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MICROFILMED 1998

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Libraries
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Master Negative

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SNPaAg070

CONTENTS OF REEL 70

1 ) Pennsylvania Department of Forestry

Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania Department of

Forestry, during ..., 1901 - 1902
MNS#PStSNPaAg070.1

2) Pennsylvania Department of Forestry
Report for the years ..., 1903-1904
MNS# PSt SNPaAg070.2

3) Pennsylvania Department of Forestry

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry, for the

years ...,1905 -1906
MNS# PSt SNPaAg070.3

CONTENTS OF REEL 70 (CONTINUED)

4) Pennsylvania Department of Forestry

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry, for the

years ..., 1907
MNS# PSt SNPaAg070.4

5) Pennsylvania Department of Forestry

Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry, for the

years ...,1908 -1909
MNS# PSt SNPaAg070.5

Author: Pennsylvania Department of Forestry

Title: Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania

Department of Forestry, during..., 1902

Place of Publication: Harrlsburg

Copyright Date: 1902

Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg070.1

<2084571>*Form:serial2 InputHHS Edit.FMD

008 ENT: 980409 TYP: d DT1: 1902 DT2: 1902 FRE: g LAN: eng

010 sn 86045119

037 PSt SNPaAg070.1 $bPreservation Office, The Pennsylvania State

University, Pattee Library, University Park, PA 16802-1805
090 10 634.908 $bP3 $l+(date) $cax $s+U1901/02
090 00 SD12 $b.P3 $l+(date) $cma+U1 901/02*91 97879 $s+U1901/02
090 20 Microfilm D344 reel 70.1 $l+(date) $cmc+(service copy, print master,

archival master) $s+U 1901/02
110 1 Pennsylvania. $bDept. of Forestry.
245 10 Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry,

during ...
260 [Harrisburg] $bWm. Stanley Ray, state printer of Pennsylvania $c1902.

300 1 V. $bill. $c23 cm.
310 Biennial
362 0 1901/02

500 Issued "together with some suggestions concerning the future policy of
the Department, and also brief papers upon subjects connected with

forestry."

500 Earlier reports on forestry in Pennsylvania are found as follows: The
"Report of the Committee on forests and forestry", intermittently, in
the Annual report of the State board of agriculture, 1882-1893. The
"Report of the Pennsylvania Forestry commission, appointed by act of
Legislature, approved May 23, 1893", in the Annual report of the Dept.
of agriculture, 1895, pt.2. The "Report of the Division of forestry of
the Dept. of agriculture", in the Annual report of the Dept. of
agriculture, 1896-1900

533 Microfilm $m1901/1902 $bUniversity Park, Pa. : $cPennsylvania State
University $d1998 $e1 microfilm reel ; 35 mm. $f(USAIN state and local
literature preservation project. Pennsylvania) $f(Pennsylvania
agricultural literature on microfilm)

580 Continued by: Pennsylvania. Dept. of Forestry. Report for the years ...

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If you wish to be notified when it returns, please fill out a Personal
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Microforms Room, and at the Circulation Desk

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THE

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STATE UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

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STATEMENT OF WORK DONE

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PENXSYLVANIA

PEPARTMEIT OF FORESTRY,

DURING 1901 AND 1902,

TOGETHER WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE
FUTURE POLICY OF THE DEPARTMENT.

AND ALSO

BRIEF PAPERS UPON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH FORESTRY.

WM. STANLEY RAY,

STATE PRINTER OP PENNSYLVANIA.

1902.

STATEMENT OE WORK DONE

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FluWSYLYAMA

DEPARTM

OF FOEESTRY,

DURING 1901 AND 1902,

TOGKTHKK WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE
FTTFRE POLICY OF THE DEPARTMENT.

AND ALSO

BRIEF PAPERS UPON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH FOHESTRY,

VTM. STANLEY RAY,

STATE PRINTER OF PENNSYLVANIA.

1902.

INTENfiONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

OFFICIAL LIST.

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY.

STATE FORESTRY RESERVATION COMMISSION.

J. T. Rothrock, M. D., President, West Chester, Chester County.

Isaac B. Brown, Secretary, Corry, Erie County.

John Fulton, Johnstown. Cambria County.

A. C. Hopkins, Lock Haven, Clinton County.

M. L. Dock, Hairisburg, Dauphin County.

Meetings of Commission held on first Thursday of each month.

OFFICE OF COMMISSIONER OF FORESTRY.

Commissioner of P^orestry, J. T. Rothrock, M. D.. West Chester. Chester
County.

Clerk, Robert S. Conklin, Columbia, Lancaster County.

(2)

(3)

r

I

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

T.

CHAPTER

11.

CHAPTER

HI

CHAPTER

IV.

CHAPTER

V.

CHAPTER

VI.

CHAPTER

VII.

i

CHAPTER VIII.

CHAPTER IX.

CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XI.

— Report of the Commissioner of Forestry U

—The Mont Alto Estate— Past, Present and Future, 57

,— The Invalids' Camp at Mont Alto, 66

—Fungi Injurious to Forests 68

—Forest Valuation, §7

—Manufacture of Chestnut Meal 93

—Propagation of Forest Trees Having Commercial Value

and Adapted to Pennsylvania 102

—The Black Willow (Salix nigra, Marsh.) as a Protector

of River Banks 13$

—A Severed but Growing White Pine Tree Trunk, at Mont

Alto 138

—A Law Suggested by the Indiana Forestry Association, 189
—Timber Cut and Loss from Forest Fires During the

Years 1900 and 1901 141

k

(4)

( 5 )

*■

Plate

Plate

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate

I.

Plate

II.

Plate

III.

Plate

IV.

Plate

V.

VI.-

VII.-

Plate

VIII.

Plate

IX.

Plate

X.

Plate

XI.

Plate

XII.

Plate

XIII.

Plate

XIV.

Plate

XV.-

Plate

XVI.

Plate

XVII.-

Plate

XVIIL-

Plate

XIX.

Plate

XX.

Plate

XXI.-

Plate

XXII.-

Plate

XXIIL-

Plate

XXIV.-

Plate

XXV.-

Plate

XXVI.-

Plate XXVII.
Plate XXVIII.

Plate XXIX.—.

Plate XXX.—

Plate XXXI.
Plate XXXII.
Plate XXXIII.

-Shoemakers' Camp, Clinton County.

-Yellow Pine. Hopkins Reservation, Clinton County.

-Camp Hastings. Clinton County.

-The State Blaze.

-Volunteer Crop of White Pine on Abandoned Field in Mont
Alto Reservation, before "Improvement Cutting."

-During "Improvement Cutting" in Volunteer Crop of White
Pine. Mont Alto Reservation.

-After "Improvement Cutting" in Volunteer Crop of White Pine.
Mont Alto Reservation.

-Pike County Rorest, Protected for Twenty Years.

-Pike County Forest, Unprotected.

-Invalids' Camp Mont Alto Reservation.

-Old Field Being Overgrown with White Pine. In Front of
Sanatorium, Mont Alto Reservation.

-Sprmg, "Pearl of the Park," Mont Alto Park.

-Along the Ramble. Mont Alto Park.

-Tarburner's Spring,, at Head of Ramble, Mont Alto Park.

-First Year (1901!) of State Forest Nursery. Mont Alto Reserva-
tion.

-Along the Ramble. Mont Alto Park.

-A Sweet Potato Destroyed by the Soft Rot Fungus.

-Views of Toadstool.

-Azalea Apples of the Swamp, in Early Summer.

•A Large Shelf Fungus as Seen from the Upper Side.

The Many-Colored Polystictus upon Hickory Log — View from
Above.

-The Many-Colored Polystictus — View from Below.

■Two Leaves of Ash Malformed by Rust Fungus.

The Rust of the Hawthorne as Seen Upon the Malformed Fruits.

A Leaf of Willow Showing Mildew.

Honey Locust Leaves Showing Mildew in Different Stages of
Growth.

Armstrong's Camp. Hopkins Reservation.

Ridgley Chestnut Tree, Twelve Feet High, Six Years Old,
Fruiting.

A Forest Nursery in the Communal Forests of Biel, Switzer-
land.

Birdseye View of Country About Head of Queen's Run, Clin-
ton County.

Saw Kill Creek Pike County Reservation.

Mattawanna Island, Showing Soil-Retaining Power of Willows.

A Severed but Living and Growing White Pine Tree Trunk, at
Mont Alto.

(6)

(7)

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

{

;

. (8)

Hon. William A. Stone, Governor of Pennsylvania:

Dear Sir: It seems proper that at tihe close of your administration
an account should be rendered of the work which has been done by
the Department of Forestry during the period in which you have so
kindly assisted in the work of creating the system of State Forestry
Reservations.

It is a matter of congratulation that in all of its deliberations and
business the Forestry Commission has been an absolute unit. If
differences of opinion at any time occurred the cordial recognition
of the majority rule has prevented any misunderstanding.

Wliilst the work of gathering together the land out of which the
Reservations have grown was commenced by your predecessor, the
great bulk of the land now in possession of the State has been ac-
quired during your administration.

If I can read correctly the temper of the public mind, it is largely
in favor of the State taking back und'er its own management a very
considerable portion of the mountain land which had been alienated
by sale to corporations or individuals. It had become apparent to
all thinking persons that there were certain natural laws which must
be observed if the prosperity of the State was to be maintained,
and that tiliis could only be done by the State recovering possession
of the stream heads of the State.

There is no reason to believe that this belief will ever be changed.
It appears to be a part of the accepted ord'er of things which has
come to stay. Surely, therefore, you may point with pride to the fact
tlhat when you retire from office the State will be in actual possession
of about half a million acres of land which is to be permanently
the .property of the people.

It is hardly likely that any subsequent administration can bring
together or add an equally large area to the public lands of the State.
In this respect therefore the Forestry Reservation system of Fenn-
sylvania is likely to remain as a permanent monument to your
administration.

I desire to thank you, and to thank all of my colleagues in the For-
estry Commission, for constant help and wise direction.

(9)

10

1 should be unmindful of the d^ebt I owe to Mr. Robert S. Conklin
for tihe assistance which he has at all times cheerfuly rendered if I
failed here to record my obligation. Mr. Conklin's labors have not
been limited to othce hours, but he haebeen ever ready, in season and
out of season, to meet the demands upon his time and patience made
by the exacting and ever growing duties of the Department.
I am sir, with great respect,

Your most obt.,

J. T. ROTHROCK.

N *•

PLATE II.
Yellow Pine. Hopkins Reservation, Clinton County.

CHAPTER I.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF FORESTRY.

When William A. Stone was inaugurated as Governor of this Com-
monwealth in 181)9, the State owned for the purposes of forest preser-
vation 19,804 acres 141 perches of land. When his term of office
closes, in 1903, Pennsylvania will be in actual or prospective posses-
sion of more than a half million of acres.

Four years ago the forestry interests of the State were well cared'
for by a Division in the Department of Agriculture.

Now these same interests are large enough to require the atten-
tion of a Dej)artment of the State Government, which is equal in
dignity and importance to any of the earlier established Depart-
ments.

Truly there has been,' during the last four years a w^onderfu^ de-
velopment of the idea that to a great degree the welfare of the State
and ite citizens is involved in the presence or absence of a due pro-
portion of timbered to cleared areas.

It is remarkable that, with all the popular dislike there usually is
to the creation of new offices, there has been almost no real criticism
of the act creating the Department of Forestry, nor has any one
doubted that it was a wise expenditure of public money to purchase
land for State Forest Reservations.

Both of the leading political parties recognized that it was not
only a wise thing to do, but that it was a measure of political neces-
sity, to restore to a productive condition the land which had been
rendered unproductive by the removal of the original forest growth.
In fact, though the most pronounced advances were made by the Leg-
islature during a Republican administration, the Democratic mem-
bers as a rule lent a cordial support. For most of the measures
which were in the interest of forestry there was practically an unani-
mous vote.

Since the administration of Governor Hartranft, the tendency has
been constantly becoming stronger toward reform in the treatment
of our timber land.

It would be interesting to note the various phases through which

(11)

12

public sentiment has na^^^^Pd ir, fi,^

upon .he ,.,„,„ pi^bCl «fc„rZ ," "T "'""■ ""■"'
that toe p«iIod ot asii.tion ™. j " '*"'°1" '«ftai.ale

ha™,„, H„.,.„.„ ,;»r";:f;, ^njzr"''" ''"«■ °""-

»■..»«. H.U,bB p,,«icai c.a„,e 'Jit ZlZ "'"' "'""" ""-

Uion.and acre. eaiL- On. "'"i''"'" •»'«1'}' ic-servaiions, .of (oily
He aided Z,e,.ta,ti„ "Jr ;, ^'n? •'"''°'-' ""'™"°'' """ '" '"'

."r.rra;;:-re:;i"tr™''-'"''^^^^^

i«gad»lm,tm,l„„ '""'°"' " '""' ""''■'8 "■« («11»»-

wbose d«,,- 1, „.a, lo «,»,, „,„°, , '-f.^ ': r »"» «PPobled,

va.,. a.d .,«e« ,i„e. ihiiri^j;;,:,:::,-:--;-'^;-"..-

lor ,he ,ort .l,iel,\va. io'te done ° "'*"'" "'"*'»" "»•"

w.. «bo„, „.e o;;;;:or.r:,r':d irir -"'■ * ^-'- ^- ■■

I-..e lu„, were ,r.L i ! "'"nva.d. Medeea.ed l,v ,l,e ow„er.

^...a ,0-eve. ..d ^.j:,::::.:;:: z!;:^zzvzz:z

lumbering]: industry and to aid in maintaining the water supply in our
streams.

It is noteworthy that each, in succession, of the Governors named
has been, with the later years of his administration, a more pro-
nouiiced friend of the forestry movement than when he assumed the
executive duties. No one of tliem has ever taken a backward step, or
in any way halted the progress of the work.

The act of May 25, 1897, directed that ''a commission, to be com-
posed of the Commissioner of Forestry, the chairman of the State
Hoard of Health, the Deputy Secretary of Internal Atfairs, and two
other persons, one of whom shall be a lawyer or conveyancer of at
l(?ast ten years professional experience and the other one a practical
surveyor, to be appointed by the Governor, be hereby created."

Under this Governor Hastings appointed Major Isaac B. Brown,
Mr. Albert Lewis, Mr. John Fulton and Dr. J. T. Rothrock. As the
fifrh member was required to complete the Commission, no meeting
vvas held during the administration of Governor Hastings.

Mr. Lewis' extensive business operations made his resignation as
a member of the Commission necessary in 1901. Governor Stone
wisely appointed Miss Mira Lloyd Dock, of Harrisburg, to fill the
vacancy.

Early in his administration Governor Stone completed the Commis-
sion by ai)pointing Hon. A. C. Hopkins as the fifth member.

A meeting was promptly called and held in the Executive Cham-
ber, where we received from Governor Stone the assurance of his
hearty support and instructions to begin our work at once and to
push it as vigorously as due regard for the interests of the Common-
wealth w^ould allow.

The work of this Commission grew so rapidly, and the popular ap.
proval of the land purchases was so marked, that it soon became evi-
dent that forestry must be placed by itself and ampler powers given
to those who were to purchase and care for the land acquired.

A bill was accordingly introduced to create a Department of For-
estry. This became a law on Februarv 25, 1901.

As this law has practically repealed the act of May 25, 1897, it is
proper that the law under which the State Forest Reservation Com-
n.ission is now acting should be given here in full.

AN ACT

To establish a Department of Forestry, to provide for its proper ad-
ministration, to regulate the acquisition of land for the Common-
wealth, and to provide for the control, protection and maintenance
of Forestry Reservations by the Department of Forestry.
Section 1. Be it enacted, &c.. That there be and is herebv estab-
lished a Department of Forestry, to consist of the Commissioner of

u

Forestry and four other citizens of the Commonwealth, who to-
gether shall constitute the State Forestry Reservation Commission-
each of whom shall be appointed and commissioned by the Governor
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate; the Commissioner
of Forestry for a term of four years, two of the said citizens for a
term of two years, and two of said citizens for a term of four years-
and thereafter all appointments shall be made by the Governor by
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of four
years. The persons so appointed, before entering upon the dis-
charge of their duties shall each take and subscribe to the oath of
office prescribed by article seven of the Constitution of Pennsylvania
The Commissioner of Forestry and the Forestry Reservation Com-
mission, so appointed, shall be clothed with all the powers hereto-
fore conferred by law respectively upon the Commissioner of For-
estry and the Forestry Reservation Commission, so far as the same
are consistent with the provisions of this act, and in addition shall
have full power, by and with the consent of the Governor, to pur-
chase any suitable lands in any county of the Commonwealth that in
the judgment of said Commission the State should possess for for-
est preservation: Provided, That in no case shall the amount paid
for any tract of land, purchased under the provisions of this act ex
ceed the sum of five dollars per acre. Said commission shall alMO
have full power to manage and control all the lands which it may
purchase under the provisions of this act, as well as those that have
heretofore been purchased and which are now owned bv the State
under existing laws. Said Commission is also empowered to estab-
lish such rules and regulations with reference to control, manage-
ment and protection of forestry reservations, and all land« that may
be acquired under the provisions of this act, as in its judgment will
conserve the interests of the Commonwealth; and wherever it shall
appear that the welfare of the Commonwealth, with reference to
reforestation and. the betterment of State Reservations, will be ad-
vanced by selling or disposing of any of the timber on forestrv lands
the Commission is hereby empowered to sell such timber on terms
mo.t advantageous to the State; and said Commission is hereby era-
powered to make and execute contracts or leases, in the name of the
Commonwealth, for the mining or removal of any valuable minerals
that may be found in said forestry r^wrvations, whenever it shall
appear to the satisfaction of the Commission that it would be for the
be^t interests of the State to make such disposition of said minerals-
and provided, that such contracts or leases shall also be approved bv
the Governor of the Commonwealth after the proposed said contracts
or leases shall have been duly advertised in at least three newspapers
published nearest the reservation d<^ignated, for one month, in ad-
vance of said contract or lease, and the contracts or leases shall be

15

awarded to the highest bidder, and he or they shall have given such
bond as the commission shall designate for the performance of hifl
or their part of the contract, and the said bond shall have been ap-
proved by the court of the county wherein the contracts or leases are
made: Provided, however, that when, by virtue of leases or contracts
for removal of minerals and sale of timber from any lands purchased
by the State for Forestry Reservations, there comes a net revenue
to the State, one-half of said net revenue derived from lands situate
in any township shall be paid by the State Treasurer to the treasurer
of such township, for application to township purposes and reduction
of local tax levies in such township: Provided, That there shall not
be paid to any one township, during any year, more than twice the
amount of taxes that would be received by such township from said
lavds if they were owned by individuals.

Section 2. Any person or persons who shall kindle fires upon any
of the forestry reservations of this Commonwealth, except in accord-
ance with such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the
Forestry Reservation Commission, or who shall cut or remove any
timber whatever, or who shall do or cause to be done any act that
will damage forest lands or timber belonging to this Commonwealth,
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof be sub-
j<M-L to a penalty of not less than one hundred dollars nor more than
rive hundred dollars for each offence committed, with costs
of suit, which penalty and costs of suit shall be collected in the same
manner as is now provided by existing laws for like offences com-
mitted on forest lands belonging to individuals; all fines and penal-
ties when collected to be paid to the Commissioner of Forestry, who
is hereby directed to pay the same over to the State Treasury- pro-
vided, that if the defendant or defendants neglect or refuse to pay at
once the penalty and costs imposed, he or they shall be committed to
the common jail of the county wherein the offence was committed
until such penalty and costs are paid.

Section 3. That the Commissioner of Forestry shall be the presi-
dent and executive ofticer of the Forestry Reservation Commission,
and also Supc^rintendent of the State Forestry Reservations, and
shall have immediate control and management, under the direction
of the Forestry Reservation Commission, of all foitist lands already
ac(,.uired or which may hereafter be acquired by the Commonwealth,
but the power so conferred upon said Commissioner of Forestry
shall not extend to the enforcement of the laws relating to public
health or the protection of fish and game. It shall be the duty of
the Commissioner of P^restry to encourage and promote the develop-
ment of forestry, and to obtain and publish information resi)ecting
the extent and condition of forest lands in the State, and to execute
all rules and regulations adopted by the Forestry Reservation Cora

It)

mission for the enforcement of all laws designated for the protec-
tion of forests from lire and depredation; and he is hereby empow-
ered to employ such detective service, and euch legal or other ser-
r.c. s, as may be necessary for the protection of the forestry reser-
vations owned by the Commonwealth and for the apprehension and
pumshmeDt of persons who may violate any of the forestry reserva-
tion laws or any of the rules and regulations, which under the
powers herein given, may be adopted by the Forestry Reservation
Commission : Provided, That the services so employed and the ex-
penses that may thereby be incurred shall be approved bv said For-
estry Keservation Commission and the Governor of the Common-
wealth.

Section 4. The Commissioner of Forestry shall receive a salary
of three thousand dollars per annum, and in addition thereto shall
b. reimbursed for all necessary expenses of travel which may be in-
curred in the discharge of the duties of his oflfice; and the other
members of the Forestry Reservation Commission shall serve with-
out salary, but shall be reimbursed for all necessary expenses in-
curred by (hem in the performance of the duties of their office.

Section 5. The Commissioner of Forestry shall have an office at
fhe State Capitol, and it shall be the duty of the Board of Commit
eioners of I>ublic Grounds and Uuildings to provide, from time tc
time, the necessary rooms, furniture, apparatus and supplies, for
the use of the Department of Forestry created under the provi
sions of this act.

Section 6. All moneys appropriated by the General Assembly in
the general appropriation act of 18!>!) for the Division of Forestry
of the State Department of Agriculture, as for salaries or contingent
fund, which may remain unexpended at the time of the approval of
this act, shall be transferred to and be vested in the Department of
Forestry, hereby created; and the clerk of the Commissioner of For-
estry, hitherto appointed under the law creating the Department of
Agriculture, shall be transferred from the Department of Agricul
ture to the Department of Forestry, on the same salary that he
now receives.

Section 7. The purchase money for lands acquired and all ex-
penses that may be incurred, except the salaries of the Commissioner
of Forestry and his clerk, shall be paid by the State Treasurer out
of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, on war-
rant of the Auditor (ieneral, upon vouchers duly api)roved by resolu-
tion of the Forestry Keservation Commission and the Governor of
the Commonwealth.

Section 8. The title of all lands acquired by the Commonwealth for
forestry reservations shall be taken in the name of the Common-
wealth and shall be held by the Commissioner of Forestry and such

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lands shall not be subject to warrant, survey or patent, under the
laws of the Commonwealth authorizing the conveyance of vacant
or unappropriated lands, and all such forestry reservation lands
shall be exempt from taxation from the time of their acquisition. In
all cases where lands have been purchased, or may hereafter be pur-
chased by the Forestry Reservation Commission for forest reser-
vations, where there are public roads, regularly established, running
into or through said lands, the Commissioner of Forestry, und-er such
rules and regulations as the Forestry Reservation Commission is
hereby authorized to adopt, may expend a sum not exceeding twenty-
five dollars per mile in each year for the maintenance, repair or ex-
tension of any such roads, and on roads bordering on reservations
one-half of this rate per mile may be expended. All expenses that
may thus be incurred shall be subject to the approval of the Forestry
Reservation Commission and the Governor of the Commonwealth,
and shall be paid in the same manner as other expenses are provided
for in this act.

Section 1). The Commissioner of Forestry shall receive the moneys
to which the State may be entitled by virtue of the sale of any tim-
ber, or by virtue of any leases or contracts relating to the disposi-
tion of minerals, as hereinbefore provided, and he shall immediately
pay the same over to the State Treasurer as a part of the revenue
of the Commonwealth. The said Commissioner of Forestry shall
give his bond to the Commonwealth, with two sureties, to be ap-
proved by the Governor, in the sum of ten thousand dollars, for the
faithful discharge of the duties imposed by this act and for the
proper accounting of any moneys to the Commonwealth that may
come into his hands by virtue of his position as Commissioner of
Forestry.

Section 10. That all acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the pro-
visions of this act be and the same are hereby repealed.
Approved— The 25th day of February, A. D. 1901.

WILLIAM A. STONE. •

This law has now been thoroughly tested in its workings. The
only point at which it has failed practically to accomplish what was
expected of it is encountered in section one, where provision is made
for executing contracts or leases with those who desire to remove
minerals from lands which are part of the State forest reservations.

No doubt the numerous safeguards by which this is hedged around
are, in theory and in equity, right and necessary. Practically, how-
ever, it is discovered that they are prohibitory. The worst feature
is that those who may expend money to discover whether or not
valuable minerals, in i)aying quantity are found, have no reasonable

2

guarantee that they can in any way profit from their labors. After
developing the minerals they may be outbid by parties who have
done nothing toward developing the mineral wealth.

The following statement will show the location of lands already
acquired and those in process of acquisition.

Counties. Acres.

Adams and Franklin, 33 598

^^^fo^<i. 5J99

^^^^^0°. 18,395

^^^*r^^ 32,679

^^^a^fi^ld^ 18,882

^^^^^on, 100,190

Cumberland, ggQ

I^auphin, g g29

^^^y 2,263

Franklin, 7 447

Huntingdon, 39^09

Juniata and Mifflin, 14 qq2

Lackawanna, 2 854

Lycoming, 23!671

Mifflin and Huntingdon, 24!857

'^.«°r«^» 8,282

^^^^' 42,382

^^^t^^^ 51,620

Tioga, 10 094

Union, Mifflin, Centre and Snyder, 124,872

Wyoming, I'lyj

572,722

1

Reservations Should be Surveyed.

Having acquired possession of these lands, the next obvious ne-
cessity is to protect them. To do this successfully there should be a
careful survey made at once of the State's land holdings. This is
necessary for two reasons. The first is in order that the land may be
guarded against trespassers, who have already, in some regions, for
many years made a somewhat uncertain and dangerous living by in-
vasion of these grounds. If there is to be any successful forestry
practiced on State lands, plundering must be dealt with promptly.
This is so, not so much because of the quantity of timber taken as

'

PLATE IV.
The State Blaze.

19

because of the fires which the plunderers create in order to destroy
signs of their presence. It is no mercy to men of this character to
overlook their earliest, small offenses. They are thus simply en-
couraged to commit crimes which cannot be overlooked and which
must be severely punished.

The second reason for an early exact survey is, so that a reliable
map can be made on which a working plan may be based, by the for-
ester in charge of the work, of restoration and protection of timber.
In making this survey a uniform system of blazes and marks
should be used, which should be employed on all State lands wher-
ever found in Pennsylvania.

We have on the lands, thus far surveyed, need, when practicable,
at intervals of say one-fourth of a mile along the line of survey, what
is known as the *'«tate blaze." The accompanying illustration will
show what it is.

This blaze is placed on the side of the tree looking toward the
State land and therefore looking away from the line. It is about a
foot square, if the size of the tree allows it, and is cut on the trunk,
about six feet above the ground. It is very readily made by a good
axeman, thus: First he cuts an X of suitable size on the tree trunk;
then he removes the bark clear down to the wood on the portions I
have shaded in the illustration. The vertical spaces are not touched
by the axe; then with a brush dipped in good white paint the axemaa
makes a good broad line over the linee of the X. So far as I know,
this mark is peculiar to the State lands.

Forestry Begins with Lumbering.

The popular idea of forestry is that no trees are to be cut. This
is a delusion! Forestry has been said to begin with the axe. When
one remembers that in our virgin forests many trees occur which
have very small commercial value, that there are others which are
hopelessly suppressed by their more vigorous neighbors, and that on
the other hand there are spaces which should be producing valuable
wood, but which are producing nothing, we can readily comprehend
that a virgin forest seldom contains as much really desirable timber
as one that has been planted with selected and carefully treated
trees.

It is true that in this State the original white pine forests, in the
best pine producing districts, yielded per acre an enormous amount
of valuable lumber. It is doubtful, however, if there ever was an
acre of virgin forest in this State which yielded one hundred thousand
feet board measure. It is said, on what seems to be good authority,
that there are acres of cultivated forests in Germany which do pro-
duce this, to us, fabulous crop.

2U

This brings us to the business aspect of the problem. The one
great object is the production of a crop. It cannot be expected that
the State will continue to pay money out for forestry purposes un-
less there is also an income from the land.

Fortunately, at this moment that form of judicious thinning-out
of our growing timber, which is well designated improvement cut-
ting, can be immediately made to bring a financial return, not only
without injury to the growing forest, but actually with benefit to it
provided this work is directed by a competent, trained forester It
will be absolutely fatal to the foiTstry prospects of the State if this
work, requiring professional knowledge, shall be trusted to an or-
dinary wood chopper.

I am sure that the Mont Alto Reservation can yield manv hundred
cords of wood for tanning extract and for pulp wood, beside another
large quantity for cordwood, for charcoal and for rails. Just how
much such wood can be taken out with benefit to the growing forest
can only be determined by a more detailed examination than I have
yet been able to make.

Work implies workmen! The forestry problem in Pennsylvania
has never yet required the organization of a trained force of work-
men, who were dietinct from the day laborer on the one hand and
from any other special class of workmen on the other. But the
sooner this question is settled the better. The forestrv interests of
the State are too large and too vital to the prosperity of our popula-
tion to be trifled with. A man's political creed neither fits nor unfits
him for this work. A mistake made now mav become a iingerin-
curse through half a century. It would therefore be no less a wrong
to appoint any one to a position of responsibilitv in (his work simply
as a reward for political services than it would be to appoint a man
to direct our educational work for a like reason.

In the final organization of the forestry force of the State the
ranking officer in any particular reservation should be the chief
forester Such an officer should not only be thoronghlv educated in
h.s profession as forester, but he should be a good business man as
well. Under our present, temporary organization we have general
superintendents who are in charge of the larger reservations so far
as guarding against trespass and fo-est fires is concerned. In addi-
tion to this they have such a general oversight as anv keen, active
man might be capable of. There is one forester who has the right
and whose duty it is, to take control of any forest management from'
a professional stand-point. Thus far his work has been mainlv start-
ing a forest nursery, planting out and caring for a grove of young
white pine trees and doing some improvement cutting, nuring the
coming year, in addition to much more extensive operations along the
same line, he will devote considerable attention to chestnut culture

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in hope of opening up a new, productive industry on State lands

Tliere are in addition to the forester two young men who act as his
assistants and who are in practical training for scientific forestry
work. "^

Besides those above enumerated there are nine men whose duties
are those of wardens or rangers.

This, truly is a small force to be charged with duties which are so
pressing and important.

I venture here to suggest that for each twenty-five thousand acres
of Stateforestthere should be a head forester, who should have under
him at least two assistant foresters, and that there should be one
ranger for each five thousand acres of land. This estimate is only
intended for forestry work at present. It is very evident that the
future will demand and make a much more minute sub-division of the
labor and it is expected that the money so expended bv the State will
yield a liberal return.

The American forest has hitherto been regarded as the home of
wild animals, but as otherwise uninhabited. The time will come
when there will be a class of men who will live in the forests and
make an honest living out of them. Instead of the outlaws who earn
a precarious living by petty pilfering from the lands of others, there
will be constant employment for a greater number of men to produce
and reap the harvest of the forest.

The greatest, most pressing need of the hour in the proper develop-
ment of the forestry work in I'ennsylvania is a sufficient body of
trained men. My own positive conviction is that the wisest most
economical method will be for the State to train its own foresters, on
its own reservations.

I have no fault to find with the several good forestry schools in the
United States. They have already proven that they are capable of
training scientific foresters. But the most urgent need now on our
Pennsylvania Reservations is a class of men who know how to fight
fires, trim and thin out trees, who can be trusted to take charge o*f a
working gang, and who know how to direct elementary forestry
operations wisely; and above all to have these men feel that they had
a reasonable assurance of permanency and promotion in the State
service, on merit, when an occasion came.

The Forest Fire Broblem.

The one great problem of all others in our American ^'woods" is
how shall forest fires be suppressed- or rendered less frequent. That
these fires occur as often as they do comes from a want of proper
realization of the destructive work they do. Few men would reck-
lessly throw a lighted match in a bed of dried leaves if they realized

22

the danger of creating a fire and the eerious consequences of such a
fire.

It is at this point that the great possibilities of a school of element-
ary forestry appear. From the lads of the regions adjacent to the
reservations, lads whose opportunities for education have been few
and poor, lad«s who knew the mountains and were familiar with hard
work, a class of forestry apprentices could be formed. These boys
should be hired at a low sum, by the year, with the understanding
that they were to work whenever called upon, but that as a rule they
were to spend half of their time in studies related to forestry, viz:
Arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, surveying, road making, level-
ling, drafting plain and topographical maps, botany, zoology, geology
bookkeeping, commercial law, estimating rate of timber production'
making plans for forestry work, etc., etc. '

The Slate would have on hand constantly a body of vigorous men
to suppress a forest fire, or to guard against the creation of euch a
fire. Most of the actual work of the reservation would be done by
them. They would carry from one reservation to another the idea
that they were a ^'peculiar people"— Foresters. They would serve
to diffuse among the masses proper ideas of what forestry is and how
necessary it is to the State. And above all, they would reach the
class of persons who start our most destructive forest fires, and by
showing how the burning of young timber diminishes a future de-
mand for labor, they would render men more careful not to start such
fires.

Two years of such an apprenticeship would train an effective class
of foresters. From the best of these boys there could, and should be
selected a certain number for higher forestry education. It is fair
to say that while such a course of study would be of incalculable ad-
vantage to a deserving class of boys it would be of no less advantage
to the State. In no other way probably could the Commonwealth se-
cure so cheaply so much good, needed, trained help on its reserva-
tions!

It is hardly necessary to say that these forestry apprentices would
receive the practical part of their profession by actual work on the
reservation.

The Reservations.

The table already given shows the counties in which the reser-
vation lands are located, and approximately the acreage in each
county.

It may be well here to give somewhat more in detail the character
of these reservations.

No forma! division of the State lands has yet been made.

!

23

One body of land situated in Clinton and Centre counties, in the
Talley of the VVe«t Branch of the Susquehanna river, has been offi-
cially designated as the Hopkins Reservation, but its boundaries
have not yet been exactly detined. In a general way it might be said
that it extends from a mile below Renovo, up the West Branch on the
southern bank of that strc^am, to about four miles above Keating, and
it runs back for probably, on the average, six miles from the river
toward and including part of the Beech. Creek waters. It includes
land known ae the Slaymaker, Pardee andBoudinot, with a few other
smaller tracts. This has been lumbered oif, but in parts much
good timber, principally yellow pine and hemlock, remains.

In Cameron and Potter counties there are several tracts of con-
siderable size, but as these have not yet been consolidated no official
designation has been conferred upon them. There are in these coun-
ties 53,934 acres actually in possesion of the State. This has been
closely lumbered olf, so far as the hemlock and pine are concerned,
but there is yet considerable hard wood remaining.

In Franklin, Adams and Cumberland counties the State is now in
actual possession of 27,687 acres. This is known officially as the
South Mountain Reservation; at times cut over for charcoal making,
but now in great part covered by thrifty young growth of chestnut,
rock oak, etc.

In Pike and Monroe counties the State is now in actual possession
of 39,546 acres. "Lumbered oiV once, there still is much timber re-
maining, chiefly yellow pine.

There is a large body of land lying in Union, Centre, Mifflin and
Huntingdon counties whose point of greatest development is in the
Seven Mountains, or in the prolongation of these ranges, comprising
approximately 140,000 acres, which might appropriately be desig-
nated as the Central Reservation. Once well timbered, tihere is over
most of it a fine young growth coming in.

Jn addition to the above there are smaller bodies, about as fol-
lows:

Acree.

Licking Creek, Mifflin county, 7,500

Trough Creek, Huntingdon county, 7,500

Martins Hill, Bedford county, 5,000

Tioga county, 10,000

Wyoming county, 1,177

Clearfield and Elk counties, 20,277

Dauphin county 3,354

Lackawanna county, 2,854

Lycoming county 6,735

24

In all about 64,397 acres in the smaller scattered bodies of land of
which all except the portion located in Tioga county has in S„

;i7o?wt [^'"^T/r ^^"'"^' ^ ^■"'^^^^-^'*^ ^^^ otZt' It

pait of which could be made now a source of revenue to the State hv
"improvement cutting;" i. e, thinning out ^

we!uVr'ext™. '"?•■" '■' '''' ''«"'"'• P°'"°- «f '^^ Common-

Hnn f !k ^ combined, there is no doubt that a large nor

tion of the mountain resrinn nf tha «fnf„ ^ ^ ^^'^'

table land and H,nt fi ! f *^ "^^^ ^* ""'^ "™*^ «" extensive

con inu7 V of ^^,^ •'•^""^^ «"d water courses which broke up the

continuity of this plateau, are often thp ..»=„if ^t ■

places it is quite plain that there his ^een bit itN 'T'""' ^'
form the plateau, for the strata, wherever expo ede""^ '7' *°
horizontal position On h,<. ^fL T T ^^P^^^^> '^^ in an almost
ti,r h^^ position. On the other hand, exposure of the edires of

• hev wni^in^'"" 'f '"' ''^■'' '""^•^^'^■•' "« '"t'^^rest here except as

i>.shor: t^ t^i ;, b;:rS;"a:fd 'i::".^,? "r "'^^'^' - ^••-

M-ae in the heart of the Afn, ml ' rl ^''* ''■*'" '"I'P°«^ ^hat he
sees are however oiMT^ "'' . P^'ecipitous slopes which he

d.wn in. t::^:i ^^::^::r::r';:::z:::: ^"^"

are usually fertile soil and level, productive farms '"'"''

in a general way the same statement is true nf ih^ u- ^ . ,
tudes in the southern Alleghenv tC South Z ! ^^''^'* ^'"■

Mountain ranirps- the Zt^^Au ^^ountain and the Seven

with the"east table and"' ""'"''' ^""^ ^'^^''^'''P^ ""^ '"°«t hilly and

found. ' ' ^ ^""^ S'^"*^'" "'I'-J^s are frequently

As a rule the slopes downward from this ninfoo,, „

(•umulation of feitiUtv n.^x.^ o i allowed an ac-

ing or even tu^^^^J^M Z'" '"'"T °' ^"'^ ^'•°""*'' «■■-
market conditions! ■' " ""'' P''°'*'"^"' ""^^^^ favorable

•:s fote:?;;i!:d;;:tS;;." cri;:: trr zr,?:, " "^^"'^'"""'

acquired or to be acouired fn! ., , ''"'^^' ''eservations

srriam water supply' '"■"''' '^"'^'■"" "' '''' «^''^-'«

25

Just here it may be proper to interject an objection to the state-
ment so often made that meteorological instruments sihow no change
in our climate during recent years as compared with earlier ones.
The above may be true but it is extremely hard for those of us who
have been familiar with conditions in Pennsylvania for half a century
to accept it as the whole truth. In what they record, these instru-
mental observations may be wholly right and still leave us uncer-
tain as to portions of the truth. Personal observation by the un-
aided senses may be unreliable; me^nory may be uncertain; but
there are nevertheless conclusions which many elderly people have
reached after long observation that they are at least entitled to
respectful consideration.

It seems to be more than probable, for example, that our early
autumn-niaturing crops are more frequently endangered by the late
summer droughts than formerly. .

It appears also to be true that after a heavy rain the transition
from mud to dust in our roads is more sudden than formerly. These
facts, if facts they be, would appear to indicate that because of the
increase of arcas of evaporation, over areas of water retention, the
dry air seizes upon the water from our field-s, growing plants and
roads more promptly than formerly. There would appear to be no
other sufticient explanation if the rain fall is about the same as in
earlier years.

Of the large bodies of land owned by the State that in Pike county
has the least altitude above the sea level. It lies to the east of what
is known as the Pocono plateau, and is probably on the average six
hundred feet lower.

Protection of State Lands.

Having acquired land the State is bound to protect it.

There are three causes of injury to State lands, against which pro-
tection must be had.

Ist, against trespassers.

2d', against fire.

3d, against cattle.

1st. Trespassers.— In the older, settled portions of the State, land
owners have had but little trouble in protecting their timber against
thieves. In the central parts of Pennsylvania, where the land was
often held in large blocks by individuals, or by corporations, the
case has been dilierent.

There the value which the State placed upon its land was less than
twenty-seven cents an acre. It was small wonder if the needy squat-
ter would relieve his necessities by removal of such of the forest
products as he could utilize for the direct comfort of himself or his

26

family, or could turn into cash or merchandise at the nearest point
uhere trading was done. Until very recently the owner of unseated
land had practically no protection against such trespass, even if he
cared (as he seldom did) to invoke the aid of the law. Within two
^ears a distinguished judge in this Commonwealth asserted that such
limber stealing could not be stopped, and within one year the same
gentlemen himself gave a well nigh fatal blow to it.

Most of the trespass is of the small kind called pilfering; hoop
poles, rails and lire wood, in •small quantity, are the principal ob-
jects taken. When occasion otlers, such a« the opening of a rail-
road or a trolley road, within hauling distance, then the business
becomes more brisk. Ties are cut and removed (often at night) by
thousands.

The reason why it is so difficult to head oif this nefarious business,
is, in the first place, oftener than not, the owner lives in a region more
or less remote from his land. Even the agents hired to protect the
land have been known to join hands with the thieves and divide
the proceeds. The locality where timber stealing is safest is in a
thinly-settled region where witnesses are scarce and where most
who do live there have bec-n supposed to have similar lapses from
honesty.

Kow it must not be supposed that this pilfering or stealing is the
result of sheer wickedness. On the contrary, many of the men who
engage in such work have been accustomed to it all their lives. They
are often otherwise good citizens and see no harm in taking a load
of ties from a tract whose owner is probably a well-to-do man, living
at a distance. He is no neighbor. Indeed many of these men would
share their bed and board with a stranger in distress. Then it must
be remembered that a hard, cold winter pinches them and their fami-
lies fearfully. ''There is an inexorable logic in hunger." No man
would willingly see starvation at work among those whom God has
given him to protect.

Law is but one recourse which the State has in protecting its hold-
ings against such men. It should be appealed to when necessary;
but only when the case is otherwise iucorrigable.

There is a more potent force and in every way a better one. That
is by selecting the workmen for the State lands from among the best
of these men. Show them that thei-e is a safer, surer, more certain
way of earning a living. That is by protecting the State lands; for
when these are guarded against pillage and from fire, there will be
constant work, to keep down the too luxuriant growth, for willing
hands in thinning out and marketing the surplus product.

2d. Against Fire— One crime frequently leads to another. The
man who steals timber is often induced to burn the woods where he
has conducted his of>prationa in order to cover up his work. In cer

, 27

tain portions of the State the crop of huckleberries is often one of
considerable importance to the well-to-do citizens for home use. It
is also one of the means of support of the class of people who prefer
to obtain a living by means which are less monotonous than by daily
labor. Thousands of dollars' worth of this forest fruit are shipped
in some seasons out of a single county. There is no doubt that some
of the more unprincipled among these berry pickers are in entire
sympathy with a forest fire over portions of this picking ground
about once in three years.

1 am driven to the conclusion that a very large proportion of our
spring forest fires can be distinctly charged to fishermen; for it is
beyond dispute the burnings begin when the trout fishing season
opens, and their starting point can often be traced directly to the
bank of a stream. Most of the fires started by fishermen are done
through ignorance or carelessness. The smoker throws his match
(still burning) to the ground and passes on. In an hour the ''woods
are on fire." The same occurs on roads leading through the forest.
Few people recognize (though most think they do) just how inflam-
mable a bed of leaves is. There are instances known where trout fisih-
ermen have actually made a fire (which became very destructive) in
order to create a smoke, under the impression that the trout would
bite better.

Again there are examples of very destructive conflagrations be-
ing started in our woods from shetT maliciousness. At least it was
supposed to be a moral certainty that such was the case, though it
might have been very difiicult to prove guilt before a jury.

Railroads are a frequent cause of forest fires, though they are not,
as is often declared, the most frequent cause. It is noteworthy that
year by year fewer fires are being started along the lines of the Penn-
sylvania Railroad. On the other hand there are some railroads in
the State along which the freiiuency of forest fires from their en-
gines indicates a condition of criminal inditt'erence on the part of the
railroad authorities. Laws should be framed to reach such cases
where those now existing cannot do so. No reason can be given, no
excuse can be offered for allowing a corporation to burn up, through
negligence (which is little short of insolent), the property of the
private citizen, esjiecially when the property destroyed is even more
important to the State than it is to the owner.

The most prolific cause of destructive forest fires is shown by the
records of this office to have been caused by burning brush on "new
ground" for farming purposes. More than sixty per cent, of all the
forest fires in this State owe their origin to this cause. In fact a
large portion of the community believes that the one who thus starts
a conflagration has no legal responsibility; that it is the duty of the

^ 28

occupants of adjacent lands to protect themselves. It is not surpris-
ing that a large proportion of the tires created by burning brush are
caused by persons who have no title to the lands which they are clear-
ing, but are mere eciuatters upon them. It is of course from this
class of people that one might anticipate the greatest trouble.

The practical question is, how shall these tires be stopped or
rendered less frequent? There are two agencies, at least, which
may be appealed to. One is to produce a proper public sentiment
against those who create them. Much has been done already in this
direction. The attitude of the intelligent portion of the community
upon this question is quite dillerent from what it was ten years ago
But much more remains to be done. It is an open tield which the
friends of forestry may well continue to cultivate most diligently.

A second means of reducing the frequency of forest tires is to
punish those who create them. Instead of assuming that a foreet
tire is the result of an accident, it were better to assume that it came
from carelessness or from crime and to ferret out and hound down
the author.

This is a subject upon which there is much to say. When the act
of March 30, 1897, was passed, which made constables of townships
ex-olticio tire wardens and placed upon them the burden of promptly
taking means to suppress these tires, it was clearly recognized that
It was not the best law which could be framed; but it was also recog-
nized that it was the best law we could secure the passage of, as the
public was not ready to endorse the Legislature if it created a special
State force of tire wardens. The fact is, a large number of our town-
ship constables do not understand how to tight forest tires, and a
certain other proportion of them are quite willing to evade the duty
which the law places upon them. Of course it would be dilticult for
them to do this if the intent and direction of the act were observed
rigidly by all the courts of the State. Section 3 of the act reads
thus:

''The tire wardens of each township throughout the Commonwealth
shall, in the tirst week of each term of the court of quarter sessions of
their respective counties, make returns to said court, under oath or
affirmation, of all violations occurring within their respective town-
shii)s, which may come or be brought to their notice, of any of the
provisions of any law now enacted, or hereafter to be exacted, for
the purpose of protecting forests from tire, and it shall be the special
duty of the judge of said court to see these retuiiis are faithfully
made; and on failure of any warden to comply with this i)rovision,
or if it be found ui)on examination or inquiry by said court tliat any
tire warden has either wilfully or negligently omitted to rei)ort all
&uch violation occurring within his township, or having failed to per-

29

form his duty as set forth in section one of this act, such tire warden
or constable shall be deemed guilty of wilfully or negligently making
1 false return, or neglect of duty, and the court shall suspend him
from office and direct the district attorney to indict and try him, and
if found guilty, he shall be tined in a sum not exceeding tifty dollars,
and undergo an imprisonment not exceeding three months, both or
either, at the discretion of the court.'^

It is hard to understand how anything could be more clear or
mandatory than the above, and it is therefore the more difticult to
comprehend why so many of the courts should have given the act so
little real support. It is made by law a special duty of the courts.

The constitutionality of the act has been under trial. At present
it appears to be abundantly vindicated. The facts are as follows:

In 180S, C. C. Dalrymple, constable of Kinzua township, Warren
county, Pa., assisted in suppressing a fire on the land's of G. W. Camp-
bell t<t Sons, and summoned' one of the employes, E. D. Baker. The
county commissioners refused to pay the bill of E. D. Baker. Said
Baker accordingly brought suit against the county of Warren. The
case w^'is tried before W. M. Lindsey in the courts of Warren county,
March, 1899. Judge Lindsey declared the act to be unconstitutional
by reason of defective title. He filed his opinion April 10, 1899.

Judge Lindsey also ruled that the plaintiff was not entitled to com-
pensation from the county because he was a regular employe of G.
W. Campbell & Sons on whose lands the fire occurred.

The case was appealed to the Superior Court and argued at the
A])ril term, 1899. Judge Rice in rendering his opinion stated, "we
are not prepared to say that the act is void because of defective title."
* * *"We are, therefore, not prepared at this time to commit our-
selves to the extent of deciding that if one having no interest and
und-er no duty or obligation to assist the constable were compelled
by him to do so he could not recover compensation."

Judge Bice, however, affirmed the judgment of the court below in
so far as the plaintiff was concerned, that is, that tihe plaintiff was not
entitled to compensation, not because the act was unconstitutional,
but because he was paid by his employer for guarding his property
and that the employer had no right, in such a case, to shift the
burden of protectinir his own property onto the county.

Judge Niles, of Tioga county, also declared the act unconstitu-
tional, but assigned no reason for his opinion. There seems to be,
so far as we are informed, no evidence that he was familiar with the
opinion of Judge Rice.

Judge Dunham, of Wyoming county, June, 1902, affirmed the con-
stitutionality of the act in language so clear, that we print his en-
tire opinion:

30

George Gunder ^ In the Court of Common Pleas of

vs. V Wyoming Co. Ko. 69, June Term,

Wyoming County. ) 1902. Case Stated.

By the express terms of the case, as stated by the parties, there
is but one question submitted to the Court for determination, and
that is as to the constitutionality of the act of March 30, 1897, P. L.
9. It ifi admitted that tlie plainHlT was the duly elected constable of
The township of Washington, in Wyoming county, and that he per-
formed the services for which he seeks compensation in accordance
with and under the provisions of the act above mentioned.

In considering the question, whether this act is constitutional or
Tiot, the first question that naturally presents iteelf, is — Has the Leg-
islature authority to pass an act of the character and scope of this
one? Or to state the case in another form, can the Legislature di-
rect that the county and State pay for extinguishing fires upon
property owned by private individuals, or corporations?

It has been the policy of not only this State but of many other
of the Statee, not only to preserve the forests, in the State, but to
encourage the planting of trees and growth of new forests upon bar-
ren and waste lands. For this purpose the State has appropriated
money to purchase forest lands and keep them as such. And has vir-
tually given premiums by way of inducement to owners of land to
induce them to set out forest treee. Many reasons are given why it is
considered to the interest of this Commonwealth, and to citizens to
protect the forests, which it is unnecessary to state here — suflSce it
to say that it is the policy of the State, because believed to be for the
best interests of the State to protect the forests within is borders.

There is scarcely a city of any considerable size, within the Com-
monwealth, or for that matter in the nation, that does not have a
paid fire department, using the money of the city raised by taxation,
to pay firemen for the protection of the property of the citizens of or
owners of property within the city. If a city may tax its property
owners for the protection of property within the city, we can see no
reason why the Legislature may not authorize the citizens of a coun-
ty, and of the State to be taxed for the protection of the property
within the borders of the county and State.

We entertain therefore no doubt that under what is known as the
police power of the State the Legislature has the power to pass an
act of the character and scope of the one under consideration.

This leaves but one question to be considered and determined, and
that is— Does this act offend against vSection 3, Article III of the
Constitution of Pennsylvania? Or in other words, does it violate the
provisions of the Constitution above referred to?

In order to determine this question, we must consider carefully the
provisions of the Constitution. What it was inserted in the Consti

PLATE VIII.
Pikt^ County Forest Protected for Twenty Years.

31

tntion for. What it was intended to remedy, and prevent, and then
consider the act carefully, to eee whether it comes under the ban of
this prohibition.

Section 3 of Article III provides as follows: "No bill, except gen-
eral appropriation bills, shall be passed, containing more than one
subject, which shall be clearly expressed -ji its title." Does this
act contain more than one subject? Clearly not. But one subject
ifi treated in the bill, and that is the suppression of forest fires. The
first section designates the constables of the various townships of the
State as fire wardens, within their townships, authorizes them to
take measures to extinguish forest fire^ and for that purpose to call
upon any person, within their township, to assist, fixes the compen-
sation for services so performed, and directs how the same shall be
paid.

The second section provides a penalty for the refusal of persons to
render assistance to the constable or fire warden when called upon.

The third section provides for the reporting by the constable to
the court of quarter sessions of the county and a penalty for failure
to report, or to perform his duty under the provisions of the act

And the fourth or last section merely defines the term foreet as
used in the bill.

The only subject in the bill is the protection of the forests against
fire. And every provision in the body of the act is germane to this
subject. This then leaves the sole remaining question— Is the sub-
ject clearly expressed in the title? The title to the act is "An act
making constables of townhips ex-officio fire wardens for the extinc-
tion of forest fires, and for reporting to the court of quarter sessions
violations of the laws for the protection of forests from fire, prescrib-
ing the duties of such fire wardens and their punishment for'failure to
perform the same, and empowering them to require, under penalty,
the assistance of other persons in the extinction of such fires."

This title contains a full and complete index of all the requirements
of the act, except the compensation to the constable and to the per-
sons called out by him, and by whom the same is to be paid. Does
this failure to state in the title, the fact that the persons performing
the work are to receive compensation, and by whom this is to be paid,
render the act unconstitutional and void? Or is the fact that new
and additional services are required of the constable, and of those
called out by him, a sufficient notice that compensation for such ser-
vires would naturally be provided for, so that any one reading the
title would naturally look to the body of the act to see what that com-
pensation was, and by whom to be paid?

^ In Commonwealth vs. Lloyd, 2 Sup. C. R. f5. Judge Willard in de-
livering the opinion of the court, lays d^)wn the following as legal
maxims in Pennsylvania:

32

"First. That nothing but a clear usurpation of a power prohibited
will justify pronouncing an act of the Legislature unconstitutional."

"Second. That the title of an act is part of the act and a guide to
its right construction."

"Third. That the effect, not the purpose of the act, determines its
validity."

"Fourth. It is not necessary that the title of an act should be a
complete index to its contents."

"Fifth. If the title fairly gives notice of the subject of the act,
so as reasonably to lead to an inquiry into the body of the bill it is
all that is necessary."

"Sixth. Ko act can contain two distinct subjects."

In the above case the act was, entitled "An act relating to the
county commissioners of Cambria county." And under this act the
county commissioners of Cambria county were given a compensation
for their services of four hundred dollars per year instead of or in
lieu of the daily compensation allowed by law theretofore— and yet
the Superior Court held this to be constitutional, not to offend Set;
tion 3 of Article III of the Constitution. Judge Willard saying, "We
have said that the title clearly indicates any provision in the body
of the act touching the rights, duties and powers of the commission-
ers and there is no right more thoroughly understood by all the
people as inevitably incident to an office than the right to receive fair
compensation for the performance of the duties thereof."

In Commonwealth vs. Jones 4, Sup. C. R. 3G2, Judge Smith says,
"It is not necessary that the title should refer specifically to matters
legitimately implied from its purpose as indicated by the title. The
essential parts of a statute are the declaratory, the directory, the
remedial and the vindicatory, and if the title clearly expresses the
subject to which the statute is to apply, it is sufficient without ex-
pressing in detail the character of the several parts." "A penalty
is implied in the expression of a purpose to which it is a necessary
adjunct."

Now apply the above language to the statute under consid<^ration.
The "title clearly expresses the subject to which the statute is to ap-
ply," and undier above decision would therefore be sufficient. Then
too, if "a penalty is imi)]ied in the expression of a purpose to which
it is a necessary adjunct" is not compensation implied from the re-
quirement of services?"

On May 8, 187(1, P. L. 154, an act was passed, entitled "An act to
define and suppress vagrancy," in which the fees of constables were
fixed for arresting vagrants and providing that same be paid out of
the county treasury. In Cumberland county, by act of April 21, 1866,
P. L. 1009, it was provided that the "county should not be liable for
any fees for the arrest or commitment of any vagrant or intoxicated

33

person." Yet in the case of Hays vs. Cumberland County, 5 Sup. 0.
R. 159, it was held that the county was liable to the constable for
such arrest. Judge Wickham in delivering the opinion of the court
saying, "As to the constitutionality of that part of the act of 1876,
which requires fees to be paid out of the county treasury, a question
not raised in County of Cumberland vs. Boyd, supra, we cannot ac-
cept the views which controlled the learned judge of the court be-
low. To "suppress vagrancy" the law must be enforced; to enforce
the law the proper officers must arrest, try, convict and commit the
vagrants, and it is needful that these officers shall be paid for their
services. The compensation clause is therefore germane t' the sub-
ject matter, announced by the title to the act; indeed it n ay be said
to be a necessary detail."

Apply this language to the statute under consideration, if in the
case above decided, "the compensation clause is therefore germane
to the subject matter announced by the title to the act; indeed it may
be said to be a necessary detail," how much more may it be said
that compensation for assistance in the extinction of fires is ger-
mane to the subject matter announced by *the title and a necessary
detail. ^

In Commonwealth vs. Sellers, 130 Pa. 32, the court uses the fol-
lowing language, -There is not a single section, or clause of any sec-
lion in the act, that is not clearly germane to the subject expressed
in the title." This referred to the act of May 13, 1887, P. L. 108, en-
titled "An act to restrain and regulate the sale of vinous, spirituous,
malt and brewed liquors or any admixtures thereof." And yet under
this act licenses are granted, the duties of district attorneys and con-
stables prescribed, fees to be paid mercantile appraisers fixed-
amounts to be paid for licenses, treasurer's commissions, penalties
to be imposed for perjury by applicants, or of illegal selling fixed.

We think under these authorities that the title clearly sets forth,
or expresses the subject of the statute. We are not unmindful of
the decision of tihe court of common pleas of Warren county in Baker
vs. Warren County, 22 Pa. C. C. R. 205, and of Judge Xiles in Hart vs
Tioga County, 25 Pa. Co. C. R. 273, and while we have the utmost
rrspect for these judges and would give their opinions and decisions
very great consideration, we cannot help but feel that the cases cited
by Judge Lindsey, and upon which he relied to sustain his rulings
were decided by P. J. Rice as not analagous and that they therefore
did not rule the case as supposed. And it seems the case of Hart vs.
Tioga County supra was decid<^d by Judge Niles upon the ruling of
the court in Baker vs. Warren County supra.

Reading the opinion of that very distinguished jurist, P. J Rice
in Baker vs. Warren County, 11 Sup. C. R. 170, in the light of the

8 .

%

34

finst legal maxim laid down by Judge Willard in Commonwealth vs.
Llo>d supra, "That nothing but .a clear usurpation of a power pro-
hibited will justify pronouncing an act of the Legislature unconsti
tutional," it seems to us evident that when P. J. Kice says, *'\Ve are
therefore not prepared at this time to commit ourselves to the extent
of deciding that if one having no interest and under no duty or obli-
gatin to assist the constable were compelled by him to do so he could
not recover compensation/' Also, "the decisions show that not
every detail which the nature of the subject of the title reasonably
suggests as necessary or appropriate for the accomplishment of its
expressed purpose must be set forth in the title. * * Compensa-
tion may be — we do not say it always is— such a detail, as our own
cases show." He was of the opinion that the title to the act in the
present case being considered, was not so clearly defective as to au-
thorize the court to declare the act unconstitutional.

The Superior Court having said "we are therefore not prepared at
this time to commit ourselves to the extent of deciding that one hav-
ing no interest and duty or obligation to assist the constable were
compelled by him to do so, he could not recover compensation,"
it would be a piece of very great arrogance in us to so decide.

It has been decided in Baker vs. Warren County, supra, that only
those actually called upon by the constable are to be paid' by the
county and State. The act does not cover cases where owners or
operators upon forest lands are fighting fire to protect their interests
and call in the constable. It only applies also to forests of at least
fifty acres in extent.

In view of all the decisions, and the reasons upon which they are
founded, we are unable to find any sufficient reason for declaring the
act of March 30, 181)7, P. L. 9, unconstitutional, and therefore find in
favor of the plaintitT, and render judgment in favor of the plaintiff
and against the defendant for the sum of eleven 90-lOU dollars, with
costs.

By the Court,

EDW. M. DUNHAM, P. J.
May le3, 1902.

[See Gunder vs. County of Wyoming, County Court Reports, Vol.
2f), page 598.]

In spite of its shortcomings the law is capable of doing great good,
if enforced, and has done great good where enforced. Its repeal is
desired in certain cpiarters. With this, the Department of Forestry
is not concerned. So long as it remains upon the statute book it
should, and no doubt will, have the cordial support of the Depart-
ment. The reason alleged in favor of its repeal is that paying for
putting out forest fires is an indmcement for evil-disposed persons to
start them.

PLATE IX.
Pike County Forest Unprotected.

85

I am not aware that this has ever been proven to be the case. But
suppose that it were so proven, what is the obvious duty of the State
under the circumstances? Is it to acknowledge before all the world
that it cannot control the outlaw and abandon the law-abiding
citizen (who has paid taxes for protection) to his mercy; or is it to
use (very means in the power of the Commonwealth to bring the
criminal to a swift and certain punishment? The State exists solely
for the protection of its citizens and shame on the Commonwealth
which fails to do its whole duty! However difficult the problem of
suppressing forest fires may be, we can rest assured that it will ulti-
mately be solved. The safety and prospc^^ity of Pennsylvania d-e-
mand that it should be done and it will be done!

Another act, that approved July ir,, 1SI)7, merits a brief considera-
tion here. The title and act are as follows:

AN ACT

To amend the first section of an act, entitled "An act to protect tim-
ber lands from lire,'- approved the second day of June, A. D. 1870,
providing for a penalty in case of the failure of county commis-
sioners to comi)ly with the terms of said act, after demand made
upon Hiem by the Commissioner of Forestry, aud providing for the
Commonwealth bearing i)art of the expenses incurred under said
act.

Section 1. Be it enacted, &c., That the first section of the act, en-
titled ''An act to protect timber lands from lire," approved the 2d
day of June, A. D. 1870, which reads as follows:

'^Section 1. That it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the
several counties ol this Communwealth to appoint persons under
oath, who*»e duty it shall be to ferret out and bring to punishment
all persons who either wilfully or otherwise cause the burning of
timber lands, and to take measures to have such tires extinguished
where it can be done; the expenses thereof to be paid out of the
county treasury, the unseated land tax to be the lirst applied to
such expenses/' shall be and the same is hereby amended to read
as follows:

Section 1. That it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the
several counties of this Commonwealth to appoint persons, under
oath, whose duty it shall be to ferret out and bring to punishment
all persons or corporations who either wilfully or otherwise cause
the burning of timber lands within their respective counties, and
to take measures to have such Ures extinguished where it can be
done; and on failure of the commissioners of any county, after de-
mand niadK- upon them by the Commissioner of Forestry of'this Com-

3G

monwealth, to comply with this provision, thej shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor in office, and upon conviction thereof shall
be fined in a eum not exceeding one hundired dollars, or suffer an im-
prisonment not exceeding two years, or both, at the discretion of
the court. The expense incurred in the employment of the persons
contemplated by this act, on and after the first day of January, A.
D. 1898, shall be paid, one-half out of the treasury of the respective
county, and the remaining half of said expense shall be paid by the
State Treasurer upon warrant from the Auditor General; but no
such warrant shall be drawn until the commiseioners of the proper
county shall have first furnished, under oath or affirmation, to the
Auditor Cxeneral, a written itemized statement of such expense, and
until the same is approved by the Auditor General: Provided, That
in no case shall the expense to the Commonwealth growing out of
this art exceed five hundred dollars for a single county in any one
year.

Approved— The 15th day of July, A. D. 1897.

DANIEL H. HASTINGS.

Important as is the act making constables fire wardens and charg-
ing them with the duty of suppressing forest fires, the above act in
regard to the detectives is even more important; for the simple
season that it is more desirable to prevent than to suppress forest
fires. It hae been held by some county officials that one of these
acts is superfluous. This is clearly not the case. Each is supple-
mentary to the other and the bills were drafted with this thought in
mind.

Whatever other means may be taken to suppress forest fires, these
will always continue to a greater or less extent so long as those who
create them go unpunished. As already intimated, public opinion
may be a powerful aid when properly directed against those who are
guilty of ^'burning the woods;" but it will never make an end of the
crime, because there always will be some who are insensible to the
sentiment of the community in which they live. For such parties the
law, rigidly enforced, is the only cure.

There are but few efficient detectives ai)pointed by the county offi-
cers for this work, and there are very few indeed" who realize the
stringency of the term used. They are to ferret out those who create
forest fires. I do not know of a term which could more closely indi-
cate the rigorous character of the inquiry these detectives are ex-
pected to make. Year by year the Commissioner of Forestry has de-
manded the appointment of efficient detectives. Year after vear
there have been forest fires (not one of which but was started by some
person, for these fires never start themselves), and vet but few convic-
tions are secured, because few real honest efforts are put forth to

37

apprehend the criminals. It is not from choice that I register here
my opinion that in some instances men have been appointed detec-
tives who had no sort of fitness for the work required. I will not
give an opinion as to what motive could have led to their appoint-
ment. On the other hand, there are counties where the best efforts
have been made to secure good, efficient men, and good has come of
their work.

Public attention should be called to the fact that no law of human
origin enforces itself. There are those who roundly denounce ex-
isting fire laws because of alleged inefficiency but who will decline
to aid in the enforcement of the laws. I beg permission to inform
these people that they have no case. The complaints of the citizens
who fail to avail themselves of the protection the law would accord
them merit no considieration. They have just the same weight that
the complaints of those have who* denounce the impurity of politics
and yet who never lend a hand toward purifying them by appearing
at the primary election. Citizenship carries with it duties as Veil as
privileges.

In order to make entirely plain what is intended I would say that
persons who are conversant with the facts (when a case is being tried
for creation of forest fire) will often by every means in their power
endeavor to evade giving testimony which will convict the suspected
criminal. A most glaring case of this kind recently came under.the
cognizance of this Department. There were reports of a diestructive
fire in one of the central counties of the State. This was reported
by the Department of Forestry to the proper county officer and re-
quest made that it be investigated. It appeared to be impossible
to secure the co-operation of those officials and one of our most
trusted detectives was sent to the ground. He established the fact
that there had been a fire and that it had destroyed a large quantity
of timber on land other than that of the party who started the fire.
This detective secured the positive statement from the neighbors
that this fire arose from carelessness, and that the one whose care-
lessness allowpd the fire to escape him made no proper effort to put
it out. Several persons who alleged they knew the facts said they
were willing and anxious to give testimony from which the guilty
party could not escape. The case was put on trial, at last, by the
county officials, and dismissed by the magistrate because, without
exception, every one of the witnesses who promised testimony which
could convict the prisoner, now came forward and testified in almost
direct denial of what they had previously said were the facts.

One can understand that the wheels of justice must have an un-
certain motion under such conditions.

It is now fairly a question whether or not the Department of For-
estry should have any direct duties in regard to protection of private

J

38

timber lands. The Legislature has provided protection for such
lands, if the owners will avail themselves of it, and at any rate, the
Commonwealth could hardly be expected to do more. Certainly it
could not be expected to protect lands in which the owners showed no
proper interest. Then, too, if the Department of Forestry is charged
with the care of the State lands it will be worked to its utmost ca-
pacity to do this properly.

It is wiser to prevent fires than to fight them. This proposition
should) require no defense, but until the spring of 1901 there had been
no practical acceptance of it by our State forestry officials. This
was partly due to the fact that the State did not have much ground
to protect. It was also true that it was desired to avoid all possible
expenditures of public money.

That this was an absolutely false economy is shown by the fact

that the value of the timber destroyed in a forest fire is usually

greater than the cost would have been to have thrown a reasonable

protection around it by hiring a gang to watch for and head off fires.

Or the case might be stated somewhat differentlv; thus, your ^*gang"

of men to supi)ress fires will cost just about as much as a gang would)

to prevent the fires; cost is the same; but in the former case you lose

a quantity of timber; in the latter case the chances are that you will

eave your timber. Of course, if these statements are true there should

be no hesitancy in the policy of the Department of Forestry It

may be stated that the Commissioner of Forestry, acting under the

direction of tilie State Forestry Reservation Commission, will spare no

pains to prevent, so far as possible, forest fires from being started

When started we will endeavor to have them fought vigorously and
with the aid of the best appliances.

There are certain things to consider in every forest fire. Some ow-
ing to abundance and dryness of fuel and prevalence of high winds
can only be successfully resisted at certain points of advanta-e'
Others owing to more favorable conditions can be resisted success-
fully almost anywhere. IMuch too depends upon the number and effi-
ciency of the force of men available.

In order to be prepared for the most vigorous action, and prompt-
est limitation of the fire, the following preparations are requested
Frequent fire lanes should be opened up and kc^pt open thron-h the
State lands. These should be not h^ss than twelve feet wide and it
would be better if they were twice as wide. If these lanes could be
kept as regular roads it would be very desirable. At anv rate they
should wherever possible, be made passable to a wagon carrvin-

water and whatever else might be considered as desirable or neces""-
sary.

For every five thousand acres there should be a wagon with a
strong horse which was capable of hauling one barrel of water any

89

place a wagon could be taken, and able to haul two barrels over most
of the ground. This wagon should carry two good axes, and four
large iron forks such as are used by the section men along the line
of a railroad for handling the stone ballast. Then actual trial has
shown the great practical value of spraying machines. In addition
to all this the wagon should carry six canvas water buckets. Sucli
an outfit would cost, say:

Horse, tl25 00

Wagon, 35 00

Two water-barrels, 2 50

Two axes, 2 00

Six iron forks, 5 00

Two spraying machines, 5 00

Six canvas water buckets, 5 00

Total, 1179 50

Thus equipped a party of six men could head off almost any or-
dinal y forest fire. It may be well to specify that the iron forks are
intended to be a substitute for the rakes which were used in removing
leaves and brush before starting a back fire. The spraying machines
would, without waste of water, so dampen the leaves that it would
be dilficult for tire to cross the line, except when there was a high
wind.

Canvas buckets are chosen because they are lighter, require less
room and keep from year to year without drying out, or loss of hoops.

During the fire season, from April 1, to June 1, the fire wagon
and the fire gang should be held ready for instant service. And the
same should be done from October 1, to November 15. Autumn
fires, however, are less disastrous, and work less harm to our woods
as a rule than the spring fires.

In the near future the force of men required to do the ordinary
forestry work on the reservation will be found to be suflicient for
protection against forest fires. In the selection of men for forest
service it will be found a safe rule to follow: to hire no one for State
service unless he be a good and reliable enough man for us to hire
to do our own individual work, if we were in need of a man.

This is the juoper place to call attention to the consequences of
reckless "back-firing." It is often possible to whip a forest fire out,
or if this can not be done then to "back-fire" so near the actual fire
as to do but little damage. Of all the melhods known to forest tire
fighters not one is so efficient as back-firing when properly used. On
the other hand, if recklessly employed, it may and often does become
a source of greater danger than the original fire.

40

It is the time-honored method over this State (and in other States
as well) the father employed it and the eons appeal to it usually as
the first resource. I have been told by mountain men that if I knew
any better method, they would like to hear of it, and argument was
supposed to end there. It is no uncommon thing to sc* a Are at a
single point along a mountain side and within a few hours this fire
wm present a line miles in length. This has been caused by back-
hring. The man nearest the original fire back-fired. The othere in
succession back-fired against his and his neighbors back-fire. The
probabihties are that if these parties had gone to the seat of the or-
iginal fire they would have suppressed it. Failing to do this they
have^caused the destruction of thousands of dollars worth of valuable

'Fhe remedy for this seems to be very clear. Treat the man who
back-fires recklessly as if he were the cause of an original fire It
IS held practically by the woodland owners of the State that under

foZZr,T''''V ?""' ''^''''^'''' «f ''i« I'eighbor, may back-fire
to protect himself. It i« submitted that this is neither equity nor
law. The practice needs a check. The sooner it is understood that
no one has a nght to fire his neighbor's woods, simply to protect
himself, the better. i J " piuicn

There must be some reason in the character of the fire and in the
topographical surroundings to indicate where back-firing shall be

ZZTlu J'T ' ''''' "• ^ '''''"^ ™">' b« a natural line of de

Irlv Lr "^:"' " ''''"' ""^^"^ ^"''*^*'- " -""'<J -ot neces-

sarily justify one who commenced his back-fire along such line if

the fire were a mile or two distant unless it could be proven that it
the original fire with any reasonable hope of success

uimn'tw fl°'^'"rK."^ ''°'"'"'^' "'" •'*' ^'^'^ t« "'a'^e a test of this
i'])on the first suitable case which appears

Kfsenations? If this question were put before a convention of
oresters it would, receive a vote in the negative. I am not, however
.epared to say that the prac.ice which obtains of turning attk-Tnto

rhe mountains for the summer is, under all circumstances, a bad one

fj^st refusal to allow grazing would be both unwise and unfair. If
owed on he reservations. I should vote no. because I have learned

onuT'r!^'!!T '^""^ "" '""'**^'^ °"'"*'^'- «^ ^^attle ran do any harm
«...> to a height of fifteen fee.. The terminal buds are well out of

!

I

41

their reach and unless there are too many cattle for the pasturage
there will be but little browsing done. On the other hand I do not
believe that there should be any pasturing of cattle on ground where
the timber is less than fifteen feet high, for the reason that the timber
is apt to be broken down by the cattle and the terminal buds de-
stroyed on the lower growth.

This grazing question has been warmly discussed by the friends
of forestry in Pennsylvania. There are many who oppose grazing
because tlhey allege (and probably there have been cases where the
allegation was true) that it has been the habit of those who turn
tlheir cattle into the mountains, to fire the woods in order to encour-
age the growth of pasture by keeping down the undergrowth. This
charge was made against the farmers of the Beech Creek region, who
not only indignantly denied it but signed an agreement to protect the
State lands, so far as they could, against forest fires. This promise
1 believe has been honorably kept.

My own conviction is that it would be wiser by far to allow a
limited number of cattle to run on such portions of State lands as I
have already indicated, so long as those who enjoyed the privilege
gave their hearty co-operation in protecting the lands against fire.
I would promptly withdraw the privilege when the cattle men failed
in their part of the contract. Undier such an agreement I believe a
lasting understanding could be reached which would be of advantage
to both parties. I have in mind now mountain lands which have
been pastured over from May to October ''from time out of mind."
I have seen hundreds of sleek, fat cattle roaming at large there and
seen almost no injury done to the growing timber. These reserva-
tions belong to the people, are paid for by the people, and the owners
should have every possible use of them which will not endanger their
value to the State at large as Forest Reservations.

Forest Reserves as Sanatoriums.

I desire very briefiy to discuss one aspect of the Forest Reserva-
tion work, which seems to have been generally lost sight of in con-
sidering the relation of the Government to the citizens. I mean the
State lands as sanatoriums and outing grounds for those who are in
search of health and recreation!

It has long been known that there was some relation existing be-
tween out-door life in some form and the cure of pulmonary tuber-
culosis. Half a century ago it was believed that if one suffering from
this malady had the strength requisite to go to, and remain in, the
«abins of the men who were producing charcoal for the furnaces,

41

their reach and uuless there are too many cattle for the pasturage
there will hv but little browsing done. On the other hand 1 do not
believe that there should be any pasturing oi' cattle on ground where
Ih'j timber is less than hl'teen feet high, for the reason that the timber
is apt to be broken down by the cattle and the terminal buds d^e-
stroyed on the lower growth.

This grazing «iuestion has been warmly discussed by the friends
of forestry in JVnnsylvania. There are many who oppose grazing
because tiliey allege (and probably theie have been cases where the
allegalion was true) that it has been the habit of those who turn
tiheir caltic into the mountains, to lire the woods in order to encour-
age the growth of pasture by keeping down (he undergiowlh. This
charge was made against the faiiuers of the JJeech Creek region, who
not only indignantly denied it but signed an agieement to iirolecl the
State lands, so fat- as they could, against forest tires. This promise
I belivve has been honorably kei)t.

My own conviction is thai it would be wiser by far to allow a
limited nund)cr of cattle to run on such portions of State lands as 1
have already indiialcd, so long as tlntse who enjoyed the privilege
gave tlicir hearty cooperation in protecting the lands against fire.
I would promptly withdiaw tbe jjrivilege when the cattle men failed
in their part of the coniiait. liid'er such an agreement 1 believe u
lasting undi'rstaiiding could be reached which would be of advantage
to both parti<'S. 1 have in mind now mountain lands which have
been pashired over from M;iy lo October -'from time out of mind.*'
I have se(Mi huiulreds of slec-k, fat caltle roaming at large there and
seen almost no injury done to the growing timber. These ivserva-
tions belong to tlie jieople, are paitl for by the people, and the owners
should' have every pijssible use oI' them which v.ill not endanger their
value to the State .it large as Forest iicservations.

Forest Ivi'serves as Sanatoria ins.

1 desire Xi^cy luietly to disctiss one aspect of the Forest Keserva-
ti(»n work, which seems to have been geneially lost sight of in con-
sidering (lie relation of the Oovernment to the citizens. I mean the
State lands as ^;lnalol iuins and outiiig grounds for those who are in
search of healih and recreation!

It has long been known that tin re was some relation existing be-
tween oiit-door life in sonu' joini and the cure of piilmonary tuber-
culosis. Ilall" a centur.N ago it was believed ihal if one sulTering from
this malady had the strength H'lpiisite to go to, and remain in, the
eabins of the men who wi le jtroducing rjiarcoai for the fui*mices,

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

42

that his chances for recovery were good. By a strangely erroneous
opinion it was thought that the beneht derived came from inhaling
the charcoal dust. This dust, as we know, is carbonaceous in char-
acter and, in so far, is much more likely to be a cause of danger—
than of help. The real cause was the fresh air in which they lived,
which was potent enough to overcome even the injurious ellect of
the coal dust. That strange terror about night air which so dis-
torts our vision that we cannot recognize that pure air and lungs are
specifically adapted to each other and, therefore, the former cannot
well injure the latter, has been responsible for the deaths of thou-
sands of victims who were contined, Irom mistaken ideas of kindness,
in the unwholesome atmosphere of a closed room.

We are fast gaining a better knowledge of the real facts. Con-
sumption is a disease (largely) of in-door life. The cure for it is
activity out of doors. Any outdoor climate in this «tate is probably
more healthful than any in-door climate we have. At the same time
it is true beyond dispute that some locations are better than others.
The highlands of Tennsylvania are known to be especially favorable
for cure of pulmonary tuberculosis. In other words, we have in
Tenusylvauia many thousands of acres, which are the property of
the Commonwealth, to which our ailing citizens might go in search
of health with a well-grounded hope that their search would be suc-
cessful. The importance of this appears when the statement is made
that there are thousands of our indigent sick ciiizeiis who annually
give up hope of jU'olonging life because they have not the means to
visit some of the distant health resorts which have established repu-
tations.

1 should fail in my duty if I neglected here to assert in the most
positive terms that 1 know of no way in which the Legislature of the
State of IVnnsylvania could do a greater good for a small sum than
by providing shelter on selected portions of our Forest Keservations
to which our needy sick could go. Modern science is fully e(iual to
the task of protecting the community against harm from such insti-
tutions.

{Some where, some how, these people must be cared for. They are
a greater source of danger to the community when free to work out
their own devices than when placed under proper sanitary control.
They are human beings and our religion forbids that we turn them
adrift to die, without thought or care. 1 know that there are regions,
healthful regions in Pennsylvania, where monied interests have com-'
bined to bar out those who sulfer from this disease, where no com-
promise is considered and no division of God's gift of fresh air al-
lowed. We leave these parties to th(M-r own retlections. There are
forms of inhumanity which it is dillicult to characterize!

'<.."

43

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I cannot allow myself to close this report without calling attention
to the noble work which the Consumptive Hospital at White Haven
ib doing. It merits a most cordial and liberal support.

There is another class to whom these reservations offer a rare
chance. I mean those who are a little ailing and who seek a place
where ihey may freely roam while in search of health. Two places
have thus far been tested and given good results. First, that region
near Reeica, close to the boundary line between Pike and Monroe
counties. Second, the summit of South Mountain, back of Mont
Alto, in Franklin county. No doubt there are other places equally
good, in Pennsylvania.

Forest Reserves as Outing Grounds.

There remains one more use of the Forest Reservations. I mean
as hunting and lishing grounds. Such sport is legitimate, health-
ful and productive of great results. The history of the Boer war,
which ''staggered humanity," conveys the important lesson that in
the battles of the future the ritle will play the most important part.
We cannot forget that it was from the forests of Pennsylvania that
the famous Bucktail regiment came to add imperishable renown to
the citizen soldiery of this State. It is in the forest that the man is
trained from youth to handle the rifle until it ''fits his fingers," and
makes of him a marksman second to none. If I might be allowed
to anticipate I would say that I believe our Forest Reservations will
continue to be a school from which will constantly come forth
hundreds of sturdy, self-reliant riflemen, on whose hands and hearts
the State may depend in the hour of trial.

It is growing to be a common custom, in this country, especially
in the west, to compel the hunter to comply with certain most string-
ent rules before allowing him to take the field. The Division of For-
estry in the Department of the Interior in Washington issues a gun
card which allows the holder to hunt for a certain jKuiod on the pub-
lic lands which that Department is in charge of, provided the holder
violates no law. There may come a time when Pennsylvania will be
obliged to do the same thing. There is a strong public sentiment in
favor of it. We think, however, that it is better to trust to the honor
and integrity of the hunting and fishing community for the present.

Relation of Forest Reserves to Water Supply.

It has been from the start a feature of forest policy to lend every
help possible toward securing for important towns such stream
Leads as would become sources of water sujiply in future. For ex-
ample, the State now owns the land from which the town of Clear-
field receives much of its water. A large portion of the McElhattan
water-shed belongs to the State. From this the town of Lock Haven

44

receives its water supply. Of course no defllemeut of the water
in these streams should be allowed. Under judicious care there
should be an increase in the quantity of water supplied by these
areas and an improvement in its quality.

One of the signs which (in itself it is all right) provokes a smile iu
Harrisburg is the prohibition against spitting on the pavements—
this in a town where the water supply is usually filthy! If the quality
of the water provokes expectoration what is to be done? If enou^
of coal culm can pass into the drinking glasses to blacken the water
what IS there to arrest the disease germs and the unmentionable filth
from the cities along the river above Harrisburg?

Tins city is merely u.sed as an example to show the need of a better
water supply for most of our larger towns. There are other cities
m the same pligJit. Witness the muddy condition of the water sup-
ply of Lancaster after a heavy rain. No town should receive its
water supply by drainage from the surface of cleared fields This in-
dicates to some extent the importance of State or municipal owner-
ship of woodland tracts large enough to furnish pure water for do-
mestic purposes.

The time is not far distant when the demand for water-power, and
the other us<'s to which water will be put, will probably cause the
abandonment of the lower portions of the streams in great part to
commercial interests. It is then the more im,,ortant that the head
waters should be jealously guarded for the living needs of the com-
munity. The best water, even when filtered, is no better than the
citizen should have.

The Forestry Reservation Commission has already had its first
contest for this principle. Hence the pains taken to call attention
to the fact that both the Commission and the public should jealously
guard and retain the pure, upper waters of the State, excluding com-
mercial or manufacturing interests, wherever these would in any way
dimmish or d^^teriorate the supply needed for the direct personal
uses of the population.

Should Forest Lands be Taxed?

It is probably but a question of a short time before the whole
system of taxation will recjuire a readjustment. When this does
come It will be proper to ask, and to answer, (he question whether,
or not. It IS a wise policy to tax standing timber so heavily that the
owner, in self-protec.ion, must cut it. Would it not be wiser to have
It remain untaxed so long as it stands, but to demand from the
owner an income tax when he cuts it? Trees serve the State so long
as hey stand and thereby earn the right to stand untaxed.

We will cease to wait for the maturity of timber as our wants be-
come more urgent. Men will be content to use oak and chestnut

45

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sprouts here (as in Europe), betwetm the ages of fifteen and thirty
J ears, for tanning purposes. Quiclv growing trees like the Carolina
poplar, or the white poplar, will be grown and used for pulp gen-
erally and will command a ready market. These facts need not here
be more fully dwelt upon, as attention has been called to them re-
peatedly before.

There does, however, seem to be a new industry about ready to
open in this State. I mean chestnut culture. I think, however,
that it will be in the form of orchards, rather than in the forest. It
will be possible better thus to safeguard the fruit against the worms
which now deshoy so much. The question what is to be done with
this fruit, when we have it, will receive an answer in the article (see
page 93) on making chestnut meal. It will thus be possible to
utilize and to market all the chestnuts we can produce. There is no
reason to doubt that the demand for chestnut meal will be as general
in this country as the demand for oat meal, when its merits are recog-
nized.

The illustration (Plate XXVIIT) »hows a young Ridgely chestnut
tree twelve feet high, and six years old, from which four quarts of
superb fruit were taken. This shows the early age at which some
varieties become productive, and it also starts the question whether
there are not many vacant spots near our homes where such trees
might advantageously be planted.

AVill or will it not be j)roper for the State to supply (for some time
at least) young white pine tiees to our citizens gratuitously? If
so, they can be produced for such purpose at a merely nominal cost
to the State. In three years our nursery can supply them by the
million.

Mont Alto Park.

This is situated on the old Mont Alto estate and is a part of the
South Mountain Keservation.

Perhaps no other i^juk in the State is better adapted by nature for
a summer outing giound for those who have but a d-ay to spend in
the woods.

The forest of the park is to all intents and purposes primeval. The
scenery is wild and ronumtic and of so diversified a character that
the dullest visitor can surely find some spot to attract him. Beauti-
ful springs of the purest water bubble up from the secluded nooks,
and a typical mountain brook Hows over the rocks and through the
laurels for the entire length of the Park.

The Cumberland Valley Kailioad Company has a track running
into the park, rendering it easy of access from every i)art of Central
INnnsylvania and Marvland.

I' I

46

In addition to the natural attractions there are ample and well
designed buildings on the ground which have been erected by the
Cumberland V'alley Kailroad Company: in short it is now an ideal
park.

It is eaid" that there is an average of about twenty-five thousand
visitors to the ground each summer.

It is true that the park is in the care of the railroad company. It
would, however, in my judgment be a public misfortune if any re-
striction were placed upon the company in the control of Mont Alto
Park. The good done by the outing ground thus oi)ened up is in-
calculable. It is evident that the State cannot take charge of it,
and it is equally evident that no company could, or would, manage
it with better advantage to the public than the Cumberland Valley
Railroad Company has done.

Insect Visitation.

Occasionally unusual visitations of insects occur and for a few
years do considerable damage to our forest trees and then disap-
pear. Six years ago reports came to us from Fulton county of a
swarm of Devils Darning Needles (Diaphcromera femorata) which
was at work defoliating the trees of that region.

In 1898 they were abundant and destructive in Blair county. In
the State Agricultural Report for 1S98, Part I, page 42S, there is an
admirable report upon this insect by Professor U. T. Fernald, then
Economic Zoologist to the State.

We quote below an interesting account of their appearance and
doings in Columbia county, which has been kindly furnished to us by
Professor D. S. Hartline, of the State Normal School at Blooms-
burg:

«

Walking Stick.

About two weeks ago Mr. Frank Lutz of this town called my at-
tention to the fact that the forest trees on the mountains and hill
tops near Millville, ten miles mrih from here, were being defoliated
by vast hordes of the orthopterous insect known commonly as the
Walking Stick, and among scientists as (Diaphcromera femorata) of
the family Phasmidae.

I immediately resolved to visit the section at my first opportunity
and see for myself this army of depredators, and study its modus
operandi, and the havoc wrought. On Monday, September 17, Mr.
Lutz, Mr. W. Preston, Prof. James Dennis and Dr. T. R. Croswell
and I, mounted on wheels, provided with collecting and photographic
outfit, proceeded to the place.

47

At the edge of the fores! stood a fine young chestnut tree full of
burrs but completely denudK^d of leaves. Only the petiole and the
midribs of the leaves stuck out from the twigs. These made the tree
seem scraggy and with the clumi)s of burrs gave it a grotesque ap-
pearance that mad»e one pity it. After photographing this we went
among the contending armies and for a few hours lent our forces to
the plant side of the contest.

A stitf breeze was blowing steadily from the north and the sway-
ing of the branches caused by it gave the animals all they could do
to hold on. They were therefore mostly on the lower branches and
on the undergrowth, and not feeding but posing in their peculiar
twig-like attitude, giving them the appearance for which they are
named Walking Stick. It and the body-color harmonizing admirably
with twigs on which they rest, make a most successful case of protec-
tive mimicry.

We found them thick on all kinds of trees and shrubs except hem-
lock and pine and dogwood. All else that grew in the forest and
bore leaves was ravaged. The oaks, cht^stnuts and maples seemed
to be si)ecial objects of attack. Witch-hazel seemed more closely
cropped than any other nndcrgrowth. We found them thick on the
buckwheat, but not feeding. They seemed to come here for protec-
tion from the wind, for the warm sunshine, and for mating. We
found them of all sizes. ag(»s, and colors. Quite young ones are light
green. As they grow larger they become yellowish, greyish, brown-
ish, and. in the transition stages, somewhat mottled. The sexes
seem about equally numerous. The males are generallv smaller,
more slender, and lighter in color. The time of our observotion'
seemed the height of the mating season. The female drops the eggs
as they mature from any position she may occupy at the time.
Where they land or how they develop seems a ma tter of indifference
to her. The eggs are ellij.soid in shape, somewhat flattened, very
smooth and shiny black with a white spot at one end and a white
line running from this end along the edge towards the other end.

A number of eggs were brought home for hatching in the laboratory.
Observations recorded in books tell us that the eggs hatch at various
times beginning with ^lay. ]Many however seem to lie unhatched
through the summer and anoth(T winter, and thus the insect appears
in destructive numbers ewry alternate year.

I questioned the farmers about the times of their appearance in
such vast numbers in this section. According to their observations
there were very few last year. And the only time previous to this
when they were extremely abundant was six years airo. T innuired
also about the extent of territory covered this year. The information
obtained is somewhat vague. From what we saw and from what they
said. I feel that it is safe to say that several square miles are covered.

^ <

48

but oiilj the vegetation ou the hill tops are ali'eeted. The trees and
bushes in the valley are not ali'eeted, as yet, though Mr. Lutz reports
finding them very abundant some distance up the Lick Kun Valley, in
the trees and shrubs overhanging the brooks.

The ignorance and indilierence of the farmers whose timber is be-
ing destroyed in this manner, strikes one as most remarkable, and, of
course, thoroughly deplorable. One from whom I tried to obtain
information about the extent of timber land thus aliected that he
had seen this season, asked me what timber land was being damaged.
I'pointed to the forest covering the hill in front of us and he re-
marked, "That's so; I believe there is something after those trees.
1 had not noticed them before." And he lived at the base of the
range ou which the damage was being done. Another who was on
the ground with us and helping us while we were collecting in the
buckwheat field, of whom 1 asked what was being done to extermi-
nate the pest, nonchalently remarked, "Oh, nothing; they eat noth
ing but the leaves and so don't do any hurt." A signal illustration
of the immense losses sustained yearly by the agricultural industry
of the State because of the ignorance of the farmers about the mat-
ters that concern them most! It would be hard work to convince
fe^uch farmers that leaves are very necessary organs of the tree, and
that a tree cannot often survive entire defoliation. And when it has
happened two or three times iu the tree's life and the tree dies, the
farmer forgets the cause and fails to discover that he might have
saved his tree if he had come to its aid in good time. Ignorance is
mighty expensive and none pays more dearly for it than the farmer.
Collecting them was great fun. They were so plentiful, crawling
over everything, hanging to each other in clumps. When we got out
into the buckwheat field we were soon covered with them. Then we
got out and had them j)icked off and thrown into our collecting cans.
We got under a tree which one of the party climbed and shoolfvigor-
ously. They fell thick and fast as rain does in a heavy shower. We
were literally covered by them. With this manner of collecting it
did not take long for Mr. Lutz to collect 1,500 for studies in sta-
tistical biology and for me to get enough to supply the classes for
study in the laboratory for years to come. Meanwhile Dr. Croswell
collected a bx)ttleful of eggs.

The remedy suggested by the Economic Zoologist for the extermi-
nation of this pest is to burn over the tract late in the fall before the
eggs have sunk into the ground. The layer of fallen leaves is too
thin to make a fire that will destroy the timber but there will be
sufficieiit fire to burn up the eggs.

<^^^"^<^) D. S. HARTLINE,

Bloomsburg S. N. S.

49

Forestry Laws That Have Been Amended.

During the session of 1901, the Legislature of Pennsylvania amend-
ed the act "For the encouragement of forest culture, and providing
penalties for the injury and destruction of forests," approved June
1, 1887. This act provides for an annual rebate of taxes on lands
planted with forest or timber trees, and is beneficial to parties who
desire to engage in forestry. There is no limit to the number of
acres upon which such rebate can be secured. The second section of
the act was amended in 1901, and appears here in its present legal
form. Originally it provid-ed that notice had to be given to the county
commissioners within one year after the lands had been cleared of
merchantable timber, that they would be maintained in timber, to se-
cure the rebate. As amended, however, notice can be given any time
after the land has been cleared, but that the first period of ten years
shall be counted from the time that the land was cleared. The act as
amended follows:

AN ACT

For the encouragement of forest culture, and providing penalties

for the injury and destruction of forests.

Section 1. Be it enacted, &c., That in consideration of the public
benefit to be derived from the planting and cultivation of forest or
timber trees, the owner or owners of any land in this Common-
wealth planted with forest or. timber trees in number not less than
twelve hundred to the acre, shall on making due proof thereof, be
entitled to receive annually from the commissioners of their respec-
tive counties, during the period that the said trees are maintained
in sound condition upon the said land, the following sums of money:

For a period of ten years after the land has been so planted a sum
equal to ninety per centum of all the taxes annually assessed and
paid upon the said land, or so much of the ninety per centum as
shall not exceed the sum of forty-five cents per acre.

For a second period of ten years, a sum ef^ual to eighty per centum
of the said taxes, or so much of the eighty per centum as shall not
exceed the sum of forty cents per acre.

For a third and final period of ten years, a sum equal to fifty per
centum of the said taxes, or so much of the said fifty per centum as
shall not exceed the sum of twenty-five cents per acre.

Provided, That it shall be lawful for the owner or owners of the
Raid land after the same hag been so plantoH for at least ten years, to

60

•

thin out and reduce the number of trees growing thereon to not
lees than six hundred to the acre, so long as no portion of the said
land shall be absolutely cleared of the said trees;

And provided also, That the benefits of this act shall not be ex-
tended to nurserymen or others growing trees for sale for future
planting.

♦Section 2. The owner or owners of forest or timber land in this
Commonwealth, which has been cleared of merchantable timber,
who shall at any period after the said land has been so cleared, and
who shall maintain upon the said land young forest or timber trees
in sound condition, in number at least twelve hundred to the acre,
shall, on making due proof thereof, be entitled to receive annually
from the commissioners of their respective counties the sums of
money mentioned in the first section of this act: Provided, That the
iirst period of ten years shall be counted from the time that the said
land has been cleared of merchantable timber, and, that after the
said first period of ten years, the number of trees upon the said land
may be reduced as in the first section is provided.

Section 3. Any person or persons who shall wilfully or carelessly
cut bark from, or otherwise cut, burn or injure any tree, plant, shrub
or sprout planted, growing or being on any land in this Common-
wealth, without the consent of the owner or owners thereof first
had, obtained, or who without such consent, shall kindle, or cause to
be kindled, a fire on any forest or timber land in this Common-
wealth, or who shall carry into or over any forest or timber land
any lighted candle, lamp or torch, or other fire, without having the
^ame secured in a lantern or other closed vessel, or who shal? dis-
.>arge or set off fire works of any kind on said land or among the
trees thereon, or who shall wilfully or carelessly burn or fire upon
his or their own land, or that of others, any tree, brush, stubble or
other combustible material whereby fire shall be communicated to
tl :e leaves, brush or timber upon any forest or timber lands belong-
ing to other parties, shall be subject to a penalty fnot exceeding one
hundred dollars for each offense committed, with costs of suitrPro^
Tided, That if the defendant or defend-ants neglect or refuse to pay
at once the penalty imposed and costs, or shall not enter sufficient
bail for the payment of the same within ten days, he or they shall
be committed to the common jail of said county for a period of not
less than one day for each dollar of the penalty imposed: And pro-
vided. When the penalty imposed is above five dollars, the defendant
or defendants may enter into a recognizance, with good security, to
answer said complaint on a charge of misdemeanor, before the coiirt
of quarter sessions of the peace of the county in which the offense ia

:t

•Act of March 22d. l^Ol. RmondPrt this portion n? it appears hTZ ~~

tAct of May 14th. 1891. amend, by provldlnir this pJEaUy of $^ Insfad of $50

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committed, which court, on conviction of the defendant or defend-
ants of the ottense so charged and failure to pay the penalty im-
posed by this act, with costs, shall commit said defendant or defend-
ants to the common jail of the county for a period of not less than
one day for each dollar of penalty imposed.

Section 4. Any justice of the peace or alderman, upon information
or comi)laint made before him by the aflidavit of one or more per-
sous of the violation of this act, by any person or persons shall issue
his warrant to any constable or police ollicer to cause such person
or persons to be arrested and brought before the said justice of the
peace or alderman, who shall hear and determine the guilt or in-
jjocence of the i)erson or persons so charged, who, if convicted of the
said offense, shall be sentenced to pay the penalty aforesaid.

Section 5. The commissioners of each county shall, within one
month after the passage of this act, cause the same to be published
one or more times, in one newspaper of general circulation in their
respective counties.

Approved— The let day of June, A. D. 1887.

JAMES A. BEAVER.

The following act wa» passed to correct some of the provisions of
the act approved May 25, 381) 7, and relieves the farmer and small
land owner from a portion of his taxes on lands that he maintains in
timber, as small wood lots, upon his farm. This rebate has been ap-
plied for in a number of counties of the State, and has been granted
in some, but in a few cases we believe it has been refused on the
ground that the act is unconstitutional. There has been no opinion
given as yvt by any court in the matter, and it is to be hoped that all
persons who have lands that come under the provisions of this act
will apply for their rebate of taxes on same, and that in counties
wiliere the rebate is not allowed, thai »ome persons will ask the courts
to decide whether or not they are entitled to the benefits provided by
the act:

AN ACT

To encourage the preservation of forests by providing for a rebate

of certain taxes levied thereon.

Section 1. Be it enacted, Szc, That in consideration of the public
benefit to be derived from the retenMon of forest or timber trees, the
ow^ner or owners of land in this Commonv^ealth, having on it forest
or timber trees averaging not less than fifty trees to the acre, each
of said trees to measure at least eight indues in diamet(T at a height
of six feet above the surface of the ground, with no portion of thft
said land absolutely cleared of the said trees, shall, upon filing with
the county treasurer of their respective counties and with the tax

52

collectors of their respective townships or districts an affidavit made
by said owner or owners, or bj some one in his, her or their behalf,
setting forth the number of acres of timber land within the require-
ments of this act, be entitled to receive annually, during the period
that the said trees are maintained in good condition upon the said
land, a rebate equal to eighty per centum of all taxes, local and
county, annually assessed and paid upon said land, or so much of
the eighty per centum as shall not exceed in all the sum of forty-five
cents per acre, the said rebate to be deducted from said taxes, pro
rata, and receipted for by the respective tax collectors or county
treasurers: Provided, however. That no one property owner shall be
entitled to receive said rebate on more than fifty acres.

Section 2. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent herewith are
hereby repealed.

Approved— The 11th day of April, A. D. 1901.

WILLIAM A. STONE.

The act published below gives the Commissioner of Forestry au-
thority to appoint detectives in counties where county commissioners
refuse to appoint such detectives under the act of July 15, 1897, or
where they appoint inefficient persons, to ferret out and bring to pun-
ishment persons who create forest fires:

AN ACT

For the better protection of timber lands against fire, and provid-
ing for the expenses of the same, and directing what shall be done
with the fines collected and costs paid.

Section 1. Be it enacted, &c., That when the commissioners of
any county or counties fail to "appoint persons under oath, whose
duty it shall be to ferret out and bring to punishment all persons
or corporations who either wilfully or otherwise cause the burning
of timber lands," within their respective counties, as is provided for
by the act of July 15, 1897, or when they have appointed inefficient
persons to do the work aforesaid; the Commissioner of Forestry may,
on the request of residents of a county in which such fires have been
created, or on the recpiest of the owner or owners of land which has
been injured by the fires so created, appoint a detective or detec-
tives, and employ an attorney or attorneys, to ferret out and bring
to punishment, as aforesaid, those who cause the burning of timber
lands; and all expenses incurred by the Commissioner of Forestry
under the operation of this act shall be paid by the State Treasurer,
on warrant drawn by the Auditor General, if the said bills shall be
approved by the Governor and the Commissioner of Forestry; and

53

all the fines collected shall be paid by the magistrate or by order
of the court to the Commissioner of Forestry, and be paid by him to
the Treasurer of the Commonwealth.

Section 2. When conviction is obtained, under the provisions of
this act, of persons or corporations causing the burning of timber
lauds, then the Auditor General, on the request of the Commissioner
of Forestry, may refuse to pay the State's share of the money due
to the county for the services of the person or persons, appointed by
the county commissioners, to ferret out and bring to punishment
those who caused forest fires in the districts where such persons
served as fire detectives, to make arrests and secure convictions, and
for which conviction was obtained by the detectives appointed by
the Commissioner of Forestry.

Approved— The 2d day of May, A. D. 1901.

W^ILLIAM A. STONE.

The old act to encourage the planting of trees along the roadsides
was very much improved upon by the passage of the act as given be-
low:

AN ACT

To encourage the planting of trees along the roadsides of this Com-
monwealth, and providing a i)enalty for killing, removing or in-
juring the same; what disposition is to be made of moneys col-
lected as penalties, and for keei)ing a record, by the supervisor of
roads or boards of supervisors of roads, of the trees so planted
and upon which a tax abatement has been granted.

Section 1. Be it enacted, &c.. That any person liable to road tax,
who shall transplant to the side of the public highway on his own
ju'emises any fruit, shade or forest trees, of suitable size, shall be
allowed by the supervisor of roads or boards of supervisors of roads,
where roads run through or adjoin cultivated fields, in abatement
of his road tax, one dollar for every two trees set out; but no row of
elms shall be placed nearer than seventy feet; no row of maples
or other forest trees nearer than fifty feet, except locust and Caro-
lina poplar, which may be set thirty feet apart, and except fruit
trees, which may be set forty feet apart; and no allowance as before
Pientioned shall be made unless such trees shall have been set out
the year previous to the demand for such abatement of tax, and are
living and well protected from domestic animals at the time of such
demand.

Section 2. Any fruit, shade or forest trees growing naturally by
the side of the public highway, where said public highway runs
through cultivated lands, shall be allowed for in the same manner
and on the same conditions as in the preceding section.

54

Section 3. Any trees transplanted by the side of the public high-
way, as aforesaid, in the place of trees that have died, shall be al-
lowed for in the same manner and on the same conditions as in the
first sec Hon of this act.

Section 4. Ko person shall be allowed an abatement, as aforesaid,
of more than one-quarter of his said annual road tax.

Section 5. Any person who shall cut down, kill or injure any liv-
ing tree, planted or growing naturally as aforesaid, or who negli-
gently or carelessly sutlers a horse or other domestic animal, driven
by or for him to injure any trees hereinbefore mentioned, upon con-
viction thereof shall be subject to a penalty of not less than one dol-
lar, nor more than five dollars, wilh costs of suit, for each and every
tree so cut down, killed, removed or injured: Provided, That if the
defendant or defend-auts neglect or refuse to pay at once the pen-
alty so imposed and costs, or shall not enter sufficient bail for the
payment of the same within ten days, he or they shall be committed
to the common jail of the county in which the otlense was committed,
for a period of not less than one day for each dollar of penalty im-
posed and costs: Provided, however, That the owner of the land upon
which the trees are growing and upon which said abatement has
been granted, may remove such trees, on condition that he will im-
mediately plant and maintain another tree, or trees, in the place or
places of those removed by him or refund to township said abate-
ment, originally allowed for said tree or trees.

Section G. All moneys collected as a penalty in accordance with
si'ction Qve of this act, shall be paid to the supervisors of roads or
boards of su])ervisors of roads, and form part of the road fund of the
township in which the olTense was committed.

Section 7. It shall be the duty of the supervisor of roads or the
boards of supervisors of roads to keep a permanent record, in a book
especially prepared for that purpose, and which book shall be the
property of the township, of all trees upon which the said abate-
ment, as hereinbefore mentioned, has been granted; and when any
tree or trees have been removed, with or without the consent of the
supervisors of roads or boards of supervisors of roads, the dwte there-
of shall be distinctly entered in the said book.

Section 8. The act ai)proved the second day of May, A. D. 1879,
entitled "An act to encourage the planting of trees along the road-
sidcR in this Commonwealth,'' is hereby repealed.

Approved— The 2d dmy of July, A. D. 1901.

WILLIAM A. STONE.

The following is a new^ act, and is published here for the purpose
of general information, not that it relates to forestry, but because
it has to do with the question of trees, ornamental and for shade:

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AN ACT

AtltLorizing boroughs of this Commonwealth to require the plant-
ing of shade-trees along the public streets, thereof, by the owners
of abutting property, in certain cases.

Suction 1. Be it enacted, &c., That the burgess and council of any
Lor«)ugh of this Commonwealth, upon the petition of a majority of
the property owners upon any public street thereof, may by ordi-
nance require the planting and replanting of suitable shade trees
along and upon either side of any such street, upon such alignment
and at such points as may by such ordinance be diesignated, by the
owner or owners of property abutting the street at the points desig-
uaied; and on failure of any such owner or owners after reasonable
n<»tice, to comply with the terms of any such ordinances, the said
authorities may cause such trees to be planted or replanted at the
expense of the borough; and thereupon, in the name of the bor-
ough, collect such expense from the owner or owners in default, as
dtbls of like amount are by law collectible: Provided, That the said
authorities shall not require the planting or replanting of trees at
any point or points which may interfere with the necessary or reason-
able use of any street or abutting property, or interfere unreasonably
with any business thereon conducted'.

Approved — The 17th day of June, A. D. 1901.

WILLIAM A. STONE.

Conclusion.

I should not close this report without a statement of the assistance
which the forestry cause in this {State has received from the Pennsyl-
vania Forestry Association.

This is one of the oldest, and is probably the best organized and
most efficient association of the kind in the United States. It has
originated some of the laws which appear in our statute books and
it has given ite most cordial support to every measure which promised
good to the forestry cause.

From the State Hoard of Agriculture and from the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture the* friends of forestry have already received
most efficient help and direction and it is a pleasure to frankly make
a suitable acknowledgment of it here.

There is one more feature of the forestry work to which allusion
should be made.

No work undertaken by the State Government promises more im-
portant, or better results to those who are to follow us than State

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Forestry. It is however a work which can never be successfully
prosecuted except by adopting and following a well conceived and
v/ell matured plan. To trust it in incompetent hands would be a
fatal blunder.

Forestry is a profession which requires trained foresters. Even
for ite common workmen it demands honest, temperate, industrious
laborers, men who will go into the woods at any time of the day or
night and at any season, men who will dignify the State service by
lid.-lity to the State's interest. I desire therefore to declare in the
most emphatic terms that the Forestry Department should never be
turned over to political direction, and> that no one should ever receive
an appointment in it for other reasons than because of merit and fit
D'^ss for the work.

57

1

CHAPTER 11.

TIJE MONT ALTO ESTATE— PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE.

BY GEORGE H. WIRT. Forester.

ft is au undisputed fact that the woods of Pennsylvania were, in
early limes, magnificent not only in extent but also in the size of
their individual trees. The South Mountain region w^as no excep-
tion, and the trees which are still frequently found, as well as the old
stumps yet uudecayed and measuring four, six and eight feet across,
are relics of a time unknown in history and of a grandieur untold.
In lime the conditions of the primeval forest have been vastly chang-
ed by the hand of man and by nature; and while from a forester's
standpoint primeval conditions are not at all desirable, yet the re-
mains of the former growth vouch for the possibilitiee of the soil
when it has acquired once more its pristine fertility, as it will under
proper protection and management by the State.

From the beginning of the nineteenth century almost until the
present time, the Mont Alto Estate has been in the possession of men
who were manufacturers of pig iron, and who managed their forests
in t^uih a way that they obtained a comparatively equal yield of wood)
for charcoal each year. This yield averaged about 15,000 cords, but
in addition to this there was also a large amount of lumber cut, for
it is said that the old saw mill, just about falling to pieces from
age, was run continuously for many years. Railroad ties, fence
pests, telegraph poles, rails and fire wood were removed in quantities
not only by the owners, but at the same time by persons having no
right wliatever on the land.

^^ ere this the worst that could be saidi about the destruction of
the forests in this or any other locality, very little objection could be
offered, but added to this is the destruction wrought by that curse of
our State, the forest fire. Very occasionally, no doubt, lightning has
been the cause of fires which could scarcely do much damage. More
often liiintei's, and people desiring pasture for their cattle, or a berry

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patdh, set fire to the woods to accomplish their selfish purposes.
Not infrequently one mountaineer would have a grude against a man
who was '^coaling a job," that is, who was cutting a given area by
contract and making the wood into charcoal. The easiest way to
*'get even'' was to burn '^the job" after everything had been cut and
piled. P>ut these fires never ended where the grudge was suppot^ed to
fc»top, and often burnt over thousands of acres before being put out.
At times, too, the men working on the ''coal hearths" would handle
their "pits" in such a way that sparks were shot up into the air, the
result being a large forest fire. In later years the locomotive has
done its share as a source of forest fires.

Man, however, can not be blamed entirely for the present condi-
tion of ailairs on this estate. In one instance, at least, pine beetles
killed quite a number of pitch or jack pines. Every stnenteen years
the locusts have jHit in their ai)pearance and in young growths es-
ptnially have done considerable damage by killing entirely the fresh
Top and side shoots, thus not only retarding or deforming the growth
of many trees but killing the young trees themselves.

The result of the past destruction and removal of the forest canopy
and floor can be easily imagined. In some plaees the rocks have
been entirely denuded, making tree growth of any kind almost im-
possible. The tops and sides of the steeper hills have been deprived
of the spongy humus-cover of the soil, and from these slopes the rain
runs otf almost as fast as it falls, very liKle entering what soil is left.
The soil itself deteriorates and makes natural reproduction extremely
difficult.

However, notwithstanding the amount of wood removed and the
destruction wrought by fires, the estate, with the exception of the
old abandoned fields, is, for the most part, well covered with some
sort of tree® and bushes which have sprouted up repeatedly and en-
deavored to protect their roots from the heat of the sun and to form
another mulch that would supi)ly them with moisture. This growth
is of a great variety of si)ecies, but chestnut, rock oak and red oak
are predominant in numbers and more widely distributed. Locust,
white oak, hickory, white ash, black oak, wild cherry and others are
found mixed with them. Along the streams and in the few swamps,
hemlock, white pine, black gum, yellow poi)lar and red maple are
growing in abundance. Jack pine and white pine have come up in
almost pure stands in many places.

Where fires have been less frequent or whcM-e they have been kept
out for some time there is a very thrifty growth both from seed and
from sprouts. Although the sheds of the furnace buildings are not
old, yet from the boards found in them, it is evident that within the
last twenty-five years there must have been plenty of "yellow pines''
(perhaps Pinus rigida) that were over two feet in diameter. In some

59

places now quite large ones are found'. Telegraph poles and ties
could be made in a number of localities, and along the streams there
are white pines and hemlocks two and three feet in diameter.

On the other hand, where little or no protection has been exercised,
although from a distance the growth appears to be in as good a
condition as could be wished, yet upon examination the usual results
are found. The humus has been taken from the soil; the trees are
all sprouts from badly burned stumps, and their own bases have
been burned until the bark was broken and the wood lias offered food
for insects and fungi. Nature has done and is doing her best to heal
the wounds of her offspring, but with all these efforts the trees can
never amount to much more than fire- wood. The growth is usually
found to be checked and the tree stunted. In still other places, fires
have entirely killed the trees standing in its course. These trees
stood in the way of new growth and became at the same time nothing
more nor less than tinder for the next fire starting in their vicinity.
The result is that such places are little more than barrens.

It may be worthy of note also, that the streams are said to be lower
the year round than formerly and that springs, once never failing,
now become entirely lost early in summer.

In traversing the estate from one end to the other, one almost
wonders at the number and the condition of the roads, and yet the
explanation is easy. The old furnace owners realized that their
roads infiuenced largely the price of the coal they used. A person
does not travel far along these roads until he comes to a large level
spot on one side or the other. These places were the old coal hearths
and to these the wood had to be hauled and from them the charcoal,
(lood graded roads enabled the teamsters to haul very large loads
down grade and made possible an easy and quick return. At present
a very noticeable feature of the roads is their easy gradies for the
most part, however, in many places they have become very rough.

Scattered here and there over the estate are the remains of what
v/ere once the best farms in the district, now abandoned fields, with
nothing to mark the location of the home except the bank of earth
showing the outlines of its walls, and a few remaining tret^s of the
neighboring orchard. Many of the fields have been kept in cultiva-
tion by the people of the region but usually it has been a poor kind
of farming, where nothing in the way of fertilizer has been put on the
ground and very small crops removed. In other fields young growth
has sprung up, and sometimes covered them entirely. This may be
white pine, pitch, poverty, or Jersey scrub pines, or perhaps some
species of the broad-leaf trees, and not infre(]uently by a mixed stand
of broad-leaf and coniferous trees. In one instance a field that
Thirty four years ago had field corn standing in it, is now covered
with white pine tifty feet high and from six to fen inches in

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Maraeter. In another case, what used to be a one hundred acre farm
iias become so covered with young pines and oalvs that there is, at
present, hardly more than twenty-five or thirty acres of open land.

A very important feature of this estate is the part known as the
Mont Alto Park. Its entrance is where the old furnace buildings
used to stand, and the park extends for nearly a mile back through
what is known as "The valley of a thousand springs.'' This park is
the only one already established on the State Keservations, and is
one of which the State can well be proud. The Little Antietam
Creek, which rises in the mountains back of the i)ark, flows through
its entire length. The -ramble^' along the banks of this stream,
through laurel and rhodod-endron and under the shade of white pine'
hemlock, gum and sycamore, across rustic bridges and past many
springs and retreats, to the large spring known as the 'Tearl of the
Park," is surely inspiring to the care-worn man or woman who may
come for rest. There is an observatory on one of the near knobs
which is 1,(>20 feet above sea level and there are two other knobs
within easy reach that are 1,700 feet above tide. From all three of
these the view that is obtained over Franklin and Adams counties
is as grand as any outlook in the State. Moreover, the park is reach-
ed directly by rail.

In April of this year (190l>), practical forestry was begun on the
estate at Mont Alto. A forest tree nursery was made. Six pounds
of white pine seed were sown and 10,000 one year old white pine seed-
lings were set out. Before this was entirely^inislied, a plantation of
two acres was made with 5,000 two-year old white pines. Notwith-
standing the unfavorable circumstances existing at the time this
was done and the dry weather that followed immediately after the
planting, the results have been good. During the summer, besides,
Ihe necessary care of the nursery, some work was done to improve
a rocky road leading to one of the very large springs back of the park.
The road is not a public one but is traveled a great deal. It was de-
cided merely to remove (he stones from ihis road as an object lesson.
In addition a small brid.ge was built. The result has been quite an
improvement, showing what can be done on bad roads, very often
with only a little elficient work.

As soon as proper tools could be obtained, work was begun on a
Bland of pure white pine. The best of these pines were to be pruned
of dead branches, and the balance were to be removed and cut up into
v.ood for pulp or for charcoal. About two acres were thus treated
It has made such a delightful place for camping that almost from
tlhe nme work began, there have been from two to eight campers
located within the grove. (The camp is more fullv discussed in
another article.)

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This Stati:* is in no way hampered for pushing the forestry work
in a rapid and an efficient manner. The work of the future will be
carried on as that of the past has been, namely, by presenting to the
public only what is practical in the form of laws, and by performing
the work in connection with the reservations only upon consideration
of sound business principles or in accordance with the purposes for
which the reservations have been formed. In most cases these pur-
poses can all be accomi)lislied when the forest management is »uch as
to yield a direct pecuniary return, and for that reason means which
would lead to such a return should be taken wherever possible. Two
very good objects to keep in view then are, first, to reduce expense,
and second, to produce an early revenue.

Work is already begun toward enlarging the present nursery. This
fall twenty pounds of white i)ine seed were sown and some seed
of a few other species. A five-acre field will be plowed and next
spring made into a nursery. In it seedlings of various species will
be raised and distributed OAer the estate as needed in plantations.
P^efore winter from thirty to fifty pounds of white pine seed will be
collected.

As a basis for all further work, a survey of the land should be
made at once. This would settle for ever the question of ownership
and in many ways help those who have the care and protection of the
land in charge. But merely the outside limit of the lands is not
enough. A topographical map should be made at the same time.
Such a map shows at a glance the extent of the land, its contour, the
streams, the roads and trails, the forests and open land and could
be made to show the species making up the foresls, their age, condi-
tion, etc. At best, it takes one a long (ime to become familiar with a
large area of woodland and know it ns a forester and his rangers
must know it. With a map in hand many a (piestion of forest man-
agement is settled in an hour that otherwise might require a week
if the information could be had only by going to the point in (question
and making on the spot a thorough inspection of the locality.. Es-
pecially is this so in the matter of planning for a thoroughly prac-
tical sys-tem of roads. It is also true in dividing the area into
blocks, com])artments and cutlings for facilitating future manage-
ment. I'pon a map the work of each year can be shown very forcibly
as well as that of the year or years to follow. Such a survey would
cost from |45 to 185 per square mile, but it would more than i>ay
for ifscif in time snved and results acconii)lished.

If a person buys a hou.^e that is not in first-class condition, the
important question for him to considt-r is that of improvement. It
is the same with a forest, whether owned bv an individual or bv the
State. The condition of the forests on this estate is far from what
it should be and the sooner it is changed for the better, so much

62

sooner tte forests will be capable of yielding their best and largest
renirnH. This can be done bj removing gradually the dead, dying
and deformed trees, as well as those of an undesirable kind, and by
making ^'thinnings" where the growth is now too dense for proper
development. There are many places badly in need of such work and
which, if they are left much longer, may be a source of danger or loss
instead of yielding a profit, as they would at present. In place© pulp
wood, railroad ties, posts and mine props could be taken out, and
everywhere fire wood. If lo,()0() cords of wood, or equivalent in
cubic feet, could be harvested each year (and it could be done safely)
and the profits turned over to the State, the amount would count a
great deal in favor of the forestry movement as a business proposi-
tion, and yet this would merely be the result of a step toward some-
thing far more valuable.

A very interesting question at present is the demand for fire wood
within the region of this estate. Most of the inhabitants are poor,
perhaps owning a home and a small piece of ground for a garden,
but no woodland. Hitherto they have gone into the forest as they
needed wood and have taken what they wanted. Now matters have
changed. Many are in a position that they cannot buy wood, either
from lack of money, although this is seldom the case if it could be
bought near their home, or more often because there is no one near
them from whom they can buy. They are afraid to steal from the
Stale, if ihey are inclined to steal at all, still the delay in solving the
question tor these people will only put a premium upon theft. Some
means must be devised by which the peoi)le can get wood honestly
and althe same time be held as friends instead of forcing them to
steal and then bring them to punishment only to get their ill will.
An efilcient organization of forest ofiicers would make possible sev-
eral schemes which might be devised.

A factor which will determine the profits of most forest produce
more than any other is the roads. The amount of money saved in
getting a product to market is so much gain. With good road»s, time
and power is saved and in many cases forest produce is made of value
only when a road is built in close proximity to it. Moreover a per-
manent road makes possible the marketing of trees immediately, m
case there has been a heavy wind storm or a tire to destroy them.
Some authorities advocate the feasibility of cutting fire lanes across
the forest areas. No doubt there are ivasons for their positions,
but in most cases a fire lane is merely a waste of land and results in
an unwarranted! expense eacb year. Roads and even trails answer
the same purpose, can be used at all times, make accessible all ])arts
of a reservation, and when once made re(piire but a slight expense for
keeping them in repair and clear of debris. In this locality the diflQ-
culty is not so much with the secondary roads as it is with the public

63

or main roads. They are in bad shape and with but a few exceptions
of a very unsatisfactory grade. There is no excuse for either condi-
tion and these roads should be attended to first. They need not
necessarily, be regraded entirely, but tihey should be repaired in a
sensible manner, and in some cases it will be cheaper to regrade them
and make a new piece of road than to repair the old one. This can
be done with the money that is now allowed by law to be spent on
roads within reserves by the Department of Forestry. However, not
by i)utting $25 u[)on each individual mile each year, but by expend-
ing the eniire sum allowed on a portion of the road one year, the
Sii.-ie sum on another i)art next year and so on until the whole ex-
tent of roads is in proper condition. In this way the result will be
accomplished in shorter time, and there will be no danger of losing
the efiv-cts of one year's work by any force of nature and expenses
for repairs will be reduced at once. In addition to the public roads
there should be at Icawt one main road running the entire length of
the estate. Then the secondary roads can be improved as needed.
For a Dumber of years no new secondary roads will have to be built
for there are many at jiresent. '

Tl e lields, tlie larger vacant places within the forest and severely
burnt areas will he planted, gradually, with valuable species, each
adapted to the soil into which it is set. White pine, white oak, tulip-
tree uv yellow poplar, locust, sugar maj)le, shag-bark hickory and
white ash are species most adapted to the varied conditions found
in dilleient parts of the estate where planting will be necessary.
These plantations, of course, must not always be pure for better re-
sults are brought about at times by mixing several species in ac-
cordance with their sylvicultuial characteristics. The filling of
blajiks within the forest is of secondary consideration at this time.

The fact that there is on this estate so much land that will need
to be planted up, and more than on any other reservation, suggests
the idi-a of setting a number of these old fields aside as demon'^stra-
tion ground, or in other words, for making experiments to determine
the success of various mixtures of tree growth, the relations of the
trees to each other, their rate of growth and so forth. This is a part
of forestry which is sadly lacking in our countrv, and to a large ex-
tent each State will have to determine for itself the trees best
ada-pled to its conditions as well as which of the trees and under
what circumstances they will i,roduce the quickest and largest reve-
nue, if this plan is carried out, then it follows that the proposed
s.hool of forestry should be located near these exi)eriments so that
the students will have the advantage of studying the work and its
results at first hand.

One of the purposes of our State Reserves is that they shall be
recreation grounds for the people of the State, consequently the

i

64

forestry management must occasionally recognize and encourage the
aesthetic side of the forests. This whole estate is a natural park,
bu*- Mont Alto Park proper is worthy of considerable attention. At
oue time it was kept in excellent condition, however, for a number of
years no work, or very little more than was absolutely necessary to
keep it open, has been done upon it. At present it is very much in
nerd of improvement. Trees have fallen over, some still standing are
dead and others are deformed. These should be removed. The park
should be extended and more trails built to desirable points. The
work would not be an expense entirely for the return from the sale
of wood would almost oll'set the outlay. The area now devoted to
the j)ark should be kept up as such, and with ihe improvement of
the roads and extension of trails, making the whole estate acces-
sible, it will be still more frequented. The people will learn to love
not only the part of nature belonging to them but at the same time
the State which makes such a park possible for them.

At present there are in charge of the estate, a superintendent and a
forester with two student-assistants. The superintendent has charge
of everything outside of forestry matters proper and also protection.
One man however, is insufficient to guard properly 20,()()() acres of
land. The location of this laud and the troublesome people near it,
demands a force of five rangers in addition to the superintendent.
These men should be sober, fearless and trustworthy. They should
liv^ within the bounds of the land in their charge with nothing else
to do than to learn every nook and corner of their ''blocks" and what
is being done in them. They must be capable of superintending
labor that will be done from time to time and be able to make reports
on anything in connection with their work or land when requested
to do so by the superintendent or forester. In fire season the force
should be doubled. It is far cheaper in the end to prevent fires than
to pay for putting them out after they have been started. In addi-
tion, all forest oflicers should be made deputy sheritls or peace offi-
cers, allowing them under existing laws the power of arrest without
warrant.

At one time everybody living near this estate had plenty of work.
For a number of years the reverse has been true and the introduc-
tion of forestry into this section at the present time is fortunate.
Ihe former furnace hands want work and are glad when they have
it. At first it was somewhat doubtful as to what attitude they
would take toward the State when it became known for a certainty
that it owned the ''Company's Land." Wood could be neither
bought nor taken and to their minds work had forever ceased in the
neighborhood. When, however, they learned of the work to be done
in the future, and of the chances of making an honest living near the

65

old home, many a heart was gladdened, the result being only good-
will to the forest oflicers and to the government. In time they will
realize as the Germans have put it, that "to care for the forests
brings all blessings."

o

mi

CHAPTER HI.

THE INVALIDS' CAMP AT MONT ALTO.

BY MIRA L. DOCK. Member State Forestry Reservation Commission.

On September 27, 1902, accompanied by mv sister, L. L. Dock, a
trained nurse, wilh considerable experience of camp life, I visited
the invalids' camp on the Mount Alto Reservation.

We drove from Oraeffenburg, which lies at an elevation of one
thousand feet above tide, and ascended almost one thousand feet
more before emerging from the woods, upon the wid« and beautiful
summit plateau where the camp is located. The plateau itself, with
a distant encircling rim of wooded ridgee, reminded us both of sev-
eral places in the Black Forest, much resorted to for the fine air bj
invalids who are locally known as ''air snappers."

The site of the camp at the edge of dense pine woods, facing south
across slightly rolling pasture, is so healthful and so serenely beauti-
ful that we wondered the land had not been utilized as a sanitarium
long before now.

The day was cloudy, and following more than a week of heavy
rain, we expected to find the camp wet and the campers perhaps de-
pressed. In spite of excessive rain the gravellv soil and close cut
graes were dry and afforded pleasant walking. This feature is very
important, for the network of old wood roads which extend through-
out the South Mountain lands offers an unusual variety of delightful
walks, and from many years experience I know that after really
violent storms the gravelly soil of these mountain benches and
plateaus is firm and dry almost immediately.

We found the campers very cheerful, even happv, most grateful
for the opportunity of living in such a health-giving spot, and their
only regret being that they conld not remain indefinitelv. Of the
two families then in camp each had their own sleepi, ig tent, while a
third tent served them in common as kitchen and dinin- room These
tents were in beautiful order and the cnmp housekeeping reflected
great credit upon the two Indies, who expressed themselves as moi^
than contented with the facilities for procuring meat, groceries milk
etc., etc., that were afforded by the mountnin farms in the vicinitv
and by the mail wagon from Mont Alto.

i

«7

It being Sunday, the men in camp were resting, but we saw the re-
sults of their week day work in the pines, where they had cleared, out
considerable dead wood.

Altogether the camp presented a most inspiring picture of a noble
tract of land being put to a noble use.

If possible to do so the camp housekeeping would be benefitted
by piping water from one of the springs not far distant from it At
present all water is carried from some little distance

68

CHAPTER IV.

FUNGI INJURIOUS TO FORESTS.

BY BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc. D.

The present aclivilv along lines of forestry is verj commendible
and» one can but note with pleasure the organization of schools that
have for their special function the study of trees in their relations to
American industries. The reaction from the wholesale destruction
of our areas of timber is setting in and the time is not far distant
when reforestration will be the watch word over many portions of
our country. Along with this stimulus to tree growing there comes
a demand for a knowledge of the natural forces that are constantly
at work as destructive agencies against which man must become for-
tified with information as to their methods of action and when pos-
sible check their serious inroadts. Among such enemies of the
forests are a host of destructive fungi and it is to some phases of
this obscure branch of silviculture that the present paper attempts
to deal.

What is a Fungus? There is a group of plants that is quite dif-
ferent from any other. Ordinarily one associated roots, stems, leaves
and flowers with the term i)lant and thinks of the roots as being in
the soil and the other parts as produced in the air. A green color
prevails in the leaves and young stems and their success depends
upon access to a considerable amount of sunshine. In short the
botanist states that ])lants live ui)on the materials they can extract
from the soil and the air under the energizing influences of the sun's
rays. Now all this is quite the opposite with fungi. In the first
place they have no roots, stems, leaves or flowers; are d^evoid of the
leaf green (chlorophyll) of ordinary plants and are not directly
dependent upon the Minlight for their growth. In their method of
nutrition the fungi are like animals while in structure and ways of
reproduction their kinship to plants is established.

If we take a common fungus like blue mold it will help us toward
a knowledge of the way all the members of the group are constructed.
This mold appears upon organic substances that are moist and read-
ily yield its food in the form of starch or sugar and similar com-

<

)

PLATE XVII. Figure 1.
A Sweet Potato Destroyed by the Soft Rot Fiinpus.

G9

pounds. Place, for example, a slice of bread where it is warm and
moist and in a day or two there may be several forms of mould in
fight. These growths spring from small bodies that are called
spores, wliich are so light that they float invisible in the air and are
carrud far and wide by every passing breeze. This is one of the
fundamental facte in connection with the study of fungi and. one
I hat cannot be kept in obscurity when the question of distribution
over wide areas is considered.

To return to the slice of bread., it will seem that it is covered with
a fine cobwebby growth each delicate thread of which is a part of
the fungus. The threads, or hyphae, spring from the spore, grow
into the substance of the bread and there absorb the starchy ma-
terials through their delicate cell walls and increase and multiply
until the bread is filled with (he fungus.

The second act in the drama of life is the production of off-spring
and in order to do this effectively upright threads called sporophores
(spore bearers) arise from the bread and upon these the spores are
borne usually at the tips and i.i many ways. That they are thus
produced above and not in the matrix of the bread is doubtless be-
cause of the greater facility for dissemination olfered by the aerial
situation. Sporojihores are naturally therefore the most conspic-
uous portion of the bread molds and the rule is a general one among
fungi. A mould, for examj.Ie, may fail to produce spores when it is
unable to produce the sj.ores in the free air. Thus a sweet potato
which by the way is a particular favorite with a black mould may be
with skin unbroken save at the end when it was severed from the
other part of the root. Through this exposed place the mould
enters and will ramify throughout the whole root reducing the firm
starch substance to a watery mass and produce no spores. How
ever, should there be a broken place the stalks will crowd, (hrougli it
and quickly form a black covering of the spore«. Figure 1 shows a
sweet i.o(ato that i.s partly rotted by the mould in .lueslion and repre-
sents a break in the skin at a that is tilled with a rank growth of the
sporojihoivs.

M'ith these facts in mind let us consider one of the larger of the
lungi, thus bringing the reader nearer to the subject in ha'nd. This
morning, for example, in j.as.sing a manure heap, it was noticed that
It was covered, with hundieds of toadstools. That portion of the
fungus which was in ^ight was the sporophore and it is inferred that
11. the substance of the manure the vegetable portion of the fun-us
resided. In other words tl,e rei.rodnctlve part of the toadstool was
aerial consisting of an uinb.rlla sliaj.ed body, the cap upon the
unders.d.' of which were a number of thin radiating ,,la(es. the gills.
It 1*; uj,on (hcse gills that the spore.", are borne in vast numbers as
may be demonstrat,.d by removing a maturing cap from its stalk

70

(Stipe) aDd placing it upon clean paper. The spores in falling from
the gills will form radiating lines upon the paper and produce what
is known as spore print. A person who would get a conception of
the number of spores should make a sport print* of a toadstool and
then best of all look with the compound microscope at what a pin
point will carry.

Figure 2 shows specimens that were gathered from a portion
of the College Campus where a heavy coating of manure had been
spread. Feeding in obscurity for a time upon the manure they
gathered substance unto themselves and formed at first minute spher-
ical balls like radish seed or small peas and as time went on rains
came and the toadstool assumed its full size with surprising rapid-
ity. Accompanying illustration shows four stages from the "button"
form to the fully developed toadstool. This particular species
Lepiota naucinoides Pk., is nearly white and may be met with
under the conditions above named, particularly in autumn. The
cap placed upon dark paper, or a Jai)anned' sheet of metal, as I
have done for class illustration; shows the exact reproduction of the
gills in the radiating lines of spores. Such spore prints I have kept
for years.

With the vastuess of the number of spores produced by a single
sporophore of an ordinary toadstool, well understood, let us return
in thought to the dung heap and see what may be found below the
surface of the manure. It may be observed that there is a consid^er-
able number of whitish threads, some of them easily separated as
coarse strings of varying width and length. This is the coarser por-
tion of the vegetative part consisting of hyphae that have combined
in a similar manner to that found in the conspitious aerial— sporo-
phores— the so-called toadstools. In other words, the microscopic
hyphae of fungi may combine to make larger strands as fibres are
twisted together to make a rope.

The next point to be brought forward is that by means of these
threads the fungus may be spread not only from one portion of the
manure heap throughout all the mass, but by removing a small por-
tion of the infected dung to another pile previously free it may be
established in a new place. This is precisely what is done upon a
large scale comnn^rcially when mushroom beds are prepared, largely
of manure and the hyphae of the desired fungus are introduced in
the form of spawn. This spawn which consists of manure thor-
oughly infested with the mushroom hyphae, often showing the white
strands of the fungus, is as dry as dust and is a striking illustration
of the fact that fungi are very resistent to circumstances that would
kill the corresponding portions of ordinary plants. In a considera-

!

I

\

^ZZSZTo fh^'.yT "*"" """" '"" " "-'" •'" " "•"" '^^' '"" "-• •'<"*• -"^ •>'

70

(Stipe) and placing it ui)ou clean paper. Tlie spores in falling from
llie gills will form radiating lines upon the paper and pi'od'uce what
is known as spore jM-int. A person who won hi get a concej)tiou of
the number of sj)ores should make a sport print* of a toadstool and
thtn best of all look willi ihe compound microscope at what a pin
point will carry.

Figure 2 shows specimens that were gathered from a portion

en

of the College (:amj)uc^ where a heavy coating of manure had be
spread. Feeding in obscurity for a (ime uj)on the manure they
gathered substance unto themselves and formed at tirst minute i^plier-
ical balls like radish seed or small i)eas and as time went on rains
came and the toadstool assumed it« full size with sur|)rising rapid-
ity. Accompanying illustration shows four stages from the 'i)utt
form to the fully devclo})ed toadstool. This i)articular
I.epiota naucinoides Pk., is nearlv white and niav b- -

on

species
)e met witii

under the conditions above named, particularly in autumn. The
caj) placed upon dark papc^-, or a Jajanned sh(H't of metal, as I
have done for class illustration; shows the exact reproduction of the
gills in the radiating lines of spores. Such s^iore prints I have kept
for years.

\\'ith the vastness of the number of spores i)roduced by a ^Aiv^le
sijorojdiore of an ordinary toadstool, well understood, let\is return
in thought to the dung hea]) and see what may hv found below the
surface of the manure. Ii uiay be obsr^rvcd that there is a cont^id<^r-

able number of whiiish threads, some of ll

lem easily t^eparated as

coarse strings of varying width and length. This is the coarser i)or
tion of the vegetative i)art consisiing of hyjihac that 1

in a similar manner to that found in tl

phores— th(^ so-called toadstools, lu other words, tl

hyphae of fungi may combine to make I,

twisted together to make a rope.

lave combined
le conc<pi(ions aerial — sporo-

le mirroscopic

irger strands as libres are

The nc^xt pcjint to be brought forward is that b

threads the fungus may be sjir* ad not only f
mure hea]) throughout all (he niat^s, but b

m

y means of these

rom one jiortion of the

y lenioNing a small jjor-

tion of the infected dung to another j)ile j.reviously free it
established in a new ]»lace. Tliis is precisely what is d

niav ue

one u[ton a

large scale coiuuivrcially when mushroom beds are prejiared, largely
of mauure and the hyphae of the desired fungus are introduced in
the form of spawn. This sjiawn which consists of manure thor
oughly infe.;ted with the mushroom hyphae. often showing the white

strands of the fuuiiii

of the fact that fungi aiv

s, is as dry as dust and is a strik

ing illustration

kill the corresjjonding portions of ord

very resistent to circumstances that would

inary plants. In a considera-

'If th»' gills are iJark

lorp piTeotivji to the ey

us«> whiff i.nt.fT and if whito use n d

ark i.ap*»r that the Hpores may be

71

tiou of the behavior of foreet fungi this persistency of vitality in
the hyphae of infesting fungi has a special bearing. To learn of the
habite of these microscopic enemies as to the times and seasons for
spore production and omit the study of the fungus that lies back
of the sporophore would be like looking for the seeds of some pestif-
erous weed that finds an easy way of spreading by means of its un-
derground roots and stems, possibly to the neglect of the more or-
thodox method through the flower. In other words the formation
of the sporophore being the last act in the drama may be reached
only after the feeding ground is exhausted and migration to some
other is under consideration.

There is another side to th[s general treatment that needs a brief
consideration, namely, that of their parasitism. All that has been
said applied particularly to those forms that prey upon lifeless or-
ganic matter and serve the purpose of reducing such compounds to
a simpler form, a field work of signal importance and one of which
the judicious forester would desire not to stop by any means, but
simply to be able more completely to control and direct to man's best
ends.

•

The parasitic fungi thrive upon living structures, either animals
or other plants, and are stopped in their immediate growth by the
death of the host. By the term host the reader will please under-
stand is meant the living plant or animal that furnishes unwillingly
of its substance for the sustenance of the parasite. It is true that
the line between these parasites and those which only require or-
ganic food is not sharply drawn in many cases, but nevertheless
there are a large number of kinds not as yet met with in a growing
condition upon organisms that have died.

There is no more conspicuous member of the parasitic group than
the smut upon the corn which has its vegetative hyphae all through
the growing host plant; but when it conies to the production of the
dark masses of spores the floral parts are the favorites, and the
grains become misshapened by the fungus. But with this smut
plant it is found that the manure heap furnishes the best conditions
for its growth and multiplication in one of its microscopic condi-
tions.

The various rusts are strictly parasitic and cause great damage to
the grains and grasses with many striking examples in the forests,
but even here it is not safe to say that the fungus is not able to
make provisions for its multiplication after the life of the tree or
herb is destroyed. However it is not of special importance to more
than point out the fact that fungi have become so aggressive that
many of them are able to pass the life line and prey upon the most
vital parts of plants.

72

This leads to the question of fungi being able to get a foot hold in
some wound, as an insect puncture of a leaf, or 'Svorm'^ hole in a
branch, and from there spread to places that were previously in a
normal living condition. It is doubtless true that there are many
kinds of fungi that only need to have some asisistance as above
name(J when they will establish themselves. Others however can
secure their own entrance when their spores fall upon the normal
healthy covering of leaf or branch and do not make the initial at-
tack upon any dead parts of their selected plants.

Figure 8 shows a portion of a stem of the Azalea or pinxter flower
sometimes called 'aioneysuckle" from its long pink flowers. Any
one at all familiar with the forests of the Eastern States has often
met with the irregular swollen masses in question and called them
"Azalea apples,'' because of their size, texture and juiciness. These
are good illustration® of a striking form of a parasitic fungus which
lives upon the Azalea.

Fungi injurious to farm and garden crops have engaged the at-
tention of botanists for many years and the treatments for them
ai-e now quite well established in many instances. With forest fungi
the case is quite ditt'erent, because the demand for a serious study of
them has seemed less urgent. The conditions that surround the
trees in the wood lot are also quite unlike those obtaining in the
garden or even the orchard. This however remains true that in
nature the enemies are practically the same whether afi-ecting a cul-
tivated plant or one that i® in its wild state and the essentials that
have been determined for a successful combatting of the fungi of
crop plauts should be known by those who would be forearmed
against the related enemies of the forest.

First of all it has been determined that some kinds of fungi live
upon more than one host in the cycle of its life. For example, cen-
turies ago farmers learned in the school of experience that there
^^as some relation existing between the presence of barberry bushes
and the prevalence of rust upon wheat. They conjectured so far as
to reach the opinion that there was an "amuvium" given off by the
barberry that was poisonous to the wheat. Others claimed that it
was the flower dust and the effect wa.^ greater upon the leaward than
windward side of the bush growing in the wheat field. It rcmained
for a student with microscope and methods of cultivating the
trouble to demonstrate that the cluster cup fungus of the barberry
furnished spores which when ar(iticially sown upon the wheat plant
would grow and produce the rust. A knowledge of these vital re-
lations between fungi of very different forms is of untold value and
second only to that of the stages of larva, pupa and mature insect
without which the entomologist would have liis weapon on comiuest

I

'I

)

PLATE XIX. Figure 3.
Azalea Apples of the Swamp in Early Summer.

72

This loads to Hie (iiicstioii of i"iiii<;i beiiio- able to <i;vt a foot 1
some wouiKJ, as an iiisecl puncture of a leaf, or "worm" liol
bram-li, and fiom (liei-e spread (o j)lace«^ llia( were i
normal li\in<j;- eondilion. It is doubtless (rue that tl

lold ill
e in a

>reviouslv in a

jere are many
e some assist anee as above

n

kinds of fun^i tlial only iwvd jo liav

named when they will esfablish themselves. Others however ea
secure their own entrance when their si)ores fall n]»on Ihe normal
healthy coverino' of h-if or branch and do not make the initial at
tack ujjon any dead partes of their selected jilanls.

rij:,ure :i shows a i)ortion of a stem of the A/alea or i)inxt<'r 11

ower

somehniCv^ called "honevsuckle" from its 1

onji' jtink llowers. Anv

one at all familiar with the for(\sts of the East

ein Slates has often

met with the irre'iular swollen mas

ses in (luestion and called them

juiciness.

Th

ese

"Azalea apj)les," becaiK<e of th(Mr size, texture and

are ^ood illustratioiKS of a slrikin^i form of a parasitic fundus which

lives upon the Azal(\i.

^i injurious to farm and garden <rops have enua«ied the at-

Fu

n

tention of botanists for manv v

ears and the tr<'atments for tl

I em

[\vv now quite well established in manv instai

th

n-es. With forest fuuffi

e case le; (juite dillereiit, because the demand for

tliem has scM'ined 1

a sj'i'ious istudv of

ess ur^icnt. The conditions that surround tin

trees in the wood lot aie al

so tjuite unlike thos«' obtainina in tl

le

((

tirdeii or even the oirhard. This h

owever remains true that in
le same whether alVvctini;- a cul-

ir es^ient ials that

nature the enemies are jiract ically tl

tivated jilant or one that i> in its wild state and tl

hav(^ Ihh'U determiiKHl lor a successful cnmbattiuo- of the funoi of

crop jdants should be known by those who would lie forearmed

against the related enemiis of the forcsi.

First of all it has been det

frmined (hat some kinds of fuimi live

npon more than one host iu the evcl,- ol its life. V

or exai

tnries aj^o farmers learned' in the »<chool of

n])l

e, ceu-

exjieiic'iiee that theiti

^^as some relation exislimi' between the presence of barberrv busl

and tli(^ i»revalence (d' rust upon wheat. Tl

11 'S

io rea<'li the opinion that ll
barl

ley conjectured so far as

iT'i-e was an "artluvium" •:iven oil" by the
)erry that was j.oisouous to the wheat. Others riaimed tliat it

wa.-^i.m-eater upon the leaward than

(»\vin;i in the wheat tield. Ii ii'inained

niii-roscope and nieihods of cultivatin<r the

was the ilowfq* d\u^\ and the elVect
windward side of the bush ur
for a student with
trouble to denionslrale that the el

furnished spores which when artiliciall

uster cuj) fun.mis of the barberrv

would

y sown ujion the wheat jilant

I o

row and prodiici' the rust. A knowled-e of (1

lations between fuii.ni of nciv diirereiil f

p^econd only to that of the st

\\ithout which t he entomologist would ha\.''l

lese vital re-

orms i.< of untold value and

i^cs of larva, pupa and mature insect

lis ueajion on coniiuest

o

PLATE XIX. Fii;uic
Azalea Apples of the Suanip in Early Summer.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

/

73

greatly limited. When it comes to the fungi of the forest it will be
seen that this knowledge of the various forms may play some part
among the methods of remedial treatment.

It has been determined that with many croi^ the seed is one of
the chief vehicles for the spread of the disease. For example, the
smuts of the various grains produce their spores almost entirely
in the heads, that is, in the grains themselves and in threshing the
healthy wheat or oats will become contaminated with the adhering
spores. Such grains will naturally carry in their creases and hairs
the minute spores and are sown with the grains to which they cling
It IS also found that the time when the cereal plants are inoculated
IS when they are in the seedling condition and are exempt after that
period is past. Therefore it is clear that the adhering spores are
finding a most suitable situation for their further growth and it be-
comes a matter of prime importance to direct remedial measures to-
ward the destruction or removal of these spores. Many ways have
been devised and several methods are in practice, one of which the
use of hot water, has proved very successful, while the new germi-
cide formalin is of late claiming careful consideration. The mode of
operation is in short the soaking of the seed in the hot water it being
understood that the grains themselves are to escape unharmed
Uith two dippings of seed wheat in water heated to 135 degrees F
the smnt spores can be all removed or killed and the returns from the
crop greatly increased.

Such a method as this is to be seriously thought of in practical
forestry, of course, with the limitations that the varying conditions
will impose. The forest nursery will be the place when any seed
treatment may be considered. It is in the nursery, again, that the
method of spraying may find a place. The forests proper can scarcely
otter any inducements for the practice of this, the chief way of check-
ing fungus enemies in the orchard and garden.

The use of the Bordeaux mixture has become a necessity in the
growth of many crops and these results should not be lost from view
by any one who is working out forestry problems from the begin-
ning, that IS, from the seed, the nursery and the treeless field. Space
^ull not permit the giving of much information here, but it is avail-
able in the many bulletins issued by the Government and various
State Experiment Stations.

With these words of general information the more specific con-
sideration of the subject will begin, with the right reserved of sup-
plementing at the close with other observations bearing upon the
subject as a whole.

Harlig* in his important treaties upon the subject in hand divides
his book into four sections; namely; a. Injuries induced by ,,lants;

■T,

74

b, Wounds; c, Diseases due to Conditions of Soil, and d, Injuries
due to atmospheric influences and fire. These are mentioned as
showing that there are many sides to successful forest management
as seen in the one aspect of destructive agencies. Our subject is in-
cluded under the first heading and embraces only those plants that
come within the low group of fungi previously considered in a gen-
eral way.

It is not difficult to think of instances when one flowering plant
is injurious to another, even to its extinction. The vine may destroy
the usefulness if not the life of a tree by simply clambering over it,
and interfering with its normal methods of nutrition. Just across
the street from where this is being written is a cedar tree that is
ending its life in its vain attempts to sustain mechanically a rank
wistaria that yearly is getting larger and more weighty, while the
struggling tree, losing its perpendicular, is going to the ground in
both the literal and figurative sense.

There are true parasites however that belong to the flowering
plants like tihe mistletoe, that while growing upon the limbs of trees
rob them of their vital sap and hasten their end.

The struggle for life is much sharper than one thinks, unless the
life of the forest tree is studied from its seedling days. The greatest
enemy may be the nearest neighbor and this is particularly true when
the two plants are of the same kind. It is not unlike the mortal
combat of the two buck deer who have locked their anthers never to
live to see them disentangled. But this conflict need not be dwelled
I'.pon for it is universal among plants whenever there are more seeds
germinating upon a given area than that space can bear as they con-
tinue to grow. If the turnip seeds are sown too thickly there can
be no marketable roots and so it is with all crops with no exception
made with the trees of the forest. In fact were there not this strife
the clear timber would be scarce indeed for all stems would be short
and full of limbs like the trees of the open instead of the tall ones
of the forest.

When Hartig comes to the treatment of the fungous diseases, of
which he describes and figures many, they are grouped under the
families of the parasites, which in our case would presuppose a con-
siderable knowledge of the classification of fungi on the part of the
reader. It seems to the writer that it will be more to the purpose
of this paper to divide the hosts into two groujis, namely: the nar-
row and small leaved and the broad and large leaved trees. The first
group may be fittingly typefied by the pines and the second by the
oaks. It is not for us to consider which of these two groups is of
the most economic value or claim that the division is made for any
other reason than that of convenience. The narrow-leaved group

75

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is the older in tlie history of the world and takes a place below the
broad leaved group in the botanical classification.

Fungi of Narrow-Leaved Trees.

It is interesting to note at the outset that some of the narrow-
leaved trees have had their fungi studied in this country. Before
me lie these papers,* all by the same author and] of very recent
date. These papers constitute a large part of the thorough research
that has been done in thi® country and from them the writer is under
obligations to the author for the facts therein obtained. Dr. von
Schrenk makes three classes of fungi in their behavior to forest trees,
namely, (1) those growing upon the bark, with their vegetative
threads going no deeper, (2) those that penetrate the bark and sap
wood after the trees are dead and (3) those fungi that grow in the
heart-wood as well as sap-wood and bark even when the trees are
alive. It is this last group that is particularly destructive because of
their ability to attack plants that are still growing.

The fungi of all these groups are quite closely related and a brief
general description is as follows: The vegetative portion consists of
line threads which penetrate the bark only, or sap and heart- wood,
as the case may be aud after growing there for a longer or shorter
period, depending upon many circumstances, they usually reach the
burface and form an expansion that may be of considerable size. In
my collection of these fungi there is one that is in the shape of a half
circle and fully thirty incthes across. Upon the upper side it is
brown and shows many wave lines indicating that the whole shelf
was many years in attaining its great size. Professor Atkinson
statesf that he has found specimens of bracket fungi over eighty
years old. The und-er side of the specimen in question (P^ig. 4) is
nearly white and when viewed with a magnifying glass is found to
be made up of many minute pores. Upon the surface of these tubes
the spores are produced in great numbers. On account of this
method of the spores being produced in holes or pores the group of
fungi that we have under consideration is called the Polyporei.
- Figure 4 shows the upper surface of one of the so-called punk
fungi, as seen from above. Its size is indicated by the large pocket
knife and the age is suggested by the many folds; but it is not safe
to conclude that each -wrinkle^^ represents a year's growth. It is

* ''^ ^Gardens! im^^"^'""" distlchum. known as Peckiness. etc.: Eleventh Rept. Mo."^;^

(2) Two^diseases of Red Cedar. Bull. 21. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Dlv. Ve,. Phys. and Path.

(3) Son.e diseases of New England Conifers Bull. 25. U. S. Dept. of Agrlc. Dlv. Veg. Phy..

o-iiu r-ain, lyuy. Br. Dr. Herman von Schrenk.

tMushrooms; Edible. Poisonous Ptr iq<v» n th a.i. -^ .

vanity, r-oisonous. etc.. 1900. O. P. Atkln«on. Profeggor of Botany. Cornell Unl-

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is the older in tlie liistory of the world and takes a place below the
broad leaved' group in the botanical cla«sitication.

Fungi of Narrow-Leaved Trees.

it is interesting to note al the outset tiiat some of the narrow-
h'aved treec^ have had their fungi studied in (his country. Before
me lie these i>ap(^rs,* all bv the sanu* author and of very recent
date. These j)apers consiilute a large i^art of the thorough research
that has been done in thi^s^ country and from them (he writer is under
obligations h) tlu^ author for the faetts therein obtained. Dr. von
Schienk nnikes three classes ol fungi iji iheir behavior to forest trees,
iuimely, (Ij thos(» growing upon (he bark, wi(h their vegetative
1 breads going no de«nier, ['!) (hose that penetrate (he bark and sap
wood after (he trees are dead ;nid ['.\) (hose fungi that grow in the
heart-wood as well as sap-wood and baik even when the trees are
alive. It i.^ (his last group that is i>ar(icularly des(ruclive because of
(heir abiliiy ((» attack i»lan(s that are still growing.

The fungi of all tlu-se groups are (juite closely related and a brief
general d('scri|)iion is a^ follows: The vege(a(i\e portion consists of
line (hreatls which peneira(e (he bark (uily, or sap and heart-wood,
as the case may be and afJcr growing (here for a longer or shorter
period, dejtending ujten many cii'cums(ances, (hey usually reach (he
surface and form an exjiansion (hat may be of considerable size. In
my collection of (hes^. tungi there is c»ne (hat is in the shape of a half
circle and fully thiny in. lies ac^o^s. I'jjon the upper side it is
brown and sliows many wave lines indicadng (ha( (he whole shelf
wa^» many yi-ais in atiainiiig iis great size. I'lid'essor Atkinson
stad'sy (lia( he has lound specinu-ns of brackel fungi over eighty
years old. The uuih-r side of the c^pecimen in (piesdon (Fig. 4) is
nearly whi(e and when viewed with a magnifung glass is fmiud to
be made u]^ of many minufe iM)ies. Fjum] Ihe surface of these tubes
th( spores are ])iodu.-e(l in great number.>*. On account of this
nutliod of (he spores being jucduced in hobs or pmes (he group of
furgi ilia( we have under consideialion is called (he Foiyjioiei.

Figure 4 allows (Ih- npper surface of one of (he so-called punk
inngi, as seen from aboNe. Its size is indicated by (he large pocket
knife and the age is sugge.^ltd by (he manv loids; but it is not safe
to conclude, (hat each "wrinkle" rrpivscnts a year's growth. It is

* ''' "^G^^Z ;';;;'^-^^''""" cli.tu-hnm. known a. IVc-kin.ss. 7u:~^^-:^^r^,^io7^.
(2) T- <'u^ea.e. of Ked Cedar. Hull. 21. U. S. Dopt. of Agric. Dlv. Vcg. Phys. and Path.

"' "and ei^^r^r ^:7^T' '*'"''";• ^"" '•''• ^- ^- ^'^p^- -^ ^*^^'-' ^'- ^'^^^- p^y-.

M'Mj t din. i.too. Hr. Dr. Herman von Sohrenk.
verslty. ' Atkinaon, Professor of Botany. Cornell Unl-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

76

77

nearly as hard as the wood of the large tree upon which it grew and
from which it derived its substance. It is to be remembered that
this is but the spore-bearing apparatus and corresponds to the toad-
stool while the vegetative portion extended a» minute threads or com-
bined strands through the substance of the tree.

The ditrerence between the sapping and mining portion of these
wood fungi and that for reproduction is very striking. The con-
siderable size of the latter indicate that the reproduction is upon a
large scale. The spores are light as dust and are carried by the
^sinds. InsectSf may play an important part in the dissemination of
the fungi in burrowing into the bark and wood and thereby furnish-
ing a ready means for the spores to alight in places that are moist and
otherwise favorable for their germination.

The spore bearing organs are sometimes edible to insects and the
spores may be carried from place to place by the winged visitants,
as in the case of pollen of flowers. Water dripping over the spore-
bearing bodies carry away the spores and they lodge elsewhere.
Driving storms tend to scatter the germs of decay. Perhaps the lead-
ing method of si)reading is through the ground, along the roots from
which the vegetative (mycelium) pass up stems, particularly if there,
is dead heart-wood, and cause a new centre of destruction.

To the lumberman it i» a matter of much importance to know that
the heart of his trees are sound or otherwise. From what has been
said above one of the strongest evidences of diseases is the presence
ujion the body of the tree of the spore-bearing bodies, generally
kjiown as punk. The mycelium in the bark and wood may induce a
flow of pitch or resin and in this way a clue of the internal state of
things is determined.

For New England, at least, Dr. von Schrenk finds that the Poly-
porous Schweinitzii Fr., leads all other species in destructiveness to
the spruces and firs. He gives a figure of the punk of this species and
some notes in connection with the time in the season and rate of
growth of these "shelves," that are produced upon the surface of
Ihe infested red spruce. Beginning to appear toward the first of
July as small rounded yellow-brown masses upon the bark they en-
large nearly a fifth of an inch daily and by the middle of August the
"shelf" becomes a foot or more in leuglh and width.

There are usually several "shelves" in a group one above another,
either upon the trunk of the tree or the roots, especially the latter!
This is due to the fact thai the fungus spreads through the ground
and attacking the roots first and then passes on to the stem. Dr.
von Schrenk found that "wherever one tree is affected others similar-
ly diseased will usually be found close by" wliich is a strong point
in favor cf the opinion that the disease spreads from tree to tree be-
low ground and is a fact of practical value when it comes to the mat-

i!

i

ter of checking the spread of the disease. In Europe where forest
sanitation has made some headway a deep trench is dug around
trees that are alfected with the fungus in hand which prevents the
growth of the mycelium from the diseased plant through the rich soil
to other trees. AMiile we may not feel called upon to take these
precautionary measures it may be more practicable to cut all trees
in the vicinity of an affected tree or group of trees and thus check
the spread of a very destructive timber disease.

It is hoped that enough has been said so that the person who has
his attention called to this subject may be able to recognize the
yellowish brown group of "shelves" produced by the Schw^einitz
polyi)orus as it appears upon the spruce, fir and white pine, and
realize that the fungus is at work at the roots and heart of the tree,
and that the disease spreads by means of its multitudes of spores
carried down to the soil by the rains and are assisted in dissemina-
tion by means of winds and not least by insects that frequent the
"shelves" for a sweet sugar-like substance often seen in drops upon
the spore bearing surface.

In the New England forests Dr. von Schrenk found a second species
of polyi)orus (P. pinicola (Swartz) as particularly destructive to the
cone-bearing trees, especially the spruce, pine, fir and hemlock. The
fruiting organs are from an inch to a foot wide and form hoof-
shaped brackets upon the logs, that is, the upper often wrinkled and
somewhat shiny, nearly black, surface slopes to the margin. The
punk is hard and when cut through shows a number of layers cor-
rc^sponding to the wrinkles or lobes upon the upper surface. The
lower and comparatively smooth level side is pale yellow with a dis-
tinct raised rim and the outer edge. As with the first species the
spores here are borne in the many tubes thus giving the name poly-
porus to the genus. There are many things^ in common between the
two species, among which is the formation of the syrup that as Dr.

von Schrenk states ''may serve to attract insects to the sporo-

]:hores (brackets) causing them to carry the spores to uninfected
tiees."

Unlike the Schweinitz polyporus the one in question enters the
tree above ground, usually at some wound produced by fire, animals,
as wood pecker holes and bark beetle burrows. The*^ broken limbs
produced by fallen trees offer places for entrance and the prostrate
logs, above all others, are the places where this fungus does its de-
structive work. This suggests that newly fallen trees should be dis-
posed of for lumber before time is given for the wood to become rot-
ten, as it will at a rapid rate under the influence of this fungus.
"Before long small whitish areas appear here and there scattered ir-
regularly through the wood. Some of these are mere lines, while

78

otliers form white patches, circular in shape, surrounding small areas

of wood about the size of a pin head, which are red-brown

In the last stages of decay the tissures are very numerous, each filled
with a solid felt of white mycelium. The belts extending in radical
lines join these extending in tangential lines here and there and they
hold in place- the wood which otherwise would have fallen to pieces
long before." All this goes on with great rajudity and suggests the
importance of diminishing as far as possible the amount of decaying
logs in the woodlot by removing them while they are still sound.
The means of reducing the number of points of attack made by in-
sects, birds and other natural methods are scarcely within the prac-
tice of the lumberman or farmer with a woodlet.

There are several other members of the genus Polyporus that are
associated with the two above considered. Thus Polyporus suba-
cidus Peck is treated at some length by Dr. von Schrenk who adds
much value to his description by two heliotype plates showing
stages of decay in white spruce in longitudinal and transverse sec-
lions of the timber and the peculiar form of the spore-bearing ap-
paratus of the fungus.* This species agree with P. Schweinitzii in
U'ing found upon living trees, particularly of white pine, spruce, fir
and hemlock. . \

To Dr. von Schrenk's smaller papert the interested reader is re-
ferred for a consideration of two other Polypori, namely, P. junip-
erinus Schr. and P. carneus Isees., both of which are clearlv illus-
trated with plates. They are both "wound parasites," that is, the
infection occurs through the exposure of the heart wood by wounds.
As the red cedar furnishes a valuable timber already growing scarce
it seems undesirable to retain diseased trees as sources of infection,
and as old trees are much more subject to the rot than younger ones,
it is best to cut all trees near seventy years of age. In other words
remove the cedars when of good size and before tlhey begin to decline
and become diseased.

Among the most destructive of the fungi of the narrow-leaved
trees is the Trametes pini var. Abietis Karst. It is a variety of the
"ring scale" fungus, so called because the shelf form is often entirely
lacking and instead the spore bearing part is like a scale or cushion
upon the surface of the diseased wood. A common form is a thin
sheet upon the lower side of the branch. The color varies, but red
brown may express the iron-rust shade that is quite prevalent. This
fungus grows upon livug as well as dead trees, but old and wounded
trees are more apt to be affected, ilartig states that the Ring scale
of pine is a dangerous parasite in the forests of Oermany and gives
as remedial measures "the removal of all diseased stems at thinning

•Some Diseases of New England Conifers.
tTwo diseases of Red Cedar. 1 c.

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and the prevenliou of imuecessary injuries to living branches.^' We
have not reached that state of silviculture when these recommendia-
tions seem of much account.

Dr. von 8chrenk in his first paper, named in a previous foot note,
considered the subject of "Peckiness" as met with in the cypress.
The same trouble is occasionally styled 'Tegginess," that is the wood
is 'Ticky'' or 'Teggy.'^ In this state the timber is destroved in cer-
tain areas in which a fungus flourishes. "This wood can be utilized
for many purposes, even when much rotted, and in neither case does
the mycelium grow after the tree has once been cut." In a later
paper the same author applies the term "Pecky" to a red-rot of cedar
due to Polyporus cnrneus that produces similar decayed "pockets"
:n the wood, but it is not known that all "Peckiness" is due to this
fungus.

Turning now to the more strictly parasitic groups of fungi it is
seen that the narrow-leaved trees do not have any great number that
require mention here.

A member of the rusts preys upon the pine and has been so pre-
valent in some parts of the United States, particularly Maryland as
to receive attention from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and a
paper was published in l>i96 by Professor Galloway* in which it
states that the fungus requires twelve months for its development
and is spread by means of spores which develop only during wet
weather. The infection takes place when the leaves are young and
the disease causes them to dry up and fall prematurely. Padly af-
fected trees become defoliated and seriously injured by the rust. No
remedy is offered.

Of all the rusts that grow upon the narrow-leaved trees the so-
called "cedar apples" are the most conspicuous. They also furnish
an interesting instance of two widely different plant® being preyed
upon in the life cycle of the fungus. In the first place the reader
may recall the large orange-colored balls that are to be found upon
the red cedar during the rainy spells in spring time. Thev look some-
what like Chrysanthemum blooms, the orange-colored' projections
consisting of a gelatinous substance projecting from a central ball
chocolate in color and of a firm texture. During drv times the horns
apparently disappear and only these central knots or galls are to be
seen, varying from the size of a pea to an inch or more in diameter
The horns of jelly contain the spores and as thev drv down the spores
«re carried away as dust by the passing breezes. This is in April or
May and at a time when the buds of trees and other plants are un-
folding. The cedar gall spore« are carried to the voung apple leaves
and there germinate and produce in early summer the apple rust.
Sometimes this rust is^so^undant upon cultivated trees that the

• A Rust and Leaf Casting: of P,n. I^ve,. Botanical Gazette. Dec., im, w,th plate.

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and (lie iJi'cvcMilioii c*! uniu'cessaiy injuries to living hianclies." We
liave nol icaclicd iliat i^tate of silvi<Milture when tiiese recommend'a-
tioiis seem of mncli account.

J)r. von S(lirei\k in liis lirst jiaper, named in a previous foot note,
considered tlie c^ul)j<H-t of "Peckiness" as nn^ with in tlie evpress.
Tlie same lrou])le is occasionally styled "Pe'-t'iness," that is the wood
its '-Picky" or ''IN'ooy/' In this state the timber is destroyed in cer-
tain areas in which a funj^ns flourishes. ''This wood can be utilized
for many puri)oses, evon when much rotted, and in neither ease docs
the mycelium orow after tlie tree has once been cut." In a later
I)ai»er i\w same author applies the term ^'Pecky" to a red-rot of cedar
du(' to ]'oly])(irns carneus that juoduce;^ similar decayed ''j)ockets'*
:n the wood, but it is not known that all '4'eckinesfi" is due to this
fun^^us.

Turninn: now to the more strictly parasitic oi'ou])s of funj^i it is
se(Mi Ihat the narrow-leaved trees do not have any great number that
I'M pi ire men I ion heie.

A UH'mber of the rusts preys ui)on the pine and has been so pre-
valcnf in .voj]ie parts of Wu^ Tnited States, particularly Maryland as
to receive attention from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and a
paper was publi^^hed in iSDt; by l^rofessor Oalloway* in which it
slates that the fungus requires twelve months for its development
and is spread by means of sj.ores which develop only during wet
^veaflicr. The infection takes place when the leaves are young and
the dis(^•16ie causes Ihem to dry up and fall prematurely. ' Radh' af-
fected trees become defoliated and seriously injured by the rust/ No
I'tniedy is oJTer<»d.

Of all tlie rusts that grow upon the narrows-leaved trees the so-
(iilh'd -cedar apples" are the most cons].icuous. Thev also furnish
an interesting instance of two widely din'erent plant.^ being preyed
nj.on in the lifc^ cyrle of the fungus. In the first i)lace the rea'der
may nvall the large orange-colored balls that are to be found upon
the led ...dar during Ihe rainy spells in sfu'lng time. Thev look some-
what lik(^ rhrysanrhemum blooms, the orange-colored projections
consisting of a gelatinous subsKance projecting from a central ball
^''i^ornh^U^ in color and nf n finii texture. During drv times the horns
niM'Jn-ently disappear and only these central knots or galls are to be
seen, varying from the size of a p(., to an inch or more in diameter
Tbe horns of jelly contain the sporr-^ and as thev drv down the spores
rre carried awav as dusj by the passing breezes. This is in April or
May and at a time when the buds of trees and other plants are nn-
foldu.g. The ccMlar gall spores are carried to the vonng apple leaves
and there gern.inate and produce in early summer the a])ple rust.
Sometimes this ru^t is so abundant upon cultivated trees that the

• A iMst nnrl I.^Hf rastlne of PItip T^av

PS Rntnnlral Oazette. TVc . 1R9«. with plates

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

80

whole orchard will have an orange color. The apple rust affects
not only the leaves, but may show itself in the fruit and even the
branches and prove a serious injury to the orchard. The spores upon
the apple leaver, produced in small cups, pass (o the cedar and there
form new places of infection, which by the time winter comes on as-
sume the form of brown galls or knots, which in turn form spores in
orange projections during the moist warm days of the following
sprmg. The writer has seen apple trees and cedars growing with
their branches interlocking and with the rust abundant upon each
host in its proper season.

There are several species of these cedar rusts, some of which do
not form galls; but instead abnormal growths of the branches and
leaves, so that the seat of infection may be seen from a long distance
by-the "crows nesW they form in the trees. This resj.onse of the
host to the irritation of the parasite is not unlike that found in the
galls produced upon oaks, willows, golden rods and many other
r lants due to the work of insects. While the shelf fungus upon the
log IS all fungus the cedar gall is mainly the tissues of the cedar
etem that has taken on a new growth under the stimulus of the in-
festing fungus, and should one examine the tissue with a microscope
It will be seen that the enlarged cedar cells are associated with the
hyphae of the parasite.

It is seen that the cedar rusts bear a close relation to the orchard
Some of them are upon the apple and others upon the quince while
the wild plants of the apple group are similarly affected It is pe-
culiar that in the round of life of this group of rusts thev feed only '
upon two orders of plants, that is narrow-leaved plants for one
stage and the apple group for the other. It may be that this shows
that the rusts are all closely akin and come from a common parent
but why the original one should have chosen two widelv related
nosts IS not so easy to see. However this is not exceptional for the
wheat has the barberry for its as-sociate in the cycle of the rust that
grows upon them both.

From the standpoint of the forester there is not much that can be
done to stay the course of the rusts. The orchardist, however looks
upon these fungi with other eyes and deeper financial interests If
his trees rust badly he cannot afford to let cedars stand near his or-
chard to make his trouble. He might spray his trees with BordK^aux
mixture at the time when the spores are coming from the cedars and
thus save some of the foliage; but the better way would be to destroy
all the cedars near his orchards and thus strike the blow at the heart
of the matter.

There is another genus of rusts that is more destructive than the
cedar galls, and this works upon the pine trees. The writer first
met with this in a practical way in a New England Nurserv when at

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o

&

f

80

Avliolo oreliard will have a
not only ilu^ Jcuives, bul
I'lanches and pioN

n oranoo color. The ai)i)Ie rust alTects

cN'cn (he

may show ilscll' in ih(. ii-,ii( and
)us inj. ny lo ihc (Hcliard. Tlic spoils in
llie apple leaver, prodnred in nniall cups, j.ass Co (he redar and ll

V i\ sen on

)on

form new j)laees of in feel

ion, nhjeli by ilie (ime win!

same (he forn) of brown -alls or kno(s, whicl

I ere

er comes on a(S-

orange projections dnriiio- {\n. moisl

I in tnru foim spores i

n

warm davs of (he foil

sprrno-. The wriier has seen ai.jjle (rees and ceda

owniii'

their branches intei'lorl

rs <;!•() win;*- wi(h

in

ll ost

in it^ proper treason.

:ind with llu^ rnsf abiindanl npon each

There are several sj.ecies of these cedar rusl

not form -aJis; bnl ins(ead al

s, some of which do

leaves, so (hai (he seat of inlVci

mormal i^rowihs of (he I

'/anehes and

bv Hu' "cr

ion may Ih^ seen from a 1

ont: (

ows ne^ls' (hry form in (he n

list,

I nee

t'es.

host (o (he iriiiation of (h

Thi

s icNjioiise of (he

<>•

alls produced upon oaks, will

o parasKe is not unlike (ha( found in (1

le

I-huKs due (o (he w(nk of
lo«4 is all fnn;.ins (he ced;
^tem (hat has (akeii on a

ows. golden lods and manv other

msecls. AVhile the shelf f

n* ^all is mainly (he (issiicj-^ oi (1

nn<ins npon (he
le cedar

l(^stinn: fun«;ns, ami should oi

new i>row(h under (he stimulus of (1

le in-

it will be seen thai (he enl;
hyphae of (he para.<i(e.

10 examine (he (issue will

ir;4ed cedai' ceils a

I a mici'oscope

re ass(niaied with Ihe

It is seen (ha( (he cedar rnsls I

Some of {]win are upon (he jipj)l

iviw a clos(^ relalion (o tl

N' orchard.

(ho wild i)lan(s of (he apjil

e and odiers upon Ihc (piince, whili

culiar (hat in (h

e lound cd' life of (hi

o ^roup are similarly alfccled. It

I^<

pe-

pon (wo orders of ])Ian(s. (h:i(

s •^reuj) (d" rusts (hev feed oiil

IS nairow-hsu-ed |»lan(s for

sfajre and the ajjple -roup for the odier. It mav be tl
Ihat the rusts arc all closelv al

one

but why (he ori-inal otk^ should 1

in and c<Mn!* from a

ia( I his showed

•ommon j»arent

iiostfi is not so casN i

o see

II

lavo chosen two widel\ related

wht'at has the bail

•cny for irs as.^ociat

owcvcr this is not e\c.|)| i^mal for (1

iv

o

rows upon them both.
From the siaiHlpolni of the fc.restoi' tl

<' in (he cvcle n{' ih

<' rust (hat

done (o s(ay (he coui
upon (hesc fun-i with oil
liis (

loi-e is iMd much (hat can 1

sc ,'d (ho rus(s. The orchai-dist, 1

)C

lowcvcF-, looks
K'l- eyes and dcvj.er linandal inieres(e<. If

i-oes rus( badly he cannot amud to let uMlars s(and near I

chard (o make his double. Mo nsioh^ spray his d
ii.\(ure at the linu' wln'ji the spoi-es

IIS or

n
tl

lu.s save some of the folia-c; but the bed

ces widi Ilordieaiix
ic comin.ii from tin* cedars and

ei- \\

II Ihe cedars near his oi'chards and thus sd-ike the bl

ly would be (o desd'oy

of \hv matter

ow a( the heart

Tl

lere i« another -cnus of lusts (hat

cedar n^alls, and this works upon the j.ine i
me^ with this in a practical \\

is more destructive tlian thi

rees.

Tl

ic writer first

ay in a Xew Kn'rhnid X

nrsei'v when a(

(D

C

c ^

^ H

Oi

C3

;

81

tempts were being mude to raise a kind of western pine from seed.
The seedlings grew well for a few years and then were stricken with
a rust that seemed to be fatal to all. The young stem® showed great
blisters when the spores were produced and the leaves fell and the
plants perished. There are some species of these rusts that cause
enormous swelling® upon the stems of large trees corrugated like a
hugh brain. The whole stem may be encircled when the stem above
becomes weakened. Those who desire to pursue a study of this
group of rusts will find much under the name of Peridermium in
Diseases of Plants by Tubeuf.*

Fungi of Broad-Leaved Trees.

The second division of the subject includes a much wider range
of kinds of trees and a larger list of sorts of fungi; but as some of the
species already considered grow upon the broad-leaved plants and
the others are closely related the treatment here may be corres-
pondingly abridged.

Starting with the shelf fungi it may be added to what had already
been stated concerning Polyporus igniarius L. t^iat it is one of the
common forms upon oak and similar trees. It is a "wound parasite"
that produces a white rot of the wood and forms a spore-bearing shelf
with a stone-hard upper surface and shaped like a horse's hoof.
Similar to this is P. fomentarius L., often known as ''tinder fungus,"
which when made into the form of sticks is familiar to many boys as
lighters for fire works. It is met with upon the beech.

There is a common fleshy form of the genus, namely, Polyporus
sulphureus Bull., w^hich is yellow like sulphur and growing in clust-
ers. A fine plate of this form is shown by Professor Atkinson* from
a photograph of several groups upon an oak stump. Gibson gives it
a colored plate (2G) in his ''Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms."
This is one of the easiest of the species to recognize and as it is large
and edible these facts will help to reduce the number of spores as the
fungus hunters increase in this country. The beautiful white sweet
smelling shelf fungus quite common upon and destructive to the
birch trees is P. betulinus Fr.

Perhaps the most common and destructive of the shelf fungi is one
that is easily recognized by the great number of small over-lapping
thin flexible "shelves" it produces upon all sorts of stems. The
writer recently found a fallen log of shag-bark hickory that was liter-
ally covered with the spore bearing leaves of this fungus (Poly-
stictus versicolor iL.) ), a portion of which was removed and pho-
tographed and an engraving from this is Figure 5.

•Translated by W. G. Smith, page 411-417, with many Illustrations.
tMushrooms Edible, Poisonous, etc.. page 191.

6

H2

The upper surface of the shelf is quite beautifully uiarked with
concentric bands of different colors, only partially shown in the en-
graving. Not long since an old pear tree was found dead, the lower
portion of which was almost entirely covered with the handsome
^'shelves" of this fungus. About three feet of the base of the tree
was procured as a museum specimen. Much further study is needed
with this species to dietermine its habits of growth; but it is safe to
say that it is a rapid destroyer of timber, and old trees and fallen
logs, so far as possible should be turned into use upon short notice.
It had been only a few years since the tree, from which the specimen
shown in Figure 5 was taken, had been felled and yet with a screw
driver the sap-wood could all be easily torn to pieces, showing the
mycelium throughout the interior.

Figure 6 shows an underside view of the same fungus and the
nearly milk white color is in striking contrast with the dark back-
ground of decaying bark and wood.

We come now to the toadstool proper, namely those fungi like
the mushroom that have the spores borne upon gills that make up the
lower part of the cap or shelf mentioned in the earlier part of this
paper. Of these the leading timber destroying species is Armillaria
mellea Vahl., or the honey fungus so named because the cap is
honey colored. This is illustrated with a colored plate by Miss Mar-
shall* because it is an edible species and very common. It is the
subject for plate 27 by Professor Atkinson in his work previously
named.

This fungus produces white sheets of tissue followed by brow^n
stands of considerable size, which may also be found beneath the
bark where they are flattened and resemble shoe strings. Vslien these
threads (rhizomori)hs) are not under pressure, as when inside of hol-
low stems, they are found in form and may extend for many feet.
Tubeuf writes that '^they are not uncommon on timber; in'mines
they may be frequently seen hanging fiom the woodwork as tangled
clumps with numerous branches like the runners of some hanging
plant." These long dark strands often emit phosphorescent light.
It is by means of these rizomorphs that the fungus is able to spread
for long distances along the roots of trees. Professor Gallowayt
under treatment for this fungus writes: ^'AYhen once a tree is attack-
ed by the fungus there is no hope of saving it. If the tree is one of
a group it should be isolated by digging a ditch around it. The ditch
should be dug deep and wide enough to get beyond the point where
brown strands of fungus have reached."

The Fat Pholiota (Pholiota adiposa Fr.) is a gill fungus much like

•The Mushroom Book, 1901. ~ "^

tDfseases of Shade and Ornnmental Trees. B. T. Galloway and A. F. Woods. Tear Book U 8
Pepartment of Agriculture. 18M. ....

PLATE XXIII. Figure 7.
Two Leaves of Ash Malformed by Rust Fungus.

The iii)j)rr surface of (he slielf is cjuite bcNinrifullv niarked with
concentric l»an(]« of dilVerenl coloi's, onlv })ar(ially shown in the eu-
^ravinji^. Not Ion',' t^ince an oUl peai- tr<'e was found dead, ihe low(»r
j)ortion of wlii<li was almost enlir<ly covered witli the handsome
''shelves*' of this funj^iis. Aliout llncc frci of (lie hase (jf tliv Iree
was procured as a musouu) sjM'cimeii. Mucli furlluM' sludy is nc(Mied
with this sj.'ecies to drferniinr' iu> iK'.bijs of ^rov.lh; hut it ic^ safe to
sa\ that it is a ra})id destroyer of timhcr, and old tices and fallen
ioj;s, so far as j)Ossihle should hi' Iui'Ium] into use upon siiort notice.
It hral been only a few yeai-s since the lice. fi(nu A\liiih Ihe siunimen
shown in Fi<;ure T) was taken, he.d been felled and yel wiih a screw
driv(>r the saj^-wood could all be ea.^ily toivn to pieces, c^howini;- the
mycelium Ihroujihout the interior.

Fi^nire i\ shows an undersidr^ view of Ihe sane- fundus and the
nearly milk white color is in strikin.t( contrast with the dark back-
t»i-ound of decayin^^ baik and wood.

We come now to the toa.dstool ])ro{»er, nanndy thos(» fun^n like
the mushroom that have (he s})ores borne upon \y\\]^ that make up (he
lower part of the cap or shelf menticmed in the earlier part of this
paper. Of tliese the leading: timber desti'oyinjr species is Armillaria
m(dlea A'alil., or the ]ir)ney fun;^nis so named because tin* cap is
honey colored. This is illustrated with a cfdored ]»hite by Miss Mar-
shall* because it is an edible species and very common. It i««? the
subject for ])late 27 hy Pj'ofes.<or Atkinson in liis work previously
nanuMh

This fun^nis j)rodnces white shecds of tissue followed by brown
stand<^ of considerable si7(>. whicli may also be found beneath the

resembh^ shoe striiurs. Wln-n these

bark wher(* they are fl.:it(ened ;ind
threads* (rhizomorphs) ai-e uo? umh'r pi
low stems, they ai-e found in form and i

I'ssure, a^

wl

leu insnle o

f hoi

i!a\- e.x'lend Uw manv fe(d.
ley juc e.ot em eiumon on limber: in mines

Tubeuf writes that "tl

tlu'y may be fr(»t;uenMy scimi han;^nn«: f' nni tl

clumps wiih nunn'i'ouf; bramclies lik(» the runn(>rs of some ha

le ANoodworl: as tantrlcd

iiirintr

plant." Tluse lonji: dark strands oft

Jt is by nH^•^ls of these rizonn)!plu*4 that the f

en emit phosphorescent li^ht.

un^jus is able to spread

rees. I*rr)fes>:or (ijillowayf
'^^'hen once a \ri'{' is atlack-

for lon.jjf distances aloni^r the roots of t

under treatnuMit for [Vy fun^nis writes: '

od by the fun<:ns there is ]io hojie of savin<r it. Tf Ihc^ \viH^ is one of

a ^rrou]) it should be iscdated by di.i'<rin.ir a ditch, around it. The ditch

should be du- deej) and wide enou<:h lo j^et beynud the ])oint win re

brown strands r)f finio;us have r(\Mched."

The Fat Pholiota d'holiota adiposa Fr.) is a ^rill fun-rus itinch like

I'Ol.

*'Tl'f 5Tushror,m Rnnk.
tDispppps of Rhndr an
n«»I)Hrtmf?nt of Agriculture, 18M

1 ''iir.nmontril TrPf>p. U 'P. r^.H,

PLATE XXIII. Figure 7.
Two Leaves of Ash Malformed by Rust Fungus.

•riy nnr] a F Wno.Ls, Y« ar Book. U. S

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

the last in general appearance with the cap very viscid and of a saf-
fron or burnt umber color. It is figured bj both Atkinson and Mar-
shall. Tubeuf states that this fungus ^'springs up rapidly in large
numbers on living stems of silver fir beech, etc., and on felled wood.
In the forest, on newly enriched piles of fire wood the yellow stools
may frequently be found in every stage of development growing from
the cut billets, while they are especially numerous on the rotting,

useless timber left lying In the final stages of destruction the

wood will be found laminated into its separate year-rings and very
much broken up into irregular pieces."

The last of the gill fungi to be mentioned of the thousands of kinds
that exist, is the ^^oyster mushroom" (Pleurotus ostriatus Jack.) partly
because it is common and edible and chiefly in that it is diestructive.
This fungus is one of the most conspicuous of all growing in crowded
clusters with the cream-colored ''shelves" over-lapping each other in
great clusters. Gibson gives an engraviug of one mass of this plant
that he names ''thirty pounds of vegetable meat" as it had grown
upon the side of a tree near its base. The large, fleshy gills run
well down into the stalk which is one-sided and quite different from
those of a common mushroom. The fact that this fungus is edible
should help to diestroy the spores which would not have time to ma-
ture on the gills if the specimens were gathered w^hen young enough
to be at their best.

Leaving the coarser toadstools behind attention is now called to
some of the more strictly parasitic forms of fungi. The most con-
spicuous of these among the broad-leaved plants and corresponding
in a measure with the cedar galls of the narrow-leaved trees is the
black knot of the plum and cherry trees. This is, like the cedar gall
fungus, one that comes into the orchard and there does much damage
and on that account has been more studied than if it had been con-
fined to forest plants. The black knot is well named for the ex-
crescence made by the fungus upon the stem is very dark when
mature and in form of a knot. The spores falling upon the young
stem will germinate and cause a swelling of the bark followed by
ruptures, and later in the season the olive colored spongy tissue be-
comes hard and black. When the fungus has once estabfished itself
the same knot will grow year after year until the stem is killed.
There is no question here as regards the full parasitic nature of the
black knot fungus for it is extremely doubtful whether it would at-
tack any but live branches and it likewise perishes when the stems
are cut from the trees.

In connection with the treatment several bulletins have been pub-
hshed in this country* giving remedies, the chief of which is the

84

knife; namely, the removal of the knots and their destruction. From
the standpoint of the forester there is very little to suggest, for it
will not pay always to use the same methods for the woodlot as for
the orchard.

Another conspicuous forest fungus is the "witches broom'' of the
wild cherry, as certain other fungi are the "witches broom" of the
cedar trees. These large bushy growths may be seen for long dis-
tances. The stimulus due to the fungus has been such that the for-
mation of wood is largely increased causing the infected branch to
bend downward while the sprouts take an upright position. There
is little to be done with these communities of parasite® unless they
be pruned out and destroyed. The chief purpose here is to call at-
tention to the meaning of these abnormal growths and anticipate
or hplp on the day when silviculture will adopt the methods that
prevail in orchard' culture of the belter sort. Similar fungi cause the
twisting of the foliage and one named "leaf curl" as destructively
seen, for example, in the peach orchard.

The leaf fungi upon forest trees are innumerable. Perhaps the
most destructive in some localities is the anthracnose upon the syca-
more, which attacks the young leaves and branches causing them to
turn brown and die. It is not unusual to find the trees quite brown
with the drooping tips early in the season, but while it is very in-
jui'ious to the trees there is no practical remedy to suggest for the
owner of the forest.

Of the rusts there are many which thrive upon the foliage of broad-
leaved trees among which are those of the poplar and willow. Some
3 ears the ash rust, for exiimple, is very abundant, distorting every
l^af upon the tree, even causing swellings and twisting of Hie young
stems, while in other years the fungus is comparatively scarce.
Figure 7 shows specimens of Aecidium Fraxini Schw., as causing con-
spicuous distortions upon the leaves of the ash. Rusts are some-
times found in the forest upon the hawlhorns and here it is quite
showy upon the fruits causing the affected ones to become much
larger than those not rusted. The engraving, Figure 8, shows this
difference and also the slender horns of the fungus that extend-s far
beyond the surface of the fruit.

The smuts are not common to trees, but the mildews are often
abundant and destructive. Upon the oaks and chestnuts, willows,
elms and a very long list of trees these parasites are active. Usual-
ly they confine their work to sapping the leaves and their juices but
In some instances the stems, particularly the young ones, are ruined
by mildews. The writer recalls seeing a mildew so abundant upon
the live oaks of California as to distort the branches and seriously in-
jure the trees. Figure 9 shows the appearance of a mildew (Un-

rry.^ r> . . PLATE XXIV. Figure 8.

The Rust Of the Hawthorne, as Seen Upon the Malformed Fruits.

J

84

knife; namely, (lie renH)^al of the knolcs and llieir destruction. From
the s(andi)oint of (he foresler (here is very lit lie to iSii<,^oest, for it
Avill not pay always to use the same metliods for the woodlot as for
Ihe orchard.

Another conspicuous forest fun-us is Ihe ^'witclies lu'oom" of tlie
^Yild cherry, as certain othei- fun<»i are Ihe ''witches broom" of the
cedar trees. These larj-e bushy .urowths nmy be seen for lonj;- dic^-
lances. The stimulus due to tlu^ fundus has been such that the for-
mation of wood is lar«A('ly increascnl causing- the infected branch to
bend downward while the sprouts take an uj)ri^ht ]iosi(ion. There

io little to be done with these
1

comtnuuities of ]>arasitei^ unless they
)e i^runed out and destroyed. The <-hicf {)ui'|M)se here is to call at-
tention to the nuMiniu<4- of these abnornml .urowths and auficijiato
or h'dp on the day vslien silviculture will ad(H)t tlie methods that

prevail in orchaiVli rnllure of the beder sort. Similar f

unui cause

Ih

e

twistinji- of the f«diauv and one named "b'af curl"
seen, for example, in \\w p(^ach orchar

as destructivelv

(1,

The leaf fun^i upon forr^t Ikh's ar

most destructive in some locaJit

e innumerable. l*ei'hap.*4 tlie

ies is the anthracnose upon the svca-

more, which attacks the vouim leav

o

es i\v.(\ branchrs causing them t

rees (juite brown

turn brown and die. It is not unusual to lind the I

with the (Irooj;in-' tips early in the season, but while it

jurious to lh(> in^^^i^ there is no practical remedy to suoj;('st for th<

owner of the forest.

IS vei'v in-

Of (1

\v i-usts there ai'e manv winch thr

leaved trees anioiu:' whid

i\'e upon tin* foliaiT'* of broad-

A e

;isl

I are those of the ])(>]dar ami willow. Some

n-s the ash rust, for exam|)]e. is vcrv abundant, distorlii

lo- cverv

leaf ui)on (lie tr(

i(\ t.

vcn causing- .^wcllin.L'.s and Iwisiin;: of the vouii

cr

Steins, whilf in ofliei- years llic funuu:

r

ic^ comparat ivclv scarce

i;jure 7 shows sj-ccimens of Accidium Fra\i)!i Schw., as
lu'cuous distortions upon the leaves of llw. ;,sh. Ku.^t

causmir (M)n-
;ire some-

tim(« found in tho forest u

showy upon ihe finils ca.usin<^ Ihe aiTected

on the hav.i horns and here it is (piite

lar^
din

er than I hose i-ot rusted. Tl

ones (o become mnoli

le eniiravin*:, Fi<nire S, shows this

eren«-e a]id also the sh-nder horiu^ of (he funirus that extend'S f;

beyond the sui-facc of thr fniit.

The smuts are not common to tre(»s, but lie* mild

\v

Jjbunda.nt and (hc^trmti
elms and a veiy lom-; list of I
ly they conline thcii* work to sap{;in.u' Ihe lea
me inslances the stems, pail irularlv Ih

cws ar(^ often
ve. rpon Ihe oaks and chestnuts, willows.

1?; so

by mildews. The wiiici- iccnl

rees these para^iitf^s are active. Usnal-

ves a!;d their juicev^ but
e younu: ones, ar(» ruined

Is s

the liv(M»aks of (\Mlifornia :5s lo disiocl ih<' brand

eeiuLi a mild^vr so abuitdauf upon

jure the trees. Fiiiure 1) mIj

les and sejiouslv in-
ows Ihe a])}.earanc(» of a mildew (Un-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

PLATE XXV. Figure 9.
A Leaf of Willow Showing Mildew.

85

cinula Salicis D. C.) upon a leaf of the willow. The whole upper sur-
face is covered as with dew from a mill, excepting a few patches
that were intentionally rubbed to remove the fungus covering. The
spores are produced in small dark spheres, not large enough to be
clearly seen without a magnifier. Tllie mildew of the honey locust
is shown in Figure 10 where the young white, growing condition (b)
is shown in contrast with the »pore producing state, (c) while the
underside of another portion of a leaf (a) is given which is free from
the mildew.

All of these mildews are quite superficial and could be kept off by
the use of fungicides as they are done when upon ornamental plants,
as greenhouse roses, by the use of ilowers of sulphur, or from goose-
berries by spraying with a solution of sulphide of potassium, or when
i.pon cherry trees and grai)e vines by the use of the Bordeaux mix-
ture. However the comparatively small amount of injury done by
them does not warrant any such precautions when they are in the
forest.

Enough has b(»en written to indicate that the fungi of the wood-lot
are many. Some are large, others microscopic; some living only
upon dead substances, while others affect an entrance to the living
juirts through wounds of various sorts, while others, particularly the
leaf parasites, are able to start in the living tissue and usually no-
where else.

]( may be remarked in closing that the remedies so far as prac-
ticable consist in removing any standing timber that is becoming old
iind therefore es})ecial]y liable to the inroads of destructive agents.
A man with a woodlot will naturally find use for all trees as they
chnnce to fall and keej) his forest land free from decaying logs. With
a large forest the case may be different, but so far as possible the
same rules of sanitation should be observed.

Hince Hie above was prepared two papers of considerable size and
imi)ortance have appeared. One by Dr. von Schrenk* and the other
from the i)cn of Prof, (leorge F. Atkin.^on,t both of whose earlier
works have been diiHMi upon in this article. Dr. von ^chrenk closes
his valuable, finely illustrated paper with the following under the
head of Remedies: *'The above fncts show clearlv that in order to
save killed timber from destruction it ought to be cut immediately
whenever possible. Its value will depreciate from the moment the
tree censes to live, and before nuiny years have i)assedi it will be ut-
terly worthless. In many sectious of this country it is perfectly
f.\asible to cut this dear! timber. The cutting of such dead trees not
only saves the wood of these trees, but ])revents the formation of the

♦Fungous DiHoapos of Forost Trors by TTormnn von Fchrcnk, published In the last issue of the
Year F.ook of the Dopartmont of Agriculture (ltX)0).

IStudioFs. of Fnnie Fhade Tree and Timber Destroying Fungi, by George F. Atkinson, Cornell
Agril. Exper. Sta., Bull. 193. June. 1901.

85

PLATE XXV. Figure 9.
A Leaf of Willow Showing Mildew.

cinula Salicis 1). C.) upon a leaf of ilio willow. The wliolo upper sur-
face is covered as wilh dew from ii mill, exccphiii; a few patelies
that were iiitciitioiia!! y luhhed to remove ihv fuui^'us eovel•in^^ The
sporev< are jnodiiciMi in small dai'k sidiercs, not lar^^e eiiou<;ii io be
ehailv seen willioisi a mauiiilici'. 'lilic mildew of the lioiiev locust
is shovvU in Fi.mirc H) where the yoii!!<;' white, <j;i'()win<jj condition (b)
is shown in coadast wilh (he v<}M>re prodijciu'; stale, (c) wliile the
Lndersl(h' of another jiortion of a haf (aj is j^iveii which is free from
tile mihh'W.

All of these mildews are (niite snperlicial and conld be ke]»t olT by
the use (>f fiin^iicides as -hey ari^ done wlirii uj.on ornamental ])lantc^,
as «;r('ei!lH)nse rosins, by ile^ nre (>f ilowcrs of .-iilphiir, oi- fiom ^oose-
bii-rii s iiy sjiayin.u Nviih a, :'olnii(tn of suipliidc of j;o!as:-inm, oi- v.heii

i,p(

rh(M r

rees ami ura.-r'

[<*S

(1

le ii>'e <

f

i lie

n

o

rdea

ux mix-

tuic^ Ilow( ver the comiKJi .MiN d v small amount of ininiv done bv
tia-m (b)es not warrant any siicii piccautions wiien tliey are in the
forcv^t.

Knouj^li has bren wjiilrsi fo iiidicate tlial tlie fuii'^i of the wood-lot

an* maav

i)nu' arc

lUUC. o

the?

microsconic; souh' liviuii" onlv

i:i»on dead subsi;>n«'cs. while others alTect an entrance to the livintr
parts thi'ouLih W(.'un(b- o| various s(ui.s, whiu' others, ]>anicularly llie
li'af jar.isiics. ju.* nMc lo start in ihc living tissiio and u»^iialiv uo-

waeic clru'

]( may be rcnjarlccd in clo>in.Li- (hat llic remedies so far- as ]»rae-
licr.l'le consist in remo\InL', anv slaealin.u' limber lliat is becominii' old
and liicij'fnre ewsjte; i;i ii\ lia.ble lo liie inro<ids of desd'Uctive aucnfs.
A man wilh a woodl'ii wii! nali.iallv Had n-e for ail tie.s as lliev

• ft

chance to fail r.nd k< ei; his foresi land fiiH^ from deca\inu' lous. Wilh
ii l;ii\ue f(!!('si llie r:i>r may lie diliereal. but so far as p(»ssible ihe
sinne rules of snnitaiion siionUl be observed.

Siut-e !lie ai()\e was preiiiired t •••> o pajH'is of < (e.i.si,]tMable size and
imporlance hi've aje-ciU'd. One by \)v. von S( iticnk"" and Ihe other
fi(un ihe pin of I'imm". ra'orv.e V. At kia.son.-r b.oih of whose earlier
\\-oiks have been dra^^n upon ie. ihisariirle. I)i-. v(.n Schrenk closes
Ids vnlnabie, tinely illnsiialed ]»aper \'. illi Ihe fol!owiu,u under tlio

: "'I'll. ai'o\e f;!<is show clerdiv lliai in oi'der to

liea.d of IJemedics:
sa\(* killed linibei- from de-l iiicl ion \l oiM.hl lo be cnl immediatcdv
■^vlieneNcr po^^sible. (Is value will depreciale from the mouH'Ut the
iree c<'ns(\s lo live, and befoic m.Miy ye-ws liave passed il will be ut-
lerl\' W(>rih;('S, In innitN- stciioiis (d' liiis c<nfnl!'\- ii is nerfecilv
fi'asible l«i ■■[]'( fids (]i-;\{] tiiuber. Tl'.e cuMine. of such dead ii'ces not
(»idy r a\ ( s I he wood el" ihesc 1 i' ev, bi.l pre\ fuls 1 he formal ion of Ihe

i'.li'K"; (I

' I .- 1 ; 1 :■■ 1

;- if I'^.iT't 'i'li'. s I'V Tl'iivrnt \i >\ Sfliftiik iiiMisli.d in tb.o last issui-" of the

tll<' I '•■pjillllU'tlt nf Ai'I iri;l! in-|> (lii(').

•1i;m1,' '!-i

II ;• ';i

1 'I'niili r I 'I'-truyii't; I'm:

Ki,

Amil. i:Np.r. Sla.. Ciil!. i:

|,y (l.-rj:; I'. AtUitisii, <"oinoll

.luiu', 1'Xil.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

86

fruiting bodies from which infection can spread to other trees. What
ie true of entire trees, holds for dead wood of any kind. Decayed
railroad ties ought to be burned whenever they are removed, and not
left to lie by the roadbed for years, forming new fruiting bodies,
which constantly infect new ties.

By various processes now in use, a number of ®alts are injected into
timber to prevent the rapid action of the fungus mycelium. As
long as these fialts remain in the wood the latter is proof against at-
tack, but as soon as the salts disappear by leaching the wood fall» a
prey to the fungi and decays. At present there is no positive evi-
dence at hand by which to determine how effective any such injection
is likely to be."

Professor Atkinson gives a lengthy treatment with superior en-
gravings of many of the forest fungi and considers the subject from
the standpoint of their destruction of ornamental or shade trees.
The following paragraph shows how closely the paper bears upon the
subject of the present one.

'^n their relation to forestry these studies emphasize the desira-
bility of careful and economical methods in the felling of timber to
protect the young stand from injury, in the supply of light to the
forest floor, and in the protection from fire. For while many forest
lires may not be so severe as to kill the trees outright the fire often
scorches exposed roots, or the base of trunks, where the leaves are
thick, or by a dead and dry log or stump, thus affording an entrance
for these wound parasites."

As stated at the outset so it may be said in closing, that the im-
portance of forestry is being daily more and more recognized and
from the recent output of instruction upon the diseases of trees it is
evident that the fungous enemies are not being overlooked in this
awakening of interest in forest culture.

PLATE XXVI. Figure 10.
Honey Locust Leaves Showing Mildew in Different Stages of Growth.

4

86

fruiting bodies from wliicii infectiou can spread to other trees. Wliat
i« true of nitire trees, holds for dead wood of any kind. Decayed

railroad ties ouj'ht (o be burned whenever th

ey are reniovedi, and not

left to lie by the road-bed f.)r years, lornii
whicli constantlv infect new ties.

na new fruit in<»- bodies

fc

By var

ions j)ro(rsses now in Ui^i\ a number of .^alts are iniected into

timber to prevent (he rajjid action of the f

un<;us mycelium. As
n in {he wood the latter is proof aiiainst at-

e wood fall<^ a

lont»' as these j^alts reniai

tack, but as soon as the salts disajijiear by leachin*;' th

e is no positive evi-

prey to tlie fun^i and decays. At i)resent thvr

denco at hand by which to determine how ellective any such inject

is likelv to be."

ft/

essor Atkinson ••ives a lengthy treatnu'ut with c^uptn'io

ion

Trof

r en

ir

ravings of many of (he forest fungi ai d coiusid

Ihe stand]»oii!t of their destrucli(/n of or

ers the subject from

Tlie following i)aiagraph shows how closely tl
subject of the i)resent one.

namental or shadie trees,
le ])aper bfjirs u]}on the

In their relalion to forcistrv tl

bilily of careful and

ies(^ studies emphasize tlie desira-

economiciil methods in the lelling of timber to

protect the young ^land from injury, in the supply of light to th
forest floor, and in liie protection from lire. For whil
lires may not be so severe as to kill tin' t

e

e manv fori^st

rees outright the tin* ofl

en

scorcnes exjiosed roois, or llie base <d" lru?iks, where (he 1

thick, or l)y a dead and dry 1
for thvtiQ wound parasites."

eaves are

og or stumj). thus alToidiug an t'litrance

A** stated at the outset so it mav I

poriance ol' forcstrv is being daiiv i

)e sjiid in closing, tliat the i

m-

from the recent output of instruction upon (he d

nore and more recognized and

iseasi'S

of tl

evident that the funiio;!

ees it is

awakening of intenst in forest culture

s enemies ;irc not bring overlooked in this

I'LATK XX\I. Fii^niv 10.

Honey Locust Lcav* s Shuuin.i; Mild

r\\ in DilTt rrnt Stages of Growth.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

87

CHAPTER V.

FOKEST VALUATION.

BY GEORGE H. WIRT, Forester.

The meaning of the terra forestry, as it is understood in Europe
to-day, is the re^^ult of a gradual development. A few centuries ago
the forests covered vast areas of land and, apparc^ntly without loss to
themselves, gave to man as much of their wealth as he cared to take
and at whatever time. As the population increased and a« civiliza-
tion rose to a higher plane, greater and more continuous demands
were made upon the great savings bank of nature, not only taking
the intercut but also reducijig the capital, as agriculture slowly ex-
tended its borders.

The diminution of the forests and conse(]uently the increasing de-
Djands upon what remained gave a value to them and made it neces-
sary for individuals to assert their lights of ownership and to protect
them from their fellowmen. In time, grazing was itistricted and
steps were taken also to reduce the danmge done by injects, fungi,
etc.

But protection alone was not enough to insure the continuation
of the forests in a profitable condition. Some system or systems of
management had to be devised and carried out regulating the cut-
tings, the yields, etc. Thie nu\de necessary some mean» by which the
forests could be measured, and from the measurements estimates of
what might be ex})ected in the future were nuide.
' It was soon found that even by aiding natural regeijeration the
dc^mands could not be met, so artificial means had to be used in the
formation of fore^sts. ^Fore than ever before it became necessary to
«?ludy the life of the trees, their refpiirements for successful growth
and (he conditions under which they produce the largest quantity of
marketable wood in the shortest time.

In the mean time the government had not been inactive. Laws
for the belter protection of the forc^sts were passed, aiding both the
individual and Ihe gcneial public. The indirect utility of forests

88

was considered and land® were bought by the State that should be
covered with what were known as protection forests, the sole object
of which should be to afford the indirect results following from their
existence. Later both the government and villages procured forests
for purely pecuniary returns.

Necessarily in the course of this development, forest® rose in value
and more frequently became articles of exchange. The practice of
forestry proved to be very profitable, and it was soon found that
forest investments were not only safe but always sure to yield a
eteady revenue. Other numerous advantages were continually mak-
ing themselves apparent until at last everybody realized that the care
of the forest yielded many blessings not only to themselves but to
their posterity as well and that the forests*^ were worthy of their
greatest care.

The development of forestry in the United KStates ha® been, to a
great extent, very similar to that abroad. There have been many
obstacles in the way but gradually they have been surmounted and
no longer is forestry misunderstood as being the protection of forests
for aesthetic reasons alone, and as being antagonistic to the lumber-
man's interests. Everywhere in the forestry literature of the present
day one meets the statement that forestry is business. As ®oon as
this fact is accepted generally and as soon as it is fully appreciated
thai the practice of forestry is the only means by which Uie American
lumbering industry, almost our greatest source of wealth, can be sus-
tained, our forests will receive the care that they should, and the
principles of syste^iatic forestry will take the place of careless and
indifferent tn\ahnent.

In the defniilion of forestry given by T)r. C. A. Schenck, of Bilt-
more, North Carolina, which states that forestrv i® the "proper hand-
ling of forest investments,'' there is implied a basis which demands
financial calculations, for the use of the term "investment" makes as
necessary the application of definite financial principles and methods
m the practice of forestry a® in the banking, the merchantile or any
other business conducted for profit. Entirelv agret^ing with the
above definition of forestry is the definition of forest valuation which
Dr. Wimmenaur, Professor of Forestry at the University of Gies-
<^en, Cxermany, presents in his "Outlines of Forest Valuation and
Forest Statics." It is: "Forest valuation is that branch of forestry
which teaches how to find the money value of a forest in its character
:^s interest bearing cai)ital as well as the money value of its rents."

In addilion to tlu^ imporlance of forest valuation in forest mana^-e-
inent itself, a very sirong reason why some system of valuation
should be adopted in this country arises from the present unjust taxa-
tion of forest property, a question which must be considered in the
iH^nr future, for aside from the fact that the forests receive little or no

89

protection from the government, the reason for which taxes are paid,
they are assessed extremely high in comparison with agricultural
land and in proportion to their yields.

Moreover some system of forest valuation is of importance to the
forest owner in case of a transfer of property, also when a company
of owners unite their forests to facilitate management, an affair that
will be frequent in not many years, and what is more needful until
He general public, and especially the careless, are brought to see
clearly the value of a tree, to afford some basis from which to de-
termine the amount of damage done to a forest either by fire or by
any other cause.

The first question to be considered in forest valuation is that in re-
gard to interest— the method of calculation to be used and the
choice of rate per cent.

Owing to certain inconsistencies that are known to exist in the
methods of reckoning simple interest, also those found in the appli-
cation of other methods that have been suggested; and because of the
similarity of results in respect to the increase of capital reckoned
with compound interest and of wood increment, the latter method
has been recognized as the only proper one to be used in dealing with
forestry problems.

The rate of interest to be chosen depend® upon many conditions
If there is a great demand for capital the rate of interest charged is
high and vice versa. If the investment to be made is comparatively
sale and yields a steady revenue the investor is satisfied with a com-
paratively low rate of interest; however, where there is a certain
risk to run, a higher rate per cent, must be obtained in order to re-
turn a® great a ])ropor(ion as possible of the original investment be-
fore any failure occurs. In other words, "the rate of interest is in-
versely proportional to the safety of the investment." To a great ex-
tent, too, the int( rest yielded by Government securities will influence
the rate used in other investments.

In comparison with the rate of interest yielded bv agricultural
management, there are reasons for taking both a higher forest rate
and a lower one. In forestry the investment is outstanding for a
number of years, consequently exposed to damage from man, insects
fungi, and natural causes for a longer period. However, the danger
decreases as the forest grows older and varies alwavs with its age
the species of which the forest is composed, the system of manage-
ment, etc. If the crop is destroyed, as for instance bv fire it is the
growth of a number of years, whereas in agriculture^•f the crop is
damaged, it is but one year's growth. Again, because of the long
inie taken to mature a crop of trees, if a mistake has been made in
the choice of species for the location or a wrong svstem of manage-
ment IS adopted, it takes years to discover it and then a heavv loss

90

may be sustained both in time and in capital. In agriculture a
change of crops is possible at least every few years. Because of the
fact, too, that forestry is impracticable on a email scale, as is agri-
culture, a greater capital is necessarily at stake.

On the other hand, in support of a lower rate of interest for the
forest is the fact that a forest may be brought to yield equal annual
returns, or nearly so, irrespective of favorable or unfavorable seasons
for growth, and to produce this revenue the expense of adminis-tra-
tion and management is smaller than that reciuired for agriculture.
Only from one-tenth to one-twentieth of the amount of labor used for
a given area of agricultural land is required for the same area under
forest. The price of forest produce, as a rule, is very steady, but is
at present on the increase. In the case of temporary high prices or in
time of a special emergency, a greater return can be obtained by cut-
ting more than tihe normal or usual amount for the time, and vice
versa.

In foreign countries the rate used is either that obtained from agri-
culture or that yielded by Government securities. In the United
States three per cent, might be used generally.

For estimating the yields in forest management, which vary accord-
ing to the kind of produce — whether final or intermediate yields or
by-products — and according to species, rotations, etc., there must be
taken what is known as a "valuation survey.'^ This furnishes the
amount of produce to be expected, and from that, of course, the
total value can be found. Or it may be found, proper allowances be-
ing made, with the help of previously prepared yield tables, or from
measurement. When the yield is received at once or within a short
time, average prices of the present market must be used, but when
they are expected only in the future there must be taken into con-
sideration the probable change in price of wood; ''the decline of
money value in accordance with experience;" and the influence of
better facilities for marketing the produce that are likely to exist, as
for instnce the introduction, extension or bettering of a road system.

In estimating the cost of forest management, a distinction must
be made between the expenses that become permanent and so in-
crease the capital of the investment, such as cost of soil, extension of
roads, etc., and those expenses that are merely temporary, such as the
cost of planting and tending, harvesting, road repairs, legal admin-
istration, demarkation and protection, taxes, etc.

Four methods of finding the value of forest property are used in
forest finance.

The first is the expectation value, which '4s found by deducting the
present value of all future yields expected, from the i)resent value of
all future expenses epent with a view of obtaining such yields." By
this method may be figured out the value of bare soil when used for

91

forestry alone; the value of timber standing in a given piece of forest
and the value of a forest, meaning soil and stumpage together. Neces-
sarily from the definition, all expectation values are increased by in-
creased yields or by decreased expenses, also by lower rates of inter-
est. Early receipts and low expenditures in the beginning of the ro-
tation will also increase the expectation value. It rises as a rule too
as the age of the forest increases and the timber becomes larger and
more valuable, until it reaches a maximum and then falls again.

The method of expectation value givee the value of the soil when
it is used for forestry purposes only. Its application implies at least'
an approximate estimation of the yields which consist of the final
and intermediate cuttings and of the by-products, and an estimation
of the future costs. Most important is the determination of the pos-
sible price of forest produce when it will be marketed. This is seen
at once to be a difficult question, but as in other investments, the
possibilities of the future must be interpreted from the study of the
condition of all'airs at present and their trend.

The expenses to be incurred are those of planting, or rather of
starting the forest whether by planting or by natural regeneration or
by both. Taxes, cost of administration, protection, etc., occur an-
nually, and for this reason, in calculations it is customary to con-
sider these to be paid from the interest yielded by a sutficient capital
deposited, say in a bank. Periodic expenses are treated in the same
manner as periodic yiehLs. The cost of harvesting the products is
usually deducted from the gross receipts and so does not actually
enter into the calculations. That the expectation value of property
may result negatively is very evident, and for this reason furnishee
a method by which the forest owner may determine readily either
hiS gain or his loss.

The expectation value of a stand of timber is found in the same
manner as the above. The expenses incurred are the usual annual
expenses and the rental of the soil for the remainder of the rotation
If the soil expectation value is used in the calculation, the only ex-
pense is the rent of the soil based on this value, for the current ex-
penses have entered already into its calculation. The yields consist
of the final yield and the intermediate yields to follow until the end
of the rotation. In the calculation there must be considered care-
fully the amount of the yields expected, the stability of prices and
costs, whether the soil is fit for some other purposes or only for for
estry, and if for the latter whether forestry management will con
tmue. Under the last condition the soil expectation value should be
used.

The expectation value of a forest, meaning soil and wood together
JS found by adding the expectation value of the soil to that of the
trees. ^The year in which the expectation value of the growing stock
(Iree.^) of ,M<.h pieee of woods reaches its maximum is the vear in

92

which the final cutting should be made, for in that year the final yield
is most profitable.'^

The expectation value has to do only with what is to be in the
future. As opposed to this is the cost value of property. It is
equal to ^'the sum of the final values of all costs expendt^d upon the
production or acquisition of an object, minus the final value of all
yields already obtained from the same.'' It considers the past only.

The cost value of forest soil is composed of the purchase price, the
cost expended for permanent results, as for drainage, buildings,
roads, etc., and the accumulated interest on the investment. Gen-
erally this method is used only for finding the value of the growing
stock. Here, too, the soil rent enters the calculation as an additional
exi^ense. When the soil expectation value is used as the true value
of the soil the result by this method is the same as that for the ex-
pectation value.

Another method is that of sale values. This method "estimates
the value of an object according to the sales taking place. It is used
for estimating the forest soil value in the case of possible use of the
soil for agriculture, mining, etc., in the future for estimating the
value of stumpage ready for the axe or that is about mature."

The sale value of bare soil is generally dependent upon the price of
agricultural land or upon its capability of production of agricul-
tural crops. The sale value of stumpage depends upon the facilities
for removing and marketing the wood, the estimation of the amount
according to species sold and the prices to be brought into considera-
tion.

The method of rentals gives the value of the soil, wood or forest
from the capitalization of the rents obtained, with the use of a given
rate of interest using the equation:

Rent

!

Rate of Interest = Capital Value,
e. g. a piece of woods which yields annually about one cord of fire
wood per acre, worth, clear of all expenses, say, ?!..")(), the growing
fitock would be capitalized accordingly, using three per cent., at $50
per acre.

fl.oO

0 . 03 = |50.

Ordinarily this method is used only in estimating the value of those
forests which are "normally stocked"' and already are yielding an
equal annual return, in which case the calculation is very sim])le.

The rent of foixst soil may be found by multiplying the soil ex-
pe<'tation value by the rate per cent. That of the wood and the
forest are found in the same manner.

-I
B

m

n-
-I
O

<W
CO*

o hj
3 >

V H

•§ X
E<

ID .

w

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•— •
o
P

93

CHAPTER VI.

MANUFACTURE OF CHESTNUT MEAL.

I am glad to pubJisli the following sketch, kindly contributed by
Mr. Geo. B. Sudworth, of the National Department of .Agriculture,
Bureau of Forestry.

Washington, D. C, July 8, 1902.

Dr. J. T. Rothrock, Commissioner of Forestry, Harrisburg, Penn-
sylvania:

My Dear Sir: Referring to Mr. Pinchot's reply to your letter of
June 18, in reference to discovering the process by which chestnut
meal is prepared, 1 beg to say in Mr. Pinchot^s absence this matter
has been left in my charge.

A thorough investigation has been made of the literatiire available
in Washington libraries for instructions as to this process. There
appears, however, to be very little satisfactory information available.
The preparation of chestnut meal, so far as the records show, is con-
lined to the poorer classes, and the methods used are, therefore, very
primitive. I am enclosing a summary of the notes to be found on
this subject, together with one or two references to literature. I pre-
sume, however, that you fliave already seen the references.

Very truly yours,

GEO. B. SUDWORTH,

Chief.
Preparation of Chestnut Flour.

^ The preparation of chestnut flour by the Italian, French and
Spanish peasants is in general by the following method:

The nuts are first artificially dried. Generallv this is done by leav-
ing them for thirty or forty days before the household fire in the hut
as in Spain, or, as in Italy, by drying or roasting them in deep
Irays under the roofs of special, small stone huts, called "matati "
where slow green wood fires are burning. The inferior nuts only arr^
used for flour, the best variety being eaten fresh or exported. ' The
'chestnuts shrink to about one-third their original bulk in drying,
turning yellow and becoming very sweet, and mav be preserved for
about a year. In Spain they are called "pilongas,'' and are stored

»4

for winter oonsumptiou. VVlieu the dried uuts are intended for flour
the shells are removed, in Italy, by pouring into sacks while they are
still hot from the drying, and beating them on a block of wood or by
treading the shells off with spiked wooden clogs, or by pounding with
po.es having serrated iron heads. The shelled nuts are blanched and
are then called -'white chestnuts," and may be stored for winter use
or passed in commercial transactions or exported. The blanching
consists, in France, of rubbing the nuts around in a kettle of boiling
hot water, with a "briguette," which consists of two pieces of wood
twenty-four to thirty inches long, joined like shears with a rivet and
notched one foot up. The bleached nuts are dried and ground into
flour.

Works in which accounts of making chestnut flour mav be found
are Reports on the Cultivation of the Spanish Chestnut, Cxreat
linta.n, Indian Office, 18<)2, bulletin of New Gardens, 1890, pp 173-4 •
Loudon's Arboretum, 1838 or 1875. '

THE CHESTNUT HARVEST AND MANUFACTURE OF CHEST-
NUT MEAL.

The following very interesting and valuable jiaper on "The Chest-
nut Harvest," is by Lodovico Piccioli, Siena, Italy. He is the author
of a standard work upon the chestnut.*

The paper published here was written in French and German
Professor John GitTord, to whom I am indebted for procuring it has
also kindly had it translated into English for publication in'tJiis
report.

J. T. ROTHROCK.

The yield of the chestnut varies very much; apart from less im-
j.ortant conditions it dilfers of course with location, species, variety
and age of tree. In medium altitudes a crop failure is feared only
every fourth or fifth year and of two or tliK-e crops at least one full
one will occur, while in mountain forests only one full crop in from
SIX to nine jears is expected.

•Monogrrafla del Castagrno, by Lodov'co PIcpIoH rht^f ^.t *u t- ' ~ '

Pnbllshod by Falvadore Laud I Florence The author .«t. T ""''''''' "' ^^^"^' ^^^'^•

thr Italian Forestry Institute a, VaTombro«? '°" °' ''^"^- ^'^^*^"' ^'^^'^^ <>'

95

Marronen (Marrou is the name of the large Southern chestnut)
which usually weigh from 12-18 grams each, may in exceptional
cases reach a heft of thirty grams. The common Italian chestnut
weighs from t)-8 grams.

The hirgest marronen have been found hitherto in the region of
Nai)les and in the Pyrenees where a few monster specimens have
reached a heft of sixty grams.

In some Piedmont valleys, especially in the lofty Montserrat, the
custom prevails of preserving the chestnuts the whole year through
in a v^ery simple way. Immediately after gathering, the chestnuts a'^'e
immersed in water which is renewed daily. At the end of a week the
chcf^tnuts are removed and dritd in the sun and then kept in the
driest phice possible, so that their fine flavor may be preserved. The
flavor is lost the moment they begin to sprout, so much so in fact
that even mice and scpiirrels refuse to eat them.

In order to preserve them from year to year they are dried over a
slow fire or in a bake oven. The mountain folk of Italy use almost
wholly a bake oven which they construct themselves, of masonry
This oven is usually located in the forest. Sometimes it is in the
ground but usually above it. It is commonlv five to six meters
high, with other dimensions to fit the size of the expected crop.

The interior of this oven is divided by a transverse beam and floor-
ing into two chambers, in the upper of which there are usually two
wind-ows. In the lower space a uniform fire is kept dav and night
This fire is never allowed to flame, otherwise the lower laVer of chest-
nuts in the upper chambers would have a reddish color and scorched
flavor.

The workman watching the fire always has a wet rag on the end of
a pole at hand in order to extinguish the fire in case the boards on
which the chestnuts rest become ignited.

In order to ensure uniform drying the chestnuts at first must not

be piled higher than 25-30 centimetres upon this primitive roaster but

little by little by gradual heaping, the pile may reach a height of one

metre. For the fire a kind of wood must be used which produces

little flame and much smoke. Tilie wood is covered with the chestnut

hulls of a previous season. Jt is started at first onlv in the middle

but as the quantity of chestnuts is increased it is lighted in different

places so that the roasting board above may be kept evenlv heated

This simple and inexpensive aff"air, which is in use from*^ 20-30 or

porhaps forty days of the last three months of the year, is in Italv the

commonest kind.

Owners of large and rich chestnut woods could with advantage
use more perfect ovens which naturally are more expensive but which
render it possible, for example, to keep the first chestnuts separate,

96

since these are considered choicer in quality than those which are pro-
duced later. They permit also of a better utilization of the fuel.
Such improved drying machines are found in Corsica and in Limou-
sin. The oven which is located outside tihe peasant's cabin allows
iheated, smokeless air to stream into the drying chamber and thus
n-futes the prejudice of the peasants of Italy, that smoke contributes
to the drying process.

Donati, Professor of Agriculture in Bastia Corsica, has prepared
an oven such as the accompanying sketch presents (see drawing,
Fig. I.)

A indicate® the cast-iron fire chambers in which any desired fuel
may be used, such as chestnut shells, olive seeds, etc.

/////////'/^/^/'/yyXy^y//y/^//////x^/^^^//}//

'.J.

B the ash pan. Above the arched fire chamber is a double spaced
compartiiient (D IT D") in which the air is heated. The second com

97

partment consists of pipes through which the heated air ascends by
E to the drying chamber while smoke and gas escape through the
chimney R. The damper at O serves to regulate the draft and there,
with also the fire. Out of E the hot air flows into the drying cham-
ber through two openings which can be regulated by the dampers
O' O' . Upon the net work 1 the chestnuts rest, forming a laver fifty
centimetres thick at the most. At h i is a valve bv means of which
the steam arising from the chestnuts while drving may escape Thie
oven, which in ca«e of need can be used for drving other fruits is
adapted to a crop averaging not more than 100 hectoliters

For larger crops Donati has modified his oven (which is shown in
the sketch. Fig. 2) by introducing several drying frames one above

/<^ the other. The cost of either of

these oven plants is about 150
francs in Italy.

However as the chestnuts are
marketed without the hull and
inner skin the labor of drying
does not finish the preparation.
Just as soon as the chestnut is
dry enough the work of the peeler
begins. While still warm they
are placed in a mortar and are
knocked open by hand with wood-
en shoes or small clubs, or they
ai'e placed in a sack and beatea
against a wooden block, or they
are placed in barrels and pound-
ed with cudgels or iron headed
sticks, or finally they are spread
on the ground and trodden on by
men and women wearing wooden
_ shoes, or are hammered with a

|l I I ^ [I wooden mallet. This nrocesa

^^^^^^^:^^^^^^^fe^ however only gets rid of the o^fe!

hull. There is sHIl an inner skia
^ ^ whieh clinps to the chestnut but

• • ^y +he propess above described

- , ^'iP most of it is removed

In many places, as in the region of Lneea and Pistoia, this chestnut
pee hng .s a reg,,lar festival. The women and children al takr^a
H the work and at the end there is a gay carousal when they danO
about the oven amid jests and shouts of lau-hter
After the coarser parts are removed considerable time is still re-

J^^y.

w

■■■*■

•1

98

quired to sort and cleanse the product. For example, a man in one
day can remove the hulls from three hund'red weight in a mortar,
but he needs a second day to sort the product. At a second sorting
the imperfect chestnuts are collected, boiled and often mixed witlh
horse chestnuts and fed as ma^^t to swine and oxen, or are ground
and fed to chickens and turkeys.

The process reduces three hectoliters of fresh chestnuts weigh-
ing 61 Kg., to one hectoliter of dried fruit weighing 51 Kg.

These dried chestnuts are now in condition to be ground into flour
which if carefully pr<^erved may be kept good for several years.

Little need be said in reference to the use of chestnuts as food.
Kaw, dried and fresh they are a very palatable and economical ar-
ticle of diet. The fresh chestnuts are boiled, either with or without
the (hulls, or are roasted in the hull in the well known perforated pan«
or in hot ashes, forming a tempting morsel for both rich and poor. In
Italy they are found especially on the table of the man who farms the
land on shares. During the entire harvest he gorges himself with
chestnuts and wine because the proprietor in dividing the crop dioes
not take into account the quantity eaten during the harvesting pro-
cess.

A special method of preparation is common in Limousin, where
after boiling the fresh chestnuts for a quarter of an hour, they are put
in an oven from whicfli the bread has been removed an hour before.
After being dried in thi.^^ manner they can be kept a Igng time in a
dry place. When they are eaten warm they are put in a double boiler
and steamed; or if preferred cold are simply placed for several days
in a damp place.

Chestnut flour has been known from time immemorial here and
there throughout Europe. It is made into a broth, or into a dough
mixed with cacas, sugar, rice or i)otato flour. It is eaten with
spice in milk and in soups and is variously known as Kacahout, Pala-
moud, Kailla, etc., etc. Everyone familiar with Italy knows the
chestnut cake "Castagnaccio," a mixture of water, chestnut flour,
nuts, pine nuts and raisins, which is cooked with oil in a frying pan,
and the ^'Polenta," a sweetish and easily digested dish, which is the
principle article of diet of the jioor mountaineers during the long
winter months, and in spring when tihe wheat crop has failed.

In Corsica and the mountains of Calabria a species of sweetish and
quite palatable bread is made from clu^tnut flour, which is not a®
hard as ordinary bread and which keei)s well for several days. In
Corsica it is made once a week. Five K^. of flour and two liters of
water form a dough which is mixed with ordinary yeast and allowed
to raise over night. In many other jiarts of Italy a paste or dough
called nicci or necci (an abbreviation of castagneccio) is prepared
which takes the place of bread in the mountains. The dough of flour

1

99

and water is formed into round cakes 1-8 centimetre thick and fifteen
centimeters in diameter. These cakes are wrapped in the scalded
leave® of the chestnut, which have been kept for the purpose, since it
is believed that they impart a special aronm to the cakes, and then
they are cooked between hot stones.

Besides these uses of the chestnut I recall the '^marrons glaces"
(candied chestnut®); a brandy which according to Palmiera is mad^ in
Prussia, and sugar which is extracted in the proportion of six per
cent.

It is perhaps needless to say that the flour is manufactured from
the dry nuts just as grain and other materials of a similar nature are
ground.

As to the nutritive value of chestnuts when fresh, according to Ri-
dolfi, they bear the proportion of 3:10 and when dried 4:10 to wheat.

Gasparin, who however only considers their nitrogenous contents*
declares the nutritive value of 2.25 hectoliters of fresh chestnuts
equivalent to that of one hectoliter of wheat.

Both figures demonstrate without doubt that the nutritive content
is small enough and that where chestnut flour replaces wheat, abund-
ant milk and cheese must be consumed. According to Richardson,
chestnut ash is composed of the following elements:

J. otasn, on op

^«^^> 19.18

Magnesia, y ^^

Calcium, 7 84

Phosphoric acid, g j^g

Sulphuric acid, 3 gg

^^^ica^ .! 2.32

Iron and manganese oxide®, g 59

Natrium cloride, ^ go

The analysis of Nessler and Falkenberg give for the dried fruit the
following analysis:

Quality of the Substances.

w

*^

3

C

4->

CQ

C

0

2

>>

u

rt

^

Earl

CO

■<->

3
8
*j

(A

o

s

Nitrogen

Fat

Starch

Wood-flbre.

Ash [[

Nitrogen of the dry material,

1

14.15

15.75

2.61

2.61

76.73

74.50

8.00

8.68

3.16

3.51

2.32

2.62

12.70
2.51

77.76
8.84
3.69
2.03

100

others have found the following for the hulled cheetnuts.

Relation of Ingredients In Per Cent.

u

ei

a

0)

he
o

^

to

3

4)

I

9
O

.13

be a

|5

cd (0

<V 3

In minimum:

i/Aconi •*•>•••••«•••«•••••«••«
Dry

In maximum:
Fresh.

62.80

62.60

2.01
4.45

4.31
U.OS

0.45
1.17

1.73
3.74

31.54
82.17

40.74
88.61

0.74
1.7«

1.36
3.29

0.57
1.24

1.22
S.06

86

186

The area planted in chestnuts and their yield in the twelve regions
of Italy are represented in the following table:

K-yi

ReffloiL.

^M-vr,

a

9

-I

<

I

o

•a

1. Piedmont,

2. Lombardy

S. Venice

4. LlRurla

5. Emilia

6. Marches and Umbrla,

7. Tuscany

8. Latium,

f. South East Italy

10. South West Italy, ...

11. Sicily

12. Sardinia,

64,774

79.917

24.177

54.020

80.917

10.264

111.117

6,162

29.174

71,048

1.168

2.056

495,794

781.101

904.409

2C1.190

668.450

372. 974

112.828

1,450.079

66 782

851,410

815,233

35.443

16.448

6,768.847

The average yield per hectare is 11.63 ^^kilozentner."
The market price of chestnuts in the hull varies according to region
and quality between eight and fourteen francs.

Chestnuts from the region of Avellino, Salerno, Lucca. Ma«sa Car-
rara, Modena and Pisa are the most highly prized Those which
come from Sardinia, Apulia and from Venetia are less highlv es-
teemed. ^

i

101

The importation of chestnuts into Italy is naturally small. The
export on the other hand increases from year to year. In 1870, it
was 4,767,000 Kg.; in 1898 it increased to 10,558,000 Kg. Chest-
nut culture has, without doubt, a great future in Italy if it is per-
fected and extended. The Government seeks to aid this industry by
distributing gratuitiously from its nurseries young chestnut plants.
Private parties may thue obtain plant material free of charge at the
nearest railroad station.

102

CHAPTER VII.

PKOPAGATION OF FOREST TREES HAVING COMMERCIAL
V^ALUE AND ADAPTED TO PENNSYLVANIA.

1 1

BY GEORGE H. WIRT, Forester.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

To Hon. J. T. Rothrock, Commi^'sioner of Forestry:

Dear Sir: I have the lionor to submit herewith the following notes
on the '"Propagation of Forest Trees Adapted to Pennsylvania."

Recognizing the needs of our farmers, I have endeavored to pre-
sent in a brief and clear way such facts and methods a» will bring
it^^asonable success to the inexperienced planter, without making
necessary any large expenditure of money. The nurseryman or the
forester may find nothing new and may even take exception to many
statements.

The botanical names of the trees and their order, for the greater
part, is in accordance with Gray's ''Manual of Rotany," sixth edi-
tion. In addition I have added those given by Brit ton and Brown
in their '"Flora of the Northern States and Canada," when ditlering
from the nomenclature of Grav.

Very respectfully,

GEORGE H. WIRT,

Forester.

1

/

103

THE FOREST NURSERY.

Forestry work does not consist entirely of raiding trees from seed
and of planting them, although that is a very important part of it.
Nor is all planting of trees forestry work. Forestry is a business and
must be conducted on a financial basis. Flanting individual trees
is done mostly from an ae^rthetic standpoint and at a comparatively
high expense. Planting for forestry purposes, under existing con-
ditions, must be reduced to the least possible cost, but it must be
anderstood that more may be lost in this operation from lack of
care and attention to the young plants than by trying to save time
and money along some other line of work. The methods of raising
trees are as varied and as numerous as the trec^ themselves, the
people who plant them and the localities in which they are planted.
In other words, the ccuiditions under which each planter has to work
are so dilTerent that there can be no exact method laid down that will
be applicable for all trees and all places. But there are certain lawe
of plant life in general, and facts in regard to particular trees that,
being reinforced by observation of nature and by common sense, will
undoubtedly lead to a measurable degree of success. For what fol-
lows there is no claim of originality. It is merely a sifted collection
of notes taken from the most reliable sources at hand and from the
observation of successful nursery work.

Nursery.

Location.— If many plants are to be raised and the planting is to
extendi over a number of years, a permanent nursery must be pre-
pared. Its proximity to the house of the person in charge will afford
the advantage of easy and quick accessibility. Time can be saved
in going to and from it. A fre(iuent inspection of its condition and
requirements is more likely to occur, and work may be done at odd
times. On the other hand, if the planting i» to be done within one
or two years the nursery might best be placed near the prospective
plantation in order to save time in removing the young ])lants, and«
to decrease the danger of loss resulting from exi)osure of the roots to
sun and wind. Less preparation is needed, [jerhaps, in this ca»e, and
less care, in some respects, but in either case the following hints are
applicable.

!

1 ■

L04

Aspect. — The land should have a very gradual slope, and face to-
wards the northeast to give the best results. Good drainage will
be obtained; the direct rays of the sun during the growing season
are avoided and in spring there is more gradual thaw, a condition
that is very desirable, for it is the sudden changes that atfect plants
most. Other slopes may be used of course, but protection from
wind and from the sun must be provided for. As watering will often
be necessary, a stream or a spring should be close at hand.

Soil. — The soil should be, preferably, a eandy loam of moderate
moisture — neither too wet nor too dry. Heavy soil should be avoid-
ed. Whatever land is used, ought to be worked up thoroughly, to a
depth of at least one and one-half feet, in the fall and again in the
spring. More especially should this be done on new land or on land
that has not been worked for a long time. The top soil should be well
and evenly fertilized. The more thoroughly the working is done the
more oxygen for plant life there will be in the soil. The moisture
will be better maintained. If the fertilizing is properly done, in-
stead of raising seedlings with long, straggling roots, which cause
more or less diihculty in transplanting, there will be produced strong
plants with a compact system of root fibres, which is a better result
for many reasons.

Beds. — The size of the nursery must be left entirely to the planter
himself, but it may be a safe estimate to allow sixteen square feet of
bed for every three hundred broad-leaved seedlings and for every six
hundred conifers expected from a medium thickness of broadcast
ifowing.

If transplanting is to be done, fifteen to thirty square feet may be
allowed for every one hundred conifers and thirty to sixty square
feet for every one hundred broad-leaved seedlings. To prei)are the
beds stake out the paths or walks at right angles to each other.
Shovel about six inches of soil from these and throw it on top of
what will be the beds. These may be kept in better shape, then, if
boards are placed around the sides, otherwise after each rain more or
less soil is washed into the walks, often exposing tilie roots, or wash-
ing out entirely the plants along the edges. Long beds should be
about four feet across so as to be worked easily from each side. Of
course these are a saving in ground-space, but if there is much danger
of damage from mice it is best to have small beds about five feet
square. Or a ditch with perpendicular walls around the entire nur-
sery will make it mouse-i)roof. For taprooted species of trees, such as
oak, walnut, hickory, ash, etc., special beds might be made, so as to
prevent the forming of long taproots, by placing on about a level witih
the walks a layer of boards or a very close layer of stones under the
beds.

105

Moisture.— Moisture is one of the most necessary conditions of
plant life, consequently the needs of the nursery in this direction
must be carefully attended to. Frequent working of the soil and
weeding will tnake a fine, loose cover for the beds, preventing evapo-
ration to a very great degree. If the soil becomes too dry, watering
must be done. Very good results are obtained if the water is allowed
to fiow through the walks, and to reach the soil in the beds by capil-
larity. Another good method is to make small irrigation trenches
on the beds, fill them and allow the water to soak into the ground.
Sprinkling is likely to form a crust which will increase evaporation.
After a rain the beds may be too moist. If so, proper conditions can
be made by sprinkling some dry sand over the ground. Young seed-
lings are very likely, too, to have earth spattered over their stems.
Especially is this so with conifers and they should be freed of this as
soon as possible by running a stick gently over them.

Weeding.— The nursery beds should be kept clean of weeds at all
+imts. If the seedlings have been planted in rows, or in the case of
transplants, weeds may be kept out by small billets of wood or by a
layer of moss, or of leaves placed between the rows. Weeding
should not be done after the first of September at the latest.

Shade.— During the first season's growth, the young plants will be
very sensitive and they should be given some protection from the
sun. This can be done by making lath frames which will let through
about half the sunlight, and by placing them from two to six feet
above the beds. Or a frame may be made on which branches can be
laid. Some prefer simply sticking conifer branches into the beds in
such a way that they form a slight cover. Lath frames are, perhaps,
the most convenient, for the shade ought to be removed on cloudy
days and during gentle showers. These covers, as well as the bil-
lets to keep down weeds, will help to preserve the moisture in the
beds.

Seeds.

Choice of Species.— In determining the species to be raised, it is
well to observe what trees are growing in the locality, not only with-
in wooded districts but also along fences and in fields. They will
give an idea of the quality of the soil and of what may be expected in
the future, although this is not always the case, for other better spe-
cies may have been forced out by some cause. Find out when these
trees will have a good crop of seeds and then have everything ready
for work when it comes. Not all trees bear seeds every year, as in the
case of some oaks and coniftns the period varies from two to five
years, or even longer. Nor do all seed yeai-s produce a full crop of
good seeds, as in the case of the tulip-tree. Then some seeds ripen in
early summer, however, those of most trees do not ripen till fall, or

lot)

even winter. From among these trees in the neighborhood, if they
are the proper species, select the healthiest ones and gather their
seeds as soon as ripe.

Time of Sowing. — Seeds of the poplars, soft maple, white elm,
paper and river birch, and others maturing in summer should be
Fown at once. They lose their power of germination in a short time.
Seeds of oaks, hickories, walnuts, conifers, and others which mature
in fall may be sown at once. The freezing and thawing of winter
will be beneficial to them, but the destruction by scjuirrels, mice, and
birds that is likely to occur is sullicient reason for not planting until
spiing, if the seeds can be preserved i)roperly. They should not be
allowed to dry out before planting nor should they be exposed con-
stantly to much moisture if they are to be kept for any length of
tiine.

Thickness of Sowing. — By making tests, either by cutting seeds or
by placing them between w^et tlannels in a warm room, so as to pro-
duce germination, or by some other method, the percentage of good
seed is determined and from this the thickness of the sowing. It is
very easy to sow too thick, and then the seedlings will be weak, but
it is cheaper to thin out, and pei'liai)S set the young plants in other
^' round, than to have to till up blanks.

Depth of Sowing. — The dilticulty, in too many cases, has been that
instead of the seeds being planted, they are buried. As a general
rule, for depth of cover, the diameter of the seed is sullicient, but if
Uie ground is left very loose, or if there is danger from frost bite in
spring, a heavier covering should be given. It is well, after sowing,
to roll the beds or to press the ground w ith a spade or a board. In
fall sowing cover the beds with a layer of leaves. It will prevent the
ground from heaving during the time of frost and in the spring will
prevent the heavy rains from washing out the seeds. This may be
done to advantage, too, after spring sowing. In both cases a careful
watch must be kept and as soon as the seedlings appear the leaves
should be raked oil*. Branches might tlnai be spread thinly over
th»im to keep the birds away, but these should not be left on too long
Ko as to in any way interfere with the growth. Small seeds may be
coated with red lead as a protection against birds.

Manner of Sowing. — As a usual Ihing the smaller seeds are sown
broadcast in the nursery, especially those of the conifers, the ash, the
birch, etc. The larger seeds, as (hose of the oaks, hickories, walnuts,
etc., are usually sown in furrows, or rows, from six to twelve inches
a])art, on the nursery beds. Th(» latter are often sown in rows where
the plants will remain ])ernuinently. This may be advisable with
laprooted s])ecies. Broadcast sowing over a plantation is very ex-
pensive and is very seldom done.

107

Transplanting.

Age of Plants.— Most plants after they have remained in the seed
• beds for one season, may be set out where they are to stand finally,
especially broad-leaved ones. The spruces and firs grow very slowly
during the first four or five years and may best be left two years in
the seed bed, then transplanted to other nursery beds and allowed to
remain there two or three years. Small and weak seedlings of other
species should be treated in the same way. Frequent transplanting
is recommended for all species, when especially large and strong
plants are needed. In all cases before setting out finally, whether
on good or poor land, the object should be to grow and to use only
the strongest and best plants. They will be able to resist enemies
and hardships and to recover from injuries much better than weak
ones.

Time.—Transplanting can be done either in fall or in spring. If
done in fall, it should be after the growth has ripened or ceased.
I>uiing winter the dirt will have a chance to settle about the roots,
and by spring the loss of root fibre will be partly made up. On the
other hand, frost may lift the plants out of the ground or storms may
loosen them. Then, too, they will be exposed to damage from
animals at a time when food is scarce. In spring the work should be
done as early as possible, at least before the new growth begins.
Spring is preferable for conifers.

Distance.— The distance at which plants should be placed finally
depends upon the species, the age and the object in view. If fire-
wood is the only object then perhaps more wood will be formed per
tree by. giving as much room and light as possible to the tops. Even
in this case it is a question whether close planting is not better finan-
cially, if small wood can be used or sold at all. Where it is the pur-
pose to get the soil covered quickly, to raise straight stems clean
from branches, either for pok^ or posts, or later for timber, close
planting must be done. For plantations of considerable size to
plant at regular distances and to do it in a systematic way is at all
times cheapest. Cultivation may be done more quickly and easily
Blanks may be easily found and filled, and later management is
facilitated. Of course mere filling of gaps in existing forests can
oe done only in a very irregular method.

Roots.— There are numerous methods of planting, but, in all the
most important thing is to take care of the roots. Perhaps more
failures could be traced to lack of care of them than to any other
cause. They are very sensitive to sun and wind and should never
be exposed long enough to become dried out. When the plants are
removed from the nursery they should be taken from the hed« as care-

u

108

fully as possible so that very few roots be broken. Wrap the root«

2 ItuT T'"' ''''" '' ^■"""-''^ ^"^'^'^- ^° '^'' J^"'- "f plant
lag. If It IS not done at once they should be "heeled in " In ,itnt

are dl"' "T^ '^' '""^^ '" ''"^' ^^■"^- ""^ «- ^l.at the grovv n/ nds
DlantPH fnn H . ; ^ ^^^"^® ^^'^ sensitive to beinff

n :: J Of zrtui : " '.^^ '^^ '"^-^^ ^'^'^" ^^'^y -- m tS

been o^sened Ml > '*''"' '''^°''' *'''^° " «''^'»t ^eal of dirt has

tu^lTt ' ''''"^anee must be made for some settling but this
mil not be necessary if packing is well done. NNhen later root«

shal tnTfe "i r r ''''''''' ''''' ^''""'^ "^ ^^ olf smooth w"; a
sharp knife. I'lanting can not be done too carefully

iron instrument whih win m U e a 17 f " """''''' '''' "^ ^""^^
roots dropped into it. "^J^ ^.^t 'i'lrSp: Jh^I J^:

htVa'ii iTtt thi'"' ''' f '^^ *" ^^^ ^^'^ - ^- - ---^e; and
tnen raise it to the proper planting depth. In this way the roots will

be in a natural position and not turned up, or to one side Th .
18 closed by running the dibble into the ^louLd n^.r th .^ !
orcing the soil against the roots. This L^l od iTbe used t/o:d
Kdvantage within a forest to till up blanks if the so 1 is deep enou.h

slioiiJd be made firm ^ ^^^^ P^^^*

otlier cases. If sod has been lifted, split it and

i09

place the plant in the crevice. Here, too, the ground must be thor-
oughly packed around the roots of the plant. When balls of dirt are
taken out with the plants, holes must be dug somewhat larger than
the size of the ball on the plant. When this is done the plants may
be moved at any time of year and to any place. If the plants are
cTooked or branchy after planting, cut them off about an inch and a
half above ground.

A few trees, such as willows and poplare, may be propagated by
cuttings. It is recommended that the cuttings be gathered in faU
from last year's shoots and buried during winter. They should be
planted in spring while the ground is still moist. They will do well
if not gathered till spring, but before the new growth begins, ani
planted at once. When planting leave one good bud above ground.
The others may be rubbed off. Layere or root suckers mav be used
m a few instances but as a general rule, willows and poplars being
an exception, it is better to raise trees from seed.

CUCUMBER TREE, MOUNTAIN MAGNOLIA.
Magnolia acuminata, L.

This tree is nowhere common in Pennsylvania. It is, however, a
tree that is worthy of being cultivated because of the peculiar fitness
of its wood for pump stocks, watering troughs, etc.

The fruit is a cylindrical mass resembling the cucumber, whence the
tree's name. This becomes red in autumn and it is then time to watch
for seeds, in order that they may be gathered as soon as ripe. About
the last of September, or the first of October, when fully mature,
scarlet seeds may be seen suspended from the fruit, by delicate white
threads. Owing to an oil in the pulp that encloses each seed they
become rancid and lose their power of germination as soon as the pulp
decays. They should be placed at once in water of seventy degn^s
to eighty degrees Fahrenheit and macerated for about a week, when
the seeds can be thoroughly washed. These should then be fixed in a
box in alternate layers of sand and seeds and kept in a cellar where
they will not freeze. As soon as the ground is warm in spring, about
the middle of May, they may be sown in furrows from six to eight
inches apart, on well prepared seed beds and covered lightly. If any
fertilizing i^ done a snu.ll (quantity of wood ashes or of bone dust is
best. It is said that manure should not be used. The seedlings
after remaining in the seed beds for two years, should be ready for
being set out where they are to remain. If intended for lawn plant-
ing they may be transplanted every two or three years until wanted

110

The tree is found naturally in valleye or coves of mountainous
regions, and along rocky streams, prefering deep, rich soil. To do
well they must be planted in conditions as near as possible to those
under which they do best naturally. Plant in rows from two to five
feet apart and from eighteen to twenty-four inches in the row. Close
j)lanting will prevent early branching.

SWEET BAY, SWAMP SASSAFRAS, BEAVER TREE.

M£(,gnolia glauca, L.

Magnolia Virginiana, L. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 48.

The tree never reaches a very great »ize in this Stale and is of very
little importance except as an ornamental tree. Its flowers appear-
ing in June and continuing for several weeks are very beautiful and
fragrant. It prefers moist or swampy soils in a sheltered position.
Propagation from seed is the same as that for the cucumber tree, but
it may be easily propagated from layers which, it is said, recpiire two
years to root. It is frequently grafted upon a root of the cucumber
tree and seems to grow better there than on its own roots.

UMBRELLA TREE, ELK WOOD.

Magnolia Umbrella, Lam.

Magnolia tripetala, L. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II. p. 48.

Very seldom found in Pennsylvania, nor does it attain a great size
here. Professor Sargent says that it is hardlv in cultivation as far
north as New England. The branches are very irregular, with
leaves at the ends giving the appearance of an umbrella. Large
white flowers appear about May, making a very attractive tree. Its
propagation is similar to that of the cucumber tree.

TULIP TREE, TULIP POPLAR, YELLOW POPLAR.

Liriodendron Tulipifera, L.

The tulip-tree is one of the most magnificent of the forest trees
and its wood is valuable for many purposes. It is a fairly rapid
grower and as it is becoming very scarce ite propagation should be
encouragedi.

Ill

The fruit has a cone-like appearance, being made up of a number
of scales, on a common axis, from which thev fall during winter.
Very few of these scales contain seeds and only about ten per cent, of
the seeds formed are good. Loudon said that the best cones are
found on the higher branches of aged trees. In autumn, as the seeds
mature, the fruit turns to a brownish color. The cones should be
gathered in October after the first few scales have dropped. Drying
them in an ordinary living room for a short time ought to be suffi-
cient to free the seeds from the scales. The seeds mav be sown
broadcast, or in shallow furrows, in fall, or they may be kept in a
dry room until si)ring. Roll the beds afk^r giving the seeds a slight
cover. Soft mold or wood and leaf ashes are good fertilizers for
them. In summer do not allow the beds to become too dry and give
the young i)lants some ]n otection from the sun. The plants may re-
main in (he seed beds for two years, to d»evelop a good root system
before being i)lanted permnnently, or if they are wanted for orna-
mental purposes they may be transj)lanted and left two or more
yeai's. After transplanting first time it is better to cut the stem off a
couple of inches above the ground, allowing a new stem to be formed.

Rich soil of coves and of cool slopes is its preference. It is known
to come up in old fields after an advance growth of sassafras or
locust, or with locust. Seedlings are ])lentiful in the forest near old
trees after a winter or spring fire has burned the layer of leaves
on the ground. It may be st^t out as the cucumber tree, with lo
cust or with walnut, or with both. Trees are said to be raised easily
from cuttings.

BASSWOOD, AMERK^VX LINDEN, LIME TREE, LIN.

Tilia Americana, L.

The linden has a one-seeded fruit which when it is matured in Sep
tember is hard, hairy, *^vi\\ and abou( the si/e of a pea. They should
be sown at once in the seed beds, or if kejit over winter, should be
stratified wiHi moist sand in a box which can be placed in well
drained ground. In either case a good jKMcentage will come up the
first year, but if they have been kept dry ovov winter they are likely
to wait until the s(HM)nd year before germinating. They are very
slow growers from the i>vvd and will have to remain in the nursery
for two, three or four years, and perha].s more, before they will be
large enough to set out pern]anently. T\wy may be tlu^n i)lanted
with oak, sugar maple, white ash, etc. Aswill/olher trees, if the

112

plants are crooked, or too branchy, cut them off just above the
ground and allow a shoot to form. More rapid growth i» obtained
from layers, so it is customary to cut off an old tree close to the
ground, and when a number of shoots have come up, to throw dirt
among them that they may take root for themselves. In one or two
years they may be cut off and used as plants. Transplanting wirh
balls of dirt is recommended. It prefers a moi®t situation but will
grow on dry soil. As a shade tree it is probably not surpassed.

WHITE BASS WOOD.
Tilia heterophylla, Vent.

The white basswood is more of a mountain tree than the Tilia
Americana. It is commonly found growing on the moist soil border-
ing mountain streams, however, it will thrive upon limestone soil, op
dry, gravelly and sandy soil, if moderately rich. The wood of this
tree is not unlike that of the other species of basswood and is sold
as such. It can be propagated the same as the basswood above,
either from seed or from cuttings, the latter being, perhaps, pre-
ferable.

AMERICAN HOLLY.
Ilex opaca, Ait.

W^hile the holly, under favorable conditions, becomes a tree of good
size, and is then valuable, it is not likely that, in this State at least,
it will ever be raised for other than ornamental purposes. The fruit
is a small red berry, maturing in autumn and remaining on the tree
all winter. The berries may be gathered in December and at once
macerated in water. After the seeds have been thoroughly washed
they should be spread on a cloth and dried, and then mixed with
sand and kept d.ry until needed for sowing in spring. Sow in fur-
rows ten to twelve inch(^ apart. Cover seeds lightlv with fine earth
and roll it. A layer of leaves may then cover the bed which will per-
haps hasten germination. The seeds are slow to giM^minate and may
not come up until the second year. The plants should be carefully
transplanted every two years until set out finallv. It seems to prefer
the edge of streams or swamr)s, under other trees, but it will grow on
higher ground. It makes a close hedge and requires little care when
once started. It is also propagated by cuttings.

113

OHIO BUCKEYE, FETID BUCKEYE.
Aesculus glabra, Willd.

The wood of this tree is used for pulp wood and for the manu-
facture of light wooden articles. Although there are other rapid
growers, the wood of which is better in quality and may take the
place of the buckeye, yet the facility with which it can be raided from
seed together with its rapid growth may recommend it.

The fruit resembles the common horse-chestnut but is prickly
when young. It matures in autumn and the seeds may be gathered
from under the old tree after the first frost. They should be planted
at once, either where they are to remain, say two or three feet apart
each way, or they may be planted in seed beds, in rows eighteen to
twenty-four inches apart and twelve to fourteen inches in the row.
Cover a little more than the thickness of the seed, unless the beds are
rolled. In one year the plants may be set out. They prefer moist
soil, as along the banks of rivers, but will do well in soil that is not
exceedingly dry.

SWEET BUCKEYE.

Aesculus flava, Ait.

Aesculus octandira. Marsh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 401.

The tree has a smooth fruit, has the same uses as the Ohio buckeye
and may be propagated in the same manner. Either may be used as
a shade tree, although the European horse-chestnut is superior and
wore frequently used for that purpose.

SUGAR MArLE.
Acer saccharinum, Wang.
Acer Saccharum, Marsh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 398.

In the Forestry Report for this State issued in 1895, it is stated
that this is one of the largest and perhaps one of the commonest trees
in the State. It is apparent therefore that conditions here are
favorable to its growth. It is a valuable tree and will grow in al-
most any locality.
8

4 , «»

Li4

The seeds, in eamaras or keys about an inch long, are matured in.
September. They may be picked from the tree, or a little later swept
together under the tree, as they are usually very plentiful. They
are very sensitive to being dried out and therefore should be sown
at once. The rows should be about eight inches apart and the seeds
six inches apart in the rows. A very light cover of earth is suflQ-
cient, but put a layer of leave® over the beds for the winter. The
seeds may be kept over winter if stratified with sand just slightly
moistened, then sown early in spring. During the first season the
young plants will need shade. They may remain in the seed beds
two years and then be set out permanently at three, four or five foot
distance©. Prune off any branches that may have formed. The
sugar maple has been planted in pure plantations and also in mix-
ture with white ash, walnut, oak, birch and others. It is among the
best of the trees suitable for street planting.

What is known as black sugar maple is a variety of Acer sacchar-
inum and is propagated in the same manner.

The striped maple (Acer Pennsylvanicum, L.), so called from the
striped appearance of its bark, is of little importance except as an
ornamental tree. Its seeds ripen in September and may be raised
as the above. It is found in cool ravines and endures considerable
shade.

SILVER MAPLE, WHITE OR SOFT MAPLE.

Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh.

Acer saccharinum, L. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 397.

This is perhaps the most rapid grower among the maples, and it
is adapted to any soil, but it is of very little value. The keys are
large, veiny and diverging. The seeds ripen early in summer, in May
or June. They may be swept up under the trees and should be sown
at once. If planted in moist beds and given a light cover of earth
it will not be long before the young plants put in an appearance.
Sow the seeds in rows about twelve inches apart and in distances of
eight inches in the row. If started in good soil one year will be suffi-
cient time in the nursery, but if in poor soil they will take two years
to grow to a size suitable for planting. These plants are apt to
branch young, so when planting, if the}' are branchy or crooked, cut
them off just above the ground. The sprout that will be formed will
make up for the growth that has been lost.

115

RED MAPLE, SWAMP MAPLE.
Acer rubrum, L.

The red maple is a more valuable tree than the soft maple and as
It thrives in swamps (although not confined to them) which are rarely
of any use, there is no reason why it should not be raised. The seeds
ripen in May or June and perhaps can best be picked from the tree
They should be planted at once in moist soil, as with the soft maple
The first year they grow slowly and may have to remain in the seed
bed two years. Pruning with these, too, may be necessarv. Where
the soil IS good it makes a beautiful shade tree.

BOX ELDER, ASH-LEAVED MAPLE.

Negundo aceroides, Moench.

Acer Negundo, L. See Britton & Brown, Vol. 11, p. 400.

In wooded sections of the country this tree is of little value but
m the plains it serves as a splendid -nurse tree^ to other more use-
ful species. It is a rapid grower and will thrive on any soil hence
where a quick protection to the soil, or a quick shade is wanted, there
IS nothing better; for instance, for the protection of white pine seed-
Imgs on a dry southern slope. It is short lived and when planted
with other trees affords an early return in the way of fire wood The
seeds are ripe in September and should be sown at once. In one
year the seedlings can be planted out. With conifers, box elder
may be planted in every other row at four foot distances, the rows be-
ing three feet apart. With broad-leaved species every third row
would be sufficient. j u luw

STAGHORN SUMACH.
Rhus tyi)hina, L.
Rhus hirta, (L.) Sudw. See Britton & Brown, Vol. U, p. H86.
Mostly a shrub but at times reaches the dimensions ^of a small

Iflunl^'r ? ' ^"""'^^"^ ^^^*"'" *^"^^ ''"'^^ '^^' ^ P«Ji«h, making
t suitable for panels, etc. The fruit (small, hard, strong seeds) is com

pacted into an irregular, brown or scarlet mas«. The seeds mature

Il($

about October, after which they may be gathered and sown at once,
or kept in a dry, cold place until spring. The sumach is found in
thickets, both on the borders of streams and on dry hill sides; it
seems to grow more rapidly, however, on the moist soil and usually
produces there a stem more or lees free of branches.

LOCUST TREE, BLACK LOCUST, YELLOW LOCUST.

Robinia Pseudacacia, L.

The locust has many qualities that recommend it to the tree
planter. The foliage and blossoms make it suitable for a shade tree,
especially along country roads. It is a rapid grower and can be re-
produced easily from seeds or from root suckers. It will grow on
any eoil that is not wet, and, like all leguminous plants, it improves
the eoil on which it grows. Moreover the wood is strong and of
great durability. Yellow locust wood is supposed to be more valu-
able than white locust wood, but both come from this species.

The fruit, a pod enclosing several seeds, is matured in September
and may be gathered from the tree any time after that, for frequently
they remain on the tree all winter. The seeds may be threshed out
with a flail and cleansed by running them through a winnowing ma-
chine. Field mice are fond of them, consequently it is beet to keep
them for spring planting, which is easily done if they are kept in a
cool, dry atmosphere. Before planting, put them in scalding water
and remove them as soon as they swell up. Repeat the operation
until all are ready, then plant at once in the seed bed, about six
inches apart each way. The young plants may remain in the beds
one or two years when they may be set out permanently at four foot
distances. At first sight of the borer's work cut off the branch or
the whole stem and burn it. If branchy when transplanted prun-
ing will be necessary. It may b? planted by itself or mixed with
other species, as yellow poplar, catalpa, walnut, etc.

JUDAS TREE, RED BUD.

Cercis Canadensis, L.

Hardly more than a shrub. Its wood is seldom if ever used. In
spring the bush is aflame with red flowers, making it worthy of a
place on the lawn. The fruit is a legume, or pod, ripening in autumn.

117

These may be gathered and kept until spring, the seeds to be sown
early. It does not seem to be particular as to soil and may be
planted under other trees or shrubs. In growth it is fairly rapid.

KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE, COFFEE NUT.

Gymnocladus Canadensis, Lam.

Gymnocladus dioica, (L.) Koch. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 261.

Very similar to the locust in qualities and requirements. Like all
other broad-leaved species it reaches its best development on moist,
ri(!h soil. The seeds mature in October and may be taken from the
pods readily after a severe frost, or the pods may be gathered and
macerated in warm water. Dry the seeds and treat as locust seeds.
The growth is rapid, so close sowing is not necessary, neither is the
tree so apt to branch as the locust.

HONEY LOCUST.

Gleditschia triacanthos, L.

This tree as yet has very little value other than as an ornamental
tree. It requires rich soil. The pods may be gathered) in Septem-
ber or October and macerated in water until the seeds can be washed
clean. They can be treated then as those of the locust and coffee
tree. The taproot should be cut off before transplanting.

WILD CHERRY, WILD BLACK CHERRY.

Prunus serotina, Ehrh.

A neglected but valuable tree. It is a fairly rapid grower, not
particular in regard to soil, and furnishes a fine wood for the manu-
facture of furniture. The fruit is matured in August. It can then be
gathered from the tree and macerated in water until the stones can
be cleaned. These may be sown at once, but it is well to preserve
them until spring by mixing them with sand and placing the box
either in a dry, cool cellar or in the ground where the stones can be

tl

118

frozen. Thej must not be allowed to become moist. Sow in fur-
rows six to eight inches apart and two or three inches in a furrow.
They will be of sufficient size in two years to be moved safely. They
may then be mixed with seedlings of ash, elm, oak, pine, spruce, etc.,
at four foot distances.

Prunus Pennsylvaniaca, L. fil., or the fire cherry, is of little value
other than as a nurse tree to better and weaker species. It may be
used as the box elder. Propagation is the same as for the black
cherry. The fruit is ripe in July.

AMERICAN CRAB APPLE.

Pyrus coronaria, L.
Mains coronaria, (L.) Mill. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 235.

The tree never reaches a very great size and its wood is of little
value except for tool handles or turnery work. As an ornamental
tree, however, it is worth some consideration. Its flowers are numer
ous, fragrant and of delicate tints. The fruit matures late in fall,
when it may be gathered and macerated in water in order to obtain
the seeds. Several years in the nursery may be required before the
seedlings will be large enough to be planted out with safety. Prun-
ing may be necessary in order to avoid a straggling form. It is
usually found in rather moist soil.

MOUNTAIN ASH.

Pyrus Americana, DC.
Sorbus Americanns, Marsh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 233.

Of no value other than as an ornamental tree. It grows both on
highlands and on lowlands. The berry-like fruit grows in clusters
and matures about October. The seeds may be obtained by macera-
tion, and after being dried on a cloth should be kept in a dry, cool
place for spring planting. Frequent transplanting before setting
out permanently will no doubt secure the best results for ornamental
use.

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119

COCKSPUR THORN.

Crataegus Crus-galli, L.

Except for hedges the eockepur thorn is little used. It is occa-
sionally found as a lawn tree because of its white flowers, which ap-
pear in June. The fruit matures in October. The seeds may be ob-
tained by maceration andi can be sown at once or kept for spring
sowing.

JUNE BERRY, SHAD BUSH, SERVICE BERRY.

Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G.

Another tree, more often a shrub, which is more ornamental than
useful. It is among the first of our trees to bloom in spring and is
very attractive because of its many white flowers. The fruit matures
in June or July and is then edible. The seeds are obtained by mac-
eration and should be sown at once. It has been found on soil vary-
ing from dry "barrens'^ to the wet borders of swamps.

GUM, SWEET-GUM, BILSTED.
Liquidambar Styraciflua, L.

A tree that grows to large size and furnishes a fine grained lumber
suitable for veneer and interior finishing. The fruit, a ball with
rough projections, matures in autumn, when the seeds drop out.
They may be gathered in September or October and sown at once in
the seed beds, either scattered thinly broadcast, or in furrows four to
six inches apart. Give then a light cover of soil and a® with other
seeds sown in fall, spread leaves over the beds to protect them dur-
ing the winter. Two years may be required to allow the seedlings
to become of sufficient size to transplant. They may be set in almost
any soil, but because of their tendency to branch set the plants not
more than three feet apart each way. It presents a beautiful ap-
pearance in autumn and is suitable for a lawn tree.

DOGWOOD, FLOWERING DOGWOOD, BOXWOOD.

Cornufl florida, L.

As the name implies the tree is conspicuous for its flowers. Its
autumn colors are just as attractive, hence as an ornamental tree
it is well worth consideration. In order to secure a straight trunk.

120

and a regular shape, plant the young tree, then when it has a year to
''root itself fairly, cut the stem otf (in spring or early summer) close
to the ground. It will then produce several shoots. Select the one
you prefer and remove the rest. As this retained shoot grows and
makes its branches, keep cutting off the lower one® until the stem
is as high as you desire, after which it may be trusted to care for
itself. It rarely attains great size but the wood is valuable for tool
handles, mallets, etc., where it will und>ergo hard usage. As a
forest tree it is scarcely better than a weed, permitting no other
epecies to get a start beneath its shade. The fruit is a small, red
berry maturing in September. The berries may be picked from the
tree and macerated until the pulp can be removed from the seeds.
Mix these with damp sand and place in well drained ground over
winter, riant early in spring. During summer protect from the
hot sun. After two years the plants may be set out, either in the
open or under the shade of other trees.

The alternate-leaved dogwood, having a "blue-black" berry, is of
little value even as an ornamental tree.

TUPELO, PEPPERIDGE, BLACK OR SOUR GUM.

Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh.

Black gum, in favored localities, often grows to a large size. It
prefers damp, rich soils but will grow in dry situations. It may be
used for landscape work. The wood is hard to split and is used
where such characteristic is needed. The fruit ripens in Septem-
ber and may be picked from the tree. Macerate in warm water until
the seed or stone is clean. Mix with damp sand and place in ground
well protected from moisture. In spring sow about two inches apart
in rows. Keep the beds moist. In two years the plants may be
moved and should be set two to three feet apart. They are, other-
wise, likely to branch.

LAUREL, MOUNTAIN LAUREL, CALICO BUSH.

Kalmia latifolia, L.

RHODODENDRON, ROSE-BAY, GREAT LAUREL.

Rhododendron maximum, L.

These two shrubs are of little value other than for ornamental
use. They are comparatively easy to transplant from the woods.
The young plants should be taken up in early spring with consider
;jble dirt to the roota After transplanting pack a thick layer of

121

leaves about the foot of the shrub and keep them moist until a good
growth is evident. Propagation from seed is said to be difficult and
expensive. For planting in open grounds it is best to secure speci-
mens which have grown in open grounds.

PERSIMMON.
Diospyros Virginiana, L.

This tree is more valuable for its fruit than for any other purpose
The heartwood, which takes almost a century to form, is very dark
The wood's ''capacity for enduring friction*^ is phenomenal." The
fruit is mature in autumn and may be picked from the ground under
the trees after several frosts. Remove the pulp from the seeds mix
them with moist sand and preserve in a cool cellar. Sow in rows in
spring and, as with all slow growing species especially, cultivate
well. In two years they may be removed from the seed bed It
grows on light, sandy soil or in bottom land. Occasionally it is found
growing on high dry ground. In parts of the United States persim
mon culture has become quite common and several improved varieties
of the fruit are already produced.

WHITE ASH.
Fraxinus Americana, L.

A magnificent and valuable forest tree. Its wood is extensively
used in the manufacture of furniture, wagons, farming implements
and oars. It does not seem to be particular as to location, but if the
wood of the more rapid growing trees is best, then moderately rich
soil where the roots can get plenty of moisture is preferred, as aloni?
streams. The fruit is winged and matures in August or September
It should, be sown broadcast at once in well raked beds. During
the first summer provide shade for it and, if necessary, moisture.
Ihe seedlings may be removed when one vear old. If the taproot
has not been retarded it is better to cut it off than to run the risk
of turning the growing end up when planting. It may be mixed with
walnut, oak, maple, hickory, etc., at three or four feet distances

The green ash and red ash are somewhat inferior to the white
ash in respect to their timber qualities. If cultivated at all thev
may be propagated in the same manner as the white ash

122

BLACK ASH, HOOP ASH.

Fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam.

Fraxinus nigra, Marsh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 602.

The black ash, growing in wet and swampy soils, although capable
of growing on dry soils, is used very much for hoops, basket weaving
and interior finishing. Its seeds ripen several weeks later than those
of the white ash but are treated in a like manner.

' CATALrA, BEAN TREE, INDIAN BEAN, CIGAR TREE.

Catalpa bignonioides, Walt.

Catalpa Catalpa, (L.) Karst. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 199.

A tree to which a great deal of attention has been called of late.
It is a rapid grower on almost any soil, producing, in a very short
time, stems large enough for railroad ties or even telegraph or tele-
phone poles. The fruit is a i)od enclosing numerous small winged
steeds. These pods remain on the tree» during winter and may be
gathered any time after October. Remove the seeds and keep in a
cool, dry atmosphere until the ground can be worked in spring. Sow
the seeds broadcast and cover with fine dirt. By the next spring
the seedlings can be set out in rows. If by themselves, three or
four foot square® will make proper distances for planting. They may
be planted with locust, maple, ash, pine, etc. It has been recom-
mended to plant them in alternate rows with field corn. This will
afford »ome cultivation after the plants have been set out. White
pine might then be set along the corn rows after one or two crops
have been removed. If any damage comes to the young plant, cut
it otf at the ground, for as long as the root is healthy a sprout will
soon come up which will probably produce a better tree than the
seedling stems. This, indeed, is the best way to secure a trunk long
enough and straight enough for a telegraph pole. Cuttings may
be used for propagation. The wood, whilst it resists decav in the
ground, appears to lack strength sullicient for a good railroad tie.

WESTERN CATALPA.
Catalpa speciosa, Warder.

It is said that the wood of this species i« more durable in contact
with the ground than that of the Catalpa above mentioned. As a

123

rule it produces straighter stems and is freer from branches. The
growth is rapid in almost any soil, producing a good crop of telephone
poles, etc., in twenty-five years, or less. It can be propagated ae the
above, either from seed, or from cuttings. Its value for railroad ties
has been greatly overestimated.

SASSAFRAS.

Sassafras officinale, Nees.
Sassafras Sassafras, (L.) Karst. See Britton & Brown, Vol. II, p. 97.

Although a rapid grower, the tree will hardly be planted much in
Pennsylvania because of its timber qualities. It is very frequently
found in old fields, preparing the soil for a more valuable species
and acting as a nurse to it. As such it may be used to advantage.
The fruit matures in September. The pulp must be washed from the
stone, which should be planted at once in rich, moist soil. Two
years will not be too long for the seedlings to remain under nursery
care. After they have had a start in the plantation, yellow poplar,
sugar maple, white pine and perhaps hemlock might be mixed with it
in alternate rows. It sprouts readily and may be raised from suckers
or from bits of root.

SLIPPERY ELM, RED ELM, MOOSE ELM.
Ulmus fulva, Michx.

A tree which is suitable to plant in wet locations, although it is
sometimes found on the hillsides. By some the wood is said to be
superior to (hat of the while elm. The fruit is mature in June. It
may be gathered from under the tree and sown at once in the nursery
beds. If they are dry, moisture should be applied to the beds artifi-
cially. Give protection during summer from the sun. If the moisture
has been sufficient, the plants may be set out that fall, but it may be
best to allow them to remain for another year. Fall transplanting is
preferred. It may be mixed with beech, oak, ash, or sugar maple.

WHITE ELM, WATER ELM, AMERICAN ELM.

Ulmus Americana, L.

The white elm rivals the sugar maple in size. Its wood is very
hard to split and is used where such resistance is necessary. It, too

124

prefers moist, rich soil, but will grow in other situations. The fruit
is mature in June and should be treated as that of the slippery elm.
It may be mixed with birch, beech or maple.

HACKBEKRY, SUGAR BERRY.

Celtis occidentalis, L.

Although this tree reaches a fair size, its wood is of no practical
importance. The fruit is a small drupe, maturing in autumn. The
seeds may be obtained by maceration and should be sown in moder-
ately moist beds at once. Two years are often required for the seeds
to germinate. The young seedlings should have some protection
from the sun for several seasons and their roots kept moist. They
may be propagati^d by cuttings.

OSAGE ORANGE, BOW WOOD, BOIS d' ARC.

Madura aurantiaca, Nutt.

Toxylon pomiferum, Raf. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 529.

Another valuable but neglected tree. It is a rapid grower and
not particular in choice of soil. Its wood has been found to be very
valuable in the manufacture of wagon wheels, and has also been used
with good success as railroad ties. The fruit matures in October but
as it i» frequently seedless, and as the tree is readily propagated from
cuttings, it may be cheapest to use the latter method. If seeds are
obtained after macerating the fruit, tliey should be kept in a cool, dry
atmosphere and sown in spring. The tree is frequently used for
hedges, when it needs considerable pruning. In plantations it
should be planted closely. It is not a native of Pennsylvania, but
is introduced from the southwest.

RED MULBERRY.

Morufi rubra, L.

The fruit, resembling an elongated blackberry, is mature in July.
It should be picked from the tree and macerated in water, the seeds
cleaned and then kept in a cool, dry atmotiphere until spring. Sow
thinly over the beds and cover with fine dirt. Keep the beds moist

125

andi protect the young plants from the sun. After two seasons
growth they can safely be placed in the plantation. They endure
some shade so may be set among other trees. It prefers low, rich
soils.

BUTTONW^OOD, SYCAMORE.
Platanus occidentalis, L.

A rapid grower, often reaching a very large «ize, and not particular
as to location. The wood, however, is of very little value, except in
the manufacture of tobacco boxes. The common ''button balls" are
made up of a number of seeds which mature about October. Sow
them as soon as ripe, and cover lightly, or keep them dry over winter
and plant early in spring. The seedlings may be planted when one
year old.

BLACK WALNUT.
Juglans nigra, L.

A tree valuable both for its wood and its fruit. That it is almost
exterminated in Pennsylvania is well known and yet it is a fairly
rapid grower and readily propagated from seed. The nuts mature in
fall and after a slight frost may be picked up from under the old trees
in quantities. Where there is no serious danger from mice and
squirrels the nuts may be planted at once (after slightly bruising the
hull) in rows about a foot apart, and from four to six inches apart in
the row, for they branch early. To prevent the taproot from becom-
ing too long a close layer of stone may be laid before the nursery beds
are formed, or the plants may be started in boxes about six inches
deep, having holes in the bottom and sides to allow proper drainage.
Transplant when one year old. To keep the nuts over winter, re-
move the "hull" and mix them with moist sand and bury in\he
ground. Plant as soon as taken up in the spring. If desired, the
nuts can be planted at once where the tree is intended to remain.
Locust, maple, beech, or catalpa could be mixed with it in the plan-
tation. It might be raised with field corn.

The white walnut or butternut, having an oblong, pointed nut, may
be raised in the same manner. It will grow on both high and low
ground, whereas the black walnut rarely does well in a dry situation.

I2ti

SHELL BARK, SHAG-BARK HICKORY.

Carya alba, Nutt.

Hicoria ovata, (Mill.) Britton. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 485.

There are said to be nine species of hickory on the continent, but
there are only three that are of any importance to us. The shag-
bark, so called from- the appearance of its bark, prefers rich, damp
soil and in such i» a rapid grower. The fruit matures in October
and may then be gathered from under the trees. They should be
placed in moist sand and kept for spring planting. Because of the
taproot it may be best to plant at once permanently, and if possible
raise some field crop with the young plants. Make furrows about
three feet apart and drop the nuts about every half-foot Weeds
will have to be kept down. If raised in a nursery, care will have to
be taken in transplanting, because of the long taproot. Cut off any
bruised or broken roots.

WHITE-HEART HICKORY, HICKORY, KING NUT, MOCKER

NUT.

Carya tomentosa, Nutt.

Hicoria alba, (L.) Britton. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 486.

The young shoots of this tree are hairy; the nut angular and
pointed. It may be found more frequently and is perhaps the best of
the family from the standpoint of forestry because of its choosing the
poorer soils, although its slow growth is against it. It is raised as
the shag-bark hickory.

PIG NUT, BROOM HICKORY, SWITCH BUD HICKORY.

Carya porcina, Nutt.
Hicoria glabra, (Mill.) Britton. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 487.

The bark is furrowed on older trees; the fruit is thin shelled The
wood rivals that of the shag-bark, said by some even to surpass it.
It will grow both in high and low situations, but in Pennsvlvania at
^east It prefers moist soil. It is also treated as the 'shag-bark

i

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L27

BIRCHES.
Betula, L.

Of the five birches commonly found in this State all are more or
less valuable or worthy of cultivation. The fruit of the red or river
birch and of the canoe birch matures in summer, about June. The
small seeds should be removed from the cone-like fruit and »owd
broadcast at once in moist beds. Of course the plants must be
shaded, at least durin^- the first season's growth. They had better
remain in the seed beds for two years. The fruit of the three other
birchen, black, yellow and white, matures in fall. Their seeds should
be kept in damp sand until sprinj?. Sow as early as possible and
keep the beds moist durin^: the summer, also shade the plants. In
one year these may be removed. Most of the birches will grow on
poor soil and may be used as nurse trees for more valuable broad-
leaved species. Conifers sufl'er from having their tender shoots
whipped otl in a strong wind by the action of the slender stems of
these trees and consequently should not be planted with them.

SMOOTH ALDER.

Alnus eerrulata, Willd.
Alnus rugosa, (Du Roi) K. Koch. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I. p. 512.

Seldom if ever more than a shrub, but of value, especially for hold-
ing soil on banks of streams. The seeds should be picked in Octo-
ber and sown broadcast at once on fresh, sandy soil and covered
lightly. Roll the beds and give a covering of leaves for the winter.
The seeds are frequently sown upon the snow. If seeds are pre-
served until spring, when they must be sown very early, keep them in
damp sand and in a cold place. Shade the beds during the summer.

IRON WOOD, HOP-HORNBEAM.
Ostrya Virginica, Willd.

A slow growing tree of the poorer soils. It is usually found in the
shade of oaks, maples and the larger trees. The fruit resembles
the hop. It mature® in September. The nut-like seeds should be
sown at once and even then may not si)rout until the year following.
ft may be used to plant up blanks, or open places on rocky slopes.

12«

WATER BEECH. HORN BEAM.
Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt.

Usually nothing more than a shrub, though sometimes becoming
a tree twentj-five feet high and a foot in diameter, growing along
streams in rich soil. The wood, similar to that of iron wood, is used
for levers and turnery work. The fruit matures in autumn and the
nut-like seeds should be sown at once in moist, sandy soil. Usually
they will not come up until the second year.

OAKS.

Quercufi, L.

The oaks may be divided into two general classes, namely the white
and the black oaks. The white oaks are tho^e having leaves with
round lobes, not hving bristle-pointed. The acorns ripen in one year
and are sweet to the taste. Tfce black oaks are those the leaves of
which have bristle-pointed lobes. The acorns mature in the second
year and are bitter to the taste.

Of the first class there are in Pennsylvania, worthy of being cul-
tivated, the following:

White Oak. Quercus alba, L.

Post Oak. Quercus stellata, Wang. Quercus minor, (Marsh.)
Sarg. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 520.

Bur Oak. Quercus macrocarpa, Michx.

Swamp White Oak. Quercus bicolor, Willd. Quercus plata-
noides, (Lam.) Sudw. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 521.

Chestnut Oak. Quercus Prinus, L.

Yellow Oak. Quercus Muhlenbergii, Engelm. Quercus acumi-
nata. (Michx.) Sarg. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 522.

Those of the black oaks are:

Red Oak. Quercus rubra, L.

Scarlet Oak. Quercus coccinea, Wang.

Black Oak. Quercus tinctoria, Bartram. Quercus velutina. Lam.

See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 517.
Pin Onk. Quercus palustri», Du Roi.
Spanish Oak. Quercus falcata, Michx. Quercus digitata, (Marsh.)

Sudw. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 518.

All of the oaks will grow on poor soil, but since rapid growth of
oak produces better wood the better part of soil allotted to forest

1 21)

should be given to them. The acorns matui-e in fall and may easily
be gathered from under the old trees. Those of the black oak class
may be ^own at once, because of their bulkiuess for keeping and be-
cause there is no danger from rodents. Those of the white oaks,
while they lose their power of germination very soon, but because
of the danger from rodents, should be kept until spring in d<amp sand
and in a cool room, or buried with sand in a well drained place. The
plants have long taproots and some suggest that the acorns be sown
at once in the plantation where the seedlings are to remain. If so
done, plough shallow furrows every three feet apart and drop the
acorns at a distance of every two or three inches in.the furrow. For
several years the seedlings may be cultivated as convenient. If sown
in beds scatter from three to four hundred acorns on a bed four
feet each way. In one year the plants may be removed and set one
foot apart in rows three feet from each other.

CHESTNUT.

Castanea sativa. Mill., var. Americana, Watts. & Coult.

Castanea dentata, (Marsh.) Borkh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I,

p. 515.

In the Forestry Report issued by this State in 1895, the following
reasons are given for the cultivation of chestnut:

"1. It will grow on almost any kind of soil, from a river flat to a
mountain top, although it is not at its best on limestone soils.

"2. It grows with great rapidity.

'^3. When cut it reproduces a valuable coppice growth in a few
years.

'^L Its product, wood and fruit, will always be in demand.

"5. There will be an increasing demand for it in the future be-
cause of the tannin which it contains."

The fruit matures in October, being released from the burs by the
first frost. The chestnuts may be sown at once, which is preferable,
or they may be mixed in moist sand and buried until si)ring. Have
the soil well prepared. Some sand mixed in the beds will be good.
Shade the seedlings during summer. Set out as the oaks, in rows
three feet apart and at a distance of one foot from each other in the
row. Alternate rows may be set with white pine, or in order to
afford cultivation corn might be planted in alternate rows.

9

130

BEECH.

Fagus ferruginea, Ait.
Fagus Americana, Sweet. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 514.

The beech is a tree which should be planted in soil where its roots
can get plenty of moisture. The fruit is mature in October and may
be gathered from under the old trees. Sow in furrows six inches
apart, the seeds touching each other in the furrows. Shade w^ell. If
possible sow the seeds broadcast within an open pine woods, afte^'
having raked otf the needlee. Cover the seeds lightly. The plants
may be set out at from two to five years old. It endures shade and
may be set under oak, pine, etc.

WILLOWS. '
Salix, L.

All of the willows are so easily propagated from cuttings that it
is not necessary to waste time by trying to raise them from seed.
Last year's shoots can be cut and buried over winter. In spring take
an iron bar and make a hole large enough for the cutting to go in.
Leave one bud above ground and pack the soil firmly about the re-
maining part of the cutting.

ASPEN, QUAKING ASP.

Populus tremuloides, Michx.

The poplars are rapid growei-s. They are found usually along
banks of streams, but also on higher ground. In the west the aspen
is found coming up on land that has been cleared of other trees, either
by "slashings" or by fires. There it prepares the soil for' better
species, as for instance white pine, and it protects the young plants.
The fruit ripens in May or June. The seed is small and "cottony."
It should be sown at once in a cool situation and covered lightly.
When one or two years old set out in a plantation, as close as con
venient. It may branrli when young but permits pruning. It may
be raised easily from cuttings.

131

COTTONWOOD, CAROLINA POPLAR.

Populus monilifera, Ait.

Populus deltoides. Marsh. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 493.

A tree whose wood is being extensively used for paper pulp It
IS a rapid grower and adapts itself easily to almost any soil The
most vigorous growth, however, is found on rather moist soil Thirty
cords of pulp wood to the acre, under average circumstances, might
be expected after fifteen or twenty-five years. The tree is frequently
found here as a shade tree. The seeds mature in July and should be
sown at once. The seed beds should be kept moist. Bv the next fall
seed-hngs could be set out in the plantation at four or^ five foot di
ances from each other. It will make a good nurse tree for white
P.ne, ,f „nxed with it. The quickest and cheapest method of propa
gation IS from cuttings. ^ ^

WHITE PINE.
Pinus Strobus, L.

It is not necessary to state the uses of this tree nor should it be
necessary to state that it ought to be cultivated extensivelv It is a

vX^ir'T ' '"' r"'"" P'"' ^"'' ''''^' ''''^'y -^— -^ i« very
aluable when mature-what more is wanted? The seeds mature

m fall of second year and as soon as the cones become pitchy (in

August or September) pick them and keep in ordinary liWn ' room

f .r? ' ''' ^''"' '"""^ ""'''''' ^" ^^^« -'' better^till, on alt
fiame, having something to catch the seeds as thev falf from the
J ones Stn. freouently so as to allow the cones to become thorough
h dry and to prevent their moulding. Seventy-five degrees Fahren
heit IS sufi^cient hent to open the cones that the seeds rrdrop^ut"
Sow broadcast early in spring, or in shallow rows six in hes Tar '
Cove, hght y and roll the beds. Where there is no d ^g "o Tate

over 'oVler' " ""' '''''' '' ^^^'^ '*" ^^^"' ^"^ «^-«^^ then ha el
► ummer. If the beds become very wet sprinkle dry sand over them
as soon as possible. <^Damping off'> is said to be prTvented n h^
way. If one year old plants are not used in the plantatlolth y h.d
better be transplanted to nursery rows,the rows six irhefai^t
and plants about two inches apart in th^ rows. Du L. le winJe
cover wrth Jeaves and transplant in spring. Two y a^ Z luuT.
-a.v be used safely. If possible have some'nur.e tr'^ wo or' he

132

years in advance of the pine, or a rai^id grower, set in alternate rows,
or two rows of pine to one of the other. Three feet in the row is
suflScient. It ie worthy of a place as an ornamental tree.

PITCH PINE, YELLOW PINE, JACK PINE.

Pinus rigida. Miller.

This pine has needles in thr<?es. The cones take two or three
years to mature. They should be gathered and treated as white
pine. With all pines the seeds must be kept dry during the winter.
The oil in them will preserve them so there is very little dianger of
their losing the pow er of germination for several years if they are not
exposed to moisture. Sow the seeds broadcast in sandy beds in
spring. Seedlings can be &et out in spring when two years old.
They are very sensitive to being transplanted so their roots should
be carefully protected. It grows where the soil is extremely poor,
but slowly.

SPRUCE PINE, YELLOW PINE.

Pinus mitis, Michx.
Pinus echinata, Mill. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 52.

Leaves usuallv in pairs. The cones are somewhat longer than
those of the pitch pine but not so large in diameter, proportionally.
They mature in one season. Formerly there was considerable yel-
low pine in this State but it has become very scarce. The tree
reaches a large size and its wood i« valuable. It is not hard to raise
from seeds, which should be treated as those of the other pines. It
is a fairly rapid grower and is adapted to dry, sandy soil and to poor
elopes.

The red or Norway pine (Pinus resinosa) nmy be propagated as
easily from seed as the other pines.

138

RED SPRUCE.

Picea nigra, var. rubra, Engelm.

Picea rubra, (Lamb.) Link. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 55.

A tree of the highest ridges and cool northern slopes. The cones
are small and unusually plentiful. They may be gathered any time
after October. Bj heating the cones some, the seeds will readdly
fall from the scales. They should be sown in early spring in soil
somewhat sandy. Cover the seeds lightly and roll the beds. Shade
the seedlings well and do not let the beds become too dry. The
plants may be put in the plantation when two years old or they may
be transplanted to nursery rows and set out when four years old.
They have shallow roots and may be used on rocky slopes. In regu-
lar plantations three feet is the proper distance at which the plants
should stand from each other.

BLACK SPRUCE.

Picea nigra. Link.

Picea mariana, (Mill.) B. S. P. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 55.

Somewhat smaller than the red spruce. It prefers "sphagnum-
covered swamps.'' Propagation is same as for the red spruce.

HEMLOCK, HEMLOCK-SPRUCE.

Tsuga Canadensis, Carr.

The cones of the hemlock mature in one year. They are small and
egg-shaped, drooping from little foot stalks when ripe. Gather in
October. After the seeds have been removed from the cones keep
them in a dry, cool room until spring. Sow broadcast in well pre-
pared beds. Rotten wood mixed with the soil will no doubt insure
better success. Moisture and shade are necessary for the young
plants. In two years they may be set out finally or transplanted
and set out when four years old. While the tree is found in moist
and cool places it seems to do well in other situations. The hemlock
is, when young, perhaps the slowest grower of all our forest trees and
will be the hnrdest fo perpcluate as a forest tree.

r

134

BALSAM FIR, BALM OF GILEAD FIR.

Abies balsamea, Miller.

Frequently found in the northern and colder parts of the State.
It makes a fairly rapid* growth in well drained soil and can be used
for planting along roade or walks. The cone® may be gathered in
autumn and dried slightly. The scales of the cones will have to be
separated from the seeds. They can then be treated as those of the
red spruce.

LARCH, TAMARACK, HACKMATACK.

Laris Americana, Michx.
Larix laricina, (Du Roi) Koch. See Britton & Brown, Vol. I, p. 54.

The tamarack is a northern tree and is found only in the cooler
parts of the State. While it may be grown on dry soil it prefers and
1© usually found in cool ewamps. It is a valuable tree and is said to
be raised easily from seeds. The small cones mature in September
and may then be gathered from the trees. Drying the cones will re-
lease the seeds which may be kept in a cool dry place until spring.
Sow thinly over the beds and press the seeds into the ground, giving
them a elight cover. Protect well during summer. The next fall
they may be easily planted out at about five foot distances. Their
growth is fairly rapid.

ARBOR VITAE.

Thuya occidentalis, L.

A tree that is of more value perhaps as an ornament than as a
tree for forestry purposes, in this State. The stems are used for
poles and posts. The conee mature in September or October. It is
grown easily from eeeds if treated as the other conifers. Two years
in the nursery beds is sufficient for the young plants. They may then
be placed in the plantation. It occurs naturally, but sparingly in
this State.

135

CEDAR, RED CEDAR, SAVIN.
Juniperus Virginiana, L.

Very common throughout the State, but never reaching a very
large size. It m a slow grower. The fruit is a berry made up of sev-
eral fleshy scales enclosing two or three seeds. The berries may be
gathered in November. They should be macerated in warm water
or put in strong lye made from wood ashes for several days until the
seeds can be washed, clean. Keep the seeds dry and cool and eow
early in spring. Cover the beds with leaves as it is likely that the
plants will not come up until the next year. They may be set out
after two years, or transplanted when four or five years old Set
at three feet from each other. This tree is very valuable for fence
posts.

136

CHAPTER VIII.

THE BLACK WILLOW (SALIX NIGRA, MARSH.) AS A PRO

TEOTOR OF RIVER BANKS.

BY J. T. ROTHROCK.

In all of our alluvial valleys the frequeut freshets work greater or
less damage to the farm land. In fact it can hardly be said that the
beds of any of our rivere, which flow through wide valleys, are con-
stant. They not only have entirely deserted the ancient water
courses, leaving them off as back channels to one side or the other,
but they are changing them from year to year before our eyes.

Whilst it is true that a large quantity of valuable soil is sometimee
deposited by these freshets on the surface of the land, it is also equal-
ly true that this same soil has come from the margin or river bank of
somebody else's holdinge.

Mattawanna island, in the Juniata river, in front of McVeytown,
Mifflin county, furnishes a remarkable instance of wearing away and
subsequent protection and restoration by means of the black wil-
low. Half a century ago the margin of the island was near figure
three on Plate XXXII. Now it is near figure one on the same plate.
A few years ago all the soil between one and three had been washed
away, and the owner of the island found each successive freshet wear-
ing away more and more of his farm. He had been obliged repeated-
ly to set his fence back to prevent it from being undermined and
carried away. The planting however of the black willow, as indi-
cated by our illustration, between two and three, has completely ar-
rested the progress of destruction.

The willows cause eddies during the high water and this leads to
the deposition of the sandy loam which the water carries. It will be
but a flhort time before these willows will have ensured the future
safety of the island, so far at^ marginal erosion is concerned, provid-
ing they are planted in such a manner nt the head of the island as to
prf^vent the formation of a back channel Ihroiigh th(> island. This

I

1

1

\:m\

CHAPTPJR VIIL

THE BLACK WILLOW (SALIX XKJKA, MAKSIL) AS A PRO

TECTOK OF RIVER RANKS.

BY J. T. ROTHROCK.

In all of onr alluvial vallevc^ the fitM|iieiil frcshels work greater or
less (laniage to the laiiu land. In fad it ean liardlv he said that the
heds of anv of our rivei6>, which How throrigh ^^ide vallevs, ai*e con-
stant. Thev not only have entirely deserted tiie ancient water
courses, leaving Uuan oil' as hack channels (o (yne side or the other,
but they are changing them from year to year before onr eyes.

Whilst il is true tliat a huge (juantity of valuable soil is sometimes
deposited by these freshets on the «^urface of the land, it is iilso e(|iial-
ly true that this same soil has come from the margin or river bank of
somebody else's holdings.

Maitawanna ishmd, in the Juniata river, in front of McN^ntown,
Miiliin county, fniiiishes a reuuirkable instance of v.faring away and
subsequent ])roteclion and nstoi'ation by means of the black wil
low. Half a century ngo the margin of the island was near tigure
three on IMate XXXII. Xow it is near llgure one on the sanu' jdate.
A fe>v years ago all tlie soil })etw<H*n one and three had been washed
away, and tlie owner of the island found each successive freshet wear-
ing away more and more of his farm. He had been objigcnl rei)eated
h^ to set his f(^nce back to prevent it from being undermined' and
carried away. The planh'ug however of the !)lack willow, as indi
cated by our illustration, between two and three, has completely ar-
rested the progress of destruction.

The willows cause eddic^s during the high water and this leads to
the deposition of the sandy loans wliich thr water cjnries. It will be
but a ffhort time before these willows will have ensured tlu* future
safety of the island, so far a»^ nmrgiual erosion is concenu'd, provid-
ing they are planted in such a manner r\\ the 1h;k1 of the isljind as to
firevent Jhe fovniation of a ba<*k cliMnud ilirough ihr ishnid. This

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INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

4

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137

iudeed is oue of the problems growing out of the saving action of the
willow. In proportion as it restores waste of land it will diminish
the width of the channel through which the water flowe, and it will
therefore be all the more necessary that the expot^ed points shall be
guarded with special care by the willow plantation.

Apropos of the subject, one may properly call attention to a
reversal of the ordinary order of things in our stream valleys. We
can readily enough understand how the quantity of soil, held sus
pended in the water during our freshets, may lead to a blocking up
of the channel of the stream, but recently, however, my attention
hae been called to the en'ect of the frequent prevalence of long con-
tinued low stages of water during the summer months, caused in part,
no doubt, by the fact that the water which should have been retained
in the country to have maintained a higher water level during the
summer, had gone out in the form of freshets, and wa« no longer
available. These low stages of water had rendered absolutely bare
considerable areas of what had, in ordinary stages of water, been
the river bed. Naturally enough a quantity of seed had been strand-
ed on this soil and I was surprised to find, on the Susquehanna river,
for example below Sunbury, considerable sized incipient islands
which I had never seen before. It was a problem in physical geogra-
phy which hadi not hitherto been presented to me. A iittle observa-
tion, however, rendered the matter entirely clear. A year later
these areas had been raised several inches, because when the ordinary
stage of water came, the vegetation which had grown during the sum-
mer, retained a de[)th of wveral inches of soil.

And so I have witnessed this island growth during the past four
years. The permanency of some of these islands seems to be assured,
because the black willow has already taken root upon them andi
will no doubt do its usual beneficient work. It seems like a paradox
however to say that one may thus witness the growth of an island by
deposit from the water, caused by extreme low stages of water.

I

138

CHAPTER IX.

A SEVERED BUT GROWING WHITE PINE TREE TRUNK AT

MONT ALTO.

BY GEORGE H. WIRT., Forester.

My attention wae- calledi one day to a wliite pine tree of considera-
ble size, which is entirely free from any stump or roots, and yet is
alive and thriving. The illustration, Plate XXXIII, shows the tree.
Upon examination this was found to be really the case. The history
of the tree is as follows:

In August, about twenty years ago (1882) a laborer at the Mont
Alto furnace sprained hi» back. The old man who is standing by
the tree in the illustration was sent out for pine pitch to make a
plaster or poultice. He found this tree, wOiich was at that time
forked about two and a half feet above the ground. Beneath the
fork of the branch, on which his hand is resting, he cut out a large
chip, in order to collect the pitch. This cut, however, was not deep
enough to entirely sever the brandi from the stem. The man says
that he noticed that a few of the limbs of the two branches were very
cloee, but did not notice any union. Both branches continued to
grow. Finally several limbs from the two branches were grafted
to each other naturally; at two places the two stems have become
united, and at the cut the growth of tdie uninjured branch has been
so great that the weakened one has been forced entirely away and
the cut almost healed over. While the loose one can be moved
slightly by the hand, nevertheless the graft is perfect, for that part
of the tree flourishes and continues to grow, a» is evinced by the
new growth endeavoring to cover the scar at the base.

;

PLATE XXXIIT.
A Severed but Living and Growing White Pine Tree Trunk, at Mont Alto.

138

CHAPTER IX.

A SEVEEED BUT GROWING WHITE I'lNE TKEE TKUXK AT

MONT AETO.

BY GEORGE H. WIRT, Forester.

My attention wa» calh^li one day to a ^Y!llite pine tree of considera-
ble size, which is entirely free from any stnnip or roots, and \Qt is
alive and thriving. Tlie illustration, Plate XXXIII, f^hows the tree.
Upon examination Ihis was found to be really the case. The history
of the tree is as follows:

la August, about twenty years ago (1882) a laborer at the Mont
Alto furnace sprained hi« back. The old man who is standing by
the tree in the illustration was sent out for i)ine jutch to make a
plaster or poultice. lie found thi« tree, wlhich was at that time
forked about two and a half feet above the ground. Beneath the
fork of the branch, on which his hand is resting, he cut out a large
chip, in order to collect the pikdi. This cut, however, was not deep
enough to entirely sever the brancih from the stem. The man says
that he noticed that a few of the limbs of the two branches were very
clo^e, but did not notice any union. Both branches continued to
grow. Finally several limbs from the two branches were grafted
to each other naturally; at two i»Iaces the two ^tems have become
united, and at the cut the growJh of tihe uninjured branch has been
so great that the weakened one has been forced entirely away and
the cut almost healed ov(m\ While the loose one caii be inoved
slightly by the hand, nevertheless the graft is perfect, for that part
of the tree fb)urishes and continues to grow, a.^ is evinced by the
new growth endeavoiing to cover the scar at the base.

PLATE XXXIIT.
A Severed but Living and Growing White Pine Tree Trunk, at Mont Alto.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

139

CHAPTER X.

A LAW SUGGESTED BY THE INDIANA FORESTRY ASSOCIA-
TION.

The following is a copy of an act of Assembly introduced into the
Legislature of the State of Indiana. Whether it has become a law I
no not know, but it contains some provisions which are very meri-
torious:

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of
Indian:), That upon any tract of land in the State of Indiana, there
nil y be selected by the owner, or owners, as a permanent forest reser-
vation, a portion not to exceed one-eighth of the total area of said
tract, which shall be appraised for taxation at one dollar per acre.

Si'c. 2. If such selection is an original forest, containing not lesa
i.it.n 37C trees on each acre, it shall become subject to this act upon
niing w.ih the auditor of the county in which it is situated, a descrip-
tion of such selection as is hereinafter provided.

Se<'. 3. If any land owner shall plant not less than 170 trees on each
acri! .t selected forest reservation, and shall cultivate and maintain
the same for three years, then it shall become subject to this act as
hei-cir: provided. '

Sec. 4. Upon any tract selected as a forest reservation which con-
tains 100 or more original forest treee on each acre, the owner may
plant a sufficient number of forest trees which shall make up the re-
quired 170 trees per acre, when the same shall become subject to this
act, as in section 3.

See. 5. No land owner shall receive the benefit of this act who shall
permit cattle, horses, sheep, hog»or goats (o pasture upon such reser-
vation until said trees are four inches in diameter.

See. (',. Whenever any tree or trees shall be removed or die the
owner in order to avail himself of this act shall plant other trees in
place of such trees as may be removed or die, and protect said trees
Mitil they are four inches in diameter, which shall at all times main-
lain the full number required by this act.

Sec. 7. Not more than one-fi/th of the full number of trees in anv
forest reservation shall be removed in any one year, excepting that
such trees as may die naturally may be removed^ when other trees
sJiall be planted.

140

^t'c. 8. Ash, maple, pine, oak, hickory, basswood, elm, black locust,
hoiu^y locust, Kentucky coffee tree, chestnut, walnut, butternut,
larch, tulip-tree, mulberry, osage orange, sassafras and catalpa shall
be considered forest trees within the meaning of this act.

Sec. 1). It shall be the duty of the auditor in every county to keep
a ivcord of all forest reservations as the same shall be filed with him,
and he shall require the owner or agent to subscribe under oath the
extent and description of the land reserved, and that the number of
trees is a» requirt^d by this act, and that he will maintain the same
according to the intent of this enactment.

Sec. 10. It shall be the duty of the assessor to personally examine
til- various forest reservations when the real estate is appraised, and
to note upon his return the condition of the trees, in order that the
intent of this act may be complied with. And if the reservation is
pro])erly planted and continuously cared for, he shall appraise the
same at one dollar per acre.

M

141

CHAPTER XL

TIMBER CUT AND LOSS FROM FOREST FIRES DURING THE

YEARS 1900 xVND 1901.

We submit herewitih tabulated statements of the amount of timber
cut in the State of Pennsylvania during the years 1900 and 1901, as
reported to this office by those who are engaged in that industry.

The cut for the year 1901, it appears, was considerably less than
that for 1900, which would indicate that the timber resources of the
State are rapidly becoming exhausted, and it is therefore very evident
that the policy of the present administration in securing large bodies
of land upon which it will protect the young growth now coming on,
ard for the reforestration of tlliose lands which have been entirely
stripped of their timber, or over which forest lires were allowed to
run each year, thereby destroying all timber growth that was left
upon them after the lumberman exhausted his energies, is a wise
and necessary one.

Forest fire losses for the year 1900 reached nearly one million
dollars, while those for 1901 were about two hundred and forty
thousand dollars.

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(150)

A.

Page.

Abies balsamea, 134

Acer dasycarpum 114

Acer Negundo, 115

Acer Pennsylvanicum, 114

Acer rubrum, 115

Acer saccharinum 113,114

Acer saccharum, 113

Act authorizing borough councils to require the planting of shade trees,.. 55

Act for better protection of timber lands against fire 52

Act of March 30, 1897, opinion of Judge Edvv. M. Dunham, of Wyoming

county, on constitutionality of 30

Act to' encourage forest culture 49

Act to encourage forest preservation 51

Act to encourage the planting of trees along roadsides, 53

Aesculus flava -^^^

Aesculus glabra jjg

Aesculus octandra ^^3

Alder, smooth, j27

Alnus rugosa, jo?

Alnus serrulata ^£7

Amelanchier Canadensis ^19

Arbor-vitae j,^

Ash, black, ^^£2

Ash, hoop J22

Ash, mountain j^g

Ash, white, ^oi

Aspen, J2Q

B.

Basswood ---

Fasswood, white j.-

Bay, rose ^go

Bay, sweet ^^^

Bean tree -^o

Beaver tree, ^^^

Beech

^^" 130

Beech, water, .„

l^o

i^etula J27

^''^''^ :!:!;!;;":;;;;; m

Eirches ^^7

Black willow, as a protector of river banks 135

(151)

152

Page.

Boln d' Arc, j^24

Bow wood, J24

Box elder, ^.g

Boxwood -^g

Buckeye, fetid, ^^3

Buckeye, Ohio, ^^3

Buckeye, sweet ^^^

Buttonwood, -05

C.

Calico-bush, .„

Carpinus Caroliniana .gg

Carya alba, ....!....!.......! 126

Carya porcina ^26

Carya tomentosa, ^26

Castanea dentata, -29

Castanea sativa,

Catalpa ../............... lo^

Catalpa bignonioides ""

Catalpa Catalpa, ...!...'

Catalpa speciosa

Catalpa, Western,

Cattle, grazing of, on Reservations, .q

Cedar

Cedar, red.

' -t qC

Celtis occidentalis

' • 124

Cercis Canadensis

Cherry, fire ^^^

' 110

Cherry, wild .. xio

' 117

Cherry, wild black,

' 117

Chestnut ... xii

129

Chestnut meal, manufacture of

Cigar tree

Coffee nut ^^^

117

Coffee tree. Kentucky

Commissioner of Forestry, report of

Contents ' ^^

Cornus florida ^

Cottonwood, ^^^

Crab-apple, American, ^^^

Crataegus Crus-galli ' ^^^

Cucumber tree ^^^

10»

D.

Department of Forestry, act creating,

DIospyros Virginiana, [/^[]

Dogwood

Dogwood, flowering,

Dunham. Edw. M.. opinion of. on act of March HO. 1897

• ••••••»

• •••••.

• • • • • •

• ••••«.

18

121

119

J19

30

153

Page.
Elk wood, ^iQ

Elm, American, ^23

Elm, moose, ^23

Elm, red, ^23

Elm, slippery, ^23

Eim, water ^23

Elm, white, ^23

F.

Fagus Americana, jgQ

Fagus f erruginea, -^^q

Fir, Balm of Gilead, 13^

Fir, Balsam, ^3.

Poorest culture, act encouraging ^j

Forest fire detectives, act regulating 35

Forest fires, losses from in 1900 145

Forest fires, losses from in 1901 ^43

Forest fire problem gi

Forest fire warden act, opinion of Judge Edw. M. Dunham, of Wyoming

county, on constitutionality of 3Q

Forest nursery .-„

Forest preservation, act to encourage, gj

Forest trees, propagation of ^^g

Forest valuation

P'raxinus Americana, jgi

Fraxinus nigra,

Fraxinus sambucifolia ^22

Fungi injurious to forests, -^

Fungi of broad-leaved trees «-

Fungi of narrow-leaved trees. ...

70

G.

CJkditschia triacanthos,

* 117

Gum, black or sour

Cum, sour,

^, ' 120

Gum, sweet,

r, , ' 119

Gymnocladus Canadensis

' • 117

Gymnocladus dioica

117

H.

Hackberry

•' ' 124

Hackmatack

,, , , 134

l-'emlock

133

liemlock, spruce.

' "^i * "'-c -„„

Hickory

•^ 1 OR

ickory, broom

riiikory, shag-bark

Prirkory. switoh-hud.

126

154

Hickory, white-heart,

Hicoria alba,

Hicoria glabra,

Hicoria ovata

Holly, American,

Hep-hornbeam ,

Horn-beam,

I.

Ilex opaca,

Illustrations,

Indiana Forestry Association, law suggested by,

Indian bean,

Insects, visitation of

Invalids' Camp, Mont Alto Reservation,

Iron wood, ,

J.

Judas tree,

Juglans nigra,

June berry

Juniperus Virginiana,

Kalmia latifolia,
King nut,

l^ands already acquired or in process of acquisition,
Inarch,

L.arix Americana

Larix laricina ,

Laurel,

Laurel , great ,

Laurel, mountain

I-.etter of transmittal

Lime tree

Linden, American,

Linn,

Liquidambar Styraciflua

Liriodendron Tulipifera,

Locust, black,

Ijocust, honey

Locust tree

Locust, yellow,

Lumbering, forestry begins with,

Page.
126
126
126
126
112
127
128

112
7

139

122
46
66

127

116
125
119
135

120

126

18
134
134
134
120
120
120
9
111
111
111
119
110
116
117
116
116

19

I

155

M.

Page.

Madura aurantiaca, .„.

- _ , . 124

Magnolia acuminata,

Magnolia glauca,

Magnolia, mountain,

, - , . , . i09

Magnolia tripetala,

Magnolia Umbrella,

Magnolia Virginiana,

Malus coronaria,

Maple, ash-leaved,

Maple, black sugar

Maple, red,

124

Maple, silver,

• 114

Maple, striped,

-,, , 114

Maple, sugar

Maple, swamp,

Maple, white or soft

Mocker nut,

' 1 og

Mont Alto Estate,

Mont Alto Park, '^

,^ , ' 45,60

Morus rubra,

124

Mulborry, rod

124

N.

Negundo aceroides,

••••••.. •..,..,.. 115

Nyssa sylvatica

120

O.

Oaks

Official list, r. !.*....!.! • ^^^

Osage orange.

•. 124

Ostrya Virginica

127

Outing grounds, forest reserves as ' „»

43

P.

Pepperidge,

Persimmon

121

Picea mariana

Picea nigra .........*! ^^^

Picea rubra, '' * ' ^^^

Pig nut, ^'... ^^^

Pine, Jack ^^^

Pine, pitch '^''^'^! *!'!*! '''!!!! ^^^

Pine, spruce ^^^

3 'ine, white ...'...... ^^^

Pine, yellow ^^^

Pinus echinata ^^^

Pinus mitis ^^^

IMnua rigida, ^^^

132

156

Page.

Pinus Strobus, •. ^^^

Platanus occidentalis 125

Poplar, Carolina ^^^

Poplar, Tulip, • ^^^

Poplar, yellow, ^^^

Populus deltoides, ^^^

Populus monilifera, ; 1^1

Populus tremuloides 130

Protection of State lands, 25

Prunus Pennsylvanica 118

Prunus serotina 117

Pyrus Americana 118

Pyrus coronaria, 118

Q.

Quaking asp, 130

Quefcus, • 128

R.

Red bud 116

Reservations , description of, 22

Rhododendron, 120

Rhododendron maximum, 120

Rhus hirta 115

Rhus typhina 115

Roadside trees, act to encourage planting of 63

Robinia Pseudacacia, 116

S.

Salix, 130

Salix nigra , 136

Snnatoriums on forest reserves 41

Sassafras , 123

Sassafras officinale, 123

Sassafras Sassafras 123

Siissafras, swamp, 110

Savin 135

Seed of forest trees, manner of planting, 105

Service berry, 119

Shad bush, 119

Shade trees, act authorizing borough councils to require the planting of, 55

Shell-bark, 126

Sorbus Americanus, 118

Spruce, black 133

Spruce, red 133

Sugar berry 124

Sumach, staghorn 115

Survey of reservations 18

Sycamore 125

i

I

1 » /~

T.

Page.

Tamarack 134

Taxation of forest lands, 25

Thorn, cockspur 119

Thuya occidentalis, 134

Tilia Americana, Ill

Tilia heterophylla, 112

Timber cut in Pennsylvania in 1900, 142

Timber cut in Pennsylvania in 1901, ,. 144

Timber lands, act for better protection of, against fire, 52

Toxylon pomiferum 124

Transplanting trees from nursery, 107

Trees, act encouraging planting of, along roadsides, 53

Trespassers on State reservations, 25

Tsuga Canadensis, 133

Tulip tree, 110

Tupelo 120

U.

Ulnus Americana, 123

Ulnus fulva 123

Umbrella tree no

W.

Walking Stick, visitation of, 46

Walnut, black, 125

Water supply, relation of forest reserves to, 43

White pine tree trunk, severed, but growing, 138

Willow, black, 135

Willows 130

mmm\

^

(158)

END OF YEAR