.
Title: 1835-6, "American Gardeners' Magazine and Register

of Useful Arts;" 1837-68, "The Magazine of Horticulture,

Botany and all Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural

Affairs." United with "American Journal of Horticulture" to

form "Tilton's Journal of Horticulture.").
How TO GROW FLOWERS. 1896-1900. (Title changed to "Home

and Flowers.")

INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURIST. 1889. Harrisburg, Pa.
IOWA HORTICULTURE. Pub. by State Horticultural "Society. M.

Des Moines. January to December, 1908.
IRRIGATION FRUIT GROWER. R. H. Perry, ed. M. $1. 1905-11.

Denver, Colo. (Established as "Western Slope Fruit Grower;"

then as "Colorado Fruit Grower." Absorbed by "Intermoun-

tain Fruit Journal.")
LADIES FLORAL CABINET. M. 1872 to January 7, 1887. New York.

(United with "American Garden.")
LADIES HORTICULTURAL MAGAZINE AND FLORAL REGISTER. M.

Baltimore, Md. (Prospectus issued in June, 1833.)
LEWISTON ORCHARDS LIFE. H. H. S. Rowell, ed. M. 50 cts.

1912-14. Lewiston, Idaho.

MAGAZINE OF GARDENING AND BOTANY. M. 1834. Baltimore, Md.
MAGAZINE OF HORTICULTURE, BOTANY AND ALL USEFUL DIS-
COVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN RURAL AFFAIRS. (See "Hovey's

Magazine of Horticulture.")
THE MARKET GARDEN. Market Garden Publishing Company.

M. 50 cts. First number published in January, 1894, and in

July and in October the regular monthly journal began. Dis-
continued 1906. Minneapolis, Minn.
MAYFLOWER. J. L. Childs. M. 50 cts. 1885-1906. Pub. at Floral.

N. Y. 1885-6; Queens, N. Y. 1887-8; Floral Park, N. Y.

1889-1906. (Merged in "Floral Life.")
MEEHAN'S GARDEN BULLETIN. S. M. Meehan. M. $1. 1909-13.

Germantown, Pa.

MEEHAN'S MONTHLY. T. Meehan. M. $2. 1891-1902. German-
town, Pa.
MICHIGAN FRUIT GROWER. Pub. by Practical Farmer Company.

W. 1893-9. Grand Rapids, Mich. 1893-6 "Practical Farmer

and Fruit-Grower."
MICHIGAN HORTICULTURIST. Chas. W. Garfield, ed. W. H. Burt

Publishing Company, pub. M. 1885-6. Detroit, Mich. (Title

changed to "American Horticulturist.")
MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS FARMER AND FRUITMAN. R. J. Profitt.

M. 50 cts. 1888. Kansas City. Mo. (From 1888-94 had

title "Kansas City Progress and Western Farm Journal.")
MONTANA FRUIT GROWER. 1896-1901. Missoula.
NATIONAL FRUIT GROWER. Fruit Grower Publishing Company.

M. 50 cts. 1894-1910. St. Joseph, Mo. (From 1896-9 had

title "Central States Fruit Grower.")
NATIONAL FRUIT GROWER. Chas. Greening. Monroe, Mich.

(1896-9 "Central States Fruit-Grower.")
NATIONAL HORTICULTURIST. Q. 1890-3. Cambridge, Md.
NATIONAL HORTICULTURIST. National Horticulturist Company.

M. $1. 1909 to March, 1912. Council Bluffs, Iowa.
NEBRASKA HORTICULTURIST. J. G. Carpenter. Q. 25 cts. 1883-

93. Blower, Neb.
NEW ENGLAND FLORIST. New England Florist Company. W.

1896-9. Boston. (Established as "Boston Flower Market and

New England Florist.")

NEW YORK HORTICULTURAL REVIEW. 1855. New York.
NORTH AMERICAN HORTICULTURIST. M. 50 cts. 1895-1907.

Monroe, Mich.
ORANGE BELT. L. M. Holt. M. $2. 1890-4. Pub. at Alessandro,

Calif. 1890-2; Rialto, 1893; Los Angeles, 1894. A weekly edition

began in 1893 as "The Orange Grower."
ORCHARD AND GARDEN. J. T. Lovett Company, pub. M. 50

cts. 1879-92. Little Silver, N. J.

ORCHARD FRUITS. Wm. Dyke. M. 50 cts. 1892-3. Effingham, 111.
ORCHARDISTS' COMPANION. A. Hoffy. Q. 1841-2. Philadelphia.
ORNAMENTAL AND FOREST TREE GROWER. J. J. Pinney. M.

50 cts. Evergreen, Wis.
OUR HORTICULTURAL VISITOR. C. G. Mendenhall, ed. M. 50 cts.

1895-1906. Kinmundy, 111. (First number had title, "Southern

IlHnois Horticultural Visitor"; 1895-1901, "Horticultural

Visitor.")

PACIFIC TREE AND VINE. 1882. San Jose, Calif.
PEACH GROWER. Mr. Bryan, ed. and pub. Savannah, Ga.
PEACH GROWER, FRUIT CULTURIST AND TRUCKERS' MAGAZINE.

R. M. Martin, ed. and pub. M. 50 cts. 1903-1909. Savannah,

Ga.
PHILADELPHIA FLORIST AND HORTICULTURIST JOURNAL. R. R.

Scott, ed. 1852-3. (Continued as "Florist and Horticultural

Journal.")

PILOT POINT HORTICULTURIST. M. Pilot Point, Texas.
POPULAR GARDENING AND FRUIT GROWING. Elias A. Long. M.

1885-91. Buffalo, N. Y. (Combined with "American Gar-
den.")-

PRACTICAL FARMER AND FRUIT-GROWER. (See "Michigan Fruit

Grower.")
PRACTICAL FRUIT GROWER. G. A. Atwood. M. 1894-1907

bpnngfield, Mo. (From 1894-1900 had title, "The Southwest."

Merged into "American Fruit and Nut Journal.")
PRACTICAL NURSERYMAN AND HORTICULTURAL ADVERTISER M

1893-1902. Huntsville, Ala.
PROGRESSIVE EASTERN FRUIT GROWER. John S. Gallagher 1910-

11. Rochester, N. Y.

PURDY'S FRUIT RECORDER AND EVAPORATOR. A, W Purdv O
25 cts. 1889-94. Palmyra, N. Y.

ROGUE RIVER FRUIT GROWER. Charles Meserve. M. $1. 1909-

12. Medford, Ore.

ROSE JOURNAL. Published by the American Rose Society. O.

1912-13. Fishkill-on-Hudson, N. Y.
SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE. C. R. Orcutt. M. $2. Orcutt,

Calif. Also pub. at Los Angeles and San Diego.
SEED TIME AND HARVEST. Isaac F. Tillinghast. M. (1880-2

Q.) 25 cts. 1880-94. La Plume, Pa. (Merged in "American

Farmer and Farm News.")

SEED TIME AND HARVEST. W. 1897-8. Scranton, Pa.
SEED TIME AND HARVEST. M. 1905-8. Scranton, Pa.
SMALL FRUIT RECORDER AND COTTAGE GARDENER. 1869-71.

(Later "Fruit Recorder and Cottage Gardener.")
SMITH'S SMALL FRUIT FARMER. B. F. Smith. Q. 50 cts. 1891-4.

Lawrence, Kans. (Later "American Horticulturist).
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA HORTICULTURIST. Southern California

Horticultural Society. M. 1877-9. Los Angeles. (Followed

by "Semi-Tropic California;" then united with "Rural Cali-

fornian.")
SOUTHERN FLORAL MAGAZINE. Morton & Titus. M. 50 cts.

Clarksville, Tenn.
SOUTHERN FLORIST AND GARDENER. M. 1894-9. Louisville, Ky.

1894-7; Chattanooga, Tenn., 1898-9.
SOUTHERN FRUIT JOURNAL. James Harrison, ed. and pub. M.

50 cts. 1904. Montezuma, Ga.
SOUTHERN HORTICULTURAL JOURNAL. S-M. 1888-91. Denison,

Texas.
SOUTHERN HORTICULTURIST. H. A. Swasey, ed. M. 1869-70.

Canton, Miss., January and February, 1869; Yazoo City, Miss.,

March, 1869, to August, 1870; Tangipahoa, La., October to

Dec., 1870. (Continued as "Swasey's Southern Gardener.")
SOUTHERN HORTICULTURIST. M. 1892. Humboldt, Tenn.
SOUTHERN HORTICULTURIST. M. Denison and Ft. Worth, Texas.
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS HORTICULTURAL VISITOR. (See "Our Horti-
cultural Visitor.")
STRAWBERRY. R. M. Kellogg Company. M. $1. 1906-7. Three

Rivers, Mich. (Merged into "Fruitman and Gardener.")
STRAWBERRY CULTURIST. (Changed to "Eastern Shore Farmer and

Fruit Culturist.")
STRAWBERRY SPECIALIST. O. W. Blacknall. M. 50 cts. 1897-1903.

Kittrell, N. C.
SUCCESS WITH FLOWERS. Dingee & Conard Co. M. 25 cts. 1890

to June, 1904. West Grove, Pa. (Combined with "Home and

Flowers.")
SWASEY'S SOUTHERN GARDENER. H. A. Swasey, ed. M. 1871.

Tangipahoa, La. (Established as "Southern Horticulturist.")
TEXAS FRUITS, NUTS, BERRIES AND FLOWERS. (Now "Southern

Orchards and Farms.")

TILTON'S JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND FLORISTS' COM-
PANION. 1867-71. Boston. (Formerly "American Journal of

Horticulture and Florists' Companion.")
TRADE JOURNAL AND INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURIST. M. New

York, N. Y.
THI-STATE FARMER AND GARDENER. Tri-state Publishing Company.

M. 50 cts. 1895-1907. Chattanooga, Tenn.
VICK'S MAGAZINE. Vick's Magazine Company. M. 50 cts. 1878-

1906. Rochester, N. Y. Has also been pub. at Dansville, N. Y.,

and Chicago.
VINEYARDIST. J. H. Butler. S-M. $1. 1886-1903. Penn Yan,

N. Y.
WASHINGTON FRUIT GROWER. E. L. Rorrey, ed. 1907-10.

North Yakima, Wash. (Originally pub. under title, "Fancy

Fruit.")
WESTERN FARMER AND GARDENER. Hooper & Elliott. 1839-45.

Cincinnati, Ohio.
WESTERN GARDEN. C. N. Page. 1890-6. M. Des Moinea, Iowa.

(Is now published as "Poultry Success.")
WESTERN GARDEN. 1893-4. Denver, Colo.
WESTERN HORTICULTURAL REVIEW. J. A. Warder, ed. M. 1850-3.

Cincinnati, Ohio. (Continued as "Horticultural Review and

Botanical Magazine.")
WESTERN NEW YORK APPLE. L. P. McNeeley. M. $1.50. 1908.

Barker, N. Y.
WESTERN POMOLOGIST. Mark Miller, Dr. Stayman and others.

1870-2. Des Moines, Iowa, and Leavenworth, Kans. (Com-
bined with "The Horticulturist.")
WESTERN SLOPE FRUIT GROWER. Paonia, Colo. (See "Irrigation

Fruit Grower.").

WISCONSIN HORTICULTURIST. Pub. by Wisconsin State Horti-
cultural Society. M. 1896-1903. From 1896-1902 pub. at

Baraboo and Madison; 1903 at Sparta and Madison.
WOODSMAN. Geo. W. Caldwell. M. 50 cts. Evergreen, Wis.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1563

HORTICULTURISTS, NORTH AMERICAN. At

this place are brought together brief biographical state-
ments on persons not now living who have been emi-
nent in horticulture in any of its branches in the United
States and Canada. It is intended to include those who,
by their own efforts, have had marked influence of a
national scope, or at least an influence extending
beyond state or provincial boundaries, in developing
horticultural thought and practice as cultivators,
tradesmen, authors, teachers, experimenters. As there
is no standard list of such persons, or no recog-
nized basis of judgment, so the present account is
undoubtedly incomplete, and it may lack in uniformity.
No doubt many other names should have been included ;
but the present list represents a large correspondence
extending over nearly three years, and it is as extensive
as circumstances will permit. It is particularly to be
understood that this set of biographies does not attempt
to constitute any standard by which the merits of individ-
ual horticulturists are to be judged. It does not repre-
sent an editorial judgment of persons who should
finally be included in such lists, but only a collection of
data of interest and value so far as it goes. There is
need of a standard biographical work on American men
and women who have been eminent and prominent in
the development of agriculture in its widest sense; it
is hoped that these biographies, and those contained in
the fourth volume of the "Cyclopedia of American Agri-
culture," will be of service to editors who come finally
to prepare such a work.

Adlum, John (Fig. 1868), grape experimenter, and
author of "Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine," 1823
and 1828, the first separately published American grape
book, was born in York, Pa., April 29, 1759, and died at
Georgetown, D. C., March 1, 1836. He was a soldier
in the Revolution, major in the provisional army in the
administration of the elder Adams, and later a brigadier-
general in the mili-
tia of Pennsylvania.
He was also a sur-
veyor and civil
engineer. He also
held an associate
judgeship in Ly-
coming County,
Pennsylvania, hav-
ing been appointed
by Governor Mif-
flin. He was a friend
of Priestly, and en-
deavored to apply
the scientific knowl-
edge of his time to
agriculture. He
early became inter-
ested in the ame-
lioration of the
native grapes, and
established an ex-
perimental v i n e - 1868. John Adlum.
yard in the District

of Columbia. He endeavored, but without success, to
secure the use of certain public land in Washington for
the purpose of "cultivating an experimental farm." He
brought the Catawba grape to public notice. He was a
pioneer in the awakening industrial activity of the new
country. The botanist, Rafinesque, commemorated
his name in the pretty genus Adlumia; but otherwise
he has remained practically unknown until very
recently. For further information, see Bailey, "Evolu-
tion of our Native Fruits." L_ jj. B.

Allen, Charles Linnaeus, seedsman, florist and author,
was born in Union Springs, New York, in 1828 and died
at Floral Park, Long Island, May 21, 1909. He early
evinced a love for flowers, especially the tree peony and

gladioli when they were considered novelties in this
country, and he soon made a horticultural and business
specialty of these. At this time he lived in Brooklyn,
New York, and was a communicant of Plymouth
Church. He was superintendent of the Sunday-school
for a number of years when Henry Ward Beecher was
pastor of the church. Mr. Allen's pleasing ways and
love for the children made him well fitted for the work.
He was genial by nature, a pleasing conversationalist
and a clever writer, an entertaining speaker, and devout
churchman. In the early seventies he engaged in the
wholesale seed trade at Queens, Long Island, under the
firm name of C. L. Allen & Co., and erected an exten-
sive plant for that day and time. The industry did
not flourish as he had expected, and the seed business
was sold to Hallock & Thorpe, a firm well known to
the trade for many years. Mr. Allen then removed to
Garden City, Long Island, and engaged to grow flower
and vegetable seed by contract for many of the seeds-
men, and it is here that he gained an international
reputation as a scientific specialist on the culture of
cabbage and cauliflower. His fame as a seedsman
became worldwide. He wrote several books on horti-
cultural subjects that were pleasing and practical and
therefore popular. He spent his last years at Floral
Park, New York, and was in great demand as a public
speaker for horticultural organizations.

Mr. Allen possessed one of the finest private horti-
cultural libraries in this country, many of the volumes
of European origin and of rare merit, some tracing
back to Holland and to 1497. Mr. Allen was a scholar
and a linguist, and enjoyed the wealth of horticultural
literature to the fullest extent. He was widely appre-
ciated for his wisdom, geniality and his comradeship.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Ames, Frederick Lothrop, of the fourth generation of
a family distinguished in the history of Massachusetts
enterprise, was born in North Easton, in that state,
June 8, 1835, and died September 13, 1893. He was
graduated from Harvard College in the class of 1854,
and devoted his life to the management of great com-
mercial and industrial interests. Business did not
occupy all his attention; he was a Fellow of Harvard
College, a trustee of the Massachusetts Society for
Promoting Agriculture, and of the Museum of Fine
Arts; and an active and faithful director of charitable
and benevolent institutions. A munificent patron of
arts and sciences, he was successful in stimulating the
increase of knowledge in many fields of human research.
Devoted through his whole life to horticulture, he
gained distinction for his wide and accurate knowledge
of tropical orchids and their cultivation, and his col-
lection of these plants at his country place in his native
town was the most complete in the New World. His
important services to botany and horticulture are com-
memorated in Lselia Amesiana, Lselia anceps var.
Amesiana, Phalsenopsis F. L. Ames, Cypripedium
Amesianum, Cypripedium insigne var. Amesianum,
Vanda Amesiana, Slanhopea Amesiana, Miltonia
vexillaria var. Amesiana, Odontoglossum Rossix var.
Amesiana, and Cattleya Hardyana var. Amesiana.

C. S. SARGENT.

Appleseed, Johnny, an interesting and eccentric
character, who sowed apple seeds in the wilds of Ohio
and Indiana between 1801 and 1847. His real name
was Jonathan Chapman. He was born in Boston in
1775, and died in 1847. For forty-six years he walked
barefoot through the wilderness, and was never harmed
by snakes, wild animals, or Indians. He was often clad
in a coffee-sack, in which he made holes for the arms and
legs. He would never kill any creature, and considered
pruning and grafting wicked. Swedenborg and the
New Testament he read aloud in many frontier log
cabins. He had many peculiarities, but was always
welcomed and respected everywhere. In the war of

1564

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1812 he saved many lives by warning the settlers of
Hull's surrender and the approach rf the Indians. He
lived to see trees bearing fruit over a territory of 100,000
sq. mi. The story of this self-sacrificing and useful man
is told by W. D. Haley in Harper's, 43:830-836 (1871).
A movement is on foot in Ohio to erect a monument
to Johnny Appleseed. His history has been the subject
of a romance, "The Quest of John Chapman," by
Newell Dwight Hillis, 1904. WILHELM MILLER.

Arnold, Charles, nurseryman and hybridist, was
born in Bedfordshire, England, in 1818. In 1833 he
removed to Paris, Ontario, and in 1853 established the
Paris Nurseries. He was elected one of the first direc-
tors of the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario and
continued in office during the remainder of his life. He
was an enthusiastic hybridist. Of his productions of
grapes we note five varieties described in the Bushberg
Catalogue for 1883, viz., Othello, Cornucopia, Autochon,
Brant and Canada. In raspberries, he raised quite a
number of crosses of Antwerp with a whitecap of high
quality. Of his many apple seedlings, one especially
has proved of standard value, viz., the Ontario, a cross
of Spy with Wagener. In crossbred peas, he was very
successful, one deserving especial notice, viz., Bliss
American Wonder, a cross of Champion of England
with Tom Thumb. For this he received from Messrs.
Bliss & Son of New York, the handsome sum of $2,000.
His death occurred in 1883. LINUS WOOLVERTON.

Avery, Robert, pioneer nurseryman, was born in
1796 and died December 30, 1879. He was the first
nurseryman and orchardist in the state of Iowa, and in
1837 founded the largest nursery in the state. He him-
self planted and encouraged others to plant large
numbers of fruit trees throughout the Mississippi
Valley states.

Bancroft, George, the famous American historian
(1800-1891), deserves remembrance among horticul-
turists for his notable collection of roses at his sum-
mer home in Newport, Rhode Island, an account of
which may be found in the "American Garden," 1891.
For a portrait and sketch, see "Appleton's Annual
Cyclopedia" for 1890. In Bancroft's garden, George
Field found a rose without a name, which is now
known to be the French variety Mme. Ferdinand
Jamin. It was introduced by Field & Brothers as the
American Beauty.

Barry, Patrick (Fig. 1869), nurseryman, editor and
author, was born near Belfast, Ireland, in May, 1816,
and died in Rochester, New York, June 23, 1890. He
came to America at the age of twenty, and after four
years of service with the Princes, at Flushing, on Long

Island, he founded in
1840, with George Ell-
wanger, at Rochester,
New York, the Mount
Hope Nurseries. Ell-
wanger and Barry in-
troduced fruit-growing
into western New York
at a time when there
were no collections of
fruits, no railroad or
telegraphic facilities,
nor any fast ocean
steamers to bring over
their importations from
Europe. From 1844
to 1852, Barry edited
"TheGenesee Farmer, ' '
an excellent and in-
fluential paper — after-
ward merged in "The
Cultivator and Coun-
1869. Patrick Barry. try Gentleman." After

the death of A. J. Downing he succeeded to the
editorship of "The Horticulturist," which he removed
to Rochester, until June, 1855, after which this famous
magazine had many vicissitudes until 1887, when it
went to swell the number of periodicals now represented
commercially by "American Gardening." In 1851
appeared his "Treatise on the Fruit-Garden," a new
and thoroughly revised edition of which was issued in
1872, under the title of "Barry's Fruit-Garden." It ia
still one of our most popular books on pomology, and
deservedly so. The catalogue of fruits which he com-
piled for the American Pomological Society is a monu-
mental work. Mr. Barry did much to make Rochester
a city of nurseries and western New York a famous fruit-
growing region. The Western New York Horticultural
Society, of which he was president for more than thirty
years, and until his death, has long exercised a more than
sectional influence. The work of Barry was truly
national, and essentially that of a pioneer. He must be
considered in the front rank of pomological authors, with
the Downings, Warder, and Thomas, whose combined
weight gave a great impulse toward establishing
orcharding on a large scale in America. For a fuller
account, see "Annals of Horticulture," 1890, 287-290.

WILHELM MILLER.

Bartram, John, called by Linna?us the greatest
natural botanist in the world, was born at Marple, near
Darby, Pennsylvania, March 23, 1699, and died Sep-
tember 22, 1777. He was a Quaker farmer, who became
interested in botany after the age of twenty-four. In
1728, at Kingsessing, on the Schuykill River, he estab-
lished the first botanic garden in America (page 348,
Vol. I), which, together with his house, built in 1731 of
stone hewn by his own hands, is preserved as part of the
park system of Philadelphia (Fig. 1851). He traveled
much in America, and was for many years the chief
medium of exchange between Europe and America of
plants of all kinds, especially new and important species,
as Rhododendron maximum and Cypripedium acaule.
His correspondence with Peter Collinson lasted nearly
half a century. The letters, preserved to us in Dar-
lington's "Memorials of John Bartram and Humphrey
Marshall," are rich in botanical, historical and general
interest. "Observations on the Inhabitants . . .
made by John Bartram in his Travels from Pensil-
vania to Onondago, Oswego, and the Lake Ontario
. . . London, 1751," is similarly readable, and a
document of great value in the study of aboriginal
races.

At the age of seventy he undertook, with his son Wil-
liam, an expedition to Florida, which is recorded in the
"Journal Kept upon a Journey from St. Augustine up
the River St. Johns." Bartram was probably the first
American to perform successful experiments in hybridi-
zation. His sons, John and William, continued his
garden. For many years it was the largest and best col-
lection of trees and shrubs in America, and the services
of the garden to early American horticulture were very
great. He is commemorated in Bartramia, a genus of
mosses, and in "Bartram's Oak," for the literature of
which see I. C. Martinale's "Notes on the Bartram
Oak, Quercus heterophylla, Michx.," published at Cam-
den, New Jersey, 1880. Bartram's garden is a unique
spot in America. Many of the trees have attained great
age, size and beauty. The garden also contains many
quaint and picturesque relics which have associations
of great interest. On the whole, John Bartram is one
of the most illustrious, and by far the most picturesque,
of the early botanists and horticulturists of America,
and his simple, wholesome, powerful personality pre-
sents a picture that is altogether amiable. New editions
of the works of Bartram and Darlington are much to be
desired, and offer a promising field to critical labors.
John Bartram's son William is well known to students
of American history for his "Observations on the Creek
and Cherokee Indians, 1789." It is very much to be

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1565

regretted that no authentic portrait oi' John Bartram is
known. For an excellent illustrated account of Bartram
and his garden, see article by Miss M. L. Dock in "Gar-
den and Forest," 9:121-124 (1895). See also "Harper's
Magazine," 60 : 321-330 (1880) . WILHELM MILLER.

Beadle, Delos W., scholar, horticulturist, writer,
was the son of Dr. Beadle, St. Catharines, Ontario,
one of the pioneer nurseryman of the province. He was
graduated in Arts at Yale University in July, 1844, and
two years later was granted B. A. (ad cundem) by the
University of Toronto. In 1847, the degree of LL.B.
was conferred upon him by Harvard University, and
in 1848 he was called to the bar in New York City,
where he practised law for about six years. In 1854,
he was admitted to an interest in his father's business,
and in this line he became widely known throughout
Canada. In addition to his other business, Mr. Beadle
accepted the position of horticultural editor of "The
Canada Farmer," and in 1861, two years after its first
organization in Hamilton, he was made secretary and
treasurer of the Fruit Growers Association of Ontario,
and himself contributed largely to its wonderful growth
and usefulness, continuing to be its most important
officer until his retirement in 1887. As a writer on
horticultural and pomological subjects, Mr. Beadle
occupies an important place, as shown by his numer-
ous contributions to the reports of the above-mentioned
society and to the "Canadian Horticulturist." Of
this latter journal, he was practically the originator in
1878, and continued to edit it until 1887. In November,
1862, he was made corresponding member of the
Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and in 1865 a
corresponding member of the Horticultural Society of
London, England. In 1872, Mr. Beadle published his
"Fruit, Flower and Kitchen Gardener," and as late as
the year 1903 contributed his final article to the "Cana-
dian Horticulturist" entitled, "The Carnivorous Plants
of Canada." He died in Toronto, Ontario, August
30, 1905. LINUS WOOLVERTON.

Berckmans, Prosper Julius (Fig. 1870), scholar,
horticulturist, nurseryman, and botanist, was born in
Arschot, Belgium, October 13, 1830, and died at Fruit-
land Nurseries, near Augusta, Georgia, November 8,
1910. His boyhood was spent upon the estates of his
father, who was himself a horticulturist of some note.
He secured his elementary education at Liers and
Tourney; in 1845 he went to France, attending school
at Saint Germain and graduating from Tours in 1847.
While at Saint Germain, he took lectures on botany
at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, and whenever
possible attended the meetings of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society of France. In 1847 he returned to
Belgium and spent three years overlooking the pa-
rental estates and studying botany at the Botanical
Gardens of Brussels. It was during this period that
he became acquainted with Bivort and other prominent
European horticulturists.

For political and religious reasons, young Berck-
mans left Belgium for the United States in 1850; in
1851 he was joined by his family who soon thereafter
purchased a farm near Plainfield, New Jersey. It was
during his six years residence here that he first met
Charles Downing and others prominent in American
horticulture. In the fall of 1857, Mr. Berckmans
moved to Augusta, Georgia, and established the
Fruitland Nurseries by purchasing a one-half interest
in the nurseries of D. Redmond. The following year,
1853, he bought the other half interest and started in
business alone with about twenty-five acres of nursery
stock. From that time until his retirement in 1907,
Mr. Berckmans' sole object was the advancement and
upbuilding of southern horticulture; and as a reward
for his work the University of Geprgja conferred the
degree of Master of Science upon him in 1880.

Mr. Berckmans spent the major part of his life in an

untiring effort to originate, introduce and disseminate
fruits and ornamentals of value to the South. Plants,
cuttings and seed were imported from all parts of the
world to be tested at Fruitlands, and the nurseries
became not only an experimental station but a botani-
cal garden as well,
from which dis-
seminated many of
the most valuable
plants of the south-
ern horticulturist,
among which are
the Honey and
Peen-to peaches,
Kelse y plum,
Japanese persim-
mon, hardy lemon
or Citrus trifoliata
(Poncirus), Amoor
River privet, Biota
aureanana (Thuja),
,'i -^ besides other fruits

H

1870. P. J. Berckmans.

ations of Mr. Berck-
mans were numer-
ous and in their
volumes of proceed-
ings are found most of his writings. In 1869 he first took
an active part in the Americal Pomological Society and
served on various important committees until 1887 when
he was elected president, which office he held until resign-
ing in 1897. He founded the Georgia State Horticul-
tural Society in 1876 and was its president from that
tune until his death in 1910. The Massachusetts
Horticultural Society made him a corresponding mem-
ber; he was likewise honored by La Societe" D'Horti-
culture et D'Histoire Naturelle de L'Herault de Mont-
pelh'er, France; La Societe" Pomologique de France, La
Societe" D'Horticulture de la Gironde de Bordeaux,
and La Societe" D'Horticulture du Department du
Gard, France. His position as president of the State
Horticultural Society of Georgia made him a member of
the State Board of Entomology, on which board he
served from its foundation until his death. He was also
a member of the Board of Control of the Georgia
Experiment Station when it was organized, but served
only a few years. In 1883-4 he went to Europe for the
United States Government, to collect horticultural
exhibits for the New Orleans Exposition. He was
presiding officer over the Horticultural Congress in
Chicago in 1893; Chairman of the Jury of Award at the
Jamestown Exposition in 1907; and the only American
representative to judge the fruit at the centennial of La
Royale Societe" d' Agriculture et de Botanique de Gand,
at Ghent, in 1908. T. H. McHA-rroN.

Brackett, George C., nurseryman, was born at
Unity, Maine, October 26, 1830, and died at Fresno,
California, April 18, 1903. In his early years, his family
moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, and later to Denmark,
Iowa, where his father commenced the nursery busi-
ness. It was here that George became interested in
horticulture. He was a graduate of Amherst College.
In 1856, he went to Leavenworth, Kansas, and joined
the army. He was in a law partnership from 1857 to
1859 and, after the dissolving of this partnership, he
bought land near Leavenworth and opened up a nursery
and fruit farm. This was the first nursery established
in Kansas. Mr. Brackett was the first to introduce the
cultivation of the strawberry and the first to grow pears
in Douglas County. He was a charter member of the
Kansas State Horticultural Society and its secretary for
twenty-six years; also secretary of the American Pomo-
logical Society 1891 to 1898. For portrait, see "Trans.
Kansas Horticultural Society," Vol. XXVII, p. 8.

1566

HORTICULTURISTS

Breck, Joseph, 1794-1873 (Fig. 1871), Boston seeds-
man, and author of "The Flower Garden, or Breck's
Book of Flowers," first published in 1851, and reissued
in 1866 as the "New Book of Flowers." This was pre-
ceded, in 1833, by "The Young Florist." In 1822, he
founded the seed business now conducted at 51 North
Market Street, under the name of Joseph Breck & Sons.
He was one of the original members of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society, and its president from
1859 to 1862. He edited the old "New England
Farmer" for many years, but discontinued it in 1846,
when he turned over his list of subscribers to Luther
Tucker, of Albany, New York, at the time of the found-
ing of "The Horticulturist," which was edited by the
illustrious A. J. Downing. He also edited "The Horti-
cultural Register" from 1836 to 1838, in company with
Thomas Fessenden. The revision of his book in 1866
was undertaken when the author was seventy years old.
It was a popular book in its day. WILHELM MILLER.

Bridgeman, Thomas (Fig. 1872), gardener, florist,
seedsman and author, was born in Berkshire, England,
and came to America in 1824, and established the
business which is now conducted under the name of his

nately, most of his work with raspberries was done with
Rubus Idxus, the Old World species, which is not hardy
in America, but his yellow-fruited variety of raspberry is
still regarded by many as the acme of quality. He was
for many years vice-president of the Pennsylvania
Horticultural Society, and was regarded as a leader of
American pomology. In raising pear seedlings, he was
wont to graft and regraft annually, after the second or
third year from seed. He thus produced new fruits in
half the time required by Van Mons, many of whose
novelties did not fruit within twenty years from seed.
Dr. Brinckle gave away thousands of grafts to amateurs
and tradesmen everywhere, and always prepaid the
carriage. In I860 he edited "Hoffy's North American
Pomologist," a high-class periodical with colored plates,
which, unfortunately, did not survive. Some sprightly
anecdotes of Dr. Brinckle are reprinted from the "Gar-
dener's Monthly" for 1863, in Bailey's "Evolution of
Our Native Fruits." WILHELM MILLER.

Brown, Jacob G., pomologist, was born in Lewisburg,
Pennsylvania, April 26, 1825, and died near Wyoming,
Delaware, November 17, 1896. He came to Delaware
in March, 1868, and purchased a farm of about 200

1871. Joseph Breck.

1872. Thomas Bridgeman.

1873. William Brinckle.

son, Alfred Bridgeman, at 37 East Nineteenth Street,
New York. An historical account of this business may
be found in the catalogue of the present firm. In 1829,
Thomas Bridgeman published "The Young Gardener's
Assistant," which was many times reprinted and
eventually enlarged to five times its original bulk. It
was copyrighted in 1847, when it appeared as a large-
sized work in three parts, covering fruit, vegetable, and
ornamental gardening. Two of these parts were pub-
lished separately in the same year as "The Kitchen
Gardener's Instructor," and "The Florist's Guide."
The first-named work was revised by Sereno Edwards
Todd, and republished in 1866 by Alfred Bridgeman.
Thomas Bridgeman died in 1850. WILHELM MILLER.

Brinckle, William Draper (Fig. 1873), physician
and amateur pomologist, was born in Delaware. He
began the practice of medicine at Wilmington in 1820,
moved to Philadelphia in 1825, where he passed most of
his life as a busy physician, and died at Groveville,
New Jersey, in 1863, at the age of sixty-four. In a
room of his Philadelphia home he hybridized straw-
berries, and had fruit at every season of the year. He
aL«o had a little garden about the size of a parlor. He
produced the Gushing strawberry, the Wilder, President
Cope, Gushing, and Orange raspberries, and the
Wilmington and Catherine Gardette pears. Unfortu-

acres in central Kent County. He immediately planted
a peach orchard of 2,700 trees. In 1870 he set another
peach orchard and 200 apple trees. In 1872 he set
about 20 acres in apples, another 20 acres in peaches,
and commenced growing small-fruits, especially red
raspberries, increasing until he had 50 acres of red
raspberries, and in 1885 nearly the whole farm of
200 acres was set in fruit, 100 acres of it in apples. He
planted nearly every variety of apples that he could
find described in the catalogues of nurserymen. Mr.
Brown made a close study of fruit-growing and carried
on the business with a great deal of energy. He became
a member of the Peninsula Horticultural Society soon
after its organization in 1888, and took great delight in
talking about his fruit-growing. He was especially
enthusiastic about apple-culture. He was one of the
pioneers in apple-growing in Delaware and became
more sanguine of its great success year by year until his
death in 1896. Mr. Brown took an active interest in
every movement that was planned to develop fruit-
growing, and was a public-spirited citizen.

WESLEY WEBB.

Bruner, Thomas Kincaid, was born in Salisbury,
North Carolina, on January 17, 1855, and died in Raleigh
in February, 1908. For many years his father was editor
and owner of the "Salisbury Watchman." Young
Bruner, who received his education at Finley's Aca-

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1567

demic School in Lenoir, North Carolina, early entered
his father's office. His intelligence, industry, and initia-
tive united to induce him to study nature and nature's
works, along with his daily duties, and led him to be a
reader and a thinker. In 1886 he was selected as secre-
tary of the State Board of Agriculture, and thereafter
he lived in Raleigh. His services as secretary were
varied. He had devoted especial attention to the study
of geology, crystalography, and arboriculture. In his
new field he collected for the state and for various
expositions specimens of ores, crystals, woods and other
natural products that attracted attention wherever
they were displayed. He was in charge of the state
exhibits at Atlanta, Georgia, at Boston, at Omaha, at
Chicago, at St. Louis, and in Paris. He was a member
of the International Jury of Awards at New Orleans as
representative for the Bulgarian government. He
edited and wrote many articles on the resources of his
native state. Mr. Bruner's interests were wide and his
mental activities covered many subjects. Few men
ever rendered more service to the agricultural and
industrial life of their states. D jj HILL.

Bryant, Arthur, pioneer nurseryman of Illinois, was
born near Princeton, Illinois, on October 15, 1834, and
died May 13, 1907. Early in life, he became interested
in the nursery business as an aid to his father and later
as owner of the business. Mr. Bryant was one of the
founders of the Northwestern Fruit Growers' Asso-
ciation and at one time its president. He was also
president of the Illinois State Horticultural Society
and of the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society for
a time.

Budd, Joseph Lancaster, horticulturist, investiga-
tor and educator, was born near Peekskill, New York,
July 3, 1835 and died at Phcenix, Arizona, December
20, 1904. In 1859, he started in the nursery business at
Wheaton, Illinois, and a few years later removed to
Shellsburg, Iowa, where he established the Benton
County Nurseries. He was successful as a nurseryman
and fruit-grower, but in 1876, he accepted the profes-
sorship of horticulture and forestry at the Iowa Agri-
cultural College where he remained for nearly twenty-
two years. Professor Budd was instrumental in the
importation of hardy trees, shrubs arid fruits from
Europe, especially from Russia, which he visited in
1882, with Charles Gibb, for this purpose. He also
improved many native fruits, foremost amongst which
was the plum. Professor Budd was the author of the
"American Horticultural Manual." For a fuller account
and portrait, see "Cyclopedia of American Agriculture,"
Vol. IV, p. 558.

Buist, Robert, florist, seedsman, and author, was
born at Cupar Fyfe, near Edinburgh, Scotland, Novem-
ber 14, 1805, and died in Philadelphia, July 13, 1880.
He was trained at the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens,
came to America in August, 1828, and was employed
for a time by Henry Pratt. In 1830 he became the
partner of Hibbert, who had established the first
notable florist's business in Philadelphia. He became
noted for his successes with roses, which were at that
time second in popular favor to the camellia with the
Philadelphians. The great improvement of the ver-
bena was largely due to him, and was immediately
followed by the introduction into America of a distinct
class of bedding plants. He introduced Poinsettia
pulcherrima to the trade, and his sale of the double
form is said to have been the first transaction of the
kind accomplished by ocean telegraph. He was the
author of "The American Flower-Garden Directory,"
in 1832, "The Rose Manual," 1844, and "The Family
Kitchen-Gardener" (copyrighted, 1847), all of which
were frequently reissued, and enjoyed a considerable
sale for many years. An excellent account of his life
may be found in "The Gardener's Monthly," 22:372

(1888). The frontispiece of the bound volume for the
year is his portrait. WILHELM MILLER.

Bull, Ephraim W., the introducer of the Concord
grape, lived a long, quiet, and useful life in Concord,
Massachusetts, where he died September 27, 1895, in
his ninetieth year. In commercial importance, the
greatest event in the early history of American grapes
was the introduction, early in the fifties, of this variety
of the northern fox-grape. The first fruit of this grape
was obtained in 1849. Its exact origin is obscure. In
1840, Mr. Bull bought the house in which he lived until
his death. That year some boys brought from the river
some wild grapes, and scattered them about the place.
A seedling appeared from which Mr. Bull obtained a
bunch of fruits in 1843. He planted seeds of this bunch,
and a resulting plant fruited in 1849. This variety was
named the Concord. It soon became the dominant
grape in all eastern America, as it was the first variety
of sufficient hardiness to carry the culture of the vine
into every garden in the land. It is a pregnant type,
and has given rise to no less than fifty honorable seed-
lings, which range in color from greenish white to pur-
ple-black. The quality of the fruit is excelled by many
varieties, but the latter usually demand more careful
cultivation. The Concord is the one most important
type of American grape, and the really successful com-
mercial viticulture of the country dates from its dis-
semination; and yet this grape is apparently only twice
removed from the wild vine. (See Fig. 1709.) For por-
trait, see Bailey, "Evolution Native Fruits."

Ephraim W. Bull was loved of his neighbors and hon-
ored by every countryman who grows or eats a grape.
He made very little money from his variety, and died in
extreme poverty. The original vine is still preserved,
as a sprout from the old root. L. jj. B.

Burnet, Robert, minister and horticulturist, was
born at Lady Kirk, Berwickshire, Scotland, 1823;
died at Hamilton, Ontario, 1889. After his ordina-
tion, he volunteered as a missionary to Ontario,
then Upper Canada. For twenty-six years, he was min-
ister to St. Andrew's church, Hamilton, Ontario, dur-
ing which time he took a very active interest in horti-
culture. His large garden was to him both a pleasure
and a study and contained a very large and choice col-
lection of varieties of dwarf pears and other fruits.
From these, he gained many valuable notes for use at
meetings of the provincial fruit growers' association.
In the year 1869, Mr. Burnet was elected president of
this association, an office which he- filled with great
credit for ten successive years. His annual addresses
formed an important feature in the annual reports made
to the Department of Agriculture for Ontario during
those years. The reports also contain several prize
essays by him, as for example in 1875 one on "The
Cultivation of the Pear," and one on "Where and How
to Market our Fruits;" also in 1876 an excellent paper
entitled "Criteria for Fruit Judging."

LlNUS WOOLVERTON.

Burr, Fearing, seedsman and author, was born in 1815
and died suddenly at his home in Boston, Massachu-
setts, October 4, 1897. He gained his horticultural
experience in early life on the broad acres of the paternal
homestead. This experience, added to his inherent
tastes and his copartnership in the firm M. &. F. Burr,
Seedsmen, Boston, gave him creditable notice as a
prominent horticulturist throughout New England
and the distant states and territories. His firm was
among the early ones which exchanged international
courtesies with seedsmen. In 1865 he published "The
Field and Garden Vegetables of America." This was
a very interesting and erudite contribution to horti-
culture at that day, and the book found ready sale.
He was an author of some note and contributed to the
horticultural columns of the press. He was elected a

1568

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

life member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society
in 1852 and did much excellent work for the society in
the matter of judging fruits and vegetables, and making
creditable exhibits. In 1857 his firm was awarded a
silver medal for its display of "Sixty Varieties of Beans,
all neatly and correctly labelled." He was diligent in
business, a fluent conversationalist, a ready writer, an
earnest lecturer and a man whose judgment and advice
on horticultural topics was earnestly sought.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Bush, Isador, nurseryman and pioneer grape-grower,
was born in 1822 at Prague, Bohemia. He died in the
city of St. Louis, Missouri, August 5, 1898, having been
a resident there for more than fifty years. In 1865, he
established a grape nursery at the place he named
Bushburg, Missouri, and devoted himself to the culti-
vation of this specialty with marked enthusiasm and
success. He soon had a collection of all known species
and varieties of our native grapes and with the assist-
ance of the eminent botanist, George Engelmann, a
very complete classification of various species was made
and their characteristics were fully described in his
valuable publication, the "Bushburg Catalogue and
Grape Manual." It was through the enterprise of Mr.
Bush that our immune grape roots were sent to Europe
for the purpose of grafting the vinifera varieties upon
them, and thus the ravages of phylloxera were pre-
vented. The American grape industry owes a debt of
lasting gratitude to the pioneer work of Mr. Bush.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Butz, George C., horticulturist and educator, was
born at New Castle, Pennsylvania, on February 1,
1863, of Swiss parentage, and" died December 14, 1907.
He was prepared for college at the New Castle High
School and graduated from Pennsylvania State College
in 1883. The following year he became an instructor
in the preparatory department of the college; in 1887
he was elected to the position of assistant professor of
horticulture, and in 1903 he was made professor of
horticulture. During many years, he was also a lec-
turer at the farmers' institutes of the state, nursery
inspector and adviser for the State Department of
Agriculture, and horticulturist of the State Experiment
Station. He is the author of a number of valuable bul-
letins and other publications upon subjects relating to
his life work. A natural love for plants from his boy-
hood made Professor Butz an apt pupil and determined
his life work. He was an authority on horticultural
subjects. His opinion on the culture of grapes, peaches,
ginseng and carnations was much sought after by state
authorities, and his writings upon these subjects were
highly valued.

Intellectually Professor Butz was a man of culture
and broad horizon. His mental operations were pains-
taking, methodical, exact. Notwithstanding his life-
long practical experience in horticulture, he was a care-
ful student of its rapidly developing literature and
brought to his work the combined products of observa-
tion and wide reading. Always devoted to duty, cheer-
fully making the best of adverse conditions, spending
himself unstintedly for the welfare of his college and of
his state, his life of high ideals and unselfish service was
an inspiration to all who knew him. R L WATTS.

Campbell, George Washington, horticulturist, was
born in Cortland County, New York, January 12, 1817,
and died at Delaware, Ohio, August, 1898. He is best
known as the introducer of the Delaware grape. He
originated and improved numerous other varieties of
grapes, among which are Campbell's Early and Lady.
For a fuller account, see "Cyclopedia of American
Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 560.

Carman, Elbert S. (Fig. 1874), agricultural editor and
experimenter, was born on Long Island in 1836 and
died in 1901. He was educated at Brown University and

1874. Elbert S. Carman.

after graduating was in business for a number of years.
Always interested in gardening and fruit-growing, he
finally associated with the late Andrew S. Fuller in
conducting the "Rural New Yorker." A little later Mr.
Carman bought the paper and established in connection
with it the Rural Experiment Grounds in New Jersey.
Here he tested with great care the varieties of farm and
garden seeds offered by seedsmen. At that time, the

ordinary seed
catalogue was
filled with gross
exaggeration in
text and illustra-
tion. Mr. Car-
man's accurate
reports were
largely instru-
mental in start-
ing a genuine
reform in cata-
logue-making.
Later he spent
much time at
hybridizing and
selecting new
varieties of pota-
toes, grains and
flowers. His
most notable
achievement in
this line was the
famous family of Carman potatoes, including the Rural
New Yorker No. 2. At one time, it is probable that
there were more of this variety grown than of any other
known sort. In the markets today, the larger number
of round, thick potatoes are known and sold as "Rurals."
As a farm journalist, Mr. Carman was very successful,
giving power and individual character to his paper.
He wrote one book "The New Potato Culture" in
which he recorded his exhaustive experiments with
fertilizers, preparation of seed and methods of culture.

H. W. COLLINCWOOD.

Carr, Robert, was born in the parish of St. Andrews,
County of Downs, in the north of Ireland, in 1767. He
was but eight years old when he was brought to Phila-
delphia. In later years, William Bartram, proprietor
of the celebrated Bartram Gardens became his friend,
and later his father-in-law. At the death of Mr. Bar-
tram, Mr. Carr continued the business of the Gardens,
which were the cradle of botany and horticulture on
the American continent. The Gardens gave these
sciences a distinguished position in the literature of the
old world, and they were also the pride of every Phila-
delphian for a great many years. At the formation of
the first society of horticulture in 1827, Colonel Carr
was a charter member, and in 1834 he was made its
vice-president, a position he held until the time of his
death, which occurred in 1866. Q, g BRACKETT.

Cobbett, William (1762-1835), the once-famous
English author, had two periods of enforced residence
in America, and wrote "The American Gardener,"
which is one of the spiciest books in the whole history of
American horticulture. He was of thorough Saxon
ancestry, and while a gardener's lad and during eight
years of military service, made strenuous efforts at
self-education. In 1792 his personal liberty was endan-
gered by the publication of "The Soldier's Friend" (an
appeal for an increase of pay), and he came to Phila-
delphia in the autumn of that year. His first success
was a pamphlet entitled, "Observations on Dr.
Priestly 's Emigration," a bitter attack on the French
Revolution. He took the loyalist side in American
politics, and is regarded as the founder of the American
party press. His attack on Benjamin Rush, the leading
physician of Philadelphia, for his advocacy of unlimited

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1569

bleeding for yellow-fever, resulted in a libel suit, and
damages of $5,000, which nearly ruined Cobbett, and
sent him to England in June, 1800. In 1802 he began
"Cobbett's Weekly Political Register," which he edited
for thirty-three years, and until his death, except dur-
ing an interval of imprisonment and a second with-
drawal to America. His real work was domestic reform,
and the circulation and influence of his journal were
immense. He wrote extensively and entertainingly on a
wide variety of subjects. As historical documents, his
works are indispensable.

Cobbett's horticultural writings of chief interest to us
are "Cottage Economy," "A Year's Residence in the
United States of America," and, most of all "The
American Gardener" (1821), which was reproduced
with considerable modifications as "The English Gar-
dener," in London, 1827. The American edition of
Wm. Forsyth's excellent "Treatise on the Culture and
Management of Fruit Trees," was published at New
York and Philadelphia in 1802, and in Albany in 1803,
and was one of the most influential books on fruit-
growing in the period before orcharding over large areas
gave rise to essentially American horticultural writings.

WILHELM MILLER.

Cole, Samuel W., nurseryman, author and editor,
was born in the town of Cornish, Maine, in. 1796, and
died at Chelsea, Massachusetts, December 3, 1851. At
about the age of twenty he left his native state and
passed two or three years in New Jersey and Pennsyl-
vania in teaching. Soon after his return he published
the "Columbian Spelling Book," a collection of poems
caUed "The Muse," and in 1835, the "Yankee Farmer;"
the latter he removed to Portland, Maine, and con-
tinued there about three years, in connection with a
seedstore and agricultural warehouse. In 1839 he came
to Boston and continued connected with the agricul-
tural press to the time of his death and was editor of the
"New England Farmer" during the years 1849, 1850
and 1851. Mr. Cole published the "American Fruit
Book" in 1849, and a book on "Diseases of Domestic
Animals," which have passed through several editions.
He also established and carried on the Winnisimmet
Nurseries in Chelsea, Massachusetts, during the years
from 1840 to 1850. WM- P RlCH>

Coleman, Norman J., lawyer, agricultural journalist,
first Secretary of Agriculture, and horticulturist, was
born near Richfield Springs, New York, May 16, 1827,
and died in St. Louis, Missouri, November 3, 1911.
He was granted the degree of Bachelor of Law
from the University of Louisville (Kentucky), and for
some years was a practising attorney at New Albany,
Indiana, and later in St. Louis. With an intense love
of rural pursuits, he gave up his lucrative law practice,
purchased a country home near St. Louis, and began
the publication of "The Missouri Valley Farmer,"
now known as "Coleman's Rural World," one of the
pioneer agricultural papers of the Mississippi Valley.
He was Lieutenant-Governor of Missouri, 1874 to
1878; served as a member of the Board of Curators of
the Missouri State University for sixteen years and
was, for a number of years, a member of the Missouri
State Board of Agriculture. He was Secretary of Agri-
culture during the administration of President Cleve-
land, being the first to hold this position after its crea-
tion as a cabinet office. Through the "Rural World" he
issued a call for "a meeting for the purpose of advan-
cing and directing the fruit-growing interests of Mis-
souri and the West." As a result, on January 5, 1859,
"The Missouri Fruit Growers' Association," since 1868
known as the "Missouri State Horticultural Society,"
was organized. Mr. Coleman was the first president
of this organization and served in this capacity for
periods aggregating nearly a decade. This is the oldest,
permanent fruit-growers' organization west of the
Mississippi and its annual reports, covering a period

100

of more than half a century, are an important adjunct
to the literature of the horticultural development of
the section. In his official positions, Mr. Coleman's
energies were largely devoted to the organization of
horticultural interests. His horticultural writings occur
mainly in the Reports of the Missouri State Horti-
cultural Society and in the columns of "The Rural
World-" J. C. WRITTEN.

Conard, Alfred Fellenberg, nurseryman and original
president of The Conard & Jones Co., of West Grove,
Pennsylvania, was born in Philadelphia, in 1835, and
died December 15, 1906. He was descended from
German Quakers, who joined William Penn's Colony
in 1683. His early life was spent on his father's farm
near West Grove, where later he learned the nursery
business under the personal supervision of Thomas
M. Harvey. Soon after 1862, with Charles Dingee,
he established a nursery business under the firm name
of Dingee & Conard. This prospered, and about 1869,
the firm turned its attention to the propagation of
roses by a new process introduced by Antoine Wint-
zer, an expert Alsatian propagator. This was a suc-
cess so far as the production of roses was concerned,
but the wholesale demand at that time was small and
the problem soon presented itself of how to market
their rapidly increasing stock. With rare foresight
Mr. Conard conceived the idea of disposing of it at
retail through the mails.

The company issued at first a very modest cata-
logue. It was skilfully prepared, and offered bedding
plants, shrubbery, bulbs, seeds, and the like, in addition
to their attractive list of roses. This, accompanied by
wise advertising, brought in orders quite satisfactorily,
and strictly fair and honorable treatment of customers,
good healthy stock and careful packing soon established
for the company an enviable reputation, and their
trade extended to all parts of the world.

About the year 1892, Mr. Conard and Mr. Wintzer
having previously become separated from the Dingee
& Conard Co., associated themselves with S. Morris
Jones, and organized the Conard & Jones Co., for the
purpose of continuing the growing and distribution of
roses, flowering plants, and the like. As a specialty, they
took up the improvement of the canna.

Mr. Conard was a man of very retiring nature, and
for this reason was not so prominent in the trade gen-
erally as his long experience and extensive knowledge
of the floral business would have warranted. He was
scholarly in his tastes, methodical and precise in his
habits, well read and well informed. He was particu-
larly proficient as a mail-order salesman, and was the
first advertiser in any line of business to contract with
advertising concerns to place the business on a per-
centage basis, a plan that has now been almost univer-
sally adopted. THOMAS P. CONARD.

Coxe, William, pioneer pomologist, was born in
Philadelphia, May 3, 1762, and died on his farm on the
Delaware River near Burlington, February 25, 1831.
He deserves special remembrance for his excellent and
now scarce book, "A View of the Cultivation of Fruit
Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider,"
with accurate descriptions of the most estimable varie-
ties of native and foreign apples, pears, peaches, plums
and cherries cultivated in the Middle States of America.
This was printed at Burlington, and published at
Philadelphia in 1817. Grapes and small-fruits were not
included in the scope of his book, but an article of his
in the "American Farmer" for July, 1828, shows that he
was acquainted with many varieties of grapes, and had
done much grafting. His book was a standard until the
time of the Downings, and was freely used by other
authors. The illustrations were excellent for their time,
but show only the size and outline of a fruit, and
whether it was dotted, splashed or streaked. (Fig.
1858.)

1570

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Coxe said, 1817, that he had been "for many years
actively engaged in the rearing, planting and cultiva-
ting fruit trees on a scale more extensive than has been
attempted by any other individual of this country."
He also had a national reputation for his cider at an
age when it was a famous and characteristic beverage.

William Coxe belonged to one of the most refined fam-
ilies of Philadelphia. His early education was some-
what meager by reason of the Revolutionary War, but
he became a cultured gentleman. John Jay Smith gives
this pleasant picture of him: "Well do we remember his
extensive library in his fine mansion on the 'Bank' at
Burlington, when as a little boy we were assigned the
duty of bringing away, or taking home, some book or
pamphlet from his ever open stores of information. . .
His person was handsome, and his bearing that of the
'old-fashioned' gentleman, improved by mixing in the
best society, but retaining the forms of the greatest
politeness and suavity, that modern usages are too
rapidly casting off. An errand to Mr. Coxe's was a
cherished privilege; never was the opportunity neglected
by him to place in the hand of his visitor some fruit
that he so well knew would be appreciated by a youth-
ful appetite. The finest Seckel pears we have ever seen
were not unfrequent deposits. He had an especial fond-
ness for the Seckel pear, which is certainly among the
half-dozen most famous pears of American origin, and
which was pronounced by Downing to be the finest
flavored of all pears." Coxe was made an honorary
member of the Horticultural Society of London for
making known the merits of this pear through Dr.
Hosack. Either the first willow or the first poplar
planted in Burlington is said to have been brought from
Halifax in the hand of William Coxe. He planted
many trees to beautify the town and, in particular,
extended the front of the "Green Bank." Biographical
details are unfortunately only too meager. A few
other details may be gleaned from the "Horticulturist,"
1 1 : 304-307 (1856) . WILHELM MILLER.

Craig, John (Fig. 1875), horticulturist and educator,
was born at Lakefield, Argenteuil County, Quebec, in
1864, and died at Siasconsett, August 10, 1912. He ob-
tained his early educa-
tion at Montreal High
School and McGill Col-
lege. Early in life he
exhibited a taste for
horticulture and later
studied under one of
the greatest pioneer
horticultural teachers,
J. L. Budd, of the Iowa
Agricultural College.
Shortly after gradua-
tion from this institu-
tion in 1887, Professor
Craig was appointed
horticulturist at the
Central Experimental
Farm at Ottawa. He
was called to Iowa as
professor of horticul-
ture in 1899,and in 1900
became professor of
extension teaching at
Cornell University. In 1903, he was appointed professor
of horticulture at this institution, which position he
held until his death. During the latter years of his life,
Professor Craig took great interest in the development
of nut-culture, both for the North and South, and was
the recognized authority on many kinds of nuts. He
contributed largely to horticultural and agricultural
magazines and was the editor of "The National Nur-
seryman" for several years. Professor Craig was a
member of the advisory board of the American Civic

1875. John Craig.

League, and chairman of the nomenclature committees
of the American Sweet Pea and the American Peony
Societies. He was also elected a fellow of the Royal
Horticultural Society of Great Britain. He was well
known for his interest and work as a pomologist, hav-
ing been early associated with Charles Gibb (p. 1576),
and having followed the subject closely throughout
Life. In 1903, he was elected secretary of the American
Pomological Society, which important position he held
until his death. A. C. BEAL.

Curtis, Joseph, pioneer fruit-grower of Illinois, was
born in New Jersey, May 29, 1786, and removed with
his parents when a boy, to Manchester, Ohio. He
had never seen a nursery and had no horticultural
experience, but he invented the arts of root-grafting
and collar-grafting fruit trees through stern necessity
for grafting stock. At the age of sixteen he had secured
a piece of land on which to plant an orchard. He had
grown some seedling trees but had an insufficient num-
ber for the ground he had. As the pieces of roots were
plowed up, it occurred to him that he might make more
trees by grafting these roots. He succeeded and immedi-
ately thereafter invented collar-grafting. He was from
1798 to 1817 collecting and testing twenty-seven varie-
ties of apples in his Ohio orchard. In March, 1818, he
built a log-cabin, selected a fine tract of land in what
is known as the north arm of Grand Prairie, Edgar
County, Illinois, and in 1818 established the first
nursery in the state of Illinois and the first orchard of
grafted fruit trees planted in Edgar County. He grew
such varieties as Yellow Newtown, Smith (Cider),
Newtown Spitzenberg, Milam, Priestley, Gilh'flower,
Rhode Island Greening, Rambo and Winesap. He
originated a number of choice varieties of fruits, espe-
cially some of our leading varieties of apples. He did
more than any other one man of his day to introduce
choice fruits into southern Illinois and the adjacent
territories. Among his most zealous contemporaries were
Edson Harkness of Tivoli, Peoria County, Cyrus Over-
man, Canton, and Arthur Bryant, Princeton. To such
men are due the credit of the organization of the North-
western Fruit Growers Association in 1851, the first so-
ciety of its kind west of the Alleghanies, embracing great
extent of territory and demanding any great degree of
public opinion. And through the united efforts of these
men, with others, the Illinois Horticultural Society was
organized at Decatur in 1856. Q g BRACKETT.

Darlington, E. Dillwyn, was born on November 20,
1858, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, and died March 26,
1908. As a boy he entered a small private school, later
the Doylestown Seminary, and finally Swarthmore
College at the age of sixteen. Intensive study up to
this time had undermined his health to such an extent
that after a few months he was obliged to leave school.
An inborn desire for activity prompted him to seek and
find a position in the office of the Doylestown "Intel-
ligencer." But even this proved too confining so that,
after a few weeks, he had to give up and seek occupa-
tion outdoors. A natural tendency started him grow-
ing plants for local markets. Soon he found out how
much had to be learned in this line and he secured a posi-
tion with the prominent firm of Hoopes, Bro. & Tho-
mas, Nurserymen, of West Chester, Pennsylvania. After
serving an apprenticeship of one year, he returned to
Doylestown to start seriously in the business of grow-
ing plants for sale. This was in 1875. Steadily he grew
and developed until in 1883 he became connected with
what turned out to be his life's work — the trial-grounds
of W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Seedsmen. Philadelphia.
Mr. Darlington first conducted these trials on a vacant
lot adjoining his property. As the Burpee business grew,
the trial-grounds grew, and when, in 1888, a farm was
acquired for the purpose of doing this important
work, Mr. Darlington logically became superintendent
of the new venture.

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1571

From that time until his death he served the Ameri-
can public with a keen, observing and analytical mind
possessed by few men. For twenty-five years he
studied the merits and faults of all sorts of vegetables
and flowers. Tens of thousands of trials came under
his observation every year. The best of European and
American seed-breeders' efforts had to pass his critical
decisions, and out of this tremendous "sifting" process
rose scores of meritorious varieties of vegetables and
flowers, the names of which have since become house-
hold words with planters throughout the country.

ADOLPH KRUHM.

Dartt, Edward Harvey Schuler, nurseryman, was
born at Weathersfield, Vermont, November 24, 1824,
and died at Owatonna, Minnesota, January 31, 1903.
At the age of twenty, he moved from Vermont to Ripon,
Wisconsin, where he attended college and taught school.
About 1860 he moved to Kingston, Wisconsin, and
engaged in general merchandising, holding at the same
time the offices of postmaster and justice of the peace.
In 1869 he removed to Owatonna, Minnesota, where
he remained until his death. He engaged at once in
the nursery business and continued in it more or less
the rest of his life. He was one of the early members
of the State Horticultural Society, and in 1889 was
made an honorary life member for conspicuous efforts
along horticultural lines.

In 1891 the Owatonna Tree Station was established
by act of the legislature and Mr. Dartt was made its
superintendent and continued in this capacity until
his death. He conducted many experiments here and
raised thousands of seedlings, contributing much to
the horticultural knowledge of the state by his efforts.
He was always active in the meetings of the society and
much of the early advancement in horticulture in
Minnesota is due to Mr. Dartt. He laid out and main-
tained a public park at his own expense for many years
and was always interested in civic improvements in
the town. He delighted to write short articles on civic
and horticultural affairs for the press and in this way
helped to mold public opinion. jjE ROY CADY.

Deane, Rev. Samuel, poet and agricultural writer,
was born at Dedham, Massachusetts, July 30, 1733,
and died at Falmouth (now Portland), Maine, Novem-
ber 12, 1814, where he had been pastor since October
17, 1764. While vice-president of Bowdoin College,
he published, in 1790, his "New England Farmer, or
Georgical Dictionary," the first American encyclo-
pedic work on agriculture. This had a much wider
circulation, probably, than Jared Eliot's "Essays upon
Field-Husbandry," 1747. Its influence may be traced
to the middle of the present century. Deane's work was
freely quoted by F. G. Fessenden until his death, in
1837. The second edition, 1797, was entitled "The
Georgical Dictionary." A third edition was published
in 1822.

Deane and Eliot were the chief writers in that early
stage of American horticulture when it was hardly
important enough to be considered distinct from general
agriculture. For biographical details, see Drake's
"Dictionary of American Biography."

Dearborn, Henry Alexander Scammell, soldier,
statesman and author (1783-1851), was also an ardent
horticulturist. He was a moving spirit in the organiza-
tion of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and
was elected its first president March 17, 1829. He was
partly instrumental in the establishment of an "experi-
mental garden and cemetery at Mount Auburn," the
parent of rural cemeteries. The plan of the ceme-
tery was largely his. He "devoted himself to this
work most assiduously," writes the chronicler of
the society, "spending the greater part of the autumn
[1831] at Mount Auburn, in laboring with hands as
well as mind, without money and without price." The

Abbe Berlese's "Monography of the Camellia" was
translated by him, and published in Boston in 1838. He
also translated from the French, in 1830, an account of
the since famous Morus multicaulis. He left MS.
writings on horticulture. For notes on his horticultural
labors, see "History of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society," 1880, which contains a portrait; also John B.
Russel in Tilton's "Journal of Horticulture," 7:88, 157,
276. Gen. H. A. S. Dearborn was son of Gen. Henry
Dearborn, of Revolutionary and later fame. L H. B.

Dempsey, Peter C., pomologist and hybridist, was
of United Empire Loyalist stock and was heir to the
orchard and nursery left by his father at Albury,
Prince Edward County, Ontario. About the year 1867,
Mr. Dempsey decided that he would devote his life
to horticulture, and especially to the cultivation of the
apple. In 1859, he united with the Fruit Growers'
Association of Ontario and being a pleasing and fluent
speaker, full of information drawn from practical
experience, he soon became a highly valued member and
was elected vice-president in 1873 and again in 1875;
and president in 1880 and again in 1881. In 1775, he
was selected by the Ontario Department of Agriculture
to superintend the Ontario fruit-exhibit at the Centen-
nial exhibition in Philadelphia, and secured several
medals for its excellence. But it is as a hybridist that
Mr. Dempsey is most widely known among horticul-
turists, having originated among other novelties the
Burnet grape, the Dempsey potato and the Trenton
apple. His death occurred in August, 1892, at Albury.

LlNUS WOOLVERTON.

Dixon, John N., pomologist, was born in Fayette
County, Pennsylvania, on February 20, 1821, and died
in 1883. When quite young, his parents moved to
Ohio, and here at the age of twenty-two, he set out an
orchard of 1,100 trees, a large orchard for those days.
In 1855 he went to Iowa, expecting to make fruit-
growing his specialty, but on account of the cold
winters and tender varieties, lost most of his trees. He
persisted, however, and in 1868 started the present
orchard of 12,000 acres, of which he made a great suc-
cess. He is said to have been the first man to use
insecticides in the form of spray in a commercial way
in fruit plantations.

Dorner, Frederick, florist, was born at Schilltach,
Baden, Germany, on November 29, 1837. At the age
of seventeen he emigrated to this country and joined
his brother at Lafayette, Indiana, where he lived until
his death, December 29, 1910. In 1870, after being
employed at various occupations, he rented a small
farm and became a market-gardener. In the small
greenhouse on the place, he began raising potted plants
for the retail market. In 1888 he became interested in
some experiments in the breeding of carnations, which
were being conducted at Purdue University. He
quickly saw the possibilities of the work and became so
deeply interested that he took up this line of work
himself. From the first lot of seedlings, raised in 1889
and numbering about 500, came the varieties Christina
Dorner, Tecumseh, Hoosier, Mrs. Harrison, Indiana,
and Ben Hur. His work continued uninterruptedly
for twenty-one years and during this time he grew over
150,000 seedlings. Of this number not more than seven-
ty-five ever reached the market. Among the best of
his productions were Mad. Diaz Albertini, Wm. Scott,
Mrs. G. M. Bradt, White Cloud, Lady Bountiful, White
Perfection, Pink Delight, and White Wonder. Fred
Dorner was the first florist in the Middle' West to dis-
bud carnations. The method of supporting carnations
by means of wires and cross strings also originated
with him. His work, however, was not limited to carna-
tions. He was also the originator of a number of good
chrysanthemums of which Major Bonnaffon, dissemin-
ated in 1894, was the best. jj, g. DORNER.

1572

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Douglas, Robert (Fig. 1876), pioneer nurseryman in
Illinois, was born at Gateshead, England, in 1813. He
came to America in 1836, finally settling at Waukegan,

Illinois, in 1844. Here
he founded a small nur-
sery where he raised
conifer and other tree
seedlings. This was the
first attempt ever made
in America to raise
evergreen trees com-
mercially. Through
his efforts, many suc-
cessful plantations of
forest trees were estab-
lished on the western
prairies. He has been
called "the apostle of
tree - planting in the
West." Mr. Douglas
was also a good bota-
nist and an authority
on evergreens. He was
an active member of
the Illinois State Horti-
cultural Society. He
died in 1897.

1876. Robert Douglas.

Douglas, Thomas Henry, nurseryman and forester,
was born at Waukegan, Illinois, July 31, 1852, and died
March 26, 1907. After completing his education at
Racine College, he engaged in the nursery business with
his father, the late Robert Douglas, whose early
experiments and later his success in growing conifers
from seed gave him a national reputation. Inheriting
the natural qualities of a forester from his father and
being a close student of nature, he soon acquired a
wide knowledge of forestry which was recognized in
1886 when he was called to the State Board of Forestry
of California as Head Forester and soon after was
called to a similar position at Leland Stanford, Jr.,
University. While there he collected many plants
then new to California, tested them out and intro-
duced them. In 1892 he visited the home of the weep-
ing spruce (Picea Bmveriana) on the summit of the
Siskiyou Mountains and succeeded in gathering the
first seed and raising the first seedlings of this species.
He cared little for publicity but was freely consulted
on all matters pertaining to forestry, and his articles
on this subject are considered an authority. Many
of his introductions, notably the Smithiana Douglas,
Douglas Pyramid and Douglas Golden arbor-vitaes
are well known and widely planted today.

R. DOUGLAS' SONS.

Downer, John S., pomologist and nurseryman, was
born June 19, 1809, in Culpeper County, Virginia, and
died in Kentucky in 1873. Like the man "born to
fame" he seemed to evince a taste for horticulture from
his earliest days. While yet a youth, without friends
or fortune, he established and gradually built up the
Forest Nursery, which gained an enviable reputation
not only in Kentucky but in neighboring states. He
was patient and painstaking and tested many varieties
of fruits under his own inspection. He did much to
improve pomology in the Central States. He paid
special attention to the strawberry, and produced the
well-known Downer (Prolific), (Chas.) Downing and
Kentucky. These should perpetuate his fame, for it
was at a time when the strawberry industry of the
country was in its infancy. He introduced the Wild
Goose plum and he conferred the blessings of pomology
on the whole country by disseminating many choice
varieties of fruit. He was quiet and unobtrusive, but
was a man of worth and honesty. His nursery at Elk-
ton, Kentucky, was for many years a fruit experi-
ment station. He was vice-president for Kentucky of

the American Pomological Society, and held other
offices of trust and honor. Q g BRACKETT

Downing, Andrew Jackson (Fig. 1877), the first great
landscape gardener of America, was born at Newburg,
New York, October 30, 1815, and perished by drowning
July 28, 1852, at the early age of thirty-seven. As a
boy, he was quiet, sensitive, and much alone with him-
self and nature. The Catskills, the Hudson, and his
father's nursery had much to do with his development.
His "Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape
Gardening," published 1841, when he was but twenty-
six years old, is, in many respects, a unique production.
It was the first, and is today one of the best American
books on the subject, and has exerted a greater influence
upon American horticulture, it is said, than any other
volume. "Cottage Residences." 1841, also had great
popularity. In 1845 appeared simultaneously in Lon-
don and New York the first edition of "Fruits and Fruit
Trees of America;'1 in 1846 he became connected with
"The Horticulturist," which he edited from his home at
Newburg until his untimely death. His editorials in
this excellent periodical (later represented in succession
by "American Gardening") were republished after his
death, with a letter to his friends by Frederika Bremer,
and a memoir by George William Curtis, under the
title of "Rural Essays." It was not until 1850 that
he had an opportunity to visit the great estates of Eng-
land, to see with his own eyes the landscape garden-
ing of Europe. On his return in 1851, he was engaged to
lay out the grounds near the Capitol, White House, and
Smithsonian Institution at Washington. On July 28,
1852, he left Newburg on the steamer Henry Clay for
New York. The Clay took fire near Yonkers, while it
was racing, and Downing's life was lost in an attempt to
save others. It would be difficult to overestimate the
influence of Downing. He created American landscape
gardening. His only predecessor, Andr6 Parmentier, is
little known, and his influence was not of a national
character. Downing's quickening influence affected
country life in its every aspect. He stood for the simple,
natural, and permanent as opposed to the intricate,
artificial, and ephemeral. He was the first great Ameri-
can practitioner of what is known in polite and technical
literature as the Eng-
lish or natural school
of landscape gardening
in distinction from all
artificial schools, as the
Italian and D u t c'h.
Downing's pupils are
many, and his spirit
still lives. He gave in-
spiration to Frederick
Law Olmsted, our next
great genius in land-
scape gardening, who,
by his early work in
Central Park, New
York, aroused that
popular enth usiasm
which has culminated
in the American idea<
of great municipal park
systems, as opposed to
the earlier Old World
idea of exclusive pleas-
ure-grounds and pri-
vate parks. Downing's books have had large sales, and
have gone through many editions. His intellectual suc-
cessor in his purely pomological work was his brother
Charles, whose modest labors in the revision of the
"Fruits and Fruit Trees of America" have brought him
little popular fame, but much sincere admiration from
students. Most horticultural writings are, in reality,
only records of progress; they do not create progress.

1877. A. J. Downing.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1573

Few of our horticultural books are epoch-making.
Downing's writings, however, started a great popular
movement in America toward beautiful homes and
home grounds. By many persons, Andrew Jackson
Downing is considered the greatest single figure in the
history of American horticulture, and one of the few
persons who can be said to have had real genius. An
appreciation of Downing's personality will be found
in Frederika Bremer's "Homes of the New World."
(See Downing-ia, for the genus of plants named after
mm)- WILHELM MILLEK.

Downing, Charles, (Fig. 1878) , distinguished pomol-
ogist and elder brother of Andrew Jackson Downing, the
landscape gardener, was born at Newburg, New York,
July 9, 1802. He was educated at the local academy,
and from the age of thirteen to eighteen worked part

of the time in his
father's nursery. At
the age of twenty he
started in the nursery
business on his own
account. From 1834
to 1839 his brother
Andrew was a partner
in this business. About
1850, he sold out his
nursery business and
devoted himself to the
study of varieties of
fruits, on which sub-
ject he was the leading
authority until his
death. The "Fruits
and Fruit Trees of
America" is the monu-
mental American work
on varieties of fruits.
The book was pro-
jected by Andrew, but
the great bulk of the work was done by Charles in
continuing and revising it. His test orchard contained
trees and grafts of 1,800 varieties of apples, 1,000
pears, and other fruits in proportion. In 1896 a city
street was put through it. Charles Downing was very
modest and retiring. He would never make a pub-
lic speech, but he wrote many pomological articles
over the signature "C. D." All his work is marked by
conscientious accuracy. He died January 18, 1885.

WILHELM MILLER.

Dreer, Henry A., seedsman and florist, founder of
one of the oldest American horticultural establish-
ments, was born in Philadelphia, August 24, 1818, and
died December 22, 1873, at the age of fifty-five. His
parents were Frederick Dreer, of Hanover, and Fred-
ericka Augusta Nolthenius, of Grossakenheim, Ger-
many. They were married in America. The Nolthenius
family emigrated to the United States in the last decade
of the eighteenth century. Henry A. Dreer's education
was largely in German, and obtained in Philadelphia.
He was fond of gathering seeds and plants in the
country, and would bring them home to cultivate. He
was trained in his father's business, that of a cabinet-
maker. In 1838, at the solicitation of a friend, he
began as a seedsman and florist in a small way, at 59
Chestnut Street. In 1863 he moved his store to
714 Chestnut St., where the business has been con-
ducted ever since with the addition of No. 716. His
only son, William F. Dreer, succeeded his father and
conducts the extensive business in Philadelphia and at
Riverton, N. J.

Henry A. Dreer was of modest temperament and
frail constitution, and confined himself to business rather
closely. He was liberal in public matters, but always
kept out of political life. He compiled several small
works in connection with the business, and wrote fre-

1878. Charles Downing.

quently for the "Saturday Evening Post," of Philadel-
phia, and for Godey's "Ladies' Magazine."

WILHELM MILLER.

Dufour, John James, a Swiss vigneron, was at the
head of a colony to grow the wine grape in Kentucky,
and the author of "Vine Dresser's Guide," published
in Cincinnati in 1826. The Kentucky experiment
failed, and the colony then settled in southern Indi-
ana, on the banks of the Ohio River; and this settle-
ment is now the city of Vevay. Here Dufour died in
1827. This Indiana experiment brought out the merits of
the Alexander grape, a native, and thereby did much to
establish an American viticulture. For detailed account
of the Dufours and their associates, and the results of
their work, see Bailey, "Evolution of Our Native Fruits."

Eliot, Charles, landscape architect and author,
passed away at Brookline, Massachusetts, early in the
year of 1897. It is is said that no one of the present
generation has shown greater ability in the art of land-
scape gardening on an extensive scale. From the time
of his graduation until the time of his death, all his
strength and energy had been given to the improve-
ment of private grounds and public parks. A Harvard
graduate, he took a post-graduate course at Bussey
Institution, spending much of the time in studying the
trees and shrubs in Arnold Arboretum. After familiar-
izing himself for a time with foreign parks and gardens,
he entered the office of the late F. L. Olmsted, as a
student. On completing his studies with Mr. Olmsted,
he established his office in Boston and soon had a large
clientele. He later became a member of the firm of
Olmsted, Ohnsted & Eliot and soon became identified
with national undertakings with which he will long be
remembered. While a member of the Appalachian
Mountain Club, he was secretary and president of the
corporation known as Trustees of Public Reservations,
and from this organization sprang the admirable Metro-
politan Park System. Mr. Eliot was the first landscape
architect appointed by this Commission, and continued
so until his death. To him, more than almost any other
man, Massachusetts at least, is indebted for the
improvement of her large tracts of land.

He was one of the best professional writers of his
day on landscape gardening. His style was clear,
earnest and convincing, and he allowed no minor matter
to stand in the way of what he deemed the broadest
and finest treatment, looked at from the future, and
no other man during the past few years of Charles
Eliot's life did so much toward cr3rstallizing the better
interests of the parking systems. To his work he
brought vim, a trained intellect, a personal charm and
a mature judgment. The public loss was great when
Charles Eliot left his work. Q g BRACKETT

Eliot, Jared, author of an early American book on
agriculture, was born November 7, 1685, and died
April 22, 1763. He was the grandson of John Eliot, the
"apostle of the Indians," and was pastor at Killing-
worth, Connecticut, from October 26, 1709, until his
death. He was a botanist, and the leading consulting
physician in New England. He introduced the mul-
berry tree into Connecticut, wrote an essay upon the
silkworm, and discovered a process of extracting iron
from ferrugineous sands. His "Essays upon Field-
Husbandry," begun in 1748, are generally regarded as
the first important American book devoted exclusively
to agriculture, although not actually the first work
on the subject in the New World. It is now
extremely rare. He was a high-minded, progressive
and useful citizen. Many of his sermons were separately
reprinted. Jared Eliot and Samuel Deane were among
the few agricultural writers of note in the period before
American horticulture was considered distinct from
agriculture. See p. 1509; for portrait, "Cyclopedia
American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 568.

WILHELM MILLER.

1574

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

Elliot, Wyman, pioneer horticulturist, was born in
Corinna, Maine, May 19, 1834, and died in Minneapolis,
Minnesota, June 16, 1913. As a boy he helped his
father about a grist-mill and on the farm and at odd
times helped his mother in the fruit- and flower-garden,
where he laid the foundation of his horticultural
career. At the age of twenty the family went to Minne-
apolis, then a town of fifteen or twenty families. They
purchased land and Mr. Elliot began raising vegetables
and farm products. He was the first market-gardener
in Minneapolis. In 1855 he took up a claim near Monti-
cello in Wright County among the Indians, being one of
the first farmers to till soil west of the Mississippi. In
1856 he returned to Minneapolis and took charge of
the home place. He continued in the market-gardening
business here for twenty-five years. He added fruits
and ornamental stock to his crops and the place was
known as the Minneapolis Garden Nursery for many
years. By 1862 Mr. Elliot had built up a good market-
gardening business. In 1864 he added a greenhouse and
grew flowers and plants for sale. In 1866 a tree nursery
was started and for many years supplied Minneapolis
with trees, fruits and flowers. Many of the trees he
planted will adorn the Minneapolis streets for many
years and be a lasting monument to him.

In 1864 he helped organize the Hennepin County
Horticultural Society and in 1866 helped organize and
was a charter member of the State Horticultural
Society. He was several times vice-president of the
State Agricultural Society and held some office in the
State Horticultural Society from its organization in
1866 until his death, serving as member of the executive
committee, president six years, and from 1892 until
his death he was chairman of the executive committee.
Always of a quiet, unassuming character, he did work
of untold value to the horticultural interests of the
state- LE ROY CADY.

Elliott, Franklin Reuben, died at Cleveland, Ohio,
February, 1878. To him is due the honor of first sug-
gesting and earnestly advocating the formation of
state horticultural societies. He was secretary and a
charter member of the Missouri Fruit Growers' Asso-
ciation, 1859; secretary of American Pomological
Society, 1867, and a valued officer of the Ohio State
Horticultural Society. He was a man of great ability
in horticultural matters, and was the author of the
"Fruit Book" and a well-known treatise on "Landscape
Gardening." He was a valued contributor to the
horticultural press at a day when American horti-
culture most needed advice. Q. g. BRACKETT.

Ellwanger, George, nurseryman, was born in Ger-
many on December 2, 1816. His youth was spent in his
father's vineyards where he acquired a love of horti-
culture and determined to devote his life to it. To this
end, he studied horticulture in one of the leading insti-
tutions of Stuttgart. He came to the United States
in 1835, and in 1839 settled at Rochester, New York.
The next year he and Patrick Barry entered into part-
nership forming the nursery and seed firm, Ellwanger
& Barry. Mr. Ellwanger was a member of the Ameri-
can Pomological Society, the Western New York
Horticultural Society, and a corresponding member of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. He died on
November 26, 1906.

Emory, Robert Samuel, pomologist, was born April
2, 1832, near Centerville, on the Chester River, Mary-
land, and died June 2, 1906. His father was a lifelong
agriculturist, carrying on that occupation most suc-
cessfully until his death. Robert when a boy attended
the public school, and later spent four years as a student
in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. After-
ward he was employed as clerk in a wholesale drug-
store in Pittsburgh, studying pharmacy, receiving a
diploma, and remaining with the firm until he was

twenty-one. He then returned home and engaged in
agricultural work. In 1860, he settled near Chester-
town, where he began the culture of fruit for market,
on a considerable scale. He soon came to be regarded
as an authority on all subjects connected with the pro-
duction of fruit. His orchards comprised extensive
plantings of pears and peaches, with a specialty of
pears, and probably he raised more of this variety of
fruit than any one east of California. In his orchard
there were about 20,000 trees in bearing condition. His
reputation as a skilful fruit-grower gained for him
prominence, and his place on the Chester was the
frequent resort of those concerned in fruit-culture from
all sections desirous to see for themselves his well-
managed orchards, to learn his methods, and to profit
by his experience, the results of his own endeavors at
individual research. In 1877, he was awarded the first
prize for the best twenty-one varieties of pears by the
American Pomological Society.

When the San Jos6 scale appeared in the East, he
was among the first to recognize it as a deadly enemy,
but by applying whale-oil soap saved his orchards until
other remedies were discovered. All scientists were
cordially welcomed to his home and orchards, enjoying
the advantage which his experiences could give them.
Captain Emory became a member of the Peninsula
Horticultural Society a few years after it was organized
and served as president during one year.

E. W. EMORY.

Ernst, Andrew H., nurseryman and pomologist,
was born in Germany in the year 1796. He was proprie-
tor of one of the earliest established and best nurseries
in Ohio. He was a pioneer and champion of pomology
in Ohio and the Northwest. Mr. Ernst established
Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati, one of the most
beautiful cemeteries in the United States. He was vice-
president of the American Pomological Society and
president of the Ohio Pomological Society from 1847
until his death, which occurred on February 13, 1860.

Evans, James Calvin, one of the pioneer fruit-growers
of the Mississippi Valley and for years one of the lead-
ing horticulturists of that section, was born in Jackson
County, Missouri, April 25, 1833 and died in 1909.
He was of a strictly pioneer family in western Missouri,
being the son of Wm. B. Evans, who died in 1855, and
nephew of the late Col. Milton McGee, so well and
honorably known in the annals of Kansas City. In
1861 he acquired an extensive home plantation, in
what is now North Kansas City. Being passionately
fond of horticulture, he began its adornment and the
development of extensive fruit-plantations. At the age
of twenty-six he became a charter member of the Mis-
souri Fruit Growers Association, organized in Jefferson
City in 1859, its name being changed to the Missouri
State Horticultural Society in 1862. This is the oldest
permanent horticultural organization west of the Missis-
sippi. He was elected president of this society in 1876
and served efficiently in this capacity for more than
twenty years. He was also a charter member of the
Missouri Valley Horticultural Society organized in
1868, and served as its president for twenty-three years.
He was also a life member of the American Pomological
Society and other horticultural bodies, which he has
served from time to time as an officer or on important
committees. In 1883 he organized the Olden Fruit
Company and began planting the famous 1,400-acre
orchard at Olden, which was the first extensive com-
mercial orchard in the Ozark region. Due to the suc-
cess of this enterprise and largely through his advice
as to varieties and methods of orchard management
found to be best adapted to that section, scores of
extensive orchards began to be planted in the Ozarks.
On his home plantation at Kansas City as well as at
Olden, he maintained large areas for testing the
adaptability of varieties of fruits to the western sec-

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1575

tion. He was also ever on the alert to locate promising
specimens of wild fruits of the state, especially grapes,
raspberries, wild crabs and persimmons. The orchards
which he planted still contain (1914) a large collec-
tion of these wild fruits, which were in process of
amelioration at the time of his death. Among his
special contributions to the list of varieties originated in
the state may be mentioned the Miller persimmon,
Evans peach, Evans raspberry and Evans crab, the
latter being a large-fruited form of the native crab
Pyrus ioensis. It was largely through his assistance
and advice that an extensive experiment in breeding
apples was inaugurated at the South Missouri Fruit
Experiment Station in the nineties. As a result of this
work hundreds of varieties, crosses between leading
commercial sorts, were originated with the hope that
some might combine the more desirable character-
istics of both parents. This work is now being con-
ducted by Colonel Evans' oldest son, who is dissemina-
ting these new sorts, many of which have much promise
in the state. The writings of Colonel Evans consist
largely of horticultural papers which have appeared
during the past fifty years in the Reports of the Mis-
souri State Horticultural Society. j Q WRITTEN.

Fessenden, Thomas Green, editor and author,
1771-1837, founded "The New England Farmer" at
Boston in 1822, and edited it until his death. The
present "New England Farmer" is not the lineal suc-
cessor of Fessenden's paper. Fessenden is chiefly noted
as a satirical poet, and he was more of a literary man
than a gardener. He was born at Walpole, New Hamp-
shire, was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1796,
and studied law. He went to England in 1803, and
there published his humorous poem, the "Terrible
Tractoration." He settled in Boston about 1804. In
addition to "The New England Farmer," he edited the
short-lived "Horticultural Register," and "The Silk
Manual." He wrote "The Complete Farmer and Rural
Economist," "The New American Gardener," and
"The American Kitchen Gardener," three books of a
cyclopedic nature designed to cover the fields of agri-
culture, horticulture and vegetable-gardening respec-
tively. They adhered very closely to the contempora-
neous English type of horticultural writing. These
books appear to have passed through many editions,
but they were little altered from issue to issue. They
often seem to lack the enthusiasm of direct contact
with growing plants. Fessenden's time was one of gen-
eral farming, and the viewpoint of gardening was
mostly that of the home or amateur. He lived before
the days of specialized farming on a large scale, and
of commercial horticulture and floriculture. During the
greater part of his editorship of "The New England
Farmer" there was but one other important American
agricultural paper, "The American Farmer," which was
published at Baltimore, beginning 1819. The most
important contemporaneous American writings on
horticulture of a cyclopedic nature were "The American
Gardener's Calendar," by Bernard M'Mahon, Phila-
delphia, 1806, and "The American Gardener" of John
Gardiner and David Hepburn, Georgetown, District
of Columbia, 1804. For a copy of "The Country
Lovers," Fessenden's once famous song to the tune of
Yankee Doodle, together with Hawthorne's pen-pic-
ture of the man, and an account of his interesting life,
see Duyckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature,"
595-599. WILHELM MILLER.

Fuller, Andrew S. (Fig. 1879), horticultural writer,
was born in Utica, New York, on August 3, 1828, and died
May 4, 1896, at his home at Ridgewood, New Jersey. At
the age of eighteen he went to Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
where he worked at the carpenter's trade, and became
particularly skilful in the construction of greenhouses,
and built a small one for himself on a city lot. Here he
brought together a varied collection of plants, the care

of which founded the nucleus of his later attainments
and renown as a horticulturist. In 1855, he moved to
Flushing, Long Island, when William R. Prince offered
Mr. Fuller the management of his greenhouses. But
his ambition did not allow him to remain long in the
employ of others, and in 1857 he removed to Brooklyn,
and engaged in grape and small-fruit culture, which
were then in their infancy. Here he gave particular
attention to the improvement of the strawberry by
cross-fertilization and selection of the best of the many
thousands of seedlings raised by him. The most
famous of these were Brooklyn Scarlet, Monitor and
Colonel Ellsworth, the first of which was generally
recognized as the highest-flavored strawberry in exist-
ence at the time, although too soft for market. The
entire stock of 300,000 plants was purchased by the
"New York Tribune," which sent them out as pre-
miums to its subscrib-
ers, in consequence of
which they have been
widely known as the
"Tribune strawber-
ries." It was during
this period that Fuller
wrote his first book,
the "Strawberry Cul-
turist." Realizing the
necessity of having
more ground for experi-
mentation, and in order
to escape the noise and
turmoil of the city, he
bought a large piece
of land near Ridge-
wood, New Jersey.
This, when he moved
on it, early in the six-
ties, was little more
than a barren waste,
but it developed into one of the most charming homes
and interesting and instructive garden spots in the
country. Almost every species and variety of orna-
mental trees and shrubs hardy in the locality were
represented, and his collection of small-fruits was the
most complete in the country. Immediately after the
publication of the "Strawberry Culturist," he began
working on the "Grape Culturist." This was followed
by the "Small Fruit Culturist," "Practical Forestry,"
"Propagation of Plants," and the "Nut Culturist."
The last of them he was fond of calling his "monument,"
as he did not intend to write another book, and so fate
decided that it should be. He died a few days after
he had finished his manuscript, and never saw the
completed book, of which he was perhaps more proud
than of any other of his works, yet in the history of
horticultural literature his "Small Fruit Culturist"
will, no doubt, occupy the foremost rank. It was more
instrumental in the development and building up of
the great industry to which it is devoted than any book
written before or after, and in any land. It was trans-
lated into German and published in Weimar in 1868.
His books contain but a small part of his writings. His
editorial and other contributions to the "American
Agriculturist," to "The Rural New-Yorker," of which
he was part owner for a time, the "New York Sun,"
of which he was agricultural editor for twenty-six
years, "American Gardening" and other periodicals
would fill hundreds of volumes. He was also editor of
the "Record of Horticulture," 1866 and 1867. While
Mr. Fuller was principally known as a horticulturist,
there was hardly a branch of natural science to which he
had not devoted more or less attention. His entomo-
logical collection, especially that of colepptera, was one
of the most complete in the country; his mineralogical
and archeological collections contained many rare speci-
mens, and his horticultural library was one of the best

1879. Andrew S. Fuller.

1576

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

in the United States. In later years, although in good
health, Mr. Fuller left his place but seldom, but in
his earlier years he traveled considerably, and took an
active and leading part in the meetings of the American
Pomological Society, the American Institute Farmers'
Club, the Fruit-Growers' Club, and many kindred
societies, of which he was an active or honorary mem-
ber. F. M. HEXAMER.

Fulton, J. Alexander, lawyer and horticulturist, was
born at his father's farm in Armstrong County, Penn-
sylvania, November 11, 1822, and died in 1895. He
removed from Pennsylvania to Dover, Delaware, in
1865. Although a lawyer by profession, he was much
interested in fruit-culture and was known as a horti-
culturist far beyond the limits of his state. His book
on "Peach Culture" was long a standard work. He
was one of the early members of the Peninsula Horti-
cultural Society and participated in its meetings until
the end of his life. G. B. BRACKETT.

Gale, Elbridge, pastor and horticulturist, was born
on Christmas Day, 1824, in Bennington, Vermont,
and died at Mongonia, Florida, in 1907. He at-
tended Brown University and was later graduated
from the Baptist Theological Seminary at New Hamp-
ton, New Hampshire. His first pastorate was at John-
son, Vermont; from thence he accepted a call to the
Baptist church of Pavilion, Illinois, and on going to
Kansas in 1864, became the pastor of the Baptist
church at Manhattan. He remained in this pastorate
until he accepted the chair of horticulture at the
Kansas State Agricultural College. He was greatly
interested in the free schools of Kansas and was County
School Superintendent of Riley County for several
terms. He was one of the founders of the Manhattan
Horticultural Society. He removed to Lake Worth,
Florida, November, 1884, on account of his failing
health. His interest in horticulture grew apace in the
Lake Worth section. He was first president and an
active member of the Lake Worth Horticultural
Society as long as it was in existence, and it was largely
through his efforts that the United States Government
procured from India some Mulgoba mangoes and from
Italy some mangosteens, durians and figs for distribu-
tion to the planters connected with the Society. Of
all the Mulgoba mangoes planted, Mr. Gale was the
only one who succeeded in keeping the trees alive, and
the Mulgoba mango still remains a living monument to
his success as a Florida horticulturist. His skill and
energy has given to the western world another fruit
that adds much to tropical luxuriance and American
finance.

His was a busy life. At the college at Manhattan
he planted the college arboretum east of Horticultural
Hall and the forest plats on the old college farm. In
1879 he was candidate for Congress from the First
Kansas District, greenback platform.

To his activity, usefulness and teachings, thousands
of pioneer Kansans and students of the College are
indebted to this grand old man who sleeps beneath the
live oaks and the palms of his new home State in the
Southland. G. B. BRACKETT.

Gano, William Groves, pioneer horticulturist of the
Missouri Valley and introducer of new varieties of
fruits, was born in Winchester, Virginia, in 1839 and
died at Parkville, Missouri, in 1910. In 1867 he moved
to Parkville, Missouri, where he planted one of the
notable early orchards of that section and spent most
of the active working part of his horticultural career.
He was associated with J. C. Evans and others in
establishing and planting the Olden Fruit Farm, the
pioneer large commercial orchard of the Ozark region.
Throughout his residence in Missouri, he was a member
of the Missouri State Horticultural Society and served
frequently as an officer of this body. He was also a

charter member of the Missouri Valley Horticultural
Society and held membership in other state and national
organizations. He was actively identified with collect-
ing state fruit exhibits at all of the leading national
and interstate expositions which have been held during
the past fifty years. He was awake to the desirability
of introducing and testing large numbers of varieties of
fruits on his farm at Parkville. His orchard served
largely as a model for the guidance of other orchardists
in his own section and his advice and judgment as to
what varieties to plant and how to adapt orchard
management to this pioneer section of the Missouri
Valley was sought throughout several states. In addi-
tion to giving his time and his resources freely to this
type of work, he was zealously interested in the produc-
tion of new seedling varieties of fruits. Several of these
have gained local prominence because of their adapta-
tion to local conditions. His most celebrated contribu-
tion to our list of varieties was the Gano apple, named
in honor of the originator by Charles Downing. The
Gano apple is similar to that most cosmopolitan Ben
Davis, equal to it in every respect, but due to its supe-
riority over Ben Davis in color and beauty of appear-
ance, it is now displacing the latter in commercial
orchards of the West. The annual reports of the Mis-
souri State Horticultural Society contain many of his
papers dealing with the problems and practices of
fruit-growing which he helped to shape in the region
in which he did his work. j. Q, WRITTEN.

Garey, Thomas Andrew, nurseryman, was born in
Cincinnati, Ohio, July 7, 1830, and died at Los Angeles,
California, August 21, 1909. He was of German stock
and spent his boyhood partly in Hagerstown, Mary-
land, and partly in Iowa. In the spring of 1850, Mr.
Garey moved to New Mexico, traveling by ox-team
over the Santa Fe trail. In 1850, after having married
in New Mexico, the Careys crossed the mountains
and settled at El Monte in Los Angeles County, Cali-
fornia, where he engaged in farming. In 1865 Mr.
Garey purchased 72 acres of land on what is now South
San Pedro Street, Los Angeles, and entered the nursery
business. He soon built up a large and thriving business
and was very active in introducing many kinds of
tropical and semi-tropical fruits from various parts
of the world. It was Mr. Garey who first demon-
strated to the citrous growers that budded trees of
improved varieties were better than the seedlings which
were commonly grown. Hearing of the Bahia Navel
orange, Mr. Garey attempted to introduce it from
Australia, but was unfortunate in securing an unde-
sirable type (Australian Navel) which was subsequently
displaced by the true Bahia or Washington Navel.
Recognizing the value of a seedling lemon grown by
C. R. Workman, Mr. Garey bought the original tree
and introduced the variety in 1877 under the name
Eureka. This variety is now the leading commercial
lemon in California. Mr. Garey did a large business in
importing all kinds of plants and seeds and had won-
derful success with many of the novelties he brought in.
He served for a time as president of the Los Angeles
Pomological Society and was one of the founders of the
city of Pomona. In 1882 he published "Orange Cul-
ture in California," which for years was considered a
standard reference book. j. ELIOT COIT.

Gibb, Charles, Canadian horticulturist, and author
of important works on Russian fruits and other hardy
trees, was born at Montreal June 29, 1842 (Woolverton
says 1846) and died at Cairo, Egypt, March 8, 1890,
while returning from a collecting trip in China and
Japan. In 1872 he brought to Montreal the first canned
fruit exhibited in Canada. His farm at Abbotsford,
Province of Quebec, contained the best collection of
hardy fruits, trees and ornamental shrubs in Canada.
His trip to Russia in 1882 with Professor Budd, the
subsequent importations, his second trip to Russia,.

HORTICULTURISTS

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1577

and his various publications on hardy trees make part
of a chapter of great interest and significance in the
history of American horticulture. His travels were
extensive. His chief works are "Ornamental and Tim-
ber Trees not Natives of the Province of Quebec" (a
comprehensive list of species of possible value for
Canada), "Report on Russian Fruits," "Hasty Notes
on the Trees and Shrubs of Northern Europe," "Rus-
sian Apples Imported by the Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, in 1870" (an elaborate compari-
son of Russian opinions and American experience),
"Nomenclature of the Russian Apples," "Of Translating
and Rendering into Euphonious English Unpronounce-
able Russian Names, also Throwing Out Synonyms,"
and "Fruits for the Cold North." For a fuller account,
with portrait, see "Annals of Horticulture," 1890,
287-290. WILHELM MILLER.

Gideon, Peter M., pioneer pomologist of the north-
ern Mississippi states, 1818-1899, resided since 1853
on Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, and devoted his
efforts to the production of apples of sufficient hardi-
ness to withstand the climate. He was born in Ohio.
He afterward lived in Illinois. From boyhood he seems
to have been possessed of the idea to raise seedling
fruits. He was one of those rare individuals who sets
a distinct ideal and strives for it throughout a lifetime
in spite of every adversity. These are persons of strong
and uncompromising will. They often antagonize their
fellows; but their works are usually beneficent. Gideon
conceived that the amalgamation of the Siberian crab
and the common apple would give the perfect apple for
the Northwest. His seedlings were numerous. Several
of them have been named and disseminated, and are of
value. But his greatest achievement, the Wealthy
apple, was of pure Pyrus Mains stock. This variety is
now one of the standard apples of his geograpical
region, and it is also in favor elsewhere. It is a boon to
the Northwest. Even when in poverty, it is said that
Mr. Gideon spent his last dollar to buy the seeds from
which this apple came. He was instrumental in dis-
tributing 10,000 apple seedlings in Minnesota, and
some of these are now attracting attention. His work
was wholly empirical, yet he did so much and con-
tinued his work for so long a time that the results have
contributed to the knowledge of plant-breeding. Proba-
bly no other American has labored so long and devotedly
for the attainment of a specific ideal hi the apple.
Portrait and eulogies will be found in "The Minnesota
Horticulturist," January, 1900. L_ jj_ B.

Goff, Emmett Stull, horticulturist, was born on a
farm near Elmira, New York, in 1852. In 1882, he was
appointed horticulturist at the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station at Geneva. In 1889, he was called to the
University of Wisconsin as professor of horticulture
and horticulturist of the experiment station. He did
valuable work in producing new and hardy varieties
of plums for the colder portions of the Northwest.
He vvas a pioneer in spraying and invented the kerosene
attachment for spray pumps. Professor Goff performed
the first successful experiments with fungicides for the
control of the apple-scab fungus. He was the author of
"Principles of Plant Culture," and "Lessons in Pomol-
ogy" and wrote the first classifications of vegetables
published in America. He also published many bul-
letins and papers in horticultural publications. He was
a good systematic botanist as well as a horticulturist.
He died at Madison, Wisconsin, on June 6, 1902. For
portrait and fuller account, see "Cyclopedia of Ameri-
can Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 576.

Goodrich, Chauncey, bookseller and horticulturist,
was born September 10, 1798, and died September 11,
1858, at Hinsdale, Massachusetts. At nineteen years
of age he entered a publishing house, but a few years
later took up bookselling and publishing on his own

account, finally settling at Burlington, Vermont. He
was very much interested in gardening, testing fruits
for hardiness in the Champlain Valley and maintaining
a nursery on his farm. He did much to improve
and extend the culture of fruits in northern New York
and Vermont. He was a contributor to horticultural
magazines and author of "The Northern Fruit Cul-
turist, or Farmer's Guide to the Orchard and Fruit
Garden." For a fuller account, see "Cyclopedia of
American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 579.

Green, Samuel B. (Fig. 1880), horticulturist and
educator, was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, Septem-
ber 15, 1859, and died in Itasca Park, Minnesota, July
11, 1910. His father was one of the early mayors of
Chelsea and held many offices of trust. As a boy,
Professor Green spent his summers on a New Hamp-
shire farm and early developed a liking for farm
life, culminating in his taking the agricultural course
at Amherst, in spite of strong opposition from his
family and friends, who wanted him to take up
other work. He worked a large part of his way
through college, graduating in 1879. Immediately
after he graduated, he became superintendent of
the Vine Hill Dairy Farm, of West Hartford,
Connecticut. After a year's experience, he decided
there was not a great future for agriculture in the East
and took up gardening and nursery work. He worked
for a market-gardener near Boston one season, then
took a six-months' post-graduate course at Arnherst.
The next season he worked for James J. H. Gregory,
and in the winter, for William C. Strong, a rose-grower
and nurseryman of Brighton, Massachusetts. About
1884 he took charge of the Horticultural Department
of Houghton Farm Experiment Station, at Cornwall,
New York. He made many interesting experiments
here and also had the opportunity to get some land-
scape gardening training under Samuel Parsons, Jr.,
who was employed to develop the Houghton Farms of
over 1,000 acres. Thinking that he was not getting
enough experience here, he returned to Mr. Strong's
nursery especially to learn summer propagation of

plants, later becom-
ing foreman of New-
ton Cemetery nur-
series. From here
he returned to Mas-
sachusetts Agricul-
tural College as
foreman o f the hor-
ticultural depart-
ment. He remained
here until 1888
when he accepted
the position of pro-
fessor of horticul-
ture and applied
botany in the Uni-
versity of Minne-
sota and horticul-
turist of the experi-
ment station. Later
his title was
changed to pro-
fessor of horticul-
ture and forestry,
and in 1910 he was
made dean of the College of Forestry. He was a mem-
ber of the Executive Board of the Horticultural Society,
Forestry Board, American Pomolpgical Society, Society
of American Foresters and American Forestry Associa-
tion. At the time of his death, he was president of
the State Horticultural Society and of the State Board
of Arbitration.

Professor Green wrote many books and bulletins
and contributed to the agricultural literature generally.

1880. Samuel B. Green.

1578

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His best known publications are: "Amateur Fruit
•Growing," 1894; "Vegetable Gardening," 1896; "For-
estry in Minnesota," 1898; "Principles of American
Forestry," 1903; "Farm Hedges and Windbreaks,"
1906; "Popular Fruit Growing," 1909.

He was one of the pioneers who helped to put agri-
culture in its proper place in the state of Minnesota.
He was instrumental in establishing the College of
Forestry and started the summer work in Itasca Park,
thus giving the forestry students six months of practi-
cal work under good supervision. ' jjE ROY CADY.

Gregory, James J. H., farmer, seedsman, and author,
was born at Marblehead, Massachusetts, November 7,
1827, and died February 20, 1910. He was educated in
the public schools at Marblehead, two years at Middle-
bury College, and graduated from Amherst College in
1850. He taught in Marblehead, Hingham and Lunen-
berg. The starting of the seed business was almost an
accident. He was reading the "New England Farmer"
and saw the request for a good winter squash, and as
his father had recently raised some splendid squashes
from seed that "Old Marm Hubbard" had given him,
he sent the inquirer some of this seed. The man was
so well pleased that he wrote articles for several papers
extolling these squashes, and soon the Gregory Seed
Business was thriving, sending Hubbard squash seed
to all parts of the United States. Naturally the busi-
ness started in the home, the attic being used for the
purpose; in a very short time it was necessary to move
to larger quarters. He branched out with other seed,
both vegetable and flower, and at the time of his death
was carrying on one of the largest seed establishments
in the country. During his career he introduced many
new varieties of vegetables, several of which are the
standards in the market today. His seed-farms com-

Erised over 400 acres where he grew pedigreed stock;
e always felt that by growing his own seeds he was
less liable to mistakes and could, himself, select the
most perfect types. His reputation for choice varie-
ties was so renowned that the firm became the head-
quarters for stock seeds for other well-known concerns.
He wrote and distributed many thousands of copies
of treatises on various agricultural subjects, such as:
"Onion Raising," 1865; "Squashes: How to Grow
Them," 1867; "Cabbages and Cauliflower," 1870;
"Carrots, Mangold Wurtzels and Sugar Beets," 1877;
"Fertilizers," 1885. In his early life he lectured exten-
sively on agricultural and horticultural subjects.

Mr. Gregory was a philanthropist of renown. He
gave large sums of money for the establishment of
southern schools and colleges, the Gregory Institute of
Wilmington, North Carolina, being founded by him.
He served his native town in many responsible capaci-
ties and filled many public offices. EDGAR GREGORY.

Hall, Dr. George R., plant collector, was born in
Bristol, Rhode Island, in 1820, and died in Milton,
Massachusetts, December 24, 1899. He was a graduate
of Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, in the class
of 1842. He studied medicine at the Harvard Medical
School, class of 1846, and on receiving his degree went
to China, where he practised medicine in the foreign
settlement in Shanghai. He abandoned the practice
of medicine in 1854 and went to Japan, where he
traveled extensively and collected the plants which
bear his name, among which may be mentioned Loni-
cera japonica var. Halliana, Pyrus Halliana, Magnolia
stellata (M. Halliana), Zelkova Keaki, Retinospora,
Thujopsis, and Lilium auratum which flowered in this
country one month earlier than in England. In 1864
he planted at Bristol many Japanese evergreens at
that time very rare in this country. In 1876 he made a
second visit to Japan.

Harris, John S., horticulturist and pomologist, was
born in Seville, Ohio, August 17, 1826, and died at La

Crescent, Minnesota, March 24, 1901. His ancestors
were hardy pioneers of Massachusetts and Connecticut,
and his own parents were pioneers in Ohio. Mr. Harris
early became a skilful propagator of plants under the
direction of his father and at the age of eleven had a
small nursery and garden of his own. After his father's
death in 1844, he was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker
to learn the business. In 1847 he enlisted for the Mexi-
can war and served under General Scott in the campaign
resulting in the capture of Mexico City. After his
return from the war, he stayed in Ohio a year or so
and then went west to Wisconsin, traveling over Wis-
consin, Iowa and Illinois. In 1851 he settled at La
Crosse and engaged in market-gardening. The soil
proving too poor and sandy, in 1856 he removed to
La Crescent and started in the fruit, garden and florist
business.

He planted his first orchard in 1857 and continued
planting trees, plants and shrubs until the last few
years of his life. It was his pride that he had tried
nearly every variety of apple that offered any likeli-
hood of being valuable to Minnesota planters. The
winters of 1872 and 1884 destroyed nearly all of his
trees but he continued planting. He began to attend
fairs and exhibit fruits of his own growing in 1864. In
1866 he helped organize the State Horticultural Society
and his is the first name on the roll of the Society. In
1868 he was elected vice-president and in 1869, presi-
dent. He held the office of president until 1871, and
again from 1881 to 1884. He was a member of the
executive committee from 1884 until his death. He
was elected to the Board of Managers of the State
Agricultural Society in 1875 and held the office for
twelve years. Mr. Harris exhibited at the state fair
every year and his exhibits were always interesting
and valuable as showing the pomology of the state.
He was one of the first men to be made an honorary
life member of the Horticultural Society. He enjoyed
writing for the agricultural papers and conducted a
column in the "Farm, Stock and Home" for many
years. Mr. Harris probably had a closer knowledge
of pomology in the Northwest than any other man in
the United States and did his full share in the develop-
ment of horticulture throughout Minnesota.

LE ROY CADY.

Heikes, William Fletcher, nurseryman, was born at
Dayton, Ohio, on April 2, 1837. He succeeded his
father in the nursery business near Dayton, in 1839.
In 1872 he established near Huntsville, Alabama, what
eventually became the largest nursery of its kind in
the United States. He was instrumental in introducing
systematic grading and was the first nurseryman to
use a caliper to determine tree grades. He was also
the first nurseryman to cellar nursery stock and keep
it in cold storage during the shipping-season. Mr.
Heikes originated the double root-grafting method of
propagation of nursery stock. He was state vice-
president for Alabama of the American Pomological
Society for many years. He was president of the
Alabama Horticultural Society from its origin in 1903
to the time of his death in Cleveland, Ohio, on Friday,
August 25, 1911. p. F. WILLIAMS.

Henderson, Peter (Fig. 1881), leading market-gar-
dener, florist, seedsman and author, was born at
Pathhead, near Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1822, and died
in Jersey City, January, 17, 1890. He was trained in
Old World methods of gardening, came to America in
1843, worked under Thorburn and Robert Buist,
and then in 1847 began business in Jersey City as a
market-gardener, with a capital of $500, saved by
three years' hard work. He continued to live there
until his death. The publication of "Gardening for
Profit" in 1865 marks an era in American horticulture.
It was the first American book devoted entirely to
market-gardening, and it helped to induce many per-

HORTICULTURISTS

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1579

1881. Peter Henderson.

eons to enter the business. By the time of his death
about 150,000 copies of the book are said to have been
distributed. It was written in an aggregate of 100
hours, when the author was working 16 hours a day,
largely at manual labor. At the noon intervals and
late at night he wrote this work lying on his back, with

a pillow under his head.
The secret of its success
and of the author's,
was the invention of
new methods adapted
to operations on a large
scale. The second edi-
tion in 1874, and the
third in 1887, are both
thorough revisions.

"Henderson's Practi-
cal Floriculture," 1868,
was an epoch-making
book in commercial
floriculture. Up to this
time most works on
flower -gardening had
been written for the
amateur. This point of
view is necessarily the
commoner one, and
Henderson's contribu-
tion to it was "Garden-
ing for Pleasure," 1875.
In the compilation of "The Handbook of Plants," in
1881, he was largely aided by C. L. Allen, and in the
second edition, 1890, by W. J. Davidson. "Garden and
Farm Topics" was issued in 1884, and in the same
year appeared "How the Farm Pays," a stenographic
report of conversations between Wm. Crozier and Peter
Henderson. It is said that nearly a quarter of a million
copies of his various works have been sold. His seed
business was founded at New York in 1865.

Few men, if any, have done so much to simplify and
improve methods of handling plants for commercial
purposes. His greenhouses were an object lesson to
many visitors, his methods were widely copied, and his
business successes were the goal of ambitious market-
gardeners and florists, among whom he was for many
years the most commanding figure. He was a frequent
contributor to the horticultural and agricultural maga-
zines, and during his forty-two years of business life is
supposed to have written or dictated at least 175,000
letters. Two-thirds of these letters were written with
his own hands, and he always replied promptly to
inquiries about methods of cultivation. An account
of his life is published in a memoir of forty-eight pages
by his son, Alfred Henderson. WILHELM MILLER.

Hepburn, David, was joint author with John Gar-
diner of a very early American book on horticulture.
This was published at Washington, D. C., in 1804. The
name of Gardiner appears first on the title page, but it
may be inferred that the practical experience in the
book is almost wholly Hepburn's. He had had forty
years of experience in gardening, half of the time in
England and half in America. He was employed by
General J. Mason for six years on Mason's Island,
Georgetown. He had also been employed by Governor
Mercer. The book was well made for the time. It is
a 16mo, and contains 204 pages of practical directions.
The calendar style is used. The first part (100 pages)
is devoted to the kitchen garden. The second part
consists chiefly of fruits, flowers, and shrubs (82
pages). This is followed by a few pages on hops, hot-
houses and greenhouses. The second edition (George-
town, 1818) contains 348 pages. It includes "A Treatise
on Gardening, by a citizen of Virginia." This occupies
80 pages. The copy owned by the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society possesses this manuscript note:

"This treatise is by John Randolph, of Williamsburg,
father of Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State during
the administration of General Washington." Robert
Manning said that this note may have been made by
General Dearborn. A third edition was published at
Washington in 1826, and contained 308 pages. For a
further account of the book by Gardiner and Hepburn,
see page 1521. WILHELM MILLER.

Hexamer, Frederick M. (Fig. 1882), physician, nur-
seryman and editor, was born at Heidelberg, Germany,
on June 21, 1833. He died at Stamford, Connecticut,
May 29, 1909. When only sixteen years of age, he joined
Siegel's army which was disbanded in 1848, and he, the
youngest in the ranks, being exiled, went to Switzerland,
where he became acquainted with the elder Froebel with
whom he studied medicine and botany in the Zurich
botanical gardens. Having secured his M.D. degree, he
explored the Swiss Alps and the Tyrol and made a
very large collection of Alpine plants. The remains of
this collection are now in the herbarium of the botani-
cal gardens at Bronx Park, New York City. About the
middle of the last century, he came to New York and
began the practice of medicine, which, however, he
soon dropped to enter the nursery business at Chap-
paqua, New York, in partnership with his father-in-
law, a leading physician of New York City, under the
name of Reisig & Hexamer. The firm's principal busi-
ness was the growing of new varieties of plants to be dis-
tributed as premiums with the "New York Tribune,"
to which paper Dr. Hexamer became a contributor
through his friendship with Horace Greeley. His wri-
tings were upon horticultural and agricultural topics.
Thanks to his friendship with B. K. Bliss, he became
editor of the "American Garden" in 1880. In 1885 he
succeeded Dr. George Thurber as editor of "American
Agriculturist," to which paper he had contributed
frequently during many years. He continued as editor
of the "Agriculturist" until the early years of this cen-
tury, when he was made editor emeritus. His activity
during his connection with the "Agriculturist" had also
to do with the editing of a large number of books on
rural affairs published by the Orange Judd Company.
His only book, "Asparagus," the sole work on this
subject published in America, was printed in 1901.

In addition to the influence which he exercised on
American farm affairs
as editor, Dr. Hexamer
was a leading spirit
in horticultural and
agricultural associa-
tions. He was for years
on the New Fruits
Committee of the
American Pomological
Society and was presi-
dent of the Farmers'
Club of the American
Institute of New York
City, his immediate
predecessor being
Horace Greeley. In
this institution, he
mapped the policy of
the club which practi-
cally took its life and
usefulness from him.
However, owing to his
excessive modesty, his
hand was not often
seen and only too frequently others seized the credit
which was really due to him.

Some of his achievements in the commercial line
had to do with the growing of strawberries and potatoes.
He was the first man to grow the former on a business
basis for the New York market. He also grew the

1882. F. M. Hexamer.

1580

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HORTICULTURISTS

epoch-making Early Rose potato for the introducers
and was awarded a medal at the Centennial Exposi-
tion at Philadelphia in 1876 for a collection of 550
named varieties of potatoes. M. G. KAINS.

Hiester, Gabriel, horticulturist, was born at "Esther-
ton," near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, April 28, 1850,
and died in his lifelong home, January 18, 1912. His
father, Augustus Otto Hiester, was a prominent citizen
and an influential trustee of the Pennsylvania State
College. Gabriel Hiester graduated from this institu-
tion in 1868 and served as a trustee from 1878 until
his death. No member of the board did more for the
promotion of agriculture, and especially horticulture,
in the college and in the agricultural experiment sta-
tion. He was elected President of the State Horticul-
tural Association in 1905 and was serving his eighth
term on the evening before his death. Mr. Hiester
was widely known as an unusually successful horti-
culturist. He produced fruits and vegetables on a large
scale for the markets of central Pennsylvania and fre-
quently attended Farmers' Institutes and horticultural
meetings in this and other states where he gave his
hearers the benefit of his many years of experience as a
grower of choice products. Gabriel Hiester was a man
of sterling qualities, being broad-minded, unselfish,
and thoroughly devoted to all interests which concern
the welfare of mankind. R L WATTS.

Hogg, Thomas, Senior and Junior, plantsmen. The
second Thomas Hogg, born in London, February 6,
1820, died in New York, December 30, 1892, was
known for his introductions of Japanese plants. His
father removed to this country in 1820, when the child
was nine months old, and early in 1822 took up a
piece of land outside the city of New York, at what is
now Broadway and Twenty-third Street, and here
established himself as nurseryman and florist. In
1840, the nurseries were removed to Seventy-ninth
Street and East River, where young Thomas and his
brother James assisted in the business. The father
died in 1855, and the sons took charge of the business.
Thomas Hogg was appointed by President Lincoln, in
1862, United States Marshal, and in this capacity he
resided eight years in Japan. He returned to Japan in
1873, and remained two years in the Japanese customs
service. "His close relations with the authorities gave
him opportunities for exploring the islands which other
foreigners did not possess, and he collected many plants
and seeds of horticultural value and sent them home.
The garden of his brother at the foot of Eighty-fourth
Street, where most of these treasures were cultivated
for the first time in America, was, for many years, the
most interesting spot in the United States to the lovers
of Japanese plants. Many of the very best trees,
shrubs and herbaceous plants which have come to us
from Japanese gardens were thus brought to America
before they were sent to Europe, and not a few of them
are now among the most familiar inhabitants of our
gardens." Hogg left Japan in 1875, and subsequently
traveled in China, Ceylon, South and Central America,
as well as in Europe and California. In later life he
devoted himself to his favorite studies. He never
married. — Extract from "Garden and Forest," Vol.
VI, p. 24.

Hoopes, Josiah, nurseryman, was born in West Ches-
ter, Pennsylvania, November 9, 1832, and died January
16, 1904. He was reared principally in Philadelphia and
received a superior English and classical education in
the high schools of that city. His chief delight was in
botany, and from early childhood he pursued that line
of study with interest. It was in pursuance of his
inclinations along this line that he built in 1853 a
small greenhouse on his father's property and proceeded,
at great labor and considerable expense, to fill it with
specimens of the flora of this continent and of the world.

To this collection he added as opportunity permitted
and naturally began propagating them and found his
products in demand. From that small beginning, the
great and' prosperous nursery business of today was
developed. Josiah Hoopes wrote much on horticul-
ture, botany and kindred subjects, for many years being
a regular contributor to the horticultural department
of the "New York Tribune" and other publications. He
was the author of the "Book on Evergreens."

Hoskins, Thomas H., physician, horticulturist and
writer, was born at Gardiner, Maine, in 1828 and died
at Newport, Vermont, in 1895. He was well known in
horticulture as the introducer of Russian fruits. He
was also a contributor to all the the leading horticul-
tural papers. For a fuller account, see "Cyclopedia of
American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 585.

Hovey, Charles Mason (Fig. 1883), horticultural
journalist and nurseryman, was born in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, October 26, 1810, and died there Sep-
tember 1 or 2, 1887. He is best known as editor of the
"Magazine of Horticulture," which had an uninter-
rupted existence from 1835 to 1868. It was founded
as the "American Gardener's Magazine," by C. M.
Hovey and his brother, Phineas Brown Hovey. In its
third volume (1837) it changed its name, and continu-
ously thereafter was known as the "Magazine of Horti-
culture," and wag edited by Charles M. Hovey alone.
It enjoyed the longest period of prosperity of any
American horticultural journal. It is a record of the
budding stage of New World horticulture. It was
modeled after Loudon's "Gardener's Magazine,"
although its spirit was essentially American. Essays,
records of current events, reviews of books, descrip-
tions of varieties, were prominent features. It had very
few illustrations. Mr. Hovey was author of the "Fruits
of America," issued in parts from 1852 to 1856, com-
pleting two volumes and making more than a beginning
on a third. Its purpose was to give "richly colored
figures and full descriptions of all the choicest varie-
ties cultivated in the United States." The volumes con-
tain more than 100 colored plates. Handsomely printed
and bound, these volumes are a fine type of the ama-
teur's art-book of varieties.

Mr. Hovey was also nurseryman and seed merchant.
Until 1840, his grounds at Cambridge are said to have
comprised only an acre, but at that time his premises
were greatly enlarged. His epoch was a time of knowl-
edge of varieties. Straightway he began assiduously
to collect varieties, until he exhibited pears, apples and
camellias by the hundreds, and plums, grapes, chrysan-
themums and many
other things by the
score. These things
were shown before the
Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society which
was the center of horti-
cultural influence of
the country. He raised
many seedlings. Thuya
Hoveyi is still prized as
a garden conifer. His
greatest contribution to
horticultural varieties
was the Hovey straw-
berry, which first
fruited in 1836, and
which is generally re-
garded as the starting-
point of American commercial strawberry-growing. For
many years this berry was the standard of market excel-
lence (Fig. 1861). He continued to grow it and cherish it
until the end. Mr. Hovey was long an active member,
and for a time president, of the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society. He was one of the active projectors

1883. Charles M. Hovey.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1581

'

1884. H. H. Hunnewell.

of the building which gave the Society a new and more
commodious home.

A portrait of Mr. Hovey will be found in the first vol-
ume of the "Fruits of America." Another occurs in
"Gardeners' Monthly" for 1886 (frontispiece) and
"American Garden," November, 1887; and a reduction
of this appears in Fig. 1883. jj> jj g

Hunnewell, Horatio Hollis (Fig. 1884) , philanthropist
and horticulturist, was born in Watertown, Massachu-
setts, July 27, 1810, and died in 1902 at Wellesley,
Massachusetts. He was the eighth in line of descent
from Roger Hunnewell, who came to this country from

England in 1640.
Hollis Hunnewell was
educated at Harvard
University and in
Paris. At twenty-five
years of age, he became
a partner in the bank-
ing-house of Wells &
Co., a Parisian bank
for the accommoda-
tion of American tour-
ists. He was later
identified with the
banking and railroad
interests of the United
States and many
philanthropic move-
ments, but the singular
fact remains that he
did not manifest a
taste for arboriculture
and horticulture, his
favorite pastime, imtil
he was over forty years'
of age. He was first to introduce the use of Catalpa
speciosa for railroad ties, and hundreds of acres of
catulpas were planted on the treeless plains along the
lines of western railroads. Through his efforts, the first
open-air exhibition of rhododendrons and azaleas was
given in Boston in 1873. No previous attempt had
been made in this country to bring together a large
collection of these plants for landscape effect. The
increased excellence and extent of arrangement of group-
ing of plants hitherto unused made him a landscape
artist of first degree, and he gave a new impetus to
American botany and horticulture. He was president
of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for 1875 and
through his numberless benefactions helped to make
horticulture a household word, not only in his beloved
state, but throughout the country. Q. B. BRACKETT.

Husmann, George, grape-grower and author, was
born at Meyenburg, near Bremen, Germany, Novem-
ber 4, 1827, and died at Napa, California, November
5, 1902. He came to the United States at an early age
and was practically self-educated. His horticultural
career began at Herman, Missouri, where he established
the largest and oldest American vineyard that turned
grapes into wine, with the exception of the Longworth
vineyard in Ohio. He served with distinction in the
Civil War, was a presidential elector in 1866, and was a
member of the convention for revising the constitution
of the state of Missouri. He established extensive
nurseries and a model fruit farm that was the pride of
the state, and the fruits and wines received first awards
at all the fairs and expositions held at that time. In
1866, he published his first book, "Grapes and Wine."
About 1869 he began the publication of the "Grape
Culturist." In 1880 his second book, "Grape-growing
and Wine-making," was published, and in 1888 "Grape-
culture and Wine-making" was issued, and it became
so popular that it was revised and published through
four editions. He was president of the Bluffton Wine
Company, Bluffton, Missouri, a member of the Board

1885. Mrs. Annie L. Jack.

of Curators of the Missouri State University, a charter
member of the Missouri State Horticultural Society
and the Missouri State Board of Agriculture; professor
of pomology and forestry, Missouri State University; a
member of the Viticultural Congress that convened at
Washington, D. C., and State Statistical Agent for the
state of California. He was one of the first men to ship
American phylloxera-resistant grape-vines to France
to re-establish her vineyards. In cooperation with
Parker Earle, he originated and helped to organize the
Mississippi Valley Horticultural Society.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Jack, Mrs. Annie L. (Fig. 1885), was born in Nor-
thamptonshire, England, January 1, 1839, and died in
February, 1912. Her
maiden name was
Annie L.Hayr. In 1852
she came to America
and pursued her studies
at a ladies' seminary
in Troy, New York.
She taught school at
Chateauquay Basin,
Quebec, about a dozen
miles from Montreal,
and later was married
to Robert Jack of that
place. Acting under her
influence, their farm,
known as "Hillside,"
was largely planted to
small-fruits and vege-
tables, to which was
in time added a green-
house for floriculture.
Thus were demon-
strated the capabilities
of that section for market-gardening, and others were
led to follow the example so successful at the "Hill-
side" farm. But it was as a writer on horticultural sub-
jects that Mrs. Jack is most widely known. Her "Gar-
den Talks" and other contributions to the press have
much value, being the product of her own practical
experience. Her handbook entitled "The Canadian
Garden" is of especial value to Canadian gardeners.

LlNUS WOOLVERTON.

Jaeger, Herman, pioneer grape-grower of the Ozarks
and grape-breeder, was born in Brugg, Switzerland, in
1844, and died in 1896. He went to Missouri in 1867
and settled at Neosho, where, until 1896, he lived and
engaged in viticulture. In Europe he was trained as a
viticulturist. At Neosho, in 1869, he planted a large
vineyard. It was composed largely of Concord and
other eastern types of grapes. In 1873 "blight" (proba-
bly downy mildew) destroyed his crop of grapes. In
1874 he began spraying to control this blight or mildew,
using sulfur, iron sulfate and copper sulfate. He was
undoubtedly the first to begin spraying for fungous
diseases in this western section. This pioneer work in
which he contemplated the use of fungicides, which
became general with the introduction of bordeaux mix-
ture a few years later, is an indication of his resource-
fulness and his vision. The failure of eastern grapes to
resist mildew turned his attention also to the native
wild grapes of the Ozarks, which he observed to be
resistant of disease. As a result, for a third of a cen-
tury, he searched the Ozarks for promising wild forms.
From these he originated many promising native seed-
lings and also crossed many of the latter with Concord
and other eastern sorts. He advocated the use of the
native post oak and summer grapes Vitis Lincecumii
and V. sestivalis as the foundation stock upon which to
build the future viticulture of the Ozarks. He origina-
ted upward of one hundred varieties worthy of trial
in the neighborhood and many of his pioneer varieties
have become the foundation stock upon which other

1582

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

grape-breeders base their work. He also observed that
the native Ozark grapes were free from the phylloxera
which threatened the grapes of his native Europe. He
was one of the first to make use of this observation by
propagating millions of cuttings and sending them to
Europe where they were used as resistant stocks upon
which to graft European varieties.

He wrote but little and shrank from giving the results
of his work .before horticultural gatherings. He taught
by personal contact and by results attained. His
acquaintances, during his life regarded him as the
leading grape-breeder and viticulturist of the Ozarks.

J. C. WRITTEN.

Kennicott, John A., doctor and pioneer horticultu-
rist, was born in 1800 and died in 1863. When the
greater part of Illinois was a wilderness of grass prairie
and when Chicago was a straggling village, Dr. Kenni-
cott was planting shade and ornamental trees at his
home. He was a leading spirit in the organization of
the Cook County Agricultural and Horticultural
Society in 1856, and held the first successful fair in 1857
on forty acres that later held solid blocks of sky-
scrapers. This horticultural society was short-lived,
but Dr. Kennicott did much to stir up the farmer and
the fruit-grower to the possibilities wrappd up in horti-
culture in Illinois. He was a ready writer and a good
talker; he was first president of the Northwestern
Fruit-Growers' Association and president of the Illi-
nois State Horticultural Society in 1861. Dr. Kennicott
was well educated, painstaking and self-denying. He
did much for Illinois horticulture and the present gen-
eration owes him a lasting debt of gratitude for his
noble, far-reaching pioneer work in horticulture.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Kenrick, William, nurseryman and author, was
born in 1795, and was the oldest son of John Kenrick,
one of the pioneer American nurserymen. His father
commenced his nursery in the year 1790 on Nonantum
Hill, near the line of the towns of Newton and Brighton,
Massachusetts, and on the very ground where the
apostle Eliot began his labors for the Indians, under
Waban, their chief. The raising of peach seedlings
was the commencement of Mr. Kenrick's work. He
soon acquired the art of budding, and thus offered
named varieties for sale. In the year 1823 his son Wil-
liam became a partner in the nursery, and we find the
first advertisement of the stock in the October number
of the "New England Farmer" of that year. It named
thirty varieties of finest budded peaches 5 to 8 feet
high at 33 % cents each; ten varieties of European
grapes; four American: Isabella, Catawba, Bland and
Scuppernong; currants, horse-chestnut, catalpa, moun-
tain-ash, lilacs, roses and a few other ornamental trees.
It was stated that the trees would be packed with clay
and mats. The son, William, appears to have assumed
early control, having planted in 1823 two acres in cur-
rants alone. In 1824 they made 1,700 gallons of cur-
rant wine, increasing the amount to 3,000 gallons in
1825 and to 3,600 in 1826. Mr. Kenrick was an enthu-
siast in whatever he did, his extensive cultivation and
introduction of the Lombardy poplar being an illus-
tration of his sanguine temperament. A still more
marked instance was his culture of the Morus multi-
caulis about the year 1835, and his advocacy of silk
culture. For a time he found this to be a more profit-
able venture to himself than to his patrons. But it
should be said that, however sanguine and confident
were his opinions, they were honestly held and with no
intent to mislead. In the year 1835, Mr. Kenrick pub-
lished "The American Silk-Growers' Guide," a small
treatise on mulberry-culture. In 1833 appeared the
"New American Orchardist." This is a larger work, and
is a full description of the fruits of that date. The
author acknowledges his large indebtedness to other
cultivators, especially to Mr. Robert Manning, of

Salem, who published his "Book of Fruits" in 1838.
Mr. Kenrick died in February, 1872.

WM. C. STRONG.

Kerr, Jonathan Williams, fruit-grower and nursery-
man, was born in York County, Pennsylvania, in 1842.
In 1867, after the Civil War, in which he was a Union
soldier, he went to Maryland, where he made his home.
Prior to his soldier's life, he had taught school. After
more than fifty years devoted to horticulture, he died on
July 31, 1913, of heart disease. Not only did he devote
time to the growing of nursery stock for sale and of
fruit for market, but spent much of his energies in the
testing of new fruits and nuts to determine their
value, especially in the Chesapeake Peninsula. He was
one of the most diligent of watchers and students of
nature as affected by art, his constant effort being
to improve by cross-fertilization and selection those
fruits, nuts and other plants that gave promise of being
satisfactory either from the commercial or the amateur's
standpoint.

This work involved an enormous amount of labor in
collecting and trying out thousands of plum, apple,

Eeach, and other fruit varieties, the plum receiving the
on's share of his study and effort. In this work, Mr.
Kerr was perhaps the leading specialist in the develop-
ment and improvement of our native plums. Whenever
and wherever a variety of reputed superiority came to
his attention he spared no pains or money to procure
it and no efforts to give it a fair test. He passed care-
ful judgment on more than 400 named varieties, the
labor involved being as nothing compared to the pleas-
ing and fascinating task he imposed upon himself. His
farm at Denton, Maryland, was "a veritable little
plum heaven" visited 'by other enthusiasts from all
over the world.

Mr. Kerr also tested more than 400 varieties of
apples collected with the object of ascertaining their
adaptability to the peculiar conditions of the Chesa-
peake peninsula. The larger part of these were varie-
ties of reputation established elsewhere, though many
were comparatively new. He was also especially
interested in nuts which could be grown in the penin-
sula— Persian and Japanese walnuts, chestnuts, chin-
quapins, filberts, pecans, and so on. At the time of his
death, scores of experiments were still in process of
completion.

At fruit-growers' meetings, more especially those of
the Maryland State and the Peninsula Horticultural
Societies, Mr. Kerr was one of the leading spirits. His
intimacy with all branches of horticulture and his
fluent speech combined with his dry humor and aptness
of tongue made his remarks particularly pleasing,
interesting and instructive. His writings are charac-
terized by extreme conservatism and care.

M. G. KAINS.

Kirtland, Jared P., doctor, pomologist and natural-
ist, was born in Wallingford, Connecticut, November
10, 1793 and died near Cleveland, Ohio, December 11,
1877. His love for nature and all living things mani-
fested itself in his early boyhood, and he was familiar
with the flowers, the trees and the birds around his
home. His grandfather bequeathed him his medical
library and the funds for a medical education. He was
the first student to matriculate at Yale College for a
course in the Medical Department. No branch of
scientific study came amiss to him. Prominent in
medicine, he was in every chosen department of
science a teacher and a leader. In the geologic survey
of Ohio he brought to bear his extensive and familiar
knowledge of the flora and fauna, the pomology,
ornithology and entomology of the state. Every
department of life received his particular care. He filled
the chair of Theory and Practice in the Ohio Medical
College for some years with great ability. As far back
as 1810 he was studying the seedling pear trees in the
nurseries in northern Ohio, and was trying to solve the

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1583

perplexing problem of pear blight. He grew many
varieties of pears and by a series of hybridizing pro-
duced many new varieties of pears and more than
thirty new varieties of cherries; among the latter are
the noted Governor Wood, Kirtland's Mary, Black
Hawk, Pontiac, Powhatan, Tecumseh, Osceola and
Red Jacket. The varieties were introduced by Ellwan-
ger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. The Governor
Wood and the Rockport are the two varieties of all
the long list that are today most widely cultivated. In
1874 the Ohio Horticultural Society, in its session at
Akron, sent a vote of thanks to Dr. Kirtland at Cleve-
land for his success and skill as a cultivator of new
fruits. He was one of the most distinguished men ever
connected with the Society. He replied that his highest
aspiration in this matter was to awaken and develop a
love for horticulture in the youth of the state. He had
been actively engaged in the great work since July 4,
1812, and at the time of this meeting had not wearied
of the well-doing for a period of sixty-two years! The
hybrids of fruit gave him many new varieties of rare
excellence. His flower-garden — always an object of
interest — contained many specimens rare and beautiful,
native and exotic. He succeeded in grafting the sweet
bay on the magnolia and the rare flowers and fine fruits
were his special care. He was a careful weather obser-
ver, and took accurate observations many years
before the United States Weather Bureau charted the
country. G. B. BRACKETT.

Landreth, David, founder of the oldest seedhouse in
America, was born in 1752 at Haggerston, North-
umberland County, England. He came to America late
in the eighteenth century, making Philadelphia his
home, and establishing there, in 1784, a nursery and
seed business. Its location, on what was then known as
High Street, is now covered by the building 1210 and
1212 Market Street. The raising of trees and produc-
tion of seeds were conducted on land nearby, particu-
larly on a tract at Twelfth and Filbert streets. This
locality proving too contracted for the purpose, the
nursery and seed grounds were removed in 1789 to
the "Neck," then considered far out of town, the place
chosen being not far distant from the site of the present
arsenal.

The younger David Landreth was born in Philadel-
phia in 1802. When of suitable age he entered actively
into his father's business, which had considerably
extended in Philadelphia, while a branch house had
been opened in Charleston, South Carolina. The young
man's early duty was that of manager of this Charles-
ton branch. Of the Charleston business, it will suffice
here to say that it continued till the era of the Civil
War, when it came to a sudden end by the act of the
Confederate States District Court, which confiscated
the real estate and merchandise alike, on April 22,
1^62. BURNET LANDRETH.

Landreth, David, the younger, in 1828 succeeded his
father as proprietor of the well-established and thriv-
ing business in Philadelphia, a business which was to
remain highly prosperous for half a century afterward
under his fostering care. His time, however, was
not wholly occupied with the details of business, but
was turned at an early age toward the literature of
husbandry and to enterprises of public interest. Among
the latter may be mentioned the Philadelphia Horticul-
tural Society, of which, in 1827, he was one of the
founders and a vice-president, and in 1828 was elected
corresponding secretary, which office he held for seven
years. At a subsequent date he was made president of
the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture, and vice-president of the United States Agricul-
tural Society, and became an active member of many
other organizations.

His literary labors included the publication of the
"Floral Magazine," started in 1832, and an advanced

work for that period (see page 1559). At a later date
he wrote much upon husbandry, his graceful style as a
writer and his technical knowledge of the subject mak-
ing his views of much value in the progress of the indus-
try. He edited an American edition of George W.
Johnson's "A Dictionary of Modern Gardening," a vol-
ume of 635 pages, published at Philadelphia in 1847.

In 1847 the Landreth nursery was removed to
Bloomsdale, Bristol, Pennsylvania, where Mr. Lan-
dreth established what is believed to be the most
complete seed-farm in the United States, and where
he planted an arboretum which for years stood
unequaled in this country in the development of
its trees. He was an early breeder of the Channel
Island cattle, then styled Alderneys, and was among
the earliest manufacturers of mowing and reaping
machinery. In 1872-3 he experimented in steam-
plowing with a Scotch engine, and in the follow-
ing year with an American engine. Subsequently,
steam-digging and steam-chopping were experimented
with at Bloomsdale, and many improvements pro-
duced in the machine-shop of that model farm. In
early life he had lived amid the plantations of the Land-
reth nursery, one of the show places of Philadelphia —
the site now marked by the Landreth School — and his
virtues and character were those of one brought up in
intimate contact with nature. BURNET LANDRETH.

Legaux, Pierre (or Peter), an early vigneron, who
made one of the first attempts to establish the wine-
grape and to make wine in this country. From his
plantation at Spring Mill, near Philadelphia, Dufour
secured vines for the great experiment in Kentucky
(see Bailey, "Evolution Native Fruits").

The following information about Legaux is taken
from Samuel Gordon Smyth, in the "Philadelphia
Press," September 10, 1899:

"At the close of the Revolution there appeared
among the French colonists in Philadelphia a man of
superior talents and reputation, a political refugee who
sought the hospitable shores of America to escape the
impending doom which afterward swept over France.
Pierre Legaux belonged to an aristocratic family of
ancient lineage in Lorraine. By the scanty light thrown
upon his early personal history we have been able to
learn that he was born and educated in Metz ; had been
a counsellor in the Parliament there; a patron of the
arts and sciences, member of several foreign academies,
besides enjoying the personal friendship, favor and con-
fidence of his sovereign Louis XIV. Under the regime,
Legaux had filled positions in the Government with
honor and distinction. Prior to the time of his escape
to America, he had been in the diplomatic service of
the king at one of the French West Indian Islands, and
it was while there, through the intrigue and malevolence
of his official superior, that he was forced to fly G.uada-
loupe to save his life. We begin to hear of his presence
among his compatriots of Philadelphia, about 1786. He
was spoken of as distinguished for his culture, scien-
tific accomplishments and gentility. Mingling with the
best society and finding friends among the men who
were shaping the destinies of the nation, Legaux allied
himself with the foremost, partaking actively in public
affairs and appearing with the dignitaries in the social
functions which enlivened the metropolis of America.
Citizen Legaux became a member of the American
Philosophical Society in 1787, at a time when his doing
so would indicate the close touch he had with the ablest
men of the day. It was in February, 1786, when Pierre
Legaux bought from Augustine Prevost, a fine planta-
tion on the Schuykill River near Spring Mill. The
property called 'Mt. Joy,' contained 206 acres.

"Noting the remarkable growth, productiveness and
sweetness of the native grapes which thrived so luxuri-
antly on the warm banks of pur forest-bordered rivers,
and confident of a great destiny for this country in the

1584

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cultivation of the grape, he argued that these latitudes
compared favorably with those of sunny France and
Italy in climatic and physical conditions favorable to
its introduction and development. With this aim
before him, he proceeded to demonstrate his theories.
Importing a lot of the best varieties of stocks from
Europe, even from distant Africa, he began the growing
of vines on his plantation in 1787. He set out several
acres on the warm southern slopes of the farm and gave
most careful attention to their propagation. He talked
learnedly about them to those whom he met and
impressed his views upon the large circle of friends who
gathered about and watched the progress of his new
venture. As we glance over the pages of the newspapers of
a century ago and read columns of matter concerning the
vineyard, one naturally wonders at its vast importance.
In fact, the 'Letters of a Farmer,' the news of the Old
World by the latest packet and events transpiring within
the borders of the infant Republic seemed subordinate
to the paramount interests of the viniculturists."

The Pennsylvania Wine Company was organized to
take over the enterprise, the stockholders comprising
prominent men of the time. But the venture fell on
bad ways. Dissensions arose, and litigation followed.
"The devoted but aged Legaux, humbled and chagrined,
became like a hewer of wood and a drawer of water
where once he had been a gentle and influential .host.
In these latter days, the Sheriff came and went, — for
the property was saved to the family by John Righter,
Legaux's son-in-law, who by dint of picking up the
shares here and there and buying off the claimants and
so on, kept the estate intact. But before this had been
accomplished Pierre Legaux, harassed, disappointed,
and even robbed by his malicious servants, annoyed
by the petty persecutions of neighbors, misunderstood
and maligned, finally succumbed to the combination, and
the spirit of the once cultured and ambitious French-
men passed into eternity, September 25, 1827." He
was buried at Barren Hill, Montgomery, Co., Pa.

Lewelling, Henderson, pioneer nurseryman, was born
in Salem, North Carolina, April 25, 1809, of Welch
ancestry. At an early date he removed to Ohio and
there founded the town of Salem; he removed to
Indiana in 1831, founded another Salem, and to Iowa,
1839, there founding the town of Salem, and being of a
roving spirit and a horticultural turn of mind, he left
Salem, Henry County, Iowa, April 1, 1847. He joined
one of the first colonies of emigrants to cross the Rocky
Mountains to Oregon, where he left to posterity the
name of "Salem," now the capital of that great state.
True to his native inclinations, he took with him on his
long journey westward from Salem, Iowa, by wagon-
box and ox-team, in carefully prepared soil, 700 trees,
vines and shrubs, representing a large number of leadr
ing varieties of apples and pears, a few varieties of
plums and cherries and one Isabella grape-vine and one
gooseberry plant. His scheme to establish a nursery
in the densely wooded Northwest was so bold as to be
audacious and the trip by ox-team across the plains, on
a hitherto untrayeled route, was long and arduous. He
was advised repeatedly that his undertaking was hope-
less. The trip through dry, thirsty land and over lofty
mountain ranges was accomplished about the first of
October, and Mr. Lewelling arrived at the Dalles with
most of the trees alive. From that point he proceeded
by water route to the town of Milwaukee, where he
established the first nursery in the Pacific Northwest.
George Himes, historian of Oregon pioneer days says
it is an unquestioned fact that no other importation
made by the early settlers did so much to add to the
wealth and income of the people of Oregon as did Hen-
derson Lewelling's traveling nursery. Ralph Geer, also
a pioneer of 1847, in later years said: "That load of
trees contained health, wealth and comfort for the old
pioneers of Oregon. It was the mother of all the

orchards west of the Rocky Mountains, and gave Oregon
a name and fame that she never would have had with-
out it. That load of living trees brought more wealth to
Oregon than any ship that ever entered the Columbia
River." Henderson Lewelling removed to California
in 1854 and lived quietly until the termination of his
life, December 28, 1878. G. B. BRACKETT.

Lewelling, Seth, was born in South Carolina, March
6, 1819, and died at Milwaukee, Oregon, February 21,
1897. He was joint owner of an orchard on Cedar
Creek, near Salem, Iowa, with his brother Henderson,
and remained in charge of this orchard until 1850
when he crossed the plains to Oregon and became part-
ner in the business of Lewelling & Meek, Milwaukee,
Oregon. The nursery was not at first a success owing
to the lack of stock on which to graft; but in 1850 seeds
were brought to the territory by Mr. Pugh, and these
were purchased by Lewelling & Meek and in 1851 they
grafted 18,000 trees, and these apple trees sold readily
for $1 apiece, and plum, cherry, pear and peach trees
$1.50 each.

Seth Lewelling began his horticultural career with the
beginning of the fruit industry in Oregon. He lived to
see the pioneer cabins replaced by stately mansions;
he lived to see the squatter claims become flourishing
orchards and fruit-farms; he lived to see the populous
East buy fruit from Oregon by trainloads and amount-
ing to many millions of dollars; all this in fifty years.
He was a horticulturist of the old school but he was not
averse to teaching the younger men the road to success.
He sold fruit in San Francisco in 1851 at $1 a pound,
and it was then that the sister state of California real-
ized that the gold in the mines was as nothing com-
pared to the revenue she could reap from fruit orchards.
She has steadily planted and is now the leading fruit-
growing state in the Union. Mr. Lewelling was the
originator of a number of fruits that have added
materially to the wealth of Pacific coast horticulture;
among these are the well-known Black Republican and
Bing cherries and the Golden prune. He records the
fact that he saw no fruit pests in Oregon until 1880;
this is true of all new countries; insect pests and fruit
diseases seem to follow colonization. Mr. Lewelling was
a prominent figure in the fruit industry on the Coast,
and he was one of the last survivors of the four pioneers
who started the first orchards in Oregon.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Lodeman, Ernest Gustavus (Fig. 1886), horticul-
tural investigator and writer, was born in Neufchatel,
Switzerland, May
3, 1867, and died
December 2, 1896,
when connected
with Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca,
New York. His
parents came to
America when he
was two years old,
his father becom-
ing, in 1870, pro-
fessor of modern
languages in the
State Normal
School of Michi-
gan. The son
entered the Agri-
cultural College of
Michigan, where
he graduated in
1889. Modest and
lacking in self-as-
sertion, he needed
encouragement
and Stimulus to 1886. Ernest G. Lodeman.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1585

make a strong investigator and teacher. In a real
estate venture in Florida, before his entering the Agri-
cultural College, he became interested in agricultural
problems and resolved to devote his life to them. In
1890 he undertook work as private assistant to the
writer; and from this he became assistant and instructor
in Cornell University. In the extension work amongst
New York farmers he had charge of the investigations on
grapes and strawberries. He was an originator of the
spray-calendar idea. In 1896 he published "The Spray-
ing of Plants." which is yet the fullest presentation of
the subject. This was prepared after a most thorough
traversing of the subject, both as author and experi-
menter, including a visit to Europe for the purpose of
tracing the French history of the subject. He was an
accomplished scholar, speaking German and French
with fluency and possessing a working knowledge of
other languages. His early death deprived American
horticulture of a promising leader. L> jj_ g.

Longworth, Nicholas (Fig. 1887), (1783-1863) has
been called the "father of American grape-culture." He

was born in Newark,
New Jersey. He early
went to Cincinnati,
then in the young
and growing West,
and engaged in bank-
ing and other busi-
ness. He early be-
came interested in
agricultural affairs,
and particularly in
the grape. From John
Adlum he received
the Catawba, and
became the means of
making grape-grow-
ing a commercial suc-
cess in the Ohio val-
ley. He was a leader
in the company of
horticultural experts
and writers which
made Cincinnati
famous in the mid-
dle of the century.
Longworth was one of the first to perceive that many
strawberries are infertile with themselves, and to
suggest the planting of pollinizers, although the im-
perfect nature of the strawberry blossom had been
known long before his time. He also introduced the
Ohio Everbearing raspberry, the first improved variety
of Rubus occidentalis. Longworth was a pioneer of
horticulture in the expanding West, and more than that
he was a guiding spirit in horticultural affairs of
national importance. In 1846 he published a pamphlet
on "The Cultivation of the Grape, and Manufacture of
Wine. Also, Character and Habits of the Strawberry
Plant." He also contributed a chapter on the straw-
berry to Buchanan's "Culture of the Grape." For
further notices, see Hovey's "Magazine of Horticul-
ture" 29:160, and Bailey's "Evolution of Our Native
Fruits." The portrait in Fig. 1887 shows Mr. Long-
worth at seventy-four years of age. L jj g

Lord, Orville Morell, horticulturist and plum special-
ist, was born in the town of China, Wyoming County,
New York, April 20, 1826, and died at Minnesota City,
Minnesota, July 21, 1906. The Lord family moved to
Lapeer County, Michigan, in 1842. After two years'
training at a private school in Pontiac, Mr. Lord taught
public school for four years in the country near his home.
In 1852 he moved west with his family to Minnesota
and was one of the first settlers in the Rollingstone Val-
ley near Winona where he lived till his death with the

101

1887. Nicholas Longworth.

exception of the years from 1861 to 1864 when he
returned to a farm near Kalamazoo, Michigan. He was
a member of the Territorial Legislature of Minnesota
in 1853-4 and served in the State Legislature in 1873-4.
He was active in many lines of public service through-
out his life. In 1884 he became a member of the State
Horticultural Society of Minnesota, and was elected
an honorary life member in 1899. He conducted a sub-
experiment station for the society at his home for many
years. He was considered one of the leading authorities
in the Northwest on all lines of horticulture and
enjoyed a national reputation as a plum specialist.
He cultivated the well-known "Rollingstone" plum from
a wild variety growing in the Rollingstone Valley. He
also established several varieties of very good hardy
apples. Mr. Lord was a lecturer on horticulture in the
Minnesota Farmers' Institute for a number of years
and also horticultural editor of "Farm, Stock and
Home." He always carried on an extensive corres-
pondence with .other horticulturists all over the
country. E. G. CHEYNEY.

Lyman, Henry Martyn, pioneer horticulturist, was
born at Easthampton, Massachusetts, September 13,
1828, and died at Excelsior, Minnesota, January 4,
1902. He was a descendant of Richard Lyman, who
came to America in 1630 from England. Mr. Lyman
received his education in the public schools and at
Williston Seminary in Easthampton. His father died
when he was fourteen years old and with the assist-
ance of his mother and older brother he carried on the
New England farm. Mr. Lyman came to Taylors
Falls, Minnesota, in 1850. After remaining a year and
a half, he returned to Massachusetts. In 1853 he came
west again and landed at St. Anthony. He purchased
an ox-team, a wagon and a little lumber and drove west
to the site of the Lyman Homestead at Chanhassen,
Carver County. He made this his home until his
death in 1902.

Mr. Lyman was for years postmaster of one of the
first post-offices in the county. He was interested in
fruit-growing and planted the first apple trees in Carver
County in 1853. These trees were not adapted to
Minnesota and were winterkilled in 1856. In 1867 he
planted more apple seed and from this lot came the
"Lyman's Prolific" crab. From apple seed planted in
1876 and later came the Evelyn and other seedlings
that are promising well for Minnesota conditions and
are good keepers. Mr. Lyman was much interested
in evergreens and early planted many varieties. He was
one of the first settlers to realize their value as wind-
breaks and some excellent specimens are still to be
found on the homestead.

In 1891 a trial station was located on his farm and is
still in operation. He was treasurer of the State Horti-
cultural Society in 1900. As a pioneer horticulturist,
Mr. Lyman did very much to establish horticulture
on a sound basis in Minnesota. LE ROY CADY.

Lyon, Theodatus Timothy (Fig. 1888), pomologist,
was born in Lima, New York, January 13, 1813, and
died in South Haven, Michigan, February 6, 1900. He
was the son of a farmer. His school-going was very
limited. In 1828, his parents went to the territory of
Michigan, where he was employed in many pioneer
pursuits, as farming, lumber-making, post-boy, tanner,
merchant. He became more and more interested in
farming, and in 1844 started a nursery on the farm
at Plymouth, Michigan. He collected varieties from
the local orchards, and found their names much con-
fused. His interest was challenged, and gradually he
became absorbed in a study of pomology, which in that
day meant mostly knowledge of varieties. Articles on
the varieties of Michigan apples in the "Michigan
Farmer" attracted the attention of Charles Downing,
and a correspondence and exchange of varieties resulted.

1586

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1888. T. T. Lyon.

His name appears in the list of correspondents in the
revised editions of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit Trees."
For some years, Mr. Lyon was president of a railway
company. In 1874, he moved to the "fruit-belt" of-

southwestern M i c h i-
gan, where he became
president of the Michi-
gan Lake Shore Nur-
sery Association, and
where he lived until
his death. The nur-
sery association was
not successful financi-
ally. In 1888, Mr. Lyon
wrote a full (412 pages)
and careful "History
of Michigan Horticul-
ture," which was pub-
lished in the seven-
teenth report of the
State Horticultural So-
ciety, a society of which
he was president from
1876 to 1891, and hon-
orary president until
his death. In 1889, he
took charge of the
South Haven sub-sta-
tion of the Michigan Experiment Station; and here,
with his fruits and trees, he lived quietly and happily
to the last.

Mr. Lyon was one of the last of the older generation
of pomologists. Like his colleagues, he was an expert
on varieties. He was one of that sacred company which
placed accuracy and cautiousness before every con-
sideration of ambition or personal gain. His friends
knew that he had not the temper of a commercial man.
At one time it was said of him that he was the most
critical and accurate of American pomologists. The
fruit-lists of the Michigan Horticultural Society, his
labors in revision of nomenclature for the American
Pomological Society, and his various bulletins of the
Michigan Experiment Station, show his keen judgment
of varieties. L_ jj. B.

Mclntosh, John, originator of the Mclntosh apple,
was a farmer, born in 1777, near what is now known
as the village of Dundela, in Matilda Township, Dun-
das County, Ontario, near the river St. Lawrence, and
died in 1843. As a horticulturist he is noted only as the
originator of the Mclntosh apple. Little is known of
his life, but the facts in connection with the Mclntosh
apple are as follows:

In 1796 he found growing in the clearing, a number
of seedling apple trees. He took them home and planted
fifteen or twenty of them in an orchard near his log
house. One of these was named the Mclntosh Red.
The original tree lived until 1908. It was bearing apples
until 1907, but its death was hastened by a hailstorm
during that year. Ten years before it died it had been
badly injured by a fire burning an adjacent building.
The introduction of the Mclntosh apple is mainly due
to Allan Mclntosh, the son of John, who was born in
1815 and died in 1899. He, during his long life, propaga-
ted and disseminated many trees, beginning the propaga-
tion in 1835. In 1912 a monument was erected on the
old Mclntosh homestead to commemorate the tree
and its originator (see Vol. I, p. 317).

W. T. MACOUN.

M'Mahon, Bernard (about 1775 to September 16,
1816), horticulturist, was born in Ireland and came to
America, for political reasons, in 1796. He settled in
Philadelphia, where he engaged in the seed and nursery
business. He early began the collection and exportation
of seeds of American plants. In 1804 he published a
catalogue of such seeds, comprising about 1,000 species.

He was the means of making many of our native plants
known in Europe. He enjoyed the friendship of Jeffer-
son and other distinguished men, and his seed store
became a meeting-place of botanists and horticulturists.
He was interested in all branches of horticulture. It is
thought that the Lewis & Clark expedition was planned
at his house. At all events, M'Mahon and Landreth
were instrumental in distributing the seeds which those
explorers collected. In 1806, he gave to America its
first great horticultural book, "American Gardener's
Calendar" which was long a standard cyclopedic work.
The editor of the eleventh edition of this book (1857)
makes the following reminiscence of M'Mahon:

"Bernard M'Mahon was no common man. He sought
the American shores from political motives, as is
understood, but what these were has not been deter-
mined; most probably it was necessary to fly from the
persecution of government. He found American gar-
dening in its infancy, and immediately set himself
vigorously to work to introduce a love of flowers and
fruit. The writer well remembers his store, his garden
and greenhouses. The latter were situated near the
Germantown turnpike, between Philadelphia and
Nicetown, whence emanated the rarer flowers and
novelties, such as could be collected in the early part of
the present century, and where were performed, to the
astonishment of the amateurs of that day, successful
feats of horticulture that were but too rarely imitated.
His store was on Second Street, below Market, on
the east side. Many must still be alive who recollect
its bulk window, ornamented with tulip-glasses, a
large pumpkin, and a basket or two of bulbous roots;
behind the counter officiated Mrs. M'Mahon, with
some considerable Irish accent, but a most amiable and
excellent disposition, and withal, an able saleswoman.
Mr. M'Mahon was also much in the store, putting up
seeds for transmission to all parts of this country and
Europe, writing his book, or attending to his corres-
pondence, and in one corner was a shelf containing a
few botanical or gardening books, for which there was
then a very small demand; another contained the few
garden implements, such as knives and trimming scis-
sors; a barrel of peas and a bag of seedling potatoes, an
onion receptacle, a few chairs, and the room partly
lined with drawers containing seeds, constituted the
apparent stock in trade of what was one of the greatest
seed-stores then known in the Union, and where was
transacted a considerable business for that day. Such a
store would naturally attract the botanist as well as
the gardener, and it was the frequent lounge of both
classes, who ever found in the proprietors ready
listeners, as well as conversers; in the latter parti-
cular they were rather remarkable, and here you
would see Nuttall, Baldwin, Darlington, and other
scientific men, who sought information or were ready
to impart it."

M'Mahon's name was given to west-coast evergreen
barberries by Nuttall in 1818, and these shrubs are
still known as Mahonias. See pp. 1511, 1518, 1521.

L. H. B.

Manning, Jacob Warren, nurseryman, was born at
Bedford, New Hampshire, February 20, 1826 and died
at Reading, Massachusetts, September 16, 1904. Until
the age of twenty-one, he remained on his father's
farm. At that time he went to Chelmsford, where he
was engaged in farm, fruit and nursery work. In 1849,
he became superintendent of the Winnesemitt Nursery
at Chelsea, of which the proprietor was S. W. Cole. He
remained here less than a year and until June, 1854, he
was employed as a gardener in Dorchester, Massachu-
setts, Burlington, and Brattleboro, Vermont. At that
time, he moved to Reading, where he established a
nursery in his own name. He introduced many large
and small fruits and ornamental trees and shrubs,
prominent among which are the Rocky Mountain blue
spruce (Picea pungens), the Cutter seedling strawberry,

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1587

the Dracut amber grape, the John Sweet and the Gran-
ite Beauty apple. Mr. Manning made a specialty of
evergreens and also established a large department of
hardy herbaceous plants. He was a member of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society and the American
Pomological Society for over forty years. He was also
a member of the American Nurserymen's Association,
the Massachusetts Fruit-Growers' Association and
others. He served on many fruit committees, making
exhibits in various parts of the country.

Manning, Robert (July 18, 1784, to October 10, 1842),
was one of the most thorough and accurate of American
descriptive pomologists. In 1823 he established his
"Pomological Garden" at Salem, Massachusetts, for
the purpose of collecting and proving varieties of fruits.
At the time of his death this garden contained more
varieties of fruits than had ever been collected in
America. Pears were his specialty, but he had all the
fruits which would thrive in his climate. These fruits
numbered nearly 2,000 varieties, of which about one-half
were pears. These varieties were gathered from all
parts of this country, and also from Europe. The new
pears of Van Mons, the Flemish scientist and pro-
pounder of a theory of plant variation (see "Survival
of the Unlike," Essay V), were introduced largely by
him. He also received valuable acquisitions from
Robert Thompson, of the fruit department of the Lon-
don Horticultural Society. In 1838, Manning pub-
lished at Salem his "Book of Fruits, being a descriptive
catalogue of the most valuable varieties of the pear,
apple, peach, plum and cherry for New England cul-
ture." It also contained bush-fruits, grapes and hardy
trees and shrubs. It was published as "First Series for
1838," which indicates that its author intended to
issue other parts. All the descriptions were drawn from
the fruits themselves. The book was illustrated. In this
work he was assisted by John M. Ives; and Ives made
a second edition of the work in 1844 under the title
"The New England Fruit Book," and a third in 1847 as
"New England Book of Fruits." At this day it is diffi-
cult to appreciate the work of a man like Manning. In
those days, varieties were all-important. The scientific
management of orchards had not yet arisen. Varie-
ties were confused. Manning and his compeers opened
the way for correct nomenclature and systematic
pomology, and established the idea of testing varieties.
His decisions on nomenclature were accepted as final.
He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society. For a reference to the position of
Manning's work in our history, see page 1522; also
Tilton's "Journal of Horticulture," 7, pp. 157, 158.

L. H. B.

Manning, Robert, Jr., was born at Salem, Massa-
chusetts on July 6, 1827, and died on February 17, 1902.
He and his brother, Richard, succeeded their father in
the work of the "Pomological Garden." In 1869, he
was appointed editor of Tilton's "Journal of Horticul-
ture," which position he held until this magazine was
discontinued in 1871. He was Secretary of the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society for twenty-six years.
Under his editorship, the "History of the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society" was completed in 1880. For a
fuller account, see the "Cyclopedia of American Agri-
culture," Vol. IV, p. 594.

Meehan, Thomas (Fig. 1889), writer, editor, state
botanist, vegetable biologist, legislator and nursery-
man, was born in London, England, March 21, 1826.
He died at Germantown, Philadelphia, November 19,
1901. His father, Edward Meehan, was head gardener
for Col. Francis Vernon Harcourt, at St. Clare, near
Ryde, Isle of Wight, and there Thomas spent his
boyhood. He was self-educated, acquiring Latin,
Greek, French and the elements of botany by study-
ing at night.

Mr. Meehan's first published paper was at the
age of twelve on the production of double-flowered
stocks from single. His first scientific discovery pub-
lished was on "The Sensitive Nature of the Stamens of
the Portulaca," at fifteen years of age. At the same age,
he produced St. Clare, the first hybrid fuchsia known to
the horticultural world. Numerous scientific papers
followed, resulting in his being elected member of the
Royal Wernerian Society of Edinboro, without making
application or the Society being aware that he was a
boy. Thomas Meehan became a student at Kew Gar-
dens, and after graduation came to America, landing
on his twenty-second birthday. Here he was employed
by Robert Buist, Sr., in Philadelphia; was superin-
tendent of Bartram's Gardens, and later gardener to
Caleb Cope, Holmesburg, and while there flowered the
Victoria Regia, the second time blossomed in America.
In 1853, he established Meehan's Nurseries, afterward
famous for their fine collection of American trees. He
was sole editor of the "Gardener's Monthly" for the
thirty years of its life, beginning in 1859 (p. 1559).
He founded "Meehan's Monthly" in 1891, which sur-
vived him. For sixteen years he was agricultural editor
of "Forney's Weekly Press," and at one time was agri-
cultural or horticultural editor or regular contributor
to more than half a dozen weekly and monthly papers
and magazines. For thirty years he was the regular
scientific editorial contributor to the "New York
Independent." He was appointed State Botanist by
Governor Hoyt and held that position until his death.
For many years he was a member of the Board of Visi-
tors of Harvard University. He was a prolific contribu-
tor to the publications of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, of which institution he was
senior vice-president for twenty-three years; to the
proceedings of the American Association for the
advancement of Science, of which he was one of the
early Fellows, and to the American Philosophical
Society, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Society, in all of which he
was an active member. He was recognized as the lead-
ing vegetable bi-
ologist of his day.
He was the origi-
nator of the doc-
trine of evolution
that self-sacrifice
plays as impor-
tant a part in na-
ture and evolution
as the struggle for
existence and the
survival of the fit-
test. For his scien-
tific attainments
in horticulture he
was awarded the
Veitch medal by
the Veitch Mem-
orial Fund of Eng-
land, the third
American so hon-
ored. He was
the author of
"Native Flowers
and Ferns of the
United States."
He was elected a member of the Common Council of
Philadelphia in 1882, and was reelected biennially
thereafter as long as he lived. As councilman, he
inaugurated a movement for numerous small parks
in Philadelphia. He was a member of the German-
town school board for eighteen years, and during
that period secured the establishment of seven new
schools, two exclusively for colored teachers. Other of
his activities that may be mentioned are as follows: He

1889. Thomas Meehan.

1588

HORTICULTURISTS

discovered the Englemann Canon in the Wasatch
Mountains; in Alaska, he discovered the movements of
plants in connection with the movements of glaciers;
at the close of the war, he went South as a member of a
committee to restore confidence and business relations
between the two sections; he made what is supposed to
be the first complete list of plants in Kew Gardens, over
1,600 plants being recorded; he was largely instrumental
in the establishment of the Department of Forestry
in Pennsylvania. W> E MEEHAN.

in Cyclo. Amer. Agric.

Miller, Samuel, pioneer plant-breeder, horticultural
writer and plant-disseminator, was born at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, in 1820, and died at Bluffton, Missouri,
in 1901. At Calmdale, Pennsylvania, he began the
breeding of grapes, about the time of the introduction
of the Concord. In 1867 he removed to Bluffton,
Missouri. Here he brought together a notable collec-
tion of the various types and varieties of fruits and orna-
mentals. He did notable work in testing the adapta-
bility of varieties to the central West, and his advice
as to what sorts to plant in this section was sought by
horticulturists, not only in Missouri but in surrounding
states. Scores of plant-breeders sent him their new
varieties to be tested, knowing that he would not only
express a frank and honest opinion but that his judg-
ment was sound, due to his extensive acquaintance
with existing varieties. In addition to his work in
introducing and testing varieties originated by others,
he gave an important share of his time and energy to
plant-breeding, most notably with grapes. No less than
half a dozen varieties of his grapes have found a place
in our pomological list, among them Martha, Black
Hawk, Eva and Louise. He was an advocate of close
breeding, for the reason, expressed by him, that his
hybrids "broke up into many forms, giving uncertain
results," while his close-bred seedlings, particularly of
Concord and its descendants, "gave a large percentage
of promising sorts." He originated the Captain Jack
strawberry, which for two decades was largely used as
a pollinator of Crescent in the berry fields of the West.
During the later years of his life he was engaged in the
amelioration of the native persimmon, of which he
propagated a score of promising sorts, among them the
Josephine.

For a third of a century Judge Miller was an officer
of the Missouri State Horticultural Society, modestly
declining to accept its presidency, often tendered him
by its members. The annual reports of this organiza-
tion contain many papers by Judge Miller. For a
third of a century he also contributed regularly to the
horticultural columns of "Coleman's Rural World."
His writings are clear and sound. They were a distinct
contribution to the horticulture of the author's gen-
eration. J. C. WHITTEN.

Moon, James, and his descendants, have been of
importance in the development of ornamental horti-
culture in America. Descended from English parentage,
James Moon came to America in 1681 and purchased
a tract of land near Morrisville. His grandson, also
James Moon, took up a large tract in Bucks County,
Pennsylvania, in 1749, and devoted a part of his
time to the raising of fruit trees. Records of his trans-
actions as early as 1769 are still in possession of the
family, although no extended commercializing was
attempted by any of the decendants until 1849, when
Mahlon Moon purchased a tract near the Delaware
River at Morrisville, Pennsylvania, and engaged in
the nursery business, issuing his first catalogue in that
year. With no desire for an extensive business, he
laid substantial foundations for promoting a more
general planting of ornamental trees and from the
start largely specialized in these. He was the origi-
nator of the Numbo chestnut and introducer of Exochorda
grandiflora and Azalea amoena, all of which he propa-

gated very extensively. Mahlon Moon was born 1814
and died 1887.

Wm. H. Moon, oldest son of Mahlon Moon, was born
in the nursery homestead of his father, Morrisville,
Pennsylvania, 1849, and after completing his education
continued for a time in the business of his father, but
in 1872 established nurseries of his own in the same
community, putting a strong spirit of commercialism
into his business and from the first specializing in orna-
mental trees, especially in evergreens. He was probably
one of the first persons to make a strong plea for more
extensive use of this valuable class of trees and did
more than any one man to promote new methods of
culture and development into plants of individual
merit and perfect outline. The business which he had
thus started in a small way grew steadily through his
persistent efforts until the time of his death in 1911.
With his business activities Wm. H. Moon always found
time to take a keen interest in affairs aside from his
business. He was much interested in educational
matters, giving his time and interest for their benefit.
He was an active member of the Pennsylvania Horti-
cultural Society and for seven years its president. In
1905 he was very active in founding the Pennsylvania
Nurserymen's Association and was its first president.
He was also a member of the National Nurserymen's
Association and was one of the organizers of the Orna-
mental Growers' Association. His strong desire from
the time of engaging in business was to put the utmost
commercialism into horticulture and he was rewarded
by the very extensive growth of his business.

Samuel C. Moon (1854-1911), the second son of
Mahlon Moon, continued the nursery business estab-
lished by his father. He was a thorough lover of horti-
culture and his trees were his friends, his home being
surrounded with many rare specimens planted by his
father or collected and established by his own hands.
His main development was in the line of ornamental
horticulture, of which he was a rare student, contribu-
ting frequently to literature on the subject and occa-
sionally addressing audiences on plant life. He was an
authority on evergreens. Samuel Moon devoted many
years to the best welfare of his community. He was
active in educational and religious work. At the time
of his death Samuel Moon was president of the Penn-
sylvania Nurserymen's Association.

HENRY T. MOON.

Moore, Jacob, pomologist, was born at Brighton,
New York, in 1836. His life-work was the development
of new fruits, which he produced in large numbers by
scientific plant-breeding. He was the originator of the
Diploma currant, Red Cross currant, Hooker straw-
berry, Brighton, Diana-Hamburg and Moore's Dia-
mond grapes, Barr Seckel pear and thousands of other
fruits which have enriched the fruit-growers of America
many thousands of dollars, but which brought him
hardly a sufficient pittance to keep body and soul
together. He also expended a competent private for-
tune in the work. He passed much of the late years of
his life in trying to secure congressional legislation
that would protect originators of fruit varieties, but
his efforts were, unfortunately, without avail. Mr.
Moore was a member of the Western New York Horti-
cultural Society for nearly fifty years and was widely
known among horticulturists. He died at Canan-
daigua, New York, in the winter of 1908.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Munson, Thomas Volney (Fig. 1890), nurseryman,
grape-grower and author, was born September 26, 1843,
near Astoria, Illinois, and died January 21, 1913. He
received his education from the public schools of Illi-
nois, the academy at Lewistpn, Bryant-Stratton Busi-
ness College and the University of Kentucky. In 1906
the University of Kentucky conferred upon him the
degree of D.Sc. Dr. Munson located at Denison,
Texas, where all his industrial, scientific and literary

HORTICULTURISTS

1589

work was done. He established one of the most
famous vineyards in the South, besides building up
a reliable and well-known nursery business. He was
the acknowledged authority on the native wild grapes
of North America, and Bulletin No. 3, Division of
Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture,
"Classification and Generic Synopsis of the Wild
Grapes of North America," which he wrote and which
was published in 1890, is one of the most painstaking
pieces of botanical work ever done in this country. It
made the way for his later and greater work on
"Grape-Culture." His horticultural and scientific work
in hybridizing and perfecting the American Vitis won
for him a diploma from the French Government in
1888, and the decoration of the Legion of Honor
with the title of Chevalier du Merit Agricole for the
aid he had rendered France in viticultural matters.
He was also a member of the American Academy
of Science, the National Agricultural Association of
France, vice-president of the American Pomological
Society, member of the American Breeders' Association,
the Association for the Advancement of Science, and
vice-president of the Texas Horticultural Association.
In 1903-4 he was a member of the Texas World's
Fair Association and the chairman of the committee
of Texas Industrial Institutes. He was also a mem-
ber of the jury of awards at the St. Louis Exposition
in 1904 and an honorary member of the American
Wine-Growers' Association and also a vice-president
of the Society for Horticultural Science.

The most complete botanical display of the whole
grape genus ever made was prepared by Dr. Munson

and exhibited at the
World's Columbian
Exposition, Chicago, in
1893. This collection,
now in the United
States Department of
Agriculture, will ever
be a striking record of
his wonderful patience,
painstaking care and
skill. His splendid
book "Foundations of
American Grape-Cul-
ture" is regarded as the
most practical, com-
plete and satisfactory-
account of the Ameri-
can grape yet issued,
and is a lasting monu-
ment of his zeal, energy
and scientific investiga-
tion. He knew the
philosopher's stone,
and left a last message
to mankind to the effect that each individual should
strive to be as useful and as free from blemish as a tree
or a flower. G. B. BRACKETT.

Nelson, A., pomologist, was born in Oneida County,
New York, September 8, 1830, and died at Lebanon,
Missouri, November 10, 1901. His early years were
spent on a farm, where he always took great interest
in horticulture. In 1858, he moved to Buffalo, where
he engaged in the grain and coal business. After
twenty-five years residence in that city, he went to
Lebanon, Missouri, as an agent of the Ozark Plateau
Land Company. Mr. Nelson was a very enthusiastic
horticulturist, and was particularly interested in apples,
being an authority on the varieties. He contributed to
all the great fruit exhibits of the state, and for many
years was treasurer of the Missouri State Horticultural
Society. For portrait, and a fuller account, see forty-
fourth report of Missouri Horticultural Society, of
1901.

1890. T. V. Munson.

1891. J. S. Newman.

Newman, James Stanley (Fig. 1891), was born De-
cember 11, 1835, in Orange County, Virginia. He passed
his early life on the farm, working under the direction of
his father, a highly educated and skilful agriculturist.
In a private home school he was prepared for the Univer-
sity of Virginia where
he studied four years,
1855-9. He served as
a Confederate soldier
in the Thirteenth Vir-
ginia Regiment. From
1865 to 1875, he farmed
and taught; from 1875
to 1883 he was con-
nected with the
Georgia State Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
preparing publications,
collecting agricultural
statistics, and direct-
ing experiments. For
nine years, he was pro-
fessor of agriculture
and director of the ex-
periment station of the
Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, and for three
years president of the
Alabama State Agri-
cultural Society. For over twenty-five years he was a
life member of the American Pomological Society.

When Clemson College, at the old farm home of
Jno. C. Calhoun, was organized in the early nineties,
Colonel Newman was elected professor of agriculture
and director of the agricultural department of that
institution. He resigned in 1894, and ran a truck farm
near Atlanta until July, 1897, when he was called back
to Clemson College, where he served as professor of
agriculture and director of the agricultural department
and vice-director of the South Carolina Experiment
Station, and (for three years) director of farmers'
institutes, until his resignation in July, 1905.

Colonel Newman was the author of "The Southern
Gardener's Practical Manual" and of several other
useful works on agriculture and live-stock.

The last five years of his life were passed, as he had
often expressed a wish they might be, in his own home,
amid the fruits and flowers he loved so well. He was
widely known in the South Atlantic States as a pioneer
in the cause of the new agricultural education and uplift.
He died at Walhalla, South Carolina, May 11, 1910.

WM. S. MORRISON.

Olmsted, Frederick Law, landscape architect, was
born April 26, 1822, at Hartford, Connecticut, and died
August 28, 1903. He was educated in private schools,
with private instructors in surveying and civil engineer-
ing. He was a special student at Yale College, a work-
ing student on crack farms, with seven years' farming
on his own farms. He took several trips abroad for
study of many parks and fine private places. He was
superintendent and landscape architect of Central
Park practically in partnership with Calvert Vaux, a
young English architect who had been associated with
Andrew Jackson Downing (in his time the leading
landscape gardener of the United States) most of the
time from 1857 to 1878. From 1865 to 1872, he was
in partnership with Mr. Vaux and F. C. Withers, then
alone, and later with various other partners. Some of
his principal works were the parks of New York,
Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago (South Parks), Milwaukee,
Rochester, Louisville, Boston, Detroit, and many other
.cities and towns, the United States capitol grounds at
Washington, World's Fair at Chicago, the great estate
of George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, North Carolina,
and the grounds of many public and semi-public insti-
tutions and of private individuals. He wrote a number

1590

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

of standard books of travel and he did a large amount of
technical writing, most of which is scattered in the files
of park commissions and other public and semi-public
boards, and in periodicals, encyclopedias, and reports
to owners of private estates. While he was familiar
with the architectural and engineering, arboricultural
and horticultural branches of his profession, and often
designed the minutest details, yet in general, it was his
practice himself to evolve the general designs for works
of landscape architecture and to direct partners,
assistants, superintendents, engineers and gardeners,
working intimately and sympathetically with him, in
the elaboration of general plans, working drawings,
specifications and in superintendence. In this way he
was associated in design with scores of architects,
engineers, landscape gardeners and other technical
men so intimately that in many cases it would be
impossible to distinguish where the work of his assist-
ants began and his ended. In the execution of his ideas
in landscape planting, for example, he was assisted in
the work on Central Park by Ignaz A. Pilat, and during
the second period of his employment by W. L. Fischer,
who also worked under his direction on the Boston
parks; on the Brooklyn parks by O. C. Bullard; on the
Buffalo parks by William McMillan; on the United
States Capitol grounds by William Cogan, and on many
other parks, grounds of institutions and of private
individuals by Warren H. Manning, and so on. Mr.
Olmsted took the greatest interest in and secured the
adoption of what may be called the naturalistic style of
planting, confining the use of the architectural style of
planting almost invariably to gardens in close connection
with important public or semi-public buildings or pri-
vate residences. He may fairly be said to have been
the originator in this country of the extensive use of
shrubbery borders and masses as a main feature of land-
scape planting instead of planting individual shrubs as
mere decoration. His influence throughout the whole
country has been very great, as shown by the adoption
by a host of imitators of the irregular, informal, pic-
turesque or naturalistic landscape style, with the prev-
alence of curvilinear roads, walks, and the like. Some
of these imitators often applied this style where it was
distinctly inappropriate and where the formal or
architectural style should have prevailed, as in the
grounds of several universities and other semi-public
institutions having usually large buildings. For por-
trait and further details, see "Cyclopedia of American
Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 601. JOHN C. OLMSTED. .

Parsons, Samuel B., nurseryman, landscape gardener
and author, was born in New York City, February 14,
1819, and died at Flushing, New York, on January
4, 1906. In 1899, he established a nursery with his
brother Robert at Flushing, giving special attention to
the introduction and propagation of ornamental trees
and shrubs. They were the first nursery firm to intro-
duce the Japanese maples and also to propagate rhodo-
dendrons in the United States. Mr. Parsons was an
expert landscape gardener and the author of numerous
essays on this and related subjects. He was also the
author of a book on "The Rose, its History, Poetry,
Culture and Classification." He was a charter member
of the American Pomological Society and an honorary
member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society
from 1856. For a fuller account and portrait, see
"Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 602.

Pettit, Murray, fruit-grower, was born on March 13,
1843, at Saltfleet, Ontario, Canada, and died at
Winona on March 3, 1910. On reaching manhood, he
engaged in farming, in 1872 taking up fruit-growing as
a specialty. He first took up the growing of peaches,-
and later branched into the culture of apples, pears,
plums and grapes. He was particularly distinguished
as a grape specialist, and was one of the first to plant
Niagara grapes in Ontario. He carried on a number of

experiments with grapes and other fruits and in 1894
was appointed director of the Experimental Station at
Winona, which office he held until his death. Mr.
Pettit was always among the first to take up new ideas,
and was the third man in Ontario to use the spray-
pump. He was very active in all the local fruit-growers'
societies and a member of the Ontario Fruit-Growers'
Association, having at one time served that body as
president for a period of two years.

Prescott, Charles Rammage (Fig. 1892), pomologist,
was born of Loyalist parents in Lunenburg County,
Nova Scotia, the latter part of the eighteenth century.
He was a successful merchant for many years in Hali-
fax, but in 1812 closed his business and moved to the
Annapolis Valley near Wolfville, Kings County, where
he bought a farm and developed a fine estate. The old
house still stands in good repair, though the gardens,

orchards and vine-
yards, once the
pride of the prov-
ince, have largely
disappeared . The
work for which he
is especially remem-
bered is the intro-
duction and dissem-
ination of choice
varieties of fruits.
He is credited,
among apples, with
the introduction of
Ribston, Blenheim,
Gravenstein, Bald-
win, Rhode Island
Greening and
Northern Spy, six
out of the ten lead-
ing commercial va-
rieties of the prov-
ince today. The
list of his intro-
ductions among other fruits is almost equally impor-
tant. He was very generous with cions from his trees,
and many of the earlier orchards of the province can
be traced directly to his influence. He died in the
autumn of 1859. F> C SEARS

Prince, William, the second proprietor of the Prince
Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, was born about
1725 and died in 1802. The nursery, which was per-
haps the first large commercial one in America, was
established about 1730 by his father, Robert Prince.*
The Huguenots who settled at New Rochelle and on
the north shore of Long Island brought with them a
variety of French fruits, and the interest thus created
in horticulture resulted in the establishment of his first
nursery. For a number of years attention was confined
chiefly to the fruit trees with which to stock the new
country, and it was only when more settled conditions
came that the culture of ornamental trees and shrubs
was introduced. Under William Prince, the nursery
grew rapidly in importance until the Revolution. A
return of peace brought with it increased trade, to make
good the depredations of the soldiery as well as to re-
stock the orchards of those who for seven years had
paid more attention to the science of war than to the
pursuits of horticulture; and a catalogue of 1794 contains
as many varieties of fruit as those of some nurseries of
the present, apricots and nectarines, for example, each
being represented by ten varieties.

Not only was everything of merit imported, but the
origination of new varieties by a careful selection of
seedlings was enthusiastically conducted. Two plums,
still well known, date from this period, Prince's Yellow

*The founding of the establishment is usually attributed to
William Prince, rather than to his father Robert. Page 1517.

1892. Chas. R. Prescott.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1591

Gage being originated in 1783 and the Imperial Gage
in 1794. The "Treatise on Horticulture" mentions that
in 1790 no less than twenty-five quarts of Green Gage
pits were planted, from which seedlings were obtained
of every color and shape, it being probable that the
Washington plum was originated in that year. Before
the death of this William Prince, the nursery business
had been taken up by his sons, William and Benjamin;
the former on new ground, called the Linnean Botanic
Garden and Nursery, the latter at the original place,
called The Old American Nursery. L g PRINCE.

Prince, William, third proprietor of the Prince
Nurseries at Flushing, was born November 10, 1766,
and died April 9, 1842. During his lifetime, the Prince
Nursery was one of the centers of horticultural and
botanic interest in America, and reached the height of
its fame. He continued the work of his father in the
introduction of all foreign trees and plants of value,
the discovery of unknown American species and the
creation of new varieties from seed. One of the trees
introduced to great popularity by William Prince was
the Lombardy poplar. In 1793, he bought additional
property of 80 acres at Flushing. For fully fifty years,
the nursery was conducted much less for profit than from
a love of horticulture and botany. It was designed to
contain every known kind of tree, shrub, vine and
plant known to England and America that possessed
any horticultural merit. The catalogues from 1815 to
1850 ranked among the standard horticultural publica-
tions of the country. The number of varieties of fruits
cultivated seems scarcely credible in these days, when
many nurseries are conducted solely for profit, and
only the trees or plants which find a ready sale are
propagated. In 1828, Mr. Prince wrote and published
the "Treatise on Horticulture," which was the first
work of the kind produced in America. L B. PRINCE

Prince, William Robert (Fig. 1893), fourth proprietor
of the Prince Nursery at Flushing, was born November
6, 1795, and died March 28, 1869. He inherited his
father's love of botany and his great energy. He was
connected with the American Institute, National Porno-
logical Society,
Massachusetts
Horticultural
Society, and
many other im-
portant organi-
zations, in whose
transactions he
took a promi-
nent part. In
1830 he wrote,
with the assist-
ance of his
father, the
"Treatise on the
Vine," a work
of high impor-
tance. In 1831
he issued the
"Pomological
Manual" in two
volumes, an im-
portant treatise
on all fruits ex-
cept apples. In
1846 he pub-
lished the "Man-
ual of Roses."

In his early
manhood, Mr.
Prince botanized
through the en-
tire line of At-
1893. Wm. Robert Prince. lantic States in

company with Professor Torrey, of Columbia, and Pro-
fessor Nuttall, of Harvard. The oldest cedar of Lebanon
in the United States, as well as the oldest Chinese
magnolias, salisburias, Mt. Atlas cedars, paulownias and
purple beeches are to be found today in the grounds of
the Prince homestead, together with many other unique
specimens. When the disease of the Irish potato
caused a fear that it would have to be replaced by some
other vegetable, he imported the Chinese yam or potato
(Dioscorea Batatas), paying $600 for the tubers.
About the same time he introduced sorghum, or
Chinese sugar-cane. He was unwearied in his endeavors
to promote silk-culture in the United States. He
imported not only the silk-worms but the mulberry
trees to feed them, and built a large cocoonery for their
accommodation. L g PRINCE.

Pringle, Cyrus Guernsey (Fig. 1894), plant-breeder
and botanist, was born in Charlotte, Vermont, May 6,
1838; died in Burling-
ton, Vermont, May 25,
1911. He early devoted
himself to horticultural
and botanical lines of
study and work. In
the late sixties, he con-
verted the home farm
into a nursery, special-
izing on hardy bulbs,
and had growing at
one time over one
hundred species and
varieties of Iris and
nearly all known spe-
cies of I/ilium. From
the more usual types
of plant - culture, he
turned to the then rela-
tively new field of
pi ant -breeding. He
first worked with the
potato, later with the
cereals, garden vege-
tables and fruits. Dur-
ing the decade 1869-79, he devoted practically all his
attention to this work with rare skill, insight, and success.
Among his many productions the following are notable
(see article by Wm. Stuart in "The Country Gentle-
man," June, 1905): Potatoes — Snowflake (Early Rose
X Excelsior, introduced 1873), Alpha (Early Rose x
Sebec, introduced 1874), Ruby (Early Rose x White
Peachblow, introduced 1875), Trophy (Early Rose x
Excelsior). Tomato — Conqueror. Wheats — Defiance
(Gold Drop x White Hamburg, introduced 1877),
Grandee (Little Club x Lost Nation), Champlain
(Black Sea x Gold Drop, introduced 1879), Green
Mountain, Pringle's Nos. 5 and 6: Oats — Pringle's
Progress, Pringle's Hulless, American Wonder.

He was at the same time training and inspiring others
in this work and generously distributing his hybridized
potato seed. This early work entitles him to a leading
place among the pioneer plant-breeders in America,
and he would no doubt have continued in this field
and become one of its greatest leaders had not family
griefs driven him from home. He then, following the
advice of Asa Gray, turned to botanical explorations.
He secured many of the specimens for the Jesup col-
lection of North American woods in the American
Museum of Natural History, New York City, the finest
collection of its kind in existence, together with much
of the field data on the distribution of the forest trees
for the "United States Census Report" of 1880. He
had previously begun collecting Vermont plants for
Dr. Gray and soon achieved a world-wide reputation
as the "prince of botanical collectors." His journeyings
extended from northern New England into Canada,

1894. Cyrus Guernsey Pringle.

1592

HORTICULTURISTS

across the Continent to the Pacific mountain regions
and southward into Mexico. For twenty-six years, his
work was chiefly in the latter country, continued under
the patronage of the Mexican Government, the United
States National Museum and other scientific institu-
tions, and especially supported by Harvard University,
on the botanical staff of which he was in 1893 appointed
official collector by act of the Corporation. As a result
of it, he not only enriched the leading herbaria of the
world with extensive sets of choice specimens, espec-
ially of Mexican plants, but he amassed one of the
largest and unquestionably the best private collections
ever made. The Pringle Herbarium, of over 150,000
choice specimens, will remain his most fitting monu-
ment. During the last ten years of his life, he was
Keeper of the Herbarium of the University of Vermont,
and the Pringle Herbarium remains the property of that
institution. L R JoNES

Purdy, A. M., horticulturist and author, was born
in Macedon, Wayne County, New York, May 31, 1835,
and died January 4, 1908. His father was a merchant
in Macedon, but the son preferred outdoor life and in
his boyhood was intensely interested in the raising of
fruits and flowers. He was educated in the common
school of Macedon Village, the Macedon-Center
Academy, and at the Nine Partners Boarding School
near Poughkeepsie, New York. In early manhood he
went to South Bend, Indiana, where he engaged in
growing fruits for about twelve years. Near the year
1865 he returned to New York state and purchased
a farm on the Canandaigua road three miles south of
Palmyra, and again engaged in growing fruits and
nursery stock. On that farm over forty years of his
life were spent, with the exception of three years' resi-
dence in Rochester. Soon after moving to New York
State he began the publication of "The Fruit Record
and Cottage-Gardener" and continued to issue the
paper for over twenty-five years. He also published a
small book entitled, "The Fruit Instructor." They
were well received and many thousands sold. He also
published as premiums three or four excellent fruit and
flower chromos.

Mr. Purdy was a great worker, energetic, working
early and late, and was a frequent contributor to agri-
cultural and religious journals. He always took a great
interest in politics and public affairs, and gave of his
time and money for the advancement of the principles
he thought to be right. He was a member of the
Society of Friends (Quakers), and was recorded as one
of their ministers. \yM W. MINEK.

Ragan, Reuben, pioneer nurseryman and pomologist,
was born in Louisa County, Virginia, on October 6,
1793, and died August 19, 1869. Left an orphan at an
early age^ he was indentured by the Orphan's Court to
Elisha Thomas, a Shaker, but the indenture was
soon revoked. He was then apprenticed to a tanner.
Through his early association with Edward Darnaby,
a nurseryman, Reuben became interested in horticul-
ture and determined to devote his life to this pursuit.
He established a nursery in Indiana in 1820, from which
he disseminated many hardy varieties of fruit around
the state. Mr. Ragan was a charter member of the
Indiana Horticultural Society and a leader in the
pomological work of the state. For portrait and fuller
accounts, see "Report of Indiana State Horticultural
Society," 1870.

Ragan, William Henry (Fig. 1895), nurseryman, hor-
ticulturist and pomologist, was born on March 29, 1836,
in Putnam County, Indiana. His father obtained land
from the government by entry in 1822, and was widely
known as a pioneer nurseryman, fruit-grower and horti-
cultural enthusiast. William Henry Ragan grew to
young manhood amid the primitive conditions of pioneer
days, helping his father in the nursery work and enga-

1895. W. H. Ragan.

ging in the usual pursuits of the farm boy. His formal
education was all received at the local log school-
house of the district. About the year 1860, he engaged
in the nursery and fruit business on land he purchased
near Fillmore. From 1869 to 1871 he was in the fruit
business in Indianapolis, having formed a partnership
with John Wineberger of that city. In 1871 he moved
to Clayton, Indiana,
and continued in the
nursery business with
his cousin, W. A.
Ragan, as partner. In
1881 he became a
trustee of Purdue Uni-
versity. In 1883 he
was appointed super-
intendent of the ex-
perimental station at
the University and for
a few months later in
the same year acted as
superintendent of the
campus and weather
station. He left Pur-
due University in 1884
to accept the chair of
practical horticulture
and the position of su-
perintendent of parks
at DePauw University,
Greencastle, Indiana,
which was in that
year reorganized from the Indiana Asbury Academy.
He had disposed of his nursery business on leaving
Clayton and purchased property at Greencastle where
he h'ved until 1899, leaving to accept a position in the
Department of Agriculture at Washington. He became
assistant pomologist and expert in pomological nomen-
clature in the Bureau of Plant Industry and won a
world-wide reputation, not only for his wonderful work
in nomenclature, but for his numerous other written
contributions and for his personal services in the
advancement of horticulture. He continued his work
with the Bureau of Plant Industry until his death,
which occurred in Washington, D. C., August 6, 1909.

During his later years, William Henry Ragan was one
of the foremost and best-loved figures among the horti-
culturists of the country. He was one of the founders
of the Indiana Horticultural Society and continued his
active membership until his death. He was secretary
of this organization from 1869 to 1882 with the excep-
tion of 1873, and again from 1891 to 1895 inclusive.
He became a trustee of Purdue University for the
second time in 1888 and served until 1892. He was
superintendent of the Division of Pomology at the Cot-
ton Centennial at New Orleans in 1884-5 and served as
secretary of the Committee on Awards in the Depart-
ment of Horticulture at the Columbian Exposition at
Chicago in 1893. He was secretary of the Mississippi
Valley Horticultural Society in 1883-4 and, when the
name of the organization was changed, continued the
same work for the American Horticultural Society
until 1888. From 1897 until his death he was chairman
of the Committee on Revision of Catalogue of Fruits
for the American Pomological Society. As a member of
the Indiana State Board of Agriculture from 1873
until 1882, and as president in 1880, he did much to
foster the cause of fruit-growing in his native state.

C. G. WOODBURY.

Rand, Edward Sprague, lawyer and horticulturist,
lost his life in the accident that befell the steamship
"City of Columbus" in the early winter of 1884. Mr.
Rand was for many years vice-president of the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society. His exhibits of new and
rare species of plants were of the best, and secured at
considerable expense of time and money, an outlay he

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1593

made cheerfully for the good of horticulture. His col-
lection of orchids was one of the largest and rarest of
that time, and was donated to the Boston Botanic
Garden. He was the legal counsel of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society, and an extremely prudent
counsellor. To Mr. Rand's knowledge of books is due
much of the success of the Society's excellent and
voluminous library. G. B. BRACKETT.

Rawson, Warren W., market-gardener, was born
in Arlington, Massachusetts, January 23, 1847, and
died August 9, 1908. He was educated in the schools
of Arlington, Getting Academy and Commercial Col-
lege. He entered into partnership with his father in
the market-gardening business in 1867, and in 1872
bought out the business, which he continued with
success until his death. His plant is now the largest in
New England devoted to market-gardening.

H. W. RAWSON.

Reasoner, Pliny Ford, florist, horticulturist and nur-
seryman, was born at Princeton, Illinois, May 6, 1863,
and attended the common and high schools of his
native town. He was very fond of plants when quite
young and had the largest and finest garden in his
neighborhood. He went to Florida in 1882, settled
near Manatee, devoting his life to collecting and cul-
tivating tropical and semi-tropical plants. Not long
after reaching Florida, he was joined by his younger
brother Egbert N. Reasoner, and together they estab-
lished the Royal Palm Nurseries under the firm name
of Reasoner Bros. He began an extensive correspond-
ence in many languages with directors of botanic gar-
dens and plant-lovers and -growers in various parts of
the world, and he introduced many hundreds of tropical
and semi-tropical exotics. These were tested in the nur-
sery and sent out to plant-growers in general. He was
horticultural commissioner in permanent charge of the
sub-tropical exposition at Jacksonville, Florida, 1887-8,
and one of the three Florida commissioners at the
Cotton States Centennial Exposition at Atlanta in
1888. He died at Manatee of yellow fever September
17, 1888, at the age of 25. At the time of his death, he
was gathering together materials and notes with the
intention of writing a great encyclopedia of tropical
horticulture and floriculture. He had a genial, kindly
disposition and his intense enthusiasm for the cultiva-
tion of plants was contagious. His plant importa-
tions may be found scattered all over the lower South
in all the extensive collections of that region.

CHAS. T. SIMPSON.

Rock, John (Fig. 1896), nurseryman, was born in
Germany in 1836 and died August 8, 1904. His name
was Johann Fels.
which he translated
into English on
coming to America
at the age of 15.
He began in New
York at once, at the
bottom of the florist
and seedsman busi-
ness and rose slowly
until 1861 when
he volunteered (5th
New York Zouaves)
and fought till the
close of the Civil
War. Returning to
horticulture, he set-
tled in California in
1866 and built up
one of the best and
largest nurseries in
the United States.
He went to Europe 1896. John Rock.

many times, was in touch with nurserymen, botan-
ists, horticulturists, all over the world, had extensive
experiment grounds, tested thousands of new things,
originated or brought into notice innumerable varie-
ties of worth and at the time of his death, had 500
acres in nursery, at Niles, California. John Rock's
scientific spirit, his wide and ever-increasing knowledge,
his very high standards of business and his unselfish-
ness made him during his long life the leader of Pacific
coast nurserymen. He introduced more valuable
plants and varieties to American horticulture than any
other man of his period. His connection with Japan,
India, Australia and with the great establishments
abroad was close and constant. He did much to
encourage men like Luther Burbank, and his collec-
tions were always at the service of students and the
Public- C. H. SHINN.

Roeding, Frederick Christian, nurseryman, was born
in Hamburg, Germany, on December 31, 1824, and
died July 18, 1910. His boyhood and early training
were passed in Germany which fitted him for the
successful commercial career which he subsequently
achieved. He went to Chile and Peru in 1846.
Three years later he left for California where he first
went in for mining, but he soon abandoned this
and became a member of the firm of Larco & Co.,
which afterward became known as the firm of R.
Feurstein & Co., of which he was the senior mem-
ber. He re-organized, and was one of the prime
movers of the German Savings and Loan Society of San
Francisco, and was vice-president and cashier for a
period of twenty-five years. As early as 1869, his far-
seeing judgment in the future of California's basic
industry led him, with a number of other German
associates, to buy 80,000 acres of land in Fresno County
in the San Joaquin Valley. Shortly after this body of
land was acquired, two sections, 1,280 acres, was
deeded to the Southern Pacific Railroad Company for a
town-site, by him and his associates, and it was on part
of this land which comprises the best business and resi-
dential section of Fresno City today.

It was not until 1883 that he became actively engaged
in horticultural work. It was in that year that the
Fancher Creek Nursery was established. Possibly the
chief event associated with his name is in connection
with his work in the introduction of the Smyrna fig
in California in 1886, and his untiring efforts in prov-
ing the necessity for caprification of this fig in order
to produce it successfully. The first Smyrna figs, now
known as Calimyrna, were produced through artificial
pollenization in 1890, but it was not until 1901 that the
first commercial product consisting of thirteen tons
was placed on the market as a result of the polleniza-
tion of the little fig wasp, Blastophaga grossorum, which
was imported the year previous with the assistance
of the United States Department of Agriculture and
established in some Capri fig trees on the Roeding
place.

His name will always be associated with the City of
Fresno, through his donation in 1903 of a piece of land
for park purposes known as Roeding Park, consisting
of 117 acres of ground in the immediate vicinity of the
town. GEORGE C. ROEDING.

Rogers, Edward Staniford, grape -hybridizer, was
born in Salem, Massachusetts, June 26, 1826, and died
in Peabody, Massachusetts, March 29, 1890. He was
the originator of forty-five seedling grapes known as the
Rogers' hybrids. He was the first man to recognize the
possibility of the probable value of V. Labrusca x V.
vinifera hybrid varieties. For the female plant he used
Carter or Mammoth Globe and fertilized with Black
Hamburg and White Chasselas from an adjacent cold
gcapery; this work was accomplished in the summer of
1851, and the clusters were carefully inclosed in sacks.
As a result of these pollinations, he secured about

1594

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150 seeds, which he planted in an old garden at Salem.
He succeeded in fruiting forty-five seedlings, of which
one to five were of Carter Black Hamburg; six to
fourteen were Carter x White Chasselas; and the
numbers fifteen to forty-five were of Hamburg paren-
tage. In 1858 Mr. Rogers sent these varieties, under
original numbers to various sections of the country for
testing. He lacked room for a fair test in his small
garden; the dissemination led to confusion, and the
nurserymen to this day have never gotten the matter
straightened out, so far as mere numbers are concerned.
Mr. Rogers then gave the most promising varieties
names, and these names were selected for persons
noted for literary or scientific attainments or else for
the towns and counties in his native state. Leading
horticulturists of the day thought all the varieties
should be named, as they possessed equal merit to a
remarkable degree; but Mr. Rogers' preferred list is
as follows: No. 1, Goethe; No. 3, Massasoit; No. 4,
Wilder; No. 9, Lindley; No. 14, Gaertner; No. 15,
Agawam; No. 19, Merrimac; No. 28, Requa; No. 39,
Amini; No. 41, Essex; No. 43, Barry; No. 44, Herbert;
No. 53, or No. 22, Salem, but not the Salem of the
present day. There was a meritorious standard of
excellence about these hybrids that Mr. Rogers was
unable to obtain with subsequent crosses. These
hybrids brought about a new era in grape-culture, and
while not so intrinsically valuable as some later varie-
ties, the work of Mr. Rogers, in one way and another,
has added millions of dollars to the grape industry
of America. G. B. BRACKEIT.

Sargent, Henry Winthrop (Fig. 1897), a son of
Henry Sargent, an artist of reputation in his time
and a grandson of Daniel Sargent, a Boston merchant
of a prominent Massachusetts family, was born in
Boston in 1810. Graduating from Harvard in 1830,
Mr. Sargent studied law, which he never practised, and
in 1841 purchased a small estate on the plateau above
Fishkill Landing, New York, overlooking the Hudson
River. Inspired and instructed by his neighbor, A. J.
Downing, the landscape gardener, then at the height of
his brilliant career, Mr. Sargent began to lay out a gar-
den. This soon became distinguished for its beautiful
distant views and vistas obtained by the removal of some
of the native trees which originally covered it, for the
arrangement of the shrubberies which made a piece of
ground of only twenty-two acres in extent appear like a
large park, and for the collection of conifers in which Mr.
Sargent was particularly interested and which in its day
was the most complete in the United States. Mr. Sar-
gent traveled extensively in Europe for the purpose of
studying the arrangement of country places, and to

secure plants for his
collections. As one of
the results of these
journeys he published
"Skeleton Tours," a
guide to the most inter-
esting estates and gar-
dens in England, with
directions how to reach
them and what to see
in each. To the sixth
edition of A. J. Down-
ing's ' \T h e o r y and
Practice of Landscape-
gardening," published
in 1859, Sargent added
an important supple-
ment in which he de-
scribed the making of
Wodenethe, the name
of his own place, and
the estate in Welles-
ley, Massachusetts, of

1897. H. W. Sargent.

his relative, H. H. Hunnewell, to which was added
an account of the many new trees and other plants
which had first been tested in this country at Woden-
ethe; and for the seventh edition, published in 1865,
he extended this supplement to include descriptions of
the most recently introduced trees. For many years and
during the life of its genial, accomplished and hospitable
owner, Wodenethe was one of the best-known country
places in the United States, and its influence in teach-
ing correct principles of the art of garden-making and
in increasing the love of country-life in the United
States and the knowledge of trees was great and of
lasting value. Mr. Sargent died at Wodenethe in 1882.

C. S. SARGENT.

Saul. John, nurseryman, was born at Castle Martyr,
County Cork, Ireland, on Christmas Day, 1819, and
died in Washington, D. C., on May 11, 1897. As he
grew up, he was trained in the science of landscape
gardening, and soon after becoming of age removed to
the Isle of Wight, and subsequently to Bristol, England,
in which place he was manager of extensive nurseries.
Mr. Saul arrived in Washington in May, 1851, and was
at once engaged by the Government to lay out the
Smithsonian Grounds, Lafayette Square and other
public squares, and also by W. W. Corcoran to plan
the beautifying of Harewood Park. In 1852 he bought
the property in which he spent the remainder of his
life, 120 acres of which he set out in nurserj' stock, all
kinds of evergreens, fruit, shade and ornamental trees
and shrubs. He imported all new varieties from Europe
as soon as they appeared. He equipped twenty green-
houses with large stock of new and rare plants, orchids
and the like. He imported new plants from Europe as
soon as they were offered for sale, and orchids from
Africa, Mexico, Central and South America. He
shipped plants to all parts of the country and some
native plants to Europe.

He was appointed a member of the Parking Commis-
sion by Gov. Alexander R. Shepherd, and was reap-
pointed by the District Commissioners after the office
of governor was abolished, and was continued in office
by each succeeding Board until his death, serving as
chairman of the commission until the last.

B. F. SAUL.

Saunders, William, nurseryman, landscape gardener
and horticulturist, was born in St. Andrews, Scotland,
in 1822, and died in Washington, D. C., September 11,
1900. He was educated in Scotland and England and
spent some years in practical horticultural training at
Kew Gardens. He came to America about the same
time as Wm. R. Smith, former Superintendent of
United States Botanic Gardens, 1848. He wrote many
practical and timely articles on horticulture and kin-
dred topics for the "Gardener's Monthly," "Hovey's
Magazine," the "Horticulturist" and other periodicals.
In 1854 Mr. Saunders entered into partnership in the
nursery business, general horticulture and landscape
gardening, with the late Thomas Meehan of Phila-
delphia. While there he originated and introduced
fixed roofs for greenhouses which marked a great
improvement over the movable sash formerly employed.
He was a landscape gardener of note, and finished the
planting of some of the national capital's park system
which had been previously begun by Andrew Downing.
He planned many parks through the eastern portion
of the United States, among the most noted of which
were Clifton, the country home of the late Johns
Hopkins at Baltimore; Rose Hill Cemetery, Chicago;
Oak Ridge Cemetery, Springfield, Illinois, and the
National Cemetery, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

In 1862 Commissioner Newton appointed Mr.
Saunders the Botanist and Superintendent of Horti-
culture of the newly created Department of Agricul-
ture at Washington, D. C. The Department was at
first called a Bureau and did not become a cabinet office

HORTICULTURISTS

1595

until 1889. Mr. Saunders aided materially with advice
and good work in shaping and developing the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and he was one of the ablest and
most influential men the Department has ever had. He
was one of the seven founders of the order of Patrons of
Husbandry in 1867, and wrote its preamble and con-
stitution. He was Master of the National Grange
during the first six years of its existence.

He introduced into this country many fruits of
economic importance. His knowledge of the flora of
the world was extraordinary. He was one of the first
to direct public attention to the proper environment
for fruits; southern fruits for southern states, northern
fruits for northern states. He introduced the hardy
Russian apples for the extreme North in 1870. Mr.
Saunders imported economic plants and trees of various
kinds from almost every part of the globe. The Pon-
cirus trifoliata, widely grown as a hardy stock for
citrous fruits in the South and West, was obtained by
him in 1869. He was endeavoring to secure a hardy
type of Japanese orange, and the trees froze in transit
from San Francisco to Washington, but the stocks
survived, and these proved to be the now well-known
P. trifoliata. He enlisted the aid of the late Prof. P. J.
Berckmans of Augusta, Georgia, in the work of saving
and perpetuating this stock. Mr. Saunders introduced
the kaki or Japanese persimmon into this country and
disseminated it widely in the South. His greatest suc-
cess, however, was the introduction of the Bahia or
Washington Navel orange, the seedless orange from
Brazil that practically revolutionized the orange indus-
try in California at that time, and brought in a
subsequent revenue of millions of dollars.

G. B. BRACKETT.

Saunders, William (Fig. 1898), economic entomolo-
gist, horticulturist and the founder, and for quarter of
a century Director, of the Experimental Farms of the
Dominion of Canada, was born in England in 1835, and
died in London, Ontario, September 13, 1914. He came
with his parents to Canada when a boy of twelve. He
started in business as a chemist and druggist and, as
years went by, prospered to such an extent that he was
able to devote his spare time and means to his favorite
pursuits of botany, entomology and horticulture. He
was one of the founders of the Entomological Society of
Ontario, editor of the "Canadian Entomologist" for
thirteen years, and author of the standard work,
"Insects Injurious to Fruits," which is regarded as a
classic by economic entomologists and fruit-growers.

Deeply interested in horticulture, he established a
fruit-farm near London, and began his experiments in
hybridizing and originating new varieties. His earliest
efforts were devoted to the production of improved
kinds of small-fruits, and he succeeded in obtaining
satisfactory results with gooseberries, currants, rasp-
berries and grapes, and also with roses and other
ornamental shrubs. Many of his varieties are widely
known and extensively cultivated, and his Emerald
grape was considered the best of the Canadian sorts
at the Colonial Exhibition in 1886. During this period
he was an enthusiastic member of the Ontario Fruit-
Growers' Association, which he was largely instrumen-
tal in maintaining during its day of small things, and of
which he was president for some years.

In 1886 he was appointed Director of the Experi-
mental Farms, and by his untiring energy, remarkable
administrative ability, wide knowledge, both scien-
tific and practical, long business experience and agree-
able personality, he succeeded in establishing the chain
of stations in all the provinces of Canada from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and prescribing for each its
sphere of work in adaptation to its climate and local
conditions. The immense value of the results obtained
cannot be over-estimated; they will long continue to
sustain the reputation of this man of genius to whose
energy and ability they were due.

Among the many aspects of work which claimed his
attention, horticulture continued to have a foremost
place. For a long series of years Dr. Saunders carried
on hybridizing experiments in order to produce apples
hardy enough to withstand the rigors of the north-
western provinces,
and of good size
and quality. Tak-
ing the wild Sibe-
rian crab, which
grows freely in Sas-
katchewan, as the
female parent and
crossing it with the
hardiest Canadian
and Russian apples,
he gradually suc-
ceeded in obtain-
ing hardy varieties
'nearly 2 inches in
diameter which
thrive in the far
North and with-
stand a tempera-
ture of even 60°
below zero. His
efforts with cereals
were equally suc-

1898. William Saunders. cessful; his Marquis

wheat has proved

to be the best variety in all respects of those grown in
the western provinces, and has added millions of dollars
to the value of their farm products, c. J. g. BETHUNE.

Sharp, Francis Peabody, the leading pioneer pomol-
ogist of New Brunswick, and perhaps of Canada, was
born at Northampton, New Brunswick, in 1825, and
removed to Upper Woodstock in 1844, at which place
he resided until his death in 1903. Practically all of
this time he was engaged in commercial orcharding,
the growing of nursery stock, the testing of varieties
and the creation of new fruits. He was the first man
to introduce most of the standard varieties in the prov-
ince— this being prior to 1858; obtaining cions from
Canada, the United States and England. He devoted
many years toward the production of varieties specially
adapted to the New Brunswick climate and soil, the
necessity of which he always emphasized. He early
recognized the possibility of obtaining new and
improved varieties from seed, and he imported seed
from many sources for testing. In this manner he
originated Sharp's New Brunswick apple, which many
have regarded as being the Duchess of Oldenburg.
Later, Sharp started to produce better varieties by
hybridizing. Using the New Brunswick as one parent
in most cases, he made upward of 2,000 crosses, origina-
ting a number of varieties of proved local worth, of
which the best known is the Crimson Beauty. The date
of the starting of this work does not seem to be definitely
known but appears to have been about 1866. In an
address given before the Farmers' and Dairymen's
Association at Fredericton in 1896, Sharp stated
that he and Peter M. Gideon were the first two men
in America scientifically to hybridize the apple and
pear. It would appear from this that Sharp was by
many years the first man to begin this important work
in Canada. Photographs and particulars are given
in the report of the New Brunswick Fruit-Growers'
Association for 1911. A. G. TURNEY.

Shaw, Henry (Fig. 1899), founder of the Missouri
Botanical Garden, popularly known as "Shaw's Gar-
dens," was born at Sheffield, England, July 24, 1800,
and died at St. Louis, Missouri, August 25, 1889.
He came to the United States in 1819 and engaged in
the hardware business until 1840 in St. Louis, where he
continued to reside until his death. After retirement

1596

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

from active business he traveled for a number of years,
and in 1849 laid out a modest garden about his country
house in the suburbs of St. Louis, which, nine years
later, he extended so as to include some forty-five acres,
about half of this area constituting an arboretum.

By special act of the General Assembly of the state
of Missouri, approved in March, 1859, Mr. Shaw was
empowered to provide for the conveyance of his
property, either during his life or after his demise, to
trustees, for the perpetual maintenance of his garden
as a scientific establishment. In 1885 he endowed a
department in Washington University, known as the
Henry Shaw School of Botany, and on his death left
nearly all of his property, valued at some $5,000,000, to
a board of trustees for the maintenance, improvement,
and enlargement of the Missouri Botanical Garden.

Mr. Shaw, though not a botanist, was a lover of
plants for themselves and a firm believer in their
influence in molding desirable traits in human character.
His garden was always open to visitors, among whom

he particularly wel-
comed the self-respect-
ing poor. Thirty years
before his death he
gave to the city of St.
Louis a park site ad-
jacent to his garden,
which, like the latter,
was improved under
his personal super-
vision.

Special provisions in
Mr. Shaw's will, aside
from the general ar-
rangements for the
development of the
garden — in details of
which he allows his
trustees a very free
hand — are for an an-
nual sermon "on the
wisdom and goodness
of God as shown in
the growth of flowers,
fruits, and other products of the vegetable kingdom;"
premiums for an annual flower show; and two annual
banquets, respectively for the trustees and gardeners
of the institution. These banquets are the occasion
for annual gatherings of men distinguished in botany
and horticulture. See Vol. I, p. 531. \\rM. TRELEASE.

Shepherd, Robert Ward, horticulturist, was born in
1848 and died at Montreal in November, 1912. For
nearly forty years Mr. Shepherd was closely and prom-
inently associated with the development of horticul-
ture in the province of Quebec. Although he was for
many years connected with the Ottawa River Naviga-
tion Company, his great love for horticulture was
always evident and early in his life he planted exten-
sive orchards at his home at Como on the Lake of the
Two Mountains. His specialty was apples and he grew
most of the varieties recommended for the province
of Quebec and was continuously testing new sorts.
His favorite variety was the Fameuse and he developed
a high-class trade with this variety in England, ship-
ping the fruit in special compartment cases. He
unceasingly advocated the planting of Fameuse in the
province of Quebec in preference to any other variety
on .account of its high quality. He originated the
Rochelle apple, a promising hardy variety. As early
as 1877 he was a director of the Montreal Horticultural
Society and when the Quebec Pomological Society was
formed in 1893 he was one of the most active in its
organization. He was president of this Society in 1895
and again in 1906 and a director for many years, and
on many occasions prepared papers for the meetings.

1899. Henry Shaw.

He was Fruit Commissioner for the province of Quebec
at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, and on three
occasions was one of those who represented the province
of Quebec at Dominion Fruit Conferences. Because of
his prominence as a fruit-grower and his enthusiasm, he
was on many other occasions appointed on important
horticultural committees. ^y f MACOUN

Shepherd, Mrs. Theodosia B., and her husband
were among the pioneers who left their homes in the
Middle West to settle in California in the year 1873.
Mr. Shepherd was an attorney and in this new coun-
try found little use for his services. His wife rose to
the emergency and being of an artistic temperament,
manufactured works of art out of the fauna and flora
which she had collected. Her descriptive writings of
flowers are among the finest this country has produced.
The encouragement of Peter Henderson was incident to
her entering this field. In 1881, she sent him a package
of curiosities among which were a few choice flower
seeds grown in the open. He wrote back saying that he
believed California would be the great seed- and bulb-
producing country of the world and that the conditions
were ideal. Some of the products of her labor are a
class of shrubby begonias of unequal vigor; a tea rose
called "Oriole;" the perfection of cosmos; nasturtiums,
California poppies and others were increased in size
and beauty; the evolution of the petunia from a small
flower of dull color to those of mammoth size and beau-
tiful color. Mrs. Shepherd died September 6, 1906.

Shinn, James, pioneer nurseryman, was born at
Salem, Ohio, September 29, 1807, and died October
29, 1896. He lived in several western and southern
states and moved to California (from Texas) in 1855,
establishing an orchard and nursery at Niles. He had
studied and practised horticulture, had kept up a cor-
respondence with specialists and at once took rank
among the best-equipped men of the Pacific coast in
his line of work. His introductions of Persian walnuts,
Smyrna figs, Japanese plums and persimmons, the
carob, Uinshiu oranges and many ornamentals were
widely useful in the West and in the South as well as
in California. His correspondence, and his newspaper
writings, were extensive; he helped to found, and led
in, the State Horticultural Society; his trials of new
fruits and plants were extensive and thorough, and
his cooperation with the experiment stations and with
agricultural education was active. For more than
forty years his influence broadened over the entire
Pacific coast region. He was, with the exception per-
haps of John Rock, the best known of California
nurserymen. c. H. SHINN.

Smith, Andrew Murray, nurseryman, was born in
Brandon, Vermont, September 24, 1832. The family
removed to western New York in 1844, where Andrew
made the best of his rather brief opportunities at a dis-
trict school, and at Yabes Academy, Lockport. In
1852 Andrew engaged in work for Mr. E. Moody, near
Lockport, and thus became acquainted with the
nursery business, in which he afterward associated
himself with Charles E. Woolverton, of Grimsby,
Ontario, under the title of Woolverton & Smith. Finding
a few old peach trees still bearing fruit in the garden of
Dennis Woolverton about the year 1857, the firm
decided to plant an orchard of six hundred trees, in
addition to their nursery stock. The venture proved
so successful that farmers about followed their example
to such an extent that this Niagara District is now
known as the "Peach Garden of Ontario." Mr. Smith
continued the nursery business at Grimsby, Niagara
and St. Catharines until the year 1900, when he retired
at the age of seventy. He was one of the first members
of the Fruit-Growers' Association of Ontario which was
formed in 1859 and continued his active membership
until his decease at St. Catharines, Ontario, October

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1597

19, 1910. For ten years, Mr. Smith was a director of
the Association, of which he was made president in 1889,
and a life member in 1900. No man in Canada has done
more initiatory work in the development of the fruit
industry of the province than A. M. Smith, insomuch
that he has been called "the father of the commercial
peach industry of Ontario." LINUS WOOLVERTON.

Smith, William Robertson, botanist, bibliographer,
horticulturist, philanthropist, was born at the village of
Athelstaneford, East Lothian, Scotland, March 21,
1828, and died July 7, 1912. He was educated in the
schools of his native village. His earliest practical work
in horticulture was done on the grounds belonging to
the Earl of Wemyss, and later at Airthrie Castle and
still later at Kew Gardens. On coming to America he
located in Philadelphia, but was soon called to take
charge of the work of the United States Botanic Gar-
dens. These Gardens, nestling at the foot of the Capitol
of the United States, were conceived by George Wash-
ington and are all that remains of his grand scheme of a
national college and a national church. In 1822 a
Botanical Society was formed and some planting was
done on the drier portion of the marshy reservation.
This society published what is now a very rare book
entitled "Prodomus Cplumbiana," and it contained a
list of the plants then in the District of Columbia. To
this collection, John D. Breckenridge, prominent
botanist of his day, added large quantities of plants of
interest. The plants secured by the Wilkes' expedition
around the world, placed in the Patent Office conserva-
tory, were consigned to the United States Botanic
Gardens in 1850 and Mr. Breckenridge was employed
to give them expert attention, and with him was
associated Dr. Asa Gray, botanist. All expenditures for
the Gardens from 1851 to 1854 were paid from funds
accredited to the Wilkes' expedition. William R. Smith
became Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens in
1853. The times were troublous, and the first appro-
priation from Congress, including the pay of the super-
intendent and assistants was but $3,000. At this time
the gardens were marshy, and ague-breeding. His
first work was the filling in of 500,000 yards of soil. The
development of the Gardens was necessarily slow and
tedious, but in the period of Mr. Smith's tenure they
were developed from a tiny flower-garden and botanical
collection to the largest horticultural collection, public
or private, in America. The work of Mr. Smith is
well known to students of horticulture everywhere,
and through this great work he came to be styled "the
father of horticulture." G. B. BRACKETT.

Stark, James Hart, nurseryman and fruit-grower,
was born July 30, 1792, in Hutchison, Bourbon County,
Kentucky. He was the son of Capt. James Stark, who
came to Hutchison, Kentucky, in 1785 from Virginia.
The Starks were originally from Glasgow, Scotland, one
brother settling in New England and the other hi
Virginia. Both were enthusiastic horticulturists. On a
fly-leaf of one of the old law books of the Kentucky
lawyer, preserved by the family, is a planting record of
the family orchard which was probably the first orchard
of grafted apples planted west of the Alleghanies.

For his military service in the war of 1812, Judge
Stark was given script for land, in what is now Pike
County, Missouri, where he located in 1815. HerCj
near the present site of Louisiana, he cleared a large
tract of land, and went back to Kentucky for cions
from the old family orchard in order to establish a
nursery and orchard in Missouri. From this stock was
started in 1816 the pioneer nursery west of the Missis-
sippi. From the trees produced, the first commercial
orchard in this section of the country, 45 to 50 acres in
extent, was established. Northern buyers came each
year and bought the crop of apples from this orchard,
amounting annually to several thousand barrels. The
nursery which he established in 1816 has been main-

tained and augmented by Mr. Stark and his descen-
dants until today it is said to be the largest nursery in
the world. Judge James Stark at first furnished trees
for planting by his neighbors. In this way he began the
dissemination of grafted stock of the best-known varie-
ties of the tune. The district in which he was located
was also somewhat famous for wild plums, berries,
grapes, and other fruit, and this stimulated in him an
interest in the introduction and dissemination of new
and superior varieties. The business which he estab-
lished then has been responsible for the introduction
into the Mississippi Valley and the far West of a very
large number of the leading varieties of commercial
fruits now being grown in western orchards.

Judge Stark in his day was regarded as the horti-
cultural leader in his section of the country. That he
knew thoroughly and loved his work, that he believed
in it fully and got daily inspiration from it, is perhaps
best emphasized by the fact that instead of his work
dying with him, his inspiration, zeal and energy for it
has been handed down through his descendants who
have ably followed in his footsteps. j c. WRITTEN.

Starr, Robert W., eminent fruit-grower of Nova
Scotia, was born in 1830 at Starr's Point on the shore
of Minas Basin. He came of an old United Empire
Loyalist stock of Connecticut, a family which for four
generations furnished militia officers. He was educated
at Sackville Academy, New Brunswick. About the
year 1860 Major Starr settled down to a life of fruit-
and fruit-tree-growing, a line in which he became not
only successful himself, but also of great service to his
province. In addition to his vocation, he continued to
serve in the militia as adjutant and later as major.
In 1873 he was appointed Justice of the Peace for
King's County. Major Starr was one of the original
founders of the Nova Scotia Fruit-Growers' Associa-
tion, which was started in 1863. Several times he was
made president, and in 1873 was made a life member.
In 1876 he was sent to the Centennial Exhibition,
Philadelphia, with a large exhibit of Nova Scotia fruit,
and in 1893 he was sent by his province to the World's
Fair, Chicago, with a similar charge. Major Starr has
been much in demand as a judge of apples, at exhibi-
tions in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward
Island, and Ontario, and is considered the leading
authority on the apple in the province of Nova Scotia.

LINUS WOOLVERTON.

Stayman, Joseph, physician and pomologist, was
born in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, October
17, 1817 and died October 4, 1903. He studied medicine
and in 1846 began to deliver lectures on scientific
subjects. He engaged in the practice of medicine until
1858. In 1859, he established a nursery in Illinois but
later in the year moved to Leavenworth, Kansas. For
forty years, he engaged in experimental work on fruits,
producing hundreds of hybrids and testing many varie-
ties produced by others. The best known of his original
productions are the Clyde and Stayman strawberries,
the Stayman Winesap apple and the Ozark grape. Dr.
Stayman was a charter member of the Kansas State
Horticultural Society and was appointed as the Kansas
delegate to the Centennial Exposition at Phila-
delphia in 1876.

Stiles, William Augustus, journalist, editor and park
commissioner, was born March 9, 1837, at Deckertown,
Sussex County, in northern New Jersey, and died
October 6, 1897, in Jersey City. His grandfather settled
on a farm near Deckertown in 1819, where his father,
Edward A. Stiles, in 1833, founded Mount Retirement
Seminary, a successful school of the highest rank
during the following thirty years. William A. Stiles
graduated at Yale in 1859 in a class which included
many men who have since attained high rank in public
affairs. Prevented from taking up the profession of

1598

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

law by constitutional weakness and defective eyesight,
he found expression in diversified activities. He was in
turn a teacher, assistant superintendent of public
schools, surveyor on the Pacific coast, writer of political
articles, secretary of the Senate of New Jersey, actuary
of a life insurance company, and gauger in the New
York custom house. During a long period of illness and
almost total blindness he acquired systematic knowl-
edge of plant-life from readings by his sisters, and
this gave impulse toward subsequent study on
broader lines. He brought together many rare
and choice species of plants, and made interesting
experiments on the farm. His articles in the daily
press of New York on the various interests of country
life attracted wide attention, and led to his appointment
as an editorial writer of the New York "Tribune," a
relation which continued throughout his lifetime. In
1883 he became agricultural editor of the Philadelphia
"Press." Keenly interested in introducing scientific
discoveries and improved methods into general practice,
he established relations with the foremost agriculturists
abroad and at home, and made his department a use-
ful and valuable exponent of the best knowledge of the
time. His masterly conduct of the page during the
next five years set a high standard for journalism in
this field, and established his reputation as a specialist
in agriculture and cognate subjects. On the founding of
"Garden and Forest" in 1888, William A. Stiles was
invited to be the managing editor. For nearly ten
years, to the close of his life, he devoted himself to
this journal through vigorous editorial writing and
management, and steadily maintained the high char-
acter of the most able and influential periodical in
American horticultural journalism. For many years he
rendered conspicuous service in working for the estab-
lishment of small parks easily accessible to the poor,
and for the wise conduct of the larger parks and
their preservation from invasion and despoilment. His
special ability and influence received public recog-
nition in 1895, when he was appointed a park commis-
sioner of New York city, a position in which he rendered
signal and valuable service until the time of his death.

M. B. COULSTON.

Strauch, Adolph (Fig. 1900), landscape-gardener, was
born in Prussia, August 30, 1822, and died at Cincinnati,
Ohio, April 25, 1883. He began the study of landscape
gardening at the age of sixteen, and perfected his knowl-
edge and taste by travel and by working in many
places, including Vienna, Schoenbrun, Luxemburg, Ber-
lin, Hamburg, The Hague, Amsterdam, Ghent and Paris,
spending several years at the latter place. In 1848 he
went to London where he found employment in the

Royal Botanic Gar-
dens. In 1851 he came
to the United States,
landing at Galveston,
Texas. From there he
found his way to Cin-
cinnati, and made that
his home during the
rest of his life. Mr.
Strauch designed por-
tions of the parks and
many of the private
grounds in Cincinnati.
"Clifton" in that city,
owed its beauty to his
skill and good taste.
Mr. Strauch's chief
claim to distinction
however, was in orig-
inating the park-like
treatment of cemeter-
ies. He developed his
ideas in Spring Grove,
1900. Adolph Strauch. which became the most

beautiful cemetery in the world. His skill as a land-
scape gardener was called into requisition in many
places, among which are included Buffalo, Cleveland,
Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, Indianapolis, Nashville and
Hartford. Frederick Law Olmsted used to say that
when he needed inspiration he visited Spring Grove.
Perhaps no man in the United States since A. J. Down-
ing's time has done more for the correction and cul-
tivation of public taste in landscape gardening than
Adolph Strauch. He loved nature and tried to pre-
serve her natural beauty. He was especially success-
ful in grading land surfaces and securing beautiful
rolling lawns, the shaping of which was done almost
entirely by eye. He would say "When it pleases the
eye, it is right." He also said that the lawn at the
margin of a road should be tangent to the road's sur-
face. . He believed in the picturesque arrangement of
trees and shrubs, and was very careful to use species
that harmonize with each other. Q Q SIMONDS

Stringfellow, Henry Martyn (Fig. 1901), was born at
Winchester, Virginia, January 31, 1839. and died on
June 17, 1912, at Fay-
etteville, Arkansas. He
was graduated from
William and Mary
College in 1858. Later
he attended the Vir-
ginia Theological Semi-
nary at Alexandria,
1858-61. Enlisting in
the Confederate Army
in 1861, he soon rose
from .the rank of pri-
vate to the rank of
captain in the Ordin-
ance Department. He
studied law for several
years. Much of his life
was spent in Texas,
where he was a pioneer
in discovering and de-
monstrating the rich
horticultural possibili-
ties of the Gulf coast.
He planted the first
pear orchard on the coast in 1882. In 1884, he planted
the first Satsuma orange trees in Texas — trees which
he obtained from Japan. These plantings were at
Hitchcock. In this single instance, he rendered Amer-
ican horticulture a service of vast importance, since
during the past few years millions of Satsuma orange
plantings have been made all along the Gulf coast and
a vast industry has been created. By demonstrating the
value of drainage and by other methods, he opened up
the horticultural possibilities of the country lying be-
tween Houston and Galveston, previously regarded as
waste land. This is now the pear and strawberry country
of Texas. He was a frequent contributor to horticul-
tural publications and the press. Some of his articles
appeared in the press of some foreign countries. His
book "The New Horticulture" was written and pub-
lished at Galveston in 1896. Most notable of the new
practices which he advocated in this book was a severe
method of pruning young fruit trees, both tops and
•roots, preparatory to transplanting. This practice,
which he called "close root-pruning," sometimes
called the "Stringfellow method," again "stub-pruning,"
proved successful in sandy types of soil southward, and
was adopted by many planters, especially of large peach
orchards in the South. ERNEST WALKER.

Strong, William Chamberlain, lawyer and pomol-
ogist, was born at Hardwick, Vermont, August 18, 1823,
and died in New York City, May 11, 1913. He was a
graduate of Dartmouth College and then entered the
Harvard Law School, for several years practising law.

1901. Henry M. Stringfellow.

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1599

His interest in horticulture, however, caused him to
give up law as a profession, and buy an estate at
Waban, Massachusetts. He did much for American
fruit-culture, especially the grape and pear industries,
and he was regarded as a leader among old-line
pomologists. He was also a benefactor in the introduc-
tions of new plants and trees from foreign countries.
He was among the first to discover the immense floral
value of rhododendrons and azaleas for the vicinity
of Boston. He also did much to aid in the establish-
ment of the Arnold Arboretum in 1872. Mr. Strong was
the author of several valuable books on horticulture,
some of which are "Fruit-Culture," "Grape-Culture,"
and the "Gardener's Manual." He was a member of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and in 1872
was sent to Paris as a delegate to the Pomological
Congress. He was also a member of the American
Pomological Society. G. B. BRACKETT.

Sturtevant, Edward Lewis, agricultural experimenter
and writer, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, Jan-
uary 23, 1842, and died at South Framingham, Massa-
chusetts, July 30, 1898. Though holding the degree of
M. D. from the Harvard Medical School, Dr. Sturte-
vant never practised the profession of medicine, but
devoted his life to agricultural work, first specializing on
Ayrshire cattle, then on pedigree corn (Waushakum)
and muskmelons (New Christiana), and afterward
devoting particular attention to the modifications which
cultivated plants have undergone as shown by such
records as occur in the older books. In connection with
those studies, Dr. Sturtevant brought together a rare
collection of books dealing with plants published before
the time of Linnaeus (say 1753), which, with his index
cards and herbarium, is now preserved at the Missouri
Botanical Garden in St. Louis.

As first director of the New York Experiment Station
at Geneva, Dr. Sturtevant drew the broad plans on
which the successful work of that establishment has
been conducted and which have served largely as
models for subsequently organized agricultural stations
over the country. He was a man of active mind, and
his career is suggestive of worthy work to an unusual
degree. A biographic sketch and a list of his principal
writings are printed in the "Tenth Report of the
Missouri Botanical Garden." See also "Cyclopedia
of American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 616.

Teas, John C., nurseryman, was born in Indiana,
of Quaker parentage, in 1827 and died in Carthage,
Missouri, July 29, 1907. At the early age of ten, he
evinced his love of horticulture by planting and tend-
ing a garden of his own. He lived in Indiana until
1869, when he moved to Missouri, where he engaged
in the nursery business. He originated and intro-
duced many new and valuable novelties in all branches
of horticulture, including pomology, forestry, flori-
culture and the like. He was one of the first to recog-
nize the good qualities of Catalpa speciosa and at all
times advocated the careful conservation of our natural
forests, and the planting and care of new forests. Mr.
Teas was an active member of the American Pomo-
logical Society and one of the organizers of the Indi-
ana Horticultural Society. He was also a frequent
contributor to the current literature of horticulture
and pomology.

Terry, H. A., one of the pioneer horticulturists of
the prairie region west of the Mississippi, was born in
Cortland, New York, in 1826. At the age of ten he
moved with his parents to Michigan, where he lived
on a farm until he was nineteen. He then went west
stopping a year in Illinois, reaching western Iowa in
1846. After that the most of his life was spent in the
vicinity of Council Bluffs, not far from which city he
established a nursery in 1857, where he carried on the
work in breeding fruits and flowers which has given

him special claim to recognition as one of the notable
horticulturists of his region. In addition to carrying on
his regular business as a nurseryman, he endeavored to
add to the list desirable varieties which should be particu-
larly adapted to his region at a time when such work
was greatly needed. He named and distributed more
than 100 of his seedling peonies, but doubtless his most
important work was the origination of improved varie-
ties of the native plum. Among the more important
of his plum seedlings, classed under the americana
species, are Admiral Schley, Bomberger, Bryan, Cham-
pion, Golden Queen, Hawkeye, Nellie Blanch, Terry
and White Prune. Among his notable seedlings of the
Munsoniana species are Downing, Hammer, Milton, all
three from seed of the Wild Goose. Mr. Terry was long
an active member of the State Horticultural Society
and for several years was in charge of one of its trial
stations. He died February 14, 1909. 5 A. BEACH.

Thomas, John Jacobs (Fig. 1902), one of the three
pomologists who may be said to have created the
science in this country (the others being Patrick Barry
and the elder Downing), was born January 8, 1810,
near the lake in central New York — Cayuga — on the
shores of which he passed his life; and died at Union
Springs, February 22, 1895. He was much more than a
pomoTogist, his studies covering nearly every branch of
rural industry except the breeding of live-stock, and his
labors in the direction of adorning the surroundings of
country life entitling him to rank in that department
with the younger Downing. Two of his works, "Farm
Implements and Ma-
chinery," and the series
of nine volumes called
"Rural Affairs," deal
with the practical
every-day matters of
life on the farm 'in a
manner at once pleas-
ing and original, there
being nothing that
could quite fill their
place in the whole range
of our agricultural lit-
erature; and his inces-
sant stream of inspir-
ing editorials in "The
Cultivator" and "The
Country Gentleman"
for nearly sixty years
covered a wide and di-
versified range of rural
topics. But pomology

was his chief delight, 1902. John Jacobs Thomas,

and his fame rests

mainly on his treatise on that subject, "The American
Fruit Culturist." This immensely useful book first ap-
peared, in 1846, as a paper-covered 16mo of 220 pages,
with 36 wood-cuts, which must have been well received,
inasmuch as a fourth edition (dignified with muslin bind-
ing) was published in the following year, and in 1849
another, enlarged to 424 duodecimo pages, and "illus-
trated with 300 accurate figures." This edition appears
to have been reissued a few years later, with slight
modifications and on larger paper, and was then called
the seventh. Up to this time, changes in the work had
been chiefly in the direction of natural growth. But hor-
ticultural knowledge was undergoing great modifica-
tion; and in 1867, the public still calling for the book, it
reappeared in different style, newly arranged and
mostly rewritten, filling now considerably more than
500 pages, and accompanied by almost that number of
illustrations. Rather unfortunately, this was called
the "second edition," all its predecessors being probably
regarded as different forms of the same book, while this
was substantially new.

1600

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

The next edition, called the "eighth revised,"
appeared in 1875, and had nearly 600 octavo pages and
over 500 engravings, — not to mention a colored frontis-
piece and highly pictorial binding; and this was fol-
lowed, ten years later, by a revised reprint in plainer
and more tasteful style, illustrated with the largest
number of engravings yet reached, 519. This edition,
the last issued during the life of the author, sold well,
like all the others, and was long out of print and much
sought for. A so-called "twentieth" edition, revised
and enlarged by Mr. William H. S. Wood, with the
assistance of a number of high authorities, appeared in
1897, and contains over 700 pages and nearly 800 illus-
trations. A "twenty-first" edition has also appeared.

GILBKRT M. TUCKER.

Thorburn, Grant (Fig. 1903), founder of the seed
house of J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York, and hor-
ticultural author, was born in 1773 in Dalkeith, Scot-
land, and early came to New York to seek his fortune.
His father was a wrought-nail maker, and the son
engaged in the same trade in this country. He soon
married, and his wife attended a store which he estab-
lished in Nassau Street, near Liberty, for the selling of
"tape, ribbons, thimbles, thread, scissors, and Oxbery's

needles." The living-
rooms were in connec-
tion. "A glass door
opened opposite the
fireplace, where she
rolled the dumpling or
broiled the steak with
one eye, and kept a
squint on the store
with the other." The
introduction of cut-nail
machines deprived
young Thorburn of his
trade, and the estab-
lishment of a preten-
tious grocery business
on the corner of Nassau
and Liberty streets
took away his custom-
ers. He therefore gave
attention to other
means of livelihood.
The women of the city
had begun to show a
taste for flowers. These were grown in pots, and the
pots were sold by grocers. In the fall of 1802, there
being various pots in his stock, Thorburn thought to
attract the attention of purchasers by painting the
pots green. Four pots were first painted. They sold
quickly. Then he painted twelve. They sold; and thus
the pot business grew. Thorburn had been in the habit
of buying his meat at the Fly Market, at the foot of
Maiden Lane. In April, 1803, he bought a rose geran-
ium there, thinking to be able by its means still further
to advertise his pots. But the next day a customer
bought both pot and plant; and Thorburn quickly
returned to the market and bought two more plants.
These sold; and thus the plant business grew.

The man, George Inglis, of whom Thorburn bought
the plants, was alsp a Scotchman, and it was soon
agreed that one should grow the plants and the other
sell them. But the customers also wanted to grow
plants, and they asked for seed; and, as there was no
seedstore in New York, it was arranged that Inglis
should grow seeds also. This was in 1805; and in that
year Inglis, as an experiment, had grown a lot of seeds.
Thorburn bought these seeds for $15; and thus arose
the first regular seedstore in New York, and one of the
first in the United States.

The seeds and plants continued to sell, and Thorburn
was obliged to import seeds. In 1805 or 1806 he ob-
tained a catalogue of William Malcolm & Co., London,

1903. Grant Thorburn.

the first plant catalogue he had ever seen, and he then
published one of his own. This led to more pretentious
writing, and "The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalen-
dar" was the first outcome. The third edition of this,
in 1821, by "Grant Thorburn, Seedsman and Florist,"
contains the advertisment of "G. Thorburn & Son,"
dealers in seeds, implements and rural books.

Grant Thorburn was a prolific writer for the current
press on a variety of topics, under the nom de plume of
Laurie Todd. He was a unique character, and his his-
tory,— "mixed with much fiction," as he himself says, —
was the basis of John Gait's tale in three volumes
(London, 1830) of "Lawrie Todd, or Settlers in the
Woods." Thorburn left a most interesting autobiog-
raphy, which was published in New York in 1852. He
died in New Haven, Connecticut, January 21, 1863, at
the age of 90. The portrait in Fig. 1903 is reproduced
from his autobiography. See p. 1518. L. jj. B.

Thurber, George, botanist, naturalist and editor, was
born in Providence, Rhode Island, September 2, 1821,
and died at his home near Passaic, New Jersey, April
2, 1890. In his early years he devoted himself eagerly
to the study of chemistry and natural sciences in gen-
eral, but especially to botany, so that at an early age
he was already well known as one of the most prominent
botanists of the country. This brought him in close
intimacy with John Torrey, Asa Gray, George Engel-
mann, Louis Agassiz and other eminent scientists,
whose warm friendship he enjoyed until his death. In
1850 he obtained the appointment as botanist, quart-
ermaster and commissary of the United States Boun-
dary Commission for the survey of the boundary
between the United States and Mexico. During the
following four years his botanical work consisted mainly
in the exploration of the native flora of these hitherto
unknown border regions. His herbarium collected there
comprised a large number of species new to scientists,
some of which have been named after their discoverer,
Cereus Thurberi being one of the most important; it is
now cultivated for its fruit in the desert regions of
North Africa. This historical herbarium formed the
subject of Dr. Asa Gray's important work "Plantae
Novae Thurberinanse," published by the Smithsonian
Institute. After his return to New York in 1853, Dr.
Thurber received an appointment to the United States
Assay Office, of which Dr. John Torrey was the assayer.
In this position he remained until 1856, when owing to
his strong sympathies with Gen. John C. Fremont, who
was the first presidential candidate of the Republican
party, he preferred to resign rather than sacrifice his
principles. During the following three years he was
connected with the Cooper Union and the College of
Pharmacy of New York City as lecturer on botany
and materia medica. In 1859 he was appointed
professor of botany and horticulture at the Michigan
Agricultural College, which position he held for four
years. This position he resigned in 1863 to accept
— on the urgent invitation of Orange Judd, the
publisher — the editorship of the "American Agri-
culturist," which he held to within a few years
of his death, when failing health prevented him
from continuing his ardent labors. In this position
he found his most congenial work and the real mission
of his life, for which his previous training had fitted
him so admirably. Few men have exerted so powerful
and effective an influence on progressive horticulture
and agriculture. The amount of his writings in the
"American Agriculturist" during the twenty-two years
of his connection with it was enormous, but as his name
but rarely appeared with his articles it would be impos-
sible to estimate the aggregate, yet whatever he wrote
bore the stamp of accuracy of detail and naturalness
of style. While in Michigan he revised and partly
rewrote Darlington's "Agricultural Botany," which was
published under the title of "American Weeds and Use-

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

1601

1904. Luther Tucker.

ful Plants." He wrote also the entire botany of Apple-
ton's "New American Encyclopedia." An important
part of his contributions to horticultural literature con-
sisted in editing, revising and bringing out the horti-
cultural and agricultural books of the Orange Judd
Company. After the death of Dr. Torrey, he was
elected president of the Torrey Botanical Club. He
was also president of the New Jersey Horticultural
Society; vice-president of the American Pomological
Society for New Jersey; and honorary member of many
scientific societies throughout the world.

F. M. HEXAMER.

Tucker, Luther, (Fig. 1904), editor, was born at Bran-
don, Vermont, May 7, 1802, and died January 26, 1873.
He was the founder of "The Horticulturist" and the

proprietor of that valu-
able and unique maga-
zine during the period
of its greatest glory —
from July, 1846, until
the autumn of 1852.
To A. J. Downing, how-
ever, belongs the credit
for the distinguished
interest and value of
the magazine, as he
conducted it according
to his own ideas, with
which the proprietor
never interfered, the
latter having indeed
enough to do in putting
it before the public with
enterprise and vigor. It
was issued simultane-
ously in Albany, Bos-
ton, New York and
Philadelphia, with
twenty- two special
agencies at other points, including what was then the dis-
tant western town of Cleveland, Ohio, as well as Hamil-
ton and Cobourg in "Canada West." Luther Tucker
also founded, at Rochester, New York, October 27,
1826, the first daily paper published west of New York,
"The Advertiser," which is still, under a slightly
extended name, an influential journal; also at Roches-
ter, January 1, 1831, "The Genesee Farmer," a weekly,
the first agricultural periodical in the world written
directly from the standpoint of practical experience.
It has undergone some changes in name, as its scope
extended far beyond the Genesee Valley, being now
called "The Country Gentleman." It was published
in Albany by the founder and his sons, from January,
1840, until July, 1911, when it was sold to the Curtis
Publishing Company of Philadelphia. This is one of
the ten American agricultural periodicals that were
started before 1850 and outlived the nineteenth century,
the others being these: "Maine (Kennebec) Farmer,"
1839; "American (Boston) Cultivator," 1839; "South-
ern Planter," 1840; "Massachusetts Plowman," 1841;
"Prairie Farmer," 1841; "American Agriculturist,"
1842; "Southern Cultivator," 1843; "Indiana Farmer,"
1845; "Rural World," 1848; "Ohio Farmer," 1848.
It was natural that Luther Tucker should be interested
in the New York State Agricultural Society, which he
found at a low ebb on his coming to Albany, and of
which, only a year later, he was the chief reorganizer,
getting on foot the long series of annual fairs begin-
ning in 1841 and still continued. He served the Society
without any compensation or even reimbursement
for his own expenses, for eleven years.

GILBERT M. TUCKER.

Vaux, Calvert (1824-1895), an American landscape
gardener, was born in London. Together with Frederick
Law Olmsted he planned Central Park, New York, the

102

prototype of large, accessible, nature-like city parks.
The following account of his life-work is taken with
slight changes from an obituary notice by Wm. A.
Stiles in "Garden and Forest" 8:480. He had achieved
success in architecture before the age of twenty-four,
when he came to America as business associate of
Andrew Jackson Downing. At the time of Downing's
untimely death in 1854 the two men were designing and
constructing the grounds about the Capitol and Smith-
sonian Institution, the most important work of the
kind that had yet been attempted in America. Mean-
while, the gathering sentiment in favor of spacious
and accessible city parks which had found expression in
eloquent letters of Downing, at last secured, through
legislative action, the purchase for a public pleasure-
ground of the rectangular piece of ground now known as
Central Park, New York. In 1858 the city authorities
selected, out of thirty-three designs offered in competi-
tion for the new park, the one signed "Greensward,"
which was the joint work of Frederick Law Olmsted and
Calvert Vaux, and Central Park as we know it today is
the realization of this design in its essential features.
It may be added that this "Greensward" plan, together
with other reports on Central Park, on Morningside
and Riverside Parks, in New York, on parks in Brook-
lyn, Albany, Chicago, San Francisco and other cities,
both in this country and the Dominion of Canada, by
the same authors, contain a consistent body of doctrine
relating to public pleasure-grounds which is unique and
invaluable. Calvert Vaux was a member of many
important commissions, and he acted as landscape gar-
dener for the Niagara Falls Reservation, but for more
than thirty years his best work and thought were stead-
ily given to the parks of New York City. He had the
genuine creative faculty which gave the stamp of origi-
nality to all his work, and a severity of taste which pre-
served it from anything like eccentricity or extrava-
gance. As a city official he was a model of intelligent
zeal and sturdy integrity. Several times he resigned
his lucrative position rather than see his art degraded,
but he was always quickly reinstated by a demand of
the people. See Olmsted, p. 1589; also Landscape Gar-
dening, Vol. IV. WILHELM MILLER.

Vick, James (Fig. 1905), seedsman and editor, was
born at Portsmouth, England, November 23, 1818,
and died at Rochester, New York, May 16, 1882. He
came to America at the age of twelve, learned the print-
er's trade, and in 1850
became editor of the
"Genesee Farmer,"
then published at
Rochester by Luther
Tucker and subse-
quently absorbed by
"The Cultivator." In
1853 he purchased
Downing's magazine,
"The Horticulturist,"
and published it for a
time, the editor being
Patrick Barry. In 1860
Vick entered the seed
business and his trade
soon grew to large pro-
portions. For about
twenty years his name
was a household word,
being associated especi-
ally with flowers. In
1878 he founded
"Vick's Magazine."
Vick's personality was thoroughly amiable, and his
letters in "Vick's Magazine" to children and to garden-
lovers everywhere show the great hold he had on the
hearts of the people. WILHELM MILLER.

1905. James Vick.

1602

HORTICULTURISTS

HORTICULTURISTS

Warder, John Aston (Fig. 1906), physician, author,
horticulturist and forester, was born at Philadelphia,
January 19, 1812. His early life was spent in a suburban
home, where he evinced a love of nature which he cher-
ished through life. Bartram and Darlington were among
his neighbors and he met in his father's house men like
Audubon, Michaux and Nuttall. In 1830 his parents
moved to Springfield, Ohio, where he helped clear up a
farm and first became interested in agricultural sciences
and comparative anatomy. He was graduated at Jeffer-
son Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1836. He settled
in Cincinnati in 1837 and began the active practice of
medicine. He was early elected a member of the school
board and did faithful service for many years, making
it his business to travel through the eastern states and
cities to study systems of teaching in order to introduce
improved plans into the Cincinnati schools. He was
actively interested in and a prominent member of the
Cincinnati Astronomical Society, the Western Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences, the Cincinnati Society of
Natural History. He was one of the founders of the
Cincinnati Horticultural Society and the Wine-Grow-
ers' Association. He was also prominent in the old
Cincinnati College and afterward in both the Ohio
and Miami Medical Colleges. He was for many years
president of the Ohio Horticultural Society and vice-
president of the American Pomological Society. He
was among the first to draw public attention to the
improvement of public grounds, private parks and
cemeteries. The present interest in landscape-garden-
ing in this country is largely due to his efforts and writ-
ings. He was interested in establishing the famous
Spring Grove Cemetery, one of the earliest and best of
landscape or lawn cemeteries, and was one of the first
residents of Clifton, whence he moved to a farm near
North Bend, Ohio, formerly owned by President Har-
rison. There he spent most of his time in testing varie-
ties of fruit and methods of culture, and prepared
numerous practical papers for horticultural societies
and other readers, and in fact established a private
experiment station.

In 1850 he began the publication of the "Western
Horticultural Review," which continued four years.

In one number is con-
tained the first descrip-
tion of the Catalpa
spedosa, now recog-
nized as one of the
valuable forest trees.
His report of the Flax
and Hemp Commis-
sion, published by the
Government in 1865,
was the result of much
patient study and in-
vestigation. "Hedges
and Evergreens" ap-
peared in 1858. "Amer-
ican Pomology —
Apples," published in
1867, was the result
of more than sixteen
years of careful study,
aided by hundreds of
correspondents in vari-
ous parts of the central
states. It is still con-
sidered a standard authority on description and varie-
ties of apples, containing a table of varieties and syno-
nyms of over 1,500 names.

A report upon forests and forestry was the result of
his visit to the World's Fair at Vienna in 1873, as United
States Commissioner. In 1875 he issued a call for a
convention at Chicago to form an American Forestry
Society, which organization was completed at Phila-
delphia in September, 1876. The public was not yet

1906. John Aston Warder.

impressed with the importance of the subject, but this
pioneer association gave impetus to the plans for united
effort. In 1879-80, with the approval of various socie-
ties, Dr. Warder memorialized Congress, asking for a
commission for the study of forestry in Europe, but
general interest was not thoroughly aroused until,
largely through his efforts, the American Forestry Con-
gress held its meeting in Cincinnati in April, 1882. He
was honorary president of the Ohio State Forestry
Society, prepared strong memorials to Congress on
behalf of the forests and was shortly afterward ap-
pointed agent of the Department of Agriculture to
report upon forestry of the northwestern states. He
was devoted in his interest in all which concerns rural
life and industry; his efforts had a great and marked
effect on the horticulture and outdoor art of the great
central states. Death ended an active and useful life
July 14, 1883. R> H WARDER.

Wellhouse, Frederick, judge and pomologist, was
born in Wayne County, Ohio, November 16, 1828,
and died at Topeka, Kansas, January 10, 1911. He
was the son of a pioneer and received his early educa-
tion in the typical log schoolhouse of the early days. He
got his knowledge of farming at first hand on his
father's 300-acre farm. In 1858 he published the
"Indiana Farmer," a monthly agricultural paper,
which he sold to his partner, J. N. Ray, in 1859, and
afterward moved to Leavenworth, Kansas, and
engaged in horticulture. During the Civil War, he
was captain of the 19th Regiment, Kansas State
Militia. He was elected county commissioner of
Leavenworth County in 1861 by an almost unanimous
vote. He was the Republican nominee for senator in
1864, but was defeated. He served two terms in the
Kansas legislature, 1884-8. He was an active member of
the State Horticultural Society, almost from its organi-
zation, and was for fifteen years its treasurer and four
years its president. He represented the state of Kansas
in the fruit display for the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion, Chicago, 1903, and did much pioneer work in
Kansas horticulture in early days when that work
demanded a leader. He represented the state's fruit
industry at the various state fairs and the national
expositions. He planted the largest commercial orchard
in Kansas, and it was for many years the largest apple
orchard in the world, an orchard of over 1,600 acres,
that justly entitled him to the name of the "Apple
King." This initial orchard was planted in 1876, and
he added to the plantings for a number of years. In
1880 the yield from his orchard was 80,000 bushels
besides the culls and it required 200 cars to ship them
east. The yield for eleven years, from his first plant-
ings, was 239,135 bushels which sold for $125,118.25.
In the twenty-five years' trial of his commercial orchard
he found Jonathan the most profitable variety; Missouri
(Pippin) second best; Ben Davis third and Winesap
fourth. G. B. BRACKETT.

Wharton, Silas, pioneer nurseryman and pomologist,
was born in 1775 in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. He
removed to Waynesville, Ohio, about 1820 and was a
celebrated pioneer nurseryman of that state. He grew
Morello, May Duke and Carnation cherries, Red June,
Summer Pearmain, Trenton Early, Summer Rose, Eng-
lish Hagloe, Ribston, Golden Pippin, Pennock and many
other well-known apples. The Miami Valley and the
neighborhood about Dayton, Ohio, are more indebted to
Silas Wharton for intelligent fruit-growing at an early
day, than perhaps to any other man. He was a warm
friend of Coxe, the pioneer pomologist and author, and
doubtless Coxe secured much valuable data from him
for his book, "A View of American Fruits." Silas
Wharton died in 1858. Q. g. BRACKETT.

White, William Nathaniel, teacher, horticulturist
and editor, was born in Stamford, Connecticut, Novem-

HORTICULTURISTS

HOSACKIA

1603

her 28, 1819, and died in Athens, Georgia, July 14, 1867.
He was a graduate of Hamilton College, New York, a
teacher in Atlanta, Georgia, and upon removing to
Athens, he became one of the most prominent horti-
culturists of the South. He was a contributor to many
agricultural and horticultural periodicals, both North
and South, and before and during the time of the Civil
War, he was owner and editor of the "Southern Culti-
vator." He was also author of "Gardening for the
South," which book was published in 1856; after his
death two more editions were published, one in 1867,
and the last in 1901. His useful life was spent in the
upbuilding of southern horticulture -and agriculture.
For a more detailed account see "Cyclopedia of
American Agriculture," Vol. IV, p. 625.

T. H. McHATTON.

Wilder, Marshall Pinckney (Fig. 1907), distinguished
amateur pomologist and patron of horticulture, was
born at Rindge, New Hampshire, September 22, 1798,
and died at his home near Boston, December 16, 1886.
His inherited love of country Me soon showed itself,
and at the age of sixteen he chose farm work in prefer-
ence to a college course. At twenty-seven he moved to
Boston, where he was long known as a prosperous
merchant and president of many societies and institu-
tions. His active interest in horticulture may be dated
from 1832, when he
purchased a subur-
ban home at Dor-
chester, where he
lived for more than
half a century. His
pear orchard at one
time contained
2,500 trees, repre-
senting 800 varie-
ties. During his life
he tested 1,200
kinds of pears and
in 1873 he exhibited
404 varieties. He
produced several
new pears. In 1844
he introduced the
Anjou. He im-
ported many fruits
and flowers new to
America, and from
1833 to the end of-
his life he was con-
stantly contributing to the society exhibitions the prod-
ucts of his garden. He carried a camel's-hair brush in
his pocket and was always hybridizing plants.

He delighted in floriculture, and his camellia collec-
tion, comprising at one time 300 varieties, was the best
in America. He raised many new kinds of camellias,
though he lost 500 seedlings by fire. His Camellia
Wilderi he sold to florists for $1,000. He also had a
notable collection of azaleas. As early as 1834 he pro-
duced a double California poppy. Among the many
floral novelties which he was first to import, cultivate
or exhibit in America were Diervilla rosea (1851),
hardy kinds of Azalea mollis (1874), Cissus discolor
(1854), "the harbinger of the infinite variety of orna-
mental-leaved plants now so generally cultivated and
admired," Clematis cserulea var. grandiflora (1841),
Lilium landfolium var. album, the first of Japanese
lilies, Gladiolus floribundus (1836). and Onddium
flexuosum (1837), a plant of which bore ninety-seven
fully expanded flowers and was the first orchid reported
at any American exhibition. The Marshall P. Wilder
rose makes his name familiar to a later generation.

Wilder's greatest services to horticulture were con-
nected with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society
and the American Pomological Society. Of the former
he was a member for fifty-six years, and president from

1907. Marshall P. Wilder.

1841 to 1848. He was one of the founders of the Ameri-
can Pomological Society, and with the exception of a
single term was its president from its organization in
1850 until his death in 1886. He is counted one of the
founders of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture
and of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and
of the United States Agricultural Society (1852). He
was president of the last from its foundation until
1857, and from 1868 until his death he was president
of the New England Historic Genealogical Society. At
twenty-six he was a colonel, and in 1858, after declin-
ing the nomination four times, he was elected com-
mander of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Com-
pany. He was a trustee of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology.

In 1883 Marshall P. Wilder urged upon the American
Pomological Society the necessity of a reform in the
nomenclature of fruits. He took an active part in the
great work that followed.

In the early days when the conflicting interests of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and the Mount
Auburn Cemetery required separation, he was an
important factor in solving the complicated and deli-
cate problem. The settlement of this difficulty laid the
foundations of the wealth of the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society.

At his death he left the American Pomological Society
$1,000 for Wilder Medals for objects of special merit
and $4,000 for general purposes. He left the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society $1,000, to encourage the
production of new American varieties of pears and
grapes. WILHELM MILLER.

Woolverton, Charles Edward, pomologist, and
nurseryman, was born in Grimsby, Ontario, August
22, 1820. He was the youngest son of Dennis Wool-
verton, of New Jersey, who settled on a farm of 400
acres on the south side of Lake Ontario, in the Niagara
district in 1798. Here Charles became accustomed to
every department of work both in farm and orchard.
He was educated at Madison (now Colgate) University,
and in 1846 settled upon a portion of the old home-
stead. In 1856, in company with A. M. Smith, he
devoted a considerable portion of his farm to nursery
and orchard, in which business he was quite successful,
distributing fruits and fruit trees throughout a consid-
erable portion of Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia. At
Grimsby, he planted the first large commercial orchard
of peach trees and proved the adaptability of the soil
and climate of the Niagara district for the production
of peaches and sweet cherries. In company with
Messrs. Beadle, Smith, Arnold, Judge Logic and
several others, Mr. Woolverton was instrumental in
the formation of the Fruit-Growers' Association of
Ontario, which afterward reached a membership of
over 5,000, and was the chief agent in the encourage-
ment and development of horticulture in southern
Ontario. He died in August, 1900.

LINUS WOOLVERTON.

HOSACKIA (David Hosack, professor of botany and
medicine in New York; author of "Hortus Elginensi,"
1811; died 1835). Leguminosse. Herbaceous plants,
three of which have been advertised by collectors of
northwest American plants.

The genus contains about 40^50 species> all American
and mostly confined to the Pacific slope : herbs or rarely
subshrubs: Ivs. pinnate, with 2 to many Ifts. : stipules
minute and gland-like, rarely scarious or leafy: fls.
yellow or reddish, in axillary umbels which are pedun-
cled or not. — The genus is closely related to Lotus, with
which some authors unite it, but the calyx-teeth are
shorter than the tube: keel obtuse: Ivs. usually with
numerous Ifts., none of which is like stipules, while
Lotus has calyx-lobes usually longer than the tube, a
rostrate keel and 5 or 4 Ifts., of which 2 or 1 are stipule-
like. The two species first mentioned belong to a sec-

1604

HOSACKIA

HOSTA

tion in which the pods are shortly acute, linear, many-
seeded, straight, glabrous: fls. and fr. not reflexed:
peduncles long. The third species belongs to a section
in which the pods are long-attenuate upward, incurved,
pubescent: peduncles short or none: fls. and fr. reflexed.
See Lotus.

crassif olia, Benth.
(Lotus crassifolius,
Greene). Stout, 2-3
ft. high, nearly
glabrous: Ifts. 9-15,
thickish : stipules
scarious, small:
bract below the
umbel: calyx-teeth
short: pod thick:
fls. greenish yellow
or purplish. Dry
places in mountainous country, Calif.
B.R. 1977 (as H. stolonifera) .

tricolor, Douglas (Lbtus pinnatus,
Hook.). Glabrous: Ifts. 5-9: stipules
scarious, small: bract usually none or
small: calyx-teeth half as long as the
tube: pod slender: fls. yellow, the wings
often white. Cent. Calif, to Wash.
B.R. 1257. B.M. 2913.

decumbens, Benth. (Lotus Douglasii,
Greene). Silky or woolly, with ap-
pressed hairs: sts. ascending, 1 ft. or
more long, herbaceous: Ifts. 5-7: um-
bels less dense: stipules glandlike: pods
pubescent. N. Calif, to Wash.

WILHELM MILLER.

HOSTA (personal name). Funkia of
Sprengel, sometimes spelled Funckia.
The Funckia of Willdenow is Astelia.
Lilidcese. DAY LILY. PLAINTAIN LILY.
Hardy perennials of China and Japan,
much planted for their masses of root-
leaves and for their white and bluish
flowers; the funkias of garden litera-
ture. Sometimes spelled Hostia.

Herbs, forming stools or clumps : Ivs.
petiolate, ovate or lance-ovate, promi-
nently several - ribbed, those on the
flowering sts. smaller and becoming bract-like: fls. in
terminal racemes or spikes, white or blue; perianth
funnelform, 6-parted and more or less irregular, the
lobes not widely spreading; stamens 6, the filaments
filiform, the anthers long-oblong and versatile: pod
oblong and angled, many-seeded, splitting into 3
valves; seeds flat and black, winged at the apex. —
Species about 10. In cult., the synonymy seems to be
much confused.

The hostas are hardy and of the easiest culture. Their
dense stools or clumps of foliage are in place along
walks or drives and in the angles against buildings. A
continuous row along a walk gives a strong.and pleasing
character. Make the soil rich and deep. The clumps
improve with age. The large-leaved kinds grow vigor-
ously in moist, shady places. Of some varieties the
leaves are strikingly variegated. They bloom in sum-
mer. Foliage is killed by frost. Propagation is by
dividing the clumps; some species produce seeds
freely, and seedlings can be grown readily if seed is
sown as soon as ripe.

A. Fls. white, ascending; fl.-bract very large, with a
smaller one inside.

plantaginea, Aschers. (Hemerocallis plantaginea, Lam.
H. alba, Andr. Funkia subcordata, Spreng. F. alba,
Sweet. F. liliifldra, Hort. F.japonica, Hort., at least
of some. F. cordata, Hort., not Sieb.). Fig. 1908.
Lvs. large, broadly cordate-ovate, with a short, sharp

point, green, many -ribbed: fls. large, 4-^6 in. long,
with an open bell-shaped perianth, waxy white, the base
of the tube surrounded by a broad bract; spike short,
the bracts very prominent .—The commonest species in
old yards, and an excellent plant. The fls. have an
orange-like odor. Clumps of foliage grow 12-20 in.
high. B.M. 1433 (as Hemerocallis japonica). Gng.
9:97.

Var. grandifldra, Hort. (F. grandiflora, Sieb. &
Zucc.), has very long and large fls. G.C. III. 4:153.
G. 5:503; 23:591. H. macrdntha, Hort., probably
belongs here.

AA. Fls. blue or lilac, more or less inclined or
nodding; bract 1.
B. Lvs. glaucous.

Sieboldiana, Engler (Funkia Sieboldiana, Hook. F .
Sieboldii, Lindl. F. glauca, Hort. F. sinensis, Sieb. F.
cuculldta, Hort. F. glaucescens. Hort. F. cordata,
Sieb.). Differs from the last in the metallic blue color
of the less cordate Ivs., in the inclined bluish or pale-
tinged, more slender-tubed and smaller fls. (which do
not rise above the foliage), and in having only 1 small
bract at the base of the fl. B.M. 3663. B.R.
25:50. L.B.C. 19:1869 (as Hemerocallis
Sieboldtiana). G. 10:387; 13:3. G.C. III.
38 : 94. There is a form with the body of the If.
yellowish white and the edge green. Lowe, 34.
— Lf.-blade and petiole each 1 ft. long, the
| foliage therefore overtopping the fls. F. Sie-
boldii elatior and F. sinensis mar-
morata, are offered abroad. The lt\

plant usually cult, as Funkia Sie- /• far

boldiana is probably the following 'V/

1908.

Hosta planta-
ginea.

species.

F6rtunei (Funkia Fortunei, Baker. Hdsta
Sieboldiana, var. Fortunei, Voss). Plant
differs from H. Sieboldiana in having smaller
Ivs. and the racemes much overtopping
the foliage, as in other hostas: petiole
2-3 in. long; blade cordate-ovate, 4-5
in. long: raceme Kft. long on a st. or
scape 1 ft. long; fls. pale lilac, funnel-
shape, \Yi in. long, the segms. lanceo-
late and ascending and half as long as
the tube. — Excellent. Generally cult,
as Funkia Sieboldiana, and many of
the pictures of that name,
probably belong here, as,
apparently, Gh. 38, p. 79;
A.G. 11:157; A.F. 6:322.
It is probable that the gar-
den synonyms cited under
H. Sieboldiana are usually
applied to plants of H.
Fortunei. A var. gigantea is
offered, with Ivs. and fls.
much larger than in the
type. Vars. robusta, and
argenteo-variegata, are also
listed abroad.

BB. Lvs. green.

caerftlea, Tratt. (Funkia
cserulea, Sweet. F. ovata,
Spreng. F . lanceolata, Sieb.).
Figs. 1909, 1910. Lvs. broad-
ovate, 5-10 in. long and
half as wide, usually taper-
ing to the petiole, but some-
times subcordate : raceme
long and lax; fl. with a
short, slender tube and sud-
denly expanding into a bell-
shape, lJ^-2 in. long, nod-
ding, deep blue. B.M. 894

HOSTA

HOTBEDS

1605

(as HemerocalliS cxrulea.) Mn. 1, p. 73. — The common-
est blue-fld. species. Funkia marginata, Sieb., is a
form with white-bordered Ivs. There is also a yellow-
variegated form.

lancifolia, Tratt. (Funkia lancifolia, Spreng. F.
japonica, Hort., of some). Lvs. lanceolate to narrowly
ovate-lanceolate, the blade 6 in. or less long and 2 in.
or less wide: raceme lax, 6-10-fld., on a tall, slender st.;
fls. 1 1/2 m- or less long, the tube slender and gradually
enlarging upward, pale lilac. Var. albo-marginata,
Hort. (Funkia albo-marginata, Hook., B.M. 3657),

1910. Hosta caerulea.

has the Ivs. edged white. Var. tardifldra (Funkia
tardifldra, Hort.), blooms in late autumn: Ivs. firmer and
shorter petioled. Gn. 64, p. 297. Var. undulata
(Funkia undulata, Otto & Dietr. F. lancifolia var.
undulata, Bailey) is a form with undulate white-mar-
gined Ivs. There is a form with 1-striped Ivs., var.
univittata, Hort. Graceful. Fls. smaller than those of
H. caerulea. H. longipes (Funkia Idngipes, Franch. &
Sav.) is closely allied, but has broader If .-blades decur-
rent on the petiole.

H. Adki, with "large glaucous-green Ivs." is advertised. It has
been offered in this country from European sources, and is said to
be apparently identical with Hosta Sieboldiana, except in time of
blooming. — H. aurea, Hort., variegated forms of various species. —
H. eldta, Hort., "bears tall scapes of pale blue fls." — H. gigantda,
Hort., has "long spikes of blue fls." — H. variegAta, Hort.=yariega-
ted forms of various species, usually of H. caerulea or H. lancifolia. —
H. viridis-marginata, Hort., is probably a form of H. cserulea.

L. H. B.

HOTBEDS. Low glass structures in which plants
are started or grown, usually heated by fermenting
vegetable substances, such as stable-manure, although
fire heat is occasionally applied, steam, hot water and
flues being used. Their usual place is some spot sloping
to the south, where they are protected by buildings,
evergreen screens or board fences, from the north and
west winds (Fig. 1911). The frames are made either of
plank or boards and may be portable, or built in place,
the former being taken down and packed away except
when needed. A tight board fence 6 feet high, as a
windbreak, is desirable, as it will also serve as a sup-
port for the" shutters, mats and sash when they are
removed from the bed, and it will answer best for this
purpose if it inclines a foot or so to the north.

When movable frames (Fig. 1912) are used, they are
generally constructed of 2-inch plank, the side pieces
being from 9 to 12 feet and the ends 6 feet in length, to
receive either three or four ordinary sash, which are
3 by 6 feet. The north side of the frame is made 15
inches wide, while the south side is but 9 or 10 inches,

thus giving a slope to the south, which will permit the
water to run off and favor the passage of the sun's rays
through the glass. The end pieces are 6 feet in length, and
in width taper from 15 inches at one end to 9 or 10 at the
other, so as to fit the side boards. The plank for por-
table hotbed frames may be held in place by means of
stakes, or iron rods or bolts may be fastened to the
ends of the side pieces so that they can pass through the
holes in the ends of the frame, which can then be
secured by keys or nuts. As supports for the sash and to
hold the sides of the frame in place, cross-strips of
board 3 inches wide are sunk into the upper edge every
3 feet, and another strip with a width equal to the thick-
ness of the sash is fastened on edge to the center of
its side. Frames of this size require a slightly deeper
mass of heating material than would be necessary for
larger frames, and when they are to be used during the
winter, it is well to excavate to the depth of 2J^ feet
and for a space 2 feet longer and wider than the frame,
and after the hole has been filled with heating material,
the material should be well tramped down. The frame
is then put in place and manure is banked about it.

For permanent frames, rough 1-inch boards may be
used, although 2-inch plank will be found far more
durable. Stout stakes should be driven into the ground
about 4 feet apart, where the north line of the bed is to
be located. These should project above the surface
from 12 to 15 inches, and should be boarded up from a
point just below the level of the ground, so that the
stakes will be on the north side of the frame. A second
row of stakes should then be driven at a distance from
the first row equal to the length of the sash, which is
usually 6 feet, although other lengths are sometimes
used. The south wall of the frame should then be
boarded up so that it will be 5 or 6 inches lower than
the north wall, after which the end should be closed
and cross-pieces should be fitted, the same as for the
portable sash. To prevent frost from working into the
frame, soil should be taken from the inside and banked
against the boards outside, so that it will reach two-
thirds of the way to the top of the frame, and when the
bed is ready for use, 3 or 4 inches of horse-manure
should be spread over this. The frame should be
placed about 3 feet from the fence, and if other rows
are needed, there should be alleys about 7 feet wide
between them.

Instead of boards or planks, concrete may be used
for the walls of permanent frames. Forms should be
set so that the lower part of the wall will be 4 inches
thick but it may be only 2J^> or 3 inches on the top.
The excavation for the wall should extend about 1 foot
below the surface and to prevent the settling of the
concrete walls, when the excavation for the bed itself

1911. Hotbed sheltered by a hedge. The straw mats
have been rolled off

1606

HOTBEDS

HOTBEDS

1912. Hotbed with movable frame.

is made, concrete piers about 6 inches square should be
built every 6 feet for the wall to rest upon. They should
extend nearly 2 feet below the wall. The walls of the
excavation will serve as a form for the piers and if care
is taken in making the excavation for the wall itself,
there will be no need of making a form for the outside of

the walls below
the surface, but
plank should be
set up for the in-
side of the walls,
and for both sides
of the wall above
the surface. For
making the grout,
use four parts of gravel, two parts of sharp sand and one
part of cement. Mix the sand and gravel and then
after adding and thoroughly mixing the cement, pour
on water enough to make a "wet mix." Pour the grout
into the form, thoroughly packing it, and then allow the
form to remain until it has set.

Hotbed sash.

The size that has been found most satisfactory for
hotbed sash is 3 by 6 feet, as when larger than this they
are not readily handled by one man. While pine and
other native lumber may be used, cypress is generally
perf erred, as it is much more durable and costs but little
if any more than clear pine. The sides and upper ends
of the sash are made from 3 by 1 J^-inch strips, grooved
to receive the glass, while the lower end is about 1 by
5 inches. The center strips are 1 by 1^ inches. For
glazing hotbed sash, single-strength 10 by 12 glass is
commonly used, as three rows of this size will fill a sash
3 feet wide. While double-strength glass will be less
easily broken, the increased weight is an objection to
its use. The use of double-glazed sash is often advised,
but aside from the extra cost, it will be found that the
sash will be heavy to handle and, if used near where
soft coal is burned, the bottom rows of glass will soon
become nearly opaque and it will be necessary to re-
glaze the sash in order to wash the glass. Where there
will be no trouble from soot and the sash is to be used
for the covering of half-hardy plants in the winter,
double-glazed sash may be used with satisfaction.
The sash should receive two coats of paint, and after
the glass, which may be either lapped or butted, has
been set, it should be given a third coat.

Mats and shutters.

For covering the frames on cold nights during the
winter and early spring months, straw mats are often
used, although those made of burlap are generally pre-
ferred. The burlap may be either single or doubled,
or it may be stuffed with straw, excelsior or other
materials. Quilted mats filled with combination wool
are very warm and quite durable. During the winter,
wooden shutters are also desirable to place over the
mats, as they assist in holding the heat, and by keeping
the mats dry, aid in preserving them.

Heating material for hotbeds.

To provide heat for the beds decomposing horse-
manure is generally used. While a large amount of
straw is not desirable, the presence of urine-soaked
bedding with the manure to the extent of one-third
its bulk is not objectionable, as it will lengthen the
heating period of the manure. Unless straw is mixed
with the manure, it will be well to add forest leaves to
the amount of one-third to one-half the amount of the
manure. The heating material should be forked over
and placed in a pile 5 to 6 feet wide, 3 to 4 feet high and
of any desired length. If the manure and straw are dry,
it will be well to moisten them with a fine spray. In
case there is but a small amount of manure, it will be
best to use warm water, though in all cases the soak-

ing of the manure should be avoided. Within four or
five days the giving off of steam will indicate that heat-
ing has commenced. The pile should then be forked
over, working the outer portions into the center.

The amount of heating material that will be required
for a hotbed will vary with the crop, as well as with the
location and season. For zero weather, there should be
at least 18 inches of heating material after it has been
well packed down, and 24 inches will be desirable in
midwinter in the northern states, while 6 to 8 inches
may answer where only a few degrees of frost are
expected. For 18 inches of manure, the excavation
should be made to a depth of 28 inches below the level
of the south side of the frame, and 31 inches below that
of the north side. After the manure has warmed
through for the second time it should be placed in the
excavation, spreading it evenly and packing it down
with the fork, but leaving it for a few days before
tramping it. Care should be taken to have the corners
well filled, that an even settling may be secured. After
the manure has again warmed up, it should be thor-
oughly tramped.

The bed is then ready for the soil, which should be
quite rich and contain a large amount of sand and
humus, a compost of decomposed pasture sods with one-
third their bulk of rotten manure being excellent for the
purpose. The thickness of the soil should vary from 5

1913. Hotbed in cross-section.

to 7 inches, the greater depth being desirable for
radishes and other root crops (Fig. 1913). When boxes
of plants are to be placed in the beds, the depth of soil
need not be more than 3 inches. For a few days the bed
will be quite warm, but when the temperature of the
soil has dropped below 90° the seeds may be sown or
the plants set out.

In severe weather the mats and shutters should be
placed on the bed at night and should be removed in the
morning. When the sun is shining, or if the bed is very
hot, it should be ventilated by raising (Fig. 1914)
or slipping down (Fig. 1912) the sash, the amount
depending upon the season and the condition of the
bed. By the middle of the afternoon the sash should be
closed and the covering should be replaced before night.
When used in the winter time, the hotbed should be
either sunk in the ground or well banked up with soil
or manure, so as to keep out the frost.

Fire-heated hotbeds.

Especially if the beds are to be used during the win-
ter months, and where there is an abundance of wood

for fuel, it is advisable
to use artificial heat for
hotbeds. The simplest
and cheapest method of
heating is by means of
hot-air flues. These do
not differ materially
from greenhouse flues
except that they run
underground and 6-inch
sewer-pipe is used for
them. The best results
are obtained when the
beds are built on the
?lope of a hillside> as this

1914. Ventilating the hotbed. improves the draft. A

HOTBEDS

HOTTONIA

1607

small furnace or firebox is constructed of brick or
concrete at the lower end of the frames from which one
or more lines of hotbeds may be heated. As a rule, it is
not best to heat more than two rows of frames from a
furnace.

The flues are placed so that they will be 10 or 12
inches below the surface of the soil in the frames and
they should rise gradually toward the farther end,
where they should be connected with a pipe which
will serve as a chimney. The height should vary from
6 to 10 feet, according to the length of the frames.
For use in the winter, there should be two flues in a
frame 12 feet wide.

When the hotbeds are located near a greenhouse
heated by steam or hot water, it will be found satis-
factory, particularly if the beds are higher than the
heating plant, to put in either hot-water or steam pipes
for heating them. While beds 6 feet in width may be
heated in this way, it is better to make them about 12
feet wide, with a ridge in the center and a row of hot-
bed sash on each side. To heat such a frame with hot
water, a 2J^-inch flow-pipe should be run just under
the ridge and there should be one or two 2-inch returns
on each of the side walls. For use in the spring, one
return on a side would answer, but in the winter months
two will be necessary in sections where the mercury
reaches zero, unless the beds are covered to prevent
the escape of the heat. When steam is used, the feed-
pipe should be \Y^- or 2-inch and IJ^-inch pipe should
be used for the returns.

In the northern states, it is seldom desirable to use
hotbeds of any kind for the growing of winter crops,
as not only can better results be secured in greenhouses,
for which the cost will be but little more, but the work
of handling the hotbeds in cold, stormy weather will
be very disagreeable and unsatisfactory. In the South,
however, hotbeds answer very well for winter use, both
for growing plants for the truck-garden and for the
forcing of various vegetable crops, although even there
the simply constructed greenhouses would be more
satisfactory.

Coldframes.

As an adjunct to the greenhouse when one is grow-
ing truck-crops, or bedding-plants, a coldframe will be
found very helpful. These differ from hotbeds only
in relying upon the sun for their heat. The surface of
the soil should be from 6 to 12 inches below the glass.

If plants are to be
grown in the soil of
a frame, care should
be taken that it is
adapted to the crop
and that it is well
stored with avail-
able plant-food. In
many cases the
frames are merely
used for the harden-
ing of plants which have been grown in the greenhouse,
or for the carrying of half-hardy plants through the
winter. For these purposes the soil in the frames should
be of a sandy or porous nature.

Glass sash should be used for covering the frames in
the winter but, in the spring, canvas and other substi-
tutes answer very well, particularly when the frames are
to be used for the growing of seedlings. A long strip
of canyas may be stretched lengthwise of the bed as a
covering at night and upon cold days, and removed in
whole or in part in pleasant weather. Oiled paper and
water-proofed muslin are also used as substitutes for
glass in hotbed sash.

Management of hotbeds.

If the weather is mild during the latter part of
February, the manure can be procured arid prepared

1915. Fire hotbed.

for use so that the hotbed may be started about the
first of March. If properly constructed they will pro-
vide heat for two months, and can then be used during
May as coldframes, thus making it possible to take off
two crops in the spring. Although it is not often prac-
tised, they may be used in the fall for growing a crop
of lettuce or other vegetables, which can be matured
before the first of December.

r^S^-T-

cn Q

1916. Hotbed or forcing-house heated by hot water.

If a greenhouse is not available for starting the plants,
seeds of lettuce, radishes, cabbages and other of the
hardier plants may be sown in the hotbed in the spring
as soon as it is ready, in rows 4 or 5 inches apart.
When the first true leaf appears, the radishes should be
thinned and the other plants transplanted to about 2
inches. Later on, the lettuce plants should be placed
about 8 inches apart each way. If the weather is so
cold that the bed should not be kept open, the seeds
may be sown and the first transplanting may be in
flats or boxes, which can then be placed in the beds.
Aside from proper ventilation, covering and watering,
the beds should occasionally be weeded and the soil
stirred. About the first of April, tomatoes, cucumbers
and similar plants may be started. As soon as one crop
is taken off another should be placed in the beds, and
by deepening the soil they may be used during the early
summer for growing cauliflower, tomatoes and cucum-
bers- L. R. TAFT.

HOTEIA: Astilbe.

HOTTONIA (Peter Hotton, 1648-1709, professor at
Leyden). Primulacese. FEATHERFOIL. Two species of
water plants, perennial, not very ornamental, but suit-
able for small aquaria.

Plants rooting or floating, the sts. spongy and air-
bearing, the peduncles hollow and erect : Ivs. submersed
and dissected, passing into entire narrow whorled
bracts: fls. white or purplish, whorled and racemose,
emersed; corolla salverform, with 5-parted limb; ovary
free: fr. a globular more or less 5-valved many-seeded
caps. — The European species is procurable from
dealers in aquatics; the American can be gathered in
shallow, stagnant ponds from Mass, to W. N. Y. and
south to Fla. and La.

palustris, Linn., the European plant, is an herb with
creeping rootstock, whorled leafy branches entirely
submerged and alternate, pinnately dissected Ivs., the
divisions numerous and linear. From the center of the
whorl of branches a single leafless fl.-st. rises out of the
water in summer, bearing a raceme with several whorls
of 3-5 or 6 handsome pale purple fls., apparently with

1608

HOTTONIA

HOUSE PLANTS

5 petals, but actually with a short corolla-tube below
the lobes; stamens 5, inserted on the tube of the corolla:
caps, subglobose, with 5 lateral valves; seeds numer-
ous.— The plants root in the mud or float, and the fls.
are about %in. diam.

inflata, Ell., the American plant, has spongy sts. and
clustered peduncles, which are partly above water,
inflated, jointed, the lowest joint 2-4 in. long and some-
times 1 in. thick, the others 1-3 in number and suc-
cessively shorter: fls. white in whorls of 2-10 at the
joints. B.B. 2:586. — Neither species is advertised.
Like all aquarium plants, they are interesting, but they
have no horticultural value otherwise. Both plants are
called featherfoil and water -violet; the American
also water-feather and water-yarrow. The European
species has dimorphic fls., after the manner of Primula.
The earlier fls. in the American species are cleistoga-
mous- L. H. B.

HOULLETIA (after Houllet, French gardener).
Orchidaceas. Epiphytic, pseudobulbous orchids, allied
to Stanhopea, and blooming in summer.

Pseudobulbs conical, 1-lvd.: Ivs. lanceolate, plicate:
sepals and petals usually nearly equal; labellum con-
tinuous with the clavate, arcuate column; pollinia 2,
on a long caudicle. — About 8 species from S. Amer.

odoratissima, Lind. Sepals and petals reddish
brown; labellum white, with 2 crimson appendages
midway of its length. Colombia. G.C. II. 24:777.
C.O. 1. Var. antioquensis, Andre (H. antioquensis,
Hort.), has labellum white, tinged yellow. I.H. 17:12.

Brocklehurstiana, Lindl. Fls. 5-8, about 3 in. across,
brownish red, dotted with brown-purple; sepals oblong,
obtuse, the lateral ones slightly united at base; petals
narrower, obovate; labellum yellow, thickly dotted with
brown-purple; from its lower half 2 linear appendages
have their origin. Brazil. B.M. 4072. P.M. 9:49.
R.H. 1885:492.

picta, Lind. & Reichb. f. Fls. 6-10; sepals oblong,
brownish, unspotted above, tessellated with yellow
below; petals similarly colored; labellum yellow, spotted
or dotted with brown-purple or red-purple, the end has-
tate; apex recurved, pale yellow veined with crimson.
Colombia. B.M. 6305.

Wallisii, Lind. & Reichb. f. (H. chrysdntha, Lind.

6 Andre1). Fls. about 2 in. across; sepals and petals
yellow, blotched inside with brown-purple; labellum
yellow, dotted with crimson. Colombia. G.C. II.
18:437; 111.50:177. G.M. 54:661. J.H. III. 63:315.
I.H. 18:71.

H. Sdnderi, Rolfe. Raceme 2-3-fld.; fls. large, pale yellow;
sepals about 1M in. long, the dorsal elliptic, the lateral broadly
ovate; petals broader, nearly orbicular, about as long as sepals.
Peru. B.M. 8346. OAKES AMES.

GEORGE V. NAsn.f

HOUSE PLANTS (Figs. 1917-1919) are those plants
that can be grown in the ordinary rooms of dwelling-
houses. They may be hardy or tender; only such as are
suitable for this purpose will be considered here.

In the living-rooms of the modern well-built house,
plants must contend against difficulties which did not
exist in the less carefully equipped dwellings of fifty
years ago or earlier. The present methods of heating
and lighting, by gas or kerosene lamps, not electricity,
produce a dry atmosphere which is inimical to vegetable
growth. In nouses lighted by electricity, and heated by
any system which introduces fresh air in abundance,
the hindrance is not so troublesome. Too much heat
and dry air are harder for plants to endure than insuf-
ficient light, but it is also lack of light which makes it
difficult to grow flowering plants in houses. Dust and
insects do harm, but can be checked.

For the above reasons it is important to choose
house plants which are adapted to resist a dry atmos-
phere, a high temperature and inadequate light. Such

examples can be found among certain tropical plants
with coriaceous leaves and small stomata, what the
florists call foliage plants, e. g., rubber trees, palms,
and the like. These make the best foundation upon
which any successful system of growing plants in houses
can be built. Flowering plants can also be used, but
they should be introduced from time to time, each in
its proper season, when about to bloom or in bloom,

1917. Pot-plants in the window.

and not considered a part of the permanent arrange-
ment. After flowering they should be removed: their
function is not unlike the use of cut-flowers, but they
last longer and are not more expensive, while they
largely increase the attraction of the window-garden.

The best rooms for plants are those which get the
most sun, and the best positions are those nearest the
windows, where there is not only more light but more
fresh air. A large palm, fern or rubber will grow in an
entry or poorly lighted corner, but the best place is that
which is best lighted. Plants do well in a kitchen, the
moisture from the cooking helping them materially; it
is by no means a bad hospital for unhealthy specimens.

A conservatory is desirable but not always obtain-
able on account of the expense; it should agree with the
architecture of the house and have the proper aspect.
The construction should be durable, the walls and roof
low and, a point often neglected, great attention should
be paid to ventilation. This should be given not only
in the roof, the very apex when possible, but also on
the sides at the bottom. The trouble comes in early
autumn when the plants are first potted up and again
when the sun begins to be hotter in February, March
and April. Fresh air should be given all winter on
bright days, but it is particularly needed at the times
named above. Shade is also advisable on warm sunny
days and a system of screens either inside or out can be
devised. The florists' method of painting the glass is
good but unsightly. When a regular conservatory is
unobtainable, a plantroom can sometimes be made which
is most satisfactory and at comparatively small cost.
It is often possible to utilize a part of the basement
for such purpose. A southeast or south exposure is
best, but if it faces southwest or even west no trouble
follows. Such a room should be well furnished with
windows which open both at top and bottom. The
floor should be of concrete or porous tile and the walls
covered with material which is unharmed by water;

HOUSE PLANTS

HOUSE PLANTS

1609

good drainage should be provided. Such a room is not
only capable of keeping plants in good condition but
can also be used for starting seedlings and cuttings.
The temperature can be kept well above freezing and
under 50° F. sometimes without extra fire heat when
such a room opens into a heated cellar. It can be used
not only for growing plants but also as a storeroom from
which plants can be taken for decorating the living-
rooms; there is no better place for all bulbous plants
from the time they are taken out of the frame until
they show flower-buds well developed.

In rooms in which plants are kept, any device by
which the atmospheric moisture can be increased is
desirable: oilcloth on the floor, or a floor of porous tiles;
a zinc tray, in which the pots can be set and surrounded
with moss; saucers under the pots, the pots being raised
slightly to prevent the roots of the plants standing in
the water which runs through. By these aids not only
can plenty of water be given to the roots, but there will
also be some opportunity to sprinkle the leaves, while
the evaporation of surplus water will dampen the air.
The Japanese porcelain pots are not only ornamental
but useful; the glaze prevents undue evaporation from
the sides, and the legs hold the pot well above the water
which may collect in the saucer: they are in every way
excellent. Wooden tubs are serviceable for large plants
or for any which are likely to be exposed to frost, either
before or after bringing into the house. Plants should
never be overpotted, but the larger the bulk of earth the
easier it can be kept uniformly moist; from the wider
surface, too, there is more evaporation. For these rea-
sons it is sometimes a good plan to have window-boxes
in which several plants can be grown; or the boxes can
be filled with moss in which the pots can be plunged.
All pots, tubs or boxes for growing plants should have
holes in the bottom through which water can pass freely.

Much trouble is likely to come from the use of unsuit-
able potting soil. Procure it from an experienced florist,
or make it yourself of equal parts rotted sods, old leaf-
mold, well-decayed cow-manure and clean, sharp sand:
discard tea leaves, chip dirt, and the decomposed
remains of dead stumps. The soil should always be
moist when used, not too wet and never dry : it should be
made firm, not hard, and a good space left between the
surface and rim. Large pots should be drained with
potsherds and moss. The best time for potting is just
before the plant begins to grow; the next best is just
before growth ceases, thus giving the plant opportunity
to establish itself in its new quarters before it stops
growing. It is not always easy to do this properly at
home, and large and valuable plants should be sent to a
florist. Plants growing in the open air should be lifted
and potted two weeks or more before bringing into the
house, not only before frost but before the nights are
cool. Keep them at first in a shady place, gradually
accustom them to the sunlight, and carefully avoid
all drafts. Do not give too much water at the root:
some wilting is unavoidable, and cannot be prevented
by heavy watering. Give one good application when
they are first potted, and sprinkle the foliage and sur-
roundings in the middle of the day. After they are
established, keep them out-of-doors, on the piazza or
porch, until there is danger of frost, but try to bring
them into the house before the furnace fires are lighted.

A period of rest is natural to all plants. Amateurs
often make mistakes in trying to force plants to grow
all winter in the house after a vigorous growth in the
open ground all summer. Such plants should be rested,
kept cool at first and water withheld, but never to such
an extent as to shrivel the wood. No rules can be given
for watering, the most important detail of plant-grow-
ing. Water must be given as it is required, a knowledge
to be gained from experience only. This may be once
a day or once a week, twice a day or once in two days.
The smaller the pot and the more vigorous the growth,
the oftener it will be required. In hot weather and in

dry rooms more water is needed than in cool rooms and
on damp, cloudy days. It should always be given in
sufficient quantity to pass through the hole in the
bottom of the pot: here it can remain an hour or more,
and part of it will soak up, back into the pot, but the
surplus should be taken away with a sponge, unless the
pot has legs or it is a plant like calla, English ivy, or
some ferns, which are uninjured by an over-supply.
Water given to the foliage of house plants in the form
of spray is always helpful.

Insects, dust and sometimes fungous pests are
troublesome to house plants, due largely to insufficient
watering and lack of ventilation. The best remedy is
frequent washings with warm water and a sponge for
plants with large leaves. All plants can be easily
cleaned at the kitchen sink or in the bathtub, or advan-
tage can be taken of a mild day, and the work done in
the yard with the hose. The forcible application of
water will remove most insects, but if scale appears it
must be taken off with a stiff brush. Whale-oil and
tobacco soap are too rank for house use; fir-tree oil and
Gishurst's compound are less obnoxious. They can be
used when the plants are washed with sponge or brush.
The florists' preventive against greenfly is impracti-
cable: enough tobacco smoke to harm them would not
be tolerated in living-rooms. Tobacco stems may be
burned, however, in the plantroom described above if a
well-fitted door is provided and precautions are taken
to make the ceiling air-tight. It is altogether too
dangerous to use cyanide of potassium in any form of
plant-growing in the house. The red-spider can be
driven off by spraying with an atomizer, if discovered
in time. Some plants are not attacked by insects, but
are injured by dust, e.g., the rubber-tree. Dusting
when dry is better than nothing, but washing is best.
If fungous diseases appear, the plants should be isolated,
giving a chance to recover, or be thrown away.

Ventilation is an important factor in keeping house
plants in good condition. Open the windows on bright
days: the fresh air is moist and therefore grateful, and
will do no harm, even if the plants are near the glass,
so long as the sun shines and discretion is exercised.

1918. A window-garden.

1610

HOUSE PLANTS

HOUSTONIA

The night temperature need never exceed 50° F., and
a drop of 5° or even 10° is not likely to do any harm.
Precautions must be taken to exclude frost; the blinds
must be shut and the curtains pulled down on cold
nights. A layer of newspapers between the plants and
the windows is a protection in extremely bad weather,
or a large kerosene lamp can be allowed to burn all
night near the plants.

A list of suitable foliage plants for the house: Ficus
elaslica, the rubber plant; F. religiosa (peepul tree)
and most of the other strong-growing evergreen species.
Livistona sinensis, Corypha australis, Chamserops
Fortunei and Rhapis japonica, all good fan-palms (the
first is the best); Phoenix reclinata, P. rupicola and P.
canariensis are the best date-palms. Seaforthia elegans,
Howea Belmoreana, Kentia Forsteriana, Areca Baueri,
A. rubra and Cocos Weddeliana are all good palms, but
require more care and heat than "the fan- and date-
palms. Cycas revoluta (sago-palm), Curculigo recur-
vata, Aspidistra lurida, Pandanus utilis (screw pine), P.
Veitchii, Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), Cyperus
alternifolius, Papyrus antiquorum, Cordyline, Dracaena,
Agave americana (century plant), Pittosporum, Gre-
villea robusta, English ivy, wandering jew and some
species of cactus all do well in ordinary rooms. Daphne
odora, laurestinus, Olea fragrans and orange trees are
both flowering and foliage plants, but require a cooler
room than any of the preceding varieties.

Good flowering plants are Azalea indica and Camellia
japonica, both of which should be kept in a cool room
when not in bloom. Calla and begonia both do well.
Chrysanthemums, cinerarias, gloxinias, gladioli, cycla-
mens, Chinese and English primroses, freesia, oxalis,

fuchsia, mahernia, euphorbia, heliotrope, pelargonium
and lily-of-the-valley can be brought into the rooms
when in flower, and last a reasonable time in good
condition. Hyacinths, tulips, narcissi and crocus, if
potted in October, kept covered up out-of-doors until
cold weather, stored in a cool cellar until the middle
of January and then brought into warm rooms, will
give flowers : a succession can be maintained by bring-
ing them into warmth at intervals. (See Bulb.)

The following varieties of hyacinths and tulips are
particularly recommended for growing in living-
rooms under ordinary circumstances:

Hyacinths. — The single sorts are much better than
the double and more easily handled. Single reds and
pinks: Gen. Pelissier, Gigantea, King of the Belgians,
La Victoire, Norma. Single white: La Grandesse,
L'Innocence, Madame Van der Hoop, Mr. Plimsoll.
Single blue: Czar Peter, Enchantress, Grand Lilas,
King of the Blues, Lord Derby, Queen of the Blues.
Double red: Grootvorst, Lord Wellington, Noble
par Merite. Double white: Isabella, La Grandesse.
Double blue: Bloksberg, Garrick, Van Speyk. Double
yellow: Goethe.

Tulips, early single. — Albion (White Hawk), white.
Belle Alliance (Waterloo), red. Couleur Cardinal,
bronze-red. Cramoisi Brillant, bright scarlet. Gold-
finch, yellow. Keizerkroon, red and yellow. La Reine,
white turning pink. Mon Tresor, yellow. Pottebakker,
scarlet. Primrose Queen, sulfur-yellow. Prince of
Austria, orange-red. Proserpine, carmine. Rose Grisde
Lin, pink. Rose Luisante, deep pink. Thomas Moore,
orange. Vermilion Brilliant, scarlet. Yellow Prince,

yellow.

1919. An attractive corner of
pandanus, begonia, and wan-
dering jew.

Tulips, double. — Couronne d'Or, yellow
flushed red. Imperator rubrorum, red. Murillo,
best light pink. Salvator Rosa, deep pink.
Tournesol, yellow.

All the Due Van Thol tulips are excellent for
early forcing, particularly the scarlet. The Dar-
win tulips are now sometimes forced, but they
are not suitable for growing in houses. The
Parrot Cottage tulips and the like are not grown
in this way.

Roman hyacinths are easily forced and with
the Paper White narcissus can be flowered
between Thanksgiving and Christmas. Narcis-
sus Campernelle var. rugulosus, the Chinese
sacred narcissus, the double Roman, and most
varieties of Polyanthus narcissus flower earlier
than the other sorts. pj. M. WATSON.

HOUSTONIA (Dr. Wm. Houston, who col-
lected in the West Indies and Mexico, died 1733
in Jamaica). Rubiacese. About twenty-five
North American small herbs or rarely sub-
shrubs, with pretty white, blue or purple flow-
ers, some of the species cultivated in wild gar-
dens and rockeries.

Plants usually tufted or growing in colonies:
Ivs. small, opposite, on the slender sts: parts
of the fls. in 4's, the corolla gamopetalous and
funnelform or salverform; stamens and styles
polymorphous; stigmas 2: caps, opening near
the top, partly superior. — The species are na-
tive on the Atlantic side of the continent and in
Mex. Some of the small herbaceous species are
sometimes transferred to cult, grounds, although
the kinds are little known as horticultural sub-
jects. A moist, partly shaded place is to be
recommended for most houstonias, because
their flowering season is thereby prolonged and
the plants retain their foliage much longer than
in a drier and sunny position. Collected plants
are not difficult to establish. Prop, by divi-
sion. The following perennial species have been
offered by American dealers:

HOUSTONIA

HOWEA

1611

A. Plant tall (4-18 in.): peduncles many-fid.
purp&rea, Linn. Tufted, 3-18 in. high, bearing off-
sets, glabrous or pubescent: radical Ivs. round-ovate or
oblong to lanceolate, short-stalked: fls. in late spring
or summer, the corolla funnelform, purple; calyx-lobes
exceeding the half-free caps. Md. and Iowa to Texas.

AA. Plant lower (1-6 in.): peduncles 1-fld.

caerfclea, Linn. BLUETS. INNOCENCE. QUAKER LADY.
Fig. 1920. Little tufted perennials, 3-6 in. high, the sts.
glabrous: radical Ivs. spatulate to obovate, hairy, short-
petioled, the st.-lvs. small: corolla salyerform, the
tube much exceeding the calyx-lobes, varying from blue
to white, with a yellow eye. B.M. 370. Gn.W. 20:868.
— Charming little plant in grassy places in the north-
eastern states and southward in the Alleghany region;
early spring. Excellent for rockwork and grassy bor-
ders. In gardens, may be treated as annual or biennial.

serpyllifolia, Michx. Prostrate and extensively
creeping: radical Ivs. orbicular to ovate-spatulate and
abruptly petioled : corolla rather larger than that of H.
cserulea, deep violet-blue (often white). Pa., south-
ward. G.W. 12, p. 151. — Early spring. £,. H. B.f

HOUTTEA: Vanhouttea. '

HOUTTUYNIA (M. Houttuyn, of Amsterdam,
writer on natural history in 1774-1783). Saururacese.
One oriental species, the Californian species being now
referred to Anemopsis (p. 287, Vol. I). H. cordata,
Thunb., is a perennial herb, growing J/2-3 ft. high, from
a creeping rootstock, from Himalaya to China and
Japan: st. leafy, nearly simple, angular: Ivs. alternate,
simple, broadly ovate-cordate, 5-nerved: fls. very
small, naked, in a short spike; stamens 3; short spike
subtended by a corolla-like spathe in 4 ovate spreading
white parts. B.M. 2731. G.W. 11, p. 385.— Grows in
ditches along waysides, up to 5,000 ft. in India. Per-
haps to be recommended for moist places in mild
climates. L. H B

HOVEA (probably A. P. Hove, Polish botanist).
Syn. Poiretia. Leguminosas. Ornamental, unarmed or
seldom thorny, greenhouse shrubs: Ivs. alternate, sim-
ple, entire or prickly-toothed, glabrous above, often
tomentose beneath; stipules setaceous, minute or none:
fls. blue or purple, in axillary clusters or very short
racemes or rarely solitary; upper lobes of calyx united
into a broad, truncate upper lip, the 3 lower ones much
smaller, lanceolate; petals clawed; standard nearly
orbicular, emarginate: pod sessile or stipitate, the
valves at length entirely spreading. — Eleven species,
confined to Austral. Best prop, by seeds sown in spring
in well-drained pots of sandy peat and placed over a
gentle bottom heat. When 2-3 in. high, the points
should be pinched out to induce a bushy habit. After
they are established, grow in a cool greenhouse with
plenty of air. H. Celsii, Bonpl. (H. elliptica, DC.). A
tall shrub, sometimes 8-10 ft. high: Ivs. ovate-elliptical
to narrow-lanceolate: fls. blue, in clusters or short
racemes, the pedicels often as long as or longer than the
calyx. B.R. 280. B.M. 2005. L.B.C. 15:1488. Gn. 59,
p. 178, desc.;75, p. 225. L. H. B.

HOVENIA (after David Hoven, Senator of Amster-
dam). Rhamnacese. Ornamental shrub or small tree,
grown chiefly for its handsome foliage.

Leaves deciduous, alternate, without stipules, long-
petioled: fls. in axillary and terminal racemes; calyx-
lobes, petals and stamens 5, style 3-parted: fr. 3-celled
and 3-seeded, indehiscent. — One species in Japan, China
and Himalayas.

Hovenia has greenish inconspicuous flowers in
axillary peduncled cymes, and small globular fruits on
reddish, fleshy and edible peduncles. It grows into a
small round-headed tree, with handsome somewhat
shining foliage. It thrives best in sandy loam and has

proved fairly hardy in favorable positions at the
Arnold Arboretum. Propagation is by seeds, also by
root-cuttings and cuttings of ripened wood under glass.
dulcis, Thunb. (H. acerba, Lindl. H. insequdlis, DC.).
JAPANESE RAISIN TREE. To 30 ft.: Ivs. cordate-ovate
or ovate-acuminate, serrate, sometimes nearly entire,
almost glabrous or pubescent on the veins beneath,
4-6 in. long: cymes many-fld. Japan, China, Himalayas.
S.Z. 73, 74. B.M. 2360. B.R. 501. S.I.F. 2:47. A.G.
12-°0- ALFRED REHDER.

1920. Houstonia carulea.

HOWEA (named for Lord Howe's Island, where these
2 species grow). Also written Howeia. Palmacese,
tribe Arecese. Erect spineless palms known to the
trade as kentias, and certainly ranking among the six
most popular palms for house culture.

Caudex stout, ringed: Ivs. terminal, numerous,
dense, equally pinnatisect; segms. narrow, acuminate:
spadices 2-3 ft. long, solitary or 3-5 from 1 spathe,
thick, cylindrical, nodding or pendulous; peduncle
long, compressed at the base; spathe solitary, as long
as the spadix, cylindrical, 2-keeled toward the apex,
longitudinally split: bracts bordering the channels;
bracelets scaly: fls. sunk in the deep furrows of the
spadix, the staminate nearly an inch long: fr. 1% in.
long, olive-shaped.

They have the habit of Kentia, but their flowers
differ widely. Howea belongs to a subtribe in which
the flowers in each spadix are attached to the stem
between the bases of opposite leaves, while Kentia
belongs to another subtribe in which the flowers are
attached at a lower point. Also Howea has symmetrical
staminate flowers with rotund sepals, while in Kentia
the staminate flowers are not symmetrical, the sepals
being small and acute. Howea's nearest cultivated
ally is Linospadix, from which it is distinguished by
the following characters: staminate flowers with very
numerous stamens, the anthers erect and fastened at
the base; pistillate flowers with no staminodes; ovule
erect. //. Belmoreana is the more popular and] as a
house plant may be readily told from H. Forsteriana
by the more ascending position of its leaf-segments, as
in Fig. 1921 ; the leaves of H . Forsteriana are more flat
or the sides pendent.

The two species of this genus are beyond a doubt the
most popular and also the most satisfactory palms in
the trade for decorative work in general, and in conse-
quence of the great and growing demand are grown by
tens of thousands in the large nurseries. There does
not seem to be any record of either of these species
having borne fruit in cultivation in this country, and the
trade, therefore, depends on imported seeds, which are
gathered in immense quantities on Lord Howe's Island,
usually shipped from thence to Sydney, New South

1612

HOWEA

HOYA

Wales, and from the latter port to either London or
New York. This long voyage is a severe test of the
vitality of such seeds, and frequently results in faulty
germination, the average of germination seldom exceed-
ing 50 per cent, and is often much less. Two heavy
shipments of Howea seeds are made each year, the
first installment arriving in February or March, and
the second in September or October. Many growers
favor the autumn shipment of these seeds as giving
the best results. The seeds should be sown at once
on their arrival, the practice followed by large growers
being that of broadcasting the seeds on a side-bench in
a warm greenhouse on 2 to 3 inches of light soil, then
covering them with 1 inch of the same compost, water-
ing liberally and keeping up a bottom heat of about 80°.
Under such treatment some of the seeds may germinate
in two months, but others in the same lot may not
start for eight or nine months, from which it will be
seen that the operation extends over a considerable
period of time. The seedlings should be potted into

1921. Howea Belmoreana, one of the most popular palms.

small pots when the first leaf is expanded, kept moist
and given a night temperature of 65°, the greenhouse
in which they are placed being moderately shaded. In
three to four months the young plants should be ready
for shifting into 3-inch pots if properly cared for; from
this time forward they do not require a higher night
temperature than 60°. The howeas are not very particu-
lar in regard to soil, a rich, light loam answering very
well for them, but a very stiff soil may be improved by
the addition of one-fourth part of peat, and in all
cases a reasonable proportion of fertilizers may be
used to advantage. Scale insects are the most trouble-
some the grower has to contend with, and should be
removed as rapidly as possible, else the foliage will be
permanently disfigured. Of the two species referred to,
H. Belmoreana is perhaps the greater favorite, being
more compact in growth and extremely graceful in
foliage, a plant of this species of a given age usually
carrying a greater number of leaves than one of H.
Forsteriana of the same age, and the leaves having
more leaflets than those of the latter species. The
seeds of the two species are very similar in appearance,
though those of H. Belmoreana frequently average a

larger size, and while those of the last-named species
require about three years to mature on the tree, the
seeds of H. Forsteriana ripen in about twelve months.
For house culture by amateurs, see Palms. (W. H.
Taplin.)

Belmoreana, Becc. (Kentia Belmoreana, F. Muell.
Grisebdchia Belmoreana, H. Wendl. & Drude). CURLY
PALM. Fig. 1921. Described and distinguished above.
B.M. 7018. R.H. 1897:256 and p. 257. G.C. III.
8:75. I.H. 21:191. A.G. 13:141; 16:345. Mn. 9:25.
Gc.M. 6:288. Var. variegata, Hort. Advertised 1895.

Forsteriana, Becc. (Kentia Forsteriana, F. Muell.
Grisebdchia Forsteriana, H. Wendl. & Drude). FLAT
or THATCH-LEAF PALM. G.C. III. 8:75, 533. S.H. 2:53.
A.G. 16:346. A.F. 4:565; 14:701. G. 8:581. Gn. 73, p.
111. Gn.M. 6:289. N. TAYLOR^

HOYA (Thomas Hoy was once gardener to the Duke
of Northumberland). Asclepiadaceae. Tropical climb-
ing or trailing evergreen shrubs, bearing" thick, opposite
leaves and odd, often showy flowers in umbel-like clus-
ters, grown under glass and one of them sometimes in
window-gardens .

Corolla rotate, 5-lobed, thick and more or less waxy
in appearance : crown rotate, of 5 thick and compressed
fleshy appendages: pollen-masses short, fixed by their
base in pairs to the 5 glands of the stigma: follicles
acuminate, smooth: sts. twining, or climbing by means
of roots. — Species perhaps 100, E. Asia to Austral.;
difficult to determine in herbarium specimens.

Hoyas are summer-blooming plants, of compara-
tively easy culture. They need an intermediate or
warm temperature. Let them rest or remain very slow
in winter (50° in a dryish place), but start them into
growth toward spring. In the summer they are some-
times plunged in the border, but better results are to
be expected, as a rule, by keeping them in pots in the
conservatory. In their growing and blooming season,
give plenty of sun and air. They propagate by cuttings
of the top-growth in spring, and also by layering. The
latter method is particularly adaptable to H. carnosa
and other species that climb by means of roots. The
only species commonly known is H . carnosa.

A. Plant distinctly climbing.

carn6sa, R. Br. (H. Motoskei, Teijsm.). WAX-PLANT.
Twiner, and attaching itself to support by means of
roots; ordinarily grown as a pot- or tub-plant, and
reaching 5-8 ft. high, but growing twice and more this
height when it has the opportunity: glabrous: Ivs.
succulent and shining, ovate-oblong, acute, short-
stalked, entire: fls. white with pink center, fragrant,
in axillary or inter-petiolar umbels, the crown-segms.
very convex, and spreading into a horizontal star. S.
China and Austral. B.M. 788 (as Asclepias carnosa).
Gn. 69, p. 119. G. 25:123. A.G. 18:34. — The com-
mon species, and often seen in window-gardens. After
the bloom is over (in summer) keep the plant in a cool
place, that it may remain half-dormant. In late winter
or spring, start it into growth. Do not cut off the spur
which remains after the fls. pass, for this spur bears
fls. again. The wax-plant is easy to manage, and it
improves with age. Often trained as a permanent
cover for a glasshouse wall. The chief drawback is
the attacks of mealy-bug, but they may be kept off
with a fine stream of water from the hose, and by
handwork. In the South, it is nearly everblooming.
There is a form (var. variegata) with handsome varie-
gated Ivs. Lowe 44.

globulosa, Hook. f. Hairy: Ivs. elliptic-oblong or
long-oblong, acuminate, rounded at the base, the mid-
rib very stout, the petiole an inch or less long: fls. pale
straw- or cream-color, the star-like crown-segms. white,
with pink at the base, borne in dense, globular umbels :
follicles a foot or more long. Sikkim. F.M. 1880:406.

HOYA

HULSEA

1613

G.C. II. 17:741. — A handsome species, requiring the
general treatment given to H . carnosa.

australis, R. Br. Twiner, glabrous and succulent,
apparently sometimes epiphytic : Ivs. ovate, obovate to
nearly orbicular, obtuse or short-acuminate, thick and
fleshy: fls. white tinged pink, in simple umbels on ped-
uncles that seldom surpass the petioles; corolla spread-
ing; Hin. or less in diam., broadly 5-lobed; crown cup-
shaped and expanding into horizontal concave promi-
nently 2-keeled parts. Austral.

multiflora, Blume (H. coridcea, Lindl., not Blume.
Cyrloceras mulliflorum, Heynh. C. floribundum,
Maund. Centrostemma multiflorum, Decne. C. Lind-
leyanum, Decne.). Stout and glabrous, climbing: Ivs.
linear-oblong, acute at both ends, the petiole short: fls.
straw-yellow (corolla white tipped with buff), in many-
fld. terminal and axillary umbels on peduncles 1-2 in.
long; corolla-lobes %in. or less long; corolla-tube
bearded at base; segms. of crown entire on inner angles.
Malacca, etc. B.R. 25:18. B.M. 5173.

imperialis, Lindl. Lofty climber, with puberulent
sts. and foliage: Ivs. elliptic or linear-oblong, obtuse
but with a short point: fls. immense (2-3 in. across),
leathery, dull purple, somewhat pubescent near the
white crown, the segms. triangular-acute: umbels droop-
ing on long peduncles: follicles 9 in. long. E. Indies.
B.M. 4397. F.S. 4:393, 394. R.H. 1900:576. J.H.
III. 55:443. G. 7:607. — A noble hoya, requiring very
rich soil and a rather high temperature. Although
naturally a very tall climber, it can be made to flower
in pots when 3 or 4 ft. high.

AA. Plant trailing or nearly erect.

bella, Hook. (H. Pdxtoni, Hort.). Slender, bushy,
1-2 ft. high, pubescent: Ivs. an inch long, ovate-acute,
very short-stalked, somewhat recurved: fls. %in.
across, pure white, with very short and half-acute lobes,
the crown-segms. boat-shaped and violet: umbels few-
fld. and short-stalked. India. B.M. 4402. F.S. 4:399.
J.H. III. 35:5. Gn.W. 4:793; 22. suppl. July 1.—
Handsome little species; scarcely climbing.

H. campanuldta, BIume=Physostelma. — H. fraterna, Blume.
Climbing, rooting near insertion of petioles: Ivs. 6-12 in. long, very-
thick, elliptic, glossy above and pale beneath: fls. brownish red,
in dense umbels; corolla rotate, pale buff with 5 red-brown blotches:
lobes of crown round-ovate, concave with blood-red spot at base.
Java. B.M. 4684. J.F. 4:385.— #. fusco-marginata, N. E. Br.
Lvs. fleshy, ovate-lanceolate, 7-9 in. long, tawny on margins: fls.
ochre-yellow to yellowish green, in many-fld. umbels on peduncles
2 in. or less long. Country unknown. — H. ovalifdlia, Wight &
Arn. Slender, glabrous: Ivs. more or less clustered, variable, being
elliptic to ovate or lanceolate: fls. bright yellow with red corona,
in large umbels. India. J.F. 1:64. — H. pdllida, Lindl.=^/. para-
sitica. Wall. (H. pallida, Lindl.). Tall climber: Ivs. fleshy, variable,
ovate-elliptic to lanceolate: fls. pale yellow or straw-color, the
corona pinkish. India. B.R. 951. J.F. l,p. 64. — H. •purpiireo-fusca,
Hook. Twining, glabrous: Ivs. ovate and acute: fls. purplish brown,
in dense umbels; corolla rotate, pubescent above; crown-lobes ovate,
nearly plane above. B.M. 4520. J.F. 1:30. T TT "R

HUCKLEBERRY: Vaccinium and Blueberry; also Gaylussatia.

HUDSONIA (for William Hudson, 1730-1793, an
English botanist). Cistaceas. BEACH HEATHER. Three
little heath-like shrubs of eastern North America, suita-
ble for colonizing in dry places and along the seashore:
low and diffusely branched, with narrow or scale-like
or awl-like often closely pressed Ivs.: fls. many and
small, yellow, crowded on the upper parts of the
branches; petals 5, obovate-oblong, exceeding the
calyx; stamens many: fr. a 3-valved caps, included in
the calyx. Allied to Helianthemum, but differing
chiefly in the 2-ovuled cells of the ovary and in the
scale-like or subulate imbricate Ivs. H. tomentosa,
Nutt., on shores and dunes, and in pine-lands, New
Bruns. to N. C. and far westward: Ivs. oval to narrow-
oblong, closely imbricated: fls. nearly or quite sessile:
densely tufted, hoary, 4-8 in. high. May-July. H.
ericobdes, Linn., in sands and pine-lands near the
coast, Newfoundland to N. C.: greenish, although

downy: Ivs. subulate and spreading: fls. on slender
pedicels; at least 1 sepal with tooth near apex: 4 to 8
in. L.B.C. 2:192. H. montana, Nutt., in mountains
of N. C.: bushy and somewhat villous: Ivs. narrow-
subulate, somewhat spreading with age: fls. on slender
pedicels; at least 1 sepal with linear-subulate lobe:
tufted, the branches 4-6 in. long. They are hardy N.
and handsome when covered with their bright yellow
numerous fls., but very rarely cult., as they are difficult
to grow and short-lived. The first species is a seashore
plant and demands very sandy moderately moist soil;
the second grows in dry sandy soil. Prop, by seeds and
probably by cuttings. ALFRED REHDER.

L. H. B.

HUERNIA (Justus Huernius, or Heurnius, collector
of Cape plants). Also spelled Heurnia. Asdepiadacese.
Succulent dwarf perennials resembling Stapelia, but
differing in having the angles between the corolla-lobes
produced into teeth, the corolla campanulate, the
corona toothed or lobed and adnate to base of corolla.
They are greenhouse subjects, mostly from the Cape,

1922. Hulsea nana. ( X 1A)

but some from Trop. Afr. and one from Arabia. They
appear not to be in the trade, but some of the 30 or
more species may be found in collections of succulents.

HUERNIOPSIS (Huernia-like). Also spelled Heur-
niopsis. Asclepiadacese. One species, H. decipiens, N. E.
Br., in,S. W. Trop. Afr., differing from Huernia in
having no outer corona and in other characters. It is
a small succulent with decumbent more or less clavate
obtusely 4-angled toothed sts. 1-3 in. long: fls. 2-3
together at the middle or toward the top of the st.,
1 in. diam. when expanded, outside pale yellow-green,
spotted and streaked purple, inside brown-red spotted
yellow, fetid at night.

HULSEA (Dr. G. W. Hulse, of Louisiana, who col-
lected in California). Composite. Perennial, biennial
or annual herbs native of California, Nevada and north.

Glandular pubescent or woolly herbs: Ivs. pinnately
lobed or toothed: fls. large, solitary, yellow or purple;
involucral bracts free, narrow; style-branches obtuse;
pappus of 4 hyaline, lacerated, chaffy scales. — Eleven
species. This includes one of many woolly herbs offered
by Californian collectors. It grows a few inches high
and bears fls. with yellow rays. Treated best as a
partial alpine.

1614

HULSEA

HUNNEMANNIA

nana, Gray. Fig. 1922 (adapted from Pacific R. R.
Report). Sts. depressed, leafy at summit, sticky-
hairy: Ivs. pinnatifid or incised; petiole long-margined:
peduncle 1-2 in. long; involucral scales in 2 series;
rays 20-30. Calif., north. N. TAYLOR.!

HUMATA (Latin, of the earth; referring to the creep-
ing habit of the rhizomes). Polypodiacese. Ferns of
small stature related to Davallia and sometimes
included with that genus, with small, thick, deltoid
Ivs., with the indusium tough, suborbicular or reni-
form, attached by a broad base and free at the apex
and sides.-y-Some 20 species are known, mostly from
the E. Indies. For cult., see Davallia.

Tyermannii, Moore (Davdllia Tyermannii, Baker).
BEAR'S-FOOT FERN. Rpotstock wide-creeping, densely
covered with linear white scales: Ivs. 4-6 in. long, del-
toid, 3-4-pinnatifid; lower pinnae largest, the lowest
pinnules cuneate-oblong or deltoid; sori at the base of
the ultimate lobes less than a line broad. Cent. China.
G.C. 1871:871.

H. heterophylla, Smith. (Davallia angustata, Wallich.). A
small creeping plant with long slender rhizomes and simple entire
or slightly lobed Ivs. 3-6 in. long, 1 in. broad; fertile If. narrower,
with deep sinuate clefts along the sides. Malaya and Polynesia.
— H. repens, Diels (Davallia alpina, Blume). Small plant: Ivs.
dimorphic, the sterile 1-pinnate, the pinna? divided into many
small segms. ; fertile Ivs. reduced nearly to the rachis and midveins
of the pinnae; sori borne on spine-like branches of the latter. E.

Asia> L. M. UNDERWOOD.

HUMEA (after Lady Hume). Compdsitae. Herbs or
shrubs, one of the most popular of which is a half-
hardy biennial Australian plant, growing 5 or 6 feet
high, cultivated for the grass-like beauty of its large,
loose, much-branched, drooping panicles.

Flowers exclusively tubular and hermaphrodite, 1-4
in a small head; involucre narrow, with scarious or
petaloid, non-radiating bracts. Three, at any rate, of
the 4 other species are shrubs, with fls. in dense corymbs
and involucral bracts rigid or petal-like, while in H.
elegans the bracts are thin and scarious. The genus
has no near allies of garden value. It belongs to a
group of 6 Australian genera which have no pappus.
Humea has nothing of the typical beauty of the com-
mon garden composites, since it has no rays, but the
common species is a striking plant.

Sow seed from July 1 to September 1. Keep young
plants during winter in very cool house in preference
to frames, in northern latitudes, on account of losing
so much foliage through damping. In spring, or when
signs of growth are taking place, repot into larger pots,
using a good, rich loam, which has had plenty of ma-
nure. They are gross feeders and growers, requiring
plenty of water and good feeding. Good plants in
10-inch pots are very ornamental for conservatory or
piazza work. The young plants need plenty of light
and air, and should be kept nearly dry during the
winter. In spring they should be started into growth
gradually, and successively repotted until an 8-inch
pot is needed. They should not be syringed except
when growing rapidly in warm weather. In June the

Slants can be placed in a subtropical bed that is shielded
•om high winds, and staked. The foliage has a peculiar
and agreeable scent. (A. P. Meredith.)

elegans, Smith. Lower Ivs. ovate-lanceolate or
oblong, acuminate: st. clasping or decurrent, &-10 in.
long, wrinkled: fls. variously described as brownish red,
pink, ruby-red and rose, very numerous, in long loose,
gracefully pendulous panicles, much overtopping the
rest of the plant. R.H. 1862, pp. 9, 10; 1895, p. 459.
S.H. 1, p. 154. H. dlbida, Hort., is presumably a whi-
tish-fid, form of this species, and should therefore be
v -ailed var. albida. Var. gigantea, Hort. Much taller
than type, reaching 20 ft. in height, having larger Ivs.
and panicles. The species itself is said by Bentham to
attain 5 or 6 ft. or more in Austral. N. TAYLOR.!

HUMULUS (Latin name, of doubtful origin). Mora-
cese. HOP. Two twining vines, with rough, opposite,
palmately lobed or divided leaves, grown for ornament
and one also for "hops."

Dioecious, the fls. in axillary clusters; staminate fls.
with 5 erect stamens and 5-parted calyx, in little droop-
ing tassel-like racemes; pistillate fls. with an entire
calyx or perianth closely investing the ovary, which
bears 2 long stigmas, the fls. in pairs under large over-
lapping bracts, the whole making a cone-like catkin
which, when becoming very large, is a "hop." — One
species in N. Amer. and Eurasia, and one in Japan and
Manchuria.

A. Plant bearing hops, — the pistillate catkin greatly
enlarging in fr.

Lupulus, Linn. COMMON HOP. Perennial herb : shoots
often grow 25-30 ft. long in the season: rough-hairy:
Ivs. ovate or orbicular-ovate in general outline, deeply
3-lobed (sometimes 5-7-lobed), or the upper ones not
lobed, margins strongly and uniformly dentate, petioles
long: staminate fls. in panicles 2-6 in. long: hops
(mature pistillate catkins) oblong or ovoid, loose and

E apery, straw-yellow, often 2 in. or more long, glandu-
ir and odoriferous. — Native along rivers and in thick-
ets in the northern states and Canada, and southward
in the Alleghanies and Rockies; occurs as far south as
Fla. and Ariz. Much cult, for "hops," used in brew-
ing, and extensively run wild from cult, plants. The
hop makes an excellent arbor or screen plant. Var.
afcreus has yellow foliage. G.W. 10, p. 501. The hop
grows readily from cuttings of the shoots, which spring
from the crown; also by seeds, but the latter do not
reproduce the particular varieties or strains. As a
field crop, the hop is not a horticultural subject, and
is not discussed here. See Cyclo. Amer. Agric., Vol.
II, p. 380. The Rocky Mt. form, common in Colo,
and New Mex., has been separated as var. neo-mexi-
canus, Nels. & Ckll., and it is in the trade: it has
more deeply divided Ivs. and more sharply acuminate
bracts than the ordinary hop; If .-segms. from broad-
lanceolate to nearly linear, acuminate, with resin par-
ticles on the lower surface.

AA. Plant not bearing hops, — the pistillate catkin not
greatly enlarging in fr.

japonicus, Sieb. & Zucc. Annual (or at least treated
as such): foliage very like the last, but usually more
deeply cut and not less than 5-lobed: catkins not
glandular. Japan, China (perhaps intro.) Manchuria;
somewhat run wild from cult, in this country. G.C.
II. 24:716. — Intro, to general cult, in 1886, and now one
of the most popular climbing herbs. It is a very quick
grower, plants 10-20 ft. long coming from seed sown in
early May. It is very easy of cult, and usually seeds
itself. Var. variegatus, Hort., is the most popular
form. Gng. 1:241. A.F. 8:489. The foliage is vari-
ously streaked and splashed with white. Seeds of this
variety will give a large percentage of variegated forms,
and the plants usually show interesting variations. H.
japonicus is more popular as an ornamental vine than
H. Lupulus, because it grows so quickly from seeds, and
also because it has such interesting variegated forms;
but H. Lupulus has a distinct charm in its great hanging
hops, and the heavy odor is enjoyed by some persons.

L. H. B.

HUNNEMANNIA (John Hunneman, English friend
of botany, died 1839). Papaveracese. MEXICAN TULIP
POPPY. One yellow-flowered herb closely allied to the
California poppy (Eschscholtzia) and of similar garden
value, where hardy.

The genus agrees with Eschscholtzia in having much-
cut foliage and spreading lobes of the stigma, but differs
in having separate sepals instead of the peculiar hood-
like calyx of Eschscholtzia which covers the young fl.
like a candle extinguisher: torus scarcely dilated; sepals

LVI. Roman hyacinth. — Hyacinthus orientalis variety.

HUNNEMANNIA

2, caducous; petals 4, spreading, yellow; stamens
many, orange-colored; ovary oblong, attenuated into a
short style: caps. 1-celled and 2-valved, prominently
10-nerved; seeds many. — Mex. in the xerophytic
regions.

fumariaefdlia, Sweet. Perennial, persisting for several
years when planted in Calif., but mostly treated as an
annual: Ivs. triternately divided: peduncles solitary,
terminal; fls. 2-3 in. across; sepals ovate, concave,

§labrous, longitudinally striate; petals concave, wavy,
roadly obovate or nearly orbicular. B.M. 3061.
R.H. 1902:112. Gn. 77, p. 288. Gn.W. 15:443. A.F.
27 : 579. — Sold as giant yellow tulip poppy. Seed sown
early in May in the East give bloom in July, and

HYACINTHUS

1615

1923. Hura crepitans. ( X about

plants are covered with large yellow fls. until hard
frost. The plants have bushy habit and beautiful,
feathery, glaucous foliage; 2 ft. The fls. at times stand
up like tulips; excellent for cutting. L. H. B.f

HUNTLEYA (personal name). Orchidacese. Epiphy-
tal orchids without pseudobulbs, like Zygopetalum.

Leaves several: fls. solitary on long peduncles in the
If .-axils; sepals and petals similar, spreading, the lateral
sepals forming a slight chin; lip articulated to the foot
of the column, the upper part ovate, concave, narrowed
into a broad claw below with a fringed callus; column
broadly winged at apex; pollinia 4, upon an ovate
stalk.— -Species 2, in Trop. Amer.

meleagris, Lindl. (Batemdnnia meleagris, Reichb.
Zygopetalum meleagris, Benth.). Lvs. up to 1 ft. long,
exceeding the peduncles: fls. about 3 in. across; sepals
and petals ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, the base
white, the middle portion yellow, the upper part red-
brown, yellow-spotted ; lip white with a red-brown apex.
Brazil. B.R. 25:14. H.U. 1, p. 6.

Burtii, Pfitz. (Batemdnnia Burtii, Reichb. Zygo-
petalum Burtii, Benth.). Lvs. up to 15 in. long, much
exceeding the peduncles: fls. 3^4 in. across; sepals and
petals ovate, acute, the base white, followed by a yellow
zone, the apex red-brown, yellow-spotted; lip white
below, red-brown at apex, the teeth on the disk purple.
Costa Rica. B.M. 6003. F.M. 1874:101.

GEORGE V. NASH.

HURA (South American name). Euphorbiaceae.
Trees, cultivated in the tropics and sometimes in
greenhouses as curious or ornamental plants.

Leaves simple, alternate, broad, petioled, hairy: fls.
monoecious, apetalous; staminate calyx cupulate,
truncate or denticulate; stamens generally numerous,
in 2-3 whorls; style long, with flat, radiate stigma;
ovules 1 to each of the 5-20 cells: fr. large, flat. — Two
species of Trop. Amer.

The sandbox tree, H. crepitans, is noted for its
explosive capsules which, when ripe, throw the seed
many feet with a loud noise. The large poplar-like
leaves on long petioles give it quite an ornamental
aspect, and it is often planted in the tropics of both
hemispheres. It may be grown in Florida and Califor-
nia. The abundant milky juice is poisonous. The tree
is suited to light loam soil and is propagated by cut-
tings in sand with heat, under glass.

crepitans, Linn. SANDBOX TREE. MONKEY DINNER-
BELL. Fig. 1923. A tree up to 100 ft. high: Ivs. broad-
ovate, cordate, acuminate, distantly repand-dentate :
fls. small, reddish: caps. 3 in. wide, l£$ in. thick, deeply
many-ribbed. Trop. Amer. Lyon Horticole, 1907 : 125.

HUSK TOMATO: Physalis.

HUTCHINSIA (named for Miss Hutchins, of Ire-
land, who was skilled in cryptogamic botany). Syn.
Hymenolobus. Crudferse. Low, annual or perennial
herbs with entire or pinnate Ivs. : fls. white, small, sub-
corymbose; pedicels elongated: fr. long-oval or lance-
shaped; seeds many or only 2. — Eight species in the
Medit. region and the colder parts of the Old World,
one species being very widely spread. According to
some authorities, Hutchinsia is limited to one species.
H. alpina, Ait., is a good subject for the alpine garden
and is also occasionally used as a border plant. It
grows from 1-4 in. high: Ivs. pinnate, shining: fls.
snow-white, in clusters, blooming from May to June
and often through the summer. Cult, in moist half-
shady places and prop, by seeds or cuttings. Gn. 72,
pp. 31, 278.

HYACINTH: Hyacinthus. Hyacinth Bean: Dolichos. Hyacinth,
Grape: Muscari. Hyacinth, Water: Eichhornia.

HYACINTHUS (name from Greek mythology). Lili-
dcese. HYACINTH. Popular hardy spring-flowering
bulbs, producing flowers in shades of blue and red, also
white; also grown under glass for winter bloom.

Bulbs tunicated: stemless, the Ivs. all radical, linear
or strap-shaped, the scape simple: fls. in a simple
terminal raceme or spike, erect or spreading or pendu-
lous; perianth funnel-shaped to campanulate, nearly or
quite equally 6-lobed; stamens 6, attached at the throat
or in the tube: caps, nearly globular, 3-grooved or 3-
lobed, dehiscent loculicidally; seeds rather few. — Of hya-
cinths there are something over 30 species, the greater
part S. African. Others inhabit the Medit. region, and
from this source come the common garden kinds. From
related genera, Hyacinthus is distinguished by the fun-
nel-shaped or bell-shaped fl., the throat not constricted,
the lobes shorter than or at most not much exceeding the
tube, the 6 stamens attached to the tube or throat and
the filaments thread-like or dilated at the base. For
the general cultural requirements, see Bulbs.

orientalis, Linn. COMMON HYACINTH. Fig. 1926.
Lvs. 8-12 in. long, J^-IJ^ in. wide, thick and green:
scape 8-18 in. tall, stout, bearing an elongated and dense
raceme: perianth about 1 in. long, the tube usually
ventricose or swollen, the lobes oblong-spatulate, as

1924. Cut hyacinth bulb.

1925. Hollowed hyacinth bulb.

long as the tube, in many colors, often double in cult.
B.M. 937. B.R. 995. F.S. 23 : 2399-2400.— The hyacinth
has been cult, for some centuries, and it shared some of
the early popularity of the tulip in the Netherlands.
It is wild in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Dalmatia.
It is extensively grown in Holland for export to this
and other countries, and consequently is commonly
Jmown as the Dutch hyacinth. The Roman hyacinth

1616

HYACINTHUS

HYACINTHUS

(Figs. 1927, 1928) belongs to the group represented
by var. albulus, Baker (H. dlbulus, Jord.) and var.
preecox, Voss (H. pr^cox, Jord.). These are slender
plants with narrow erect Ivs., fls. fewer and earlier,
white to blush to blue, the tube more slender. Var.
prxcox differs from var. albulus in its yellow anthers,
rather more ventricose tube and
stouter growth.

amethystinus, Linn. Slender
and graceful, with light blue fls.
in short racemes, standing nearly
or quite 6 in. high: fls. small, nod-
ding, bell-shaped, with short teeth-
like segms. There is a white-fid,
form. Spain. B.M. 2425. B.R.
398. Gn. 47, p. 147.— Good for
rockeries. Hardy in the middle
states.

azureus, Baker (Musoari aziir-
eum, Fenzl). Looks like a grape
hyacinth (or Muscari) : 4-8 in. tall,
with strongly canaliculate,
glaucous Ivs. : fls. blue, fra-
grant, in a dense spike 1 in.
long, tubular, with small
teeth: distinguished from
the genus Muscari by the
perianth-segms. being flar-
ing instead of incurved.
Medit. region. B.M. 6822.
G.C. III. 24:191 (var. gi-
ganteus). Gn. 75, p. 176. —
Hardy in middle states.
This species is probably to
be called If . ciliatus, Cyrill.,
or a form of it.

1 in eatus , S t e u d . LOWJ
2-4 in. high: Ivs. 2 or 3,
oblong -lanceolate, falcate,
about equaling the scape: fls. small (J^in. or less long),
6-12 in a raceme 1 in. long, blue, campanulate, ascend-
ing. Asia Minor. Gt. 1887, p. 446. G.C. III. 29:103:
39:210. Gn. 76, p. 169. J.H. III. 65:203 (asH. azureus
var. lineatus).

fastigiatus, Bertol. (H. Pouzdlzii, Gay). A delicate
species, with very narrow Ivs., scape 3-5 in. high and
shorter than the Ivs. : fls. few, in a loose cluster, J^-J^in.
long and light blue (a white form), with oblong-lanceo-
late segms. longer than the tube. Corsica. B.M. 6663.
— Hardy in S. New England. Has the look of Scilla
verna.

H. candicans, Baker=Galtonia. Gn. 75, p. 80. G. 2:546. —
H. romanus, of Linnaeus, is not the H. romanus of horticulturists
(which is the Roman hyacinth, a form of H. orientalis). Linnaeus'
species is a blue-white, scilla-like plant (see B.M. 939, as Scilla
romana). T TT T>

Ll. 11. £>.

Culture of the hyacinth. — The perfection of the
hyacinth flower depends largely on the strength of the
roots, and as the plants make all their root-growth in
autumn, the bulbs should be planted early, — say from
the beginning to the middle of October. Any good
garden soil suits, provided it is well drained. The
ground should be carefully prepared by spading to a
depth of 20 inches, so that the roots may pass straight
through it to their full development of 12 or 16 inches.
If the soil is naturally stiff, it may be lightened by the
addition of sand, and if the beds have been occupied by
other plants during the summer, some clean old cow-
manure, well worked in, is recommended. Horse-
manure should not be used.

The bulbs should be planted 6 inches deep (to the
bottom of the bulbs) and very uniformly, to insure
simultaneous flowering. The ground having been pre-
pared as above, perhaps the best way is to remove 3
or 4 inches of the earth, level the bed carefully with the

1926. Common or Dutch
hyacinth.

rake and set the bulbs in it 5 or 6 inches apart each
way, pressing them in firmly, and then covering them
evenly with the earth that has been taken out. When
winter sets in, the beds should be covered with 2 inches
of dry litter or coarse manure. As soon as the shoots
appear above ground in the spring, 1 inch of this cover-
ing should be removed and the remainder when danger
from late frosts is past.

For large beds and borders, second-size named hya-
cinths are used to a great advantage. The flower-
spikes are not so large as from the first-size bulbs, but
the latter when in bloom in the open usually become
top-heavy and are often blown down by wind, while
the flowers of the second-size bulbs stand more erect
and last longer.

Forcing in pots.

For growing indoors in pots, large, solid bulbs should
be chosen, and potted singly in 5-inch pots in a rich
compost of loam, leaf-mold and sharp sand. A few
pieces of broken pot being placed in the bottom for
drainage, the pots should be filled lightly, and the bulbs
pressed into the loose soil till only the apex remains
above the surface. The pots are then buried to a depth
of 8 or 10 inches in the open ground or in a frame for
seven or eight weeks, till the roots are developed fully
and the sprout is about 1% inches above the bulb.
When taken inside, they should be kept in subdued
light, at a temperature of about 50°, until the sprout has
assumed a vigorous green color. Florists who force large
numbers for winter decorations set them under the
greenhouse benches for about two weeks, and then force
them in a temperature of 70°. A greater heat than this
attenuates the growth and weakens the color. Syrin-
ging with water twice a day is recommended, and as
the flower-spike develops, weak manure-water is help-
ful. The slower hyacinths are forced, the finer and more
lasting will be the bloom. Bulbs wanted in flower for
Christmas should be potted in September, and for a
succession later, at intervals as desired. Single hya-
cinths are handsomer and force better than the double,
although a few of the latter may be recommended. The
following are among the best adapted for forcing and are
largely grown by American florists:

Single blue. — Grand
Maitre, deep lavender-blue.
Czar Peter, light blue. King
of the Blues, dark blue.
Leonidas, clear blue. Queen
of the Blues, light blue.
R e g u 1 u s, porcelain - blue.
Schotel, pale blue.

Double blue. — Bloksberg,
porcelain-blue. Van Speyk,
lilac-blue.

Single white. — Angenis
Chistina, pure white. Bar-
oness van Thuyll, pure
white. Grandeur a Mer-
veille, blush -white. La
Grandesse, pure white.
L'Innocence, pure white.
Madame Van der Hoop, pure
white. Mimi, blush-white.
Paix de 1'Europe, pure white.

Double white. — La Tour
d'Auvergne, pure white.
Isabella, blush-white.

Single red. — De Wet, light
rose. Gertrude, bright pink.
Gigantea, bright rose. Lady
Derby, lovely pink. La
Victoire, brilliant scarlet-
red. Moreno, waxy pink.
Norma, delicate waxy pink.
Robert Steiger, crimson. 1927. Roman hyacinth.

HYACINTHUS

HYACINTHUS

1617

Double red. — Bouquet Tendre, crimson. Noble par
Merite, deep rose.

Single lilac. — Sir William Mansfield, lilac-mauve.

Single yellow. — King of the Yellows, deep yellow.
Yellow Hammer.

Double yellow. — Goethe. Bright yellow.

Miniature hyacinths, or "Dutch Romans," are small-
sized bulbs of the ordinary Dutch hyacinths. They
are excellent for growing in groups in bowls, pans or
flats, planted close together and treated the same as
the large hyacinths when grown in pots.

Culture in glasses.

Some of the single hyacinths may be grown very
satisfactorily in water. Special glasses for the purpose
can be bought from the seedsmen. They should be
filled with pure water and the bulb so placed that its
base barely touches the water. The glasses must then
be placed in a dark closet or cellar till sufficiently long
roots have developed and the main flower shoot is
about 3 inches tall. This usually requires eight to

earlier than the ordinary Holland-grown stock of
the Romans.

The propagation of hyacinths.

With the exception of the Roman hyacinths (which
come from the south of France), the world's supply of
hyacinth bulbs is produced in Holland. The soil and
climate of that country seem to be peculiarly suitable
for bulb-growing, which has been one of the leading
industries there for 200 years. The bulbs intended for
next year's market are planted in October in care-
fully prepared, richly manured land, and protected over
winter by a thick covering of reed or litter. The flowers
are cut when in full bloom in the spring. By July the
bulbs are fully ripened, and are taken out of the ground
by hand, dried, cleaned and assorted into three grades
of quality, according to size. Early in August they are
ready for shipping. Overgrown or unshapely bulbs are
reserved for propagating. As soon as these are taken
out of the ground, three deep cross cuts are made with
a sharp knife in the bottom of each bulb. They are

1928. Roman hyacinth.

ten weeks. Thereafter they may gradually be brought
into the light. An airy, sunny situation and a tempera-
ture of about 60° regularly maintained will insure the
best results. The glasses should be kept filled by adding
water occasionally as required. A small piece of wood
charcoal placed in the glass tends to keep the water
pure and sweet.

The following varieties are especially suited for
glasses: Lady Derby, pink. Lord Macaulay, deep rose.
Mina, pure white. L'Innocence, pure white. La Vic-
toire, brilliant red. Grand Maitre, blue. Grand Lilas,
light blue. King of the Blues, dark blue. Schotel, finest
light blue. Mimi, blush-white. MacMahon, pure yellow.
Moreno, deep rose. Lord Balfour, lilac tinged violet.

Roman hyacinths.

Instead of one large truss from each bulb, the Roman
hyacinth produces three or four smaller but more
graceful flower-spikes. The bulbs arrive in America
in August, and by successive pottings they may be had
in flower from November till May. They require the
same forcing treatment as the larger hyacinths, but
three or four bulbs may be planted in a pot. The
florists use wooden flats instead of pots, setting the
bulbs close together, forty or fifty in a flat. By reason
of its beauty and exquisite fragrance, its earliness and
easy culture, the white Roman hyacinth is the most
popular of winter-blooming plants. Several millions
of these bulbs are grown annually by the florists of
the large cities for winter cut-flowers.

Within the last few years, large quantities of Dutch
hyacinths have been planted and grown for one year
in the south of France, where they ripen off several
weeks earlier than in Holland. Consequently, these
hyacinths can be forced in bloom two to three weeks

103

then set out, bottom upward, and covered with loose
soil for two or three weeks, during which time the cuts
open out and the wounds are healed. They are then
taken up and kept spread out on tables in storehouses
till October, when they are planted out. When lifted
next June, nothing of the parent bulb remains but dry
skins, on the edges of which twenty to thirty offsets
are fastened. These bulblets are picked off by hand
and planted out in autumn, just like large bulbs.
This process of planting in autumn and taking up in
summer for a two months' rest is repeated for four or
five years, till the bulbs have attained to marketable
size. Another method of propagating is to hollow out
the bottom of the bulb smoothly to a point in the cen-
ter. More offsets are secured in this way, but they are
smaller and take a year or two longer to reach matu-
rity. These methods are illustrated in Figs. 1924, 1925.

New varieties are obtained from seed, but as the
present leading varieties have attained a very high
degree of perfection in form and in color, few seedlings
show marked improvements on existing sorts. New
varieties are also produced by "sporting," that is, one
plant spontaneously assumes a new and different
character from the remainder of the stock and from this
one plant new stocks are grown. In this way the beau-
tiful light rose variety DeWet sported from single blue
Grand Maitre, while single purple Lord Balfour first
appeared in a stock of the deep rose Moreno, and so on.

The tendency to produce new varieties should be
restricted to distinctive forms and colors. Many of
so-called new varieties recently introduced are merely
slight alterations in form or color of the parent bulb,
not sufficient in appearance to justify calling them new
sorts, merely increasing the list of named sorts for ad-
vertising or selling purposes, j. M< THORBURN & Co.

1618

HY^NANCHE

HYBRIDS

HY^ENANCHE (Greek, referring to its native African
use as a hyena poison). Euphorbiacese. Small tree,
sometimes grown in greenhouses. Lvs. whorled or
sometimes opposite, simple, entire: fls. dioecious,
apetalous, in axillary clusters; sepals in staminate
fls. 5-12, stamens numerous: ovules 2 in each of the
3-4 cells. The single species is H. capensis, Pers.
(Toxicodendron capense, Thunb. H. globosa, Lamb.).
HYENA POISON. A much-branched tree, 5-6 ft. high:
Ivs. linear to oblong, base cuneate, apex rounded,
glabrous: caps, subglobose. S. Afr. It is adapted to
well-drained light soil, and is prop, by cuttings in sand
under glass. During its rest-period water should be
given sparingly. j. B g NORTON.

HYBANTHUS (from Greek meaning hump-backed
flower). Violaceae. Species about 50, in Old and New
World, mostly in tropical and subtropical parts. One
species native to the E. U. S., is sometimes listed: it is
an herbaceous perennial 1-2 ft. high, with mostly
oblong, narrowly acuminate Ivs. 3-5 in. long, and small
nodding greenish fls. solitary or in pairs in many of the
If .-axils: sepals linear and equal; petals mostly nearly
equal in length, connivent nearly their entire length,
the lower one much larger, saccate at the base, emargi-
nate at the broad apex; stamens with broad connec-
tives wholly connate into an ovoid sac open only
between the free tips, a rounded or 2-lobed scale-like
gland adnate to the base anteriorly.

concolor, Spreng. (lonidium cdncolor, Benth. &
Hook. Solea concolor, Ging. Cubelium cdncolor, Raf.).
May, June. Moist woods and ravines, Ont. to Ga. and
West- F. W. BARCLAY.

HYBRIDS are the products of crossing between spe-
cies. Of late, the word hybrid has been used by most
writers to comprise all crosses, whether between species
or varieties. The justification of this usage is the fact
that there are no hard and fast lines between varieties
and species, and therefore that hybridism in the old
sense is incapable of exact delimitation. The opponents
to this usage, however, contend that so long as it is cus-
tomary to speak of species and varieties as different
classificatory categories, it is equally allowable and use-
ful to speak of hybrids as between species and of cross-
breeds as between varieties; moreover, historical cus-
tom favors this usage. Common-language terms rarely
if ever express absolute or ideal truth: they grow up by
custom. Whenever new ideas and discoveries render them
inexact, it may be quite as well to invent new terms
as to give new and technical meanings to old terms
which are thoroughly established in literature. The
word hybrid has always been a specific term, and it
were a pity now to make it a generic one, particularly
since there is a well established generic term. The
generic word, both substantive and verb, is cross. Specific
kinds of crosses are hybrids, between species; cross-
breeds, between plants of the same species; half-
hybrid, between a species and a variety of another
species; bigener, between plants of different genera.
There are technical terms to designate the various
kinds and degrees of crossing. The word hybrid has
now become so flexible, however, and other standards
of measurement are so much in vogue, that these special
terms are little used.

It was formerly held that inability to make fertile
hybrids is proof that the forms are distinct species; and
contrary wise, that plants which make fertile crosses are
of one species. Hybridization has also been made a
test of genera. These notions are now given up, for
crossing and classification belong to two unlike cate-
gories of facts. Species and genera are not entities in
themselves, but are mere artificial groups made by men
for their convenience when writing and speaking of
living things. Crossing is a biological phenomenon.

Hybrids are unusual facts in nature; that is, they

are rare compared with the whole number of plants.
On the other hand, cross-breeds are usual. Most flow-
ers are so constructed as to favor cross-pollination.
Cross-breeding is one of the prime means of inducing
slight variations and of invigorating a type. Upon the
variations which arise from crossing and other means,
natural selection operates in the production of new
forms. But it is significant that these new forms usu-
ally come about slowly and gradually. It is the desire
of the cultivator to produce new forms quickly and of
pronounced distinctness. He therefore employs cross-
ing between unlike types, or species, hoping thereby to
secure wider departures. In nature, the cross-breed is
the beginning of a process of breeding: it starts off the
variation. Man is often tempted to look upon the hybrid
as the end. If the products of a given cross are not to
his liking, he throws them away and tries again. The
most expert plant-breeders, however, now hybridize
to get a "break," and thenceforth depend chiefly on
selection to realize their clear-cut ideals, particularly
in seed-propagated plants.

To man hybrids are of no value unless they can be
propagated. By seeds they usually vary immensely: it
is difficult to "fix" them so that they will come true.
By cuttings or layers or division, however, the character
of the parent may be propagated with practical cer-
tainty: the original plant is divided, and the parts are
put on the market. Nearly all commercial hybrids are
of plants which are thus propagated by asexual parts:
Kieffer pear, hybrid grapes, Wilson blackberry, Wild
Goose plum, cannas, roses, begonias, anthuriums,
fuchsias, pelargoniums, rhododendrons. Since the
hybrid is variable when propagated by seeds, continued
selection, or plant-breeding, must be employed to fix
and establish a desirable type.

It is thus seen that hybridization rarely gives rise to
dominant horticultural seed-races, but rather to an
individual plant which may be disseminated by some
divisional means of propagation. The seeds of hybrids
— as of the modern cannas — may give rise to good
varieties, and they may not; but these new varieties are,
in their turn, usually propagated by means of asexual
parts if they are to be kept true.

Practically there is no certainty in hybridization.
Rarely can a man picture to himself an ideal variety,
and then by means of hybridization produce it. He
hybridizes plants which possess some of the character-
istics of the desired or ideal variety, and then takes his
chances. True plant-breeding sets an ideal, and then
reaches it by working along certain definite lines. It
seeks first to secure a variation in the desired direction :
this may be secured by means of crossing, change of
soil, modification of food-supply, and other changed
conditions. It seeks, then, to preserve or augment the
form by means of definite selection.

We are not yet able to formulate positive laws of
hybridization. Every hybrid is a law unto itself. By
the study of many examples of hybridization, one is able
to construct an average of probabilities as to what will
or what will not occur in a given case: but the given
case may contradict all the probabilities without appar-
ent cause. Hybridization is an empirical subject.

One cannot tell what species will or will not hybridize
except by trying. Hundreds of species have been tried,
and for them the knowledge is more or less exact.
Plants hybridize most freely which are the subjects of
much care and coddling: the orchids are the best
examples. In these groups, hybrids are chiefly fanciers'
plants, valuable often only because they are hybrids or
are rare and curious. One cannot tell beforehand
whether the products of any hybridization will be exact
intermediates, or in what way or degree they will carry
over or blend the parental characters. As a rule, the
more closely akin the species, the more perfect will be
the blending or amalgamation of the two. See Breed-
ing of Plants, Vol. I.

HYBRIDS

HYDRANGEA

1619

The literature of hybridization is extensive but scat-
tered. The possibilities of hybridization as a factor in
plant-breeding are presented in many aspects in the
"Hybrid Conference Report" of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society, London, 1900. There are special books
devoted to orchid hybrids (see Orchids). See an excel-
lent paper by Swingle and Webber, "Yearbook of the
United States Department of Agriculture," 1897;
papers in "American Gardening," 1899, pp. 397, 413,
431; Bailey & Gilbert's "Plant-Breeding;" De Vries'
"Plant-Breeding." L jj g

HYDRANGEA (Greek, bydor, water, and aggeion,
vessel; alluding to the cup-shaped fruit). Saxifraga-
cese. Ornamental woody plants, grown chiefly for their
showy white, pink or blue flowers.

Deciduous shrubs: Ivs. opposite, without stipules,
petioled, serrate, sometimes entire, rarely lobed: fls.
perfect, in terminal panicles or corymbs, often with
sterile marginal fls.; calyx-lobes and petals 4-5; sta-
mens usually 10; ovary inferior or half-inferior; styles
2-5, short: caps. 2-5-celled, dehiscent at the base of
the styles, with many minute seeds. — About 35 spe-
cies in N. and S. Amer., Himalayas and Cent, and E.
Asia, of which more than 20 occur in China; for a key
to the Chinese species, see Rehder, Synopsis of the
Chinese Hydrangeas (in Sargent, Plantae Wilsonianae
1:34-41).

The hydrangeas are highly ornamental mostly low
shrubs, rarely vines climbing by rootlets, with medium-
sized or rather large leaves and small white, bluish or
pinkish flowers in corymbs or panicles, bearing usually
marginal sterile flowers, with enlarged showy sepals,
or in some varieties all the flowers are sterile and
enlarged. H. paniculata is the hardiest of all, but H.
arborescens, H. radiata, H. xanthoneura and H. Bret-
schneideri are also almost hardy North, while H.
quercifolia and H. petiolaris are hardy as far north as
Massachusetts, and H. involucrata, H. opuloides, H.
Sargentiana, H. heteromalla and H. Davidii, are still
more tender, and cannot be grown outdoors North.

They grow best in a rich, porous and somewhat
moist soil and thrive well in partly shaded positions,
but flower more freely in full sun if they only have
sufficient moisture. All hydrangeas are well adapted
for borders of shrubberies, and H. paniculata and H.
opuloides, especially the varieties with sterile flowers,
are very showy as single specimens on the lawn. In
warmer climates the latter is sometimes used for orna-
mental hedges (see G.C. III. 24:337, 456); but it is not
hardy in the North. These and also most of the other
species should be pruned in fall or early spring, and
the branches of the previous year cut back to one to
three pairs of buds, according to the growth of the
branches and the desired size of the panicles; if only
slightly pruned, the panicles will be many but small.
Sometimes they are cut back every year almost to the
ground and produce then enormous panicles, which,
however, usually need artificial support and lack the
gracefulness of less severely pruned plants. H. panicu-
lata var. grandiflora can be grown into a small standard
tree; for this purpose vigorous young plants should be
selected and planted in rich soil, and cut down to the
base. The strongest shoot of each plant will attain by
fall the height of 4 to 6 feet, if freely manured and
watered during the summer; in autumn, all the weaker
branches are cut off, and in colder climates the plants
should be lifted and stored in a frost-proof pit or cellar,
since the wood is usually not sufficiently ripened to
withstand severe frost. In the following year the top of
the stem is allowed to branch. The weaker basal shoots
may be pegged down to make new plants. Strong-
growing varieties of H. opuloides may be treated in
the same way if standard plants are desired.

The method of winter protection of hardy hydrangeas
adopted around Newport, Rhode Island (and possibly

other places) may be worthy of mention. In the case
of individual specimens, after the leaves have dropped
in the fall, the branches are tied together and the
plant covered with a box having open ends. The box
is then filled with earth. When the plants are growing
together in a bed or border, they may be treated in a
similar way by placing boards along the side of the bed,
to assist in retaining the earth that is used as a covering
material. If, after the branches are tied, they are bent
over somewhat, a saving of labor is effected by reason
of a smaller quantity of earth being sufficient to cover
them. (Montague Free.)

H. opuloides, which cannot withstand much more
than 10° of frost, is in the North much grown as a pot-
plant, especially the more showy varieties with large
heads of sterile flowers, and is extensively used for out-
door decoration during the summer. Late in fall, when
the leaves have fallen after frost, the plants are moved
to a frost-proof cellar and kept rather dry until spring,
when they are repotted in new soil and the growth of
last year cut back to one or
two pairs of buds. As a suit-
able soil may be recom-
mended a mixture of loam,
leaf-mold and sand, with
ground bone, dried cow-ma-
nure or some other kind of
manure added. During the
summer a liberal supply of
water should be given, also
occasionally applications of
liquid manure, until the flow-
ers have developed. They
may also be planted in the
open ground during the sum-
mer, lifted late in fall with a
large ball of earth, stored
over winter in a coldframe or
pit and planted out again in
spring; this will not injure in
any way the profusion of
flowers. In certain kinds of
soil the pink hortensias show
a tendency to turn blue, and
perhaps this can be caused
by adding iron filings or
alum to the soil. H. opu-
loides is also a valuable plant
for forcing, and is much grown
for Easter, especially the
var. otaksa, on account of its dwarfer habit. Hand-
some pot-plants can be grown in one year from
cuttings. In February or March cuttings are in-
serted in the propagating-house with slight bottom
heat, and planted in small pots as soon as they are
rooted. During the summer they may be easily grown
in pots and plunged outdoors in coal-ashes or in any
kind of porous soil, transplanted several times, and
freely watered and occasionally manured; or they may
be planted out in rich soil, exposed to the full sun,
where water should be liberally given and now and then
an application of liquid manure. Last of September
they should be repotted in 8-inch pots, kept shady
some days until established, and afterward exposed
to the sun. After the first frosts they may be brought
into a cool greenhouse. If intended to have them in
flower for Easter, they should be transferred not later
than the fore part of January into a warmer house,
with a temperature gradually rising from 50° to 60°;
the plants should be freely watered, and about once a
week an application of liquid manure given until the
flower-buds are developed. The flowers should be
almost fully developed some time before they are
desired, that they may be hardened off in a cooler
house, since overforced plants are likely to collapse if
exposed to sudden changes of temperature. After

1929. Summer cutting of
Hydrangea paniculata.

1620

HYDRANGEA

HYDRANGEA

flowering, the plants are pruned and repotted or planted
out and treated as above described for cuttings, or they
may be thrown away and another set of plants raised
from cuttings.

H. petiolaris is a handsome climbing plant for cover-
ing walls and trunks of trees, and grows well in the
shade, but flowers freely only in the full sun.

The hydrangeas are readily propagated by cuttings
of half-ripened or nearly ripe wood under glass in sum-
mer (Fig. 1929); also by hardwood cuttings, layers,
suckers or division of older plants. H. quercifolia is
best propagated by suckers or by layers of growing
wood put down in summer. Rarely increased by seeds,
which are very small, and should be sown in fall in pans
or boxes and only slightly covered with soil.

INDEX.

acuminata, 7 (1).
albo-variegata, 7.

japonica, 7 (1).
Lindleyana, 7 (1).

rosalba, 7 (1).
rosea, 7 (2).

aUissima, 16.

macrophylla, 13.

roseo-marginata, 7.

anomala, 16.

macrosepala, 7 (1).

Rosthornii, 12.

arborescens, 8.

mandshurica, 7 (2).

rubro-plena, 7 (3).

aspera, 13.

Mariesi, 7 (1).

Sargentiana, 11.

Azisai, 7 (1).

monstrosa, 7 (2).

scandens, 15.

Belzonii, 7 (1).

nigra, 7 (2).

serrata, 4, 7 (1).

Bretschneideri, 4, 5.

nivalis, 7.

setchuenensis, 5.

Buergeri, 7 (1).

nivea, 10.

stellata, 7 (3).

cinerea, 9.

opuloides, 7.

sterilis, 8, 9.

cordata, 8.

otaksa, 7 (2).

strigosa, 13.

cyanea, 7 (1).

paniculata, 2.

tardiva, 2.

cyanoclada 7 (2).

pekinensis, 4.

Thunbergii, 7 (1).

Davidii, 6.

petiolaris, 15.

tricolor, 7.

fimbriata, 7 (3).

plena, 7 (2).

urtidfolia, 8.

floribunda, 2.

prsecox, 2.

variegata, 7.

glabrescens, 4.

prolifera, 7 (3).

Veitchii, 7 (1).

grandiflora, 2, 8.

pubescens, 3.

vestita, 3, 4,

heteromalla, 3.

quercifolia, 1.

volubilis, 15.

Hortensia, 7 (2).

radiata, 10.

Wilsonii, 5.

hortensis, 2, 7, 14.

ramulis, 7 (2).

xanthoneura, 5.

involucrata, 14.

A. Shrubs erect or spreading: stamens 10: petals

expanding.
B. Infl. pyramidal.

1. quercifolia, Bartram. Shrub, with spreading
branches, to 6 ft. : young branches densely ferrugineously
tomentose : Ivs. long-petioled, roundish or broadly ovate,
pinnately lobed with serrate lobes, glabrous above at
length, whitish tomentose beneath, 4—8 in. long:
panicle 4-7 in. long; fls. pinkish white, the sterile ones
turning purple; styles 2: caps, with the calyx-teeth
at the apex. June. Ky. to Ala. and Fla. B.M. 975.
Gng. 2:305. Gn.M. 2:66. G.C. II. 22:369. Gn. 27,
p. 199. G. 27:389. G.W. 5, p. 109. M.D.G. 1913:517.

2. paniculita, Sieb. Shrub or small tree, to 30 ft.,
with dense globose head: Ivs. elliptic or ovate, acumi-
nate, serrate, sparingly pubescent above, more densely
on the veins beneath, 2-5 in.: panicle 6-12 in. long; fls.
whitish, the sterile ones changing later to purplish;

1930. Hydrangea paniculata var. grandiflora.

styles 3: caps, with the margin of the calyx about at
the middle. Aug., Sept. Japan, China. S.Z. 61. F.E.
15:501; 34:387. F.R. 21:9. G.W. 2, p. 114; 12, p.
366. G.C. III. 9:553. Gn. 59, p. 181; 75, p. 548;
76, p. 5. Mn. 9:75. The following varieties are cult.:
Var. floribunda, Regel. Panicles large, with more and
larger sterile fls. Gt. 16:530. Var. grandiflora, Sieb.
(var. hortensis, Maxim.). Fig. 1930. Almost all fls.
sterile; panicles very large and showy. F.S. 16:1665,
1666. Gn. 10:37; 38, p. 569; 54, p. 376; 64, p. 407; 72,
p. 560. R.H. 1873:50; 1899, pp. 130, 131. Mn. 8:119.
A.G. 18:313. Gng. 3:357; 5:3. F.E. 8:214. S.H.
1:174. G.M. 39:728; 46:794. Gn.M. 2:67. A.F.
17:194, 517. C.L.A. 7:43. G.W. 8, p. 210; 15, p. 454.
G.Z. 10:80. Var. praecox, Rehd. Fig. 1931. Almost like
the type, but flowering about 6 weeks earlier, in the
middle of July; sepals usually elliptic. G.F. 10:363
(adapted in Fig. 1931). The late-flowering typical
form is sometimes called var. tardiva, Hort. — H.
paniculata yar. grandiflora is the common hydrangea of
lawns. It is seen to best effect when planted close in
front of heavy shrubbery. Cut back rather heavily
in early spring.

BB. Infl. corymbose, flat or globular.

C. Ovary partly superior, hence caps, ovoid, with the
margin of the calyx about the middle; styles usually
S: sterile fls. present.

D. Fertile fls. white.
E. Lvs. white-tomentose below.

3. heteromalla, Don (H. vestita, Wall. H. pubes-
cens, Decne.). Shrub, to 10 ft.: petiole deeply grooved
and margined, red; Ivs. ovate, acuminate, densely
setosely dentate, almost glabrous above, densely
whitish-tomentose beneath, 4-8 in. long: cyme 5-^8 in.
broad, with bracts; sepals of sterile fls. elliptic or
obovate, acute or mucronulate: caps, with the calyx
above the middle. June, July. Himalayas. F.S.
4:378—79. G.C. II. 22:617. G.M. 50:859.

EE. Lvs. villous or nearly glabrous below.

4. Bretschneideri, Dipp. (H. vestita var. pubescens,
Maxim. H, pekinensis, Hort.). Fig. 1932. Shrub, to
8 ft. : last year's branchlets with chestnut-brown bark
peeling off in thin flakes: petioles not margined; Ivs.
ovate or elliptic-ovate to oblong-ovate, acute or acumi-
nate, serrate with short callous teeth, more or less
pubescent beneath, 3-5 in. long: cymes similar to the
former but smaller and denser; sepals roundish, obtuse:
caps, with the calyx near the middle. July. N. China.
G.F. 3:17 (adapted in Fig. 1932); 6:396. G. 27:387.
Gng. 16:305. G.W. 9, p. 541. Var. glabrescens, Rehd.
(H. serrata, Koehne, not DC.). Lvs. smaller, elliptic,
more coarsely serrate and only sparingly pubescent.

5. xanthoneura, Diels. Shrub, to 15 ft.: last year's
branchlets with close chestnut-brown bark marked
with conspicuous lenticels: lys. elliptic to elliptic-
oblong, abruptly acuminate, serrate, glabrous
and bright green above, marked with more or
less conspicuous yellow veins, light green below
and glabrous or slightly pubescent on the veins,
4-7 in. long; petioles %-\% in. long: corymbs
rather loose, convex, 5-10 in. across; sterile fls.
1J4-2 in. across, with oval obtuse sepals. July.
W. China. Var. Wflsonii, Rehd. Last year's
branchlets grayish or pale brown: Ivs. somewhat
narrower, glossy above. W. China. M.D.G.
1912:26. The handsomest form of the species.
Var. setchuenensis, Rehd. (H. Bretschneideri
var. setchuenensis, Rehd.). Last year's branch-
lets light brown: Ivs. to 8 in. long and to 4 in.
broad, villous below. W. China. — This species
and its varieties have proved hardy at the Arnold
Arboretum. It is very similar to the preceding spe-
cies, but easily distinguished by the close bark.

HYDRANGEA

HYDRANGEA

1621

DD. Fertile fls. bluish or pink: Ivs. glabrous or pubescent
only on the veins below.

6. Davidii, Franch. Shrub, to 6 ft.: young branch-
lets finely appressed pubescent, older light brown: Ivs.
elliptic-lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, long-acuminate,
cuneate at the base, sinuately serrate, yellowish green
and nearly glabrous above, pubescent on the veins
below, 3^|-6 in. long: corymbs loose, convex, some-
times nearly paniculate, 6-8 in. across; sepals and
petals lanceolate; sterile fls. about 1^ in. across, with
3 or 4 sepals: caps, with the margin of the calyx about
or slightly below the middle. W. China. — Handsome
species with its large loose corymbs of blue fls.; tender.

7. opuloides, Koch (H. hortensis, Smith. H. Hor-
tensia, DC. H. japdnica, Sieb.). Shrub, to 8 ft., almost
glabrous: Ivs. ovate or ovate-elliptic, acuminate or
acute, coarsely serrate, 5-8 in. long: fls. in large cymes
without bracts, white, bluish or pink, few or all of
them sterile. — The greenhouse hydrangea. June, July,
but blooming in winter under glass. A large number of
varieties have been intro. from Japan and China,
where this species has been extensively cult, for
many centuries, and where it is native. The follow-
ing are some of the best known. They may be
divided into 3 groups:

(1) Japonica group: cymes flat, with sterile and
fertile fls.

Var. acuminata, Dipp. (H. acumindta, Sieb. & Zucc. ^
H. Buergeri, Sieb. & Zucc.). Lvs. ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, sparingly appressed-pubescent : sterile fls.
with elliptic entire sepals, usually blue. S.Z. 56, 57.
Var. Azisai, Dipp. (H. Azisai, Sieb.). Lvs. elliptic-
ovate, glabrous: sterile fls. with obovate sepals, long-
pedicelled, overtopping the fertile ones. S.Z. 51. Var
Belzdnii, Schneid. (H. Belzdnii, Sieb. & Zucc. H.
japdnica var. c&rulea, Hook. H. japonica var. cserules-
cens, Regel). Of dwarf er and stouter habit: Ivs. ovate
or obovate, short-acuminate, glabrous, somewhat thick :
sterile fls. whitish, pinkish, or bluish, with rhombic,
usually entire sepals. S.Z. 55. B.M. 4253. Here
belongs also var. Imperatrice Eugenie with pink fls.
R.H. 1868:471. Var. jap6nica, Schneid. (H. japdnica,
Sieb.). Lvs. ovate to elliptic, acuminate, glabrous:
sepals broadly ovate, toothed, pink. S.Z. 53. B.R.
30:61. R.H. 1874:90 (as H. acuminata). Var. macro-
sepala, Dipp. Differs from the former only by its
larger sepals. Gt. 15:520. Var. Mariesi, Hort., seems
also not much different, but has somewhat broader
Ivs., and the pink sterile fls. are very large. Gn. 54:
390. G.C. III. 23, suppl. May 28. G. 26:409. G.M.
41:347; 46:577, 578. G.W. 6, p. 557; 9, pp. 413, 414.
Var. Veitchii, Hort. Similar to the preceding variety,
but sterile fls. pure white, 3-3 ^ in. across. G. 26:175.
Var. Lindleylna, Rehd. (H. rosdlba, Van Houtte. H.
hortensis var. Lindleyana, Nichols.) . Lvs. ovate or ellip-
tic-ovate, acuminate, sparingly hairy: sepals dentate,
ovate or broadly ovate, white and pink, or white
changing to pink. F.S. 16:1649, 16.50. R.H. 1866:430.
Gn. 46:466. Var. serrata, Rehd. (H. serrdta, DC. H.
Thiinbergii, Sieb. & Zucc. H. cyanea, Hort.). Lvs. ellip-
tic or ovate, narrowed at both ends, serrate, sparingly
appressed-hairy, 1J4-3 in. long: cymes small, 3-4 in.
broad; fls. pinkish or bluish; sepals roundish, obtuse or
emarginate. S.Z. 58. G.C. 1870:1699.

(2} Hortensia group: cymes globose, with almost all

fls. sterile.

Var. cyanoclada, Dipp. (H. mandshurica, Koehne.
H. Hortensia var. nigra, Arb. Kew. H. nigra, Carr.
H. rdmulis coccineis and H. rdmulis pictis, Hort.).
Branches dark purple or v-iolet, often almost black: Ivs.
ovate-elliptic, acute: cymes large, with purple pedun-
cles; sepals pink or bluish, obovate. A.F. 5:361. Var.
Hortensia, Dipp. Lvs. large, elliptic, glabrous: sepals
broadly ovate, entire, usually pink. This is the form

which fir-st came into cult, outside of Japan and China,
and is said to have been intro. from China to England
in 1790, by Joseph Banks. B.M. 438. G.C. III.
24:45; 52:251. Gn. 45, p. 12; 50, pp. 123, 256, 367;
52, p. 281. F.E. 18:277. A.G. 1900:695. Gn.M. 2:66.

1931. Hydrangea panicu-
lata var. prsecox.

(XH)

G. 4:223; 15:139; 20:441. Var. plena, Regel. Similar
to the preceding, but sepals toothed. Var. otaksa,
Dipp. (H. otaksa, Sieb. & Zucc.). Fig. 1933. Dwarf er,
but of vigorous growth: Ivs. obovate, short-acumi-
nate, rather thick, glabrous: sepals obovate, entire,
, pink or blue. S.Z. 52. F.S. 17:1732, 1733. Gn. 50:
122. R.H. 1868:450. Mn. 5, p. 105. A.G. 11:415; 19:
suppl. Feb. 12; 44:415. A.F. 10:1015. F.E. 9:52,
401. Gng. 5:161; 6:7. Here belong also the following
4 forms: Var. otdksa monstrbsa, Lambert, with very
large heads. S.H. 2:517. G.W. 13, p. 43. Var. otdksa
monstrbsa nana, Brunnemann. A very dwarf form of
the preceding. M.D.G. 1909:235. Var. rbsea, Veitch.
Lvs. smaller, more finely serrate: fls. deep rose-color
or bright blue. Gt. 53:1533 (rose). R.H. 1904:544
(blue). Gn. 50:122. G.W. 7:582. Gn.W. 22:493.
Var. Thomas Hogg, Hort. Lvs. elliptic, or ovate: heads
pure white, large. One of the best as a pot-plant. It is
also to be recommended for outdoor cult., as it is one
of the hardiest. — Some beautiful forms mostly of
hybrid origin of the Hortensia group have recently
appeared in the trade, of these may be mentioned here :
Madame E. Mouillere, white fls. with crenate close
sepals. R.H. 1912, p. 62. M.D.G. 1911:41. G.C. III.
49:204. Gn. 75, p. 180. Beaute Vendomoise, fls. very
large, with clawed and crenate sepals, fls. therefore
open in the center. R.H. 1912, p. 63. Professor D.
Bois, fls. deep rose, large, sometimes 5 in. across. R.H.
1912, p. 325. Eclaireur, fls. large, rose-carmine, said to
be the most deeply colored form. Mademoiselle Renee
Gaillard, fls. white with dentate sepals. M.D.G. 1911:
38, 39. Avalanche, fls. pure white. Generale Vicomtesse
de Vibraye, with very large pink fls., with entire sepals.
R.B. 37:377. President Viger, very floriferous, clusters
large, fls. very large, with dentate sepals, bright pink.
Saarbrucken, dwarf, with very large heads of pink fls. ;
sepals denticulate. M.D.G. 1910:601. G.W. 15, p. 76.
For other varieties see: M.D.G. 1911:38-41,265-273;
1912:210, 211.

1622

HYDRANGEA

HYDRANGEA

(3) Stellata group: fls. with many narrow sepals.

Var. stellata, Dipp. (H. stellata, Sieb. & Zucc.).
Lvs. ovate or ovate-oblong, sparingly pubescent:
cymes with larger sterile and smaller fertile fls., both
with many narrow-elliptic sepals. S.Z. 59. Var.
fimbriata, Dipp. Cymes rather dense, with almost all
the fls. sterile; sepals fimbriate, white, pink toward the
base. G.C. III. 23, suppl. May 28. Var. prolifera,
Hort. (H. stellata var. prolifera, Regel). The fertile fls.
bearing 1 or few smaller ones in the center. Var.
rilbro-plena, Dipp. Cymes rather dense, with almost
all fls. sterile, changing from pink or pale lilac to dark
red.

There are also some varieties with variegated Ivs., as
var. variegata, Hort. (H. japonica variegata, Hort.),
a form of var. japonica with the Ivs. edged white (H.F.
1861:108); var. filbo-variegata, Hort. (H. japdnica
fol. dlbo-variegdtis, Hort.), a form of var. Belzonii,
with the Ivs. edged white (F.S. 7:696. G. 27:517);
var. tricolor, Hort., with the Ivs. variegated with white
and edged yellow; var. roseo-marginata, Hort., with
the Ivs. spotted white and edged pink; var. niyalis,
Hort. (H. Hortensia nivdlis, Bull & Sons). Lvs. with a
deep green margin and an irregular patch of creamy
white in the center. G.C. III. 32:455. G.M. 47:639.

1932. Hydrangea

Bretschneideri.

(XK)

cc. Ovary inferior, hence caps, truncate, with the calyx-
teeth at the apex; styles usually 2.
D. Cymes without involucre at the base.
E. Branchlets and Ivs. glabrous or Ivs. villous or tomentose
below: seeds not winged.
F. Lvs. glabrous below.

8. arborescens, Linn. (H. urticifolia, Hort.). Erect
shrub, 4-10 ft. : Ivs. long-petioled, ovate, acute or acu-
minate, rounded or cordate at the base, serrate, green
and glabrous on both sides or somewhat pubescent or
glaucous beneath, 3-6 in. long: cymes 2-5 in. broad,
with none or few sterile fls. June, July. N. J. to Iowa,
south to Fla. and Mo. B.M. 437. G.W. 15, p. 612.

Var. cordata, Torr. & Gray, has the Ivs. broadly ovate
and cordate. Var. sterilis, Torr. & Gray. A form with
all the fls. sterile; sepals broadly oval, rounded or
mucronate at the apex: Ivs. oval to oblong-ovate,
rounded or abruptly contracted at the base. It is
doubtful whether this form is still in cult. Var. grandi-
fldra, Rehd. A form of var. cordata with all the fls.
sterile: heads 5-7 in. across; fls. %-l in. across with
ovate acute sepals: Ivs. ovate to ovate-elliptic, cordate
or rounded at the base. M.D.G. 1907:380; 1909:4;
1912:472. Gn. 75, p. 435. G.W. 13, p. 617. R.B.
33:375; 34:259. G. 31:671. F.E. 22:70; 28:359;
31:606. G.M. 50:357.— A striking plant with its
showy large heads of white fls.; quite hardy.

FF. Lvs. tomentose or densely grayish pubescent below.

9. cinerea, Small. Shrub, to 6 ft. : Ivs. membranous,
oval or broadly ovate to ovate-oblong, rounded or
cordate at the base, serrate, densely grayish pubescent
below, 2J^-6 in. long: corymbs 2-5 in. across, usually
with sterile fls. June, July. B.B. 2 : 185 (as H. radiata) ;
(ed. 2) 2:231. N. C. to Tenn. and Ala. Var. sterilis,
Rehd. All fls. sterile, in dense heads 5-7 in. across;
fls. about 3/£in. across with oval obtuse sepals. F.E.
28:359; 30:911.

10. radiata, Walt. (H. nivea, Michx.). Similar to the
former, but Ivs. leathery, densely whitish tomentose
and reticulate beneath and cymes always with sterile
fls. June, July. N. C. and S. C. F.E. 32:11.

EE. Branchlets strigose or bristly and Ivs. strigose or

densely clothed with rough hairs: seed winged.

F. Base of Ivs. rounded or subcordate.

11. Sargentiana, Rehd. Shrub, to 6 ft. with stout
upright branches clothed with harsh hairs and stiff
bristles: young growth more or less purple: Ivs. ovate
to ovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, crenate-serrate,
dull green and hairy above, densely rough-villous
below, 6-12 in. long; petioles 1^-3^ in- long: cymes
nearly flat, dense, 5-6 K in- across; fertile fls. pale
violet, the sterile fls. white; style 2-3. July, Aug.
Cent. China. B.M. 8447. Gn. 77, p. 264. G.M. 55:
suppl. p. 5, June 1. — A strikingly handsome plant with
its large Ivs., the dense pubescence purplish on the
young growth and with its large cymes bluish violet
in the center and surrounded by conspicuous white
sterile fls. It is rather tender and can be grown out-
doors in the S. only and demands a shady position.

12. R6sthornii, Diels. Shrub, to 12 ft.: branchlets
strigose: Ivs. roundish-ovate or ovate, occasionally
ovate-oblong, acuminate, cordate at the base, unequally
or doubly fimbriate-dentate, sparingly strigose above,
densely grayish strigose and reticulate below, 4-9 in.
long and 3-7 in. broad; petiole 1^-4 in. long: cymes
4-7 in. across; sterile fls. 1-1 M m- across, white or
purplish; sepals suborbicular or oval, entire or serrate;
styles 2. July. W. China.

FF. Base of Ivs. cuneate.

13. strigdsa, Rehd. (H. dspera, Hemsl., not Don).
Shrub, to 8 ft.: branchlets strigose: Ivs. oblong-ovate
to elliptic-lanceolate or lanceolate, acuminate, serrulate
or serrate, sparingly strigose or nearly glabrous above,
densely strigose below, 3-7 in. long; petiole about 1
in. long: cymes 4-6 in. across; sterile fls. white or some-
times purple, \-\Yi in. across, with broadly oval,
entire or serrate sepals; styles 2. Aug. Cent. China.
Var. macrophylla, Rehd. (H. dspera var. macrophylla,
Hemsl.). Lvs. 8-12 in. long: cymes to 8 in. across with
the sterile fls. about 2 in. broad.

DD. Cyme inclosed before expanding by 6-8 large,
deciduous bracts.

14. involucrata, Sieb. Low shrub, to 5 ft.: Ivs.
oblong, acuminate, densely and sharply serrate,
appressed-pubescent on both sides, rough to the touch,

HYDRANGEA

HYDRIASTELE

1623

4-8 in. long: bracts at the base of the cyme large,
orbicular; smaller bracts none: fertile fls. blue or pink-
ish, sterile ones whitish: caps, with the calyx at the apex:
styles usually 2. Aug. Japan. S.Z. 63. J.H. III.
32 : 103. H. Sapphire, intro. 1890, seems to belong here.
Var. hortensis, Maxim. Fls. double, usually pink and
often proliferous. S.Z. 64. F.S. 3:187.

AA. Shrubs climbing by aerial rootlets: petals cap-like,
cohering, falling off as a whole.

15. petiolaris, Sieb. & Zucc. (H. scdndens, Maxim.,
not DC. H. volubilis, Hort.). Climbing to 80 ft. in
Japan: Ivs. long-petioled, broadly ovate-cordate to
elliptic, acute or acuminate, serrate, almost glabrous,
2-4 in. long: cymes rather loose, 8-10 in. across, with
rather few sterile fls.; stamens 15; styles usually 2:
caps, with the calyx at the apex. July. Japan, Saghalin.
B.M. 6788. S.Z. 54, 59, 2, 92. M.D.G. 1897:236, 237.
S.H. 2:191, 193. Gn. 62, p. 248; 64, p. 219. G. 35:461.
— A very variable species, figured and described by Sieb.
& Zucc. under 3 different names. In gardens it is often
met with under the name of Schizophragma hydran-
geoides, another Japanese climber of similar habit,
which, however, is easily distinguished by its sinuately
dentate Ivs. and its sterile fls. having only 1 large
cordate sepal.

16. anomala, Don (H.aUissima,Wall.). High climb-
ing, glabrous: Ivs. ovate to elliptic-ovate or ovate-
oblong, broadly cuneate at the base, denticulate-
serrate, 2-4 in. long; petioles %-2 in. long: cymes
loose, puberulous, 4-6 in. across; stamens 10; sterile
fls. few or sometimes wanting, about 1 in. across, with
suborbicular sepals. July. W. China, Himalayas.
Wallich, Tent. Flor. Nepal. 50.

H. dspera, Don. Shrub, to 20 ft., similar to H. strigosa: Ivs.
oblong-lanceolate, fimbriate-denticulate, densely villous beneath:
sepals usually toothed: styles usually 3. Himalayas. Tender. — H.
canescens, Koch (H. arborescens X H. radiata). Very similar to H.
cinerea, but the hairs smooth or nearly smooth under the micro-
scope, in H. cinerea tuberculate. Garden origin. — H. hirta, Sieb. &
Zucc. Shrub, to 4 ft.: Ivs. broad-elliptic, coarsely incised-serrate:
cymes without sterile fls. Japan. S. Z. 62. Not very decorative.—
H. longipes, Franch. Allied to H. Rosthornii. Lvs. thinner, smaller,
more coarsely serrate, sparingly strigose or glabrescent below;
petioles 2-7 in. long. Cent, and W. China. — H. robusta, Hook. f. &
Thorns. (H. cyanema, Nutt.). Closely related to H. Rosthornii.
Spreading shrub, to 15 ft., with large ovate Ivs., pubescent on both
sides: sterile fls. with toothed sepals. Himalayas. B. M. 5038.
Handsome in bloom, but tender. — H. rdseo-paniculata, Foucard.
Supposed to be a hybrid of H. paniculata and H. opuloides. Fls.
rose-carmine. R. H. 1912, p. 324. — //. villdsa, Rehd. Allied to H.
strigosa. Branchlets, petioles and cymes clothed with spreading
villous hairs: Ivs. strigose above, with a rough woolly tomentum
below, 4-7 in. long. W. China. Var. strigdsior, Rehd. Branchlets
and petioles with shorter and fewer or without spreading hairs: Ivs.
smaller. — H. rirens, Sieb. Slender shrub, to 6 ft. : Ivs. elliptic or
lanceolate, coarsely serrate, 1-2)4 in- cymes rather few-fld., sterile
fls. with 3 or 4 large, unequal sepals, white. Japan. S. Z. 60. A
desirable shrub, with graceful and delicate fls. and with the Ivs.
often handsomely variegated along the veins, but tender.

ALFRED REHDER.

HYDRASTIS (name of doubtful meaning). Ranuncu-
lacese. Hardy herbaceous perennials, grown in a few
gardens for their showy leaves and beautiful red fruit.
The roots are ground when dry and used for medicine.

Stem erect, pubescent: Ivs. palmately 5-7-lobed,
serrate: fls. greenish white, small, solitary; sepals 3,
petal-like, falling early; petals none; stamens many:
carpels 2-ovuled, in fr. becoming aggregated berries.
—Two species, 1 from Japan and 1 from N. Amer.,
the former (H . jezoensis, Sieb.) apparently not in cult.

Moist situations in good, rich loam with plenty of
leaf -mold are required. Seeds may be sown in moist,
shaded soil of a sandy nature. This is done in fall or
early spring. The seeds should be covered very slightly
but a mulch or covering is helpful. Plants which have
grown in one place for a number of years are easily
propagated by division of the roots in late fall or early
spring. The commercial cultivation of goldenseal for
medicinal purposes is explained in Farmers' Bulletin
No. 613 (United States Department of Agriculture) by
Walter Van Fleet.

canadensis, Linn. ORANGE ROOT. GOLDENSEAL.
St. 4-10 in. long, from a thick, yellow rootstock: basal
Ivs. 5-8 in. broad; st.-lvs. 2, lower one petioled, upper
sessile and near the small fl. : fr. in ovoid raspberry-like
head, the &-12 fleshy carpels tipped with a short, curved
beak. April. E. U. S., as far south as Mo. and Ga., in
rich woods. B.M. 3019 (in flower); 3232 (in fruit).

K. C. DAVIS.

HYDRIASTELE (Greek, water and column; the tall
trunks growing near springs). Palmdcese, tribe Arecese.
A monotypic genus containing a tropical Australian
palm advertised sometimes as Kentia Wendlandiana.
This may belong to Exorrhiza, which see. If it is a
true Hydriastele, however, it is told from the kentias
in foliage by the leaf-segments split at the apex instead
of acuminate and not split.

1933. Hydrangea hortensis var. otaksa.

More fundamentally, Hydriastele differs in having
the ovule on the side of the cell instead of at the bot-
tom, as in Kentia. In this respect it agrees with the
group of genera mentioned under Hedyscepe, but it
differs from that group in having the fls. borne in 4
ranks instead of spirally. Hydriastele is a spineless
palm with erect winged caudex: lys. terminal, pinnati-
sect; segms. alternate, linear, split at the apex; mid-
veins covered below with caducous scales; margins thin;
rachis laterally compressed, dorsally convex; face of
the petiole concave; sheath rather short: spadices with
short, wide peduncles, branched from the base, the
branches obtusely quadrate, long, slender, pendulous:
spathes 2, complete, compressed, deciduous, the lower
one ancipital: bracts and bractlets connate: fr. small,
ellipsoidal, smooth or ribbed.

This distinct and excellent palm has hitherto been
rare, but now that the seeds are being produced in tropi-
cal nurseries it is fast becoming popular. The seeds are
round, fairly hard, and resemble those of Archonto-
phcenix Alexandras. The characteristic leaves are
pinnatifid, the segments being irregular and somewhat
jagged at the apex, after the fashion of a fish-tail palm
or caryota. It stands the temperature of an ordinary
living-room better than many other palms. For rapid
growth it needs more heat than Howea Belmoreana and
H. Forsteriana. In the greenhouse a temperature of
60° to 70° is most congenial. A lower temperature will
not hurt it, but gives a slower and more compact growth.
It loves plenty of moisture, and frequent syringing is

1624

HYDRIASTELE

HYDROCOTYLE

Vf

beneficial. For potting soil, it likes rich loam, with
plenty of sharp sand and good drainage. The seeds and
seedlings should be treated more like the commercial
areca, i.e., Chrysalidocarpus lutescens. It forms a sin-
gle stem when only 3 feet high, and grows to a height
of 20 feet or more in cultivation. It is at its best when

10 to 15 feet high.
When well estab-
lished and pot-
bound it loves
high feeding, as
does Chrysalido-
carpus lutescens.
(H. A. Siebrecht.)
Wendlandiana,
H. Wendl. &
Drude (Kentia
Wendlandiana, F.
Muell.). A tall
.palm in nature
with the Ivs.
many feet long;
.segms. numerous,
unequal, the long-
est \Yi ft., the
upper ones con-
fluent at the base,
all denticulate at
the apex. Queens-
land.

N. TAYLOR.!

HYDRILLA

(water plant with
whorledlvs.). Hy-
drocharitacese. One
aquatic plant of
Cent. Eu., Asia
and Austral.,
offered abroad as a water or aquarium subject. H.
verticillata, Gasp. Forming large masses, leafy, sub-
merged, dioecious: Ivs. linear or oblong, serrulate or
entire, 4-8 in a whorl, very short (M~^m- long) : sterile
or male fls. solitary and short-pedicelled in a sessile
spathe; sepals, petals and stamens 3: fertile or female
fls. 1-2 and sessile in the spathe; sepals and petals 3;
ovary extending beyond the spathe into a beak; stigmas
3: fls. very small; the male fls. detach and float.

L. H. B.

HYDRO CHARIS (Greek, graceful water plant).
Hydrocharitdceae. FROGBIT. A monotypic genus, an
aquatic plant, grown in a few aquaria. It is found in
ditches and ponds in Eu. and Temp. Asia. H. Morsus-
ranae, Linn., has floating sts. resembling runners,
and tufts of radical Ivs. and submerged roots: Ivs.
stalked, roundish, with a heart-shaped base, rather
thick, about 2 in. across: peduncles of the staminate
plant bearing 2-3 fls. on long pedicels, which spring
from a spathe of 2 thin bracts; petals 3, white, sta-
mens 3-12; spathe of the pistillate fls. sessile among
the Ivs.; styles 6, with 2-cleft stigmas. For American
frogbit, see Limnobium. Hydrocharis dies in the fall,
but winter-buds (see similar buds of Elodea, Fig. 1391)
break off and sink when the old plants die. In spring,
or in the greenhouse or aquarium under genial condi-
tions, they start early into growth, the scales bursting
and a young If. developing and then the whole rises to
the surface. It is a very interesting plant. Its fine,
silky roots are beautiful and attractive in the aqua-
rium, as well as the soft, tender Ivs. and delicate fls.

WM. THICKER.

HYDROCLEIS (water key). Butomacese. Sometimes
spelled Hydrocleys. Water plants, one of which is
very useful for summer ponds and for aquaria.

Floating: Ivs. broad, ovate to strap-shaped: fls. per-

1934. Hydrocleis nymphoides. (X%)

feet, mostly large; sepals 3, coriaceous and persistent;
petals 3, thin and fugacious; stamens many or nu-
merous, the external sterile : carpels 3, rarely 4 or 6 or
even 8, lance-linear, connate at base, gradually atten-
uate into the style. — The latest monograph (Buchenau,
Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 16, 1903) recognizes 3
species, from Brazil. The genus is sometimes united
with Limnocharis, from which it differs in having
definite rather than many carpels, and the papillose
introrse stigmas.

nymphoides, Buchen. (H. Commersonii, Rich. H.
Humboldtii, Endl. Limnocharis Humboldtii, Rich. L.
Cdmmersonii, Spreng. L. nymphoides, Mich. Stra-
tidtes nymphoides, Willd. Vespuccia Humboldtii, Parl.).
WATER-POPPY. Fig. 1934. Perennial: st. prostrate and
rooting: Ivs. broad-cordate-oval, thick, mostly floating:
fls. and Ivs. arising from bracted nodes, both long-
stalked: fls. 2-2^ in. across, with 3 obovate-rounded
light yellow petals: carpels 5-7, not united. Brazil, to
Buenos Ayres. B.M. 3248. B.R. 1640.— A handsome
plant with the yellow fls. (lasting 1 day) standing well
above the water. In habit, remarkably like Limnan-
themum nymphoides. Grows well in an aquarium or in
shallow water. Continuous bloomer; not hardy to
frost. The cult, of Hydrocleis nymphoides is of the
simplest. When grown in tubs, fill them in two-thirds
full of moderately rich soil, covering with sand and fill
up with water. Two or 3 plants planted in the center
hi a short tune will furnish the tub with its bright
glossy green Ivs. and numbers of its bright cheery yel-
low fls., which continue late in the season. In natural
ponds, planted on the edge, the plants grow very rapidly,
and spread over a large surface of water. In artificial
ponds, plant in tubs or boxes and place in shallow
water or stand the tub or box on some stand, allowing
6-9 in. depth of water. WILLIAM TRICKEK.

L. H. B.

HYDROCOTYLE (Greek, water and cup; the plants
thrive in moist places, and the roundish leaves have
a cup-like depression in the middle). Umbelliferse.
WATER PENNYWORT. Slender creeping perennials of
wet places, one of which is somewhat used in carpet-
bedding.

Herbs, with round or reniform often peltate Ivs.,
and scale-like stipules at the base of the petioles: fls.

1935. Hydrocotyle rotundifolia. (XH)

very small, white, in umbels or umbel-like clusters
opposite the Ivs., sometimes 1 umbel appearing above
another; calyx-teeth minute; petals entire, concave:
fr. strongly compressed. — Species about 75, widely
distributed around the world, several being native in
the U. S. and Canada.

rotundifolia, Roxbg. (H. sibthorpioldes, Lem. Sib-
thdrpia europaea, Hort., not Linn.). Fig. 1935. Lvs.

HYDROCOTYLE

HYLOCEREUS

1625

shining, J^-l in. across, orbicular, cordate, subentire or
7-9-lobed to the middle or lower, doubly crenate": umbel
6-8-fld.: fr. 2-ribbed. Trop. Asia and Afr. — Numerous
synonyms are accounted for by the variable length of
the petiole. Prostrate, rooting at the nodes.

vulgaris, Linn., offered abroad: creeping or floating,
rooting at the nodes: Ivs. orbicular, 1 in. or less across,
crenate or slightly lobed, centrally attached, the peti-
oles surpassing the peduncles: fls. minute, white, in 2
or 3 whorls or in a single umbel: marshes and bogs, and
edges of ponds. Eu. L. H. B.f

HYDROLEA (probably from water, because of the
habitat). Hydrophyllacese. Annual or perennial herbs
or subshrubs, scarcely cult., of warm countries and a
few in the U. S.; species perhaps a dozen: now often
included with Nama (which see) : branching plants,
sometimes spiny: Ivs. ovate or lanceolate, entire, pin-
nate-veined: fls. blue or white, in clusters or solitary;
corolla broadly campanulate or nearly rotate, 5-cleft;
stamens 5, about the length of the corolla, with fila-
ments dilated below: fr. a globular caps, with minute
seeds. Four species occur in the U. S.: H. corymbosa,
Ell. (Nama corymbdsum, Kuntze), with clustered blue
yellow-nerved fls. %m- across, and oblong to oblanceo-
late Ivs.: S. C. to Fla. H. quadrivdlvis, Walt. (H.
carolinidna, Michx. Nama quadrivdlvis, Kuntze), with
solitary or few-clustered blue or lilac fls., and h'near-
elliptic Ivs. : Va., south. H . ovdta, Nutt. (Nama ovdtum,
Brit.), with purplish or white fls. in leafy-bracted pani-
cles, and ovate or elliptic Ivs. Swamps, Mo. to La. and
Texas. H. affinis, Gray (Nama affine, Kuntze), with
violet fls. in few-fld. leafy clusters, and linear-elliptic Ivs.
Ind. and 111. to Miss, and Texas. L, jj, jj.

HYDROPHYLLUM (Greek, water-leaf; application
obscure). Hydrophylldcese. WATER-LEAF. A half-
dozen or more American hardy herbaceous plants,
mostly perennial, suitable for wild gardens and for
colonizing in shady rich places.

Plants with pinnate or palmately cut foliage and
cymose clusters of numerous small white, lilac, light
blue, purplish or violet fls. in early summer: floral
parts in 5's; calyx appendaged or not; corolla bell-
shaped, the tube within bearing a linear longitudinal
appendage opposite each lobe, with infolded edges,
forming a nectar-bearing groove; stamens and 2 styles
usually exserted: caps. 2-yalved, with 1-4 nearly globu-
lar seeds. — Mostly in moist woods and copses. The per-
ennial species are useful for planting about remote bor-
ders of shrubbery, where they take care of themselves.

A. Calyx appendaged with a reflexed lobe at each

sinus: biennial.

appendiculatum, Michx. Loosely branching, 1-2 ft.,
hirsute with long spreading hairs: root-lvs. pinnately
5-7-parted; st.-lvs. palmately 5-7-angulated-lobed :
fls. violet or purple, the stamens little exserted. Vt.,
south and west.

AA. Calyx not prominently appendaged (often minutely

appendaged in H. canadense): perennial.

B. Lvs. pinnately cut.

capitatum, Douglas. Tufted, about 9 in. high, with
fascicled fleshy roots: Ivs. softly hirsute or pubescent,
ovate or roundish, 5-7-parted, the divisions lobed and
cleft: fls. in close clusters, on peduncle shorter than
petiole, blue. Colo., west.

occidentale, Gray. Pubescent, hirsute or sparingly
hispid, 1-2 ft.: divisions of the If. 7-15: fls. violet-pur-
ple, varying to white; peduncle longer than the petioles.
Calif., Ore.

virginianum, Linn. Glabrous or nearly so, 1-2 % ft.:
Ivs. pinnately divided, the &-7 divisions ovate-lanceo-
late or oblong: fls. white or violet-purple, the peduncles
longer than the petioles. Quebec, west and south.

BB. Lvs. palmately cut.

canadense, Linn. Nearly smooth, 1-2^ ft.: Ivs.
5-7-lobed, rounded: fls. mostly greenish white, some-
times purplish the peduncles usually shorter than
petioles. B.R. 242. L. H. B.

HYDRO SME (name probably refers to the wet or
aquatic habitat). Ardcese. By some held to be the
proper genus for Amorphophallus Rivieri (H. Rivieri,
Engl.); but in the latest monograph (Engler, Pflan-
zenreich, hft. 48, 1911) it is included in Amorphophal-
lus, as is also Corynophallus, constituting a section of
the genus. When kept distinct from Amorphophallus,
the separation is largely on technical characters of the
seeds.

The section Corynophallus of the genus Amorpho-
phallus, as accepted by Engler, comprises only Amor-
phophallus leonensis, Lem. (Corynophallus Afzelii,
Hort. C. leonensis, Engl. Hydrosme leonensis, Engl.),
which is sometimes cult, in two or three forms (Vol. I,
p. 276): peduncle very stout, 3-8 in. high, from an
oblate tuber, bearing a pyriform erect spathe 6 in. high;
tube of spathe 1% in. diam, white; limb concave, 3^
in. broad at about the middle, rounded at top; mouth of
spathe dark purple streaked with dirty white and bear-
ing a few roundish spots; lips of spathe black-purple,
incurved: spadix expanding toward the top so that it
nearly fills the spathe, brown and mottled: If. 1, appear-
ing after the fls., on an erect petiole 2-3 ft. high, the
blade about 12 in. across and trisect; primary segms.
1- or 2-pinnatifid, the ultimate segms. narrow-linear.
Sierra Leone, and adjacent regions. B.M. 7768. F.S.
2:161. G.C. 1872:1619. Var. spectdbilis, N.E. Br.
(Corynophallus Afzelii var. spectdbilis, Mast.), petiole
bearing obscure linear-oblong spots. Var. elegans,
N. E. Br. (C. Afzelii var. elegans, Mast.), petiole green,
segms. 2-pinnatisect, the ultimate segms. very narrow.
Var. latifolia, N. E. Br. (C. Afzelii var. latifolia,
Mast.), petiole green, segms. pinnatisect, the ulti-
mate segms. broader and confluent. — This variable
species may be found only rarely in choice collections.

L. H. B.

HYDROTJENIA (Greek, water and band; referring
to a triangular glandular bar which secretes nectar).
Iriddcese. Four species of tender bulbs from Mexica
and Peru, more curious than beautiful, allied to
Tigridia.

From Tigridia (with which the genus is sometimes
united), it is distinguished by the perianth-segms.
lacking a spreading blade, the perianth being campanu-
late; tube none; filaments united in a cylindrical
column as long as the anthers; ovary clavate, 3-celled:
sts. 1-3 ft., simple, or slightly branched above, bearing
1 or more Ivs. : cormous.

Van Hotlttei, Baker. St. 2-3 ft. long, bearing 2-3
fls.: Ivs. lanceolate, plaited, the lower 1 ft. long: spathes
inflated, 2 in. long: outer segms. oblong, over 1 in. long,
greenish outside, inside dark brown, much veined,
yellowish at tip, very obtuse: inner segms. suborbicular,
half as long, pale lilac, somewhat veined. Mex. F.S.
21:2174 (as Tigridia Van Houttei). — Conn said to be
eaten in its native region. L H. B.

HYLOCEREUS (wood and Cereus). Cactdcese. A
high - climbing cactus, with stems three -angled or
-winged, adhering to walls and trees by numerous aerial
roots.

Spines small, usually inconspicuous: fls. nocturnal,
usually very large, with red or greenish sepals, white or
pinkish petals : fr. large, spineless, covered with numer-
ous If.-like bracts. — Some 16 species of this genus are
known, but only 1, and that under a wrong name, is
grown to any extent in this country. The species are
easily grown in hothouses, especially if given a wall to
climb upon. A very curious small-fld. species, H.

1626

HYLOCEREUS

HYMENOCALLIS

minutiflorus, has recently been described by Britton
& Rose. It flowers freely in Washington and New York,
but as yet has not been very widely distributed.

tricostatus, Brit. & Rose (Cereus tricostdtus, Gosselin.
C. trianguldris of most writers, not of Haw.). Plate
LVII. Vines often 20-40 ft. long, green: ribs 3, thin,
crenate, with a corneous margin: spines 2-4 from each
areole, short: fls. about 1 ft. long, white: fr. large, red
without, white within, edible. Mex. B.M. 1884.

H. extensus, Brit. & Rose (Cereus extensus, Salm-Dyck). Sts.
creeping, perhaps also sometimes climbing, bearing aerial roots,
green, rather slender, 3-sided, with obtuse angles: fls. large and
handsome; sepals tipped and margined with red; petals rose-colored;
style thick, longer than the stamens. This species was described
by De Candolle in 1828, but it is unknown in cult, and in a wild
state. A species under this name was figured in B. M. for 1844,
but this may or may not be the plant described by De Candolle. —
H. napolednis, Brit. & Rose (Cereus napoleonis, Graham). Sts.
much branched, with 3 acute angles; spines 4-5, rigid, 4-5 lines
long: fls. 8 in. long; sepals yellow; petals pure white. This species
is not in cult, and is not known in the wild state. It was described
and figured from a plant which flowered in Edinburgh about 1836.
It is occasionally reported in cult.; but all such material seems to

J. N. ROSE.

HYMEN.5JA (Greek, nuptial; in allusion to the paired
Ifts.). Leguminosae. Ten species of evergreen unarmed
trees in Trop. Amer.: Ivs. alternate, with 1 pair of
coriaceous Ifts. : fls. in short corymbose panicles; sepals
4; petals 5, generally oblong, scarcely longer than
sepals; stamens 10, distinct; ovary short-stalked with
few seeds: pod oblong to obovate, thick, often nearly
cylindric, woody, indehiscent. The following species is
the most important of the genus and occasionally cult,
in tropical collections and in greenhouses of botanic
gardens for its economic interest. Prop, is by cuttings
in summer under glass with bottom heat or by seeds.
It yields a fragrant amber-like resin known as cour-
baril, or American or West Indian copal; the heavy,
close-grained and hard wood is used for wheelwork,
tree-nails, beams and in various machinery; the sweetish
acid pulp of the pods is eaten by the Indians.

Courbarfl, Linn. Tree, to 60 ft. : Ifts. 2, nearly sessile,
oblong, very oblique at the base, acuminate, glabrous,
about 3 in. long; petiole >£in. long: fls. short-pedicellate;
petals about %in. long, yellow, striped purplish: pod
few-seeded, 3-4 in. long. W. Indies to Brazil.

ALFRED REHDEK.

HYMENANTHERA (from the Greek for membrane
and anther, in allusion to the anthers being terminated by
a membrane). Syn. Solendntha. Violacese. Stiff shrubs
or small trees: Ivs. alternate or sometimes fascicled,
entire or toothed, with small fugacious stipules: fls.
small, axillary or on the naked branches below the Ivs.,
regular, hermaphrodite or unisexual: fr. a small sub-
globose berry; seeds 2, rarely 3-4. — About half a dozen
species from New Zeal., Austral., Tasmania and
Norfolk Isls. H . crassifolia, Hook, f., is offered abroad.
A low, rigid, much-branched shrub 2-4 ft. high: bark
white, furrowed: Ivs. very thick and coriaceous, linear-
spathulate, entire, sinuate or toothed: fls. small, soli-
tary or few together, axillary: berry white or purplish,
K-Min. diam. New Zeal. Gn. 75, p. 568. — A variable
species. Should be grown in a warm, sunny place as a
rock-garden plant. Prop, by seeds, cuttings or layers
in summer. Good for amateurs on account of the early
fls., March to April, and particularly the ornamental
berries, which retain their characters a long time. In
cold climates needs winter protecton; hardy in south of
England. L H B

HYMENOCALLIS (beautiful membrane, alluding to
the webbed filaments). Including Ismene. Amarylli-
dacese. SPIDER-LILY. SEA-DAFFODIL. Bulbous plants
of the warm parts of the New World (one in Africa),
cultivated for the fragrant white (in one species yellow)
umbellate flowers.

Perianth salverform, with a cylindrical tube, equal
linear or lanceolate segms.; stamens 6, the filaments

free above but webbed and united into a cup below,
the anthers narrow and versatile; ovary 3-loculed, with
2 collateral ovules in each, bearing a long slender style
and very small capitate stigma: scape solid and com-
pressed, arising from a tunicated bulb: Ivs. oblong or
strap-shape. — Species about 40, from N. C. and Mo. to
S. Amer., 1 from W. Afr. The genus is represented in
the Old World by Pancratium, which differs chiefly
in having many superposed ovules in each locule.

Some of the species of Hymenocallis are winter
bloomers: these should be treated essentially like
crinums, being rested or kept slow in the summer.
They require a warm temperature. Of such are H.
macrostephana, H. speciosa, H. caribsea. Other species
require an intermediate or conservatory temperature,
and bloom in spring or summer, resting in winter.
Of such are H. calathina, H. Harrisiana, H. Made-
ana, H. rotata, H. littoralis. Some of these latter or
intermediate-house species are hardy in the southern
states, there blooming in spring, as H. lacera, H. gal-
vestonensis, and others. The species of hymenocallis
require no special treatment (see Bulb), except that
the same bulbs may be flowered year after year if they
receive good care. Use turfy or peaty soil that will not
become "sour" or soggy. Propagation is by offsets
from the bulbs. See Amaryllis, for the general handling
of this class of bulbs.

angustifolia, 3.
calathina, 12.
caribaea, 7.
declinatum, 7.
galvestonensis, 8.

INDEX.

Harrisiana, 6.
lacera, 9.
littoralis, 4.
Macleana, 11.

rotata, 9.
senegambica, 5.
speciosa, 3.
tubiflora, 1.

macrostephana, 10. undulata, 2.

A. Filaments long and slender beyond the small cup.
B. Lvs. distinctly petioled.

1. tubifldra, Salisb. Bulb ovoid, about 4 in. diam.,
short-necked: If .-blade about a foot long and one-third
to one-half as broad at the middle, the petiole 6-12 in.
long: scape 1 ft. tall; fls. many in the umbel and sessile,
the valves or bracts broad and cuspidate; tube of
perianth greenish, 6-8 in. long, the linear white reflex-
ing segms. 4 in. long; cup 1 in. long, not toothed, less
than half or a third the length of the free part of the
filament. N. E. S. Amer. B.R. 265 (as Pancratium
guianense, Ker).

2. undulata, Herb. Fig. 1936. Bulb ovoid, 3-4 in.
diam.: Ivs. with an oblong blade 1 ft. long and half as
wide, cross- veined : scape 2 ft. long, compressed; fls.
about 10, sessile, the tube 6-7 in. long, and the segms.
3-4 in. long and linear, white, with tinged red cup an

inch long. Venezuela.

3. specidsa, Salisb. Bulb globular,
3-4 in. diam. : Ivs. 20 or less, large (often
2 ft. long), oblanceolate-oblong and
acute, narrowed into a channelled

1936. Bulbs of hymenocallis and pancratium, as named in the
trade. — Left, Pancratium maritimum; center, Hymenocallis cala-
thina; right, H. undulata.

HYMENOCALLIS

HYMENODTUM

1627

petiole: scape mostly shorter than the foliage, glaucous;
fls. 10-15, on very short pedicels, the bracts or spathe-
valves 3-4 in. long; tube of perianth greenish, 3-4 in.
long, the segms. often twice longer (entire fl. often
9 in. long); cup about lj/2 in. long, toothed, the free
parts of the filaments little longer than the cup. W.
Indies. B.M. 1453. Gn. 47, p. 294. F. 1883, p. 71.—
One of the best. The bulb improves with age if care is
taken in growing and repotting. The Ivs. are evergreen
and handsome. Fls. very fragrant, and retaining their
scent even when dried. Blooms in winter. This and H.
macrostephana are the most showy species. Var.
angustifolia, Worsley, is a very stiff narrow-lvd. form
of recent date.

BB. Lvs. not petioled, strap-shaped.
C. Perianth-tube mostly above 3 in. long.

4. littoralis, Salisb. Bulb 3-4 in. diam.: Ivs. about
12, 2-3 ft. long, 1^2 in. broad, acute: scape 2-edged, 2
ft. or less tall; fls. 4-8 in a sessile umbel, the tube 6-7 in.
long and green-tinged, the segms. linear and recurved,
4 in. long, joined to the base of the cup; the cup funnel-
shape, broader and longer, toothed, the free part of the
filaments about 2-3 in. long; style about equaling the
stamens. Trop. Amer., widely distributed. Gn. 53, p.
57. — Long known in cult., but less showy than other
species.

5. senegambica, Kunth & Bouche. Lvs. somewhat
curved, acute, 2 ft. long, 2 in. broad at the widest place:
scape about as long as the Ivs.; fls. 6-8 in a sessile
umbel, the tube 5-6 in. long, segms. very narrow and
4 in. long; cup funnel-shaped, 1 in. long and somewhat
broader, the free parts of the filaments 2 in. long.
W. Afr.

6. Harrisiana, Herb. Bulb globular, small (less than
2 in. diam.) : Ivs. only 3-6, a foot long and 2 in. broad,
much narrowed below: scape less than 1 ft. tall, slen-
der, glaucous; fls. 2-3 in a sessile umbel, the tube slen-
der and 3-4 in. long, the segms. linear and 3 in. or less
long; cup funnel-shaped, %in. long, plicate, small-
toothed, the free filaments 1^ in. long and often exceed-
ing the style. Mex. B.M. 6562. — Flowers in early
summer. Hardy S.

cc. Perianth-tube mostly under 8 in. long.

7. caribsea, Herb. (Pancratium caribseum, Linn. P.
declinatum, Jacq.). Bulb globular, 3-4 in. diam.: Ivs.
thin, 12 or more, not 2-ranked, shining, 2-3 ft. long, 2-3
in. broad at the widest place: scape sharp-angled,
nearly or quite as long as the Ivs. ; umbel sessile, 6-12-
fld.; tube 2-3 in. long, the segms. linear and somewhat
exceeding it; cup 1 in. long, toothed, the free part of
the filaments 1^-2 in. long. W. Indies. B.M. 826. L.
B.C. 6:558.

8. galvestonensis, Baker. Scape 1-2 ft. long, rather
shorter than the linear Ivs. : umbel sessile, 4-6; perianth-
tube 2-3 in. long (sometimes shorter), mostly a little
shorter than the linear segms.; cup 1J4 in. or less long,
funnel-shape, the edge erect, the free part of the fila-
ments little more than }^in. long. Texas. — Intro, to
cult, with the statement that it "may be planted out in

Gardens all over the N. like a peony and prove hardy."
pring or early summer.

9. rotata, Herb. (H. Idcera, Salisb. Pancratium rota-
turn, Ker). Bulb ovoid, 2 in. or less diam., with a long
neck and producing stolons or runners: Ivs. 6-8,
linear, 1J-2 ft. or less long, flat above but concave
toward the base: scape 2-edged, glaucous, about as
long as the Ivs. ; umbel sessile, with 2-6 fls. ; tube green,
3-4 in. long, exceeded by the linear, often recurved
lobes; cup saucer-shaped or rotate, irregularly toothed,
the free part of the filaments \}/% in. long. N. C. to Fla.
in low places and in sandy soil. B.M. 827. L.B.C.
1 : 19. — Variable, particularly in the dimensions of the
fl. Spring or early summer.

10. macrostephana, Baker. Fig. 1937. Closely allied
to H. speciosa and conjectured by Baker to be a
hybrid of that species and H. calathina. Bulb with a
long neck: Ivs. 8-9, oblanceolate and bright green, 2-3
ft. long: fls. 6-10, large and striking because of the great
cup (whence the specific name), which is 2 in. across
and as much long, wavy-toothed; tube greenish, 3 in.
long; segms. linear-lanceolate, a little longer than the
tube. B.M. 6436. — Blooms in Feb. and March. One
of the best of the spider-lilies, perhaps the best for
warmhouse cult.

AA. Filaments short and incurved (usually less than
1 in. long) beyond the large cup. (Ismene.)

11. Macleana, Nichols. (Ismene Macleana, Herb.).
Bulb ovoid, 2 in. diam: Ivs. a foot or more long and

1937. Hymenocallis macrostephana. ( X K)

nearly 2 in. broad, narrowing toward the base: scape 2-
edged, about the length of the Ivs.; fls. 2-8, with a
straight tube 2 in. or less long, and linear, erect or some-
what spreading segms. as long as the tube; cup corolla-
like, \y% in. long and green-striped, fringed, the free
filaments J^in. long, strongly inflexed and angled or
kneed at the cup. Peru. B.M. 3675. — One of the plants
known to the Peruvians as Amancaes, the subject of
festivals. This and the next are intermediate house
species, flowering in spring and summer.

12. calathina, Nichols. (Ismene calathina, Herb.
Pancratium calathlnum, Ker). Fig. 1936. BASKET-
FLOWER. Bulb long-necked: Ivs. 6-8, somewhat 2-
ranked, star-shaped, 2 ft. or less long: scape 2-edged,
lj/6 to 2 ft. tall, bearing 2-5 fls. in a sessile umbel;
tube green, 3-4 in. long, much enlarging above; segms.
as long as the tube, Hin. wide, lanceolate; cup corolla-
like and green-striped, usually larger than in the last,
with rounded fringed lobes; filamente, free for %in.,
incurved but not angled. Peru, Bolivia. B.M. 2685. —
One of the paler kinds.

The following names may be expected in the trade: H. adn&ta,
Herb.=H. littoralis. — H. Amdncses, Nichols., is one of the Ismene
group, and the only species with yellow fls. B.M. 1224. B.R. 600.
Gn. 48, p. 168. — H. amosna, Herb.=H. ovata (below). — H.
Andre&na, Nichols. An Ismene: fl. only 1, the cup nearly or quite
as long as the segms. R-JI- 1884, pp. 129, 468. — H. crassifolia, Herb.
=H. occidentalis. — H. Ernstii, Worsley. Garden hybrid, H. Morti-
ziana being one of the parents. — H. fragrans, Salisb.=H. ovata
(below). — H. Moritziana, Kunth. Evergreen, with Ivs. like eucha-
ris: fls. white, fragrant, with greenish tubes, very slender and twice
as long as the segms., the cup very short and toothed. Venezuela
G.C. III. 27: 89. — H. occidentals, Kunth. Bulbs large: lys. ever
green, thick, strap-shaped: fls. white, 3-6, the tube 3-4 in. long
cup much narrowed below. S. C. to Mo. and south. — H. onata
Roem. Lys. broad and petioled: fls. 6-10, the tube about 2 in
long, the linear segms. little longer; cup 1 in. long. W. Indies. B.R.
43. B.M. 1467. — H. schizostephana, Worsley. Cup laciniate: fla.
white, 12-20 in an erect, crowded umbel, the filaments very short
and winged at base. Probably Brazil. L H B

HYMEN6DIUM: Elaphoglossum.

1628

HYMENOPHYLLUM

HYOSCYAMUS

HYMENOPHYLLUM (Greek, membrane-leaf), Hy-
menophyllacese. Like all members of the family, the
species are small and with Ivs. of very delicate texture;
the sporangia are borne in marginal sori protected by
2-lipped cup-like indusium; otherwise the species are
like those of Trichomanes, the other large genus of the
family. — A genus of about 240 species, nearly all of
which are tropical. Culture p. 1214.

A. Lvs. glabrous; rachis slightly winged above.

polyanthos, Swartz. Lvs. 2-8 in. long, 1-3 in. wide,
tripinnatifid; sori 2-12 to a pinna: involucre small.
Tropics of both hemispheres.

demissum, Swartz. Lvs. 4-12 in. long, 3-4 in. wide,
3-4-pinnatifid; sori very numerous, 20-30 to a pinna:
involucre with ovate entire valves. E. Indies to New
Zeal.

AA. Lvs. pubescent or ciliate.

ciliatum, Swartz. Fig. 1938. Lf.-stalks ciliated and
winged above; If .-blades 2-6 in. long, 1-2 in. wide,
tripinnatifid, the segms. ciliated: involucre roundish,
the valves divided half way down and ciliated. Tropics
of both hemispheres.

aerugin&sum, Carm. Fig. 1939. Lf.-stalks tomentose;
If.-blades 2-3 in. long, 1 in. or less wide, tripinnatifid,
the pinnae often imbricate, the
surface and margins densely
pubescent: involucres small with
valves divided nearly to the
base, densely ciliate. Tristan
d'Acunha.

1938 Hymenophyllum ciliatum. 1939. Hymenophyllum

( X 3 2) seruginosum. (Nat. size)

H. dicrandtrichum, Sadeb. (H. chiloense, Hook.). A S. Ameri-
can species with triangular Ivs. 2-4 in. long, 1 in. broad, bipinna-
tifid with rounded segms. ; the margins and under surfaces hairy.
Gn. 74, p. 228. — H. fucoides, Swartz. A common Trop. American
species with oblong Ivs., 6-10 in. long, 1 %-2 in. broad, tripinna-
tifid, the rachis and mid-veins of the pinnae winged, the ultimate
eegms. linear, spinulose. Gn. 74, p. 228. L M UNI>ERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT, f

HYMENOSPORUM (Greek, membrane and seed;
referring to the winged seeds). Pittosporacese. An
ornamental evergreen shrub or tree from Australia,
cultivated in California for its handsome foliage and
profusely produced fragrant yellow flowers. On account
of its symmetrical -pyramidal habit and its fast growth,
it is well adapted for street planting.

Leaves large, alternate, entire, crowded toward the

end of the branches: infl. a terminal loose panicle;
sepals free; petals 5, with oboyate blades and the long
straight claws approximated into a tube; stamens 5;
ovary incompletely 2-celled, cylindric, silky, with a
short style : fr. a stipitate, compressed caps, with many
compressed winged seeds. This monotypic genus is
closely related to Pittosporum which differs chiefly in
its thick, not winged seeds surrounded by a sticky
substance wanting in Hymenosporum. Propagation is
like that of Pittosporum by seeds or cuttings of half-
ripened wood.

flavum, F. Muell. (Pittdsporum flavum, Hook. f.).
Shrub or tree, to 50 ft.: Ivs. obovate, entire, to 9 in.
long: fls. yellow, marked with red at the throat, fra-
grant, over 1 in. across: caps, compressed, 1 in. long
and nearly as broad. B.M. 4799. R.H. 1913, p. 327.

ALFRED REHDER.

HYMENOXYS CALIFORNICA : Actinolepis coronaria.

HYOPHORBE (Greek, food for swine, referring to
the fruits). Palmaceas, tribe Chamsedbrese. Showy
ornamental palms from Mauritius, often in trade col-
lections, and well worthy wider cultivation.

Trunks unarmed, stout, either cylindric or in some
species with a swelling beneath the If. -cluster: Ivs.
terminal, equal, pinnatisect, the Ifts. almost always
opposite, and usually linear-lanceolate; margins
recurved toward the base of the 1ft. and thickened
throughout; petiole somewhat 3-angled and channelled:
spadix short-stalked, many-branched, the branchlets
spreading: fls. dioecious or in the different spadices
sometimes monoecious, spirally arranged, pale yellow
or greenish; sepals and petals 3, the latter small and
broadly ovate; stamens 6: fr. somewhat inverted pear-
shaped or olive-shaped. — There are only 3 or 4 species,
and the genus is most closely related to Chamsedorea, of
horticultural palms, from which it differs in its usually
dicecious fls. and in having the spadix below the lf.-
cluster. I.H. 13:462, 463.

The two species in cultivation are ornamental palms,
rather slow-growing and requiring much heat and
moisture, and a night temperature of 65°. H. Verschaf-
feltii is much the better of the two species described
below from a horticultural standpoint. Propagation is
by seeds, which should be sown in a light compost or
in pure peat with a bottom heat of 80°. The young
seedlings are delicate and need protection from chills
and over-watering.

amarica&lis, Mart. (Areca specibsa, Hort.?). St.
60 ft. in nature, scarcely so tall in cult., with a bottle-
shaped swelling near the base, usually abruptly nar-
rowed near the If .-cluster: petiole about a foot long,
grooved and angled; Ifts. 40-60 pairs, about 12-16 in.
long and 2 in. broad: spadix about 12 in. long: seed
elliptic, about J^in. long. Mauritius.

Verschaffeltii, Wendl. (Areca Verschaffeltii, Hort.).
Trunk 25-30 ft., about 6 in. diam., bulging about half
way up: petiole about 3 in. long, slightly grooved on the
upper surface and with a yellow band extending from
the upper part of the If .-sheath to the extremity of the
blade, which is one of the chief horticultural attrac-
tions of the species; Ifts. 30-50 pairs, about 2 ft. long
and an inch wide: spadix as in the preceding, but the
fls. orange: seed nearly cylindric, about %in. long.
Mauritius. G.W. 12, p. 207.

H. Commersoniana, Mart, and H. indica, Gaertn. are both Chrys-
alidocarpus lutescens. jor "TAYLOR t

HYOSCYAMUS (Greek, hog bean}. Solanacese.
HENBANE. A coarse, clammy, ill-smelling, wayside
weed cultivated for medicinal purposes. An extract is
commonly sold in drugstores.

Annual, biennial or perennial, mostly clammy pubes-
cent: Ivs. alternate, coarsely toothed, or pinnatifid,
rarely entire: corolla pallid or lurid and netted- veined,
funnel-shaped, with 5 unequal lobes; stamens mostly

HYOSCYAMUS

HYPERICUM

1629

exserted, declined: caps. 2-celled, circumscissile above
the middle. Henbane grows wild in Eu., W. Asia and
Himalayas and is naturalized in Amer. It is found in
sandy and waste places. The genus contains about 15
species, of the Old World.

niger, Linn. Annual or biennial, 1-2 ^ ft. high: Ivs.
3-7 in. long, the upper ones st.-clasping, irregularly
lobed or pinnatifid: fls. greenish yellow, with purple
veins, short-pedicelled or sessile, in leafy 1-sided
spikes: caps, inclosed in the enlarging calyx. — The plant
is said to be poisonous to domestic fowls but not to
swine, although it is supposed the generic name has
reference to harmful qualities to the latter animals.
The Ivs. and flowering tops are medicinal. The plant
has no horticultural value. June-Sept. L jj 33.

HYOSERIS (swine salad; i.e., disagreeable or offen-
sive). Composite. Four species of nearly stemless
herbs of S. Eu. and the Medit. region, one of which is
sometimes grown as an alpine : allied to Krigia. Plant
glabrous or glandular-pubescent: Ivs. radical, pin-
natifid: scape 1-headed, leafless, the heads yellow and
homogamous; involucre cylindrical-campanulate, the
inner bracts 1-rowed and equal, the outer ones few
and short; receptacle plane and naked; corollas ligulate:
achene glabrous. H. fcetida, Linn. (Aposeris fdetida,
Less.), the species to be expected in the lists is by
some authors retained in the genus Aposeris, distin-
guished by characters of the achene: perennial, much
like Taraxacum, glabrous or somewhat pilose on veins
on under side of foliage: Ivs. runcinate-pinnatifid, the
lobes about 10-12 pairs and somewhat triangular
and sinuate-dentate: small plants in mountains of Eu.

L. H. B.

HYOSPATHE (hog spathe: i.e., hog palm, a vernacu-
lar name). Palmacese. Three S. American palms, little
grown, with pinnatisect Ivs. and unarmed reed-Like
sts. : fls. green, minute, the pistillate smaller than the
staminate; stamens 6, and staminodia 6 in pistillate
fls. : fr. small, ellipsoid or obovoid, purple. H. elegans,
Mart., of the Amazon, one of the thatch palms, has
sts. 1 in. diam. and 6 ft. high: Ivs. 3-4 ft. long, at first
nearly entire but becoming irregularly pinnate: fls. of
both sexes borne in spikes beneath the terminal Ivs.
Other species sometimes referred to this genus belong
to Prestoea and Pigafetta. L. H B

HYPECOUM (an old Greek name). Papaverdcese.
Annual herbs, sometimes grown in the flower-garden.
Scapes erect, ascending or prostrate: Ivs. radical and
more or less rosulate, pinnately parted, the segms.
pinnatifid or pinnately lobed, the floral Ivs. less divided :
fls. rather small, yellow or white; sepals 2, small, decidu-
ous; petals 4, in 2 series, the outer ones often lobed,
the 2 inner ones deeply 3-parted; stamens 4, opposite
the petals: caps, narrow and silique-like, constricted
between the seeds. — Species 15, according to the latest
monograph (Fedde, in Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 40,
1909), in the Medit. region and east to China. They
are of simple cult, under usual garden conditions. H .
procumbens, Linn. One foot: sts. or scapes ascending
or becoming decumbent in fr. : Ivs. glaucous-green, the
basal ones 2-pinnatifid and the lobes very narrow and
entire: fls. bright yellow, about J^in. across; outer
petals somewhat 3-lobed but the side lobes very short.
Medit. region to India. Variable. H. grandiflorum,
Benth. Six to 12 in., forking: Ivs. with narrow linear
segms. which are often lobed at top: fls. orange, about
Hin. across, the outer petals with prominent side lobes.
Medit. region to Asia Minor. L H. B.

HYPERICUM (Hypereikon, ancient Greek name of a
plant, of obscure meaning, possibly derived from
ereike, heather, with the prefix hypo, beneath). Hy-
pericacex, often united with Guttiferae. ST. JOHN'S-
WORT. Ornamental shrubby or herbaceous plants

chiefly grown for their bright yellow flowers; planted in
the open; often with interesting foliage and habits.

Deciduous, or sometimes evergreen, usually low
shrubs, or herbaceous perennials, rarely annual: Ivs.
opposite, short-petioled or sessile, entire, dotted with
pellucid or opaque glands, without stipules: fls. usually
in terminal cymes, less often solitary, sometimes axil-
lary, yellow, rarely pink or purplish; sepals 5, imbricate
or valvate, often unequal; petals 5, oblique, convolute in
bud ; stamens usually numerous, free, or connate at the
base into 5 or 3 bundles, rarely as few as 3 ; ovary supe-
rior, with 3-5 parietal placentae, 1-5-celled; styles 3-5,
distinct or united: fr. a septicidal caps., rarely a berry;
seeds usually cylindric, many, rarely few. — About 200
species in the temperate and subtropical regions of the
northern hemisphere, few in the southern hemisphere.

The St. John's worts are exceedingly variable in
habit; most species in cultivation are low shrubs, either
upright with ascending or spreading branches, or tufted
or procumbent; the herbaceous species have often
stiff upright wand-Like stems or are diffuse or pro-
cumbent: the leaves are usually narrow and rather
small; the yellow, rarely pink or purplish flowers
appear usually in profusion during the summer in
terminal clusters, less often solitary, sometimes axillary
and forming leafy racemes or panicles; they vary from
% inch to 3 inches in diameter; the capsular fruits are
inconspicuous or even unsightly when ripe, only the
fruits of the one berry-bearing species are ornamental.
Most of the species are tender in the North. H.
aureum, H. prolificum, H. lobocarpum, and other
American species, also H . calycinum and H . patulum var.
Henryi, with some protection, have proved hardy as
far north as Massachusetts, and H. Kalmianum and
H. Ascyron are still hardy in Canada. Others like H.
patulum, H. Hookerianum, H. Moserianum, H. chinense
can be relied upon only south of New York. H. flori-
bundum is doing well in California and so will probably
the other Mediterranean species.

They thrive in any good loamy soil, and also in
sandy soil, if sufficiently moist; most of them prefer
partly shaded situations and bloom longer if not
exposed to the full sun. They are, as a rule, short-
lived plants and ought to be renewed when they show
signs of exhaustion. The larger kinds are well adapted
for borders of shrubberies and form round rather dense
bushes when standing alone, while those Like H. caly-
cinum, H. Buckleii and H. adpressum are suited for
low borders or as a ground-cover, particularly H.
calycinum which spreads rapidly by suckers. Many of
the low tufted or prostrate species enumerated in the
supplementary list are handsome plants for rockeries
where the more tender species can be so planted as to be
easily protected during the winter. Propagation is by
seeds, which germinate readily, the shrubby species also
by greenwood cuttings under glass in summer; the
creeping kinds as H. calycinum and some herbaceous
species also by division and suckers.

adpressum, 17.
Androssemum, 23.
Ascyron, 1.
aureum, 14.
axillare, 12.
Buckleii, 16.
calycinum, 2.
cernuum, 3.
chinense, 4.
cistifolium, 18.
densiflorum, 11.
elatum, 22.
fastigiatum, 17.
floribundum, 20.
foliosum, 13.

INDEX.

galioides, 12.
glomeratum, 10.
grandi folium, 22.
Henryi, 6.
hircinum, 21.
Hookerianum, 5.
Kalmianum, 9.
Leschenaultii, 5.
lobocarpum, 8.
minor, 21.
monogynum, 4.
Moserianum, 7.
multiflorum, 22.
nepalense, 6.

nudiflorum, 15.
oblongifolium, 3, 5, 6.
patulum, 6.
perfpratum, 19.
prolificum, 11, 13, 14.
pumilum, 21.
pyramidatum, 1.
sphserocarpum, 18.
tricolor, 7.
triflorum, 5.
uralum, 6.
Vilmorinii, 1.
virginicum, 24.
Webbianum, 22.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.
A. Fls. yellow.

B. Number of styles 5.

c. Plants herbaceous, 2-6 ft 1. Ascyron

cc. Plants shrubby.

1630

HYPERICUM

HYPERICUM

D. Lvs. ovate to ovate-lanceolate:
fls. 1-8 in. across; stamens
in 5 fascicles.

E. Height 1 ft. or less, suffruti-
cose, stoloniferous: fls.

solitary 2. calycinum

EE. Height 1-6 ft., shrubby.

F. Styles twice as long as

ovary: branchlets terete.

G. Sepals unequal; styles

distinct 3. cernuum

GG. Sepals nearly equal;
styles connate nearly

to the apex 4. chinense

FF. Styles as long or shorter
than ovary.

G. Branches terete 5. Hookerianum

GG. Branches 2-edged.

H. Calyx with subor-
bicular nearly equal

sepals 6. patulum

HH. Calyx with oval to
oblong, unequal

sepals 7. Moserianum

DD. Lvs. linear-oblong to lanceolate:
fls. Yy-l in. across; stamens
all distinct.
E. Cymes many-fid.; fls. Ys-%

in. across 8. lobocarpum

EE. Cymes few-fld.; fls. Y^-l in.

across 9. Kalmianum

BB. Number of styles 3.
c. Fr. a caps.

D. Stamens and styles shorter than
petals; styled more or less
united; stamens all distinct.
E. Growth shrubby.

F. Lf. -blades narrowly ob-
long to linear.
G. Cymes forming a ter-
minal corymb.
H. Lvs. sessile: caps, in-
completely 3-celled..lO. glomeratum
HH. Lvs. short-petioled:
caps, completely 3-

celled 11. densiflorum

GG. Cymes axillary, form-
ing a narrow elonga-
ted panicle.
H. Fls. %in. across: Ivs.

narrowly linear. . . . 12. galioides
HH. Fls. Yz-1 in. across:
Ivs. narrowly ob-
long 13. prolificum

FF. Lf. -blades ovate to oblong.
G. Caps, incompletely 3-

celled: height 1-4 ft.
H. Size of fls. 1-2 in.:

Ivs. short-petioled... 14. aureum
HH. Size of fls. Yi~%in.:

Ivs. sessile 15. nudiflorum

OG. Caps. completely 3-
celled: height 1 ft. or

less 16. Buckleii

EE. Growth herbaceous or suffru-

ticose.
F. Sts. %-edged: caps, ovoid,

incompletely 3-celled. ... 17. adpressum
FF. Sts. 4-angled: caps, subglo-

bose, 1-celled 18. cistifolium

DD. Stamens about as long as petals;
styles distinct; stamens in
3-6 fascicles.
E. Plant herbaceous: fls. Y^-l

in. across 19. perf oratum

EE. Plant shrubby: fls. 1-2 in.
across.

F. Branches terete 20. floribundum

FF. Branches 2-edged.

G. Fls. solitary or 3: odor

of plant goat-like 21. hircinum

GG. Fls. in 3-7-fld. cymes... . 22. elatum
cc. Fr. a black berry: styles distinct,

. short 23. Androsaemum

AA. Fls. pink or purplish; stamens mostly 9,

in 3 fascicles 24. virginicum

Section ROSCYNA.

1. Ascyron, Linn. (H. pyramidatum, Dry.). Upright
perennial, 2-6 ft. high, with tetragonal sts. : Ivs. clasping,
ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate, acutish, 2-5 in. long:
cymes terminal, 3-12-fld., appearing in July; fls. 1-2 ^
in. diam.; sepals ovate to ovate-oblong, unequal;
petals thin, narrowly obovate or oblanceolate, curiously
shaped and twisted, persistent until withered; stamens
in 5 clusters; styles somewhat spreading; stigmas
capitate: caps, ovoid, %in. long. N. E. N. Amer.,
Cent, and E. Asia. B.B. (ed. 2) 2:529.— A somewhat
coarse plant and toward fall apt to be unsightly through
the lower Ivs. dying and remaining. Var. Vilmorinii,
Rehd. Fls. 3-4 in. across. Recently raised by M. L. de
Vilmorin from seeds obtained from Korea. B.M. 8557.

Section EREMANTHE.

2. calycinum, Linn. ROSE OF SHARON. AARON'S
BEARD. Fig. 1940. A subshrub, 1 ft. or less high, with

many procum-
bent or ascend-
ing 4-angled sts.
occurring in
thick tufts: Ivs.
ovate-oblong or
oblong, obtuse,
evergreen, sub-
coriaceous, dark
green, glaucous
below, 2-4 in.
long: fls. large,
solitary, or 2-3
together, 3 in.
diam.; sepals
large, obovate,
spreading; stamens long and
showy, in 5 clusters, with red
anthers; styles shorter than
the stamens, divergent: caps,
ovate, 4 in. long. July-Sept.
B.M. 146. G. 25:333. G.W.
1, p. 197. — A rapidly spread-
ing plant, creeping by woody
rootstalks completely cover-
ing the soil. Used as a
ground -cover abroad. Not
very hardy in New England, the annual killing back
preventing its covering wide stretches, but not destroy-
ing its bloom each year, nor its usefulness in the her-
baceous border, or in the margin of a shrubbery. May
be protected, and its dark, persistent foliage preserved.
Thrives in sun and moderate shade.

3. cernuum, Rpxbg. (H. oblongifolium, Choisy).
Shrub, to 5 ft., with terete branches: Ivs. sessile, nar-
rowly elliptic to ovate-lanceolate, acutish, narrowed
at the base, glaucous beneath, 1-3 in. long: fls. pale
yellow, nearly white when opening, 2 in. across, long-
stalked, nodding, solitary or in cymes of 3-5; sepals
acute; petals obovate; stamens little shorter than
petals. Himalayas. — Cult, hi Calif.

Section NORYSCA.

4. chinense, Linn. (H. monogyrium, Willd.). Half-
evergreen shrub to 2 ft., with terete branchlets: Ivs.
sessile, oblong, obtuse, 1^-3 in. long: fls. about 2 in.
across; sepals ovate-oblong, obtuse; petals broadly
obovate; stamens little shorter than petals; style
slender, about %in. long, 5-parted at the apex. China.
B.M. 334. G.C. III. 1:705.— Tender.

5. Hookerianum, Wight & Arn. (H. oblongifdlium,
Hook., not Choisy). A rather compact shrub, to 6 ft.,
with terete bright reddish brown branches: Ivs. among
the largest of the genus, 1-4 in. long, evergreen, ovate
or oblong, sessile, dark blue-green above, pale and glau-
cous below: corymbs several-fld., of large golden yellow

1940. Hypericum calycinum.

HYPERICUM

1631

fls. in profusion, 2-2}^ in. diam.; sepals large, obovate;
petals very large, firm, broadly obovate; stamens
scarcely half as long as petals; styles recurved, longer
than the stamens: caps, broad-ovate, longitudinally
furrowed, %in. long. Aug. Himalayas. B.M. 4949.
Gn. 54, p. 490. G. 3:463. This is one of the most
showy species. Var. Leschenaultii, Dyer (H. triflbrum,
Blume). Of slenderer and more graceful habit: fls. 2^
in. across; sepals acute. Himalayas, Java. Gn. 23:158.

6. patulum, Thunb. An evergreen spreading shrub,
lJ^-3 ft. high, with many smooth, purplish, arching
2-edged branches: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate or ovate-
oblong, acutish, lJHr-2 in. long: fls. many, solitary or in
cymes, large, 1/^-2 in. diam., of good substance; sepals
suborbicular, longer than half the petals; styles upright:
caps, ovate, more or less longitudinally furrowed, Hin.
long. July-Sept. Japan. B.M. 5693. J.H. III. 43:405.
Gn.W. 21:95. R.H. 1875:170. Gt. 15:513. Var. oblon-
gifolium, Koehne (H. oblongifdlium, Wall.). Lvs. 2—4: in.
long, bluish gray beneath, acutish: fls. l%in. across;
sepals shorter than half the petals. Himalayas. Var.
uralum, Koehne (H . uralum, Don. H . nepalense, Hort.).
Lvs. about 1 in. long, acute or acutish: fls. %-l in.
across; sepals shorter than half the petals. Himalayas.
B.M. 2375. Gn. 17, p. 53. The name has no connection
with the Ural Mts., but is an adaptation of the native
name "urala swa." Var. Henryi, Veitch. Lvs. ovate
or ovate-oblong, obtuse, 2—3 in. long: fls. 2-2^ in.
across; sepals ovate, acute. China. This variety is
hardier than the other forms of this species and of more
vigorous growth.

7. Moserianum, Andre. GOLD FLOWER. Hybrid
raised by Moser, of France, from H. patulum and H.
calycinum, generally resembling the latter but lacking
its coarseness, and surpassing both parents in good
qualities. A glabrous subshrub 2 ft. high, erect, with
the tips of the branches pendulous: Ivs. similar to those
of H. calycinum, ovate, obtuse and mucronulate,
opaque, 2 in. long, dark green above, pale below: infl.
with 1-3 fls. to the stalk, which are golden yellow, 2-2%
in. diam., blooming for some time; sepals foliaceous,
unequal, oval to oblong; corolla of broad rounded
petals, their color heightened by the many tufted yel-
low stamens with reddish anthers: caps, top-shaped.
July, Aug. R.H. 1889, p. 464. Gn. 54:490. R.B.
16:97. G.C. III. 10:333.— Not hardy in New England,
but successful farther south. Not good individually,
but good in masses, better adapted to the herbaceous
border than the shrubbery. May be used as a pot-
plant. Var. tricolor. Variegated form of white and
green edged with red. Habit like H . patulum, but more
horizontal, the Ivs. smaller and narrower: fls. one-
fourth the size of those of H. Moserianum but similar.
Less hardy. J. 8, p. 186.

Section MYRIANDRA.

8. lobocarpum, Gattinger. Upright shrub, to 6 ft.:
Ivs. oblong-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, obtuse or
barely acute, lH-2% in. long: fls. profuse, %-l/i in.
across, in many-fld., naked cymes, forming a corymbose
or elongated panicle; sepals oblong, obtusish; stamens
numerous; styles connivent: caps, oblong, 5-angled,
furrowed, %in. long. Aug. Tenn., where it frequents
marshes. G.F. 10:453.

9. Kalmianum, Linn. A shrub, 2-3 ft. high, with
rather contorted sts. : Ivs. oblong-linear, or oblanceo-
late, 1-21A in. long, bluish, more or less glaucous below,
crowded: fls. small, Y<Z-\ in. diam., in 3- to several-fld.
cymes; sepals foliaceous, oblong, acute; styles united
below to form a beak: caps, ovoid, longitudinally fur-
rowed. Aug. Ont. and W. N. Y. to 111. and Wis. B.M.
8491. G.F. 3:113. Mn. 6:141.— Easily adapted to the
garden, succeeding in the shade and enduring consider-
able dryness. Not so showy in fl. as some other species,
but good because of its bright, narrow Ivs. and hardiness.

10. glomeratum, Small. Shrub, to 3 ft.: Ivs. sessile,
narrowly oblong to narrowly linear, apiculate, paler
beneath, %-\}/2 in. long: fls. bright yellow, %-l in.
across, in dense cymes at the end of the branchlets;
sepals rather foliaceous, narrowly oblong, acutish;
petals cuneate-spatulate: caps, slightly lobed. Aug.
N. C.

11. densiflorum, Pursh (H. prolificum var. densi-
florum, Gray). Shrub, to 6 ft.: Ivs. short-petioled,
linear-oblong to linear, re volute, acute, J^-2 in. long:
fls. bright yellow, about >^in. across, in broad and
dense, many-fld. corymbs; sepals unequal, oblong to
elliptic-oblong: caps, ovoid, slightly 3-lobed. July-
Sept. N. J. to Fla., Mo. and Texas. B.B. (ed. 2)
2:530. Mn. 4:97. G.F. 3:527. R.H. 1899, pp. 517,
518.

12. galioides, Lam. (H. axillare, Lam., not Michx.).
Shrub with slender sts. to 3 ft.: Ivs. sessile,, %-%!&•
long, linear, acute, dark green, crowded: fls.1 yellow,
J^-^in. across, axillary, solitary or in small cymes,
forming narrow leafy panicles; sepals linear or linear-
spatulate; petals cuneate at the base: caps, conic,
acute, furrowed, incompletely 3-celled. July-Sept.
Del. to Fla., Mo. and Texas. G.F. 10:433. G.C. III.
24:301. — Forms usually a low round bush with hand-
some dark green foliage.

13. prolificum, Linn. (H. foliosum, Jacq. Myridndra
prollfica, Spach). A stout, dense shrub, to 5 ft. high,
with exfoliating light brown bark, the twigs 2-angled:
Ivs. narrowly oblong or oblanceolate, obtuse, 1-3 in.

1941. Hypericum
aureum. (X%)

long, glossy, dark green, pellucid-punctate: fls. in pro-
fusion, l/r-\ in. wide, in several- to many-fld. axillary
cymes; sepals obovate; stamens numerous, distinct;
styles united at the base: caps, large, oblong, J^in.
long, not furrowed. July-Sept. Found in sandy or
rocky soil, N. J. to Iowa and Ga.; one of the most com-
monly cult. G.F. 3:526. W.D. B. 2:88.— A strong,
hardy shrub. Grows rapidly in ordinary garden soil,
flowering regularly and profusely. Varies greatly in size.
14. aureum, Bartram (H. prolificum var. aureum,
Koehne). Fig. 1941. Showy shrub 3 ft. high, more

1632

HYPERICUM

HYPERICUM

woody than most species, of stiff, dense habit, top often
globular like a miniature tree, with thin, exfoliating red
bark, the branchlets 2-edged: Ivs. ovate-oblong to
oblong, mucronate, bluish, pale below, leathery, 1-3 in.
long: fls. sessile, solitary in the native state, in cymes of
several in cult., 1-2 in. diam., bright yellow, heightened
by the golden filaments at the center; sepals If .-like,
obovate, very unequal, shorter than the thick, broad
petals, which persist until withered; stamens distinct,
very numerous; styles connate: caps, ovate, acuminate,
red, not furrowed, nearly Hm- long. July- Aug. Affects
rocky situations when wild, generally shady, where
moisture is longest retained, from S. C. to Tenn., Ga.
and Texas, but perfectly hardy in Mass. B.M. 8498.
Gn. W. 20:934. G.F. 2:185 (adapted in Fig. 1941).—
Prop, by seeds and cuttings, young plants from seed
blooming the second year.

15. nudifldrum, Michx. Shrub or subshrub, 1-3 ft.:
branchlet 4-angled: Ivs. sessile, elliptic-oblong to ellip-
tic-lanceolate, obtuse, flat, thin, pale above and below,
l-2}/2 in- long: fls. light yellow, K-%UI. across, in
naked, peduncled, loose corymbs 2-5 in. broad; sepals
elliptic-oblong to elliptic-oblanceolate; styles united:
caps, conic-ovate, Min. long. July-Aug. N. C. to Fla.
and Ala.

16. Buckleii, Curtis. Later written Buckleyi. Dense
shrub, with slender, 4-angled sts. forming neat, rounded
tufts not more than 1 ft. high: Ivs. bluish, obovate to
elliptic, M~l in. long, rounded at the apex, gradually
narrowed at the base, pale below, becoming scarlet
in autumn: fls. solitary or in cymes of 3, 1 in. diam.;
sepals obovate, obtuse; petals striated and strap-
shaped; styles connate: caps, conic-ovoid, about Kin.
long. June, July. Found only in the highest moun-
tains of the Carolinas and Ga. G.F. 4:581. — Adapted
to rockeries and margins of small shrubberies.

17. adpressum, Bart. (H. fastigidtum, Ell.). Prac-
tically a herbaceous perennial, erect from a creeping or
decumbent base, growing in dense masses, K-2 ft. tall:
Ivs. oblong or lanceolate, 1-2 in. long, acute, thin: fl.
yellow, Kin. across in several-fld. terminal cymes;
sepals lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate: caps, ovoid,
slender-beaked. July, Aug. Moist places, Nantucket,
Mass, to Ga. and La. B.B. (ed. 2) 2:531.— Spreads
rapidly by underground stolons, suggesting occasional
use as a ground-cover. Not very hardy in New England.

18. cistifolium, Lam. (H. sphserocdrpum, Michx.).
Upright perennial or subshrub, with 4-angled sts.,
1-3 ft. high: Ivs. sessile, often slightly clasping, oblong
or linear-oblong, obtuse, revolute, 1-3 in. long: fls.
yellow, Kin. across, nearly sessile, in terminal, loose
corymbs; sepals ovate to lanceolate: caps, globose to
globose-ovoid, 1-celled. July-Sept. Ohio to 111., Ala.,
and Ark. B.B. (ed. 2) 2 : 532.— Satisfactory in light,
sandy soil. Spreads rapidly by stoloniferous roots,
covering the soil and preventing washing. Not very
ornamental. Half-hardy N.

Section EUHYPERICUM.

19. perforatum, Linn. Herbaceous perennial, 1-2
ft., with upright, 2-edged sts.: Ivs. sessile, oblong to
linear, obtuse, black-dotted, K~l in. long: fls. bright
yellow, K-l in. across, in terminal cymes; sepals
acute; stamens in 3 fascicles: caps, ovoid, glandular.
June-Sept. Eu., now commonly naturalized in fields
and waste places. B.B. (ed. 2)2:533. R.F.G. 6:343
(5177).

Section WEBBIA.

20. floribundum, Dry. A subshrub, with round,
glabrous sts.: Ivs. lanceolate-elliptic, rounded at the
base; light green; without dots, 1-1 K in. long: fls.
in terminal, many-fld. panicles, 1K~2 in. diam., with
dilated peduncles; sepals ovate-lanceolate, somewhat
.acute; stamens numerous, in 3 fascicles, petals and

stamens persistent; ovary oval; styles long, divergent,
with capitate stigmas. From the Canary and Madeira
Isls. — Not hardy N., but in cult, in S. Calif. Grows very
rapidly to the height of about 12 ft. or more, but it is
usually kept lower by topping it after blooming and
thus making it bloom again in about two months. Gen-
erally prop, from seeds, which are produced freely.

Section ANDROS^EMUM.

21. hircinum, Linn. Glabrous subshrub of round,
compact habit, 2-3 ft. high, the branches winged toward
the tips: Ivs. sessile, ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular,
1-2 K in. long, deep green: fls. 1-1 K in. wide, solitary
or 3-clustered; sepals lanceolate, deciduous, one-third
to one-fourth the length of the lance-oblong petals,
which are of a deeper yellow than in the other species;
stamens very long, in 5 fascicles; styles spreading,
longer than the stamens: caps, ovoid, pointed. July,
Aug. W.D.B. 2:86. — Species characterized by the
strong, goat-like odor of the Ivs. (hence the name). Of
easy cult., but requiring a dry position and winter pro-
tection. Medit. region. Var. pumilum, Wats. (var.
minor, Lav.). Dwarf er, with smaller Ivs. and fls.; as
pretty and free-blooming as the type, and, in the rock-
garden, preferable. W.D.B. 2:87.

22. elatum, Dry. (H. grandifdlium, Choisy. H.
multifldrum, Hort., not HBK. Androssemum Web-
bidnum, Spach) . Shrub or subshrub, 3-4 ft. high, with
slightly 2-edged branchlets: Ivs. ovate-oblong, acute or
obtusish, often subcordate at the base, 1K~3 in. long:
fls. 1-1 K in. across, in several- to many-fld. terminal
panicles; sepals ovate or ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or
sometimes acutish, about J^in. long; stamens in 5
fascicles; styles longer than ovary: caps, ovate-oblong.
July. Canary Isls., Madeira. R.F.G. 6:352. W.&.B.
2:85. — H. multifldrum, Hort., has been considered a
hybrid between H. elatum and H. Androsasmum, but the
plant cult, at the Arnold Arboretum does not show any
influence of the latter species and is apparently only a
form of H. elatum with more numerous and somewhat
smaller fls.

23. Androsaemum, Linn. (Andrdsasmum officinole,
All.). SWEET AMBER. COMMON TUTSAN. A dense
undershrub with erect, 2-edged sts. : Ivs. ovate to ovate-
oblong, 2-4 in. long, subcordate, minutely dotted,
dark green, whitish below: fls. solitary or in cymes of
3-9, large, light yellow, 1 in. across; sepals ovate,
K-Kin. long; stamens in 5 clusters, longer than the
petals; ovary subglobular or oval, incompletely 3-
celled; styles divergent, persistent, shorter than ovary:
fr. berry-like, blackish violet, the size of a pea. June-
Sept. Lives in shady, wet places, W. and S. Eu. to
Persia. — Not yet proved hardy at the N. Fls. not
particularly attractive, but good in fr. and foliage. All
parts very aromatic.

Section ELODEA (Triademun).

24. virginicum, Linn. (Triodenum virginicum, Raf.
Elodea campanuldta, Pursh. Elodea virginica, Nutt.).
MARSH ST. JOHN'S-WORT. Smooth perennial, 1-1 K ft.
high, nearly simple: Ivs. numerous, oblong or oval, cor-
date, clasping, rounded, 1-2K in. long: fls. Km- diam.,
pink- or flesh-colored, in small, close cymes; sepals
equal; petals oblong; stamens at least 9 in 3 sets; styles
distinct: caps, oblong. July, Aug. In swamps, Labrador
to Fla. west to Man., Neb. and La. B.B. (ed. 2)
2:537. — Useful plant for an artificial bog, and thrives
well also in any fine, loamy soil in the shade or sun.

H. segyptiacum. Linn. Dwarf shrub: Ivs. crowded, elliptic, acute,
^4-^iin. long: fls. solitary, axillary, J^-^in. across, forming leafy
racemes; styles 3. Medit. region. B.M. 6481. G.C. II. 14:503.
B.R. 196. — H . Arnoldi&num, Rehd. (H. galioides X H. lobocarpum).
Similar to H. galioides, but with a many-fld. terminal infl. and
several-fld. lateral infl. : caps. 3-5-celled. Originated at the Arnold
Arboretum. — //. balearicum, Linn. Low upright shrub with the
Ivs. beneath and the twigs warty: Ivs. oval, obtuse, about }4in.
long: fls. \Yi in. across, solitary, terminal; styles 5. Medit. region.

HYPERICUM

HYPOLYTRUM

1633

B.M. 137. — H. canariense, Linn. Allied to H. floribundum.
Shrub, to 15 ft.: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, narrowed at the base, 2-3
in.: fls. 1-1 14 m- across, in panicles; sepals ovate, acute, ciliate.
L.B.C. 10:953. — H. con's, Linn. Procumbent subshrub, 6-8 in.
high: Ivs narrowly linear, revolute on the margin, about 1 in. long,
in whorls of 4-6: fls. %in. across, in few-fld. loose cymes; styles 3.
Cent, and S. Eu. B.M. 6563. — H. cunedtum, Poir. Low diffuse
eubshrub, Vi~\ ft. high: Ivs. obovate, ^-^iin. long: fls. %in.
across, axillary, slender-stalked, forming leafy racemes. Asia Minor.
— H. Dawsonianum, Rehd. (H. lobocarpum xH. prolificum). Differs
from H. prolificum in the more numerous fls. and the 3-5-celled,
furrowed caps. Originated at the Arnold Arboretum. — H. dola-
briforme, Vent. Procumbent perennial, with ascending sts. 6-20
in. high: Ivs. linear-lanceolate, }/fr-\% in. long: fls. 1 in. across, in
terminal leafy corymbs. Ky. and Tenn. B.B. (ed. 2) 2:532. —
H. elegans, Steph. Upright perennial, J^-l ft. high.: Ivs. ovate-
lanceolate, %-l in. long: fls. J-4-1 in. across, in terminal panicles;
sepals ovate-lanceolate, glandular-ciliate. Cent. Eu. to Altai Mts.
R.F.G. 6:350 (5190).— H. elddes, Huds.=H. helodes, Linn.—
H. empetri folium, Willd. Upright shrub, to 1 ft.: Ivs. linear, revolute
on the margin, H-%in. long, in whorls of 3: fls. J^-^in. across,
in 3-5-fld. cymes forming panicles; sepals broadly oblong. S. E. Eu.,
Asia Minor. B.M. 6764. Gn. 30, p. 221. — H fasciculatum, Lam.
Allied to G. galipides. Shrub, to 6 ft.: Ivs. linear, thick, Vr^A in-
long: fls. ^-l/i in. across, in narrow panicles. N. C. to Fla. and
Texas. — If. fragile, Heldr. & Sart. Dwarf subshrub: Ivs. ovate,
imbricate, J-^in. long, glaucescent-fls. large, in 3- to many-fld. cymes;
sepals linear-lanceolate. Greece. — H. helodes. Linn. Procumbent
perennial, with orbicular-ovate, villous Ivs. ^-J^in. long: fls. pale
yellow, about >£in. across; in few-fld. terminal cymes. Eu. R.F.G.
6:342 (5182). Suitable for boggy places. — //. inoddrum, Willd.
(H. ramosissimum, Ledeb.). Allied to H. hircinum, but without the
goat-like odor. Arching shrub, with strongly 2-edged branchlets:
Ivs. ovate to ovate-oblong, 1 Yy-2 in. long: fls. 1 in. across, in few-
fld. dense corymbs. Caucasus. — H. japonicum, Thunb. Decum-
bent perennial, with ovate or oval 3-nerved Ivs. and 4-angled sts.:
fls. fan. across, with petals equaling the lanceolate sepals, in
terminal cymes. E. Asia to Austral. Scarcely ornamental. — H,
lysimachioides, Wall. Slender shrub, with slightly angular arch-
ing branchlets: Ivs. ovate to ovate-oblong, acute, 1-1 J^ in. long:
fls. 1 in. across in loose leafy cymes; sepals linear-lanceolate; styles
5. Himalayas. V.F. 25. — H. montanum, Linn. Perennial: lower
Ivs. larger, ovate, glabrous: fls. in close compact cymes, often
reduced to a head. Cent, and S. Eu. — H. napaulense, Choisy (H.
nepalensis, Hort.). Trailing subshrub with ovate to ovate-lanceo-
late Ivs. j^-^in. long: fls. J^in. across in few-fld. loose cymes.
Himalayas. — For H. nepalense, Hort., see also No. 6. — H. nothum,
Rehd. (H. densiflorum X H. Kalmianum). Similar to H. densi-
florum, but fls. less numerous, Ivs. narrower and caps. 3-5-celled,
slightly furrowed. Originated at the Arnold Arboretum. — H.
nummularium, Linn. Diffuse ascending subshrub: Ivs. roundish,
J^-J^in- long: fls. %in. across, in terminal cymes; sepals glandular-
ciliate. Pyrenees. R.F.G. 6:346 (5184).— H. olympicum, Linn.
Upright or ascending subshrub, 1 ft. : Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, grayish
green, y%-\ ^2 in- long: fls. golden yellow, 1 J^-2}^ in. across, in ter-
minal few-fld. corymbs; sepals large, pointed; petals oblong-obovate.
S. E. Eu., Asia Minor. B.M. 1867. Gn. 31 :302.— H. opdcum, Torr.
& Gray. Allied to H. spharocarpum. Subshrub, 1-3 ft.: Ivs.
oblong-lanceolate, V£-l in- long: fls. }^a\. across, in open corymbs;
sepals obtuse: caps, ovoid. S. C. to Fla. and Miss. G.F. 5:305. —
H. orientate, Linn. Upright perennial, /^-l ft. : Ivs. obovate-oblong
to linear-oblong, obtuse, glandular-ciliate, J£-l in. long: fls. 1 in.
across, in small terminal cymes. Asia Minor. — H. polyphyllum,
Boiss. Perennial with ascending sts. : Ivs. elliptic-linear, glaucous,
K-/^ in. long: fls. 1 J^-2 in. across, in dense terminal cymes. Cili-
cia. — H. pulchrum, Linn. Allied to H. perforatum. Sts. terete:

Ivs. ovate, clasping, H-Jim. long: fls. K-Mm. across, in terminal
panicles; sepals glandular-ciliate. Cent. Eu. R.F.G. 6:347 (5185). —
H. ramosissimum, Ledeb. =H. inodorum. — H. repens, Linn. Per-
ennial, with prostrate sts.: Ivs. oblong or linear-oblong, %-%m.
long: fls. golden yellow, 1 in. across in few-fld. terminal cymes.
S. E. Eu., Asia Minor. S.F.G. 8:775.— H. reptans, Hook. f. &
Thorns. Prostrate shrub, with rooting sts.: Ivs. elliptic-oblong, J£-
yi\n. long: fls. cup-shaped, solitary, terminal, l%in. across; petals
broadly obovate; styles 5. Himalayas. Gn. 24, p. 267; 30, p. 221.
— H. salicifdlium, Sieb. & Zucc. Allied to H. chinense, but distin-
guished by the narrower acute Ivs., many-fld. corymbs and acute
sepals. Japan. — H. splendens, Small. Allied to H. aureum. Shrub,
to 5 ft.: Ivs. oblong, j£-l in. long: fls. pedicelled, 1 Vi in. across, in
several- to many-fld. cymes; stamens orange-colored: caps, with 3
narrow wings. Ga. Seems not yet in cult.; very desirable. — H.
tomentdsum, Linn. Perennial with ascending sts.: Ivs. ovate, woolly,
Ji-Jiin. long: fls. Vz-Min. across, in many-fld. corymbs; sepals
ciliate, acute. Eu. R.F.G. 6:346 (5183). — H. turgidum, Small.
Allied to H. sphffirocarpum. Shrub, 1-2 ft.: Ivs. linear-oblanceo-
late, Ye~\ in- long: fls. 1 in. across in several-fld. cymes; sepals
ovate to elliptic: caps, subglobose, broadest at the top. Ala.

ALFRED HERDER.!

HYPILENE (Greek, to entwine; referring to the
fibers of the fruit). Palmacese, tribe Bordssese. Fan-
leaved unarmed palms of moderate or tall stature
from tropical Africa and Madagascar.

Caudex robust, cylindrical, ventricose or pear-
shaped, simple or forkingly branched: Ivs. terminal,
orbicular, pahnate-flabelliform, plicate-multifid ; segms.
ensiform, acute or 2-fid, margins induplicate with
fibers interposed; rachis short; petiole strongly bicon-

104

vex or a trifle flatter above; margins minutely spiny;
ligule short, rotund; sheath short, open: fls. dioacious,
in relatively deep pits, on the infl., which is partly
hidden by the Ivs. — About 10 species from Trop. Afr.
The Borassus tribe of palms consists of Borassus,
Lodoicea, Latania and Hyphsene. In the first two the
staminate fls. in the pits of the spadix are numerous;
in the last two they are solitary. In the first and
fourth there are few stamens; in the second and third
the stamens are numerous.

crinita, Gaertn. (H. natalensis, Kunze). Young
fronds 1 to 1J^ ft. long, lanceolate, bi- or trifid at the
apex, bright green, clothed on both sides with a white
bloom which soon vanishes, plicate, scabrous on the
margins and nerves above; petiole sheathed for 1 or 2
in., deeply channelled above, rough on the margins:
frs. obovate, 2^ in. long, smooth. S. Afr. — Cult, out-
doors in S. Fla. Does not look at all like Latania. It
has long, thick seed-lvs., and, it is said, has withstood
the cold in Fla. better than any other palm. It is
extremely slow of growth, and cannot be desirable as a
house plant. It is probably cult, more in northern con-
servatories than in the S.

H. thebaica, Mart. A showy palm with striking yellow-orange
frs.Ts probably a Corvpha. It is little cult, in N. Amer. F.S. 21 : 2152-
3. — H. ventricdsa,KiTk, is a showy blue-green palm with an immense
cluster of Ivs. and a bulging trunk. Congo. Not in cult, in Amer.

G-C. II. 21=649. N. TAYLOR.!

HYPOCH(ERIS (old name, of doubtful origin).
Composite. Sometimes written with the digraph a?.
Perhaps 50 herbs, of the Medit. region, N. Asia and
the southern part of S. Amer., allied to Leontodon,
scarcely cult. They are annual or perennial, more or
less branched, yellow-fld.: Ivs, mostly radical: involucre
campanulate, the scales marginless; receptacle with
narrow bracts: achenes 10-ribbed, some or all tapering
into a beak; pappus of many fine plumose bristles;
heads homogamous, the florets ligulate. H. uniflora,
Vill. (Achyrophorus helveticus, Scop. & Less.), has been
offered in N. Amer.: perennial: radical Ivs. oblong-
lanceolate, dentate, hirsute; cauline Ivs. 1-2: st. simple,
1-headed or sometimes 2-3-headed under cult.: invo-
lucre very hairy: achenes beaked. Mountains of Eu.,
and useful in alpine- and rock-gardening. L jj j^

HYPOCYRTA (name refers to the gibbous or curved
beneath corolla-tube). Gesneriacex. Shrubby, erect,
creeping or climbing, natives of tropical America of
perhaps ten species. They are little known in cultiva-
tion; require the handling of Gesneria and similar
plants. H. grdcilis, Mast.=Codonanthe gracilis.

HYPOLEPIS (Greek, a scale underneath). Polypo-
diacese. Tropical glasshouse ferns of both hemispheres
rarely cult. Allied to Cheilanthes: rhizomes long
and creeping, the fronds herbaceous: distinguished
particularly by the marginal sori, placed in the
sinuses of the If., and covered with the membranous
If.-margin. — Ten or more species are known. (See p.
1215.)

repens, Presl. Lf.-stalks straw-colored, more or less
prickly; If .-blades 3-4 ft. long, quadripinnatifid; lower
pinnae 1-2 ft. long, 6-12 in. wide, ovate-acuminate;
sori 2-6 to a segm. W. Indies to Brazil. — A rather
coarse fern, of easy cult., with the general appearance
of a cyathea. Like all strong-growing ferns, it requires
a large percentage of loam. It likes shade and moisture
at all times, and is readily prop, by spores, which it
produces in great quantity, being often self-sown. It
requires a stove or intermediate temperature.

H. caltfdrnica, Hook. See Cheilanthes californica. — H. meifdlia,

L. M. UNDERWOOD.

HYPOLYTRUM (from the Greek for beneath and a
sheath; in reference to the 2 or 3 scales found under the
true scale) . Cyperacex. Perennial herbs with leafy sts.,

1634

HYPOLYTRUM

HYSTRIX

often very strong and coarse: spikelets numerous and
small in compound panicles that have long leafy involu-
cral bracts; glumes imbricate around the rachis; sta-
mens 3 or less: fr. a hard 3-angled nutlet. — Species 25 or
30, in tropical and subtropical regions of both hemi-
spheres. Only one
species seems to be
in the trade. H.
Schraderianum,
Nees, is listed
abroad, apparently
as a greenhouse
plant, the Ivs.,
"crowded in bold
triangular tufts,
green with purplish
red margins, trav-
ersed on the upper
surface by 2 ribs
running equidistant
from base to apex,"
giving it a striking
and ornamental ef-
fect: panicle much
decompound ; spike-
lets obovate - ellip-
tic: Ivs. linear-lan-
ceolate, 3 - nerved ,
the margin and
midnerve more or
less serrulate -sca-
brous toward the
apex, 2 ft. long and
\Yi in. or less wide:
culma 5-6 ft. In
woods and swamps,
Brazil. L. H. B.

HYPOXIS (old
Greek name, of
no application to
these plants). Amarylliddcese. STAR-GRASS. About 50
species of little herbs of temperate and tropical regions,
with linear Ivs., hard rootstocks or corms, perianth
adnate to the ovary, and anthers not versatile: stem-
less: fls. few, on slender scapes. They are scarcely
known in cult., although the common species of the
northern states, H. hirsuta, Coville (H. erecta, Linn.),
Fig. 1942, is offered by dealers in native plants. The Ivs.
are radical, hairy, grass-like: fls. 1-6, small, star-like,
bright yellow, on scapes 4-10 in. tall. Give a half-
shady place in the rockery or border. Prop, by divi-
sion. Blooms in spring. Not showy, but interesting.
H. stellata, Linn, f., from S. Afr., is a pretty greenhouse
bulb, blooming in Dec.: Ivs. 4-12, glabrous, a foot or
less long: peduncles sometimes forked, 1-4, bearing fls.
white inside, and the outer segms. green-striped on the
back: corm globose: plant variable. L H. B.

HYSSOPUS (ancient name; but precisely what plant
was the sacred Hyssop of the Jews is uncertain).
Labiatse. HYSSOP. A familiar plant, cultivated for
medicine and also for ornament in hardy borders.

It is considered a genus of only 1 species, the numer-
ous synonyms being referred mostly to H. officinalis or
to the genus Lophanthus, 2 species of which are cult.
Hyssopus has entire Ivs.: Lophanthus has serrate Ivs.
Important generic characters of Hyssopus are the 15-
nerved tubular calyx, divergent stamens, upper lip
of corolla 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed, stamens 4, didyna-
mous, nutlets ovoid and smooth and somewhat 3-sided.

1942. Hypoxis hirsuta.

officinalis, Linn. Fig. 1943. Sts. herbaceous from a
woody base, slender, branched or not: Ivs. linear to
oblong, sessile or nearly so, acute at both ends or the
lower ones obtuse at the apex, 1^-2 in. long. Eu. and
Temp. Asia; also run wild in this country. B.M. 2299
(asH.orientalis). Var. alba, with white fls., is cult. Var.
grandiflorus, Hort., from Lake Baikal, has large open fls.,
a diffuse habit and a lax arrangement of the whorls of fls.

Hyssop is a hardy perennial subshrub, 18 inches tall.
The whole plant has a strong odor and pungent, bitter
taste. The green parts are used in connection with
wormwood and other plants in the manufacture of
absinthe, occasionally as a pot-herb, and as a flavoring
for cold-salad plants. The powdered, dried flowers are
similarly employed in soups. The flower-spikes are cut
just as the blossoms begin to open, and are dried for use
in domestic medicine as a stimulant and expectorant in
the treatment of asthma, coughs and other pulmonary
troubles. Hyssop is not now so highly esteemed as
formerly by the medical profession.

This plant is readily propagated by seeds, cuttings
and plant-division. The seed, generally employed in
cold climates, is sown in early spring, either in drills
15 to 18 inches apart where the plants are to remain, or
broadcast in nursery beds for transplanting, 12 inches
apart in June or July. Propagation by cuttings and
by divisions may be
done in the autumn,
but better in the spring,
when the plants first
start to grow. Green-
wood cuttings may be
started in the shade in
the early summer. They
need to be well watered.
The soil should be a
light, mellow, calcareous
or sandy loam, with a
warm aspect. Culture
and harvesting are the
same as for sage, mint
and other herbs. The
beds should be renewed
every three or four
years. M. G. KAINS.

HYSTRIX (Greek,
from huslrix, a porcu-
pine). Graminese. Peren-
nials with simple culms,
flat blades and loosely
fld. spikes: spikelets 2-
4-fld., nearly sessile, 1-3
together at each joint of
a zigzag rachis as in
Elymus, widely diver-
gent at maturity ; glumes
1 or 2 short awns; lem-
mas rigid, tapering into
a long awn. — Species 4,
N. Amer. and Eurasia.
H. pdtula, Moench (As-
prella Hystrix, Willd.),
BOTTLE-BRUSH GRASS is
found in E. U. S. and is
sometimes used for lawn
decoration and for bor-
ders. Dept. Agric., Div.
Agrost. 20:168.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

1943. Hyssop. — Hyssopus
officinalis.

IBERIS (from Iberia, the ancient name of Spain,
where many species occur). Crudferse. CANDYTUFT.
Small flower-garden and border plants.

Annual, biennial or perennial, sometimes half-
shrubby, usually glabrous but sometimes ciliate or
even hairy: Ivs. alternate, entire or pinnatifid, some-
times fleshy: fls. racemose or corymbose, white or pur-
plish, the outer ones in the dense cluster more or less
radiate; sepals 4, deciduous; petals 4, the 2 outer much
larger than the others ; stamens 4, free, not appendaged :
fr. a scale-shaped roundish or ovate pod which is mar-
gined or winged and often notched at the top, piano-
compressed; seeds single in each locule, ovate, not
margined. — Species 30-40, native to S. Eu., W. Asia
and N. Afr., all low-growing plants. Comparatively
few species are cult. The annuals are the common
candytuft of gardens. The biennials are not cult.
The subshrubs are flat, dwarf, compact, commonly
evergreen plants, with dark green Ivs.,
completely covered with broad, flat or
elongated clusters of irregular cruciferous
fls. in spring. The common white-fld.
annual candytuft is 7. amara. The com-
mon annual kinds with colored fls. are
I. umbellata. The common perennial
kind is 7. sempervirens. The clusters of
some kinds remain rather flat-topped
when they run to seed, while the clusters
of other kinds lengthen after flowering;
these differences are made division
points in the arrangement of species,
following.

The annuals are showy branching
plants, 6 to 18 inches high, much grown
in masses in beds or for edging. Florists
grow them also, especially the white
varieties, for cut-flowers. They are of
easy cultivation, and succeed in any rich
garden soil, in a place exposed to light
and air. They are propagated by seeds,
which may be sown at any season, in the
house or open ground, but particularly
in the fall when the climate permits, or
as early as possible in spring, in rows 6
to 8 inches apart where the plants are to
grow, the plants being thinned later to 4
inches apart in the row. The finest dis-
play is attained from autumn-sown plants, which flower
from May to July. If seed is sown in autumn, the
plants should be slightly protected from the sun during
winter. Seeds sown early in the spring bloom from July
to September. Continuous bloom may be obtained by
sowing every two weeks. Good results are attained
by sowing under glass and transplanting into open
ground when the soil is warm. To secure the best
bloom, the plants should be given much room, and
never crowded. The name candytuft was given be-
cause the flowers appear in tufts and because the first
introduced species, 7. umbellata, was brought from
Candia. — The subshrubby species are adapted to the
front of shrubberies, where they connect taller plants
with the surrounding lawn. They may appear in sepa-
rate clumps, in broad masses, or may mingle with
other genera in the herbaceous border. They are suited
to rockeries, and hang well over walls and ledges.
They are to be treated much like herbaceous peren-
nials. They are plants of refinement, and are pleas-

ing when close to the observer. They are useful and
popular for cut-flowers, are easily forced into bloom in
winter, and are adapted to pot and pan culture. They
are easily propagated. The perennial iberis succeed
best when let alone. Once planted and not disturbed,
they soon form a dense foliage. They are the best
spreading, dwarf plants with white flowers. (A. Phelps
Wyman.)

affinis, 2.
alba, 9.
amara, 1.
carminea, 9.
carnea, 9.
corifolia, 6.
coronaria, 1.
Dunnettii, 9.
foliis variegatis, 5, 12.
Garrexiana, 7.

INDEX.

gibraltarica, 8.
hybrida, 8, 9.
lilacina, 9.
nana, 9.
odorata, 3.
pectinata, 2.
petraa, 10.
pinnata, 4.
plena, 5, 12.
Pruitii, 11.

pumila, 9.
pupurea, 9.
rosea, 5, 9.
saxatilis, 6.
semperflorens, 12.
sempervirens, 5.
superba, 5.
Tenoreana, 10.
umbellata, 9.

1944. Iberis gibraltarica.

A. Infl. racemose in fr.
B. Annuals or biennials: sts. not woody

at the base.
c. Lobes of the pod erect.

1. amara, Linn. COMMON ANNUAL
CANDYTUFT. Plant erect, stiffish, 6-12
in., very bitter: Ivs. lanceolate, toothed
toward apex: fls. white, the clusters at
first short but afterward elongating: pod
nearly orbicular. Common weed of cult,
ground in Great Britain and Cent, and
S. Eu. The best form is var. coronaria,
Voss (7. coronaria, Hort., not D. Don).
ROCKET CANDYTUFT. This has larger
and fuller clusters and larger fls. The
taller varieties, Empress, Spiral White,
and Giant Snowflake, grow 18 in. high,
with solid pyramidal trusses 5-8 in. long.
Dwarf forms are Tom Thumb and Little
Prince. All are good bedders, and Em-

Eress is excellent for cutting. Seed may
e sown at any time, but the best results
with Empress are secured by sowing
under glass and transplanting to the
open, where plants will bloom in May
and June.

2. pectinata, Boiss. (7. affinis, Hort.,
not Jord.) . Lvs. pectinate (i.e., divisions

deeper, narrower, and farther apart) : fls. white. Spain.
— Advertised only as A. affinis. Likely to be confused
with 7. odorata, but the petals are 4 times as long aa
the calyx and the pods have short hairs, while in 7.
odorata the petals are 1% times as long as the calyx
and the pods glabrous.

cc. Lobes of the pod spreading.

3. odorata, Linn. SWEET-SCENTED or FRAGRANT
CANDYTUFT. Annual, 6-42 in.: Ivs. linear, wider
toward the top, toothed, ciliate toward base: fls. white,
fragrant. Greece, Syria. — Frequently confused with 7.
pinnata. Said to be better and more fragrant in poor
soil.

4. pinnata, Linn. Annual or biennial, with oblong-
linear pinnatifid or pinnatisect Ivs., the segms. being
very narrow: 12 in. or less: fls. white, fragrant; infl.
only slightly elongated in fr. and therefore sometimes
described as corymbose. Spain, S. France, Italy. — •
Said to be often sold as 7. odorata.

(1635)

1636

IBIDIUM

BB. Perennials: sis. woody at the base.
c. While in flower, racemose.

5. sempervirens, Linn. Perennial, to 1 ft., branch-
ing, somewhat shrubby: Ivs. oblong, obtuse, nar-
rowed at base, glabrous: fls. white, in elongating
racemes. S. Eu. Gng. 2 : 145 (fine habit sketch) . F.R.
1:75 (poor). G.W. 8, p. 373. Var. plena, a double
form, is cult., but is less desirable. Var. rosea and var.
foliis variegatis, are sold abroad. Var. superba, or
Perfection, is said to be one of the best forms. — This is
the commonest, hardiest and most permanent of the
perennial kinds. When the rarer and tenderer kinds are
winter-killed, /. sempervirens is likely to spread out and
surround the labels of other kinds. This probably
explains why some of the most reliable dealers have
sold this plant under other names, particularly /.
gibraltarica.

cc. While in flower, corymbose.
D. Margin of Ivs. entire.

6. saxatilis, Linn. Perennial, dwarf, evergreen, 6 in.
or less, with ascending sts. : Ivs. linear, entire and some-
what fleshy, mostly ciliate: fls. white, corymbose. S.
Eu. Var. corifdlia, Suns (I. corifolia, Sweet). Lvs. gla-

1945. Iberis Tenoreana var. petraea.

brous: fls. white. B.M. 1642, although this picture was
doubtfully referred by Baker to /. Garrexiana. G.M.
46:289.

7. Garrexiana, All., not Scop. Lvs. oblong, narrow
at the base, glabrous: fls. rather small, white, the
racemes much elongating. Piedmont, Pyrenees.
Referred by some to 7. sempervirens. Intermediate
between /. sempervirens and /. saxatilis, having the
habit of the latter. It is sometimes described as /.
sempervirens var. Garrexiana. Gn. 62, p. 393. G.M.
48:211.

DD. Margin of Ivs. toothed toward apex.

8. gibraltarica, Linn. Fig. 1944. Perennial, ever-
green, diffuse, 12-20 in.: Ivs. wedge-shaped, obtuse,
subciliate: outer fls. pink, inner ones white. Spain,
Morocco. B.M. 124. G.C. III. 46:158. Gn. 10:288;
76, p. 69. G. 27:446. R.H. 1870:330. Gn. 24, p. 549,
same as R. H. 1885, p. 446. — This is considered by
some as the most striking and showy of the perennial
kinds. It grows higher and more erect, with larger clus-
ters and larger fls., but is less hardy than the others.
This is much sought after, and the stock in the nur-
series is often not true to name. Var. hybrida, is adver-
tised, the fls. white shading to lilac.

AA. Infl. corymbose in fr.
B. Annuals: sts. not woody at the base.

9. umbellata, Linn. COMMON ANNUAL CANDYTUFT.
Upright, 6-15 in. : Ivs. lanceolate, acuminate, lower ones
serrate, upper ones entire: fls. in the wild typically pur-
plish, rarely white, in umbels terminating all the main
sts.: pods acutely 2-lobed. Italy, Crete, Spain. B.M.
106. — This is the common hardy annual candytuft
with colored fls., the colors being more numerous and
better fixed than in any other species. Trade names are

vars. carminea, carnea, lilacina and Dunnettii (/. Dun-
nettii, Hort.), the last being dark purple. Vars. rdsea,
purpurea and alba are advertised abroad, also vars.
nana, pumila and hybrida. Tall and dwarf forms of all
the colors are procurable.

BB. Perennials: sts. woody at the base.
c. Lvs. ciliate, crenate.

10. Tenoreana, DC. Perennial, somewhat shrubby
at base, ascending, about 6 in. high : lower Ivs. obovate,
narrowed at base; upper Ivs. oblong-linear: fls. pur-
plish or whitish, the clusters flattish and not elongating:
pods notched at apex. Naples. B.M. 2783. L.B.C.
18: 1721. G. 34: 119.— According to Baker (G.C. 1868:
711), this is the only perennial kind that is decidedly
hairy. DeCandolle says the Ivs. are puberulous. Var.
petrsea, Nichols. (7. petrsea, Jord.). Fig. 1945. A good
rock-garden form, with fls. white tinged red in center.

cc. Lvs. not ciliate, entire or subdentate.

11. Pruitii, Tineo. Perennial, 6 in., woody at base:
Ivs. glabrous, obovate-spatulate, entire or subdentate:
fls. white, in compact clusters: pods merely notched at
apex; seed not margined, the radicle descending; sep-
tum of pod simple. Sicily.

12. semperfldrens, Linn. Perennial, evergreen, 1-2
ft.: Ivs. wedge-shaped or spatulate, obtuse, entire, gla-
brous, somewhat fleshy: fls. large, pure white, fragrant:
pods scarcely notched at apex; seed somewhat margined,
the radicle horizontal; septum of pod nearly double.
Sicily and perhaps Persia. Var. plena, a double variety.
Var. f61iis variegatis said to be cult, abroad.

7. cordifdlia is an error for I. corifolia. — 7. correse/dlia, Hort., ia
a common trade name abroad, which is usually spelled, I. corrse-
folia in American catalogues. There is no genus Corra, and Correa
is an Australian plant of the Rutacese. Specimens should therefore
be compared with I. saxatilis var. corifolia. Mottet's description,
however, would place this plant directly after I. Garrexiana in the
key, being distinguished from I. Garrexiana by the fls. becoming
purplish instead of always remaining white. Mottet says that I.
corresefolia, Hort., is a hybrid, with spatulate, entire, obtuse Ivs. —
I hyacinthifldra, Hort., is an annual candytuft with milk-white fls.
in elongated panicles. It is said to be a first-quality cut-fl. for
summer bloom. — 7. jucunda, Schott & Kotschy=jEthionema
coridifolium. — 7. Lagascdna, DC. Annual, 1 ft.: Ivs. oblong-
spatulate, toothed at apex: fls. pure white, in close corymbs: pods
2-lobed. Spain. — 7. lildcina of trade catalogues is presumably a
lilac-fld. variety of I. umbellata. — 7. nana hybrida, Hort., is not I.
nana, All., a distinct botanical species, but a trade name of mixed
dwarf varieties of some common annual kind, presumably I.

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

IBIDIUM (named from the fancied resemblance of
the anther to the beak of an ibis). Orchiddcese. By
some authors used to supplant the generic name
Spiranthes (which see), but the latter name is retained
by the "nomina conservanda" of the Vienna code.
Under Ibidium, the nomenclature becomes:

I.coloratum, House (Spiranthes colorata, N.E. Br.);

/. cernuum, House (Spiranthes cernua, Rich.) ;

/. Romanzoffianum, House (Spiranthes Roman-
zoffiana, Cham.);

/. plantagineum, House (Neottia plantaginea, Raf.
Neottia lucida, H. H. Eaton. Spiranthes latifolia,
Torr. S. lucida, Ames);

/. prsecox, House (Spiranthes praecox, Wats.);

7. Beckii, House (Spiranthes Beckii, Lindl. S.
simplex, Gray. S. Grayi, Ames);

7. gracile, House (Neottia gracilis, Bigel. Spiranthes
gracilis, Beck);

7. vernale, House (Spiranthes vernalis, Engelm. &
Gray). Lvs. oblong-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate,
tapering to both ends, J^in. wide or less, mostly basal,
the lower ones usually withering before flowering time :
scape densely pubescent above; floral-bracts longer
than the ovaries, with hyaline margins ; raceme slender,
1-ranked, 1-3 in. long; fls. J^in. long, yellowish, lip
ovate to ovate-oblong, pubescent beneath. Mass, to
Fla., 111. and Kans. jj. D. HOUSE.

ICACOREA

ILEX

1637

ICAC6REA: Ardisia.

IDESIA (Yobrants Ides, Dutch traveler in China).
Flacourtiaceas. Ornamental tree grown for its hand-
some large foliage and also for the attractive orange-
red berries.

Deciduous: Ivs. alternate, long-petioled, 3-5-nerved
at the base, crenate-serrate; stipules small, caducous:
fls. dioecious, in large terminal panicles; sepals 5 (3-6);
petals wanting; stamens, numerous, with villous fila-
ments; ovary 1-celled, with 3-6 spreading styles: fr.
a many-seeded berry. — One species in S. Japan and
Cent, and W. China.

This is a handsome tree with close grayish white
bark and spreading branches forming a low broad head;
the rather large lustrous leaves are borne on long red-
dish stalks; the flowers are not showy, but the orange-
red berries, borne in pendulous racemes sometimes 10
inches long, are very conspicuous, particularly after
the leaves have fallen. The plants raised from seeds
recently introduced from Central China have proved
hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, at least in favorable
positions, while the Japanese plant introduced about
fifty years ago is not hardy north of Philadelphia;
otherwise there is no difference between the Japanese
and the Chinese plant. The tree grows quite rapidly
while young and does not seem particular as to the soil.
Propagation is by seeds, which germinate readily, and
by greenwood and root-cuttings.

polycarpa, Maxim. (Polycdrpa Maximowiczii, Hort.).
Tree, to 50 ft. : Ivs. usually cordate-ovate, rarely oblong-
ovate, acuminate, remotely crenate-serrate, deep green
above, glaucous below, glabrous, 5-10 in. long; petiole
4-6 in. long: fls. greenish yellow, fragrant, in pendulous
panicles 4-10 in. long; staminate fls. over 3/£in. across,
pistillate Min. June; fr. in Sept.-Nov. B.M. 6794.
Gn. 12, p. 532; 13, p. 99. R.H. 1872, pp. 174, 175; 1888,
pp. 463-5. F. 1874, pp. 64, 65. F.S.R. 2, p. 189.
J.H.S. 27:410. L.I. 11. S.I.F. 1:76. Gt. 39, p. 40
(habit). F.E. 24:853. G.C. III. 39:13. Var. vestita,
Diels. Lvs. densely pubescent or tomentose below.
W. China. Tender. Var. crispa, Carr. Lvs. irregularly
incised and curled. R.H. 1878, p. 254; 1888, p. 463.
Gn. 15, p. 471. Var. fdliis variegatis, Hort. Lvs.
variegated with sulfur-yellow and gray.

ALFRED REHDER.

ILEX (the ancient Latin name of Quercus Ilex). In-
cluding Prinos and Othera. Aquifolidcese (or Ilidneae).
HOLLY. Ornamental woody plants, grown for their
handsome foliage and the attractive mostly red berries.

Evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs: Ivs. alter-
nate, petioled, with small, caducous stipules, some-
times spiny: fls. dioecious, usually in rather few-fld.
axillary cymes; calyx-lobes, petals and stamens usually
4, sometimes more; ovary superior; style very short: fr.
a berry-like drupe, with 2-8 bony 1-seeded stones. —
About 275 species in N. and S. Amer., Trop. and Temp.
Asia, and few in Afr., Austral, and Eu. Monograph by
Loesener in Nov. Act. Leop.-Carol. Acad. 71, pt. 1
(1901). For a horticultural monograph, see Dalli-
more, Holly, Yew and Box, pp. 1-149 (1909), with
many illustrations.

The hollies have medium-sized, simple leaves, small,
inconspicuous, whitish flowers in axillary clusters or
solitary, and black, red or sometimes yellow berries,
remaining on the branches often until the following
spring. Of the evergreen species, only /. glabra and /.
opaca are hardy North, and also 7. crenata in somewhat
sheltered positions. /. Aquifolium, I. Pernyi, and 7.
cornuta are more tender, but stand many degrees of
frost if sheltered, while most of the others can be
grown only in the South. Of the deciduous species, 7.
decidua, I. monticola, I. l&vigala and 7. verticillata are
hardy North; also 7. serrata and some other Japanese
species are hardy or nearly so. The hollies, especially
those with scarlet or red berries, are highly ornamental,

and the berried branches of 7. opaca and 7. Aqui-
folium are in great demand for Christmas decoration.
Also 7. Isevigata and 7. verticillata, the prettiest in fruit
of the deciduous kinds, are sometimes sold for this
purpose. The deciduous species are mostly shrubs,
while many of the evergreen species grow into small or
medium-sized trees, and 7. opaca is the tallest of the
broad-leaved evergreens which are hardy North and
thrives even on extremely poor soil, and has good color
also; the evergreens 7. crenata, and 7. glabra always
remain shrubby. 7. Aquifolium is a favorite evergreen
in English gardens, and numerous varieties are there
in cultivation; it also grows well on the Pacific coast
from British Columbia to California. It stands severe
pruning well, and can be clipped and trained into
almost every shape; it also makes fine hedges, but its
slow growth is a disadvantage. As the chief value of
the deciduous species is in the ornamental fruits, and
the hollies are dioecious, care should be taken to choose
in planting mostly pistillate plants and a few stami-
nate ones and to give the former the most prominent
place. The light, close-grained and tough wood of
some of the arborescent species is much valued for
turnery-work, engraving and cabinent-making. The
leaves of some tropical species, as 7. paraguariensis and 7.
conocarpa, yield a kind of tea known as Yerba de Mate,
or Paraguay tea, which is much used in South America.
The hollies grow best in rich, well-drained soil, and
the evergreen ones in partly shaded situations, but 7.
Isevigata, I. verticillata and also 7. serrata prefer moist
places, and grow even in swamps. Most of the species
grow slowly, and are not easily transplanted when
older. The best time for moving the evergreen species
is the early fall, when the young wood has almost
ripened, or in the spring just before the plants start
into new growth. The leaves should be stripped on
7. opaca and 7. Aquifolium when transplanted, particu-
larly if at all exposed — or at least nearly all. This is
absolutely necessary to insure success. Wild hollies
may be handled this way with success, particularly if
cut back as well. Propagation is by seeds, which do
not germinate until the second year, and are therefore
stratified and treated like those of the slow-growing
hawthorns. The young seedlings should be transplanted
after the second year. The evergreen species may be
increased by cuttings of ripened wood under glass,
especially the shrubby ones; they are also sometimes
grafted or budded on seedlings of 7. Aquifolium or
7. opaca.

INDEX.

albo-marginata, 21.

Fargesii, 42.

monticola, 49.

albo-picta, 22.

fastigiata, 52.

Mundyi, 7.

alteclarensis, 2.

ferox, 14.

myrtifolia, 12, 44.

Amelanchier, 50.

ferox argentea, 26.

nobilis, 7.

angustifolia, 44.

ferox aurea, 27.

opaca, 39.

Aquifolium, 1.

Fortunei, 46.

Othera, 40.

argentea, 21.

fructu aurantiaco,32.

paraguariensis, 43.

argenteo-marginata ,

fructu luteo, 31.

paraguensis, 43.

21.

flabra, 47.

paucispinosa, 38.

argenteo-medio-picta,

andsworthensis, 9.

pendula, 33.

22.

hastata, 10.

perado, 35.

argutidens, 53.

Herveyi, 51.

Pernyi, 37.

aureo-maculata, 23.

heterophylla, 15.

platyphylla, 35.

aureo-marginata, 24.

heterophylla aureo-

platyphyllos, 5.

aureo-regina, 24.

picta, 28.

princeps, 6.

aureo-picta latifolia,

Hodginsonii, 3.

pyramidalis, 34.

25.

integra, 40.

quercifolia, 39.

aureo-variegata, 46.

Isevigata, 51.

recurva, 19.

bronxensis, 52.

latifolia, 4, 41.

scotica, 18.

camellisefolia, 20.

latifolia marginata, 24.

scotica aurea, 29.

caroliniana, 45.

laurifolia, 16.

serrata, 53.

Cassine, 44, 45.

laurifolia longi folia,

serratifolia, 13.

chinensis, 8.

20.

Shepherdii, 7.

chrysocarpa, 52.

lineata, 11.

Sieboldii, 53.

conspicua, 7.

longifolia, 46.

tenuifolia, 52.

cornuta, 36.

luteo-variegata, 46.

tortuosa, 19.

crenata, 46.

macropoda, 49.

variegata, 35.

crispa, 19.

maderensis, 35.

Veitchii, 37.

Dahoon, 44.

magnifica, 20.

verticillata, 52.

decidua, 48.

marginata, 17.

vomitoria, 45.

dipyrena, 38.

megalophylla, 42.

Wateriana, 30.

dubia, 49.

microphylla, 11, 46.

Wilsonii, 7.

echinata, 14.

mollis, 49.

xanthocarpa, 39, 53.

1638

ILEX

ILEX

1946. Ilex Aquifolium.

(XX)

A. Foliage evergreen (Nos. 1-47}.

B. Lvs. with coarse, spiny teeth, rarely entire.

c. Fls. in axillary clusters on branches of the previous

year.

D. Frs. and fls. stalked.
E. Shape of Ivs. oval or ovate to lanceolate.
1. Aquifolium, Linn. ENGLISH HOLLY. Fig. 1946.
Tree, to 40 ft., with short, spreading branches, forming
an oblong or pyramidal head, in cult, often shrubby,
glabrous: Ivs. short-petioled, usually ovate or oblong-
ovate, waved and with strong, spiny teeth, shining,
in. long: fr. scarlet, globular, shining. May,
June. S. and Cent. Eu., W. Asia,
China. Gng. 4:83. H.W. 3, p.
51. — A very variable species. A
full account of the numerous
varieties cult, in England is
given by T. Moore in G.C. II.
2, pp. 432, 519, 687, 750, 812;
4, pp. 687, 741; 5, pp. 43, 365,
437, 624; 6, pp. 232, 389, 616,
where 153 varieties are described
and many of them figured. Some
of the most important and most
distinct are described below. Osmanthus Aquifolium,
Sieb. & Zucc., an oleaceous shrub, which may readily
be known by its opposite Ivs., is occasionally sup-
plied by dealers as a variety of Ilex Aquifolium.

(a) Varieties with foliage green.

(b) Lvs. spiny-toothed.
(c) Size of Ivs. large, about 2~4 in. long.
2. Var. alteclarensis, Loud. Lvs. oval, large, thin and
rather plain, with numerous teeth. G.C. III. 34:322
G.M. 54:321. 3. Var. Hodginsonii, Waterer. Lvs.
roundish ovate, dark green, 2%-3% in. long, with
distant and nearly equal spines. G.C. III. 34:322. 4.
Var. latifdlia. Loud. Lvs. oval, to 3 ^ in. long, with
rather few, divaricate teeth. G.C. II. 2:433. 5. Var.
platyphyllos, Goepp. Lvs. broadly ovate, to 3^ in.
long, with divaricate spines, thick, deep green. 6.
Var. princeps, Moore. Lvs. broadly ovate, to 4^ in.
long, with strong, regular spines, dark green, with
prominent veins below. G.C. II. 13:45. 7. Var.
Wflsonii, Hort. Lvs. oval, with numerous well-devel-
oped spines in the same plane, dark green, with dis-
tinct veins, up to 5 in. long: fr. large. G.C. III. 30: 117.
Gn. 69:205. In this group belong also, var. con-
spicua, Moore (G.C. II. 13:45); var. Mundyi, Hort.
(Gn. 65, p. 394); var. nobilis, Lawson (G.C. II. 2:432.
Gn. 63, p. 423) ; var. Shepherdii, Waterer (Gn. 65, p.
394) .—The varieties of this group are probably mostly
hybrids between /. Aquifolium and /. perado. A geo-
graphical variety is 8, var. chinensis, Loes. Lvs. ovate-
oblong to oblong-lanceolate, spiny-dentate: fls. smaller.
Cent. China.

(cc) Size of Ivs. small, 1-2 in. long.
9. Var. handsworthensis, Fisher. Lvs. ovate-lanceo-
late, with numerous, moderately divaricate spines, pro-
jected toward the apex, glossy green. G.C. II. 2:519;
111.30:118,131. 10. Var. hastata, Smith. Lvs. ovate-
lanceolate, halbert-shaped; spines large, usually only
2-4 on each side at the base, the upper half usually
entire. G.C. II. 2:687. 11. Var. microphylla, Fisher.
Lvs. ovate-lanceolate, about 1 in. long, shining green,

with small, equal plane spines. G.C. II.' 2:751. A very
1. form, but var. lineata, Waterer, is still

small-lvd

'- »", *^v*« > .. i . iiii^tt t-c*., ff £*UCAd, 1O .^1 111

smaller, and has the smallest Ivs. of all. 12. Var.
myrtifdlia, Waterer. Lvs. ovate-lanceolate, 1-1 K in-
long, moderately spiny, rarely entire. G.C. II. 2:687.
G.M. 31:652. 13. Var. serratifdlia, Loud. Lvs. ovate-
lanceolate, stiff, with numerous small spiny teeth.
G.C. II. 2:687. 14. Var. ferox, Ait. (/. echindta, Mill.).
Lvs. of medium size, with strong teeth and numerous

small spines on the upper convex surface. A very dis-
tinct variety, known as hedgehog holly.

(bb) Lvs. all or most of them -without spines.
15. Var. heterophylla, Ait. Lvs. oval or elliptic-
ovate, about I1/?, in. long, sometimes twisted near the
apex, entire or with few spiny teeth. G.C. II. 2:519.
16. Var. laurifolia, Loud. Lvs. ovate to elliptic-lanceo-
late, 2-3 in. long, usually quite entire. G.C. III. 34:314.
Gn. 63, pp. 378, 423, 424. 17. Var. marginata, Loud.
Lvs. broadly ovate, sometimes twisted near the apex,
with thickened entire margin. G.C. II. 2:813. 18.
Var. scotica, Hort. Lvs. oval-obovate, blunt and
rounded at the apex, rarely pointed, 1^-2 in. long,
with thickened, wavy entire margin. G.C. II. 2:813.
19. Var. recurva, Loud. (var. crispa, Lawson; var. tor-
tuosa, Waterer). Lvs. oval and spirally twisted, with
revolute margin, entire or with few spines, about 2 in.
long: of dense habit. G.M. 31:654; 36:764. G.C. II.
2:813. 20. Var. camelliaefolia, Fisher (var. magnifica,
Hort.; var. laurifolia longifplia, Hort.). Lvs. elliptic or
oblong, acuminate, dark olive-green, very glossy, entire
or with a few spines near the apex. G.C. II. 2:813.
Gn. 65, p. 220. G.M. 31:783. Gt. 55:1551, 4.

(aa) Varieties with foliage variegated.

(b) Lvs. spiny-toothed.

21. Var. albo-marginata, Loud. (var. argenteo-margi-
nata, Hort.; var. argentea, Hort.). Lvs. broadly ovate,
to 2J^ in. long, with numerous irregular spines, dark
green, the disk mottled with grayish green, with rather
narrow silvery margin. Gn. 64, p. 301. G.M. 48:84.
22. Var. albo-picta, Loud. (var. argenteo-medio-picta,
Hort.). Lvs. ovate, with divaricate spines, dark green,
with a whitish center and a narrow, irregular, silvery
margin. G.C. II. 4:687. 23. Var. afcreo-maculata,
Hort. Lvs. oblong-oval, 2J/2 in. long, with distant
triangular, somewhat divaricate spines, with a large
creamy-white blotch in the center, outer part of the
margin dark green, inner part mottled pale gray. G.M.
31:654. 24. Var. aftreo-regina, Hort. (var. aurea-
margindta and var. latifdlia marginata, Hort.). Lvs.
broadly ovate, to 3 in. long, with strongly divaricate
spines, mottled with gray and green, with a broad,
continuous golden yellow margin. G.C. II. 5:44.
G.M. 54:322. 25. Var. ailrep-picta latifdlia, Hort.
Lvs. ovate or broadly ovate, 2 in. or more long, with a
large, branching, deep yellow blotch in the middle, and
with an irregular, deep glossy green margin. G.C. II.
5:624. 26. Var. ferox argentea, Loud. Like var.
ferox, but the margin and the surface spines creamy
white. G.C. II. 5:44. 27. Var. ferox afirea, Loud.,
is like the former, but with yellow spines and margin.
G.C. II. 6:616.

(bb) Lvs. spineless or mostly so.

28. Var. heterophylla aureo-picta, Hort. Lvs. ovate,
flat, sometimes with few spines, about 2^ in. long,
marked in the middle with a broad feathery blotch of
bright yellow. G.C. II. 6:389. 29.
Var. scotica aftrea, Hort. Lvs.
obovate, blunt, slightly wavy,
about l^in. long, dark, mottled
green, with a broad golden margin:
of dwarf habit. 30. Var. Water-
iana, Hort. Lvs. oblong or ovate,
with a few spines, or entire and
plain and obtuse, about 2 in.
long, mottled with gray and yel-
lowish green and edged with a
broad, irregular golden band. G.C.
11.6:233.

There are also some other varieties in cultivation,
as 31, var. fructu luteo, Lawson, with yellow, and 32,
var. frftctu aurantiaco, Paul, with orange berries; 33,
var. pendula, Waterer, with pendulous branches (Gn.

1947. Ilex opaca.

(XH)

ILEX

ILEX

1639

62, p. 129. G.M. 48:81); and 34, var. pyramidalis,
Hort., with ascending branches, forming a narrow,
oblong head.

35. perado, Ait. (/. maderensis, Lam.). Shrub or
tree, to 20 ft.: Ivs. ovate, obovate or oval to oblong-
lanceolate, spiny-dentate, or dentate-serrate with
short spines, sometimes entire, spiny-pointed, or
sometimes obtuse or even emarginate, glossy above,
reticulate below, 2-4 or sometimes to 6 in. long, the
blade decurrent into the margined petiole deeply chan-
nelled above: fr. dark red or nearly black, Kin. across.
Madera, Canary Isls., and Azores. L.B.C. 6:549.
B.M. 4079. G.C. III. 34:317. Gn. 69:205. G.M.
48:150. Var. platyphylla, Loes. (/. platyphylla, Webb.
& Berth.). Lvs. ovate, rarely oblong, 4y8 in. long,
in the staminate plant smaller, entire or spiny dentate-

1948. Hex Amelanchier (XYz)- No. 50.

serrate with irregular short teeth. Var. variegata, Hort.
(/. maderensis variegata, Hort.). Lvs. 2J^-3 in. long,
with rather evenly arranged spiny teeth, with a golden
blotch mixed with pale green in the center.

EE. Shape of Ivs. quadrangular-oblong, 3-pointed at
the apex.

36. cornilta, Lindl. Shrubby, with short spreading
branches, glabrous: Ivs. quadrangular-oblong, with 3
strong spines of nearly equal size at the dilated apex,
and with 1-2 strong spines on each side of the truncate
base, but rounded and spineless at the base on older
plants, dark glossy green above, 1K~3 in. long: fr.
scarlet, clustered, short-pedicelled. June, July. N.
China. G.C. 1850:311. F.S. 7, p. 216; 9:895. B.M.
5059. I.H. 1 : 10.

DD. Frs. andfls. sessile or nearly so.

37. Pernyi, Franch. Shrub, to 10 ft.: branchlets
densely and minutely pubescent: Ivs. crowded, short-
petioled, rhombic- or quadrangular-ovate, with 1-3
rigid spines on each side, the upper pair the largest,

but shorter than the terminal spiny point, dark green
and lustrous above, %~1 in. long: fls. in dense sessile
clusters: fr. bright red, about Hm- across. May; fr.
in Aug. Cent. China. H.I. 16:1539. G.C. III. 45:75.
J.H.S. 34:220 (fig. 110). G.M. 51:714. R.B. 35:24.
M.D.G. 1909:145. — A handsome evergreen of very-
compact habit. Var. Veitchii, Rehd. (/. Veltchii,
Veitch). Lvs. truncate at the base, larger, 1K~2 in.
long, with 4-5 rigid spines on each side.

38. dipyrena, Wall. Tree, to 40 ft.: branchlets
glabrous: Ivs. short-petioled, elliptic-ovate to ovate-
oblong, broadly cuneate or nearly rounded at the base,
short and spiny-acuminate, remotely spiny-serrate
with flat, not wavy margin, rarely entire, dark green
and lustrous above, pale below, 2-4 in. long; petiole
about Kin. long: fls. in axillary dense clusters, nearly
sessile: fr. ovoid, red, lustrous, nearly Kin. long, with
usually 2 stones. Himalayas. G.M. 54: 339. Var.
paucispinosa, Loes. Lvs. oval to ovate-oblong, with
3-5 spreading strong spines on each side. Cent. China.

cc. Fls. in 1- to few-fld. axillary, solitary cymes, on this
year's growth.

39. opaca, Ait. (7. quercifdlia, Meerb.). AMERICAN
HOLLY. Fig. 1947. Tree, with spreading short branches,
sometimes to 50 ft., forming a narrow, pyramidal head,
glabrous: Ivs. oval or elliptic-lanceolate, with large
remote spiny teeth, rarely entire, dull green above, yel-
lowish green beneath, 2-4 in. long: fr. dull scarlet, usu-
ally solitary, globose. June. Mass, to Fla., west to
Mo. and Texas. Em. 385. S.S. 1:45. Gng. 4:276, 277.
F.E. 16:444, pi. 63; 20: 402, pi. 14. Gn.M. 2:19; 4:237.
V. 3:86; 12:79, 80. — Hardier than I. Aquifolium, but
less handsome. Var. xanthocarpa, Rehd. Frs. yellow.

BB. Lvs. serrate, crenate or entire.
c. Fr. red or yellow; nutlet ribbed on the back. Tender.

D. Margin of Ivs. entire.

40. Integra, Thunb. (Othera japonica, Thunb. Ilex
Othera, Spreng.). Evergreen shrub or tree, to 40 ft.,
glabrous: Ivs. slender-petioled, oval to elliptic-oblong
or oblong-obovate, rarely oblanceolate, narrowed at
the base, at the apex contracted into a short obtuse
point, entire, very rarely with a few teeth, indistinctly
veined, 2-3K in. long; petiole %-%w. long: fls. on
stalks K~Kin. long, in axillary fascicles on branches
of the previous year: fr. red, globose or ovoid, K~Kin.
long. Feb.-April; fr. in Aug.-Oct. Japan. S.I. F. 1:60.
— Variable in the size and shape of the Ivs. and in the
length of the pedicels; one of the forms is cult, in the S.
as Othera japonica.

DD. Margin of Ivs. crenate or serrate.

E. Lvs. longer than 3 in.

F. Apex of Ivs. acuminate or acute.

41. latifolia, Thunb. Tree, sometimes to 60 ft., gla-
brous: Ivs. oval to oblong-lanceolate or obovate-
oblong, acuminate, serrate, glossy green above, 3-7
in. long; petiole about Kin. long: fr. red, Kin. across,
short-stalked, in dense clusters. June. Japan. B.M.
5597. S.I.F. 1:62.— One of the most beautiful hollies.

42. Fargesii, Franch. Shrub, to 15 ft., glabrous: Ivs.
oblong-lanceolate to oblanceolate, narrowly cuneate at
the base, long-acuminate, denticulate-serrate usually
only above the middle, dull green above, 3-5 in. long;
petiole slender, about Kin. long: fls. short-stalked in
dense axillary clusters on branchlets of the previous
year: berries red, J^-^in. across, on stalks about
Kin. long. May, June: fr. in Sept. Cent. China. Var.
megalophylla, Loes. Lvs. to 6 in. long and IK in-
broad.

FF. Apex of Ivs. obtuse,

43. paraguariensis, St. Hil. (7. paraguensis,
Don). Shrub or small tree, to 20 ft.: branchlets gla-
brous or puberulous: Ivs. obovate to obovate-oblong

1640

ILEX

ILEX

or elliptic-oblong, narrowed at the base, obtuse or
short and obtusely acuminate, crenate-serrate, gla-
brous or pubescent below, 3-5, rarely to 10 in. long:
fls. axillary, fascicled or in stalked cymes: fr. globose
or ovoid, >^-^in. across, red or reddish brown. Brazil.
B.M. 3992. J.F. 3, p. 69.

EE. Lvs. shorter than 3 in.

44. Cassine, Linn. (7. Dahobn, Walt.). DAHOON.
Shrub or small tree, to 30 ft.: Ivs. obovate to oblong-
linear, acute or obtuse and mucronulate, entire or
sharply serrate above the middle, usually pubescent

1949. Hexlaevigata (XH). No. 51.

beneath when young, 2-3 in. long: fr. globose, small,
dull red, rarely yellow, on this year's growth. April,
May. N. C. to Fla., west to La. S.S. 1:46. Var.
angustifolia, Ait. Lvs. linear-oblong to linear, 2-3 in.
long. Var. myrtifdlia, Chapm. Lvs. linear-oblong,
1-2 in. long: fr. usually solitary. S.S. 1:45. — Cassine
or cassena is the name in the language of the Timucua
Indians for an exhilarating beverage prepared from the
Ivs. of the following plant which had been confused
with this species; the name seems to have been borrowed
from the Muscogee word dssi, leaves, modified by a prefix.

45. vomitdria, Ait. (7. Cassine, Walt., not Linn. 7.
carolinidna, Loes.). CASSENA. YATJPON. Shrub, rarely
tree, to 25 ft., with spreading branches: Ivs. oval or
oblong, obtuse, crenate, glabrous, M~l> rarely to 2 in.
long: fls. clustered on branches of the previous year:
fr. scarlet, globose, small. April. Va. to Fla., west to
Ark. and Texas. S.S. 1:48. C.L.A. 13:498.

cc. Fr. black; nutlets smooth: pistillate fls. usually soli-
tary, on this year's growth.

46. crenata, Thunb. (7. Fortunei, Hort.). Much-
branched shrub, rarely small tree to 20 ft.: Ivs. oval,
obovate or oblong-lanceolate, crenately serrate, gla-
brous, J^-1K in. long: fls. 4-merous: fr. J^in. across,
solitary, short-stalked. May, June; fr. in Oct. Japan.
Gng. 6:165. F.E. 30:1161. G.M. 46:208. Gn. 64,

E. 413. Gn.M. 4:237. Var. microphylla, Maxim.
vs. H-%m. long, elliptic or elliptic-oblong. This
variety is somewhat hardier than the type. Var.
longifolia, Hort. Lvs. elliptic-oblong to lanceolate.
Var. Iftteo-variegata, Regel (var. aureo - variegdta, Hort.).
Lvs. spotted yellow, obovate. M.D.G. 1913:53.

47. glabra, Gray (Prinos gldber, Linn.). INKBERRY.
WINTERBERRY. Much-branched upright shrub, to 8 ft. :
Ivs. obovate to oblanceolate, obtuse, with few obtuse
teeth toward the apex, glabrous, 1-2 in. long: fls.
5-8-merous. June. Mass, to Fla., west to Miss.
L.B.C. 5:450.

AA. Foliage deciduous: fr. red. (Prinos.)

B. Frs. mostly and Ivs. partly fascicled on short spurs:
nutlets ribbed on the back.

48. decidua, Walt. (Prinos deciduus, DC.). Shrub or
small tree, to 30 ft., with light gray, spreading branches:
Ivs. cuneate-oblong or obovate, usually obtuse, cren-
ately serrate, dark green, and with impressed veins
above, pale and pubescent beneath, 1^-3 in. long: fr.
globose, orange or orange-scarlet, Mm- across. May.
Va. to Fla., west to Texas. S.S. 1:49. G.C. II. 14:689.

49. monticola, Gray (I.diibia, Brit. Stern. & Pogg.).
Tree, to 40 ft., with slender branches, forming a narrow
pyramidal head or spreading shrub: Ivs. oval or oval-
lanceolate, acute or acuminate, sharply serrate, pubes-
cent only along the veins beneath, 2-6 in. long: fr.
red, globular-ovoid, over % m- across. May. N. Y. to
S. C., west to Ala. S.S. 1:50. Var. mollis, Brit. (7.
mdllis, Gray). Lvs. broadly ovate, soft-pubescent when

g>ung, glabrous above at length. Var. macropoda,
ehd. (7. dubia var. macrdpoda, Loes. 7. macropoda,
Miq.). Lvs. ovate or oval, pubescent below. Japan,
Cent. China. S.I.F. 1:59.

BB. Frs. and Ivs. not fascicled: frs. axillary.
c. Stalks of fr. y&in. long, nutlets ribbed on back.

50. Amelanchier, Curtis. Fig. 1948. Deciduous shrub
to 6 ft.: Ivs. oblong, subacute, serrate, pubescent, 1%~
3 in. long: staminate fls. several on a common
peduncle: fr. dull red, large; nutlets strongly 3-ribbed
on back. Va. to La. G.F. 2:41 (adapted in Fig.
1948).— Hardy.

cc. Stalks of fr. %in. or shorter; nutlets smooth.
D. Fls. 6-9-merous.

51. laevigata, Gray (Prinos Isevigdtus, Pursh). WIN-
TERBERRY. Fig. 1949. Low shrub, of upright habit.
Ivs. lanceolate, acute, finely or crenately serrate, rather
thick, glabrous or nearly so, 1)^-2^ in. long, turning
clear yellow in fall: staminate fls. on long and slender
stalks: fr. depressed-globose, bright orange-red, over
J^in. across. May, June; fr. in Sept. Maine to Pa. and
Va. G.F. 4:221 (adapted in Fig. 1949). Gt. 55:1551, 3.
Var. Herveyi, Rob. Frs. bright yellow.

52. verticillata, Gray (Prinos verticilldtus, Linn.).
BLACK ALDER. WINTERBERRY. Fig. 1950. Shrub, with
spreading branches: Ivs. obovate to oblanceolate or
lanceolate, acuminate or acute, serrate or doubly ser-
rate, usually pubescent beneath, 1M~3 in. long, turn-
ing black after frost: all fls. short-stalked: fr. bright
red, about J^in. across. June, July: fr. in Oct. Can-
ada to Fla., west to Wis. and Mo. Em. 388. F.E. 24:
779. Var. tenuifdlia, Torr. (7. bronxensis, Brit.).
Lvs. obovate, glabrous or pubescent, thin: fls. and frs.
larger. B.B. (ed. 2) 3:489. Var. chrysocarpa, Rob. Frs.
bright yellow. Also 7. fastigiata, Bicknell, from Nan-
tucket, differing in its fastigiate habit and in the
narrower lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate Ivs., is
probably only a variety of this species. — Very variable
in shape and texture of Ivs. One of the best hardy
shrubs with ornamental frs. remaining on the branches
until midwinter, and are rarely eaten by birds.

DD. Fls. 4-5-merous.

53. serrata, Thunb. (7. Siebdldii, Miq.). Slender
shrub, to 15 ft., similar to the former but smaller in
every part: Ivs. elliptic or ovate, acute or acuminate,
finely serrate, pubescent beneath, 1-2 in. long: fls.
4-5-merous: fr. bright red, small K~Km- across. June'

ILEX

IMPATIENS

1641

fr. in Oct. Japan. S.T.S. 1:15. S.I.F. 1:61. Var.
argfttidens, Rehd. (7. argutidens, Miq.). Lvs. glabrous
beneath, short-petioled, teeth more remote and less
fine: fls. usually 4-merous. Var. xanthocarpa, Hort.
Frs. yellow.

7. amUgua, Chapm. Deciduous large shrub, allied to I. mon-
ticola. Lvs. usually almost glabrous, remotely serrate, 1-2 in. long.
N. C. to Fla., west to Ark. and Texas. — /. Brandegeeana, Loes.
Evergreen tree to 40 ft.: branchlets pubescent: Ivs. elliptic-lanceo-
late, remotely serrate or almost entire, pubescent, 2-3 J^ in. long:
fls. 5-merous. Low. Calif. G.F. 7:416 (by error named I. califor-
nica.) — 7. californica, Brandegee. Evergreen large shrub, to 12 ft.,
glabrous: Ivs. elliptic to oblong-elliptic, obtuse, remotely and cre-
nately serrulate, 2-5 in. long: fr. black, small. Low. Calif. G.F.
7:415 (by error named I. triflora). — I. canariensis, Poir. Evergreen
tree, to 20 ft., glabrous: Ivs. ovate to ovate-oblong, obtuse, entire,
2-4 in. long: fr. usually solitary, on this year's growth. Canaries. —
7. conocdrpa, Reiss. Evergreen shrub, to 6 ft.: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate,
acuminate, serrulate, glabrous, 3-5 in. long: fls. in short, dense
spikes: fr. ovoid-conic. Brazil. B.M. 7310. — I. cordllina, Franch.
Evergreen shrub: Ivs. ovate-oblong, acuminate, spiny -serrate or
nearly crenate-serrate, 2-3 in. long: frs. small, red, nearly sessile, in
dense clusters. W. China. — 7. coriacea, Chapm. (I. lucida, Torr. &
Gray). Allied to I. glabra, but taller: Ivs. broader and longer, to 3 in.,
acute or acuminate. N. C. to Fla., west to La. — I. Franchetiana,
Loes. Evergreen shrub, to 12 ft., glabrous: Ivs. elliptic-obovate
to lanceolate-oblong or oblanceolate, acuminate, denticulate, 2 J^-
4 in. long: fr. bright red on short stalks, in dense clusters. W.
China. — 7. genicuiata, Maxim. Deciduous shrub, glabrous: Ivs.
ovate to elliptic-ovate, acuminate, sharply serrate, l^j-2 in. long:
fr. scarlet, solitary, drooping on filiform peduncles %-l Vi in- long.
Japan. Very graceful shrub ; has proved hardy at the Arnold Arbor-
etum.— 7. gongonha, Mart.=Villaresia mucronata. — 7. instgnis,
Hook. f. Evergreen small tree: Ivs. elliptic-lanceolate, 6-9 in. long,
spiny-toothed, often almost entire on older plants: fr. large, globose.
Himalayas. G. C. II. 14:297. G. M. 31:475. — 7. longipes, Chapm.
Deciduous shrub, allied to I. decidua: Ivs. elliptic-lanceolate, cre-
nately serrate, almost glabrous: fr. globose, slender-pedicelled. N. C.
to Ga., west to La. G. F. 3:345. — 7. macrocdrpa, Oliver. Deciduous
tree, to 30 ft., glabrous: Ivs. elliptic or elliptic-ovate to oblong-
lanceolate, finely serrate, 3-4 Yi in. long: frs. black, solitary, }fa- %xa..
across, on peduncles Yf-\ l/i in. long. Cent. China,., H. I. 18: 1787. —
7. microcdrpa, Lindl.=I. rotunda, Thunb. — 7. Oldhamii, Miq.=I.
purpurea, Thunb. — -7. pedunculdsa, Miq. Evergreen small tree,
glabrous: Ivs. slender-petioled, elliptic-ovate to ovate-oblong, ab-
ruptly short-acuminate, entire or sparingly serrulate, 1 J^-3 in. long:
fr. red, usually solitary on slender pedicels 1 J^-2 in. long. Japan.
S. I. F. 1:61. Var. continentalis, Loes. Lvs. generally larger, thicker:
sepals ciliate. Cent. China. — 7. purpurea, Thunb. (I. Oldhamii,
Miq.). Evergreen tree, glabrous: Ivs. elliptic-ovate to oblong-
lanceolate, crenate - serrulate, 2-3 in. long.: fr. red, %in. across,
pedicelled, usually 2-5 on a common peduncle about Mm. long.
Japan, Cent. China. S. I. F. 1:62. — 7. rotunda, Thunb. (I. rnicro-
carpa, Lindl.). Evergreen shrub or tree, to 40 ft.: Ivs. oblong or
elliptic, acute, pointed, quite entire: fr. small, red, in peduncled
clusters. Japan. G. C. 1850:311. F.S. 7, p. 216. S. I. F. 1 : 60.— I.
rugdsa, F. Schmidt. Evergreen low spreading shrub, sometimes
prostrate, glabrous: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate, remotely
crenate-serrate, rugose above, %-2 in. long: fr. usually solitary,
scarlet. Japan, Saghalin. — 7. szechwanensis, Loes. Evergreen
shrub, to 12 ft., glabrous: Ivs. short-petioled, ovate- to elliptic-
oblong, serrulate, 1-2 Yi in. long. : fr. black, solitary, on stalks about
}^in. long. Cent. China. — 7. trifldra, Brandegee=I. Brandegeeana.
— 7. yunkanensis, Franch. Evergreen shrub, to 10 ft.: branchlets
villous: Ivs. short-stalked, ovate to ovate-oblong, crenate-serrate or
serrulate, pubescent below, at least on the midrib, %-!% in. long:
fr. red, solitary, stalked. W. China. ALFRED REHDER.

LLLICIUM (Latin for allurement; probably in refer-
ence to the agreeable odor). Magnoliacese. Small
trees or shrubs, one of which is sometimes planted far
South.

Aromatic glabrous plants, with thick short-petioled
entire evergreen Ivs.: fls. perfect, small, solitary _or in
3's in the axils of Ivs. or bud-scales, nodding or inclined,
yellow or purplish; sepals 3-6; petals many, imbricated
in 3 or more rows or series; stamens 10 to many, with
thick filaments: carpels usually many, forming a ring
of almost woody pods. — Species about a score, mostly
oriental (India, China, Philippines), and 2 in the S. U. S.

One of the illiciums furnishes the star or Chinese
anise, which is the small star-shaped cluster of fruits.
The odor and flavor strongly resemble anise. It is
much used in oriental countries in cookery, and is
exported to some extent and is said to be used in flavor-
ing certain French wines. This product comes from
China. It has been supposed to be the product of I.
anisatum of Linnaeus, but that plant is a Japanese tree
and it contains a poison. In the American trade are
the names 7. anisatum and 7. religiosum. It now trans-
pires that these names belong to the same plant, and

that the star anise is produced by another species. This
other species, or the true star anise, was first accu-
rately described and figured (as 7. verum, Hook, f.) in
B.M. 7005 (1888), where the confusion of two or three
centuries is elucidated. There is probably only one
east Asian illicium in the trade in North America, as
follows :

anisatum, Linn. (7. religiosum, Sieb. & Zucc.). Small
tree: Ivs. alternate, elliptic, short-petioled, somewhat
acuminate: fls. mostly solitary, sessile or nearly so,
yellowish, not fragrant, with many very narrow petals,
and 20-30 stamens. Japan. B.M. 3965. — Grown far
S. About as hardy as camellia. There is a form with
variegated Ivs.

1950. Ilex verticillata
(XM). No. 52.

Two native illiciums growing in the S. are: 7. floridanum,
Ellis. Shrub, 6-10 ft.: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, 4-in. or more long:
petals 20-30, very narrow, dark crimson or purple. Fla. to La.
B.M. 439. Gn. 36, p. 151. J.H. III. 30:365; 52: 168. H.U. 5, p.
136. — 7. parvifldrum, Michx. Lvs. elliptic or lanceolate, mostly
under 4 in. long: petals very small (%in. long), 6-12, yellowish:
less tall. Ga. and Fla. — A species appearing in European horticul-
tural literature in recent years is 7. laurifdlium, Hort. It is
described as a handsome evergreen shrub: Ivs. short-stalked, oval,
acute: fls. yellowish white, in many-fld. terminal cymes. Of
uncertain origin. R.H. 1901, p. 17. — 7. verum, Hook, f. The true
star anise: 9 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to oblanceolate: fls. red, globose, the
petals about 10. China. L H B

IMANTOPH-frLUM: Clivia.
IMBRICARIA: Mimusops.
IMMORTELLES: Everlastings.

IMPATIENS (from the Latin; having reference to
the pods, which, when ripe, on slight pressure burst
open, scattering the seed). Balsaminacese. TOUCH-
ME-NOT. Flower-garden and greenhouse subjects,
grown for the odd and ornamental blossoms.

Tender, succulent annual or perennial herbs, often
with very fleshy sts. and simple Ivs. usually alternate
(sometimes opposite) and the upper ones often in
whorls: peduncles axillary, with 1-6 or more very
irregular fls. of various colors; sepals 3 (seldom 5),

1642

IMPATIENS

the posterior one taking on a spur-like shape, the 2
lateral ones short, green; petals 2 or 3, the one at the
back commonly very broad and erect, sometimes
keeled or winged, the lateral ones more or less 2-lobed
or auricled; stamens 5, the filaments appendaged and
the scales connivent over the stigma : fr. a 5-valved pod,
which, when ripe, bursts when pinched, scattering the
seeds. — Species probably 500, widely distributed about
the world, largely in mountainous regions in warm-
temperate and tropical countries. The genus has been
greatly enlarged in recent years, with explorations in
Afr. and other regions. It abounds in species that will
probably have horticultural value, although relatively
few are now in cult, outside botanical collections. The
garden balsam (/. Balsamina) is a general favorite in the
annual flower-garden. /. Sultani is common in green-
houses, and latterly I. Holstii, I. Oliveri, and a few
others are sometimes seen. This beautiful genus has not
been much developed horticulturally. Great numbers of
species, hybrids and interesting forms may be expected
to appear in cult, in the future. The genus has immense
possibilities for productive horticultural work. The
common touch-me-not of Great Britain and other
parts of Eu. is /. Noli-tangere (sometimes written /.
Noli-me-tangere), an erect smooth branching annual,
2 ft. or less high, with large showy yellow fls. spotted
with orange, on slender axillary peduncles. It has been
reported as an escape in N. Amer. The N. American
/. biflora is naturalized in England.

The cultivation of impatiens is mostly simple and
easy. The seeds are large and germinate readily (see
Balsam). The indoor species grow well and readily
from either cuttings or seeds. Some of them also do

1951. Impatiens pallida. — One of the native
jewel-weeds. ( X V<i>

well when grown as tender annuals in the open ground,
although likely to suffer in dry weather and to bleach
in bright sun. The remarks under I. Oliveri, I. Sul-
tani, I. Holstii, I. H 'awkeri, I. platypetala, I. flactida,
and 7. Hookeriana indicate the treatment for the
greenhouse kinds.

IMPATIENS

INDEX.

glanduligera, 14.

Nortonii, 1.

S'andiflora, 5.

Oliveri, 6.

awkeri, 10.

oppositifolia, 4.

Holstii, 8.

pallida, 2.

Hookeriana, 13.

Petersiana, 9.

hortensis, 3.

platypetala, 11.

latifolia, 12.
Liegnitzia, 8.

pulcherrima, 11.
rosea, 3.

macran ha, 3.

Roylei, 14.

macrochila, 14.

Sultani, 7.

micrantha, 3.

vulgaris, 3.

moschata, 14.

alba, 12, 13.
arcuata, 3.
aurea, 2.
Balfourii, 15.
Balsamina, 3.
biflora, 1.
biglandulosa, 13.
Candida, 14.
coccinea, 3.
Episcopi, 7.
flaccida, 12.
fulva, 1.

A. Species of the U. S. and Canada, seldom grown in
wild gardens, and frequently found about the
borders of damp cult, grounds.

1. bifldra, Walt. (I. fulva, Nutt.). SPOTTED TOUCH-
ME-NOT. JEWEL- WEED. Annual, with orange-colored
fls. much spotted with reddish brown: spur strongly
inflexed, about half as long as posterior sepal: Ivs.
ovate or oval, petioled and coarsely toothed: usually
2-3 ft. Moist, shady places. July-Oct. Nova Scotia to
Alaska, Ore., Mo. and Fla.— Has been offered by
dealers in native plants. I. Nfirtonii, Rydb., of W. Mo.
and Kans., differs from I. biflora in having larger and
relatively longer and narrower saccate sepal which
tapers gradually into a shorter spur.

2. pallida, Nutt. (7. aurea, S. Wats.). PALE TOUCH-
ME-NOT. JEWEL-WEED. Fig. 1951. With 7. biflora the
representatives of the family in the indigenous flora of
the U. S. Larger than 7. biflora; otherwise similar to
it, with pale yellow fls. sparingly dotted with brownish
red; spur short, notched, and less than one-third the
length of the posterior sepal. Moist, shady places.
July-Sept. Que. to Ore., Kans. and Ga. — Annual.
Perhaps procurable from dealers in native plants.

AA. Species of familiar flower-gardens: annuals.

3. Balsamina, Linn. GARDEN BALSAM. Figs. 450-
453, Vol. I. Annual, erect and branching, pubescent or
nearly glabrous: Ivs. either narrowly or broadly lanceo-
late and acuminate, deeply serrate, the petiole glandu-
lar: fls. large, rose-colored; standard orbicular and
retuse; wings or side petals very broad, with the lateral
lobe rounded and the terminal sessile and large; lip
small and cone-like; spur variable, incurved: caps,
large, tomentose. Trop. and Subtrop. India, Malaya,
China. — Very variable in its wide range. Hooker recog-
nizes 6 wild botanical varieties: Var. vulgaris, Hook. f.
(Balsamina hortensis, DC.). Tall: Ivs. broadly lanceo-
late: fls. large, with short spur. Var. coccinea, Hook. f.
(Balsdmina coccinea, DC.). Lvs. narrow-lanceolate: fls.
of medium size, the spur long and slender. B.M. 1256.
Var. arcuata, Hook. f. Diffusely branched: Ivs. small
and narrow: fls. small, the spur long, slender and
arcuate. Var. macrdntha, Hook. f. Four inches high:
Ivs. ovate-lanceolate: fls. large, with short spur. Var.
micrdntha, Hook. f. Small, simple: Ivs. small, ovate-
lanceolate: fls. small, with long and slender spur. Var.
rosea, Hook. f. (7. rosea, Lindl.). Tall: Ivs. linear-
lanceolate: fls. rather small, with lip saccate and spur
short and incurved. B.R. 27:27. — 7. Balsamina now
runs into many forms, through long cult, and breeding.
See Balsam.

AAA. Species of many countries, mostly of indoor cult.,
but sometimes grown in the open.

B. Lvs. linear: annual.

4. oppositifdlia, Linn. Annual of free - branching
habit, very floriferous, erect: Ivs. long-narrow-linear,
mostly nearly sessile, remotely serrate: fls. about 1 in.
diam., rosy red, purplish or pink, on glabrous pedicels;
sepals linear, acuminate; wings with broad-obovate
terminal lobe and small lateral lobe; lip conical, pro-
duced into a short and stout incurved spur. India.
G.C. III. 42:102. G.M. 51:321.

IMPATIENS

IMPATIENS

1643

BB. Lvs. ovate to lanceolate: probably all perennial.

c. Peduncles axillary, 1-fld. or sometimes 2-fld.

D. Spur of fl. much enlarged or swollen at base.

5. grandiflora, Hemsl. Stout, branching, glabrous:

Ivs. alternate, stalked, 3-6 in. long, ovate-lanceolate

and sinuate-crenate, puckered or blistered above

between the nerves, glandular on lower part of blade

1952. Impatiens Sultani.

and on petiole: fls. solitary, to 3 in. across, bright rose-
red with crimson stripes on the wing-lobes; sepals 2,
green, orbicular-ovate; standard orbicular, erect, short-
spurred below the tip; lip 1% in. long, swollen, white
netted with purple, abruptly narrowed into an incurved
spur 1 in. or more long; wings very large, the terminal
lobe obovate and the basal orbicular. Madagascar.
B.M. 7826. G.C. III. 29:111.

6. Oliver!, Wright. Glabrous, reaching 4-8 ft.,
erect, the sts. pale green : Ivs. 4-8 at a node, oblanceo-
late, acute or acuminate, to 8 in. long, dentate-ciliate :
fls. 2% in. across, pale lilac or rose-colored, almost
white beneath, on 1-fld. peduncles about 2}/2 in. long;
lateral sepals ovate and acuminate, much shorter than
the petals; lip ovate, funnel-shaped, with abrupt
reflexed mucro; spur 1% in. long, curved, slender;
standard nearly orbicular, recurved and apiculate at
apex; wings deeply 2-lobed, the terminal lobe obovate
and the lateral obcordate: fr. oblong. Trop. E. Afr.,
6,000-8,000 ft. altitude. B.M. 7960. G.C. III. 40:292.
Gn. 66, p. 266. G. 27:288, 405. G.W. 11, p. 1. R.H.
1908:180. A.F. 29:155. Gng. 16:3.— An excellent
greenhouse subject and also useful in the open border.
It makes a very showy plant when given cool green-
house treatment, producing a bush 10 ft. through.
Prop, readily either by seeds or cuttings, the former
being produced freely.

DD. Spur very slender throughout.

7. Sultani, Hook. f. Fig. 1952. From 12-24 in. high,
with stout st. and branches, rather succulent and green,
glabrous: Ivs. elliptical or lanceolate and narrowed into
a petiole about 1 in. long; lower Ivs. alternate, upper
ones almost whorled: peduncles axillary; fls. rich scarlet
in the original form; petals flat; standard obovate-
orbicular and retuse; lip less than half length of petals,
suddenly narrowed into a slender upwardly curved
long spur. Hybrids and sports have given shades from
pink to almost purple, and a white variety also exists.

Spur is very long and thin. Zanzibar. B.M. 6643.
Gn. 23, p. 331. G. 14:283. V. 7:325, 326. S.H. 2:280.
I.H. 30:488; 42, p. 140. R.H. 1884 : 12.— Increased by
seeds; also by cuttings, which root readily. A green-
house plant; it also does well as a house plant, bloom-
ing almost continuously. Var. Episcopi, Hort. A per^
petual flowering variety with purple-carmine fls.
marked brilliant rose. — /. Sultani was named by Hooker
"in honor of that distinguished potentate, the Sultan
of Zanzibar, to whose enlightened and philanthropic
rule eastern Africa owes so much." See No. 13.

8. Hdlstii, Engler & Warb. Very like 7.
Sultani. Fleshy herb or subshrub, nearly
glabrous, 2-3 ft.: the branches striped red:
Ivs. alternate, long-petioled, oval or ovate to
lanceolate, acute, crenate and with a bristle
between the teeth : fls. 1 or sometimes 2 on the
peduncle, pure scarlet, 1% in. across, flat;
sepals 3, the lateral small and scale-like ; spur
slender, 1J^ in. long; standard broadly ob-
cordate; lateral petals deeply divided into 2
obovate-spatulate lobes. E. Trop. Afr., 2,500-
5,000ft. B.M. 8029. G.C. III. 38:14. Gn.
72, p. 337; 74, p. 17. G.M. 48:413; 56:46.
J.H. III. 51:65. R.H. 1906:136. G.W. 15,
p. 356 (as var. nana amabilis) .—^-Oi better
constitution under cult, than 7. Sultani, having quicker
and more vigorous growth, and larger and brighter fls.
It is useful either as a pot-plant indoors or for grow-
ing in the open; for the latter purpose, seeds may be
started early in spring and plants will bloom from early
summer till frost. Var. Liegnitzia, Grign., is a compact
condensed form, with color more clear and brilliant
than the type, blooming freely throughout the year;
excellent for pot cult. R.H. 1909, p. 279.

9. Petersiana, Rehd. Very like I. Holstii, but all the
parts red or bronzy rather than green, sts.pubescent, peti-
oles longer: Ivs. longer and elliptic rather than oval,
peduncles and pedicels longer, fls. carmine-red rather
than scarlet and the petals entire, caps, small and purple.
W.Trop. Afr. M.D.G. 1905:390 (descr.) R.H. 1910:452.

1953. Impatiens flaccida.

(XM)

1644

IMPATIENS

INCARVILLEA

10. Hawkeri, Bull. A bushy, soft-wooded plant, 2
ft. or less high, with well-branched sts. of a dull red
color; Ivs. opposite or in whorls of 3, ovate, acuminate,
serrate, dark green, pale beneath: peduncles axillary,
long and slender; fls. rounded in outline, about 3 in.
diam., deep carmine, with a white eye; standard
round-oboyate, retuse; spur to nearly 3 in. long, slen-
der and slightly curved. South Sea Isls. Intro, about
1886. B.M. 8247. G.C. II. 25:761. I.H. 34:2. Gn.W.
5:213. G.W. 14, p. 126. G.Z. 31, p. 122.— A green-
house plant, needing an intermediate temperature.
Plants from early spring cuttings bloom all summer
and into autumn.

11. platypetala, Lindl. (7. pukherrima, Dalzell).
Sts. strong, succulent, branched and usually reddish
purple: Ivs. whorled, lanceolate or oval, serrate,
hairy beneath: peduncles axillary, shorter than the
Ivs.; fls. large, rose-colored; spur sickle-shaped,
rather thin and petals transversely obcordate. Sum-
mer. Java. R.H. 1847:221. B.R. 32:68.— Needs a
moderate to warm temperature and may

be used as a house-plant or in protected
and warm situations outdoors. Prop, by
cuttings, and during growth should be
treated like gloxinias. Var. Lucie or Lucy
belongs here.

12. flaccida, Arn. (/. latifolia, Hook., not Linn.).
Fig. 1953. Slender but erect, somewhat branched, gla-
brous, 6-18 in.: Ivs. stalked, ovate or lanceolate, cre-
nate, 2-5 in. long, the petiole with or without glands:
fls. rose-purple, 1^ in. or less in diam., mostly solitary;
sepals ovate; standard broad, 2-lobed, spurred; wings
broad, 2-lobed, variable; lip boat-shaped, with a long
slender curved spur about \}/% in. long and sometimes
parted to the middle: caps, glabrous, ^$m. long. India.
B.M. 5276, 5625. — Thrives under the treatment given
/. Sultani. There is a white-fld. form (var. dlba}.

cc. Peduncles with 8-6 or more fls., often more or less
clustered or terminal.

13. Hookeriana, Arn. (7. biglanduldsa, Moon. 7.
Sultani dlba, Hort.). A very succulent much-branched
plant, growing to a height of 3 ft.: Ivs. long-petioled,
ovate-lanceolate, toothed: peduncles axillary in the
upper Ivs.; fls. large, white, spotted with purple on the
large lower petals; spur bent horn-shaped, and longer
than the fls. Blooms in fall, teylon. B.M. 4704. J.F.
14:391. — It is a perennial, requires a moderate temper-
ature and does not bloom until well developed. Prop,
by cuttings. One of the best species in cult.

14. Roylei, Walp. (7. glanduligera, Royle). Fig.
1954. A rather coarse garden annual, with strong st.,
succulent and much-branched: lower Ivs. opposite;
upper Ivs. usually in 3's and whorled, all ovate or ovate-
lanceolate, naked, 4 in. long, sharply serrate; basal ser-
rations and the petiole glandular: peduncles axillary,
with 3 or more fls. and very numerous toward top of
plant; fls. large, dark purple; spur very short. Aug.,
Sept. India, in the Temp. W. Himalaya region, 6,000-
8,000 ft. altitude. B.M. 4020. B.R. 26:22. J.F.
4:427. — Grown from seed, needing but little care, and
useful in groups. In its native country it grows 4-10
ft. high. Variable. Var. moschata, Hook. (7. moschata,
Edgew.), has Ivs. alternate and whorled, coarsely ser-
rate and less glandular. Var. Candida, Hook. (7.
Candida, Lindl.), has uppermost Ivs. opposite or whorled,
and fls. white spotted crimson. J.F. 4:416. Var. mac-
rochtla, Hook. (7. macrochlla, Lindl.), has upper Ivs.
alternate; terminal lobes of the wings half-oval (as if
one side wanting) and falcate. B.R. 26:8.

15. Balfourii, Hook. f. Glabrous, slenderly branch-
ing, 2-3 ft.: Ivs. 3-5 in. long, short-stajked, ovate-
lanceolate and very long-acuminate, with many minute
recurved teeth, glandless: fls. loosely racemose at the
top of the st. on very slender pedicels, large, rose and

yellow; sepals 2, nearly orbicular, small; standard
orbicular, reflexed, white suffused rose; the keel red;
wings 1J4 in. long, pale yellow on basal lobe and
bright rose on the hatchet-shaped terminal lobe; lip to
1M in. long, gradually narrowed into a horn-like some-
what incurved obtuse spur: caps, erect, narrow, to 1^
in. long, red on the angles. W. Himalayas. B.M.
7878.

7. aurlcoma, Baill. Perennial, 6-24 in.: Ivs. alternate, lanceolate,
acuminate, crenate and with bristles: fls. golden yellow streaked
red within; lateral petals connate; spur short, curved, 2-parted:
sts. and midrib reddish. Comoro Isls., Mozambique. B.M. 7381. —
/. chrysdntha, Hook. f. Annual, glabrous: Ivs. alternate, lance-
ovate, serrate: fls. several on a peduncle, golden-yellow; spur short
and incurved. India. B.M. 7786. — /. comortnsis. Baker. Lvs.
elliptic-lanceolate, acute and crenate: fls. large, bright carmine with
2-parted white spur. Comoro Isls. — /. comorlcoma, Hort. (I. comor-

1954. Impatiens Roylei.

enais X I. auricoma) . — 7. cuspidAta, Wight & Arn. Shrubby, gla-
brous, farinaceous: Ivs. alternate or uppermost opposite, lanceo-
^late or oblong-lanceolate, serrulate: fls. solitary, 1 in. across, very
"pale red; spur slender. India. Var. arthretica, Hook, f., has the
lower nodes much thickened. B.M. 7844. — 7. fdlcifer. Hook. f.
Annual, more or less decumbent: Ivs. alternate, sessile or stalked,
ovate to ovate-lanceolate, serrate: fls. solitary and short-pedicelled,
ringent, golden yellow spotted blood-red; spur slender, to 1 Yi in.
long. India. B.M. 7923. — 7. Hkrzogii, Schum. Stout branch-
ing herb the branches 4-angled: Ivs. opposite and whorled, ovate
to ovate-lanceolate: fls. sol tary or clustered, about 2 in. across,
cinnabar; spur to nearly 3 in. long, very slender, incurved. New
Guinea. B.M. 8396. R.H. 1913: 12.— 7. Hdlstani, Hort. (I. Hol-
stiixl. Sultani). — 7. kewensis, Hort. (I. platypetala X I. Herzogii).
— 7. Maridnx, Reichb. Annual: Ivs. cuneate-oblong and acute,
serrate, with lighter areas between veins: fls. light purple, cymose;
standard with a projection below the tip; lip with slender hooked
spur. India. G.W. 14, p. 127. — 7. psittacina, Hook. f. Annual,
leafy and much branched: Ivs. alternate, ovate, acuminate, ser-
rate: fls. solitary, oddly colored, 2 sepals green, standard pale
rose, wings suffused and streaked red, lip white with irregular dash
of carmine; spur short and hooked. Burma. B.M. 78C9. — 7. Thom-
sonii. Hook. f. Annual, erect, 8-12 in.: Ivs. alternate, ovate-lan-
ceolate, serrate: fls. several on a peduncle, %in. long, pale rose;
spur slender, incurved. India. B.M. 7795.

IMPERATA SACCHARIFL6RA: Miscanthus.
IMPERAT6RIA: Peucedanum.

L. H. B.f

INCARVILLEA (after Incarville, the French Jesuit
missionary to China, correspondent of Jussieu in 1743).
Bignoniaceae. Showy herbs, annual, biennial, or per-
ennial, planted in the open.

Closely allied to Amphicome, and the fls. of both
have the same general appearance, but in Incarvillea
the calyx-lobes are awl-shaped, while in Amphicome
the calyx is truncate or shortly dentate; also the seeds
of Incarvillea have an entire hyaline wing, while in
Amphicome the seeds have a wing that is cut into long
thin strips or hairs. The two genera form a small but
remarkable group, characterized by their caps, open-
ing by the ventral suture only. Calyx campanulate,
5-lobed; corolla-tube elongated, enlarging; limb some-
what 2-lipped, the lobes 5, spreading and broad; sta-
mens 4, included, didynamous; disk annular or ring-
like; ovary 2-loculed: fr. a narrow more or less curved
caps, with many seeds: plant erect, branching or sim-
ple: Ivs. alternate, 2-3-pinnate or simple, with narrow
segms. : fls. large, in terminal clusters, red to yellow. —
Species about a dozen, Turkestan, Thibet, China. The
general experience seems to be that these plants need
rather more winter protection than most hardy her-

INDIGOFERA

1645

baceous perennials. A light, sandy loam, well enriched
and deeply worked, suits them well, and they like a
sheltered position in a rather warm, sunny place.
Prop, by division or seed.

A. Lf.-segms. toothed or crenate.

Delavayi, Bur. & Franch. Fig. 1955. Lvs. few, radi-
cal; Ifts. 4-5 in. long, not quite opposite: stamens in-
cluded. B.M. 7462. Gn. 54:430; 60, p. 229; 72, p. 421.
G. 23:157. Gn.W. 15:713. G.W. 15, p. 409. R.H.
1893:544. J.H. III. 30:449. Gt. 43:1398. Mn. 3, p.
26. G.C. III. 26:123. G.M. 38:306.— 7. Delavayi is
a hardy plant with handsome pinnate foliage, each If.
being 1 ft. long, with as many as 15-20 dentate segms. :
scape 1-2 ft. high, bearing 2-12 large trumpet-shaped
rosy purple fls., each 2-3 in. long and as much wide.
These fls. are probably equal in decorative value to
many of the bignonias cherished in greenhouses. In
size and beauty they rank with those of catalpa, big-
nonia and tecoma, of the same family. The tube is
yellow inside and out, and the 2 upper lobes are smaller
than the 3 lower ones.

lutea, Bur. & Franch. Two to 4 ft.: Ivs. mostly
radical, 8-15 in. long, pinnate, long-petioled ; Ifts.
broad-lanceolate, crenate: scapes stout and stiff, bear-
ing a few bracts and 6-20 yellow, somewhat pendulous
fls., with limb 2 in. across and paler yellow than the
tube. S. W. China, 10,000-12,000 ft. altitude. G.C.
III. 50, suppl. Aug. 19 (1911).

AA. Lf.-segms. parted or dissected.
variabilis, Batalin. Subshrub: Ivs. 2- or 3-pinnate;
segms. parted or dissected, their lobes entire or slightly
lobed: fls. as many as 10, pale rose. Gt. 47, p. 222. —
A strong-growing, bushy plant covered with fls. each 1
in. or more across, from May to Oct.: seedlings bloom
the first year.

AAA. Lf.-segms. often entire or nearly so.

Olgae, Regel (/. Koopmannii, W. Lauche). Subshrub,
2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 2-4 in. long; segms. linear-oblong or
lanceolate, narrower than in I. Delavayi, especially at
the base, entire or with a few distant teeth toward the
tip: fls. pale pink, veiny; tube \Y^ in. long; limb about
1 jn. across, the 5 lobes nearly equal. B.M. 6593 (throat
not yellow). G.C. II. 19:89. Gn. 28, p. 653.— The
hardiest species.

grandiflora, Bur. & Franch. Differs from /. Delavayi
in its shorter Ivs., more rounded Ifts., segms. ovate or

broader, short scapes bearing only 1 or 2 fls. as large as
those of /. Delavayi, but with narrower calyx-lobes and
longer corolla-lobes, the color deep rose-red. Dried
specimens show about a dozen scapes on a plant. China
Gn. 56:22. J.H. III. 46:357. G. 27:349; 35:145.

1956. Indigofera decora
var. alba.

1955. Incarvillea Delavayi.

G.M. 46:219. Var. brevipes, Sprague (7. Bonvalbtii,
Hort., not Bur. & Franch.), is offered abroad: "large
brilliant crimson fls., habit of 7. Delavayi:" pedicels
much shorter than the peduncle. Yunnan, China.

compacta, Maxim. Handsome hardy perennial,
glabrous or somewhat pubescent : st. short, becoming 1
ft. or more high: Ivs. fleshy or thick, mostly radical,
pinnatisect; segms. subcordate-ovate, all more or less
decurrent, entire or nearly so: fls. at first congested near
the crown, but becoming elevated, purple, the corolla
2-2 Yi in. long and the limb l^ in. across; corolla-tube
dilated, the limb broad and with roundish lobes; calyx-
teeth deltoid, acuminate. N. W. China. Gt. 49:1479.

L. H. B.f

INDIAN BEAN: Catalpa. I. Cherry: Rhamnus caroliniana. I.
Corn : Zea Mays. I. Cress: Tropxolum. I. Cucumber-root: Medeola
virginica. I. Currant: Symphoricarpos vulgaris. I. Fig: Opuntia
wlgaris. I. Hemp: Apocynum cannabinum. I. Mallow: Abutilon. I.
Physic: Gittenia. I. Pipe: Monotropa. I. Rice: Zizania aquatica.
I. Shot: Canna. I. Tobacco: Lobelia inflata. I. Turnip: Arisxma
triphyUa. I. Wheat: Fagopyrum tataricum.

INDIGO: Indigofera. False Indigo: Baptisia and Amorpha.

INDIGOFERA (indigo-bearing}. Leguminosse. IN-
DIGO. Shrubs and perennial herbs sometimes grown for
ornament, and some species cultivated in various parts
of the world for indigo.

Plants of differing habit, more or less silky-hairy:
Ivs. odd-pinnate (rarely digitate), or sometimes simple
(1-foliolate) : fls. usually small, in axillary racemes or
spikes, in color ranging from purple to rose and white,
papilionaceous; standard mostly roundish, often per-
sisting for some time; keel with a spur or swelling on
either side ; stamens 10, monadelphous, or 9 and 1 : pod
various, usually with thin partitions between the
seeds. — The species are probably 300, in tropical
regions of the world, and extending to the Cape region
of S. Afr. Several species are native to the U. S.

Indigo is mostly the product of 7. tinctoria, of Asia,

1646

INDIGOFERA

INDIGOFERA

but it is also made from the West Indian species, 7.
Anil. These species were early introduced into the
southern states for indigo-making, and the product was
once manufactured to a considerable extent. The plant
was introduced into South Carolina in 1742 from the
West Indies. When it was found that commercial indigo
could be produced, the British Government offered a
bounty. In 1775, the production was more than one
million pounds of indigo. The war for independence

1957. Indigof era Kirilowii. (X3/s)

checked the industry, and thereafter the rising impor-
tance of the cotton crop, amongst other things, drove
it to the wall. But as late as the middle of the last
century, indigo continued to be made in remote places.
Plants still persist in some places as escapes from cul-
tivation. 7. tinctoria is perennial, but is grown from
seeds, which give from two to four cuttings of herbage
the first year. The indigo is not contained in the plant,
but the dye is a product of manufacture from a gluco-
side indican which is contained in the herbage, and
which is obtained as an extract. Indigo seed is offered
by seedsmen. Other species, even of other genera, also
yield indigo. Very much of the indigo of commerce is
now manufactured synthetically from coal-tar.

In North America, several species of Indigofera are
occasionally grown as ornamental subjects. In the
North, they are mostly greenhouse subjects. Propa-
gated by seeds or cuttings, chiefly the latter. Recent
introductions are 7. amblyantha and 7. Kirilowii, excel-
lent species and hardy at the Arnold Arboretum.

A. Raceme longer than the If.

decora, Lindl. Weak-growing or even half-climb-
ing shrub, the branches slender and red-tinged: Ifts.
in 6-8 pairs, broad-lanceolate, usually drooping, sharp-
pointed: racemes long, with showy rose-pink fls. about
1 in. long; standard oblong, nearly or quite obtuse,
with a heart-like mark near the base; wings linear-

lanceolate or spatulate, ciliate. China. B.R. 32:22
B.M. 5063. G.M. 31:591. P.M. 16:290.— Regarded
as a greenhouse plant and cult, in the open far S. Var.
alba (Fig. 1956), with white fls., is a hardy herbaceous
or half-shrubby plant at the Arnold Arboretum, Bos-
ton. G.F. 7, pp. 266, 376; fig. 61, p. 375 (adapted in
Fig. 1956).

macrostachys, Vent. Shrubby, the sts. terete and
appressed-pubescent: Ifts. 8-10 pairs, oval-oblong,
obtuse but mucronate, pubescent: racemes longer than
the Ivs., many-fld.; fls. rose. China. V.F. 53.

caroliniana, Walt. Tall and branching, 6-7 ft.: Ifts.
4^8 pairs, oblong, oval or oblanceolate, mucronate, with
slender petiolules: fls. small, many, yellowish brown
and with short-acute calyx-teeth: legume oblong, 2-
seeded, less than %in. long. — Perennial, in the pine-
barrens from N. C. south.

Kirilowii, Maxim. Fig. 1957. A beautiful species of
recent intro., with fls. as large as those of Robinia
Pseudacacia, bright rose-color: Ivs. petioled: subshrub,
3-4 ft., soon glabrous, the branches slightly angular and
bark soon striate: If .-blade to 5 in. long, the stalk to
1J^ in.; Ifts. about 7-9, usually opposite, elliptic or
rounded-elliptic, obtuse and mucronate, to 1J4 in-
long and 1 in. wide, both surfaces bearing white hairs
attached by their centers: racemes axillary, longer than
the Ivs., the peduncle about twice as long as the
petiole; corolla glabrous nearly throughout when in
bud; standard oblong-elliptic, %in. long and half as
wide, ciliate; keel acuminate, ciliate, as long as stand-
ard; anthers prominently apiculate. N. China, Korea.
B.M. 8580. M.D.G. 1912:271— Prop, by division,
suckers and cuttings; appears not to seed in cult.

AA. Raceme mostly shorter than, or not exceeding, the If.

amblyantha, Craib. Upright shrub, 3-6 ft.: young
branchlets angled, whitish from appressed hairs: Ivs.
petioled, 4-6 in. long; Ifts. usually opposite, oval to
elliptic-oblong, broadly cuneate at the base, rounded
and mucronate at the apex, bright green above, glauces-
cent beneath, appressed-pubescent on both sides, y%-
1^2 in. long: fls. in axillary slender racemes with the
peduncle 2)^-4 in. long, very numerous, pink, small,
Mm- long; petals narrow, of nearly equal length;
standard spatulate-obovate, upright, incurved at the
apex; calyx appressed-pubescent; ovary densely whitish
pubescent: pod linear, with both sutures thickened,
pubescent, l%-2 in. long. July-Oct. Cent. China. —
A handsome shrub with its numerous dense racemes of
small pink flowers blooming all summer and autumn.
Hardy at Arnold Arboretum. Prop, by cuttings, and
by seeds which are freely produced.

australis, Willd. (7. angulata, Lindl. 7. sylvdtica,
Sieb.). A very variable species, known by its glabrous
aspect, short or nearly obsolete teeth of the calyx and
the pod glabrous when young. Erect shrub: Ifts. 9-17,
varying from oblong to almost orbicular, %in. or less
long, obtuse or retuse: fls. red and mostly showy, the
racemes sometimes fully as long as the Ivs.; standard
truncate at the base with a very short claw : pod nearly
or quite straight, terete. Austral. B.M. 3000. B.R.
386; 991. L.B.C. 2:149.

tinctdria, Linn. INDIGO. Fig. 1958. Shrub, 4-6 ft.,
with silvery branches: Ifts. 7-15, thin, rather large,
obovate-oblong, pubescent beneath: fls. small, reddish
yellow, in short racemes, the pedicels finally recurved ;
calyx pubescent, the lobes subulate : pod nearly straight,
somewhat knotty, 8-12-seeded, about % or 1 in. long.
S. Asia. — Long cult, and widely distributed. Runs
wild S. Indigo was known to the Egyptians.

Anil, Linn. WEST INDIAN INDIGO. Fig. 1958. Much
like the last, but fls. smaller, and pods curved and not
knotty, and about ^in. long. W. Indies, but now runs
wild in the southern states. B.M. 6506.

INDIGOFERA

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1647

Gerardiana, Wall. (7. Dosua, Hort., not Hamilt.).
Low much-branched shrub with silvery canescent
branchlets: Ivs. 1-2 in. long, with thickish opposite
pale white bristly Ifts. to J^ in. long and oblanceolate-
oblong and 9-17 in number: fls. pale red, canescent
outside, the peduncled racemes 12-20-fld.: pod to 2 in.
long, nearly cylindrical. India. B.R. 28:57.

7. cauddta, Dunn. Shrubby, 3-8 ft., with a coppery pubescence
on young growths: fls. white, about J^in. long, in very long tail-
like racemes that droop at the end. China. — /. hebepetala, Benth.
Branching shrub, lightly pubescent when young: Ivs. 4-7 in. long;
Ifts. 4-8 pairs, oblong, about 2 in. long: fls. small, reddish, in short
axillary racemes. Himalayas. B.M. 8208. — 7. reticulata, Franch.
Similar to I. Kirilowii, but dwarfer: Ivs. dark shining green: fls.
clear white. China, Korea. The plant in cult, may be I. reticu-
lata, Koehne. L H B

INGA (a West Indian name). Leguminbsse. Tropical
trees and shrubs, with acacia-like foliage and clusters
of showy red stamens.

Spineless: Ivs. abruptly pinnate, usually with glands
between the large Ifts. : fls. not papilionaceous, in heads,
spikes, racemes or umbels, mostly 5-merous; stamens
oo, monadelphous, exserted beyond the small tubular
or campanulate corolla: pod narrow, often thickened at
the sutures, completely or partially indehiscent. —
Species upward of 150, in W. Indies and S. Amer.

A. Lfts. hairy beneath.

affinis, DC. Lvs. simply pinnate; Ifts. in 4 pairs,
ovate, acuminate, pubescent above, somewhat shining
and villous below, one side smaller than the other, 3 in.
long, 1^2 m- wide; petioles, branches, peduncles and
fls. velvety tomentose, a gland between each pair of Ivs. :
spikes solitary or in pairs; corollas villous. Trop.
Amer.

1958. Indigofera Anil. (Nearly natural size.)
The single pod is I. tinctora. ( X H)

AA. Lfts. not hairy.

Feuillei, DC. Foliage handsome; Ivs. simply pin-
nate; Ifts. in 3-4 pairs, oval-oblong, acute at both ends,
glabrous: pods 1-2 ft. long, linear, flat, glabrous, white
inside. Peru. — The sweet, edible pulp of the pods is
much prized by the Peruvians, who call it pacay. It
has ripened its pods in Calif.

7. andmala, Hort.=Dichrostachys nutans. — 7. diilcis, Willd.=
Pithecolobium. — 7. guadalupensis, Desv.=Pithecolobium.

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

INGENHOUZIA (Dr. John Ingenhousz, 1730-1799,
famous vegetable physiologist). Malvaceae. A sub-
shrubby plant of S. Ariz, and Mex., intro. recently
in S. Calif, for ornament. Allied to Gossypium: invol-
ucel of 3 triangular-lanceolate entire bracts; calyx
saucer-shaped; stigma obscurely 3-lobed: fr. a globular
leathery 3-celled and 3-valved caps. ; seeds 5-8 in each
cell or locule, puberulent. I. trfloba, DC. Perennial,
4-10 ft., glabrous: Ivs. 3-parted or 5-parted, or the
uppermost entire and lanceolate, the Ivs. and branches
black-dotted: fls. on axillary peduncles, or somewhat
corymbose above; petals 1 in. long, pure white turning
to rose, dark-dotted. Generic name variously spelled.

INOBULBON (in reference to fibrillose bulbs).
Orchiddcese. Pseudobulbs short, few-jointed, annulate,
fibrillose, few-lvd.: fls. in racemes or panicles; sepals
and petals equal, the lateral sepals not forming a
mentum; lip 3-lobed, the lateral lobes small, the middle
lobe large, with a thick fleshy callus 3-parted disk;
column short, footless. — Species 2, New Caledonia.

munificum, Kranzl. (Dendrobium muricdtum var.
munificum, Finet). Pseudobulbs about 3 in. long, 1J^
in. thick, 2-lvd.: Ivs. up to 8 in. long: panicle of few
branches, somewhat nodding; sepals and petals green-
ish, brown-spotted; lip marked with reddish purple
and yellow. B.M. 8371. GEORGE V. NASH.

INODES: Sobal.

INOPHfLLUM : Tahitian chestnut.

INSECTICIDES, INSECTS: Diseases and Insects, p. 1042.

INSPECTION OF HORTICULTURAL MER-
CHANDISE.— To guard against the introduction of
insect pests and plant diseases, governments have insti-
tuted inspection service at ports of entry and for inter-
state commerce. The regulations may be federal, or
state or provincial.

The plant-quarantine act.

A federal plant-quarantine act was enacted by Con-
gress August 20, 1912. This act authorizes the Secre-
tary of Agriculture to regulate the importation of
nursery stock and other plants and plant-products, and
to establish and maintain quarantine districts for plant-
diseases and insect pests within the United States, and
also to exclude by quarantine diseased plants or plant-
products from foreign countries or to provide such
regulations governing the entry of such materials as will
insure safety.

The first general attempt to secure national legisla-
tion of this nature resulted from the introduction of the
San Jose' scale into the eastern United States and its
threatened general distribution on nursery stock. To
meet this emergency, a convention was called in Wash-
ington in 1897, composed of the delegates from horti-
cultural societies, nurserymen's associations, state
agricultural boards, agricultural colleges and experi-
ment stations — a large and representative body of men.
After full discussion a bill was drafted, the primary
object of which was the control of domestic nursery
stock, but which provided also for the inspection of
foreign nursery stock. While this measure received
the endorsement of the convention, and was submitted
to Congress, the different interests were not fully
agreed as to the desirability of all its features, and it
was not heartily pushed and was ultimately dropped
with the idea of replacing it by a more suitable bill.

During succeeding years, a number of bills covering
the same general subject were introduced at the differ-
ent sessions of Congress, and some of these were
reported favorably from the Committee on Agriculture,
but the opposition of Importing nurserymen prevented
any of these measures ever reaching a very advanced
stage. In the meantime, various conferences were held
between the entomologists of the different states and

1648

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

horticultural inspectors and the principal nurserymen's
associations, without, however, coming to any agree-
ment as to suitable legislation. Finally, in 1908, the
promoters of this legislation having become thoroughly
discouraged, the project was definitely abandoned, —
the San Jose" scale in the meantime having been carried
on nursery stock into practically every state in the
Union.

The effort which eventually resulted in the enact-
ment of the present law was due to the discovery, in
1909, of the introduction of enormous quantities of
brown-tail moth nests full of hibernating larvae on
seedling fruit stock, chiefly from northern France and
Belgium. With these were occasional egg-masses of
the gipsy-moth. During the years 1909 and 1910,
stock infested with thousands of larval nests was sent
to no less than twenty-two different states, covering
the country from the Atlantic seaboard to the Rocky
Mountains. So far as possible, this stock was followed
up by state and federal inspectors and the infesting
insects destroyed.

This new danger led the writer in 1909 to draft a
national quarantine and inspection bill relating particu-
larly to imported nursery stock, and other plants and
plant-products offered for entry from foreign countries,
but providing also means for quarantining new pests
locally established within the United States. This bill
promptly passed the House, but was objected to by
nurserymen, and was withdrawn with the idea of
revising it so as to meet in a satisfactory way these
objections. There followed many attempts to draft a
measure which would give reasonable protection and
be at the same time satisfactory to the nursery interests,
and many different bills were introduced in Congress
from tune to time, all based on the original bill just
referred to. Securing desirable legislation of this kind —
against a small but organized opposition — is a slow
process, and the effort instituted in January, 1909, did
not reach fruition until August, 1912. The passage of
the act was finally much aided by the hearty coopera-
tion of Californian interests, due to the discovery that
the Mediterranean fruit-fly had become thoroughly
established in Hawaii and was likely at any time to be
carried by Hawaiian fruits to California, and thus
jeopardize the vast fruit development of that state.

The bill as passed is a compromise measure, and
divides responsibility between the federal government
and the state authorities. It, furthermore, gives no
control over the interstate movement of domestic
nursery stock, except as to areas and plants specifically
quaranl ined.

The rcope of this act has been given in an opening
paragraph. The system of control of imported nursery
stock and a description of the several foreign and
domestic riant quarantines and restrictive orders
follow.

Control of nursery stock importations.

For the purposes of this act, nursery stock offered
for entry into the United States falls into two classes,
namely:

1. That coming from countries having an official
inspection and certification system, and

2. From countries which have no system of inspec-
tion or certification.

Nursery stock from the first class of countries,
arrives with some assurance of freedom, or at least the
responsibility for its condition fixed on some known
foreign official.

Nursery stock from the second class of countries
arrives with no information as to its probable freedom
from infestation by insects or diseases.

Commercial importations are permitted only from
the countries belonging to the first category, and from
countries belonging to the second category importa-
tions are limited by regulation and permitted only for

experimental or scientific purposes. Mail importations
are not permitted except of field, vegetable, and
flower seeds.

The following countries have provided for inspec-
tion and certification of export plants and plant-prod-
ucts in conformity with the regulations under the
plant-quarantine act: Australia, Barbados, Belgium,
Bermuda, British Guiana, Canada, Cuba, Denmark,
England, France, Germany, Guatemala, Holland, Ire-
land, Japan, Leeward Islands, Antigua, St. Christopher-
Nevis, Dominica, Montserrat, Virgin Islands, Grand
Duchy of Luxemburg, New Zealand, Scotland, Union
of South Africa, Straits Settlements, Switzerland, Trini-
dad, Wales, Windward Islands, Granada, St. Lucia,
and St. Vincent; and these include most of the countries
which have hitherto maintained any considerable com-
merical trade in nursery stock with the United States.
Any other country may obtain the benefits of com-
mercial exportation by providing for the proper inspec-
tion and certification of exported stock. The Italian
government has indicated that the Province of Padua
will certify export nursery stock, and a national law
has been passed with the object of ultimately meeting
for the country as a whole the requirements of the plant-
quarantine act.

The federal act has very greatly stimulated those
foreign countries which have considerable commercial
trade in plants with the United States to do better
work of inspection and to provide suitable legislation
and officers to meet the requirements of the act.

The United States is no longer a dumping-ground
for any sort of infested and diseased stock. Brown-tail
moth and gipsy-moth infestation has practically ceased,
insect infestation by any important pest is rare, and
the general condition of the stock has been very much
improved.

In general explanation of the federal powers in rela-
tion to the importation of nursery stock, it may be
said that these powers relate (1) to the issuance of
permits for the importation of nursery stock, (2) the
provision for foreign inspection and certification as a
condition of entry, and (3) the distribution to the
several state inspectors of exact information in regard
to the origin, arrival, and destination of the imported
stock.

To the several states is left the entire responsibility
for the inspection at destination of commercial impor-
tations of nursery stock, and, if this inspection is not
done by state inspectors, there is nothing in the federal
law to make good this neglect. Most of the states have
made fairly adequate provision for such inspection,
and this inspection, as shown by the pests intercepted
and destroyed, has been of tremendous value.

Foreign plant quarantines.

Under the provisions of Section 7 of the plant-quar-
antine act, the following foreign plant-quarantines have
been established:

White pine blister-rust. — This is Quarantine No. 1,
promulgated September 16, 1912, and amended and
superseded by Quarantine No. 7, promulgated May
21, 1913. This quarantine was drawn to prevent the
introduction into the United States of the white pine
blister-rust, and forbids the importation into the
United States from each and every country of Europe
and Asia of all five-leafed pines.

Potato wart. — This is Quarantine No. 3, promulgated
September 20, 1912, to prevent the introduction into
the United States of the disease known as "potato
wart," "potato canker," "black scab," and the like,
and forbids the importation into the United States
from the countries of Newfoundland, the islands of
St. Pierre and Miquelon, Great Britain and Ireland,
Germany, and Austria-Hungary, of the common or
Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) .

Mexican fruit-fly. — This is Quarantine No. 5, and

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

1649

was promulgated January 15, 1913, to prevent the
introduction into the United States from Mexico of
the insect known as the Mexican fruit-fly (Trypeta
ludens), and forbids the importation into the United
States from the Republic of Mexico of the following
fruits: oranges, sweet limes, mangoes, Achras Sapota,
peaches, guavas, and plums. It was amended February
8, 1913, to include, in addition to the above fruits, the
grapefruit and its horticultural varieties.

Pink boll-worm of cotton. — This is Quarantine No. 8,
promulgated May 28, 1913, to prevent the introduction
into the United Sates of the pink boll-worm of cotton,
and forbids the importation into the United States
of cotton-seed of all species and varieties and cotton-
seed hulls from any foreign locality and country, except-
ing only the locality of the Imperial Valley in the state
of Lower California in Mexico. The importation from
the region specified in Mexico is governed by regula-
tions. By later amendments this quarantine was
lifted and cotton-seed and seed-cotton were permitted
to be entered, under regulations, from the Mexican
states of Neuvo Leon, Tamauhpas, Coahuila, Durango,
and Chihuahua.

Potato quarantine. — This is Quarantine No. 11, pro-
mulgated December 22, 1913, to prevent the intro-
duction into the United States of the disease known as
powdery scab (Spongospora subterranea) , and forbids
the importation into the United States from the Domin-
ion of Canada, Newfoundland, the islands of St. Pierre
and Miquelon, Great Britain, Ireland and Continental
Europe, of the common or Irish potato (Solanum
tuberosum), until such time as it shall have been ascer-
tained to the satisfaction of the Secretary of Agricul-
ture that the country or locality from which potatoes
are offered for import is free from powdery scab and
other injurious potato diseases. Amendments 1 and 2,
February 20; 3, March 12; and 5, November 30, 1914,
eliminate Belgium, Denmark, and the Netherlands, and
the Dominion of Canada, from the provisions of this
quarantine and make it possible to import potatoes
under regulation from these countries. The importation
under regulation is also now permitted from Bermuda,
Santo Domingo, and the states of Chihuahua and
Sonora, Mexico. Amendment 4 to this quarantine,
promulgated June 25, 1914, eliminates the territory
of Porto Rico from its provisions.

Avocado seed quarantine. — This is Quarantine No. 12,
promulgated February 27, 1914, to prevent the intro-
duction into the United States of the avocado weevil
(Heilipus lauri), and forbids the importation into
the United States of the seeds of the avocado or alli-
gator pear from Mexico and the countries of Central
America.

Sugar-cane quarantine. — This is Quarantine No. 15,
promulgated June 6, 1914, to prevent the introduction
into the United States of injurious insects and fungous
diseases of the sugar-cane, and forbids the importation
into the United States, from all foreign countries of
living canes of sugar-cane, or cuttings or parts thereof.
This quarantine does not apply to Hawaii and Porto
Rico.

These foreign quarantine orders are absolute pro-
hibitions of the entry of the goods covered, and are
enforced through the active cooperation of the customs
service of the Treasury Department.

Domestic plant quarantines.

Under the provisions of section 8 of the plant-
quarantine act the following domestic plant-quarantines
have been established:

Mediterranean fruit-fly. — This is Quarantine No. 2,
promulgated September 18, 1912, to protect the United
States from the entry of the Mediterranean fruit-fly,
now thoroughly established in the Hawaiian Islands.
This quarantine prohibits the shipment of any of the
fruits and vegetables specified in the notice of quar-

105

antine into or through any other state, territory, or
district of the United States.

Gipsy-moth and brown-tail moth. — This is Quarantine
No. 4, promulgated November 5, 1912, and revised
and amended as Quarantine No. 10, June 24, 1913,
and as Quarantine No. 17, July 3, 1914. This quar-
antine describes and quarantines the districts in New
England infested by the two moths named, and makes
regulations governing the movement in interstate
commerce of plants and plant-products which may be
infested from the areas quarantined.

Date-palm scale insects. — This is Quarantine No. 6,
promulgated March 1, 1913, to prevent the further dis-
tribution in the United States of two important date-
palm scale insects. It quarantines certain counties in
California, Arizona and Texas, and makes regula-
tions governing the interstate movement of date palms
originating within the areas quarantined.

Pink boll-worm of cotton. — This is Quarantine No. 9,
promulgated June 24, 1913, and applies to the territory
of Hawaii. It has the same object as the foreign quar-
antine on the same subject, described above. It pre-
vents the movement from the territory of Hawaii into
or through any other state, territory or district of the
United States of all cotton-seed and cotton-seed hulls.

Mediterranean fruit-fly and melon-fly. — This is Quar-
antine No. 2, promulgated September 18, 1913, and
revised and amended as Quarantine No. 13, promul-
gated March 23, 1914, to protect the United States
from the entry of the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis
capitata) and the melon-fly (Dacus cucurbitse), now
thoroughly established in the Hawaiian Islands. This
quarantine prohibits the shipment of any of the fruits,
nuts and vegetables specified in the notice of quaran-
tine into or through any other state, territory or dis-
trict of the United States, in accordance with the regu-
lations prescribed under this quarantine. This quar-
antine became effective May 1, 1914.

Powdery scab of potatoes. — This is Quarantine No. 14,
promulgated April 25, 1914, to prevent the further dis-
tribution in the United States of the dangerous potato
disease known as powdery scab (Spongospora sub-
terranea), which exists in certain parts of the state of
Maine. This quarantine became effective August
1, 1914.

Sugar-cane quarantine. — This is Quarantine No. 16,
promulgated June 6, 1914, to prevent the further dis-
tribution in the United States of certain injurious
insects and fungous diseases of the sugar-cane existing
in the territories of Hawaii and Porto Rico, and forbids
the movement from the territories named into or
through any other state, territory or district of the
United States of living canes of sugar-cane, or cuttings
or parts thereof.

Most of the domestic quarantines provide for the
movement of the quarantined articles under a system
of inspection and certification. The very considerable
work of inspection and certification necessitated,
particularly in the case of the moth quarantine in
New England and the Mediterranean fruit-fly quar-
antine in Hawaii, is done under federal authority, in
cooperation with state and insular officers, who are
made for that purpose collaborators of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

Regulatory orders.

Under the authority given by section 5 of the plant-
quarantine act, orders placing restrictions on the
importation of potatoes and avocados have been
promulgated.

The order restricting the admission of all foreign
potatoes not under quarantine was issued December 22,
1913, and regulations governing the entry of potatoes
under this order into the United States were issued
December 30, 1913. This order specifies that potatoes
may be imported only from countries which are free

1650

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

from injurious potato diseases and insect pests and
under permit and prior foreign inspection and certifica-
tion. All such imported potatoes are subject to a
second inspection by a federal inspector on their arrival
in this country.

The order governing the admission of the avocado
or alligator pear under restriction was issued February
27, 1914. These two orders are supplemental to the
quarantine orders described above in relation to the
potato and to avocada seed.

The federal horticultural board.

The act provides (section 12) that for the purpose of
carrying out its provisions there shall be appointed by
the Secretary of Agriculture from existing bureaus and
offices in the Department of Agriculture, including
the Bureau of Entomology, the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, and the Forest Service, a Federal Horticultural
Board consisting of five members, of whom not more
than two shall be appointed from any one bureau or
office, and who shall serve without additional compen-
sation.

State legislation.

The state of California for the last twenty years
has enforced a quarantine at the port of San Francisco,
and has had quarantine and other control legislation
which has furnished protection to the state of untold
value, and to a less degree to the remainder of the
United States. A few other states have had minor plant-
legislation, but the San Jose scale outbreak in the East
in the early nineties, already referred to, was the incit-
ing cause of plant-legislation in nearly every state of
the Union. This legislation, chiefly in relation to
domestic nursery stock, lacks uniformity, and thus
entails unnecessary difficulty to dealers in nursery and
other plant stock. An effort has been under way for
several years to devise, for general adoption, a uniform
nursery and plant act, and it seems now possible that
uniform legislation may eventually be secured. A bill
has been drafted by J. G. Sanders, State Entomologist
of Wisconsin, as Chairman of a Committee on Uniform
State Legislation of the American Association of Horti-
cultural Inspectors, and this bill has been approved by
this association, representing the different states and
by the National Nurserymen's Association. It will
probably be many years, however, before it is generally
substituted for present state legislation on this subject.

Space at disposal does not permit of a full analysis
of the plant legislation of the different states. This legis-
lation has been well summarized in Circular No. 103
of the Department of Agriculture of the state of New
York. Shippers of nursery stock should first inquire
as to legislation, which may vary from year to year, of
any state to which goods are to be sent. Many of the
states also require the taking out of licenses, and in
some states imported nursery stock must be reexamined
by local state inspectors before it can be liberated.

Plant legislation in Canada.

The Canadian legislation to control the entry of
injurious insect pests and plantniiseases has much the
same history as the similar legislation in the United
States and the same inciting causes. The San Jos6
scale excitement in the United States led in 1898 to the
passage by Canada of the San Jose" Scale Act which
prohibited the importation of nursery stock from all
countries in which this scale insect occurred. Later
(1901) this prohibition was removed and nursery stock
from countries in which the scale occurred was allowed
to enter, subject to fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid
gas, — the ports of entry and the time of the year when
such entry could be made being limited. In 1909 brown-
tail moth nests were found on shipments of nursery
stock to Canada and this led to the enactment of the
"Destructive Insect and Pest Act" of May, 1910. This

act provides either for the prohibition of entry, fumiga-
tion on entry, or inspection subsequent to entry, of
nursery stock, and gives other conditions governing
the introduction of living plants. The act has been
amended by additional regulations from time to time,
particularly in relation to the chestnut-bark disease, the
Mediterranean fruit-fly, potato diseases, and forest
products from New England.

Canadian provincial legislation.

In addition to the legislation of the Dominion of
Canada against insect pests and plant-diseases, several
of the provincial governments have enacted similar
laws. With the exception, however, of the provinces of
British Columbia and Nova Scotia, the provincial
governments restrict their attention to the control of
pests within their territories. The provinces of Brit-
ish Columbia and Nova Scotia, however, inspect and
fumigate, if necessary, nursery stock and fruit imported
into these provinces. Nova Scotia fumigates and
inspects stock coming from other parts of Canada
only. As in the case of the United States, there is
cooperation between the inspection service of the
Dominion and provincial governments. The full text
of the Canadian Dominion and provincial laws' in
relation to this subject may be obtained from the
Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

C. L. MARLATT.

Quarantine laws.

State quarantine laws are now in a transition stage.
For two or three years there has been active propaganda
for uniform state legislation looking to the control of
destructive insects and plant diseases. The statutory
requirements in the different states are so unlike as
to cause much annoyance, and state departments of
agriculture or other bodies issue circulars explaining
these different requirements for the guidance of
nurserymen and others. The bill drafted by the San-
ders Committee, already mentioned, has been prac-
tically completed, and now awaits enactment. At the
request of the Federal Horticultural Board, the Solicitor
of the United States Department of Agriculture has
drawn a bill for enactment by the different states, to
constitute a general plant act rather than a nursery-
stock act. Several states are now proposing to enact
this draft.

Even in view of the tentative character of much of
the legislation, it seems to be well to reprint here a few
of the standard or most important statutes. The
Canadian law is the simplest and most direct. It
embodies in a few words the power to control the entry
of plants from foreign countries and also to control the
plants within the Dominion. Under the federal and
state constitutions in the United States, such a brief
and simple law seems to be impossible. There are here
printed, the Canadian law; the United States law; and
the laws of New York and California.

The ideal law is probably one that confers broad
powers, and then leaves the details to regulation so
that necessary minor changes may be made as cir-
cumstances arise. There must naturally be consider-
able discretion conferred on competent officers or
authorities in dealing with such subjects as quaran-
tine of insects and plant diseases.

Under the federal quarantine act of the United
States, some twenty quarantines have now been laid
and several of these have required rather elaborate
regulations, and modifying orders and amendments
have been issued; these matters cannot, of course, be
entered here.

Some of the leading sections in the Sanders' bill, now
proposed for legislation in the different state?, are
reprinted on pages 1653 and 1654. This bill is likely to
become of much importance in inspection legislation.

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

1651

THE DESTRUCTIVE INSECT AND PEST ACT OF CANADA
(May 4, 1910).

1. This Act may be cited as The Destructive Insect and Pest
Act.

2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, 'the Min-
ister' means 'the Minister of Agriculture."

3. The Governor in Council may make such regulations as are
deemed expedient to prevent the introduction or admission into
Canada, or the spreading therein, of any insect, pest or disease
destructive to vegetation.

4. Such regulations may provide, —

(a) for the prohibition generally, or from any particular coun-
try or place, of the introduction or admission into Canada of any
vegetable or other matter likely to introduce any such insect,
pest or disease;

(6) the terms or conditions upon, and the places at which any
such vegetable or other matter may be introduced or admitted into
Canada;

(c) for the treatment and manner of treatment to be given to
any vegetation, vegetable matter or premises in order to prevent
the spreading of any such insect, pest or disease, and may prescribe
whether such treatment shall be given by the owner or by a person
appointed for such purpose;

(rf) for the destruction of any crop, tree, bush or other vegeta-
tion or vegetable matter or containers thereof infested or suspected
to be infested with any such insect, pest or disease;

(e) for the granting of compensation for any such crop, tree,
bush or other vegetation or containers thereof so destroyed, such
compensation not to exceed two-thirds of the value of the matter
destroyed and to be granted only by the Governor in Council upon
the recommendation of the Minister;

(/) for the prohibition of the sale of any vegetable matter
infected with any such insect, pest or disease;

(g) that the occupier of the premises on which is discovered
any such insect, pest or disease shall forthwith notify the Minister
and shall also send specimens of such insect, pest or disease;

(h) for the confiscation of any vegetable matter and the con-
tainer thereof, if any, in respect of which a breach of this Act, or
any regulation made thereunder, is committed, and generally for
any other purpose which may be deemed expedient for carrying out
this Act, whether such other regulations are of the kind enumerated
in this section or not.

5. The Minister may appoint inspectors and other officers for
carrying out this Act and the regulations made thereunder.

(2) Such appointments, if not confirmed by the Governor in
Council within thirty days of the date thereof, shall lapse and cease
to be valid.

6. Any inspector or other officer so appointed may enter any
place or premises in which he has reason to believe there exists any
such insect, pest or disease, and may take specimens thereof and
also of any vegetable matter infested or suspected of being infested
therewith.

7. The Minister, upon the report of any inspector setting forth
a reasonable belief of the existence of any such insect, pest or
disease in any area defined in such report, may prohibit the removal
from such area or the movement therein of any vegetation, vege-
table or other matter which, in his opinion, is likely to result in the
spread of such insect, pest or disease.

8. Every person who contravenes any provision of this Act, or
any regulation made thereunder, shall be liable, upon summary
conviction, to a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or to impris-
onment for a term not exceeding six months, or to both fine and
imprisonment. Any vegetable or other matter imported or brought
into Canada contrary to this Act, or to any regulation made there-
under, shall be forfeited to the Crown.

9. Every order in council and regulation made under this Act
shall be published in "The Canada Gazette," and shall be laid, by the
Minister, before Parliament within fifteen days after the commence-
ment of the then next session.

THE UNITED STATES PLANT QUARANTINE.

AN ACT To regulate the importation of nursery stock and other
plants and plant products; to enable the Secretary of Agri-
culture to establish and maintain quarantine districts for
plant diseases and insect pests; to permit and regulate the
movement of fruits, plants, and vegetables therefrom, and
for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be
unlawful for any person to import or offer for entry into the United
States any nursery stock unless and until a permit shall have
been issued therefor by the Secretary of Agriculture, under such
conditions and regulations as the said Secretary of Agriculture
may prescribe, and unless such nursery stock shall be accom-
panied by a certificate of inspection, in manner and form as
required by the Secretary of Agriculture, of the proper official
of the country from which the importation is made, to the effect
that the stock has been thoroughly inspected and is believed to
be free from injurious plant diseases and insect pests: Provided,
That the Secretary of Agriculture shall issue the permit for any
particular importation of nursery stock when the conditions and
regulations as prescribed in this act shall have been complied with:
Provided further, That nursery stock may be imported for experi-
mental or scientific purposes by the Department of Agriculture
upon such conditions and under such regulations as the said Secre-
tary of Agriculture may prescribe: And provided further. That
nursery stock imported from countries where no official system of
inspection for such stock is maintained may be admitted upon such

conditions and under such regulations as the Secretary of Agri-
culture may prescribe.

SEC. 2. That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of the Treasury
promptly to notify the Secretary of Agriculture of the arrival of
any nursery stock at port of entry; that the person receiving such
stock at port of entry shall, immediately upon entry and before
such stock is delivered for shipment or removed from the port of
entry, advise the Secretary of Agriculture or, at his direction, the
proper State, Territorial, or District official of the State or Terri-
tory or the District to which such nursery stock is destined, or
both, as the Secretary of Agriculture may elect, of the name and
address of the consignee, the nature and quantity of the stock it is
proposed to ship, and the country and locality where the same was
grown. That no person shall ship or offer for shipment from one
State or Territory or District of the United States into any other
State or Territory or District, any nursery stock imported into the
United States without notifying the Secretary of Agriculture or, at
his direction, the proper State, Territorial, or District official of
the State or Territory or District to which such nursery stock is
destined, or both, as the Secretary of Agriculture may elect,
immediately upon the delivery of the said stock for shipment, of
the name and address of the consignee, of the nature and quantity
of stock it is proposed to ship, and the country and locality where
the same was grown, unless and until such imported stock has been
inspected by the proper official of a State, Territory, or District of
the United States.

SEC. 3. That no person shall import or offer for entry into the
United States any nursery stock unless the case, box, package,
crate, bale, or bundle thereof shall be plainly and correctly marked
to show the general nature and quantity of the contents, the country
and locality where the same was grown, the name and address of the
shipper, owner, or person shipping or forwarding the same, and
the name and address of the consignee.

SEC. 4. That no person shall ship or deliver for shipment from
one State or Territory or District of the United States into any
other State or Territory or District any such imported nursery-
stock the case, box, package, crate, bale, or bundle whereof is
not plainly marked so as to show the general nature and quantity
of the contents, the name and address of the consignee, and the
country and locality where such stock was grown, unless and
until such imported stock has been inspected by the proper official
of a State, Territory, or District of the United States.

SEC. 5. That whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall
determine that the unrestricted importation of any plants, fruits,
vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds, or other plant products not included
by the term "nursery stock" as defined in section six of this act
may result in the entry into the United States or any of its Terri-
tories or Districts of injurious plant diseases or insect pests, he shall
promulgate his determination, specifying the class of plants and
plant products the importation of which shall be restricted and
the country and locality, where they are grown, and thereafter,
and until such promulgation is withdrawn, such plants and plant
products imported or offered for import into the United States or
any of its Territories or Districts shall be subject to all the

E revisions of the foregoing sections of this act: Provided, That
efore the Secretary of Agriculture shall promulgate his determina-
tion that the unrestricted importation of any plants, fruits, vege-
tables, roots, bulbs, seeds or other plant products not included by
the term "nursery stock" as defined in section six of this act may
result in the entry into the United States or any of its Territories or
Districts of injurious plant diseases or insect pests he shall, after
due notice, give a public hearing, under such rules and regula-
tions as he shall prescribe, at which hearing any interested party
may appear and be heard, either in person or by attorney.

SEC. 6. That for the purpose of this act the term "nursery
stock" shall include all field-grown florists' stock, trees, shrubs,
vines, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds, fruit pits and other seeds of
fruit and ornamental trees or shrubs and other plants and plant
products for propagation, except field, vegetable, and flower seeds,
bedding plants, and other herbaceous plants, bulbs, and roots.

SEC. 7. That whenever, in order to prevent the introduction
into the United States of any tree, plant, or fruit disease or of any
injurious insect, new to or not theretofore widely prevalent or dis-
tributed within and throughout the United States, the Secretary
of Agriculture shall determine that it is necessary to forbid the
importation into the United States of any class of nursery stock
or of any other class of plants, fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds,
or other plant products from a country or locality where such
disease or insect infestation exists, he shall promulgate such deter-
mination, specifying the country and locality and the class of nursery
stock or other class of plants, fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds,
or other plant products which, in his opinion, should be excluded.
Following the promulgation of such determination by the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, and until the withdrawal of the said promulga-
tion by him, the importation of the class of nursery stock or of
other class of plants, fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds, or other
plant products specified in the said promulgation from the country
and locality therein named, regardless of the use for which the same
is intended, is hereby prohibited; and until the withdrawal of the
said promulgation by the Secretary of Agriculture, and notwith-
standing that such class of nursery stock, or other class of plants,
fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds, or other plant products be
accompanied by a certificate of inspection from the country of
importation, no person shall import or offer for entry into the
United States from any country or locality specified in such promul-
gation, any of the class of nursery stock or of other class of plants,
fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds, or other plant products
named therein, regardless of the use for which the same is intended:
Provided, That before the Secretary of Agriculture shall promul-
gate his determination that it is necessary to forbid the importa-
tion into the United States of the articles named in this section
he shall, after due notice to interested parties, give a public hearing,

1652

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, at which
hearing any interested party may appear and be heard, either in
person or' by attorney: Provided further. That the quarantine
provisions of this section, as applying to the white-pine blister
rust, potato wart, and the Mediterranean fruit fly, shall become
and be effective upon the passage of this act: Provided further,
That hereafter any class of nursery stock or of any other class of
plants, fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds, or other plant prod-
ucts of which the importation may be forbidden from any country
or locality under the provisions of section seven of the Plant
Quarantine Act approved August twentieth, nineteen hundred
and twelve (Thirty-seventh Statutes, page three hundred and
fifteen), may be imported for experimental or scientific purposes
by the Department of Agriculture upon such conditions and under
such regulations as the said Secretary of Agriculture may prescribe.
SEC. 8. That the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized and
directed to quarantine any State, Territory, or District of the
United States, or any portion thereof, when he shall determine the
fact that a dangerous plant disease or insect infestation, new to
or not theretofore widely prevalent or distributed within and
throughout the United States, exists in such State or Territory or
District; and the Secretary of Agriculture is directed to give notice
of the establishment of such quarantine to common carriers doing
business in or through such quarantined area, and shall publish
in such newspapers in the quarantined area as he shall select notice
of the establishment of quarantine. That no person shall ship or
offer for shipment to any common carrier, nor shall any common
carrier receive for transportation or transport, nor shall any person
carry or transport from any quarantined State or Territory or Dis-
trict of the United States, or from any quarantined portion thereof,
into or through any other State or Territory or District, any class
of nursery stock or any other class of plants, fruits, vegetables,
roots, bulbs, seeds, or other plant products specified in the notice
of quarantine except as hereinafter provided. That it shall be
unlawful to move or allow to be moved any class of nursery stock
or any other class of plants, fruits, vegetables, roots, bulbs, seeds,
or other plant products specified in the notice of quarantine here-
inbefore provided, and regardless of the use for which the same is
intended, from any quarantined State or Territory or District of
the United States, or quarantined portion thereof, into or through
any other State of Territory or District, in manner or method or
under conditions other than those prescribed by the Secretary of
Agriculture. That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of Agri-
culture to make and promulgate rules and regulations which shall
permit and govern the inspection, disinfection, certification, and
method and manner of delivery and shipment of the class of nur-
sery stock or of any other class of plants, fruits, vegetables, roots,
bulbs, seeds, or other plant products specified in the notice of quar-
antine hereinbefore provided, and regardless of the use for which
the same is intended, from a quarantined State or Territory or
District of the United States, or quarantined portion thereof, into
or through any other State or Territory or District; and the Secre-
tary of Agriculture shall give notice of such rules and regulations
as hereinbefore provided in this section for the notice of the estab-
lishment of quarantine: Provided, That before the Secretary of
Agriculture shall promulgate his determination that it is necessary
to quarantine any State, Territory, or District of the United States,
or portion thereof, under the authority given in this section, he
shall, after due notice to interested parties, give a public hearing
under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, at which
hearing any interested party may appear and be heard, either in
person or by attorney.

SEC. 9. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make and
promulgate such rules and regulations as may be necessary for
carrying out the purposes of this act.

SEC. 10. That any person who shall violate any of the provis-
ions of this act, or who shall forge, counterfeit, alter, deface, or
destroy any certificate provided for in this act or in the regula-
tions of the Secretary of Agriculture, shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor and shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by a
fine not exceeding $500 or by imprisonment not exceeding one year,
or both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court:
Provided, That no common carrier shall be deemed to have violated
the provisions of any of the foregoing sections of this act on proof
that such carrier did not knowingly receive for transportation or
transport nursery stock or other plants or plant products as such
from one State, Territory, or District of the United States into or
through any other State, Territory, or District; and it shall be the
duty of the United States attorneys diligently to prosecute any
violations of this act which are brought to their attention by the
Secretary of Agriculture or which come to their notice by other
means.

SEC. 11. That the word "person" as used in this act shall be
construed to import both the plural and the singular, as the case
demands, and shall include corporations, companies, societies,
and associations. When construing and enforcing the provisions
of this act, the act, omission, or failure of any officer, agent, or
other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company,
society, or association, within the scope of his employment or
office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the act, omission, or
failure of such corporation, company, society, or association as
well as that of the person.

SEC. 12. That for the purpose of carrying out the provisions
of this act there shall be appointed by the Secretary of Agricul-
ture from existing bureaus and offices in the Department of Agri-
culture, including the Bureau of Entomology, the Bureau of
Plant Industry, and the Forest Service, a Federal Horticultural
Board consisting of five members, of whom not more than two
shall be appointed from any one bureau or office, and who shall
serve without additional compensation.

SEC. 13. That there is hereby appropriated, out of the moneys
in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be expended as the

Secretary of Agriculture may direct, for the purposes and objects
of this act. the sum of $25,000.

SEC. 14. That this act shall become and be effective from and
after the first day of October, nineteen hundred and twelve,
except as herein otherwise provided.

THE NEW YORK LAW TO REGULATE THE SALE OF FRUIT-
BEARING TREES (April 15, 1914).

Section 1. The title of article eleven of chapter nine of the
laws of nineteen hundred and nine, entitled "An act in relation
to agriculture, constituting chapter one of the consolidated laws,"
is hereby amended to read as follows:

Apples; pears; peaches; quinces; fruit-bearing trees.

§ 2. Such chapter is hereby amended by adding at the end of
article eleven three new sections to be sections two hundred and
sixty-three, two hundred and sixty-four and two hundred and
sixty-five, to read, respectively, as follows:

§ 263. Safe of fruit-bearing trees. Every person, firm or cor-
poration selling fruit-bearing trees shipped from any point in the
state of New York must have attached to each car, box, bale or
package a copy of a certificate of inspection issued by the state
department of agriculture and signed by the commissioner of agri-
culture, valid to the first day of September next following the
date of issuance thereof. There shall also be attached to each
bundle or package of such fruit-bearing trees a label specifying
the name of variety of trees contained therein. In case such
bundle or package shall contain trees of different kinds or vari-
eties there must be attached to each tree therein a like label.

§ 264. Damages accruing from sale of trees. Nothing con-
tained in section two hundred and sixty-three or any other section
of this chapter shall be construed to deprive a purchaser of any
fruit-bearing tree of his remedy at law in a civil action to recover
damages sustained by reason of such trees proving untrue to name
as specified on the label. Such damages may be recovered in a
civil action by the purchaser of such fruit-bearing trees or by his
personal representative or assignee at any time prior to the third
bearing year, provided the purchaser notifies the seller as soon as
he has reason to believe that such trees are not true to name. In
any action to recover damages suffered by the purchaser by reason
of any fruit tree or trees not being of the name or variety under
which they were tagged and sold, the seller shall have the burden
of proof in establishing that any contract not in writing or any pro-
vision of any such contract exempting the seller from liability or
limiting his liability was fully understood and agreed to by the pur-
chaser. In every case of a sale of fruit-bearing trees in lots of
twenty-five or more, when by written contract, the seller must at
once furnish the purchaser a copy of such contract upon the face of
which shall be plainly printed the following: "In any action to
recover damages suffered by the purchaser by reason of any fruit
tree or trees not being of the name or variety under which they
were tagged and sold, the seller shall have the burden of proof in
establishing that any contract not in writing or any provision
of any such contract exempting the seller from liability or limit-
ing his liability was fully understood and agreed to by the pur-
chaser." The seller must also accompany the shipment of such
trees with an itemized list of the same, which lists shall also give
the name of the county and state where the trees covered by it
were grown, the age of the trees, and the name and address of
the person for whom the trees were grown, if requested by letter
or in writing on the contract by the purchaser at the time of pur-
chase. Within five days after the receipt by the purchaser of the
trees and the list thereof the purchaser shall compare and notify
the seller of any discrepancy between the list and the labels on
such trees.

§ 265. Agent to carry certificate of authority. Any person,
firm or corporation acting as agent for another in the sale of fruit-
bearing trees in this state shall carry with him, at all times when
engaged in selling trees, a certificate in writing signed by his prin-
cipal and properly acknowledged, showing his authority to act as
such agent and upon request shall exhibit the same to the pur-
chaser and shall leave with the purchaser a copy of the contract
bearing on its face the clause referred to in section two hundred and
sixty-four.

§ 3. This act shall take effect September first, nineteen hun-
dred and fourteen.

THE HORTICULTURAL QUARANTINE LAW OF CALIFORNIA.

AN ACT to provide for the protection of horticulture and to pre-
vent the introduction into this state of insects or diseases, or
animals, injurious to fruit or fruit trees, vines, bushes or
vegetables, providing for a quarantine for the enforcement
of this act, making a violation of the terms of the act a mis-
demeanor, and providing the penalty therefor; providing
that said act shall be an urgency measure and go into effect
immediately, and repealing that certain act entitled "An act
for the protection of horticulture and to prevent the intro-
duction into this state of insects, or diseases, or animals,
injurious to fruit or fruit trees, vines, bushes or vegetables, and
to provide for a quarantine for the enforcement of this act,"
approved March 11, 1899.

The people of the State of California do enact as follows:
SECTION 1. Any person, persons, firm or corporation who shall
receive, bring or cause to be brought into the State of California,
any nursery stock, trees, shrubs, plants, vines, cuttings, grafts,
scions, buds or fruit pits, or fruit or vegetables, or seed, shall
immediately after the arrival thereof notify the state commissioner
of horticulture, or deputy quarantine officer, or quarantine guardian

INSPECTION

INSPECTION

1653

of the distrct or county in which such nursery stock, or fruit or
vegetables or seed are received, of their arrival, and hold the same
without unnecessarily moving the same, or placing such articles
where they may be harmful, for the immediate inspection of such
state commissioner of horticulture, or deputy quarantine officer
or guardian. If there is no quarantine guardian or state horti-
cultural quarantine officer in the county where such nursery stock
or fruit or vegetable, or seed is received, it shall then be the duty
of such person, persons, firm or corporation to notify the state
commissioner of horticulture, who shall make immediate arrange-
ments for their inspection. The state commissioner of horticulture,
deputy quarantine officer, quarantine guardian or such person or
persons as shall be commissioned by the state commissioner of
horticulture to make such inspection, or to represent said com-
missioner, is hereby authorized and empowered to enter at any time
into any car, warehouse, depot or upon any ship within the bound-
aries of the State of California whether in the stream or at the
dock, wharf, mole, or any other place where such nursery stock or
fruit or vegetables or seed or other described articles are received
or in which such nursery stock or fruit or vegetables or seed is
imported into the state, lor the purpose of making the investiga-
tion or examination to ascertain whether such nursery stock, trees,
shrubs, plants, vines, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds, fruit pits, fruit,
vegetables or seed is infested with any species of injurious insects,
or their eggs, larva or pup® or other animal or plant disease.

If after such examination or inspection, any of the said described
articles are found to be so infested or infected as aforesaid, then it
shall be the duty of the owner, owners, or persons, firm or corpora-
tion having charge or possession thereof to so disinfect at his or
their expense such portion or portions of the ship, dock, wharf,
mole, car, warehouse or depot where said articles may have been
located in such a manner as to destroy all infection or infestation
present or that is liable to be present, and all articles or packages or
soils apt to be so infested or infected shall be held until the said
articles or packages or soils have been thoroughly disinfected and
all injurious insects, or their eggs, larvae or pupae or other animal
or plant disease have been eradicated ana destroyed; provided,
however, that all articles of nursery stock, trees, shrubs, plants,
vines, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds, fruit pits, fruits, vegetables or
seed which are infested or infected with such species of injurious
insects or their eggs, larvae or pupae or other animal or plant dis-
ease which may be or be liable to be injurious to the orchards, vine-
yards, gardens or farms within said state, shall be destroyed or
reshipped out of the state as hereinafter provided. The said officer
so making such inspection shall not permit any of the described
articles so coming in contact with said infested or infected articles
or any articles which might convey infection or infestation to be
removed or taken from any such car, warehouse, depot, ship, dock,
wharf or any other place until after such infection or infestation
shall have been destroyed.

SEC. 2. Each carload, case, box, package, crate, bale or bundle
of trees, shrubs, plants, vines, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds, fruit
pits, or fruit or vegetables or seed, imported or brought into this
state, shall have plainly and legibly marked thereon in a conspicu-
ous manner and place the name and address of the shipper, owner,
or owners or person forwarding or shipping the same, and also the
name of the person, firm or corporation to whom the same is
forwarded or snipped, or his or its responsible agents, also the name
of the country, state or territory where the contents were grown
and a statement of the contents therein.

SEC. 3. When any shipment of nursery stock, trees, vines,
plants, shrubs, cuttings, grafts, scions, buds, fruit pits or seed or
vegetables or fruit, imported or brought into this state, is found
infested or infected with any species of injurious insects, or their
eggs, larvae or pupae or other animal or plant disease or there is
reasonable cause to presume that they may be so infested or
infected, which would cause damage, or be liable to cause damage,
to the orchards, vineyards, gardens or farms of the State of Cali-
fornia, or which would be or be liable to be detrimental thereto
or to any portion of said state, or to any of the orchards, vineyards,
gardens or farms within said state such shipment shall be imme-
diately destroyed by the state commissioner of horticulture, his
deputy quarantine officer, quarantine guardians or other person
or persons, who shall be commissioned by the state commissioner
of horticulture to make such inspection; provided, however, that if
the nature of the injurious insects, or their eggs, larvae, pupae or
animal or plant disease be such that no damage or detriment can
be caused to the said orchards, vineyards, gardens or farms of
California or any of the same by the shipment of the same out of
the state, then the said state commissioner of horticulture, his
deputy quarantine officer, quarantine guardians or other person
or persons who shall be commissioned by the state commissioner
of horticulture to make such inspection, and who shall make such
inspection, shall notify the owner or person, firm or corporation
having possession or control of said articles to ship the same out
of the state within forty-eight hours after such notification, and it
shall be the duty of such owner or owners, or person, firm or cor-
poration, to so ship said articles, but such shipment shall be under
the sole direction and control of the officer so making the inspec-
tion and shall be at the expense of the owner or owners, his or their
agent or agents, and for a failure to comply with such notice such
owner or owners, his or their agent or agents shall be deemed
guilty of a violation of the terms of this act and be punished accord-
ingly and immediately after the expiration of the time specified in
said notice said articles shall be seized and destroyed by said officer
at the expense of the said owner or owners, his or their agent or
agents.

SEC. 4. When any shipment of nursery stock, trees, vines,
plants, shrubs, cuttings, grafts, scions, fruit, fruit pits, vegetables
or seed, or any other horticultural or agricultural product passing
through any portion of the State of California in transit, is infested
or infected with any species of injurious insects, their eggs, larvae or

pupae or animal or plant disease, which would cause damage, or be
liable to cause damage to the orchards, vineyards, gardens or farms
of the State of California, or which would be, or be liable to be,
detrimental thereto or to any portion of said state, or to any of
the orchards, vineyards, gardens or farms within said state, and
there exists danger of dissemination of such insects or disease while
such shipment is in transit in the State of California, then such
shipment shall be placed within sealed containers, composed of
metallic or other material, so that the same can not be broken or
opened, or be liable to be broken or opened, so as to permit any
of the said shipment, insects, their eggs, larvae or pupse or animal
or plant disease to escape from such sealed containers and the said
containers shall not be opened while within the State of California.

SEC. 5. No person, persons, firm or corporation shall bring or
cause to be brought into the State of California any fruit or vege-
table or host plant which is now known to be, or hereafter may
become a host plant or host fruit of any species of the fruit fly
family Trypetidx from any country, state or district where such
species of Trypetidx is known to exist and any such fruit, vegetable,
or host plant, together with the container and packing, shall be
refused entry and shall be immediately destroyed at the expense
of the owner, owners or agents.

SEC. 6. No person, persons, firm or corporation shall bring or
cause to be brought into the State of California any peach, nec-
tarine, or apricot tree or cuttings, grafts, scions, buds or pits of
such trees, or any trees budded or grafted upon peach stock or
roots that have been in a district where the disease known as
"peach yellows" or the contagious disease known as "contagious
peach rosette" are known to exist, and any such attempting to land
or enter shall be refused entry and shall be destroyed or returned
to the point of shipment at the option of the owner, owners or agent,
and at his or their expense.

SEC. 7. No person, persons, firm or corporation shall bring or
cause to be brought into the State of California any injurious ani-
mals known as English or Australian wild rabbit, flying fox,
mongoose or any other animal or animals detrimental to horti-
cultural or agricultural interests.

SEC. 8. Any person, persons, firm or corporation violating
any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor
and shall be punished by imprisonment in the county jail for a
period not exceeding six months, or by a fine not exceeding five
hundred dollars, or by both such fine and imprisonment.

SEC. 9. It is hereby determined and declared that this act and
each and all of the provisions thereof, constitute and is an urgency
measure necessary for the immediate preservation of the public
safety and health. The facts constituting such necessity are as
follows: There now exists in various islands and territory in close
proximity to the State of California dangerous and injurious fruit
and plant diseases and insects and animals, and heretofore fruits,
vegetables, plants, seeds and other articles of horticulture and agri-
culture from said islands and territory have been and now are
being shipped and brought into the State of California, which are
to a large extent infested and infected with dangerous and injurious
fruit and plant diseases and insects, their eggs, larvae and pupae,
and which if continued to be brought into the state will cause
great danger to the public health, and will greatly damage the
horticultural and agricultural interests of said state, and will also
be detrimental to the public health, and this act is necessary to
provide ample power to prevent the introduction of such insects and
diseases and injurious animals into the state and to prevent the
spread of such disease, insects and animals.

SEC. 10. That certain act entitled "An act for the protection of
horticulture, and to prevent the introduction into this state of
insects, or diseases, or animals, injurious to fruit or fruit trees,
vines, bushes, or vegetables, and to provide for a quarantine for
the enforcement of this act," approved March 11, 1899, is hereby
repealed.

SEC. 11. This act, being an urgency measure as above set forth,
shall take effect and be in full force immediately from and after
its passage.

EXTRACTS FROM THE SANDERS BILL (see page 1650).

2. There is hereby created a board which shall be known as
the "Horticultural Inspection Board" of (State), hereinafter called
the Board, consisting of three (five) members, two (four) members
of which shall be ex-officio members. The third (fifth) member
shall be appointed by the Governor for a term of four years.
Such third (fifth) member shall be a nursery man actively engaged
in the growing of nursery stock. The members of said board shall
serve without compensation, but shall receive their actual and
necessary traveling expenses incurred in the discharge of their offi-
cial duties within the provisions of (this act) (sections to

, inclusive). This board is hereby vested with all powers

necessary to carry out the provisions of (this act) (sections

to — — , inclusive.)

Appointment.

3. The Board shall appoint some person qualified by scientific
training and practical experience to be state nursery (and orchard)
inspector, hereinafter called the inspector, who shall strictly enf9rce

the provisions of (this act) (sections to , inclusive)

as a police regulation of the (state) (commonwealth) under the
direction and control of the Board.

Appointment of deputies.

5. The Board is hereby authorized to appoint on the recom-
mendation of the inspector (deputies) (county horticultural
inspectors) (district horticultural inspectors) who shall strictly
enforce the provisions of (this act) (sections to ,

1654

INSPECTION

INULA

inclusive) under the direction of the inspector, and they are hereby
endowed with the same police power as the state inspector, and
shall be furnished with official badges or other insignia of authority,
which shall be carried while on duty.

6. The Board (State Horticultural Commission) shall have the
power to prescribe, modify and enforce such reasonable rules, regu-
lations and orders as may be needed to carry out the provisions of
this act, and may publish an annual report describing the, various
phases of the inspection work, or may publish such other informa-
tion as may seem desirable concerning the inspection and such

insects and diseases as are covered by (this act) (Sections

to , inclusive). Such rules and regulations to be printed

from time to time and furnished free to interested parties.

Inspector's duties and powers.

7. The inspector or his deputies shall at least once each year
inspect all nurseries and other places in which nursery stock is
kept for sale in the state. For this purpose such state inspector
or his deputies shall have free access, within reasonable hours, to
any field, orchard, garden, packing ground, building, cellar, freight,
or express office, warehouse, car, vessel, or other place, which it
may be necessary or desirable for him to enter in carrying out the
provisions of this act. It shall be unlawful to deny such access to
the inspector or his deputies or to hinder, thwart or defeat such
inspection by misrepresentation or concealment of facts or con-
ditions or otherwise.

8. The inspector or his deputies shall have the authority to
inspect any orchard, fruit or garden plantation, park, cemetery,
private premises, public place, and any place which might become
infested or infected with dangerous or harmful insects or plant
diseases. He shall also have the authority to inspect or reinspect
at any time or place any nursery stock shipped in or into the state
and to treat it as hereinafter provided.

Diseased plant material on premises.

9. The inspector with the approval of the Board (State Horti-
cultural Commission) is hereby empowered to prohibit and prevent
the removal or shipment or transportation of plant material and
any other material from any private or public property, or property
owned or controlled by the state, or any area of the state (com-
monwealth) which in his judgment contains dangerously infested
or infected nursery stock or plant or other material of any kind
for such periods and under such conditions as in his judgment
seems necessary in order to prevent the further spread of the
infestation or infection, giving such notice thereof as may be
prescribed by the Board; and during the existence of such order
no person shall remove or ship from such area any such material
whatsoever, except by special permission or direction (certificate)
of the inspector.

10. It shall be unlawful for any person in this state knowingly
to permit any dangerous insect or plant disease to exist in or on
his premises. It shall also be unlawful to sell or offer for sale any
stock infested or infected with such insect or disease.

11. In case the inspector or his deputy shall find present on any
nursery or dealer's premises or any packing ground or in any cellar
or building used for storage or sale of nursery stock any injurious
insect or plant disease, he shall notify the owner or person having
charge of the premises in writing to that effect, and shall withhold
his certificate hereinafter provided for, until the premises are freed
from such injurious insect or plant disease, as hereinafter provided.
It shall be unlawful for any person after receiving such notice to
ship or deliver or cause to be shipped or delivered any nursery
stock from such aforesaid premises.

12. (1) If the inspector or his deputy shall find on examination
any nursery, orchard, small fruit plantation, park, cemetery, or
any private or public premises infested with injurious insects or
plant diseases, he shall notify the owner or person having charge of
such premises to that effect, and the owner or person having charge
of the premises shall within ten days after such notice cause the
removal and destruction of such trees, plants, shrubs or other plant
material if incapable of successful treatment; otherwise, cause them
to be treated as the inspector may direct. No damages shall be
awarded to the owner for the loss of infested or infected trees,
plants shrubs or other plant material under this act.

(2) In case the owner or person in charge of such premises shall
refuse or neglect to carry put the orders of the inspector within
ten days after receiving written notice, the inspector may proceed
to treat or destroy the infested or infected plants or plant material.
The expense thereof shall be assessed collected and enforced as
taxes are assessed collected and enforced against the premises
upon which such expense was incurred. The amount of such
expense when collected shall be paid to and become a part of the

fund used to enforce the provisions of (this act) (sections

to , inclusive).

Imported stock.

14. Every person receiving directly or indirectly any nursery
stock from foreign countries shall notify the (state) (county)
(district) inspector of the arrival of such shipment, the contents
thereof and the name of the consignor; and shall hold such ship-
ment unopened until duly inspected or released by the inspector.
In case any infested or infected stock is discovered in such ship-
ment, the shipment shall be subject to the provisions of (this act)
(sections to , inclusive).

Nursery certificate.

15. (1) The inspector shall cause to be issued to owners of any
nursery in the state after the stock has been officially inspected

as previously provided, and found to be apparently free from
injurious insects or plant diseases, a certificate setting forth the
fact of such inspection and the number of acres or fraction thereor
inspected. Said certificate shall be valid not to exceed one year
from ( month ) 1st.

(2) It shall be unlawful for any person to sell, to offer for sale
or to remove or ship from a nursery or other premises, any nursery
stock unless such stock has been officially inspected and a certifi-
cate or permit has been granted by the inspector.

Dealer's certificate.

16. AH dealers within the meaning of this act, located either
within or without the state, engaged in selling nursery stock in
this state or soliciting orders for nursery stock within this state,
shall secure a dealer's certificate by furnishing a sworn affidavit
that he will buy and sell only stock which has been duly inspected
and certified by an official state inspector; and that he will main-
tain with the inspector a list of all sources from which he secures
his stock.

Agent's certificate.

18. All agents within the meaning of this act selling nursery
stock or soliciting orders for nursery stock for any nurseryman or
dealer located within the state or outside the state, shall be required
to secure and carry an agent's certificate bearing a copy of the
certificate held by the principal. Said agent's certificate shall be
issued only by the (State) inspector to agents authorized by their
principal or upon request of their principal. Names and addresses
of such agents shall not be divulged by the inspector or the board.

19. The inspector shall at any time have the power to revoke
any certificate for sufficient cause, including any violation of

(this act) (sections to , inclusive) or non-conformity

with any rule or regulation promulgated under (this act) (sections
to , inclusive).

INULA (ancient name). Compdsitse. Hardy herba-
ceous plants of the easiest culture and of rather coarse
habit, with heads of yellow or orange, each 2 to 4
inches across, borne in summer.

Herbs, usually perennial, glandular, hairy: Ivs.
radical or alternate, entire or serrate: heads large,
medium or small, solitary, corymbose, panicled or
crowded at the crown; fls. tubular and ray, the rays
yellow, rarely white; disk-fls. perfect, their tubular
corollas 5-toothed: achenes 4-5-ribbed. — A genus of
about 56 species, found in Eu., Asia and Afr. None
of its near allies is cult.

There is such a great abundance of autumn-flowering
yellow composites in the hardy border that only those
mulas that bloom in early summer are particularly
desirable. Elecampane, /. Helenium, is probably also
cultivated for medicine. A preparation of the muci-
laginous roots is common in drugstores. Inula flowers
have as many as forty linear rays. The plants like a
sunny position, grow vigorously in any garden soil,
and are propagated by division or seed.

A. Sts. panicled or corymbose.

Helenium, Linn. ELECAMPANE. Fig. 1959. Tall,
thick-stemmed: Ivs. unequally dentate-serrate; root-
Ivs. elliptic-oblong, narrowed into a petiole; st.-lvs.
half-clasping, cordate-oblong: outer involucral parts
leafy, ovate. Wet, sandy and mountainous regions.
Eu., N. Asia. Naturalized in Amer. — The roots are
thick and carrot-like. For medicinal purposes, 2-year-
qld roots should be dug in Aug. If older, they are
likely to be stringy and woody.

AA. Sts. 1-fld., or with at most 2 or 8 heads.

B. Outer involucral parts linear and numerous.

c. Plants 2Y<L ft. tall or more.

grandifldra, Willd. Height 3-4 ft., the st. simple and
hairy: Ivs. elliptic-oblong, serrulate, all sessile; upper
ones subcordate; lower ones 2-4 in. long: glands nu-
merous: heads 3J4^4 in. across. Himalayas, Caucasus.
G.F. 6:406. — Earliest blooming inula in cult. Bears
orange-yellow fls. 5 in. across in June, and has bold but
not coarse habit.

glanduldsa, Willd. Height 2^-4 ft.: lower Ivs.
oblong-spatulate, long-attenuate at the base, the upper-
most oblong with a subcordate-decurrent base, all
entire or very obsoletely denticulate: glands remote;

INULA

IOCHROMA

1655

scale of involucre lance-shaped and hairy. Caucasus.
B.R. 334. B.M. 1907. Gn. 22, p. 234; 25, p. 101;
49:6 and p. 7. J.H. III. 35:153; 63:139. R.H.
1881, p. 419. G.M. 33:541; 38:477. G. 5:337;
7:649, 651. Var. laciniata, Hort., seems to be a trade
name for the fimbriate form figured in G.M. 46:625. —
Keller says it has deep golden-yellow, fringed, half-
drooping rays. Rays are commonly said to be entire,
but B.M. 1907 shows 2 minute teeth, and in B.R. 334
the fringes are more than J^in. long. This is said to be
the only cult, species that does not seed freely. The
Garden pictures an orange variety.

cc. Plants 2 ft. or less tall.

Hookeri, C. B. Clarke. Height 1-2 ft., usually very
shaggy above: Ivs. 3-5 in. long, sessile or narrowed
into very short petioles, oblong-lanceolate, acute at
the base, minutely toothed, glandular: heads lK-2/-^
in. across; rays "pale yellow," according to Hooker.
Himalayas. B.M. 6411 (rays pure yellow). — Fls.

1959. Inula Helenium. ( X Ji)

orange-yellow, according to J. W. Manning. It is
said to flower in Aug. and Sept., and has bright yellow
fringed rays. However, in B.M. 6411 the rays have
only 3 minute teeth.

britannica, Linn. A hairy perennial usually not over
18 in. high, with a simple st. and lanceolate slightly
toothed Ivs.: fls. lemon-yellow, the bracts linear and
very numerous. June-Aug. Eu. and Asia. — Useful
for its early bloom and small stature.

BB. Onier involucral parts lanceolate and leafy.

hirta, Linn. St. 12-15 in. high, simple: Ivs. netted-
veined, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, the lowest narrowed
at the base, the others rounded at the base and half-
clasping, all entire or finely ciliate. Eu., N. Asia. — Fls.
July-Aug.

ensifolia, Linn. (7. bubonium, Hort.). St. about 2 ft.,
simple: Ivs. with numerous somewhat parallel nerves,

narrowly linear-lanceolate: fls. large, yellow, the
involucral parts appressed, not spreading. Eu., N. Asia.
G.M. 41:559. — July, Aug. Rockery plant; blooms first
year from seed if sown early.

Royleana, DC. A striking, large-fld. elecampane with
orange-yellow petals : st. unbranched, bearing numerous
ovate, slightly toothed, hairy Ivs. which are narrowed
at the base into winged petioles: fls. very numerous in
each head, showy; buds conspicuous, black. Himalayan
region. F.S.R. 1:310. G.C. III. 38:264. Gn.W. 23:693.
G. 30:117. — Suitable for somewhat protected places.

AAA. Sts. racemosely clustered.

racemdsa, Hook. f. A tall stout perennial, 1-5 ft.,
with a grooved st. and leathery Ivs. 8-18 in. long:
heads numerous, lJ^-2 in. across, showy, the outer
bracts with recurved tips. Himalayas. — Little known
in Amer. and perhaps not hardy.

I. ficulus-Christi, Linn. Two ft.; an erect, somewhat branched,
woolly perennial with oblong hairy Ivs. : fls. yellow, the rays twice
longer than the involucral bracts. Sold in England, but apparently
unknown in Amer. N TAYLOR.f

IOCHROMA (Greek, violet-colored). Solanacese.
Flowering shrubs cultivated outdoors in California
and under glass in Europe.

In the wild, shrubs or small trees; spineless, glabrous
or mostly stellate-tomentose : Ivs. entire, often large:
fls. purple, blue, scarlet, yellow or white, in clusters or
on twin pedicels; corolla long-tubular or narrow-
trumpet-shaped, with 5 short or very small lobes, the
throat more or less closed by appendages or folds;
stamens inserted in the tube, included or exserted;
disk present or absent; ovary 2-celled: fr. a pulpy
berry. — Species about 20, mostly in W. Trop. S. Amer.

A. Fls. blue.

lanceolatum, Miers. Shrub, 4-8 ft. high, the young
branches downy with stellate hairs: Ivs. alternate, oval
or elliptic-lanceolate, acute, entire, tapering below
into a long petiole : umbels supra-axillary and terminal ;
fls. rich deep purple-blue; corolla-tube slightly curved,
somewhat puberulent, the margin shortly unequally
5-lobed or -toothed and pubescent. Ecuador. B.M.
4338 and F.S. 4:309 (as Choenestes lanceolata). — Seed-
lings are said to vary in shades of violet or purple.

tubuldsum, Benth. Shrub, 4-6 ft., the sts. and Ivs.
pubescent or hairy: Ivs. stalked, ovate, attenuate at
base and acute or somewhat abruptly acuminate at
apex: fls. deep blue, as many as 20 sometimes hanging
in a graceful cluster; corolla about l%m. long, tubular,
the brief margin or limb 5-toothed. Colombia. B.R.
31:20. F.S. 1:131.

grandifldrum, Benth. (/. Warscewiczii, Regel).
Handsome shrub, with terete pubescent branches: Ivs.
broadly ovate, rounded at base and acuminate at apex,
pubescent above and paler beneath: fls. in a simple
peduncled terminal several-fid, pendulous cyme, large
and rich purple; corolla funnelform, the tube long and
pubescent, the throat flaring or campanulate and the
large h'rnb with 5 triangular spreading-recurved lobes;
filaments included, glabrous. Ecuador. B.M. 5301.
F.S. 11:1163. H.F. II. 5:102. Gt. 4:130.— The/, pur-
pureum of trade-lists may belong here.

AA. Fls. scarlet, orange-scarlet or yellow (to white in
cult.).

fuchsioides, Miers. Shrub, glabrous or nearly so:
Ivs. often clustered, obovate to oval or oblong, very
obtuse, tapering at the base into a short petiole: fls.
more or less clustered, orange-scarlet, drooping; corolla
thrice exceeding the 5-toothed and bursting calyx, the
tube long-cylindrical- and nearly straight, the fimb 5-
angled and with intermediate teeth; filaments included,
downy at the base. Peru. B.M. 4149 and F.S. 1:157
(both as Lycium fuchsioides). — A white-fld. form is
also offered.

1656

IOCHROMA

IPOMCEA

flavum, Andre. Bushy shrub, 6 or 7 ft., the young
growth glabrous: Ivs. alternate and stalked, oval-
lanceolate, short-pubescent beneath, attenuate at both
ends: fls. pale yellow, in drooping axillary clusters,
tubular, 1^2 in. long, the border or limb short-toothed.
Colombia. R.H. 1898:360.

coccineum, Scheidw. Shrubby, the branches pubes-
cent: Ivs. stalked, oblong, undulate and somewhat
repand, long-acuminate, hairy on nerves and veins:
fls. in an umbel-like fascicle, drooping, scarlet; corolla
long-tubular, about 2 in. long, with a narrow border or
limb; calyx about %in. long, broadly short-toothed.
Cent. Amer. F.S. 12:1261. L. H. B.

IONE (one of the nereids). Orchidaceae. About a
half-dozen pseudobulbous orchids of E. India, by some
united with Bulbophyllum : lateral sepals usually
connate and under the lip, the latter rather large,
straight and rigid; pollinia 4, attached in pairs to 2
glands. /. paledcea, Lindl. (Bulbophyllum palcaceum,
Benth.), has drooping fls. about 1 in. long, many in
erect spikes; sepals greenish with pink nerves; petals
spreading, broadly oblong and 1-3-nerved; lip ovate-
lanceolate: scape exceeding the If., about 9 in. India.
B.M. 6344. I. siamensis, Rolfe. Pseudobulbs 1-lvd.,
4-angled-ovoid : Ivs. narrow-oblong, about 3 in. long:
scapes nearly erect, slender, about 6 in. long, bearing a
raceme about 2% in. long that has 9-10 fls., which are
about ^in. long, pale green with dull purple on lateral
sepals and lip and with purple dots near margin of outer
segms. Siam. Recent. 7. grandiflora, Rolfe. Pseudo-
bulbs 1-lvd., ovoid: Ivs. oblong, 2 in. or less long: scapes
erect, 1-fld.; fl. dull lurid purple; sepals and petals
oblong, acute; lip cordate-ovate, hirsute above, keeled
beneath. Burma. Recent. £,_ jjt j^

lONfDIUM CONCOLOR: Hybanthus.

IONOPSIDIUM (Greek, violet-like). Crudferx. One
pretty, tufted little plant, growing 2 or 3 in. high and
bearing numerous small 4-petaled, lilac fls. from spring
to fall. It is a half-hardy perennial from Portugal and
N. Afr., but is treated as an annual. It is desirable for
edgings in moist shady places, and for rockeries; also
as a pot subject in window-gardening. In rich garden
soil the plants make numerous runners. The fls. are
about 3^in. across, 1 on each stalk. They open white
and turn lilac. The plant has been advertised as the
diamond flower. This plant is referred by some to
Cochlearia, a genus whose limits are very uncertain.

acaule, Reichb. (Cochlearia acaulis, Desf.). Lvs.
ovate-rotund, heart-shaped at the base; petioles pro-
portionately very long: pods subrotund, notched. B.R.
32:51. Gn. 71, p. 90; 72, p. 398.— Summer to winter.

WILHELM MILLER.

IONOPSIS (Greek, violet-like). Orchidacese. A small
group of epiphytic orchids, numbering about ten spe-
cies, many of which can probably be reduced to
varieties of a few species. Most of the species are
insignificant, only one or two being cultivated.

Tropical herbs without pseudobulbs, having
very short sts., with few, narrow, sheathing,
coriaceous Ivs. : sepals subequal, erect, spreading,
the dorsal one free, the lateral ones united into
a short spur behind; petals like the
dorsal sepals; labellum united to the
base of the column, middle lobe large,
expanded, 2-3 times as long as the
sepals, 2-lobed; column short; pollinia
2; fls. small, in simple racemes or
much-branched panicles. The fine
specimen of 7. paniculata figured in the
Botanical Magazine has a panicle 10
in. long, 8J^in. wide, with 5 branches,
and about 80 fls., each %in. across and
chiefly white, with violet markings i960. lonopsis utricularioides. ( x

near the center and a dash of yellow. In its native
country it is said to remain in attractive condition
from Sept. to May. The fls. are produced so freely and
over so long a period that it is sometimes necessary to
destroy the fl.- spikes, which are out of all proportion
to the number of Ivs. The plants succeed in the warm-
house under the same treatment as rodriguezias or the
more delicate oncidiums.

The best means of culture for the successful growing
of these beautiful though delicate orchids is in shallow
pans with plenty of small broken coal cinders for
drainage, covered with the fine particles of fern root
and chopped sphagnum gathered from the upland
meadows. Plenty of heat and moisture during the
growing season are essential. Rest them in winter at
a temperature of 50° to 55° F. (Wm. Mathews.)

paniculata, Lindl. Lvs. thick and channelled, linear-
lanceolate, keeled, 2-3 in a cluster and about 6 in. long:
panicle much branched and spreading, loaded with
innumerable fls. of a delicate texture; sepals and petals
very short, sharp-pointed, the petals wider; labellum
very large, pubescent at base, with a 2-lobed rounded
limb, which in some is almost entirely white, while in
others it has a spot of purple or yellow on the disk.
Winter. Brazil. B.M. 5541. F.S. 22:2333. A.F. 6:631.
C.O. 1. — Very variable.

utricularioides, Lindl. Fig. 1960. Lvs. and general
habit as in the last: sepals and petals bluntish; spur
short; labellum almost twice as long as the petals;
lobes subquadrate - rounded,
white, streaked with red veins.
Jamaica.

/. testiculata, Lindl. Lvs. tufted,
terete, acuminate: fls. whitish, small,
numerous. Jamaica.

HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

IPECAC. The root of Ceph-
aelis Ipecacuanha (Vol. I, p.
714), a Brazilian plant not cul-
tivated in North America. For
wild or American ipecac, see
Gillenia stipulacea.

IPOMCEA (according to Lin-
nseus from ips, bindweed, and
homoios, like, because of its
resemblance to Convolvulus;
but ips is a worm). Including
Batatas, Opercullna, and Phdr-
bitis. Convolvuldcese. MORX-
ING-GLORY. MOONFLOWER.
Annual or perennial herbs,
mostly twining, rarely trees
(G.F. 7:364) or shrubs, widely
distributed in tropical and
temperate regions. They are
remarkable for easy culture,
quick growth and beautiful
flowers; hence the genus in-
cludes several of our most
popular plants for covering ver-
andas and screening unsightly
objects.

The generic characters of
Ipomcea are not clearly defined.
It is distinguished from Con-
volvulus by having but 1 capi-
tate or 2-3 globose stigmas,
while Convolvulus has 2 linear
or ovate stigmas. From Cal-
onyction and Quamoclit it is
distinguished by its funnelform
corolla-tube and the stamens
usually included. St. mostly
slender, twining or climbing,

LVIII. One of the many beautiful garden irises.

IPOMCEA

IPOMOEA

1657

sometimes prostrate, diffuse or erect: Ivs. alternate,
entire, lobed or parted, often varying greatly on the
same plant: fls. usually showy, borne singly or in cymes
on axillary peduncles; corolla funnelform, salyerform or
bell-shaped (in one species bag-shaped), the limb some-
times entire, but usually 5-angled or 5-lobed (a 5-petalled
form of 1. purpurea occurs as a monstrosity), red,
purple, blue, white or yellow, in various shades and
mixtures; calyx without the bracts at the base, which
appear in some species of Convolvulus, but the outer
sepals are commonly larger. The fls. of most species
open in early morning and last but a few hours under
bright sunlight, hence the popular name. A few open
only at nightfall.— Over 400 species of which more than
200 occur in Trop. Amer., chiefly in Mex.

"The Japanese morning-glories," also called "Impe-
rial" and "Emperor" morning-glories, were introduced
to the American trade from Japan in 1895. They are
probably selected strains of /. hederacea, although some
botanists consider them to be of hybrid origin, pos-
sibly /. hederacea X I. tricolor. Maximowicz referred
them to /. hederacea, and this appears to be the more
reasonable disposition. The culture of the "asagoa" in
Japan amounted to a popular craze about 1830, the
equivalent of $14 to $18 sometimes being paid for a
single seed of the rare sorts. With political disturbances
came a decline of interest, but more recently the popu-
lar fancy for morning-glories has again revived. The
Japanese gardeners grow their plants almost entirely in
pots, and by constant attention have made them vary
into many curious oddities in flower and foliage. Several
finely illustrated books on the morning-glory alone are
published in Japan. See also "Century Magazine,"
55:281 (1897). The Japanese ipomeas are sold in
this country mostly in strains, each package of seed
giving flowers of many forms and colors. There are
some inferior strains offered, and the flowers from these
are often disappointing; yet as a class the Japanese
morning-glories are the most gorgeous and versatile
of garden ipomeas. If the seeds are notched they will
generally give bloom in six weeks from sowing.

Morning-glories are among the least exacting of gar-
den plants as regards soil and site. Most species love a
strong soil and sunny site, with plenty of water; but
they will make the best of much that is uncongenial.
The seeds of the annual kinds may be sown directly out-
of-doors, but are preferably started indoors, at least in
the North. If the plants are allowed to become slightly
pot-bound before being transplanted, they will come
into bloom earlier. Germination may be hastened and
also made more certain by filing a small notch in each
seed, or by soaking the seeds in warm water about two
hours. The "moonflower" and the "Japanese morning-
glories" particularly are likely to germinate poorly
unless these precautions are taken.

The perennial ipomeas are grown from seeds in some
cases, but mostly from cuttings of well-ripened wood,
layers, or division of the rootstocks. Some of the green-
house species, notably /. Horsfalliss, rarely produce
seed and are rooted from stem-cuttings with great diffi-
culty. These are often propagated successfully by
grafting well-ripened shoots on pieces of their own
roots, or the roots of 7. pandurata. I. ternata roots
from cuttings more readily, and 7. Learii and 7. Jalapa
are easily propagated from cuttings.

The rapid growth and dense foliage of most garden
ipomeas make them especially valuable for covering
arbors, verandas, walls, and for screening unsightly
objects. 7. purpurea, I. tricolor, I. hederacea are
the most popular annual species for this purpose; and
7. Learii, I. setosa and 7. pandurata are among the
best perennials. In the South, the perennials may be
carried through the winter outside by cutting off the
stems and mulching the roots heavily in the fall; in
the North the tubers should be taken up and wintered
like dahlias, keeping them perfectly dry in a cool

greenhouse or frost-proof cellar. 7. leptophylla is
valuable for very dry soils. 7. Bona-nox (see Calonyc-
tion aculeatum) is worthy of a place in every garden.

The tender perennials are seen to advantage when
trained to pillars, trellises, or along the roof of a green-
house. Their roots should be given plenty of room to
forage and their tops to spread. 7. Horsfallise and its
closely related species, 7. ternata, are very satisfactory
for this purpose. After flowering, the strong shoots
should be cut back and the plant rested. Several
species, particularly 7. Learii, I. tricolor and 7.
hederacea, make excellent pot-plants if they are kept
somewhat pot-bound to induce flowering. The roots of
nearly all the perennial species are more or less purga-
tive; particularly 7. Purga, from which comes the jalap
of commerce, 7. Jalapa and 7. cathartica. I. Batatas
is the common sweet potato.

The trade names of ipomeas are endlessly mixed.
Thus, 7. mexicana of the catalogues may be 7. hede-
racea, I. digitata, I. Jalapa, I. Bona-nox, I. Learii
or 7. tricolor; but is rarely the true 7. mexicana of
Gray. "Moonflower" is often applied indiscriminately
to several species of Ipqmcea, but it should be restricted
to species of Calonyction. It is evident that most of
the plants now sold as 7. grandiflpra are forms of Cal-
onyction aculeatum. I. hybrida is a trade name for
strains of 7. purpurea and 7. tricolor. The "tree
ipomcea" is 7. fistulosa. The "Japanese" or "Imperial"
morning-glories may be referred to 7. hederacea. Other
popular catalogue names are: Double morning-glory
is mostly 7. purpurea fl.-pl.; Brazilian morning-glory is
7. setosa; hardy or perennial moonflower is 7. pandurata;
Ipomoea, Heavenly Blue, is 7. tricolor.

INDEX.

acetosse folia, 8.

fuchsioides, 15.

palmata, 24.

alba, 10, 18, 19.

Goodellii, 4.

pandurata, ol.

angustifolia, 17.

grandiflora, 13, 30.

•paniculata, 24.

Antittana, 28.

hederacea, 13.

Perringiana, 25.

arborescens, 5.

heterophylla, 9.

Pes-caprse, 7.

atro-cserulea, 10.

hirsutula, 11.

Purga, 16.

atro-sanguinea, 10.

Hookeri, 18.

purpurea, 10.

aurea, 21. j

Horsfalliae, 19, 20.

rosea, 10.

azurea, 10.

Huberi, 10.

rubro-cxrulea, 18.

Batatas, 33.

insignis, 24.

sagittata, 26.

Bona-nox, 30.

integrifolium, 15.

scabra, 13.

bonariensis, 25.

Jalapa, 16, 29, 32.

Sellowii, 25.

Briggsii, 19.

kermesina, 10.

setosa, 22.

Carletonii, 1.

latifolia, 30.

sida? folia, 28.

carminata, 10.

Learii, 12, 14.

sinitata, 23.

carnosa, 8.

leptophylla, 2.

sinuata, 23.

chrysantha, 27.

limbata, 13.

speciosa, 26.

chryseides, 27.

Lmdheimeri, 9.

stans, 3.

corymbosa, 28.

Lindleyana, 9.

stolonifera, 8.

cymosa, 28.

littoralis, 8.

ternata, 20.

dealbata, 12.

longifolia, 1.

texana, 4.

Dickensonii, 10.

macrorhiza, 29.

Thomsoniana, 20.

digitata, 24.

maritima, 7.

tricolor, 18.

dissecta, 23.

marmorata, 13.

Tuba, 30.

Ferrandiana, 13.

mexicana, 11.

varia, 10.

ficifolia, 25.

Michauxii, 29.

ventricosa, 30.

filicaulis, 17.
fistulosa, 4.

microdactylum, 15.
mutabilis, 12.

violacea fl.-pl., 10-
violacea-striata, 10.

flore-pleno, 10.

Nil, 13.

Wolcottiana, 6.

foliis marmoratis, 13.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Plants erect, stout, perennial, shrubby

or tree-like.
B. Sts. erect or ascending from a

tuberous root,
c. Corolla white or cream-colored:

Ivs. lanceolate 1. longifolia

cc. Corolla purple.

D. Lvs. linear 2. leptophylla

DD. Lvs. hastate and toothed 3. stans

BB. Sts. subshrubby, 4~10 ft. high: cor-
olla pink-purple 4. fistulosa

BBB. Sts. woody, erect: arborescent: corolla

white.

c. Foliage more or less densely pubes-
cent; Ivs. ovate, cordate 5. arborescens

cc. Foliage glabrous; Ivs. ovate-lanceo-
late, rounded or truncate at base.. 6. Wolcottiana
AA. Plants twining, climbing or prostrate.

1658

IPOMCEA

IPOMCEA

B. Sts. prostrate or creeping, not twi-
ning.

c. Lf. -blades suborbicular, obcordate
or notched at apex: fls. blue or

purple 7. Pes-caprae

cc. Lf. -blades variously lobed or oblong-
lanceolate: fls. cream-colored .... 8. stolonif era
BB. Sts. twining or climbing.

c. Sepals herbaceous, often elongated
and hairy; ovary and caps.
S-celled, 6-seeded (Pharbitis).

D. Lvs. deeply 8-5-lobed 9. Lindheimori

DD. Lvs. entire or S-lobed.
E. The sepals merely acute.
F. Corolla 1 l/2~2-in. long: Ivs.

usually entire 10. purpurea

FF. Corolla about 1 in. long: hs.

usually 3-lobed 11. hirsutula

EB. The sepals attenuate or caudate-
attenuate.
F. The Ivs. silvery-canescent or

silky: corolla purple 12. mutabilis

FF. The Ivs. hispid to glabrate,

not canescent.

G. Tips of sepals linear-attenu-
ate, hispid below, the tips

spreading 13. hederacea

oo. Tips of sepals long-acumi-
nate, not spreading, op-
pressed pubescent with sil-
very hairs 14. Learii

cc. Sepals thick, rarely subherbaceous

and then not elongated.
D. Corolla salver form; stamens
slightly exserted: st. woody below
(Exogonium).
E. The corolla scarlet, 1 J^ in.

long: Ivs. lobed or entire 15. microdacty-

EE. The corolla blue or purple, 2}/z [lum

to 3 in. long 16. Purga

DD. Corolla not salver form; stamens
rarely if ever exserted (Batatas
and Operculina).
E. The plants annual: sts. glabrous.
F. Lvs. linear or lanceolate, sub-
sessile: fls. small, white 17. angustifolia

FF. Lvs. ovate-cordate: fls. large,

red, blue, or purple 18. tricolor

EE. The plants perennial, often with
large fleshy or woody roots or
rootstocks.

F. Lvs. divided to the petiole into
3-^9 separate, stalked or ses-
sile Ifts.: peduncles equaling
or shorter than the petioles.
G. Fls. red: If.-segms. sessile,
tapering to both ends,

margin wavy 19. Horsfalliae

GO. Fls. white: If.-segms. stalked,
not tapering to the ends,

margin not wavy 20. ternata

GGG. Fls. yellow: If.-segms. ses-
sile, long-pointed 21. aurea

FF. Lvs. deeply divided but not

into separate Ifts.
G. Pedicels thickened and
fleshy; sepals accrescent in
fr., setaceous; corolla sub-
salverform, purplish red. . . 22. setosa
GG. Pedicels not thickened nor

sepals accrescent.
H. Fls. white: segms. of
Ivs. much toothed or cut;
petioles and sts. hispid.. .23. sinuata
HH. Fls. rose-purple: Ivs. pal-
mately 5-7-lobed to be-
yond the middle 24. digitata

FFF. Lvs. entire, angulate or lobed,

not divided.

G. Sts., Ivs. and peduncles
densely hairy: corolla fun-
nelform, its lobes obtuse:
If. -lobes unequal, blunt 25. bonariensis

GG. Sts. and foliage not hairy.
H. The Ivs. sagittate, short-
petioled: fls. 2-3 in. long,

purple 26. sagittata

HH. The Ivs. cordate.

i. Corolla small, l/i-%in.

wide.

3, Color of corolla yellow.. 27. chryseides
Jj. Color of corolla white:
fls. in dense cymose

clusters 28. sidaefolia

n. Corolla large, 2-4 in. long.
j. Foliage whitish tomen-
tulose: fls. cream-col-
ored with a magenta

throat 29. macrorhiza

Jj. Foliage not whitish to-

mentulose.

K. Color of corolla white,
3-4 in. long: caps,
large, 1 in. diam.,
operculat e-dehis-

cent 30. Tuba

KK. Color of corolla white
with a magenta
throat: foliage pu-
bescent or glabrate;
Ivs. pale beneath. . . .31. pandurata
KKK. Color of corolla pink,
yellowish purple or
purple.

L. Lvs. softly pubes-
cent, plicate-veined:
fls. pink or pur-
plish 32. Jalapa

LL. Lvs. glabrous, acute,
cordate, hastate or
variously lobed. . . .33. Batatas

1. longifdlia, Benth. (7. Cdrletonii, Holzin.). Sts.
glabrous, erect or ascending from a large tuberous root:
lys. linear-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, nearly ses-
sile: fls. large, 2-3 in. long, white. Prairies and plains,
Okla. to Texas and Mex. and Ariz. Contr. Nat. Herb.
1:17.

2. leptophylla, Torr. BUSH MOONFLOWER. St. 2-5
ft. high, with many slender, recurving "branches : Ivs.
2-4 in. long, entire: peduncle stout, 1-4-fld., usually

1961. Morning-glory, Ipomoea purpurea

IPOMCEA

IPOMCEA

1659

shorter than the Ivs.; corolla about 3 in. across, funnel-
form, rose-pink, deepening to purple in the throat.
Aug.-Oct. Dry plains, Neb. and Wyo., south to Texas
and N. Mex. Plant World 7:5, 6.— This and the pre-
ceding species are adapted for very dry places because
of the enormous tuberous rootstocks, which often
weigh 100 pounds and extend into the subsoil for 4 ft.
They sometimes thrive where no rain has fallen for
1-3 years. The plant is beautiful when in flower.

3. stans, Cav. A beautiful erect, branching shrub
with a thickened woody root: sts. and foliage finely
pubescent: Ivs. nearly sessile, oblong, hastate and
deeply toothed at the base: fls. solitary on axillary
peduncles, pink or purple, 2-23/2 in. long. Mex. — The
best of the several species of Mexican bush moon-
flowers, none of which is hardy.

4. fistulSsa, Mart. (/. texana, Coulter). St. 4-10
ft. high, subshrubby, branching, smooth or minutely
pubescent: Ivs. 4-6 in. long, thickish, entire or nearly
so: peduncles 1-2 in. long, mostly shorter than the peti-
oles, few- to many-fld.; corolla about 3 in. long, bell-
shaped, pink-purple. July-Sept. Brazil; now escaped
from gardens in Mex. and S. U. S. — It is known to the
trade chiefly as var. Goddellii (/. Goddellii, Hort.).
This variety has lavender-pink fls., with a darker throat,
and is apparently more floriferous and desirable than
the type. It produces seed sparingly, but is easily
rooted from cuttings. In the S. it is hardy if the st. is
cut down and the roots mulched: in the N., the roots
must be brought indoors. Advertised as the "tree
ipomcea."

5. arborescens, Don. An erect, woody, tree-like
plant, reaching 15-20 ft. height: twigs and foliage
finely velvety-pubescent: Ivs. ovate - cordate : sepals
oval, obtuse, J^in. long, pubescent within and without;
fls. white, 2 in. long: seeds black with a long coma of
white hairs on the dorsal angles. Mex. G.F. 7:
364. — Requires a dry cool air like most of the cacti
and makes an interesting companion plant to them in
a cactus-house.

6. Wolcottiana, Rose. Tree, 25-30 ft. high, often 1 ft.
through, with slender, slightly drooping branches: Ivs.
ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 3-5 in. long, smooth: fls.
numerous, in short racemes or corymbs; corolla about
2^2 in. broad, white, broadly bell-shaped. Mex. G.F.
7 : 365. — Seeds do not germinate readily.

7. Pes-caprae, Roth (7. maritima, R. Br.). St.
creeping, seldom twining, 20-^50 ft.: roots often 12 ft.
long and 2 in. thick: Ivs. 1-^4 in. long, fleshy, roundish,
often broader than long, with 2 glands at the base and
prominently pinnate-veined: peduncles usually few-fld.,
equaling the petioles; corolla nearly 2 in. long, bell-
shaped, margin scarcely lobed. Aug.-Oct. Trop. coasts
of both hemispheres; drifting sands of coast, Ga. to
Texas. B.R. 319.

8. stolonifera, Poir. (/. carnbsa, R. Br. 7. acetosse-
folia, R. & S. 7. littoralis, Boiss. not Blume). Sts. gla-
brous, creeping and often rooting at the nodes: Ivs.
variously lobed or oblong-lanceolate, not cordate: fls.
cream-colored, 1J^ in. long. Circumtropical on sandy
shores, S. C. to Fla. Cyrill, PI. Rar. fasc. 1. pi. 5.

9. Lindheimeri, Gray (7. heterophyUa, Torr., not
Ort.). Plant finely pubescent, hoary when young: Ivs.
deeply 5-cleft or 5-parted, all of the lobes or the 3
interior ones ovate to ovate-lanceolate, with a much
contracted base: peduncle 1-2-fld.; corolla long-funnel-
form, about 3J/2 in. long, light blue. Rocky soils, W.
Texas to N. Mex. Var. Lindleyana, Hort. (7. Lind-
leydna, Hort.), has smaller Ivs., lighter colored fls., and
is a more profuse bloomer. An improvement on the
type, but more tender.

10. purpdrea, Roth (Convolvulus majus, Hort. Con-
vdlvulus purpiireus, Linn.). TALL MORNING-GLORY.

Fig. 1961. St. trailing or twining for 4-10 ft., branch-
ing from the base: peduncles slender, 1-5-fld., often
longer than the petioles; corolla 1-2 in. long, light blue,
purple, pink and diversely variegated. July-Sept. Trop.
Amer. Escaped from gardens to waste places, Canada
to Fla., west to Neb. and Texas, widely distributed in
most tropical regions. B.M. 113, 1005, 1682. Gn. 21, p.
295; 27, p. 473. — One of the most popular of garden
annuals. Some of its varieties resemble the entire-
leaved forms of 7. hederacea, but may be distinguished
by their longer and more slender peduncles, umbellate
pedicels, and oblong-acute sepals without the long tip
usually found on 7. hederacea. Seeds ripen freely on
cult, varieties
and may be
gathered for
future sowings.
Among the host
of garden forms
are: alba, white;
atro-caerftlea,
dark blue; atro-
sanguinea, dark
purple; azftrea,
sky-blue; carmi-
nata, light crim-
son; Dickensonii
(Phdrbitis Ms-
pida var. Dick-
ensonii), azure-
blue; Hftberi (7.
Hubert var. var-
iegata, Hort.).
Lys. marked
with silvery
white, fls. vari-
ously colored
and margined
with white; ker-
mesina (7. ker--
meslna), scarlet;
rosea, blush-rose; varia, a trade name for packages
containing a mixture of many kinds; violacea-striata,
violetr-purple. There are several double forms of 7.
purpurea. Var. fldre-pleno, Fig. 1962, has very large
Ivs.: fls. appearing much later than single varieties,
semi- or much-doubled, bluish white streaked with
light blue or pink. Intro. 1892. Said to be very
floriferous and a good pot-plant. G.F. 5:593 (adapted
in Fig. 1962). A.G. 14:246. Var. violacea fl.-pl.,
Hort., is entirely distinct from the preceding. Gt. 47,
p. 133.

11. hirs&tula, Jacq. (Phdrbitis diver sifblia, Lindl.
7. mexicana, Gray). Like 7. hederacea, but young Ivs.
entire or slightly angulate, becoming deeply 3-lobed and
cordate, as in 7. hederacea, the middle lobe broadest:
peduncles as long or longer than petioles; corolla 1 in.
wide, violet-purple, sometimes with crimson plaits;
sepals merely acute, not attenuate and recurved as in
7. hederacea. B.R. 1988. B.M. 4289.— The plants in
the trade as 7. mexicana are mostly 7. hederacea, I.
digitata and Calonyction aculeatum. I. mexicana vera,
Hort., 7. mexicana grandiflora alba, Hort., and 7. mexi-
cana grandiflora hybrida, Hort., are Calonyction aculea-
tum or 7. grandiflora.

12. mutabilis, Lindl. (7. dealbata, Hemsl. 7. Learii,
Meissn. not Paxt.). Perennial from a woody root:
sts. densely and softly pubescent: Ivs. orbicular-ovate,
entire or 3-lobed, appressed silky-pubescent above,
silvery canescent beneath: fls. 2-3 in. long, blue or
purple with a white tube or throat. Mex. B.R. 39. —
One of the most showy and ornamental species of the
Pharbitis group.

13. hederacea, Jacq. (7. Nil, Roth. 7. scabra,
Forsk. and Hort.). St. twining or climbing, 2-8 ft.: Ivs.

1962. Ipomoea purpurea var. flore-pleno.

1660

IPOMCEA

IPOMCEA

2-5 in. long, ovate-cordate, the lobes ovate to ovate-
lanceolate, entire, or the lateral lobes repand or dentic-
ulate: the middle lobe narrowed at the base: peduncle
1-3-fld., mostly shorter than the petiole; corolla funnel-
form, the tube usually white, the limb light blue,
purple or rose, and in various combinations of these
colors; sepals hairy, lanceolate, with long and often
recurved tips. July-Oct. Widely naturalized from
Trop. Amer. in fields and waste places, Pa. to Fla.,
west to Neb. and Mex. Perhaps native in the South.
B.R. 85 and 276 (as I. cserulea). B.M. 188 (as Con-
volvulus Nil). Gn. 27, p. 473. — This species shows great
variation in the form of its Ivs., both on the same
plant and on different plants. In some forms formerly
known as 7. Nil, the Ivs. are nearly entire; in others
they are very deeply lobed. Next to 7. pur pur ea, this
is now the most popular morning-glory in cult., and
the intro. of the improved Japanese strains will extend
its usefulness. Before the appearance of these oriental
varieties in occidental gardens, the species had already
varied into many distinct horticultural varieties; as
var. limbata, (7. limbata, Hort.), with the corolla violet-
purple, edged with white. B.M. 5720 (as Pharbitis
Nil). Gn. 29, p. 32. Var. marmorata ccelestina,
large fls., marbled and striped with light blue. Gt. 44,
p. 592. Var. marmorata rosea, fls. marbled with rose.
Gt. 44, p. 76. Var. foliis marmoratis, Ivs. marked
with yellow, limb of corolla rose-color. Var. grandifldra,
large blue fls. Var. Ferrandiana, similar to var. grandi-
flora. Aside from these strains, the following named
varieties of Japanese ipomceas are offered: Antigone,
Ivs. variegated: fls. blue, with pink throat. Aglaia,
Ivs. variegated : fls. crimson, with white throat. Aseria,
fls. dull copper-red. Ceres, like Aglaia, but fls. edged
with white. Euphrosyne, Ivs. variegated: fls. pure
white, with pink throat. Princess, fls. spotted with
carmine. Gt. 47, p. 133. A form with foliage dotted
with white is show_n in I.H. 43, p. 75. The various
strains give fls. which are diversely scalloped, ruffled,
fringed, double, and show a wonderful range of
coloring.

14. Learii, Paxt. BLUE DAWN-FLOWER. St. a very
rapid grower, often 30-40 ft. long, somewhat shrubby at
the base: Ivs. 3-6 in. long, cordate, acute, mostly entire
or slightly 3-lobed, variable: fls. borne in clusters of 12-
30, opening in succession; corolla 4-5 in. broad, bell-
shaped, deep lilac, sometimes dark purple with five
lighter plaits. Very beautiful. Aug.-Oct. Tropics of
both hemispheres; widespread. B.M. 3928 (as Pharbi-
tis Lean). B.R. 27:56 (as Pharbitis Leari). — A magnif-
icent species for the warmhouse, but not usually satis-
factory outside, at least in the N. One plant is on
record as producing 60,000 fls. at the rate of 300 a day.
When grown in the open the fls. are likely to be an
unattractive coppery purple. Thoroughly naturalized
in S. Calif., and a most useful plant for covering waste
places, enbankments, and the like.

15. microdactylum, Griseb. A glabrous, woody,
perennial twining vine, several feet in height, the sts.
often covered with rough corky projections: root large
and woody: Ivs. 3-5-lobed or sub-entire, thick: fls.
scarlet, sub-sal verform, about \Yi in. long, the limb as
broad and slightly 5-lobed; stamens slightly exserted.
Fla. Keys and Cuba. — This is often mistaken for I.
fuchsioides, Griseb., a rare and little-known Cuban
species, not found on the Fla. Keys and probably not in
cult. Var. integrifolium, House. Lvs. entire, oblong-
ovate, subcordate or obtuse at the base. Commoner
than the species. Intermediate If .-forms are often found
on the same plant.

16. Purga, Hayne (7. Jaldpa, Nutt. & Coxe, not
Pursh). Lvs. sagittate - cordate, smooth: peduncles
generally 1-fld., longer than the petioles; fls. rose-pur-
ple; corolla long-tubular, with a flat limb. Sept., Oct.
Trop. Amer. B.R. 33:49 (as Exogonium Purga). —

The "Jalap" of commerce is an active purgative made
by grinding to a powder dried slices of the tuberous
roots of this species. It was principally collected near
Xalapa, Mex., of which Jalap is a corruption.

17. angustifolia, Jacq. (7. fdicaulis, Blume). St.
prostrate, trailing or rarely climbing, much-branched:
Ivs. 1-3 in. long, less than 1 in. wide, glabrous: pedun-
cles exceeding the petioles, bearing 1-2 small, bell-
shaped fls., which are yellowish white with a purple
eye. Aug., Sept. Widely distributed in Trop. Asia,
Afr. and Amer. B.M. 5426. B.R. 317 (as 7. denticu-
lata). — Sometimes grown in the warmhouse, but there
is hardly enough foliage to set off the pretty dark-
eyed fls.

18. tricolor, Cav. (7. rubro-caerulea, Hook. 7. Hodkeri,
Don and Hort.). St. tinged with purple, branched, 10-20
ft. high : Ivs membranaceous, much-veined, short-acumi-

1963. Ipomoea digitate. ( X 1A)

nate: peduncle hollow and wand-like, longer than
petioles, 3-4-fld.; fls. 3-4 in. wide, the tube white and
limb red before expanding, at length purple or china-
blue. Aug.-Oct. Mex. R.H. 1855:441 (as Pharbitis
rubro-caerulea). B.M. 3297. P.M. 3:99. Gn. 27:72.
G.C.III.53: 104. — One of the most beautiful of annual
climbers. The fls. are often dashed, blotched and
shaded with rose, or are entirely rose. It is likely to
run to vine when out-of-doors unless the roots are
confined in a box or pot to induce early flowering. It
makes an excellent pot-plant for the greenhouse. Var.
Heavenly Blue, from Calif., proves to be a blue form
of 7. tricolor, which is especially valuable for cut-fls.
Var. alba, Hort., has pure white fls.

19. Horsfalliae, Hook. Fls. many, in a 2-branched
cyme; corolla bell-shaped, the limb of 5 broad, rounded
lobes, very showy. Cosmopolitan tropics. B.M. 3315.
P.M. 3:50. F.S. 16:1647. — Perhaps the most popular
ipomcea for winter-flowering in a warmhouse. If well
treated it will climb 20-30 ft., and will bear hundreds
of fls. each day in early winter. May also be grown
out-of-doors, but it will not come into bloom till late
fall unless the roots are cramped. Var. alba, Hort..

IPOMCEA

IPOMGEA

1661

is /. ternata; Lady Slade has pale rose fls.; var. Briggsii,
(/. Briggsii, Hort.), or Lady Briggs, is generally
considered better than the type for most purposes. It
is a freer grower and bloomer, the fls. are a rich magenta-
crimson, and it roots from cuttings much more readily
than 7. Horsfallise. This variety makes a fine plant in
a 10-in. pot. G.M. 37:49. Var. Thompsonii, or /.
Thomsoniana, Hort., is /. ternata.

20. ternata, Jacq. (7. Horsfallise var. alba, Hort. 7.
Horsfallise var. Thomsoniana, Hort. 7. Thomsoniana,
Mast.). St. somewhat woody at base: Ivs. usually
3-parted, the segms. elliptic or elliptic-oblong, fleshy,
smooth: fls. trumpet-shaped, about 2 in. across. Other-
wise like 7. Horsfallise, of which it is often considered a
variety. Probably from W. Indies. G.C. II. 20:817.
F. 1884, p. 118. — Not considered quite so effective for
greenhouse cult, as 7. Horsfallise.

21. aftrea, Kellogg (Operculma aii-rea, House). A slen-
der twining vine, woody below, with very large, white,
tuberous roots: Ivs. digitately 5-lobed: fls. 2-4 in. across,
funnelform, with a widely expanded limb, golden yel-
low: the rhombic, entire, sub-repand Ifts. often decidu-
ous, as are the branches. Lower Calif.

22. set6sa, Ker. BRAZILIAN MORNING-GLORY. Plant
very vigorous, branching, covered with stiff purplish
hairs : Ivs. 3-10 in. wide, cordate, angular or 3-lobed, the
middle lobe abruptly contracted below into a narrow
neck: peduncles many-fld., longer than the petioles;
fls. 2-4 in. wide, salverform, rose-purple. Aug.-Oct.
Brazil. B.R. 335. — An excellent free-growing climber
for covering arbors, and especially valuable for making
a dense screen because of its very leafy habit. In the
latitude of New York seeds sown in the open will give
flowering plants in late August. It may also be treated
as a warmhouse deciduous twiner. Var. Northern
Light is said to be a cross with Calonyction aculeatum.
Plant unusually vigorous, often growing 40-50 ft.: fls.
lavender-pink.

23. sinuata, Ort. (7. dissecta, Pursh, not Willd. 7.
sinitata, Hort.). St. somewhat woody at base, covered
with long yellowish hairs: Ivs. smooth or nearly so,
palmately 7-parted, the divisions lanceolate or narrowly
oblong, more or less sinuately cut and toothed: pedun-
cles 1-2-fld., longer than the petioles; fls. 1-2 in. wide,
bell-shaped, white with purple center; calyx as long as
the corolla-tube. June-Sept. Trop. Amer., and near
the coast from Ga. to Texas. — In Texas it expands
only 2-3 hours at midday, and is there called the
"noon-flower." It may be treated as a coolhouse ever-
green, and is worth growing for its delicate foliage alone.
In the N. the tubers must be wintered in a cellar.

24. digitata, Linn. (7. paniculata, R. Br. 7. palmata,
Hort., not Forsk.). Fig. 1963. St. trailing or climbing,
20^-40 ft.: Ivs. 3-7 in. wide, 5-7-parted, the segms.
elliptic, sometimes spatulate, entire: fls. numerous,
in a 2-branched cyme; corolla l%-3 in. wide, broadly
bell-shaped, 5-lobed, pinkish purple or pink: seeds
with a dense tuft of dirty white wool springing from
the apex. July-Sept. Tropics of both hemispheres.
R.H. 1853:381. B.R. 62; 333 (as 7. platensis). B.M.
3685 (as 7. platensis). Gng. 2:311. — One of the best
tuberous-rooted ippmceas for the garden or warm-
house. In the N. it may be used with fine effect if
grown in a tub and trained to an adjacent pillar or
trellis, the vine being cut off before frost and the
tub stored. Farther south the tubers may be planted
directly in the open, and will give a profusion of bloom
nearly all summer. Var. insignis, Hort. (7. insignis,

'Ker). Lvs. not palmately divided, nearly entire or
lobed, the under surface sometimes purplish. B.M.
1790. B.R. 75. — There are few plants of var. insignis
in cult.

25. bonariensis, Hook. (7. fidfolia, Lindl. 7. Perrin-
giana, Damm. 7. Sellowii, Penny). St. branching,

tinged with purple and covered with short stellate hairs :
Ivs. deeply cordate, 3-5-lobed, the middle lobe longest:
peduncles several-fld., longer than the petioles; fls. 1^~
2 in. wide, violet to lilac, the limb spreading into 5
crenate lobes. Aug.-Oct. Trop. Amer. and Afr. B.M.
3665. B.R. 27:13. P.M. 9:25. Gt. 47:1446.— Here
belongs 7. Sellowii, Penny, and probably Hort., not
7. Selloi, Mart., which is a distinct species.

26. sagittata, Lam. (7. speciosa, Hallier, not Pers.).
Sts. twining from a perennial root, slender and glabrous:
Ivs. strongly sagittate, short-petioled : fls. slender,
about 3 in. long, purple. Marshes and fields, N. C. to
Mex. and W. Indies.

27. chryseides, Ker. St. slightly woody, much twi-
ning, smooth or branches slightly hairy: Ivs. 1-2 in. long,
ovate-cordate to sub-hastate, acute, entire or toothed,
3-angled, 3-lobed and repand: peduncles 1-7-fld., longer
than the petioles; corolla H-%ir\. wide, funnel-shaped.
July-Oct. Trop. Asia and Afr. B.R. 270.— It can be
grown out-of-doors, but is tardy in blooming. Best
treated as a warmhouse evergreen climber. 7. chryseides
is advertised abroad. 7. chrysdntha, Hort., described in
American catalogues as having rich, glossy foliage and
golden yellow fls., may belong here.

28. sidaefdlia, Choisy (7. corymbosa, Don. 7. cymosa,
Lindl. 7. antillana, Millsp. Turbina corymbosa, Raf.).
A slender, climbing perennial vine, woody below: Ivs.
ovate, cordate, small or medium-sized: fls. borne in
large cymose clusters on elongated branching peduncles ;
corolla white, 1J^ in. long and broad; sepals somewhat
wing-like in fr.: caps, turbinate, usually 1-seeded.
Fla., W. Indies, and Trop. Amer.

29. macrorhiza, Michx. (7. Michduxii, Sweet. 7.
Jaldpa, Pursh, in Bot. Mag. 1813, not Pursh's descrip-
tion, 1814) . Sts. perennial from a thickened woody root,
trailing or climbing 6-8 ft. high, springing from an
oblong root weighing 4—30 pounds: foliage whitish
with a soft tomentulose pubescence; Ivs. entire, repand,
or lobed, 3-5 in. long, ovate-cordate, membranaceous,
veiny: peduncles 1-5-fld.; sepals very unequal, the
inner ones J^in. long and twice as long as the outer
ones; fls. about 3 in. long, cream-colored, with a
magenta throat. S. C. to Fla. and Mex. B.R. 342.
— A very ornamental warmhouse cumber and valu-
able for the garden if the tubers are started in
the greenhouse before being set out; otherwise the
plant seldom blooms much before frost. The "Jalap"
of commerce does not come from this plant, but from
7. Purga. The roots of 7. macrorhiza are but slightly
purgative.

30. T&ba, Schlecht. (7. latifblia, R. & S. 7. ventricosa,
Don. 7. grandiftora, Lam. Calonyction grandiflorum,
Choisy). A stout, twining, perennial, woody vine:
foliage glabrous or nearly so; Ivs. ovate, cordate, 5-10
in. broad, thickish in texture: fls. white, funnelform,
about 4 in. long: caps, large, 1 in. diam. with an oper-
culate dehiscence. Amer. Trop. — Some of the inferior
strains passing as 7. Bona-nox and its synonyms belong
here. Not a proliferous flowerer, and in cult, rarely
successful.

31. pandurata, G. F. W. Mey. MAN-OF-THE-EARTH.
WILD POTATO-VINE. St. 2-12 ft. long: root very long
and large (10-20 pounds) : Ivs. 2-4 in. long, long-
petioled, usually cordate and entire, occasionally
angulate, fiddle-shape or hastately 3-lobed: peduncles
1-5-fld., commonly a little longer than the petioles;
corolla 2-4 in. wide, broadly funnelform with pointed
lobes, white with a dark purple throat. May-Sept.
Dry soils, Canada to Fla., west to Ont. and Texas.
A.G. 12:637. R.H. 1893:574. B.M. 1603 (as Con-
volvulus candicans), 1939, and Gn. 27, p. 373 (both as
C. panduratus). B.R. 588. — In some places this spe-
cies is a very troublesome weed, which is almost impos-
sible to exterminate because of its long tuberous roots.

1662

IPOMCEA

IRIARTEA

It can easily be kept within bounds in the garden with
a little care, and makes a very desirable plant for cov-
ering an old dead stump or back fence. The chief
merit of 7. pandurata as a garden plant is its hardiness;
hence it is often sold as the "hardy" or "perennial
moonflower." If well mulched the roots will stand 26°
below zero. There is a double-fld. form. It is some-
times escaped in cult, grounds.

32. Jalapa, Lindl. (Batatas Jaldpa, Choisy). A
slender, glabrous, twining vine from a large woody root:
Ivs. triangular-ovate, entire or 3-lobed, plicate- veined :
peduncles usually very short, 1-fld.; sepals sub-equal,
broadly ovate, obtuse, J^in. long; fls. slender funnel-
form, 2-2^2 in. long, pink or purple. A Mexican
species, the roots of which possess purgative powers
equal to those of /. Purga. L.B.C. 6:518. — The names
of this and 7. macrorhiza have been confused from
the fact that this plant, figured by Lindley in 1813
(B.M. 1572) as Convolvulus Jalapa (I. Jalapa, Pursh,
as synonym) is not the Carolinian plant described
by Pursh under that name in 1814. The plant
described by Pursh as 7. Jalapa is the 7. macrorhiza of
Michaux.

33. Batatas, Poir. (Batatas edulis, Choisy). SWEET
POTATO. Lvs. ovate-cordate, usually angular or lobed,
variable, petioled: peduncles equaling or exceeding
the petioles, several-fld.; corolla 1-2 in. wide. Origin
probably from 7. fastigiata of Trop. Amer. (7. platani-
folia, R. & S.). — Largely cult, in many varieties for its
edible tubers. See Sweet Potato.

Several species of slight ornamental value occur in the southern
states, and are sometimes seen in cult. /. desertdrum, House. Re-
sembling I. hederacea but rough-pubescent and adapted to drier
situations. Ariz. — /. lacundsa, Linn. Annual -with small white fls.,
often with a pink limb. Pa. to S. C., 111. and Texas. — /. polydnthes,
R. & S. (I. umbellata, Mey.). Small yellow fls. in umbels. Fla. and
Trop. Amer. — I. trichocdrpa, Ell. S. C. to Fla., Kans. and Mex. — 7.
triloba, Linn. Pink or purple corolla %iu. long.: Ivs. 3-lobed. Fla.,
Ariz, and Trop. Amer.

The two following species of recent intro. are as yet not common
in the trade: 7. Macalusoi, Mattei. Slightly pubescent, woody sts. :
Ivs. ovate-orbicular, abruptly acute and mucronate, deeply cordate;
petioles long, somewhat villous: fls. axillary, in subsessile cymes;
corolla large, campanulate, orange-colored, margined with red.
Native of Italian Somaliland. — /. Mahonii, C. H. Wright. An erect
shrub with oblong Ivs. about 1 % in. long and 1 in. broad, obtuse at
both ends, entire: petioles %in. long: corolla-tube deep reddish
purple, paler above, the limb white or slightly suffused with pink,
over 3 in. broad. Native of Uganda.

See Quamoclit for Ipomcea Quamodit, I. coccinea, I. vitifolia, and
7. hedersefolia. See Calonyction for 7. Bona-nox and 7. tastense.
Ipomcea Howardii, P. D. Barnhart, Pacific Garden 4 : No. 9, p. 5, Aug.
1911=Quamoclit grandiflora.

EPOMdPSIS: Gilia.

H. D. HouSE.f

fPSEA (fancied resemblance to ips, a cynip insect
or a worm). Orchiddcese. Two or 3 terrestrial E. Indian
pseudobulbous orchids, allied to Pachystoma, with
which it has been united: Ivs. long, narrow and pli-
cate: scape sheathed; fls. few, large, highly colored.
I. speciosa, Lindl. (Pachystoma specidsum, Reichb.).
Deciduous, tuberous-rooted, with erect scapes to 18 in.
high: Ivs. 5-8, long-petioled, 6-10 in. long: fls. several,
bright yellow, fragrant, 2-3 in. diam., the lip oblong,
with side lobes triangular and middle lobe obovate:
pseudobulbs tufted. Ceylon. B.M. 5701. G. 26:189.
— Blooms in winter. To be potted in fibrous loam, peat
and leaf-mold, and rested after growth. j^ jj. 3.

IRESINE (Greek name for a harvest garland wound
with wool: the flowers and seeds of these plants are
woolly). Amarantacese. ACHYKANTHES. Ornamental-
leaved bedding plants.

Low, spreading, climbing or erect herbs or subshrubs:
Ivs. stalked, opposite, the margins not toothed in the
domestic species: fls. very small, bracteate, in axillary
or terminal panicles, perfect or imperfect (plants some-
times dioecious), the perianth of one series terete, 5-
parted, with ovate-oblong segms.; stamens 5; style
short or none, the stigmas 2 or 3: fr. a utriculus. —

1964. Iresine Lindenii. ( x 1A)

Species 20-25 in Trop. and Subtrop. Amer. Two or 3
species are in common cult, as bedding-plants, because
of their highly colored Ivs. and sts. The first of these
to be intro. was described before the fls. were known
and it was referred to Achyranthes (A. Verschaffeltii),

but in that genus
the anthers are 2-
loculed, whereas in
Iresine they are 1-
loculed. To gar-
deners they are still
known as Achy-
ranthes.

Because of ease
of propagation,
ability to withstand
sun and shearing,
and the bright
colors, the iresines
are amongst the
most popular bed-
ding - plants. Few
plants are easier to
grow. Stock plants
are kept over win-
ter in a cool tem-
perature (as in a
carnation house),
and in February
and March they
are given more heat and moisture, and cut back,
to get cutting wood. Cuttings root quickly in any
good cutting-bed. For mass bedding, plants are usu-
ally set 6 to 10 inches apart. They will not withstand
frost.

Herbstii, Hook. f. (Achyrdnthes Verschaffeltii, Lem.).
Lvs. broadly ovate or orbicular, obtuse and notched at
the apex, purple-red, with prominent arched veins, or
in the commoner variety green or green-red with yellow
veins (var. aureo-reticulata). S. Amer. B.M. 5499.
H.F. II. 7 : 103. This was described and figured in Aug.,
1864, by Lemaire as Achyranthes (?) Verschaffeltii
(I. H. 11:409), and later by Van Houtte as Iresine
Verschaffeltii (F. S. 15:1601). In July, 1864, however,
Hooker had published it as Iresine Herbstii, in honor of
Mr. Herbst, of the Kew Nursery, who intro. it from the
River Platte. There are horticultural varieties with
Latin names. 7. Wdllisii, Ort., is a small form, with
numerous small roundish Ivs., which are bronze-red or
dark red above and dark blood-red beneath. 7. bril-
liantissima, has rich crimson color.

Lindenii, Van Houtte (Achyrdnthes acumindta, and
7. acumindta, Hort.)- Fig. 1964. Lvs. ovate-acuminate
or lance-ovate, with less arching or curving veins, in
the original form rich, deep blood-red, but in some gar-
den forms with light-banded veins. Ecuador. F.S.
17:1737. G.Z. 13:32. — More pyramidal in habit
than the other species, and now more common. To
this species evidently belong the garden forms known as
7. Emersonii, I. Collensii and 7. formosa,

I. BiemueUeri, Voss (Achyranthes Biemuelleri, Haage &
Schmidt), is probably a garden form of one of the above. It is a
compact, dwarf grower, withstanding severe cutting: Ivs. and
twigs rose-carmine. L H B

IRIARTEA (after Bernard Iriarte). Palmdcex. Tall
spineless palms, with cylindrical or swollen stems sup-
ported on a pyramid of exposed roots.

Leaves few, unequally pinnate; Ifts. equilateral,
cuneate, entire or erose, plicate; petiole channelled;
sheath cylindrical: fls. small: fr. 1-2 in. long: stigmas
eccentric or lateral in fr. This palm is separated from
Ceroxylon by the cuneate Ifts. — Species 10. Trop. S.
Amer. 7. Bungerothii was advertised in 1895 as Triar-
tea, which was presumably a typographical error for
Iriartea. This is a horticultural name for 7. exorrhiza,

IRIARTEA

IRIS

1663

Mart., but the plant is in cultivation under the former
name.

exorrhiza, Mart. (7. Bungerothii, Hort.). Trunk
about 35 ft. tall, crowned by a congested cluster of
10-20 showy Ivs., each bearing 15-20 pairs of Ifts., the
latter about 20 in. long and 1J^ wide: spadices 1-4,
appearing between the Ivs.; fls. yellow: fr. olive-green,
reticulate. Trop. S. Amer. — Doubtfully in cult, at
this time (1913) in Amer. N . TAYLOR.f

IRIS (Greek, rainbow). Iridacese. Plates LYIII,
LIX. Showy and interesting flowers for outdoor
bloom, widely known and planted; perennials with rhi-
zomes or bulb-like root-stocks, mostly narrow long
leaves, and commonly erect habit; includes the blue flag
and fleur-de-lis.

Herbs with linear or ensiform equitant Ivs. : st. simple
or branched : fls. of 6 segms., the 3 outer reflexed, and
the 3 inner usually smaller and erect, always narrowed
to a distinct claw, 1 to many in terminal heads, from
spathes which are formed of the upper bract-like Ivs.;
spathe stalked or sessile; style divided into 3 petal-like
branches, which are bifid or crested at the tip; stig-
matic surface immediately below the crests; ovary ses-
sile or pedicelled, within the spathe. — Distinguished
from the other members of the tribe except Hermo-
dactylus and Moraea by the 2-winged style-branches,
from Hermodactylus by the 3-celled caps., and from
Moraea by the more or less connate perianth-segms.
For monographs of the genus, see Baker's Irideae, 1888,
Lynch, The Book of the Iris, 1904, and the fine mono-
graph of Dykes, The Genus Iris, 1913. The number of
species of Iris recognized by different monographers
ranges between 140 and 170. The synonomy includes
something over 700 names. The extensive synonomy
is an indication of the great variability and wide dis-
tribution of the genus. In general the irises are natives
of the North Temperate Zone, but the different sub-
genera differ much in their distribution. The distribu-
tion of some of the subgenera is coextensive with that
of the genus, while others are restricted to limited
regions. The subgenus Apogon is the largest and also
the most widely distributed section of the genus. Its
representatives are found throughout temperate N.
Amer., Eu., Asia and N. Afr. They extend from Alaska,
Labrador and Kamtchatka in the north to Fla., Algiers
and Honkong in the south. The members of the sub-
genus Pogoniris, which is the second largest and horti-
culturally the most important section, are found in
Cent, and S. Eu. and N. Afr. and thence eastward to
China and N. W. India. No members of this sub-
genus are indigenous to Amer. The small subgenus
Evansia comprises a few species of crested irises which,
with the exception of the two closely related American
forms, 7. cristata and 7. lacustris, occur only in Japan
and E. China. The American species differ widely
from the far eastern ones in the absence of an evident
stem. The subgenus Oncocyclus is a small section
whose members are restricted to a limited region in
Asia Minor, Syria, and Persia. Farther to the east, in
Turkestan, the Oncocyclus irises are replaced by the
members of the closely related subgenus, Regelia. In
N. India in the region to the south of the Karakoram
and Himalayan Mts. are found a few species constitu-
ting the subgenus Pseudoregelia, so named on account
of the affinity of its members to those of the subgenus
Regelia, The peculiar oriental subgenus Pardan-
thopsis contains only a single species, 7. dichotoma,
which is found in Manchuria and N. China. The
bulbous irises comprise three subgenera, Xiphium,
Juno, and Gynandriris. The subgenus Xiphium is some-
times divided into two sections, the Xiphiums proper,
which occur in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and N. Afr.;
and the reticulata irises, which are found in Asia
Minor, Transcaucasia and Turkestan. The Juno irises
occur in Spain, N. Afr., Asia Minor, Persia, and east-

ward to India. The single species of the monotypic
subgenus Gynandriris is distributed from Portugal to
N. W. India.

Something over 100 species of Iris, with innumerable
garden varieties, are offered by dealers in America.
Many of these, including the native species, are culti-
vated only to a slight extent, so that horticultural
interest centers chiefly around the groups described
below.

1. German irises. — Under this head may be grouped
the tall European pogonirises and the numerous
varieties and hybrids derived from them. Besides
7. germanica, which may be taken as the type of this
class, the principal species of the group are 7. aphylla,
7. variegata, I. florentina, I. pallida, I. Cengialti,
I. flavescens, I. plicata, I. Swertii, I. Kochii, I, lurida,
I. neglecta, I. sambucina, I. squalens and 7. hybrida.
Many of these which are usually recognized as species
are undoubtedly of garden origin. 7. germanica itself is
not certainly known to occur in a native state. 7. floren-
tina or 7. albicans is a common ornament in Moham-
medan cemeteries and was undoubtedly distributed
throughout the Mediterranean region by the Moham-
medans, who carried it everywhere with them as an
embellishment for graveyards. 7. Kochii, I. lurida,
I. neglecta, I sambucina and 7. squalens are probably
hybrids of which there are innumerable forms in this
group. 7. Swertii and 7. plicata are pale forms of
7. Cengialtii and 7. pallida, in which the color is absent
except along the margin of the segments. 7. hybrida
probably represents a similar derivative of 7. variegata
in which the yellow color is absent. Owing to their
diversity of origin, the varieties of this group have a
great diversity of color, ranging from pure white through
all shades of mauve and blue to dark purple. From
7. variegata and 7. flavescens the yellow-flowered varie-
ties and those whose flowers are variegated with yellow
were probably derived. The flowers of all the varie-
ties are large and handsome, often stately, exhibiting
beautiful variegation and shades of color. They are
borne on stout, erect, branched stalks much exceeding
the clumps of spreading leaves. All are hardy, and form
excellent border plants, flowering in May and June.

2. Japanese irises. — All the plants cultivated as
Japanese irises are referable to a single species, Iris
laevigata, more commonly known as 7. Kaempferi. The
type of the species has been so much broken that its
varieties constitute a distinct horticultural group, con-
taining perhaps as many or more named varieties than
the germanica group itself. So far as known, no
hybrids or other species enter into the make-up of
this class. The plants form strong clumps, attaining a
height of 2 to 3 feet, and bearing several flower-stems.
The leaves are slender, erect, growing almost parallel
to each other. In the wild type the inner segments are
erect and rather small. The cultivated forms fall into
two groups, — the three-petaled forms in which the
inner segments have been nearly suppressed while the
outer segments constitute the showy part of the flower,
and the six-petaled forms in which all the segments are
large and spreading giving the flower the flat expanded
form characteristic of the group. The flowers range in
color from white through various shades of blue to
deep purple, with the segments variegated with darker
veins and streaks, or plain. All the varieties are hardy,
and thrive best in cool, moist situations. They begin
flowering in the latter part of June and continue
through July.

3. The tall apogon irises. — Besides the Japanese
irises, two other groups of apogon irises deserve men-
tion on account of their ornamental value. These are
the sibirica group and the spuria group. The species
of the sibirica group which are of horticultural interest
are 7. sibirica, I. sanguinea, I. Wilsonii, and 7.
Delavayi. The plants of this group are characterized by
long grass-like leaves growing in close tufts from which

1664

IRIS

IRIS

arise clusters of tall branched flower-stems 2 to 3 feet
in height. /. sibirica has several varieties ranging in
color from deep blue to white. These, with the addi-
tion of /. Wilsonii, make it possible to have tall clumps
of blue, white, and yellow irises of the sibirica type. /.
sanguined, which has the flowers partly hidden among
the leaves is less ornamental than /. sibirica, in which
the flowers are raised high above the leaves. 7. Dela-
vayi is a blue-flowered species which flowers in July
when most other irises have passed. The plants of this
group all thrive best in rather moist situations. Of the
spuria group, only the tall ornamental forms closely
allied to /. spuria are considered here. The most com-
monly cultivated forms are /. spuria, I. halophila,
better known as /. Gueldenstsedtiana, I. orientalis, I.
Monnieri and /. aurea. These differ from each other
only in minor characteristics such as color and slight
modifications in the shape of the segments. They are
frequently all regarded as varieties of a single type, 7.
spuria, but for horticultural purposes it is more ser-
viceable to treat them as separate species. Besides
those forms which may be said to approach specific
rank, innumerable minor varieties exist in the group.
The color of the flowers ranges from blue in 7. spuria to
bright yellow in 7. Monnieri and deep yellow in 7. aurea.
In 7. orientalis the flowers are pale yellow bordered with
white. The proportion of white and yellow varies much
in different specimens. The plants of this group are
tall and stately with leaves 1 to 2 feet long, drooping
gracefully above. The flower-stems usually rise high
above the leaves, and bear two to three heads of flow-
ers. Those on the lateral branches are held close to the
main stem so that the whole inflorescence has the
appearance of a spike. The stems are usually 2 to 3
feet High. Those of 7. aurea are said to grow to a height
of 5 feet in California. Some of the species are natives
of swampy regions and consequently thrive well in
wet places. All grow well, however, in almost any
situation.

4. Dwarf irises. — Dwarf irises occur in several sub-
genera but the best-known and most commonly culti-
vated forms are the dwarf European pogonirises,
including 7. pumila, I. pseudo-pumila, I. biflora, and 7.
Chamseiris. These are remarkable for their numerous
color varieties, which range from pale yellow to lilac,
blue, purple, and very dark red. Most of the forms in
cultivation are varieties of 7. pumila and 7. chamse-
iris, but many of the garden forms which pass as
varieties of 7. pumila are derived from 7. Chamseiris.
I. pumila and 7. Chamseiris are the most satisfactory of
the group, as the others are less hardy or less florif-
erous. 7. arenaria, the Hungarian form of 7. flavissima,
thrives well in dry sandy situations. The most common
dwarf forms among the apogon irises are 7. humilis,
I. ruthenica and the American 7. verna. Of these, 7.
verna is the most striking because in all characteristics
of habit and growth it resembles a pogoniris but lacks
the beard characteristic of that group. 7. cristata
and its close relative, or perhaps subspecies, 7. lacus-
tris, are dwarf American forms belonging to the
subgenus Evansia, or crested irises. The dwarf irises
seldom grow over 9 inches high. They spread rapidly
by their creeping rhizomes and soon form large
patches. This habit makes them useful as border
plants.

5. Oncocyclus irises. — The oncocyclus irises differ
from other irises in several striking characteristics.
The seeds have a creamy-white aril nearly as large as
the seed itself. The stem is surmounted by a long,
unkeeled tubular spathe which reaches beyond the
top of the perianth-tube. The stem bears a single
flower, which in some species is of enormous size, com-
pared with the size of the plant. The segments, of
which the inner are larger than the outer, present a
most singular combination of somber colors. The
peculiar colors are often due to the interlacing of num-

erous very thin veins, usually blue or brown, on a white
or straw-colored ground. The most common shades
thus produced are beautiful sky-blue, light gray, and
brown to almost black. In some, all the segments are
colored nearly alike, but in most species the inner and
outer segments are differently colored. The species
fall into two groups according to their geographical
distribution. With their distribution other charac-
teristics are curiously correlated. The species occurring
in central and eastern Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and
the mountains of northern and western Persia are dwarf
slender species differing from each other by well-
marked characteristics. Those found in Palestine,
Syria and Mesopotamia are tall, attaining a foot or
more in height, and resemble each other so closely that
they cannot be distinguished by any characteristic
except the color of the flowers. These apparently are
all varieties of a single species. In America the onco-
cyclus irises are not widely cultivated. The most
commonly grown form is 7. susiana. Many hybrids
have been raised in Europe. For a monograph, see
Foster, Gn. 43, pp. 130-135.

6. Bulbous irises. — About 20 species of bulbous irises
are cultivated in America. They are rather dwarf,
hardy and half-hardy bulbous plants, known chiefly for
the brilliant colors and strong contrasts, and for their
numerous flowers. The species most commonly found
in gardens are 7. Xiphium, better known as 7. his-
panica, and 7. xiphoides or 7. anglica. The latter is
probably the oldest iris in cultivation. See Foster, G.
C. II. 23, pp. 567 and 726, and Foster, Bulbous Irises
(1892). HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

The cultivation of irises.

As will be seen by their distribution, irises are espe-
cially adapted by their hardiness to growth in our gar-
dens, though some forms, as the African, the Indian,
and the Oncocyclus species, need special treatment or
protection. In the main, the irises, from a cultural point
of view, are like others of the various natural fami-
lies, mostly very good — not to say commonplace —
with a few decidedly inferior members. As there are
nearly 170 species of irises, with countless varieties,
they are interesting to the amateur collector and
grower both for their variety and their general beauty
of flower.

The life of iris flowers varies from three to six days.
They are fragile, but if cut before the petals unroll may
be forwarded to considerable distance without injury.
This is the only way, in fact, by which the florist can
market them. The botanists divide the irises into two
main groups, the bulbous kinds and those with rhizomes,
these groups being each divided by the varying charac-
ters of the more or less raised line in the middle of the
fall of the flower. This, of course, gives no clue to cul-
tural necessities or to time of flowering, two important
details in a garden.

Considering the bulbous irises as a group, these are
all hardy without protection in the latitude of New
York city except 7. Histrio, I. alata, I. juncea, 7.
pakestina, I. tingitana, I. Vartanii.

In the order of their flowering, the reticulata group
is the earliest, 7. Bakeriana and others starting into
flower as soon as released by frost, usually in February
or March. These are soon followed by the others of
this group, the largest-flowered member being 7. his-
trioides. A peaty, sandy soil seems to be most accept-
able to this group, and no organic manure must be
given them. A location, if possible, where they may be
kept on the side of dry ness in summer is desirable. The
culture of these, like that of all exotic plants in our gar-
dens, is, of course, tentative. If, on trial, they seem to
be happy and increase from offsets or buds, they may
remain in the borders indefinitely, but if during the
second season they show no gain, the bulbs should be

IRIS

IRIS

1665

lifted and a trial made in another location. This group
seeds freely, and the seed-pods will be found just under
the soil surface.

Closely following this group are the so-called Juno
irises, of which 7. persica is the most familiar, though
not the best example. These irises have somewhat
large bulbs, with curious persistent, fleshy roots, and
seem to thrive best in somewhat stiff soil, in sheltered
locations, where they will be well baked during the
summer. They flower in March and April, the best
forms being /. Rosenbachiana, I. orchioides, I. sindjar-
ensis, and 7. assyriaca. They are desirable plants in
the most exclusive gardens. They seed freely, and also
increase by offsets.

About the same time as above will flower the Iris
tuberosa ("The Widow"), which is neither bulbous nor
an iris strictly, but has a weird beauty of its own, with
its green and black flowers. This should have a summer
baking. See Hermodactylus.

Planted out in the early fall, the so-called Spanish
irises make an early start and produce leaves which are

?ersistent during the winter and seldom injured here.
u May and June they broaden out, and are then sur-
mounted by very bright, distinct and charming flow-
ers. Very satisfactory flowers, these, and of the easiest
culture. They probably do best in spots inclining to
moisture. The bulbs make offsets rapidly, and should
often be divided and replanted. There are two forms
and numerous flowers of this iris. The boldest form is
that known as the "Thunderbolt." Spanish irises, under
mild forcing are now largely grown by florists for early
spring flowers.

The "English" irises, 7. xiphioides, follow the
"Spanish" in June and July. Their flowers are wider in
all their parts, and in a limited range of colors, white
and purple. "Mt. Blanc," pure white, is probably the
most satisfactory of the group. The foliage of the
English iris does not bear till early spring, and the
varieties flourish in a rather drier position than the
"Spanish."

The African bulbous irises, 7. juncea, I. Vartanii,
I. alata, are subjects for a coolhouse, though the former
is rarely hardy here.

The rhizomatous irises may be divided into a number
of sections, but in a cultural way may be broadly
considered in two sections: those with thick, surface-
creeping rhizomes, as the hybrid German, and those
with more or less thin ones, as 7. sibirica and 7. teevigata,
which are subterranean. While the former section
comprises plants which grow in various conditions,
some with the roots submerged, yet in a general way
they have mostly surface-creeping rhizomes. These
are best transplanted soon after flowering, at which
time they commence a new growth. It is customary for
the nurserymen to supply these in the fall, which
usually leads to the loss of a season, as they often fail to
become established when planted late. The foliage of
the iris indicates a sun-loving family, and irises should
be planted in full exposure in rich, but not manured soil,
well drained. The rhizomes should be planted flat and
covered to half their diameter. If the rhizomes are in
a growing condition, no further care will usually be
necessary with the larger number of the species, but if
the rhizomes are dormant and partly dried up, as they
are frequently on receipt, care should be taken that
they have not much moisture till they start into growth,
otherwise they are likely to rot. Not every iris will
grow in every garden, but the failure to establish these
plants is most often caused by too much exposure to
excitement of light, warmth and moisture when the
plant is not ready to convert its reserve into food.
Valuable species should have the protection of a frame
in such circumstances till it seems safe to plant them
out. If carefully treated and not excited, apparently
hopeless dried-up rhizomes may often be saved. Most
of these irises in common cultivation increase rapidly,

106

and should be divided and replanted every two or three
years; otherwise the rhizomes become matted and the
abode of grass. Among them will be found some of
the showiest flowers of the family.

Usually in early May 7. Chamseiris and its variety
7. olbiensis flower, followed quickly by the dwarfer
7. pumila and its white form 7. attica. Forms of 7.
lutescens, Lam., quickly follow, after which 7. germanica,
I. florentina and the host of "hybrid German" varieties
come rapidly forward and give a great wealth of color.
Everyone is familiar with the great bearded purple 7.
germanica, perhaps the most generally cultivated iris.
There are larger -flowered forms of this: 7. amas
and 7. macrantha. I. germanica alba seems to be a
variety of 7. albicans. This and I. florentina are the
usual white-flowered forms seen at this time. Of bold,
lighter purple kinds, 7. pallida and its hybrids are then
preeminent.

The German irises of the garden are not varieties of
7. germanica, but hybrids of various species, as 7. pal-
lida, I. variegata, I. sambucina, I. squalens, I. lurida x
wild forms and 7. neglecta, I. anwena, I. plicata and 7.
Swerlii, which are known only in gardens. Naturally
these vary much in stature, time of flowering, size and
coloring of flowers. They may be had in almost endless
variety, but a typical collection may be made with com-
paratively few plants.

Among the best forms of the "hybrid German" irises
are: 7. aphylla — Bridesmaid, Madame Chereau, Swer-
tii; 7. amcena — Compte de St. Clair, Fairy Queen, re-
ticidata alba, Victorine; 7. neglecta — Cordelia, Wagner;
7. pallida — Khedive, Mad. Pacquitte, Queen of May,
Walmer; 7. squalens — Arnols, Jacquiniana, Harrison
Weir, Mons. Chereau; 7. variegata — Beaconsfield, Da-
rius, Hector, Honorable, Prince of Orange,

June is flowering time for many iris species, many of
which are uncommon, but of the more available forms
one could scarcely neglect the native 7. hexagona, the
dark La Mance form of which is very distinct and
amongst the handsomest of the family. A white form
of this is not hardy here. 7. fulva, another native plant
with copper-colored flowers, is also interesting. Irises
with distinct forms are 7. Monnieri and 7. orientalis (or
7. ochroleuca), both of which have obliquely growing
rhizomes and enjoy moisture.

For margins of water 7. Pseudacorus, with yellow
flowers, is invaluable, and our natives, 7. versicolor and
7. caroliniana seem as happy in the moisture as in the
uplands. The iris rhizomes which require deep planting
are mostly smaller and thinner than those of surface
creepers. The species with these roots are mostly
strong-growing plants, rapidly increasing and requiring
an abundance of moisture, though there are some nota-
ble exceptions to be mentioned later. Of the members
of this group, 7. sibirica, in several purple and white
forms, is a common garden plant. 7. ensata is a com-
mon Asiatic iris with small flowers borne among the
narrow foliage, which is as ornamental as some of the
large grasses.

The Japanese irises, which usually end the general
display of irises, are a remarkable example of type-
breaking, the occidental gardeners having worked up
from 7. laevigata a wonderful variety of colorings and
variation in number of petals, though the colors may
be included in about half a dozen general types. There
are few handsomer flowers than good forms of the
white Japanese iris. This iris may be grown on the
upland, but it does not do its best in such locations, for
it is particularly susceptible to good treatment, and to
produce large flowers both water and manure are essen-
tial. Peter Barr, the veteran fancier of good plants,
wrote from Japan, after consulting one of the oldest
cultivators, that "this iris is grown in the rice-fields in
winter and watered each month while at rest with
human manure (cow manure would do); as soon as
young growth appears no more manure is given and

1666

IRIS

IRIS

the ground is flooded. When growth has ended the
water is withdrawn."

One of the most curious things in connection with the
Japanese iris is that though these plants have been in
cultivation here since soon after the treaty ports were
first opened, they seem to have excited little attention
from gardeners until within a few years. Yet the first
importations were as handsome as the later. In this
connection it may be said that Japan has also 7. grocili-
pes, a dark purple hardy form, and I. japonica or 7.
chinensis, one of the beauties of the family but, like 7.
tectorum (the roof iris), another crested kind, needing
here greenhouse protection and well worth it. There is,
however, a perfectly hardy crested iris, the beautiful
dwarf 7. cristata of the upper southern states — a charm-
ing plant for a front border or rockery. Equally dwarf
are our lake irises 7. lacustris and 7. verna.

The west coast of the United States is fortunate in
possessing some beautiful and distinct irises, mostly
of the wiry-rooted, thin-leaved type. They have not yet
been fully separated botanically, and they are most
difficult things to establish in eastern or other gardens,
so that there are really very few in cultivation.

7. macrosiphon, I. Hartwegii, I. Douglasiana, I.
bracteata, I. tenax, I. longipetala, I. tennis and 7.
Purdyi is a list which will interest the searcher after
interesting plants. Max Leichtlin, who has a genius
for growing difficult things, has been successful in
establishing 7. bracteata, I. macrosiphon and 7. Purdyi.
He says, "My experience is that they cannot be moved
unless in full vegetation. We must grow them from
seed, and not touch the seedlings until they have
formed a solid rootstock. After this and movement to
grow has begun, they can be safely handled and trans-
planted like other irises."

Seed should be sown in the open in autumn, plants
appearing in the spring should be undisturbed, and
in the fall covered with a frost-proof frame. They
should flower the second (or third) season. After flow-
ering they may be shifted carefully, but must always
have protection as they naturally commence to grow
very early and frosts are fatal to them. Only in this
way is there much chance of success with these rare
plants. Some of the species have been flowered here
under harsh conditions but they were survivals of large
numbers of collected plants.

There remain to be considered two allied groups, the
oncocyclus and regelia. These are considered by ama-
teurs the most interesting groups of the iris family — in-
teresting in the amateur's vocabulary meaning some-
thing rare and difficult. At the best, these plants give
few flowers, but they compensate for this by their dis-
tinct and quaint beauty. The best-known member of the
family, 7. susiana, has been in cultivation several hun-
dred years, but is by no means yet a common plant. It
takes more kindly to cultivation than any other of the
groups, will usually flower in the border the first year
after planting if the spring is not too rigorous; and
gardens are not unknown where, from some conditions
of fortunate placing or soil, they continue to flourish. It
cannot be said that there is any hard and fast formula
for growing these irises. They vary among themselves
as to their requirements, and need special and different
treatment in different gardens and climates. These
irises are natives of Palestine, Asia Minor, the Caucasus,
central Asia and Persia regions, all of which are hot and
dry in summer, with a settled and sometimes severely
cold winter and a genial spring. In some of the regions
they are protected by a covering of snow in winter while
dormant, but Palestine and Persia have open winters,
and their irises make growth at this time. After culti-
vating most of the species for a number of seasons, the
writer's experience does not lead him to dogmatize
much on their cultivation or to approve of many special
devices which have been put forward from time to time
as the solution of the problem. The consensus of opin-

ion among the growers who have had the best success
with these plants is about as follows, premising that
one is dealing with plants which are perfectly hardy:
The rhizomes are received with the Dutch bulbs in the
fall, at which time they are dormant and leafless. It is
well to store them in a cool place and plant out in
November in a bed of fairly light and well-drained soil
in a border fully exposed. They require no protection,
but if the climate is one where frosts and thaw alternate,
it is well to give the ground a covering while frozen to
keep it firm. The irises so planted will seldom spear
here till genial weather arrives, and with plentiful sup-
plies of moisture at the root will give flowers from
strong buds. After flowering, or, more accurately,
flowering time, one is forced to choose between two
methods of treatment. If the garden is high, dry and
hot, the best procedure is to cover the beds with a glass
frame sufficiently large to protect them from moisture
and allow the rhizomes to bake. This frame may be
removed in the late fall. If the leaves appear, as some of
them are likely to do, they may be left unprotected
until very severe weather sets in, that is, usually in
December. Coal-ashes have also proved satisfactory,
though unsightly. Foliage does not seem to become aa
soft under them as under leaves or mats. If the spring
is genial, with weather steadily becoming warm, the
plants, being uncovered as soon as the conditions will
seem to warrant, should be in the best possible shape to
reward one with their noble blooms. It is the lack of
this genial spring in the latitude of New York which,
however, leads often to cultural troubles. The leaves,
having been protected, are none too hard, and, with the
constant alternate thawing and freezing, and the high
winds, hot and cold, the plants need constant watch-
ing and application of needed covering till really genial
weather. Otherwise the foliage is blighted and no
flowers are produced. The most satisfactory way, if
one is more interested in results than in garden prob-
lems, is to grow oncocyclus and regelia iris and the
numerous hybrids which are now available continuously
in a coldframe. The frame should be located where
drainage is perfect with no bottom moisture, so that
the plants may be kept perfectly dry and baking after
the blooming season. The plants should be protected
from hard freezing after leaves are formed, but should
not be protected enough to make them soft. The
trouble of this procedure is well worth while if one
wishes a rare display.

In gardens which are low and never free from mois-
ture, the best procedure is that followed in Holland,
lifting the rhizomes in July and taking them under cover
in dry earth, planting out again in the fall. In this case
care should be used in lifting not to injure the numer-
ous fleshy roots. The Palestine and Persian forms of
these irises are considered the most difficult to cultivate,
from their habit of early growth.

Irises are not only increased by the division of the
rhizomes or by offsets, but may be rapidly grown from
seed, which they usually produce freely, though, in
most cases, they require artificial fertilization. A large
number of the common irises of gardens are hybrids,
and of late years a number of beautiful hybrids have
been produced between some of the rarer oncocyclus
species, and between these also and common forms, as
7. variegata, and so on. There are still opportunities to
produce many new and untried crosses, and experi-
ments in this line are recommended. The pollination of
the iris is simple. The anthers should be removed when
the flower first opens, and preserved in paper or vials,
properly marked. The pollen will retain its potency for
a week or perhaps longer, and may be applied to the
stigma of the flower selected (the anther of which has
been removed promptly) with a camel's-hair brush.
The stigma will be found near the apex of the petal-like
style, and is ready for pollination when the upper edge
drops down and exposes the upper surface. Many iris

IRIS

IRIS

1667

seeds germinate with considerable irregularity, and
failure to start promptly should not lead to discourage-
ment or discarding of the pan in which the seeds are
sown. j. N. GERARD.

The iris in California.

Because such a large proportion of the iris come from
around the Mediterranean and so are accustomed
to a thorough baking and drying out in summer, their
culture is especially satisfactory in California and the
range of varieties available so large that some may be
found in flower in all but the late summer months. The
first rains usually start a few of the dwarf and tall
bearded iris into a premature flowering, this being so
regular in the case of the Iris Kochii that it is now
being sold as a fall bloomer. I. stylosa (I. unguicularis)
also flowers in the fall and early winter, accompanied
at the latter time by the smaller bulbous irises, such as
7. reticulata. From February on, the dwarf bearded
irises (7. pumila and the many slightly taller forms of
7. Chamseiris) are covered with masses of flowers in
various shades of cream, yellow, blue, and purple. In
March and April one has a choice of the tall bearded or
so-called German iris, the oncocyclus group, 7. spuria,
I. ochroleuca, I. aurea, I. Monnieri, and their cross-bred
relatives, as well as the native Californian species and
the moisture-loving Siberians. May sees the Spanish
irises at their best, followed toward the end of the
month by the English iris, and the season ends in June
or July with the big Japanese.

The cultural directions for California are simple,
varying somewhat with each main group. The tall
bearded varieties grow so easily and are so clean and
so nearly evergreen that the type (7. germanica and its
white form) is often used for planting between side-
walk and curb. Yet the many beautiful kinds to be
found in the 7. pallida, I. plicata, I. ncglecta, I. varie-
gala, and 7. squalens sections are not very often seen,
although their culture is quite as easy. All they require
is sunlight and a place which becomes quite dry in
the summer, the easiest possible conditions to supply in
California. They dislike shade and standing moisture.
Soil is not important, as equally fine results have been
secured in the heavy adobe of the valleys and in gravelly
hillside loams. Divide to single rhizomes and replant
when they show signs of being crowded. This is best
done just after blooming or in late summer, but it is
possible at any time of the year.

Next to the above, the bulbous Spanish irises give
the best garden effect and lead in usefulness as cut-
flowers. The little bulbs should be at least 3 inches
underground by October, if possible, as they dry up
if left too long before planting. Distance apart is a
matter of taste, but they may go as close as 3 inches if
space is valuable, and may even be used as a top crop
between tulip or daffodil bulbs to keep up the show in a
small garden. Plant in any cultivated soil, but see
that drainage is good, as the stems rot off if subjected
to stagnant water. After blooming, do not cut the
stems to the ground if flowers are desired next year, for
the slight foliage is needed to ripen the bulbs. Many
of the best varieties, however, are so cheap that where
ground is valuable they may be discarded after bloom-
ing, though if left to ripen properly they will increase so
rapidly that division will be necessary every other
year. English irises are not nearly so satisfactory,
though their flowers are larger. They need much more
moisture than the Spanish irises, and are more to be
recommended to those who can give plenty of water
and partial shade.

The oncocyclus and regelia irises do better in Cali-
fornia than anywhere else in America, as they must be
dried off in summer and no artificial means are neces-
sary here. Contrary to European practice, the best
success is achieved by planting as soon as received in

October and encouraging growth so that the plants
will be ready to bloom in March and April. No special
soil is recommended, but it is desirable to cater to their
lime-loving taste by incorporating old plaster and bone-
flour in the earth. They are nowhere easy plants to
grow, so, if success be achieved the first year, leave the
roots alone. Under these conditions, 7. susiana, I.
atrofusca, I. iberica, I . Lortetii, I. Korolkowii, and
others bloom quite well. The Juno irises do fairly well
under these same conditions, but are still rather an
experiment.

Most striking features of many gardens in April are
huge clumps of 7. orientalis (I. ochroleuca). For cul-
ture these can be grouped with 7. spuria, I. aurea, and
7. Monnieri, as all like lots of water during their
growing season, which is fortunately our rainy one,
but again somewhat contrary to experience else-
where they can get through the dry season without
irrigation.

The Siberian and Japanese iris, however, need moist-
ure as much here as elsewhere, and, though the amount
required may be lessened by heavily mulching the bed
with rotten manure, they are certainly less adapted
to our natural conditions than the other sections of the
genus. In the warmer, sunnier parts of the state, the
flowers often burn badly and have to be protected with
lath screens, an unsightly arrangement. Their most
suitable place is in a Japanese garden where they can
get the overflow of a pool, and if this is in the summer-
fog belt they are quite satisfactory.

The Californian iris are well worthy of garden
cultivation, 7. Douglasiana, with its range of color
from purple through lilac to buff, being especially
attractive. Do not dig up the wild plants when in bloom,
as they will not move well at that tune. Either raise
from seed or lift them when growth starts in at the
beginning of the rainy season, this being the only safe
time to move any of the native species.

Twenty-five distinct tall bearded irises for Cali-
fornia, omitting only expensive novelties:

Asiatica (Kharput), amas, Kochii.

Pallida, pallida dalmatica (Princess Beatrice),
Albert Victor, Queen of May, Madame Paquette.

Madame Chereau, Mrs. Reuthe.

Mrs. Horace Darwin, Victorine (weak grower),
Isolene.

Perfection, Cottage Maid.

Darius, Gracchus, Hector, Mrs. Neubronner.

Jacquesiana, King of Irises.

Cengialtii, florentina, flavescens, cypriana superba.
SYDNEY B. MITCHELL.

Orris-root cultivation.

Orris-root (corruption of iris-root) is apparently the
product of 7. germanica and related species; the
violet-scented roots are used for perfumery powders,
dentrifices, and for bad breath; the "fingers" made from
the rhizomes are used for teething babies.

As orris-root is no longer used for artificial violet,
the price has receded to normal, and probably if
grown in this country would not pay. However, as it
is likely to be of interest to the public and experimen-
ters, the following notes are quoted from L. J. Keena,
Florence, Italy, in a commercial publication.

"The soil in which this root is grown has much to
do with the quality, as well as with the quantity and
fragrance of the root, and therefore with its commer-
cial success. This plant grows in different kinds of soil,
but that best adapted to its growth is the stony moun-
tain soil. This, however, must be scientifically pre-
pared so that the under soil will not remain compact,
for that would be disastrous to the plant during the
summer months. In a loose soil containing sand the
roots grow well, but are less odorous and compact.
Rich yellow soil is still less adapted to its culture, as the

IRIS

IRIS

plants die quickly. The rich land near manure-piles
produces a great quantity of plants, but the roots are
neither of good quality nor fragrant, and when dried
shrivel up and are consequently discarded by the buyers.
The situation or lay of this land matters little, though
the best ground is usually found on hillsides. The plant
also grows high up in the mountains, where snow and
ice make the cultivation of it difficult. In these high
places the root takes a few years more to reach its full
growth.

"The most suitable soil for orris-root is that which
has been prepared by spring seeding with some variety
of leguminous plant, and which has been well pre-
pared and deeply plowed. The best months for
planting the iris are August and September,
although it may be planted as late as the first part
of October. The first two months mentioned, how-
ever, are preferable for the planting, as the plant
begins to grow immediately upon being placed in the
ground.

"The best method for planting in soil that has
already been prepared is to make holes with a hoe about
16 inches apart, beginning at the bottom of the hill.
One plant should be placed in each hole resting on the
wall of the hole and having its root just reach the
bottom. This permits the perfect development of the
bulbous root. To insure good production, the soil
should be hoed in May and again in September.
Irrigation is not beneficial to the plants, as the roots
become less compact in irrigated land and there is a
dangerous tendency toward fermentation. Fertilizing
the soil with manure has the same effect, but if the
production of a large number of plants is desired, a
system of fertilizing with rich soil can be adopted.
The best fertilizer is the seed "lupino" (Lupinus
albus), which, after being cooked in an oven, is placed
in small quantities near each plant at the September
hoeing of the first year, if it is to be a two years'
growth, and in September of the second year, if for a
three years' growth. If the field is to be replanted
with orris-root the soil should be well fertilized, and
grain, grass or some other crop grown thereon for
three or four years.

"The gathering of this product begins during the
last fifteen days of June, and is carried on in the
following manner: Several men hoe out the plant as
a whole, distributing only so many of the plants as can
be handled by the rest of the force during the fol-
lowing day, because the plants dry quickly when
exposed to the sun and wind. The plants are then
carried to a shelter, where the bulbous part of the
root is cut off, care being taken to leave enough of
the root extensions to insure a good growth for the
following years. The bulbous root is then cleaned
and scraped free of all imperfections. After the scra-
ping, it is washed by hand in a succession of basins of
running water.

"The roots for market are then dried in the sun,
with provisions for covering and protecting from the
ruinous effects of rain. It is well to set the roots out-
side before sunrise in order that they may receive the
bleaching effect of the dew. After eight days' exposure
to a strong sun, the orris-roots can be taken in under
cover and packed in a dry place. Preferably the roots
should be pulpous and as white as possible. Artificial
drying in ovens or in any other manner depreciates the
value of the product by making it less than if sun-dried.
In the drying process the weight of the root becomes
two-thirds of what it was when cut from the plant."

INDEX, CONTINUED.

attica, 6.

halophila, 79, 83.

panormitana, 7.

aurea, 81.

Hartwegii, 56.

paradoxa, 39.

azurea, 6.

Haussknechtii, 87.

persica, 87.

Bakeriana, 108.

Haynei, 49.

plicata, 20.

balkana, 10.

Heldreichii, 87.

prismatica, 66.

Barnumae, 42.

Helenz, 43.

Pseudacorus, 73.

Battandieri, 99.

hexagona, 75.

pseudo-pumila, 7.

benacensis, 14.

hispanica, 99.

pumila, 6.

bicolor, 6.

Histrio, 106.

purpurea, 87.

biflora, 8.

histrioides, 105.

Reichenbachiana, 10.

biglumis, 61.

honorabilis, 15.

Reichenbachii, 10.

Biliottii, 26.

humilis, 53.

retieulata, 30, 105,

Bismarckiana, 51.

hungarica, 14.

106.

Bloudowii, 11.

hybrida, 31.

Rosenbachiana, 88.

bohemica 14.

iberica, 40.

ruthenica, 53, 54.

Boissieri, 102.

imbatrica, 22.

Saarii, 45.

Bornmuclleri, 86.

intermedia, 81.

sambucina, 33.

bosniaca, 10.

italica, 9.

sanguinea, 64.

brachycuspis, 77.

Jacquesiana, 34.

Sari, 45, 51.

bracteata, 68.

japonica, 5.

scorpioides, 89.

cserulea, 6, 94, 105.

juncea, 101.

setosa, 77.

Candida, 3.

Junonia, 28.

sibirica, 64, 65.

caroliniana, 76.

Kaempferi, 84.

sicula, 19.

caucasica, 92, 94, 98.

Kochii, 17.

Sieheana, 87.

Cengialti, 13.

Kolpakowskiana,

sikkimensis, 35.

Chamseiris, 9.

109.

sindjarensis, 96.

chinensis, 3, 5.

Korolkowi, 37.

Sintenisii, 09.

chrysantha, 41.

Krelagei, 105.

Sisyrinchium, 110.

ccelestis, 6.

lacustris, 2.

sogdiana, 83.

concolor, 37.

laevigata, 84.

speciosa, 19, 67.

cretensis, 67.

Leichtliniana, 37.

spectabilis, 99.

cristata, 1, 3.

Leichtlinii, 30.

Sprengeri, 46.

cuprea 72.

lineata, 38.

spuria, 83.

cyanea, 105.

longipetala, 62.

squalens, 34.

cypriana, 29.

longispatha, 61.

Statellx, 7.

dalmatica, 19.

Lortetii, 48.

stenophylla, 87.

Danfordiae, 86.

lupina, 45.

stolonifera, 36.

darwasica, 38.

lurida, 16, 45.

stylosa, 67.

Delavayi, 63.

lusitanica, 99.

subbiflora, 8.

desertorum, 83.

lutea, 6.

sulphurea, 6.

dichotoma, 52.

lutescens, 9.

superba, 30, 67.

Douglasiana, 70.

macrosiphon, 55.

susiana, 50.

Eggeri, 44.

Madonna, 25.

Suworowi, 38.

ensata, 61.

major, 50, 105.

Swertii, 21.

erratica, 7.

mandschurica, 12.

Tauri, 87.

Ewbankiana, 46.

Marise, 43.

taurica, 6.

falcata, 14.

maricoides, 110.

tectorum, 3.

Fieberi, 14.

Milesii, 4.

tenax, 60.

filifolia, 103.

minor, 11.

tingitana, 104.

fimbriata, 3, 5.

missouriensis, 71.

Tolmieana, 71.

flava, 73.

Monmeri, 78.

tripelala, 77.

flavescens, 22, 23.

nazarena, 51.

trojana, 27.

flavissima, 11.

neglecta, 32.

unguicularis, 67.

flexuosa, 65.

nepalensis, 30.

urmiensis, 41.

florentina, 25.

nertschinskia, 64.

Urumovi, 69.

foetidissima, 82.

nikitensis, 59.

vaga, 36.

Fosteriana, 93.

notha, 83.

variegata, 15, 65, 73.

fragrans, 8, 61.

nudicaulis, 8, 14.

Vartanii, 107.

fulva, 72.

obtusifolia, 22.

verna, 85.

fumosa, 97.

ochroleuca, 80.

versicolor, 74.

furcata, 14.

oculata, 98.

violacea, 6, 37.

Gatesii, 47.

olbiensis, 9.

virescens, 9.

germanica, 30.

orchioides, 94, 98.

virginica, 66, 74.

gigantea, 80.

orientalis, 64, 80.

warleyensis, 95.

gracilis, 6, 14, 66.

oxypetala, 61.

Willmottiana, 91.

S-aminea, 59, 61, 69.

pabularia, 61.

Wilsonii, 58.

rant-Duffii, 57.

patestina, 90.

xiphioides, 100.

Gueldenstxdtiana, 79.

Pallasii, 61.

Xiphium, 99, 104.

hsematophytta, 61, 64.

pallida, 19, 73.

acoroides 73.
acuta, 65.
alata, 89.
alba, 3, 6, 25, 65, 67.
Alberti, 24.
albicans, 25.

albopurpurea, 84.
amcena, 31.
anglica, 100.
aphylla, 14, 20, 21.
arenaria, 11.
Aschersonii, 57.

asiatica, 19.
assyriaca, 96.
atrofuaca, 49.
atropurpurea,
44,49.
atroviolacea, 1

6,30,

3, 18.

KEY TO THE SUBGENERA.

A. Rootstock a short, thick, or a slender creeping

rhizome.
B. Outer segms. of the perianth distinctly crested

on the claw and the lower part of the blade

EVANSIA. Species 1-5

BB. Outer segms. of the perianth bearded with multi-
cellular hairs.

c. Seeds without a conspicuous aril

POGONIRIS. Species 6-34
cc. Seeds with a conspicuous creamy white

circular aril.

D. Aril much smaller than the seeds: Ivs. not
fully grown at flowering-time

PSEUDOREGELIA. Species 35

DD. Aril nearly as large as the seed itself: Ivs.
fully grown at flowering-time.

E. St. 1-headed, 1-3-fld

REGELIA. Species 36-38
BE. St. 1-headed, 1-fld.: beard diffuse on
the claw and the lower part of the
blade ONCOCYCLUS. Species 39-51

IRIS

IRIS

1669

BBB. Outer segms. of the perianth without a beard or

crest, sometimes pubescent,
c. Infl. a regular raceme: seeds conspicuously

winged PARDANTHOPSIS. Species 52

cc. Infl. not a regular raceme: seeds not conspicu-
ously winged APOGON. Species 53-85

AA. Rootstock a bulb.

B. Inner segms. of the perianth small, often minute,

spreading or deflexed JUNO. Species 86-98

BB. Inner segms. of the perianth large, erect.

c. Stamens not adhering to the style-branches.

XIPHIUM. Species 99-109

cc. Stamens adhering to the style-branches

GYNANDRIRIS. Species 110

SUBGENUS EVANSIA.

A. St. none or very short, evidently exceeded

by the Ivs.: plants dwarf.
B. Perianth-tube very slender, exceed-
ing the bracts 1. cristata

BB. Perianth-tube expanded above, not

exceeding the bracts 2. lacustris

AA. St. evident, equaling or exceeding the

Ivs.: plants large.
B. Pedicel much shorter than the

spathe 3. tectorum

BB. Pedicel about as long as the spathe

or only slightly shorter.
c. Lvs. thin, distinctly ribbed, both

surfaces slightly glaucous 4. Milesii

cc. Lvs. thick, smooth, with a glossy
upper- and a glaucous under-
surface 5. japonica

1. cristata, Soland. Plant dwarf: rhizome slender,
creeping: Ivs. ensiform, thin, 4-8 in. long, green: st.
1-3 in. high, flattened, 1 -headed, bearing 2-3 Ivs. : tube
slender, 1^4-2 in. long; limb blue; outer segms. obo-
vate, 1-1 H in. long, crested; inner segms. shorter,
naked. April, May. Mountains of Ky., Va., and the
Carolinas. B.M. 412. Gn. 45, p. 127. L.B.C. 14:
1366.

2. lacustris, Nutt. Similar to 7. cristata in size and
foliage except that the Ivs. are rather narrower and
sometimes wavy margined

and the perianth-tube is
only )^-l in. long, shorter
than the spathe -valves:
fls. blue; segms. expanded
above: caps, ovoid, borne
on a pedicel of about its own
length. Shores of Lakes
Huron, Michigan, and Su-
perior.

3. tectorum, Maxim. (/.
chinensis, Bunge. 7. cris-
tata, Miq. 7. fimbriata,
Klatt). Fig. 1965. Lvs. 1ft.
long, ensiform, thin, strongly
ribbed: st. 1}^ ft., sub terete:
heads on long peduncles;
tube 1 in. long; limb bright
lilac; outer segms. 2 in.
long, obovate; claw half as
long as the blade, streaked
with violet, with a wavy
edge and a large, laciniate,
white and lilac crest running
up the claw and half up the
blade; inner segms. spread-
ing, nearly as large, plain
lilac, short-clawed. Sent to

Eu. in 1872 by Dr. Hance. Cult, in China and Japan.
B.M. 6118. F.S. 22:2282. Gt.716. Gn. 50:272. G.C.
III. 35:355; 44:142. J.H. III. 44:146. G.L. 17:348.
Var. alba, Dykes (7. tectorum var. Candida, Hort.). Fls.
pure white, with few faint yellow veins at the base of

1965. Iris tectorum. ( X %)

the segms. Comes true from seed. Gt. 57: 1571. Gn.
70, p. 15. G.C. III. 40:216. G.W. 10:525.

4. Milesii, Foster. Lvs. 7-8 on the st. 2-3 ft. long
and 2-3 in. broad, thin, strongly ribbed: st. 2-3 ft.
high, branched, bearing 4-5 heads: fls. bright lilac,
lasting only a day; outer segms. oblong-cuneate, claret-
purple, whitish in the center, spotted and veined with
lilac, furnished with a deeply laciniated yellow crest;
inner segms. oblong, spreading; style-crests deeply
toothed. Himalayas. B.M. 6889. — Near 7. tectorum,
but inferior.

5. japonica, Thunb. (7. chinensis, Curt. 7. fimbri-
ata, Vent.). Fig. 1966. Lvs. ensiform, thick, smooth,
1-1 l/z ft. long: st. slender, as long as the Ivs., with a
raceme of lilac fls.: tube %in. long; outer segms. 1-1 H
in. long, with crimped margins, yellow on the claw,
crested; inner segms. smaller. Winter. Japan and China.
B.M. 373. Gt. 511. Gn. 28:120; 77, p. 142. J.H. III.
31:185. A.G. 12:704. F.R. 2:149.— An evergreen
greenhouse plant except in Calif, where it does very
well outdoors in a shady border.

SUBGENUS POGONIRIS.

A. Plants dwarf: Ivs. generally less than 9

in. long.

B. Tube of the perianth 1 in. or more
in length.

c. St. obsolete or very short 6. pumila

cc. St. present, 1-10 in. long.

D. Spathe-valves not keeled or only

the outer one slightly keeled.
E. The st. almost entirely hidden

by clasping hs.
F. The spathe-valves lanceo-
late, membranous, green. . 7. pseudo-
FF. The spathe-valves oblong, [pumila

green or scarious above. . . 8. biflora
EE. The sts. bare above, with 1-2

reduced Ivs. below the center. 9. Chamaeiri s
DD. Spathe-valves acutely keeled. . . . 10. Reichen-

(See also I. imbricata No. 22) [bachii

BB. Tube of the perianth short or none.
c. Spathe-valves green or only partly

scarious.
D. Rhizome slender, stoloniferous:

sheaths splitting into fibers. ... 1 1. flavissima
DD. Rhizome more compact: sheaths

not splitting into fibers 12. mandshurica

cc. Spathe-valves scarious, even in the

bud 13. Cengialti

AA. Plants tall: Ivs. generally more than 1

ft. long.

B. St. scarcely overtopping the Ivs.
c. The st. branched below the mid-
dle 14. aphylla

cc. The st. branched above the middle,

or unbranched.

D. Spathe-valves wholly green when
the first fls. open, often flushed

with purple, inflated . 15. variegata

DD. Spathe-valves partly scarious
when the first fls. open.

E. Fls. dull purple 16. lurida

EE. Fls. dark violet 17. Kochii

ODD. Spathe-valves entirely scarious

at flowering-time 18. atroviolacea

BB. St. much overtopping the Ivs.

C. Spathe-valves entirely scarious at
flowering-time or even in the
bud.

D. Fls. pale purple or lilac 19. pallida

DD. Fls. white; segms. veined and
flushed with purple or lilac on
the margins.

E. Sts. '2-3 ft. high 20. plicata

EE. Sts. 1-iy^ft. high 21. Swertii

cc. Spathe-valves green or partly
scarious.

1670

IRIS

IRIS

D. Fls. yellow.

E. The spathe-valves membra-
nous, much inflated, almost

wholly green 22. imbricata

EE. The spathe-valves firm, not
inflated, almost wholly sca-

rious 23. flavescens

DD. Fls. purple, violet, lilac, or white;
inner segms. sometimes yel-
lowish.

E. Spathe-valves much inflated. .24. Albert!
EE. Spathe-valves scarcely inflated.

F. Lateral heads subsessile ... 25. florentina
FF. Lateral heads stalked.

G. The spathe-valves nar-
row acuminate, almost
wholly green, scarious
only at the tip and

edges 26. Biliottii

GG. The spathe-valves narrow
acuminate, scarious in
the upper half and
much tinged with pur-
ple 27. trojana

GGG. The spathe-valves broad,
navicular, not tinged
with purple.

H. Lvs. glaucous, broad. .28. Junonia
HH. Lvs. slightly glaucous,
blue-green, com-
paratively narrow. ...29. cypriana
GGGG. The spathe-valves broad,
navicular, much tinged
with purple 30. germanica

The following four forms cannot be separated from
each other and from some of the foregoing forms by
strictly botanical characteristics. They are probably
varieties of hybrid origin as indicated in the descrip-
tions.

Outer segms. blue to pale violet or white;

inner segms. white 31. hybrids

Outer segms. blue to bright lilac; inner

segms. lighter 32. neglecta

Outer segms. blue-purple with faint

darker veins; inner segms. smoky

yellow and pale purple 33. sambucina

Outer segms. lilac-purple; inner segms.

smoky yellow and pale lilac 34. squalens

6. pumila, Linn. (7. violacea, Sweet. I. taiirica,
Lodd. /. cserulea, Spach). Fig. 1967. Lvs. linear, 2-4
in. long: st. none or very short, 1-headed: spathe-
valves scarious at the tip : fls. fugitive, yellow, or bright
or dark lilac; limb 2 in. long. Austria-Hungary, Asia
Minor, S. Russia. L.B.C. 16 : 1506, 1574. R.H. 1903 : 132.
G.M. 49:225 (var. bicolor); Gn. M. 15:360.— A dwarf,
hardy plant, spreading rapidly in borders. Has many
color varieties ranging from dark reddish purple to
light purple and yellow. Var. attica, Boiss. & Heldr.
(7. dttica, Boiss. & Heldr.). Lvs. narrow, falcate: fls.
pale straw-yellow tinged with green; segms. with
inconspicuous purplish veins, the outer with a purplish
or greenish brown patch. Gt. 11:377. Var. violacea,
Ker. Fls. bright blue. B.M. 1261. Var. mtea, Ker. Fls.
pale yellow. The common yellow form. B. M. 1209.
— The following trade names which are self-explana-
tory have been applied to some of the numerous color-
varieties of this species: 7. alba, I. atropurpurea, I.
atroviolacea, I. azurea, I. bicolor, I. axlestis, I. lutea, I.
sulphurea. I. gracilis, E. Berg, is probably a hybrid of
this species.

7. pseudo-pumila, Tineo (7. panormitana, Tod.).
Lvs. ensiform, glaucescent, 6-9 in. long, narrowed sud-
denly to an oblique tip : st. 1-headed, 6-8 in. long, clothed
with bracts, 1-fld.: tube 2-2}^ in. long; spathe-valves
green: fls. varying from yellow to bright lilac; outer
segms. oblong unguiculate, 2-2 Y^ in. long; inner segms.

rather broader. Mountains of Sicily. 7. Stdtellse, Tod.,
is a hybrid or a sport of this species. The seeds give
rise to typical 7. pseudo-pumila plants. B.M. 6894 is 7.
erratica, Tod. Probably a similar hybrid.

8. bifldra, Linn. (7. subbifldra, Brotero. 7. fragrans,
Salisb. 7. nudicaulis, Hook.). Lvs. 6-9 in. long: st.
2-10 in. long, compressed, usually bearing 2-3 small

1966. Iris japonica (XJi). No. 5.

clasping Ivs. which entirely hide it: fls. bright violet-
purple; outer segms. obovate-cuneate, 2-2^ in. long,
with dark veins and a beard of long, yellow hairs; inner
segms. obovate, unguiculate, lighter, with faint veins.
Portugal and N. Morocco. B.M. 1130.

9. Chamaeiris, Bertol. (7. olbiensis, Henon. 7.
lutescens, Lam. idem, Delarb. 7. virescens, Delarb.).
Lvs. 3-6 in. long, Km- broad: st. 1-10 in. long, bare
above with 1-2 reduced Ivs. below the middle: fls.
bright yellow; outer segms. obovate-cuneate, tinged and
veined with brown; inner segms. oblong. May. Italy,
France. B.M. 2861, 6110. Gn. 63, p. 26.— Distin-
guished from 7. pumila by the evident st., the shorter
tube, and the more inflated and less membranous
spathe-valves. Var. italica, Parl. Fls. dark violet.

10. Reichenbachii, Heuffel. (7. bosrnaca, Beck.
7. balkana, Janka. 7. Reichenbachidna, Baker) . Rhizome •
stout; tufts crowded: Ivs. 3^6 in. long, J^-^in. wide,
increasing in size after flowering-time: st. 6-10 in. long,
1-headed, bearing 1-2 reduced Ivs.: spathes 1-2-fld.,
lJ^-2 in. long; valves ventricose, green, or slightly
scarious: fls. reddish brown-purple with bluish white
beard, or yellow with orange beard; outer segms. obo-
vate, cuneate, 2 in. long, 1 in. broad; inner segms.
oblong-elliptical, emarginate, suddenly constricted
to a canaliculate claw. Bosnia and Herzegovina
to Bulgaria and Macedonia. — Resembles 7. Charmeiris,
but differs in the flattened, acutely keeled spathes
and the thin texture of the fls. The yellow-fld. forms
are often slightly veined with purple.

11. flavissima, Pall. (7. arendria, Waldst.). Lvs.
thin, linear, 4-8 in. long: st. 1-6 in. long, 2-3-fld.:
limb bright yellow; outer segms. 1-lMi m- l°ng> /4m-

IRIS

IRIS

1671

broad; inner segms. oblong, narrower. Hungary, N. E.
Asia and Altai region to Mongolia. B.R. 549. G.C.
III. 29:337. — /. arenaria is the Hungarian representa-
tive of I. flavissima. It is smaller than 7. flavissima,
but otherwise scarcely distinct. Var. Bloudowii,
Ledeb. (7. Bloudowii, Ledeb.). More robust with
broader Ivs., a longer st. and larger fls. Gt. 29:1020.
Turkestan, Siberia and China. Var. minor, Hort.
Smaller.

12. mandshurica, Maxim. Lvs. from a short creep-
ing rhizome whose sheaths are not split into fibers,
ensiform, 6-8 in. long, ^in. broad: st. 1-headed: spathe
2-fld.; valves 1K-2 in. long, membranous, green with a
ecarious edge: pedicel short: fls. yellow; tube Mm-
long; outer segms. 1^-2 in. long, Kin- broad, obovate-
cuneate, truncate, with a yellow beard; inner segms.
narrower and shorter; crests of style-branches obtuse,
dentate. S. Manchuria. — Near /. flavissima, from
which it is distinguished by the more compact rhizome
and wider Ivs.

13. Cengialti, Ambrosi. Lvs. ensiform, yellowish
green, glaucous, 6 in. long, Y^- broad: sis. 6-12 in.
long, usually exceeding the Ivs., 1-3-headed: spathes
2-fld., 1 in. long, brown-scarious in the bud but not
silvery white like those of /. pallida: fls. bright lilac;
outer segms. obovate-cuneate, veined with brown-
purple on the pale claw, with a beard of white orange-
tipped hairs; inner segms. obovate, short-clawed.
Lombardy, S. Tyrol. — A dwarf species closely allied to
/. pallida.

,14. aphylla, Linn. (/. bohemica, Schmidt. /.
hungdrica, Waldst. & Kit. I.furcdta, Bieb. 7. falcata,
Tausch. I. Fieberi, Siedl. 7. nudicaiilis, Hook. 7.
benacensis, Kerner). Lvs. glaucescent, 6-12 in. long:
st. equaling the Ivs., sometimes forked low down, leaf-
less: spathe- valves greenish, tinged with purple: fls.
dark hlac; outer segms. obovate-cuneate, 2—2^ in.
long; beard white; inner segms. broader, obovate. E.
Eu. B. M. 2361, 5806. B.R. 801. L.B.C. 20:1970.—
The plant commonly cult, as 7. gracilis is probably
7. aphylla.

15. variegata, Linn. Lvs. 1-1 J^ ft. long: st. equal-
ing the Ivs. : outer segms. oblong-cuneate, claret-brown
toward the tip, much veined with brown on a yellow
ground; beard bright yellow; inner segms. erect, oblong,
bright yellow, veined. Austria, Turkey and S. Russia.
Long in cult. B.M. 16. Gn. 14:12; 52:364 (var.
aurea). G.M. 54:126. Var. honordbilis, Hort. Yellow,
shaded with brown.

16. Idrida, Soland. Lvs. 1 ft. long, slightly glaucous:
st. not much overtopping the Ivs., 3-4-headed: spathe-
valves green flushed with purple, scarious above, very
ventricose, not keeled: outer segms. obovate-cuneate,
reflexed from half-way down, dead purple at the top,
veined with dull purple on a yellowish ground below;
beard yellow; inner segms. broader, dull purple. S. E.
Eu. B.M. 986, also B.M. 669, which is probably a
different plant.

17. K6chii, Kerner. Lvs. 12-15 in. long, glaucescent:
st. as long as the Ivs., 3-4-headed: spathe- valves
lanceolate, the outer herbaceous; the inner partly
scarious, tinged with purple along the edge: outer
segms. obovate, with a broad cuneate claw, 3)^-4 in.
long, 1% in. broad, dark violet; claw veined with brown;
beard yellow; inner segms. broadly obovate, clawed,
dark violet, somewhat lighter than the outer. Istria,
near Trieste and Rovigno. — Probably a form of 7.
germanica or a hybrid between that species and 7.
aphylla.

18. atroviolacea, Lange. Lvs. very glaucous, 1 ft.
long: st. equaling the Ivs.: spathe entirely scarious:
fls. dark violet, very fragrant; outer segms. obovate-
cuneate, 3 in. long; beard white, tipped with yellow;

inner segms. as long, 2 in. broad, orbicular. Late May.
— Known only in cult. Probably either 7. germanica var.
atropurpurea or 7. Kochii.

19. pallida, Lam. (7. asidtica, Stapf. 7. sicula, Tod.).
Lvs. 1-2 ft. long: st. much exceeding the Ivs., 2-3 ft.
high: spathe- valves wholly scarious before the fls.
expand: fls. fragrant, violet, rarely white; outer segms.
obovate-cuneate, 3^2 in. long; inner segms. orbicular.
Crete, Rhodes, Syria, Palestine. B.M. 685. Gn. 33:32;
50, p. 119. G.M. 38:441. G. 29:179. G.L. 23:147.
J.H. III. 54:437 (var. delicata). R.B. 30:145 (variety
with variegated Ivs.). — The spathe -valves entirely
scarious even in the bud, the more complicated infl.
and the fragrant fls. distinguish this species from
7. germanica. Var. dalmatica, Hort. Lvs. 2 in. wide,
broader than those of the type, very glaucous: st.
shorter and stouter than that of the type: fls. lilac-pur-
ple. The finest form of 7. pallida. J.H. III. 56:545.
Var. speciosa, Hort. Tall, with large, light blue fls.

20. plicata, Lam. (7. aphylla, Hort., not Linn. 7.
aphylla var. plicata, Ker). Rhizome, st. and lys. as
in 7. pallida: outer segms. obovate, pure white in the
center, conspicuously veined with lilac toward the
margin and on the claw; inner segms. very plicate,
white tinged with lilac on the margin. B.M. 870. —
Known only in cult. Probably derived from 7. pallida.

21. Swertii, Lam. (7. aphylla var. Swertii, Ker.)
Much dwarfer than 7. florentina and 7. pallida. St.
1-1 J^ ft. long: spathe- valves flushed with violet: outer
segms. 2-2 ^ in. long, obovate-cuneate, white, faintly
veined and flushed with purple on the margin; inner
segms. as large, much crisped, pure white, except the
purple keel and margin. — Fragrant. Known only in
cult.

22. imbricata, Lindl. (7. flavescens, Sweet. 7.
obtusifolia, Baker). Lvs. about 6 in a tuft, broadly ensi-
form, pale green, 6-;8 in. long at flowering time: st.
12-20 in. long, bearing a terminal and several nearly
sessile lateral clusters each subtended by a ventricose
navicular bract: spathe-valves oblong navicular, 2-3
in. long, green, membranous, very ventricose: fls.

1967. Iris pumila. One of the best dwarf species
No. 6.

greenish yellow; tube 1 in. long; outer segms. obovate-
cuneate, 2 in. long and 1 in. broad, veined with brown
on the claw; inner segms. erect, rounded oblong, sub-
cordately unguiculate, mottled with brown on the claw.
Transcaucasia and N. Persia. B.R. 31:35. B.M. 7701.
— Confused with 7. flavescens, from which it differs by
the membranous inflated green spathe-valves.
. 23. flavescens, DC. Lvs. 12-15 in. long: st. 2-3 ft.
high, bearing 3-4 heads: spathes 2-3-fld., not entirely

1672

IRIS

IRIS

scarious at flowering-time: fls. bright lemon-yellow;
outer segms. obovate-cuneate, 2H in. long; beard deep
yellow; inner segms. obovate, pale yellow. G.C. III.
48:95. — Known only in cult.

24. Alberti, Regel. Lvs. ensiform, glaucous, \Yr^
ft. long: st. exceeding the Ivs., bearing 5-6 heads in
a loose panicle : spathe- valves mostly green, very slightly
scarious at tips: outer segms. obovate-cuneate, 2 in.
long, bright lilac, with a rudimentary crest and a dense
beard of white, yel-
low-tipped hairs, veined;

inner segms, as long
and broader than the
outer, with convolute
claws, lilac. Discovered
in Turkestan by Dr.
Albert Regel. Gt. 999.
B.M. 7020.

25. florentina, Linn.
Rhizome fragrant when
dried (orris-root) : Ivs.
1-1 H ft. long: st. ex-
ceeding the Ivs.: fls.
white; outer segms. 3J^
in. long, tinged with
lavender; claw yel-
lowish veined with
purple; inner segms.

as large, white. Cent,
and S. Eu. B.M.
671. Gn. 16:82; 51,
p. 295. G.M.54:127.
— Flowers early, with
I. germanica. Hardy.
Var. filbicans, Lange
(7. dlbicans, Lange.
7. florentina var. alba,
Hort.). Pure white.
Spain to Cyprus. Var.
Mad6nna, Hort. Fls. blue;
spathe-valves flushed with
purple.

26. Bili6ttii, Fost. Lvs
darker green, more dis-
tinctly striated, and more
rigid than in 7. germanica,
about 20 in. long, 1M-1M
in. broad: st. several-
headed, 2^-3 ft. long:
spathe - valves narrow,
acuminate, nearly 2 in.
long, ventricose, scarious
only at the tips: outer
segms. obovate-cuneate,
reddish purple, with many
dark veins; beard white,
tipped with yellow; inner
segms. orbicular unguicu-
late, 2 in. broad, bright
blue - purple. Late June.
Trebizond. — Very near 7.
germanica.

27. trojana, Kerner. Lvs. very acute, glaucescent:
st. over 3 ft. high, much branched and overtopping the
Ivs.: pedicel none: fls. bright violet-purple; outer
segms. obovate; blade longer than the claw; claw
white, bordered with yellow and veined with brown-

in the upper half: pedicel none: outer segms. obovate-
cuneate, purple-violet, whitish at the throat and on the
claw, veined with yellowish brown; inner segms. ob-
ovate, abruptly unguiculate, pale violet, veined and
spotted with red-brown on the paler claw. Cilician
Taurus. — Differs from 7. pallida in the spathe-valves,
which are only partly scarious at flowering-time.

29. cypriana, Foster & Baker. Plants tall, the
branching st. being 3 ft. high, bearing many fls.

6-7 in. diam.: outer
segms. obovate-cuneate,
reddish lilac, with thin,
darker veins; claw whit-
ish, with greenish brown
veins; inner segms. ob-
long-unguiculate, lilac,
spotted with reddish
browrr on the claw.
June, July. Cyprus. —
Very near 7. pallida,
from which it differs only
by the longer navicular
spathe-valves, which are
not entirely scarious at
flowering-time, and the
more obovate segms.

30. germanica, Linn.
Fig. 1968. Lvs. 1-1 Y2
ft. long: st. 2-3 ft. high,
usually with a 2-fld.
terminal head and one
short and one longer
lateral branch, each
bearing a single fl.:
spathe - valves tinged
with purple, scarious in
the upper half: outer
segms. obovate-cuneate,
2-3 in. long; beard yel-
low; inner segms. as
large, obovate, con-
nivent. Cent, and S. Eu.
Early May, June. B.M.
670. B.R.818. I.H.40:
182 (var. Gypsea, pure
white). Gn. 48:242
(dark purple var.). Gn.
M. 15:362. Var. reticu-
lilta superba, Hort.
Outer segms. purple,
veined; inner segms.
lavender. Var. nepalen-
sis, Dykes (7. nepal en-
sis, Wallich. 7. german-
ica var. alropurpurea,
Hort.). PURPLE KING.
Fls. red -purple; outer
segms. darker, almost
black-purple.

31. hybrida, Retz.
(7. amcena, DC.). Dif-
ers from I. neglecta by

its longer spathe-valves, and its pure white or faintly
lilac-tinted outer segms. and style-branches. June. —
Known only in cult.

32. neglecta, Hornm. Lvs. slightly glaucous, 12-15
in. long, ensiform, purple at the base: st. taller,

1968. Iris germanica. Typical of many species in which the
beard is confined to the midrib. ( X Ji)

purple; inner segms. elliptic, suddenly narrowed to a 2 'ft., many-fld.: 'spathe-valves green below at' flow-
claw; style-crests broad, denticulate. Troad, Asia ering-time, much tinged with purple: outer segms.
Minor. Lr.C. 111. 53:170.

28. Jundnia, Schott & Klotschy. Rhizome stout,
compact: Ivs. 12-14 in. long, 1% in. .wide, glaucous:
st. 20-24 in. high, bearing a terminal head of 2 fls. and

4 lateral branches, the lowest about 3-4 in. long: Known only in cult. Probably a hybrid between 7.
spathe \}/i in. long, with pale green valves, scarious pallida and 7. variegata.

obovate-cuneate, very obtuse, 2 in. long, violet-blue on
the margin, whitish veined with blue in the center;
beard yellow; inner segms. erect or connivent, oblong,
as large as the outer, pale lilac. June. B.M. 2435. —

IRIS

1673

33. sambftcina, Linn. Differs from /. squalens in its
less robust habit, narrower segms. and elder-like odor.
The outer segms. are colored and veined with claret
not lilac-purple; inner segms. emarginate. Late May.
Cent. Eu. B.M. 187. (According to Dykes this figure
is probably /. squalens, while plate 787, I. squalens,
probably represents /. sambucina. Both forms are very
likely hybrids between 7. pallida and 7. variegata.) —
Tall and handsome.

34. squalens, Linn. Lvs. glaucous, 1-1 M ft. long:
st. 2-3 ft. high, much branched and many-fld.: spathe-
valves subscarious: outer segms. obovate-cuneate,
upper part plain lilac-purple; claw yellow, veined with
lilac; beard yellow; inner segms. as large, obovate,
dull lilac and yellow, or brownish and yellow. Cent.
Eu. to Caucasus. B.M. 787. (See note under 7.
sambucina.) J.H. III. 48:481. — Many of the German
irises of cultivators belong to this form. Var. Jac-
quesiana, Hort. Outer segms. dark red-violet, yellow
at base; inner segms. tawny yellow. Late. One of the
best.

SUBGENUS PSEUDOREGELIA.

35. sikkimensis, Dykes. Lvs. 4-8 in. long at flower-
ing-time, later 12-18 in. long, M-%in. wide, pale green,
ensiform: st. 4-6 in. long, bearing a single head of 2-3
fls.: spathes 2-3 in. long, lanceolate; valves scarious
in the upper one-third and along the edges, keeled:
tube 1^-2 in. long; outer segms. obovate, contracted
to a cuneate claw, 2% in. long, 1 in. broad, dark lilac,
mottled with a deeper shade; beard of •whits orange-
tipped hairs; inner segms. spreading, with an oblong,
deeply emarginate blade suddenly contracted into a
canaliculate claw, pale lilac; faintly mottled with a
deeper shade at the base; style-crests triangular, revo-
lute. Probably from Sikkim.

SUBGENUS REGELIA.

A. Rhizomes wide-spreading, stoloniferous . .36. stolonifera
AA. Rhizomes compact.

B. Lvs. ensiform: outer segms. suddenly

contracted into a claw 37. Korolkowi

BB. Lvs. linear: outer segms. gradually

narrowed to a claw 38. darwasica

36. stolonifera, Maxim. (7. Lewhtlinii, Regel. 7.
vaga, Foster). Rhizome slender, wide-creeping: Ivs. in
tufts, not contiguous, ensiform, 1-1 M ft. long, scarcely
glaucous: st. 1-2 ft. long, almost wholly concealed by
clasping Ivs., 1-headed, bearing 2-3 fls.: outer segms.
2-2^2 in. l°ng) oblong-cuneate, bright lilac, suffused
with bronze toward the margin, with a yellow beard;
inner segms. oblong, as broad as the outer, claw also
bearded. Turkestan. Gn. 52:222. B.M. 7861. Gt.
36:1244 (rootstock only). G.C. III. 32:242. Gn.W.
24:382. Var. vaga, Foster, has larger fls.

37. Korolkowi, Regel. Rhizome short-creeping: Ivs.
glaucous, 1 ft. long: st. 1 ft. long, bearing 2-3 reduced
Ivs. and a single head of 2-3 fls. : spathe-valves 2-3 in.
long, keeled, acuminate, green flushed with purple:
limb 2 H-3 in. long, pale yellowish white, veined with
red-brown in the type; outer segms. oblong, 1 in. broad,
with a brown beard and a brown patch on the throat;
inner segms. as large, erect. May. Turkestan. B.M.
7025. Gn. 28:484. G.C. III. 4:37. Gt. 22:766; 40:
1358. — Very hardy. One of the earliest. Variously
colored lilac, and so on in cult. Var. concolor, Foster.
Purplish lilac, veined darker. Var. Leichtliniana,
Foster. Creamy white, with brownish veins. Var. vio-
lacea, Foster. Violet, with dark veins.

38. darwasica, Regel (7. Suwdrowi, Regel. 7. lin-
eata, Foster). Lvs. thin, linear, 1 ft. long, J^in. wide,
very glaucous, bluish green: st. 1 ft. high, bearing 2-3
reduced Ivs. and a single head of fls. : spathe-valves 3-
3^2 in. long, green or slightly flushed with purple,

sharply keeled and very pointed, longer than the tube:
outer segms. oblong-cuneate, ^in. broad, 2 in. long,
closely veined with oblique lines of claret-purple on a
greenish yellow ground; beard blue; inner segms. ob-
long, with a long claw, often faintly bearded, veined
and tinted on the margins with claret-purple. Bokhara.
B.M. 7029. Gt. 36:1244.

SUBGENUS ONCOCTCLUS.

A. Outer segms. of the perianth ligulate,

much reduced 39. paradoza

AA. Outer segms. of the perianth not much

smaller than the inner.
B. Lvs. linear, narrow, not over %in.
wide, more or less falcate: plant
slender: st. usually not over 6-8 in.
high.
c. The outer segms. deflexed from the

base, very concave 40. iberica

cc. The outer segms. deflexed from

the middle, convex.
D. Fls. uniformly colored, not con-
spicuously veined,
E. Signal patch darker, but of the
same color as the outer
segms.

F. Color of fls. yellow 41. urmiensis

FF. Color of fls. reddish purple . 42. Barnumae

FFF. Color of fls. lilac 43. Marias

EE. Signal patch not of the same
color as the outer segms.;

fls. purplish black 44. atropurpurea

DD. Fls. conspicuously veined on a

ground of different color.
• E. Outer segms. obovate-cuneate. 45. Saarii
EE. Outer segms. lanceolate

pointed 46. Ewbankiana

BB. Lvs. ensiform or linear, over %in.

broad, scarcely falcate: plant larger,

stout: st. usually a foot or more

high.

c. Inner and outer segms. similarly

colored.

D. Fls. light-colored gray or lilac.

E. Outer segms. marked with

numerous fine purple veins

and sprinkled with minute

purplish dots more crowded

on the throat; fls. very large. .47. Gatesii

EE. Outer segms. dotted and veined

with crimson or reddish

brown, with a reddish

patch at the throat:; fls.

smaller 48. Lortetii

DD. Fls. dark-colored, mostly brown-
ish or purple.
E. Segms. almost uniformly dark

purple 49. atrof usca

EE. Segms. heavily veined and
spotted with black-brown on

a lighter ground 50. susiana

cc. Inner segms. blue to pale blue;
outer segms. densely spotted and
veined with purple-brown 51. Bismarckiana

39. paraddxa, Stev. Plants dwarf: Ivs. linear, 3-6 in.
long: st. 2-6 in. high: fl. large; outer segms. reduced
to a mere claw, dark, covered with a dense pile; inner
segms. 2 in. long, orbicular, lilac to white. Mountains
of Ga. and N. Persia. B.M. 7081. Gn. 32:584; 46, p.
173; 59, p. 248 (var. choschab). Gt. 386. G.C. III.
29:104 (var. choschab). — A fl. with singular combina-
tions of color. Grows in dry situations, but requires
shelter in whiter. Long cult., but not common.

40. iberica, Hoffm. Dwarf, with a large fl.: Ivs.
3-6 in. long, narrow, very falcate: st. 3-4 in. long:
outer segms. rounded-obovate, 2 in. broad, pale brown,
closely veined and blotched with purple-brown and
with a shining dark patch on the throat; inner segms.

1674

IRIS

IRIS

connivent, pure white, faintly veined, with a few wine-
red spots at base. Caucasus and mountains of Armenia
and Persia. B.M. 5847. Gt. 386 and 713. F.S. 19:
1963. R.H. 1873: 370. Gn. 10:526; 43, p. 131; 72, p.
349 IH 19:106. G.C. II. 11:693; 111.53:399. F.
1873:25. F.M. 1875:168.— Hardy. The color of the
fls. varies considerably in this species. In some the
inner segms. are nearly white, while in others they are
nearly as dark as the outer. The species is chiefly dis-
tinguished by the curious spoon-shaped concave outer
segms. and the depressed style-branches which give the
fls. an appearance different from the other members of
this group.

41. urmiensis, Hoog (7. chrysdntha, Baker). Rhi-
zome short-creeping: Ivs. linear, 1 ft. long, thick and

firm, glaucescent with a
pale margin: st. slen-
der, as long as the Ivs. :
spathe - valves lanceo-
late - acuminate, 4 in.
long, pale green, char-
taceous: fls. pale yellow;
outer segms. oblong,
emarginate, 3 in. long,
reflexed from near the
base, with a bright
orange beard; inner
segms. erect, obovate-
cuneate, as long as the
outer and broader; style-
branches yellow, an inch
broad, with large quad-
rate entire crests. Prob-
ably near Lake Urumiah
in N. W. Persia. B.M.
7784. Gn. 58, p. 375.
G.C. III. 28:373.

42. Barnumae, Baker
& Foster. Lvs. about
5-6 in a tuft, slender,
linear, about 6 in. long,
less than Min- broad:
st. 2-6 in. long, bear-
ing a single sheathing
If.: spathe-valves 2 in.
long, green with purple
tips and margins: outer
segms. obovate-cuneate,
reflexed, 2 in. long, 1 in.
broad, passing into a
cuneate claw, dark red-
dish purple with darker
veins and a triangular
beard of yellow purple-
tipped hairs; inner
segms. obpvate - orbic-
ular, connivent, 3 in.
long, 2^2 m- broad, sud-
denly contracted into a
short claw, reddish pur-
ple, lighter than the outer segms. and with more con-
spicuous veins and few scattered hairs on the claw.
Mountains of Armenia. B.M. 7050.

43. Mariae, Barbey (/. Helenas, Barbey). Lvs. very
falcate, 3-4 in. long: st. 3-6 in. long, with 2-4 short
Ivs.: limb pale lilac, with fine red-brown veins; outer
segms. orbicular, 2J^ in. long, with a dark purple patch
at the throat; inner segms. larger, more rounded.
Desert between Egypt and Palestine. Discovered
1880. Gt. 42, p. 488; suppl. pi. J.H. III. 28:302.
G.M. 37:215.

44. atropurpftrea, Baker (7. jGggeri, Hort.). Lvs. 6
in. long: st. 6-8 in.: outer segms. oblong, 2 in. long,
purplish black, without veins, with a yellow patch on
the throat and a beard of yellow, black-tipped hairs;

1969. Type of oncocyclus iris —
Iris susiana. Example of diffusely
bearded flower. ( X 1A)

inner segms. larger, of the same color, with discernable
veins; style-crests small. Easily distinguished by its
rather small, uniformly colored fls. Gt. 40: 1361; 42, p.
489; suppl. pi.

45. Saarii, Schott (7. Sari, Aut. 7. lupina, Foster).
Rhizome short, stout: Ivs. about 6 in. long, finally 1
ft., linear-complicate: st. 3-6 in. long, with 2 reduced
lanceolate Ivs.: pedicel very short: fls. bright lilac,
large as in 7. susiana; tube 1 in. long; outer segms.
obovate-cuneate, lJ^-2 in. broad, reflexed from half
way down; inner segms. oblong, with a short claw.
Very near 7. iberica, from which it differs chiefly by its
bright lilac fls. Asia Minor. B.M. 7904. G.C. III.
36:147. Var. lurida, Boiss. Segms. brownish white
with many brown-black spots near the center, and
numerous brownish lines toward the margin, the outer
with a brown-black spot at the throat. Gn. 43:130;
54, p. 59.

46. Ewbanki&na, Foster (7. Sprengeri, Siehe). Rhi-
zome slender, similar to that of 7. iberica: Ivs. 6-8 in.
long, glaucous, very narrow and somewhat falcate:
st. 2-4 in. high, bearing 2-3 reduced Ivs.: spathe 1-fld.,
2J^ in. long; valves narrow, inflated, green: outer segms.
lanceolate, pointed, horizontally extended, not re-
curved, creamy or grayish white, marked with con-
spicuous, irregular, jagged, purple-brown veins, with a
purplish black patch at the throat; beard of stout yel-
low hairs tipped with brown; inner segms. ovate-
lanceolate colored like the outer and marked with
jagged brown-purple veins which become more broken
on the claw; style-branches almost uniform chocolate-
brown. Mountains of Persia and Transcaucasia. R.H.
1901, p. 399. Gn. 70, p. 15. G.C. III. 29:407; 36:50.
— The venation, together with the ground-color, gives
the fls. at a distance a uniform gray tone. Not partic-
ularly beautiful.

47. Gatesii, Foster. Habit and foliage of 7. susiana:
outer segms. orbicular, 3-5 in. broad, cream-white,
sometimes sky-blue, covered with a network of fine
veins, giving them a light gray tint; inner segms.
larger, pale purple or yellow. Dry regions, Armenia.
B.M. 7867. Gn. 43:130 and p. 131; 52, pp. 88, 279;
72, p. 422. G.C. III. 8:17. A.G. 13:60. G. 20:299.—
The largest-fld. of its subgenus. Fls. about twice as
large as in I. susiana. Quite hardy.

48. Lortetii, Barbey. Lvs. less than 1 ft. long: st.
about 1 ft. high, bearing 2 reduced Ivs. : spathe-valves
5 in. long, green or slightly scarious above: outer segms.
obpvate, much reflexed, 3 in. broad, whitish, finely
veined and spotted with red-brown, with a dark spot at
the throat; inner segms. orbicular, connivent, pale
gray, with red-brown veins. Lebanon. B.M. 7251.
Gn. 43:130; 48, p. 337. Gt. 42, p. 490. G.C. III. 12:
153. G.M. 36:386; 40:250. R.H. 1902, p. 404. R.B.
32: 173,-^Quite hardy N.

49. atrofusca, Baker (7. atropurpurea var. atrofusca,
Baker. 7. Haynei, Mallett). Lvs. pale green, 1 ft. long:
st. 1 ft. long, hidden by the sheathing inner Ivs.: limb
dark purple-brown; outer segms. obovate, 3 in. long,
with a dark spot on the throat; inner segms. larger and
broader; style-branches very convex; crests large.
Palestine. B.M. 7379. Gn. 48, p. 8; 50:332 and p.
333. Gt. 42, p. 488; suppl. pi. Gn. W. 24:399. J.H.
111.48:361. G.M. 47:258.

50. susiana, Linn. MOURNING IRIS. Fig. 1969.
Lvs. very glaucous, 6-9 in. long, nearly 1 in. broad:
outer segms. obovate, 3 in. long, brownish purple,
veined and spotted with black-brown, with a brown
beard; inner segms. brownish white, spotted with
violet-brown and black. Asia Minor and Persia. B.M.
91. F.S. 11:1087, 1088. R.H. 1859, pp. 322, 323. Gn.
32, p. 193; 39:340; 66, p. 173(?). G. 1:136, 264;
33:203. G.C. III. 51:20. Gn.M. 10:120. Gn.W.
23:426, suppl. A.F. 16:1375.— The best known of

LIX. Japanese irises. — Iris laevigata.

IRIS

IRIS

1675

this group. Said to have been intro. from Constanti-
nople in 1753. Name from a city in Persia. Not
entirely hardy N., but a good pot-plant. Var. major,
Hort. Bluish, tinted brown.

51. Bismarckiana, Damman (/. nazarena, Hort. /.
Sari var. nazarena, Foster). Habit of /. susiana, and
fls. as large: Ivs. 8 in. long: st. 12-18 in. high: outer
segms. orbicular, yellowish, densely spotted with pur-
ple-brown, with a dark purple-brown spot at the end
of the beard; inner segms. orbicular, short-clawed,
sky-blue from numerous blue veins on a creamy white
ground. N. Palestine. B.M. 6960 (as /. Sari var.
lurida); 7986. R.H. 1902, p. 405. J.H. III. 56, p. 497
(as /. Sari var. nazarensis). I.H. 42, p. 78(?). Gt. 42,
p. 487; suppl. pi. G.M. 40:250.

SUBGENUS PARDANTHOPSI8.

52. dichotoma, Pall. Rhizome slender: Ivs. 6-8 in a
fan-shaped cluster, 8-12 in. long, 1^4 in. wide: st. 2 ft.
high, much branched, bearing 6-10 heads: spathes not
over Hin. long, scarious, 3-5-fld. : fls. fugitive, opening
only in the afternoon, twisting spirally when wither-
ing; outer segms. with a subquadrate blade contracted
into a broadly cuneate claw, whitish, spotted with
lilac-purple; inner segms. spreading, oblong-unguicu-
late, whitish and light purple. August. Irkutsk and
Transbaikalia to Manchuria and China. B.M. 6428.
B.R. 246. — Although the fls. last only a few hours,
they are produced in great profusion so that usually
4-6 are open at the same time.

SUBGENUS APOGON.

A. Lvs. linear, generally less than

broad.

B. Lf. -sheaths splitting into fibers.
c. Spathe-valves green.

D. Tube of the perianth evident,
usually more than %in. long.
E. St. with 1-2 long Ivs. imme-
diately below the spathe .... 53.

EE. St. bearing a reduced If. and
springing from a pair of
reduced Ivs. at the base ..... 54.

EEE. St. sheathed by 1-2 narrow

reduced Ivs ............... 55.

DD. Tube of the perianth short or
obsolete, usually less than
%in. long.
E. Fls. yellow.

F. St. wiry, with a single
sheathing If. low down ..... 56.

FF. St. slender, bearing 2

lanceolate sheathing Ivs. ...57.

FFF. St. hollow, bearing a much-
reduced If. near the mid-
dle ................... 58.

EE. Fls. some shade of blue or

white.
F. St.-lvs. long, usually over

1 ft. and exceeding the st.. 59.
FF. St.-lvs. reduced.

G. Rhizome slender: Ivs.
pink at base ......... 60.

GG. Rhizome stout, compact.

H. Caps, long, narrow. . .61.
HH. Caps, fusiform taper-

ing at both ends ..... 62.

CC. Spathe-valves scarious only in the

upper part or along the edges.
D. Inner segms. suberect, extended
obliquely .................. 63.

DD. Inner segms. erect, connivent.. . . 64.

ccc. Spathe-valves entirely scarious.

D. St. hollow ................... 65.

DD. St. solid .................... 66.

BB. Lf. -sheaths not splitting into fibers.

humilis

ruthenica
macrosiphon

Hartwegii
Grant-Duffii

Wilsonii

graminea

tenax
ensata

longipetala

Delavayi
sanguinea

sibirica
prismatica

c. St. nearly obsolete 67. unguicularis

cc. St. present; clothed with sheathing

bracts.

D. Perianth-tube short, funnel-
form 68. bracteata

DD. Perianth-tube slender, as long as

the ovary 69. Sintenisii

CCC. St. present, bearing 1-2 Ivs.

D. The Ivs. purplish at base: st.

scarcely overtopping the Ivs. . . 70. Douglasiana
DD. The Ivs. not purplish at base: st.

much exceeding the Ivs 71. missouriensis

AA. Lvs. ensiform, generally much over

%in. broad.
B. Plants large.

c. St. bearing several long Ivs.

D. Fls. reddish brown 72. fulva

DD. Fls. yellow 73. Pseudacorus

ODD. Fls. blue, purple, or lilac to

white.
E. Inner segms. at least half as

long as the outer.

F. The Ivs. somewhat glaucous 74. vesicolor
FF. The Ivs. green, not glaucous.
G. Outer segms. 3-4 in.

long; fls. sessile 75. hezagona

GG. Outer segms. 2^-3 in.

long; fls. pedicelled. . . .76. caroliniana
EE. Inner segms. minute, setose. .77. setosa
cc. St. bearing 2-4 reduced Ivs.
D. Fls. yellow.

E. Outer segms. with an orbicular '

blade.
F. Plants tall, 2-3 ft. or more:

fls. without veins or spots.78. Monnieri
FF. Plants smaller, scarcely ex-
ceeding 1^4 ft-: outer
segms. faintly veined on

the claw 79. halophila

EE. Outer segms. with an obovate
blade; fls. white and pale

yellow 80. orientalis

EEE. Outer segms. with an oblong

blade; fls. golden yellow. . . .81. aurea
DD. Fls. blue, purple, lilac or white.
E. Seeds orange-red or scarlet:

fls. inconspicuous 82. foetidissima

EE. Seeds brown: fls. showy.

F. Sts. bearing several lateral
spicate heads below the

terminal one 83. spuria

FF. Sts. bearing a terminal head
and often a stalked lateral

head 84. lae vigata

BB. Plants dwarf 85. verna

53. h&milis, M. Bieb. (7. ruthenica, Ker ex parte).
Rhizome wide-creeping: Ivs. linear, up to 12 in a tuft,
glaucous, 6-12 in. long: st. not more than 1-1 ^ in.
long, bearing 2 long Ivs. immediately below the spathes:
spathe 1-fld.; outer segms. with a suborbicular blade
and a long cuneate claw, deep blue-purple with deeper
veins, whitish on the throat, with deep purple veins;
inner segms. oblanceolate, unguiculate, blue-purple.
Caucasus to Georgia and Hungary. Gn. 10, p. 379.
— Distinguished from /. ruthenica by the 2 long Ivs.
which arise below the spathe and are 2-3 times as long
as the latter.

54. ruthenica, Ker. Lvs. linear, in crowded tufts,
6 in. long at flowering-time, becoming 12 in. long:
st. slender, 1-8 in. long, but often obsolete; 1-headed:
pedicel J^-2 in. long: tube twice as long as the ovary;
outer segms. with an oblong blade rather shorter than
the claw, lilac, veined and dotted with bluish purple on
a whitish ground near the center and lower part of the
blade; inner segms. lanceolate, with narrow claws,
deep purple-violet. April, May. China, Siberia and
Cent. Asia. B.M. 1123, 1393. Gn. 50, p. 187. G.W.
15 : 132.— Violet-scented.

1676

IRIS

IRIS

55. macrosiphon. Torr. Plants rather dwarf, 6-12 in.
high: Ivs. grass-like, green, 12 in. long, exceeding the
fls.: st. 3-6 in. long: pedicels very short : tube 1^-3 in.
long; outer segms. obovate-cuneate, undulate, pale yel-
low to cream, with a network of brownish crimson or
bright lilac veins; inner segms. rather small, colored
like ths outer. Free-flowering. Calif, and Ore. Gn. 52,
p. 126. — Torrey says the fls. are bright lilac and the
Ivs. less than 4 lines wide. The color varies from
white to cream-yellow and purple.

56. Hartwegii, Baker. Lvs. few (2), 6-12 in. long,
finely veined: st. 6 in. long, with a linear If. low down:
pedicel 1-1 J^ in. long: limb pale yellow; outer segms.
with an oblong blade, shorter than the claw. Calif.
— Rarely cult.

57. Grant-Duffii, Baker (/. Aschersonii, Foster).
Lvs. about 1 ft. long: st. 6 in. high, with about 2 Ivs.,
1-headed: outer segms. with a yellow blade, much
shorter than the claw; claw veined with h'lac on
a yellowish white ground. Palestine. B. M. 7604.
Gn. 61, p. 288. Gt. 42; suppl. pi.— Not valuable
commercially.

58. Wilsonii, Wright. Plants tall, growing in clumps
like I. sibirica and throwing up clusters of fl.-sts.:
Ivs. linear-ensiform, 2 ft. long and 3^in. broad, slightly
glaucous, drooping above: st. about as long as the Ivs.,
2- or 1-fld., bearing a small If. at the middle: spathes
somewhat herbaceous, 234-4 in. long: pedicels tri-
angular, 1-5 in. long: outer segms. 2 in. long, %in.
wide, oblong or obovate-elliptic, pale yellow, veined
and dotted with purple on the throat, and on the
broad claw; inner segms. oblong-lanceolate, narrowed
to a slender claw, pale yellow, mottled with reddish
brown at the edges. W. China. — A tall yellow form
suitable for cult, with the blue and the white forms of
I. sibirica.

59. graminea, Linn. (7. nikitensis, Lange). Lvs.
linear, 15-36 in. long, strongly ribbed: st. compressed,
angled, slender, solid : pedicel 1-1 ^ in. long: limb bright
h'lac, copiously veined; outer segms. with an orbicular

1970. Iris unguicularis. Type of smooth-petaled iris
). No. 67

blade J^in. broad and shorter than the broad claw;
claw dull yellow, veined with purple; inner segms.
erect, nearly straight. May. Cent, and S. Eu. B.M.
681. — Long cult.; mentioned by Lobel, Clusius and
Gerarde. Distinguished from I. sibirica by its solid,
angular st.

60. tenax, Douglas. Sheaths short: Ivs. 6-12 in. long:
st. 6-12 in. long: pedicel %-2 in. long: outer segm.
broadly obovate, with an acute point; blade about as
long as the claw, bright lilac, with purple veins and a
variegated white and yellow spot on the throat; inner
segms. shorter, waved. April, May. Dry soils, Brit. Col.
and Ore. Intro, to England 1826. B.M. 3343. B.R.
1218. Gn. 53:518. G.M. 50:867.— Hardy.

61. ensata, Thunb. (7. graminea, Thunb. 7. big-
lumis, Vahl. 7. hsematophylla, Link. 7. Pdllasii,
Fisch. 7. longispatha, Fisch. 7. oxypetala, C. A. Mey.
7. fragrans, Lindl.). Sheaths large: Ivs. 1-3 ft. long:
st. 2-12 in. long, flattened, bearing a single terminal
head: pedicel 2-4 in., often longer than the spathe:
limb loose, bright blue or h'lac; outer segms. oblan-
ceolate, 2 in. long; blade shorter than the claw, veined
with dark blue, yellowish on the throat; inner segms.
slender, erect, bright blue. Russia, Japan, Caucasus.
B.M. 2331, 2528. B.R. 26:1. Gt. 1011.— Hardy.
Variable. Var. pabularia, Naudin (7. pabularia, Hort.).
Said to be distinct. Larger, with Ivs. purplish red
near the base. Used as a forage plant. Does well
in driest situations. Gt. 47:1452. Described by
Wittmack, Gt. 47, p. 369. The seeds should be sown
in beds, and the young plants set out the following
spring, 10 in. apart each way, where they are to
remain.

62. longipetala, Herb. Lvs. 1-1 ^ ft. long, narrow,
ensiform: st. stout, solid, compressed, \}/<i ft. high:
fls. bright lilac; outer segms. obovate, reflexing half
way down; claw veined with violet on a white ground.
Calif. B.M. 5298.

63. Delavayi, Mich. Lvs. 2-2^ ft. long, often
nearly 1 in. broad: st. 3-5 ft. high, bifurcate: spathe-
valves green: outer segms. reflexed from the middle,
oblong, obtuse or emarginate, brilliant violet, spotted
with white on the lower half; claw yellow, veined
with lilac; inner segms. oblong - lanceolate, acute,
erect, violet. Thibet. B.M. 7661. R.H. 1895, p. 399.
— Large plants, with the fl.-stalks erect, high above
the Ivs.

64. sanguinea, Donn (7. orientdlis, Thunb. 7.
sibirica var. sanguinea, Ker. 7. nertschinskia, Lodd.
I. haematophylla, Fisch. 7. sibirica var. orientalis, Baker).
Lvs. linear, glaucous, often tinged with red-purple at
base, 18 in. long and M-Hin. broad: st. about as long
as the Ivs., bearing a terminal head of 2-3 fls. and rarely
a lateral head: spathes slightly scarious at flowering-
time, often reddish purple: outer segms. with a sub-
orbicular blade, narrowed abruptly to a short claw,
bright lilac, yellowish white at the throat, veined with
purple; inner segms. broadly oval, connivent, darker
blue. Manchuria. Korea, and Japan. B.M. 1604.
L.B.C. 19: 1843. — Often regarded as a variety of the
Cent. European 7. sibirica, which has short subglpbose
caps, and fls. raised high above the Ivs., while 7.
sanguinea has longer trigonal caps, with fls. borne
among the Ivs.

65. sibirica, Linn. (7. acuta, Willd.). Compact,
tufted: Ivs. green, not rigid, 1-2 ft. long: st. slender,
terete, fistulose, much overtopping the Ivs., simple or
forked, bearing several clusters of fls.: spathe small,
narrow, acute, entirely scarious at flowering-time:
limb bright lilac-blue; outer segms. 1H~2 in. long,
with an orbicular blade gradually narrowed to a slen-
der claw, veined with bright violet, whitish toward the
claw; inner segms. shorter, erect. Cent, and S. Eu.
and E. Siberia. Intro, in 1796. B.M. 50. R.H. 1898,

IRIS

IRIS

1677

p. 23. G.W. 12:678. Gn.M. 15:362.— Common in
cult. The plants form large, compact clumps, produc-
ing many long flowering sts. from the center. Each st.
usually has a terminal cluster of 2-5 fls. and 1 lateral

head. Var. variegata,
Hort., has variegated
Ivs. Var. acuta, Hort.
Narro \v-lvd. Var.
flexuosa, Murray (/.
flexuosa, Murray. I.
sibirica var. alba,
Hort.). Fls. white
with crisped segms.
B.M. 1163.

66. prismatica,
Pursh (7. grdcilis,
Bigel. 7. virginica,
Muhl.). Plant tall,
slender: Ivs. mostly
shorter than the st.,
grass-like: st. 1-2 ft.,
s i m p le or forked,
flexuous : spathes 1-2-
fld. : pedicel long, ex-
ceeding the spathe:
outer segms. 1 %-2 in.
long; blade shorter
than the claw, bright
lilac, yellow on the
throat, marked with
purple and darker
veins; inner segms.
erect, bright lilac.
May, June. Wet
grounds, New Bruns.
to Pa. and N. C. B.
M. 1504.

67. unguicularis,
Poir. (/. stylosa, Desf.
/. cretensis, Janka).
Fig. 1970. Lvs. about
6 in a tuft, finally
1^-2 ft. long, bright
green: st. nearly ob-
solete : spathes 2-3-
fld.; valves 4-6 in.
long, scarious at the
tip only, shorter than
the tube: tube 5-6 in.
long, filiform, exserted
from the spathe; limb
bright lilac, rarely

white; outer segms. 2j/£-3 in. long, 1 in. broad, with a
yellow keel, streaked with lilac on a white ground at
the throat; inner segms. oblong. Jan., Feb. Algeria,
Greece and Islands, Asia Minor and N. Smyrna. B.M.
5773; 6343. R.H. 1900:300. Gn. 24:68; 46:248;
49, p. 236; 50, p. 187. G.C. III. 25:85. F.S.R. 35,
p. 131. G. 9:590; 34:115.' G.L. 19:48; 22:378. Gn.
W. 20:159. — Not hardy, but useful for cutting in early
winter. Fragrant. Var. alba, Hort. White form;
spring. C.L.A. 5:134. Gn. 68, p. 381. Var. superba,
Hort. Bluish purple. Oct. and later. Var. speciosa,
Hort. FLs. well above the foliage, deep reddish purple.

68. bracteata, Wats. Fig. 1971. Rudimentary Ivs.
brown, very rigid; produced Ivs. 1 to few, much ex-
ceeding the st., 1-2 ft. long, one side green, the other
glaucous, edge revolute: st. 1-headed, angled, 2-3 in.
to 1 ft. long, sheathed with bracts 2-4 in. long: tube
short, funnelform; outer segms. 2-3 in.; blade ovate, as
long as the claw, pale yellow, veined with bluish pur-
ple; inner segms. shorter, erect, yellow; style-branches
long, narrow. June. Discovered in 1884 by Thomas
Howell, in Ore. G.F. 1:43 (adapted in Fig. 1971).
G.C. III. 39:401; 52:338. G.M. 50:161.— Intro. 1888.

1971. Iris bracteata. (X1A)

69. Sintenisii, Janka (/. graminea var. Sintenisii,
Richter. /. Urumovi, Velenovski). Lvs. narrow, linear,
acuminate, 8-18 in. long, M-Min. broad: st. round, not
flattened as in /. graminea, slender and flexuous, 4-12
in. long, almost entirely clothed by 2-3 reduced Ivs.
and bearing a single head of 2 fls.: spathe- valves
narrow, linear, acuminate, keeled, the inner longer
than the outer: ovary tapering to a long neck taking
the place of the perianth-tube: fls. bright lilac, 1^ in-
long; outer segms. with an obovate blade and a slightly
pandurate claw, bluish purple, whitish toward the
throat, marked with purple veins and with reddish
purple veins on the claw; inner segms. oblanceolate
with a cuneate claw deep blue-purple; style-crests
lanceolate. S. Italy, Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor
and Turkey.

70. Douglasiana, Herb. Rhizome stout, short, creep-
ing: Ivs. about 6 in a tuft, broadest in the middle,
strongly ribbed, 1-2 ft. long: st. 1-2 ft. high, usually
simple, with 1 long bract-lf.: tube ^-^in. long: fls.
3-4 in. diam.; outer segms. obovate-spatulate, spread-
ing and recurved, pale lilac, with a white disk and purple
veins; inner segms. shorter, erect, lanceolate, acuminate,
pale lilac, veined. Calif. B.M. 6083. Gn. 50: 272.—
Exists in an endless variety of color-forms, varying
from pale lilac to deep violet with considerable varia-
tion in the veining.

71. missouriensis, Nutt. (/. Tolmieana, Herb.). Lvs.
pale green, finely ribbed, 1-1 K ft. long: st. 1-2 ft. long,
usually exceeding the Ivs., bearing a single large If. low
down: pedicel long: tube very short; limb bright lilac;
outer segms. obovate, 1 in. broad, yellow near the
claw; inner segms. oblong, emarginate, straight, erect.
Wet soil. S. D. and Mont, to Ariz. B.M. 6579. Gn.
50:186. — Not common in cult. Flowers early.

72. fulva, Ker (7. cuprea, Pursh). Lvs. thin, bright
green, lJ^-2 ft. long, not exceeding the st.: st. 2-3 ft.
high, forked low down; lower st.-lys. 1 ft. long: pedicel
produced: tube greenish yellow, 1 in. long; limb loosely
expanded, bright reddish brown or copper-colored,
variegated with blue and green; outer segms. obovate-
cuneate, emarginate; inner segms. smaller, spreading.
Late June. In swamps, 111. to Ga., La. and Texas.
Intro, into England 1811 by Lyon. B.M. J496. Gn.
53:518. Mn.

5:61.

73. Pseudac-
orus, Linn. (7.
acormdes, Spach.
7. fldva, Tornab.).
Lvs. 1^-3 ft. long,
equaling the st.:
st. stout, terete,
2-3 ft., bearing
several long Ivs.
and several clus-
ters of fls.: limb
bright yellow;
outer segms.
broadly obovate,
2-2% in. long,
yellow, with a
bright spot and
radiating brown
veins on the claw;
inner segms.
scarcely longer
than the claw of
the outer, oblong.
May, June. Eu.,
Syria and the
Barbary states;
naturalized in N.
Y., Mass, and N.

J. — The plants 1972. Iris versicolor ( X Yd . No. 74

1678

IRIS

IRIS

form fine, large clumps, bearing numerous flowering
stalks. Var. variegata, Hort. Lvs. striped with creamy
white. Var. pallida, Hort. Fls. pale sulfur-yellow.

74. versicolor, Linn. (7. virginica, Linn.). Fig.
1972. Lvs. slightly glaucous, 1^-2 ft. long: st. forked
low down and often branched above, 2-3-headed : tube
very short; limb violet-blue; outer segms. spatulate,
2-3 in. long, variegated with yellow on the claw and
veined with purple; inner segms. oblanceolate, much
smaller. British N. Amer. and N. U. S. Intro, into
England 1732. B.M. 21, 703.

75. hexagdna, Walt. Lvs. 2-3 ft. long: st. usually
simple, 3 ft. long, 2-3-headed, with several large Ivs.,
the upper ones exceeding the fls. : spathe-valves some-
times If .-like: tube 1 in. long, green, dilated upward;
limb bright lilac; outer segms. 3 in. long; blade obo-
yate, with a bright yellow keel on the claw; claw downy;
inner segms. shorter, erect; style-branches very concave,
green, with a central lilac band. Ky. to Texas, and Fla.
B.M. 6787.

76. caroliniana, Wats. Fig. 1973. Lvs. 2-3 ft. long,
bright green: st. stout, simple or branched: tube >£in.
long; limb lilac, variegated with purple and brown;
outer segms. broadly spatulate, 2J^-3 in. long, with
narrow claws; inner segms. narrower, nearly erect.
Differs from /. versicolor by its green Ivs. Discovered by
W. A. Manda in N. C. B.M. 8465. G.F. 6:335
(adapted in Fig. 1973).

77. setdsa, Pall. (7. brachycuspis, Fisch. 7.
tripetala, Hook.). Lvs. thin, green, 1-1^ ft. long:
st. deeply forked, much exceeding the Ivs.: tube J^in.

. long;

long; limb bright lilac; outer segms. 2-2% in.
blade 1 in. broad, suddenly narrowed at the claw,
copiously veined; inner segms. very small, ^in., cuneate,
large-cuspidate; style-branches large, crested. E.
Siberia, Japan, and N. W. Amer. to Labrador and
Maine. B.M. 2326; 2886. Gt. 322.

78. Monnieri, DC. Lvs. slightly glaucous, 2-3 ft.'
long: st. stout, terete, 3-4 ft. long, with several sessile

clusters of fls

1973. iris caroliniana. ( x H)

long, lemon-yellow, with-
out veins; blade of
outer segms. orbic-
ular, 1-1 yz in.
long, equaling the
claw; inner segms.
oblong - u n g u i c -
ulate, 1 in. broad.
Origin not cer-
tainly known.
Found in the gar-
den of Lemonnier
at Versailles. G.
25:389. — Not
showy except in
masses. This and
7. orientalis and 7.
aurea are very
closely related and
together with 7.
halophila are per-
haps all forms of
7. spuria. I. Mon-
nieri is uniformly
bright lemon-yel-
low, free from
veins or spots. By
its coloring, it dif-
fers from 7. orien-
talis and by the or-
bicular bladeof the
outer segms. from
7. aurea, in which
the blades are
oblong. Often at-
tributed to Crete.

79. hal6phila, Pall. (7. Gueldenstxdtiana, Lepech.).
Lvs. pale green, 1-1 ^ ft. long: st. stout, terete, lj£-
2 ft. long, often bearing 1-2 spicate clusters below the
end one: limb pale yellow; outer segms. with an orbicu-
lar blade H-Min. broad, shorter than the claw, which
has a bright yellow keel and faint lilac veins; inner
segms. shorter, erect.

Asia. B.M. 1515 (7.
spuria var. stenogyna,
Ker).

80. orientalis, Mill.
(7. ochroleiica, Linn. 7.
gigantea, Carr.). Fig.
1974. Plants growing
in strong clumps: Ivs.
2-3 ft. long, 1 in. or
more broad, slightly
glaucous: st. 3 ft.,
stout, terete, about as
long as the Ivs., with
2-3 spicate clusters of
fls.: outer segms. ob-
ovate, 1 in. broad, as
long as the claw, yel-
low, paler or white
toward the margin;

inner segms. oblong, 1 1974. Habit sketch of Iris orientalis.
in. broad, lemon-yel- (X^)

low to whitish. Asia

Minor and Syria. B.M. 61. Gn. 20:272; 38:462; 46,
p. 362; 50, p. 186; 69, p. 25; 72, p. 622. Gn. M. 15:360.
R.H. 1875, p. 357.— One of the largest of the irises.
Grows in almost any situation. White forms of this
plant are in cult, but no purple forms are known. See
note under 7. Monnieri.

81. aurea, Lindl. Lvs. scarcely glaucous, 1^-2 ft.
long: st. 3-3 J^ ft. long, stout, terete, with 1-2 sessile
lateral clusters below the end one: spathes 2-3-fld.:
pedicel long: limb bright yellow; outer segms. with an
oblong undulate blade 1 in. broad, as long as the claw;
inner segms. less than >£in. broad, with much-waved
edges. July. W. Himalayas. B.R. 33:59. Gn. 31:52.
G. 25:388. B.M. 1131 (as 7. spuria var. halophila).—
Intro, by Dr. Royle. The color is a rich golden yellow,
much deeper than that of 7. Monnieri and the others
of this group. See 7. Monnieri. Said to grow up to 5
ft. high under favorable conditions. Var. intermedia, W.
I., in G.C. III. 28:22. Intermediate between 7. aurea
and 7. orientalis. Deep yellow, with crisped segms. like
7. aurea, but having the obovate outer segms. and narrow
inner segms. of 7. orientalis. Fls. late, with 7. aurea.

82. fcetidissima, Linn. GLAD WIN. Lvs. 1-1 H ft.
long: st. compressed, 2-3 ft. long, 2-3-headed : tube %m.
long; limb bright lilac; outer segms. 1 3/2-2 in. long,
with a suborbicular blade equaling the claw; inner
segms. shorter, oblanceolate. Cent, and S. Eu., Eng-
land, Afghanistan and Algeria. Gn. 47, p. 30. G.
19:543. — This plant is very distinct, and is easily
recognized by the odor of the broken Ivs. The caps.
remain on the plants in winter, bursting open and
displaying rows of orange-red berries. The fls. are
rather inconspicuous. There is a whitish variety with
brown veins, and a variety with white-striped Ivs. A
pale yellow form veined with green also occurs occa-
sionally.

83. spuria, Linn. Lvs. firm, linear, glaucescent, 1 ft.
long, longer after flowering: st. overtopping the Ivs.,
bearing 1-3 spicate heads: pedicel shorter than the
spathe: tube J^-^in. long; limb bright lilac; outer
segms. with an orbicular, spreading blade ^m- broad
and half as long as the claw; claws broad, concave,
lilac, with a yellow keel and purple veins; inner segms.
shorter, straight, oblanceolate; style-crests small. Cent.
and S. Eu. B.M. 58. Var. ndtha, Bieb. (7. halophila,
Ker). More robust: Ivs. 1 in. broad: spathes larger:

IRIS

IRIS

1679

st. 2-3 ft. high. Caucasus to Kashmir. B.M. 875. —
Hardy. Var. desertorum, Ker. Fls. pale lilac; claws of
the segms. yellow. B.M. 1514. Var. sogdiana, Bunge
(/. sogdiana, Bunge) . A variety with gray-lilac fls.

84. laevigata, Fisch. (/. Kaempferi, Sieb. /. dlbopur-
purea, Baker). JAPANESE IRIS. Figs. 1975, 1976. Lvs.
thin, ensiform, \-\]/2 ft. long: st. much overtopping the

1975. Japanese iris. — I. laevigata.

Ivs., obscurely angled, 1-3-headed: pedicel J^-2 in.
long: tube short; limb blue, violet, etc., sometimes
white, spreading, 3-5 in. across; outer segms. broadly
ovate-oblong, obtuse; with a yellow spot on the claw;
claw short, distinct; inner segms. oblanceolate, erect,
conniving or spreading; style-branches with bifid,
incurved lobes. E. Siberia and Japan. Intro, by Von
Siebold, and flowered at Ghent in 1857. B.M. 6132;
7511. I.H. 5:157. F.S. 20:2073, 2074; 23:2431-6.
Gt. 442; 29:1003. Gn. 9:476; 16:198; 21:424; 55,
p. 105; 60, p. 349; 74, pp. 336, 363, 365; 75:226.
R.H. 1890, p. 188. G.C. II. 2:47; 111.13:165,
169; 14:501; 44:141. A.G. 19:596. Gng. 1:256;
5:163; 6:339; 7:145. J.H. III. 28:205. F.E. 10:777.
F.M. 1874:137; 1880:403. G.W. 2:66; 12:220 (var.
alba). Gn.M. 5:343; 15:361. C.L.A. 3:179. G. 19:
195. R.B. 36:245 (as I.japonica). G.F. 1:259 (adap-
ted in Fig. 1975). — On account of the presence of
a prominent ridge, formed by one or more veins along
the middle of the Ivs. of 7. Kaempferi, this
species is sometimes considered as distinct "*"*-'*<*,
from I. Isevigata. If the species are distinct,
the numerous cult, forms of Japanese irises
are probably all derived from 7. Kaempferi since, at least
so far as available material from forms cult, in the
U. S. shows, all have the prominent midrib on the Ivs.
85. verna, Linn. Dwarf, 6 in. high: rhizome wide-
creeping: sheaths not splitting into fibers: Ivs. linear,
slightly glaucous, 3-8 in. long: st. scarcely any, 1-
headed: tube slender, \Y^ in. long; limb deep violet;
outer segms. 13^ in. long, obovate, narrowed into a
slender yellow, slightly pubescent claw; inner segms.
erect, smaller, violet. Shade, Ohio, Ky., Va. and south.
L.B.C. 19:1855. B.M. 8159. — An anomalous species
with the habit of a pogoniris but lacking the beard.

SUBGENUS JUNO.

A. St. very short or none.

B. Lvs. very short at flowering-time.

c. The Ivs. hollow, tetragonous 86. Danfordiae

cc. The Ivs. linear complicate 87. persica

ccc. The Ivs. lanceolate, falcate 88. Rosenbachi-

BB. Lvs. 3-9 in. long at flowering-time, [ana

lanceolate, falcate at base.
c. Fls. bright lilac: hairs on the

outer segms. blunt 89. alata

cc. Fls. yellow; hairs on the outer

segms. with globular tips 90. palasstina

AA. St. 8-15 in. long, sometimes obscured
by the crowded Ivs.

B. Lvs. with a distinct white horny

margin.
C. Plants dwarf: st. hidden by the

crowded clasping Ivs.
D. Claw of the outer segms. winged.

E. Fls. lavender or purple 91. Willmottiana

EE. Fls. yellow 92. caucasica

DD. Claw, of the outer segms. not

winged 93. Fosteriana

cc. Plants tall, 1 ft. or more: inter-
nodes evident.

D. Outer segms. gradually con-
tracted into a claw 94. caerulea

DD. Outer segms. suddenly con-
tracted into a claw 95. warleyensis

BB. Lvs. without a conspicuous white

horny edge.
c. Claw of the outer segms. winged.

D. Fls. slaty lilac 96. sindjarensis

DD. Fls. smoky yellow 97. fumosa

cc. Claw of the outer segms. not

winged 98. orchioides

86. Danfordiae, Boiss. (7. Bornmuelleri, Hausskn.).
Fl.-sts. 2-4 in. high: Ivs. very short at flowering time
finally a foot long: fls. bright yellow, 1^ in. diam.;
outer segms. with an orbicular blade spotted with
brown; claw cuneate; inner segms. reduced to minute,
spreading, subulate teeth; style-crests large. Spring.
Cilician Taurus. B.M. 7140. Gt. 39:1327. Gn. 37:462;
67, p. 89. G.C. III. 27:170.— Fragrant.

87. persica, Linn. Bulb ovoid : Ivs. 4-5, 2-3 in. long,
becoming 6 in. long after flowering time, with white
obscurely ciliated edges: st. short, 1-headed: tube 2-3
in. long; limb pale lilac; outer segms. with an orbicu-
lar blade with a dark purple blotch, an orange keel,
and purple lines and spots; claw auriculate; inner segms.
small. Asia Minor and Persia. B.M. 1. Gn. 11, p.
207; 14:490; 33:558; 54, pp. 103, 470; 66:8. F.S.
10:1045. G.C. III. 7:577. R.H. 1912, p. 454.— Should

1976. Japanese iris. — Iris laevigata, better known as Iris
Kaempferi.

1680

IRIS

be lifted in summer. Var. purpurea, Dykes (7. pur-
purea, Siehe). A bright purple variety. Fine. Var.
Sieheana, Dykes (/. Sieheana, Lynch. /. Haussknech-
tii, Siehe). Similar to var. purpurea, but with larger,
silvery gray fls. marked with reddish purple. B.M.
8059. G.C. III. 35:251. Var. stenophylla, Dykes (7.
stenophylla Hausskn. & Siehe. 7. Heldrelchii, Hort.).
Fls. pale blue; outer segms. blackish blue at the tip,
with spots of the same shade on the rest of the blade;
keel yellow; crests of the style-branches nearly as
large as the outer segms., suborbicular, crenate. Cili-
cian Taurus. B.M. 7734. G.C. III. 27:171. Gn. 59,
p. 225; 76, p. 132. F.S.R. 2:328. Var. Taftri, Dykes
(7. Tauri, Siehe). Fls. bright violet-purple veined
with white on the lower part of the blade and on the
claw of the outer segms.; keel deep orange; inner
segms. depressed, 3-lobed. B.M. 7793. G.C. III. 29:
191. Gn. 61, p. 93.

88. Rosenbachiana, Regel. Lvs. 4-5, finally 6-8 in.
long and 2 in. broad: st. short, 1-3-headed: outer segms.
obovate-cuneate; blade reflexed, white at the tip, deep
purple in the middle and creamy below, with a yellow

1977. Iris orchioides. — A good species for pots or the open. ( X M)

keel and dark lilac veins; inner segms. spreading or
reflexed, obovate, pale lilac. The color of the fls. is
very variable. Mountains of Turkestan. B.M. 7135.
Gt. 35:1227. Gn. 33:558 J.H. III. 28:189. G.C. III.
7:577. G.M. 34:171. C.L.A. 5:134;9:410.

89. alata, Ppir. (7. scorpiatdes, Desf. Xiphium
planifblium, Mill.). Lvs. about 6, plane, 6-9 in. long:
st. very short, 1-3-fld.: tube 4-6 in. long; outer segms.
3-^4 in. long, obovate-cuneate, bright lilac, variegated
with white, and having a yellow keel down the claw;
inner segms. obovate-unguiculate, spreading from the
base of the outer; style-crest large, laciniately toothed.
Spain to Sicily and Algeria. B.M. 6352. B.R. 1876.

Gt. 40:1351 (vars.). Gn. 10, p. 579; 54, p. 102. G.C.
111.45:52. G.M. 35:614. G. 1:665; 11:689; 35:55.
Gn.W. 20:185. — Winter-flowering. Plants very dwarf.

90. palsestina, Boiss. Lvs. 3-6 in. long: st. very
short, 1-3-fld.: tube 2-3 in. long: fls. pale yellow, tinged
with lilac; outer segms. oblong, upper one-fourth
reflexed; claw auriculate; inner segms. minute, narrowly
lanceolate. Mountains of Palestine. — Fls. in winter.
Very near 7. caucasica, but distinguished by its longer
acuminate spath'es and the color of the fls.

91. Willmottiana, Foster. Lvs. about 8, with a white
horny edge, broad, not acutely channelled, deep glis-
tening green: st. 6-8 in. high, 4-6-fld.: fls. sessile,
lavender or pale purple; tube 2 in. long; outer segms.
oblong, with a white patch at the throat, marked with
veins and patches of deeper purple, claw with white
and purple markings; outer segms. small, depressed,
cuspidate; style-crests small, triangular. Mountains
of E. Turkestan. Gn. 59, p. 411; 75, p. 128; 66:8.
G.C. 47:364; III. 29:271.— Resembles 7. caucasica in
habit and size but has narrower spathe-valves which
are not inflated.

92. caucasica, Hoffm. Lvs. about 6: st. very short,
1-4-fld.: fls. pale or bright yellow; outer segms. with an
ovate blade and a very broad rhomboidal claw, with
small auricles and a toothed or ciliated crest; inner
segms. oblanceolate. Caucasus to Asia Minor, etc.
Gt. 1874:800. C.L.A. 9 : 409.— Dwarf er habit than
7. orchioides.

93. Fosteriana, Aitch. & Baker. Lvs. 8-10 in. long:
st. 6-8 in. long, 9-12 in. long after flowering, hidden by
the clasping Ivs., 1-2-fld.: outer segms. yellow, streaked
with black, obovate-cuneate; claw not auriculate;
inner segms. shorter, obovate, bright purple. March.
Afghan and Russian boundary. B.M. 7215. — Very
different from the allied species 7. orchioides and 7.
sindjarensis, and so on, on account of the difference in
color of the sepals and petals.

94. caerftlea, Fedtsch. (7. caucasica var. cseriilea,
Regel. 7. orchioides var. cserulea, Hort.). Lvs. about 8:
st. about 15 in. high, bearing 3-4 fls. in the axils of the
Ivs.: fls. bright lilac; outer segms. with a ligulate claw
expanded slightly at the base and an obovate-oblong
blade with a conspicuous whitish crest and a yellow
blotch on the throat; inner segms. pendent, with a
narrow pointed lanceolate blade. Turkestan.

95. warleyensis, Foster. Lvs. 6-7, 6 in. long, \-\lA
in. broad, with a conspicuous horny margin: st. 1 ft.,
3-5-fld.: fls. sessile; outer segms. with a strap-shaped
claw expanding into an orbicular blade, deep violet
with a whitish crest and an orange patch at the throat,
claw pale violet with deeper markings; inner segms.
narrow, pale blue, purple, or violet, cuspidate. Turk-
estan. B.M. 7956. Gn. 61, p. 241; 72, p. 635. G.C.
111.31:386. J.H. III. 44:339. F.S.R. 3:344. G.M.
46:322.

96. sindjarensis, Boiss. Lvs. about 8, crowded,
distichous, glossy above, conspicuously striated below,
8-10 in. long, l}^-2 in. broad: st. 6-9 in. long, 3-6-fld.:
fls. slaty lilac; outer segms. with an obovate, reflexed
blade narrowed to a claw, with darker lilac lines and
a small yellow crest; inner segms. oblong, clawed. Feb.
Deserts of Mesopotamia. B.M. 7145. G.C. III. 7:365.
J.H. III. 28:227; 48:97. Gn. 69, p. 134. Gn.W.
21:260; suppl. pi. — Plants J^ft. high. Var. assyriaca,
Lynch (7. assyriaca, Hort. or Hausskn.), is a white
variety from Mesopotamia. Gn. 69, p. 195. C.L.A.
9:409.

97. fumfisa, Boiss. & Hausskn. Lvs. about 10: st.
6 in. long: outer segms. spatulate-oblanceolate, re-
curved above the middle, claw with a yellow crest;
inner segms. minute, spatulate, toothed. The fls. are
greenish yellow, shaded with smoky gray. Dry fields,
Syria. — Perhaps a variety of 7. sindjarensis.

IRIS

IRIS

1681

98. orchioides, Carr. (I . caucdsica, Regel). Fig. 1977.
Lvs. about 6: st. 12-15 in. long, with distinct inter-
nodes: spathes 1-fld,, 2 in. long: fls. yellow; outer segms.
with an obovate blade, and a purple blotch on each side
of the crest of the claw; inner segms. ob lanceolate, less
than an inch long, and generally sharply deflexed, with a
long filiform claw. B.M. 7111. Gn. 53, p. 482. R.H.
1880, p. 337. Spring. Var. oculata, Maxim. Blade of
the outer segms. more spotted.

SUBGENUS XIPHIUM.

A. St. 1 ft. or more in length.
B, Tube very short or none.

c. Claw of the outer segms. pan-

durate 99. Xiphium

cc. Claw of the outer segms. broad-
ly cuneate 100. xiphioides

BB. Tube usually more than %in. long.

c. Outer bulb-coats thick and leathery.lQl. juncea
cc. Outer bulb-coats thin membranous.
D. Outer segms. with a rudimentary

beard 102. Boissieri

DD. Outer segms not bearded.

E. Inner segms. obovate-lanceo-

late, emarginate 103. filifolia

EE. Inner segms. lanceolate,

pointed 104. tingitana

AA. St. very short or none.

B. Lvs. acutely quadrangular.

c. The hs. very short at flowering

time 105. reticulata

cc. The Ivs. long, much overtopping
the fls.

D. Inner segms. oblanceolate 106.

DD. Inner segms. linear-lanceolate.... 107.

Lvs cylindrical, 8-ribbed 108.

Lvs. linear, channelled with thick-
ened edges 109.

BB.
BBS.

Histrio

Vartanii

Bakeriana

Kolpakow-
[skiana

99. Xiphium, Linn. (7. hispdnica, Hort. I. spectdb-
ilis, Spach). SPANISH IRIS. Fig. 1978. Lvs. about 1 ft.
long: st. 1-2 ft. high: pedicel long, tube obsolete;
outer segms. 2-2^ in. long, violet-purple, yellow in
the center; inner segms. as long, but narrower. Late
June. Spain and N. Afr. B.M. 686. Gn. 20:442; 30,
p. 385; 54, p. 471. — Long cult, and well known. Hardy
in N. J. in protected situations. Var. lusitanica,
Foster (7. lusitanica, Ker). Fls. yellow. B.M. 679.
Var. Battandieri, Foster. Fls. pure white, except the
orange keels of the outer segms. Lvs. very glaucous.
Algeria.

100. xiphioides, Ehrh. (7. dnglica, Hort.}. ENG-
LISH IRIS. Lvs. about 1 ft. : st. 1-2 ft. : fls. dark violet-
purple in the typical form; outer segms. orbicular,
yellow in the center; inner segms. shorter, oblong.
French and Spanish Pyrenees. B.M. 687. R.H. 1891:
36; 1907, p. 446. Gn. 30, p. 384; 31:212; 54, p. 471.
Gn.M. 15:362. G.W. 12:547 and p. 549 (vars.).

101. juncea, Poir. (Xiphium junceum, Klatt). St.
slender, erect, rigid, 9-18 in. high, bearing 1 (rarely 2)
golden yellow fls., 2-3 in. diain.: Ivs. rigid, slender,
rush-like, 18-24 in. long: outer segms. with an orbicular
blade shorter than the cuneate claw, recurved and
veined with brown; inner segms. erect, oblanceolate.
May, June. Algeria, Tunis, etc. B.M. 5890. Gn.
54:470.

102 Boissieri, Henriq. Lvs. linear, very deeply
channelled. 1 ft. long: st. about a foot long, bearing few,
reduced lanceolate Ivs. and a single fl.: outer segms.
\Y^ in- long; blade obovate, reflexed, as long as the
cuneate claw, bright lilac, with a yellow keel running
down the claw, slightly bearded; inner segms. as long
as the outer, erect, obovate, clawed, bright lilac. June.
S. Portugal. B.M. 7097.

107

103. filifolia, Boiss., not Bunge (Xiphium fdifblium,
Klatt. X. tingitanum, Hook.). Slender and leafy,
about 2 ft. high, bearing 1-2 bright violet-purple fls.
2-2 Yi in. diam.: Ivs. about 1 ft., those of the non-
flowering bulbs twice as long, weak, flexuous, convolute :
outer segms. with a narrow claw expanding suddenly
into a reflexed, suborbicular blade, bright yellow down
the center; inner segms. erect, obovate-lanceolate,
erose, notched. S. Spain and N. W. Afr. B.M. 5928;
5981.— Intro. 1869. Hardy.

104. tingitana, Boiss. & Reut. (7. Xiphium, Desf.).
St. stout, 1-2-headed, about 2 ft. high, "hidden by the
sheathing bases of the stout, falcate Ivs., of which there
are 6-7 on the st,, the lower about 1 ft. long: fls. 2-3
in a cluster; outer segms. 3 in. long, with an obovate,
reflexed blade, pale lilac, yellow in the center, and with
a bright yellow keel down the claw; inner segms.
shorter, oblanceolate, erect, incurved. Tangiers. B.M.
6775. Gn. 36:294; 63, p. 41; 71, p. 404; 74, p. 349;
75, p. 323. G.C. III. 37:339; 40:24; 48:16, 17. G.M.
40:377. J.H. III. 50:429.

105. reticulata, Bieb. Lvs. 2-4 in a tuft, short, erect,
quadrangular, with horny edges, elongating to 1%

'

1978. Iris Xiphium.— Type of bulbous iris. ( X Ji)

ft.: st. very short: tube 3-6 in. long; fls. bright pur-
ple, very fragrant; outer segms. 2 in. long, yellow at
the claw, with a low yellow crest; inner segms. nar-
rower. Mid- April. Asia Minor and Persia. B.M. 5577.
F.S. 5, pp. 509. R.H. 1890, p. 133; 1912, p. 454.
Gt. 779; 13:452. Gn. 20:112; 54, p. 471; 59, p. 233.
G.C. II. 11:501; 21:217; 111. 52:339. F. 1860:161.
G. 19:466. G.M 51:695. F.W. 1871:225. Var. his-
trioides, Foster (7. histrimdes, Dykes). Outer segms.
much mottled with white and lilac on the claw and
broad, orbicular blade. Asia Minor, Persia, and the
Caucasus. Gn. 42:364; 62, p. 42 and 77, p. 42. G.M.
51, p. 87. J.H. III. 34:111.— Early-flowering, and fine
for pots. Var. Krelagei, Regel. Fls. red-purple, varying

1682

IRIS

IRRIGATION

greatly in shade; claw conspicuously veined. The
common wild form of the Caucasus. Nearly odorless.
L.B.C. 19:1829. Gt. 22:779. R.B. 18:60. G.C. II.
21:217. Var. caerillea, Hort. Azure-blue. Var. cyanea,
Regel. Blue. Gt. 23:797. Var. major, Hort. Like the
type, but larger. Gn. 60, p. 198.

106. Histrio, Reichb. f . (Xiphium Histrio, Hook. f. 7.
reticulata var. Histrio, Foster). Plants tufted, slender
and flaccid: Ivs. quadrate, with horny edges, deeply
grooved on each face, 1 ft. long: st. very short, very
slender, 1-fld.: fls. 3 in. diam.; tube 3-4 in. long, blue
above; outer segms. obovate-spatulate, spreading,
deep blue, with a yellow line in the center bordered
with white and spotted and shaded with blue; inner
segms. erect, oblanceolate, blue. Feb. Mountains of
Palestine. B.M. 6033. Gn. 9, p. 29; 33:558. G.C. III.
12:729; 21:105; 45:55.— Related to /. reticulata,
differing only in its paler, odorless fls., which are pro-
duced several weeks earlier.

107. Vartanii, Foster. Lvs. usually 2, 8-9 in. long,
slender, finally longer: st. very short, hidden: tube 2^
in. long; outer segms. with a narrow claw, suddenly
enlarged into an ovate-lanceolate blade, pale, slaty
lilac, with darker veins and a crisp yellow crest down
the claw; inner segms. erect, almost linear-lanceolate,
pale lilac. Dec. Palestine, near Nazareth. B.M. 6942.
Gn. 77, p. 69.— Not scented.

108. Bakeriana, Foster. Lvs. 3-4, 6-9 in. long,
finally a foot or more after flowering, hollow, cylindrical,
8-rjbbed: fls. single, on a short peduncle, fragrant;
tube 3-6 in.; outer segms. with a long, obovate-
elliptical claw, and a small, ovate, reflexed blade, intense
violet, creamy in the center, with a yellow streak
down the claw; inner segms. shorter, erect, oblan-
ceolate, lilac; style-crests large. Feb., March. Arme-
nia. B.M. 7084. Gn. 37:462. G.C. III. 7:293; 21:
103; 45:53. J.H. III. 34:177; 42:142. G.M. 40:118.

109. Kolpakowskiana, Regel (Xiphium Kolpakowski-
anum, Baker) . Lvs. 5-6, wrapped round by a sheath at
the base, very short at the flowering time, but growing
longer, linear, channelled, with thickened edges:
scape very short, 1-fld.; tube 2-3 in. long; outer segms.
with a long, erect claw and an ovate, acute blade, deep
violet-purple with a yellow keel down the claw; inner
segms. oblanceolate, erect, pale lilac. Mountains of
Turkestan. B.M. 6489. Gn. 17, p. 75; 33:558. Gt.
1878:939. — Very near I. reticulata, fls. at the same time,
and is sweet-scented.

SUBGENUS GYNANDRIHIS.

110. Sisyrinchium, Linn. (Morsea Sisyrinchium, Ker.
Xiphium Sisyrinchium, Baker. 7. maricmdes, Regel).
St. 6-12 in. high, stout or flexuous, 1-3-headed: Ivs. 2,
slender, as long as the st.: fls. fugitive, lilac-purple,
with a yellow, oblong spot on the outer segms. which
are oblong-spatulate; inner segms. narrow-lanceolate,
erect, pale; style-crests large, lance-deltoid. Widely
spread through S. Eu., Afr. and Asia. B.M. 1407 (net
good), and 6096. — Easily killed by frost. In 7. mari-
coides, Regel, the filaments are said to be distinct from
each other and from the style.

Of some of the names, found in catalogues, no complete descrip-
tion is available: 7. Amas, Hort. Germanica group. — I. angiis-
tina. Deep yellow, marked with maroon. Garden form of I. varie-
gata. — I. angustlssima, Hort. Fls. dark purple. — 7. brachysiphon.
Pale blue. Rhizomatous. — 7. britdnnica. Pale pink, with the outer
segms. veined with purple. Garden form of I. squalens. — I. Brook-
siana, Hort. Mauve-purple. — I. cand.id.na. Outer segms. reddish

?urple; inner segms. light lavender. Germanica. — I.coreana. Like
. sibirica, early and a free bloomer. — 7. edina. Light purple and

7. Gudldii, Hort. — 7. ignitUia, probably Ignacite, a form of I.
neglecta. Lilac, with the outer segms. shaded purple. — I. ligularis.
Purple. Germanica. — 7. macrdntha, Hort. Germanica. — 7.
nlgricans. Lvs. short ensiform: fls. dull black to deep black.
Distinct from I. atropurpurea by its uniform dark color and dwarf
foliage. Oncocyclus. — 7. pdncrea, probably pancrace, var. of I.

variegata. Buff and purple.— 7. Robinsoniana, F. Muell.=Morsea
Robinsoniana. — 7. Riidinii, Hort., Herb. Fls. black-brown and
claret. Said to be stronger and more free-flowering than the other
oncocyclus irises. — I. tuberdsa, Linn.=Hermodactylus tuberosus.
— I. Vogeliana. Similar to I. persica and I. Rosenbachiana, but
earlier-flowering. Fls. variable in color, silver-gray predominating,
with violet, rose or lilac markings. Var. grandifldra. Large-flowering.

The following are garden hybrids, sometimes cult. : 7. interregna
=1. germanica X I. pumila. Several color vars., pale yellow, citron,
lavender, and claret-red: fl.-sts. 18 in. high, holding the fls. well
above the Ivs. — 7. monspur, Foster=I. Monnieri x I. spuria. Said
to be very ornamental. — 7. ochro-aitrea or ochaiirea, Foster=I.
orientalis X I. aurea. Outer segms. rich yellow with a cream-colored
border; inner segms. erect, yellowish, bilobed at the apex. 5 ft.
— 7. pdravar or 7. pdrvar, Foster=I. paradoxaxl. variegata.
Sts. 2-fld. : fls. dark purple with the bases of the segms. pale brown
with darker markings. G.C. III. 29:398. — 7. sindpers, Van Tuber-
gen=I. sindjarensis X I. persica. Intermediate between the parents
in foliage and general habit. Free-flowering: fls. blue like those of
I. sindjarensis but lacking the conspicuous patch at the apex of the
outer segms.

The following species are sometimes cult: 7. gracilipes, Gray.
Rootstock slender, wide-creeping: Ivs. finally 1 ft. long, }^in.
broad: st. 8-10 in. high, forked once or twice: spathes of a single,
membranous, scarious valve which reaches about the top of the
tube, 1-fld.: fls. purple or lilac; outer segms. obovate-cuneate,
deeply emarginate, about 1 in. long, white in the middle, veined
with purple and bearing a yellow crest; inner segms. oblanceolate
emarginate, smaller, uniformly colored. Japan. B.M. 7926. — A
small pretty iris of the Evansia group. — 7. Piirdyi, Eastwood.
Rootstock thin and wiry: Ivs. 1 ft. long and \i~V-ivn.. wide, thick,
sub-erect: st. 4-6 in. long, entirely covered by the short inflated
bracts: spathe-valves l%-2 in. long, inflated, the outer slightly
keeled: fls. pale straw-yellow; tube 1/4-1 H in. long; outer segms.
broadly lanceolate, veined with brownish purple; inner segms. lan-
ceolate, spreading, faintly veined. Gt. 35: 1222 (as I. Douglasiana).
— An iris of the apogon group closely related to I. bracteata from
which it differs by the long linear perianth-tube. — I. tenuis, Wats.
Rootstock slender, wide-creeping: Ivs. thin, ensiform, 1 ft. long,
yi\n. broad: st. equaling the Ivs., branched: spathe-valves scarious,
1 in. long, 1-fld. : outer segms. oblong-spatulate, white, yellow at the
throat and marked with purple veins; inner segms. smaller, erect,
emarginate. Ore. G.F. 1:6. Apogon. — Rare, found only in Ore.,
and not in cult, except possibly in collections.

Two Chinese species recently offered in England are 7. BwZ-
leyana, Dykes. Foliage grass-like: fls. described as of pretty form
though not striking, deep blue; standards blue-purple and falls
mottled with same color on creamy ground. — 7. Forrestii, Dykes.
Lvs. grassy, linear, 12 in., glaucous beneath: sts. numerous, about
12 in.: spathes green, with 1 or 2 fls.: falls with veins of dark red
or purple-brown; blade drooping, pale lemon-yellow, sometimes
with purplish veins. G.C. III. 47:418.

HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

IRONWOOD: Usually Ostrya virginica; in S. Calif., Lyono-
thamnus floribundus; in Ariz. Olneya Tesota; in Texas, Bumelia
lycioides. Many hardwooded plants bear this name.

IRRIGATION. Irrigation in its broadest sense
includes all problems of collecting, storing, delivering,
and applying water to the land through the construc-
tion of dams, reservoirs, canals and laterals, and the
application of power when necessary to deliver the
water; while in a restricted horticultural sense it is a
method of cultivation, having for its object to increase
and regulate the water-supply in the soil.

In this latter sense, irrigation is a necessary practice
in the arid regions, and is advisable in the humid
regions in proportion to the intensity of the cultivation
and the value of the crop grown. Thus in Florida, with
an average of 60 to 70 inches of annual rainfall — usually
well distributed — irrigation has been largely introduced
in the past few years for horticultural crops and even
for tobacco, as an insurance against loss or damage by
the occasional droughts. The first cost of a small irri-
gation plant in Florida, for 20 acres or over, is said to
be approximately $100 to $150 an acre; the interest on
which, and the necessary repairs, would amount to
$5 to $10 an acre each year. This is a small expendi-
ture to insure a crop against loss or injury where the
value to the acre is so great as in many horticultural
lines. Irrigation is needed not only to prevent the
actual death of the plants, but to promote a uniform,
rapid, and continuous growth, which is necessary for
the development of the finest texture or flavor of the
commercial crop.

King has shown that the value of a crop saved in
Wisconsin, such as the strawberry, in a season when the
crops generally are injured by drought, may pay all
the expenses of the original cost of the irrigation
plant.

IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION

1683

In the semi-arid regions west of the 100th meridian,
with a rainfall of 20 inches or less, crops are liable to
be entire failures three or four years out of five; while
with an irrigation plant there should not be a failure
one year in five. In the arid regions with less than 15
inches of rain, irrigation is a necessity on most soils.
Here the work has been highly organized and sys-
tematized, so that the cost of water delivered at the
field amounts to $2 to $5 an acre each year. Under
skilful management, the most abundant yields are
secured. The most careful management is required in
the application of water to prevent serious injury to
the land and to avoid actual injury to the crop in ren-
dering the plants tender and liable to disease, and in
maintaining the quality and flavor, both of which are
liable to depreciate unless good judgment is displayed
in supplying water.

Sources of water-supply.

The principal sources of water-supply are streams,
surface wells, artesian wells, and the storage of storm
waters. For small irrigated tracts near cities, the city
water-supply may often be used to advantage. In
other localities the nature of the conditions will deter-
mine the most economical source from which to secure
the water. Perpetually flowing streams, if situated in
such a way that water can be carried to the land by
gravity, have the advantage of cheapness of construc-
tion and maintenance. On the other hand, if the
stream supplies others in the community, there is liable
to be trouble and expense in establishing and maintain-
ing water-right claims and in securing water when
needed for the crop. Questions arising out of the
water-rights on streams and rivers in the western
states, with the various state laws, the multiplicity of
court decisions on the most intricate legal questions —
both in different states and different countries along the
line of the stream — the absence in most states of ade-
quate police or judicial powers vested in the irrigation
commissioner, have led to the most perplexing and
bewildering state of affairs, and have involved the
states and individuals in enormous costs for lawsuits,
resulting in many cases in the apportionment of many
times the volume of the stream to the settlers along
its bank.

The large planter must seek some perennial and
abundant supply of water, as is furnished by streams,
but it is safe to say that all streams of any size in the
western part of the United States are already appropri-
ated to their fullest extent, although the water so appro-
priated is not all in present use. Smaller planters are
much more independent with some of the other sources
of supply mentioned above. Wells from 10 to 20 feet
deep, with pumps operated by windmills, or wells of a
maximum depth of 50 feet operated by many forms of
gasolene, hot-air or portable engines, attached to direct-
a«ting pumps or centrifugal pumps, form in general a
very satisfactory means of irrigating small areas.

Over limited areas artesian wells have been very suc-
cessfully used. If they are flowing wells delivering a
considerable stream, they can be used over small areas
without storage reservoirs, or over much larger areas
with reservoirs. They should be capped in all cases,
where possible, so that the flow can be stopped when
not actually needed.

In many places it is possible, at a comparatively small
expense, to construct a dam to collect the storm waters.
The magnitude and expense of such work will depend
entirely on the configuration of the surface, the area
of the watershed, the volume of the water to be handled
as well as the nature of the soil, and the material out of
which the dam is to be constructed.

Methods of raising water.

Various methods are used for raising water from
streams, wells, or storage reservoirs which may lie

below the general level of the land to be irrigated.
Hydraulic rams are sometimes used for small areas,
but these are not economical when a small volume of
water is at hand, as only about one-seventh of the water
can be collected. Open buckets carried on an endless
belt, operated by either windmills, or steam-power or
even horse-power, are used with success and offer the
advantage of cheap construction. The ordinary cylinder
or plunger pumps are usually employed when the water
has little or no sediment, and are operated by wind-
mills or by steam or other form of engine. When the
water carries considerable sediment such pumps are
liable to wear away rapidly, and the centrifugal pump
is the most economical form to use. The relative first
cost of equipment for pumping with windmills or with
gasolene or hot-air engines of approximately equal
horse-power is about the same. The windmill, however,
is dependent upon a mean velocity of wind of about 8
miles an hour, while the engine may be operated at any
time, and is thus more reliable when either form of
motive power is taxed to nearly the extreme limit.
There are many kinds of windmills on the market,
and many forms of home-made construction are hi use.

Storing and conducting water.

Storage reservoirs for streams and for storm waters
vary in size and in cost as well as in mode of construc-
tion according to the character of the land, size of
area, volume of water, nature of the material of con-
struction, and demand for the water. The construc-
tion of such reservoirs sometimes involves engineering
problems of the most difficult kind, demanding the
expenditure of immense sums of money.

In the use of windmills, it is necessary to have small
distributing ponds or tanks, as the direct flow from the
pump is usually so small and varies so much with the
velocity of the wind that it cannot be depended on to
water any considerable area. Where it is stored it can
be turned out on the land in large volumes, so that it
spreads over the surface and waters the whole area uni-
formly. For an ordinary windmill the ponds are from
50 to 100 feet square. They can be stocked with fish and
thus be a source of some revenue and variety in the
family supplies. Unless the pond is situated on a slight
elevation, the earth for the embankment must be taken
from the outside. The banks are usually made with a
slope of 1^ to 1 foot. For a bank 5 feet high and 2 feet
across the top, the side would be about 7% feet and the
base about 13 feet wide. If the ground is at all pervious
to water, the bottom of the pond should be protected
from undue seepage and loss of water by puddling.
This should be done with clay, if this is obtainable.
This puddling is often done by driving horses or cattle
in the pond while the surface is wet. A pond of the
size indicated above, operated by a windmill where the
mean wind velocity is about 8 miles an hour, will
irrigate from 3 to 5 acres of land in the semi-arid regions.
Such a pond could be counted upon to irrigate from 5 to
10 acres where, as in the East, only one or two irriga-
tions would be required during the season. The size
of the reservoirs and the area they will irrigate, when
supplied by steam or other kind of engine, will depend
upon the available water-supply and upon the size of
pump and power used.

Ditches and flumes.

The water is usually carried from the stream or
storage reservoir by gravity in open ditches. This
involves loss by evaporation from the surface and by
seepage through the soil. When the water-supply is
limited and its value is consequently great, terra-cotta
pipes, iron pipes, cement or wooden pipes may be
used. When the surface of the country is uneven and
ravines have to be crossed, flumes are used to carry
the water on an even grade across the depression.
These flumes may be iron pipes, open wooden troughs,

1684

IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION

or wooden pipes held together with substantial hoops.
If the depression is not too great the ditch may be built
up on an earth embankment. When the water has to
pass through a gravelly soil, or when for other reasons
the soil is very pervious, special precautions should be
taken to prevent seepage by using pipes, cementing the
sides of the open ditch, or puddling the ditch with clay
or similar material.

Application of water.

The water is usually applied to the ground by flooding
over the whole surface. For this purpose the surface
must be perfectly level and the ground carefully pre-
pared, so that the water will flow uniformly and quickly
over the entire area and be of uniform depth through-
out. When crops are cultivated in rows or on beds,
the water is allowed to flow down in the troughs between
the rows, and there must be a sufficient head of water
to reach the ends of the rows in a reasonably short time,
so that the whole width of the field will be properly
watered.

Where the surface of the ground is so uneven that
surface flooding cannot be used, basins are formed by
throwing up slight ridges, with a plow or other imple-
ment, and the water turned into these basins in succes-
sion and allowed to accumulate to a sufficient extent.
This method is particularly applicable to fruit trees,
although it is occasionally used in other crops. In very
sandy soils the water is occasionally carried through
the field in wooden troughs, which admit of sufficient
seepage to water the land. This prevents the undue
seepage which might occur in such soils if the water was
flowed over the surface. Another method is to dis-
tribute the water through the field in iron pipes, with
openings at frequent intervals, in which nozzles can be
attached to deliver a fine spray over a small area. With
four or five such nozzles an attendant can water a con-
siderable area of ground in the course of a day. Such
an irrigating outfit in Florida was supplied with a
power equivalent to about one horse-power an acre.
The mains and laterals were of 1-inch or 1^-inch iron
pipes laid near the surface of the ground, the laterals
about 100 feet apart, with hydrants every 50 feet. Tanks
were originally used, but it was found desirable to
pump directly into the mains to insure a sufficient
pressure.

Care should be exercised in applying water to the
land. Where water is plentiful there is a common prac-

1979. Sutnirrigation with two runs of tile.

tice of using such an excess as to injure the flavor of
fruit, increase the liability of disease, and eventually
injure the land by the accumulation of seepage waters
and of alkali. As a rule, there has been very much more
damage from over-irrigation than from the use of too
little water. The first two or three years a soil usually
requires a considerable amount of water, but after
becoming well moistened to a considerable depth it

should require comparatively little water thereafter
to maintain its fertility. As it is not easy to apply just
the proper amount, the excess should be provided for.
If there is any reason to fear lack of drainage, the land
should be thoroughly underdrained before irrigation
is started, or at any subsequent time when the need
of it becomes apparent.

Irrigation always should be supplemented by the
most thorough cultivation. After going to the expense
of watering the soil in this way, it is poor economy to
allow the water to escape by evaporation or otherwise;
therefore every precaution should be used in thorough,
subsequent cultivation and in the exclusion of weeds,
to conserve the moisture so applied. The intelligent
horticulturist will find that in the use of this expensive
method of maintaining a proper water-supply in the
soil, it is incumbent upon him, even more than if the
method were not used, to give careful attention to all
the ordinary methods of preparation and cultivation in
order to maintain the advantages he has established by
the irrigation plant. MILTON WHITNEY

Sub-irrigation in the greenhouse.

The term sub-irrigation is used to describe a method
of supplying water to the roots of plants by means of
some form of conduit placed below the surface of the
soil. In greenhouse operations, the essential features
of the plan are a level water-tight bench-bottom, and
tile, or pipes, to serve as conduits for the water. The
tile, or pipes, are laid directly on the bench-bottom, and
over these the soil is spread, usually to the depth of
about 6 inches. When water is introduced in sufficient
quantities through the tile or pipes, it passes out at the
joints, or perforations into the soil.

When applied to greenhouse operations, the term
sub-watering has been proposed by E. S. Goff, for the
reason that irrigation is used to denote watering on a
large scale out-of-doors. It may be said, however, that
the words watering and irrigation do not indicate the
scale of operations with any degree of accuracy; there-
fore it seems as well to use an old word as to coin
one, especially when the familiar word expresses the
meaning intended.

Experiments in watering plants by this method were
begun in the winter of 1890 and 1891, at the Ohio
Experiment Station. The suggestion came from the
result obtained in an effort to check the lettuce rot.
Water was introduced to the soil in boxes by means
of a pipe, in a manner similar to the method often
employed in watering hills of melons and cucumbers.
When the plants were watered in this manner, the let-
tuce showed so much more vigor than that watered in
the ordinary way, that operations were begun at once
on a larger scale; first in a bed on the ground having a
clay bottom, then on a water-tight bench, made of
lumber, and finally, on tile benches, covered with cement.

In all of the earlier experiments the water was intro-
duced through pipes, or drain-tile, laid about 2 feet
apart on the bottom of the benches. Goff has used
brick instead of tile, placing them near enough together
to touch. They were set on edge in a galvanized iron
pan, made for the purpose. J. C. Arthur clipped off the
corners of the bricks, so as to facilitate the flow of
water. The Ohio Station has modified this plan by
using common drain-tile, laid so as to touch, thus cover-
ing the entire bench bottom, instead of lines of tile
every 2 feet, as at first.

Benches made of lumber have proved unsatisfactory
because of the swelling and warping of the boards.
Solid beds on the ground have not been successful,
except where an impervious clay bottom existed. Gal-
vanized iron adds greatly to the cost of construction,
and lasts only a short time. The only suitable bench for
greenhouse sub-irrigation is one made of materials
which are not acted upon by water.

IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION

1685

A well-made tile-and-cement bench seems to be the
only form of construction that will meet the require-
ments. Such a bench does not cost so much as to pre-
clude its use, and will last as long as any other part of
the greenhouse. In describing such a bench, it will not
be necessary to enter into details, except such as relate
to the method of watering under discussion. The bench
must be water-tight, and this essential condition is
secured by spreading a layer of cement, an inch or more
in thickness, over the tile bottom. It is not a matter of
any moment whether flat tile or common drain-tile are
used, except in the quantity of cement required. The
cement must be spread with care, so as to secure a per-
fectly flat level bottom, otherwise the water will not
flow uniformly in all directions. The sides of the benches
are made of cement also, but need be only 2 or 3 inches
high, or of sufficient height merely to retain the water.
Boards or slate are placed outside the cement wall to
retain the soil. The tile-bottom may rest on iron or
wood cross-pieces. Wood has been in use for this pur-
pose at the Ohio Station for twenty years and shows no
signs of decay, because it is out of reach of the water.

Twenty years' experience shows that a perfectly con-
structed bench-bottom, with the tile laid 2 feet apart,
will serve satisfactorily in distributing the water to all
parts of the bed, provided the tile are straight, so as not
to impede the flow of water. The tile are laid in the
same manner as tile-drains, and lengthwise or cross-
wise the bed, as preferred. Better results are usually
secured if they are laid crosswise than lengthwise, as it
is difficult to secure an even flow from long lines of tile.
A little cement or mortar is used at each joint simply to
hold the tile in place when the soil is put in the bench,
but not enough to impede the flow of water from the
joints. The first tile where the water is introduced is
laid at an angle, one end resting on the edge of the
bench side. This leaves a wide opening at the first
joint, which is closed with cement. A better plan is to
use a curved sewer-pipe for the inlet, but this is not
always available. The picture (Fig. 1979) shows how
the tile is laid on the bench bottom, being a view of a
side bench in a carnation-house.

Following Goff's suggestion in the use of brick, tiles
have been used over the entire bench-bottom with good
results, and it seems probable that this will be found
to be the best form of construction, as it appears
more certainly to insure an even distribution of water.
The method of construction is the same as above
described, for the two plans differ only in the number
of tiles employed to distribute the water. When the
bench-bottom is covered with tile, placed near enough
together so that the soil will not fall between, it will
readily be seen that water introduced at any point will
flow to all parts of the bed in and around the tile. It
needs simply to be brought up to such a level that it
will reach the soil, when capillary attraction will com-
plete the distribution. Fig. 1980 shows a bench in a
tomato house constructed after this plan. A A are the
inlets; B the irrigating tile, from which the soil has been
removed; C is the tile bench-bottom, covered with
cement. The same size of tile, viz., 2%- or 3-inch, is
used both above and below. D is the cement side, which
has been broken away to show the method of construc-
tion. The outer board has been removed also.

The cost of construction need not be discussed here,
except to state that the only items extra, more than are
required in any well-constructed greenhouse, are the
cement bottom and the tile in which the water is dis-
tributed.

A plan has been devised for applying water to small
plants in flats which may properly be mentioned under
this head. The flats are shallow boxes with slatted bot-
toms. When the plants require water, the flats are
placed in a shallow vat of water and allowed to remain
until the surface of the soil appears to be damp, or
even wet.

A watering in this manner is far more efficient than
by the ordinary method. Taken in connection with
sub-irrigation in the benches, a crop of lettuce can be
brought to marketable size nearly two weeks earlier
than when surface- watering is practised. Anything like
a full discussion of results of experiments in watering
plants in the greenhouse by sub-irrigation would be too
voluminous for an article in this connection. A brief
review of the results obtained at some of the stations,

1980. Sub-irrigation with several rows of tiles.

together with a short discussion of some general prin-
ciples, will serve the purpose intended. The increase in
weight of lettuce from sub-irrigated plats over those
watered in the ordinary manner has been reported by
Rane, as 25 per cent and by Goff and Cranefield as 26
per cent. At the Ohio Station the range has been from
25 to 100 per cent. In the latter case the result was
obtained by commencing with the plants as soon as
taken from the seed-bed, and carrying the two lots
through to the termination of the experiment, one by
watering altogether on the surface of the soil, the other
by subirrigation. Each of the experimenters speaks of
a gam in earliness of several days, by sub-irrigation.
Rane secured similar results with long-rooted radishes
by this method of watering, but not with the turnip-
rooted sorts, while Munson doubled the crop by water-
ing below. Better results have usually been secured at
the Ohio Station with the turnip-rooted than with the
long varieties, but in all cases there has been a gain in
favor of sub-irrigation, varying from 50 to 100 per cent.
Rane found that sub-irrigation increased the yield of
tomatoes, but the gain was not large. Essentially the
same results have been secured in Ohio. The tomato
crop has not been greatly influenced by the manner in
which the water was applied, and the same is true of
beets, while sub-irrigated cucumbers and parsley have
shown a decided gain over surface-watered. Carnations,
roses, chrysanthemums, sweet peas, violets and smilax
have been under experiment by the two methods of
watering, and while no such marked results have been
secured as with lettuce and radishes, the sub-irrigated
plats have shown superiority over those watered in the
ordinary manner, in nearly all cases. With carnations
the improvement has been mainly in length and stiff-
ness of stem.

Aside from the increase of crop secured by sub-irri-
gation, there are other considerations which may be
urged in its favor, and these are embodied in the fol-
lowing general propositions:

1. Watering by sub-irrigation in the greenhouse saves
labor. The amount of labor saved depends mostly
upon the completeness of the arrangements for water-
ing, but there is a saving in the number of applications
as well. It is possible to reduce the time employed in
watering a house, or series of houses, to one-fifth the
time usually required.

1686

IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION

2. Watering by sub-irrigation assures an abundant
and uniform supply of water to all parts of the bed. Per-
fect construction of the benches is assumed in this case,
but with such construction watering becomes almost
automatic, the only care necessary being to look after
such portions of the beds as may, by position, be sub-
ject to unusual conditions of air or sunlight.

3. Where sub-irrigation is practised in the greenhouse,
the surface of the soil does not become compacted, but
retains its original loose, friable condition. It is true
that where frequent syringing is practised the sur-
face of the soil becomes more or less hardened, but not
to the extent that occurs in surface-watering, and the
condition is easily remedied, whereas in the other case
it is not. It follows that a heavier soil may be used for
sub-irrigation than with surface-watering.

Still other considerations might be urged in favor of
this method of watering, but many of them would apply
to special cases only. Regarding the effect of the method
upon insects and diseases, but little can be said. Let-
tuce rot is less prevalent upon sub-irrigated plats than
upon those which are surface-watered, but in extreme
cases plants succumb to the disease, whichever method
of watering is practised. Munson found that radishes
suffered more from the attacks of millipedes upon sub-
irrigated plats than upon plats watered in the usual
manner. Nematodes work upon the roots of roses,
whichever way the plants are watered. The manner of
watering has no apparent effect upon the red-spider.
Even in houses watered wholly by sub-irrigation this
pest is 'no worse than in houses where the water is
applied to the surface of the soil. It may be said, how-
ever, that nearly all classes of plants are more easily
kept in a healthy growing condition, and are thus better
able to resist enemies of all sorts, when sub-irrigated
than when supplied with water in the ordinary way.

This method of applying water to plants in green-
house benches has now been sufficiently tested to
determine its value. All that now remains is to devise
ways and means to utilize what is known concerning it.
The adaptation to suit particular cases must be made by
individuals, but this will be far easier in the future than
in the past, because better methods of construction
prevail than formerly. The success of sub-irrigation in
the greenhouse is now simply a question of mechanics.

W. J. GREEN.

Irrigation for vegetable-growers and other gardeners.

In this Cyclopedia, it is not the purpose to discuss
the general agricultural practice of irrigation but rather
those phases that apply particularly to gardening
operations. In arid countries, the garden irrigation
practice will naturally follow the general methods of
the region. In humid countries or regions, the prac-
tices may be very special. In the growing of straw-
berries and garden vegetables in the eastern United
States, special irrigation practices are developing, and
these may be briefly considered.

Success in crop-growing depends on many factors.
If one of these factors is deficient to such an extent as
to limit the crop in yield or quality, no excess of the
other factors will suffice to make up the lack. Thus,
if nitrogen is present in the soil in only very minute
quantities, no amount of phosphorus or potash will
enable the plant to offer the husbandman a worthy
harvest. In vegetable-gardening the amounts expended
in making the various conditions favorable are rela-
tively large. Accordingly, if one factor is deficient,
the loss is very heavy. Perhaps the moisture factor is
more often to be charged with the responsibility for
poor returns than any other single deficiency.

We are told that 10 inches of rainfall in a year is
sufficient for the production of successful crops under
the methods of dry-farming. We are told that 20
inches of precipitation is sufficient for the production

of successful crops under ordinary farm methods —
provided it is well distributed throughout the year.
Most places in the eastern states enjoy from 30 to 40
inches of rainfall a year. Nevertheless, there is hardly
a season in which crops, and especially vegetable
crops, do not suffer for lack of moisture during at least
a month. The solution of this seeming paradox lies
in the fact that our rainfall is poorly distributed through
the growing season. We may have as much as 9 inches
in a single month, and occasionally less than 1 inch.
The total for three months in succession may be as low
as 4 inches. Even such a condition as this does not
frequently appear upon the weather records; for a
period of drought may be followed by torrential rains
sufficient to make up the average rainfall after the
harm is done.

In view of these conditions, it is necessary that the
vegetable-grower take measures to prevent the loss,
through lack of sufficient moisture, of all the time and
money that he has invested in land, tillage, fertilizer,
seed, planting, cultivation, and care, to say nothing
of the loss of the profit which he may reasonably expect.
He may accomplish much by so managing his land as
to conserve to the utmost the rainfall that is his. He
may leave his land rough over winter to prevent run-
off, he may harrow frequently till planting time, he
may maintain an effective mulch throughout the sea-
son; even so through lack of rainfall — through absence
of moisture to be conserved — he may lose his whole
crop or so much of it that he might better have left
the ground unplanted.

Within the past ten years, the possibilities of irriga-
tion have become apparent to many vegetable-pro-
ducers. They have found that the elimination of the
moisture factor as one of the obstacles to successful
crop-production has made possible larger yields, better
quality and early maturity, with all the advantages in
economy of management and in returns that accom-
pany these gains. Irrigation has proved of especial value
when sowings are made in midsummer for autumn
maturity, at transplanting time, and as crops approach
harvest.

Surface irrigation is practised to a very limited extent
in the East. The method consists in conducting water
along the end of the plat to be irrigated and allowing
it to flow into furrows between the rows of the crop.
It is best to permit the water to reach the far end of the
row as soon as possible and then allow it to be absorbed
evenly throughout the length. If this is not done, the
part of the field next the supply-ditch will receive
much more water than the remainder. This form of
irrigation is useful on level land where there is abun-
dance of water and where the soil is suitable. Light
soils drink up the moisture so rapidly that an even
distribution of the water is difficult and uniform results
may not be secured.

Boston gardeners employ hose in watering their
plantations. A system of underground pipes is installed
in such a way that 50 feet of hose will reach all parts of
the block. The cost of installation for the first acre is
reported in a Massachusetts bulletin as being about
$65 and successive acres may be piped for approxi-
mately $50. An acre may be given 1 inch of water by
one man, using 1 %-inch hose, in five or six hours. Hose
irrigation is objectionable on account of the disturbance
of plants, the danger of injury to the physical condi-
tion of the soil, the amount of labor, and the frequent
replacement of hose.

Sub-irrigation is practised in certain districts of
Florida and on some muck land areas in the North.
In the Sanford, Florida, district, which is typical, the
water-supply is from artesian wells. The land is under-
laid with tile which is accessible at both its highest
and its lowest points. Thus it serves for both watering
and drainage. The impervious bottom which under-
lies the soil is essential for the successful operation of

IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION

1687

the plan. On the muck lands of the North, the object
is accomplished by closing the drainage outlets and so
raising the water-table that the surface soil is moist-
ened. It is not good practice to keep the water-table
high, because it inhibits the proper root-development
of the plants.

Growers of vegetables in the eastern half of the
United States are using various types of overhead
irrigation far more than other methods. These sys-
tems usually. involve the establishment of lines of pipe
mounted on posts and carrying either sprinklers or
small nozzles. These lines are so spaced that the
ground may be evenly covered by the spray. Some
types of sprinklers are so constructed as to revolve
and cover an area of perhaps 25 feet radius. These are
objectionable because they cannot cover the ground
as evenly as other types.

More commonly employed are small nozzles which
consist merely of a threaded plug of brass through
which a straight hole is accurately drilled. These are
set in holes in the pipe-line. Recently various modifica-
tions and improvements in these nozzles have been
made. The nozzle line is screwed together and mounted
on the posts, and a special machine equipped with a
small level is used for tapping and threading the holes.
The nozzle line is mounted with a union in which is
set a handle for turning to cast water far to each side or
to cover the near gound by throwing vertically. The
nozzles are usually spaced about 3 feet apart and throw
a fine solid stream which breaks at some distance from
the opening. When the water reaches the ground, it is
a fine mist similar to a light rain. Twenty-five to forty
pounds of pressure is sufficient to cover a belt ranging
from 20 to 30 feet on either side of the line.

A long line, of say 300 feet, would consist of 100 feet
of l}4-mch pipe, 100 feet of 1-inch pipe, and 100 feet
of %-inch pipe.

Nozzle lines are supported in many different ways.
The consensus of opinion at present is that they should
be about 7 feet above the ground to avoid interference
with work that is being done. These posts must be set
15 feet apart to carry %-inch pipe and a little farther
apart for larger sizes. Posts of pipe or wood are most
commonly used, but suspension from a cable supported
by posts 100 feet or so apart is gaining in favor with
vegetable-gardeners.

Occasionally, for temporary purposes, as for a single
watering of young strawberry plants, the pipes are
simply laid on the ground and turned by the handles
in the usual way. Other growers have small horses
which may be placed on the ground to carry the line
temporarily. Mechanism has been devised by which a
large number of lines may be automatically controlled
from a single point, turning the spray constantly from
one side to the other.

The main at the end of a field may be buried and the
lines supplied through risers, or it may be carried on the
first post of each of the rows which support the nozzle
lines.

Comparatively few gardens are so located that a
suitable supply of water is not available at reasonable
cost. There are several possible sources. Some gar-
deners pump directly from streams or ponds, ordinarily
using a gasolene engine and the triplex type of pump.
In other sections, where the water-table is relatively
near the surface, and where the ground-water is abun-
dant, wells are sunk. Some employ a number of driven
wells and gather water simultaneously from all of them.
At Rochester, New York, many wells of large diameter
with concrete walls are to be found. The method
of sinking them is ingenious. A circular ditch of the
desired diameter, say 15 to 25 feet, and about 2 feet
wide and 4 feet deep is dug. In this is built by means of
wooden forms a concrete ring. The lower edge of this
ring is beveled outward at an angle of perhaps 30°.
The ring is strongly reinforced and short bits of pipe

are inserted radially. After the concrete in this ring
has set and the forms have been removed, the work of
digging is begun within. The earth is removed, one
man seeing that it is taken evenly from the sides of the
well under the sharpened edge. As the work progresses
the ring sinks into the ground and radial concrete
blocks are built upon it to serve as a wall. The well
may be sunk to a depth of 20 or even 25 feet. The large
diameter offers great gathering surface, and an abun-
dance of water may be secured from a stratum that
would not yield a sufficient amount by means of small
wells.

Many gardeners in the neighborhood of cities are
able to utilize the municipal water-supply, taking advan-
tage of the low rates which are granted to large users.
Some are able to procure water at a cost as low as 6
cents a thousand gallons. This is about as cheap as
pumping.

Many questions arise as to the handling of irrigation-
water. The practices have not been worked out nearly
so fully in the East as in the West. Almost no well-
planned experimental work has been conducted, and
opinions among users vary greatly. Although a few
prefer to apply water in small amounts and frequently,
most seem to think that thorough irrigation is prefera-
ble. Most men water at night or when it is cloudy, but
some do not hesitate to apply even in midday, thinking
that the plants are benefited by the cooling. It is well
so to plan the work that the ground will not be muddy
at harvesting-time. With tomatoes, precautions must be
taken against cracking. This is usually occasioned by
heavy watering after the plants have been kept quite
dry. Lettuce requires special care to avoid the develop-
ment of rots of various sorts.

The use of irrigation-water does not relieve the
grower of the necessity for good drainage or careful
conservation of moisture. The former guards against
overwatering or heavy rains which may come just
after a thorough irrigation. The latter saves water,
which is costly and keeps the soil in better physical
condition.

Overhead irrigation systems are used to some extent
for spraying, for the application of fertilizers, and for
frost protection. In some cases the water is heated
before it passes to the nozzle lines.

It makes little difference how perfect a system of
irrigation equipment one may have installed, or how
smoothly the pump works, or what a beautiful spray
the nozzles throw on the crop if the returns are not
sufficient to justify the outlay. This suggestion raises
the questions of .cost and of gain in market value of
the crop. The first cost for equipping an acre is stated
by manufacturers to be in the neighborhhood of
$125 to $150, making use of new pipe. Some men have
economized in various ways and have achieved the
desired result at lower cost, although many figures
that are given are misleading because the very impor-
tant labor of the owner in installing the system has
been neglected.

It requires 27,152 gallons of water to cover an acre
1 inch deep. This amount of water is applied through
^j-inch nozzles at the usual spacings in eight and one-
half hours. Water may be pumped ordinarily at 2 to
6 cents a thousand gallons.

Many growers can give very inspiring figures as to
the results that they have secured by means of irriga-
tion equipment. One well-known New Jersey grower
is reported on first-rate authority to have secured
twenty-five tons of beets to the acre and 620 bushels
of potatoes from the same area. A crop of onions worth
$1,500 has been taken off a 5-acre piece early enough
to permit a later crop of Golden Self-blanching celery
to be matured. Another grower reports that an outlay
of $300 to $400 saved several thousand dollars worth
of celery, whereas an unwatered acre and a half was a
complete failure.

1688

IRRIGATION

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

The Ontario Agricultural College reports experiments

as follows: Non-
Irrigated, irrigated.
Maturity —

Leaf June 22 July 4

Head July 10 July 26

Weight of crop —

Leaf 20 Ibs., 5 ozs. 11 Ibs., 3 ozs.

Head 25 Ibs., 15 ozs. 9 Ibs., 1 oz.

Quality Fine Bitter

At the outset it was pointed out that the heavy cost
involved in making conditions favorable for crop-pro-
duction renders it almost essential that vigorous meas-
ures be taken to prevent loss by drought. Now that the
possibilities and advantages of irrigation have been
indicated, it is well to emphasize the importance of
making every other condition favorable. If every
factor is favorable except the moisture factor and one
other, and money is invested in irrigation, and the other
factor prevents the maturing of a profitable crop, the
situation of the grower is worse than before by the
amount of his new investment.

An application of water equal to an inch of rain over
an acre requires 27,152 gallons, as has been said.

To deliver this water, No. 1 Skinner nozzles with
pressure of forty pounds should be placed 4 feet apart
in the line and the lines should be 56 feet apart; nine
hours and twenty-three minutes at forty pounds pres-
sure is the time required. The disharge for each nozzle
is 24.1 gallons a minute.

Ninety-four and two-tenths feet of elevation gives
forty pounds pressure.

A four horse-power gasolene engine and duplex pump
will deliver approximately 100 gallons a minute at
thirty pounds pressure, at a cost of roughly 10 cents
an hour.

A 2J^-inch pipe will deliver 100 gallons a minute
at a distance of 100 feet, and a 3^-inch pipe is required
for' distances between 500 and 700 feet.

With No. 1 outdoor nozzles, a nozzle line 150 feet
long may be composed entirely of %-inch pipe.

A line 250 feet long needs 100 feet of %-inch and 150
feet of 1-inch pipe.

A line 700 feet long needs 90 feet of %-inch, 160 feet
of 1-inch, 175 feet of 1%-inch, 175 feet of 1^-inch
and 100 feet of 2-inch pipe. PAUL WORK.

ISABELLA. (Isabel, Comtesse d' Eu, patroness of
horticulture). Orchiddcese. One Brazilian creeping
epiphyte, 1-lvd., with small reticulated pseudobulb,
said to require treatment of maxillaria. 7. virgindlis,
Rodr. Fls. white, solitary; sepals nearly equal, the
middle one free, the others connate and produced into
a spur; petals small, narrow, the lip upright, entire.
0. 1911, p. 8. — Apparently little known in cult.

L. H. B.

ISATIS (ancient name, of obscure meaning). Cru-
dferas. Herbs, for ornament and for dyeing.

Annual, biennial, perennial ; erect, branching, gla-
brous or pubescent or rarely tomentose: Ivs. undivided,
the upper ones clasping and auricled : fls. small, yellow,
many in lax racemes, without bracts; sepals and petals
4 : pod large and mostly flat, pendulous, linear to oblong
or obovate or even nearly circular, indehiscent, strong-
ribbed on either side, 1 -seeded, the stigma sessile;
radicle mostly incumbent. — Species about 50, Eu., N.
Afr., Asia.

This genus includes the dyer's woad, 7. iinctoria,
formerly cultivated for a blue dye but no longer adver-
tised. Caesar relates that the ancient Britons used the
woad for staining their bodies, and the word Britain
itself comes from an old Celtic word meaning painted.
Before indigo became common in Europe, the dyer's
woad produced the chief blue coloring matter for woolen
cloth. The introduction of indigo in the seventeenth
century destroyed this important industry, not without

opposition. Dioscorides and Pliny mention both the
dyer's woad and indigo.

tinctdria, Linn. Rather tall; glabrous or nearly so,
and glaucous: biennial, 1K~3 ft.: st.-lvs. lanceolate,
entire, sessile, somewhat arrow-shaped: fls. small, yel-
low, borne in early summer, on panicled racemes:
instead of a pod, opening lengthwise by valves, it has a
closed fr. like the samara of an ash, 1-celled, 1-sceded,
indehiscent, wing-like. S. E. Eu. and probably east-
ward; now widely naturalized in Eu. — The cult, form
is sometimes distinguished as var saliva, DC., with
broad glabrous Ivs.

glauca, Auch. Perennial, glaucous, the st. thick, 2-4
ft., and bearing a large panicle: Ivs. glabrous, entire,
the radical oblong and the cauline very small: fls.
yellow: pod about J^in. long, linear-oblong, obtuse or
truncate-retuse. Asia Minor, Persia. G.M. 47:492. —
Offered abroad.

I. Boissieridna, Reichb. Annual, 12 in.: basal Ivs. cuneate-
oblong, toothed; upper Ivs. entire, oblong: fls. yellow: pod pubes-
cent, various. Turkestan. T TT T>

fSCHARUM: Biarum.

ISCHNOSIPHON (name refers to the narrow corolla-
tube). Marantdcese. Upward of a dozen calathea-like
perennial herbs or bamboo-like plants of S. Amer.,
belonging to that group of the family having 1-celled
rather than 3-celled ovary (and so differing from Cala-
thea and Phrynium, and agreeing with Ctenanthe and
Maranta, but differing from the last two in having a
solitary staminodium). Lvs. large, coriaceous or soft:
fls. geminate, in an elongated cylindrical spike; sepals
3, free, long-linear; corolla-tube narrow and much
elongated, the lobes lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate;
stamen-tube nearly obsolete; staminodium petal-like,
large, obovate: caps, elongated, very unequally 3-
valved, 1 valve dehiscent. Tall often branching plants
with leafy sts., very little, apparently, in cult. They
are treated as calatheas or marantas. I. leucophaeus,
Koern. (Maranta major and Calathea major, Hort.).
Two feet and more, nearly simple: basal Ivs. ovate or
oblong, acuminate, more or less cordate at base, farinose
beneath: racemes simple, about 6, slender; corolla
white or rose-colored, the tube upward of 1 in. long, the
lobes oblong-lanceolate. Panama to Brazil. I. bambu-
saceus, Koern. (Calathea bambusdcea, Poepp. &
Endl.). Bamboo-like, becoming 30 ft. or more tall,
much branched, with graceful shoots: Ivs. small (3-5
in. long), somewhat ovate-lanceolate, attenuate-
acuminate, green above and glaucous beneath: raceme
short and sessile, solitary or twin; corolla-lobes whitish
yellow, lanceolate, the tube exserted and about 1 in.
long. Peru. L, jj g

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES, Horticulture in. The

island dependencies of the United States comprise
territories in both Atlantic and Pacific waters. They
are all tropical, however, and therefore may be con-
sidered together horticulturally. The islands that call
for special treatment in this work are Porto Rico,
Hawaii, Philippines, Guam, and the American part of
the Samoan group (Tutuila). The inclusion of these
wide-scattered territories in this Cyclopedia brings in
the flora of the tropics, although it is intended to dis-
cuss, in the regular entries in the different volumes, only
the most important or outstanding species ; to endeavor
to comprise all cultivated plants that might find home
or lodgment in these islands would be to describe
practically all tropical subjects, and this would be far
too large an undertaking for a work of this character.
The geographical articles in this Cyclopedia are
gathered under three heads, — British North America,
Island Dependencies, North American States. In the
last symposium will also be found an account of
Panama in its horticultural relations. All these arti-
cles should give the reader a comprehensive view of the

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1689

Majraguez

horticultural possibilities of the North American con-
tinent north of Mexico, and of the tropical territories
that have become attached to the United States. They
depict a surprising range of natural conditions and
resources, and indicate a very real horticultural con-
quest of a relatively new part of the earth's surface.

Porto Rico.

The island of Porto Rico (Fig. 1981) is rectangular in
form, about 100 miles long and 35 miles wide. Its area
is about one-twelfth of that of Cuba and nearly the
same as that of Jamaica. It lies in 18° north latitude and
65° to 67° west longitude, which places it 600 miles due
east of Jamaica. Although Porto Rico is mountainous,
the mountains are low and rolling, but few of the short
ranges exceed 2,000 feet in elevation, making prac-
tically all of the area suitable to some branch of agri-
culture. The low plains extending a few miles inland
from the sea and reaching for the most part around the
island, and the numerous plains and low rolling areas
between the ranges of mountains, afford a variety of
rich soils, of temperatures and of elevations, which has
developed extensive horticultural interests and opera-
tions. The rainfall is generally considered heavy, although
the sea-breezes and varying temperatures of different
elevations cause a great difference in rainfall between
different sections. In all
parts of the island, except-
ing the western and south-
ern areas, the rainfall is
fairly well distributed
through the year, although
the season for heaviest
rainfall is from May until
December, which is the
only season when the
western and southern sec-
tions have an abundance
of rain. In sections in
which drought continues
through the winter months,

irrigation is often employed. The elevated sections
are well supplied with rains and are drained by numerous
ravines, creeks and small rivers, which afford an abun-
dance of power and opportunity for irrigation. In
inches, the annual rainfall varies from 37, in the south-
western parts of the island, to 135 on the higher moun-
tains in the northeastern part, the average for the
island being 77.

The climate is healthful and delightful, the tempera-
ture being almost ideal. Because the island is small
and has a moderate elevation, and lies in the zone of
the trade-winds, the climate is uniformly warm and
comfortable. The coolest month is January, which has
an average temperature of 73°, while August, the warm-
est month, has an average of 79°. The mean daily
temperature is quite constant, the change from day to
night temperature being 20° to 25°. The average daily
maximum temperature along the coast in summer is
87° and the daily minimum temperature in inland
sections is 65°.

The population of the island, according to the census
of 1910, was 1,118,012, which allows 320 persons to the
square mile. All persons but a small percentage are
engaged in agricultural pursuits.

The soils of Porto Rico are of many types, and grade
from very heavy clays to light sandy loams. The hills
and mountains are, for the most part, red clays, while
the valleys between them and the coastal plain are
heavy dark loams, grading in some places into sandy
loams. While the soils are usually fertile, many crops
respond to a complete fertilizer. There are practically
no swamps in Porto Rico, although during the season
of excessive rains ditching is necessary to drain large
areas of the level coastal plains. Except in areas near

the sea surface, drainage is good; however, poor drain-
age of the subsoil in some areas is a hindrance to horti-
cultural crops.

Horticulturally the island is divided into three
sections: The narrow sandy plains which skirt the coast
are well adapted to coconut culture. The slightly
elevated plains and low rolling lands between the flat
coastal plains and the more elevated portions of the
island on the north have been proved to be well suited
to pineapple and citrous fruit-growing, while the highest
mountain ranges that traverse the central part of the
island are devoted almost entirely to coffee. Sugar-
cane growing is confined mostly to the heavy soils of
the coastal plains.

The leading horticultural crops are citrous fruits,
coffee, coconuts, pineapples, vegetables, bananas and
other tropical fruits. The agricultural industries are
sugar-cane, tobacco-growing and stock-raising.

The most attractive field for the horticulturist in
Porto Rico is citrus-culture. This industry has made
wonderful progress since the American occupation,
over 3,000 acres now being given up to it, while there
were no commercial groves at the time of the occupa-
tion. Grapefruit, oranges, lemons, limes and other
less important citrous fruits are cultivated, although
attention is given mostly to grapefruit and oranges.
In the area adapted for citrus-culture, the tempera-

SAH

1981. Porto Rico.

ture is ideal for tree-growth and fruit-production.
Care must be taken, however, in selecting the orchard
site to secure subsoil which will drain well and areas
protected from the winds. The trade-winds are in
some places constant enough to hinder a normal tree-
growth and to prevent the best development of certain
fungi which prey on injurious scale insects. Where
there is not natural wind-protection, a belt of tall-grow-
ing trees is planted on the windward side of the grove
for shelter. Several leguminous crops, such as jack
beans, velvet beans and cowpeas grow to perfection and
are used extensively as cover-crops and green-manure
crops.

Four ship lines furnish excellent transportation
between the island and New York, the ocean rates
being much less a box to New York than from Florida
or California.

Grapefruit seems to be especially well adapted to
Porto Rico conditions and is receiving first attention
among horticultural crops. The trees are very vigorous,
come into bearing early and are very prolific. The
quality of the fruit is excellent and Porto Rican grape-
fruit is throughout the year a favorite product in the
northern markets. The fruiting season for this crop
is very long. The main crop is harvested during the
winter and spring months but each week throughout
the year Porto Rican grapefruit is offered on the mar-
ket. Varieties "Duncan" and "Marsh Seedless" are
the most popular.

Oranges have been more extensively planted than
grapefruit though they do not seem so well adapted
to the conditions, and the planting of them has prac-
tically ceased. Like grapefruit, the trees bear early
and are prolific, and the fruit is of a high quality. Dis-

1690 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

1982. A native hut in Porto Rico.

eases and insects cause but little damage. Oranges are
found growing wild throughout Porto Rico, though most
numerous through the western mountains, which are
planted to coffee. These wild orange trees, grown
under the protection of the coffee shade trees, produce
a beautiful clean fruit which matures during the driest
season and develops an excellent flavor and quality.
These wild oranges are given no culture and the fruit
is sold on the tree by the coffee plantation owner to
packing firms in the western seacoast towns, who box
and ship them to northern markets. Until within
late years, unexperienced packers have brought Porto
Rican wild oranges into disrepute by shipping great
quantities of poorly packed or immature fruit, which
reached the market in bad condition. The lack of
good roads into the interior of the island prevents the
marketing of thousands of boxes of fruit annually and
allows quantities of boxes to be bought for a few cents
a box. While the wild fruit is handled for the most
part by the natives of the island, the cultivated
oranges and grapefruit are practically all grown and
marketed by Americans.

Pineapples have been one of the most profitable
crops in Porto Rico for several years, as the price of
the fruit has been high and weather conditions favor-
able for production. The old Spanish belief that pine-
apples were not profitable except in the locality of
Lajas, a town in the western part of the island, was
soon disregarded by the American settlers and at pres-
ent this crop is found in many parts of the island. The
commercial plantings are confined to two varieties,
the Cabezona, meaning in English "large-headed,"
and Red Spanish. The former is grown for canning
and the latter for shipping fresh. Most of the Red
Spanish variety is grown in sections near Rio Piedras,
where the soil is a light sandy loam, and from Baya-
mon to Arecibo, where the soil is an open, well-drained
.red sandy loam; however, they grow well in many

other locations. The chief demands of the pine-
apple are well-drained, well-aerated soil, abundance
of sunshine and a good supply of complete fertilizer
where the surface soil is not naturally rich. This
crop is practically free from insects and diseases.
The plants are very prolific and can be brought
into bearing at any season of the year. As the north-
ern market shows a preference for Porto-Rico-grown
pineapples, the industry bids fair to become still
more important. Though the practice varies with
conditions, the usual cultivation method is to plow
the soil and by plow and hand labor work it into
beds a few inches high, leaving ditches to afford
drainage. The beds are made wide enough to pro-
vide for two to six plants set from 12 to 18 inches
apart. Of the 10,000 plants to the acre, which is the
number usually set, 90 per cent are expected to bear
fruit the first crop. Fertilizer is applied at the time
of planting and at intervals during the growth of
the plant. As the first crop of fruit matures, suckers
spring from the base of the plants and produce a
second crop. On the most suitable land three or four
crops are allowed to develop from suckers, though
seldom more than two are considered profitable. The
Cabezona variety is grown for canning principally,
although profitable shipments of fresh fruit have been
made. In the western end of the island, and especially
in the area from Lajas to Mayagiiez, the conditions
are especially adapted for the growing of this variety.
In this area a great quantity of the fruit is grown and
sold to canners by the ton.

FBUIT SHIPPED FROM PORTO Rico TO THE UNITED STATES
AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES DURING THE TWELVE YEARS
ENDING JUNE 30, 1912.

Year

Oranges

Pine-
apples

Canned
pine-
apples

Coco-
nuts

Grape-
fruit

Other
fruits

1901...
1902....
1903

$84,475
51,364
230,821

$8,334
12,720
326

$16,992
9,898
61,956

1904....
1905. . . .
1906.

352,646
125.422
295.633

$27,826

$42,186

129,793

81,214
130,478
7,420

1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

469.3l2
630.720
401,912
582,716
703,969
584,414

64,831
172,779
442,780
555,044
641,291
684,774

63,519
98,203
117,830
106,587
149,744
258,671

174,957
206,704
204,498
218,870
258,169
308,883

$7,586
44,535
76,310
162,749
309,698
525,048

3,737
11,320
18,154
9,851
11,123
15,972

1983. A grapefruit grove in Porto Rico.

At the present time, the coffee industry is flourishing,
as both weather conditions and prices are favorable.
Aside from the influence of changing tariffs, practically
the only drawback to this great industry is severe
storms which once in a series of years visit the island,
usually coming in the coffee-ripening season. Porto
Rican coffee is not well known in the United States,
but throughout the West Indies and in some European
countries it is a favorite among coffees and brings high
prices, selling for several cents a pound higher at
wholesale than Brazilian coffee. The mountainous
region of the central and western part of the island
is given up mostly to coffee and affords a splendid
field for its culture. The best coffee in Porto Rico
grows on the well-drained upland areas and reaches
its highest perfection at 1,500 and 2,000 feet.
Throughout this coffee-growing area, the air is
always cool and refreshing and conditions for health
are almost ideal. As the coffee is prepared for
market on the plantations and can be transported
to the seacoast markets or to the main roads lead-
ing there by pack animals, the lack of good roads
does not hinder this industry as it does others in
this section. Throughout the area devoted to coffee
the land is cheap, in many localities not exceeding
$30 an acre. Coffee may be grown in Porto Rico

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1691

for 5 cents a pound and on a good plantation from 300
to 400 pounds an acre is an average crop. At the pres-
ent price of 15 cents a pound, handsome returns are
realized. Practically all plantations devoted to this
crop are large and under Spanish or Porto Rican
management. It is a rare exception when any fertilizer
is applied to coffee. As the plantations are rolling and
the trees set but a few feet apart, no animal cultivation
is given and the only cultural work is confined to shal-
low hoeing and weeding.

There is no crop in Porto Rico which yields such
regular and satisfactory returns as the coconut palm.
Without cultivation or fertilizing, the trees bear good
crops of large nuts which bring first-class prices in the
United States markets. The narrow strip of sandy
coastal plain, which rarely exceeds J/2 mile in width
and for the most part skirts the island, is ideal for
coconuts, as the sandy loam affords perfect drainage,
which is the principal requisite for this crop. Most
of the suitable land has been planted and is in bearing.
The trees are planted from 25 to 30 feet apart each
way and bear in five to eight years, depending on the
fertility of the land. The area devoted to coconuts
in Porto Rico is small, and practically all of the prod-
uct is exported to the United
States, the only demands at
home being for drinking the
water from the half-mature
nuts and for making coconut-
oil and its products.

The temperature in Porto
Rico is ideal for vegetable-grow-
ing, but injurious influences of
excessive rains and prolonged
droughts, together with the
rather heavy poorly aerated
soils, make commercial vege-
table-growing practically a fail-
ure so far as shipping to foreign
markets is concerned. When
irrigation is practised, excellent
crops of lettuce, radishes, tur-
nips, carrots, tomatoes, peppers,
cucumbers, and so on, are grown,
but usually at a cost so high
that export is not profitable.
Large quantities of vegetables
are grown and sold at a very

low price for home consumption. The most productive
crops and those that can always be depended upon
are the starchy root crops including name, yautias,
dasheens and yuca. These products are not exported,
although they are grown by every Porto Rican family
on the island where the farm or dooryard is large enough
for them. One exception is yuca (Manihot) which is
grown by commercial firms and the starch extracted in
a modern factory near Bayam6n.

Bananas are found growing in all parts of the island
and form a part of the daily diet of both Porto Ricans
and foreigners. They are grown in dooryards, along
streams, in orchards, as windbreaks for young citrous
trees, as shade for newly planted coffee trees and
throughout the hilly coffee plantations. A number of
the best varieties, including yellow- and red-fruited
kinds, and those for eating raw and for cooking, may
be found in plenty on nearly every farm.

As is true with other West Indian Islands, the
mango is the most popular fruit. It is truly the apple
of the tropics. Until late years but little has been done
to improve the quality of mangoes in Porto Rico, and
there are but few of the choice strains growing here.
The favorite kinds grow in the Mayagviez 'district.
The fruiting season continues for several weeks during
which time this fruit is one of the chief articles of food
among some of the poorer classes. No effort is made to
export the mango. At home they are used only in the

fresh state except that fully grown green fruit is made
into sauce which resembles apple sauce very closely,
both in appearance and flavor. No orchards of native
mangoes are cultivated, as the trees grow wild and pro-
duce well with no care. The federal experiment sta-
tion and a few commercial fruit-growers are introducing
and distributing superior varieties from other countries,
notably East India and the Philippine Islands. These
imported varieties are thrifty and the fruit of a very
superior quality.

The avocado tree requires a well-drained soil and
prefers one of a rich neutral loam. It does not grow
well on all parts of this land and reaches its heaviest
production on the west end of the island near Isabella
and Aguadilla. The fruits are so plentiful, however,
that those of highest quality may be purchased in
markets at 1 or 2 cents each during the few weeks
of harvest. Among other fruits that may be found in
quantity in the markets of the island are mamey,
anona, caimito, nispero, papaya and guayaba.

Among the agricultural industries, cane- and tobacco-
growing and animal-production are important under-
takings. Most of the cane is grown on the low coastal
plain which reaches around a large part of the island

1984. A pineapple field in Porto Rico.

and in some places is several miles in width. In these
areas the soil is well adapted to the industry and as
the temperature is even and never low a good yield
can be depended upon each year. In 1901, the exports
of sugar were less than 70,000 tons; in 1911 they were
nearly 323,000, and during 1912, 367,000,— five times
greater than they were eleven years ago, — and they
are still increasing, having advanced 10 per cent during
the past year (1913). The external sales of this product
yielded $31,500,000 against less than $5,000,000 in 1901.

Tobacco is grown to some extent in all parts of the
island, though most of the Porto Rican output is grown
in the vicinity of Cayey, Caguas and Gurabo. In these
sections an excellent product is grown and it is the chief
industry. Quoting from the report of Governor Colton
for 1912, — "The output of cigars was more than four-
teen times greater than in 1901, since which year it has
continuously increased until the salesof 1911-12 reached
281,000,000, an increase of 10,000,000 over the preced-
ing year. Of these 170,000,000 were consumed upon the
mainland and 111,000,000 in Porto Rico."

Great interest is shown by the people of the island
in promoting scientific agriculture and agricultural
education. Institutions engaged in this work are
the Federal Experiment Station, an Agricultural Col-
lege, a Sugar Producers' Experiment Station supported
by the sugar-growers, and a Board of Agriculture.

C. F. KINMAN.

1692 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

Hawaiian Islands.

The group known as the Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1985)
is located about 2, 100 miles from San Francisco in a south-
westerly direction. These were named the Sandwich
Islands by the discoverer, Captain Cook, but this desig-
nation was abandoned many years ago for the original
native name, taken from that of the largest member
of the group, Hawaii. Since annexation to the United
States, the Hawaiian Islands have been officially known
as the Territory of Hawaii. Disregarding small and unim-
portant islands, Hawaii lies between the parallels 18°
50' and 23° 5' north latitude and between the meridians
154° 40' and 160° 50' west longitude. The five most
important islands have an area of about 6,200 square
miles, or rather less than that of Massachusetts, and
extend about 380 miles from northwest to southeast.

It is hardly correct to speak of the climate of Hawaii,

throughout the year, while others only 2 or 3 miles
distant practise irrigation constantly. Some of the
great sugar-cane plantations depend wholly upon the
natural supply of water, while others could not grow
cane at all without their expensive systems of artesian
wells and irrigation.

Similarly there is a great variation in the temperature
in different parts of this small but important country,
but exceedingly slight variations with the changing sea-
sons. The windward side is cooler than that which is
sheltered by the mountains, but in no part of the islands
is the heat so intense as would be expected from their
location within the tropics. Only rarely, in the hottest
localities, does the mercury rise to 90° F. Again, the
variation in elevation from sea-level to many thousand
feet gives a like variation in temperature, so that some
of the mountains of the largest island are covered with
snow during a part of the year. In short, so far as

AI/^ J

^~~— '

1985. Hawaiian Islands.

for there are so many different climates in this small
area. The extent of the rainfall, for example, which
forms so important a factor in the horticultural condi-
tions of a country, is decidedly divergent in different
regions and even in localities within a few miles of each
other. To understand the climatic conditions, it is
necessary to recall that these islands are of volcanic for-
mation, their central parts and the larger part of their
area being occupied by rugged and high mountains,
descending sometimes gradually, sometimes precipi-
tously to the sea and with valleys or tablelands lying
between the ranges and narrow plains near the coast.
Being in the path of the northeast trade-winds, the
windward side of the islands receives an abundant rain-
fall throughout the year, while the southwest shores
are comparatively dry. Thus, at Honolulu, on the
southwest shore of Oahu, the annual rainfall averages
about 38 inches, while that of the city of Hilo, on the
windward side of the island of Hawaii, measures 12 feet.
Even within a very narrow range, as, for example, the
limits of the city of Honolulu, there is great variation
in rainfall, certain localities receiving frequent rains

climate is concerned, the Hawaiian Islands offer all
that could be asked for great and diversified horticul-
tural industries.

Only a smafl proportion of the total area of the coun-
try is suitable for cultivation. The lands lying near the
shore and along the lower slopes of the mountains are
occupied almost exclusively by sugar-cane, with an
occasional banana plantation and with rice and taro
growing on the low valley bottoms which can be kept
submerged for these aquatic plants. The cane-belt
rises to an elevation of only a few hundred feet on some
plantations, limited by the cost of pumping water,
but in some other localities it extends to nearly 2,000
feet. These lower lands are well adapted to the growth
of tropical fruits and such, together with many of the
vegetables and flowers of the temperate and tropical
zones, may be found in gardens. Above the cane-belt
are lands also suited to such tropical crops as pine-
apples and coffee, and still higher there are some areas
where apples, peaches, plums and many temperate-
zone fruits may be grown, although none of these crops
has become the basis of an industry. The regions on

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1693

the map, designated by the letters A and B are the two
most noted coffee-producing sections; C, D, E, F, and
G are localities in which pineapple-growing has become
an important industry; H, indicating the district lying
about the city of Honolulu, locates the area where
there is probably the greatest variety of introduced
horticultural plants; at K, known as the district of
Kula, on the Island of Maui, potatoes, corn and other
temperate-climate crops have been grown for many
years and were shipped to California to supply the
needs of the gold-seekers in 1849 and the years follow-
ing before the agricultural industries of that state
were developed.

The growing of pineapples is not only the leading
horticultural pursuit but ranks next to sugar-produc-
tion among the industries of the Islands. Hawaii is
widely known for its pineapples. It is only within
the last decade that this crop has risen to large impor-
tance. The beginnings of the industry were near Hono-
lulu and the first large plantation was about 14 miles
from that city in a northwesterly direction, on the
foothills sloping from the Koolau
Mountains. A little farther to
the northwest a small colony of
American farmers settled at
Wahiawa on virgin lands, said
to be useless except for grazing.
They found that the pineapple
attained perfection on their
lands and the industry began to
extend rapidly from that center.
Several thousand acres have
been planted on the foothills and
the plains between the moun-
tains, and considerable areas
have been devoted to the crop
on the north and east sides of
the island. Other centers are to
be found as indicated above on
Maui, Kauai and more recently
on Hawaii. Only a small frac-
tion of the crop is marketed as
fresh fruit, the greater portion
being sold in the can. Large can-
neries are in operation in all the
centers of production, owned and
controlled by the larger planta-
tions. The price paid for first

quality pines is about $20 a ton. The total output for
the season of 1912 is estimated at a little over 1,000,000
cases of two dozen cans each and valued between
$3,000,000 and $4,000,000. At the present rate of
planting it appears that the annual pack will again be
doubled within a few years. The products of the pine-
apple cannery include not only canned fruit in several
forms as sliced and grated pineapple but recently the
juice is being bottled in much the same way as grape
juice. A syrup is also made from the juice and one
factory is engaged exclusively in this business.

The fresh fruit trade is also increasing and shipments
are made by nearly every steamer to the mainland,
where they are distributed to all parts of the Pacific
states and a few are sent to the East. Carload ship-
ments have been made to the great central markets,
but the Hawaiian pineapple-growers have devoted
their attention chiefly to the more conservative method
of disposing of their product as canned fruit, which has
found a ready market in the United States.

Most of the pineapples are produced under the plan-
tation system, the units varying from a few hundreds
to several thousands of acres each. A few individual
planters are in the business and at the present time
their number seems to be increasing through the
opening of homestead lands by the government.

The pineapples are grown just above the cane-belt,
but in places in which water is insufficient for cane, the

pines extend almost to sea-level. The soil upon which
they are grown is usually rather a heavy loam, sub-
tended often with a clay substratum. Since the plant
will not endure standing water, drainage is one of the
important problems. Underdrains of tile or rock are
not in use, but surface ditches or depressions are pro-
vided to carry off the surplus water of heavy rains.
Deep plowing is practised to break the almost imper-
vious layer which develops just beneath the cultivator
teeth. The use of giant powder for the purpose is now
being tried. Both these practices can be conducted
only when the plants have been removed from the
fields, which it is necessary to do in preparation for
replanting every four or five years.

Another problem of the pineapple-planter is to avoid
excessive manganese in the soil, for the plant is very
sensitive to an excess of this element. A few places in
the pineapple region have been found where soils,
otherwise excellent, have proved useless for this crop.
It is easy to discover its presence by chemical analysis
and usually by the appearance of the soil which, there-

1986. Hawaiian vegetation. Showing the royal palm as it grows in Honolulu.

fore, can be avoided or devoted to other crops less
sensitive to manganese.

The method of culture is to set the plants in single,
double or triple rows and cultivate thoroughly between
them by mules and with hoes. Sheds are not thought
of in Hawaii for there is never frost in the pineapple
area. The first crop matures in sixteen to twenty-four
months and is followed by a rattoon crop a year later.
A second rattoon and occasionally a third may be
taken from the field before plowing up the old plants
and replanting. The Smooth Cayenne is the chief
variety in cultivation, but another smooth-leaf variety
has become somewhat mixed with the stock and all
have passed usually for Cayenne. These are the only
varieties now in commercial cultivation in Hawaii,
although very many kinds have been tested and some
continue in gardens.

Banana-growing is an older industry but it has not
made as rapid progress as the pineapple. For several
years the export trade has run from about 180,000
to 200,000 bunches a year, netting the growers about
50 cents a bunch when prices are good. Banana-grow-
ing for export is confined almost entirely to Oahu,
since this is the only island which enjoys frequent and
direct steamship communication with the mainland.
The island of Hawaii ships a few bananas on its regular
boats but these do not run with sufficient frequency
to encourage extensive plantings. The fruits are

1694 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

shipped to San Francisco and practically all are con-
sumed in that market or those immediately around the
Bay. The bananas are grown in small plantations
varying in size from 2 to 50 or more acres. They are
owned and operated chiefly by the Chinese who unite
in companies for the purpose. The lands occupied are
generally at a low elevation, for the commercial banana
does not prosper, in most parts of Hawaii, above
1,000 feet, and it is important, with so bulky a product,
to be near the shipping port or a connecting railway.
Most of the bananas, therefore, are grown along the
line of the railway which circles one end of Oahu,
or in the immediate vicinity of Honolulu. The plants
are set at distances varying from 8 by 8 feet to 12 by
12 feet and receive water by irrigation, by natural
rainfall or by capillarity when the plants are grown on
ridges thrown up in swamp-lands with wide canals
between the ridges. The Chinese or Cavendish banana
(Musa Cavendishii), almost exclusively, is grown for
export, although the Jamaica or Martinique variety,
common in all the American markets, has been intro-
duced and distributed. There are many varieties of
bananas that are indigenous to Hawaii, and some of
these are being cultivated in yards and gardens. One
class of these varieties, known as the Maoli group, is
grown in a small way commercially and finds a ready
sale in the local market as a banana for cooking.
These, when well baked or fried, are far more delicious
than any of the bananas found in the American mar-
kets and a trade in them should be developed, for they
are well adapted for shipping.

Coffee-growing is conducted as a small industry and
there are a few rather large plantations. About fifteen
years ago the trees were planted quite extensively and
it appeared as though the crop would be exceedingly
profitable; but cheap coffee imported from Brazil
depressed prices in the American markets to a degree
which caused the uprooting or abandonment of most
of the plantings. A few of the original planters continue
in the business and produce a high grade of coffee
which has made a good reputation. The name "Kona"
coffee has been applied to much of the product because
the district of Kona on the island of Hawaii is one of
the leading coffee districts. The total output for the
year ending August 15, 1911, was about 5,200,000
pounds. The coffee-growing districts lie chiefly above
the cane in localities which are well supplied with rain,
as along the northeast side of Hawaii and in Kona on
the west side.

Citrous fruits are found in yards and gardens in
many varieties of orange, lemon, lime, pomelo, shad-
dock and other species, but there are few citrous
orchards. Seedling oranges are shipped to Honolulu,
in fifty-gallon casks, from Kona, where they grow in a
half-wild and uncultivated condition. A few limes are
also sent to this market. The oranges are of excellent
flavor but because of inferiority in appearance and
packing they sell at low prices.

The avocado, sometimes erroneously called the
alligator pear, is found in nearly every dooryard and
garden and recently a few orchards have been planted.
The fruit is always in demand and sells at high prices
even in the local market, good fruits bringing from 8
to 15 cents each at retail or from 60 cents to $1 a dozen
on the trees. Previous to the advent of the Mediter-
ranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata), avocados were
shipped to California and in experiments conducted
by the Hawaii Experiment Station, these fruits were
sent in refrigeration to Chicago and arrived in good
condition. They sold at wholesale in San Francisco
for about $2.50 a dozen. Satisfactory methods of
propagating the best varieties and of handling the
fruit were completed only a short time before the
Mediterranean fly made its appearance and interest
was being manifested in the planting of orchards of
avocados for the marketing of the fruit on the main-

land. Although the insect infests the avocado very
rarely, it has been found in a few instances, which fact
has placed this fruit on the quarantine list at the
California ports. For these reasons, the growing of
avocados, which at one time seemed likely to develop
into an important industry may not be widely extended
until the status of the pest is changed. There is room,
however, for considerable extension to supply the
growing local market and the culinary departments of
ocean liners.

The mango is even more widely distributed than the
avocado and prospers in a great variety of soils up to
500 or 600 feet. It is found even higher than this but
does its best in the warm and dry lowlands if irrigated.
There are many varieties, including some superb sorts
of local origin as well as the renowned East Indian
kinds and Cochin-China type. Of the Indian varie-
ties, the Pirie gives most promise, but several others, as
Mulgoa, Alphonse, Jemshedi and Brindabani, have
done well. The Smith and the Wooten are two of the

1937. A banana plantation in the Hawaiian Islands.

best of local origin. None of these better varieties is
widely disseminated, partly on account of their recent
introduction and partly because ready methods of rapid
multiplication have not long been developed. For this
reason, it is impossible to find any choice mangoes in
the local markets, the few that are sold being disposed
of privately at about 5 cents a fruit. This condition
will not continue for many years, for the choice sorts
are now being disseminated. The mango also is under
quarantine on the mainland because of the Mediter-
ranean fruit-fly, but the best varieties could be profi-
tably grown for the local markets and for supplies to
passenger ships. Certain fine varieties are quite resist-
ant to the attacks of the fly.

Guavas (Psidium Guajava) cover the hillsides, the
jungles in many places being composed chiefly or wholly
of this tree. The wild fruit is gathered and used in the
making of guava-jelly and jam, the greater part of
which is consumed locally. A few selected varieties
of this species and of the strawberry guava (P. Cattlei-
anum) are cultivated in gardens.

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1695

The papaya (Carica Papaya) is the most important
breakfast fruit in Hawaii and is grown in almost every
dooryard as well as in small orchards. It is of very
easy culture, coming into bearing within a year from
planting and continuing for several years to produce
good fruit on almost any well-drained soil. For this
reason it is a fruit for the rich and the poor alike. The
tree is propagated chiefly by seeds and as there has been
very little attempt to keep strains pure, there is a very
wide variation in flavor and other qualities. The diffi-
culty of keeping pure strains has been complicated by
the fact that most papayas are dioecious and it is impos-
sible to know the inherent qualities of the male trees.
But fortunately there is a hermaphrodite type and with
this there is hope of establishing reasonably stable
varieties of good quality.

A great variety of tropical and semi-tropical fruits
and nuts is to be found in these islands. A list of some
of the more important of these is as follows:

Ananas sativus (pineapple).
Artocarpus:

(a) Artocarpus incisa (bread-fruit).

(6) Artocarpus integrifolia (Jack-fruit).
Annona:

(a) Annona muricata (soursop).

(6) Annona squamosa (sweet-sop or sugar-apple).

(c) Annona reticulata (custard-apple or bullock's heart).

(d) Annona Cherimola (cherimoya).
Anacardium occidentale (cashew).
Averrhoa Carambola (carambola).

JEgle Marmelos (Bael fruit; elephant apple; or Bengal quince).

Achras Sapota (sapodilla).

Aleurites Moluccana (kukui nut).

Areca Catechu (betelnut).

Bunchosia sp.

Citrus:

(a) Citrus sinensis (sweet orange).

(6) Citrus Aurantium var. Amara (sour or Seville orange).

(c) Citrus Limonia (lemon).

(d) Citrus sp. (rough lemon).

(e) Citrus aurantifolia (lime).

(/) Citrus grandis (pomelo or grapefruit).

(g) Citrus grandis (shaddock).

(h) Citrus nobilis (Mandarin orange).

ft) Citrus japonica ("China" orange, or kumquat).

0') Citrus Medica var. genuina (citron).

(k) Citrus mitis (Calamondin orange).
Canarium commune (pilinut).
Carica:

(o) Carica Papaya (papaya).

(b) Carica quercifolia (dwarf papaya).
Chrysophyllum Cainito (star-apple).
Casimiroa edulis (white sapota).
Coccoloba uvifera (shore-grape).

Cocos nucifera (coconut).

Cocos Gaertneri

Claucena Lansium (the wampi).

Diospyros decandra (Cochin-China persimmon).

Durio zibethinus (durion).

Eriobotrya japonica (loquat).

Eugenia :

(a) Eugenia malaccensis (mountain apple).

(6) Eugenia Jambos (rose apple).

(c) Eugenia uniflora (Cayenne or Surinam cherry).

(d) Eugenia sp. (1, white water apple).
Eugenia sp. (2, red water apple).

(e) Eugenia myrtifolia (brush cherry).

(/) Eugenia Jambolana (black plum or jambolan plum).
Ficus Carica.
Garcinia:

(a) Garcinia Mangostana (mangosteen).

(6) Garcinia sp. (African mangosteen).
Hibiscus Sabdariffa (roselle).

Inocarpus edulis (mape, or Polynesian chestnut).
Lucuma nervosa (egg-fruit).
Malpighia glabra (Barbados cherry).
Musa (banana):

(o) Musa Cavendishii (Chinese banana).

(6) Musa sapientum (including practically all other common

edible bananas).
Mangifera indica (mango).

Mammea americana (mammee apple or St. Domingo apricot).
Monstera deliciosa (delicious monster).
Macadamia ternifolia (Australian nut).
Morus alba (the mulberry).
Morus nigra (the mulberry).
Morus multicaulis (silkworm mulberry).
Nephelium (genera Litchi and Euphoria):

(a) Nephelium Litchi (litchi).

(6) Nephelium Longana (longan).
Noronhia emarginata.
Olea europsea (olive).
Persea gratissima (avocado).

Passiflora (the passion flower fruits):

(o) Passiflora lauriflora (yellow water-lemon).

(b) Passiflora edulis (purple water-lemon).

(c) Passiflora quadrangularis (granadilla).

(d) Passiflora alata (granadilla).
Psidium (guava).

(a) Psidium Guajaya (sweet, sour, and lemon guavas).

(6) Psidium Cattleianum (strawberry guava).
Phoenix dactylifera (dates).
Punicum Granatum (pomegranate).
Phyllanthus acida (Indian gooseberry).
Phyllanthus Emblica (emblic myrobolan).
Physalis peruviana (poha).
Rubus Macraei (akala).

Rubus hawaiiensis (Hawaiian wild raspberry).
Spondias dulcis (Wii fruit, or Tahitian Vii apple).
Terminalia Catappa ("Kamani" [foreign] tropical almond).
Tamarindus indicus (tamarind).
Theobroma Cacao (cacao).

Vitis (grape: chiefly V. vinifera and V. labrusca).
Vanilla planifolia (vanilla).
Vaccinium reticulatum (ohelo).
Zizyphus Jujuba (Jujube).

Vegetable-gardening is conducted chiefly by the
Chinese and Japanese, who grow most of the more
easily managed vegetables. Nearly all the vegetables
found in the mainland markets can be grown in Hawaii,
but some require special skill and a few demand an
elevated location. All the cucurbits are difficult of
culture except in isolated localities because of the prev-
alence of the melon fly (Dacus cucurbilx), which also
attacks less seriously tomatoes, peppers, and a few
other vegetables. Sweet corn, peppers, and tomatoes
were shipped experimentally to San Francisco as winter
vegetables and realized good prices, but it was neces-
sary to discontinue this trade because the melon fly had
been found to some degree in each of these vegetables
and is not known in California. Sweet potatoes, which
are so easily grown here, have been shipped to San
Francisco during the spring and early summer months,
and early onions, chiefly of the Bermuda type. Both
of these bring high prices, being easily grown in good
quality for the opportune season in the market, and
each may become the basis of a rather important trade
if no insect or disease prevents its being snipped.

Taro (Colocasia antiquorum var. esculentum) fur-
nishes the chief food of the native Hawaiians and is
much used by foreigners also. It, therefore, requires a
considerable area of land to supply the local market.
There are many varieties of taro and some of the best
succeed only under submerged conditions and for this
reason, this crop, with rice, occupies most of the valley
bottoms, where water can be led readily from the
streams. Other varieties which succeed with less
water are grown in moist lands where there is a heavy
rainfall. Very few Hawaiians now engage in growing
taro extensively, the industry being conducted chiefly
by the Chinese. The plant has a large conn or root-
stock and is propagated by cuttings from the top of
this or of the smaller offsets. The crop matures in ten
to fifteen months and the conn which is rich in a very
easily digestible starch, furnishes most of the food,
although the tender young leaves are also eaten. Taro
is eaten as a vegetable and makes a good substitute
for the potato, but its chief use is in the making of poi,
the most important Hawaiian dish, which is prepared
by crushing the steamed corm with stone pounders or
more recently by American-made machinery. It is
about the consistency of paste and is eaten after it has
been allowed to ferment for a few days. Taro flour
under various trade names has been placed upon the
American markets.

Hawaii is a land of flowers, but many of the most
beautiful blooms are on large trees and vines. Among
the most striking of these are the royal poinciana
(Poindana regia), golden showers (Cassia fistula),
pink showers (Cassia grandis), pink and white showers
(Cassia nodosa), bougainvillaea, petrea, beaumontia,
alamanda, bignonia, and plumeria. The night-blooming
cereus flourishes and presents a magnificent sight when
in flower. The old Hawaiian custom of bedecking

1696 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

guests at a feast or embarking friends at a departing
vessel is still kept up, and it is one of the unique and
beautiful scenes in Hawaii when a steamer engaged in
the Honolulu-San Francisco run leaves the Hawaiian
port, with all its passengers decorated with "leis"
(pronounced lays) or wreaths of flowers. Until
recent years, this constituted the chief market for cut-
flowers. During the last eight or ten years a consider-
able cut-flower trade of the American type has grown
up and there are several Americans now in the business
and also a number of Japanese florists.

The city of Honolulu supports a number of small
parks, containing some interesting and curious plants.
In gardens, owned by private individuals, are many
more rare and beautiful plants. The great Moanalua
estate, the property of Samuel M. Damon, with its
parks and gardens, is one of the most interesting
places of Honolulu for the admirer of plants, and no
plant-lover should pass
by the islands without
visiting these grounds,
which are traversed by
the public road and thus
generously made avail-
able to all who are inter-
ested. Another strik-
ingly beautiful sight
which no one who is in
Honolulu at the right
time should fail to see,
is the 1,000 feet or more
of night-blooming cereus
at the Oahu College
grounds. The exact sea-
sons of flowering are im-
possible to predict, but
there is usually a grand
display for several nights
in May or June and
again in August or Sep-
tember.

Literature. — The liter-
ature of horticulture in
Hawaii is limited. The
only book devoted ex-
clusively to the subject is
"Fruits of the Hawaiian
Islands," by G. P. Wil-
der, Hawaiian Gazette
Company, Ltd., Hono-
lulu. The bulletins and
reports of the horticul-
tural department of the Hawaii Experiment Station
cover a part of the field and are as follows: "The Banana
in Hawaii," Bulletin No. 7; "Citrus Fruits in Hawaii,"
Bulletin No. 9; "The Mango in Hawaii," Bulletin
No. 12; "Marketing Hawaiian Fruits," Bulletin No. 14;
"Shield-budding the Mango," Bulletin No. 20; "The
Avocado in Hawaii," Bulletin No. 25; "Fruit-market-
ing Investigations in 1907," Press Bulletin No. 21;
"Pineapple Shipping Experiments in 1908," Press
Bulletin, No. 22; "The Pineapple in Hawaii," Press
Bulletin No. 36; Annual Reports 1901 to date. See
also "Index to Publications of the Hawaii Agricultural
Experiment Station, July 1, 1901 to December 31,
1911." Numerous references to horticultural subjects
are to be found in "The Hawaiian Forester and Agri-
culturist," the "Paradise of the Pacific," "The Mid-
Pacific Magazine," and other periodicals.

J. E. HlGGINS.

Guam.

The island of Guam (Fig. 1988) , belonging to the group
of islands known as the Ladrones or Marianas, lies in the
Pacific Ocean between the parallels 13° 14' and 13° 40'
north of the equator, and between the meridians 144°

1988. The island of Guam.

37' and 144° 56' east of Greenwich. A line drawn
almost due west from Guam strikes, at a distance of
about 1,200 miles, the San Bernardino Passage divid-
ing the island of Samar from the southern extremity
of Luzon and marks the relative position of Guam and
the Philippine Archipelago. Of 'the fourteen islands
composing the Mariana group, Guam is the largest
and its position the most southerly. It is of historic
interest as the first stopping place of Magellan after
passing beyond the South American coast on that
remarkable voyage of exploration for the Spanish
crown in 1521. The island did not, however, assume a
place of special interest in the minds of the American
public until the year 1898 when, by the provisions of
the treaty of Paris concluding peace between the
United States and Spain, it became territory of the
United States.

Guam has a warm and humid climate. The temper-
ature is remarkably
equable throughout the
year; and no physical or
other influences exist to
cause perceptible varia-
tion in temperature in
different parts of the
island. Absolute tem-
peratures seldom rise
above 95° F. in the heat
of the day or fall below
70° F. at night. The
average annual rainfall
is in the vicinity of 120
inches; and a very large
percentage of the yearly
precipitation occurs dur-
ing the period from July
to November inclusive.
During the remainder
of the year rainfall is
erratic and uncertain.
The climatic factor most
potent in retarding horti-
cultural progress is the
occasional furious hurri-
canes or typhoons. These
storms occur more or
less frequently and some-
times with such sweep-
ing force as to leave the
island vegetation almost
completely devastated of
all its foliage.
The northern portion of the island is an inclined
forest-covered plateau, rising from near sea-level at a
point a short distance north of Agana to an elevation
of some 500 or 600 feet at the northern extremity of
the island and to an almost equal elevation along the
east coast. The soil of this plateau is of coral derivation
and at many points is underlaid with partially disin-
tegrated coral limestone covered at many points with
but a few inches of soil. This territory is well drained
and has a fertile soil usually well adapted to the culti-
vation of horticultural products. On it coffee grows
luxuriantly and yields abundant crops of berries of a
specially superior flavor. Cacao (Theobroma Cacao), pro-
ducing the so-called chocolate bean of commerce, was
grown in this district with much success prior to the
severe typhoon that ruined the plantations in 1900.
The lack of fresh water streams or other domestic
water-supply prevents the rapid development of this
district. The remaining portion of the island lying
south of Agana has a rolling contour and is traversed
by numerous river valleys made fertile by sediment
deposited from the surrounding hills. These valleys
afford favorable conditions for the cultivation of coco-
nuts and many of the tropical fruits. Constant and

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1697

heavy rains during the period of excessive rainfall have
leached the hill lands, rendering them of little value for
horticultural purposes. The island's highest elevation
is found in the peak "Humuyong Manglo," signifying
"the mountain whence the winds issue." This peak is
located in the southwestern part of the island and
reaches an altitude of 1,274 feet. A strip of strand,
varying in width but usually under a mile in extent,
fringes a greater part of the coast-line. The soil of this
low land has been formed partially from the washings
and erosions from the surrounding hills and partially from
shell, calcareous sands, and the like, of marine forma-
tion. Due to the fertility of this soil and to its proximity
to the sea which furnishes fish and transportation
facilities for the exchange of supplies between the
different parts of the island, all the principal villages
have been established here, and here also horticulture
is more extensively practised than in any other part
of the island.

The advantages of a well-defined economic system,
involving the principles of labor-division as practised
in modern enlightened communities, are unrecognized
in Guam. In general, every man is his own fisherman,
his own tradesman, and husbandman of the trees and
plants required to feed his own family. The local
market demands under such a system are decidedly
limited; and the tendency is naturally in the direction
of small plantings and indifference toward the improve-
ment of varieties and methods of cultivation. There
are neither nurseries nor seed farms on the island.
Plants of the banana, pineapple, and the like, grow
from suckers, but aside from those species which prop-
agate naturally, the fruits trees are the simple result
from chance seedlings voluntarily produced from dis-
carded seed, with but little effort being made to foster
or preserve them. The practice of perpetuating supe-
rior forms by the various methods of asexual propaga-
tion is unknown to the Guam planter.

Agricultural implements are of the crudest and most
antiquated type. The native plow is an awkward
home-made wooden contrivance with a single handle
and a rough cast moldboard and point. It is drawn by
a water buffalo and tears and thrusts aside the soil,
leaving a ragged furrow about 4 inches wide. A man
with a buffalo and one of these implements, working
on an eight-hour-day basis, will require at least five
days to plow in a most ineffectual manner 1 acre of
land. In addition to the plow, a simple little hand tool,
the fosino, on the principle and of the construction of
a scuffle-hoe, is the only implement in common use for
tilling the soil.

Regardless, however, of the primitive methods of
the people, Guam is essentially a land of agriculture.
It has no other possible natural resource. With a
moderately fertile soil and a climate permitting the
planting and harvesting of crops during 365 days of
the year, the island is a garden specially created for
the farmer. How rapidly the development of the
agricultural industries may come, or how remote the
time when the full possibilities of the island may be
achieved, is a matter of mere conjecture, but the
absolute necessity of improvement is daily becoming
more manifest. Education is rapidly creating a higher
and more expensive standard of living and this increased
expense must be balanced by correspondingly aug-
mented production from the soil. Lack of shipping
facilities has seriously impeded progress in horticul-
tural lines and until improvement is brought about
there is little to encourage the establishment of the
fresh fruit industry upon a commercial basis. Products
for export must necessarily be limited to such of the
less perishable crops as coconuts, coffee, and cacao,
and to articles preserved by some of the various
methods, of which pickling, bottling, canning, and
evaporation are examples.

The coconut (Cocos nucifera) was found growing in

108

Guam at the time of the discovery by the Spaniards.
Safford observes that "the first accurate description of
the coconut was published by Dampier from observa-
tions made by him in Guam in 1686." This is the most
important product of the island, copra, the dried kernel
of the nut from which the coconut-oil of commerce is
expressed, constituting the only article of export. The
nut is also variously used in cookery, and furnishes one
of the principal feeds for both poultry and hogs. Aside
from the nut itself, the leaf is split through the midrib
from the terminal end and the pinna; of each plaited
together, forming from each frond two crude but
effective shingles for thatching the roofs of buildings.
The fact that probably 95 per cent of the dwellings
in Guam are thatched with this material indicates
the extent to which the leaves are used for this purpose.
Toddy, a popular beverage, non-intoxicating when
first drawn, is collected from an incision in the flower-
stalk; and this, by the process of boiling, is converted
into syrup, and, by a further continuation of the pro-
cess, sugar is obtained. Fermented toddy is an intoxi-
cant and is extensively employed in lieu of yeast in
making bread. It is also used in the preparation of
vinegar or, by distillation, a highly alcoholic liquor,
known as "aguardiente," is produced.

The native devotes but little attention to his trees;
yet natural conditions are favorable, and the trees
flourish and yield good crops regardless of neglect.
Bud-rot has not made its appearance on the island.
Cattle running at large cropping off the young trees,
and rats which gnaw off the young immature nuts, are,
as a matter of fact, the only serious enemies of the
plantation. In Guam, crops are gathered to a limited
extent during all seasons of the year, but the general
tendency is to confine pickings as much as possible to
the dry season, when weather conditions facilitating
the process of air-drying the copra usually prevail.
Drying with artificial heat is never practised. That
part of the output going to the export trade is disposed
of to Japanese traders who ship by sailing schooners to
Yokohama where the oil is expressed and the residual
meal employed to increase fertility of Japanese gardens.
To give some idea of the importance of the industry,
the following custom-house records covering the
exports for the annual periods ending June 30, for the
past three years are given:

Period Tona Value

1909-10 534.5 $33,610.11

1910-11 870.5 51,058.80

1911-12 1047.0 59,924.10

Fruit of bananas and plantains, Musa species, grow
in rich profusion everywhere and form an important
food staple of the people. Plantations are not estab-
lished systematically and are confined to small areas
of land contiguous to the home. Total neglect of the
plantation is common and when cultivation is at all
practised it consists of the occasional removal of weeds
and grasses and the application of this organic matter
and a small amount of surface soil about the base of
the plants. This mulch of soil and litter serves two
purposes, according to the season of its application.
In hot dry weather it cools the soil and assists in the
conservation of moisture, and in the season of heavy
rainfall its rapid decomposition adds fertility to the
root-feeding areas of the soil.

Among the forms common in Guam, the Chinese
dwarf or Cavendish banana (Musa Cavendishii),
known in the vernacular of Guam as chotda Guahu
(the Oahu banana), is the only well-known commercial
variety. It is of comparatively recent introduction
and is not well distributed. Chotda Dedos (the finger
banana) is so named from the long slender form of the
fruit, lending a fancied resemblance to the fingers on
a human hand. Chotda Haya (pronounced hadya —
signifying native or unintroduced banana) is supposed

1698 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

to have been the earliest form cultivated on the island.
Chotda Dama is similar and possibly identical to the
variety "Gloria" of the Philippines, which Blanco
refers to M. paradisiaca ternatensis. Chotda Manila
(M. paradisiaca cinerea) has been introduced from
the Philippines, where it is known as Letondal or
Latendan. This variety, though inferior in flavor and
subject to cracking and dropping from the bunch when
ripe, is a heavy-yielding sort and consequently a most

1989. A native hut in Guam; roof thatched with coconut leaves. Sour-sop (Annona
muricata) in left foreground

popular one. Probably 75 per cent of the bananas
annually produced on the island are of this variety.
Chotda tanduque (M. paradisiaca magna), a favorite
fruit of the plantain type, eaten both cooked and
uncooked, is also of Philippine introduction. Other
good varieties of recent introduction which may be
expected to assume leading places in the future are,
the Bungulan (M. paradisiaca suaveolens), the Lacatan
(M. paradisiaca lacatari), from the Philippines, and the
Brazilian banana from the Hawaiian Islands. The
Jamaica or Bluefields banana was introduced into Guam
during the fiscal year 1912 by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

The leaves and false stem of the banana are relished
by cattle and after maturing their fruit these consti-
tute a valuable by-product.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa) grows in great lux-
uriance in the warm humid climate of Guam, and
it is probably nowhere more abundant or more highly
esteemed. Uncultivated and uncared for, the copious
supply of nutritious food which it yields during its
long fruiting season from June to December is wholly
a gift of Nature. Both the seed-bearing variety and the
more highly improved seedless form of A. incisa exist
in extensive forests. The breadfruit is not a commercial
article, yet the important part which it plays in the
domestic economy of the people renders it worthy of
mention in a work of this character. In addition to
the value of the fruit for human food, the immature
fruits are fed to cattle and hogs and the ripe fruit also
constitutes a most valuable hog-feed. The leaves of
the breadfruit tree are largely employed as a fodder
for cattle and the fondness shown for them by the
native cattle is not acquired; for cows imported from
the United States manifest an equal relish for them at
the first feeding. In this connection the necessity of
providing the young plants with protection from cattle
is indicated.

The coffee shrub (Coffea arabica), and to a more
limited extent the Liberian species (C. liberica), are
successfully grown, and especially is this true in the
district of Yigo in the northern part of the island and
at Sinahana situated on an elevation south of Agana.

It is said that during the latter part of the Spanish
regime when direct shipping means existed between
Guam and Manila, an export trade of considerable
importance was enjoyed and that the Guam product
was recognized for its superior quality. Coffee is now
more sparingly grown than in former times and within
the past few years the output has not been sufficient
to supply the home demand. The absence from Guam
of the coffee fungus, Hemileia vastatrix, so widely
distributed throughout the Old
World Tropics and so destruc-
tive to the coffee industry wher-
ever it exists is both interesting
and significant. Aside from field-
rats, which feed upon the sweet
pulp, dropping the naked berry
to the ground, there are no seri-
ous pests to contend with in
Guam. Even with the limited
acreage adaptable to coffee-cul-
ture, the industry is entirely
capable of development to the
extent of not only supplying the
home demand but also of furnish-
ing a considerable surplus for
export.

The mango (Mangifera in-
dica), a most delicious tropical
fruit, is grown in Guam in two
races, both of which come true
to seed, or at least practically
so, and are propagated only
by that method. The "Guam

mango" is of medium size, contains but little fiber and
is free from the disagreeable taste of turpentine, com-
mon to some of the inferior varieties, when it is prop-
erly ripened. It is identical with the common "Carabao"
mango of the Philippines. In the quality of its fruit this
variety is superior, but on the island of Guam it pos-
sesses the disadvantages of light and irregular bearing-
habits. Another feature in the cultivation of this species
that tends to discourage planting is the fact that trees
require from twelve to twenty years to grow from the
seed to a state of production. Owing to these habits of
slow development and light yields, the supply of man-
goes is insufficient to meet the demand for them and the
same conditions create an ever-ready market-price of
5 to 10 cents United States currency for a fruit. Large
trees claimed to be more than 100 years old, measuring
as much as 9 feet in circumference of the trunk and
from 50 to 60 feet in top diameter, are common.

The "Saipan mango" introduced from the island of
that name, now seat of the German government in
the Marianas, is a small fruit weighing about four
ounces. It is full of a coarse fiber and is inferior in
flavor. The tree of this variety is of comparatively
small dimensions, comes into bearing in four to seven
yeacs from the seed, and is a regular and heavy bearer.
As a fruit this race is of little importance, but as a
stock upon which to inarch the "Guam mango" it
should prove valuable, as its less vigorous root-system
should result in dwarfing the tree of the Guam variety
and in rendering it more prolific.

In addition to the more important fruits noted above,
others of more or less value abound in great variety.
Lemons and limes of fair quality and oranges of an
inferior grade are plentiful. The bullock's - heart
(Annona reticulata) grows spontaneously, and the
sour-sop (A. muricata) and sweet-sop (A. squamosa)
are common fruits. The papaya (Carica Papaya), in a
degenerate form, has escaped from cultivation and
grows in great profusion throughout the island. Excel-
lent papayas are grown from introduced seed of
improved forms, but hybridization between these and
the native papayas results in a reduction in the size
of the fruit with each successive generation. When

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1699

careful methods of hand pollination are not practised,
the use of introduced seeds of the best improved varie-
ties is found essential to best results. The avocado
(Persea gratissimd) has been introduced since the
establishment of American government on the island
and the remarkable vigor and heavy yields of a few
trees indicate a bright future for this new fruit. Pine-
apples, small in size and of fair quality, are found in
neglected plantings. The United States Department
of Agriculture has introduced plants of the Smooth
Cayenne pineapple, which promises great improvement
over the native variety. The sapodilla (Achras Sapota),
the cashew (Anacardium occidentale) , the carambola
(Averrhoa Carambola), the Otaheite apple (Eugenia
malaccensis) , the guava (Psidium Guajava), and the
tamarind (Tamarindus indica), are all listed in the
catalogue of island fruits.

A discussion on vegetable-gardening in Guam must
essentially treat of possibilities rather than of achieve-
ments. Gardening is practised to a very limited extent
and in accordance with the most antiquated methods.
Among the most common temperate-zone vegetables,
tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage, sweet corn, and garden
peas are not successful. Beans in wide variety of types,
radishes, lettuce, okra, eggplants, peppers, cucumbers,
muskmelons, and watermelons are all successfully
produced. Important rootcrops, handled more as
field than garden products, are yams, taro, and sweet
potatoes. The most important food staple cultivated
on the island is maize. Rice was formerly grown exten-
sively, but now nearly all the rice consumed on the
island is imported. Tobacco is also successfully culti-
vated by the natives. Peanuts are common and are
grown entirely from vine cuttings. The difficulty of
preserving the vitality of many of the common garden
seeds in the warm humid climate of Guam is one of the
principal causes of the present indifferent attitude
shown by the native farmer toward the cultivation of
the vegetable-garden.

A few species of valuable tropical hardwoods are
found in the forests of Guam but owing to extravagant
and wasteful cuttings, the better grades of timber are
becoming comparatively scarce. Among the most
important of these species, Afzelia bijuga, known in
Guam as "ifit," is extensively used for general construc-
tion purposes and as a cabinet-wood. Calophyllum

A systematic flora of the island has recently been
published by E. D. Merrill ("An Enumeration of the
Plants of Guam," Philippine Journ. Science, Vol. IX,
1914). Merrill points out the affinity of the Guam
flora with that of the Malayan region, practically all
the indigenous genera being of wide Indo-Malayan
distribution. The nearest approach to an endemic
genus is Saffordiella, which also is found on the island
of Yap. Among the new orchids described by Ames are
species of Bulbophyllum, Liparis, Eulophia, Phraetia,
Ccelogyne, Saccolobium, and Dendrobium. Among the
conspicuous forest trees, Merrill describes several
banyans, the sacred nunus of the natives, Ficus marian-
nensis and F. Saffordii; the yoga, Elseocarpus joga, a
lofty tree with buttressed trunk and clusters of bluish
grape-like fruit; a new almendra, or talisai, Terminalia
Saffordii, with edible almond-like fruit; and several
species of Eugenia. He also describes several new
shrubs, among them, Macaranga Thompsonii and
Phyllanthus Saffordii, belonging to the Euphorbiaceae ;
Greuria mariannensis, closely allied to the Polynesian
G. malococca; a number of Rubiacea?, including species
of Hedyotis, Morinda, Oldenlandia, Psychotria, and
Tarenna; and Discocalyx megacarpa, a plant with
erect habit, glossy green leaves, and bright red berries.

For further information on the horticulture of Guam,
see "The Useful Plants of Guam," by Safford, and the
Annual Reports of the Guam Agricultural Experiment
Station. j. 3. THOMPSON.

Tutuila.

The most important island of American Samoa (Fig.
1990) is situated about 4,200 miles southwest of San
Francisco in latitude 14° 20' south and longitude about
170° 40' west of Greenwich. Although smaller than the
German islands, Savaii and Upolu, lying to the west-
ward, it is more important strategically on account of
its remarkable natural land-locked harbor, Pago-Pago,
the precipitous walls of which afford safety to an entire
squadron even during the violent hurricanes which
sometimes sweep the group. Tutuila has an area of
about 54 square miles, with a population of nearly
4,000 inhabitants. Like other islands of the group, it
is volcanic with barrier coral reefs surrounding it. The
forest-clad mountains rise to a height of about 3,000
feet. Several other neighboring islands belonging to

1990. Tutuila.

inophyllum, generally designated as "palo maria," is
usually employed in cabinet-work and the construc-
tion of cart wheels. Claoxylon marianum, the "panao"
of the Chamorro, is specially valued for flooring pur-
poses. Heritiera littoralis, called "ufa," is utilized in
making plow-beams, while Ochrocarpos obovalis and
Premna Gaudichaudii, known respectively as "chopag"
and "ahgao" are extensively employed in the con-
struction of buildings.

the United States have a combined area of not more
than 25 square miles and a population of 2,000 inhabi-
tants. The group known as Manua, lying a degree to
the eastward of Tutuila, is composed of the small
islands Tau, Ofu, and Olosenga, the first formed like a
great mole-hill, the other two rising precipitously from
the sea. Rose Island, lying 70 miles to the eastward, is a
typical coral atoll almost circular in shape.

The islands are swept almost continually by the

1700 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

trade-winds, and there is abundant rainfall. The climate
is healthful, the volcanic soil quickly arbsorbing the
precipitated moisture. December, the warmest month,
has a mean temperature of about 87° F.; July, the
coolest month, a mean temperature of about 78° F.

American Samoa is governed by an officer of the
United States Navy, detailed by the Secretary of the
Navy. The wisdom of the government in dealing with
the natives is shown by its methods of administration.
Ancient Samoan customs are followed as closely as pos-
sible. The villages choose their own chiefs from those
who have hereditary rights to the position, subject to
the governor's approval. The villages are grouped
into counties ruled by high chiefs and the coun-
ties are grouped into three great districts, Eastern
Tutuila, Western Tutuila, and the District of Manu'a,
each of which has at its head a chief appointed by the
governor. The customs officer is a naval officer and the
health department is under a medical officer of the
Navy, who has charge of the island dispensary and
the hospital, or sick quarters, of the station. At the end
of each year there is held a general fono, or assembly
to which all parts of the islands send delegates. In this

1991. Samoan dwelling thatched with sugar-cane leaves, with side blinds of coconut-leaf
mats, on the sloping shore of Pago-Pago Bay, Island of Tutuila. Surrounding vegetation:
bananas, coconut palms, breadfruit tree, and 'ava pepper (Piper methysticum), a large mango
tree in the distance.

assembly matters of general interest are discussed, new
laws recommended, complaints and suggestions are
listened to, laws are explained, and information given
regarding all matters affecting the welfare of the natives
and the administration. Suffrage is restricted to the
heads of families (matais) in accordance with Samoan
custom, the family and not the individual being con-
sidered the unit of society.

There are no public lands in American Samoa. Even
the land occupied by the Naval Station was acquired
from the native owners by purchase. A few small tracts
are owned by foreigners, who acquired their titles
before the American occupation. Only one plantation
is owned by a white man, and he is connected by mar-
riage with one of the highest chiefs of Samoa. On his
plantation in a valley on the north side of Tutuila, he
has planted coconut trees, rubber, cacao, and a small
amount of coffee. On account of the small amount of
arable land there is no opportunity for Americans to
become planters in these islands.

The only product of commercial importance is copra,
the dried meat of the coconut. All the beaches are
fringed with coconut palms. At the mouths of streams
where the water is brackish, there are mangrove thickets

composed chiefly of Rhizophora and Bruguiera. Sur-
rounding the thatched huts of the natives are many
ornamental plants, including Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, the
beloved aute of the natives, who adorn themselves
with its bright red flowers; trees of the fragrant
Canangium odoratum, here called "moso'oi," from the
flowers of which the natives make garlands and prepare
a scented oil for anointing their bodies; clumps of
pandanus, from the leaves of which they weave their
mats; ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia) called "toa,"
from the trunks of which they make spears and war-
clubs; Piper methysticum from the roots of which they
prepare their national drink called '"ava;" and near-
by are usually clumps of bananas and plantains;
patches of taro (Colocaswantiquorumyar. esculenta) the
starchy roots of which form one of their most important
food staples; trees of breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)
magnificent mango trees; the Polynesian "chestnut"
(Inocarpus edulis), called "ifi;" several varieties of
yams (Dioscoreae) the paper mulberry (Broussonetia
papyrifera), from the inner bark of which the women
make bark-cloth, the widely spread Hibiscus tiliaceus,
here called "fau," from the bark of which they make
cordage; urticaceous plants, fau-
songa (Pipturus argenteus) and
fau-pata (Cypholophus macroce-
phalus), from the fiber of which
they make their shaggy mats and
their fishing nets; dracsena-like
Cordyline terminalis, here called
"ti," from the leaves of which
they make skirts worn while
fishing on the reef; besides many
other interesting and useful
plants.

Though much of the island is
too steep for cultivation, every
foot of the soil near the coast
seems to yield useful plant prod-
ucts, and edible sea-weeds are
secured from the shallow lagoons
between the shore and the sur-
rounding reefs.

The slopes of the mountains
as well as the valleys are covered
with rich humus formed princi-
pally by the decay of vegetable
matter together with a slight
proportion of decomposed vol-
canic rock. Nearly all tropi-
cal plants which have been
tried have been grown suc-
cessfully. Oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, citrons,
the mango, alligator pear (aguacate, or avocado),
papaya, pineapple, are among the introduced fruits.
The citrous fruits are subject to scale. The lemons
are mostly thick-skinned and of inferior quality. Ban-
anas of many varieties are cultivated, each family
having a banana-patch for its own use. Certain varie-
ties are allowed to ripen and eaten raw, while others
are gathered immature, before the starch has turned to
sugar, and are cooked as a vegetable. The varieties
growing in Samoa before its discovery are known as
"fa'i Samoa," while those introduced by the whites are
called "fa'i papalangi." Banana leaves are used for
table-cloths, umbrellas, wrapping-paper (with the mid-
rib removed), improvised hats (when it rains), and,
when dried, for cigarette wrappers. In addition to the
cultivated species there is a wild banana in the mount-
ains, called "soa'a" (Musa Fehi, Bart.), which yields
a black dye. Of this species which bears its fruit in an
erect raceme, the natives have a story telling of a battle
between the soa'a and the fa'i. The soa'a was victo-
rious and ever since it has kept its head erect, while the
conquered fa'i is compelled to bow its head earthward
as a token of its humiliation.

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1701

Several varieties of taro (Colocasia antiqiiorum var.
esculenta) are cultivated, some of them in marshy
places, others in clearings made in the forest. On the
island of Tutuila there is not much marsh taro in com-
parison with upland taro. The latter is usually planted
in virgin soil in holes made by a digging-stick. Very
little care is afterward bestowed upon it except to
keep the patches weeded. Marsh taro requires a con-
stant supply of fresh water. The starchy roots must be
thoroughly baked to destroy their acridity, which, like
that of our Indian turnip, is caused by minute needles
of oxalate of calcium (raphides). Closely allied to the
taro is the giant taro, Alocasia macrorhiza, called "ta'
amu" by the Samoans. Several kinds of ta'amu occur
in Samoa, all of which are probably varieties of A.
macrorhiza. They are propagated like upland tarp.
The roots, which sometimes reach a great size, in
times of scarcity are an important food staple. The
enormous satiny leaves are used for covering the native
ovens. The young leaves of taro are cooked in various
ways as a vegetable. One of the most agreeable dishes,
called "palusami," is composed of the expressed cream
of grated coconut meat combined with young taro
leaves and a little salt water wrapped in an outer cover-
ing of leaves and baked in a native oven. The fermented
paste made from taro known in the Hawaiian Islands
as "poi" is unknown in Samoa.

Y&ms(Dioscorea Batatas), called "ufi" by the Samoans,
resemble the forms known on the island of Guam as
"dago." The tubers often grow to an enormous size.
The plants are propagated by cuttings, each of which
must possess an eye or bud from which the new plant
springs. The plantations are made in clearings in the
woods, stones are laid around the young plants and
stakes are placed for the plants to climb upon. In
about six months after planting the tubers are ready for
food. As the propagation and gathering of yams are
more difficult than in the case of taro, they are not so
extensively grown, though they thrive well and are
well liked by the natives.

Tacca pinnatifida, Forst., called "masoa" by the
Samoans and commonly known as "Polynesian arrow-
root," yields an excellent starch, which is used prin-
cipally for pasting together the filmy beaten bast of the
paper mulberry in making bark-cloth (siapo). It is
also an article of food and is sometimes prepared with
coconut custard in the form of dumplings or puddings.
In Tahiti the natives braid beautiful hats from the
epidermis of the flower-scapes and petioles of this
plant. As with the yams, the tubers are mature when
the plants die down. When fresh they are bitter. The
starch is prepared by grating the tubers to a fine pulp
which is put into a vessel of water. This becomes
milky and the solid particles are removed by straining.
After standing for some time, the starch settles and
the clear liquid is poured off. This plant grows spon-
taneously in Samoa, but it is sometimes cultivated.

Rice is not cultivated. Though it was introduced
into the island of Guam before the discovery of that
island by Europeans, it was entirely unknown to the
ancient Polynesians of the central and eastern Pacific.

The breadfruit (Artocarpus intisa) is planted about)
every village. It grows in the form of a symmetrical
tree with spreading top. Its curved limbs furnish the
Samoans with rafters for the roofs of their best houses;
the viscid milky latex is used by them for many pur-
poses; and the large lobed leaves are eaten with relish
by all herbivorous animals. The fruit, gathered before
it is quite ripe, is prepared for food in a variety of ways.
It is often eaten with pork, fish, or fowl, sometimes with
a sauce of cooked custard expressed from grated coconut
meat; or in the form of dumplings cooked in this cus-
tard. As the breadfruit season is limited, quantities of
the fruit are placed in pits and allowed to ferment,
somewhat after the manner of sauer-kraut. Though
the fermented substance has a very offensive smell, it

is nutritious, and is made into cakes and baked.
"Masi," the name of these cakes, is now a general term
applied to all kinds of biscuits and crackers. The trees
are propagated from suckers, to which a portion of a
root of the parent plant is left attached. The young
trees grow rapidly and in three or four years bear fruit.

The Polynesian "chestnut" (Inocarpus edulis) is a
magnificent forest tree belonging to the Leguminosse.
Its fruit roasted in the shell has somewhat the taste of
chestnuts and is much eaten by the Samoans. Its
wood is hard and durable, of fine texture and very
tough. It has the remarkable quality of burning read-
ily while green.

Sugar-cane is grown to some extent. It has been
grown by the Samoans from prehistoric times, but
not for commercial purposes. No sugar is made on the
island. The cane is relished especially by the children,
who suck its sweet juice. Its principal use is in fur-
nishing an excellent durable thatch for the houses of
the natives.

Tobacco is grown in small quantities very much after
the fashion pursued in other countries, first in seed-
beds, then transplanted. It is consumed by the natives,
both male and female, in the form of cigarettes wrapped
with dry banana leaves.

Piper methysticum, called "kava" in some parts of
Polynesia and " 'ava" in Samoa, is extensively grown
for the sake of the narcotic infusion prepared from its
root. This is prepared with great ceremony in the pres-
ence of the chief or head of a family by young girls. In
former times, the root was first chewed and then placed
in the wooden bowl in the form of quids upon which
cold water was poured from a coconut water-bottle;
but now the root is rasped on an improvised grater
made by puncturing holes in a sheet of tin. The infusion
is not allowed to ferment but is drunk fresh, each per-
son present partaking of it in succession in the order
of his rank. 'Ava-drinking in Samoa is never indulged
in so extensively as to become a vice, but the beverage
is a wholesome and refreshing stimulant. 'Ava takes
the place in Samoa of the betel pepper (Piper Betel) of
the Philippines and the island of Guam, the leaves of
which are chewed with areca nut and a little lime. The
latter has never found its way into eastern Polynesia.

In the woods there are valuable hardwood trees,
many of which are clothed with epiphytal orchids,
lycopods, and ferns, and the slopes of the mountains
yield rich returns to the botanist in rare ferns and other
plants, especially graceful tree-ferns.

In the vicinity of Pago-Pago the most common trees
are the fau (Hibiscus tiliaceus); milo (Thespesia popul-
nea)', lama, or candle-nut (Aleurites moluccana) called
"kukui" in the Hawaiian Islands; toi (Alphitonia
excelsa); tavai (Rhus simarubaefolia) ; masame (Anti-
desma sphaerocarpum) ; tamanu, a species of Maba; and
fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum). The futu (Barring-
tonia speciosa), a beautiful tree with glossy leaves and
white flowers with crimson stamens, bears a peculiar
four-angled fruit which is used in Samoa, as in Guam,
for stupefying fish in tide pools on the coral reefs. The
appearance of the red blossoms (aloalo) of the ngatae
(Erythrina indica) marks an epoch in the Samoan
calendar. The ifilele, which is identical with the valua-
ble ipil of Guam (Intsia bijuga), is prized for its durable
hard wood, and is much used for house posts. The
fragrant flowers of the langaali (Aglaia edulis), like
those of Canangium odoratum, are used to scent the
coconut-oil with which the natives anoint themselves.
The fruit of the vi (Spondias dulcis) is highly prized
by the natives and that of the nonu-fiafia (Eugmia
malaccensis) is also eaten. The giant banyans (Ficus
sp.), rising like great hillocks above the general level
of the forests and remarkable for their numerous aerial
prop-like roots, are regarded by the Samoans to be the
dwellings of spirits (aitu). The Samoans have legends
and songs regarding many of their forest trees and

1702 ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

shrubs, one of which called "The Battle between the
Trees and Stones" is translated by Augustin Kraemer
in his monumental work, "Die Samoa-Inseln" (Vol.
I, p. 361, 1902), to which the reader is referred. See
also "American Samoa," a general report by Governor
W. M. Grose, dated June 22, 1912, Washington 1913;
and F. Reinecke's "Flora der Samoa-Inseln," Engl.
Bot. Jahrb., Vols. 23 and 25, 1897, 1898.

W. E. SAFFORD.

Philippine Islands.

The Philippines (Fig. 1992), lying between the Pacific
and the China Sea, extend almost due north and south
from Formosa to Borneo and the Moluccas, and cover
about 700 miles of longitude and 1,000 miles of latitude
(from 4.40° to 20° north latitude, and 116.40° to 126.30°
east longitude). The archipelago comprises 3,141
islands, having a total area of 127,853 square miles,
and has a population of above 8,000,000 inhabitants.
The largest islands are Luzon, with an area of 40,969
and Mindanao with 36,292 square miles.

The Philippines are of volcanic origin and in conse-
quence the topography of the archipelago is charac-
terized by a broken surface and more or less rugged
mountains in all islands of any importance. Between
the mountain ranges and on the banks of some of the
largest rivers he several rich, level valleys awaiting the
advent of the cultivator, areas which are eminently
suited for the cultivation of rice, corn, sugar, tobacco,
hemp, and coconuts. The principal plains are found
in Isabela and Cagayan Provinces, watered by the

Cagayan River; in Tarlac and Pangasinan, watered by
the Agno; and in Nueva Ecija and Pampanga, through
which flows the Pampanga. The Cottabato Valley in
the Moro Province is irrigated by the Mindanao
River. The interior of Mindanao, from the mountain
ranges east of the Agusan River to Lake Lanao in the
west, consists of a remarkable series of level table-
lands of great fertility between the mountains and can-
ons at an elevation ranging from 1,000 to here and
there exceeding 2,500 feet.

The climate is remarkably mild and free from
extremes, though there is considerable variation in
temperature due to altitude. The Weather Bureau of
the Philippines distinguishes three types of climate
peculiar to the Philippines: (1) That of Sorsogon,
Albay, Ambos Camarines, Catanduanes, and adjacent
islands, the eastern coast of Luzon from the seashore
to the mountains in Tayabas, eastern Isabela, and
Cagayan, the north and east coast of Samar, the east
and north coast of Mindanao and adjacent islands, the
valley of the Agusan River, and the east coast of
Leyte; this climate is characterized by an average
rainfall of 3,090 millimeters, well distributed through-
out the year, mean temperature 79.8° F., lowest
recorded temperature, 62.4° F., highest 110.3° F., the
greatest rainfall being in December, and the .least in
May, June, and July. (2) That of the provinces of
Batangas, Bataan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Zambales,
Union, Rizal, Western Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva
Ecija, Tarlac, Pangasinan, the west coast of Panay,
Mindoro and Mindanao, with an average rainfall of
2,120 millimeters, falling mainly from May to October
with a distinctly dry season during December,
January, February, March and April; mean tem-
perature 80.5° F., highest recorded temperature
103.1° F., lowest 57.7° F. (3) That of the ex-
treme north of Luzon, including the Cagayan
Valley and the Batanes Islands, the shores of
Laguna de Bay, the west coasts of Samar, and
Leyte, the north and east coasts of Panay,
Negros, Cebu and Bohol, Davao Gulf and the
south end of the Zamboanga Peninsula; annual
rainfall 1,882 millimeters, falling mainly from
September to January, with a short dry season
in February, March, and April, mean tempera-
ture 79.7° F., highest recorded temperature 100°
F., lowest, 59.9° F.

The following export statistics for the years
1897 and 1911 illustrate the development of the
plant industries in the Philippines during the
last fourteen years:

1897

Manila hemp. . . $8,571,850

Sugar 6,911,535

Copra and coconuts 2,687,978

Tobacco products 2,128,380

Indigo .

Coffee

Candlenut products .

Ilang-ilang oil

Sappan wood

Copal

Maguey fiber

Fruits

72,379
45,648
35,219
24,937
23,323
22,562
13,687
8,393

1911

Manila hemp $16,141,340

Copra 9,899,457

Sugar 8,014,360

Tobacco products 3,605,567

1992. Philippine Islands, to show the general form of the archipelago.

Bamboo hats.
Maguey fiber. . .

Copal

Ilang-ilang oil. . ,
Gutta-percha. . .
Fruits and nuts.
Sappan wood . . .
Kapok cotton . . .

Coffee

Cacao

301,141
254,053
49,716
47,404
41,065
23,568
16,220
11,324
366
199

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES 1703

By comparing these statistics it will be seen that the
exportation of hemp has about doubled during this
period; copra has leaped into second place instead of
sugar, of which there has been a comparatively small
increase; the production of maguey fiber has increased
over twenty-fold.

Rice, of which there are about 1,000 varieties more
or less, is the most important cereal in the Philippines.
The principal rice-producing provinces are, in the order
of their importance, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac,
Ilocos Norte, Bulacan, Pampanga, and Capiz.

Corn succeeds well, but is of comparatively limited
cultivation, Cebu and Pangasinan being the chief
producers; however, corn-growing is greatly on the
increase. Mungos and cowpeas are the only legumes
grown under field -culture, but are not cultivated
extensively.

Manila hemp is the leading export article; it is
obtained from the leaf-stems or petioles of the abacd,
(Musa textilis), and is grown principally in Albay,
Leyte, Ambos Camarines, Sorsogon and Samar.

Copra is the next important export. Tayabas,
Laguna, Albay, Samar, Moro, Cebu, Capiz, and Leyte
are the source of most of the copra, and the culture of
the coconut is on a steady increase.

Sugar, the fourth most important crop, is cultivated
primarily in the Provinces of Occidental Negros,
Pampanga, Batangas. and Iloilo.

Most of the tobacco is grown in Isabela, Cagayan,
Cebu, La Union and Pangasinan.

The statistics below relate to the six principal crops
of the Philippines for the fiscal year 1911.

Crop

Area
Hectares

Product

Amount produced

Approximate
total value
in provincial
markets

Rice

1,043,757

Cleaned rice

574,842,682 kilos

$32,995,940

404,160

Manila hemp

171,879,598 kilos

13,750,367

208,476

Average of
200 trees

|

Ripe nuts for food
Copra

154,980,726 nuts 1
118,323,114 kilos I

13,130,636

per hectare
Sugar-cane

120,313
302,516

Coconut oil
Palm wine
Crude sugar
Shelled corn

6,602,966 liters f
37,649,880 liters J
243,924,574 kilos
186,404,700 liters

12,196,238
4,361,869

Tobacco

69,015

Leaf tobacco

25,518,132 kilos

3,444,947

Both fruit- and vegetable-culture have been greatly
neglected in the Philippines, notwithstanding the
fact that the soil is almost everywhere of great fer-
tility and that a great number of vegetables succeed
well and produce abundantly when properly cared for.

Coconuts, with the steady and increasing demand for
copra and other coconut products, are undoubtedly
destined to become not only the chief horticultural
industry in the Philippines but the leading industry in
the archipelago. If a coconut plantation is well located
and intelligently cared for there is probably no other
enterprise in the Philippines today that offers so large
a return with so little care and expenditure. (See
Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 17.)

Coffee (Coffea arahica) was a very profitable crop
until the entrance of the coffee blight (Hemileia vas-
tatrix) about twenty-five years ago, which gradually
destroyed the hitherto very profitable coffee-planta-
tions. Coffee-culture is now of little or no importance,
and coffee to the value of $255,039 was imported in the
fiscal year ending 1911. Coffea liberica, C. robusta, and
the Maragogipe hybrid have been introduced in order
to revive the coffee industry, but without avail. From
the present outlook, coffee-growing will never become
an important industry until a blight-resistant variety
shall have been found that is equal in quality to the
Arabian coffee.

The cacao (Theobroma Cacao) was long ago intro-
duced into the Philippines, and large areas are well
adapted to the culture of this tree, particularly in
Mindanao, but although found in all provinces, even
the home demand for cacao has never been supplied,
and the cacao products imported into the Philippines
in 1911 amounted to $261,935. The reasons for this
neglect of what would undoubtedly be a profitable
industry are that hemp, coconuts and sugar-cane, which
require less attention and care, yet yield profitable
returns, have been more than the cacao adapted to
the agricultural educational standard so far attained
by the population in the Philippines. It should not be
forgotten, however, that systematic cacao-culture has
never been introduced, either by the Spaniards, or
by the Americans after their occupation of the archi-
pelago. It cannot be doubted but that cacao will some
day become one of the most important of the Philip-
pine agri-horticultural exports.

Fruit-growing, in the pomological sense of the word,
is scarcely even in its infancy. Fruits, fresh, canned
and dried, were imported to the value of $241,686 in
1911, while the total horticultural exports for the same
year were but $24,053. It is thus seen that the foreign
markets are all neglected, and yet there is no doubt
but that Hongkong could readily absorb many times
the amount of fruit that is sent there and that much
could be exported to Japan, China and Cochin-China,
and even Australia. This latter country imported in
1910 citrous fruits alone to the value of $107,445 from
California and the Mediterranean countries, and, in
fact, the Philippines themselves, the home of some of
the citrous fruits, yearly import oranges,
pomelos and lemons that are far inferior
to the home-grown product; canned
pineapples are imported from Singa-
pore and Hawaii. However, there has
been an awakening during the past
year to the anomaly of this situation,
and considerable attention is beginning
to be paid to the fruit industry.

Owing to the long distance to the
principal large foreign markets, and
the perishable nature of most of the
fruits cultivated, the Philippine Islands
can hope to export but few fresh fruits,
such as mandarins, oranges, pomelos,
bananas and mangoes, and while the
production of fresh fruit for export
should become a considerable item, the manufactured
products — fruit canned, dried, crushed and grated, made
into jams, jellies, marmalade, fruit syrups, flavoring
extract and wine — are destined to be of primary im-
portance. In this form the Philippine fruits can com-
pete with others for the world's markets.

Two fruits only, the banana and the mandarin, can
be said to be systematically planted and cultivated,
and even then the care they receive is primitive. Prac-
tically all the mandarins are grown in a small district
in Batangas; budding and grafting is never practised;
marcottage is sometimes employed in the propagation
of particularly choice fruit trees, principally the chico".
Even the mango, the most famous of the Philippine
fruits, is grown on the edges of the rice-paddies, on
hillsides and along the roads, instead of in regularly
planted orchards.

Also, there are many districts in the Philippines in
which such hardy and vigorous species as the mango,
tamarind, chico, and breadfruit have not yet been intro-
duced and there are others such as the bauno (Mangif-
era verticillata) , marang (Artocarpus odoratissima) , and
kambog (Dillenia spedosa), which are unknown except
in their native habitat.

The banana (Musa sapientum, M. paradisiaca, and
M. humilis) is the most important of the Philippine
fruits as a food; the flower-buds are eaten as a vege-

ISLAND DEPENDENCIES

table. There are probably over one hundred varieties
of bananas in the Philippines, of which the following
are the most important in order of their enumeration:
Lacatan, Latundan, Saba, Gloria, Bungulan, Daliring
senora, Butuan, Matabia, Lacatan morado, Ni-lanzon,
Tundoc. These varieties occur under many synonyms.

Next to the banana, the papaya (Carica Papaya), is
the most generally grown fruit in the Philippines; a
very good variety of this fruit is
being gradually disseminated. The
second most important fruit com-
mercially is the mandarin (Citrus
nobilis), which has already been
referred to. The trees are all seed-
lings, but the fruit is nevertheless
remarkably good and uniform in
appearance, size, and quality. The
production of the other citrous fruits
is very limited, and in the order of
their importance they are: Pomelo
(Citrus grandis), calamondin (C.
mitis), lime (C. aurantifolia), orange
(C. sinensis), cabuyao (Papeda his-
trix). The variation in these species
is very .great and several natural
hybrids occur. (See Philippine
Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin No.
27.)

The mango (Mangifera indica) is
the third most important commer-
cial fruit in the Philippines and,
excepting the mandarin, the only
one that is exported. The three most
important types of mangoes are Car-
abao, Pico and Pahutan. Only the
first two are worthy of cultivation.
Cavite, Cebu, Bohol, Nueva Ecija,
Pangasinan and Zambales lead in
mango-production. (See Philippine
Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin No.
18.)

The pineapple (Ananas sativus) is
grown chiefly for its fiber and is cul-
tivated principally in Samar, Occi-
dental Negros, Tayabas and Bula-
can. Bataan supplies Manila with
pineapples during its season; the
variety grown is of good quality
and flavor. Cayenne and Spanish
were introduced in 1912. The chico
(Achras Sapota) is grown to a con-
siderable extent and is of good qual-
ity; the guava (Psidium Guajava) is
naturalized everywhere; the lanzon
(Lansium domesticum) is well es-
teemed, and Manila is fairly well
supplied with this fruit during its
season. The soursop (Annona muri-
cata) and the sugar-apple (Annona
squamosa) are the most generally
grown fruits of the genus; the cus-
tard-apple (Annona reticulata) is less
esteemed. The duhat (Eugenia jam-
bolana) is the most generally dis-
tributed species in the genus; the
yambo (Eugenia Jambos) is very

1993. Typical house near Manila. Roof
made of nipa palm.

1994. A typical laborer's hut in Manila.
Also made of nipa palm.

1995. A hay (rice grass) carrier in Manila.

rare. The mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) and durian
(Durw zibethinus) have not yet been introduced north
of Mindanao.

The betelnut (Areca Catechu) is of great local impor-
tance at present but the use of this stimulant is
decreasing.

The above are the most important of the Philippine
fruits. The following are grown to more or less extent:

Alubihod (Spondias mangifera), alupag (Euphoria
cinerea), bauno (Mangifera verticillata), bignay (Anti-

desma bunius), bitongol (Flacourtia sepiaria), bobog,
(Sterculia fcetida), camanchile (Pithecolobium dulce),
camia (Averrhoa Bilimbi), carambola (Averrhoa Caram-
bola), cashew (Anacardium occidentale) , catmon (Dil-
lenia philippinensis) , cereza (Muntingia calabura),
chico-mamey (Lucuma mammosa), ciruela (Spondias
purpurea), citron (Citrus medica), date (Phoenix dacty-
lifera), fig (Ficus Carica), granadilla (Passiflora quad-,
rangularis), grape (Vitis vinifera),
iba (Phyllanthus acidus), igot (Eu-
genia sp.), jak (Artocarpus integ-
rifolia), kambog (Dillenia speciosa),
kaki (Diospyros Kaki), kayam (I no-
carpus edulis), lemoncito (Triphasia
aurantiola), libas (Garcinia Vidallii),
longan (Euphoria Longana), mabolo
(Diospyros discolor), macopa (Eu-
genia javanica and E. malaccensis) ,
manzanita (Zizyphus jujiiba), mar-
ang (Artocarpus odoratissima),
mulberry (Morus nigra), pangi (Pan-
gium edule), pili nuts (Canarium
ovatum, and C. pacyphyllum) , pome-
granate (Punica granatum), santol
(Sandoricum indicum), strawberry
(Fragraria vesca), tamarind (Tama-
rindus indica), togop, (Artocarpus
elastica), zapote (Dwspyros Eben-
aster) .

As the islands are becoming- better
explored, other fruits will un-
doubtedly be added to this list.

The following fruits have been
introduced by the Bureau of Agri-
culture within the last few years:

The avocado (Per sea gratissima),
cherimoy a (Annona Cherimola) ,
roselle (Hibiscus Sabdariffa), hevi
(Spondias cytherese), hogplum (S.
lutea), tiess (Lucuma Rivicoa var.
angustifolia), boracho (Lucuma sali-
tifolia), ceriman (Monsteradeliciosa),
tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea),
caranda (Carissa Carandas), carissa
(Carissa bispinosa), Cecropia pal-
mata, pitanga (Eugenia uniflora),
caymito (Chrysophyllum Cainito),
Dillenia indica, ginepap (Genipa
americana), Phyllanthus emblica, bael
(Mgle Marmelos), cattley guava
(Psidium Catlleianum), biriba (Rol-
linia orthopetala) , casimiroa (Casi-
miroa edulis).

During the past year, the leading
varieties of citrous fruits have been
introduced from their respective
countries; also a large collection of
mango varieties from India.

The most important vegetables
are the sweet potato, here called
camote (Ipomoea Batatas), ubi (Dios-
corea alata), bo!6t (D. fasciculata) ,
name (D. saliva), and gabe (Colocasia
antiquorum), of all of which there
are several varieties. If the cassava
(Manihot utilissima) may be classed

as a vegetable, this is another of great importance.
The tomato, eggplant, sitao (Vigna Catjang), patani
(Phaseolus lunatus), sincamas (Pachyrhizus angulatus),
squash (Cucurbita maxima), and pumpkin (Cucurbita
Pepo) come next in importance.

The following vegetables are also grown in the
Philippines: Apalia (Momordica balsamina), batao
(Dolichos Lablab), beet (Beta vulgaris), buting (Phaseo-
lus vulgaris), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), cadyos
(Cajanus indicus), carrot (Daucus Carota), chile (Capsi-

ISOLOMA

1705

cum minimum and C. annuum), coletis (Amarantus
oleraceus), condol (Benincasa cerifera), cucumber
(Cucumis sativus), endive (Cichorium Endivia), garlic
(Allium sativum), lettuce (Lactuca saliva), libato
(Basella rubrd), magtambocao (Canavalia ensiformis),
malungai (Moringa oleifera), melon (Cucumis Melo),
mungo (Phaseolus Mungo), mustard (Brassica juncea),
okra (Hibiscus esculentus), onion (Allium Cepa),
pacupis (Trichosanthes anguina), panarien (Tacca
pinnatifida), parsley (Carum Petroselinum) , patola
(Luff a acutangula and L. segyptiaca), pea (Pisum
sativum), pechay (Brassica Pe-tsai), potato (Solanum
tuberosum), radish (Raphanus sativus), seguidilla
(Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) , turnip (Brassica Rapa),
upo (Lagenaria vulgaris), watermelon (Citrullus vul-
garis).

The sago palm (Metroxylon Rumphii) is indigenous
in Mindanao and used by the inhabitants of that
island in the preparation of sago.

The climatic conditions and soil for the cultivation
of many of the spices are excellent. Certain species of
vanilla grow wild in Mindanao and Luzon, and cinna-
mon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is indigenous to
Mindanao. Black pepper (Piper nigrum), and ginger
(Zingiber officinale) have been introduced, but nothing
has ever been done to encourage systematic cultiva-
tion of spices. If the spice industry was properly fos-
tered by the government until it was fairly well estab-
lished, good varieties introduced and care taken to
exclude dangerous fungi and insect enemies, it is
believed that this industry would have a promising
future in the Philippines.

It appears evident, from the researches made by
E. D. Merrill, that there already was a botanical garden
in existence in Manila in 1787, located where the
Singalong Experiment Station of the Bureau of Agri-
culture now is. This was one of the first institutions
of its kind established in the Philippines if not in the
entire Orient. It was abandoned by the Spaniards, at
what date is unknown.

The present botanical garden, so called, established
in 1858, south of the Pasig River and west of Intra-
muros, containing an area of about 5 hectares, is a
park rather than a botanical garden. The construc-
tion of Malate Park, intended to cover over 40 hectares
is now in progress.

During the last two years, the Bureau of Education
has paid special attention to school-gardening, which, if
wisely persisted in, will undoubtedly greatly assist in
elevating the standard of horticulture in the Philip-
pines. Both the Bureau of Agriculture and the Bureau
of Education are making large annual distributions of
vegetable seeds, and the Bureau of Agriculture main-
tains two agri-horticultural demonstration farms, one
located at Trinidad, Benguet, and the other in Iloilo.
Coincident with the reorganization of the Bureau of
Agriculture in force from the beginning of the fiscal
year 1912, provision was made still further to extend
the activity of the extension and demonstration work,
and a division of horticulture was created. Much
work has already been accomplished by this division
in collecting data relative to Philippine horticulture,
and work is in progress to assemble all food plants for
study at the experiment stations. (Relative to the
activities of the Bureau of Agriculture, consult the
"Philippine Agricultural Review," a monthly publica-
tion issued by the Bureau.)

The Philippine Agricultural College, Los Banos,
provides a course in horticulture and maintains a
garden and nursery for practical demonstration work.

P. J. WESTER.

ISMENE: Hymenocallis.
ISNARDIA: Ludvigia.

ISOCHILUS (Greek, equal lip). Orchidacese. A group
of tufted orchids, little cultivated. Plants epiphytic,

with tall, slender, leafy sts., without pseudobulbs,
bearing a few small fls. at the summit: sepals erect, free,
keeled; petals similar but plane; labellum like the petals
and united with them to the base of the column, some-
what sigmoid below the middle; column erect, long,
without wings; pollinia 4. — About 5 species, Trop. Amer.
linearis, R. Br. Fig. 1996. Slender, %-lH ft. high,
leafy: Ivs. distichous, linear, striate, obtuse, emarginate,
1 Yi in. long: fls. purple, borne in a short, terminal spike.
March. Growing on rocks and trees in thick woods,
Jamaica, Trinidad, Brazil, etc. B.R. 745. L.B.C. 14:
1341. I. major, Cham. & Schlecht., of Mex., is taller, Us.
larger and darker colored. HEINRICH HASSELBRING.

ISOLEPIS: Scirpus.

ISOLOMA (equal
border) . Includes
Tydsea, Giesleria,
Sciadocalyx, Brachy-
Ibma . Gesneriacese .
Greenhouse plants,
very closely allied to
Gesneria and Achi-
menes.

From Gesneria it is
distinguished by ab-
sence of well-formed
tubers and character*
of caps, and anthers,
and the 5 lobes of
the disk equal; from
Achimenes in the
more tubular fls. and
lobed disk. From
Vanhouttea and
Diastema the genu&
is separated techni-
•cally by the open
aestivation . Herbs,
with creeping rhizome
or base or roots: lys.
opposite, usually vil-
lose as in Gesneria:
fls. scarlet, orange or
vari-colored, usually
peduncled in the
axils; corolla cylin-
drical, enlarged
above, erect or de-
clined, the limb sub-
equally 5 - parted. —
Species perhaps 50
in. Trop. Amer.

The culture is the
same as for achimenes

and gesneria. Seeds of the newer hybrids come quickly,
and plants bloom the same year. It is probable that
the pure species are not in the trade. Like achimenes,
gesneria and gloxinia, they have been much hybridized
and varied. It is probable that they are hybridized
with achimenes and gesneria. It is not known how the
current forms have originated. Some of the recent
ones have fringed flowers (Gn. 55:348). Because of
the variation and hybridization in cultivation, the
names in this group are much confused, although few
of them appear to be in the trade. The confusion is
increased, also, by change in the generic name, from
Isoloma to Kohleria. The genus Kohleria was founded
by Regel in Flora, April, 1848. Later in the same year,
Decaisne founded Isoloma in Revue Horticole, taking
up, however, the name from Bentham who had used
it for a section of Gesneria in his "Plantae Hartwegianse"
in April, 1846. In 1848, also, Decaisne founded the
genus Tydsea on Achimenes picta of Bentham (1844);
but this genus is now by common consent included in.

1996. Isochilus linearis. ( X M)

1706

ISOLOMA

ISONANDRA

Isoloma (or Kohleria). When this plant, which is
apparently the best known garden form, is taken over
into Isoloma, it would naturally become I. pictum; but
the plant first regularly given the name pictum under
Isoloma is /. pictum of Planchon, 1850-51 (and Regel,
1854), which is founded on the Gesneria picta of Hooker

1997. Isoloma bogotense. ( X l/i)

(1849), and this is a very different plant from the
cultivated Achimenes. (or Tydsea) picta, and the latter
must take a new name; and it assumes the name given
it by Nicholson in 1888, /. bogotense.

bogotense, Nichols. (Achimenes picta, Benth., B.M.
4126, 1844. Tydsea picta, Decne., R.H. 1848:468.
Kohleria bogotensis, Fritsch, in Engler & Prantl, Nat.
Pflanzenf. IV. 36, 178, 1893. Isoloma Tydsea, Bailey,
Cyclo. Amer. Hort. 836, 1900. Isoloma pictum, Hort.,
not Planch.). Fig. 1997. One to 2 ft., hairy: Ivs. cor-
date-ovate, coarsely serrate, spotted and reticulated
with pale green or silvery green, with a broad light zone
down the center: fls. single, on long axillary sts., nod-
ding, the orifice oblique and lobes obtuse, the upper
longitudinal half of the fl. red, the lower half yellow
and red-spotted. Colombia. B.M. 4126 (adapted in
Fig. 1997). B.R. 31:42. F.S. 1:17, 18. /. pictum,
Planch., F.S. 6:586 (Gesneria picta, Hook. B.M. 4431),
is a different plant, apparently not in commerce.

amabile, Mott. (Tydsea amdbilis, Planch. & Lind.)-
Erect, hairy: Ivs. ovate, more or less tapering to the
petiole, bluntly serrate, purplish on the veins: fls.
hairy, pendent, dark rose dotted with purple, paler
inside. Colombia. B.M. 4999. R.H. 1859, p. 25. F.S.
10:1070.

hirs&tum, Hort. Fig. 1998. Erect, hirsute on st. and
Ivs., free-flowering: Ivs. ovate, acute, prominently
petioled, close-toothed: fls. several on an axillary
peduncle, hirsute, orange-scarlet, the rounded lobes
darker-marked. Origin not clear. To be compared with
the next.

erianthum, Decne. (Gesneria eridntha, Benth. Brachy-
Ibma eridnthum, Hanst. Kohleria eridntha, Hanst.).
Erect, 2-4 ft., the sts. and Ivs. more or less fleshy and
soft-hairy: Ivs. long-petioled, ovate-lanceolate, den-
tate: fls. several on a peduncle, 1^-2 in. long, orange-
red or cinnabar-red, the lobes rounded and the 3 lower
spotted. Colombia. B.M. 7907.

Cecfliae, Nichols. (Tydsea Cecilise, Andre). Much like
/. amabile, but Ivs. marked with violet and silvery
zones or blotches: fls. 2 or 3 from each axil, the fls. pale
rose outside and striped in the throat, and the limb pur-
ple-spotted. Colombia. I.H. 23:260.

ocellatum, Benth. & Hook. (Achimenes ocellata,
Hook). Short-hairy on the st. : Ivs. ovate-acuminate,
serrate, green: fls. small, on peduncles shorter than the
Ivs., the tube and short, rounded lobes red, the segms.
marked with whitish and black spots. Panama. B.M.
4359.

jaliscanum, Wats. Fig. 1999. Herbaceous or some-
what woody at the base, 1 ft., pubescent: Ivs. opposite,
oblong-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate to ovate, short-
acuminate, short-stalked, serrate: fls. 2-4 on an axillary
peduncle, the corolla an inch long, tubular and short-
lobed, pubescent, scarlet. Mex. — A worthy plant,
probably not in the trade. £, jj g

ISONANDRA (Greek, equal anthers). Sapotacess.
Isonandra Gutta ( = Palaquium Gutta, Burck.). is a
large-leaved East Indian tree belonging to this genus,
which furnishes the best commercial gutta-percha.
The name has appeared in one southern catalogue,
but the plants were found to be not true to name.
This plant should be called Palaquium Gutta. In Pala-
quium the floral parts are in sixes, stamens twelve and
the seeds have no albumen, while in Isonandra the floral
parts are in fours, the stamens eight, and the seeds
albuminous.

Gutta, Hook, (properly Palaqumm Gutta, Burck.)
One of the GUTTA-PERCHA TREES. Lvs. leathery,
elliptic, abruptly pointed, 4 in. or more long, rusty-
tomentose beneath, the primary nerves 24-30 on each
side: fls. in axillary clusters on very short pedicels,
the corolla 2/6in. long and with 6 elliptic obtuse

1998. Isoloma hirsutum. ( X H)

ISONANDRA

ITEA

1707

lobes; stamens 12; ovary 6-celled, becoming a small
ovoid berry with 1 or 2 seeds: tree 40 ft. This is
scarcely a horticultural subject. Malaya. R.H. 1898,
p. 441.

ISOPYRUM (from the Greek for like, and wheat,
as the seeds resemble those of wheat). Ranunculacese.
Dwarf stemless herbs sometimes used in the wild gar-
den. Annual, or rootstock perennial: Ivs. decompound,

1999. Isoloma jaliscanum.

ternate; Ifts. 3-lobed or cut, membranous: fls. white,
regular, few or solitary, on slender scapes; sepals 5-6,
deciduous; petals 5, very small or wanting: carpels 2-20,
sessile; ovules 3 or more. — Fifteen to 20 species intem-
perate regions of the northern hemisphere. I. thalictroi-
des, Linn., is cult, in alpine gardens, and has graceful
foliage resembling a maidenhair fern. Six to 12 in. high:
rootstock creeping: cauline Ivs. alternate, 3-lobed or
3-foliolate: fls. white, resembling an anemone, in few-
fid. terminal panicles; sepals oval, obtuse. W. Hima-
layas. April, May. — Thrives in any good garden soil.
Prop, by seeds or by division of the roots in autumn.
Very ornamental and good in masses. I. grandiflorum,
Fisch. Lvs. long-petioled; Ifts. small, 2-3-lobed: scapes
3-4 in., equaling the Ivs.; fl. solitary, 1-1 Y± in. diam.
Himalayas. G.C. III. 50:396. L. H. B.

ISOTOMA (Greek, equally cut or divided; referring to
the corolla, and true only by contrast with Lobelia).
Campanulaceae. Lobelia-like herbs, but with an
entire corolla-tube (or only partially slit), and stamens
attached near the top of the corolla: lobes of corolla
5 and nearly equal, spreading; upper anthers with
terminal tufts: fls. solitary or in racemes, blue, purple
or white (at least in the cult, species): Ivs. alternate,
entire, dentate or pinnatifid or even twice-pinnatifid:
plants of various habit, some species erect, others
creeping or acaulescent; annual or perennial. — Species
8, of which 6 are Australian, 1 W. Indian, and 1 in the
Society Isls.

axillaris, Lindl. Perennial, flowering the first year so
as to appear annual, but forming at length a hard root-
stock, erect, with few spreading branches, 6-12 in. : Ivs.
linear, irregularly pinnatifid, 2-3 in. long, lobes linear:
pedicels axillary, 2-6 in. long; fls. large, bluish purple,
pale outside. Austral. B.M. 2702 (as Lobelia sene-
doides) and 5073 (as Isotoma senecioides var. subjrin-
natifida, which has the lobes again more or less pinnati-
fid). B.R. 964.— Probably not now in cult.

petraea, F. Muell. Like the above, except that the
Ivs. are ovate-oblong or elliptical, with linear or lanceo-
late teeth or lobes which are not longer than the breadth
of the body of the blade. Austral. — The plant in the
trade is said to have cream-colored fls., and is sold as a
"lemon verbena," a name which properly belongs to
Lippia citriodora. L. H. B.

ISOTRIA (Greek, in equal threes'). Orchidacese.
Terrestrial plants, with elongated fleshy roots, and
scapose stem with a whorl of leaf-like terminal bracts.

Flowers solitary or in 2's, erect or ascending; sepals
narrow, about equal, longer than petals; lip somewhat
3-lobed, spurless, erect, crested; pollina 2, powdery-
granular, tailless. — Species 2, E. U. S. See Pogonia.

verticillata, Raf. (Pogonia vertidllata, Nutt.). Scapes
8-16 in. tall; bracts elliptic to oval, abruptly acumi-
nate; sepals linear, 1-2 in. long, longer than the linear
petals; lip erect, 3-lobed. E. U. S. B.B. 1:468.

GEORGE V. NASH.

ISOTtPUS: Onoseris.

ITEA (Greek name of the willow, applied here
because it has willow-like leaves, or perhaps because it
grows near the water). Saxifragacese; by some placed
in a separate family, Iteacese. Trees and shrubs, num-
bering about 6 species, inhabiting tropical and sub-
tropical Asia, and one of them in North America,
I. virginica, a low, upright, somewhat coarse shrub,
best known by its long, erect racemes of small white
flowers appearing about July 1, in Massachusetts, and
its brilliant autumn coloring.

The genus is characterized by alternate, narrow Ivs.,
fls. in simple racemes which are terminal or axillary,
white: calyx 5-toothed, with persistent lobes; petals 5,
very narrow; stamens 5; ovary oblong, 2-celled: fr. a
very narrow or a conical caps., which is 2-grooved,
2-parted when mature: some of the species are ever-
green.

virginica, Linn. VIRGINIAN WILLOW. Fig. 2000. A
shrub, 1 J^-6 ft. high, usually not more than 2-3 ft. high,
of upright, somewhat slender habit: Ivs. deciduous,
alternate, oblong, pointed, minutely serrate, smooth
green above, pale and slightly pubescent below,
petioled, without stipules, 1-3 in. long: fls. fragrant,

2000. Itea virginica. ( X M)

1708

ITEA

IXIA

white, in solitary, erect, hairy, simple, dense, terminal
racemes 2-6 in. long, given a greenish white effect by the
stamens and pistils, not particularly showy, appearing
late June and July. Pa. and N. J. to Fla. and La. B.M.
2409. — In nature it inhabits low, wet places. In cult,
it seems to adapt itself to almost any soil. It is not
perfectly hardy N., but grows rapidly and seems endur-
ing of both sun and shade. In ornamental use it is
planted in masses or mixed with other shrubs of similar
character in the shrubby border or at the edge of woods.
Its somewhat coarse character does not favor its
approach to more refined objects. In autumn it becomes
a brilliant red. It is prop, from seed, by cuttings and by
division of roots, which spread slowly and form clumps
of sts. It may be collected from the wild.

ilicifolia, Oliver. Evergreen shrub, with holly-like
spiny-toothed broadly elliptic Ivs.: fls. small, greenish
white, almost sessile, in a terminal drooping raceme 1
ft. or less long. Cent. China. G.C. III. 34:375; 42:
123; 50:96. G.M. 54:567.— Hardy in parts of England.

A. PHELPS WYMAN.

L. H. B.f

IVA (named after Ajuga Iva, from its similar smell).
Composite. A genus of about twelve species of
American shrubs or shrubby herbs with flowers sug-
gesting those of Artemisia, or the common ragweed,
but from which it differs in having heads all of one kind,
the bracts of the involucre not united. This includes
I. frutescens, Linn, the MARSH ELDER or HIGH-WATER
SHRUB, a native hardy perennial of no garden value,
which is, nevertheless, on record as having been culti-
vated. It grows 3 to 12 feet high in salt marshes and
on muddy seashores, has serrate leaves and flowers as
inconspicuous as those of a ragweed. See B. B. 3:292
and the manuals.

IVESIA: Potentilla.

IVY. The common or English ivy is Hedera. Boston
I. = Parthenocissus tricuspidata. German I. = Climbing
Senecio and Herniaria glabra. Ground I.=Nepeta Gle-
choma. Kenilworth I.=Linaria Cymbalaria. Poison I.
=Rhus Toxicodendron.

IXIA (Greek, bird-lime; said to refer to the juice).
Iridacese. Attractive bulbs (cormose) from the Cape of
Good Hope, with grass-like foliage and spikes of flowers
in early spring, exhibiting a wide range of colors; usually
flowered under glass, but can be grown in the open in
the North with good protection.

Corm mostly globose, tunicated, fibrous-coated or
nearly naked: st. simple or the infl. branched, about
1-2 ft. tall, bearing an erect spike or raceme of mostly
6-12 fls. : Ivs. at the base of the st., erect, with perhaps a
few smaller cauline ones: fls. funnelform or salverform
with a slender sometimes elongated tube, and 6 nearly
or quite equal segms., the colors white, yellow, orange,
lilac, pink, crimson, red, purple or even green; sta-
mens 3, attached in the throat, the filaments free or
connate at the base; ovary obovoid or oblong, 3-celled
and many-seeded, the style filiform with slender lobes:
fr. a membranaceous obtuse 3-valved caps. — Species
about 25 in S. Afr., 1 in Trop. Afr.

Ixias number their cultivated forms by the hun-
dreds. Next to crocuses and freesias they have no
rivals in point of popularity among spring-blooming
bulbs of the iris family. Culturally they belong to the
same class with babiana and sparaxis, which are also
desirable and distinct in general appearance and color-
ing, but are surpassed by ixias in popularity and in
number of varieties. Botanically, these three genera
belong to the ixia tribe, in which the flowers are spicate,
not fugitive and never more than one to a spathe. The
stamens of Ixia are equilateral; those of Babiana and
Sparaxis unilateral. Ixias have about six erect grass-
like leaves arranged in two ranks; Babiana has plaited,

hairy leaves. Bulb catalogues give no hint as to the
parentage of the numerous named varieties. They may
not mention /. maculata nor /. columellaris, which
are probably the important parent stocks. Of the
species recognized by Baker in Flora Capensis, appar-
ently only 7. viridiflora appears as a trade name, but /.
speciosa and 7. paniculata may be advertised under their
synonyms 7. craterioides and 7. longiflora. Ixia flowers
are charming in every stage of development. At first
the flowers are erect and cup-shaped. They close at
might and remain closed on dark days. As they grow
older they open wider and
become more star -shaped.
Fig. 2001 shows the flowers
in their drooping stage. The
plants remain in flower for
three weeks, although
the faded flowers at
the bottom of the spike
should be taken off
toward the end of the
period. As cut-flowers,
they are presentable
for a week or two.

For greenhouse bloom,
ixia bulbs can be
planted any time from
September 15 to October 30,
the sooner the better. In
general, tender bulbs of
small size tend to lose
vitality when kept a long
time in the dry air of ware-
houses. They should be
planted an inch deep, five
or six in a 5-inch pot, or eight to
ten in a 6-inch pot. They like a
compound of sandy soil and leaf-
mold. It is probable that most of
the failures with ixias are due to
hasty forcing. The pots should be
stored under a bench or in a
rather dark cellar, at a tempera-
ture of 45°. The object is to hold
back the tops while the roots are
growing, in order to get stocky, well-colored, slowly
started shoots. They need no water until growth has
started. Then water carefully until the flowers come,
as the young plants are liable to rot at the surface of
the ground. While flowering, water freely. After
flowering, some gardeners give the plants no water.
Others keep the soil moist until the leaves turn yellow,
and then gradually withhold water. As to temperature,
the plants may be brought into a cool greenhouse (50°)
when well started, and toward the end of January may
be given 5° more heat if flowers are desired as early as
the middle of March. Ixias have to be staked and tied.
The old bulbs, from which the offsets have been
removed, may be used again. Ixia bulbs, which are
really fibrous-coated corms about J^inch thick, keep
as well as freesias. Seedlings flower the third year.

In coldframes ixias give good results. Choose for the
frame an open place, sheltered from north and west
winds. In its construction give especial care to pro-
viding good drainage, to close-fitting and snug banking,
so that frost, mice and moles can be kept out. A sandy
soil, without manures, is safest and best for ixias. If
fertilizers are used, they must be placed several inches
below the bulbs, never in contact with them. As in out-
door culture, the bulbs must be planted late and in soil
well dried by placing the sashes over the frame some
time beforehand. Plant about 3 inches deep, as far
apart, and treat afterward much as in greenhouse cul-
ture. Take off the sashes in early May to show the
mass of rich, odd flowers which, ordinarily, will open
about that time and last for several weeks. If the

2001.

Ixia flowers in
their drooping
stage. (X1A)

IXIA

IXIA

1709

frame is to have other tenants through the summer,
the ixias may be taken up after their tops are dead and
stored in dry sand till planting time comes around
again. Otherwise, merely cease watering as the tops
of the ixias die down, and put on the sashes again,
tilting them so that they will give air and shed rain.
(L. Greenlee.)

Outdoor culture of ixia is likely to be more satisfac-
tory than indoor culture, if one meets the few simple
requirements. The planting of the bulbs should be
delayed until the last moment, because ixias are more
inclined than most things to make an autumnal growth.
They should be planted 3 inches deep as late as Novem-
ber 30. In planting bulbs it is always well to sprinkle a
handful of sand on the spot where they are to lie. This
helps the drainage, especially on heavy lands, and pre-
vents rotting. The bulbs should then be covered with
about 3 inches of leaves, hay, or better still, pine-
needles. In the latitude of Boston, ixia beds can be
uncovered during the first week of April. However,
there will still be sharp frosts to nip the tender shoots
that have started beneath the winter covering. Conse-
quently a little hay or other covering material should be
left nearby, where it can be easily secured when a chilly
evening threatens. In ten days the young sprouts will
become sufficiently hardened to withstand any subse-
quent cold. Even such hardy things as alliums, when
first uncovered, can hardly withstand any frost at all.
It is, however, a mistake to wait two weeks longer and
then permanently uncover the bulb beds, for by that
time the early-starting things are likely to be so lank
and long that they never attain ideal sturdi-
ness. It is better to uncover too early than
too late. The secret of success with ixias out-
doors is largely in hardening the plants in early
spring and in never allowing them to grow too
fast under coyer, where they become yellow and
sickly. In winter, shutters may be placed over
the bulb beds to shed the rain; but the bulbs do
as well without this protection, though they may be later
in starting. Of course, ixia bulbs cannot stand any
freezing, and they must, therefore, be planted in
unfrozen soil. — After flowering, let the bulbs remain in
the earth until the end of July; then take them up, and
store them, not in dry earth, but in boxes without any
packing. Let them remain in a dry place until they are
wanted for November planting. In the southern part
of England, ixias can be planted 6 inches deep in hardy
borders as late as December, and Krelage, perhaps
thinking of still warmer regions, considers ixias as sum-
mer-blooming bulbs, and advises planting from Octo-
ber to December. — In the writer's experience, the
flowers from the old bulbs are not at all inferior in suc-
ceeding years: indeed, the contrary has been the case,
and the bulbs raised at home have been superior to the
ones purchased. Amateurs are commonly advised to
throw away the offsets because fresh bulbs are cheap.
Yet the writer finds that many of the offsets bloom the
first year and nearly all of them the second. Ixias
have been raised commercially near Boston with
every prospect of success. Ixias are amongst the most
pleasing of all bulbs. With thousands in bloom in
the month of June, they make a braver show even
than tulips, and they are less known to the public.
(W. E. Endicott.)

In California, ixias, with which may be grouped for
cultural purposes such other South African irids as
sparaxis, babianas, and tritonias, are of all bulbs the
best adapted to California conditions, thriving outdoors
with the minimum of care, increasing very rapidly by
offsets, and even forming colonies from self-sown seed.
Planting should be done as soon as the imported bulbs
are available, usually in October. They should be put
about 2 inches deep and as far apart as taste dictates,
— say 3 inches, if space is valuable. Good drainage is
essential and a sandy loam much better than heavy

adobe, although the writer has grown them success-
fully in both. Divide every alternate year to prevent
crowding. Pick the brightest place in the garden, as
the flowers require strong sunlight to open them up
well. This is especially true of the green kind, /. viridi-
flora. — To raise new varieties, sow seed in autumn,
the resultant bulbs blooming the second season. Some
of the best varieties in California are self-sown seed-
lings, the result of crosses between good named varieties
in neighboring beds. After a start has been made, the^e
is no reason why the American supply of these bulbs
should not be grown in California, as they ripen very
well and are of greater vigor than the imported ones. —
Where space is limited, ixias may be planted among
daffodils, thus renewing the show a month after the
latter are over. As both bulbs ripen together, in harvest-
ing this is no drawback. For garden effect, large plant-
ings of separate, clear-colored, named varieties are
much better than mixtures. The flowering season
covers about six weeks, the pretty cerise /. speciosa,
(I. crateroides) blooming in March, while the brilliant
brick-red Vulcan is sometimes as late as May. (Sidney
B. Mitchell.)

aristata, 8.
bicolorata, 9.
caesia, 4.
cana, 4.
columellaris, 6.
crateroides, 13.
elegans, 8.
flavescens, 9.

INDEX.

flexuosa, 11.
longiflora, 1.
lutea, 10.
maculata, 5.
monadelpha, 3.
nigro-albida, 5.
ochroleuca, 5.
odorata, 2.

ornata, 5, 9.
ovata, 7.
paniculata, 1.
patens, 12.
polystachya, 9.
speciosa, 13.
stellata, 7.
viridiflora, 4.

2002. Ixia
paniculata.

A. Tube of perianth long, and some-
what dilated below the limb.
1. paniculata, Delaroche (7. longi-
flora, Berger). Fig. 2002. Corm
%in. or less diam., with brown
tunics: basal Ivs. 2-3, linear and
glabrous, to 1J^ ft. long: st. 1-3 ft.,
sometimes branched: fls. many, in
lax erect spikes, the tube to 3 in.
long and straight, the limb cream-
white, the segms. obtuse, often
tinged red and sometimes with a

blackish base; anthers wholly or partially

exserted, about as long as the filaments.

B.M. 256; 1502.— There are two botanical

forms or varieties.

AA. Tube of perianth short, and dilated below
limb into a distinct funnelform.

2. odorata, Ker. Lvs. very narrow: st.
slender, distantly branched: fls. bright
yellow, fragrant, in a short spike; tube
funnel-shaped, J^in. long, the segms.
oblong; anthers equaling the free fila-
ments. B.M. 1173.

AAA. Tube of perianth short and cylindrical

(not dilated upward).
B. Filaments more or less connate or joined.

3. monadelpha, Delaroche. Corm glo-
bose, with fibrous coverings: Ivs. very nar-
row: st. slender, simple or somewhat
branched: fls. few, in a short spike; segms.
typically lilac, but there are forms with
claret-red, blue or pale yellow segms. com-
bined with eyes and markings of various
colors, some of which have received sepa-
rate names. B.M. 607; 1378.

BB. Filaments all free at the base.
c. Fls. green.

4. viridifldra, Lam. Corm depressed-
globose, ^in. diam., with fibrous cover-
ing: Ivs. narrow, strongly ribbed : fls. many,
in a long loose erect spike, typically with

1710

IXIA

pale green segms. and black throat. B.M. 549. L.B.C.
16:1548. F.S. 2:124. Var. cana, Eckl. Segms. pale
blue; throat black. B.M. 789 (as 7. maculata amethy-
stina). Var. cjesia, Ker. Segms. pale lilac; eye greenish.
B.R. 530.

cc. Fls. in other colors.
D. Throat of fl. (eye) differently marked from the segms.

5. maculata, Linn. Fig. 2003. Corm globular, 1 in.
or less diam., covered with parallel fibers: Ivs. about 4,
linear, ribbed, 6-12 in. long: sts. slender, 1-2 ft., simple
or branched: fls. many, in dense and erect spikes, typi-
cally yellow; tube slender; limb bell-shaped, with a
dark purple or black mark at throat, the segms. oblong,
obtuse. B.M. 539 (orange, as /. conlca). The natural
varieties show the range of color: Var. ochroleftca,
Ker. Segms. sulfur-yellow; eye brown. B.M. 1285.
Var. nigro-albida, Klatt. Segms. white; eye black. Var.
ornata, Baker. Fls. flushed bright red or purple outside.

6. columellaris, Ker. Like 7. maculata, but fls.
typically with bright mauve-purple segms. and blue
throat. B.M. 630.

7. ovata, Klatt. Like
7. maculata, but has
bright red fls. with pur-
ple-black throat. Var.
stellata, Klatt, has the
throat yellow.

DD. Throat not differ-
ently marked.
E. Color white or whitish
(varying to tinted
shades and colors).

8. aristata, Ker. Corm
globose, with strong fibers:
Ivs. 3-4, linear, strongly rib-
bed: st. slender, to \Yi ft.
high, simple or branched:
fls. many, in a loose spike;
perianth-tube slender (%in.
or less); limb whitish (pink
in B.M. 589), with oblong
segms. Var. elegans, Baker,
has narrower and less rigid
Ivs., and much shorter tube.

9. polystachya, Linn. Corm
globose, %in. or less diam.,
with fine fibers: Ivs. about 4
at base and 2 on st., linear,
strongly ribbed, 6X12 in. : st.

slender, 1-2 ft., simple or branched: fls. many, in erect
spikes; perianth-limb white, the segms. oblong; fila-
ments short. B.M. 623 (as 7. erecta) . Var. ornata, Baker.
Segms. tinged red outside. Var. bicolorata, Baker. Fls.
pale yellow, tinged violet outside. Var. flavescens,
Baker. Fls. pale yellow.

BE. Color yellow or orange.

10. Ifttea, Baker. Corm globose, ^in. diam., with
fibrous covering: Ivs. linear, 6-12 in. long: st. slender,
1-2 ft., simple or branched: fls. many, in a dense spike
deep bright yellow. B.M. 846.

BEE. Color shades of red or lilac.

11. flexudsa, Linn. Very like 7. polystachya, except
that fls. are in shades of red or lilac or lilac-tinged out-
side. B.M. 624.

12 patens, Ait. Corm globose, to %in. diam., with
fane fibers: Ivs. about 4, linear, 6-12 in.: st. erect, 12-18
in., sometimes branched: fls. several, in a somewhat
dense erect spike, pale red.

13. specidsa, Andr. (7. crateroldes, Ker.). Corm
globose, small, with matted fibers: Ivs. from base about
6, linear: st. slender, usually simple: fls. few, in a short

2003. Ixia maculata. (XJi)

IXORA

and erect spike, the oblong segms. dark crimson; limb
campanulate. B.M. 594. Gn.W. 21:648.

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

IXIOLIRION (Greek, an ixia-like lily). Amaryl-
lidacese. Three or four species of hardy bulbs from
western and central Asia, with umbels of deep blue or
violet six-lobed flowers, borne in spring.

Perianth regular, without tube above the ovary;
segms., oblanceolate, acute; stamens shorter than the
segms., attached to their claws; ovary club-shaped,
3-celled, becoming a 3-valved caps.: Ivs. very narrow,
mostly at base of the st. The nearest cult, allies are
Alstroemeria and Bomarea, which have no distinct
rootstock, while Ixiolirion has a bulbous rootstock.
The bulbs should be lifted in autumn and stored.

montanum, Herb. (7. Pdllasii, Fisch. & Mey.). Bulb
ovoid, 1 in. thick, with a neck 2-3 in. below the basal
tuft of Ivs.: st. about 1 ft. long: Ivs. about 4, persistent,
and a few smaller ones above: fls. on long unequal
pedicels, about 4, and often 1 or 2 fls. below; perianth
bright lilac according to Baker, 1 ^ in. or less long.
Syria to Siberia. B.R. 30:66. F.S. 22:2270. RH
1880:310. J.H. III. 31:583.

Var. tataricum, Herb. (7. tatdricum, Hort. 7.
Ledebourii, Fisch. & Mey.). Sts. more slender: Ivs.
awl-shaped: fls. all in a terminal umbel, smaller than
the type. Altai Mts. G.C. II. 19:757. Gn. 75, p. 188.
Gn.W. 21:685. J.H. III. 42:532.

I. Kolpakowskianum, Regel (Kolpakowskia ixiolirioides, Regel),
is perhaps a form of above, but has a smaller bulb, fls. 2-4 in a
terminal umbel, and the perianth-segms. %-l in. long: Ivs. about 4
in a basal tuft and 1 or 2 small ones above. Turkestan. Gt.

L. H. B.

IXORA (a Malabar deity). Rubiacese. Warmhouse
woody plants with showy flowers in clusters and ever-
green foliage; handsome and desirable.

Shrubs or small trees with opposite or verticillate
Ivs. and terminal or axillary usually dense corymbs of
very showy white, rose or scarlet fls. on bracteate
pedicels: corolla very long and slender -tubed, the
throat sometimes barbed, the limb 4- or 5-lobed and
wide-spreading; stamens 4 or 5, inserted on the throat,
the filaments short or none; ovary on a fleshy disk,
2-loculed, the style filiform and exserted, 2-branched;
ovules solitary: fr. a hard or fleshy 2-pyrenous berry. —
Species upward of 150, in the tropical parts well around
the globe.

There are many garden forms of Ixora under Latin
names, and these complicate a botanical account of the
genus. Some of the named garden ixoras are the follow-
ing: Amabilis, pinkish, suffused orange. Aurantiaca,
orange-red; compact. Chelsonii, fls. brilliant salmon-
orange. Colei, fls. pure white: cross of 7. coccinea and
7. stricta var. alba. Conspicua, fls. yellow, becoming
orange. Decora, yellow. Dixiana, fls. deep orange;
G. 27:363. F. S. R. 3, p. 275. Fraseri, fls. scarlet in the
tube, and brilliant salmon above; G. 7:529. Illustris,
orange. Incarnata, flesh-color. Insignis, rose. Ornata,
salmon-orange. Pilgrimii, orange-scarlet. Princeps, fls.
whitish, becoming orange; said to have come from
Java. Profusa, rose. Regina, fls. shaded violet-salmon,
in large dense clusters. J.H. III. 42:159. Sanguinea,
fls. crimson, shaded with violet. Speciosa, yellow.
Splendens, orange. G.Z. 23:193. Splendida, crimson-
orange. G.Z. 26, p. 217. I.H. 29:463. Venusta, orange.
Westii, fls. pale rose, becoming brilliant; hybrid. Gn.
42:496. G.M. 36:35. G. 25:457. Williamsii, fls.
reddish salmon.

The ixoras are perhaps the best tropical warmhouse
plants that combine the showiest of flowers with fine
evergreen foliage. They are of easy culture, and should
be far oftener seen in tropical plant-houses. — They
may be propagated at any season, but early spring is
probably best. Take good strong cuttings, with four

IXORA

IXORA

1711

pairs of leaves on them, and pot them singly, in 2-inch
pots, in two parts clean sharp sand, and one of peat.
Plunge the small pots in a cutting-bed, where the bot-
tom-heat is about 70°. Be sure they are shaded from
the strong sun. In a few weeks the small pots will be
filled with roots, and the plants may be shifted into a pot
two sizes larger, and removed from the propagating-
bed, and placed in a light position in a house where the
night -temperature is about 65°. — The compost in
which they are potted may be equal parts of fibrous
loam, peat, and sand, adding about a sixth part of
broken charcoal. When they grip the soil in this pot,
cut them back, leaving two joints above the earth. If
desired, the plants may be flowered in the smallest size
of pot, and for decorative work they are then very use-
ful; but if large plants are wanted quickly, keep them
growing right along, never allowing the ball of the plant
to get into a mat of roots until the desired size of pot is
reached. After they have reached a 6-inch pot, they
give the best satisfaction, if they are potted entirely in
the fiber of a good loam, all the fine material being
shaken out of it. Pot them rather firmly and keep up a
night temperature of 65°. In winter it may be 5° less.
— From March until the end of September, a very light
shade over them is necessary, to keep the foliage in a
perfect condition. After flowering is the best time to
trim these plants into shape. Cut them back to one
joint, unless some of the shoots are required longer, to
preserve the symmetry of the plant. Before pruning
ixoras, it is a good plan, after flowering, to keep them on
the dry side for about a month. Never, however, allow
the plants to suffer for lack of water. Just let them get
to the wilting point, then water. This treatment firms
up the wood equally, and when they are cut back, the
young growths start all at the same time. By following
this method the plant will flower more equally all over.
Large plants of some of the varieties will give three
crops of flowers a year; the variety Fraseri is an exam-
ple. Plants in large pots will do well for several years
without repotting, if fed liberally with manure-water.
Green cow-manure, fertilizers such as Clay's soft-coal
soot, an ordinary handful to a two-and-a-half-gallon
watering-pot, or, for a further change, horse-urine, a
3-inch potful to the same amount of water, agrees well
with ixoras, when they are well rooted. Water twice
between applications with clean water. Insects that
affect ixoras may be kept in check by a judicious use
of the syringe, and fumigations with hydrocyanic gas
as advised for other plants. (George F. Stewart.)

INDEX OF BOTANICAL SPECIES.
(For horticultural names, consult a preceding paragraph.)

lutea, 12.
macrothyrsa, 8.
odorata, 4.
parviflora, 1.
rosea, 6.
salicifolia, 9.
stricta, 6.

A. Fls. white (sometimes tinged pink).

1. parviflora, Vahl. Evergreen tree, with subsessile
oblong or elliptic-obtuse Ivs. 3-6 in. long: cymes sessile,
with 3-5 pairs of short branches, the fls. in subglobose
clusters; corolla white, glabrous, the tube only ^in.
long, and the lobes oblong. India.

2. acuminata, Roxbg. Glabrous shrub: Ivs. various,
from elliptic to linear-oblong, or the floral sometimes
rounded or obovate and sessile while the others are
petioled: cymes corymb-like, contracted and densely
fld. sometimes as if almost capitate, 2-4 in. across;
corolla pure white and fragrant, %in. across, the lobes
narrow and obtuse. India.

3. barbata, Roxbg. Large glabrous shrub: Ivs.
stalked, elliptic, somewhat acute, thin, the upper pair
usually small and sessile and cordate: cymes much

acuminata, 2.

crocata, 6.

amboinica, 13.

Duffii, 8.

Bandhuca, 7.

fulgens, 9.

barbata, 3.

grandi flora, 7.

Wanda, 6.

Griffithii, 10.

chinensis, 6.

javanica, 11.

coccinea, 6, 7, 12.

laxiflora, 5.

congesta, 10.

broader than high, short-stalked, sometimes 1 ft.
across, the branches being long, slender and spreading;
corolla white, woolly at the mouth, the tube 1-1 H in.
long and lobes narrow. India. B.M. 2505; 4513.
J.F. 1:26.

4. odorata, Hook. Small shrub: Ivs. large, broad-
ovate or obovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, thick,
to 1 ft. long, the lower ones attenuate to a petiole:
cymes or panicles much divided, 1 ft. or more across,
with purplish branches; corolla very long (4-5 in.),
white changing to yellowish brown; stamens somewhat
protruding; fls. very fragrant. Madagascar. B.M.
4191.

5. laxifldra, Smith. Shrub, slender, 3-4 ft.: Ivs.
oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, short-petioled : cymes or
panicles trichotomous and very open, large, terminal;

corolla white tinged pink, the tube 1^£ in. long, limb
cut to the base and the lobes very distinct; calyx
red; fls. very fragrant.. Guinea. B.M. 4482. J.F. 1:21.

AA. Fls. usually in shades of red (sometimes varying to
rose and to orange-scarlet).

6. chinensis, Lam. (7. stricta, Roxbg. I. coccinea,
Hort., not Linn. 7. bldnda, Ker. 7. crocata, Lindl. 7.
rosea, Sims). Apparently the common species, known
in greenhouses as 7. coccinea: glabrous shrub, with ses-
sile or subsessile Ivs. which are obovate or obovate-
oblong, and slender-tubed fls. in dense corymbs, the
corolla-lobes short and rounded and the tube %-l in.
long. Malayan archipelago and China. B.M. 169 (as
7. coccinea); 2428. B.R. 100; 782.— Runs into nearly
pure white forms. There are said to be yellowish fld.
forms. Prince of Orange, a popular variety, is said to
be a form of this species.

7. coccinea, Linn. (7. grandifldra, Bot. Reg. 7. Band-
hiica, Roxbg.). Much like the last, but Ivs. oblong with
mostly rounded or cordate base and sometimes an

1712

IXORA

IXORA

apiculate tip, and corolla-lobes broad and acute, and
the tube 1-1 ^ in. long. E. Indies. B.R. 154; 513.

8. macrothyrsa, Teijsm. & Binn. (7. Duffii, Moore).
Very large, glabrous: Ivs. a foot long, linear-oblong to
oblong-lanceolate : cluster very large, 8 in. across, bear-
ing very many deep red tinged crimson fls., with
lanceolate obtuse lobes about J/£in. long. E. Indies. B.
M. 6853. G.M. 50:582. F.E. 19:115.— One of the
finest of the genus.

AAA. Fls. in shades of yellow or orange.

9. fulgens, Roxbg. (7. salicifolia, DC.). Shrub with
erect slender polished branches: Ivs. petioled, linear-
oblong to obovate-oblong, more or less acute or acumi-
nate, shining above and with 20-30 pairs of sunken
nerves: cymes sessile or short-peduncled, corymb-like,
large, with spreading slender branches, the fls. short-
pedicelled; fls. orange-scarlet or orange becoming
scarlet; calyx-teeth very short and obtuse; corolla-tube
1% in. or less long, the lobes ovate and acute. India.
B.M.4523. J.F. 1:38.

10. congesta, Roxbg. (7. Griffithii, Hook.). Fig.
2004. Evergreen tree in its native haunts, glabrous
except the cymes: Ivs. very large (6-12 in. long),

stalked, elliptic or elliptic-oblong, acute or acuminate:
cymes sessile or nearly so; fls. orange-yellow, changing
to reddish, the segms. rounded. India. B.M. 4325.
J.F. 1:50. — Much tike 7. fulgens, differing in stouter
habit, very large and usually coriaceous broader Ivs.,
stout not spreading branches in the cyme, and the fls.
sometimes sessile.

11. javanica, DC. Glabrous shrub with Ivs. 4-7 in.
long, ovate-oblong, acute or acuminate: corymb
terminal, long-peduncled with forking coral-red
branches; fls. deep orange-red, the lobes rounded, the
corolla-tube \Y<i in. long, slender, red. Java. B.M.
4586. J.F. 2:156.

12. lutea, Hutchinson (7. coccinea var. lutea, Hort.).
Differs from 7. coccinea by laxer infl. and pale yellow fls.
with larger ovate-rhomboid corolla-lobes. Of garden
origin. B.M. 8439.

13. amboinica, DC. Shrub : Ivs. large, short-petioled,
ovate-oblong, acuminate, undulate, glabrous: cyme (or
corymb) trichotomously divaricately compound; cor-
olla-lobes acute. Amboyna (Moluccas). — Apparently
in the trade as 7. amboina, with long-lasting "showy
orange-yellow flowers." L. H. B.

J

JABOTICABA. This name is applied in southeastern
Brazil to the fruits of several species of Myrciaria,
notably M. cauliflora, and M. jaboticaba, of the family
Myrtacese. See Myrciaria.

The jaboticabeira, or jaboticaba tree, occurs not only
in the wild state in various parts of Minas Geraes,
Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and adjoining states, but is
commonly planted in gardens, and the fruit, which does
not differ much in character among the various species,
is held in the highest esteem by Brazilians of all classes.
When well grown the tree is extremely handsome,
reaching a height of 35 or 40 feet, with an umbrageous,
dome-shaped head of light green foliage, the new growth
pink. The persistent entire leaves are opposite, ovate-
elliptical to lanceolate, acute or acuminate at the apex,
generally glabrous, varying from % inch to over 3
inches in length. The flowers are small, white, with
four petals and a prominent cluster of stamens. They
are produced singly or in clusters directly upon the
bark of the trunk and limbs. The season of flowering
and fruiting varies with the different species and in
different localities; sometimes two or more crops a
year are produced.

The fruit is nearly sessile or with a slender peduncle
about 1 inch long, and is round or slightly oblate in
form. It is % inch to 1-1 ^ inches in diameter, glossy,
maroon-purple in color, and crowned with a small disk
at the apex. The skin is thicker than that of a grape,
and considerably tougher. The translucent, juicy
pulp, white or tinged with rose, is of a most agreeable
vinous flavor, remarkably suggestive of the grape, to
which the jaboticaba is frequently compared. The
seeds, one to four in number, are oval to round in out-
line, compressed laterally, % to % inch long. When
heavily laden with fruit, the tree is a curious sight. Not
only is the trunk covered with glistening jaboticabas,
but the fruiting extends out to the ends of the small
branches as well.

The fruit is usually consumed when fresh, but in
former days was used by the Indians for the manu-
facture of wine. It is sometimes made into jelly or
jam. In the markets of Rio de Janeiro, jaboticabas sell
for about 25 cents a pound, and considerable quantities
are shipped in from Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo.

The tree prefers a soil that is rich and deep. Its
growth is slow, six to eight years being required for it to
come into bearing. Propagation in Brazil is almost
always by seed, but inarching or some other vegetative
means is necessary to perpetuate good varieties. There
is much variation among seedlings. In California the
jaboticaba makes very slow growth, and is adapted only
to the most protected locations. It has been planted in
Florida very recently, and may prove adapted to some
sections of that state. When young the trees are very
susceptible to frost, but when they have attained a few
years' growth they will withstand slight frosts without
serious injury. For a more complete account, see
"Journal of Heredity," Vol. V, No. 7, 1914.

F. W. POPENOE.

JACARANDA (Brazilian name) . Bignoniacese . Hand-
some tubular-flowered trees and shrubs, grown far
South and also under glass.

Leaves opposite, 2-pinnate, rarely 1-pinnate; Ifts.
usually numerous, entire or dentate: fls. showy blue or
violet, mostly in terminal or axillary panicles, often very
freely produced; calyx small, 5-toothed; corolla-tube

straight or curved, regular at the base or somewhat
constricted above the ovary and broadened above;
corolla-limb somewhat 2-lipped, the 5 lobes rounded
and spreading and nearly equal ; disk thick and cushion-
like; perfect stamens 4, didynamous; staminode about
as long as the stamens, club-shaped at the apex and
often bearded at the top : fr. an oblong, ovate or broad
dehiscent caps. — Species about 50, in the American
tropics. Prop, by cuttings of half-ripened wood. Under
glass they are considered to be warmhouse subjects.

ovalifolia, R. Br. (J. mimossefolia, D. Don). Tree,
50 ft. and more: Ivs. distant, spreading, oblong, villous:
fls. blue (and a white variety) more or less horizontal.
Brazil. B.R. 631. B.M. 2327. R.H. 1897:132. G.C. III.
36:224. G.M. 49:71.— J. ovalifolia perhaps ranks
among the best flowering trees or shrubs for subtropical
regions. It is now much recommended as a street tree
in S. Calif., it being deciduous only in early spring.
The foliage is as finely cut as a fern, symmetrical and
elegant. The Ivs. are decussate, distant, each one with
16 or more pairs of pinnae, each pinna having 14-24
pairs of Ifts. The plant bears loose, pyramidal panicles,
8 in. high, of 40-90 blue fls., each 2 in. long and 1^ in.
wide, which have a long, bent, swelling tube and the 2
lobes of 1 lip smaller than the 3 other lobes. It is one
of the best of foliage plants for the S., valuable alike for
florists' decorations, conservatory, subtropical bedding
in the N., or for lawn specimens in Fla., where, if cut
back by frost, it rapidly recovers its beauty. It stands
pruning well, and can be kept in regular form. There is
some confusion between the names, J. ovalifolia and
J. mimosaefolia, both being made in the year 1822.

cuspidifolia, Mart. As compared with J. ovalifolia,
Ivs. said to attain a larger size and to have more Ifts.,
fls. larger and in larger panicles, and brighter blue, tree
more vigorous. Lvs. glabrous, with 8-10 pairs of Ifts.
and the Ifts. again divided into 10^15 pairs, the ulti-
mate Ifts. entire, lanceolate, cuspidate at apex, the
secondary rachis winged: fls. in large terminal thyrse,
blue- violet, the corolla nearly 1^ in. long. Brazil,
Argentina; advertised in S. Calif.

cheldnia, Griseb. Tree, 30-90 ft., of globular shape:
foliage fern-like, very ornamental: fls. large, blue, in
strict terminal panicles 1 ft. long; calyx-lobes lance-
linear and narrowly acuminate; corolla glandular-
puberulent. Paraguay, Argentina. — Wood said to be
veined with rose, and valued in S. Amer. for cabinet
work.

acutifolia, Humb. & Bonpl. Tree, glabrous: Ivs. 2-pin-
nate, the Ifts. 6-8 pairs and ultimate Ifts. many and
acuminate, entire, the petiole canaliculate and rachis
winged: corolla silky, the tube straight, violet: panicle
terminal and axillary. Peru. — Offered abroad.

L. H. B.f

JACK BEAN: Canavalia.
JACK-FRUIT: Artocarpus integrifolia.
JACK-IN-A-BOX: Hernandia.
JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT: Arissema.

JACKSONIA (named for George Jackson, a Scotch
botanist). Syn. Piptdmeris. Leguminosae. Stiff, leafless
shrubs or subshrubs, sometimes grown as greenhouse
subjects: branchlets often phyllodineous or If .-like,
very much branched and spinescent: Ivs. replaced by

109

(1713)

1714

JACKSONIA

JACOBINIA

very minute scales at the nodes: fls. yellow, or yellow
and purple, in terminal or lateral racemes or spikes, or
scattered along the branches: bracts small, scale-like.
— About 40 species, principally in W. Austral. Jack-
sonias are rarely seen in cult. They thrive in loam and
peat soil. Prop, by cuttings from half -ripened shoots,
rooted in sand, during April. J. sericea, Benth. A
large shrub, decumbent, ascending or tall, with pendu-
lous branches: fls. solitary or in irregular, terminal,
loose racemes; calyx-lobes linear, about as long as the
corolla. W. Austral. L, jj. B.

JACOB JfeA: Senecio.

JACOBINIA (probably a personal name). Including
Cyrtanthera, Libonia, Sericographis, Sericobonia. Acan-
thacese. Plants cultivated under glass for their narrow-
tubular red, orange or yellow flowers.

Glabrous herbs, or sometimes shrubs: Ivs. opposite
and entire: fls. variously disposed, sometimes solitary,
sometimes fascicled or spicate; calyx deeply 5-parted,
with linear or awl-shaped segms.; corolla more or less
2-lipped, 1 lip 2-lobed and the other 3-lobed; stamens
2; staminodia represented by 2 hairy elevations on the
corolla-tube; disk ring-like or cupulate; pistil ripening
into an oblong or ovate caps., the style filiform. — Spe-
cies 20-40, depending in part on the definition of the
genus, from Mex. to Bolivia and Brazil.

Jacobinias, in common with other acanthads, are
much confused as to species. A closely allied genus is
Justicia, which, among other characters, is distinguished
by having spurs or appendages at the base of the anther-
lobes, whereas Jacobinia has no such appendages.
Most of the garden plants called Justicias are Jacobin-
ias. Other allied genera are Aphelandra, Dianthera,
Adhatoda, Thyrsacanthus, Eranthemum, Barleria,
Dsdalacanthus.

2005. Jacobinia carnea. ( X 1A)

In their native places, Jacobinias are mostly sub-
shrubs, but they are usually treated as herbs under culti-
vation. They are showy greenhouse or conservatory
subjects. When well grown they are attractive plants,
but they soon become weedy under neglect. They
propagate very readily from cuttings, after the manner
of fuchsias, and the most satisfactory plants are usually
those that are allowed to bloom but once. Most of
them thrive well under conditions suited to begonias.

A. Fls. in a more or less dense terminal panicle or thryse;
corolla long, more or less curved. (Subgenera
Cyrtanthera, Pachystachys.)

carnea, Nichols. (Justicia cdrnea, Hook. Cyrtan-
thera magnifica, Nees. Justicia magnifica, Pohl. Jaco-
binia magnifica, Benth. & Hook.). Fig. 2005. Strong
forking herb or subshrub, blooming when 1 or 2 ft. high,
but becoming several feet high if allowed to grow: sts.
4-angled: Ivs. opposite, lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate
to oval-oblong, narrow or broad at base, attenuate to
apex, wavy-margined, veiny, downy, sometimes a
foot long: fls. rose-purple (varying to flesh-colored);
ascending, arched at the top and the lower lip recurv-
ing, borne in dense terminal spike-like thyrses. Brazil
B.M. 3383. B.R. 1397. G.F. 5:317 (reduced in Fig.
2005). G. 24:238. G.W. 3, p. 439; 15, p. 704. F.E.
22:320. — A handsome old plant, of comparatively
easy cult, in a conservatory temperature. Cuttings
made in Feb. or March should bloom early the follow-
ing winter. Young plants are usually most satisfac-
tory, the old ones being kept over only for cutting
stock. Give rich soil, and plenty of water in the growing
season. This plant is said to have been distributed as
Whitfieldia lateritia.

Pohliana, Benth. & Hook. (Cyrtanthera Pohlidna,
Nees). Much like J. magnifica,, but more robust and
leafy: Ivs. ovate-acuminate and rounded or nearly or
quite cordate at the base, more glabrous, often purple-
tinged: fls. bright crimson: bracts short-acute, or in
one form obtuse. Brazil. G. 27:677. F.S.R. 3, p. 49.
Var. veltitina, Hort. (J. velutina and Justicia velu-
tina, Hort. Cyrtanthera Pohliana var. velutina, Nees).
Dwarf: bracts obtuse: Ivs. villous-
pubescent on both surfaces: fls. 2
in. long, rose-color. Brazil. Gng.
7:212; 16:24. A.F. 14:998.— A
worthy plant of comparatively re-
cent intro. in commerce. It is an
excellent pot subject and has been
considerably advertised as the "new
dwarf Justicia velutina." A profuse
and continuous bloomer. Cultural
remarks under J. carnea apply also
to this.

coccinea, Hiern. (Justicia coc-
dnea, Aubl. ) . Erect herb or subshrub,
usually grown from cuttings each
year and treated as a pot subject:
2-5 ft. high: branches terete: Ivs.
elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, entire,
glabrous or nearly so: fls. crimson,
in a dense terminal spike, pubes-
cent, the long upper lip more or less
arched and the lower one reflexed.
Brazil. B.M. 432. G.W. 15, p. 704.
Gn.W. 21:57. — Blooms in summer.
Said to be known sometimes as
Aphelandra cristata.

chrysostephana, Benth. & Hook.
(Cyrtanthera chrysostephana, Hook,
f.) Herbaceous, glabrous or very
nearly so, obtusely 4-angled: Ivs.
5-6 in. long, petioled, ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, with
red ribs: fls. in an erect terminal

JACQUINIA

1715

plant,

dense corymb, 2 in. long, golden yellow, on very short
pedicels, the bracts linear-lanceolate and dark green;
calyx J^in. long, with long subulate lobes; corolla gla-
brous, slightly curved, the upper lip oblong-lanceolate
and vaulted, the lower lip oblong and reflexed and
3-lobed. Mex. B.M. 5887. Gn. 71, p. 563. J.H. III.
45:543. G. 27:678. G.M. 45:849. Gn.W. 21:51.— An
attractive winter-flowering warmhouse subject.

AA. Fls. scattered or in loose
more or less leafy pani-
cles; corolla of medium
length, straight or
nearly so, not deeply
cleft. (Subgenera Lib-
onia, Sericographis.)

pauciflora, Benth. &
Hook. (Sericdgraphis pauci-
flora, Nees. Libonia flori-
bunda, C. Koch). A com-
mon conservatory
subshrubby, but
usually treated as
a pot-plant, with ,
terete, short-
jointed, close-pu-
bescent branches:
Ivs. elliptic or
elliptic -oblong,
short and rather
small, entire, very '/

short-stalked : fls. /

1 in. long, tubular,
drooping, or 2006' Jacobuuapenrhosiensis.

nearly horizontal,

scarlet with yellow at the end, the lips short. Brazil.
— A most floriferous plant, almost as easy to grow as a
fuchsia, and to be handled in essentially the same way.

Ghiesbreghtiana, Benth. & Hook. (Cyrtanthera
Ghiesbreghtidna, Decne. Sericographis Ghiesbreghtiana,
Nees. Justicia Ghiesbreghtiana, Lem. Apheldndra
Ghiesbreghtiana, Hort.). Lvs. narrower (lance-ovate)
and longer, acuminate: fls. in a terminal, very loose
panicle, tubular, scarlet, appearing at the same season
as those of J. penrhosiensis. Mex. F.S. 4:339. Gt. 98.
— Intro, by Ghiesbreght; but when the plant was trans-
ferred to the genus Jacobinia the name was mispelled
Ghiesbrechtiana. A good winter bloomer.

penrhosiensis (Libonia penrhosiensis, Carr.). Fig.
2006. Much like J. pauciflora, but Ivs. more pointed
and fls. larger and more showy. R.H. 1876:50. Gng.
2 : 131. — It is an excellent plant, and is taking the place
of J. pauciflora. It is a hybrid ofj. pauciflora and J.
Ghiesbreghtiana. Another and very similar hybrid of the
same parentage is Sericobdnia ignea, Lindl. & Andre.
I. H. 22:198. J. penrhosiensis is a winter bloomer, a
little earlier than J. pauciflora. Cuttings struck in
spring make full blooming subjects by fall and early
winter. This and J. pauciflora are common conser-
vatory plants.

spicigera (Justicia spicigera, Schlecht. Justicia
atramentaria, Benth. Justicia Mohintli, Moc. & Sesse.
Sericographis Mohintli, Nees. Jacobinia Mohintli,
Benth. & Hook. Drejera Willdenowiana, Nees). Under-
shrub, erect, pubescent: Ivs. long-ovate to lanceolate,
thick: fls. 1 in. long, axillary, secund, orange-yellow;
corolla-tube elongated, inflated above, the upper lip
somewhat arched, and entire, the lower lip spiral and
3-toothed. Mex. — Fls. said by some to be pale purple.

suberecta, Andre. Herb, velvety pubescent: sts.
prostrate, with erect flowering branches: Ivs. opposite,
petioled, ovate, obtuse, to 2J^ in. long: fls. in 1-10-
fld. peduncled cymes, the bracts spatulate-oboyate and
obtuse; calyx-tube short and nearly hemispheric;
corolla bright scarlet, the slightly curved tube about

1J4 in. long, pubescent outside; upper lip slightly
emarginate and ovate, the lower 3-toothed and oblong.
Uruguay. B.M. 8350. R.H. 1900:210.— Handsome
warmhouse plant, suitable for baskets.

J. Lindenii, Nichols. (Justicia Lindenii, Houll.), is a Mexican
subshrub, with long-ovate opposite decussate Ivs., and a dense
fascicled head of orange-yellow fls.: divisions of calyx linear; corolla
long-tubular, 2 in. or more; 2 stamens attached in lower part of
corolla. Does not appear to be in the trade. R.H. 1870:250.

L. H. B.

JACQUEMONTIA (after Victor Jacquemont, a
French naturalist; died 1832). Convolvulacese. Sub-
tropical and tropical mostly climbing herbs, grown for
the convolvulus-like bloom.

Allied to Ipomcea and Convolvulus, to which they
are probably inferior for garden cult. They are dis-
tinguished from Ipomcea by having 2 stigmas instead
of 1; and from Convolvulus by having the stigmas
ovate or oblong instead of linear-filiform to subulate.
Lvs. entire, or rarely toothed or lobed: fls. not large,
blue, white or violet, in either dense clusters or loose
racemes, sometimes even solitary; corolla more or less
campanulate, the plicate limb 5-angled or obscurely
5-lobed. — Species 6Q-70 in Trop. Amer. and as far
north as S. C., also 1 in Trop. Afr. and 1 in Hawaii.

Jacquemontia pentantha makes an attractive green-
house climber for summer and autumn flowering, but is
not so desirable for this purpose as several species of
Ipomosa. It is likely to become leggy. Propagated
readily by seeds or cuttings. For cultural directions,
see Ipomcea.

pentantha, G. Don (J. violacea, Choisy. Convolvulus
pentdnthus, Jacq.). St. perennial, somewhat shrubby
at base, twining 6-8 ft., pubescent or nearly glabrous:
Ivs. cordate to ovate-lanceolate, acuminate: peduncles
slender, bearing 5^12 fls. in a loose cymose cluster;
corolla about 1J4 in. wide, short-funnelform, sharply
5-angled, rich violet-blue. June-Sept. Trop. Amer.,
and as far north as Fla. B.M. 2151. B. 4:197. P.M.
6:219. In var. canescens, Hort. (J. canescens, Benth.),
the whole plant is covered with short, brownish down.
B.R. 33:27.

tamnifolia, Griseb. Plant annual, usually low and
erect, at length twining if support is near, covered with
tawny yellow hairs: Ivs. cordate-ovate, long-petioled :
peduncles bearing many fls. in dense involucrate clus-
ters; fls. less than J^in. long, violet. Cult, and waste
ground, S. C. to Ark., and southward.

S. W. FLETCHER.
L. H. B.f

JACQUINIA (Nicholas Joseph de Jacquin, 1727-
1817, collector and painter of West Indian plants).
Myrsinacese; by some separated, with Clavija and
Theophrasta, in Theophrastacese. Tropical American
trees and shrubs, seldom cultivated far South for orna-
ment.

Leaves opposite or somewhat verticillate, rigid,
margined, entire : fls. white, purple or orange, borne in
racemes, umbels or singly; corolla 5-fid, wheel- to sal-
ver-shaped, crowned at the throat and between the
lobes with 5 roundish appendages (staminodia) ;
stamens 5, inserted far down in corolla-tube, the fila-
ments subulate: berry leathery, few to several-seeded.
In the allied genus Theophrasta the corolla is cylindri-
cal, shortly 5-lobed, the appendages are fastened at the
base of the corolla instead of the throat, and the berry
is many-seeded. — By the latest monographer (Mez,
Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 15, 1903), 33 species are
described, of the warm parts of Amer.

keyensis, Mez (J. armilldris, Chapm., not Jacq.).
Lvs. cuneate-spatulate or obovate, blunt, revolute at
the margin, usually whorled, 4 in. long, 1J^ in. wide:
berry J^in. thick. S. Fla. and Bahamas. It is a low
tree (about 15 ft.), with evergreen Ivs. somewhat like
box but obovate, and racemes of small white honey-
scented fls., which appear in winter. It appears to be

1716

JACQUINIA

JASMINUM

cult, only in S. Fla. and S. Calif. It is possible that
the plant sometimes cult, is the J. armillaris of Jacqum,
which Mez now calls J. barbasco, and which occurs in
W. Indies. L. H. B.

JAMB6SA: Eugenia.

JAMESIA (after its discoverer, Dr. Edwin James,
1797-1861, botanical explorer of the Rocky Mountains).
Syn., Edwmia. Saxifragacese. Low hardy shrub of up-
right habit, with deciduous, opposite leaves, and white
flowers in terminal, short panicles.

Leaves without stipules, petioled, serrate : calyx-lobes
and petals 5; stamens 10; styles usually 3, rarely 4 or

5, slender; ovary supe-
rior, 1-celled: fr. a 3-5-
valved, many - seeded,
dehiscent caps. — One
species in the Rocky
Mts. from Utah to New
Mex. Handsome shrub
for borders of shrub-
beries or rocky slopes in
• sunny situations, thriv-
ing in any well-drained
j garden soil, best in a
peaty and sandy one.
Prop, by seeds or by

cuttings
wood.

of ripened

2007. Jamesia americana. ( X 1A)

americana, Torr. &
Grav (Edwinia • ameri-
cana, Heller). Fig. 2007.
Shrub, to 4 ft.: Ivs.
broadly ovate to oblong-
ovate, acute, serrate,
dentate, pubescent or
almost glabrous above,
whitish tomentose
beneath, J^-2 in. long:
fls. about Min. across,
white, sometimes pinkish
outside. June. B.M.
6142. J.H. III. 32:37.
Gn. 32, p. 522; 33, p. 606; 63, p. 105. Gt. 38, p. 103;
53, pp. 231, 232. L.L 6. G.M. 52:85. Var. rdsea,
Purpus. Fls. pink. ALFRED REHDER.

JANKJEA: Ramondia.

JANUSIA (after Janus, the old Roman god with 2
faces). Malpighidceae. Twining or trailing plants,
with 2 forms of yellow fls. in axillary clusters, the normal
fls. having a gland-bearing calyx, a 3-angled style and
3 ovaries, and conspicuous clawed petals; abnormal fls.
with an eglandular calyx, no style and 2 ovaries, and
often rudimentary petals. — Ten to 15 species. J. gr&cilis,
Gray, is offered in S. Calif. Sts. and branches very
slender, twining or trailing: Ivs. lanceolate-linear, both
surfaces silky: peduncles mostly dichotomously 2-fld.;
bracts linear, as long as the pedicels. Common through-
out Texas, south of the Colorado, and west to New Mex.

L. H. B.

JAPARANDIBA (probably a vernacular name).
Lecythidacese. Gustdvia, which is retained by the
"nomina conservanda" of the Vienna code. Upward
of 20 trees and shrubs of Trop. Amer., little known in
cult. Lvs. large, ovate or spatulate, alternate, ser-
rate: fls. showy on 1-fld. somewhat umbelled peduncles;
calyx-tube turbinate, the border entire or 4~6-lobed;
petals 6-8, nearly equal; stamens many, in many series,
annulate or cupulate; ovary 4-6-celled: fr. a fibrous
few-seeded berry. — Some of the species may be found
in choice collections of wannhouse plants, but only
J. speciosa, Kuntze (Gustavia specidsa, DC.), from
Colombia, seems to be offered in this country (S. Calif.).
Tree: Ivs. thick, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, nar-

rowed at base, entire, punctulate above, reticulate
beneath, about 3^ in. long: fls. fascicled, fragrant,
6-petaled, white, 2-3 in. long; calyx nearly entire and
with the pedicel tomentose. Colombia.

J. gracillima, Niedz. (Gustavia gracillima, Miers). Slender tree,
glabrous: fls. 4 in. diam., rose-red, solitary or in pairs, from the
If. -axils on young plants and on the wood in old plants: Ivs. close
together, recurved, to 18 in. long, oblanceolate or much narrower,
serrate. Colombia. B.M. 6151. G.Z. 21, p. 49.— J. pterocdrpa,
Niedz. (G. pterocarpa, Poit. ). Fls. with 6 large obtuse white petals;
calyx deeply 5-6-lobed; ovary 5-winged: Ivs. thick, long- petioled,
obovate-lanceolate, entire or very nearly so, acuminate: style
elongated. Guiana. B.M. 5239. — J. superba, Kuntze (G. superba,
Berg. G. insignis, Lind. ). Shrub or small tree: corolla 5-6 in. diam.,
cream-white, outside tinged rose: Ivs. dark green and glossy,
obovate-lanceolate, acuminate, much attentuate at base, sessile or
nearly so, spinulose-toothed. B.M. 5069. T TT R

JASIONE (ancient name of no application to this
plant). Campanulacese. Small blue-flowered or rarely
white-flowered plants for the border or the rock-garden.

Jasione is easily distinguished from its allies by the
fls. being borne in a head with an involucre, the calyx
reduced to 5 very slender lobes, the corolla cut into 5-
awl-shaped strips, and the anthers somewhat united at
their bases; these characters make the infl. to resemble
the Compositse, but it is readily distinguished by the
many-seeded caps. -^-Species 5 or 6, in Cent, and W. Eu.
and the Medit. region. They differ widely in duration
and habit. Prop, by division and seed. This includes
the shepherd's scabious, a hardy herbaceous peren-
nial plant of compact habit, about a foot high, and
bearing globose heads 2 in. diam. composed of very
many light blue fls. It is of easy cult, in any garden
soil, grows either in full sunlight or partial shade, and
is equally adapted for borders, edgings, or the rockery.
The common annual scabious (Scabiosa) belongs to the
teasel family, and has 4 stamens, while the shepherd's
scabious has 5 stamens.

perennis, Lam. SHEPHERD'S SCABIOUS. SHEEP
SCABIOUS. SHEEP'S-BIT. Perennial: st. erect, sparingly
if at all branched: root-lvs. obovate, in the non-florif-
erous plants forming a tufted rosette; st.-lvs. oblong-
linear, entire; peduncles long, leafless; bracts ovate,
serrate-dentate; fls. blue. S. Eu. July, Aug. B.R.
505. B.M. 2198.

montana, Linn. Annual or biennial (if biennial*
bearing a winter tuft or rosette of radical Ivs.): sts.
erect, 1 ft. high, sometimes short and more or less
decumbent: Ivs. linear or lanceolate, undulate, some-
what hairy: fls. pale blue, on long terminal peduncles;
involucral bracts ovate. Great Britain to Caucasus. —
The seaside form, (var. littoralis) is said to be usually
biennial. This species is also called sheep's-bit.

humilis, Lois. Dwarf, about 6-9 in. high, perennial:
sts. simple, ascending: Ivs. flat and entire, linear-
obovate: fls. blue on short peduncles. Pyrenees; useful
in rock-gardens. July, Aug. L. u. B.f

JASMINUM (Arabic name, from which have come
Jessamine, Jasmin and Jasminum) . Oledcese. JASMINE.
JESSAMINE. Climbing or erect shrubs, with attractive
flowers, mostly very fragrant, prized for planting in
mild climates and frequently grown under glass.

Leaves opposite or alternate, pinnate but sometimes
reduced to 1 1ft. (petiole jointed) : fls. on the ends of the
branchlets, or twin, or in dichotomous cymes; corolla
yellow or white, sometimes reddish, salver-shaped, the
4-9 or more lobes convolute in the bud, much exceeding
the calyx; stamens 2, included in the corolla-tube;
ovary 2-loculed, with 1^1 erect ovules: fr. a 2-lobed
berry, or sometimes the carpels separate, the carpels
mostly 2-seeded. — Probably upwards of 200 species,
widely distributed in warm parts of Eu., Asia, Afr., and
the Pacific region; nearly absent from Amer. The genus
is closely allied to Ligustrum, but differs in the com-
pound Ivs. and twin-carpeled frs. Olea is also a related
genus.

LX. Juglans nigra.— The black walnut.

JASMINUM

JASMINUM

1717

Jasmines are of diverse horticultural groups. Some of
them are hardy in the middle and southern states,
whereas others are winter-flowering warmhouse plants.
Most of them are known as coolhouse or temperate-
house shrubs, of half -climbing habit. They are all of
easy culture. They propagate readily by cuttings of
nearly mature wood and by layers. The species are
usually called jasmines although the word jessamine is
really the same. J . officinale is the jessamine of poetry.
Some of them (particularly J. grandiflorum) are grown
for perfume-making. The Cape jessamine is Gardenia,
although there is a Jasminum capense. Yellow or
Carolina jessamine is Gelsemium. The hardiest kinds
are J. humile, J. fmticans, J. floridum, J. nudiflorum,
J. primulinum, J. officinale, but none of them is reliable
north of Washington without protection, and even then
only seldom north of Philadelphia.

affine, 13.
anastomosans, 2.
angulare, 15.
aureum, 17.
azoricum, 12.
Beesianum, 11.
capense, 15.
flavum, 20.
floribundum, 14.
floridum. 23.
fruticans, 19.
glabratum, 15.
gracile, 1.
gracillimum, 8.
grandiflorum, 16.

INDEX.

hirsutum, 7.
humile, 20.
ligustrifolium, 3.
lucidum, 1.
luteum, 19.
Maingayi, 10.
multiflorum, 7.
multipartitum, 4.
nitidum, 9.
nudinorum, 17.
odoratissimum, 22.
oflScinale, 13.
poeticum, 13.
primulinum, 18.
pubescens, 7.

pubigerum, 21.
Reevesii, 20.
revolutum, 20.
rigidum, 3.
Sambac, 5.
Sieboldianum, 17.
simplicifolium, 1.
subulatum, 23.
syriacum, 19.
trifoliatum, 5.
trinerve, 2.
triumphans, 20.
undulatum, 6.
Wallichianum, 20.

A. Lvs. apparently simple (reduced to 1 Ift.).

B. Fls. white.
c. Calyx glabrous (No. 4 not considered).

1. simplicifolium, Forst. (J. lucidum, Banks. J.
grdcile, Andr.). Climber, or sometimes a tree in its
native place, glabrous or pubescent : Ivs. opposite,
mostly short-stalked, shining, varying from oblong-
elliptic to ovate-lanceolate to cordate-ovate, acute or
obtuse, usually less than 3 in. long: fls. white, in termi-
nal forking, many-fld. clusters; calyx-teeth short and
sometimes scarcely any; corolla-tube M~Hin. long, the
acute lobes somewhat shorter. Austral. B.M. 980.
B.R. 606. — Summer bloomer.

2. trinerve, Vahl. Tall-climbing, with terete gla-
brous branches: Ivs. opposite, short-stalked, ample,
ovate-oblong and acuminate, strongly 3-nerved from
the base: fls. white, in small clusters; calyx-teeth nar-
row but much shorter than the long corolla-tube;
corolla-lobes only half as long as the tube, acute. India.
B.R. 918. — Perhaps only a form of J. anastomosans,
Wall.

3. rigidum, Zenker (J. ligustrifolium, Wall.). Com-
pact dense rigid glabrous shrub, scarcely climbing: Ivs.
opposite, 2 in. long, ovate or elliptic, shining green,
more or less acute at both ends but not acuminate,
coriaceous, with reticulating nerves: fls. white, fra-
grant, in few-fld. dense sessile cymes; calyx-teeth lin-
ear, erect; corolla-tube 1 in. long, exceeding the lobes.
India.

4. multipartitum, Hochst. Erect bushy shrub, to 10
ft., the branches minutely puberulent: Ivs. simple,
ovate-lanceolate, less than 2 in. long, acute, somewhat
undulate: fls. probably white, fragrant, solitary on the
ends of branches; calyx 10-parted, the lobes setaceous;
corolla-tube to 1 Yi in. long, the limb of several or many
ovate-elliptic or linear-oblong acute lobes. S. Afr.

cc. Calyx pubescent or pilose.
D. Teeth of calyx subulate.

5. Sambac, Soland. ARABIAN JASMINE. Climbing,
the angular branchlets pubescent : Ivs. opposite or in 3's
(the ternate-lvd. specimens giving rise to the name J.
trifoliatum, Hort.), firm in texture, shining, nearly or

quite glabrous, the petiole short and abruptly curved
upward, elliptic-ovate or broad-ovate, either promi-
nently acute or completely rounded on the end, entire,
prominently veined: clusters 3-12-fld.; calyx-lobes
linear and prominent, hirsute on the edges (sometimes
almost glabrous); corolla-tube J^in. long; lobes oblong
or orbicular. India. B.R. 1. — Much cult, in the tropics.
Fls. white, but turning purple as they die. A full double
button-fld. group is in cult., one form of which is the
Grand Duke of Tuscany (or Grand Duke) . The double
form is shown in B.M. 1785. This double form some-
times passes as J. trifoliatum. J. Sambac is a perpetual
bloomer, particularly in frostless countries, where it
can stand in the open.

6. undulatum, Ker. Climbing, with hairy branches,
slender: lys. opposite, short-petioled, rather small
(about 2 in. long), ovate-lanceolate and acuminate,
somewhat pubescent beneath, somewhat undulate: fls.
6-10, in terminal cymes, white, long-tubed ; calyx-teeth
short; corolla-tube %in. long, and slender; lobes half or
less as long, acute. India. B.R. 436. — Lvs. sometimes
ternate. Little known in cult, in this country.

7. pubescens, Willd. (J. hirsutum, Willd. J. multi-
florum, Andr.). Climbing, rusty-hairy: Ivs. opposite,
very short-petioled, rather thick, ovate-acute: calyx-
teeth usually %in. long (nearly or quite twice as long
as in J. undulatum), with spreading yellow hairs: fls.
white, much like those of J. undulatum, the lobes
broad; often half-double. India. B.M. 1991. B.R. 15.
J.H. III. 43:322.— Will stand some frost. Said to be
a good dwarf glasshouse subject.

8. gracillimum, Hook. f. Climbing or scrambling,
soft-pubescent or hairy: Ivs. opposite, very short-
petioled, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, the base cor-
date or truncate, bright green above and pubescent
beneath, 1^ in. or less long: fls. white, in very large,
dense hanging heads, an inch or more across, fragrant;
calyx-teeth long and awl-like, half as long as the slen-
der corolla-tube; corolla-lobes many (usually about 9),
acute. N.Borneo. G.C. II. 15:9. B.M. 6559. J.H.
111.52:281. G.Z. 26, p. 97. G. 4:471; 7:233. F.S.R.
3, p. 15. — Long, lithe branches spring from near the
ground and bear heavy clusters at their ends. Hand-
some florif erous winter bloomer. Nearly hardy in eastern
part of N. C.

DD. Teeth of calyx linear.

9. nitidum, Skan. Slender-branched, somewhat
pubescent, 'half -twining: Ivs. opposite, shining, 2-3 in.
long, elliptic-lanceolate, short-acuminate, the base
somewhat cuneate, green above and pale beneath,
lightly pilose along the rib, primary veins 3, the petiole
less than %in. long and very pilose: fls. white, in small
cymes, very fragrant, the pedicels about J^in. long;
calyx pilose, the teeth linear and recurved and about
Km- long; corolla-tube narrow, Min. long; lobes of
corolla 9-12, linear-lanceolate, spreading, 1 Yi in. broad.
Admiralty Isls. (Bismarck Archipelago). R.B. 32, p.
182. R.H. 1907, pp. 110, 111. J.H. III. 60:237. Gn.
63, p. 61. A.F. 15:1237. — An excellent warmhouse
climber.

10. Maingayi, Clarke. Scandent shrub with pilose
branches: Ivs. opposite, long-petioled, elliptic-lanceo-
late, 5 in. long, glabrous, acute at apex and rhomboid at
base, coriaceous, the nerves 6-8 pairs and conspicuous
and oblique and not inarched: fls. white, star-shaped,
fragrant, in dense pubescent panicled cymes, on very
short pedicels; calyx-tube Hin. long, campanulate,
the teeth %m. 9r less l°ng> linear; corolla-tube %-l in.
long, the elliptic lobes acute, the limb 1^ in. diam.
Penang (India). B.M. 7823.— Named for Dr. A. C.
Maingay, the discoverer.

BB. Fls. pink or red.

11. Beesianum, Forrest & Diels. Shrub, 1-3 ft.: Ivs.
simple and small, short-petioled, ovate or lanceolate,

1718

JASMINUM

JASMINUM

1 in. or less long: fls. pink or deep rose, very fragrant;
calyx-lobes linear, less than J^in. long; corolla-tube
short (less than J^in. long); lobes of corolla erect or
spreading, broad-elliptic or suborbicular, short. W.
China, altitude 8,000-9,000 ft. (Bees, Ltd., Liverpool.)

AA. Lvs. of 3 or more Ifts. (sometimes only 1 in No. 19).

B. The Ivs. opposite.

c. Fls. white.

12. azSricum, Linn. Climbing, glabrous or nearly so,
the branches terete: Ivs. evergreen, opposite, the Ifts.
3, ovate-acuminate, the 2 side ones often smaller : calyx-
teeth very small; oblong corolla-lobes about as long as
the tube. Canary Isls. B.M. 1889.— A good white-fld.
temperate-house species blooming in summer and
winter.

13. officinale, Linn. (J . poeticum, Hort.). JESSA-
MINE. Fig. 2008. Long, slender grower requiring sup-
port, but scarcely self -climbing, glabrous or very nearly
so: Ivs. opposite, odd-pinnate, the lateral Ifts. 2-3 pairs
and rhomboid-oblong-acute, the terminal one longer:
fls. white, 2-10 in terminal more or less leafy clusters;
calyx-teeth linear, ^-%in. long, or sometimes as long as
the rather short corolla-tube; corolla-lobes 4 or 5, oblong,
more or less involute on the margins. Kashmir, 3,000-
9,000 ft., Persia, and now widely distributed. B.M. 31.
R.H. 1878, p. 428.— Long cult. The glossy foliage and

2008. Jasminum officinale.
(XH)

fragrant white summer-blooming fls. render the plant
very attractive in the S., where it is hardy. With pro-
tection it will stand as far N. as Philadelphia. Var.
affine, Nichols. (J. ajftne, Hort.), is a form with larger
fls. R.H. 1878, p. 428. There are double-fld. forms;
also with yellow- and silver-edged Ivs.

14. floribundum, R. Br. Much like J. officinale, but
differs in calyx-teeth, and corolla-lobes wider and more
obtuse and only half length of the tube: branches
glabrous: Ivs. opposite; Ifts. 5, ovate, apiculate, the

terminal one largest: fls. fragrant, white, in dichoto-
mous axillary and terminal clusters; calyx-lobes subu-
late', longer than the bell-shaped calyx-tube; corolla-
tube exceeding the calyx, to %in. long; segms. 5, J^in.
long, oblong. Nile Land.

15. angulare, Vahl. Climber with long 4-angled
branches: Ivs. opposite, hirsute; Ifts. 3, orbicular,
ovate to lanceolate, mucronate: fls. white, about l^in.
across, odorless, in 3's on axillary trifid peduncles;
calyx glabrous, 5-toothed, the teeth equaling or shorter
than the tube; corolla-tube many times longer than
calyx, 1-1 H in., very slender; lobes of corolla 5-7,
oval-lanceolate, somewhat obtuse or subacute. S. Afr.
B.M. 6865. G.C. III. 28:360, 361. Var. glabratum,
Mey. (/. capense, Thunb.). St. scarcely puberulent,
the Ivs. glabrous.

16. grandiflorum, Linn. CATALONIAN, ITALIAN,
ROYAL or SPANISH JASMINE. Nearly erect-growing, the
branches drooping and angular, glabrous or very nearly
so: Ivs. opposite, the rachis flattened or winged, the Ifts.
5-7, elliptic or round-elliptic or oval, mostly ending in a
very small point or cusp, the terminal 1ft. mostly ovate-
lanceolate and acuminate: calyx-teeth Hm- long or
rarely half as long as the corolla-tube; corolla star-
shaped, larger than in J. officinale. India; naturalized
in Fla. B.R. 91. G. 2:451.— Probably the best white-
fld. species. Summer and fall, or nearly perpetual in
warm countries. Much grown in Eu. for perfumery,
and also a good greenhouse subject; young stock may
be planted out in spring; will stand sun. Stands 10-12°
of frost.

cc. Fls. yellow.

17. nudifldrum, Lindl. (J. Sieboldianum, Blume).
Twiggy nearly erect shrub with 4-angled glabrous stiff
branchlets: Ivs. opposite, small, with 3 little ovate cili-
ate Ifts., the entire foliage falling in autumn or when
the growth is completed : fls. solitary, in early spring (or
winter), from long, scaly buds, subtended by several or
many small If .-like bracts, yellow; calyx-lobes leafy
and spreading or reflexed, shorter than the corolla-
tube; corolla-segms. obovate, often wavy. China.
B.R. 32:48. B.M. 4649. R.H. 1852:201. G.C. III.
11:181. G.W. 15, p. 300. H.F. 2:64. J.F. 3:320. Var.
aureum, Hort., has yellow- variegated foliage. — A
most interesting species, reminding one of forsythia
when in bloom. Hardy south of Washington, and
blooming nearly all winter. With protection, it will
stand as far north as Hudson River valley, and bloom
very early in spring. In northern glasshouses, used
mostly as a late winter and early spring bloomer.
Strong-growing specimens need support.

18. primulinum, Hemsl. Very like J. nudiflorum,
botanically, but with larger Ivs. which are sometimes
well developed at flowering-time, and with much larger
fls., the limb of the corolla exceeding the tube; a ram-
bling very free-flowering evergreen glabrous shrub, with
slender green 4-angled branches: Ivs. petioled, of 3 Ifts.
which are almost sessile and 1 or 2 in. long, entire,
oblong-lanceolate, shining above and paler beneath:
fls. primrose-yellow with a darker eye, 1^-2 in. across,
solitary on axillary bracted peduncles or branchlets;
calyx-lobes lanceolate, slightly hairy; corolla-lobes
usually 6, obovate-spatulate ; stamens exserted. Yun-
nan, China, apparently as an escape from cult.; some-
times partially double. B.M. 7981. G.C. III. 33:197.
R.H. 1904, p. 182; 1906:472. R.B. 35, p. 266. Gn. 69,
p. 71; 71:270. J.H. III. 46:295. G.M. 46:163; 49:141.
F.S.R. 2:168. — One of the best introductions of
recent years; stands some frost. It blooms in early
spring, the season lasting two months or more. Not
hardy north of Washington, but nearly evergreen in
the S.

BB. The Ivs. alternate: fls. yellow.

19. friiticans, Linn. (J. luteum, Gueld. J. synacum,
Boiss. & Gaill.). Glabrous bush, to 12 ft., not climbing,

JASMINUM

JATROPHA

1719

but with slender and weak branches which are angled:
Ivs. alternate; Ifts. 3 (rarely 1), somewhat curved, obo-
vate to spatulate or oblong, obtuse: fls. yellow, not
fragrant, few in subterminal clusters; calyx-lobes
subulate; corolla-tube twice length of calyx, about Kin.
long ; lobes of corolla 5, obtuse : berries black at maturity.
S. Eu., N. Afr. B.M. 461.— Evergreen.

20. hfcmile. Linn. (J. revolutum, Sims. J. Wal-
lichianum Lindl. J. flavum, Sieb. J. triumphans,
Hort.). Fig. 2009. A diffuse shrub, in the open ground

2009. Jasminum humile. ( X Ji)

in the S. reaching 20 ft. and requiring support, but in
glasshouses usually grown as a pot-bush: branches gla-
brous, angled: Ivs. alternate, odd-pinnate (rarely
reduced to 1 1ft.), the lateral Ifts. 1-3 pairs, all Ifts.
thickish and acuminate, and more or less revolute on
the edges, varying from oblong to oblong-lanceolate
to oblong-rotund: fls. bright yellow, in open clusters;
calyx-teeth very short; corolla-tube %-l in. long,
usually considerably exceeding the mostly obtuse and
reflexing lobes. Trop. Asia. B.M. 1731. B.R. 178;
350; 1409. L.B.C. 10:966. — Apparently the common-
est jasmine in American glasshouses, usually known
as J. revolutum. It is hardy in the open as far north as
Maryland. Lvs. thick and evergreen. Needs a cool
house if grown under glass. Summer and fall bloomer.
J. Reevesii, Hort., probably belongs to this species.
Some horticulturists distinguish a J. humile from J.
revolutum, the former said to be of smaller size, less
floriferous, and fls. smaller and scarcely fragrant.

21. pubigerum, D. Don. Erect shrub, much like J.
humile and perhaps a form of it, b'ut softly and densely
villous: Ivs. alternate; Ifts. 3-7, to 2 in. long, suborbic-
ular to ovate or oblong, villous on both surfaces: fls.
yellow, in dense nearly sessile, very villous, about 15-fld.
cymes; calyx-teeth linear, longer than in J. humile;
corolla-tube %in. long. India.

22. odoratissimum, Linn. Much like No. 20, but
more erect and less leafy when in flower: Ivs. alternate,
the Ifts. 3 or 5, shining, oval or broad-oval and obtuse:
fls. yellow, in a terminal cluster; calyx-teeth very short;
corolla-lobes oblong-obtuse, mostly shorter than the
tube. Summer. Madeira. B.M. 285. — It is an erect,
glabrous shrub with straight, stiff, terete or slightly
angular branches.

23. floridum, Bunge («7. subulatum, Lindl.). Shrub,
glabrous, erect but with flexuous branches: Ivs. alter-
nate, 3-foliolate (rarely 5-foliolate) , the Ifts. coriaceous,
ovate-oblong or oval and acute: fls. golden yellow, ^in.
diam. in open cymes or panicles; calyx-teeth long-
subulate, as long as the tube, the calyx-tube turbinate
and 5-angled; corolla-tube 4 times length of calyx;
segms. ovate, acute, spreading to 1% in- across; sta-
mens included. China. B.M. 6719. — Hardy as far
north as Washington. Apparently very little planted.

J. auriculatum, Vahl. Scandent, pubescent or nearly glabrous:
Ivs. mostly simple but sometimes 3-foliolate and the lateral Ifts.
reduced to auricles: fls. white, in compound many-fld. cymes;
corolla-tube J^in. or less long, the lobes elliptic and Min. long.

India. B.R. 264. — J. calcdreum, Muell., is a spring- and summer-
blooming Australian twining quite glabrous species with
white fls. and simple, opposite, thick, 3- or 5-nerved Ivs. — J. dldy-
mum, Forst. Climber: fls. small, white, in narrow axillary cymes
which exceed the Ivs.: Ivs. opposite, ternate; Ifts. often retuse.
Austral. B.M. 6349. Said to be an excellent warmhouse species. —
J. Girdldii, Diels. Branches angled, hairy: Ivs. alternate, 3-5-foli-
olate; Ifts. lanceolate, somewhat obtuse or apiculate, the terminal
one longer: corymb terminal, about 3-5-fld. ; calyx-segms, subulate,
hispid; cpiolla yellow, the tube 6-8 times longer than calyx, the
lobes apiculate. China. Allied to J. humile and J. pubigerum. —
J. paniculatum, Roxbg. Evergreen climber, suitable for warmbouse:
Ivs. opposite, 3 foliolate; Ifts. elliptic, obtuse: fls. white, in cymes;
corolla-tube y2m. long. China. B.R. 690. L.B.C. 5: 469.— J. poly-
dnthum, Franch., a Chinese species in the way of J. grandiflorum,
may be expected to appear in cult, in greenhouses. Fls. white
inside, reddish outside, long-tubed, very fragrant: Ivs. opposite,
with about 5 long-acuminate Ifts: sts. long and sarmentose. R H
1891, p. 270. L H B

JATEORHIZA (name alludes to healing qualities of
the root). Also spelled Jatrorrhiza. Menispermacese.
Tropical twiners.

Herbaceous perennials or suffrutescent, with rough
or setose sts. : Ivs. large, palmately lobed: dioecious;
male fls. in long and slender racemose panicles in the
axils; female fls. in racemes that are simple or nearly
so; sepals 6 in 2 series; petals 6, shorter than the
sepals; stamens (in male fl.) 6, the filaments free or
connate; carpels (in female fl.) 3, with divided stigmas:
fr. an ovoid drupe. — Species apparently 2, in Trop.
Afr. J. palmata, Miers (Cocculus palmatus, DC.
Menispermum palmatum, Lam. M. Columba, Roxbg.
J. Columba, Miers). Probably not in the trade in our
territory, but the fascicled fusiform fleshy roots are
the source of the drug calumba: st. herbaceous: Ivs.
6-16 in. across, 3-5-lobed, deeply cordate, the lateral
lobes broad-ovate or roundish triangular, the central
lobe often broadly obovate: male panicles very slender,
6-12 in. or more long: drupes ovoid, setose, in clusters
of 4-43. Mozambique; the name calumba or columba
is said to have come from Columbo, Ceylon, whence
the supply of roots was once supposed to have come.
B.M. 2970, 2971. L H B

JATROPHA (Greek, referring to its medicinal use).
Euphorbiaceae. A varied group of tropical herbs, shrubs
or trees; several species cultivated in the greenhouse
for their ornamental or curious leaves and flowers; and
some grown in the tropics for their economic uses.

Juice milky: Ivs. alternate, simple, usually palmately
lobed, sometimes pinnate and entire: fls. monoecious,
rarely dioecious, usually with petals; sepals 5, more or
less connate at base, imbricate; stamens about 10, in
2 or more whorls, some, at least, with the filaments con-
nate; ovary 2-5-celled, 1 ovule in each cell: fr. a caps. —
About 150 species, chiefly in the tropics of Amer. and
Afr. Related to Hevea and Aleurites.

Most of the species of Jatropha are tropical shrubs,
but several low or herbaceous species extend into the
southern United States. One, the spurge nettle, J.
stimulosa, Michx. (Cnidoscolus stimulosus, Gray), is a
stinging weed of sandy soil in the South, with white
tubular calyx. A related species J. aconitifolia, is
planted for hedges in Central America. Many species
have found use in medicine chiefly as local or popular
remedies. The oil of J. Curcas, for which the plant is
cultivated in tropical America, is used as a purgative
and also for cooking, soap-making and the like. In
Mexico the seeds are reported to be eaten like peanuts.
A few years ago J. gossypifolia attracted some atten-
tion as a remedy for leprosy.

Most of the species are adapted to sandy loam soil.
They grow readily from seeds, and cuttings from hard
young branches can be rooted in sand with bottom heat
if dried somewhat before bedding.

A. Petals free, or nearly so: Ivs. long-petioled; stipules
usually dissected and persistent.

gossypifdlia, Linn. BELLYACHE BUSH. Subshrub,
2-6 ft. high: Ivs. 5-lobed, nearly glabrous, 4-6 in. wide,

1720

JATROPHA

JUANULLOA

with prominent gland-tipped hairs on the margin,
stipules and petioles, those of the latter branched : petals
dark purple ; ovary pubescent : fr. globular-oblong, warty.
Trop. Amer., Key West; Trop. Afr. L.B.C. 2:117.
B.R. 746.

glandulifera, Roxbg. (J. glauca, Vahl). Shrub, 3-4
ft. high: Ivs. 3-5-lobed, almost glabrous, glaucous,
glandular dentate; stipules nearly 1 in. long; petiole not
glandular: fls. yellowish green; ovary glabrous. India.

multifida, Linn. CORAL PLANT. PHYSIC NUT.
Shrub, 5-15 ft. high: Ivs. deeply palmately 7-11-parted,
glabrous, glaucous below, the lobes narrow, 4-7 in. long,
pinnately incised to entire; stipules about J^in. long;
petiole not glandular: fls. scarlet. Texas to Brazil.

podagrica, Hook. GUATEMALA RHUBARB. PHYSIC
NUT. TARTAGO. Shrub, 1-2 ft. high: Ivs. peltate,
3-5-lobed, 4-8 in. wide, glabrous and glaucous, lobes
entire; stipules about J^in. long; petiole not glandular:
petals scarlet; ovary glabrous. Cent. Amer. H.F.
8:146. B.M.4376.

pandurifdlia, Andr. (J. acuminata, Desv. J. hastata,
Griseb. Mdnihot diversifolia, Sweet). Large shrub:
Ivs. ovate to oblong
or panduriform,
entire except the
dentate base, 2-3
in. wide, glabrous or
puberulent; petiole
2 in. or less long;
stipules small,
entire, not glandu-
lar: petals over
}^in. long, scarlet;
cyme many-fld. W.
Indies. B.M.
604. L. B. C. 17:
1604.

AA. Petals united (the nettle -like

species are apetalous, with a

tubular petaloid calyx).
Curcas, Linn. FRENCH PHYSIC
NUT. BARBADOS NUT. PURGING
NUT. Large shrub or tree, up to 15
ft. high: Ivs. long-petioled, some-
what 3-5-lobed like English ivy,
almost glabrous, 3-6 in. wide; stip-
ules minute; deciduous: fls. small,
yellowish green; cymes many-fld.,
corymbiform. Trop. Amer.

spathulata, Muell. Arg. (Mozlnna
spathulata, Ort.). TOCOTE PRIETO. Shrub, 1-15 ft.
high, stoloniferous: branches fleshy: Ivs. sessile, nearly
glabrous, spatulate, entire or 3-lobed: fls. in fascicles,
dioecious, pale rose-color; ovary 1-3-celled: caps, usu-
ally 1-seeded. Texas to Cent. Amer. — Sometimes seen
in succulent collections.

J. aconitifdlia, Mill., var. Papaya, Pax. Tree, apetalous, stinging,
spiny. Cent. Amer. — J. canescens, Muell. Arg. Shrub: petals
united. Calif, to Cent. Amer. — J. fragrans, HBK. Tree, stinging,
spiny, apetalous: fls. aromatic. Cuba. — J. integerrima, Jacq.=
J. diversifolia, Muell. Arg. Small tree or shrub: petals free, stipules
entire; fls. red. B.M. 1464. W. Indies. — J. Kunthiana, Muell. Arg.
Shrub, apetalous, stinging, spiny. Trop. Amer. — J. Mdnihot=
Manihot. — J. Pohliana, Muell. Arg. Shrub or small tree: petals'
free: stipules dissected. S.Brazil. — J. iirens. Linn. Shrub, stinging,
spiny, apetalous. G.C. II. 14:753. Trop. Amer.

J. B. S. NORTON.

JEFFERSONIA (Thomas Jefferson, third presi-
dent of the United States). Berberidacese. Attractive
hardy perennial herbs.

Rhizomatous: Ivs. radical, palmately nerved, 2-lobed
or 2-parted: fl. solitary on a naked scape; sepals 4,
petaloid but fugacious; petals 8, flat, larger than sepals;
stamens 8, free, with slender filaments; ovary single,
the style 2-lobed at apex: fr. a caps., partially circum-
scissile near summit. — Two species, 1 in E. N. Amer.

2010.

Jeffersonia
diphylla.

(XK)

and 1 in Manchuria. The oriental species, J. dubia,
Benth. & Hook., seems not to be in cult.

diphylla, Pers. (Podophyllum diphyllum, Linn. J.
bindta, Bart.). Fig. 2010. TWIN-LEAF. RHEUMATISM-
ROOT. Lvs. glaucous beneath, 3-6 in. long, 2-4 in.
wide, the petioles 6-12 in. high: fls. about 1 in. across,
white. N. Y. and Ont. to Wis. and Iowa, and to Tenn.
G. 35 : 1 13. — A very attractive woods plant. Sometimes
has parts of fls. in 3's or 5's. L jj g

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE: Artichoke, Jerusalem. J. Cherry:
Solanum Pseudo-capsicum. J. Cross: Lychnis chalcedonica. J. Oak:
Chenopodium Botrys. J. Sage: Phlomis fruticosa. J. Thorn: Parkin-
sonia aculeata.

JESSAMINE : Jasminum officinale and others. Cape J. : Gardenia
jasminoides. Malayan J.: Rhyncospermum jasminoides.

JEWEL WEED: Impatiens aurea and /. biflora.
JIMPSON or JIMSON WEED: Datura.

JOANNESIA (from Johannes). Euphorbiacese. A
tree cult, in many tropical lands for ornament, for the
wood, and the seeds used in medicine. Juice milky:
Ivs. alternate, long-petioled, digitately 3-7-foliate;
Ifts. stalked, entire: fls. moncecious, with petals; calyx
5-toothed, valvate; stamens 7-10, more or less united;
ovary 2-celled, ovules 1 to each cell: fr. a large drupe. —
One species, related to Aleurites and Jatropha. It
grows easily on poor soil and stands long droughts well.
It is hardy in S. Calif.

princeps, Veil. (Anda Gomesii, Juss.). ANDAAssuand
various other native names. A large tree: Ifts. ovate,
3-4 in. long: infl. a paniculate cyme, terminal and
axillary; fls. inconspicuous: fr. 4-5 in. thick, coconut-
like, with 4 large oily seeds. S. Brazil.

J. B. S. NORTON.

JOB'S TEARS: Coix Lacryma-Jobi.
JOE-PYE WEED : Eupatorium purpureum.
JOHNSON-GRASS: Holcus halepensis.
JONQUIL: Narcissus.

JOVELLANA (Jovellanos, Spanish personal name).
Scrophulariacese. A half-dozen South American and
New Zealand plants that sometimes are included with
Calceolaria, are referred to this genus. None of them
is apparently in cultivation in this country, but J.
violacea, Don (see Calceolaria violacea, supplementary
list) is sometimes cultivated as a greenhouse plant in
the Old World. They differ from Calceolaria in having
a ringent corolla without a saccate lip.

JUANULLOA (George Juan and Antonio Ulloa,
Spanish naturalists who traveled in Chile and Peru).
Solanaceae. About 10 species of shrubby plants, more or
less epiphytic, from Cent. Amer. to Peru, sometimes
mentioned in horticultural literature as suitable for
growing in the warmhouse. Erect or diffuse and pro-
ducing runners or decumbent branches, glabrous or
tomentose: Ivs. thick and entire: fls. yellow or red,
solitary or in clusters; calyx colored, large; corolla
tubular, sometimes ventricose and contracted at the
throat, with small broad lobes; stamens inserted in
lower part of corolla-tube: fr. an indehiscent suc-
culent or dry berry. J. aurantiaca, Otto & Dietr. (J.
parasitica, Hook.), is the species most likely to occur
• in cult. It is a glabrous shrub with herbaceous young
branches: Ivs. alternate, sometimes 2 together and very
unequal, 2-5 in. long, oval or obovate, obtuse, short-
petioled: fls. terminal on drooping branches in a sort
of leafy raceme, showy, orange; calyx fleshy and large,
5-angled, loose on the corolla, the latter about a
third longer and tubular, enlarging upward, and with
a limb of 5 short rounded segms. Peru, where it is said
to be epiphytic; but said to thrive well in a warmhouse
in earth. B~.M. 4118. H.U. 2, p. 321. L. H. B.

JUB^A

JUGLANS

1721

JUR5JA (after Juba, king of Numidia). Palmdcese.
The wine palm of Chile, J. spectabilis, which in this
country is cultivated outdoors in southern California
and in the North under glass.

Jubaea has only 1 species, a tall, unarmed S. American
palm: caudex thick, covered with the bases of the
sheaths: Ivs. terminal, pinnatisect; segms. spreading,
linear-lanceolate, rigid; margins recurved; rachis
laterally compressed, convex on the back, acute
beneath; sheath short, open. Allied genera in cult, are
Attalea, Cocos, Maximiliana and Scheelea, which are
distinguished chiefly by the staminate fls. In Jubsea
the petals are lanceolate; stamens numerous, included,
the anther-cells connate: fr. 1-seeded. In Attalea
the petals are lanceolate; stamens 10-24, included,
anther-cells connate: fr. 2-6-seeded. For distinctions
from other genera consult also Cocos, Maximiliana, and
Scheelea.

Jubsea spectabilis is a handsome and satisfactory
palm for the cool palm-house, where it would be treated
in common with such plants as Cham&rops humilis,
the sabals and Euterpe montana, which may be grown
well in a night temperature of 50°, providing the plants
are properly established. In general appearance, J.
spectabilis reminds one of some kinds of Phrenix, and,
like them, does not show the true character of its foli-
age in a very small state, the seedling jubea producing
several simple leaves before developing foliage of the
pinnate type. In Jubaea, however, the lower pinnae do
not revert to spines, as is usually the case with Phoenix
and the pinnae are also arranged irregularly on the mid-
rib, thus giving the fronds a feathery effect. The cul-
ture of jubea is by no means difficult, propagation
being effected by means of imported seeds, which
usually give a fair percentage of germination, provid-
ing they are started in a warmhouse and kept moist.
The seedlings should be potted as soon as the second
leaf appears, and kept in a warmhouse until they are
large enough for a 4-inch pot, and from this time forward
cooler treatment will give the best results, always
remembering the fact that while many palms (and
jubea among the number) will bear much neglect,
yet the best results are to be had only by giving plenty
of nourishment. (W. H. Taplin.)

spectabilis, HBK. Height 40-60 ft. but much lower
in cult.: Ivs. 6-12 ft. long. G.C. II. 18:401; III. 18:516.
Gn. 5, p. 413. V. 8:340. A.F. 22:696. C.L.A. 2:19.
Gng. 12:658. — The southernmost American palm. "It
is one of the hardiest palms," says Franceschi, "and
can endure drought and many degrees of cold. If lib-
erally treated, it makes a large tree in a few years."
A full-sized trunk yields about 90 gallons of sugary
sap, which is boiled by the Chileans and called "Miel
de Palma" or palm honey, which is extensively used on
ships and hotels on the west coast of S. Amer. There is
some danger of the species being exterminated in Chile.
The frs. look like diminutive coconuts, and are called
Coquitos, or by the trade "monkey's coconuts." In
Europe, it is cult, under glass, and also used for sub-
tropical bedding. N. TAYLOR.!

JTJBUBA, Jujuba: Zizyphus.
JUDAS TREE: Cercis.

JtJGLANS (ancient Latin name from Jovis glans, nut
of Jupiter). Juglandacese. WALNUT. BUTTERNUT.
Plate LX. Woody plants grown for their handsome
foliage and some species for their edible nuts.

Deciduous trees, rarely shrubs: branches with
lamellate pith: Ivs. alternate, without stipules, odd-
pinnate, of aromatic fragrance when bruised : staminate
fls. with a 2-5-lobed perianth and 6-30 stamens, in
slender catkins; pistillate fls. in few- to many-fld.
racemes; ovary inferior, 1-celled, with 4 calyx-lobes
and included in a 3-lobed involucre: fr. a large drupe
with a thick, indehiscent husk; nut 2- or 4-celled at

the base, indehiscent or separating at last into 2 valves.
— About 15 species in N. and S. Amer. and from S. E.
Eu. to E. Asia; 44 species have been distinguished and
described in a monograph by Dode (B.S.D. 1906:
67-97; 1909: 22-50, 165-215, with many illustrations).

The walnuts are usually tall broad-headed trees
with large leaves, and with small greenish flowers, the
staminate in pendulous slender often conspicuous
catkins, the pistillate inconspicuous followed by a green-
ish large drupe containing an edible nut. Most of the
species are hardy, and are very valuable park trees,
with a massive, straight trunk, and a light and airy
broad top, the best being probably J. nigra, one of
the noblest trees of the American forest. J. regia, J.
rupestris, and J. cathayensis are hardy as far north as
Massachusetts, while J. californica is tender in the
North. Though many fungi and insects prey on the
walnut, none of them does very serious damage, the
worst being, perhaps, the hickory-borer. The wood of
the walnut, which is easily worked and susceptible of
receiving a beautiful polish, is much used for cabinet
making and the interior finish of houses, especially
that of J. nigra and J. regia, which is heavy, strong
and durable, and of dark brown color, while that of J.
cinerea and J. Siebold-
iana is light and soft.
The husks of the nuts
are sometimes used for
dyeing yellow, and the
bark for tanning leather.
The husk of J. cinerea
has some medicinal prop-
erties. The nuts of all
species are edible, and
are an article of commer-
cial importance, especi-
ally those of J. regia,
which are the best. This
species is extensively
grown in the warmer
parts of Europe, in Cali-
fornia and in the East
from Pennsylvania to
Georgia. The nuts of
the native species are
also sold on the market,
but mostly gathered in
the woods, though a
number of improved
varieties are in cultiva-
tion. J. Sieboldiana and var. cordiformis, with nuts
superior to those of the native species, and much val-
ued in Japan, will probably become valuable nut trees
where /. regia is too tender; also J. regia var. sinensis
is hardier than the type.

The walnut grows best in moderately moist, rich
soil, but J. cinerea is more moisture-loving and J. regia
prefers well-drained hillsides. They are not easily
transplanted when older, and therefore the nuts are
often planted where the trees are to stand, but they
may be safely transplanted when two or three years old,
or even later when they have been transplanted in the
nursery. Propagation is by seeds, which should be
stratified and not allowed to become dry. A light,
sandy soil is to be preferred, as the young plants pro-
duce more fibrous roots, while in stiff soil they are
liable to make a long taproot. The young seedlings
are transplanted when about two years old; sometimes
the taproot is cut by a long knife. Varieties are often
grafted on potted stock in the greenhouse in early
spring or are budded in summer, either shield- or flute-
budding being employed ; even top-grafting of old trees
is sometimes practised. For culture and further
information, see United States Department of Agri-
culture, "Nut Culture in the United States," quoted
below as U. S. N. C.; see, also, Walnut.

2011. Leaf of Juglans nigra.

1722

JUGLANS

JUGLANS

ailantifolia, 10.
alata, 12.
Allardiana, 10.
aspleniifolia, 1.
Bartheriana, 1.
californica, 4, 5.
cathayensis, 8.
cinerea, 7.
coarctata, 10.
corcyrensis, 1.
cordiformis, 10.
draconis, 8.
Duclouxiana, 1.
elongata, 1.

INDEX.

fertilis, 1.
filicifolia, 1.
fruticosa, 1.
gibbosa, 11.
Hindsii, 5.
intermedia, 11, 12.
laciniata, 1.
Lavallei, 10.
major, 2.
mandshurica, 9.
monophylla, 1.
nigra, 6.
ovoidea, 6.
pendula, 1.

prseparturiens, 1.
pyriformis, 11.
quadrangulata, 12.
quercina, 5.
quercifolia, 5.
regia, 1.
rupestris, 2, 3.
Sieboldiana, 10.
sinensis, 1.
subcordiformis, 10.
Torreyi, 2.
Vilmoreana, 11.
Vilmoriniana, 11.

4-celled at

A. Fr. glabrous or finely pubescent, 1-3,
the base.

B. L/te. usually 7-9, almost entire.

1. regia, Linn. PERSIAN or ENGLISH WALNUT.
Round-headed tree, to 70 ft.: Ifts. 5-13, oblong or
oblong-ovate, acute or acuminate, almost glabrous,
bright green, 2-5 in. long: fr. almost globular, green;
nut usually oval, reticulate and rather smooth, rather
thin-shelled. S. E. Eu. Himalayas, China. U. S. N. C.
pi. 6. H.W. 2:36, pp. 87-9. M.D. 1911, p. 197 (habit).
Many varieties are cult, as fr. trees, for which see
Walnut. Var. sinensis, DC. (J. sinensis, Dode). Lfts.
usually 5, larger, pubescent on the veins below: nut
globose-ovoid, very rugose. China, Japan. S.I.F. 2:5.
Of the ornamental varieties the most distinct and
decorative is var. laciniata, Loud. (var. filicifolia,
Hort. var. asplenifolia, Hort.), with narrow, pinnately
cut Ifts.; very effective as a single specimen on the
lawn; remains usually shrubby. M.D.G. 1908:617.
Var. monophylla, DC., has the Ivs. simple or 3-folio-
late. Var. pendula, Kirchn., has pendulous branches.
Var. fertilis, Kirchn. (var. fruticosa, Dipp. var. prsrpar-
titriens, Hort.), is a shrubby variety producing rather
small, thin-shelled nuts on very young plants. Var.
Bartheriana, Carr. (var. elongata, Hort.). Nut elon-
gated, narrow-
oblong. R.H.
1859, p. 147;
1861, p. 427. Gn.
50, p. 478. Var.
corcyrensis,
Sprenger. Lvs.
large, to 2 ft.
long; Ifts. 9, the
lowest pair very
small, the upper
pairs broadly
ovate, about 8
in. long and 5
in. broad: nut
rather thick-
shelled. J. Du-
clouxiana, Dode,
from the Hima-
layas and W.
China with more
elliptic and more

acuminate Ifts. and nuts with thin fragile shell, is prob-
ably only a variety of J. regia.

BB. Lfts. 9-25.
C. Width of Ifts. usually less than 1 in.

D. Nuts deeply grooved.
E. Diam. of nut up to 1% in.: Ifts. 9-13.

2. major, Heller (J. rupestris var. major, Torr. J.
Torreyi, Dode). Tree, to 50 ft., with narrow head:
branchlets pubescent while young: Ifts. 9-13, rarely to
19, oblong-lanceolate to ovate, acuminate, cuneate or
rounded at the base, coarsely serrate, soon glabrous
or slightly pubescent on the midrib beneath, 3-4 in.
long, the lowest Ifts. lJ^-2 in. long: stamens 30-40:
fr. subglobose or ovoid, 1-1 Yi in. across, covered with

2012. Pistillate flowers of Juglans cinerea.

(Natural size.)

2013. Juglans mandshurica.

(Natural size.)

a close rufous tomentum; nut dark brown or black,
slightly compressed, with broad deep longitudinal
grooves, with a thick shell and small sweet kernel New
Mex., Ariz., Colo. S.S. 7:336.

EE. Diam. of nut not more than Y±in.: Ifts. 11-23.

3. rupestris, Engelm. Shrub or small tree, rarely to
30 ft.: branchlets pubescent when young: Ifts. 17-23,
narrow-lanceolate, acumi-
nate, finely serrate or nearly

entire, puberulous or pube-
scent when young, at
maturity quite glabrous or
pubescent on the midrib
beneath, 2-3 in. long: sta-
mens about 20; ovary
pubescent or tomentose: fr.
globular, rarely ovoid, often
pointed, usually pubescent,
M~/4in- across; nut with
deep longitudinal grooves,
thick-shelled, with small
kernel. Texas and N. Mex.
S.S.7:335. G.W. 11, p. 399.

4. californica, Walt.
Shrub or tree, 12-20, rarely
40-50 ft. high: branchlets

puberulous: petioles glandular-pubescent; Ifts. 11-15,
rarely to 19, oblong-lanceolate, usually acute, or acumi-
nate, cuneate or rounded at the base, glabrous, 1-2^
in. long: stamens 30^40: fr. globose, }4-%m. across,
puberulous, husk thin; nut nearly globose with deep
longitudinal grooves. S. Calif. S.S. 7:337, figs. 1-4.

DD. Nut obscurely or not at all grooved, up to 2 in. across.

5. Hindsii, Sarg. (J. californica var. Hindsii, Jepson).
Rounded-headed tree, 30-40, occasionally to 75 ft.
high, with tall trunk: branchlets densely pubescent at
first: petioles villous; Ifts. 15-19, usually 19, ovate-
lanceolate to lanceolate, long-acuminate, usually
rounded at the base, coarsely serrate, pubescent
beneath on the midrib and veins, 2%-4 in. long:
stamens 30-40: fr. globose, 1^-2 in. across, soft-
pubescent; nut nearly globose, faintly grooved, with
thick walls. Cent. Calif. S.S. 7:337^ figs. 5-8. Gn.
49, p. 278. — A graceful ornamental tree often planted
as a street tree in Calif, and used as stock for grafting
varieties of the English walnut. The nut is of good
quality, but rather small. Var. quercina, Sarg. (/.
californica quercina, Babcock. J. quercifolia, Pierce).
An abnormal form with 1-5 Ifts., usually 3, short-
stalked or sessile, broadly ovate to oblong, obtuse or
emarginate, serrate or entire, %~2 in. long. Jepson.
Silv. Calif., pp. 51-3.

cc. Width of Ifts. 1 in. or more: nut prominently and
irregularly ridged.

6. nigra, Linn. BLACK WALNUT. Fig. 2011. Lofty
tree, to 150 ft., with rough brown bark and pubescent
branchlets: Ifts. 15-23, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate,
appressed-serrate, glabrous and somewhat shining above
at length, pubescent beneath, 3-5 in. long: fr. usually
1-3 on a short stalk, 1^-3 in. across, with papillose
surface; nut thick-shelled, globular or somewhat
depressed, strongly ridged. Mass, to Fla., west to
Minn, and Texas. S.S. 7:333, 334. Em. 211. G.C. II.
11:373; 26:617; 111.30:303. F.S.R. 3:210. H.W.
2, p. 182. U. S. N. C. 7, pp. 1-3. Gn. 27, pp. 269, 270.
— J. ovoidea, Dode, is a form with ovoid pointed nuts.

AA. Fr. coated with viscid hairs, racemose; nut 2-celled at
the base: Ifts. with stellate and glandular pubes-
cence beneath, serrate.

B. Nut strongly 6-8-ridged.

7. cinerea, Linn. BUTTERNUT. WHITE WALNUT.
Fig. 2012. Large tree, occasionally to 100 ft., with

JUGLANS

1723

gray bark: young branchlets villous and glandular:
Ifts. 11-19, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, appressed-
serrate, usually pubescent on both sides, more densely
below 3-5 in. long: fr. in short racemes, 2-5, oblong,
pointed, 3-5 in. long; nut oblong, with 4 more and 4
less prominent irregular ribs and many broken sharp
ridges between. New Bruns. to Ga., west to Dak. and
Ark. S.S. 7:331, 332. Em. 207. U. S. N. C. 7, p. 4.
Gn. 22, p. 251.

8. cathayensis, Dode (J. drachma, Dode). Tree, to
70 ft.: branchlets glandular-hairy: Ivs. up to 3 ft. long;
Ifts. 9-17, obovate-oblong, acuminate, obliquely

2014. Juglans Sieboldiana. (XH)

rounded or subcordate at the base, serrulate, sparingly
hairy above, more densely below, midrib glandular,
3-9 in. long: fr. 6-10 in pendulous racemes, ovate,
pointed, \l/i~\% in. long; nuts ovoid, pointed, 6-8-
angled, with sharp and broken, nearly spiny ridges.
Cent, and W. China. G.C. III. 50:189— Has proved
hardy at the Arnold Arboretum.

9. mandsh&rica, Maxim. Fig. 2013. Broad-headed
tree, to 60 ft.: branchlets glabrescent: Ifts. 11-19,
oblong, acute, obtusely serrate, at length almost gla-
brous above, pubescent beneath, rarely almost gla-
brous at length, 3-8 in. long: fr. in short racemes,
globular-ovate to oblong; nut with 8 prominent
obtusish ridges. Mandshuria, Amurland. G.C. III.
4:384; 30:302. A.G. 1891 : 178. R.H. 1861, p. 429
(as J. regia octogona). Gn. 50, p. 478 (by error as J.
regia cordata). U.S.N.C. 7, p. 5.

BB. Nut rugose or nearly smooth.

10. Sieboldiana, Maxim. (J.ailantifolia, Carr.). Figs.
2014-2016. Broad-headed tree, to 50 ft.: branchlets
pubescent: Ifts. 11-17, oval to oval-oblong, short-
acuminate, densely serrate, glabrous above, pubescent
and usually glandular beneath, 3-6 in. long: frs. in
long racemes, sometimes 20, globose to ovate-oblong;
nut more or less globose, with thick, wing-like sutures
and pointed apex, the surface rather smooth, slightly
rugose and pitted, 1-1 Yi in. long, rather thick-shelled.

Japan. Gn. 47, p. 442. A.G. 1890:701; 1891:179.
R.H. 1878, pp. 414, 415. U.S.N.C. 7, p. 7. S.I.F.
2:5. Var. cordif ormis, Makino (J. cordif ormis, Maxim.).
Fig. 2017. Nut heart-shaped or ovoid, much flattened,
sharply 2-edged, smooth and with a shallow longitu-
dinal groove in the middle of the flat sides,
rather thin - shelled. G.C. III. 30:292.
S.I.F. 1:17. U.S.N.C. 7, p. 6— Though
this form is very different in its fr. from
the true J. Sieboldiana there are no other
reliable characters to distinguish it, and
seedlings raised from nuts of var. cordi-
formis have always produced, at least to
a large percentage, trees bearing nuts
like those of J. Sieboldiana or of interme-
diate character. Probably J. Lavdllei,
Dode (L.I. 1, 2), is such an intermediate
form. J. coarctata, Dode, is another of
these intermediate forms with a somewhat
longer nut slightly constricted about the
middle. J. subcordif ormis, Dode, is hardly
different from the variety except in its
shorter and broader nuts. /. Allardiana,
Dode, is probably only a form of the
species; it differs little from it except in
the gray or blackish dull color of the nut,
which is yellowish and lustrous in typical
J. Sieboldiana.

2015.

Winter twig
of Juglans
Sieboldiana.

11. intermedia, Carr. (J. mgraxJ. regia). Inter-
mediate between the parents, but in general appear-
ance more like J. regia. Lfts. usually 11, ovate or
elliptic -ovate, remotely denticulate, glabrous dark
green. In regard to the fr. 2 forms have been dis-
tinguished. Var. pyrif ormis, Carr., with an obovoid
fr. more resembling that of J. regia. R.H. 1863, p. 30.
Gn. 50, p. 478. Var. Vilmoreana, Carr. (J. Vilmorini-
ana, Vilm.). Fig. 2018, with a fr. more like that of J.
nigra. G.F. 4:52, 53 (adapted in Fig. 2018). M.D.
1911 : 197. — Probably also J. regia gibbosa, Carr., with a
large, thick-sheUed deeply rugose nut belongs here.
R.H. 1861, p. 428. Gn. 50, p. 478. Of the same parent-
age is without doubt the so-called James River hybrid
(Forest Leaves 2:133, 134).

12. quadrangulata, Rehd. (J. alata, Schelle. J.
intermedia quadrangulata, Carr. J. intermedia alata,
Carr. J. cinereaxJ. regia). Fig. 2019. Tall tree, in its
bark, winter-buds and foliage much resembling J.
regia: Ifts. usually 9, oval to oblong, obscurely and
remotely serrate, slightly pubescent beneath: fr. spar-
ingly produced, subglobose, about 2 in. long; nut ovoid-
oblong, acute at the apex, \% in. long, with deeply
sculptured walls thinner than those of the butternut

2016. Juglans Sieboldiana fruits, with and without the husk.

(About natural size)

1724

JUGLANS

JUNCUS

and broad ridges at the sutures. Originated in France
and in several places near Boston and probably else-
where. G.F. 7:435 (adapted in Fig. 2019). R.H. 1870,
p. 494. Gn. 50, p. 478. — The form figured by Carriere
seems much nearer to J. cinerea^ while the form origi-
nated near Boston is more similar to J. regia.

2017. Juglans Sieboldiana var. cordiformis. (Natural size)

Besides these described above, several other hybrids have been
reported. Luther Burbank raised a hybrid between J. Hindsii and
J. nigra, named "Royal," with large nuts of excellent flavor, and one
between J. Hindsii and J. regia, named "Paradox," a very vigorous
grower, but a shy bearer. There are supposed hybrids between J.
mandschurica X J. regia, J. cinerea X J. nigra and J. cinerea X J. ru-
pestris; J. longirostris, Carr. (R. H. 1878, p. 53), may be a hybrid
between J. regia and J. major, which often has a fr. similar in shape
to the one figured. — J. austrdlis, Griseb. Allied to J. rupestris. Lfts.
13-21, large, ovate-oblong, abruptly acuminate, serrate, viscid-
pubescent: nut ovoid, acute, small, slightly grooved. Argentina. —
J. cottdpsa, Dode. Allied to J. mandschurica and probably only a
variety, but nut less rugose, less sharply angled, with ovoid de-
pressions. Probably from N. China. — J. kamadnia, Dode (J. regia
var. kamaonia, DC.). Allied to J. regia. Lfts. 5-11, oblong-elliptic
to oblong-lanceolate, puberulous on both sides, rufous-pubescent on
the veins beneath: nut globose, rather hard-shelled. Himalayas.
— J. stenocdrpa, Maxim. Closely allied to J. mandschurica. Lfts.
narrower, more coarsely serrate, more pubescent, the terminal 1ft.
very large: fr. more oblong, less strongly ridged. Manchuria.

ALFRED REHDER.

JUjCfiE: Zizyphus Jujuba.

JULIANIA (Julian Cervantes). Doubtfully associated
with the Anacardiacese, but now made the type of the
family Julianiacex. Tortuously branched resinous
dioecious shrubs or small trees of Mex., perhaps not in
cult.: Ivs. alternate, unequally pinnate, the Ifts. 3-11:
fls. small, green; male fls. and infl. much like those of
the oak, "a single, hairy, thin perianth, divided nearly
to the base into 5 or 7 acute segms., with as many
stamens alternating with the segms."; female fls. 2-4
in an involucre, the whole having the appearance of a
single fl., of curious structure: fr. composite, dry, with
an exceedingly hard involucre, indehiscent, germina-
tion taking place through the apex. The known spe-
cies are 4, one of which, J. adstringens, Schlecht., is
figured in G.C. III. 43:99, by Hemsley (adapted from
Trans. Roy. Soc. of London). Aspect somewhat like
some species of Rhus: Ifts. 5-7, sessile or the terminal
very short-stalked, 1-1 ^ in. long, obovate or oval,
dentate: fr. 2 in. long, enlarging upward. J.Huaucui,
Gray, of Peru, is referred to Orthopterygium; probably
not in cult.

J0NCUS (classical name, to join). Juncacese.
RUSHES. Grass-like plants growing in wet, rarely in
dry, places and used for planting in bogs and around
aquatic gardens.

Plants send up from the rootstock several unbranched
cylindrical sts. which bear a terminal, or sometimes
apparently lateral, cyme of greenish or brownish very
small fls.: Ivs. grass-like terete or flat: perianth of 6
rigid chaffy parts in 2 whorls; stamens short, either 3
or 6: caps. 3-celled or rarely 1-celled, many-seeded.
Rushes differ from the true grasses and sedges in hav-
ing a true perianth and a many-seeded pod. — The
genus includes a host of species distributed throughout
the temperate regions, but most of these are not in
cult. Rushes are sold by dealers in native and aquatic
plants. The kind used in making mats in Japan is
procurable from dealers in Japanese plants.

A. St. without Ivs.: cymes apparently lateral.
effftsus, Linn. (/. communis, Hort.). COMMON
RUSH. Fig. 2020. St. soft, 1-4 ft. high: cyme diffuse,

2018. Juglans intermedia var. Vilmoreana. ( X Vz)

2019. Juglans quadrangulata. ( X 1A)

1-2 in. long, the fls. separate; sepals acute, equaling
the short retuse and pointless or mucronate greenish
brown caps.; stamens 3: seeds not tailed. North Tem-
perate Zone. Used also for weaving into mats, and the
like. Var. compactus, Lej. & Coutt. (var. congestus,
Hort.). Fls. small, %-!% lines long: cyme congested
into a spherical head: culms rather stout, finely many
striate. Much of the J. conglomerate of the trade is
probably this variety. Var. conglomerates, Engelm.,
is similar to the last, but the culm coarsely few (12-15)
striate, and perianth very dark. Var. solutus, Fern. &
Wiegand. Fls. medium, 1%~2}4 lines long; perianth
semi-appressed : cyme open: culms coarse with usually
pale basal sheaths, at least when dry. Var. Pylaei,
Fern. & Wiegand. Fls. medium; perianth spreading:

JUNCUS

1725

cyme open: culm medium, usually coarsely striate
at least when dry: basal sheaths usually dark. Var.
vittatus, Buch. ( J. effusus var. aureo-striatus, Hort. J.
conglomerate var. variegatus, Hort.). Foliage striped
with yellow. Var.
spiralis, Hort. Fig.
2021. A curious form
with sts. spirally
twisted like a cork-
screw. Gt. 54, p. 406.

AA. St. bearing terete
Ivs.: cyme ter-
minal, open, but
fls. borne in
heads at end of
branches.
canadensis, Gay.

Sts. 1K-3 ft. high,

tall and coarse: heads

numerous; stamens

3 : seeds long-tailed

at each end. N.

Amer.
noddsus, Linn. Sts.

lower, Yi-\ y^ ft. high :

heads few; stamens

6 : seeds without tails.

N. Amer. — May be

used for gravelly

borders of pools.

J. acumin&tus, Michi.,
and other species may be
used for water-gardens. —
J. zebrinus, Hort.=Scir-
p u a Tabernsemontanua
var. zebrinus.

K. M. WlEGAND.

JUNEBERRY.

Fig. 2022. Fruits
of species of Amelan-
chier.

The fruits of
some twenty-five or
thirty species of
Amelanchier are edible, those of several species being
especially juicy, sweet and refreshing. Under the
names juneberry, shad-bush, service-berry, sugar-pear
and grape-pear, or their equivalents in other languages,
the wild fruits are used for food in all parts of the North
Temperate Zone. The product of one or another of the
species plays an important part in the diet of North
American Indians, who make use of the berries both
fresh and dried. So, also, juneberries have been a
source of food-supply to explorers, prospectors and
pioneers, who testify to their value as nourishing
esculents and pleasing dessert fruits. Juneberries are
as yet little used where they must compete with other
fruits, although they have many qualities to commend
them for domestication.

The fruit of the juneberry is a small pome or apple,
usually with five cells each more or less completely
divided into two parts so that there appear to be ten
cells. The seeds are small and thin-shelled, varying
in number from five to ten. The pomes of some species
are no larger than a pea, while in the best strains of
other species they attain the size of a small crab-apple.
They vary in color from dark red to a purplish blue or
black and all have more or less bloom. The fruits
resemble somewhat the pomes of the hawthorn, for
which they are often mistaken. The juneberry, how-
ever, is superior to the more common hawthorn as a
food product because the flesh is greater in quantity
and is not so dry and mealy, the flavor is sprightlier
and the seeds are fewer, smaller and thinner-shelled.
The several juneberries are quite as variable in the

2020. Common rush, Juncus effu-
sus. The flower-cluster, a, is natural
size. The single flower, b, is enlarged.

character of their fruits, either within or between
species, as are other members of the rose family to
which Amelanchier belongs — sufficiently variable to
suggest high potentialities in the domestication of the
best of the wild species.

Juneberries differ much in the character of the plants.
Some species are dwarf shrubs with many stems, while
others are small trees with straight, slender trunks,
the largest of which attain a height of 40 feet and a
diameter of 8 or 10 inches. All of the species are vigor-
ous and the American juneberries are hardy, at least
two of them giving promise of making most desirable
domesticated plants in regions too cold for any or but
few other fruits. Juneberries are easily transplanted
and respond to culture as readily as any other species
of the rose family. In the garden, they thrive under the
same care as that given the apple or pear. Insects and
fungous troubles are not particularly apparent in wild
species but it is probable that under artificial conditions
juneberries would suffer from about the same insects
and fungi that attack other pomes. Birds, especially
the robin, take heavy toll and would prove troublesome
to cultivated plants. The genus shows wide adaptation
to soils and moisture conditions, there being few locali-
ties in temperate regions where other fruits are grown
upon which some one or several of the juneberries
would not thrive.

All of the plants in this genus, whether shrubs or
trees, have value as ornamentals. The common june-
berry of eastern America is a particularly beautiful
plant in early spring, bearing large white flowers in
profusion, which are well set off by the opening foli-
age and bright silky bud-scales and bracts. The trees
are attractive ornamentals in fruit though the east-
ern juneberry is often infertile and sets few or no
pomes. Trained as a tree or as a many-stemmed shrub,
the several juneberries are all desirable lawn and park
ornamentals.

From time to time strains of wild species have been
brought under cultivation, some of which have been
named and sparingly disseminated by nurserymen. So
far all of the cultivated varieties have come from the
bush-like species, most of them said to be from A. alni-
folia. One of the first named varieties was Success, a
dwarf strain probably of A. canadensis, introduced by
H. E. Van Deman, then of Kansas, about 1878; this
variety seems to be no longer cultivated. Several
western nurserymen now offer strains of dwarfs under
the names Improved Dwarf Juneberry, Dwarf Moun-
tain Juneberry, and Western Huckleberry. So far as

2021. Juncus effusus var. spiralis.

their history can be learned, all these named varieties
are selected strains from wild plants, no one as yet
having set out to breed and improve juneberries. There
are many distinct forms in the wild, some of them
supposed to be natural hybrids, offering opportunities
for selection in the amelioration of the species for the
garden. There is no reason to believe that the species
will not hybridize as freely as other members of the rose
family. All looks to be favorable for the domestica-

1726

JUNIPERUS

tion of juneberries, — opportunities awaiting a man to
do the work.

Juneberries are readily propagated from seeds and
no doubt all would yield to budding, grafting and to the
same treatment in the nursery given to apples and pears.
Some of the species would, no doubt, vex the souls of
cultivators by throwing up many suckers, but in gar-
den culture this could be remedied by working on a

2022. Juneberry. A cultivated form,
probably a hybrid between Amelanchier
laevis and some other species.

non-suckering stock. Juneberries are said to be easily
budded on the hawthorn. The suckers are commonly
used in propagating the species used as ornamentals.
The eleven species described under Amelanchier all
have horticultural possibilities well indicated in the
descriptions. The species giving greatest promise for
their fruits are A. alnifolia, A. laevis, A. sanguined, A.
stolonifera and A. humilis. To these should be added
A. canadensis as the most desirable juneberries for
ornamentals. U. P. HEDRICK.

JUNIPERUS (ancient Latin name). Pinacese. JUNI-
PER. Ornamental trees and shrubs grown for their
foliage and habit.

Evergreen, with the branchlets spreading in all
directions: Ivs. either all needle-shaped and in 3's, or
needle-shaped and scale-like, and usually opposite,
often found on the same plant, the needle-shaped Ivs.
prevailing on younger plants and vigorous branches,
the scale-like ones on older plants: fls. dioecious, rarely
monoecious; staminate yellow, consisting of numerous
anthers united into an ovoid or oblong catkin; pistil-
late greenish, minutely globular, with several bracts,
each or some bearing 1 or 2 ovules; the bracts become
fleshy and unite into a berry-like cone, usually wholly
inclosing the 1-6, rarely 12, seeds. The fr. ripens
either the first year, as in J. virginiana, or the second,
as in J . Sabina and most species, or in the third, as in
J. communis. — About 40 species distributed throughout
the extra-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere,
in Amer. south to Mex. and W. India. Juniperus is
closely allied to Cupressus, and sometimes hard to dis-
tinguish without fr. ; but young plants with needle-
shaped Ivs. can be almost always told apart, since
Juniperus has whitish lines or marks on the upper
surface of the Ivs., while the similar juvenile forms of

allied genera have the whitish marks beneath. Most
species are very variable, as well in habit as in the shape
of the Ivs., which renders the determination of an
unknown form, at least without fr., a rather difficult
task.

The junipers vary greatly in habit from tall pyram-
idal trees to low prostrate or trailing shrubs, and have
small needle-shaped or scale-like foliage, insignificant
flowers and small berry-like fruits usually bluish black
and often glaucous, less often brown or orange. Many
of the species are hardy North, as J. virginiana, J.
scopulorum, J. communis, J. rigida, J. Sabina, J.
chinensis, J. Pseudo-sabina, J. sphgerica, J. squamata;
others are half-hardy, as J. Oxycedrus. J. macrocarpa,
J. recurva, J. excelsa, J. occidentalis, while some, as J.
procera, J. Lucayana, J. thurifera and the Mexican
species, can only be grown South. All are valuable
ornamental plants, and the erect-growing species,
mostly of pyramidal or columnar habit, are decora-
tive as single specimens on the lawn or if planted in
groups. Some varieties form a very narrow column, and
are valuable for formal gardens; the columnar form of
J. virginiana is a good substitute in the North for the
classical cypress. The low prostrate junipers, as J.
communis var. montana, J. horizontalis, J. Sabina, and
J. squamata, are well adapted for covering rocky
slopes or sandy banks. The close-grained, fragrant
wood is much used for the interior finish of houses and
in the manufacture of small articles, also for posts,
since it is very durable in the soil; that of J. virginiana
and J. Lucayana is in great demand for pencil-making.
The fruits and also the young branchlets of some species
contain an aromatic oil used in medicine. The fruit of
J. drupacea is edible.

The junipers thrive best in sandy and loamy, moder-
ately moist soil, but grow well even in rather dry,
rocky and gravelly ground. They prefer sunny, open
situations. They are well adapted for hedges and for
planting as shelter or windbreaks; also for seaside
planting. Propagation is by seeds, which germinate
usually the second and sometimes the third year; to
hasten their germination, they may be plunged for 3 to 6
seconds in boiling water, but this should be regarded
as an experiment and tried only with a portion of
seed. They are also increased by cuttings of nearly
ripened wood in fall under glass, either outdoors or in
the greenhouse. As a rule, those with needle-shaped
leaves root much more easily than those with scale-like
leaves, and the latter are therefore mostly increased
by side-grafting during the winter in the greenhouse
on young potted plants of the typical form or an allied
species. The shrubby species, especially J. Sabina, are
also propagated by layers.

INDEX.

albo-spicata, 16.

fastigiata, 6, 20.

procumbens, 14, 21.

albo-variegata, 14,16.

femina, 14.

prostrata, 21.

alpina, 6.

Fortunei, 15.

pyramidalis, 14, 16.

argentea, 14.

glauca, 15, 16.

recurva, 7, 8.

aurea, 6, 14.

giobosa, 16.

Reevesii, 14.

aureo-variegata, 6, 14,

hemisphaerica, 6.

reflexa, 6.

16.

hibernica, 6.

repanda, 7.

australis, 18.

horizontalis, 21.

repens, 21.

barbadensis, 18, 19.

humilis, 20.

reptans, 16.

Bedfordiana, 18.

Jackii, 6.

rigida, 5.

bermudiana, 19.

japonica, 14.

Sabina, 20.

californica, 10.

Lucayana, 18.

sabinoides, 20 and

canadensis, 6.

macrocarpa, 2.

suppl.

Cannartii, 16.

mascula, 14.

Schottii, 16.

Cedrus. 3.

montana, 6.

scopulorum, 17.

Chamberlaynii, 16.

nana, 6.

Shephardii, 15.

chinensis. 14.

neaboriensis, 2.

sibirica, 6.

communifi, 6.

oblonga, 6.

sinensis, 14.

cupressifolia, 20.

oblongo-pendula, 6,

sphsrica, 15.

densa, 7.

and suppl.

squamata, 8.

depressa, 6.

occidentalis, 11.

stricta, 6, 12.

Douglasii, 21.

Oxycedrus, 4.

suecica, 6.

drupacea, 1.

pendula, 3, 6, 14, 16.

tamariscifolia, 20.

dumosa, 16.

Pfitzeriana, 14.

tripartita, 16.

elegantissima, 16.

phcenicea, 9.

variegata, 12, 20.

excelsa, 12.

plumosa, 16.

venusta, 16.

Fargesii, 8.

procera, 13.

virginiana, 16, 18.

JUNIPERUS

JUNIPERUS

1727

A. Foliage always needle-shaped and in S's, rigid, jointed

at the base: fls. axillary, dioecious: winter-buds
with scale-like Ivs. (See also Nos. 7 and 8.)

B. Fr. large, %-l in. across, with the seeds connate into

•a usually S-celled bony stone. (Caryocedrus.)

1. drupacea, Labill. Pyramidal tree with narrow
head, to 45 ft. : Ivs. lanceolate, spiny-pointed, M~Mm-
long and Ji~Min. broad (the broadest of all species),
with 2 white lines above: fr. bluish black, edible. S. E.
Eu., W.Asia. G.C. 1854:455; III. 19:519. R.H. 1854,
p. 165; 1904, pp. 357, 358.

BB. Fr. smaller; seeds not connate, usually 3. (Oxycedrus.)
c. Lvs. with 2 white lines above.

2. macrocarpa, Sibth. (J. neaboriensis, Gord.).
Shrub or small tree, to 12 ft., of dense pyramidal habit:
Ivs. crowded, linear-lanceolate, spiny-pointed, spread-
ing, >^-Min. long: fr. to J^in. across, dark brown,
glaucous. Medit. region.

3. Cedrus, Webb & Berth. (J. pendula, Loud.).
Tree, to 12 ft., with pendulous branches; the trunk to

3 ft. diam.: branchlets bluish green, angled: Ivs. very
crowded, curved or straight, spreading, linear-lanceo-
late, acute or obtusish, scarcely spiny, J^-J^in. long:
fr. subglobose, M~/^m- l°ng> bluish at first, finally
orange-brown, 1-seeded. Canary Isls. Antoine,
Cupressineen Gatt. 19. — Cult, in Calif. The abnormal
development of thickness in comparison to height is one
of the peculiarities of the species.

4. Oxycedrus, Linn. Bushy shrub or small tree, to
12 ft., with rather slender branches: Ivs. linear, spiny-
pointed, spreading, H-%hi-: fr. globose, ^-^in.
across, brown, shining, not or slightly glaucous. Medit.
region. H.W. 1, p. 193.

cc. Lvs. with 1 white line above.

5. rigida, Sieb. & Zucc. Small, pyramidal tree, to
30 ft., or spreading shrub with the slender branches
pendulous at the extremities: Ivs. in closely set whorls,
narrow-linear, stiff, yellowish green, J^-l in. long: fr.
about Mm- across, dark violet. Japan. S.Z. 125.
S.I.F. 1:12. — Graceful, hardy shrub, somewhat similar
to J. communis var. oblonga, but the Ivs. more crowded
and stiff er.

6. communis, Linn. COMMON JUNIPER. Upright
shrub or tree, sometimes attaining to 40 ft. : Ivs. linear
or linear-lanceolate, concave and with a broad white
band above, spiny-pointed, M~Mm- long: fr. almost
sessile, dark blue, glau-
cous, J^— Mm- across.

Arctic N. Amer. south to
Pa., 111., and in the Rocky
Mts. to N. Mex., N. and
Cent. Eu. and N. Asia.
H.W. 1:10. — A very vari-
able species; some of the
most important varieties
are the following: Var.
a u r e o - variegata, Hort.
Upright form, with the
tips of the branchlets
golden yellow. Var. de-
pressa, Pursh (J. com-
munis var. canadensis,
Loud. J. canadensis,
Burgsd. /. nana cana-
densis, Carr.). Fig. 2023. Forming broad patches, the
sts. ascending from a procumbent base, rarely exceeding

4 ft. in height. The Ivs. somewhat shorter and broader.
Var. aurea, Hort. (J. nana var. canadensis aiirea,
Beissn. J. canadensis aiirea, Hort.). Like the former,
but tips of branchlets golden yellow. Gng. 5:67. Var.
hemisphaerica, Parl. (J. hemisphserica, Presl). A low,
dense, rounded bush, rarely more than 3 ft. high: Ivs.
straight and stiff, short. Mountains of S. Eu. and N.

Afr. Var. hibernica, Gord. (var. stricta, Carr.). Narrow,
columnar form, with upright branches, deep green, tips
of branchlets erect. G. 4:521. Gng. 1:355. Var.
montana, Ait. (J. communis nana, Loud. J. nana,
Willd. J. alpina, S. F. Gray. J. sibirica, Burgsd.). Low,
spreading or procumbent shrub, seldom over 2 ft. high:
Ivs. oblong-linear, abruptly pointed, usually incurved,
densely clothing the branches, with a broad silvery
white line above, J^-^in. long. Arctic and mountain-
ous regions. H.W. 1:10. M.D.G. 1910:123. Var.
Jackii, Rehd. Prostrate, with flagelliform trailing
branches often to 3 ft. long, and almost unbranched
except for occasional clusters of short lateral branch-
lets 1-2 in. long: Ivs. linear-lanceolate, incurved. Ore.,
N. Calif. Var. oblonga, Loud. (.7. oblonga, Bieb.).
Upright shrub, with slender, diverging and recurving
branches : Ivs. thin, long-attenuate, horizontally spread-
ing, bright green. Transcaucasia. Var. oblongo-pen-
dula, Carr. (var. reflexa, Parl.). Similar to the pre-
ceding, but more decidedly pendulous. A very grace-
ful form. C.L.A. 11:308. Var. pendula, Carr. Shrub,
with spreading, recurving branches and pendulous
branchlets. Var. suecica, Loud. (vsiT.fastigiata, Hort.).
Narrow, columnar form, growing sometimes into a
tree to 40 ft. high, with rather long, spreading Ivs., the
branchlets with drooping tips: of lighter and more bluish
color than the similar var. hibernica.

AA. Foliage usually of 2 kinds of Ivs. (Fig. 2025) usually
opposite, decurrent: fls. terminal: no distinct winter-
buds. (Sabina.)

B. Lvs. in S's, lanceolate, short, loosely oppressed: fr.
oblong.

7. recurva, Ham. (J. repdnda, Hort.). Shrub or
small tree, to 30 ft., with spreading and usually recurv-
ing branches: branchlets slender: Ivs. crowded, curved,
appressed, linear-lanceolate, pointed, grayish or glau-
cous green with a whitish band above, K~/4m- long:
fr. olive-brown or blackish purple, when fully ripe,
about J^in. long, 1-seeded. Himalayas. G.C. II.
19:468. Gn. 22, p. 107; 36, p. 215. Var. densa, Carr.
Dwarf, with short, crowded branchlets: Ivs. curved,
grayish green.

8. squamata, Lamb. (J. recurva var. squamata, Parl.
J. recurva var. densa, Hort.). Decumbent shrub,
sometimes ascending:

branchlets thick, ascend-
ing at the apex: Ivs.

2023. Juniperus communis var. depressa.

crowded, loosely appressed, linear-lanceolate or lanceo-
late, straight or slightly curved, grayish or bluish
green, with 2 grayish white bands above: fr. bluish
black, globose-ovoid, ^-J^in. across. Himalayas, W.
China. Var. Fargesii, Rehd. & Wilson. Tree, to 70
ft.: Ivs. longer and narrower, linear-lanceolate, more
spreading, usually about J^in. long, acuminate: fr.
ovoid, %m. long. W. China. It has proved hardy at
the Arnold Arboretum.

1728

JUNIPERUS

JUNIPERUS

BB. Lvs. mostly opposite, scale-like or of 2 kinds, usually
with a gland on the back: fr. mostly globular.

c. Fr. erect or nodding: mostly trees.

D. Color of fr. reddish brown, with rather dry, fibrous

flesh: Ivs. minutely denticulate.

9. phoenicea, Linn. Shrub or small tree, to 20 ft.,
with ovate-pyramidal head and upright branches:
branchlets slender: Ivs. acicular and spreading or scale-
like, imbricate, rhombic, obtuse, opposite, often bluish
green: fr. H~Km- across, shining, with 3-6 seeds. S.
Eu., N. Afr. Canary Isls. H.W. 1, p. 194. M.D.
1911, pp. 286, 287 (habit).

10. californica, Carr. Fig. 2024. Pyramidal tree, to
40 ft., or shrub with many erect branches: branchlets
rather stout: Ivs. usually in 3's, imbricate, rhombic,
obtuse, thick, yellowish green, with conspicuous gland,
only on vigorous branches acicular: fr. J-^-^in. long,
with bluish bloom and with 1-2 large seeds. Calif. S.S.
10:517. R.H. 1854, p. 353. A.G. 1890:10.

DD. Color of fr. bluish black or blue, with juicy,
resinous flesh.

E. Imbricate Ivs. usually in 3's, minutely denticulate.

11. occidentalis, Hook. Tree, to 40 feet, rarely to 60
ft., with spreading branches forming a broad, low head,
or shrub with several upright sts. : branchlets stout
and thick, imbricate, ovate, acute, grayish green, rarely
acicular: fr. subglobose or ovoid, J^-Hm- long, with
2-3 seeds. Wash, to Calif. S.S. 10:521.

EE. Imbricate Ivs. opposite, entire or nearly so.

F. Seeds of fr. 2-6.
G. Point of imbricate Ivs. acute: branchlets slender.

12. excelsa, Bieb. Tree, to 60 feet, with pyramidal
head and upright or spreading branches: Ivs. ovate,

spreading, mostly
opposite, but in
3's on the lower
branches, rhom-
bic, bluish green:
fr. bluish black,
bloomy, globular,
about J'ijin. across,
with 3-6 seeds.
Greece, W. Asia to
Himalayas. G t .
46, p. 209. Var.
stricta, Hort. Of
upright, columnar
habit, with very
glaucous foliage.
Var. variegata,
Carr. Foliage
variegated with
yellowish white.

13. procera,
Hochst. Tree, to
100 or 150 ft.,
similar to the pre-
ceding: Ivs. in
3's, or opposite,
lanceolate and
spreading or
loosely appressed
and ovate-lanceolate: fr. globose, small, about }^in.
across, 2-3-seeded. Mountains of E. Afr. — Probably
the tallest species of the genus.

GG. Point of imbricate Ivs. obtuse.
14. chinensis, Linn. (J. sinensis, Hort.). Tree, to
60 ft., or shrub, sometimes procumbent: branches
rather slender: Ivs. opposite or whorled, linear, pointed
and spreading, with a white band above or scale-like,
appressed, rhombic, obtuse: fr. globular, brownish

violet, bloomy, ^f-^in. across, with 2 or 3 seeds.
Himalayas, China, Japan. S.Z. 126, 127. S.I.F. 1:12.
G.C. 111.42:163. C.L.A. 11:308. G.W. 1, p. 305.—
Very variable in habit: the staminate plant usually
forms a much-branched, upright, pyramidal bush,
often almost columnar, while the pistillate has slender,
spreading branches. They are therefore often dis-
tinguished as var. mascula and var. femina (var.
Reevesii, Hort.). The first one is the most desirable as
an ornamental plant. Var. albo-variegata, Beissn.
(var. argentea, Hort.). Dwarf, dense form, with
dimorphic Ivs. : tips of branchlets mostly white. Gn.M.
6:292. Var. aurea, Beissn. (var. mascula aurea, Hort.).
Upright form, with the young branchlets golden yellow,
the color becoming more brilliant in the full sun. Var.
pendula, Hort. With spreading branches, pendulous
at the extremities. Var. Pfitzeriana, Spaeth. Forming
a broad pyramid with horizontally spreading branches
and nodding branchlets, grayish green. G.W. 5, p. 403.
Var. pyramidalis, Carr. Narrow, pyramidal form, with
bluish green, mostly needle-shaped foliage. Var.
procumbens, Endl. (J. procumbens, Sieb. J. japdnica,
Carr.). Dense, low shrub with spreading, sometimes
procumbent branches and mostly acicular Ivs. in whorls,
with 2 white lines above, longer and stouter than in
the type. S.Z. 127, fig. 3. G.W. 13, p. 618. Var.
procumbens aurea, Beissn. Branches robust and long,
decumbent, with rather few branchlets, young growth
golden yellow at first, changing to light green. Var.
procumbens aftreo-variegata, Beissn. Dwarf, dense
form, variegated with golden yellow.

15. sphjferica, Lindl. (J. Fortunei, Van Houtte).
Similar to the former. Densely branched shrub or tree,
to 30 ft., with upright branches: branchlets short,
rather thick, quadrangular: Ivs. acicular and whorled,
but less rigid than those of the former, or scale-like,
rhombic-oblong, somewhat spreading: fr. globular,
about J^in. across, not bloomy, 3-seeded. N. China.
Probably not specifically different from the preceding
species. Var. glauca, Gord. (/. Shephardii, Hort.).
Dense form, with usually needle-shaped glaucous
foliage.

FF. Seeds of fr. 1-2; fr. small, }/§-%,in. across.
G. Trees hardy, sometimes shrubby.

16. virginiana, Linn. RED CEDAR. SAVIN. Fig. 2025.
Tree, to 100 ft., with conical head and spreading or up-
right branches: Ivs. acicular, spiny-pointed, spreading
or scale-like, rhombic, acute or subacute, imbricate,
very small: fr. brownish violet, bloomy, globular or
ovoid. Canada to Fla., east of the Rocky Mts. S.S.
10:524. G.F. 8:65; 10:145. F.E. 27:147. G.W. 16, p.
540. — A very variable species. Some of the most
important varieties are the following: Var. albo-spi-
cata, Beissn. Tips of branchlets white. Var. albo-varie-
gata, Beissn. Branchlets variegated with white;
a very similar more constant form is "Triomphe d'
Angers." Var. aureo-variegata, Hort. With golden
yellow variegation. Var. Cannartii, Beissn. A com-
pact, ovate-pyramidal form, dark green, with bloomy
bluish fr. Var. Chamberlaynii, Carr. With spreading
branches and elongated, pendulous branchlets: Ivs.
dimorphic, grayish green. Var. dumosa, Carr. Dense
shrub, forming a rounded pyramid, with mostly needle-
shaped, bright green Ivs. Var. elegantissima, Hort.
Tips of young branchlets golden yellow. Var. glauca,
Carr. Vigorous-growing form, with glaucous foliage.
Var. globdsa, Beissn. Compact globose form with
bright green scale-like foliage. Var. pendula, Carr.
With spreading limbs and slender, pendulous branches:
Ivs. usually scale-like. Var. plumdsa, Hort. A graceful
pyramidal form with needle-shaped Ivs., the tips whitish
(var. plumdsa alba or plumdsa argentea, Hort.), or pure
white (var. plumdsa nivea, Schwendt.). Var. pyram-
idalis, Carr. Dense, columnar form, with the foliage
glaucous (var. pyramidalis glauca} or bright green (var.

JUNIPERUS

JURINEA

1729

pyrarnidalis mridis). Var. reptans, Beissn. Low shrub,
with horizontally spreading, procumbent branches and
slender, curving branchlets: bright green. M.D.G.
1896:296. Probably the same as var. horizontalis,
Arb. Kew. Var. Sch6ttii, Beissn. A dwarfish, dense,
pyramidal form, with bright green and rather light
foliage. Var. tripartite, Beissn. A dwarf, spreading
form of irregular habit, densely branched, with acicu-
lar, glaucous Ivs. F.E. 33:15. Var. venusta, Hort. (J.
venusta, Ellwanger & Barry). A columnar form with
glossy dark green, scale-like foliage. — The dwarf forms
are often very similar to J. Sabina and hard
to distinguish without frs. except by the
strong, disagreeable odor of the bruised
branchlets of the latter.

2025. The two kinds of red cedar leaves. (Natural size)

17. scopuldrum, Sarg. Closely allied to the preced-
ing; chiefly distinguished by the somewhat larger fr.,
ripening not until the second year; by its habit, form-
ing a broad head with stout, spreading branches and
often dividing into several sts. near the base, and by its
shredding bark. The branchlets are somewhat shorter
and stouter, and the foliage usually glaucous or yellow-
ish green. Brit. Col. to Calif, in the Rocky Mts.
G.F. 10:423. S.S. 14:739.

GG. Trees tender.

18. Lucayana, Brit. (/. australis, Pilger. J. bar-
badensis, Auth. /. virginiana var. Bedfordidna, Veitch,
not Linn. J. virginiana var. barbadensis, Gord.). Tree,
to 50 ft., with spreading branches and slender pendulous
4-angled branchlets: Ivs. light green, closely appressed,
ovate, sharp-pointed, glandular: fr. globose, about Kin-
thick, dark blue, bloomy, 1-2-seeded. S. Ga. to Fla.,
Jamaica, Cuba, Bahamas, Haiti. S.S. 14:738. — One of
the most beautiful of the junipers, often planted for
ornament in the Gulf States, and in the W. Indies.

19. barbadensis, Linn. (J. bermudiana, Linn.). Tree,
to 40 ft., in habit much like J. virginiana, but branches
much stouter and foliage pale bluish green: branchlets
thickly set, quadrangular, stout and short: Ivs. mostly
imbricate, thick or acicular, spiny-pointed, rigid,
erect-spreading: staminate catkins larger: fr. usually
2-seeded and depressed-globular. Bermuda, Barba-
does, Antigua. G.C. II. 19:657. G.F. 4:295.

cc. Fr. pendulous, on curved peduncles, small: shrubs,
usually spreading or procumbent.

20. Sabina, Linn. Spreading or procumbent shrub,
rarely with erect st. to 10 ft.: branchlets rather slen-
der, of a very strong, disagreeable odor when bruised:
Ivs. needle-shaped, acute and slightly spreading or
imbricate, oblong-rhombic, obtuse or subacute, usually
dark green: fr. %-%in. thick, globular, 1-3-seeded.
Mountains of Cent, and S. Eu., W. Asia, Siberia, N.
Amer. — Very variable. The most remarkable varieties

110

are the following: Var. fastigiata, Beissn. Erect shrub
of columnar habit, with dark green, mostly imbricate
Ivs. Var. cupressiffilia, Ait. (var. humilis, Endl.).
Procumbent, with ascending thiekish branchlets: Ivs.
usually imbricate, scale-like, often bluish green. Var.
tamariscifdlia, Ait. (J. sabinoides, Griseb.). Procum-
bent or ascending, rarely erect: Ivs. usually all needle-
shaped and often in 3's, slightly incurved, dark and
bright green, with a white line above. Mountains of
S. Eu. G.W. 1, p. 304. Var. variegata, Beissn. Branch-
lets variegated with creamy white: Ivs. mostly
imbricate.

21. horizontalis, Moench (J. prostrata, Pers. J.
Sabina var. procumbens, Pursh. J. repens, Nutt.).
Procumbent, usually with long trailing branches
furnished with numerous short branchlets, sometimes
to 4 ft. high and with spreading branches: Ivs. of young
plants subulate, mature foliage imbricate, scale-like,
acute or acutely cuspidate, bluish green or steel-blue:
fr. about Hm- across, blue, slightly glaucous, on a
pedicel shorter than its length. Nova Scotia to Brit.
Col., south to Mass., N. Y., Minn, and Mont. B.B.
(ed. 2) 1:67. Var. Douglasii, Hort., is a distinctly
trailing form with steel-blue foliage, turning purple
in autumn with glaucous bloom; also called Waukegan
juniper.

J. conferta, Parl.=J. litoralis. — J. daviirica, Pall. Allied to J.
Sabina. Procumbent, with slender, spreading or drooping branch-
lets: fr. 1-4-seeded, small. Siberia. — J. fldccida, Schlecht. Graceful
tree, to 30 ft., with spreading branches and slender, remote, pendu-
lous branchlets: Ivs. acute, with spreading tips: fr. globular, 5-10-
seeded. Texas, Mex. S.S. 10:519. — J. fattidlssima, Willd. Allied to
J. excelsa. To 12 ft. high: branchlets thicker: Ivs. with spreading
apex, mucronate, usually eglandular: fr. larger, 1-2-seeded. Greece,
W. Asia. — J. formosana, Hayata (J. taxifolia Part., not Hook. &
Arn. J. oblongo-pendula, Hort.). Allied to J. rigida. Tree, to 40ft.:
Ivs. rigid, spiny-pointed, with 2. white bands above, 5^-1 in. long:
fr. ovoid, orange, J^jin. across. Formosa, Cent. & W. China. Has
proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum; the true J. taxifolia, Hook.
& Am. is not in cult. — J. litoralis, Max. (J. conferta, Parl. ). Allied
to J. rigida, but prostrate, with long, trailing branches: fr. larger.
Japan. — J. macrdpoda, Boiss. Allied to J. excelsa. Shrub or small
tree, to 30 ft., sometimes procumbent: Ivs. closely appressed: fr.
nodding, globular, 4-seeded. Persia to Himalayas. — J. megalo-
cdrpa, Sudworth. Allied to J. californica. Tree 30-50 ft. with a
single trunk: Ivs. in 3's, acute: fr. J^in. across or slightly more,
1-2-seeded. Ariz. — J. mexicana, Schiede. Pyramidal tree:
branchlets numerous, short and rather stout: Ivs. acute, loosely
appressed: fr. 2^-seeded. Mex. — J. mexicana, Schlecht.=J.
tetragona. — J. monosperma, Sarg. (J. occidentalis var. monosperma,
Engelm.). Closely allied to J. occidentalis. Branchlets more slender:
Ivs. usually opposite and eglandular: fr. smaller and usually 1-seeded.
Rocky Mts., from Colo, to New Mex. S.S. 10:522. — J. obldngo-
pendula, Hort.=J. formosana. — J. pachyphliea, Torr. Tree, to 60 ft.
allied to J. occidentalis, with broad, pyramidal or round-topped
head: Ivs. usually opposite, glandular, bluish green: fr. dark reddish
brown, bloomy, with 3-4 seeds. Has a checkered bark like a
black-jack oak. Colo, to Texas and New Mex. S.S. 10:520. — J.
Plnchotii, Sudworth. Allied to J. californica. Small tree to 20 ft.,
usually with several sts.: branchlets rather slender: Ivs. usually in
3's, appressed, sharply pointed, yellowish green: fr. globose or ovoid,

Min. long, red, 1-2-seeded. Texas. B.T. 110. — J. Pseudo-sabina,
sch. & Mey. Allied to J. Sabina. Erect shrub, with thick, dense
and short branchlets: Ivs. usually dimorphic: fr. ovate, blackish,
glossy, 1-seeded. Siberia. — J. sabinoides, Endl.=J. thurifera. — J.
sabinoides, Nees=J. tetragona. — J. sabinoides, Griseb.=J. Sabina
var. tamariscifolia. — J. saltuaria, Rehd. & Wilson. Allied to J.
Pseudo-sabina. Tree to 40 ft.: Ivs. dark green, dimorphic, those
of the lateral branches scale-like, obtusish, of the shoots in 3's,
acute: fr. erect, ovoid, J4in. long, 1-seeded. N. W. China. — J.
Sdnderi, Hort.=Chamaecyparis obtusa var. ericoides. — J. taxifolia,
Parl.=J. formosana. — J. tetrdgona, Schlecht. Allied to J. occiden-
talis. Small tree, to 20 ft., rarely to 40 ft., with round-topped or
pyramidal head and slender, quadrangular branchlets: Ivs. obtuse,
usually eglandular: fr. subglobose, mostly 1-seeded. Texas to Mex.
S.S. 10:523. — J. thurifera, Linn. Shrub or tree, to 40 ft., with round-
topped head and spreading branches: branchlets slender: fr. glob-
ular, 2-3-seeded. Spain, Algeria. — J. utahensis, Lemm. (J. califor-
nica var. utahensis, Engelm.). Bushy tree, rarely more than 20 ft.,
with broad, open head: branchlets slender: Ivs. obtuse, light yellow-
ish green: fr. usually 1-seeded. Colo, to Calif., west to Utah. S.S.

ALFRED REHDER.

JURINEA (named for Louis Jurine, 1751-1819,
professor of medicine). Compdsitae. Herbs or sub-
shrubs, one of which is offered for the wild garden:
Ivs. gray or white-tomentose beneath or on both sides,
pinnate or entire, unarmed: fls. purple: achenes 4-5-
sided, seldom compressed, crowned with a pappus of
unequal rough hairs. — Over 50 species from Cent, and

1730

JURINEA

JUTE

S. Eu., N. W. Afr., to Cent. Asia. None of the species
is of great horticultural value, although sometimes cult.
They thrive in any ordinary garden soil and are prop,
by seeds or division of the roots hi spring. J. alata, Cass.
Height 3-4 ft.: perennial, or according to Boissier, bien-
nial: st. erect, winged below, 1-1 M ft. high: radical
Ivs. 6 in. long, oblong and lyrate, nearly glabrous above
and canescent beneath: st.-lvs. lanceolate, sinuate-
dentate, decurrent: heads hemispherical, long-pedun-
cled, the involucre-bracts narrow-linear and the outer
ones short-mucronulate and the apex spreading; florets
purplish blue: achene 4-angled and muricate, the
pappus exceeding it. Caucasus. J.H. III. 66:442.
While J. alata is definitely described as biennial and as
reaching a height of 18 in. in cult., the plant grown
under this name, and which is apparently correctly
determined, is said to be perennial and to grow 3-4 ft.
high, having a silvery aspect in the foliage. L. jj, R.

JUSSL&A (Bernard de Jussieu, 1699-1777, who laid
the foundations of a modern natural system of the
vegetable kingdom). Also written Jussieua. Ona-
grdcese. PRIMROSE WILLOW. This genus includes one or
two herbs that are more or less cultivated, one at least
as a water plant. ,

Herbs, shrubs or even tree-like plants, with alternate
usually entire but sometimes serrate mostly narrow
Ivs., and sometimes more or less showy axillary or
solitary white or yellow fls.: calyx tubular with 4-6
acute persistent lobes; petals 4-6, spreading, inserted
on margin of the disk ; stamens 8-12 in 2 rows, inserted
with the petals; ovary 4-5-celled, style simple, stigma
4-6-lobed: fr. a terete, angled or costate, dehiscent,
many-seeded caps. — Species about 50, widely distribu-
ted in temperate and warm regions, but most abundant
in S. Amer. ; some are native in the U. S.

The horticultural interest in this genus, in this
country, centers about the plant known in the trade as
J. longifolia, a summer-flowering aquatic herb, and
differing somewhat from the botanical description
given below. The stems of young seedlings are four-
winged, and a specimen before the writer of a plant of
the previous season is five-winged. The main root of
these old plants may be tuber-like, 3 inches long, 3^inch
thick, or 8 to 10 inches long and more slender. Also
the lower leaves, at least, are opposite. — J. longifolia is
best treated as a tender annual. The seed may be sown
in fall or spring in shallow water, using seed-pans or
pots, as with other flower seeds. Cover the seed, which
is very fine, with finely sifted soil, place the pot or
seed-pan in water, but do not submerge until the second
day, when the seed will be thoroughly soaked and will
not float on the surface of the water. When the plants
attain a few leaves they should be potted, singly, into
thumb-pots, and later into 3-inch pots, and from these
planted into their summer quarters. It is not absolutely
necessary to keep these plants always submerged in
water after potting. The plants will do well on a bench,
which should be covered with sand or ashes and the
plants kept well watered. (Wm. Tricker.)

longifolia, DC. Erect, glabrous: st. 3-angled: Ivs.
sessile, lanceolate-linear, acuminate at both ends,
glandular beneath at the margins: pedicels 1-fld., longer
than the ovary, and bearing 2 bractlets at the apex:
petals 4, obovate, scarcely notched at the apex; sta-
mens 8. Brazil. — It is not clear whether this is the
plant that is listed as J. longifolia.

Sprengeri, Hort. Evergreen prostrate perennial,
somewhat soft-hairy, much branched, the st. winged:
Ivs. opposite, crowded, ovate and acute: fls. very large,
canary-yellow. Argentina. — Offered abroad (Sprenger,

Naples) ; said to be one of the most beautiful aquatic
plants and that it grows equally well if grown as a ter-
restrial subject. L H B t

JUSTICIA (James Justice, a Scotch gardener and
author of the eighteenth century). Acanthacese.
Greenhouse plants, grown for the showy fascicles,
spikes or panicles of white, violet or red bracted flowers.

Mostly herbs of various habit, with opposite entire
Ivs: calyx deeply divided into 4 or 5 narrow lobes;
corolla 2-lipped, the straight or curved tube very
short and dilated above, the upper lip erect or in-
curved and concave and the summit entire or some-
what 2-toothed, the lower lip 3-lobed and spreading;
stamens 2 attached in the throat; etaminodia none;
disk ring-like or cupulate: caps, ovate or oblong, with
seeds 4 or less. — Species 250-300, widely distributed in
many warm regions, in Amer. reaching as far north as
Texas. From Jacobinia, close garden ally, the genus is
distinguished by the spurred or appendaged anthers.
Justicia is variously understood. Lindau (in Engler &
Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien) refers no less than 30 genera
to it, among others being Adhatoda and Dianthera.
Most of the garden plants known as justicias are
jacobinias. Consult Jacobinia, for example, for Justicia
magnifica, J. carnea, J. Pohliana, J. velutina, J. Mo-
hintlii, J. coccinea, J. Ghiesbreghtiana and J. Lindenii.
Others may belong to Thyrsacanthus, Dsedalacanthus
and Schaueria; and there has been confusion even with
Whitfieldia.

The remarks on culture under the different species
of jacobinias will apply here. Plants are secured readily
from cuttings made in late winter or spring, and these
should bloom the coming fall or winter. After blooming,
discard the plants, except such as are to be kept for
furnishing cuttings. Unless well headed back, old
plants become loose and weedy, and they take up too
much room.

The Justicia quadrifida now offered in S. Calif., is
probably Anisacanthus virgularis, Nees (Justicia virgu-
laris, Salisb. J. coccinea, Cav., not Aubl. J. quad-
rifida, Vahl. Drejera puberula, Torr.). Plant vigorous,
rather straggling, with long erect branches, glabrous:
Ivs. deciduous, light green, opposite and decussate,
elliptic-lanceolate, spreading, rigid: fls. scarlet-red (or
orange-scarlet), usually solitary, axillary in one of the
2 opposite axils, thus making a long leafy unilateral
spike; corolla-tube long and slender, deeply lobed into
4 spreading or recurved parts. Mex. R.H. 1872:50.
Autumn and winter in S. Calif., Aug. and Sept. in
France. Var. compacta, Franceschi, is a very compact
low bush of emerald-green color and covered all sum-
mer with orange-scarlet fls.; comes true from seed. —
Not to be confounded with Justicia quadrifaria, Wall.

Of the justicias appearing in American lists, only
J. furcata, Jacq. (Adhdtoda furcdta, DC.) seems now to
be retained in the genus. Herbaceous, pubescent, the
st. erect and terete: Ivs. oblong-oval, attenuate to
petiole: fls. small, in short aggregated axillary spikes
which are often geminate, the bracts linear-lanceolate ;
color of fls. purple and white; upper lip 2-fid, the lower
3-fid and broad-convex. S. Mex. — Said to seed itself
freely in S. Calif., but to be of little value.

J. calletricha and J. calycdtricha, Hort., see Schaueria. — J.
fl&va, faort., and J. flavlcoma, Lindl. =Schaueria. T TT R

JTJTE is a fiber plant, of easy culture in warm cli-
mates. It has been successfully grown in the Gulf
States, but the want of suitable machines for sepa-
rating the fiber is the great obstacle which prevents the
growth of the jute-fiber industry in America. See Cor-
chorus; also "Cyclopedia American Agriculture," Vol. II.

K

KADSURA (Japanese name). Magnoliacex. Tropi-
cal Asian woody climbers. Kadsuras have leathery or
rarely membranous foliage: fls. axillary, solitary,
whitish or rosy, unisexual; sepals and petals 9-15, grad-
ually changing from the outermost and smallest to the
innermost and petaloid; staminate fls. with an indefinite
number of stamens, which are separate or coalesced
into a globe: carpels indefinite in number, 2-3-ovuled:
mature berries in globular heads. — About 8 species,
of one of which Charles S. Sargent writes (G.F. 6:75):
"The flowers are not at all showy, but it is a plant of
extraordinary beauty in the autumn when the clusters
of scarlet fruit are ripe, their brilliancy
being heightened by contrast with
the dark green, lustrous, persistent
leaves. ... It might well be grown
wherever the climate is sufficiently
mild, as in the autumn no plant is
more beautiful."

japonica, Linn. Small, procumbent,
warty shrub : Ivs. oval or oblong-oval,
thick, serrate: peduncles 1-fld., soli-
tary. Japan, as far as 35° north lati-
tude.— The type is advertised by
Japanese dealers; also a variety with
foliage blotched with white, and
another with foliage margined white.

KAEMPFERIA (Engelbert Kaemp-
fer, 1631-1716, traveled in the Orient,
and wrote on Japan). Zingiberdcese.
Tuberous- or fleshy-rooted plants,
grown for foliage and flowers.

Often stemless or apparently so,
the few Ivs. aggregated at the base
and sometimes distichous on the st. :
Ivs. mostly broader than lanceolate:
fls. in a bracted tuft or small cluster
in the center of the If .-clump, or in a
peduncled raceme, often large and
showy, white, yellow, violet or pur-
ple; calyx cylindrical or funnelform,
toothed; corolla tubular, exserted,
with narrow lobes; staminodia petal-
like and the showy parts, one of them
being a broad lip; fertile stamen 1. —
More than 50 species in Trop. Asia
and Afr. Schumann, Engler's Pflan-
zenreich, hft. 20 (1904). For cult, see
Hedychium and Zingiber.

A. Foliage margined with white.
Gflbertii, Bull. Stemless, fleshy-
rooted: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, deep
green, bordered white, wavy at the margin: fls. purple
and white. E.Indies. G.C. II. 17:713. R.B. 21:169.
S.H. 2:131. G.Z. 27, p. 217.— Intro, by W. Bull, 1882.
Reasoner Bros. cult, this outdoors in S. Fla., and say,
"The fls. are borne on ornamental crimson heads rising
from the ground on separate stalks, and resembling in
outline small pineapple frs. These heads retain their
beauty all summer."

AA. Foliage not margined with white.

B. I/vs. tinged purple beneath.

rotunda, Linn. Stemless, tuberous: Ivs. not produced
until after the fls., oblong, erect, petioled: corolla-segms.

2026. Ealanchoe carnea. (Plant X Ifi

long-linear; staminodes oblong, acute, white,
in. long; lip lilae or reddish, deeply cut into 2 sub-
orbicular lobes ; anther-crest deeply 2-fid : petiole short,
channelled; blade 12 in. long, 3-4 in. wide, usually
variegated with darker and lighter green above and
tinged purple beneath : spikes 4-6-fld., produced in March
and April. India. B.M. 920 and 6054. R.B. 25:181.

BB. Lz;s. not tinged purple beneath.

Kirkii, Schumann (Cienkowskya Kirkii, Hook. f.).
Lf.-st. 3-4 in. long: Ivs. about 4, crowded at the apex
of the st., oblong, acute, 8-^9 in. long, 23^-3 in. wide
at the middle: flowering sts. short,
slender, 1-fld.; corolla-lobes oblong-
lanceolate, 1 in. long; staminodes
more than twice as long as the corolla-
lobes, pale rose-purple; lip rounded
at the apex, slightly notched, 2 in.
broad, with a yellow mark at the
throat. Trop. Afr. B.M. 5994. I.H.
30:495. G.W. 2, p. 253. Var. elatior,
Stapf. Taller: Ivs. longer, the base
long-attenuate, the petiole longer: lip
bright rose, with a yellow blotch
bordered by purple marking. Rho-
desia. B.M. 8188.

K. lutea, C. H. Wright. Stemless: Ivs. 3 or

4, about 9 in. long, oblong, green and gla-
brous above but paler and pilose beneath:
scape 3Ji in. high; bracts about 8, rounded
and green; fls. yellow, the lip entire and
orange-yellow. Penang (India). — K. rdsea,
Schweinf. Much like K. Kirkii, but said to
be more beautiful: rootstock short and fleshy,
with many cord-like roots: Ivs. about 18 in.
long, the blade bright green and plaited:
scape 18 in. high, bearing about 6 fls. to many,
which are above 2 in. across, brilliant rose-red
and open one at a time, with an orange-
blotched throat. Cent. Afr.

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

KAFIR or K. CORN: Sorghum.

KAGENECKIA (F. v. Kageneck,
an Austrian minister to Spain).
Rosacese. Very few species of tender
small evergreen trees from Chile and
Peru, one of which has been grown in

5. Calif, but now is probably lost to
cult, in this country. The fls. are
white, 5-petaled, about %in. across,
and unisexual. The male fls. are borne
in racemes or corymbs; the females
are solitary; all are terminal: Ivs.
leathery, serrate, stalked: stamens
16-20, inserted on the mouth of the

calyx, in 1 series: carpels 5, free: ovules numerous.

obldnga, Ruiz & Pav. Lvs. oblong, acuminate at both
ends, the serrations obtuse and rather callous. Chile.
B.R. 1836 (as K. cratsegifolia) . L H. B.

KAKI: Diospyros and Persimmon.

KALANCHOE (from Chinese name). Crassulacese.
Sometimes spelled Calanchoe. Succulent glasshouse
herbs or subshrubs, with interesting foliage and flowers.

Usually robust erect plants: Ivs. opposite, fleshy,
sessile or stalked, varying from entire to crenate and
pinnatifid: fls. yellow, purple or scarlet, in many-fid.

(1731)

1732

KALANCHOE

KALE

terminal paniculate cymes, rather large and often
showy; calyx 4-parted, the narrow lobes shorter than
the corolla-tube, usually falling early; corolla 4-parted
and mostly spreading, the tube usually urn-shaped;
stamens 8: carpels, 4. — More than 100 species, in the
Old World tropics and in S. Afr., and 1 reported from
Brazil. A few species are prized by amateurs. The fls.
are lasting in bouquets. For the general handling of
this class of plants, see Succulents; also Cotyledon and
Crassula. They prop, readily by seeds and cuttings.

A. Fls. of the red, scarlet, orange, yellow series.

coccinea, Welw. Somewhat hairy above, 2-4 ft. tall:
lower Ivs. ovate, obtuse, coarsely crenate-dentate,
stalked; upper Ivs. linear-lanceolate, obtuse, sessile: fls.
scarlet or orange, on short pedicels, in broad forking
panicles which have stalks about 1 ft. long; calyx pubes-
cent, the segms. lanceolate, acute; corolla-tube J^in.
long, the limb J^in. across, and the segms. deltoid-
ovate, acuminate and glabrous or pubescent. Trop. Afr.

Kirkii, N. E. Br. St. 2-4 ft., simple or branched,
more or less glandular-pubescent: lower Ivs. soft-
fleshy, pubescent, oblong to lanceolate, about 4 in. or
less long, the petioles to 2 in. long, irregularly crenate-
dentate; uppermost Ivs. linear-cuneate, nearly or quite
entire: fls. brilliant orange-scarlet, in large corymbose
cymes; calyx-lobes or sepals (free to base) oblong,
acute, green, glandular-pubescent; corolla-tube J^in.
long, yellowish green, thinly glandular - pubescent ;
lobes about J^in. long, elliptic, scarlet-orange, red on
the back. Trop. Afr. R.H. 1914, p. 21. M.D.G.
1908:521.

flammea, Stapf. A foot to 18 in. high, glabrous, lit-
tle branching: Ivs. ovate-oblong, obtuse, narrowed into
a short petiole (blade about 2 in. long and \y^-\Yi in.
wide), fleshy, obscurely crenate-dentate or almost
entire: fls. yellow and orange-scarlet, J^in. across; calyx
parted to the base, the segms. linear-lanceolate and
somewhat acute; corolla-tube 4-angled, less than J^in.
long, yellowish; lobes ovate-acute, orange-red. Trop.
Afr. B.M.7595. G.C. III. 26:47.— Thrives in a com-
paratively cool greenhouse.

glaucescens, Brit. St. glabrous, terete, 2 ft. or more,
sometimes with long ascending pubescent branches
which are nearly leafless below : lower Ivs. narrow-ovate,
obtuse and irregularly crenate, 5 in. long, narrowed to
clasping petioles: infl. glaucous, being a di- or trichot-
omous panicle; fls. red or dark yellow, sometimes on
few-fld. peduncles from the upper nodes; calyx-lobes lan-
ceolate, acute or nearly so, short; corolla-tube Jiin. long,
bearing short narrow-ovate acute segms. Trop. Afr.

crenata, Haw. St. glabrous, or somewhat hispid in
the upper part, 2-6 ft. high from a thick fibrous root:

2027. A Norfolk kale field at the Christmas harvest time.

Ivs. oblong or roundish ovate or spatulate, 2-3 in. long,
coarsely crenate, obtuse: infl. of many-fld. axillary and
terminal cymes; fls. bright yellow or orange; calyx-
lobes glabrous or hispid-viscid, lanceolate and acute,
only slightly joined at base; corolla-tube %in. long,
glabrous or pubescent; lobes acute, oblong-lanceolate.
Trop. Afr. B.M. 1436 (as Cotyledon crenata).— K. cre-
nata, H&met=Bryophyllum crenatum.

rotundifdlia, Haw. St. glabrous, slender, 1-3 ft.,
leafy below: Ivs. roundish obovate, obovate or spatulate,
nearly entire or crenulate, somewhat petioled, the lower
ones 1-2 in. long: infl. of panicled trichotomous flat-
topped cymes; fls. orange or deep yellow; calyx small;
corolla small (less than J^in. long), the lobes narrow-
lanceolate and acute. S. Afr.

AA. Fls. pink.

caraea, Mast. Fig. 2026. Sts. simple, 2 ft, or less,
glabrous: lys. oval or obovate, obtuse, crenate-dentate,
narrowed into a short petiole, the upper ones nearly
linear and sessile: fls. light rose or pink, very fragrant,
nearly ^in. across; calyx parted to the base, the segms.
linear-pointed; corolla-tube swollen at base and 2-3
times longer than calyx: corolla-lobes broad-oval, acute.
S. Afr. G.C. III. 1:211. G.F. 3:53 (reduced in Fig.
2026). — Good winter bloomer, prop, by seeds or cut-
tings. Seeds sown in spring give blooming plants for
following Christmas.

AAA. Fls. white or white-yellow, very long.
marmorata, Baker (K. grandiflora, Rich., not Wight).
St. stout and branching: Ivs. large (6-^8 in. long),
obovate, narrowed to a short broad petiole, crenate,
blotched with purple: fls. long and tubular (3 in. or
more long), creamy white or yellowish, the lobes ovate-
acuminate. Abyssinia. B.M. 7333. I.H. 43, p. 45. —
Interesting pot-plant, with large trusses of erect fls.

Any number _ of kalanchoes may appear in the collections of
fanciers. Following are some of the more recent kinds, which may
not be found in the regular manuals: K. angolensis, N. E. Br. Lvs.
fleshy, to 4 in. long and half as broad: fls. bright yellow and numer-
ous, variable in the number of its corolla-lobes. Trop. Afr. — K.
Bentii, C. H. Wright. St. 3 ft., unbranched, nearly 1 in. diam.: Ivs.
about 6 pairs near top of St., rigid and subcylindrical, 3-6 in. long:
fls. white, in a loose erect panicle; calyx-lobes fleshy and spreading;
corolla 1 Yi in. long, 4-angled, inflated at base, the limb nearly 1 in.
across. Arabia. B.M. 7765. — K. diversa, N. E. Br. St. 1 ^-2 ft.
high: Ivs. lanceolate to elliptic-ovate, to 5 in. long, toothed, gla-
brous: fls. with a green tube Hin. long and vermilion-orange shorter
lobes. Somaliland. — K . Dyeri, N. E. Br. A fine species, 2-2 Yi ft.
high, glabrous: Ivs. elliptic and spreading, 4-7 in. long, coarsely
toothed, petiole to 3 in. long: infl. corymbose-cymose, to 1 ft. long;
fls. with a pale green tube 1 Yz in. long, and a pure white spreading
limb of lanceolate-acute lobes 1 in. long. Trop. Afr. B.M. 7987. —
K. Elizse, Berger. St. simple, about 8 in. : Ivs. oblong, nearly 4 in.
long, entire: fls. red, in axillary thyrse-like panicles; corolla almost
2-lipped, the tube nearly 1 in. long, the lobes linear and acute and
about Jiin. long. Trojx Afr. — K. felthamensis, Hort., is a hybrid of
K. flammea and K. Kirkii. — K. kewensis, Hort., is a hybrid of K.
Bentii and K. flammea. — K. latisepala, N. E. Br. Related to K.
Dyeri, but Ivs. sessile and fls. about half the size: St. about 2 ft.:
Ivs. obovate, 4-5 in. long: fls. white, in many-fld. terminal cymes;
corolla-tube 1 \i in. long; lobes Hm. long, ovate or elliptic-ovate.
Trop. Afr. — K. Liicix, Hamet. St. stout, simple, erect: lys. sessile,
obovate or obovate-spatulate, 1-3 in. long: fls. (color not given) in a
panicle-like cluster, the corolla urn-shaped and the segms. shorter
than tube. Transvaal. — K. mdgnidens, N. E. Br. St. 2 Yt ft. or
more, glabrous, green and with no bloom: Ivs. petioled, 3Ji in. or
less long, the lower elliptic-ovate and with 3 or 4 large teeth on
either side: infl. loosely branched, the ultimate cymes compact,
9-25-fld. ; corolla light salmon, the tube somewhat less than Yi in.
long. Uganda (Trop. Afr.). — K. prasina, N. E. Br. Small, with
small and not attractive fls.: sts. leafy, about \Yi in. long: Ivs.
obovate or spatulate-obovate, 2-3 in. long, entire, or obscurely
crenate: fls. with a green tube less than J^in. long, and short white
lobes with greenish center. Trop. Afr. — K. somaliensis, Baker.
Erect, shrubby: Ivs. obovate or oblong-obovate, 4-6 in. long,
toothed: fls. in a loose cyme to 10 in. long, white faintly tinged yel-
low; corolla-tube 1Yi in. long; lobes ovate-lanceolate. Somaliland.
— K. sexangularis, N. E. Br. St. 6-angled, simple and straight,
about 3 ft. high: Ivs. stalked, the lower ones elliptic or suborbicular,
about 3 in. long: fls. small, yellow, in a panicle about 8 in. long.
Probably Transvaal. T TT R

KALE (Brassica oleracea var. acephala). Figs. 2027,
2028. This plant and the so-called Georgia collard are
without doubt more closely akin to the wild cabbage of
Europe than any of the other cultivated forms of Bras-

KALE

KALMIA

1733

eica. Kale is really a non-heading cabbage. It is hardy
and enjoys the cool portion of autumn and early spring
for its growth. It ranks low in quality, but because it
is hardy and will stand the winters of the Atlantic
seaboard states south of New
York, it supplies a cheap and pala-
table pot-herb during the winter
season.

Commercially kale is extensively
grown in only two districts,
namely, in the vicinity of Norfolk,
Virginia, and on Long Island, New
York. This restricted commercial
area is undoubtedly due to eco-
nomic rather than soil or climatic
conditions. The fact that it is a
coarse, light, low-priced com-
modity in greatest demand from
December to April restricts its
profitable extensive culture to
regions possessing peculiar climatic
and transportation conditions, —
that is, mild winters, a relatively
short haul, and reasonable trans-
portation rates.

There are several forms of kale,
but only two are extensively grown
for market, — Scotch kale and blue
kale. Scotch kale forms by far
the greater bulk of the plantings
in the Norfolk area, but because
the blue kale is considered hardier

2028. Kale. Leaf of ^ is often used for late plantings

Scotch Curled. and by those who have been

delayed in seeding their crop.

While kale can be started under cover and trans-
planted with as great ease and certainty as cabbage,
it is seldom handled in this way outside the kitchen-
garden. Under field conditions the land is prepared
the same as for cabbage, by liberal fertilizing and
thorough plowing and harrowing. The seed is usually
planted in drills 3 feet apart and later thinned, by
chopping out, to a stand of individual plants about 6
inches apart in the row. In the Norfolk area, the seed-
ing is done between August 15 and 20 and if the plants
grow vigorously they are often harvested to meet
early market demands in such a way as to accomplish
the work of further thinning. The main crop is har-
vested by cutting the thick whorl of leaves that forms
the crown of the plant. These are packed for market
either in barrel-high Delaware baskets or in veneer
barrels. The kale is pressed firmly as it is filled into
the receptacle. The barrels are then, covered by a clean
burlap drawn over the mass piled on top of the barrel
and held in place by driving down the loose top hoop.
Kale requires somewhat less fertilizer than cabbage,
is less expensive to produce, usually produces an
abundant crop which can be harvested at small cost
and with a fairly satisfactory net profit an acre. The
yields vary from 200 to 400 barrels to the acre with an
average of about 250 barrels. The price ranges all the
way from 50 cents to $2 a barrel. As usually handled,
kale is not at its best. It is not economically possible
to produce high-grade kale. Good kale is young tender
kale which yields only a small crop to the acre. For
the amateur, however, high-quality kale is possible, for
he can handle it so as to secure the quick growth of
young tender plants, which insures quality. The com-
mercial grower must fill barrels if he is to find profit.

L. C. CORBETT.

KALE, SEA: Crambe maritima, treated under Sea-Kale.

KALMIA (after Peter Kalm, Swedish botanist, trav-
eled from 1748 to 1751 in North America). Ericacese.
AMERICAN LAUREL. Ornamental shrubs grown for
their handsome flowers and foliage.

Evergreen, rarely deciduous: lys. alternate or oppo-
site, short-petioled, entire: fls. in terminal or lateral
corymbs or umbels, rarely solitary; calyx 5-parted;
corolla saucer-shaped or broadly campanulate, 5-lobed;
stamens 10, with slender filaments, the anthers held
back in little pouches of the corolla, springing up sud-
denly and discharging the pollen if touched; ovary
5-celled, superior: caps, globular, parting into 5 valves,
with numerous minute seeds. — Seven species in E.
N. Amer. and Cuba. The Ivs. of the kalmias are said
to be poisonous to animals, especially those of K.
angustifolia. The fl. of Kalmia is one of those proposed
as a national floral emblem, especially on account of the
exquisite symmetrical beauty of the single blossom.
Kalmia is a purely American genus, but unfortunately
it is popularly known only in the eastern states.

The kalmias are medium-sized or low shrubs, very
rarely small trees with purple, pink or nearly white,
cup-shaped flowers in showy terminal corymbs or in
axillary umbels, rarely solitary, followed by small
capsular fruits. Kalmia angustifolia and K. polifolia
are hardy North, and also the most ornamental mem-
ber of the genus, K. latifolia, which next to rhododen-
dron is the most beautiful flowering hardy evergreen.
Massed in groups or as single specimen on the lawn, it
is one of the most decorative plants when covered with
its abundant pink flowers. Even small plants produce
flowers. The foliage is very decorative, contrasting
well with the red and yellowish branches. The species
is easily forced and makes a very handsome pot-plant.
The other species are pretty border plants for ever-
green shrubberies.

The kalmias thrive well in a sandy, peaty or loamy
soil, but dislike clay and limestone. They grow almost
as well in swamps as in drier locations and prefer partly
shaded situations, but thrive well also in sunny places,
provided there be sufficient moisture. They require
generally almost the same treatment as the hardy rho-
dodendron, but are less particular about soil and

2029. Kalmia latifolia.

1734

KALMIA

KALMIA

position. Transplanting, if carefully done either early
in fall or in spring, is not difficult; a mulching the first
season after planting will be of much advantage to
keep the roots from drying in summer and from frost
in winter. Propagation is usually by seeds sown in
sandy, peaty soil in pans or boxes in early spring and

2030. Kalmia latifolia var. myrtifolia. ( X H)

kept in a coldframe or greenhouse. The seedlings
should be pricked off as soon as they can be handled,
and after they are again established gradually hardened
off and the following year transplanted \n frames or
beds outdoors. Varieties of K. latifolia are usually
increased by side-grafting on seedlings in the greenhouse
or by layers, since it grows less readily from cuttings,
while the other species may be propagated by cuttings
of half-ripened wood under glass.

A. Fls. in umbels or corymbs.

B. Lvs. evergreen.
c. Branchlets terete: Ivs. pale green beneath.

D. The Ivs. alternate, pointed.
latifolia, Linn. MOUNTAIN or AMERICAN LAUREL.
CALICO BUSH. Fig. 2029. Shrub, 4-10 ft. high,
rarely tree to 30 ft., with dense, round-topped
head: Ivs. petioled, alternate or irregularly whorled,
oblong of elliptic-lanceolate, acute at both ends,
dark green above, yellowish green below, 3-4 in.
long: fls. in large, terminal compound corymbs on
viscid peduncles; corolla rose-colored to white, with
purple markings within, about %in. across. May,
June. New Bruns. to Fla., west to Ohio and Tenn.
B.M. 175. Em. 443. S.S. 5:236, 237. A.F. 13:32.
Gng. 1:306; 3:1; 7:289. Gn. 22:6; 27,
p. 549; 33, p. 607; 52, p. 77; 61. p. 9. G.M.
51:551. G. 19:708; 21:664; 35:33, 497.
F.E. 9:401. C.L.A. 3:181. A.G. 19:465.
M.D.G. 1903:576-79. G.F. 3:453. Mn.
8:183. J.H. III. 51:361. Var. alba, Bosse.
Fls. almost white. Var. fuscata, Rehd.
Corolla inside with a broad dark purpish
brown band. Var. myrtifdlia, Bosse (var. nana or
var. minor, Hort.). Fig. 2030. Lvs. small, 1-2 in.
long, deep green, of slow growth, forming a low,
dense bush. G.F. 8:317 (adapted in Fig. 2030).
R.H. 1883, p. 11. Gn. 29, p. 379; 33, p. 603. Var.
obtusata, Rehd. Of compact habit and slow growth:
Ivs. elliptic or oval, obtuse at both ends, 2-3 in.
long. Var. polypetala, Nichols, (var. monstruosa,
Mouillef.). Fig. 2031. Corolla divided into 5 nar-

row petals which gives to the fls. a feathery appear-
ance. G.F. 3:453 (adapted in Fig. 2031). Var. rilbra,
Sweet (var. Pavdrtii, Andre). Fls. deep pink. R.H.

1888:540.

DD. The Ivs. mostly opposite or in 3's, obtuse.
E. Under side of Ivs. glabrous.

angustifdlia, Linn. SHEEP-LAUREL. LAMBKILL.
WICKY. Shrub, to 3 ft.: Ivs. petioled, usually oblong,
obtuse, light green above, pale beneath, 1-2J^ in. long:
corymb lateral, many-fld., compound or simple; fls. Yy-
^in. across, purple or crimson; sepals ovate, glandu-
lar. June, July. From Newfoundland and Hudson Bay
to Ga. B.M. 331. Em. 445. — There are varieties with
light purple fls., var. rfisea, Hort.; with crimson fls.,
var. rilbra, Lodd. (var. hirsiita, Voss). L.B.C. 6:502;
with white fls., var. Candida, Fern.; with ovate or oval
Ivs., var. ovata, Pursh, and of dwarf habit, var. pumila,
Bosse (var. nana, Hort.).

EE. Under side of Ivs. pubescent.

Carolina, Small (K. carolinidna, Day). Similar to
the preceding, but the young parts finely pubescent:
Ivs. oval to oblong, obtuse, grayish pubescent below,
%-!% in. long: fls. purplish, J^in. across, in small
corymbs; sepals oblong-lanceolate, puberulous. June,
July. Va. to N. C. B.B. (ed. 2)2:684.— Has proved
hardy at the Arnold Arboretum.

cc. Branchlets 2-edged: Ivs. glaucous-white beneath, all

opposite or in 3's.

polifolia, Wang. (K. glauca, Ait.). Low, straggling
shrub, to 2 ft. : Ivs. almost sessile, oval to linear-oblong,
obtuse, revolute at the margins, ]^-1lA m- long: fls. in
simple terminal umbels, slender-pedicelled, }^-%in.
across, rose-colored or purplish. May, June. New-
foundland to Pa. and in the Rocky Mts. from Sitka to
Calif. B.M. 177. L.B.C. 16:1508. Em. 441. Var.
microphylla, Rehd. (K. microphylla, Heller), is the
alpine form of the Rocky Mts., growing only a few
inches high, and with very small Ivs., J^in. or less
long. Var. rosmarinifolia, Rehd. (K. glauca var. rosma-
rinifolia, Pursh), has narrow, linear-oblong, strongly
revolute Ivs.

2031. Kalma latifolia var.
polypetala. (X?i)

KALMIA

KENNEDYA

1735

BB. Lvs. deciduous, alternate.

cuneata, Michx. Fig. 2032. Erect shrub, with slen-
der, straggling sts. to 3 ft.: Ivs. petioled, cuneate,
obovate-oblong, acute or obtuse, pubescent beneath
when young, %-\Yi in. long: fls. slender-pedicelled,
in few-fld. lateral umbels, creamy white with a red
band within, lA~%in. across. June. N. C. and S. C.
G.F. 8:435 (adapted in Fig. 2032). B.M. 8319.—
Tender.

AA. Fls. solitary, axillary: plant hirsute.

hirsuta, Walt. (Kalmiella hirsiita, Small). Low shrub,
with many erect or ascending sts. to 1 ft.: Ivs. alter-
nate, almost sessile, oblong to lanceolate, Y^-Y^m.. long:
fls. slender-pedicelled, J^in. across, rose-purple; sepals
oblong-lanceolate, hirsute, longer than the caps. June.
S. Va. to Fla. B.M. 138. L.B.C. 11:1058.— Tender.

ALFRED REHDER.

KALOPANAX: Acanthopanax.
KALOSANTHES: Rochea.
KARAT AS: Aregelia.
KAULFtJSSIA: Charieis.

KENDRICKIA (personal commemorative name).
Melastomacese. A warmhouse root-climber from S.
India and Ceylon, where the sts. "in their lower part
creep up trees like ivy, hence flattened with the Ivs.
distichous." Species one, K. Walkeri, Hook, f., offered
abroad: Ivs. opposite, fleshy, stalked, oblong or obovate,
obtuse, about 1 Yi in- long, the margins glandular-hairy
and the surface dotted white: fls. "tinging the forest
red" when the plants ascend to the tops of the tallest
trees, borne in few-fld. umbels or solitary; calyx rose-
purple, urn-shaped; corolla bright red, the 4 fleshy
petals about 1 in. long; stamens 8, equal, the anthers
opening at the apex by a pore and somewhat produced
or extended at the base: fr. a globose caps, opening by
4-6 valves at the apex. Probably requires the treatment
given other warm melastomaceous plants. See Melas-
toma. L. H. B.

KENNEDYA (Kennedy, of the nursery firm of Ken-
nedy & Lee, important English nurserymen of the lat-
ter part of eighteenth century). Leguminosse. Woody
trailers or twiners, making excellent plants for the
intermediate house or conservatory.

Perennials, usually pubescent or villous, prostrate
and trailing or climbing, the st. more or less woody:
Ivs. mostly pinnately 3-foliolate, sometimes with 5 Ifts.
or even reduced to 1, the Ifts. stipellate, entire or some-
what 3-lobed: fls. papilionaceous, red to almost black,
disposed in pairs, umbels or racemes, or sometimes
solitary; calyx 2-lipped by the cohesion of 2 upper
lobes ; standard orbicular or obovate, narrowed to a
claw, and bearing minute auricles; wings falcate, joined
to the incurved keel; stamens 9 and 1: pod linear,
flattened or cylindrical, 2-valved with pithy divisions
between the seeds. — Species about a dozen, in Austral.
Closely allied to Hardenbergia, but differs in the larger
red or red-black rather than white or blue fls., and char-
acters of keel and infl. These genera belong to the
Phaseolus tribe.

The species are known mostly as glasshouse subjects.
They propagate with ease from seeds, and also from
cuttings of firm green wood; they require an intermedi-
ate temperature. Insects are likely to trouble them.
They are mostly spring and summer bloomers, and
should rest in winter. Give plenty of water during
summer. They should be given support; they grow
from 3 to 10 feet high, making stiff, woody stems. They
may be trimmed back freely when at rest. The taller
kinds, like K. rubicunda and K. coccinea, are excellent
for rafters. K. nigricans is an old garden plant, still
grown in this country under the name of Lotus nigricans.

Well-rooted plants may be planted permanently in
the greenhouse border.

A. Fls. nearly black.

nigricans, Lindl. Twining, robust, somewhat pubes-
cent: Ifts. (sometimes reduced to 1) broad-ovate or
rhomboid, entire, obtuse or emarginate, 2-3 in. long;
stipules small and reflexed: fls. slender, 1 in. or more
long, in short 1 -sided axillary racemes, deep violet-pur-
ple or almost black, green-blotched on the standard
which is narrowly obovate and reflexed ; wings about as
long as keel, and narrow: pod flattened. W. Austral. B.
R. 1715. B.M. 3652.— An immense grower in S. Calif.

AA. Fls. red or scarlet.
B. Standard narrow-obovate.

rubicunda, Vent. Pubescent, twining : Ivs. 3-foliolate;
Ifts. 3^4 in. or more long, ovate to orbicular or ovate-
lanceolate, entire;
stipules small and
reflexed: fls. dull red,
drooping in racemes
that usually do not
exceed the Ivs.; stan-
dard narrow-obovate,
reflexed from near
the middle; wings
narrow and erect
adhering to
above the mid-
dle : pod flat
or nearly so.
L.B.C. 10:954.
B.M. 268 (as
Glycine rubi-
cunda). B. R.
1101 (as Am-
phodus ovatus).

keel

2032. Kalmia cuneata.
(XH)

H.F. 11.4:166.

BB. Standard
broad-ovate
or orbicu-
lar.

prostrata, R. Br.
Prostrate, pubescent:
Ivs. 3-foliolate; Ifts.
broad-obovate or
orbicular, less than 1
in. long, often wavy;
stipules leafy, cor-
date : fls. 2-4: on each
peduncle (which usu-
ally exceeds the Ivs.),
scarlet, %in. long;
standard obovate;
keel incurved and
obtuse; wings narrow

and short: pod nearly cylindrical, pubescent. B.M. 270
(as Glycine coccinea). J.H. III. 44:65.

Var. major, DC. (K. Mdrryattse, Lindl. K. Marryat-
tidna, Hort.). Larger and more hairy, twining: Ifts.
larger, strongly undulate; stipules sometimes 1 in.
across: fls. large, deep scarlet. B.R. 1790. Gn. 28:60.
Gn.W. 4:505. H.U. 5, p. 139. A.F. 3 : 547.— A very
handsome winter-flowering twiner.

coccinea, Vent. Prominently pubescent, trailing or
twining: Ifts. 3 or 5, ovate or oblong, very obtuse, often
somewhat 3-lobed; stipules very small: fl. ^in. long,
scarlet, in long-peduncled clusters of 15-20; standard
orbicular; keel very obtuse, short: pod flattened. B.M.
2664. L.B.C. 12:1126. — Known under several names,
as K. inophylla, Lindl., B.R. 1421; K. dilatata, Cunn.,
B.R. 1526; Zichya tricolor, Lindl., B.R. 25:52; Z. villdsa,
Lindl., B.R. 28:68, and others. Handsome slender
twiner or trailer.

1736

KENNEDYA

KERRIA

K. audomariensis, Hort., is probably a form of Hardenbergia
monophylla, although reputed to be a hybrid between that species
and K. prostrata var. major (K. Marryatae). Fls. rosy red, in
racemes: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, petioled: handsome.
R.B. 27 : 25. — K. Beckxidna, F. Muell. Much like K. rubicunda, but
peduncles 2-fld. : twining: Ivs. 3-foliolate, the Ifts. obovate to ellip-
tic, to 3 in. long: fls. red with a green-yellow dark-margined blotch
at base of standard, about 1 % in- long. S.W. Austral. B.M.
8358. A showy and striking plant. — K. cserulea, Hort., is probably
Hardenbergia Comptoniana. — K. Comptoniana, Link.=Harden-
bergia Comptoniana. — K. eximia, Lindl. Twining or prostrate, silky
or becoming glabrous: Ifts. 3, ovate, or obovate, not exceeding 1 in.
long, very obtuse, fls. scarlet, not large, 2 or 3 more on a peduncle;
standard very broadly obovate or nearly orbicular: pod usually
curved. W. Austral. P.M. 16:35. H.F. 4:166. — K. longiracembsa,
Lindl.=Hardenbergia monophylla. — K. macrophylla, Lindi.=
Hardenbergia Comptoniana. — K. ovata, Sims=Hardenbergia
monophylla. — K . retrorsa, Hemsl. Twining, reddish hairy on the
young growths: Ivs. 3-6 in. long, 3-foliolate, petioled; Ifts. oval
to sub-orbicular: fls. rose-purple with white spot on standard, about
%in. across, borne in a peduncled raceme: pod retrorsely pilose.
E. Austral. B.M. 8144. — K. Stlrlingii, Lindl. Hairy, trailing or
twining: Ivs. 3-foliolate, ovate to orbicular, very obtuse; stipules
broadly cordate: fls. scarlet, in 1-3 pairs on axillary peduncles: pod
very turgid. W. Austral. B.R. 1845. I H B

KENTIA (after William Kent, horticulturist, compan-
ion of Reinwardt in journeys through the Indian archi-
pelago). Palmacese, tribe Arecese. Ornamental spine-
less palms grown in the greenhouse.

Leaves pinnate, sharp-pointed or 2-toothed; Ifts. lin-
ear-lanceolate, midnerves scaly beneath, and rachis
angled above; petiole channelled above, rounded on the
back. It differs from Areca in the sharply 4-angled
branchlets of the spadices; and from Hedyscepe and
Kentiopsis in having only 6 stamens. — Species at most
6 or 7, from the Moluccas to N. Austral. The type is
K. procera, Blume, from New Guinea, which is not
cult. It is probable that none of the kentias known to
the American trade belongs properly in this genus.

K. australis, Hort., from Lord Howe's Island, is probably one of
the four following palms which, according to Maiden in Proc. Linn.
Soc. N. S. W. 1898, are the only palms on that island: Clinostigma
Mooreanum, Howea Belmoreana and H. Forsteriana, and Hedyscepe
Canterburyana. K. australis was intro. 1873 and advertised 1893.
— K. Baiieri, Seem.=Rhopalostylis Baueri. — K. Belmoreana, C.
Moore=Howea Belmoreana. — K. Belmoreana, F. Muell. =Howea
Belmoreana. — K. Brownii, Hort. Dedicated to D. S. Brown, of St.
Louis, Mo. Resembles K. Macarthuri. Lvs. pinnate, arching;
Ifts. truncate and premorse. Very graceful. A.G. 15:266. This is,
perhaps, Nenga or Hydriastele. — K. Canterburyana, F. Muell. =
Hedyscepe Canterburyana. — K. divaricata, Planch.=Kentiopsis
divaricata. — K. Dumoniana, Hort. Adv. 1895. F.R. 1:379. — K.
elegans, Brongn. & Gris.=Cyphopho3nix elegans. — K. exhorrhiza,
Wendl.=Exhorrhiza Wendlandiana. — K. Forsteriana, F. Muell.=
Howea Forsteriana, considered by Bentham to be only a form of
Howea Belmoreana, although horticulturists do not accept this. —
K. frutescens, Hort. Cult, by Siebrecht & Son. — K. fulcita, Brong.=
Cyphophoenix fulcita. — K. grdcilis, Hort.=Microkentia gracilis. —
K. Kersteniana, Hort. Lvs. very slender, dark green, arching, as-
cending, widely pinnated; Ifts. broadly cuneate, shaped like a shark's
fin, the truncate apex curiously erose, ragged, the upper margin
extending into a long, sharp tip; petioles covered with light grayish
brown pubescence. New Ireland. A.G. 20:223 (1899). G.C. III.
24:391. This is probably a Nenga. — K. Undenii, Hort.=Kentiop-
sis macrocarpa. — K. Luciani, Lind.=Kentiopsis macrocarpa. — K.
Macarthuri, Hort.=Ptychosperma Macarthuri, which see. — K.
Mooreana, F. Muell.=Clinostigma Mooreanum. — K. Mdrei, Hort.
Dreer. Possibly same as K. Mooreana. — K . rubricaulis, Hort. Lvs.
pinnate, ovate, with red petioles. Adv. 1895. — K. rupicola, Hort.
Adv. 1895. — K. Sanderiana, Hort. Very slender in habit, very
hard foliage, spreading: Ifts. very narrow, arranged on an arching
rachis similar to Cocos Weddelliana. A graceful plant for jardin-
ieres or conservatories. A.G. 20:223. A.F. 20:603. Gn.M. 2:226.
G. W. 2:399. — K. sdpida, Mart.=Rhopalostylis sapid*. — K. Van
HoiiUei, Hort.=Veitchia, sp. (?). Adv. 1895. — K. Veitchii, Hort.
probably = Hedyscepe Canterburyana. — K. Wendlandiana, F.
Muell. =Hydriastele Wendlandiana. -^ rrAvTr>T»t

KENTltfPSIS (Greek: like Kentia). Palmacex.
A small but very handsome group of palms with tall
unarmed stems.

Leaves equally pinnate; pinnae sub-opposite, very
coriaceous, narrow, sword-shaped, narrowed to the
obtuse or toothed apex, with strong mid-nerve, promi-
nent veins and thickened margins: spadix large, thick,
the branches stout and long; fls. monoecious, spirally
disposed; ovary globose-ovoid followed by a thick-
walled fr. — There are 3 species, all Australian. G.C. II.
25:75. Kentiopsis belongs to a large group of genera
mentioned under Hedyscepe, which differ from Kentia
in having the ovule fastened on the side of the locule,

and more or less pendulous, instead of fastened at the
base and erect, as in Kentia. Kentiopsis is distin-
guished from Hydriastele by having its fls. arranged
spirally instead of in 4 ranks. From numerous other
cult, allies it is distinguished by the following charac-
ters: stamens numerous, 20-25: If.-segms. narrowed,
obtuse or dentate: sepals of the staminate fls. triangu-
lar-orbicular, broadly overlapping. Cult, as in Kentia.
macrocarpa, Brongn. (Kentia Lindenii, Hort., Lind.
Kentia Luciani, Lind.). About 20 ft., usually less in
cult. : rachis flat above, convex below. The form known
as Kentia Luciani, has bright green Ivs., tinged with
brown on the under surface, the young petiole yellow-
ish, later becoming brown. I.H. 24:276; 29:451. R.H.
1881:372. F. 1884, p. 71. S.H. 2:117.— The species is
distinguished by the reddish tinge of the young Ivs.

K. divaricata, Brongn. (Kentia divaricata, Planch.), is referred
by Drude in Engler & Prantl, to Drymophloeus. It may be dis-
tinguished from the preceding by the alternate pinnae and tri-
angular rachis, keeled above. I.H. 28:409. This has been confused
in the trade with Kentia gracilis, which is referred by Index Kewen-
sis to Microkentia gracilis. See I.H. 23:245. Advertised 1895. — K.
olivseformis, Brongn., is characterized by the 4-angled rachis. Not

N. TAYLOK.t
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS: Poa pratensis.

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE: Gymnodadus canadensis.

KERNERA (Johann Simon von Kerner, 1755-1830,
professor of botany at Stuttgart). Crutiferse. Under
this name amateurs cult, a rock-plant growing about 4
in. high, which blooms profusely all summer, its fls.
being small, white, and borne in elongated umbels.
Bentham & Hooker regard Kernera as a subgenus of
Cochlearia, in which the stamens are longer and bowed
at the apex: pods turgid; valves very convex: cotyle-
dons accumbent or incumbent. Prantl (in Engler &
Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien), however, keeps the genus
distinct, comprising 5 species in the mountains of
Cent, and S. Eu. They are perennial herbs, with simple
or pinnately parted Ivs.

The species grown in rock-gardens is a compact
branching, neat-habited plant thriving in any light soil
that is moderately rich. It requires a sunny but not too
dry situation. Prop, by cuttings, division or seed. K.
saxdtilis, Reichb. (Cochlearia saxdtilis, Linn.). Root-
Ivs. oblong, dentate, pilose; st.-lvs. linear-oblong:
petals 4, obovate, 2-3 times as long as the calyx: seeds
numerous, not margined. Pyrenees to Carpathians.

WILHELM MILLER.

KERRIA (after William Kerr, a gardener who intro-
duced this and many other plants from China; d.
1814; not J. Bellenden Ker or M. Kerr, as often
stated). Rosaceae. A monotypic genus, one of the first
shrubs brought from Japan, best known by its weak,
slender green branches, slender irregularly toothed
leaves and large yellow flowers.

From Rhodotypus, a close relative, it differs in its
5 rather than 4 petals, 5-8 rather than 4 carpels, and
in the dry achene rather than drupe. The related
genus Neviusa lacks petals, and has 2-4 carpels.
K. japonica, DC. (Cdrchorus japonicus, Thunb.), is
a very common bush in yards under the name of
JAPANESE ROSE, CORCHORUS and the prevailing double
form as GLOBE-FLOWER. (Fig. 2033) : Ivs. simple, alter-
nate, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, largely unequally
serrate, 1-2 in. long, clear green above, pale below,
thin, slightly pubescent: fls. abundant, solitary,
terminal, peduncled, 1-2 in. diam. appearing in
June and more or less throughout the year; calyx
persistent, 5-lobed; petals 5, large, yellow, ovate;
stamens numerous: carpels 5-8, globose, distinct.
A.G. 18:425. F.E. 9:593. R.H. 1869, p. 293. Gn.
21, p. 275. Var. flore-pleno, double, more vigorous
and more frequent in cult, than the single. B.M. 1296.
G. 26:345; 27:146. G.M. 50:210. G.Z. 9:48. Var.
grandiflora, a vigorous form with large fls. Var.

KERRIA

KIGELIA

1737

vittato-ramosa, Zabel (K. ramulis variegdtis aiireis), a
dwarf form, the branches striped with yellow and
green. Var. argenteo-variegata, 2-3 ft. high, with
small green Ivs. edged with white.

Kerria japonica grows 4 to 8 feet high and as broad
as high, with numerous short-branched, spreading stems,
attractive in winter from its light green branches; in
early June, when its blossoms appear in greatest abun-
dance; in November, when the leaves are of a clear yel-
low; and is not unattractive throughout the whole
year. It is a refined plant and deserves free use in
ornamental planting, either in simple masses or at the
front of a shrubby group or border. It is not thoroughly

2033. Kerria japonica, the single-flowered form. ( X J^)

hardy in all situations in the northern states, the tips
of its branches often winter-killing, which causes it to
demand a well-drained and partially sheltered position.
It grows in any good garden soil. Although enduring
sunlight, it is best in partial shade, since the intensity
of full sunlight partially bleaches the flowers. It is
propagated by cuttings, layers and root-divisions.

A. PHELPS WTMAN.

KERSTINGIELLA (Dr. Kersting, of Togoland).
Leguminbsse. A very recently described African plant
that produces a bean underground, much after the
manner of peanut. It is widely cult, by the natives of
Trop. Afr. for food, K. geocdrpa, Harms (Voandzeia
Pmssonii, Chey.). It is a prostrate herb, the main st.
creeping, 2-3 in. long, and rooting at the nodes: Ivs.
3-foliolate, rising on slender petioles, the Ifts. broadly
ovate or obovate, obtuse : fls. small, in pairs or solitary,
subsessile in the axils (on the ground) ; corolla papiliona-
ceous, greenish white but the standard pale violet at
tip: pod maturing underground, indehiscent, usually
divided by 1 or 2 constrictions into 2 or 3 joints; seeds
oblong or oblong-ovoid, about J4m. long, white, red or
mottled: "after fertilization, the solid base or stipe of
the pistil, which in the fl. is very short, lengthens into a

carpopodium and at the same time turns toward the
ground; then the corolla and the style are thrown off.
The ovary, still very small, is pushed out of the calyx,
and by the root-like carpopodium gradually driven into
the ground, where finally the growth and the maturation
of the ovary into the seed-bearing pod take place." —
Kew Bull., 1912, p. 209, with fig. See Voandzeia.

L. H. B.

KETELEERIA (after Jean Baptiste Keteleer, a
French nurseryman, born in Belgium). Pindcese. Orna-
mental trees, grown for their handsome fir-like foliage
and distinct habit.

Evergreen, of regular pyramidal habit while young,
in old age with a broad flat-topped head: winter-buds
globose or ovoid, not resinous: Ivs. linear, flat or keeled,
not grooved above, pale green below, appearing 2-
ranked: staminate fls. arranged in clusters: cones
upright, with persistent woody scales; bracts inclosed,
about half as long as the scales; wings of seeds as long
as the scales. — Three or possibly only 2 species in China.
Closely allied to Pseudotsuga and chiefly distinguished
by the clustered staminate fls. and the upright fir-like
cones. In foliage most similar to Abies but easily dis-
tinguished by the flat Ivs. being keeled, not grooved
above and pale green, not marked with white or whitish
lines beneath.

The keteleerias are little known in this country and
are not hardy North, though the recently introduced
K. Davidiana is probably hardier than the better known
K. Fortunei. They are handsome trees, of fir-like
habit while young, but old trees become flat-topped
with wide-spreading branches resembling somewhat
the cedar of Lebanon in habit. Propagation is by seeds
and by cuttings.

Fdrtunei, Carr. (Abies Fdrtunei, Murr. - Pseudo-
tsuga jezoensis, Bertrand. Plnus Fortunei, Parl.
Abietia Fdrlunei, Kent). Tall tree, to 100 ft.: branch-
lets glabrous, orange-red: Ivs. twisted so as to form
1 plane, linear, rigid, mucronate or spiny-pointed, flat,
with the midrib prominent on both sides, glossy dark
green above, paler below, 1-1 J4 m- long: cones ovoid
or cylindric-ovoid, 3-7 in. long; scales suborbicular,
purple while young, later reddish brown. S. E. China.
R.H. 1866:449; 1887, pp. 208-211; 1900, p. 202; 1904,
p. 130. G.C. II. 21:348, 349. F.S. 7, p. 223; 9:858.
J.F. 4, p. 29. G.W. 3, p. 125.

Davidiana, Beissn. (Abies Davididna, Franch.
Pseudotsuga Davididna, Bertrand. Abies sacra, David).
Tall tree, to 120 ft.: young branchlets puberulous: Ivs.
twisted into 1 plane, linear, rounded or notched at the
apex, midrib raised on both sides, glossy green above,
paler below, 1-1 */£ in. long : cones cylindric-oblong, 6-8
in. long, with orbicular-ovate scales, erose at the
margin and recurved at the apex. W. China. R.H.
1873, pp.37, 38; 1904, p. 131. G.C. III. 33:85. M.D.G.
1912:9 (habit of an old tree).

K. Evelyniana, Mast. Closely allied to K. Davidiana and prob-
ably only variety of it. Lvs. 1 Yy-2 in. long, obtuse or acutish : cones
2-3 in. long, with oblong-ovate scales. S. W. China. G.C. III. 33:
194. — K. Fabri, Mast.=Abies Delavayi, Franch., a recently intro.
Chinese species. ALFRED REHDER.

KIDNEY BEAN. Common name in England for the
garden beans in distinction from the lima bean, the
former being Phaseolus vulgaris, the latter P. lunatus.

KIDNEY VETCH; Anthyllis.

KIGELIA (from a native name). Bignoniaceae.
About a dozen trees of Trop. Afr. (cne extending into
S. Afr.), remarkable for the long-hanging fls. and frs.
Lvs. odd-pinnate: fls. orange or red, on long-peduncled
lax panicles; calyx 2-5-lobed, campanulate; corolla
broadly campanulate and narrowing below into a
straight cylindrical or constricted tube, the limb 2-
lipped; upper lip 2-lobed and nearly erect; lower lip
deeply 3-lobed and deflexed; stamens 4, didynamous,

1738

KIGELIA

KITCHEN-GARDEN

somewhat or partially exserted; disk ring-like: fr. a
cylindrical, indehiscent rough body, with a thick exte-
rior and a fibrous pulp holding the seeds. K. pinnata,
DC. (Fig. 2034), the "fetish-tree" and "sausage-tree,"
is offered in S. Calif., and specimens may be expected
in botanical collections in the W. Indies. It is native
of the Mozambique district in Afr., where it makes a
tree 20-50 ft. high, according to Sprague: Ivs. ternate,
the Ifts. 7-9, elliptic-oblong or obovate and 3-6 in.
long, serrate or entire, usually glabrous above but
sometimes more or less pubescent beneath, the lateral
Ifts. sessile but the terminal one with a stalk several
inches or a foot long: fls. claret-colored, with a corolla-
tube to 3 in. long dilated at the mouth, and lobes to 2J^
in. long: fr. 12-18 in. long, blunt, 5 in. diam., hanging
on a peduncle or cord often several ft. long, making
very striking objects. In parts of Afr. this tree, or pos-
sibly a related species, is said to be held sacred ; and the
fr., when cut and slightly roasted, is said to be used as
outward applications in certain diseases. The tree is
practically unknown in the U. S. G.C. III. 50, suppl.
Aug. 12 (1911). L. H. B.

KIN-KAN: Kumquat.

KINNIKINNICK: Dry bark of Cornus Amomum, smoked by
western Indians.

KINO. A dark red or blackish plant product, usually
of a resinous nature, rich in tannin. There are numer-
ous kinds of kino obtained from plants of different
families; some are used in medicine as an astringent,
others are employed in dyeing and tanning. The
Australian or Botany Bay kino is derived from various
species of Eucalyptus. E. resinifera is known as the
kino eucalypt.

KIRENGESHOMA (Japanese words meaning yellow
Anemonopsis macrophylla) . Saxifragacese. One peren-
nial yellow-flowered herb from Japan, K. palmata,
Yatabe, which has lately received attention in England
where it has proved hardy and appears to be adapted
to the shady border or rock-garden; prop, by division.
The plant grows at an elevation of over 5,000 ft. in
Japan, on Mt. Ishizuchi. Two to 4 ft., upright, the
sts. slender and glabrous: Ivs. large and papery, all the
lower ones petioled, round-cordate and palmately
7-10-lobed, hairy on both surfaces, the lobes acute and
coarsely toothed: fls. overtopping the Ivs., on usually
3-fld. peduncles, nodding; corolla bell-shaped, to 1%
in. long, the 5 petals oblong-lanceolate and recurved
above the middle: fr. a loculicidally dehiscing caps.
B.M.7944. Gn. 64, p. 246; 74, p. 573. G. 27:421.
R.H. 1908, p. 153. Li Hi B>

KITAIBELIA (Paul Kitaibel, 1757-1817, of the
botanic gardens at Pesth). Malv&ceae. One garden
species from the S. Danube region, planted in the
open, K. vitif&lia, Willd. Hardy robust perennial
herb, to 8 ft., allied to Malope: Ivs. angled or 5-lobed,
toothed : fls. white or rose, showy, sometimes many and
sometimes solitary in the axils; involucre surpassing
the calyx, the bracts connate at base and 6-9-parted;
calyx 5-parted; petals 5, obpyate, narrowed almost to
a claw; staminal column divided at apex into many
filaments; ovary many-celled, the carpels becoming
congested into a head, dehiscent. It is a plant some-
what on the order of abutilon, with vine-like or maple-
like Ivs. It thrives in any usual garden soil, and is
said to be good for naturalizing in the shrub planta-
tions and elsewhere; prop, by division or by seeds.
B.M.821.

K. Baldnsse, Boiss., is a second species very like K. vitifolia, but
the Ivs. deeply 5-lobed, stipules ovate, the bracts of involucre much
exceeding calyx and oblong-lanceolate and cohering or grown
together at base. Cilicia. — K. Lindemuthii, Hort., is a graft-hybrid,
produced by grafting K. vitifolia on Abutilon Thompsonii. Lvs.
variegated or marbled as in the abutilon stock: plant 6-8 ft. Named
for H. Lindemuth, of Berlin, its raiser. T TT T>

pinnata.

KITCHEN - GARDEN and FLOWER-GARDEN.

The kitchen-garden is for the kitchen, — to grow the
supplies that are used in cookery and on the table as
food. We ordinarily think of it only as a vegetable-
garden, yet it may grow strawberries and other small
fruits; and in England the melons are classed with
fruits even if grown
in the kitchen-
garden. It is in
the kitchen-garden,
also, that the sweet
herbs and the gar-
nishing plants may
be grown; and
flowers need be no
strangers to it. In
fact, some of the
best and most
attractive kitchen-
gardens may be
comprised of vege-
tables, fruit bushes
and flowers, — all
grown for the table
and the home.

The essential idea
is the home-garden-
ing idea; and there-
fore it is difficult to
separate the home
vegetable -garden
and the home
flower - garden by
any hard-and-fast
or arbitrary line.

If the place is large enough to have been laid out in
a landscape treatment, the home-garden area has been
set aside in its place, proper both for exposure and con-
venience. With this landscape plan we have nothing
to do at the moment except to insist that the home-
garden idea shall not have been overlooked and that it
shall form one essential part in an artistic subdivision
of the property.

The kitchen-garden of vegetables.

Human diet consists chiefly of three classes of foods:
first, meats, high in protein, useful for structural pur-
poses; second, cereals and other starchy or carbohy-
drate foods, useful for their high fuel- value; and third,
vegetables and fruits. The last mentioned contain but
little material for building body or for supplying
energy; but they offer other substances seemingly less
important, but which are absolutely essential. Most
notable among these are the mineral elements. The
flavoring and appetizing qualities are scarcely less
important, and the requirement for comparatively
bulky foods is no more to be neglected in human than
in animal nutrition. The truth of these assertions is
evident in the fact that no meal is regarded as complete
without its vegetarian dishes, and more especially is it
emphasized in the intense craving for this sort of food
which is experienced in the spring months by those who
enjoy but little of it during the winter. Indeed, one
can hardly avoid tracing a connection between the
meat and cereal diet of the old-time winter and the
once accepted notion that one must necessarily be in
poor physical condition as spring approaches, and
resort to the use of "spring bitters." In fact, certain
definite disorders are clearly traced to the lack of vege-
table food.

More appealing than the nutritional value of the
vegetable food is its value as a contribution to good
living. No diner is satisfied unless vegetables appear
on the menu, and the products of the garden add widest
variety in the form of condiment and salad, as well as

KITCHEN-GARDEN

KITCHEN - GARDEN

1739

in the main part of the meal. Paragraph after para-
graph might be written in praise of the endless array of
delicacies which are offered by the skilful housewife
who is in league with the skilful gardener.

Vegetable food is procured in two ways, — by pur-
chase and by culture. The former method is not
available to many who dwell in the open country. To
the townsmen it is open to very serious objection. The
cost is usually high, often exorbitant and prohibitive.
The varieties are more often selected for resistance to
the rigors of shipment and sale than for excellence of
table quality. For example, the leading commercial
sort of celery is far surpassed by others, and the most
widely grown winter cabbage — the best keeper of all —
lacks tenderness and flavor. The market watermelon of
long experience in freight cars sadly lacks in quality.
Even though a product be good when it leaves the farm,
the delays in handling to which it is subjected rob it of
its freshness and its delicacy of flavor. Lettuce cannot
be made to retain its garden crispness, and the sweet-
ness of sugar corn speedily departs. Moreover, market-
bought vegetables are often in thoroughly unclean
condition.

The second source of supply is the kitchen-garden.
By this means are the shortcomings of the urban vege-
table supply avoided by many townsmen, and a notable
contribution to the farm income is afforded. An experi-
ment continued for five years at the Illinois Experiment
Station showed an average return of $105 from a half-
acre garden. The average cost was $30. Under inten-
sive culture on small areas, each square foot of ground
may be brought to yield, for example, lettuce to the
value of 10 or 12 cents, followed by tomatoes worth
6 to 12 cents. These figures are offered merely to sug-
gest possibilities and not to form a basis for calculating
the value of back-yard gold mines. Perhaps the
gold mine is there, but many factors must be considered
in figuring its profits. It is safe to say that in the hands
of a skilful gardener a city back yard may mean as
much to the family budget as a 5 per cent increase in
an ordinary "middle class" salary, and a suburban
garden offers far greater possibilities. In the door-
yards and vacant lots of our cities lie locked up one of
the great economic resources of the state. The value
of products of the kitchen-gardens in New York alone
already runs into the millions of dollars and should be
many times doubled. So much for the material gain.
No less to be prized are the dividends which are paid
in the joys of a variously laden table and in the satis-
faction and pleasure of production. The city dweller
can find no better means of recreation and exercise.
A garden is an ideal hobby.

It is impossible to tell in detail how to make a garden.
It is possible only to offer certain generalities and sug-
gestions which may be helpful to one who is learning
how to cope with a given set of conditions. Circum-
stances vary so widely that almost any statement may
be wrong in some cases, and rule-making is always
unsafe. Experience is the best teacher, and one who
loves plants and the soil and who is willing to see and
to think and to do the best that one knows may be
confident of increasing success from year to year.

Location.

It often happens that no choice is offered as to the
location of the vegetable-garden, but when this is not
the case, an outline of desirable points may be of ser-
vice. While one whose domain is measured in feet and
inches rather than in rods is forced to utilize the plot
which is at hand, the garden factor should certainly
be considered in choosing a place for a home.

On the farm the garden should be near the buildings,
for convenience in working. The distant garden is
almost invariably neglected, while the nearby plot
offers useful employment for odds and ends of the time
of farm-hands which might otherwise be wasted. For

example, the cultivation of a corn-field is finished an
hour before noon. It is too late to go to a distant field,
and the horse is turned into the home half-acre not to
browse but to loosen the crusted soil. The garden should
be near the home for convenience in gathering the
products. If possible, a liberal water-supply should be
available.

A gentle slope is desirable to insure good drainage.
Exposure to the southeast affords the maximum advan-
tage from the sun's rays and consequent maximum
earliness of maturity. Protection from severe winds
may be gained by placing the garden near farm build-
ings, wood-lot or hill. At the same time, the roots of
trees, greedy for moisture, should be avoided.

Three points are to be borne in mind in the choice of
soil. The most important is its physical character,
for this is least readily modified. Heavy clay soils are
plastic, sticky, and unworkable when wet and are
lumpy when dry. They are retentive though not readily
receptive of moisture and of plant-food. They are cold
and late in the spring. Very light sandy soils are loose
and friable and are workable even when wet. They are
readily receptive though not retentive of water and
nutrients, and are warm and early. The ideal is a
well-drained sandy loam of moderate fineness.

The second point is that plant-food should be abun-
dant and available. Dark, loose, friable soils are usu-
ally, though not always, as in the prairie states, of rela-
tively high fertility, while light-colored soils usually
lack humus and will require heavy additions of various
amendments.

Thirdly, soil that is free of weed-seeds and of disease
is to be preferred, and land that has been well culti-
vated is more likely to offer favorable bacterial rela-
tions.

Soil management.

A good garden cannot be expected on badly drained
soil. Artificial drainage is often of great advantage
even on soils that are not swampy. It makes for better
physical character and earlier crops. If no outlet is
available, a pit filled with stone or old brick may be
used.

City lots frequently offer soils that are very unfavor-
able for gardening operations. It is seldom that the
case is hopeless, even though excavated material, brick-
bats and tin-cans abound. In some cases it is profitable
to haul in good soil bodily, although this material is
expensive. Coarse soil should be removed, and improve-
ment brought about, if the soil is heavy, by the use of
such materials as ashes, sand, other soil, manure, and
lime. A stiff clay which is being broken in for garden
purposes should be spaded or plowed in the fall and
left in clods, in order that the frost of winter may have
its full effect in rendering it workable. A sterile sand
may be rendered productive by the liberal use of ma-
nure and by applications of lime.

In any garden, the main reliance for maintenance
of soil fertility should be on stable manure. In this
material are added nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash,
the only chemical elements which are often lacking,
together with large quantities of humus. Manure
that has rotted for some months is better than new
manure, especially if it is to be worked into the soil
in the spring. However, a heavy coat of fresh material
may be plowed under or spaded under each fall. It
will be fairly well decayed and ready to aid the plants
by spring.

In Europe, the process of trenching is frequently

Eractised in intensive gardening. The plot is divided
mgthwise, and a trench 2 or 3 feet wide and 1 to 2l/%
feet deep is dug across the end of one of these parts,
throwing the soil outside the area to be trenched. In
the bottom of this ditch is placed a heavy layer of
fresh manure. The soil from the next adjoining block
in the same division is turned over upon this, and a

1740

KITCHEN - GARDEN

KITCHEN-GARDEN

layer of manure placed in the bottom of the new ditch.
Thus the work progresses to the other end of the divi-
sion. Here the soil from the adjacent block of the
second division is thrown into the last ditch of the first
division, and then the work proceeds as before to the
starting-point. The last trench is filled with the soil
from the first. One or two years later the process is
repeated. The layer of manure at the bottom is now
well rotted and is thoroughly incorporated with the
soil as the work progresses. The soil may be gradually
deepened from year to year. This is a very desirable
method of soil preparation, when the necessary hand
labor is available.

Lime at the rate of perhaps a ton to the acre should
be added every two to four years. It is useful in making
clay soils more friable and in binding together very
sandy soils, in correcting acidity, in freeing plant-food,
and in rendering conditions unfavorable for certain
diseases, although it is favorable to others. It makes
little difference which form of lime is used, although
quicklime is not conveniently handled. Either ground
limestone rock or hydrated lime may be applied. About
one-third more of the latter must be used than of the
former.

The term tillage is often applied to the working of
land previous to the planting of crops, and the working
of soil after planting is spoken of as cultivation,
although tillage properly includes all these operations.
Tillage, as used to denote preparation of the land,
improves the physical condition of the soil, rendering it
more granular; it is useful for the improvement of the
moisture relation as regards reception, retention, and
transmission of moisture, it makes aeration possible,
it assists in the incorporation and freeing of plant-food
and in the destruction of weeds. If a soil is shallow, it
should not be worked too deeply at first, but each year
a bit of the subsoil may be incorporated in the surface
soil, thus gradually deepening the root pasturage. The
utmost care is necessary to avoid handling soils, espe-
cially the heavier sorts, when they are wet. The clayey
types may be spaded or plowed with good results only
at a certain stage of dryness. Experience only can
teach this stage for a given soil. The work should be
performed when the lumps crumble readily, as they
are turned over. They should be neither plastic nor
hard-baked.

When the ground is plowed or spaded in autumn, it
should, as suggested above, be left rough over winter.
In the spring it may be gone over with the disc-harrow
or with the hoe. If plowed in the spring, the lumps
should be worked down with plank drag, harrow, or
rake, according to the circumstances, and a loose soil-
mulch should be maintained until planting-time. If
this is neglected, moisture may be lost so rapidly as to
waste the equivalent of a half inch of rain a week. In
very small areas, where these horse tools cannot be
used, the hand implements that accomplish the same
results on the soil may be employed.

For very early plantings it is well to prepare a few
raised beds or ridges in autumn. These should have a
southern or southeastern exposure. They will thaw out,
drain and become warm much earlier in the spring
than soil at the ordinary level, although they will dry
out more rapidly in midsummer.

Planning.

The first task in each year's garden operations is
the preparation of a good plan. This first phase of the
garden work is often neglected. It should receive care-
ful attention long before the season opens, in order
that space and effort may be economized and that
seed, fertilizer and other supplies may be provided.
The materials for the work consist of a few good
garden books and bulletins, a few catalogues of reliable
seedsmen, together with paper, pencil, and ruler. A
fund of experience in home-gardening is an asset of

incalculable value. The aim should be to produce an
abundance of vegetables of high quality, in wide
variety, and as evenly distributed as possible through-
out the year with a minimum of unprofitable labor and
expense.

The first step is to decide what is wanted. Make a
list of crops, bearing in mind the likes and dislikes of
the family, even distribution through the season,
adaptation to climate and soil, and the space available.
List too few rather than too many, especially if the
garden is small.

Avoid an over-large garden. An area 40 by 50 feet,
well kept, will give greater satisfaction than a half
acre neglected through press of other work. A half acre
will yield a full summer and autumn supply for a large
family, together with ample quantities for canning and
storage. The beginner should avoid allowing his
enthusiasm to lead him into deeper water than that in
which he can swim. Better begin simply and let experi-
ence teach the best lines of development than to suffer
failure and discouragement on account of an over-
complex plan.

No area is too small to be utilized. A plot 2 feet
wide and 12 feet long will yield, if well tended, as many
as twenty bunches of radishes, thirty heads of early
lettuce, and forty to sixty pounds of tomatoes. A fall
crop of lettuce and radishes may even be matured in
addition.

The larger garden should be longer than wide, in
order to make the care easier. A ratio of two to one is
frequently used. The rows of most crops should be far
enough apart for horse cultivation. In a garden of
limited area, where small amounts of many vegetables
are sought, crosswise rows may be desirable. In such
plots rows may be closer together, dependence being
placed upon the wheel-hoe and hand-hoe for cultivation.
Permanent crops, as asparagus and rhubarb, should
be placed at one side to avoid interference with tillage.
The hotbeds and coldframes should be in this same part
of the garden. Early crops should be kept together,
in order that a considerable area may be cleared up
at once for later plantings. The same plants should
not appear in the same part of the garden year after
year. Good taste will suggest a neat arrangement, and
some attention should be paid to symmetry and balance
of appearance.

Three good garden plans are shown herewith, in
Figs. 2035, 2036, 2037. They are by Albert E. Wilkin-
son, Cornell Reading - Course Bulletins. They are
intensive plans, — made to utilize the land to the utmost
and assuming good care, liberal fertilizing, and other
close attention. With larger areas and horse labor, the
distances may be greater.

The seed.

With the general plan completed, the next step is the
choice of varieties and the preparation of the seed order.
Only experience will offer a satisfactory knowledge of
the sorts to be planted under a particular set of condi-
ditipns. In the meantime, it is well to consult neigh-
boring gardeners on this as well as on many other
matters. Seed orders should be placed early to avoid
disappointment as to varieties and to allow time for
testing. The well-known seed firms are striving to
supply good seeds, clean, viable, and true to type.
Packet seeds found in grocery stores are sometimes
uncertain. Many local seed -houses are thoroughly
reliable.

The only true test for seed is to grow a crop from it.
However, seed that will not establish in the soil a strong,
healthy plant will certainly not grow a crop. It is
accordingly well to test seed before it is planted. For
this purpose, twenty-five, fifty, or one hundred seeds
should be counted out and planted in a little box of
garden soil in the house. This should be kept moist
and at ordinary room temperature. Other methods of

KITCHEN-GARDEN

KITCHEN-GARDEN

1741

Dtsr/wc£
/ NV»Bex or

testing, by means of blotters, layers of cloth, porous
dishes, and the like, afford knowledge only of the
ability of the seed to sprout, not of its ability to com-
plete the process of germination, that is, to establish
itself in the soil so that it may make progress inde-
pendently of the supply of food material that was
stored within the seed coats.

No phase of gardening affords a more fascinating
hobby than the selection and saving of seed from one's
own plants. Some individuals are always superior to
others, and this superiority is inherited to a greater or
less degree. In the course of a series of years, remark-
able progress may be made in increasing the returns
from a given area. The first necessity is to establish in
the mind a clear notion of the ideals to be secured. This
must be very carefully worked out, for if it is necessary
to modify it from year
to year no progress will
be made. Selections
should be made on the
basis of individual
plants rather than of
individual fruits.
Every home - garden
should be to some de-
gree a plant -breeder.

Planting.

Each vegetable has
its own peculiarities as
to time and manner
of planting. These
characteristics are con-
sidered under each of
the various crops.

The essentials for
germination are moist-
ure, warmth, and aera-
tion. Light is not nec-
essary, although, of
course, it is required
immediately after seed-
lings break ground.
No general rules may
be laid down for the
sowing of seed. It is
necessary that the soil
be in good physical
condition if the best
results are to be at-
tained, especially for
the smaller and more
delicate seeds. Seed
must be sown more
thickly in the case of
the smaller and more
delicate seeds, as celery
and lettuce, in case the
percentage of germina-
tion is not high, when
the planting is made
in very early spring,
when soil conditions
are unfavorable, as in
a heavy soil or in time
of drought, and in
case serious devasta-
tion by insects or dis-
eases is feared.

Commercial men try
to know their soil and
thoir seed and to sow
just right. Until one
has gained consider-
able experience, it is
better in the home-gar-

den to sow rather thickly, and thin after the plants
have come up. Extreme thickness of sowing results in
weak seedlings and a very large amount of tedious
work to be done afterward.

Rules as to depth of sowing may have slight virtue,
but they may also be rather seriously misleading. Seed
should be sown more deeply in dry or sandy soils than
in wet or heavy soils. Soaking seed before sowing is
not ordinarily of very great value, although it is prac-
tised by some gardeners.

Seeds do not germinate until moisture has been
imparted to them by the soil. The movement of moist-
ure from soil to seed is a capillary movement and is more
complete when there is very close contact between soil
and seed. Accordingly, the soil should be carefully
firmed in covering. This can hardly be overdone in

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1742

KITCHEN-GARDEN

KITCHEN- GARDEN

sandy soils or in those that are rather dry. Clay soils
should not be packed so hard. Sowing in drills is usu-
ally regarded as better than broad-casting, because it
is easier to sow the seed at uniform depth, the seed-
lings are of mutual assistance to one another in break-
ing ground, it is easier to thin and to do other work, and
the plants can be more easily cultivated.

In the small garden most sowing is by hand. Many
methods are practised. When the fingers are used, the
seed should be worked out by means of the thumb over
the second joint of the first finger. Many gardeners

o//

like to use an envelope which has been sealed at the
side and cut off squarely at the end. A small quantity
of seed is placed in this envelope, which is held the flat
way, the opening only very slightly spread. It is held
with the opening parallel to the rows and is shaken
with a motion in the same direction.

Mechanical drills are now widely used and are
almost indispensable in the larger gardens, the chief
advantages being uniformity of work and rapidity of
action. A seed-drill is not a cure-all for planting troub-
les. It requires as much skill as any other method.
Since there is such great
variation in the size of seed
of a given kind, the scales
on the machines can be
used only as a general guide,
and the machine should be
tried on the bare road or
on a floor before beginning
work.

Growing early plants.

One of the most dearly
cherished ambitions of the
amateur gardener is to
begin the harvest of his
products very early in the
season. To accomplish this,
it is necessary to sow seed
long before outdoor plant-
ing is possible. Plants for
setting outdoors should pos-
sess such vigor and hardi-
ness that they will make
steady growth in spite of
possible unfavorable condi-
tions which they may en-
counter. Other advantages
of starting plants in the
seed-bed, either indoors or
outdoors, are fuller utiliza-
tion of space in the garden,
greater ease in caring for
both the soil of the garden
and the plants themselves,
better root-systems, and in
some cases even greater
yield. The specific methods
of plant-growing are con-
sidered under the various
vegetables in this Cyclo-
pedia.

There are three ways in
which this work for earli-
ness may be managed. Seed
may be sown for outdoor
transplanting in small plant-
boxes in the house. If
plenty of window room is
available and temperature
within the house is under
fair control, seed may be
started very early and the
seedlings transplanted once
before they go to the gar-
den. Another possibility is
sowing seed indoors, trans-
planting the seedlings to
the coldframe, where they
are under protection for
some weeks, and then plac-
ing in the garden. The next
step would be the use of
hotbeds and greenhouses
(see Hotbed) . The gradation
in construction from hotbed

KITCHEN-GARDEN

KITCHEN-GARDEN

1743

to greenhouse is very simple, some houses being con-
structed with two rows of hotbed sash for a roof and
using manure for heat. Other types may be built in
all degrees of complexity. Fig. 2037 (p. 1747) shows
how completely a hotbed space may be utilized.

In plant-growing, relatively low temperatures, free
ventilation, sparse watering and abundant sunshine
make for stockiness, hardiness, good root-systems,
vigor and freedom from disease. Plants should be
carefully hardened before they are placed outdoors by
increasing the ventilation, lowering the temperature,
and keeping them relatively dry.

Transplanting.

Soil should be in excellent physical condition if
plants are to be set in it. A good degree of moisture
should be present, and if possible, the work should be
performed in cloudy weather or in the evening, in
order that the plants may have opportunity to recover
before being exposed to strong sunshine. It is not wise
to undertake setting warm-blooded plants like the
tomato exceedingly early, as they may be severely
stunted by cold weather, even though there be no
frost. Some gardeners, however, like to set out a few
plants very early, expecting to replace them if necessary.

Most plants ought to be moved with a good-sized
ball of earth. If the soil is in proper state of moisture
and is compacted firmly about this earth ball, the plants
will hardly be disturbed. Plants should ordinarily be
set just a little deeper than they stood in their pre-
vious place.

Cultivation.

By cultivation is here meant the maintenance of a
loose mulch of dry soil on the entire surface of the gar-
den throughout as much as possible of the growing
season. The maintenance of this mulch is of great
value in retaining moisture, in keeping the soil in good
physical condition, and in destroying weeds. In the
small gardens, the hand-hoe and hand-weeder will meet
every requirement without undue labor. A man-
power wheel-hoe is useful in medium-sized gardens,
usually when the rows are 40 feet or more long. The
farm garden should be cultivated as far as possible by
means of the horse-cultivator. When wheel-hoe and
horse-cultivator are used, it is necessary to go through
afterward and loosen the earth and destroy the weeds
in the rows themselves. There are many types of
weeders, hoes, and cultivators. Selection must be
made according to the character of the soil, of the
crops, and the individual fancy of the gardener himself.

Mulching.

The general effects of cultivation may be attained, in
the case of thoroughly well-prepared soils, by mulching.
A coat of comparatively coarse manure is spread on the
soil between rows of vegetables. This practice has
proved very satisfactory with celery and tomatoes. It
is especially desirable with the latter crop, because it
keeps down the weeds and conserves the moisture after
cultivation is no longer possible.

Watering.

Hardly a summer passes in which the garden does not
suffer from lack of water, in some month or other, in
spite of the utmost care in cultivation. Water may be
applied to small gardens by means of hose or by allow-
ing it to flow into the furrows between the rows. Hose
irrigation is usually superficial. Gardeners often think
that they have watered the garden when they have
merely moistened the surface. It is better to water
thoroughly and less frequently than to water lightly
every day. Of recent years, overhead sprinkler sys-
tems of irrigation have been devised. Those that are
equipped with whirling sprays are not thoroughly satis-
factory because they do not water evenly. Another

type consists of pipes supported over the garden in
which are inserted tiny nozzles at distances of about 3
feet. With forty pounds pressure, these nozzles will
throw water for about 25 feet. The pipe is supported in
such a way that it may be turned to throw a spray far
to the side or directly overhead. Thus a belt 50 feet
wide will be covered by a single line. The question is
raised as to whether this type of irrigation would be as
successful in home gardens with their many crops as it
is in large commercial plantings of single crops. There
seems to be little definite knowledge at present on this
point, but the plan would seem to be thoroughly feasi-
ble. Nature does not water one crop at a time. Prac-
tice in the handling of garden irrigation has not been
studied as fully as it should be. See Irrigation, p. 1682.
In warm summer weather, it is usually best to water
in the evening so that the foliage will be well dried off
by morning. It is not likely that watering in midday
in the summer does as much harm as is ordinarily
supposed.

Other work.

The summer work of training, pruning, blanching,
pest control, and the like, is considered under the differ-
ent entries in the Cyclopedia and under Diseases and
Insects in Vol. II.

The last task of autumn is one of the most impor-
tant,— cleaning up the garden completely. Many of
the diseases and insects are wintered over in the refuse
that is left on the soil.

The garden-lover who is interested in making the
greatest possible progress from year to year will keep
careful record of his operations. He will preserve the
plan that he has drawn up for each season's operations,
and, while avoiding an elaborate or cumbersome
scheme, he will jot frequent notes as to dates of frost
and other weather conditions, dates of planting, trans-
planting, and maturity of crops, behavior of plants from
seed from different sources, and countless other points
that will occur to him. Such a record requires but little
time and is of almost incalculable advantage in future
operations.

Books and bulletins.

There are many good bulletins and books on vege-
table-gardening, some of them specially adaptable to
the needs of the home gardener. The reader should
consult the list on page 1553. The following are useful
for the beginner:

"Home Vegetable Gardening," by F. F. Rockwell.

"The Home Garden," by Eben E. Rexford.

"The Vegetable Garden," by Ida D. Bennett.

"How to Make a Vegetable Garden," by Edith Loring Fullerton.

"Book of Vegetables," by Allen French.

"Manual of Gardening," by L. H. Bailey.

"The Home Vegetable Garden," Farmers' Bulletin No. 255.

"Hotbeds and Coldframes," Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin
No. 30.

"Home-Garden Planning," Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin
No. 34.

"Planting the Home Vegetable Garden," Cornell Reading-
Course Bulletin No. 58.

"Summer Work in the Home Garden," Cornell Reading-Course
Bulletin No. 92; and others.

"The Home Vegetable Garden," Illinois Circular No. 154.

"The Farmer's Vegetable Garden," Illinois Bulletin No. 105.

"Farmers' Home Garden," West Virginia Bulletin No. 122.

Tables and lists.

The home-gardener will soon acquire sufficient
experience to be independent of rules and lists; and
yet even the oldest gardeners like to have such lists
and tables at hand to refresh the memory. The
beginner is likely to follow these tables and lists sla-
vishly and without imagination; but if he uses them as
suggestions to be modified and applied in his own work,
he should find them much worth the while. The remain-
der of this article comprises tabular material from Albert
E. Wilkinson, Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 34.
The suggestions are for the state of New York; the con-
sultant should know how to apply them elsewhere.

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KITCHEN-GARDEN

KITCHEN-GARDEN

1747

Time for planting seeds or transplanting plants in the
garden (Wilkinson).

April 1-15. — Early peas (seeds).

April 15 (all seeds). — Early beets, Swiss chard, early
carrots, midseason peas, radishes, parsnips, salsify,
early turnips.

April 15-30 (all plants). — Early brussels sprouts,
early cabbage, early kohlrabi.

May 1-10. — Early corn (seeds), lettuce (plants),
endive (seeds), radishes (seeds), early celery (plants),
leek (plants), onions (plants).

May 10-20 (all seeds). — Beans, green and wax; late
carrots, cucumbers, late peas, early squash.

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2037. Plan for the utilizing of hotbed space. (Wilkinson)

May 20-30. — Beans, shell (seeds) ; late beets (seeds),
late squash (seeds), late turnips (seeds), cauliflower
(plants), red cabbage (plants), tomatoes (plants).

June 1-10 (all seeds). — Midseason corn, lettuce,
winter radishes.

June 10-20. — Late corn (seeds), late celery (plants),
lettuce (seeds).

June 30. — Late cabbage (plants), late cauliflower
(plants), late brussels sprouts (plants), late kohlrabi
(plants), lettuce, and radishes in vacant places
(seeds).

The, yearly supply of vegetables (Wilkinson) .

The family should plan to have for consumption, on
the dates named, the following vegetables:

March 15-20 (from hotbeds). — Radishes, lettuce
(leaves).

March 20-30 (from hotbeds). — Radishes, lettuce
(leaves), spinach.

April 1-15 (from hotbeds). — Radishes, lettuce (head),
spinach, beet greens.

April 15-30 (from hotbeds). — Radishes, lettuce,
spinach, beets (small), cress, endive, parsley.

May 1-15 (from hotbeds and cbldframes, and. from

the garden). — Radishes, lettuce (head), spinach, beets,
carrots, cress, endive, parsley, rhubarb.

May 15-30 (from hotbeds and coldframes, and from
the garden). — Radishes, lettuce, spinach, beets, car-
rots, cress, endive, parsley, rhubarb, asparagus, cauli-
flower, turnips.

June 1-15 (from hotbeds and coldframes, and from
the garden). — Radishes, lettuce, spinach, beets, car-
rots, cabbage, parsley, rhubarb, asparagus, cauliflower,
turnips, beans, celery, leek, onions, peas.

June 15-30 (from the garden). — The vegetables
named above; Swiss chard, potatoes, squash (crook-
neck and white), tomatoes.

July 1-15 (from the garden). — The vegetables named
above; beans (wax and green), cabbage, carrots (half-
long), midseason peas.

July 15-30. — The new vegetables ready between
these dates are: Carrots (long), early sweet corn (out-
side-grown), kohlrabi, okra.

August 1-15. — The new vegetables ready between
these dates are: Beans (shell), brussels sprouts, red
cabbage, savoy cabbage, cauliflower (from outside),
midseason sweet corn, late peas.

August 15-30. — The new vegetables ready between
these dates are: Late cabbage, cucumbers (outside-
grown), muskmelons, peppers, late potatoes.

September 1-15. — The new vegetables ready between
these dates are: Bur, or globe, artichokes, late corn,
eggplant, parsnips, winter radishes, salsify, late squash.

September 15-30. — The new vegetables ready
between these dates are: Jerusalem artichokes, late
beets, late celery, celeriac, turnips.

October 1-15. — Pumpkins.

October 15-30. — Herbs harvested.

The following should be supplied for storage and
winter consumption: Jerusalem artichokes, beets, car-
rots, celery, cabbage, celeriac, potatoes, pumpkins,
parsnips, winter radishes, horse-radish, salsify, squash,
turnips, onions. PAUL WORK.

The home flower-garden.

The flower-garden differentiates itself from the
formal plantings which comprise the main landscape
gardening features. The landscape design is for general
effect; the flower-garden a more intimate, homely
affair, the outgrowth of a real love of flowers and their
associations.

Usually it will lie within the province of the house-
wife to plant and cultivate the flower-garden and, for
this reason, its location is of first importance. It should
be convenient of access, secluded in a measure, that
one may work in odd moments and odd habiliments,
if convenient, and should be considered from the
standpoint of convenience and personal preference.
Nothing should be planted merely for show or orna-
ment, although nothing need be left out because it is
ornamental, but the flowers which most appeal to one,
either from certain qualities they possess or from
sentiment or association, should be much in evidence.

The platting of the garden should be on a practical
working basis, with ample beds of straight outlines,
with broad well-constructed paths that do not end in
cul-de-sacs but afford ample room at their angles for
the turning of a hand barrow or cart, for paths are not
intended merely to separate the parts of the garden
or to facilitate strolling in the cool of the evening, but
they serve the very utilitarian purpose of a working
basis for the beds. Gravel, cinders or earth paths
which have been treated with a good herbicide, are
preferable; if they are properly treated they will
practically take care of themselves from season to
season.

While the form of the plat and individual preference
will usually determine the outlines of the garden, no
form is more satisfactory and ample than that of beds

1748

KITCHEN- AND FLOWER-GARDEN

PLANTING-LIST OF ANNUALS. — (A. C. Hottes, New York).

Naine, Botanical and Common

Height

Color

Distance
apart

Season

Remarks.

Ageratum Houstonianum, Floss Flower
Alyssum maritimum, Sweet Alyssum . .
Amarantus caudatus, Love-Lies-Bleed-

8 in.
8 in.
3ft.+

Purplish blue,
white
White

Scarlet to yel-
low

6-9 in.
5 in.
15 in.

July, Aug.
July to frost
June

Best blue hardy annual for edging.

One of the best white, hardy annuals
for edging.
Tender; rather gaudy.

1HI ft.

1-1 y?. ft.

July-Sept.

IK ft.

White, lilac

12-18 in.

June to frost

flower; hardy.
Hardy; petals white above, lilac be-

Brachycome iberidifolia, Swan River

M-ift.

Pale blue or
white

9-12 in.

July

neath; blue center; daisylike.
Half-hardy; plant in heat for early
bloom ; pretty little plant.

i ft.

Blue, white

9 in.

All summer

Tender; excellent planted among other

Calendula officinalis, Pot Marigold
Callistephus chinensis, China Aster . . .

12-18 in.
2ft.
1 ft.

Orange, yellow,
sulfur
Various

12-18 in.
9-12 in.
9-12 in.

May to frost
July to frost
June to frost

annuals.
Hardy; masses or borders.

Half-hardy; start indoors; partial shade
or sun; cut-flower.
Tender; cutting; border; moisture-

Centaurea Cyanus, Bachelor's Button.
Centaurea moschata, Sweet Sultan

1 Yr-2 ft.
2ft.
1-3 ft.

Blue-white,
pink
White, yellow,
purple
White, lilac,

12 in.
6-10 in.
8-12 in.

May to frost

June, through
Aug.
June— Sept.

loving.
Hardy; water and pick flowers, to pro-
long season of bloom.
Hardy; cut-flower; have bloom before
hot weather.
Hardy; warm light soil; sun or partial

2 ft. +

pink
Yellow, brown

8-10 in.

May to frost

shade.
Hardy; self-sows; good for cutting; sun.

4 ft. +

White pink,

12-15 in.

Late July to

Hardy; choose earliest varieties; not

Delphinium Ajacis, Annual Larkspur ..

IHft.

10-16 in

crimson
Various

6-12 in.
6-8 in.

frost
June, July
July to frost

too rich soil.
Hardy; sun; good for cut-flowers.
Hardy; scentless; really a biennial.

Eschscholtzia californica, California
Poppy
Gaillardia pulchella, Blanket Flower.. .

15 in.
1-2 ft.
1-2 ft.

combin
Yellow, pink,
white
Crimson, red,
yellow
Red, white

6-8 in.
10-12 in.
8-12 in.

July
July to frost
July-Oct.

Sun; sow early; do not transplant;
tender,
var. picta, free-blooming; hardy; cut-
ting.
Hardy; satiny luster.

Gomphrena globosa, Globe Amaranth..
Gypsophila elegans, Baby's Breath. . . .

1-1 Yt ft.

1-1 yt ft.

2-10 ft.

combin
Pink, purple,
White, orange
White

Golden yellow

1ft.
12 in.

2-4 ft.

July, Aug.
July
Aug. to frost

Hardy, cutting; masses; an everlasting.

Hardy; sow for succession of bloom; cut
to combine with other flowers.
Hardy; background screen.

Helichrysum bracteatum, Everlasting. .

3ft.
6-18 in.

Deep red,
white, yellow
White, crimson,

10-12 in.
6-9 in.

July to frost
July to frost

Hardy; sun; gather flowers at night to
preserve form.
Hardy; successive sowings two weeka

Impatiens Balsamina, Lady Slipper
Lavatera trimestris, Annual Mallow . . .

Linum grandiflorum var. coccineum.
Scarlet Flax

1-2 Vi ft.
2ft.

1-1 Vi ft.

carmine
Various
Pink, white

Scarlet

9-12 in.
12 in.

8-10 in.

July to frost
July

July

apart prolongs season; sun.
Half-hardy; sun; sandy loam.
Hardy; sow early, May, where they are
to grow.
Half-hardy; glossy red; is attractive;
not good when cut.

2-3 ft.

Blue, pink,

6-8 in.

July-Aug.

Hardy; massing; cut-flowers; hairy.

Matthiola incana var. annua, Stock. . .
Nicotiana alata, Ornamental Tobacco..
Nigella damascena, Love-in-a-Mist

IK ft.
3-5 ft.
1-2 ft.
2 ft.

white
Various

White
Blue, white
Various

6-12 in.
12-18 in.
10-12 in.
4 in.

July-Sept.
July to frost
June-Sept.
June-Sept.

Half-hardy; for early bloom start in-
doors; fragrant.
Hardy; start indoors; fragrant in even-
ing; massing.
Hardy; flowers surrounded by attract-
ive foliage.
Hardy; sow very thinly September or

Papaver somniferum, Opium Poppy. . .

2Hft.
1 ft.

Various
Various

4-5 in.
1ft.

June-Sept.
June to frost

April.
Hardy; massing.
One of the most freely blooming an-

Phlox Drummondii, Annual Phlox. ....

1ft.
6 in.

Various
Various

6-8 in.
6-8 in.

June
July-Oct.

nuals; half hardy.
Hardy; benefited by starting inside;
massing in beds.
Hardy; sun; will thrive in dry soil.

1-1 y?. ft.

Reddish yellow

9 in.

July-Sept.

Hardy; fragrant; cutting; sandy soil.

5-7 ft.

Green and

2K-ft.

July to frost

Half-hardy; tropical; screening; foliage

Salpiglossis sinuata, Painted Tongue. . .

iHft.+

3 ft. +

bronze foliage
Various

Scarlet

9-12 in.
8-12 in.

July-Aug.
July to frost

plant.
Half-hardy; sow indoors for early
bloom; sun; rich soil.
Half-hardy; sun or half shade; start

Scabiosa atropurpurea.Mourning Bride.
Schizanthus pinnatus.Butterfly Flower.

2Kft.+
2ft.+
3ft.

Various

Yellow, lilac,
rose, etc.
Golden yellow

12-15 in.
12 in.
12-18 in.

Aug. to frost
July, Aug.
July

indoors, March; not too rich soil.
Hardy; sow indoors for earlier bloom;
sun; cut-flowers.
Hardy; masses; borders; cut-flowers.

Hardy; scented foliage; massing.

Tagetes patula, French Marigold

1-1 K ft.

to sulfur
Golden yellow

6-10 in.

July

Hardy; excellent edger.

Tagetes signata var. pumila, Dwari

9-11 in.

to maroon
Golden yellow

8-10 in.

Aug. to frost

Hardy; excellent edger.

Torenia Fournieri, Wishbone Flower. . .
Tropseolum minus, Tom Thumb Nas-

8 in.
6 in.

Blue, white
Various

8-12 in.
9 in.

July-Sept.
July to frost

Tender; urns and hanging-baskets.
Half-hardy; cut-flowers; massing; sun.

Verbena hybrida, Verbena

1 ft.

Various

10-12 in.

July to frost

Hardy; sow indoors for early bloom;

Zinnia elegans, Youth and Old Age. . . .

3ft.

Red, yellow,
magenta and
combin

1ft.

July to frost

from cuttings less fragrant.
Hardy; stiff but easily grown.

KITCHEN- AND FLOWER-GARDEN

PLANTING- LIST OF HARDY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS. — (A. C. Hottes, New York).

1749

Name, Botanical and Common

Height

Color

Distance
apart

Season

Remarks

Achillea Ptarmica, The Pearl

2ft.
3-4 ft.

6-9 in.
4-6 ft.
3-6 ft.

1ft.
2-2 % ft.

4-5 ft.
6-9 in.

2-3 ft.
1-2 ft.
3-4 ft.

lH-2ft.
4-5 ft.

12-18 in.
8-12 in.
15-24 in.

12-15 in.
lH-3ft.
3-4 ft.

12-18 in.
1ft.

2ft.
4-6 ft.
4-6 ft.

3ft.
12-15 in.
12-18 in.

18-30 in.
6-8 in.
15-24 in.
2-3 ft.

3ft.
9 in.
16 in.

3ft.
Ji-lft.

6-9 in.

2ft.
3ft.
12-18 in.

2-3 ft.

lj^-3ft.

3-4 ft.
12 in.
3-3 H ft-

1-2 ft.

4-6 ft.
15-18 in.
12-18 in.

12-18 in.

6-8 in.
5ft.

White
Blue, white
Yellow
Various
Rose, white

Yellow
Yellow

Blue, pink,
violet
Deep blue
Blue, white,
pink.
Blue or white

Various
White

Golden yellow
Blue

Various
White to purple
Rosy purple

Purple, pink,
white
Pink and white

Slate-blue

White
Yellow, ma-
roon center
White
Yellow
Yellow

White, ma-
genta, purple
Drimson, white

Various

Various
Purple
Blue, white
Brilliant car-
dinal
Brilliant red

Deep red,
white
Blue

Red, scarlet
Blue, white

Yellow

Red, white
Various
White, yellow,
orange
Red, scarlet

Light pink to
carmine
Various
Lavender
Blue, white

Blue, white

Yellow
Pink
Blue, white

Yellow

Blue, white
White

18 in.
10-15 in.
12 in.

3ft.
18 in.

12 in.
8-15 in.

3-4 ft.

9-12 in.
1-1 H ft.

1-1 Yt ft.
12 in.
21^-3 ft.

15 in.

2^ft.

8-12 in.
8-12 in.
15-18 in.

12 in.
15 in.
12-15 in.

18 in.
12-18 in.

18 in. -
18-24 in.
18-24 in.

12-18 in.
12 in.

Gin.

6-12 in.
5-6 in.
6-12 in.
12 in.

12 in.
9-10 in.
Clumps

12 in.
8-10 in.

8-10 in.

3ft.
3-4 ft.
6-8 in.

12-18 in.

9-12 in.

12-18 in.
8-12 in.
12-18 in.

12-18 in.

12-18 in.
8-10 in.
12 in.

12 in.

12 in.

2ft.

June
July, Aug.
March
July-Sept.
Sept., Oct.

June to frost
June, July

Late Aug.

July-Oct.
June.

June
Aug. to frost
June-Aug.

July
June-Sept.

June
June
May, June

June
June
July-Sept.

June
June to frost

Aug.
Late Aug.
Late Aug.
Sept.
July

June
June

July
June
June
Aug.

July to frost
June
April

July
May, June

Aug.

May
June
May-Sept.

June-Aug.

June, Aug.

June, July
April
Aug.

June

Late Aug., Sept.
Aug.
Aug.

May, June

May
June

Var. Pearl, double; confine, else it over-
runs garden.
Borders; root poisonous; partial shade;
seeds difficult to germinate.
Do not disturb often; propagated by
seed or division.
Sun; plant in spring; single and double;
standard background.
Excellent; one of best; sun or shade;
standard fall border perennial.
Sun; divide annually; var. Kelwayibest.
Dainty and graceful; border; sun.

Sun; remains in bloom several weeks;
spreads rapidly.
Edging border; sun; little bloom in fall.
Biennial; requires protection.

Border; sun; rich soil.

Needs protection in U. S. ; light soil; sun;
leave undisturbed two or three years.
Border; dig deeply; give roots plenty
of room.
Cut-flower; border; keep seeds picked.
Sun; rich, well-drained, rather heavy
soil; if cut down after blooming will
bloom again.
Old-fashioned; still charming.
Rock-garden; beds; sun; rich soil.
Warm soil; sun or shade; graceful;
border; an old favorite.
Remains a permanent border feature;
will grow in partial shade.
Good foliage; sun or shade; var. gloxin-
iffiflora best.
Attractive foliage and thistle-like heads;
often dried for winter bouquets.
Large clumps; fine foliage.
Keep flowers picked; sun.

Sun; fine flowers; excellent in bouquets.
Border; sun.
Good clumps; border; screening.

Border; showy

Sun; edging; resembles bishop's cap;
long graceful spikes of bloom.
Sun or half shade; wide range of adap-
tability.
Requires abundance of water; sun.
Medium loam.
Moist soil.
Moist soil; sun or half shade.

Showy; border; also called campion and
lamp flower.
Sun; long-lived.

Leave undisturbed; foliage dies after
flowering.
Sun; spreads rapidly.
Moisture; shade or sun if not dry; var.
semperflorens is very good.
Large flowers; showy.

Heavy soil; sun; old-fashioned "piney."
Sun; deep, rich soil.
Edger; blooming intermittently through
season.
Mixed border; gorgeous colors; after
flowering the plants rest and foliage
dies down.
Var. Torreyi; sun; rich; grown in
masses. [colors.
Indispensable; clumps; choose good
Excellent for rockery or border.
Showy; border; cut-flower.

Likes moisture; sun or partial shade;
border; finely cut foliage.
Excellent background; easily grown.
Showy; sun; rich soil.
Sun; light soil; masses; border; cut-
flower.
Moist heavy loam; buttercup-like flow-
ers; best in half shade.
Masses; rich soil.
Transplant early spring; sun; light soil.

Anemone japonica, Japanese Anemone.

Anthemis tinctoria, Golden Marguerite.
Aquilegia chrysantha, Long-spurred

Campanula Medium, Canterbury Bell.
Campanula persicifolia, Peach-leaved

Chrysanthemum coccineum.Pyrethrum
Clematis recta, White Bush Clematis..

Dianthus barbatus, Sweet William

Dicentra spectabilis, Bleeding Heart.. .

Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove

Eryngium amethystiaurn, Globe Thistle

Filipendula hexapetala, Meadow Sweet.
Gaillardia aristata, Blanket Flower

Gypsophila paniculata, Baby's Breath.
Helenkim autumnale, Sneezewort
Helianthus decapetalus var. multiflorus,

Hesperis matronalis, Sweet Rocket

Iris germanica, German Iris

Lobelia cardinalis, Cardinal Flower
Lychnis chalcedonica, Maltese Cross...
Lychnis Viscaria, German Catchfly. . . .
Mertensia virginica, Virginia Cowslip. .
Monarda didyma, Bee Balm

Myosotis palustris, Forget-me-not
(Enothera missouriensis, Missouri Eve-

Papaver nudicaule, Iceland Poppy
Papaver orientale, Oriental Poppy

Pentstemon barbatus, Beard Tongue . .

Platycodon grandiflorum, Chinese Bal-

Polemonium cseruleum, Jacob's Ladder

Rudbeckia laciniata, Golden Glow
Sedum spectabile, Showy Sedum

Trollius europseus, Globe Flower

NOTE. — In the column "distance apart," the distance indicated is for first year; nearly all plants will need frequent division of
clumps, placing them at greater distances apart.

1750 KITCHEN (FLOWER)-GARDEN

radiating from a common center. Such beds provide
the greatest amount of growing room with the least
waste, and they bring all parts of the garden into view,
without the defect of nearby beds shutting out the
view of those in the rear. Such a garden is shown in
Fig. 2038, with turning-places and outlooks at EE.

If the home flower-garden comprises the whole of
the floral planting and no other space is devoted to
shrubbery and the more robust kinds of perennials,
then these radiating beds furnish the very best form in
which to combine them with the landscape garden proper.
Starting from a central point, A, which may be conspicu-
ous by a pool, a bit of sod with table and seat or any
garden furnishing, the beds, which may be as narrow

2038. A serviceable plan for a home flower-garden.

as 1 foot at the point, widen gradually as they recede
until, at the circumference, they attain considerable
width; these rear parts are excellent for the plan ting of
shrubbery and tall perennials, and shrubs may extend
upward through the center of the rear parts of the
beds; tall perennials may be massed at the sides and in
front, lower perennials border these, and annuals and
edging plants fill out the remainder of the ground, in
this way furnishing a massed planting which is very
attractive and also economical of space. The diagram
(Fig. 2038) is a very good example of this manner of
platting, and it may be adopted in its entirety or sim-
plified by omitting the outer circle and the two short
beds in front.

When economy in labor is of moment, it will be well
to choose those plants whose manner of growth is clean
and neat, rather than those that tend to spread and so
require much cutting and restraining. Lilacs, for
example, require constant grubbing out, while the
lespedeza has an attractive erectness and cleanness of
manner and requires no pruning or restraint; this, also,
is true of the altheas and spireas in the main, while the
deutzia is easily kept to the single plant if desired.

Lilies, which do their best when planted among
shrubbery and perennials, should be used abundantly
in the home-garden, especially the candidum and
auratum lilies. For summer cut-flowers, few things
equal in effectiveness and usefulness the gladiolus;
and as this flower is at its best when interspersed among
more generously foliaged plants, it may be worked in
among tall perennials to good advantage. Perennial
poppies are one of the valuable garden assets and, once
established, continue to give satisfactory returns for
years. They combine effectively with the Shasta
daisies, and are specially effective against the green
backgrounds of taller plants. The dictamnus is valuable
and should find a place in the home-garden, as once
established it is practically everlasting; and its manner
of growth is so erect and neat, its bloom so satisfactory
and attractive that it is well worth adopting.

A garden laid out as indicated and planted in the
rear and central parts with permanent things, leaves
abundant room in front and along the margins for
annual plants and for experiments in novelties from

KITCHEN (FLOWER)-GARDEN

year to year. It will have its shady and sunny spots
which may be utilized for plants requiring special
conditions of exposure.

Certain old garden favorites among the annuals will
be much in evidence, but a study of the catalogues of
the leading florists will show vast improvements in
type which may be adopted without in any way detract-
ing from the old-time sentiment of the flowers. Asters
and pansies, especially, show this advancement, and
petunias are much superior to the small kinds of a few
years ago. In purchasing seed of these flowers it is
economy to buy the most expensive, as the results well
repay the extra outlay. From 25 to 50 cents a packet
for pansies and petunias is none too much if one would
secure notable flowers.

The home-garden should be beautiful and interesting
from early spring until frost, and to secure this result
one must plant freely along the margin of the beds of
spring-blooming bulbs — crocus, tulips, hyacinths, nar-
cissi and the like. These bulbs do admirably planted
in long, triple rows, and the space between them may
be filled in summer with candytuft, ageratum, schiz-
anthus, Drummond phlox, verbena, petunia.

Sufficient plants that bloom late in summer and in
autumn should be supplied to make the garden attrac-
tive at this time. Anemones are the most charming of
autumn flowers, hardy chrysanthemums bloom wTell
into November, tritomas or kniphofias are a blaze of
color for weeks. By judicious planting there need be
no dearth of color in any season.

Preparing the ground for the flower-garden.

The preparation of the ground, especially when the
planting is to be of a permanent character, — that is of
shrubbery, perennials and hardy bulbs, — is of great
importance, as any defects in quality of mechanical
condition of the soil will not be easily rectified, once
the planting is accomplished.

Good drainage is the first consideration, as this must
be performed before any platting or bed-making is
attempted. When the lay of the land makes for a
natural removal of surplus moisture, or the soil is
sandy and underlaid with gravel, no artificial drainage
will be required; but when the soil is cold and sour and
retentive of too much moisture it will be necessary, for
the best results, to lay two or more courses of porous
drain-tile underneath the plot.

If the garden is large enough to admit of an initial
plowing, this way of preparing the soil may put it in
better mechanical condition than spading, although, of
course, after the beds are laid out and paths estab-
lished, spading will be the only leasable method of
working the ground. When the soil is naturally good,
as in breaking up a piece of sod land or in a well-fer-
tilized garden spot, it will be necessary only to spade or
work up the beds, incorporating a liberal quantity of
old well-rotted manure. . A very satisfactory way of
working manure into beds is to begin at one side of the
bed and spade one row, laying the soil one side so as
to leave an open trench; fill this trench full of manure
and spade the next row on top of this, and so continue
till the entire area is covered. This buries the manure
well beneath the surface and effectively prevents the

termination of weed seeds; at the same time the manure
eep in the soil holds the moisture and brings the roots
well down beneath the surface where they remain cool
and moist. See p. 1739, trenching.

In beds that are to be worked over but not fertilized
the second summer, it is not desirable to turn the soil
over in spading as this throws the manure back to the
surface; but sufficiently satisfactory results are secured
by thrusting the spade well down into the ground and
turning it around, but not lifting it out. A bed worked
over in this way will be in excellent condition and less
disturbance and cutting of the roots will result.

A garden planted to shrubs and perennials may

KITCHEN (FLOWER)-GARDEN '

KNIPHOFIA

1751

safely be left undisturbed for three years, providing a
good annual stirring of the soil is given in early spring
followed by sufficient tillage to establish a dust-mulch
throughout the dry weather. Getting down on hands
and knees and working around each individual plant
with a trowel has many advantages, as it puts one more
intimately in touch with the plant than is possible with
hoe and spade. Many ambitious little shoots succumb
to the onslaught of a too vigorous hoe, that might have
been saved by a closer inspection. The presence of
insect enemies about the base of the plants is likely to
pass unnoticed until much damage is done, when only a
standing cultivation is practised; so, one intimate
acquaintance with each inmate of the garden is
advised at least once a year, preferably in early spring.

For the remainder of the summer, dependence may
be placed on any one of the various forms of hoes, pref-
erably the scuffle-hoe, as by the use of this tool one
can work closer to the stem of the plants, slipping
beneath the leaves and recumbent foliage with little
damage. It produces the most perfect dust-mulch of
any tool and as it is used walking backward no foot-
prints are left on the soil to press a weed back into the
ground where it may grow again, as is the case with a
wheel-hoe or most hand-hoes, and last, it is the tool
best adapted to a woman's use and with it she can
accomplish a large amount of labor with little fatigue.
A good trowel is essential. In buying this everyday
implement, the gardener should choose one in which the
blade and handle are in one piece of steel, for a handle
riveted or secured to the blade is always unsatisfactory
and of short duration. Pruning shears that open easily
and fit the hand well are also necessary when shrubs or
roses are cultivated. These three articles, together with
a spade and rake are about all the indispensable tools
aside from a good wheelbarrow and one or more baskets
of convenient size.

When the garden plat is confined with an ornamental
wooden fence, painted white as is so much the custom,
a good effect is gained by planting tall-growing shrubs
in the rear to reach over the fence, furnishing a charm-
ing background of bloom and greenery.

Tall-growing shrubs that make their growth mostly at
the crown are especially desirable, as for example, the
dogwood, flowering thorns, red-buds, tree lilacs and the
tamarix. Shrubs which bloom from the ground up are
wasted in the flower-garden. Altheas, syringas, deut-
zias, spireas, symphoricarpos, Tartarian honeysuckles,
weigelas, snowballs and the like need an open place
in which to display their merits to the best.

As the buying of any great quantity of perennial
plants calls for a considerable initial outlay, it is both
economical and interesting to grow them from the
seed. The seeds may be started in hotbeds in early
spring and transplanted into the beds where they are
to grow as soon as large enough; or, what may be the
better way for many kinds, they may be sown in long
rows in the vegetable-garden, where they will receive
the same cultivation as the vegetables and be trans-
planted 'the following spring. Oriental poppies do
especially well under this treatment. Shasta daisies and
delphiniums should be planted, but physostegias,
hibiscus, aquilegias, achilleas, sweet Williams, dianthus,
digitalis, gauras, sunflowers, hollyhocks, may be pro-
duced by the hundreds at a very trifling expense.

Annuals that are desired merely for cutting may also
be grown in the vegetable-garden to advantage. Asters,
sweet peas, cosmos, arctotis, annual larkspurs, cen-
taureas, cornflowers, gaillardias, all the everlastings,
may very profitably be relegated to this economic cul-
ture and so leave room for more permanent things in the
garden proper. IDA p. BENNETT.

KITCHINGIA (personal name). Crassulacese. Suc-
culent glabrous perennial herbs, allied to Bryophyllum
but with small calyx and diverging carpels: sts. flexu-

ose, bearing many opposite sessile or stalked fleshy
crenate Ivs. : fls. large for the plant, bright red, terminal,
often in loose racemes, the parts in 4's; calyx-segms.
as long as tube; corolla-tube campanulate or tubular,
sometimes larger in middle, with 4 short lobes; sta-
mens 8: carpels 4, free, making small many-seeded
follicles. — Species 10, in Madagascar. K. uniflora,
Stapf, is an attractive prostrate sedum-like plant, root-
ing at the joints: Ivs. obovate and obtuse, less than 1
in. long, bright green: fls. solitary or 3 together, bright
red, the corolla-tube narrowed at both apex and base,
about 1 in. long and half as thick; stamens polymorphic.
B.M. 8286. R.H. 1913, p. 177.— A recent species, suit-
able for temperate conditions under glass.

L. H. B.

KLEINIA. Of the three genera of Composite of this
name, two are referred to Porophyllum and Jaumea,
but the trade names will be accounted for under
Senecio.

KLUGIA (Dr. Fr. Klug, German zoologist). Ges-
,neridcese. About 4 blue-fld. herbs, rooting at the base
and more or less succulent, suitable for growing in the
greenhouse. Lvs. alternate, or sometimes nearly
opposite and one of the pair reduced to very small size,
the sides of the If. unequal, many-nerved, sinuate or
nearly entire: fls. opposite the Ivs. or terminal, small
and pendulous, short-stalked; calyx 5-angled or 5-
winged, one wing often larger than the others, the lobes
of calyx 5; corolla-tube cylindrical, 2-lipped, the upper
lip very small and the. lower rounded or somewhat
3-lobed; stamens 4, perfect: fr. a 2-valved caps, included
in the calyx. India, and 1 species in Mex. K. Notoniana,
A. DC. Quick-growing herbaceous annual, 12-18 in.,
more or less puberulent: Ivs. petiplate, ovate, acumi-
nate, 5-^8 in. long: corolla-tube white, J^in. long; large
lower lip blue, with yellow at the base; calyx-lobes
short and triangular, and one wing larger. India, 2,000-
5,000 ft. altitude; variable. Blooms under glass, Jan. to
summer. G.C. III. 19:237. K. zeyldnica, Gardn.,
differs in the long-acuminate calyx-lobes and the wings
of calyx nearly equal. Ceylon. B.M. 4620 (as K.
Notoniana). L. jj 3.

KNIPHOFIA (Johann Hieronymus Kniphof, 1704-
1765, professor at Erfurt). Syn., Tritoma. Lilidcese.
TORCH-LILY. RED-HOT-POKER PLANT. FLAME-FLOWER.
Excellent showy perennial herbs grown in the open
(some species under glass), with spikes or racemes of
long, drooping red and yellow (rarely white) flowers.

Herbs with abundant radical Ivs. and stout, simple
naked scapes or peduncles, the thick roots from a
short vertical rootstock, mostly stemless but a few
species with a short caudex below the crown of Ivs.:
fls. many, in a spike-like raceme or dense head-like
spike, on short articulated pedicels; perianth funnel-
shaped or cylindrical, the tube long and the nearly or
quite equal segms. small and mostly broad; stamens 6,
in two lengths, equaling or exceeding the perianth;
ovary 3-celled, bearing a filiform style and capitate
stigma: fr. a short 3-valved caps. — Species probably
70, in Trop. and S. Afr. in the tropical regions mostly
from high elevations. The genus is rich in good native
forms, many of which are scarcely known in general
cult., and it is to be expected that important horticul-
tural developments will arise in the future. Accounts
of the species described to those dates will be found in
Flora Capensis (1896-7) and Flora Tropical Africa
(1898) in the treatments by Baker, from which the
present descriptions have been largely drawn. These
descriptions are made mostly from wild plants and
therefore may not apply to garden forms, which are
very likely to be hybrids.

The kniphofias are among the most showy of border
plants. They are essentially autumn bloomers, but
some of the newer kinds are nearly continuous bloomers

1752

KNIPHOFIA

KNIPHOFIA

from midsummer. The common kinds are hardy
south of Philadelphia when well covered in winter, but
in the North it is usually safer to dig up the plants in
November, place them in boxes with dry earth, and
store them in a cellar in winter. In spring place them
in a warm, sheltered, well-drained spot, perhaps
with a background of shrubbery to set off the flowers.
Some of the recent species from tropical Africa are
treated as greenhouse or warmhouse subjects. In
general cultivation the prevailing species is K. Uvaria.
This is nearly hardy North, has sword-shaped leaves
2 to 3 feet long, and several scapes 4 or 5 feet high
surmounted by a spike 4 to 8 inches long composed of
perhaps 100 tubular, drooping flowers, each 1 inch or
more long, and fiery red. It has perhaps a dozen
varieties with Latin names and twice as many with
personal names. Most other species have much the
same general effect, and recent variations and apparent
hybrids have greatly extended the blooming season and
the range of color and form. For producing mass-
effects, the torch-lilies are among the most striking
subjects, the brilliant flowers producing a
flame of color. Clumps in open sunny places
are particularly emphatic.

The miniature-flowered torch-lilies are ex-
cellent for planting in small beds and near
the front borders and also for cutting. They
begin to bloom as early as June. The plants
are mostly small, the racemes not so mas-
sive, and the flowers small and short. It is
probable that such species as K. Nelsonii, K.
pauciflora, K. rufa, K. breviflora have entered
into them.

Under cultivation, the kniphofias appear to
hybridize very freely through the agency of
bees, and seedlings therefore may not be true
to the parent from which they came. The
result is that there is much
confusion in the literature
of the genus, and it is often
very difficult to trace the
original species-forms.

They grow readily from
seeds, and novel forms are
likely to be secured from
the mixed garden parent-
age. The plants should
bloom freely the second
year, and often the first
year. The usual method of
propagation is by division;
the caulescent kinds, how-
ever, may not produce off-
sets or divisible parts readily
unless they are headed back
or cut off to make them
spread . Kniphofias are often
classed by dealers as bulb-

2039. Kniphofia Uvaria.

ous plants, though they have only a short rhizome and
numerous, clustered, thickish root-fibers. Old but
vigorous plants of the K. Uvaria kind divide easily,
and give large strong pieces.

alooides, 3.
aurea, 18.
breviflora, 16.
Burchellii, 5.
carnosa, 3.
caulescens, 1.
citrina, 23.
comosa, 17.
corallina, 11.
floribunda, 3.
foliosa, 27.
glauca, 3.
glaucescens, 3.
gracilis, 22.
grandiflora, 3.
grandia, 3.

INDEX.
kewensis, 10.
Leichtlinii, 18.
longicollis, 6.
longiflora, 13.
Macowanii, 11.
maroccana, 11.
maxima, 3.
media, 11.
modesta, 14.
multiflora, 19.
natalensis, 12.
Nelsonii, 10.
nobilis, 3.
Northise, 2.
pauciflora, 20.

prxcox,, 3.
primulina, 8.
pumila, 21.
QiMrtiniana, 27.
refulgens, 3.
rigidissima, 11.
Rooperi, 4.
rufa, 24.
sarmentosa, 7.
Saundersii, 3.
serotina, 3.
sparsa, 15.
triangularis, 9.
Tuckii, 25.
[list. Tysonii, 26.

Pfilzeri, 3; also suppl. Uvaria, 3.

A. Perianth long, an inch or more. (Nos. 1-13.)
B. Plant caulescent (a st. or caudex below the If .-crown).

1. caulescens, Baker. Plant with a thick st. below
the Ivs., 6-12 in. long: Ivs. very glaucous, sword-shaped-
acuminate, broadly channelled, not acutely keeled on
the back, 2-3 ft. long, 2-3 in. wide, margin serrulate:
spike about Yi ft. long, 3 in. thick; lower fls. yellow,
upper ones red; segms. broad, ovate and obtuse, very
short; stamens and style somewhat exserted. Cent.
Cape region. B.M. 5946. G.C. III. 6:564. R.H.
1887:132 (as Tritoma caulescens). Gn. 41:536; 78, p.
502. G. 36:83. Gn.W. 16:443. G.M. 57:555.

2. Northiae, Baker. St. short, 2-3 in. diam. : Ivs. 30-40,
in a dense rosette, 4-5 ft. long and 5-6 in. broad, lance-
acuminate, channelled on the face, not sharply keeled,
margins serrulate: raceme or spike 1 ft. and more long,
very dense, on a peduncle shorter than the Ivs.; fls. 1
in. long, the lower ones yellow and the upper ones red
toward the tip; segms. small and ovate; stamens
becoming much exserted. Coast region. S. Afr. B.M.

7412. G.C. III. 39:100. Gn. 73, p. 480.

BB. Plant acaulescent (no caudex below the

mass of Ivs.).

c. Lvs. ensiform-acuminate.
D. Stamens barely exserted in full anthesis.

E. Color of Ivs. dull green.

3. Uvaria, Hook. (Aide Uvaria, Linn. Aletris
Uvaria, Linn. Tritoma Uvaria, Ker-Gawl. Velt-
helmia Uvaria, Willd. K. alooides, Moench).
TORCH-LILY. COMMON POKER PLANT. POKER-
PLANT. FLAME-FLOWER. Figs. 2039, 2040. Lvs.
slightly glaucous, ensiform-acuminate, 2-3 ft.
long and 1 in. or less broad, scabrous on the
margin, acutely keeled, with 30-40 close vertical
veins: raceme dense, often 6 in. long, 2*^-3 in.
thick, on a peduncle as long
as the Ivs.; upper fls. bright
red, lower ones yellow;
perianth cylindrical, to 1H
in. long; segms. ovate and
obtuse; stamens in the lower
fls. barely exserted. General
Cape region. F.S. 13 : 1393.
B.M. 758; 4816.— The fol-
lowing varieties with Latin
names are in the trade and
usually advertised as ap-
parent species under Kni-
phofia or Tritoma. They
may be all more or less
distinct horticulturally .
Var. carndsa, in Gn.
19:548, with the fls. open-
ing from the top instead
of the bottom, and with
red filaments and yellow
anthers. Leichtlin intro. it about 1881 and said it grew
1 J^-2 ft. high, the apricot-red of the fls. toned down by
a glaucous bloom. (Cf. No. 17.) Var. floribunda is early-
flowering. Var. glauca is apparently a trade name.
Var. glaucescens is figured in Gn. 36:458 with a spike
9 in. long, of "vermilion-scarlet fls. changing to a
more orange color; one of the freest bloomers. Intro.
1859." Foliage somewhat glaucous. Var. grandiflora,
one of the earliest improvements on the type: 2-3 ft.
high. Var. grandis. Large-fld.; fls. red and yellow, 5 ft.
The plant in the trade as K. Pfitzeri probably belongs
here; see also suppl. list, p. 1755. Var. nobilis is said
by Carriere, R.H. 1885:252, to have shorter and
stricter Ivs. than var. Saundersii, the spikes more
ovoid, the fls. uniformly red and less deflexed. Lvs.
not glaucous. Gn. 55, p. 167. Var. Saundersii, in
R.H. 1882:504, is shown with "red-orange fls." in
an elliptical spike and said to grow 6 ft. and more

KNIPHOFIA

KNIPHOFIA

1753

high. It 'grows 4-6 ft. high in rich soil, the peduncles
less rigid than in K. Uvaria (blooming late) with
cylindrical spikes 18-24 in. long and fls. often }/£in.
across. Gn. 71, p. 492. See var. maxima, below.

Baker's treatment of the botanical varieties (under
K. alooides) is as follows (Fl. Capensis, VI, p. 283) :

Var. maxima (Tritoma grandiflora, Hort. T. Saun-
dersii, Carr.). More robust: Ivs. 4-5 ft. long, 1 in.
wide: raceme and fls. longer; stamens more decidedly
exserted. B.M. 6553 (fls. yellow, more or less tinged
red). R.H. 1882:504 (colored like the type).

Var. nobilis (Tritoma, ndbilis, Guill.). Still more
robust: scape including raceme sometimes 6-7 ft. long;
fls. 1M in. long. R.H. 1885:252.

Var. serotina, Hort. A late-flowering form with
slender perianth 1J4 m- long and distinctly exserted
stamens. Baker also mentions var. carnosa, glaucescens
and refulgens without discrimination. Other varieties
with Latin names are mentioned in Gn. 36:458. K.
prascox, Baker, is probably not in cult.: fls. sometimes
in summer and sometimes in autumn.

4. RoSperi, Lena. Lvs. ensiform-acuminate, 4 ft.
long, and to 1J^ in. broad, scabrous on the margin,
acutely keeled, glaucous: raceme to 6 in. long, very
dense, on a stout stiff peduncle as long as the Ivs. ; fls.
paler than in K. Uvaria and later; perianth cylindrical,
to \Yi in. long, the segms. ovate and obtuse; stamens
at length just exserted. Coast region, S. Afr. B.M.
6116. J.F. 4:362. — The plant grown under this name
is likely not to be the true botanical species here
described.

EE. Color of Ivs. bright green.

5. Burchellii, Kunth. Lvs. ensiform-acuminate, 2-3
ft. long, ^-%in. wide, sharply keeled, 15-20 ribs each
side of midrib, smooth on the margin: spike 6-12 in.
long, on a stout peduncle 3 ft. high; fls. bright yelow,
much tinged with red when young; perianth somewhat
cylindrical, to 1^ in. long, the segms. as long as broad
and ovate; stamens at length just exserted. S. Afr.
B.R. 1745 (as Tritoma Burchellii). — Probably the true
K. Burchellii is not now in commerce.

6. Iongic611is, Baker. Lvs. ensiform, sharply keeled,
2 ft. long and 1 in. broad at base, smooth on margins:
raceme dense and short, on a slender peduncle 1J^ ft.
long: fls. lemon-yellow tinged orange-yellow when
young, on very short pedicels; perianth somewhat or
nearly cylindrical, to 1 }/% in. long, constricted above the
ovary, the lobes small and ovate; stamens and style
at length short-exserted. Natal. Gn. 59, p. 96; 63, p.
92. Gn.W. 20:120.

DD. Stamens prominently exserted.

7. sarmentdsa, Kunth. (Aletris sarmentdsa, Andr.).
Lvs. ensiform-acuminate, 2-3 ft. long and to 1 in. broad,
glaucous-green, sharply keeled, about 12 ribs either
side the midrib: raceme cylindrical, dense, 6-12 in.
long, on a stout peduncle equaling the Ivs.; upper fls.
red, the lower yellow or yellow tinged red; perianth
cylindrical, to 1 in. long, the segms. broad, ovate and
obtuse; stamens and style at length exserted to about
J^in. S. Afr. B.M. 744. — It produces underground
shoots or offsets.

8. primulina, Baker. Lvs. many, ensiform, 3-4 ft.
long and Y<£-\ in. broad, toward base sharply keeled,
smooth on margin: raceme dense, oblong, 3-4 in. long,
on a stout and stiff peduncle as long as the Ivs.; fls.
pale yellow; perianth nearly cylindrical, 1 in. long;
segms. small and ovate; stamens and style much
exserted. Eastern region. S. Afr. G. 32:299.

cc. Lvs. linear.

9. triangularis, Kunth. Lvs. narrow-linear, rather
rigid, erect, 1 ft. long, nearly triquetrous, margins
smooth: raceme dense, 12-18 in. long, on a slender

peduncle 1-1 H ft. long; fls. all yellow; perianth 1 in.
long, cylindrical; segms. ovate-oblong and obtuse,
longer than broad; stamens and style not exserted.
Central region, S. Afr.

10. Nelsonii, Mast. Lvs. narrow-linear (the old
ones persisting as weak fibers), 1^-2 ft. long, with a
thick midrib, rounded and 3-nerved on the back, and
recurved serrulate edges: raceme dense, oblong, 2-3
in. long, on a peduncle as long as the Ivs.; fls. bright
scarlet sometimes tinged orange, all deflexed at expan-
sion, on very short pedicels; perianth cylindrical, 1J4
in. long and narrow; segms. oblong and small; stamens
more or less in two series, much shorter than perianth.
Kalahari region, S. Afr.

G.C. Ill 11:561; 39:82.
Gn. 50, p. 400; 55:166.—
It is probable that K.
Nelsonii is not represented
in the garden plants under
this name. A hybrid be-
tween K. pauciflora and
K. Macowanii has passed
under this name, but it is
now given the name K.
kewensis, N. E. Br. : fls.
yellow.

11. Macowanii, Baker
(Tritoma rigidissima and
T. maroccdna, Hort.).
Dwarf: Ivs. linear, erect
and rigid, to 2 ft. long,
3-5 veins either side the
midrib, with a thickened
scabrous margin: raceme
very dense, 2-4 in. long,
on a slender peduncle 1-2
ft. long; fls. bright yellow-
ish to orange-red; perianth
cylindrical, 1 in. long;
segms. ovate and obtuse,
reflexed; stamens not ex-
serted. S.Afr. B.M. 6167.
R.H. 1879:390. G.C. III.
39:83.— K. cordllina,
Hort., R.B. 19:25 (1893),
a hybrid between this
species and K. Uvaria
was raised by Deleuil, of
Marseilles: it grows 18-24
in. high and bears ovoid
spikes of coral-red fls. all
summer and fall: said to
be good for cutting. K.
media Macdwanii, Hort.:
"a hybrid between K.
aloides grandiflora and K.
Macowanii. This is an

earlier blooming sort than either of its parents, as dwarf
as K. Macowanii and much earlier and more brilliant."

12. natalensis, Baker. Lvs. linear, 1^-2 ft. long
to J^in. broad, with 10-12 veins either side midrib,
margin thickened: raceme not very dense, 6-8 in. long,
on a peduncle 2-3 ft. long; fls. mostly yellow; perianth
nearly cylindrical, about 1 in. long; segms. ovate;
stamens as long as perianth; style at length exserted.
S. Afr. — Variable.

13. longifldra, Baker. Much like K. sarmentosa,
differing in the perianth being twice longer and the
stamens scarcely exserted : Ivs. linear, 2 ft. long, flaccid,
green, sharply keeled, %in. wide toward the base:
raceme dense, oblong, 3 in. long, on a stout peduncle
that is 3 ft. and more tall; fls. yellow-red, strongly
deflexed; perianth cylindrical, slender, curved, 1H. in-
long; segms. ligulate and obtuse; stamens in two series,
included; style long-exserted. Natal probably.

2040. Kniphofia Uvaria.

1754

KNIPHOFIA

KNIPHOFIA

AA. Perianth short, mostly %in. or less long.

B. Fls. (perianth) not more than %in. long.

c. Color of fls. white, when open.

14. modesta, Baker. Lvs. linear, rigid, \Y% ft. long,
sharply keeled: raceme moderately dense and spike-
like, secund or 1-sided, 4-7 in. long, on a slender
peduncle as long as the Ivs.; fls. Mm- long, the perianth
cylindrical, and the segms. ovate; anthers at length
just exserted. Griqualand, S. Afr. — Probably not in
cult., the next having been confused with it. In the
original description the fls. are described as yellow.

15. spfirsa, N. E. Br. A much stouter plant than K.
modesta, with Ivs. 2-2J^ ft. long: peduncle 1Yr%Yi ft.
high, bearing a spike 9-18 in. long; fls. reddish or red-
dish; brown in bud but white when expanded, rather
laxly scattered and directed to all sides. Natal. B.M.
7293 (asK. modesta).

cc. Color of fls. yellow.

16. brevifl&ra, Harvey. Lvs. linear, not rigid, 12-18
in. long and very narrow, strong ribs about 5, margin
scabrous: raceme dense, \Yz in. or less long, on a slen-
der peduncle as long as the Ivs.; fls. yellow, on very
short pedicels; perianth cylindrical, J^in. long; segms.
ovate and obtuse; stamens as long as perianth. S. Afr.

BB. Fls. (perianth) %-% in. long.
c. Shape of perianth funnelform (flaring at the end).
D. Stamens exserted more than the length of perianth.

17. com6sa, Hochst. Roqtstock thick and short, with
copious roots: Ivs. many, linear, bright green, to 2 ft.
and more long, sharply keeled, edges smooth: raceme
very dense, oblong, 3-4 in. long, on a peduncle equaling
the Ivs.; fls. bright yellow, deflexed, J^in. long and fun-
nel-shaped but dilated suddenly at the middle; segms.
very obtuse; filaments red; anthers yellow, long-
exserted. Nile Land. B.M. 6569. — This is perhaps
more conspicuous by reason of its mass of stamens
than the outline of the spike. It is doubtful whether
the true K. comosa is the same as the cult, plant of that
name. Perhaps K. comosa and K. Leichtlinii of gardens
are forms of one species. In the true or botanical K.
comosa and K. Leichtlinii, the spikes are sometimes
2 or 3 on the peduncle; when there is only 1 spike, the
uppermost fls. open first, thus reversing the usual order
in the kniphofias; when there are lateral spikes, they
open from below upward. G.C. III. 56:410.

18. Leichtlinii, Baker. Plant with many slender root-
fibers: Ivs. many, linear, strongly keeled, 3-4 ft. long
and ^in. wide toward base, edges smooth: fls. bright
yellow; perianth narrowly funnel-shaped, becoming
%in. long; segms. ovate, very obtuse; stamens and
style distinctly exserted (about \Yz times length of
perianth) : scape speckled with red, sometimes bearing
a bract 4-5 in. long, as long as the Ivs., the raceme very
dense and 3^ in. long. Nile Land. B.M. 6716. R.H.
1884, p. 556. Var. aurea, Hort. Spike or raceme
broad and about 1 ft. long; upper unopened fls. soft
orange-red and the lower ones soft yellow.

19. multifldra, Wood & Evans. Lvs. 3-6 ft. long,
1 in. broad in middle, long-acuminate, deeply chan-
neled above, strongly keeled, with many strong nerves,
margin serrulate, stiffish, bright green above and some-
what glaucous beneath: spike 2 ft. long, dense, cylindric
and narrow (1 J^-2 in. diam.), on a stout peduncle as long
as Ivs. or shorter; fls. white or suffused with green (buds
yellowish), numerous, erect, produced very late; perianth
%in, or less long, swollen at base, narrow-funnelform;
segms. small and rounded, erect; filaments white, almost
twice the length of the perianth. Natal, 5,000-6,000 ft.
B.M. 7832. G.C. III. 45:196; 54:356. Gn. 77, p. 587.

DD. Stamens exserted, not exceeding the length of the tube.

20. paucifldra, Baker. Lvs. few, linear and rigid,
1-1 Yi ft. long, margin thickened and smooth: raceme

lax, 2-3 in. long, on a slender peduncle lJ^-2 ft.;
fls. pale yellow; perianth narrow-funnelform, %in.
long; stamens shortly exserted. Eastern region. S.
Afr. B.M. 7269. G.C. III. 12:65; 39:101.

21. pthnila, Kunth (Tritoma pumila, Ker-Gawl).
Lvs. linear, to 2 ft., glaucous, sharply keeled, 10-12
veins either side of midrib : raceme very dense, 3-4 in.
long, on a peduncle equaling the Ivs. ; fls. red, or yellow
to red; perianth narrow-funnelform, to %in. long, sud-
denly dilated above base; segms. ovate and obtuse;
stamens and style exserted to )|in. S. Afr. B.M. 764.

cc. Shape of perianth nearly or quite cylindrical: fls.

yellow or yellow-red.
D. Lvs. very narrow (Yzin. or less broad).

22. gracilis, Harvey. Lvs. linear J-gin. broad, 1^-2
ft. long, margin smooth, 5-6 veins either side the mid-
rib: raceme dense, 2-3 in. long, on a peduncle as long
as the Ivs.; fls. pale yellow; perianth about J^in. long,
with a very slender tube and dilated throat; segms.
oblong; the longer stamens and the style exserted.
Eastern region, S. Afr. R.B. 39:227.

23. citrina, Baker. Lvs. many, linear, 1 J^-2 ft. long
and ^jin. to perhaps J^in. broad toward the base,
acutely channelled down the face, slightly scabrous on
the edge: raceme oblong, dense, 2-3 in. long, on a
slender peduncle shorter than the Ivs.; fls. pale yellow;
perianth subcylindrical, about %in. long; segms. small
and ovate; stamens and style much exserted. Coast
region, S. Afr.

24. ritfa, Leicht. Small: Ivs. few, linear, 12-18
in. long and J^in. broad toward base, firm and green,
sharply keeled on back, tapering to a long point, mar-
gin smooth: raceme lax, 4-6 in. long, on a moderately
stout peduncle as long as the Ivs.; lower fls. primrose-
yellow and upper ones tinged red, drooping; perianth
cylindrical, %in. long; segms. orbicular, spreading;
stamens and style at length exserted. Natal. B M.
7706. G.M. 47:562.— Blooms early and for a long sea-
son; a good border plant.

DD. Lvs. broader (%-2 in., toward base).
E. Stamens short-exserted.

25. Tuckii, Baker. Lvs. ensiform, bright green,
1-1 Yi ft. long, %in. wide, margin serrate: raceme very
dense, 5-6 in. long, on a peduncle shorter than the Ivs.;
fls. yellow, tinged bright red when young, deflexed;
perianth subcylindrical, %in. long; segms. short, ovate
and obtuse; stamens shortly protruding. Central
region, S. Afr. — One of the hardiest.

EE. Stamens much or prominently exserted.

26. Tysonii, Baker. In character, between /. pumila
and I. sarmentosa: Ivs. linear, 3-4 ft. long and at base
%in. broad, tapering to a long point, sharply keeled:
raceme very dense, 6 in. long, on a peduncle that equals
the Ivs.; fls. red-yellow; perianth cylindrical, %in.
long; segms. nearly orbicular; stamens protruding to
J^in. or less. Eastern region, S. Afr. Gn. 77, p. 538.

27. foliosa, Hochst. (K. Quartinidna, A. Rich.). Lvs.
densely tufted, 2-3 ft. long and to 2 in. broad, ensiform,
acuminate, sharply keeled: raceme dense, oblong, on a
very stout peduncle equaling the Ivs.; fls. yellow;
perianth cylindrical, about %in. long; segms. small,
ovate and obtuse; stamens much exserted. Transvaal.
B.M. 6742.

K. elm&nsis, Hort. Garden hybrid (Sprenger, Naples) between
K. pauciflora and K. rufa. — K. erecta, Hort. Remarkable hybrid:
spike conical before anthesis, the buds spreading horizontally, but
as the spike develops the fls., beginning with the lowermost, take
an erect position, at the same time the axis of the spike elongating,
finally all the fls. becoming erect: fls. brilliant orange-scarlet,
fading from below upward, never expanding. G.C. III. 56:410. —
K. excelsa, Hort. Garden hybrid, parentage not recorded: remark-
able for enormous size and almost campanulate fls. — K. Goldelse,
Hort. Seedling from K. Nelsonii and K. pauciflora: fls. pure yel-
low. G. 32:29. — K. hybrida, Hort., is a trade name used to include
varieties with personal names, of miscellaneous or unknown paren-

KNIPHOFIA

KOELLIKERIA

1755

tage. The new "everblooming" poker-plants are likely to be listed
under this name. — K. Pfitzerii, Hort. (K. grandiflora multiflora,
Hort.). Described as in bloom from Aug. to Oct., with spikes stand-
ing 3-4 ft. high, the fls. rich orange-scarlet. — K.ruvaria, Hort. Gar-
den hybrid between K. rufa and K. Uvaria (Sprenger, Naples). —
K. sulphured, Hort. Free-flowering, sulfur-yellow. — K. tricolor,
Hort. Small-fld.; buds opening cochineal-red, changing to canary-
yellow and then to sulfur-white. — K. vomerensis, Hort. Garden
hybrid (Sprenger, Naples) between K. pauciflora and K. rufa. —
K. Woddii, Campbell. Resembles K. modesta, but is stouter and
there are a few spines on the Ivs. : peduncle 8^2 ft., the raceme 9 in.
long; fls. /^in. long, pale cream-color. S. Afr.

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.|

KNOWLTONIA (Thos. Knowlton, 1692-1781, curator
of the botanic garden at Eltham, England). Ranun-
culacese. By some referred to Anemone, but differs in
having 5 sepals and numerous petals, and the carpels
soft and fleshy: species 8 or so in S. Afr., sometimes
mentioned as half-hardy or as greenhouse subjects, but
apparently not in the trade. Stemless perennial herbs,
with large ternately decompound rigid radical Ivs., no
involucre, numerous 1-seeded carpels which become
thick and juicy at maturity, and greenish or yellowish
fls. on branching cymose or umbellate scapes. K. vesi-
catoria, Sims, with Ivs. 1 ft. or more across, green fls.
and blackish purple berries: If.-segms. nearly entire or
only serrulate: ovaries as long as the subulate style.
B.M. 775. B.R. 936. K. rigida, Salisb., with Ivs. rather
smaller, segms. sharply serrate, and ovaries shorter
than the subulate style: variable. H.F. II. 7:72.

L. H. B.

KOA. A species of Acacia (A. koa, page 186), from
the wood of which the Hawaiians make their beauti-
ful highly polished "calabashes."

KOCHIA (after W. D. J. Koch, 1771-1849, professor
of botany at Erlangen; wrote a flora of Germany and
Switzerland). Chenopodiaceae. SUMMER CYPRESS.
MOCK CYPRESS. This includes two hardy annuals,
called the "mock cypress" or "summer cypress,"

2041. Kochia trichophylla ; often grows in a more ovoid form.

grown for the compact habit and the herbage which is
green in summer and turns red in autumn.

Kochia is a polymorphous genus of herbs which are
often woody at the base : Ivs. often minute and narrow,
alternate, more or less silky, rarely glabrous: fls. small

or minute, sessile, solitary or clustered in the axils of the
Ivs.; calyx enlarging into a flask-shaped body, which
incloses the fr.; perianth orbicular; lobes 5, incurved
and bearing horizontal wings on the back or on the
tube which are membranous or scarious, distinct or con-
fluent; stamens 5; filaments short or long and com-
pressed; stigmas 2, rarely 3. — Species 30-40, of which
one is native in the W. U. S. and the others in the Old
World and Austral.

The seed may be sown indoors in April, and the plants
set out in May, or the seeds may be sown in the open
ground about May 1. The plants should stand about
2 to 3 feet apart.

scoparia, Schrad. BELVEDERE. Annual, erect, 3-5
ft., much-branched, more or less pyramidal: branches
striate, slender, and close to the main st. : Ivs. linear-
lanceolate, 2-3 in. long, 2-4 lines wide: fls. inconspicu-
ous, green, in elongated clusters; perianth in fr. pro-
vided with very short, triangular, pointed appendages.
Cent. Eu. — A plant sometimes grown in gardens for
its fastigiate or pyramidal form; used sometimes for
brooms. Probably not now grown to any extent in
American gardens.

trichophylla, Stapf. Fig. 2041. The common summer
cypress of gardens, although frequently grown under the
name of K. scoparia, but differing in its ovoid, conical
or nearly globular rather than narrow and fastigiate
form, by its purple-red color in autumn, and other char-
acters: annual, very much branching, 3-5 ft., making
a very compact ovoid object, remarkable for the natural
regularity in different plants: Ivs. very abundant,
alternate, straight, long and linear (2-3 % in- long),
sharp-pointed, bright green, puberulent and with long
white hairs on the margins near the base: infl. in few-
fld. glomerules; fls. polygamous, those on the lateral
branches most numerous and female, those at the
summit of the principal branches perfect: foliage deli-
cate green, becoming deep red-bronze in autumn.
China, probably. R.H. 1907, p. 119. J.H. III. 66:495.
• — Very useful when formal regular effects are desired,
and for its pronounced color in autumn, keeping its
shape when most other garden vegetation is destroyed
by frost. It is of the easiest cult. This species has been
recognized and has come into prominence within the
past ten or twelve years. L H. B.

KOELERIA (G. L. Koeler, professor at Mainz, an
early writer on grasses) . Graminese. Tufted perennials,
with slender sts. : spikelets 2-4-fld. in dense spike-like
panicles. — Species about 12, in temperate regions of
both hemispheres; of little horticultural value.

cristata, Pers. Culms 1-1 % ft-, puberulent below
the panicles: Ivs. fine, mostly basal. Dept. Agric., Div.
Agrost. 20:136. Prairies, N. Amer. — Sometimes cult,
for lawn decoration in open dry ground.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

KOELLIA: Pycnanthemum.

KOELLIKERIA (Professor Koelliker, German bota-
nist). Gesneriacese. One species, a small herbaceous
warmhouse plant, K. argyrostigma, Regel, Cent. Amer.
to Peru, offered abroad: in the way of achimenes, but
fls. smaller in leafless racemes, the corolla-limb dis-
tinctly 2-lipped: rhizomatous or the root, creeping: Ivs.
opposite, soft-pubescent, elliptical and nearly or quite
obtuse, velvety green and marked with white dots: fls.
white or cream- color, red-spotted, in racemes standing
12 in. high; calyx-tube obovoid, the lobes 5 and nar-
row; corolla-tube short, broad and decurved; upper lip
2-parted and nearly erect; lower lip larger, 3-parted,
spreading; stamens attached in base of corolla, some-
what exserted; style filiform, the stigma becoming
2-lobed: caps. 2-valved. B.M. 4175 (as Achimenes
argyrostigma). — Requires treatment probably of achi-
menes; prop, by division. L. jj. B.

1756

KOELREUTERIA

KOHLRABI

KOELREUTERIA (Joseph G.Koelreuter, 1733-1806,
professor of natural history at Karlsruhe). Sapindacese.
Ornamental trees, grown for their large panicles of
yellow flowers and the handsome compound foliage.

Deciduous: winter-buds small, with 2 outer scales:
Ivs. alternate, petioled, estipulate, pinnate or bipin-

2042. Koelreuteria paniculate. (XK)

nate, with serrate Ifts. : fls. in large terminal panicles,
yellow, symmetrical; calyx deeply divided into 5
unequal lobes; petals 4, turned upward, lanceolate,
clawed, the blade cordate at the base with 2 upturned
appendages; disk crenate at the upper margins; sta-
mens 8, sometimes less, with long filaments; ovary
superior, 3-celled, style 3-fid at the apex, shorter than
stamens: fr. a bladdery, loculicid caps., with papery
walls; seeds usually 1 in each cell, roundish, black. —
Five species in China and Japan.

The koelreuterias are medium-sized rather sparingly
branched round-headed trees with light green pin-
nately divided leaves and small yellow flowers in large
terminal panicles appearing in summer and followed
by conspicuous bladder-like pods. K. paniculata is
hardy as far north as Massachusetts, though occa-
sionally killed back in severe winters; as a rule it is a
short-lived tree. The other species are more tender.
They are not particular as to the soil and prefer sunny
positions. Propagation is by seeds, which are usually
freely produced and sown in autumn or stratified, also
by root-cuttings.

paniculata, Laxm. (Sapindus chinensis, Linn.). Figs.
2042-2044. Tree, to 30 ft.: Ivs. pinnate or sometimes
bipinnate, to 14 in. long; Ifts. 7-15, ovate to oblong-
ovate, coarsely and irregularly crenate-serrate, at the
base often incisely lobed, glabrous above, pubescent on
the veins below or nearly glabrous, 1-3H in. long: fls.
yellow, J^in. long, in broad panicles to 18 in. long; fila-
ments hairy: caps, ovate-oblong, gradually narrowed

into the pointed apex, 1^-2 in. long. July, Aug.; fr.
in Sept. China, Korea, Japan. I.T. 4:147. G.C. III.
2:561. B.R. 330. Gng. 2:353; 8:219. Gn. 32, p. 378.
J.H.S. 27, p. 875. G.W. 5, p. 81; 9, p. 9; 13, p. 529.—
It is often cult, in the Cent. W., Kans., Mo., and south-
ward, as an ornamental tree, as it stands drought and
hot winds well. It is there popularly known as "pride
of India" or "China tree," but the first name belongs
properly to Melia Azedarach and the second to Sapin-
dus; it is also sometimes called "varnish tree," but the
true varnish tree is Rhus yerniciflua. — K. japdnica,
Sieb., is scarcely different; it is said to differ in its more
deeply serrate Ivs. and smaller fr.

K . apiculata, Rehd. & Wilson. Closely allied to K. paniculata.
Tree, to 35 ft.: Ivs. bipinnate, the pinnae pinnatifid or pinnate at
the base, incisely lobed and serrate toward the apex: fr. ovate-
oblong, rounded at the apex and apiculate. Cent. China. — K.
bipinnata, Franch. Tree, to 60 ft.: Ivs. bipinnate with ovate to
oblong nearly equally serrate Ifts. 1 J^-4 in. long: fr. globose-
ovoid, rounded at the apex. W. China. R.H. 1888, p. 393. Gn.
34, p. 305. — K. Henryi, Diimmer, from Formosa and K. minor,
Hemsl., from S. E. China, are not in cult. ALFRED REHDER.

KCENIGA: Koniga.

KOHLERIA (named for J. M. Kohler, teacher of
natural history, Zurich). Isoloma, which see for discus-
sion. K. bogotense, Fritsch=7. bogotense, Nichols. K.
picta, Hanst.=7. picta, Planch. (Gesneria picta, Hook.,
not Achimines picta, Benth.).

KOHLRABI (Brassica oleracea var. Caulo-Rapa).
Fig. 2045. As the Latin name indicates, this plant is a
member of the cabbage group. This group is interest-
ing from a horticultural standpoint because of the
great variety in the parts developed to a condition
suitable for human food. The kohlrabi is one of the
most peculiar of the lot. It is like a turnip produced on
a cabbage root, if that were possible. The flesh of the
thickened stem resembles that of a turnip, but when
well grown it is more delicate, both in texture and
flavor. This interesting plant is deserving of a place
in every home-garden as well as in the market-garden.
In quality it is superior to all other members of the
cabbage group save cauliflower. Kohlrabi is naturally
a cool- weather plant. To have it at its best it should be
grown during the cool days of either spring or autumn
and gathered while still young and tender. The soil
for kohlrabi should be a rich loam, well drained so
as to be available for early planting. Plants may be
started in a hotbed and transplanted to the open the
same as early cabbage, or the seed may be sown in the
open as soon as the season is far enough advanced to
sow radish or cabbage seed safely. The rows should be
from 15 to 30 inches apart and the young plants planted
or thinned to stand 6 to 8 inches apart in the row. The
cultivation that would be given early beets will suffice
for the plant. The early, quick-maturing sorts should
be chosen for table use. The plants should be har-
vested as soon as the edible portion can be induced
to develop to the size of a baseball. If conditions are
such as to retard or delay growth,
the product is apt to be tough and
strong. Quick growth means quality
in this plant.

To prepare kohlrabi for mar-
ket, cut the stem just above the

2043. Flowers of Koelreu-
teria paniculata. (XI,1 3)

2044. Pods of Koel-
reuteria paniculate, a,
end view. (XH)

KRIGIA

1757

surface of the ground and tie three to five plants
together by their leaves to form a bunch. To pre-
pare it for the table it should be peeled and cut into
dice about %inch square and cooked the same as
cauliflower. Vilmorin says that some of the large,
coarse varieties are grown in Europe for stock feed. It
is doubtful whether it will ever find favor in this coun-
try for this purpose for the reason that in most locali-
ties turnips, cabbage, or marrow kale will outyield it.

L. C. CORBETT.

KOLKWITZIA (after Richard Kolkwitz, professor
of botany, Berlin). Caprifolidceae. A shrub allied to
Abelia, but differing in the fls. being arranged in pairs
at unequal height, one above the other, in
the sepals not enlarging after flowering and
in the numerous ovules. Only 1 species in
Cent. China, recently intro.; it has proved
hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, but has not
yet flowered. Prop, is by greenwood cuttings
in late summer. K. amabilis, Graebn. Small
deciduous shrub with slender, hairy branches:
Ivs. ovate, acute or acuminate, rounded at
the base, denticulate or nearly entire, spar-
ingly hairy above, more densely hairy below,
1-1% in. long: fls. in axillary slender-
peduncled pairs, forming short panicles at
the end of short branchlets; sepals linear;
corolla tubular - campanulate, white, flushed
with pink, puberulous, ^in. long; stamens
4, included: fr. a usually 1-seeded ribbed
achene, crowned by the persistent stipitate
calyx, in pairs. H.I. 30:2937. B.M. 8563.
ALFRED REHDER.

KONIGA (Charles Konig, of the British
Museum early in last century). Sometimes
written Koeniga. Cruciferx. A genus established in
1826 by Robert Brown, but now included in Alyssum.
Trade-lists still contain Koniga maritima, R. Br., which
is Alyssum maritimum; and K. variegata of lists is the
variegated form of A. maritimum. K. spinosa, Spach
= Alyssum spinosum.

KOPSIA (Jan Kops, Dutch botanist, 1765-1849).
Apocyndceae. A few trees or shrubs (upward of a dozen
species), somewhat allied to oleander, grown in warm-
houses and also offered (species not given) in S. Fla.
Lvs. opposite, very short-petioled : fls. white or pink,
in terminal cymes; calyx 5-parted, the segms. with
glandular tips; corolla salverform with a very slender
tube and a hairy throat; stamens inserted near the top
of the tube, not protruding ; disk of 2 glands : fr. 2 carpels;
1-celled, coriaceous or fleshy. India and Malaysia to
the Philippines. K. fruticosa, A. DC. Large evergreen
shrub, with Ivs. 4-8 in. long, elliptic or elliptic-lanceo-
late: fls. pink, the tube \Y<i in. long and limb 1-2 in.
across. K. orndta, Hort., shrub from Malaya, with
large oblong-lanceolate glossy Ivs., and white red-
centered salverform fls. in corymbose panicles; appar-
ently not botanically described under this name.

L. H. B.

KOROLK6WIA: Fritillaria. K. Sewerzow, Regel and K. dis-
color, Hort.=F. Sewerzowi.

KORTHALSIA (Peter W. Korthals, a German
botanist). Palmdcese, tribe Lepidocdryeae. Feather-
leaved palms from farther India to Borneo and New
Guinea, little grown in warmhouses. Climbing and
usually spiny plants with pinnatisect Ivs., the Ifts.
mostly more or less cuneate or trapezoid and erose:
fls. perfect, crowded in cylindric and catkin-like spikes;
sepals orbicular or oblong, and petals ovate or lanceo-
late; stamens and staminodia 6 or more: fr. 1-seeded,
nearly globular or ovoid: spadix axillary and loosely
branched, pendulous, in sheathing tubular presistent
spathes: some of the ligules of the petiole-sheath harbor
ants. — About 20 species, imperfectly understood. One

species is offered abroad. K. robusta, Blume (K.
Junghuhnii, Miq.), from Java. Petiole 1 ft. long, not
armed; Ifts. 7-9, rhomboidal, more or less attenuated
below into a stalk-like base, sharp-pointed at apex, 8-16
in. long; rachis backwardly or retrorsely hooked or
armed; end of If. terminating in a hook-like process.
Java. L. H. B.

KOSTELETZKYA (named for V. F. Kosteletzky,
professor of medicinal botany at Prague, and author of
several books). Malvaceae. Perennial herbs or shrubs
closely related to Hibiscus, 6 species of which are found
in Amer., 1 in. Abyssinia and 1 from W. and Cent.

2045. Kohlrabi.

Italy through S. Russia to Persia. Lvs. sagittate, lobed:
fls. solitary or clustered in the axils of the Ivs., often in
terminal panicles or racemes, pink, purple or white;
bractlets 7-10, often very small or obsolete; staminal
column entire or 5-toothed; ovary 5-celled with 1 ovule
in each cell: caps, depressed, dehiscing loculicidally
along the 5 projecting angles. K. pentacarpa, Ledeb.,
is the only European species and has been described in
horticultural literature abroad. An erect plant, about
3 ft. high: Ivs. cordate, toothed: fls. purple-red, rather
large, borne singly on peduncles a little shorter than
the Ivs. K. virginica, Presl. Foliage pubescent, often
scabrous: sts. 1-4 ft. high, branching: panicles leafy;
calyx caneecent; petals pink or purple: caps, hirsute at
maturity. Marshes along the coast, N. Y. to Fla. and
La.

KRAMERIA (John George Henry Kramer, of Hun-
gary in the early part of the 18th century). Legumi-
nosas; by some referred to Polygaldceas. Woody plants,
or perennial herbs, of minor horticultural value, some-
times grown in the warmhouse, from Trop. Amer.,
upward of a dozen species. Silky-tomentose : Ivs.
alternate, small, entire or of 3 Ifts.: racemes terminal,
carrying red or purplish fls.; sepals 4 or 5, about equal;
petals 5, very unequal in sets of 3 and 2, the former
long-clawed and connate or rarely free, the 2 orbicular
and very much shorter; stamens 4, connate part way,
the anthers opening by a pore: fr. 1-seeded, coriaceous
and indehiscent. K. tridndra, Ruiz & Pav., of Peru,
is probably the most important species horticulturally:
small shrub: Ivs. alternate or scattered, close together,
elliptic or obovate, apiculate, hairy: fls. bright scarlet.
This and other species supply the rhatany root of apoth-

L. H. B.

KRAUSSIA: Tricalysia.

KRIGIA (David Krig or Krieg, an early collector
in Maryland and Delaware). Syn. Adopdgon, Neck.
Composite. Hardy herbaceous plants, annual and

1758

KRIGIA

perennial, yellow-flowered and sometimes called
"dwarf dandelions."

Scapose or leafy-stemmed herbs with heads about 1
in. across, usually yellow, and 15-20 pappus bristles.
They differ from the common dandelion in having a
pappus composed of both chaff and bristles, instead of
bristles alone. — Five species natives of the Atlantic
and Gulf states westward, of which three perennial
species are cult, by dealers in native plants. Unlike
the common dandelion these plants do not become
weedy. In the southern states there are two annual
species, K. occidentalis, Nutt. (Cymbia occidenialis,
Stand.), and K. virginica, Willd. (K. caroliniana, Nutt.).

A. St. a leafless scape, bearing 1 head.
B. Plant a tuberous perennial.

Dandelion, Nutt. Height 6-18 in., glabrous and
bluish green: Ivs. lanceolate or almost linear, varying
from minutely toothed to pinnatifid: head about 1 in.
diam., solitary, the rays yellow. April-June. Moist
ground, Md. to Fla. and Texas. — The only kind that
has tubers.

BB. Plant has no tubers, but perennial.

montana, Nutt. (K. Dandelion var. montana,
Chapm.). Height 9-12 in.: Ivs. oblong to linear, varying
from entire to pinnatifid: head smaller than in K. Dan-
delion. Crevices of rocks, Alleghenies, N. C. and S. C.
and Ga. — Harlan P. Kelsey says that this is an admi-
rable rock-plant, thriving in any soil or situation, and
blooming profusely from March to June or July. Prop,
by seed or division.

AA. St. 1-S-lvd., branched above, bearing 2-6 heads.

amplexica&lis, Nutt. (Cynthia virginica, Willd.).
Perennial, the st. 1-lvd. and 12-24 in. in height: Ivs.
oblong or oval, obtuse, entire or repand and denticulate,
or the root-lvs. somewhat lyrate; st.-lvs. partly clasp-
ing: heads about 2 in. diam., the rays showy, orange-
yellow. May-Oct. Moist banks, Ont. to Ga., west to
Manitoba. N>

2046. The Nagami kumquat. — Fortunella margarita.

KUMQUAT

KRYNITZKIA (Prof. J. Krynitzki, of Cracow). Bor-
agindcese. Annual and some perennial herbs, with small
flowers nearly always white, two of which have been
listed for wild-gardens and borders.

Closely allied to Eritrichium, with which the genus
has been united; by other writers the genus is broken
up in Allocarya, Cryptanthe and Oreocarya. As
defined by Gray, the characters are founded mostly on
technical features of the nutlet. The species are mostly
natives of the W. U. S., and of small promise horticul-
turally, being usually coarse herbs.

glomerata, Gray (Eritrichium glomerdtum, DC.).
Biennial, coarse, grayish prickly-hirsute, 1-3 ft. high:
Ivs. spatulate or linear-spatulate : fls. white, thyrsoid-
glomerate. Plains, along eastern base of Rocky Mts.
and to Wash.

barbigera, Gray (Eritrichium barUgerum, Gray).
Hispid and hirsute, 9-12 in. high: Ivs. linear: fls. white,
in solitary or panicled, elongating spikes. S. Calif.,
Ariz., Nev. to Ore. L H. B.

KUHNIA (Dr. Adam Kuhn, an early botanist of
Philadelphia). Composite. American herbs, closely allied
to Eupatorium, seldom planted in the wild garden or
border. Perennials, with mostly alternate resinous-
dotted Ivs., and small whitish or purplish heads in
late summer and autumn. From Eupatorium, Kuhnia
differs in having 10-angled or -costate achenes rather
than 5-costate. Species perhaps 4 or 5, Atlantic U. S.
to Texas and Mex. E. eupatorioides, Linn., is the spe-
cies most likely to appear in cult, grounds: 2-3 ft., erect:
Ivs. ovate-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate or linear, the
uppermost usually entire but others usually few-toothed
and sometimes short-petioled : heads of white fls.
cymose-clustered. Dry places, N. J. to Dak. and S.;
very variable. L jj g

KUMQUAT or KINKAN. Fig. 2046. A group of
dwarf evergreen citrous fruits of the genus Fortunella
but formerly referred to Citrus, introduced into England
by Robert Fortune, collector for the Royal Horticul-
tural Society, London, from the provinces of Foo- chow-
foo, Chusan and Ningpo, China, May 6, 1846. In both
China and Japan the kumquat is grown extensively.
A. J. Downing reports the variety Nagami (Fortunella
margarita) as being in America in 1850, hav-
ing been brought from England, and impor-
tations from Japan by Florida nurserymen
between 1885 and 1890 included the Marumi
(F. japonica) variety. Shortly after their
introduction into America, both varieties
were distributed throughout the Gulf coast
and California citrous regions and soon
attracted attention for their orna-
mental value. Later the variety Neiwa
(F. crassifolia) was introduced but is
not yet commonly known. While the
kumquat was first regarded as an
ornamental in America, it was soon realized
that its fruit is valuable for many culinary
purposes. In consquence it has been largely
planted in many sections, particularly along
the Gulf of Mexico.

The kumquats are distinctly shrubby in
growth, reaching a height of 10 to 15 feet and
an equal distance across the branches. The
twigs, branches and leaves make a very dense
symmetrical head. The leaves are narrow,
elongated, pointed or rounded at the apex,
dark green. Thorns are absent or very small.
The flowers are small, white and sweet-
scented. The first blooms produced in early
spring are usually without pistils and of
course no fruit results. Later the flowers from
which the fruit is produced are borne singly
or in clusters of three or four on shoots that

KUMQUAT

KUNZEA

1759

arise from the first growth in spring. There may be one
or two successive crops of bloom and settings of fruit.
The ripening of the fruit is therefore usually prolonged
over a period of several weeks or even months. The
fruit is small, either oval or round, orange in color, and
borne freely.

The kumquats are among the most hardy of the
citrous fruits. In dormant condition they have with-
stood temperatures as low as 15° F. in the latitude of
north Florida without injury, and they have been
fruited in the open ground as far north- as Augusta,
Georgia.

While the kumquat may be budded on any of the
stocks commonly used for other citrous fruits, most of
them are grown on Ponci^us (or Citrus) trifoliata,
rough lemon, and sweet orange stocks. When soil and
moisture conditions are suitable, Poncims trifoliata is
given the preference. It is a very hardy stock and well
adapted to the kumquat. For pot culture, when both
soil and moisture are under control, it is the best stock
to use. The ordinary shield method of budding is
used, and the young plants, being of shrubby growth
dp not require any special training such as must be
given other citrous trees.

In orchard planting, the kumquats are usually placed
10 by 10 feet up to 15 by 15 feet apart. Sometimes they
are grown in hedges, the plants being set 6 feet apart in
the rows and the rows 15 feet apart. The same tillage
and fertilizing are required as for other citrous fruits.
Plant-food must be available in liberal amounts to
keep the fruits up to size, and fertilizers should be
applied in goodly amounts in late winter to produce a
strong growth in the first spring shoots.

In the matter of pruning, kumquats are very much
benefited by rather severe cutting back of the twigs
of the previous season's growth in the winter months. .
Since the fruit is usually gathered with twigs attached,
the necessary pruning is given when the crop is har-
vested, but if the crop is light, additional pruning will
be necessary and should be directed toward thinning
out the shoots as well as cutting them back. Liberal
pruning well in advance of the starting of growth
increases both the size and quantity of fruit.

Varieties.

Up to this time three varieties have been introduced
into America, as already noted. A fourth variety, Omi,
is listed in Japanese catalogues, and there are doubtless
still other forms in China and Japan.

Nagami.— Oblong fruit 1J4 to 1% inches long, deep
orange in color; juice acid; rind sweet, spicy; seeds two
to five; season October and through the winter. Usually
begins to ripen two or three weeks later than Marumi.

Neiwa. — Fruit 1*4 to 1% inches in diameter, round,
orange-yellow; juice subacid ; rind sweet ; season earlier
than Nagami; prolific. A recent introduction.

Marumi. — Round; fruit 1 to 1J^ inches in diameter,
round, irregular in size; deep orange in color; juice acid;
rind sweet and spicy; seeds one to three; season October
and through the winter. The earliest variety to ripen.

Nagami is usually considered the most desirable
variety, as it is more robust in growth and produces
fruit of uniform size. Marumi is very prone to produce
fruit that is small and very irregular in size. Nagami is
thornless, while Marumi has very short, sharp, slender
thorns. As a pot-plant, Marumi is valuable because
of its very compact symmetrical growth.

Uses.

Well-grown kumquat plants make handsome orna-
mentals,— the combination of dark green foliage and
small golden fruit being very pleasing. They may be
used for hedges, planted singly or in groups.

Large quantities of fruit are shipped for the holiday
trade. In gathering the fruit, it is clipped from the
plants with leaves and twigs attached and packed in

strawberry baskets. There is also a good demand for
large sprays of fruit and leaves for decorative purposes.
When eaten raw, well-ripened kumquats have a
very agreeable combination of flavors. The outer rind
is spicy, the white inner rind is sweet and granular,
while the juice is acid.

2047. The round kumquat. — Fortunella japonica. ( X K)

The fruit is coming into very general use for the
making of marmalade, jelly, preserved and crystallized
fruit. Marmalade made from kumquats is esteened by
many above the product made from other citrous fruits.

H. HAROLD HUME.

KUNZEA (Gustav Kunze, 1793-1851, German
botanist). Myrtacex. Australian shrubs, sometimes
grown in cool or temperate houses: often heath-like,
the small entire Ivs. mostly alternate: fls. small with
extending stamens, in the upper axils or in terminal
heads or in a spike below the end of the branch;
calyx with 5 small lobes; petals 5, spreading, small;
stamens many, free or in series, the filaments fili-
form; ovary 2-5-celled, 2 to many ovules in each cell.
The species are 15-20, allied to Callistemon, Lepto-
spermum, and formerly included in Metrosideros. The
cult, requirements of Callistemon (p. 630) will probably
suit them. K. pomifera, F. Muell., has been mentioned
as a fruit-plant (G.C. III. 5:201; copied in A.G. 1889:
127), Mueller saying that it is one of the few really
valuable fruit-plants indigenous at the south coast of
Austral. "The fruits are of a peculiar acidulous aro-
matic taste, and very extensively collected by people
settled on the coast for the purpose of jam-making."
It is described by Bentham as a rigid prostrate shrub:
Ivs. ovate, varying from nearly orbicular and almost
cordate to narrow and acute-based, mostly less than

1760

KUNZEA

KYLLINGA

J^in. long: fls. white or yellowish, sessile and not numer-
ous but yet forming dense terminal heads becoming
lateral by elongation of the branch; stamens numer-
ous, 3 or 4 times as long as the small petals : berry blue,
Y$m.. or less diam., crowned by the calyx-lobes. Vic-
toria and S. Austral. L. H. B.

KYDIA (Col. Robert Kyd, founder of the Calcutta
Botanic Garden, died 1794). Malvaceae. Oriental trees,
one of which has been cultivated in southern Florida
and southern California.

Plants with stellate pubescence: Ivs. entire or lobed,
palmi-nerved: fls. polygamous, in panicles, white or
pink, ornamental; sepals 5, joined at the base, subtended
by 4-6 leafy bracts which enlarge in fr. ; petals 5, exceed-
ing the calyx and joined to the stamen-tube; staminal
tube divided about the middle into 5 divisions, each
bearing 3 anthers, which are imperfect in the pistillate
fls. : fr. a 3-valved caps. — Two or three species in India.

calycina, Roxbg. Tree, attaining 25 ft.: Ivs. 4-5 in.
long, 3 in. wide, rounded, cordate, palmately 7-nerved,
more or less lobed, midlobe longest, close-felted beneath:

infl. much-branched, many-fld.; fls. white or pink, with
oblong-spatulate bracts beneath. Trop. India. — Indi-
cated as a stove evergreen abroad. It is doubtful
whether the plant is still cult, to any extent. L H. B.

KYLLINGA (Peder Kylling, Danish botanist, died
1696). Cyperocese. Annual and perennial herbs, of little
value horticulturally although one species is sometimes
mentioned in gardening literature. Grass-like or sedge-
like plants of perhaps 30 species in many parts of the
world, with very small fls. in spikelets which are aggre-
gated into spikes or heads. K. monocephala, Rottb.,
is nearly glabrous with a creeping rhizome: Ivs. droop-
ing or arched, in a graceful tuft : culms. 3-angled : spikes
terminal, ovoid or cone-shaped, silky, white, the sub-
tending Ivs. 3 and spreading-deflexed. India and other
warm regions of the Old World, where it is common.
This species is recommended for greenhouse work,
where, in 4-in. pots, it makes decorative specimens 1
ft. high, requiring a warm greenhouse temperature.
G. 2:298; 25:173. Apparently not offered in this
country. L. H. B.

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CYCLOPEDIA OF
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