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Reo Dri PMENT OF AGRICUIE PUKE:
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 12.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

STOCK TAMGES OF NORTH ESTERS CALIFORNIA:

NOTES ON THE GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS
AND RANGE CONDITIONS.

BY

JOSEPH BURTT DAVY,

Assistant Botanist, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California.

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE AGROSTOLOGIST,

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1902.

EET TER OFS TRANSMITTAL.

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, |
Washington, D. C., November 23, 1901.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled Stock
Ranges of Northwestern California: Notes on the Grasses and Forage
Plants and Range Conditions, and respectfully recommend that it be
published as Bulletin No. 12 of the Bureau series. The paper was
prepared by Mr. Joseph Burtt Davy, assistant botanist of the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, University of California, and was sub-
mitted by the agrostologist.
Respectfully, B. T. GALLOWAY,
: Chief of Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.

el)

Rkeob ek Ol:

This report entitled Stock Ranges of Northwestern California:
Notes on the Grasses and Forage Plants and Range Conditions, was
prepared under my direction by Mr. Joseph Burtt Davy, assistant
botanist of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of
California. Mr. Davy, under commission from the United States
Department of Agriculture, through this Office, dated March 24, 1900,
made a very thorough investigation of the grasses and forage plants
of northwestern California, a region whose forage resources have not
heretofore been carefully studied. The report contains a compre-
hensive account of the whole region, its physiographic and climatic
conditions, and all the features bearing upon the forage problem.
The information it contains will be of use to ranchmen and dairymen
and all those interested in the stock industry, and will be found of
special value to those living within the region which it covers. In
addition to the presentation of this report, Mr. Davy collected a large
and valuable series of specimens of the native grasses and other plants
which supply more or less grazing, and a set of these specimens has
been added to the collections of the Office.

Mr. Davy wishes to express here his sincere thanks to Dr. Walter
C. Blasdale for invaluable assistance rendered in the collection and
preparation of specimens, for taking and preparing the photographs
which ilustrate this report, and for help in many other ways. With-
out this assistance the investigation could not have been successfully

accomplished.
F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER,
Agrostologist.
OFFICE OF THE AGROSTOLOGIST,
Washington, D. C., November 25, 1901.

CONG r i NS.

Ver OCC ENO Terapia eae een a etn NINN apie data nat SSL ia Ne Alan A) 8 igs MORN Me
Physicalehieatures: ofatherhesvompys is tigi ey hey Ws We ees te een
Nomi eilijuaaly Sula diay STO TIS cin ae hile ess ae a0 ed aide esi oat ued Wee

Moy oxoven 2) O18 tree Lt et a. acu hele: oyna Ae eae ei wakere eRe ee Pg le

Chinra FOO oy en yeaa ee see OLS aaa he AGE eT Maes a
MOTTA TA UU seat pa apnea eh a (Doe Wes UE Sa er OE le

IPGECM Mbt Oe eels Ogre cual oe Va et sty Se Satan Mere ean ha RO

Prevailing Winds_-__-_-__-- ROare Sys ms eee WS Terai eniNris Gage Od eed SEs

I EUesTa NCSU ERE ge nS Se a aN 1S pa ee eC a cn gy omy ge
amor @ Om Gil OMS Maren Slee rie MMA eT ile Lee ee Saga is Vsti a i
Mheslnterlorsela te aw Eve cio mi a0 eo ede Oe Sone Neg ee

JW Toy ora ata aly NY AG2 Haft halt sk ae ee co a ee Ip ee
Memperature ee a ee A eS Ey AOL A ails MEL Ab a ie eg

\YAYEH RMS) EN 0 yyy gaa aca LPS) ee ge apa et Se

SS OTIS ye iam ta eel cesta aoe cape une Td BNE AMAT EON cae Nat ee

NOT Clr eT OCU TS acne! meus ie LL soe wien pale ic iA ye wR A
hiemWaldeMeadowsianduPastures: 2? Stim eee a soi

Forage Value of the: Wald: Meadows 22222222 225 o6. the
improvement of Pasture and Meadow: 227-22 ):050022 002):

Forage Plants Recommended for Trial 6 6

mnie RWinolamed tame sean seek. knee Were 2" ae Ue eee te ds 8 a

- Temperature

ETC CIPO ENERO Gene ap rete re paee af CU SSF ih ea GMI bE Mecel A me

WU aW EWR EASTON 0) OY Rifas S65 120 DS shee tgp en boy ores gece pute, OE San

Soil ssc ose ate a Tee ts oe la 5 rei! NY ae Re eae AS NE Ld ety af

ENCED ACEO US PE aris ea) ie Sp is OV i eS ee a eh ea
D ENCORE ERS) acl ela of Roto dh ay ats ee i) Ce oa Py each eM men eee Ne len
Improvement of the Woodland Forage.___.--.-....5.2_..-.-.
HorageyPlantsiRecommended tor inal i eee
fey © ner fo cutstean lees eene ION A oe yBennene, Waianae pare oe MR UN ag We MINN eh aU oa ee
Stoel ema Oise ee ce re Meet oer tine Reuyihic abe pean rN ANG ur cp) sie SI
System of Range Rotation and Management_________________ Bees is
CAsgyaln oan © Aa City sues = ater toes enon peu aegl awunyer memes Se ee iam os ly eye
IPresentm Capaciin yest ee manne Mek ileo hye Kae Loe Tl
iHonmerns Ca pachtiypaessmee cp emp ium en ciety Mel BOUT One cA ho 7

8 CONTENTS.

Range Conditions—Continued.
The Interior Plateau Region—Continued.
Ranse Deterioration = 6s ase eee Begs ada fas ei tN
Primary Cause

BUnCHASTASSES) BE cea 1 ys Sh peat is ne ote se eee aoe
Sheep. sss Cate le eee a arr Ie See Fae
ee! zoe Soy Biota tate MCN DEC oe ay © SOBs, nee Ae ok Sir RE ter ge ee ee

Masuiun US. Opens Sfeceng Bla EEE: SS ecto 2 enh chet Seis

Range Renewal so 222 se ose 6 oe ise a ev eR a ie eee
Range Improvement ________- ie ae rp oe ay ees A
The Coast-bluit=Belt tesa 2S ie Se Ae eg eee es
Chima tology: 2 2 Ga ene Se Rak Sa et ean ee
Phe Meésashamds tics e252 5 ee ie city ree ee

Grassesiand Other Morager Plants se see oe ee eee
The White-ash:-Prairiese Vow sens ee 5 wees, eee gee ee

HMorage. Crops 22222 5.2 Rs Ss Se eine | eee

Tian: Vales ek ae sc ir

ere H ANG Al OAD 9} c1s (Mii eae te Miata Meier ie sre gua a orien mB gays st tee Oe
Native Sand Binders® oie" 5 ee ee ee

Methods of preventing drifting and reclamation of waste dunes_
Beach Grass 22s Re a eee ey he ee

wea yime! Grass. Gk ee eee ae ee ae Re ee eee
Witthzationzo& Sands Dunes s 3s a sea ee eee eee eee eee fete
The Redwood Beli :) 72 eee Pee ea ea oie a ene pene oe ee enn ee
MORGAET CROPS Oe soe a ea ea ee ne nae ent fe SLE SERS (GRRE arg ey a a
Fodder Crops Now Cultivated Sg in os a nie rs eee RE 3 ED) ee
Plants Recommended for Cultivation or Trial “22 See ee
(PoIsonous Plants: = 2s 5 Wesker eA ee eg
HTN OUS PPATASIGES 2 ie ST ate ey gen ee ee
Phy tographie sNOtes 220 se ais Sy A a ok a Ee Sees
RLU 100 00021 9h (GaeeiiaSRee ier Se SMa eg ect aes aterm MR OR RNS i eet lee Sk a
i b1\0 (=). Come ag Rees ene eee Cer Oe pes oe MR ee ee A es

Plate I.

ID

iu

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ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Fig. 1. Hupa Valley, from the mountains, looking south. Fig. 2.
Summit of the plateau above Harris, looking west, showing the
upland ranges, the most important pastoral area in the region ____
Fig. 1. A mountain meadow, Sherwood Valley. Fig..2. The bor-
CUSIP OME AA AVS Iea aa ELEY 6 ON SR eS VR Ne i ah yc 0 ele
Fig. 1. The open range: Summit of the plateau above Harris, look-
ing east. Fig. 2. The chapparal. Walker Mountain, showing the
steep. rocky, sparsely clothed slopes, too barren even for pasture _-
Fig. 1. ‘‘ Prairie’’ pastures at low elevation, showing the timbered

~ character of the country. Oaks and buckeye along the Russian

VII.

WADE E

River. Fig. 2. ‘‘ Prairie’’ pastures below the woodlands, Sher-
VCO VO EBAY. INS) ies i PT Be Se at Ft il Za te ea Male cca

. Fig. 1. Russian River, showing the effect of flooding, due to heavy

rainfall on the untimbered uplands. Fig. 2. A perennial stream,
Hupa Valley, protected from washing and evaporation by trees
SUING LOTUS TN cee es Ree OAD oe Se ina i a TRU ae ole EG

. Fig. 1. A lagoon at Crescent City, caused by drifting sand. which

has flooded a large area of pasture land. Fig. 2. Yellow-sand ver-
bena (Abronia latifolia), of some use as a sand binder___________-
Fig. 1. Beach grass at Point Reyes, Cal. Fig. 2. Planting beach

STASS Alin Cappene OC Wass iaes a eae ones ec een ee Ee A ae

Fig. 1. View in grass garden, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Berkeley; Albardin at the right. Fig. 2. Sand-dune reclamation
at Cape Cod, Mass., showing protective covering formed of beach
orass(Aunmopiiiananenaria (Aa) imik)). see ee a

MAPS.

Maple ia prot: Calitormiam sees 5 cee el epU ie ANCA ie eae eee cer ay ees ae
II. Topographical map of northern and middle California____________-
III. Map of northwestern California, showing routes traversed ___.___-

Fig.

TEXT FIGURES.

Page.

50

B. P. I.—14. Agros.—93.

STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA: NOTES ON THE
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS AND RANGE CONDITIONS.

INTRODUCTION.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE REGION.

Northwestern California as here defined includes the counties of
Lake, Mendocino, Humboldt, Trinity, Del Norte, and the portion of
Siskiyou lying west of the California and Oregon Railroad. It is
approximately bounded by lines drawn at 39° and 42° north latitude,
and 122° 30’ and 124° 30’ longitude west of Greenwich. (See Map I.)

It is a fairly well-defined topographical area, bounded on the east
by the inner Coast Range Mountains and on the west by the Pacific
Ocean. It covers the whole of the drainage basins of the Eel, Mad,
Trinity, Lower Klamath, and Smith rivers and the smaller streams
along the coast north of the Gualala River. On the south it extends
beyond this naturally delimited area to include Lake County and the
southern boundary of Mendocino County, thereby taking in the drain-
age basin of Clear Lake and the headwaters of Russian River.

AGRICULTURAL SUBDIVISIONS.

This region is divisible into seven agricultural areas, which are
more or less clearly marked topographically, climatically, and phyto-
logically. They are:

1. The Interior Plateau Belt, dissected into long ridges separated by
deep canyons, some of them running in a more or less northwesterly
direction, other and shorter ones almost due west. This belt is
bounded on the west by the redwood forest and on the east by the
Mayacama, Yallo Bolley, and South Fork mountains. Lying at a
higher altitude, 2,000 to 4,000 feet, it enjoys a warmer summer tem-
perature and less moisture than the Coast Bluff belt; also its soil is
heavier, containing more clay and less sand. With the exception
of a few mountain valleys included within its limits this is almost
exclusively a pastoral area.

2. The Coast Bluff Belt, a narrow stretch of agricultural and pastoral
land varying from 1 to 3 miles in width, and occupying a mesa or

1]

12 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

bench between the shore line and the summit of the first mountain
ridge, which is about 1,600 feet high. This ridge marks the western
edge of the redwood belt. For the most part this belt is elevated some
50 or more feet above the sea, but at Humboldt Bay and Crescent City
it has been eroded almost to sea level, there forming a large and very
fertile flood plain. It is subject to heavy summer fogs, enjoys a more
equable summer climate and a greater amount of moisture than is
found in the interior, and is relatively cool. The soil is considered
poor except at a few points; it is light, being abundantly charged
with drift sand.

3. The Redwood Belt, lying between and parallel with the coast
bluff belt and the interior plateau, and consisting of rough ridges,
separated by narrow V-shaped canyons. It is covered by a more or
less dense growth of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and is a cli-
matie and phytological rather than a geographical area, embracing
and being limited to the redwood forest. It runs almost the whole
length of the coast of northwestern California, apparently being inter-
rupted in only one or two places, and lies for the most part away from
the coast line, sheltered from cool and violent winds behind a ridge
which runs nearly parallel with the shore. Seattered redwood trees
are but rarely found outside of this belt, which comprises the forest
proper. The heavy summer sea fogs, drifting high overhead across
the narrow bench of bluff land, are intercepted in their course by the
trees on the summits of the ridges, or, when they le low, roll along
the broad river vallevs and more numerous narrow Ganyons opening
into the redwood forest, saturating the tree tops, and by their means
also the soil below, with abundant moisture. The actual conditions
which delimit this redwood belt are not at present clearly understood,
but climate appears to have been, above any other evident physical
cause, a potent factor in the development of the forest. The soil con-
ditions appear to be generally comparable to those of the plateau can-
yons, except for the additional amount of humus due to the presence
of the trees.

4. The headwaters of the Russian River, forming a connecting link
between the distinct topographical region of northwestern and that of
western middle California, otherwise called the San Francisco Bay
region, to the latter of which it strictly belongs. It is included in this
report because it lies within Mendocino County and because it was the
starting point of the expedition.

5. The drainage basin of Clear Lake, for the most part a stony
and mountainous region, walled in on all sides, and with little levet
land. Its resources are mainly pastoral, though the lake is fringed
by some rich farming and fruit land.

6. Trinity County, an isolated mining region, almost walled in by
high mountains, and including the headwaters of Trinity River.
Searecely anything is known of the botany of this very distinct topo-

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI.

. FIG. 1.—HUPA VALLEY FROM THE MOUNTAINS, LOOKING SOUTH.

FiG. 2.—SUMMIT OF THE PLATEAU ABOVE HARRIS, LOOKING WEST, SHOWING THE UPLAND RANGES,
THE MOST IMPORTANT PASTORAL AREA IN THE REGION.

f
Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MAP |.

Or

CAILMFOIRNIA
SHOWING
TO POGRAPHICAL REGIONS.
DOTTED PORTION SHOWS THREE

COUNTIES IN NORTHWESTERN REGION
COVERED BY INVESTIGATION .

123° j 120° TSARE 116° Stevenson Del.

ro

4
7
%
‘

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE REGION. PS:
graphical area, but the collections of Chestnut and Drew* indicate
that it may be phytologieally distinct from the section west of the
South Fork Mountains. <A collection of plants, including several
grasses, has been made by Miss Eastwood during the summer of 1901.

7. The Siskiyou, Scott, and Salmon mountains. Collections of
grasses from this region were made by Mr. T. H. Gilbert in the sum-
mer of 1899 and Mr. H. P. Chandler in the summer of 1901, but have
not yet been completely worked up.

Only the first four of these subdivisions are discussed in the present
report. On account of the brevity of the flowering season of grasses
in California, of the extent of the region included within the above-
described boundaries, and of its general inaccessibility and the cost
of travel in a mountainous and thinly populated country, it was found
impossible to visit all of the subdivisions of the region. Those por-
tions most prominently devoted to dairying and cattle raising were
therefore selected for investigation. They include a large portion of
Mendocino and Humboldt counties and the narrow strip of coast line
in Del Norte County.

These three are the most northerly coast counties of California, and
together cover an area of about 8,515 square miles. On the accom-
panying map (1) their position is indicated by the dotted portion,
the heavy lines nearest to it on the east and south marking the
inland boundaries of the whole region of northwestern California.

TOPOGRAPHY.

In a paper on the ‘‘ Geomorphogeny of the coast of northern Cali-
fornia,” Prof. A. C. Lawson says of the topography of Sonoma, Mendo-
eino, and Humboldt counties:

The coast ranges of northern California comprise, besides the mountains proper,
which, except for isolated peaks, are distant from the ocean, a broad coastal tract
which may be said to be devoid of true mountain topography. This tract is
clearly a dissected plateau, and impresses itself as such upon the observer very
forcibly when viewed from any point not lower than its general level. (See
Plate I.) The plateau is now represented only by long, roughly level-topped
ridges, which are separated from one another by long, narrow valleys. At the
heads of the streams which drain the valleys the ridges are frequently confluent.
The ridges have a remarkable constancy of general altitude. The observer
stationed on one which is slightly more commanding than the rest beholds a vast
expanse of country, with no prominent profile against the sky throughout the
tract in Sonoma and Mendocino counties. Ridge succeeds ridge in seemingly
endless sequence, and toan observer overlooking the foreground the general effect
of the ridges falling away in perspective is that of a plain. So situated he can
easily Imagine the intervening valleys filled flush with the crests. The plain so
restored would be neither level nor even. It would be a sloping plateau of low
relief. Along the front of this plateau, where it overlooks the ocean, its general

“Drew, Elmer R. Notes on the Botany of Humboldt County, Cal.: Bul. Torr.
Bot. Club, XVI, 147-152. 1889.

»Lawson, Prof. A. C.; Geomorphogeny of the coast of northern California: Uni-
versity of California, Dept. of Geology, Bul—241-272, Nov. 1894.

14 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

altitude is about 1,600 feet. Back from the coast, where it passes into the higher
and more mountainous tract of central and eastern Mendocino County. it has an
elevation of about 2.100 feet. On entering Humboldt County several sharp peaks
rise abruptly above the general level of the dissected plateau to altitudes of from
3.000 feet to 4.000 feet. but remnants of plateau clearly encircle these and give
their middle slopes a distinctly terraced aspect.

It is evident that northward of the fortieth parallel of latitude the forces which
effected the evolution of the original plain have made but little headway as com-
pared with the coastal region to the south of the same line, or they had been inter-
rupted in their work by orogenic disturbances. The plain in Humboldt County
represents no broad expanse, as in Mendocino and Sonoma counties. but may be
followed in between an open cluster of mountain peaks and ridges. The present
reconnaissance establishes the fact of its extension as far as the Bear River ridge.
It doubtless extends up the coast, however . far beyond the limit set to (my)
exploration.

That this great dissected plateau represents an ancient peneplain which has
been uplifted from a nearly base-leveled condition to its present altitude seems
beyond question. The rocks of which it is composed are of various ages, of vari- _
ous degrees of hardness. and have been throughout the region so disturbed that
their original horizontal condition is practically nowhere to be found. The sur-
face of the ancient peneplain consists of the beveled edges of the upturned strata.
On the summit of one of the characteristic ridges of the plateau between Usal
and Kenny pumerous waterworn pebbles were found at an elevation of about
1.600 feetwhich can only be interpreted as remnants of the stream gravels of
the ancient peneplain.

CLIMATOLOGY.

The following data are compiled from the annual summaries of the
Weather Bureau :*

The only stations within the region from which we have any clima-
tological data are:

In Mendocino County; Point Arena and Fort Bragg on the coast,
Ukiah and Cahto in the interior.

In Humboldt County; Upper Mattole, Cape Mendocino, Humboldt
Light and Eureka on the coast, Hydesville in the Interior.

In Del Norte County; Cresent City on the coast.

From the interior plateau belt, proper, we have no data.

Temperature.—The mean annual temperature for the three years
1897-1899, as recorded in the annual summaries of the Weather
Bureau, was 50 degrees F. The highest in 1899 was 108 degrees in
the interior at Ukiah, on July 2 and other days, and 83 degrees on
the coast at Crescent City on September 15. The lowest was 20
degrees at Ukiah on February 5, and 25 degrees at Crescent City on
February 4.

The last killing frosts in spring were: February 5, at Ukiah; Feb-
ruary 7, at Eureka; May 9, at Cahto; and June 19 at Crescent City.
The first killing frosts in autumn occurred on October 14, at Crescent
City; October 25, at Cahto; December 13 at Eureka and Ukiah.

*U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Weather Bureau, California Section of the Climate
and Crop Service. Annual Summaries for 1897, 1898, and 1899. San Francisco.

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

POLszEWSK/. 1902.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF NORTHERN AND MIDDLE CALIFORNIA.

Map Il.

ITINERARY OF THE REGION. 15

The average dates of killing frosts are as follows: Last in spring,
March 29 at Eureka, April 14 at Ukiah, and May 10 at Crescent City;
first in autumn, November 1 at Ukiah, November 7 at Crescent City,
and November 29 at Eureka.

Precipitation.—The total annual rainfall is invariably heavier in this
portion of the State than in any other. Even in the drought years of
1897 and 1898 the annual rainfall exceeded 50 inches at Crescent City
and 40 inches over almost the whole of Humboldt County. In 1899
the maximum was 86.55 inches at Crescent City. The following table,
based upon the Government reports, shows the precipitation that may
be expected each month:

Normal monthly precipitation.

| | ||

Month. | Ukiah. | Eureka. t Month. Ukiah. | Eureka.

JANUaliy: Me aes hiss | 7.82 (EAS ACI USt ey cseeors eet a en be 0.01 | 0.16
IN@I OPERA Se jae sae ees 5. 28 ON4 ial SSSp Lemp e r mises aha Leese . 60 | 1.25
DY Keatn oh ots esa en AALS eS eee 4.93 CLONE OCtODery Eelam So ene ee 1.48 | 2.61
ING OPE ee ae CEN A SY ano | 3.2 AV 28) Niomemiber ae) aie eeunave! b 3.61 | 5. 33
FEIN kis Neder iepd Seeee ne . 92 pop ADIXR ey 00 oe) Pee ae eae nae 6. 84 | 7. 66
UNC ae ea Re eee eee | 22 1. 23 |) ———
eit iy ae ete Meter a cen a sic | 05 10 PaXj ab O12 EEN SA cs ae 34. 97 46.13

The snowfall on the coast is usually small, 1.5 inches being reported
for Upper Mattole and only a trace at Crescent City in 1898, 4 inches
at the latter place in 1899, and none at Eureka. In 1898 Ukiah had
») Inches of snow, but in 1899 none. However, snow is reported to fall
almost every winter on the upland ranges near Ukiah and on the
plateau.

Prevailing winds.—During these three years the prevailing winds
over the whole region are reported as from the northwest.

s

ITINERARY.

The forage conditions of this region were made the subject of an
investigation by the writer, with the assistance of Mr. Walter C.
Blasdale, in the summers of 1899 and 1900.

Three trips were made, of which the routes traversed are shown on
Map III. The first trip occupied from May 23 to July 3, 1899, and
embraced the interior plateau section. The stage road was followed
from Ukiah to Eureka, a distance of about 183 miles, passing through
Willits, Sherwood, Laytonville, Cummings, Harris, and Scotia. From
Eureka the two mountain ridges were crossed to Hupa Valley, on the
Trinity River, about 50 miles distant. From Hupa a side trip was
taken to the summit of the Trinity Mountains at Trinity Summit,
about 7,000 feet altitude. From Hupa Valley the descent of the
Klamath River from Martins Ferry to Requa on the coast, a distance
of 55 miles, was made by Indian canoe. From Requa the stage road
was followed to Crescent City and Smith River, the return trip to San
Francisco being made by steamer.

16 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

The second trip was taken alone and occupied from July 15 to
August 10, 1899. The route followed the coast-bluff belt from the
Gualala River to Kenny’s, thence inland to Briceland and Garber-
ville, and down the Eel River Valley to Ferndale. From Ferndale a
trip was taken to Cape Mendocino. The return to San Francisco was
again made by steamer, this time from Eureka.

A third and supplementary trip was made in the summer of 1900,
this time also alone, the route crossing the redwood belt twice, the
first time between Willits and Fort Bragg, the second from De Haven
Creek to Branscombs. Two days were also spent in Lake County, the
road from Ukiah to Upper Lake, by way of Blue Lakes, being taken,
returning by way of Lakeport and Highland Springs to Hopland..

RANGE CONDITIONS.
THE INTERIOR PLATEAU REGION. e

MOUNTAIN VALLEYS.

Numerous mountain valleys (PI. I, fig. 1) occur in Mendocino County,
on either side of Walker Mountain, the watershed which separates
the Russian River and Eel River drainage basins. South of the
divide lie Ukiah, Walker, Potter, and several other small valleys
whose streams run southward into the Russian River. North of the
divide are Little Lake, Sherwood, Round and Long valleys, on the
headwaters of Eel River. Hupa Valley is on the Trinity River,
in Humboldt County. Some of these valleys lie, like glacial basins,
at the headwaters of their streams; others occur a few miles lower
down, at slightly lower altitudes, and are connected with the first by
narrow canyons. On account of the narrowness of their outlets, some
of these valleys are not infrequently flooded at the time of the winter
rains. The highest have an altitude of about 2,300 feet above sea
level. |

Temperature.—Although intensely hot days occur at times, the
climate is usually cool and humid, except, perhaps, in Hupa and
Round valleys, on account of heavy summer fogs which creep up
from the ocean and hang in the surrounding tree tops. Long,
unbroken hot spells are almost unknown. The nights are cool. In
Sherwood Valley it is said that frosts occur every month in the year.
Unfortunately we have only the most meager meteorological data from
this section of the region, but observation shows that the rainy season
continues later into the summer than it does in the vicinity of San
Francisco, and that the rainfall is probably much heavier in the for-
mer than in the latter region. A little snow falls each winter.

Water supply.—Perennial springs are abundant, flowing freely from
all the higher wooded ridges. Every meadow has its own creek, which
in most cases has cut a channel to a depth of from 3 to 6 feet through
the soft alluvial soil. (See Pl. II.)

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture.

} TINS P e 3
/ SURI VO &

CRESCENT CITY

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THE INTERIOR PLATEAU REGION. 17

Soils.—In Little Lake Valley and Sherwood Valley the soil appears
to have been formed by delta deposition in the bed of small mountain
lakes; it consists of a moist, sandy loam, which is deep, exceedingly
fertile, and apparently well adapted to general farming.

The following report of analyses of soils from localities about 2
miles northeast of Willits (probably in Little Lake Valley) were made
in 1891 by Dr. R. H. Loughridge, of the Agricultural Experiment
Station at Berkeley.“ The samples were received through Mr. 8. F.
Swortfiguer, of San Francisco, who says:

A large part of the land from which the samples were taken lies about 22 miles
inland from the ocean, and is well sheltered on the west from the coast winds by
intervening ridges covered with a heavy growth of redwood timber, and from
cold winds from the north by a heavy growth of pine [probably Pinus sabiniana
or P. ponderosa] and fir [Psewdotsuga taxifolia]. The elevation is about 2,000
feet above sea level.

The samples were taken to a depth of 22 inches.

Analyses of soils near Willits, Cal.

No. 1461.
No. 1459. | No. 1460. | Soil ele-
| Valley | Hill soil} vation
Constituents. soil (Ham- 2,000
| (Home mond feet
| ranch). | ranch). | (Young
ranch),
CO AUTESS TNT A Ee Tea Sipe (yr a a ee re a eT 50. 00 50. 00 50. 00
TDS SEEN es a Lea fe SUR aaa a 50. 00 50. 00 50. 00
|
ANALYSIS OF FINE EARTH
DEANS COM Bi) ay ey ava wh ee pe oA es NS a age a 5). 55 59.50 69. 20
FSKOD TDI oy Sy SUI RS WO 2S NS A ON Sc ad AY a ie 138.56 9.33 5.57
AO GaSe CK O)) ire ei eater ail ase eg ae de Ma cee SO aoe ene saa Seth alee 16 .61 1.14
SS OGLE BUNTON) a a ee I aU ig ao Ae TE en em eT ne 04 . 05 . 09
Eta OWEN REO) es aa a ee AR Se . 29 30 -38
IVa omesiale Mic @)) pavers teams ower es eae RU ne dpe eh cae yale Lam coisa Seb 1.08 | 1.02 1.61
HAiUeia aN eceeys KC): CO- ICG UG Thal ©) ee al TM re a 06 04 . 05
TENSH AED OE COD: (ENS 5 OY) a so RS ST ee ea ree eI 8.80 12.77 5. 53
eAs aration ae CAC ©) rates Wetluetcse pry so naimiemen ten oan eee Ciace tony SiON nd a, Ss IS Sele se 11.95 6.97 9.74
JE AYO YSY 0) VOTES C2 Cr | (CLIK OY) ice tee A a a eee ee . 04 . 06 . 06
Sloat CRACTAR(S O's) parses ee Rene I ee eat Ae ee . 04 08 04
Wateran donc ml Gemma biel sce so airs se ch neen Seis od TMi eo) a bea yee 7.45 9.25 6.30
MA DO REE A I Gs SEEN eC Uh ee ena tc On Re en) LA 99, 57 99. 93 99.71
Hygroscopic moisture (absorbed at 15° C.) -______.___.._-.-.-.----.-.- Deel 5. 89 4.47 |

These soils, while of excellent quality as a whole, are rather poor in lime, as
compared with others of the State, though not deficient. They share with other
California soils a large proportion of potash and a rather low one of phosphoric
acid. The latter is doubtless the first deficiency that will make itself felt, unless
it be that of humus, which (as the soil was taken to 22 inches depth, instead of 6
or 8) could not be determined in the samples.

As regards field crops, roots and not grain will hold out longest on these soils.
They all contain so much gravel that cultivation will not be difficult, and roots,
with fair tillage, will find no difficulty in developing. Their moisture absorption
is satisfactory.

“University of California Agricultural Experiment Station: Report for 1891-92,
pp. 31-32; report of analyses of soils from near Willits, Mendocino County.

SG IN©, 1

18 STOCK. RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

As to fruits, grapes, apples, and pears would seem the best suited to the soils;
stone fruits will doubtless do well also, but with heavy crops will ‘soon require
fertilization with phosphates. The hill soil would seem especially adapted to
peaches and high-class wines and almonds if the climate permits. Apricots should
do well, especially on the Young ranch, and on the valley land if not liable to late
frosting.

Judging by the large size reached by the Madrone (Arbutus Menziesii) and
other forest trees on these soils, a similar development and longevity may be
looked for in the trees adapted to-the soil, where its depth is correspondingly great.
With this proviso the English walnut in the valleys, the Italian or Japanese chest-
nut on the hills, would be likely to do well.

Round Valley, the largest of the valleys, has an elevation of about
1,600 feet; it is said to be about 7 miles in afaineien in any direction,
and to contain a soil which is a rich loam, somewhat gravelly on the
west side, and somewhat adobe-like on the east. It is said to be very
fertile and to produce excellent crops of wheat, which, however, can
at present be grown only for local consumption, on account of the
inaccessibility of a good market. The valley contains about 25,000
acres of agricultural land. The rainfall varies from 38 to 60 inches
per annum and the mean annual temperature is 60° F. “‘ In 1898 the
valley exported 8,060 hogs, 5,000 beef cattle, 100 mules, and 2,500 mut-
ton sheep; it niko produces large quantities of hay and an average of
150,000 bushels of grain per annum.” *

Little Lake Valley is principally employed in grain raising, pr odue-
ing about 60,000 bushels annually. The average yield is said to be
20 bushels of wheat, 35 of barley, and 40 of oats.

The soil of Hupa Valley (PI. I), an Indian reservation on the
Trinity River, is very gravelly, dry, and poor. Unlike Little Lake,
Sherwood, and Long valleys, Hupa is situated many miles from the
headwaters of its main stream, and the soil is evidently more nearly
that of a river gravel bar than of an alluvian mountain valley. It is
poorly adapted to the production of agricultural crops, returning only
a sparse yield of grain.

Agricultural products.—Small quantities of wheat, fruit, vegetables,
and poultry are raised for local consumption. The principal export
products are cattle, sheep, wool, and hogs.

Oats, of which red, black, and white varieties are grown, but prin-
cipally the first named, together with a little wheat, is the principal
hay crop. It is said that barley does not succeed well in these high
valleys, yielding only about two tons of hay to the acre, as compared
with five tons sometimes obtained in Ukiah Valley, south of the
divide. Some timothy hay is grown in Sherwood and Long valleys,
yielding about three tons to the acre; and red-top (Agrostis alba) is
reported to be successfully cultivated in afew ge It is said, how-
ever, that both timothy and red-top ‘‘run out” in a few years, which
may be due to the practice of pasturing too long after the rainy sea-

*Ukiah Dispatch-Democrat.

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

FIG. 1.—A MOUNTAIN MEADOW, SHERWOOD VALLEY.

FIG. 2.—THE BORDER OF THE MEADOW.

MOUNTAIN VALLEYS. 19

son commences. In Long Valley it is found that stock can be fed on
timothy aftermath without injury to the crop, provided they are taken
off when the first rains fall.

A small quantity of alfalfa hay is produced in Long Valley. In
this part of the State there is still a great deal of prejudice against it.
It is considered ‘‘ too soft” for either horses or beef cattle, and is fed
only to cows and hogs. Much of the dissatisfaction is undoubtedly
due to feeding alfalfa alone. The addition of good straw to the ration
(in the proportion of one-half straw to one-half alfalfa) will make a
well balaneed and highly valuable feed. Moreover, alfalfa is not well
adapted for pasturing, but should be soiled or fed as hay or silage.
It is possible that the summer is too short in this region and the
temperature not sufficiently high for the profitable cultivation of
alfalfa.

The cool climate, fertile soil, abundant supply of running water
and of timber for fuel and fencing, point to these mountain valleys
as being ideally adapted to dairying. Nothing is done in this line,
however, beyond the supply of the small local demand, on account of
the distance from a shipping point and the cost of transportation by
rail. From Fort Bragg, the nearest coast port, Sherwood Valley is
distant about 20 miles, over an exceedingly rough, mountainous road
with a descent of some 2,000 feet. The distance to Ukiah, the nearest
railroad depot, is about 35 miles, the road crossing two steep moun-
tains. A creamery has recently been started in Sherwood Valley, the
output in 1899 being over 20,000 pounds, most of which went to the
Mendocino Hospital. A creamery has been established in Potter Val-
ley during the past year.

The wild meadows and pastures.—We can find no record of the con-
dition of vegetation in these valleys before farming operations were
commenced. An approximate idea of the early native flora can be
gained, however, from the present vegetation of Sherwood Valley,
where but little cultivation has been practiced, and where many of
the meadows appear never to have seen the plow. Nevertheless, it is
certain that the quantity of valuable native species has been mate-
rially reduced by heavy grazing in the fifty-odd years of occupation by
white settlers, thereby increasing the relative abundance of less appre-
ciated species. Several weedy plants have been naturalized within
recent years. Mr. Sherwood, who settled in 1853 in the valley which
bears his name, and who was the first white settler there, took the
writer to a point some distance from his house to point out danthonia
(Danthonia californica) as the grass which was the most abundant on
hillside and valley. floor and which formed the favorite and most
nutritious forage plant when he first brought cattle into the valley.
This grass is now searce in the vicinity.

In Sherwood Valley the three grasses now prevalent are: (1) Bromus
racemosus commutatus; (2) B. hordeaceus glabrescens; (3) Holcus

20 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

lanatus (Velvet-grass, locally called ‘‘mesquite.”) These three are
not indigenous, but have become naturalized from Europe as weeds,
and occupy the place of native plants probably of greater value.

Other naturalized species commonly met with are: Soft chess
(Bromus hordeaceus), silvery hair-grass (Aira caryophyllea), small
barley-grass (Hordeum maritimum gussoneanum), which is abundant
in spots where other grasses do not thrive, and rat-tail fescue,
locally called squirrel-tail (Festuca myuros var. ciliata and var.
sciuroides). Broncho-grass (Bromus mdximus gussont) is oceasion-
ally met with, but at present only sparingly. If conditions prove
as favorable to its development here as in the San Francisco Bay
counties, however, it is likely to become a prevalent and trouble-
some weed. At present it is said that stock do not like it, even while
young, soft, and tender, before it heads out, and after heading out its
long awns are objectionable. Red-top (Agrostis alba) and timothy
(Phleum pratense) have been introduced as forage plants and are
occasionally met with, but have almost entirely ‘‘run out.”

The only native grasses met with in the meadows are noted here.
Tufted hair grass (Deschampsia cespitosa) forms large tussocks and
may, perhaps, be of some use for grazing, but is valueless for hay as
its scattered and tufted habit of growth renders it almost impassable
with a mowing machine; it is not considered of much value by the
farmers. Slender hair grass (Deschampsia elongata) seems to occur
in two or three forms. One of these is very common in wet places,
and another equaily abundant in drier spots. An Agrostis (4.
exarata microphylla) is common in wettish places. Occasional speci-
mens of meadow barley grass (Hordewm nodosum), danthonia (Dan-
thonia californica), and prairie June grass (Koeleria cristata) also
occur. California fescue (Festuca californica) is quite common along
the borders of streams near the edge of the woodlands, forming large
and handsome tussocks, but as a forage plant it is somewhat harsh
and coarse. Two or three species of sedge and a rush are very com-
mon, but probably have little nutritive value. Blue canary-grass
(Phalaris amethystina) occurs along the edge of the redwood forest.
In the streams and swamps a species of Pluropogon and Panicularia
fluitans are quite common, and slough-grass (Beckmannia eruce-
formis) is sometimes met with; the latter is reported as having been
very plentiful in the sixties.

_ Of forage plants other than grasses and sedges the following native
clovers are quite common: Trifolium dichotomum var., T. microdon,
T. barbigerum, T. bifidum decipiens, T. microcephalum, T. wormsk-
joldit var., T. variegatum, and T. tridentatum. T. depauperatum
and T. longipes var. are also met with, though only sparingly. Asa
forage plant, the bull clover (Z. wormskjoldii var.) is the most val-
uable species, in damp places: sometimes growing 2 or 3 feet high,
and being a favorite food of both cattle and Indians, who eat it raw—

FORAGE VALUE OF THE WILD MEADOWS. 21

leaves, stems, flower heads, and all—like a salad. T. longipes var.
forms tufts of several stems from a stout, perennial rootstock, and is
worth experimental culture as a forage plant. 7. variegatum is com-
mon in wet places and is closely eaten by cattle; it isone of the most
promising native species. Lotus pinnatus is a common leguminous
plant of wet places, and may be of some value as forage. Rib
grass (Plantago lanceolata) has become naturalized, but is not yet
abundant.

Though the various grasses, sedges, and rushes together form the
largest proportion of the meadow vegetation, and native clovers are
plentiful, other and less valuable plants abound, occupying space
which could be filled with species of greater economic value. <A but-
tereup (Ranunculus occidentalis) forms large yellow patches in the
open meadow, while in marshy spots the camass (Camassia esculenta)
produces masses of bright blue flowers in early summer. A species
of Veratrum, not in flower at the time of our visit, is quite common,
and is reported as being poisonous to stock. <A species of Orthocar-
pus, with yellow flowers, is the prevalent meadow weed, and forms,
together with blue-eye grass (Sisyrinchium) and camass, brilliant
masses of color, gold and blue, in the months of May and June.
Species of Polygonum, Hunanus, Collinsia, Lupinus, Agoseris, Zyga-
denus, Achillea, and Lotus also occur in varying abundance. Sorrel
(Rumex acetosella) has found its way into Hupa Valley, and is met
with elsewhere in the region. It is one of the most. pernicious weeds.

Forage value of the wild meadows.—The composition of the herbage
in these wild meadows does not give indication of high forage value;
the grasses are for the most part weedy species, producing compara-
tively little foliage. The hay produced is poor in quality and is not
eaten greedily by stock. Much of it is trampled under foot as waste.
Mr. C. W. Bradford, of Sherwood, states that about 3 tons of wild hay
to the acre may be considered an average yield in the valley, and that
about 50 head of cattle can usually be pastured for some five months
on 100 acres of valley pasture. When danthonia and native clovers
were the prevalent species, the carrying capacity of meadow and
pasture was probably much greater. On account of the abundant
water supply and peculiar climatic condition enjoyed by these moun-
tain valleys there are few places in the State of California which give
better promise for the formation of good permanent meadows and
pastures. With the evidence before us of what is actually being
accomplished in the Eel River Valley, in Humboldt County, there is
no apparent reason why. with the cultivation of the best adapted and
most nutritious forage plants, at least 5 tons of hay per acre should
not be raised, and the carrying capacity of 100 acres be raised from 50
head of horned stock for five months to 100 head for twelve months.

Improvement of pasture and meadow.—In order to produce such a
desirable condition, the work of renewing meadow and pasture must

22 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

be undertaken in a practical manner and one giving promise of suc-
cess. The mere scattering of seed of a desirable species without
preparation of soil or further attention is not likely to afford material,
if any, improvement. Itshould also be borne in mind, in this connee-
tion, that the humidity of atmosphere and soil are important fac-
tors in the problem, and that if by the destruction of the forests and
woodlands, which attract moisture, induce precipitation, and conserve
the springs from which streams and rivers arise, the valleys, at pres-
ent moist and fertile, are reduced to the condition of aridity met with
in some other regions of the State, the chance of increasing the stock-
carrying capacity will be destroyed.

To get rid of the tussocks formed by tufted hair grass and Cali-
fornia fescue, to remove weeds, and to give the new forage plants a
fair chance, the ground should be plowed in the spring to a sufficient
depth to bury the turf thoroughly. It should then be aHowed to
summer fallow for a period, in order that the sod may rot thoroughly.
The surface will require harrowing during the summer, probably
several times, in order to destroy successive crops of annual weeds
and to kill out the roots of perennial sedges and rushes. Sowing
should be performed as early in the fall as possible, that the seed may
benefit by the warm soil and the full rainfall of the growing season,

The preparation of a permanent pasture is greatly facilitated if a
nurse crop of wheat, barley, or oats is grown, as it protects the
voung grasses during spells of north wind, frost, ete. It also utilizes
the soil while the other plants are getting a start, and is of great value
in keeping weeds in check. This nurse crop is preferably grown for
soiling, rather than for hay or seed, as otherwise it shades the young
plants of the permanent crop for too longa period and takes too much
nutriment out of the soil. For the same reason only a thin sowing of
grain is made, half of the usual quantity of seed being considered
quite sufficient. In some places rye or wheat are considered the most
desirable nurse crops. Oats occupy the ground too long, it is claimed,
and are too easily ‘‘lodged” to be satisfactory.

If the plowing up of the wild meadows is considered too expensive
or is impracticable, the simpler but much less satisfactory method of
sowing new grasses among the old may be resorted to. In this case
only about one-third of the seed required for a new pasture will be
needed. The pasture must be thoroughly harrowed at the time of the
first fall rains in order to preserve a seed-bed in which the new seeds
can germinate.

In the East and elsewhere it is found advantageous in the prepara-
tion of a permanent pasture to sow a mixture of different species of
grasses instead of only one kind, for the following reasons: Some of
the best forage grasses do not make a crop until the secon’ or even
the third year; others, while in themselves valuable, do not stool-out
or cover the ground completely, so that other and low, prostrate spe-

FORAGE PLANTS RECOMMENDED FOR TRIAL. 23

cies are needed to fill the spaces between them. Some species make
an early and some a much later growth; some flower early and others
late, and it adds much to the value of a permanent pasture if the dif-
ferent species composing it mature at different periods.

A total of from 50 to 40 pounds of seed per acre is reeommended for
new pastures if the best results are to be obtained. It is better to err
on the side of too much than too little seed; for, if the ground is not
well covered at first, weeds will quickly occupy the bare spaces, and
they are much harder to eradicate when once established than to keep
out from the start. Experience proves that ‘‘thicker seeding more
than repays its extra cost.”

Forage plants recommended for trial.—Only experimental culture
on the spot can finally determine which species are best adapted to
any one locality or soil; nevertheless, much waste of time, effort, and
expense can be avoided by studying the results already obtained from
experiments conducted elsewhere. For several years the collection
and study of forage plants has been made a prominent feature of the
work of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Cali-
fornia, at Berkeley. These experiments have shown that, while many
forage plants of great value elsewhere are not adapted to the climatic
eonditions of California, there are several which ean be successfully
cultivated.

The following list includes the more nutritious of those species
which experienee proves most likely to be successful: Orchard grass
(Dactylis glomerata), reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea), many-
flowered millet grass (Oryzopsis miliacea), tall oat grass (Arrhen-
atherum elatius), awnless brome grass (Bromus inermis), red fescue
(Festuca rubra), rescue grass (Bromus willdenowi), timothy (Phlewm
pratense), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), creeping bent or
fiorin (Agrostis alba stoloniferu), Italian ray-grass (Loliwm italicum),
red clover (Trifolium pratense), perennial white clover (Trifolium
repens), alsike clover (Trifoliwm hybridum).

Orchard-grass has already been tried with some success between
Willits and Sherwood, in shady places. It is said to start more rap-
idly and to make a better growth if the ground is burned over before
sowing. Itis grown successfully as a forage plant in the vicinity of
Eureka, and has become naturalized near Berkeley and near Cres-
cent City.

Timothy has been tried in Sherwood Valley and Long Valley, and
is still used as a hay crop in some places. It is not generally liked,
however, on account of a bad tendency to ‘‘run out” after a short
time. This tendeney is probably not inherent, however, and may
be caused either by overstocking or by the practice of pasturing
late, after the ground has been softened by heavy rains, a method
which causes injury to the roots, especially where there is an absence
of thick turf. Timothy has become naturalized in northwestern

24 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

California, at Requa, Crescent City, and elsewhere, and it is evident,
therefore, that it is not unsuited to the climatic conditions of the
region.

Tall oat grass, on account of its phenomenally rapid development,
is useful as a nurse crop for orchard grass and other species of com-
paratively slow growth. Reed fescue, many-flowered millet grass,
awnless brome grass, and rescue grass have been grown success-
fully at Berkeley and elsewhere in the State. Red fescue and creep-
ing bent are valuable as ‘‘ bottom grasses,” producing a large amount
of tender, succulent herbage close to the ground. Italian ray-grass
and the red, white, and alsike clovers are extensively cultivated as
forage plants in the Eel River Valley. 3

THE UPLAND RANGES.

The most extensive open ranges of the region are found in the
interior, on that portion of the plateau lying east of the redwood belt,
and on the adjacent mountain slopes. The long ridges into which the
plateau has been eroded vary in altitude at their inland end from
about 2,000 to 4,000 feet, while the peaks of the ridge forming its
eastern boundary attain a height of 8,000 feet in Mount Linn and
9,000 feet in Mount Eddy.

The view from the higher ridges is extensive; on the western hori-
zon lies the ocean as a background. In the foreground ridge after
ridge, heavily clothed with timber and divided by deep, dark canyons,
slope gently to the shore line, some 18 miles away. Eastward the
eye wanders over bleak grass-covered ridges, brown and dry under a
scorching June sun, upward to the peaks of the South Yallo Bolley,
35 miles distant, which are about 7,000 feet in height and are still
capped with snow in the month of June. At the bottom of deep ean-
yons glimpses are occasionally caught of the broad bends of Middle
Fork of Eel River.

The summits of the ridges and part of their western slopes are for
the most part destitute of trees and brush, but densely clothed with
grass. These open slopes form what is known as the open summer
or annual range. (See Pl. Il, fig. 1.)

In very few places is the ground too rocky and the soil too scant and
poor to furnish abundance of grass. A few such places oceur, how-
ever, and are covered with a dense growth of hardy shrubs, forming
what is locally known as the ‘‘ chaparra!” or ‘‘chamisal.” (See Pl.’
Teele itoee

The eastern slopes and canyon bottoms are for the most part thickly
covered with trees and underbrush—‘‘ browse,” as it is called in the
vernacular. These areas form the woodland or winter range.

Temperature.—On account of the altitude and exposure of the
plateau its open ridges are subject to a low winter temperature, while
in summer the days are intensely hot and the nights cool. The sum-

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

f

FiG. 1.—THE OPEN RANGE. SUMMIT OF THE PLATEAU ABOVE HARRIS, LOOKING EAST.

FIG. 2.—THE CHAPARRAL. WALKER MOUNTAIN, SHOWING THE STEEP, ROCKY, SPARSELY CLOTHED
SLOPES, TOO BARREN EVEN FOR PASTURE.

oes

alk

a

at

THE OPEN, SUMMER, OR ANNUAL RANGE. 25

mer temperature is not lowered, as on the coast and in some of the
mountain valleys, by any sunshade in the form of banks of high fog.

Precipitation.—Over a large part of northern and middle Cali-
fornia the rainy season, which is also the season of plant growth,
commences with the latter part of September or early October and
ends in April or May, varying with the year; the remaining three to
five months constitute the dry or dormant season. In this particular
section of the region, however, showers usually continue through
May, and frequently into June, while August sometimes brings thun-
derstorms; in August, 1899, the rainfall varied in different localities
from 0.10 to 1 inch. Mr. Bell, of Bells Springs, states that July is
usually the only month in the year entirely free from rain. Mr.
Tooby, of Harris, gives the mean annual rainfall at that station as
about 40 inches. Reports from other points show that it is no less
elsewhere, and possibly greater. Some snow usually falls on the
plateau each winter. The open ridges are not subject like the coast
bluffs to sea fog with its refreshing moisture.

Water supply.—Ephemeral springs are common on the ranges in
the winter months, but quickly dry up with the advent of summer.
Though excellent perennial springs occur here and there on the high
ridges, they are usually far apart, and the dusty traveller may pass
many a weary mile before finding a good camping place. Along the
gulches and steep sides of the canyons, however, water is always to
be found within accessible distance for stock. (See Pl. V, fig. 2). In
such places the springs never dry up, doubtless on account of the
protection and shade afforded by the timber and brush. .

Sous.—The plateau soils consist, for the most part, of gravelly,
yellow-brown, or reddish clays. A comparison of analyses of these
and of the mountain valley soils is given on page 17.

From the nature of its physical conditions the upland range, which
forms by far the largest portion of this section of the country, is never
likely to be devoted to any other use than grazing, being unfitted for
the general production of agricultural or timber crops. Whatever
can be done, therefore, to improve the ranges will benefit one of the
most important industries of the region.

At present the two industries of beef cattle and sheep raising are
of about equal importance.

THE OPEN, SUMMER, OR ANNUAL RANGE.

As before noted, the open ranges occupy the summits and western
slopes of the plateau ridges as well as the slopes of the higher moun-
tains forming its eastern boundary.

Grasses and other forage plants.—The prevailing grasses are: (1)
Rat-tail fescue, locally called ‘‘squirrel-tail” and ‘‘ poverty grass”
(Festuca myuros ciliata) small barley grass (Hordeum maritimum gus-
soneanum); (3) Soft chess (Bromus hordeaceus and var. glabrescens).

26 '. STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

One or other of these naturalized and somewhat weedy foreign spe-
cies forms the principal covering of every open range. The two first
named are the most common, but as a rule they are not found in
equal abundance on the same range; mile after mile is covered with
small barley grass which predominates, almost, but not entirely, to
the exclusion of rat-tail fescue; over another area the case may be
exactly reversed, rat-tail fescue becoming the prevalent species. Both
are weedy grasses, only considered valuable when young and tender;
it is said that stock will not touch them after they ‘‘head out.” Soft
chess is considered highly nutritious when the seeds are ripe, stock
eating the ‘‘heads” greedily; perhaps on this account it is less abun-
dant than either of the others. The intermittent occurrence of the
two first-named grasses may be due to their exotic origin, the species
first introduced onto a range becoming the prevalent one. The fact
that both are weedy grasses, and that neither one of them seems to
be better adapted to range conditions than the other, nor is eaten by
cattle after maturity, seems to indicate that in their case, at least,
absence from certain places is not due to selection.

In addition to these three grasses the range feed is chiefly com-
posed of alfilerilla (mostly Hrodium cicutarium, H. moschatum being
rarely met with), wild clovers, the prevailing species of the latter
being Trifolium bifidum decipiens, T. maicrocephalum, and forms
of T. dichotomum. ‘* Bear Clover” (T. furcatum virescens) is com-
mon in certain situations, especially in moist ‘‘slidy” elay soils, and
T. variegatum in moist, springy places. 7. cyathiferum is only spar-
ingly met with. TT. tridentatunr is especially abundant on ungrazed
roadsides and ranges; its flowers have a pleasant, honey-like odor,
and are very attractive to bees.

All of the above-named forage plants are shallow-rooted annuals,
ephemeral in character and entirely dependent upon the opportunity
to mature and scatter seed for the reproduction of their kind. Per-
ennial herbaceous plants are not at all common, except in oceasional
and remote spots. The only perennial grasses noted on the dry, open
hillsides were: Lemmon’s bunch grass (Stipa lemmoni), Calitornia
melic grass (Melica californica), a variety of red fescue (Festuca rubra
var.), a variety of sheep fescue (Festuca ovina var.), danthonia
(Danthonia californica), Sitanion villosum, Hlymus angustifolius,
and one or two species of Pod. On some of the more closely grazed
ranges these perennial species are seldom seen, and oecur in such
small quantities as to be noticeable by their scarcity. Their rarity
may be due tothe fact that they are not, as a rule, turf-forming
species, but tufted grasses (‘‘ bunch-grasses”’), and therefore poorly
adapted to withstand trampling and grazing by stock. Danthonia is
reported to have been much more plentiful in former years—in fact,
the most abundant forage plant, as it still is in some other parts of
the State—and it is said to have gradually succumbed to sheep graz-

‘ THE PRAIRIES. | OT

ing. It is considered, par excellence, fhe ‘‘bunch-grass” of the
ranges, and sometimes grows so thickly as to form an excellent turf,
giving promise of usefulness under cultivation for pastures, though
too short for hay. Trifolium scorpioides, though only locally met
with, is not uncommon in partial shade, under oak trees; it has a
large, subfusiform perennial root, and may prove worthy of cultiva-
tion; its flowers are fragrant with a peculiar and characteristic odor.
These ranges are designated annual ranges, because the forage plants,
now abundant and characteristic, are annual species of short life, in
contradistinction to the perennial ranges met with more frequently in
the coast-bluff section, where danthonia, tufted hair-grass, and other
perennial grasses still abound.

Weeds.—With the exception of the two prevalent annual grasses,
rat-tail fescue and small barley grass, weeds are comparatively rare
on the open ranges north of Cummings. Annual weeds are practi-
cally restricted to a few species of Beri (the genus next best repre-
sented as regards number of individuals), Lupinus, Achyrachena,
Agoseris, Microcarpus, and a few others. Hawkbit (Hypocheeris
glabra) is establishing itself in places, and is likely to cause serious
injury to the range pasture. ‘‘Tacalote” (Centawrea melitensis) is
common and very troublesome on ranges near Ukiah; its prickly
‘‘burs” are apt to decrease the value of wool. Silvery hair grass (Azra
caryophylla) and quaking grass (briza minor) are common at Elk
Prairie, and fine hair grass (Avra capillaris) occurs on Bair’s sheep
range at Redwood Creek; these plants are valueless for forage, and
occupy space which should be filled by useful species.

~Coeklebur (Xanthiwm canadense) is reported from the Traver

range, near Cummings, a few plants having been noticed in 1876,
which are supposed to have been introduced with cattle from the
Sacramento Valley. According to Mr. Joseph Clarke, it has been
exterminated. Broncho grass (Bromus maximus gussont) first ap-
peared on the Burns place, near Cahto, in 1879 or 1880, according to
Mr. Clarke; it is now spreading throughout the region. If cut before
the heads mature, this grass will make good silage, and at the same
time its rapid spread will be checked.

Rib grass (Plantago lanceolata) has become abundant on some ranges
and is said to have reduced the carrying capacity from 4 or 5 acres
to 10 acres to a head.

Perennial weeds are less frequently noticed, wild sunflower
(Wyethia) being as common as any. Sorrel (Rumex acetosella),
perhaps the most pernicious of all perennial range weeds, has found
its way into some of the ranges.

THE PRAIRIES.

the word ‘‘ prairie,” as used in Mendocino and Humboldt coun-
ties, may be broadly defined as any small open space among the

28 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

timber, whether covered with grass or with dwarf brush. Along the
coast of Mendocino County the name .-is applied to the areas of light,
sandy ‘‘white-ash” soil covered with dwarf serub and surrounded
by timber. In the interior the ‘‘ prairies” are open pastures sur-
rounded by either timber or brush.

‘* Prairie”? pastures usually occur in comparatively low altitudes,
as on the western slopes of the hills which form the eastern wall of
Russian River Valley (PI. IV, fig. 1), where the timber is composed of
oak. On Walker Mountain they ascend somewhat higher and are
surrounded by brush of manzanita, deer brush, mountain mahogany,
wild lilae, ete.

Around Sherwood Valley the prairies oceupy the lower slopes,
between the meadows and the wooded hilltops (PI. IV, fig. 2), while in
the central portion of Humboldt County they form comparatively large
open clearings, several acres in extent, on knolls bordered by spruce
and fir woods, as at Elk Prairie, Kneeland Prairie, and elsewhere.

Wherever these inland prairies occur the grasses and other forage >
plants are practically identical with those of the adjacent open ranges,
of which they are simple continuations like the bays and inlets along
the shores of an ocean.

THE WOODLAND OR WINTER RANGE.

The gulches and steep sides of the canyons, especially their eastern
slopes, are thickly covered with trees and underbrush. Several species
occur, and there appears to be little of the preponderance of one kind
over another which characterizes the river bottom lands.

Trees.—The prevalent trees are: Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga taxi-

folia); Black or Kellogg oak (Quercus californica), which is the largest
species of oak in Mendocino County, sometimes 6 or 7 feet in diameter
and with 50 feet of trunk clear of branches (Clarke); white oak
(Quercus garryana); tan oak (Quercus densiflora), sometimes attain-
ing 130 feet in height and 7 feet in diameter, one measured by the
writer on the Clarke ranch having a circumference of 30 feet at 1 foot
from the ground, one of its branches measuring 11 feet 9 inches in
circumference at 7 feet from the trunk, and five or six limbs nearly 9
feet in circumference; Madroiie (Arbutus menziesii); and along the
streams, pepper wood (Umbellularia californica). Less abundant,
but by no means uncommon, are the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa),
chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla), Oregon maple (Acer macro-
phyllum), and tree dogwood (Cornus nuttalli). The California nut-
meg (Tumion californicum), incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens),
and Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregana) are occasionally met with, and
the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) oceurs on Mount Sanhedrin. The
redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) scarcely ever grows beyond the limit
of its own particular belt or isolated grove. The valley oak (Quercus
lobata), golden oak (Q. chrysolepis), and other trees occur in the

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.—‘‘ PRAIRIE’ PASTURES AT LOW ELEVATION, SHOWING THE TIMBERED CHARACTER OF THE
COUNTRY. OAKS AND BUCKEYE ALONG THE RUSSIAN RIVER.

see

FIG. 2.—‘* PRAIRIE’? PASTURES BELOW THE WOODLANDS, SHERWOOD VALLEY.

THE WOODLAND OR WINTER RANGE. 29

plateau section, but do not form a characteristic feature of the
woodland.

Underbrush.—The woodland is frequently fringed with a belt of
manzanita (Arctostaphylos). In the woods there is abundance of
underbrush, in which the deer find shelter and on which they browse.
It consists principally of hazel (Corylus rostrata californica), poison
oak (Rhus diversiloba), cascara sagrada or pigeon berry (Rhamnus
californica), mountain rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), salal (Gaultherva
shallon), huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum and V. parvifolium), wild
blackberry (Rubus vitifolius), ete. In certain localities deer brush
(Ceanothus integerrumus, C. incanus, and C. velutinus) and a species
of service berry (Amelanchier) are found.

Herbaceous plants.—Grass species and individuals are not abund-
ant in the shady woods, and most of those which occur have sparse
foliage, affording but little feed for stock. The species most commonly
met with are Bromus levipes, Melica bromoides, M. torreyana, and
Trisetum canescens. Festuca californica, ‘‘ vanilla grass” (Savastana
macrophylla), and Hlymus glaucus are not uncommon.

Other perennial herbaceous plants, such as Achlys triphylla, Van-
couveria parviflora, Iris douglasiana, I. purdyt, Viola lobata, Aspidium
munitum, Adenocaulon sp., HKriophyllum spp., and Brodicwa spp. are
abundant, but annual plants are comparatively rare.

Forage plants.—From off this miscellaneous assortment of plants
cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs have to ‘‘rustle” a living during sev-
eral months of the fall and early winter, yet they are said to keep in
good condition in spite of the unpromising nature of the forage.
Cattle and horses browse on poison oak, hazel, white oak, deer brush,
and the few grasses they can find. Sheep freely eat, in addition to
the above, the very tough and astringent leaves of. the manzanita.
This is shown in a striking and very characteristic manner by the neat
way in which each bush is trimmed, sheep-head high, and divested of
every leaf within reach.

Hogs find better picking in the woods than do other stock, and are
left to run there almost the year round. They are said to live largely
on the acorns of the three oaks above mentioned, on chinquapin nuts,
pepper nuts (Umbellularia californica), madrohe, manzanita, and
poison-oak berries, the bulbs and tubers of liliaceous and other plants,
and on grasses and clovers. In August the manzanita berries ripen,
and the hogs feed on them till the poison-oak berries, acorns, and
other nuts and fruits mature. Bythe.time these crops are exhausted
the grasses and clovers are fit for food and continue till the end of
June. July is the month of poorest hog feed, and it is necessary to
provide corn or grain till the manzanita berries are again ripe, in
August.

The acorns of the white oak are said to make the best and sweetest
feed and to produce the best bacon, but the crop is very uncertain.
The tan oak is the most reliable acorn producer.

30 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN . CALIFORNIA.

Improvement of the woodland forage. —Except in portions of the red-
woed belt, the timber occupies land which would probably never be
fit for agricultural purposes on account of either or both of the fol-
lowing reasons: First, the steepness of the slopes, which makes them
practically inaccessible and exposes them to soil washing to a ruinous
extent as soon as cleared of the protecting timber and brush; seec-
ond, the poor and rocky nature of the soil. The clearing of the land
would therefore be unprofitable, unless for the sake of the timber.
The clearing of such lands would seriously affect the water supply
of the upper ranges. This has been conclusively demonstrated near
‘Scotia, and near Guerneville, in Sonoma County, where the clearing
and keeping clear of the redwood land for pasture purposes has
resulted in the drying up of many springs and small creeks which
were formerly perennial. The way in which the stream beds are
flooded with ‘‘ waste” water from the treeless upland ranges in times
of heavy rain is shown on the accompanying plate (Pl. V, fig. 1),
and, by contrast, the beneficial effect of a heavy covering of timber
and brush, which protects the tributary springs and creeks from
evaporation, is shown in figure 2 on the same plate.

The timber produced (outside of the redwood belt) is not at pres-
ent considered worth lumbering, but is used for fuel and fencing.
The tan oak (Quercus densiflora) is highly valued for its bark, used
for tanning, and an extensive industry in oak bark is carried on in
the more accessible canyons near the coast. It is quite possible that
the future demand for tan bark, which is becoming scarcer each
year,* may warrant the systematic planting of the tan oak on these
canyon slopes. This would result in a large increase of hog feed in
the acorn season."

Forage plants recommended for trial.—It is not improbable that by
establishing pasture plots of shade-growing forage plants in small
clearings among the timber and brush the winter feed of the wood-

®Some idea of the extent of the annual destruction of tan oak can be gathered
from the statement that in 1899 there were shipped 1.500 cords of bark (a cord
weighing 2.300 pounds) from Point Arena and 1,500 from Greenwood: 500 cords
are annually peeled at the Union Lumber Company's camps near Fort Bragg, and
large amounts are annually shipped from Gualala, Iversen, Navarro, Albion,
Little River. Mendocino City. Caspar. Westport. Usal, and Bear Harbor, as well
as from other points. We met twenty-one 4-horse wagon loads of bark en route
to Bear Harbor in a morning’s drive between Kenny and Thorn.

The bark from the Greenwood lumber camps is supplied *‘to the California
Tanning Extract Company, who have a plant in conjunction with the Greenwood
mill. The bark is reduced to a liquid form. and is barreled and shipped, princi-
pally to Japan. One cord of tan bark weighs 2.300 pounds; when in liquid form
it is reduced down to about 550 or 600 pounds.”

» Acorn-fed pork is. at best. considered poor in quality. being soft and oily; it
brings 14 cents per pound less than corn-fed pork; it is claimed that even though
‘finished off *’ on corn the quality of the fat remains the same. Poland-China
hogs are used almost exclusively for range feeding, being much more docile than
Berkshires, which become wild and unmanageable with the freedom of the range.

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

FiG. 1.—RUSSIAN RIVER, SHOWING THE EFFECT OF FLOODING, DUE TO HEAVY RAINFALL ON THE
UNTIMBERED UPLANDS.

FiG. 2.—A PERENNIAL STREAM, HUPA VALLEY, PROTECTED FROM WASHING AND EVAPORATION BY
TREES AND BRUSH.

thy
SA ee
FAD aon han
ets

qe hacen
Seat

‘ THE CHAPARRAL. ol

land ranges could be increased. As these ranges are used for fall and
early winter feeding, the grasses that will be of greatest benefit in such
situations will be those that make the earliest winter growth.

Among the grasses which make the earliest winter growth at
Berkeley the following are recommended for trial: Orchard-grass
(Dactylis glomerata), tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius), wood
meadow grass (Poa nemoralis), reed fescue (Mestuca arundinacea).

It must be borne in mind, however, that we can not expect to make
first-class pastures out of timbered lands. It is impossible to success-
fully combine good timber cultures and good pastures, for the objects
and needs of the two are diametrically opposed, and what will benefit
the one may injure the other. The timber and brush are needed in
order to preserve the flow of the springs. All we can hope to do in
the way of improvement, therefore, is to somewhat increase the amount
of grass produced in the open spaces.

THE CHAPARRAL.

Chaparral is the Spanish word for a thicket of low shrubs, and was
used by the Spanish-Californians to designate the thickets of scrub-
oak (Quercus dumosa) which are so noticeable a feature of rocky
ridges in this region. It is now apphed promiscuously to any low,
dense brush of prickly or rigid shrubs growing in similar situations,
as well as to the individual species of which the mass is composed.
In these senses the words chaparral and chamisal are often used
interchangeably; chamisal strictly means, however, a_ stretch of
burned over chaparral, from the Spanish chamizo, a piece of half-
burnt wood. The term is now generally restricted to the ‘‘chamise”
bush (Adenostoma fasciculatum).

So local and strikingly characteristic are these chaparral areas that
they have become landmarks, the word chamisal, sometimes cor-
rupted into chemisal, chemise, or chimese, being adopted as a local
name. ‘Thus, we find on the map of Humboldt County a ‘‘ Chemisal
Creek” and ‘‘Chimese Ridge” in the vicinity of Harris, and a ‘‘ Che-
mise Mountain,” near Shelter Cove.

As before stated, the chaparral covers dry, stony ground, where the
soil appears to be too scant and poor to support a generous herbace-
ous vegetation. It is usually composed of such shrubs as Adenostoma
fasciculatum, Ceanothus cuneatus, Quercus dumosa, Cercocarpus
sp. (mountain mahogany), species of Arctostaphylos (manzanita),
Garrya fremonti, Hriodictyon californicum (Yerba santa), ete., the
component species varying with the locality, and frequently one or
other being so prevalent over a large area as to give it specific
individuality.

The grasses usually met with in these arid, rocky spots are tufted
in their habit of growth, and consequently come under the common
category of ‘‘ bunch grass.” The species are fewin number. Melica

o2 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

californica, M. harfordu, Stipa lemmoni, Sitanion multisetum, S.
planifolium, Elymus glaucus, species of Poa, Festuca, Bromus carina-
tus, and occasionally Festuca ovina being the only ones collected.
Lotus americanus and oceasionally a clump of ‘‘ deer brush” (Ceano-
thus integerrimus) are the only plants met with, other than grasses,
which are known to be of forage value.

The individuals of these forage plants are so few and far apart as
to afford only the scantiest pickings for animals, and the brush is
usually so dense that stock can penetrate it only with difficulty.

Under these circumstances a piece of chaparral is naturally consid-
ered so much waste ground, being not only unproductive or almost
entirely so, but, on account of the poverty of the soil, not worth the
cost of clearing.

SUBALPINE MEADOWS.

In the Trinity and Inner Coast Range mountains subalpine mead-
ows are occasionally met. with at an altitude of about 6,500 feet,
which resemble to a considerable extent those of the Sierra Nevada,
not only in physical and climatical features but also in phytological
aspect.

I had opportunity to visit a group of such meadows on Trinity Sum-
mit, to the east of Hupa Valley, between June 21 and 23, 1899, but
found that it was still too early in the season to find any but the
earliest spring flowersin blossom—Suliz, Ribes, Erythronium, Frasera,
Kalmia, ete. With the exception of Melica spectabilis the grasses
and sedges which form a dense turf on the alluvial soils in hollows
just below the peaks were just commencing their new growth, and
in many places were still under snow. Appearances indicated, how-
ever, that here at last we had found patches of the primitive flora
still almost entirely unaduiterated by admixtures of alien species.
The meadows are so completely isolated from the distant valleys
and lower grass-covered ridges by steep rocky chaparral ridges
and stretches of spruce and tan-oak forest, covering the whole of the
altitudinal distance of about 6,000 feet from the floor of Hupa Valley,
that it has proved difficult for aliens to cross this natural barricade.
A few specimens of sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella) were found in
open spots along the trail, and even on Trinity Summit, being appar-
ently the first of the alien horde to reach those grazing grounds. It
will be interesting from an ecological standpoint to watch whether
other species succeed in following this irrepressible and pernicious
weed.

As the growth of vegetation in these subalpine meadows is later
than that at lower altitudes, on account of lower temperature and
consequent persistence of snow, they are valuable adjuncts to the
stock ranges, providing green pasturage for several weeks after the
upland ranges at lower altitudes are dry and brown.

SYSTEM OF RANGE ROTATION AND MANAGEMENT. 39

On the plateau, where the greatest elevation does not exceed 4,000
feet and but little snow falls in winter and none remains into the sum-
mer, the grasses mature early, and there are no late alpine meadows.

SYSTEM OF RANGE ROTATION AND MANAGEMENT.

In California the season of activity in plant growth commences
with the early autumn rains (September and October), while the heat
rays still have power to warm the soil below the surface. It is then
that the seeds of annual plants, dormant since the time of ripening in
early summer, commence to germinate and the seedlings to establish
themselves in the loosening soil.

Though they germinate so early in the season these annuals do not
make much upward growth until the advent of the warm spring days
during February or early March, after which their progress to maturity
is usually rapid. By April-May or May-June, according to the season,
they have attained their maximum growth and begin to ripen or are
at least flowering.

The flowering season is short, and with the arrival of the hot, dry,
north winds in June or July the open hillsides rapidly assume that
brown and barren aspect so characteristic of a California summer.

During the fall and early winter months, when the ‘‘ bands” of cattle
and sheep have been reduced by summer sales of fat stock, it is cus-
tomary, on ranges under the best management, to confine the stock to
the woodland or winter range. This method gives the seedling annual
grasses and clovers, which furnish most of the forage on the summer
rar ge, a chance to get well anchored in the soil and fairly established;
otherwise, on account of their shallow rooting, a large proportion
would be destroyed by trampling or pulling.

As soon as feed is sufficiently plentiful the ‘‘ bands” are permitted to
return to the summer range. With the advent of the dry season the
animals are usually ready for market and stockmen begin to thin out
their flocks and herds. A general exodus soon commenees, the mar-
ketable animals being driven to Ukiah or Eureka for shipment to San
Francisco.

With this exodus of sheep and cattle summer travel over the stage
road from Ukiah to Eureka becomes more than ever unpleasant. The
roadsides which a short time previous were carpeted with grasses and
wild flowers are quickly stripped of every blade of green, and the
roads, hitherto fairly good, become thick with dust, which is thrown
up in clouds by the numerous droves of animals passing each day.

The reserve ‘‘ bands,” now much reduced in size, continue to find
subsistence, and even keep fat for some time, on the ripening heads of
soft chess and other forage plants which are now dried into‘a stand-
ing crop of short hay. This cured hay is considered highly nutri-.
tious until it has been washed by the early rains, when. it) seems to
lose its palatableness. |

18766—No. 12—02——_-3

34 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

In the Trinity and Inner Coast Range mountains, as well as in the
Sierra Nevada, it is customary to drive the stock up the mountains to
the subalpine meadows for summer pasture. For several years the
Hupa Indians have followed this practice on Trinity Summit, the
meadows which occur at about 6,500 to 7,000 feet altitude being a
favorite range for the cattle of the reservation.

CARRYING CAPACITY.

Present capacity.—lIt is difficult to obtain exact data as to the pres-
ent carrying capacity of the ranges, stockmen being loath to give fig-
ures for obvious reasons. The Blue Rock Range, of 2,500 acres, is
said to carry 1,200 head of sheep and 100 head of horned stock, or an
equivalent of an acre and a half to a sheep and 7 acres to each head
of cattle. This is the same ratio for sheep as is reported for the
prairies around Sherwood Valley. On the ranges near Bells Springs
the maximum e¢apacity is given as little more than an acre to one
head of sheep, and 5, 6, or sometimes even 10 or 12 acres to one head
of cattle. It is said that on the poorest ranges, which have become
worn-out by overstocking, it takes 20 acres to support one head of
cattle.

The ranges on Walker Mountain and Sherwood Mountain seem to
be in better condition than those north of Cummings. Danthonia and
soft brome grass are much more abundant and the maximum earry-
ing capacity is higher (at present), the ratio being reported as only 4
or even 5 acres to one head of cattle. The latter figures may, how-
ever, apply only to open range or may include winter pasturage in
the meadows instead of on woodland ‘*‘ browse.” Such heavy stock-
ing can not long be maintained, however. Mr. Blair, on Sherwood
Mountain, has 200 acres of range and carries 60 to 80 head of hogs,
40 to 50‘head of cattle, and a few horses.*

On the ranges which were found to be in the best condition it was
learned that not less than 8 acres was allowed for each head of cattle
and 13 acres for each sheep.

Colonel Harding’s range of some 13,000 aeres is said to carry about
400 eattle, 100 horses, and 5,000 sheep, or a total equivalent of some
1,600 head of cattle, about 1 to 8 acres.

These ratios are supposed to inelude both open and woodland or
brush range. It is said that there are usually about 2 acres of the
latter to every 1 acre of clear land, but the proportion varies some-
what with the locality. Open range alone is said to be ecapabe of
carrying 1 head of cattle to 4 or 5 acres and | head of sheep to 1 aere
during the season.

Former capacity.—The first white settlers in the valleys north of
Walker Mountain appear to have located in 1852 or 1853, and they

“It is possible that my i.formant was in error as regards these figures. I much
doubt whether any range in the region is as heavily stocked as this statement
would indicate.

CARRYING CAPACITY. aD

either brought bands of cattle with them or drove them in a year
or two later, and for several years the region was a great unfenced
eattle range. Humboldt County was first settled in the vicinity of
Humboldt Bay in 1849 or 1850. A eattle ranch was maintained in
Clear Lake Valley prior to 1849 by Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone,
who were murdered by Indians in December, 1849.

According to Carl Purdy,* ‘“‘for years Mendocino County was a ecat-
tle county, with all the wild lawlessness which pertains to that indus-
try and conflicting squatters’ rights. As the wild animals were killed
out the high price of wool stimulated sheep growing; until 1875 the
mountainous country was almost entirely devoted to that branch of
grazing. Then the mountain land was surveyed and landowners
obtained titles, lands were fenced, and the second stage of grazing
reached. The large profits in sheep raised the price of grazing lands
to too high a figure, and graziers were tempted to overreach them-
selves by the purchase of surrounding lands.” Then came a fall in
the price of wool, and many rangers replaced their sheep with cattle;
others, ‘‘overloaded with debts accrued by land purchases, went into
bankruptey.” At present the sheep and cattle industries on the
ranges are of about equal importance.

It is even more difficult to obtain information as to the actual con-
dition and vegetation of the ranges in the first years of occupation by
white people than about the present carrying capacity. There are
various indications, however, pointing to a much more highly pro-
duetive condition in those early days than has been realized for
many years.

The fact that at the present time the three most abundant grasses
are adventive species of foreign origin favors this view. There is evi-
dence that they have become naturalized within comparatively recent
years. Small barley grass and soft chess are not recorded as occur-
ring in the State at the time of the State geological survey in the
early sixties, and Dr. Bolander, who at that time was making a special
study of the grasses of California, does not appear to have collected
squirrel-tail in either Mendocino or Humboldt when he visited these
counties in 1864 and again in 1865. It is evident, therefore, that these
grasses, now so abundant, are not only naturalized aliens, but also
that they must have replaced other and equally abundant species,
since it is inconceivable that in such a climate fertile soil could long
remain other than densely clothed with some kind of vegetation. Old-
timers are unanimously agreed, moreover, that the feed on the ranges
has changed materially since they first settled in the country. Mr.
Bell, of Bells Springs, says that the feed on his ranges has changed
several times during the twenty-seven years he has lived there, ‘‘ new ”
(adventitious) species coming in, becoming predominant, and in their
turn giving place to others.

* Ukiah Dispatch-Democrat.

36 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

Colonel Harding states that small barley grass (locally called fox-
tail) was brought in by sheep, being observed first along their tracks.

The questions, then, arise, what were the components of the primi-
tive vegetation which oceupied the place of the present alien flora;
how did it compare with the latter as regards forage value, and what
new species came in, became prevalent, and then gave place to others.

The earlier floras appear to have been composed of plants more gen-
erally acceptable to stock than the weedy species now prevailing,
otherwise they would scarcely have given such complete place to alien
species. In other words, if they had not been highly paiatable to
stock they would not have been ‘‘eaten out,” and if the adventive
species had been equally palatable they could scarcely have acquired
a foothold under the system of heavy stocking which has prevailed.

Few residents in this region are sufficiently familiar with plants to
define the actual changes in the flora which take place over a period
of years. Some, however, have noticed the change in composition of
the range feed. Mr. Bell, Mr. Joseph H. Clarke, and others state
that danthonia and other ‘‘ bunch grasses,” wild oats, alfilerilla,
clovers, wild-pea vines (Lathyrus sp.), and wild sunflower (Wyethia
sp.) were formerly the most abundant plants on the ranges. All
these, they state, have been materially reduced in quantity or have
disappeared altogether, and in their places squirrel tail, small barley —
grass, and soft chess have become established since they settled in the
county. These statements are in part confirmed by Menefee, who,

DIIFQ

writing in 1875, says of this section of Mendocino County:

The soilis * * * covered with a rich growth of clover, wild oats, bunch
grass, and rosin weed or wild sunflower.

All of the above-named plants are now relatively scarce.

Wild oats and alfilerilla were not, however, the primitive forage
plants, for they also are aliens, natives of the Mediterranean region,
their introduction into California probably dating from the Spanish
occupation. Being adventive, they too must have replaced other
plants which were probably native in the sense of not having been
introduced through the ageney of man or his domestic animals, since
we have no records of immigration earlier than that of the Mission
Fathers.

On account of their wide distribution in the State, and their abun-
dance and prevalence in the fifties, many persons have refused to
believe that wild oats and alfilerilla could be other than native to the
soil; even Bolander, writing in the early sixties, was inclined to believe
that they must be native alike in southern Europe and California. To
anyone who has watched the rapid spread of alien weeds in the rich
soil and favorable climate of this State, and has observed one alien
gradually give place to others, the century and a quarter which has
elapsed since the Spanish occupation will appear none too short to
witness the occupation of the whole State by such prolific plants as

NATIVE SPECIES OF THE REGION. oil

,
wild oats and alfilerilla, and the later disappearance of one or both of
them by overstocking. This matter will be more fully discussed after
the causes of range deterioration have been considered.

Col. Redick McKee, United States Indian agent, with a military party,
passed over the plateau region from Santa Rosa to Humboldt Bay in the
fall of 1851. Mr. George Gibbs, who kept the official diary of the party,
mentions® that wild oats were very abundant on the slopes of the
lower foothills from Santa Rosa northward. Before reaching Feliz
Valley, the most northerly Spanish ranch in the Russian River Val-
ley, he notes: ‘‘The hills passed to-day were covered with bunch
grass, the wild oats having disappeared.” Wild oats were again
observed on what is now known as Walker Mountain, but were not
noted from any place to the northward, though bunch grasses are
frequently mentioned. There is no mention of alfilerilla. Colonel
McKee’s party seems to have been only the second white party to
make the overland trip.

What then were the prevalent plant species before the advent of
wild oats and alfilerilla? Though no written record appears to exist,
this question can be answered in a fairly satisfactory manner by infer-
ence. It is unreasonable to suppose that in the comparatively short
time (some fifty years only) which has elapsed since these hills were
first ranged by white men any of the then prevalent plants could
have become extinct. We must therefore look for them among the
species still to be found in protected places on the ranges. In fenced-
off areas surrounding some of the springs on the Bell’s Springs Range
and a few other places, are still to be found luxuriant growths of native
clovers, grasses, and other plants which have been somewhat pro-
tected from their natural enemies, the range stock. Of course weedy
grasses, with alfilerilla and wild oats, have found their way there also;
but the native species have been able to hold their own to a greater
extent than elsewhere. The vegetation of such places gives us a clew
to the former condition of things. Here are found the native annual
clovers, Trifolium cyathiferum, T. bifidum decipiens, T. tridentatum, T.
variegatum var., T. microcephalum, and T. furcatum virescens, mak-
ing a luxuriant growth, sometimes almost knee-deep. Sheep fescue
(Festuca ovina), danthonia (Danthonia californica), Sitanion multi-
setum, S. planifolium, S. villosum, and Elymus angustifolius, all pro-
miscuously known as ‘“‘ bunch grasses,” together with ‘‘ wild pea-vines”
(species of Lathyrus) and ‘‘ wild sunflower” (species of Wyethia), are
also plentiful. In dry, rocky places California melic grass (Melica
californica), Lemmon’s buneh grass (Stipa lemmoni), and one or two
species of meadow grass (Poa, allied to P. fendleriana) are frequently
found. These are also called ‘‘ bunch-grasses.”

“Gibbs, George: *‘Journal of the expedition of Col. Redick McKee, United States
Indian agent, through northwestern California, performed in the summer and
fallof 1851."’ Published in Dr. Henry Schooleraft’s Archives of Knowledge,
99-177. Philadelphia, 1860.

38 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

It thus appears that these same clovers and other annual plants and
the same perennial ‘‘ bunch-grasses,” which are now but sparingly
found, were in former times the common plants of the open range,
and that the species now most abundant, ineluding alfilerilla and
also wild oats, were unknown here before the Spanish occupation of
California.

The following conclusions, therefore, were accepted:

1. The prinitive forage plants were the ‘‘ bunch-grasses” (Dan-
thonias, Stipas, Melicas, Poas, and perennial Festueas), with annual
and perennial clovers, wild pea vines and wild sunflowers; these were
much more abundant in former times than now, and on account of
their palatableness they largely disappeared with overstocking.

2. With the advent of white settlers and their domestic animals,
wild oats and alfilerilla (Hrodium cicutarium) took possession of the
country; these increased in relative abundance as the native forage
plants became scarce; as the latter diminished in quantity cattle took
to eating the former until they in like manner succumbed, while
other plants took their places.

3. Small barley grass, squirrel tail, and soft chess were among
the next weedy introductions; the two former, when in a maturing
condition being disliked by cattle, have had a chance to spread and
cover the ranges, but cattle having acquired a taste for soft chess,
it is being kept in check, if not diminishing, on closely grazed ranges.

4. A third immigration is now taking place, in which musky alfile-
rilla (Erodiwm moschatum), broncho grass (Bromus maximus gussont),
barley grass (Hordeum murinum, locally called fox-tail), tacalote (Cen-
taurea melitensis), hawkbit (Hypocheris glabra), bur-clover (Medi-
cago denticulata), and other weeds are establishing themselves along
the roadsides and around ranch houses. Of these, the bur-clover, and
the musky alfilerilla, have some forage value. Barley grass is eaten
green in the spring before heading out, but afterwards becomes one of
the most objectionable weeds for a stock range. The other aliens
are destined to cause irreparable injury to the ranges unless kept in
check and prevented from becoming firmly established.

RANGE DETERIORATION.

Primary cause.—Range deterioration is traceable to the desire to
make as much off the land as possible, coupled with two mistaken
ideas: (1) That a range can continue to carry the maximum number
of stock without deterioration year after year without any rest; (2)
that in order to get the most out of a range in a given period of time
it must be stocked to its maximum ¢arrying capacity.

By maximum e¢arrying capacity is meant the highest possible num-
ber of stock that the range will turn off in good condition at selling
time, witbout taking into account the condition of the range itself;
in other words, it has reference purely to the present crop of stock,

‘RANGE DETERIORATION. 39

without reference to the range or to future production. The opti-
mum carrying capacity, on the other hand, means the highest num-
ber that can possibly be carried without injury to the range, providing
for the production of future crops, and eventually, therefore, bringing
the best results both to range owner and occupier.

On ranges which are not stocked beyond the optimum the animals-
are not likely to depasture any one spot, and a sufficient number of
plants of alfilerilla, native clovers, danthonia, and other bunch grasses
will thus be left to ripen seed for another season’s growth. Having
more space over which to roam, the stock will spend less time in one
place, doing less injury to the bunch grasses by their trampling. The
number of stock which make the difference between the maximum
and optimum carrying capacity costs more to the range owner in per-
manent and irreparable damage to his property than they can bring
back in cash value. While every head of stock put upon the range,
until the optimum is reached, is equivalent to so much additional
profit, every head carried beyond the optimum net only ceases to bea
source of profit, in that it limits the supply of nutritious plants both
for itself and the rest of the herd, but also causes deterioration to
the range. The amount of deterioration can not be measured by the
actual amount of feed eaten, but increases with geometrical progres-
sion to an astonishing degree, determined by the number of useful
plants left to ripen seed for the next year’s crop. Looked at from
this standpoint, it is evident that when an annual range begins to
deteriorate the deterioration will continue at a rapid rate until checked
by a change of method in management.

Stockmen all admit that overstocking is a bad practice, and con-
demn it; but each man has his own conception of what overstocking
is, the number of acres required per head ranging all the way from
3 to 20 acres, varying somewhat, to be sure, according to the condition
and situation of the range. Doubtless the point where the over-
stocking commences is determined, with most stockmen, by the con-
dition of the stock, without regard to that of the range; few would
realize that by running all the stock the range will carry they are
actually overstocking—that is to say, seriously depleting the range and
reducing the number of head which can be carried in future years.

Unlike arable land, which is cultivated and resown artificially year
after year and on which the crops can therefore be cropped close
without injury, a stock range has to seed itself naturally, and on
account of the high mortality percentage among seeds under ordinary
conditions it must be allowed to seed itself heavily or else it will
deteriorate.

Excessive land valuations.—In discussing values the distinction
between an annual and perennial range must be borne in mind. The
annual range is much more subject to change than the perennial
range; therefore the difference between maximum and optimum

A() STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

capacity is very much greater in the case of the former than of the
latter. The value of a range, moreover, depends not alone on the
number of head it will carry, but also, and primarily, upon the nature
and quality of the forage. If the prevailing forage plants are annuals,
or even perennial bunch-grasses, the maximum ¢arrying capacity, for
a few years at least, may be as high as a range producing turf-forming
or creeping-rooted grasses, but its optimum will be much lower.

How overstocking effects deterioration.—Two factors are at work on
range deterioration. One is the destruction of the choicest forage
plants by selection; the other the introduction of uneatable weeds
which, multiplying rapidly, crowd out the often less vigorous, useful
species, and fill the spaces left vacant.

So long as there is a choice left to them, stock naturally wander over
a range, picking out from among other plants the specially palatable
species. Thus, by close cropping, the favorite forage plants may be
almost entirely prevented from seeding. On an ‘‘annual” range
most of the plants, being shallow-rooted annuals, are easily pulled out
and destroyed. As they depend entirely on the production of seed for
the propagation of their kind, it is clear that in this way their num-
ber is rapidly diminished. A few always escape, on account of their
situation in secluded places, or because of their depauperate size, or
from other causes, but these are too few in number or too poor in seed
production to maintain the productiveness of the range.

On a virgin range there is not only an abundance of plants sufficient
to feed all the stock and to seatter seed as well, but also a large quan-
tity of ungerminated seed lying dormantin thesoil. Onthis account
‘it is clear that such a range may be stocked to its maximum capacity,
for a short time, without injury. After a year or two, or perhaps a
still shorter time, the granary of surplus seed is exhausted and heavy
stocking prevents the formation of more than a small quantity of
new seed. Then deterioration commences. Every plant eaten means
not only the loss of one individual but also the destruction of so
much reproductive power. Formerly there were plants enough not
only for forage but also for seeding; now, every one eaten represents
so much seeding capacity destroyed. And herein les the difference
in value (now represented by many dollars) between the annual and
the perennial range. As an annual range depends on the production
of seed for its preservation, close feeding means the destruction of
the next generation as well as the present. A perennial range, on the
other hand, does not depend upon seed for its preservation and often
not for its reproduction; for the individual plants live on from year
to vear and the best of them propagate themselves from their run-
ning underground stems. Such plants can be pastured comparatively
close, not only without injury but with absolute benefit, for close
grazing induces them tc throw out more roois and form a denser turf.

The selection by stock of the choicest of the annual plants hastens

WILD OATS AND ALFILERILLA. AA

deterioration in another way. The reduction in the number of plants
leaves so much more nutriment and space available for the growth of
weeds and other less valuable species. Weeds invariably follow the
introduction of stock, into a country. By range weeds we mean any
plants of thrifty, vigorous habit, which are distasteful to stock. Just
as certainly as the selection by eattle of the choicest plants makes it
difficult for them to maintain a foothold, so surely does the same
process of selection allow the weeds every opportunity to increase, by
maturing and scattering seed without let or hindrance.

These weeds are largely alien species, introduced chiefly by acci-
dent, with the advent of the white man, or along with the domestic
plants and animals introduced by himata later date. They are often
plants which have become hardened to much more adverse conditions
of soil and climate than they find in California, and therefore grow
with greater luxuriance and spread with greater rapidity than species
which have, by long continuance under uniformly favorable condi-
tions, shown a tendency to ‘‘run out” or to deteriorate. The struggle
for existence seems to be as keen among plants as among human
beings, and if one species or race is killed out by its animal or other
enemies, another race, less liable to attack by the same kind of enemy,
steps in to fill the space. Under these conditions it is evident that
on an overstocked annual range those species which are especially
palatable to stock will have little chance to propagate their kind.

Wild oats and alfilerilla.—lf the destruction of the most palatable
forage plants by selection is constantly going on, how could such pala-
table species as wild oats and alfilerilla ever have become so abund-
antly naturalized as to be the prevailing plants on the ranges in the
relatively short time since the Spanish occupation of California? And
if they had at one time been able to establish themselves as aliens
would not the same factor which enabled them to establish them-
selves prevent their being killed out by pasturing at a later date?
Is it not more probable that they are indigenous species, which have
suffered numerical diminution in the same way as have the wild elo-
vers? Such are the questions asked in this connection. We are not
at present prepared to answer them decisively, but to anyone who
has watched the spread of introduced weeds in California, especially
those from the Mediterranean region, the exotic origin and rapid
increase of wild oats and alfilerilla will not appear improbable, even
in the face of general range deterioration. Usually European weeds
find themselves quite at home on the soil of this State, new to them,
and comparatively unimpoverished. Annual species, especially,
spread with great rapidity. If the wild oats and alfilerilla were intro-
duced at the time of the Spanish occupation, when cattle were com-
paratively few in the land, they would have abundant opportunity to
“take” the country in spite of being relished by stock. Later, how-
ever, as cattle multiplied, and sheep were introduced, forage became

42 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

relatively less abundant, and at the same time weedy species, such as
small fox-tail and squirrel-tail, less liked by cattle, came in, grad-
ually monopolizing the ground left vacant by the destruction of the
wild oats and alfilerilla.

Exactly the same process of introduction and eradication is taking
place at the present time under our own eyes. Soft chess has,
within recent years, taken possession of the hills in some parts of the
State, much to the disgust of stockmen. Sooner or later the cattle
have taken such a faney to the new forage, either from necessity or
choice, that it, in turn, has been almost eaten out, enough being left
to show that it was once there, and other species not yet liked by
cattle are taking Its place. |

So this process of elimination or natural selection goes on. Species
which are liked by stock, but which are unable to retain their hold on
the soil when grazed or trampled, disappear or become scarce, and
other species come in and take their place. These, in turn, must pass
away if unfitted to maintain the struggle for existence. Only the fit-
test survive—the fittest from the standpoint of the plant—the least
fit (the weedy, useless species) from the standpoint of the rancher.

Bunch grasses.-—The fact has already been alluded to that the
so-called ‘‘ bunch grasses ” are not as well adapted for grazing as are
running and turf-forming species. On account of their tuft-forming
nature the former are more easily pulled out than are species which
spread by means of underground rootstocks.

Sheep versus cattle.--Cattlemen think that the great depreciation in
carrying capacity is due to sheep, claiming that sheep do far more
injury to a range than do cattle. This is only partially true, however,
and while it may be true that a range overstocked with sheep will
suffer more on account of their close biting than one overstocked with
cattle, which do not graze so clo:ely, it is equally true that a sheep
range carrying only the optimum number can be kept in better con-
dition than a cattle range which carries the maximum number. Sheep
do no more damage than cattle if properly handled and not crowded,
and they can be kept without injury to the range; in fact, it was
claimed by intelligent stockmen, accustomed to handle both sheep and
cattle, that certain sheep ranges in Mendocino County were at the
time of this investigation in better condition under sheep after three
years of comparative drought than they were thirty years ago.

it is an indisputable fact that some men have made a financial suc-
cess of sheep raising on the open range, and that at the same time
their ranges are in as good condition, and in some cases better, than
adjoining cattle ranges.

It is not improbable, however, that sheep do more damage than
cattle to perennial ‘‘ bunch-grasses.”

Summary.—The cause of range deterioration, therefore, is over-
stocking, and it is the animals themselves that do the damage. Fur-

RANGE PRESERVATION. 43

ther, the point at which overstocking commences has not been
decisively defined and varies with the individual range. What, then,
can the stockman or. range owner do to improve his condition? He
may well say that the range is run for the sake of the stock that can
be raised on it and not for the sake of preserving the feed, and that
though stock may be the cause of range deterioration they can not be
eliminated from the problem.

The task is only just begun, however, and the problem can not be
solved immediately. In the following pages some suggestions are
offered which it is hoped will prove steps toward the desired end.

RANGE PRESERVATION.

it is important to reiterate that if range renewal or improvement is
to be accomplished, the practice of carrying the maximum number of
stock on the range, or, in other words, of overstocking, must be aban-
doned. It is believed that it is possible to permanently raise the
optimum carrying capacity, but it is impossible to do so while heavy
stocking is practiced. ,

Suecess on one range, as compared with failure on an adjoining one,
is not due to any difference in location or other range conditions, nor
to any differences in the grasses or other plants composing the pas-
ture; the natural conditions generally are, or have been, identical
with those of adjacent and less-productive ranges. The secret lies in
good management, and good management primarily consists in carry-
ing the optimum number of stock and allowing plenty of grass to go
to seed—to go to waste, as the majority of stockmen would eall it.

Mr. J. H. Clarke and Colonel Harding, both successful stock
ranchers on a large scale, are agreed in declaring that over thirty
years of experience proves that this surplus grass, instead of being
wasted, is equivalent to so much capital invested in the range, and is
the cause of the prosperity of the few as compared with the failure or
poverty of the many. Such men do not stock nearly up to the maxi-
mum. Owning their own ranges, and therefore not having to pay
exorbitant interest on the capital invested, they are content with the
profits obtainable from the optimum number of stock. As aresult of
this, they not only maintain a uniform carrying capacity without
deterioration, but gain in other ways. Their wool is always cleaner
and commands a half a cent a pound more than that of their neigh-
bors, and both their mutton sheep and theirlambs command a higher
price. ‘‘ We aim,” writes Mr. Clarke, ‘‘to keep no more stock than
the range will easily support. Better a superabundance of feed than
a scareity.” The amount of grass to be left to seed and the optimum
carrying capacity can be determined only by actual experience. Both
Colonel Harding and Mr. Clarke find, however, that about 8 acres
to a head of horned stock and 13 acres to a sheep are all that their
ranges can carry without injury.

44 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

Formation of a seed bed.—The advantage gained by allowing a
great deal of grass to go to seed is not only the amount of seed seat-
tered, but also the formation of a seed bed of decaying leaves and
stems, which encourages germination and protects the young seedlings.

Preserve the timber and brush.—Next in importance to preservation
of the forage plants is the conservation of moisture in the soil and the
preservation of the water supply. The ranges which we are discuss-
ing lie along the headwaters of the main streams of the coast, and
the preservation of a perennial flow of water in these streams is of
as much importance to places many miles away as to the ranges
themselves.

In their desire to increase the carrying capacity of the range many
men commence first to clear the land of all timber and brush with a
view to producing just so many more acres of pasture. Unfortu-
nately, however, by clearing away all the brush and timber from the
guiches and springs the moisture content of the soil is diminished,
the available drinking water for stock is rendered less accessible, and
there is probability of greater financial loss than profit from the
labor expended. In the Redwood belt it is noticeable that where
both timber and brush have been cleared away springs and small
streams have been dried up, although the conditions for the preserva-
tion of perennial springs and streams are more favorable there than
on the upland ranges. Not only is the summer water supply dimin-
ished by removing timber and brush from the headwaters of the
streams, but the soil on the steep slopes washes away with much
greater rapidity, owing to lack of protection from fiercely beating
rains, thus increasing the depth and steepness of the canyons, which
in turn facilitates the washing away of soil from the upland slopes.
In Europe and elsewhere much valuable land has been ruined in this
manner.

Maximum versus optimum stocking.—While it is impossible with
our present imperfect knowledge of the facts of the case to deter-
mine the exact difference between the maximum and the optimum of
‘ange capacity in any case, it seems certain that a very slight reduc-
tion in size of the ‘‘ band” of stock to a point below the maximum
would soon make an appreciable improvement in the carrying capacity
of the range and would be a step toward its renewal.

The practical stoeckman will naturally inquire whether the result-

ing gain would be worth the sacrifice of even that number of head of :

stock, representing just so much hard cash deducted from the annual
profits of the range. If it would not, he will not be likely to take any
further notice of the suggestion. In order to get as accurate an
answer to this question as is possible without direct experiment, let
us take a hypothetical case by way of illustration.

We will suppose that we are dealing with a range of 1,800 acres,
stocked to its maximum earrying capacity, and that this maximum is

tai ie ad ea

MAXIMUM VS. OPTIMUM STOCKING. 45

5 acres to one head of cattle, and its optimum 8 acres to one head.
This range would thus be carrying 360 head of stock; reduced to the
optimum, the herd would number 225, a reduction of 135 head, or 375
per cent.

Though such a reduction seems heavy, it must be borne in mind
_ that some of these annual ranges have naturally suffered a reduction
by overstocking till it takes 10, 12, or even 20 acres to support an
animal, which means that the herd has been reduced from sheer lack
of feed from 360 to 180, 150 or even 90 animals to an area of 1,800
acres. This does not take into consideration the possibility of still
further reduction of carrying capacity to 20 acres to a head, which is
said to be sometimes the case, but which is perhaps due to very excep-
tional circumstances.

The question to be considered is whether it is more profitable (1) to
continue stocking up to the maximum capacity of the range, with the
almost certain result of a forced reduction of the herd by 50, 60, or
possibly 75 per cent in a comparatively short time from lack of feed,
or (2) to voluntarily reduce the herd to the optimum capacity of the
range, equivalent to, say 37% per cent reduction, with the result that
this capacity can be maintained indefinitely, that the stock will be in
Getter condition all the time, and will command higher prices than
those from depreciated ranges.

A few figures may help to make the caseclearer. We have no data
as to the actual number of years that one of these annual ranges can
continue to carry the maximum number of head without deterioration,
nor do we know how long it has taken them to run down to their pres-
ent poor condition. It does not seem probable, however, that it would
take more than fifteen years of carrying all the stock a range can pos-
sibly feed to reduce its capacity from 5 acres to 10 or 12 acres per head.

If, for argument’s sake, we take the arbitrary figures of fifteen
years, and assume, moreover, that the range of 1,800 acres has been
used to fatten yearlings, all of which were sold off the succeeding year
and new stock purchased, the aggregate number of cattle carried in
the fifteen years under the plan of stocking up to the maximum would
be 3,930, and at the end of the period the carrying capacity would
have been reduced from 360 head to 150 head. Supposing that this
ratio of 150 head could be maintained for the next thirty years, we
should have an aggregate number of 8,430 head of yearlings raised in
the forty-five years.

If, however, we reduce the herd to the optimum at the outset, we
should find the aggregate number raised would be 3,375 head, in fif-
teen years 050 head less than by the old method; but at the end of
the fifteen years the herd numbers 225 instead of 150, and this num-
ber can be maintained indefinitely; in ten years more we find that the
aggregate has risen to 5,625, as against only 5,430 by the maximum
method, an increase of 195 head, and by the end of forty-five years

46 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

the aggregate is 10,125 head, an increase of 1,695, which at a valua-
tion of $15 per head would be worth $25,425.

Unfortunately these figures are not decisive, owing to lack of data
as to the actual length of time it takes an overstocked range to deteri-
orate from 5 acres per head to 10 or 12 acres per head. It is hoped,
however, that they will be of some service to stockmen in calling to
their attention a method by which they may calculate for themselves,
with the data of their own ranges before them, whether it will pay to
reduce their flocks and herds to the optimum carrying capacity of
their ranges.

But whether the hypothetical figures are based on correct premises
or not, the accuracy of the statement can not be denied that there are
men to-day who are profitably running cattle and sheep ranges on the
basis of the optimum carrying capacity of the range, while their
neighbors on the maximum method find it hard tomake a comfortable
living, and many of them have mortgaged their ranges up to the limit
or have lost them through foreclosure.

RANGE RENEWAL.

The stoeckman whose range capacity is already as low as 10 or 12
acres per head is less interested in the difference between maxi-
mum and optimum than in the problem of range renewal, i. e., the
possibility of restoring his range to a capacity of 8 or possibly 5 acres.

Though something can be done toward range renewal, probably
without actually diminishing the income over a period of years,
by ascertaining the optimum carrying capacity and reducing the
band correspondingly, it may be found necessary, where a range
is worn out, to resort to other measures to restore it to a profitable
condition. In such cases a complete rest of one or even two years
will undoubtedly prove highly beneficial, giving the native forage
plants a chance to attain a luxuriant growth, and to produce and
seatter the largest amount of seed possible, in order to reestablish
themselves. Where a mortgage has been foreclosed, such a period of
rest can often be accomplished while waiting for a purchaser or ten-
ant. But to make it effective, the fences must be maintained in good
condition, in order to keep out stray stock, especially horses. Some
of the ranges in Mendocino County, which were lying idle during the
summer of 1899 on account of foreclosure proceedings, instead of
improving by the enforced idleness, suffered from the depredations of
bands of stock which had either strayed there or were purposely pas-
tured free of charge, en route to market, having gained access through
gaps in the dilapidated fences. If a range is worth anything at all, it
is surely worth keeping well fenced, and the cost of maintaining good
fences should be as a mere trifle compared with the increment of
value gained by a period of complete rest.

In many cases it may not be necessary to give the whole range a

RANGE RENEWAL. 47

rest at one and the same time. Mr. Bentley, in his report’ on the
forage plants of central Texas, tells us that in that region, where over-
stocking has resulted in serious range deterioration, ‘‘ some of the lead-
ing stockmen are now dividing up their holdings into several pastures,
one being held exclusively for winter use, another for spring, another
for midsummer or autumn. This practice will, inthe case of the winter
pasture, enable the early grasses to ripen and shed their seeds.”
Such a course may not prove as practicable or as beneficial, however,
on the annual ranges of northwestern California, where the majority
of the forage plants start growth together and mature at almost the
same time, as it may be in central Texas, where, as Mr. Bentley says,
‘‘there is a great variety of native forage plants and grasses, com-
prising species that appear in succession from February to Novem-
ber.” The practice may prove more adaptable, however, to the
ranges of the coast-bluff belt.

Instead of resting the whole range at once and thereby, perhaps,
missing a season of exceptionally good prices or of more than the usual
quantity of feed, a portion of the range, say one-seventh part, could
be fenced off and rested each year, the herd being weeded out at the
same time, so that it will not exceed the optimum for the remainder
of the range. At the end of seven years the rotation should be
repeated, and there is little doubt that by some such method the ¢ »-
rying capacity could be gradually raised.

Where injurious weeds, such as tacalote (Centaurea melitensis)
abound it will be found worth while to mow them off before they
head out.

There are two questions to be answered in deciding the policy of
range holding and stocking. First, is it good policy to allow the cash
value of the range to deteriorate, if there is a way to prevent it? It
is a true proverb which says ‘‘ you can not both eat your cake and
have it;” and overstocking is, as we have endeavored to prove, equiv-
alent to living upon both interest and capital, a sure way to diminish
both. :

The stoeckman who owns his range will see the force of this point
more quickly, and will be more willing to act accordingly, as far as
he is able, than the renter. He will realize that as long as he can
make a living off his range he ean not do better than invest any sur-
plus in improving the condition of both range and herd by weeding
out and keeping the number down to the optimum. The stockman
who rents his range, however, acts on a different principle. His sole
object is to make the most out of the range and to invest his surplus
in more stock or in other lines. Naturally he does not care anything
about maintaining the value of the real estate, as if does not belong
to him, and as a result the rented range usually suffers most severely.

“Bentley, H. L.: A Report upon the Grasses and Forage Plants of Central Texas;
U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Agros., Bull. 10: p. 10, 1898.

48 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

This evil can be remedied to a great extent by one or other of two meth-
ods: (1) A system of long-term leases, under which it is tothe tenant’s
interest not to materially reduce the carrying capacity, at least during
the term of his occupation; and (2) a clause in the lease limiting the
number of head to be carried on the range. In the latter case it will
obviously be necessary to exercise great care not to sign for more
than the optimum.

The second point to be considered is one which affects both the
owner and the holder of a long-term lease. It is whether it is ever
wise, from the point of view of personal economy, to stock beyond the
optimum earrying capacity. In view of the fact already pointed out,
that when once commenced the deterioration of an annual range pro-
ceeds with great rapidity, it would be poor policy to continue to carry
1 head to 5 aeres, or 360 head on a 1,80)-acre range, with the certainty
of its reduction to perhaps 150 head in fifteen years’ time, if by redue-
ing the herd at the start to 1 head to 8 acres, or a total of 225 head, the
same total profits could be obtained in a total period of twenty years
and the size of the herd and the range capacity be undiminished at
the end of that time.

RANGE IMPROVEMENT.

By range improvement we mean not only its restoration to its
former carrying capacity, but also an improvement of the character
of the range and of the quality of the feed. This is effected by the —
introduction of other kinds or races of forage plants.

In order to understand fully the problem of range improvement,
thereby guarding against wasted effort in directions which offer little
chance for success, it is necessary to appreciate the conditions which
determine the character of the forage plants on a particular range.

What causes the difference between the annual and the perennial
ranges of northwestern California? The perennial ranges (if we
exclude alpine meadows) are found only along the coast bluffs, where
the climate is relatively cool and moist in summer, owing to proximity
to the ocean and the prevalence of summer fogs. It must not be sup-
posed from this that these maritime perennial ranges keep green
throughout the summer. They do, however, keep green some weeks
later than the interior ranges, which feature, together with the fact
that they do not deteriorate as rapidly as the annual ranges, makes
them more valuable than the latter.

The annual ranges, on the other hand, are found in the interior, :
beyond the reach of the sea fogs. The open ridges are exposed to
the full force of the scorehing north winds and great sun heat dur-
ing a period of sometimes eight to ten or even more weeks of absolute
freedom from rain.

It is evident that the essential characteristics of good forage grasses
best adapted to the dry, interior ranges are: (1) Adaptability to the
peculiar climatic conditions; (2) tenacious hold on the soil, i. e.,

THE COAST-BLUFF BELT. 49

capability of withstanding trampling and grazing; (3) persistence for
more than one year; (4) propagation from the roots rather than from
seed.

The species which appear to best meet these requirements, and
which are therefore reeommended for trial on the annual ranges, are:
Buffalo grass, blue grama, white clover, red fescue, sheep’s fescue,
hard fescue, bur clover, California lotus, and Australian ray grass.

All these species have proved suited to the climate and conditions at
Berkeley, but whether or not they will be found thoroughly adapted
to the climate of Mendocino and Humboldt counties can be deter-
mined only by experimental culture on the ranges themselves.

If possible, they should be planted out at the time of the first fall
rains. They should in any ease be carefully fenced from stock until
thoroughly established. It will be advisable to sow at the same
time seed of some annual species, such as soft chess, which will act as
a nurse crop while the perennial species are establishing themselves.

If it is intended to sow seed in quantity, it will be wise to have it
earefully examined at the time of the purchase, and only to purchase
clean seed, free from seeds of injurious weeds. Some stoekimen have
injured their ranges almost as much as they have benefited them
by the introduction of injurious weeds along with the seed of valu-
able forage plants.

The writer does not presume to preseribe an absolute and infallible
remedy for worn-out ranges. Each range has, to some extent, its own
individual peculiarities, and the man who has lived several years on
the land, through divers seasonal variations, should be the one best
fitted to decide how to treat that land. In matters of range renewal
and improvement it is the practical and well-informed stoekman him-
self who will have to bring the ranges back to their fuil carrying
capacity. However, such a man is always looking for suggestions,
and it is with the view of bringing them directly to his notice that
these pages have been written; they are simply suggestions, and their
adaptability to divers conditions must be decided by the stockman.

THE COAST-BLUFF BELT.
CLIMATOLOGY.

The climate of the belt lying immediately along the coast is more
equable than that of the higher interior region; proximity to the
ocean renders the winter climate milder, and snow is almost unknown,
except, perhaps, on the high peaks of Cape Mendocino. In summer
the prevailing northwest winds are cold and the heavy sea fogs prevent
any excess of sun heat, so that even in July and August warm under-
clothes and an overcoat are acceptable adjuncts to a stage ride. The
summer precipitation is greater here than in the interior.

This moisture of the atmosphere makes it difficult to harvest a good

18766—No. 12—02-——4

50 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

quality of grain hay, and oat hay, of which a considerable quantity is
raised, is usually dark in color. The greater moisture also favors the
development of rust, which does much damage to grain hays.

The stock ranges along the coast are limited to the narrow mesa or
beneh between the cliffs and the first mountain ridge which separates
it from the redwood belt on the east. At Point Arena, Point Gorda,
and Cape Mendocino the mesa is broader, as the redwood belt does
not follow the coast line, which juts into the ocean at these points.
The topography at the two latter-named places is exceedingly moun-

tainous and the country correspondingly wild and sparsely settled. |

THE MESA LANDS.

Soius.—The soils on the coast bluffs differ materially from those of

the interior plateau and from those of the valleys. In many places,

as on the bluffs at Point Arena and Fort Bragg, they contain a large
admixture of blown sand, which renders them light and friable. Such
soils are often poor in quality and unfitted for the production of good
grass crops, except where they have been fertilized.

By heavy manuring every other year good crops of red and black
oats are produced. The second year stock are grazed on the ‘‘ volun-
teer” crop, or the ground is planted with potatoes, which are well
suited to the soil conditions. The soil also seems to be well adapted
to carrots, mangel-wurzel, and cabbages, which are grown as fall
feed for cows. |

These poorer sandy lands are usually characterized by growths of
the dwarf native pines, Pinus muricata and P. contorta.

Between Manchester and Greenwood, and particularly on a strip of
land some 5 miles long near Miller, a richer and apparently deeper
soil oceurs, producing splendid crops of wheat, barley, and other farm
produce, and proving well adapted to the cultivation of beans and
potatoes. Sweet peas, field peas, edible peas, cabbages, and other
horticultural crops, in spite of the foggy summer climate, are here
grown as seed crops for the San Francisco market. Some 80,000
bushels of grain and 1,500 tons of hay are reported as having been
produced in this vicinity in 1899.

Grasses and other forage plants.—As before noted, perennial grasses
are relatively more abundant in numbers, both of species and indi-
viduals, along the coast than in the interior. On account of the length
of time occupied by the inland journey and the occurrence of an
exceptionally dry season, the writer’s coast trip was made too late in
the season to find all the grasses in condition to collect, and the deter-
mination of some of the most important of them has therefore to be
left to a future occasion.

Danthonia californica, Festuca rubra var., an undetermined species
of Poa, Calamagrostis aleutica, Deschampsia ceespitosa and D. holct-
formis are the prevailing grasses, danthonia being the most abundant

:
Fr
;

‘THE MESA LANDS. Hill

and often forming a dense turf of excellent pasturage. The ray
grasses, perennial, Italian, Australian, and many-flowered, have been
introduced and are now freely naturalized in many localities, adding
materially to the value of the uncultivated forage. Soft chess is met
with but sparingly.

Bull clover (Trifolium wormskjoldi) is common in springy places,
and bear clover (7. fucatum virescens) on slidy, clay soils on the higher
ranges; these two are considered as among the best native forage
plants. White clover (7. repens) has become established along road-
sides; bur clover (Medicago denticulata) and black medic (J. lwpulina)
are sparingly naturalized. Red clover (7. pratense) has become nat-
uralized in a few localities.

California lotus (Lotus americanus) is commonly met with in dry
places among brush and on the open ranges on Bear River Ridge.
Rib grass (Plantago lanceolata) is naturalized in several places, and
furnishes a small quantity of late summer feed.

A variety of red fescue forms a somewhat sparse turf on the sandy
summits of the cliffs. In crevices and on ledges of the rocky cliffs
Calamagrostis aleutica, Agrostis densiflora, Poa unilateralis, and spe-
cies of Bromus and Elymus hold the soil in company with such mari-
time plants as Hrigeron glaucus, Mesembryanthemum cquilaterale,
Lupinus micheneru, ete.

The cooler and moister summer climate of the coast induces the
forage plants to keep green two or three weeks later than on the inte-
rior ranges; they are at their best in the months of May and June.
The yield of forage diminishes seriously toward the end of July, and
the feeding of dairy stock with forage crops then begins. At Point
Arena some dairymen commence feeding with field peas, which are
fed green, following with root crops, of which carrots and mangel-
wurzel are principally used. The improved strains of cattle parsnip
are well worth trial in this section.

Few sheep are now run on the mesa lands; cattle are raised through-
out the belt, there being a steady demand for beef in the lumber
camps of the adjacent redwood region.

The high bluff lands of Cape Mendocino, from Bear River Ridge to
the Upper Mattole, furnish probably the finest perennial stock ranges
of Humboldt County. Danthonia forms a large part of the forage,
and perennial ray grass has become established in many spots, add-
ing much to the early winter feed. Rib grass is occasionally met
with and furnishes a small amount of late feed, but it is of very
little value for cattle. Our visit was made too late in the season to
find the native grasses in condition for collection and determination.

Orchard grass and oats are successfully cultivated on these hills,
and are used both for hay and silage, two or three silos having been
built during the last two years. Several creameries are in use, the
butter being carried a distance of 10 to 15 miles to the nearest rail-

52 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

road for shipment to Eureka, whence it is sent down to San Francisco
by steamer. .

The Cape Mendocino ranges are in greater need of early winter-
growing grasses than of summer grasses, differing entirely in this
respect from the ranges of the interior. The species which seem most
likely to answer this need are: Many-flowered millet grass (Oryzopsis
miliacea), reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea), Texas blue grass (Poa
arachnifera), tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius), Japanese wheat
grass (Brachypodium japonicum), rescue grass (Bromus willdenow2),
awnless brome grass (Bromus inermis). ,

THE WHITE-ASH PRAIRIES.

On the ridges which separate the smaller coast streams, e. g., the
Noyo and Albion rivers, are found the ‘‘white-ash prairies,” or
‘“white plains,’ which are almost confined to this part of the State.
They do not cover the whole of a ridge, but predominate near its
western extremity where the sandstones outcrop. As its popular
name implies, the soil on these prairies is white and powdery; it
quickly works up into a thick dust resembling white wood ashes. It
is about a foot in depth, overlaying a sandstone of very loose texture,
and is said to be so impervious that after water has been allowed to
stand for two weeks it scarcely penetrates more than an inch or two.
A preliminary examination, kindly made by Prof. R. H. Loughridge,
of the agricultural experiment station at Berkeley, shows that this
soil contains a high percentage of humic acid and a low percentage
of phosphates and mineral matter; the subsoil (sand) is weak in phos-
phates. Dr. Loughridge points out that on such soil grain crops could
not be expected to live, though a few of the hardier grasses might
succeed, and that liming the soil would probably improve it, counter-
acting the excessive acidity.

As might be expected of a soil with such marked peculiarities, it is
characterized by a distinctive flora; such trees and shrubs as attain a
normal height on adjacent soils become dwarfed to almost pigmy
size on these white plains; the species most frequently met with are:
Tan-oak (Quercus densiflora), Prickle-cone Pine (Pinus muricata),
Coast Scrub Pine (Pinus contorta), Gowan Cypress (Cupressus goveni-
ana), Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla), Salal (Gaultheria shal-
lon), Huekleberry (Vacciniwm ovatum), Rhododendron (Rhododen-
dron californicum), Myrica (Myrica californica), Labrador Tea
(Ledum glandulosum), Manzanita (Arctostaphylos nummularia and
other species) and species of Ceanothus.

Sub-shrubby and herbaceaous plants are also dwarfed; the follow-
ing are common: Polygala californica, Helianthemum scoparium,
NXerophyllum tenax, Hypericum concinnum, Gentiana menziesii, G.
oregana, Liliwm maritimum, Panicum unciphyllum, Agrostis pringlet,
and Lotus lewcopheus.

THE WHITE-ASH PRAIRIES. ers)

Perhaps owing to the sandy and impervious nature of the soil, sphag-
num and peat swamps have formed in the low hollows on the plains,
a particularly remarkable feature at such a low altitude, and especi-
ally so as neither peat nor sphagnum are known to us as occuring
elsewhere in the Coast Ranges of northern California. The plants
most commonly met with in these swamps are: Ledum glandulosum
(the prevailing species), Lomaria spicant, Gaultheria shallon, Myrica
californica, Veratrum fimbriatum, Viola sarmentosa, Trientalis ewro-
pea latifolia, Sisyrinchium californiceum, Lotus formosissimus, Cor-
nus canadensis, Hypericum anagalloides, Gentiana menziesii, Pote-
rium officinale, Phalaris cerulescens, Drosera rotundifolia, Campanula
linneifolia, Calamagrostis aleutica, C. bolanderi, C. crassiglumis,
Agrostis pringlei, Juncus bolandert, J. falcatus paniculatus, J. supin-
iformis, several species of Carex, among which (according to Boott *)
oceur the following: C. phyllomaniaca, C. mendocinensis, C. vallicola,
OC. sterilis, C. salina mutica, C. livida, C. polymorpha, C. gynody-
namia, and C. luzulina. The grasses are remarkably few both in
Species and individuals.

According to the State Survey Botany,* the sphagnum moss appears
in the three species, Sphagnum cymbifolium, S. mendocinum, and 8S.
subsecundum longifolium.

Other plant species occur on the plains and in the sphagnum
Swamps, but are generally less abundant or less noticeable. An
analysis of the flora as above listed shows that its most character-
istic feature does not consist so much in the presence of endemic spe-
cies as in the commingling of the adjacent redwood and coast floras,
with the addition of species commonly found in thin soils at compara-
tively high altitudes, and of certain peculiarly boreal species, rarely
if ever found at other points in the Coast Ranges, and when met with
elsewhere in the State, usually occurring at very much higher alti-
tudes. The phenomenal feature is, therefore, the occurrence of sev-
eral species belonging to high altitudes and latitudes, along a narrow
coast mesa not more than 200 feet above sea level, and between the
thirty-ninth and fortieth degrees of north latitude. (ALI the species
here listed with the exception of Arctostaphylos wva-ursi were col-
lected between the Navarro and Tenmile rivers).

To make this point clearer we may classify them as follows:

_ Plants met with on comparatively dry ridges at various altitudes in
the redwood belt: Cupressus goveniana, Quercus densiflora, Poly-
gala californica, Castanopsis chrysophylla, Xerophyllum tenax, Gaul-
theria shallon, Vaccinium ovatum, Hypericum concinnum, Helian-
themum scoparium, Rhododendron californicum, Ceanothus spp.,
Myrica californica, Arctostaphylos nummularia, and other species.

Plants of moist, shady spots in the redwood belt: Viola sarmentosa,
Trientalis europea latifolia.

“Brewer, Watson, and Gray, Publications of the Geological Survey of Califor-
nia, Botany, 2 Vols., 1876 and 1880.

o4 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

Coast-bluff species: Pinus contorta, P. muricata, Calamagrostis
aleutica, Phalaris coerulescens, Sisyrinchium californicum, Lotus
formosissimus, Gentiana oregana.

Boreal plants: Cornus canadensis, Arctostaphylos uwva-ursi, Juncus
supiniformis, Hypericum anagalloides, Poteriwm officinale, Drosera
rotundifolia, Lomaria spicant, Ledum glandulosum, Sphagnum men-
docinum, S. cymbifolium, S. subsecundum longifolium, Carex valli-
cola, C. salina mutica, C. livida (reported from ‘‘peat bogs and pine
barrens from New Jersey and New York to Labrador and Lake
Superior and high northward Alaska”).

Species apparently endemic: Veratrum fimbriatum, Lilium mari-
timum, Campanula lnneerfolia, Carex phyllomaniaca, C. mendoci-
nensis, C. gynodynanmia, Agrostis pringlei, Calamagrostis bolandert,
C. crassiglumis. |

Attempts to cultivate the white-ash prairie lands have been made
with great labor and little result. Oats, potatoes, beans, peas, corn,
and cabbages will grow fairly in the best spots, and velvet-grass
(Holcus lanatus), a little ray grass, and squirrel-tail seem to thrive;
orchard grass is said to grow but poorly. Tall oat grass would proba-
bly thrive as well as the velvet grass and make a more valuable crop.
Taken all in all the conditions are very unpromising for the produc-
tion of agricultural crops, and it is doubtful whether the land would
ever pay for the cost of clearing and breaking. Danish settlers claim,
however, that it would make good farm land if laid down to some
pasture grass, grazed first with horses, second with cows, third with
sheep, and finally plowed and treated with all the stable manure
available. The writer could not find that any one of them had tried
to put this precept into practice, however, and it is at best highly
doubtful whether any good pasture grass could be induced to grow
there.

The native vegetation of the white-ash prairies furnishes almost as
clear an indication of the physical and chemical nature of the soil as
do the alkali weeds in the Great Valley Region and the Colorado
Desert. The poor soils are invariably indicated by the low stature
of such shrubs and trees as grow more luxuriantly on adjacent areas
of good soil, particularly salal, chinquapin, cypress, Xerophyllum,
and bracken, and the presence of labrador tea, Lomaria, and Arctos-
taphylos nummularia. -

BOTTOM LANDS.

Alluvial lands are not commonly met with in northwestern Cali-
fornia on account of the mountainous nature of the country. The
principal alluvial areas in the coast section are the bottom lands of
Eel River, with its broad flood plain, the flood plain which fringes
Humboldt Bay, and the bottom lands of Smith River. <A small eulti-
vated area of bottom land oceurs at the mouth of the Garcia River.

BOTTOM LANDS. 55

A few acres of unreclaimed salt marsh are also found at the mouths
of the Noyo and Ten-mile Rivers.

Soils.—On the flood plains at the mouth of Eel River and the other
streams emptying into Humboldt Bay, we find the richest agricultural
soils of the region. As already pointed out these flood plains are not
delta deposits, but are the result of corrasion of the rocks of the
wild-cat formation. Until within recent years they have been sub-
ject to tidal inundation, but a large portion has been reclaimed from
the ocean by means of embankments. There still remain large areas
of unreclaimed salt marsh, however.

The fertility of these bottom lands is a source of constant wonder
to those unacquainted with the prevailing conditions. To quote
again from the Pacific Rural Press:

Mr. A. Kansen, of Ferndale, keeps 35 cows on 34 acres, secures an average yield
of 300 pounds of butter, and buys no feed whatever. The cows are on pasture
nine months of the year, and for the other three are fed hay and roots, all grown
on the 34 acres. J. E. Brown, also of Ferndale, keeps 35 cows on 40 acres, his
average yield and feeding being like the preceding. These records are strictly
credible when one knows the natural pasturage conditions prevailing and the
favoring climate for the growth of supplementary succulent food supplies. The
cows are simply good selected grades of dairy breeds. The average in the dairy
sections of Humboldt County—that is, on the best of the valley lands—is said to be

4+ acres to the cow.

Forage crops.—The principal forage crops are red clover, oats, and
Italian ray grass for hay, peas, and a little corn for soiling, and
mangel-wurzel (locally known as ‘‘ beets”) and carrots for root crops.
Some alfalfa is now grown both for pasturage and hay, and barley
for ensilage. Stock are frequently pastured on red clover. Dutch
clover has taken possession of many of the pastures.

Red clover is considered by far the best and most productive crop,
but farmers complain that after some years of successful growth it
‘‘runs out” and can not readily be started again. As Professor Hil-
gard has repeatedly pointed out to them, this is undoubtedly due to
excessive acidity of the soil, induced by lack of lime, and can doubtless
be remedied by liming. A deposit of lime has been found on Jacoby
Creek, between Eureka and Arcata, which promises to solve the diffi-
culty and to render the continued successful cultivation of red clover
a possibility. The following method of treatment is reeommended by
Professor Hilgard, who writes to the Eureka Watchman, as follows:

Relative to the amount of lime to be applied to your sediment lands I would say
that half a ton is about the minimum from which you can expect any prompt
results, and from 1 to 2 tons is the usual gauge in such cases. However, the best
amount varies materially in different lands; and, as yours contains so little clay,
I should say the smaller dressings might be adequate if repeated, rather than
using at once the 4 or 5 tons commonly prescribed in the old country.

The way they use it there is to haul it in piles, let the rains slake it, and when

dry enough spread with shovels, much as you would stable manure; then harrow
or cultivate in; but any way to spread it uniformly will do. It can be made into

D6 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

whitewash and filtered from a cart tank, as is commonly done in Holland. It
should not be allowed to air slake, as in that case it loses some of its efficacy. and its
action becomesslower. Of courseit should be understood that quicklime will injure
seeds and plants with which it comes in direct contact. It should be applied on
the bare soil. and is especially useful if put on top of a green manure crop or sod
turned under. After a few weeks it becomes sufficiently mild to be innocnous to
seeds unless applied in very large amounts. In the case of orchards or vineyards
small successive doses—say half a ton to the acre—are preferable to heavy appli-
cations.

Complaint is also made that it is difficult to get a good stand
of red clover on newly plowed land. This difficulty can be largely
overcome by sowing Italian ray grass and red clover together. The
grass serves as a nurse crop for the clover, increases the yield of hay
during the first two years, and gradually ‘“‘runs out,” leaving a good
stand of clover.

Land values.—While upland grazing lands in large tracts vary in
price from $4 to $15 per acre, according to location, carrying capacity,
ete., the rich bottom lands of the Lower Eel River Valley, near Areata,
and at Salmon Creek, Elk River, and Jacoby Creek are held at from
S75 to $300 per acre, according to location and state of improvement.*
Well-improved farms, fully seeded to red clover, pay good interest on
the latter sum. The best farm lands near Ferndale are said to
command $500 per acre, and are hard to obtain at the price.

SAND DUNES.

Dunes of drift sand of greater or less extent are found throughout
the California coast. Wherever they occur they prove detrimental
to agricultural interests, not only representing so much waste land
which might otherwise be utilized, but surely, even if slowly, spread-
ing, and sometimes completely ruining what might have been the best
of farm lands. On account of the slowness of their encroachment,
however, farmers and landowners are often indifferent to the damage
being done.

The principal sand dunes of the coast of northwestern California
occur at the following points:

At the mouth of the Garcia River at Point Arena, on the Sheppard
Ranch. Though not extensive at this point, they are steadily
encroaching on the limited area of rich river-bottom land, and have
already done no little damage.

Between Pudding Creek near Fort Bragg and the mouth of the Ten-
mile River, some 10 miles north, occur the worst cases on the whole
of the coast area which came under our observation. At Inglenook it
is Said that the dunes have encroached on good farm land to the
extent of 500 feet in two years. At Cleone a half acre of orchard has
been ruined, the trees having been almost wholly covered with sand
in four years’ time. A ranch house has had to be moved and the

* Resources of California, San Francisco, September, 1900.

Se ee

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, WSs Dept. of Agriculture. PATEL VAG

FiG. 1.—A LAGOON AT CRESCENT CITY, CAUSED BY DRIFTING SAND, WHICH HAS FLOODED A LARGE
AREA OF PASTURE LAND.

FiG. 2.—YELLOW SAND-VERBENA (ABRONIA LATIFOLIA), OF SOME USE AS A SAND BINDER.

SAND DUNES. 57

county road diverted in order to avoid the dunes, which at this point
are of great size.

At Eureka the peninsula which almost incloses the harbor (see Map
III) is chiefly composed of sand dunes, which do not, however,
encroach on the mainland, though possibly doing some damage to the
harbor itself by silting up the channel.*

The conditions at Humboldt Bay are described in the following
extract:°

Humboldt Bay is 14 miles in length and from one-half mile to 4 miles in width.
It has a tidal area of 28 miles and 35 linear miles of navigable channels. It is situ-
ated near the center of the coast line of Humboldt County and extends nearly
parallel therewith, being separated from the ocean by two narrow peninsulas of
sand. Being so completely landlocked, this harbor is of the utmost importance
to a coast so barren of good harbors as is the Pacific; but its usefulness has in the
past been seriously impaired by shifting sand bars, which obstructed its entrance,
and by the shallowness of some of its inner channels. In 1889 the General Goy-
ernment began improving the entrance to the harbor by extending two jetties of
rock, one on each side of the channel, so as to confine the waters to a permanent
way. This work was completed in September, 1899, at a cost of more than
$2,000,000.

Eel River for a few miles of its lower course is navigable for small vessels, and
has at several periods had regular steamer connection with San Francisco; but its
navigation is often interrupted by the formation of sand bars at its mouth.

At Crescent City the mouth of a creek has been completely closed
by drift sand, forming a large lagoon (Plate VI, fig. 1) and causing
the winter flooding of extensive grazing lands. The protection
afforded by a native pine forest appears to have prevented the
encroachment of sand on the farm lands at this point. Should this
timber be cut at any time for fuel, which is likely to be done as popu-
lation increases and fuel becomes more searce, a large tract of dairy
land would be jeopardized. Precautions should be taken against
such a result.

Big Lagoon, at the mouth of Maple Creek, Humboldt County, may
perhaps have been formed in the same way as the lagoon at Crescent
City.

Native sand binders.—The following native plants grow naturally
on the sand dunes, and act to a greater or less extent as sand binders:

Abronia latifolia (yellow sand verbena) (Plate VI, fig. 2) is com-
mon at the mouth of the Garcia River; of some value as a sand binder
on account of its heavy, prostrate stems and large, flat leaves, but not
the best plant for the purpose, as it does not root at the nodes, and
oftentimes the sand is blown away from beneath the branches, leav-
ing the large, fusiform roots exposed to wind and sun.

Arctostaphylos wva-ursi is a prostrate species, forming large mats
on almost pure drift sand on the sand spit opposite Eureka, where it

“Since the above was written complaint has been received by the writer of
serious injury to lumber mills caused by the drift sands at this point. Reclama-
tion work has already been started by the planting of beach grass.

»** Resources of California.”

58 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

becomes a valuable sand binder, rooting from the nodes. It fruits
freely in such situations, readily produeing its kind.

Bromus, sp., iS a common grass on overgrown, sandy land at Samoa,
near Eureka, helping to bind the drifting sand.

Convolvulus soldanella is not uncommon on the sand dunes,
growing in almost pure sand, but apparently of little value as a sand
binder, as it does not mat on the surface; the sand freely blows away
from between the plants.

Corethrogyne californica obovata is a common species on the sand
hills at Samoa, near Eureka, but of little economic value.

Elymus sp. grows luxuriantly in drifting sand at Samoa, making a
promising sand binder. It is said to be eaten by stock while young
and until about 14 inches high, when it becomes too coarse for forage.

Festuca rubra var., grows luxuriantly though not abundantly in
drifting sand on the sand spit opposite Eureka. It might be used
with advantage in company with Poa douglasvi, as the one would to
some extent complement the other. It also gives promise as a forage
plant, but we have no data as to its actual forage value. At Samoa
this variety seeds very freely, a quality lacking in many of our sand
binders.

Juncus sp. is common in loose sand on the sand dunes of Humboldt
Bay.

Poa douglasw (Sand-grass) is thoroughly at home in the drifting
coast sands from San Francisco northward, but on the California
coast is of little use as a sand binder, being too sparse in its growth
to cover the surface, and too short of stature to check the drifts,
which blow right over it, or out from under it, leaving the roots bare;
these when exposed quickly dry out and die. In company with the
variety of Festuca rubra mentioned above it might be used to advan-
tage, aS the one species to some extent makes up for the deficiencies
of the other.

Tanacetum camphoratum is a common species on loose, drifting
sand at Point Arena and Humboldt Bay.

Salix sp., a species of willow, is also common in some places, and at
Inglenook has been planted as a check hedge, but with only partial
success.

Elymus arenarius (Rancheria grass) occurs in sandy soils on
Drakes Bay and Point-Reyes, but was not collected within our limits.
Though too sparse in growth to be of much value if used alone as
a sand binder, this grass will doubtless prove serviceable if planted
in company with other species.

Lupinus chamissonis (Blue lupin) is commonly met with from
Point Arena southward and is of some use as a sand binder. The
yellow tree lupin (L. arboreus) was not found north of Point Reyes.
Collinsia bartsicefolia occuring in drift sand near Cleone is an annual
plant. Several other plants of lesser importance grow on the sand
dunes.

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fia. 1.—BEACH GRASS AT POINT REYES, CAL.

FIG. 2.—PLANTING BEACH GRASS AT CAPE COD, MASSACHUSETTS.

METHODS OF PREVENTING DRIFTING SAND. 59

Methods of preventing drifting and reclamation of waste dunes.—
Although the above-named and other native plants grow freely on the
dunes, no one of them proves thoroughly satisfactory as a check to
sand encroachment. Almost all of these species grow so slowly and
so sparsely as to allow the sand to blow away from their roots, which
die on exposure. They are, moreover, too dwarfed in stature to check
the drifts successfully. Therefore, if the drifting is to be checked
and the waste dune areas are to be made useful, it is necessary to
remedy this defect. The first point to be gained is to render the sur-
face as nearly stable as possible, in order that useful plants may have
a place on which to grow. For this purpose the cultivation of certain
selected sand-binding plants has been adopted, in Kurope and in the
Eastern States, as being the cheapest and most satisfactory means of
checking and reclaiming drift sands. The following are considered
the most satisfactory sand binders:

Beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) (Plate VII) was introduced at
Point Arena some ten years ago by Mr. Sheppard, a few plants having
been obtained ‘from the commissioners of Golden Gate Park, San
Francisco, who had successfully used it at that place (Pl. VIII, fig. 2).

It has thriven admirably at Point Arena, and now covers about an
acre of the dunes. This grass is by far the best sand binder tried on
the California coast, its dense growth, long under-ground stems, and
long tufts of leaves preventing the sand from blowing away from the
roots. Moreover, the banking up of sand does not in any way injure
the plant, which continues to lengthen its stem and throw out new
roots as fast as the sand piles up around it. Professor Seribner states
that ‘‘a plant will, by gradual growth upward, finally form stems and
roots sanded in to the depth of fully 100 feet.”

Beach grass is most successfully propagated by transplanting in the
autumn. Vigorous plants are selected and pulled up by hand. Usu-
ally a bundle of half a dozen plants is held together by one man, while
another makes a hole inthe sand. This hole should be 18 inches deep,
and is made with a long spade or shovel which is forced into the sand
and then pressed forward, making an opening into which the beach-
grass roots are thrust; the spade is then withdrawn and the sand
pressed close about the roots. The grass is not planted in rows, but
in quineunx, or irregular order, | and 25 feet apart, according to the
slope.“ In California the planting should be done in the early fall, as
the growth of roots is greater at that season, and the chances of suc-
cess are consequently increased. Moreover this gives the plants the
full benefit of warm soil, and of the whole season’s rainfall. If sown
in the spring, there is danger of the young plants drying out or burn-
ing up during the summer months. On the California coast the sow-

‘Scribner, F. L. Economic Grasses; U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Agros., Bul. 14.
1898: Scribner, F. L. Sand-binding. Grasses; reprint from Yearbook Depart.
Agric. 1898.

60 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

ing of seed usually proves unsatisfactory, as the seed is either buried
too deeply by the drifting of the sand, or blown away by the strong
trade winds.

The main objection to beach grass is the cost of planting. In Bel-
gium, Scotland, and England, and on the coast of Massachusetts,
however, the importance of reclamation has been considered to far
outweigh the initial cost of planting, and hundreds of acres have
been systematically planted according to the method described above.
At Cape Cod, on the Massachusetts coast, some 90 acres were planted
in three years, from 1895 to 1898. The cost amounted from $60 to
$65 per acre, requiring 15 men and 1 horse about two days, work-
ing nine hours per day, to cover an acre with plants. On the Cali-
fornia coast, where land is still cheap and labor costly, the farmers
claim that they can not afford to pay so much for the reclamation of
sand dunes.

On some portions of the English coast the work of sand-dune plant-
ing is performed by the municipal or other local governments. Heavy
penalties are inflicted for pulling up or otherwise removing a single
plant. This appears to be the most just method of treating what is
more than a private nuisance. It does not seem fair that a farmer or
private landowner should be compelled, in order to save his land, to
pay for the planting of many acres of sand dunes which do not belong
to him and from the use of which he can derive little or no profit. It
seems more just that the duty of reclamation should devolve upon the
publie.

Sea lyme grass or Rancheria grass (Hlymus arenarius), which is
sparingly found in sandy places along the California coast from Santa
Cruz northward, is a sand binder of only medium quality and is ree-
ommended for cultivation in company with beach grass. Professor
Seribner states that ‘‘these two grasses when combined seem admira-
bly adapted for the purpose of forming a barrier to the encroachment
of the sea. The sand that the beach grass arrests and collects about
itself the lyme grass secures and holds fast.” It has little, if any,
forage value.

Utihzation of sand dunes. —The question is often asked how sand
dunes may be utilized and what forage plants will grow upon them.
Beach grass and sea lyme grass, though sometimes grazed when very
young, can not be considered as forage plants. It has been stated
that awnless brome grass (Bromus tnernis), broncho grass (B. maxi-
mus gussoni), and Bromus sterilis will grow well in such situations;
but their culture as sand binders is only in the experimental stage, and
their nutritive value appears to be comparatively low. Bull clover
(Trifolium wormskjoldii), one of the best of the native California
clovers, makes a dense turf and luxuriant growth (sometimes knee-
deep) in low, moist flats between the dunes, but does not appear to grow
on the dunes themselves. Atriplex halimoides, one of the Australian

UTILIZATION OF SAND DUNES. 61

saltbushes which seems well adapted to the cool summer climate of
the coast, is worthy of trial in these situations. Itis a valuable forage
plant and seeds freely, but we have not yet demonstrated whether or
not it will stand trampling. On the Santa Barbara coast sand dunes
it has been found that Hriogonum fasciculatum and Lotus glaber, two
native perennial plants, grow luxuriantly through the dry season and
produce an abundance of nourishing feed which is much relished
by stock. It is doubtful, however, whether they would tolerate the
climate of the northwest coast.

Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) is reeommended for experimental cul-
ture aS a sand binder, on account of its rapid and luxuriant growth
and ready propagation by seed, but we are not aware that its value
for this purpose has been determined. It is anexcellent forage plant,
and is becoming naturalized in some parts of the State.

Modiola (Modiola decumbens) has been found useful on the alkali
soils of the interior, and is said to be greedily eaten by stock. If it
will tolerate the cooler summer climate of the seashore, and the loose,
light soil of the sand dunes, it will make a valuable addition to the
list of sand-binding plants, as it roots freely from the joints and
spreads rapidly, forming a dense mat of herbage.*

New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia expansa) is a succulent beach
plant, said to be eaten by stock. It has already become naturalized
on the sandy seabeaches along the coast in the vicinity of San
Francisco.

Tree mallow (Lavatera assurgentiflora), native of Anacapa Island,
has been successfully used in San Francisco for the last fifty years
as a sand binder, wind break, and ornamental shrub. It grows to
a height of 6 to 12 feet, and thrives on light, sandy soil; it is also
valuable as a forage plant, cattle browsing greedily on the foliage.

It does not appear that sand-binding qualities and forage value are
usually combined in the same plant, but it is possible that when once
reclaimed some forage crop might be raised on the dunes. It is an
open question, however, whether stock feeding on sand dunes should
ever be practiced on account of the danger of starting fresh drifts.
Mr. Sheppard, who has farmed at the mouth of the Garcia River for
nearly forty-five years, traces all his trouble with drift sand to the
time, some twenty-five or thirty years ago, when a neighbor of his
commenced sheep raising on the dunes, tempted to do so by the high
price of mutton and wool. In his eagerness to make money while
the prices were up, this man overstocked and left the sand almost
bare, with the result that it began to drift for the first time within
Mr. Sheppard’s memory. Profiting from this experience the latter
gentleman has kept his stock off the dunes for some time, with the
result that a new growth of sand grass, sand verbena, blue lupine,

4Since the above was written this plant has been found growing wild at Tomales
Bay, along the coast.

62 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

rush, willow, ete., is starting. But none of these plants checks the
sands in the ‘‘ drifts,” and more vigorous measures of reclamation
must be adopted if his alluvial bottom lands are to be saved.

Beach grass makes an excellent and very durable thatch, and has
been used for the manufacture of coarse paper.

Esparto (Stipa tenacissema) and albardin (Lygeum spartum) are
worth trial on these dunes, as they have proved well adapted to the
climate at Berkeley. They are natives of the sandy shores of south-
western Europe and northern Africa, and are tall perennial grasses,
with long, stiff, and very tough leaves, from which ropes, baskets,
mats, hats, and other articles are woven. ‘The leaves are employed
largely in England and in this country in the manufacture of paper,
for which purpose they are superior to straw. Esparto is one of the
most important articles of export from Algeria, and more than 2,000.
tons are annually shipped from northern Africa and Spain to Great
Britain. ‘‘Ten tons of dry esparto, worth from $18 to $25 per ton,
can be obtained from an acre under favorable circumstances.” These
grasses may be cultivated either by seeds or by division of the root;
but the latter is the more common method. Specimens for trial are
offered by the director of the agricultural experiment station at
Berkeley. (See Pl. VIII, fig. 1.)

At Cape Cod it has been found possible to raise fine growths of pine
trees and shrubs on the dunes withinthree years after the first plant-
ing with beach grass. The species used were a native pine (Pinus
rigida), Scotch pine (P. sylvestris), seaside pine (P. maritima), and
Austrian pine (P. austriaca), Scotch broom (Genista scoparia), and
bayberry (Myrica cervfera). (Pl. VIII, fig. 2.) Al of these would
probably thrive equally well on the coast of northwestern California,
but it is not necessary to import trees for the purpose, as the native
coast pines, so common in the region, would answer as well or better
and make fuel of an excellent quality. Of these the most valuable
for this purpose would be the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) and the
prickle-cone pine (P. muricata). The serub pine (P. contorta) is also
valuable, particularly as a wind-break. Some of the rapidly growing
Australian acacias, particularly A. longifolia sophore and Albizzia
lopantha, are also satisfactory as nurse trees, wind-breaks, and for
ornamental effect. Such trees and shrubs can easily be raised when
once the beach grass is established by scattering seeds among the
tufts of the latter. In addition to their value for fuel, such a growth
of trees acts as a wind-break, an exceedingly useful feature in such
localities. |

THE REDWOOD BELT.
As before noted, the redwood belt consists for the most part of a

dense forest of timber occupying a narrow strip of country immediately
back of and almost parallel with the coast. Owing to the immense

Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1.—VIEW IN GRASS GARDEN, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BERKELEY. ALBARDIN AT
THE RIGHT.

FiG. 2.—SAND DUNE RECLAMATION AT CAPE COD, MASSACHUSETTS, SHOWING PROTECTIVE COVERING
FORMED OF BEACH GRASS (AMMOPHILA ARENARIA (L) LINK).

THE REDWOOD BELT. 63

size of the trees and their abundance, the forest shade is here very

dense. On the bottom lands few other species of trees are met with.
On the ridges forming watersheds between the different forks of the
coast rivers the redwoods are more scattered, and other species of
trees, together with some brush, occur more frequently.

Grasses are scarce in the redwood forest, Bromus levipes, Melica
bromoides, Ghia bua macrophylla, Trisetum canescens, and Des-
champsia elongata being the prevalent species. These grow mainly
near the borders and openings of the forest, and provide only secant
feed for stock. The rare but characteristic Asperella californica,
found in the redwood belt near San Francisco, does not appear to
occur as far north as Mendocino County.

Forage plants other than grasses are not plentiful, and are princi-
pally eaten by hogs and other stock as a change of diet from exces-
sively luxuriant range feed. Of these the following are noteworthy:
Squaw lettuce (Claytonia perfoliata) is said to be a favorite food of
cattle and hogs. Thistles (Carduus spp.) and the tubers of wild
horseradish (Dentaria sp.) and roots of bracken (Pleris aquilina lanu-
ginosa) are eaten by hogs. Oxalis oregana is sometimes eaten in small
quantity by cattle and horses. The common sword fern (Aspidium
munitum) is said to be eaten readily by calves and stock for a day or
two after feeding on clover on the ranges. Hogs doubtless also feed
on salal-berries (Gaultheria shallon) and huckleberries (Vacciniwm
ovatum), which are abundant in the redwood forest, and on the bulbs
of liliaceous plants. Acorns of Quercus densiflora, chinquapin nuts,
manzanita berries, and some deer brush are found on the higher ridges.

‘The introduction of tall oat grass, rescue grass, awnless brome
grass, and wood meadow grass (Poa nemoralis) on the higher dry
ridges might increase the amount of forage. It is not likely that any
valuable forage plants will be found to thrive in the forest itself; nor
would it be desirable from the point of view of the lumberman and
forester to attempt to turn the forest proper into pasture land, the
two interests being diametrically opposed.

When cleared, this redwood land, where not too steep, makes good
pasture if sown to orchard grass and white clover. On account of the
astonishing vitality of the redwood stumps, however, it is found neces-
sary to go over the ground at least once a year chopping off suckers
in order to keep the land clear. It is said that if this is done at the
end of July or early in August it is only necessary to do it once a year,
but that if cut at any other season the operation has to be repeated
one or more times during the year.

The narrow strips of bottom land, where cleared of timber, pro-
duce excellent forage and general farm crops.

64 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.
FODDER CROPS.
FODDER CROPS NOW CULTIVATED.

The principal fodder crops cultivated in the region are noted here.
Oats is the most extensively grown hay crop. Next in importance are
red clover, wheat, barley, Italian ray grass, alfalfa, and velvet grass.
Small quantities of timothy, many-flowered ray grass, orchard grass,
and rye are also used. Mixed hay crops are seldom, if ever, grown.
Wild hay is mown in a few mountain valleys, and the wild oats on
the hillsides are sometimes made use of in the same manner.

For soiling and ensilage field peas, red clover, alfalfa, corn, oats,
and barley are grown. ‘Tares, alsike, sainfoin (esparcette), and
crimson clover do not appear to be used.

For root crops carrots are most commonly grown. Mangel-wurzel
is being tried in one or two places along the coast. Turnips and
parsnips do not appear to have been tried. The climate is probably
too dry in summer for turnips, except in the extreme north.

PLANTS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION OR TRIAL.

Beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) is an invaluable grass for check-
ing the spread of drift sands. The
method of planting is discussed on
page 99.

Black medic (Medicago lupulina)
(fig. 1) seems to be well adapted
to the climatic conditions of this
region, as it has become thoroughly
naturalized and grows luxuriantly
in several localities. It is consid-
ered a useful pasture plant for wet
meadows.

Of blue grama (Boutelowa oligo-
stachya) Professor Scribner writes
as follows:

It is a perennial, 6 to 18 inches high,
its strong rhizomes and numerous root
leaves forming dense and more or less ex-
tensive patches of excellent turf. * * *
It frequents the bench lands of Montana,
growing at elevations of from 35,000 to -
4,000 or 5,000 feet, and not infrequently
covers wide areas. No other grass better
withstands the trampling of stock, and
it is unsurpassed for grazing purposes.

Fig. 1.—Black medic (Medicago lupulina). In the early days in the Southwest it

formed a large proportion of the hay
delivered at the various military posts and stage stations and was considered the
best obtainable there. Like the buffalo grass, it cures during the dry season in
the turf into perfect hay, losing none of its nutritious properties.

+ FODDER CROPS. 65

It has given satisfactory results at Berkeley, and is a very promis-
ing grass for dry, open upland ranges.

Buffalo grass (Bulbilis dactyloides) is low growing, rarely more
than 5 or 6 inches high, producing numerous creeping and wide.y
spreading branches, which root at the joints, each joint produc-
ing a new plant. In this manner it rapidly spreads over a wide-
area, forming a close mat of fine-leaved herbage greatly relished by
all grazing animals. At Berkeley buffalo grass is a summer grower,
not starting before April, but continuing green till late in the fall.
It withstands drought well, and on this account would probably form
a valuable addition to the summer pasture of the upland ranges, sup-
plementing the winter feed of the
prevailing annual grasses. Seed EN p
is noteasily obtained, butthe plant
isreadily produced by roots, which
should be planted in early spring
and protected from stock till well
established. Small quantities of
roots can be obtained on applica-
tion to the Director of the Agri-
eultural Experiment Station,
Berkeley.

YMRS A AKG Y

Bur clover (Medicago denticu- wi Way ys r
lata) (fig. 2) is one of the most ; \ If ORS 1
XS

nourishing forage plants for late
summer feed. Cattle do not touch
it early in the season, so that it has ' Po
opportunity to mature large quan- a 5
tities of its prickly seed pod (burs). mite

When ripe the seeds are said to
contain a large proportion of nu-
tritive matter and are eaten with
great avidity by stock, either from
the plant or licked up from the
ground after falling, in July, Au-
gust, and September, the season when green feed becomes most scarce.
Cattle placed on stubble in which there is an abundanee of bur clover
become exceedingly fat at this season of the year. As the burs
become badly entangled in the wool of sheep, this plant is not desir-
able for sheep ranges, but in its stead the closely related smooth bur
clover might be grown.

Bur clover is said not to thrive so well on the drier uplands back
from the coast, but it is nevertheless worth trial in such situations.
It luxuriates in the comparatively moist valleys. Itis best sown by’
scattering the burs over the ranges in autumn, as they will germinate
and take root with the advent of the first rains. It is not necessary
to harrow the ground or to cover the burs, unless they are sown in

18766—No. 12—02

Fic. 2.—Bur clover (Medicago denticulata)

5

66 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

spring. The burs are offered for sale by San Francisco seedsmen, or
ean readily be collected in great quantity in the counties around San
Francisco Bay, where it is abundant.

California lotus or Dakota veteh (Lotus americanus or Hosackia
purshiana) (fig. 3), on account of the lateness of its growing sea-
son, is considered valuable as a range forage plant, helping to fill
the gap between the drying up of the ripened annual grasses and the
starting of the new autumn growth. It is thoroughly at home on dry
upland ranges, occasionally growing even among chaparral. Seed of
the California lotus is not on the
market and must be collected in its
native habitat.

Creeping bent (Agrostis alba _sto-
lonifera) is a valuable perennial pas-
ture grass, making a good bottom
growth. On account of its running
rootstocks it is useful for mixing
with less distinctly turf-forming spe-
cies. It is not a productive hay
grass. Creeping bent requires a
moist soil, and is most likely to sue-
ceed in the mountain valleys.

Diss (Ampelodesmos tenax) is a
tall, coarse species from the arid re-
gions of North Africa which was in-
troduced by the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station at Berkeley a few years
ago. Seeds of this plant were later
received from Professor MacOwan,
of the Agricultural Department of
Cape Colony, as of ‘‘a forage plant; ”
shortly afterwards the writer learned
through a correspondent in Lake
County that he had received seed of the original distribution made by
the station and that the plant had proved remarkably successful with
him, producing a great deal of forage on dry, chaparral-covered hill-
sides where no other forage plants would grow, and that it was greedily
eaten by stock.

Field peas (Pisum arvense) are already grown along the coast for
feeding to dairy cows during the dry summer months. Still greater
use can be made of this sweet, palatable, and very nutritious fodder
plant with the increasing use of the silo, as it makes an excellent
quality of ensilage. Asa ration for stock, ensilage of oats and peas
mixed is considered almost unrivaled. Some reported failures with
trial crops of field peas are probably due to the use of weevil-damaged
seed, and careful examination of the seed shouid be made before pur-

Fic. 3.—Dakota vetch (Lotus anvericanus).

Ce eee ee a,

‘ FODDER CROPS. 67

chasing, to avoid disappointment. Peas and oats (or rye) for ensi-
lage may be sown together, as the former will climb up and help to
support the latter. :

Hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula) is a valuable pasture grass on
dry, sandy soils unfit for the growth of better grasses, as it resists
long periods of summer drought. Although it is a bunch grass, not
producing a turf, it can be used to advantage in mixtures with other
grasses. It grows well at Berkeley.

Johnson grass (Andropogon sorghum halepensis) in the Southern
States yields a good crop of hay, which is said to be much appre-
ciated by stock, but in the coast region of middle and northern
California it has not given great promise as a hay grass. When once
established it becomes one of the most troublesome and most difficult
weeds to eradicate from cultivated ground. The root-stocks are pro-
duced in great abundance, literally filling the soil; they develop very
rapidly, are fleshy, and are said to be much liked by hogs. It would
be well worth trial in openings among the redwoods on the headwaters
of the Noyo and Navarro rivers, where large bands of hogs are raised
in the woods. If seeds and pieces of root were carried down these
smaller coast streams, they would not be likely to do any damage to
farm lands, on account of the narrowness and depth of the gorges
through which they empty into the ocean and the absence of broad
alluvial flood plains. It appears unwise, however, to introduce
Johnson grass along the headwaters of Eel River, on account of pos-
sible injury to the valuable farm lands at the mouth of that river;
being one of the richest sections of the whole region of northwestern
California, deterioration of land values there would tend to increase
taxation over the rest of the region. Johnson grass has been tried
with only unsatisfactory results in dry, arid soils in California.

Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) is being strongly recommended as a
forage crop on account of its vigorous growth and high nutritive
value. Smith states that hairy vetch is an excellent soiling crop, one
of the best that has been introduced into the United States, although,
on account of the high price of the seed and the large amount which
must be sown per acre, it has not been widely cultivated. The seed
should be sown at the rate of a busheland ahalf peracre. Thenutri-
tive value of the hay is high, analyses by Coudon in 1890 showing 23
per cent of crude protein. The yield varies from 13 to 4 tons per acre,
according to the fertility of the soil. Hairy vetch has proved well
adapted to the climate of Berkeley. It might be sown with oats or rye
for an ensilage crop, and is also recommended for tria] as a sand
binder, on account of its rapid growth.

Knot grass (Paspalum distichum). A valuable forage grass for
overflowed lands, the margins of lagoons, lakes,and ponds. The yield
varies considerably with the season; in wet years knot grass will yield
a good crop of hay, but in dry seasons there will be scarcely enough

68 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

fohage for forage. The stems are somewhat succulent, and with the
leaves, are tender and much liked by stock. In the marshy borders
of the lagoons at Crescent City it has formed a valuable addition to
the wild forage, and around Clear Lake it is said to have taken pos-
session of the Tule lands within the last few years.

Meadow foxtail (dlopecurus pratensis), Professor Scribner says,
‘‘is a valuable grass for moist meadows and pastures, particularly
the latter, on account of its early growth, being one of the earliest
of cultivated grasses. It is very hardy and on good soil yields a
large amount of excellent forage. In Europe it is regarded as one
of the best pasture grasses. It should enter into all mixtures for per-
manent pastures, because it is very lasting, highly nutritious, and
earlier than most other species. It is never sown by itself, but is
always mixed with other grasses and forage plants, because it gives a
full yield only in the second or third year.” It soon dies out from
poor and dry lands; and though adapted for moist situations, and
consequently for irrigated lands, it will not endure stagnant water.

This grass must not be confused with the *‘ large foxtail” and ‘‘ small
foxtail,” species of Hordeum, which are such troublesome and injuri-
ous grasses. They are not even nearty related plants and bear no
resemblance to each other.

Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) yields a heavy crop of excellent
hay and is a good pasture grass for woodland pastures, yielding
excellent early grazing. ‘‘ The aftermath is unequaled in amount by
any of the grasses ordinarily cultivated for hay.” Professor Seribner
says orchard grass has been known to yield 27,905 pounds of green
forage, 11,859 pounds of hay, and 11,910 pounds of green aftermath
per acre.

The success of orchard grass for woodland pastures has already been
demonstrated in the region of Scotia and Arcata. It has also been
tried with success between Willits and Sherwood. The main objection
raised against it is that it is difficult to obtain a good stand during the
first year. This difficulty can largely be obviated by sowing the seed
of some rapidly developing grass, such as tall oat grass or Italian ray
grass, at the same time. These will also act as fillers or bottom
grasses, occupying the spaces usually left between the tufts of orchard
grass. Moreover, Professor Scribner states: ‘‘ The tendency of orchard
grass to form tussocks is much diminished and the sward greatly
improved where sown with other grasses.” He also recommends
heavy rolling ‘‘for checking or preventing the tufted growth which
this grass naturally assumes; by this operation the tufts are pressed
down to the level of the other grasses ahd the turf becomes more
uniform.” When sown alone, 3 to + bushels of seed are required to
the acre.

Ray grass (Lolium spp.). Three distinct varieties are sold by
seedsmen, and much doubt and confusion exist as to their relative

ee

FODDER CROPS. 69

merits and uses and as to the differences by which they may be
distinguished.

Italian ray grass (Loliwm wtalicum A. Br.) (fig. 4) is a rapid-growing.
grass, forming a dense turf, and in Europe is valued as one of the
best hay grasses for temporary pastures and as a nurse crop for red
clover, orchard grass, or meadow foxtail. As it runs out in two
or three years, it is not reeommended as the sole ingredient of per-
manent pastures. Professor Scribner states that ‘‘on stiff, heavy
clays, or on very dry soils, it does not do well, but on good, calcareous
loam or marls, or on moist,
loamy sands, when the soil is
in good condition, it is very
productive, and no other grass
repays manuring so well. Few
grasses develop more rapidly
than this, and where the soil
is rich and its fertility main-
tained by applications of
liquid manure, cuttings may
be obtained within three or
four weeks from seeding, and
at intervals of a month or six
weeks successive crops may
be harvested.”

On the Eel River bottom
lands this is considered the
best variety for cultivation, as
it is such a rapid grower,
shooting up even at the end
oF July orein Aucust. Lhe
objectionable feature is its
habit of running out after two
or three years. This difficulty
ean be remedied only by
resowing.

Italian ray grass may always
be distinguished from other Big: 42 Malianrac grace
varieties by its few-flowered
spikelets and long awns (beards) (fig. 4). The young foliage is of a
bright green color.

English perennial ray grass (Loliwm perenne) is much more perma-
nent in character than Italian ray grass, but is less rapid in growth
and starts later in the season. In England it is considered a very
valuable forage plant, being particularly well adapted to the climatic
conditions, but Professor Scribner considers that in this country it
will never be as highly esteemed as timothy. Perennial ray grass is
best suited to moist, rich loams or clays, and responds promptly to

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70 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

the application of quick manures. Like Italian ray grass, the peren-
nial species has but few flowers to the spikelet, but it is usually at
once distinguished by the absence of awns. The young foliage is of a
dark green color.

Australian ray grass (Lolium perenne tenue) is nothing more than
a perennial ray grass which appears to have developed greater drought-
resisting qualities by long cultivation in Australia. It is a somewhat
wiry, tough form, especially adapted to cultivation on dry hillsides.

Many-flowered ray grass (Lolium multiflorum) is a variety having
very large spikes and many-flowered spikelets. It has become abun-
dantly naturalized in northern and middle California, and seems well
adapted to the climate. It has recently become naturalized on the
hills near Cloverdale, and is there considered a valuable forage grass.
On the bottom lands of the Garcia and Eel rivers it grows luxuriantly,
and in the former locality is used as a hay crop, yielding fully 3 tons
to the acre. (Sheppard. )

Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is one of the heaviest producers
of foliage, and the most nutritious of any of our cultivated forage
plants. The climate over a large proportion of the State of Califor-
nia is not adapted to its culture, but there is no apparent reason why
it should not thrive admirably in the higher mountain valleys of
northwestern California. It is possible that the soil of Sherwood Val-
ley may prove too sandy for this species, but its importance as a for-
age crop makes it well worth a thorough trial there. In heavy alluvial
soil at the experiment station at Berkeley and on the Eel River bot-
tom lands it has produced immense crops. It is frequently found,
however, that red clover runs out after a few years. Professor
Hilgard considers this is undoubtedly due to excessive acidity of the
soil, which can be counteracted by treatment with lime (see p. 45).
In England it is customary to sow Italian ray grass and red clover
together, the former acting as a nurse crop for the latter, keeping out
weeds and increasing the first year’s yield, then dying out.,

Red fescue (Festuca rubra) is a good bottom grass, having: run-
ning rootstocks, which form a compact and durable turf, and produ-
cing a large quantity of fine root leaves. Red fescue endures varied
conditions of soil and exposure, and is recommended both for wood-
land pastures and open meadows and for either sandy or elay soils.
It should be tried in the mountain valleys, both on sandy alluvial or
gravelly soils, and should also be used for the renewal of the open
range, as its habit of growth will tend to check the washing of the
soil and it withstands trampling by stock.

Redtop (Agrostis alba) is considered in the East as one of the best
grasses for permanent pastures and meadows, making a ‘‘ very resist-
ant and leafy turf, which well withstands the trampling of stock.” It
needs a moist soil, and may prove useful in the higher valleys.

Reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is a tall, vigorous, and hardy

‘ FODDER CROPS. CN

grass, yielding a large amount of hay, which is said to be of excellent
quality. It has made a splendid showing at the experiment station
at Berkeley, where it is now being propagated for distribution. The
climate and soil seem to suit it well. It thrives best on comparatively
moist soils and is well worth trial in mountain valleys and bottom
lands as a mixture with other grasses.

Sheep fescue (Festuca ovina) is a valuable bunch grass for pas-
tures on dry, sandy soils, especially if used in mixtures. Seed of the
native varieties growing on the open ranges could he collected with
little expense and used in the preparation of permanent pastures.

Awnless brome grass (Bromus inermis), though a native of Europe,
was introduced into California from New Zealand about the year 1880
by the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California.
It is a perennial with stout, creeping rootstocks and stems 2 to 5 feet
high, and is useful both for pasture and meadow. It is a good winter
grower. Its nutritive value is comparatively low, but it is well worth
trial on the poorer sandy soils along the coast, as it is one of the most
promising grasses for such situations. It is unusually resistant of
drought, and when once established is somewhat difficult to eradicate.
If sown alone, about 3 bushels per acre is recommended.

Tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius), a perennial, has been found
well adapted to the climatic and soil conditions at Berkeley. It
makes an earlier start than almost any other winter grass grown,
and produces a heavy stand of hay. Professor Scribner reports that
on rich, clayey loam it has been known to yield 17,015 pounds of
green fodder, 6,580 pounds of hay, and 13,612 pounds of green after-
math per acre. It grows rapidly, blossoms early, and when cut dries
out readily. On good soils three or four cuttings may be obtained ©
during the season. The early winter growth is much relished by
stock, but it is said that later in the season it becomes somewhat
bitter and cattle do not care for it except in the form of hay. It is
therefore best adapted for permanent winter pastures which are to
be laid off as summer meadows. ‘Tall oat grass is not suited to heavy,
moist soils, but thrives best on loamy sands or loams. It is said to
grow on soils too poor to produce other crops, and therefore seems
particularly well adapted to cultivation on the sandy bluff soils of the
coast and the white-ash prairies as a substitute for mesquite (Holcus
lanatus), to which it is far superior, both in quality and yield. It
should also be tried, along with other grasses, in the mountain val-
leys at the headwaters of the Eel and Russian rivers. It is doubtful
whether it would do well or prove as serviceable as other crops on the
bottom lands of the Eel River and of Humboldt Bay.

As it does not form a very compact turf, tall oat grass should be
sown in company with other grasses, particularly those which form a
good leafy bottom and have running rootstocks, such as white bent.
As it makes a good stand the first year, it might be sown with orchard

(2 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

grass. ‘The one species would largely remedy the defects of the other.
In the East and in Europe tall oat grass is sown in the spring, but in
the Southern States and in most parts of California September will be
the best time for sowing. Professor Scribner recommends that if sown
alone, 5 or 6 bushels of seed to the acre should be used, which at the
present price of seed (about $3.25 per bushel, or $18 per 100 pounds)
will be considered almost too heavy an outlay for the farmer. It seeds
abundantly, however, and by purchasing a small quantity of seed one
season enough can be harvested to sow a large area the following year.
In this way, too, its merits and adaptability to local conditions can be
better determined. ‘‘Owing to the structure of the seed, it may be
sown deeper than most other grasses.” ;

Timothy (Phlewm pratense) is grown to a limited extent in Sher-
wood and Long valleys, but is said to ‘‘run out” within a few years.
This is probably due to sowing alone and to pasturing too late in the
rainy season, either of which methods of treatment renders the grass
more liable to be trampled out. If used as a soiling or silage crop,
this difficulty would probably not be met with. In the East and in
Europe it is customary to sow timothy in mixtures with other grasses
and clovers. It is considered satisfactory only on somewhat moist,
loamy, or clayey soils and is apt to give a light yield on dry soils. It
is not likely to sueceed in northwestern California, therefore, except
on bottom lands and in mountain valleys. Professor Scribner recom-
mends sowing half a bushel of seed to the acre if sown alone, or about
10 pounds if the red or alsike clovers are grown with it.

Veteh (Vicia sativa), an annual climbing plant, grown in Europe
for several centuries as a forage plant, is considered one of the best
soiling crops for cool, moist climates. Except in the New England
States and Canada, it has not been considered satisfactory on this con-
tinent, on account of its extreme susceptibility to dry, hot weather.
On the coast of northern California, however, there seems to be no
reason why it should not be grown for silage or for green fodder for
milch cows, as it makes a luxuriant growth at Berkeley and at Scotia,
keeping green till the middle of May in the former locality and till
the middle of June in the latter. This plant makes good summer feed
for horses, but should not be fed until in full bloom, on account of its
diuretic action (Smith). It is said to materially increase the flow of
milk in cows. Two bushels of seed are required to the acre.

White clover (7rifoliwm repens) is a perennial, forming an excel-
lent turf. ‘‘The foliage, though produced in small quantity, is
sweet, nutritious, and eagerly sought for by all kinds of stock ” (Smith).
In some places white clover is reported as being disliked by stock,
but this is probably due to alsike clover having been mistaken for
it, as the two are much alike in general appearance. Alsike clover
is somewhat bitter and is not so well liked by stock. White clover is
said to possess higher nutritive value than any other species. Some
of the newer selected strains, such as giant perennial white clover,

‘ POISONOUS PLANTS. We

have proved far superior to the ordinary wild form, yielding a much
heavier crop of foliage suitabie for hay. White clover grows well on
the bottom lands of northwestern California around Seotia, Ferndale,
Crescent City, etc., and thrives on a great variety of soils and under
varied conditions. It should prove a useful forage plant on valley
soils and is worth trial even on the open range. It is usually sown
with other forage plants, such as Italian ray grass. If sown alone,
from 6 to 8 pounds of seed to the acre is recommended.

POISONOUS PLANTS.

Mr. Sheppard, of Point Arena, reports that when he first settled
there some forty-five years ago many young animals died, supposedly
from eating ‘‘ poison hemlock” (?), but that there are no longer any
poisonous plants on his ranch, which is situated on the bottom lands
of the Garcia River.

On Bear River Ridge Mr. Farley, who has handled cattle there for
thirteen years, reports the presence of two poisonous plants, which,
however, cause but little trouble. One he ealls ‘“‘larkspur;” the
other is described as a plant ‘‘ growing up like tobacco, about 2 feet
high, and having a blue flower like larkspur.” Calves are sometimes
poisoned with the latter in the spring, while the grass is only a few
inches high and stock are too ‘‘ greedy” to carefully select their food.
When the grass is 6 or 8 inches high cases of poisoning do not occur.
The operation of ‘‘ bleeding” is generally resorted to in cases of poi-
soning by these plants.

Bloating is reported as somewhat common on the ranges in spring,
and bear clover (Trifoliwm furcatum virescens) is sometimes called
‘‘bloat clover,” as it is considered the most common cause of the
trouble. Usually bloating readily yields to the knife if the case is
treated immediately.

Comparatively few specimens of poisonous plants were noted in the
region, and we heard scarcely any complaint about cattle poisoning.
The following species were observed:

Poison hemlock (Coniwm maculatum). A large patch was found
among brush by the roadside, about 5 miles north of Miller.

Larkspur; cow poison (Delphinium trolliifolium) is reported ‘‘com-
mon on ridges throughout Humboldt County, where the stockmen
call it cow poison” (Rattan). Apparently not common in the region,
as we found it at only one place, viz, on a bank by the roadside at
Acorn Station, near Korbel. It is also reported as occurring spar-
ingly on Bear River Ridge, but a search failed to bring it to light.
‘‘Tts toxic character has been questioned. Perhaps it is not equally
poisonous throughout all stages of its growth” (Chesnut).*

Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) appears as escaped from a cottage
garden in the hills back of Point Arena; abundantly naturalized on

* Chesnut, V. K.; Preliminary Catalogue of Plants Poisonous to Stock; reprint
from Annua] Report U.S. Dept. of Agric., Bureau Animal Industry, 1898.

v4 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

the Eel River bottom lands and elsewhere along the coast. In
Europe horses are occasionally poisoned by nipping the plants from
gardens or by eating hay contaminated with it.

Darnel (Loliwm temulentwm) is met with at Ukiah, Fort Bragg,
Ferndale, and in Hupa Valley, but nowhere in great abundance.

False hellebore (Veratrum californicum) is common in moist
places in Sherwood Valley and northward. Reported as poison-
ous to stock and said to be increasing in quantity. ‘‘The root and
young shoots have been reported as being fatal to horses” (Chesnut).

Western Labrador tea (Ledum glandulosum) is reported by Miss
Parsons * to be much dreaded by sheepmen, who claim that it poisons
their flocks. Fortunately for stoeckmen, this plant is practically
restricted in this region of the State to the white-ash prairies and
sphagnum swamps, and is rarely met with in open pastures. The
only places noted by the writer where stock would be likely to find
access to it were some Swamps on the cattle ranges of the Point Arena
bluffs. It also occurs in similar spots on Point Reyes.

Buckeye (Aesculus californica). The fruit is generally regarded as
pcisonous to stock, but may easily be converted into food by washing
and boiling. It is asserted that a small quantity will cause cows to
slip their young (Chesnut). |

Rhododendron (Rhododendron californicum) is reported from Ore-
gon as poisonous to sheep (Chesnut); abundant on the White Plains.

Azalea (Rhododendron occidentale) is very much dreaded by sheep-
men who drive their flocks into the southern Sierras for pasture.
Investigation has shown that the leaves contain a poisonous substance
(Chesnut); commonalong streams throughout northwestern California.

Calico-bush (Kalmia glauca microphylla), common on Trinity Sum-
nit, may possibly prove poisonous to sheep, as some of the eastern ~
species of the genus are considered among the most dangerous of cattle
poisons.

Milkweed (Asclepias eriocarpa). Several authentic accounts of the
poisoning of sheep have been secured against this plant in Mendocino
County. Itis especially feared on very warm days by sheepmen when
they are compelled to drive their flocks through dry, barren valleys.
It sometimes grows on cultivated land, and is cut with hay (Chesnut).

Cocklebur (Xanthium canadense) appears in this region, as already
noted. The young seedlings are reported from Texas as being rapidly
fatal to hogs (Chesnut).

FUNGOUS PARASITES.”

The injury to the forage plants of the region under consideration,
caused by parasitic fungi, is exceedingly slight, in so far as can be
estimated from a rapid survey during a single season. The elevated

«Parsons, M. E., ‘* Wild flowers of California, their names, haunts and habits.’’
San Francisco, 1897.
>The notes here presented were prepared by Dr. W. C. Blasdale.

‘ FUNGOUS PARASITES. 75

upland ranges are singularly free from pests of this sort, but in the
moister bottom lands many of the common grass-inhabiting species of
rusts and smuts are found.

Ustilago avene (Pers.) Jensen, oat smut, is seldom absent from
fields of cultivated oats, and in certain seasons is said to cause con-
siderable injury. It is occasionally found on the wild oats.

Ustilago holwayt, Dietel., is frequently found on Hordeum nodosum,
but can seareely be considered a pest.

Ustilago bromivora, Fisch., is found on Bromus hordeaceus glabres-
cens, but is not widely distributed.

Puccinia rubigo-vera (D. C.) Wint., orange leaf rust, is not un-
common on Bromus secalinus and 6B. carinatus, but the amount of
injury effected by it is not great.

A yellow-spored Uredo is almost constantly associated with Holcus
lanatus, and, were this grass a more valuable one, the rust might be
considered a serious pest. Observations on this species in other por-
tions of the State have shown that it persists throughout the year with-
out the formation of other spore forms, which renders its identification
impossible.

Uromyces minor, Schroet., clover rust, freauently injures certain
species of Trifolium, especially 7. dubtwm and T. microdon. In other
portions of the State it is especially injurious to 7. gracilentum.

What is probably the uredo stage of Uromiyces striatus, Schroet.,
was also found in abundance in a single locality on Medicago
lupulina.

Pseudopeziza trifoli, Fekl., is widely distributed and injures
nearly all the species of Trifolium, but especially 7. cyathiferum and
T. microdon.

The species enuinerated below are of frequent occurrence, though
of no special economic significance: Afcidium sommerfelti Johan-
son, on Aquilegia truncata; Afcidiwm hydrophylli Peck, on Hydro-
phyllum capttatum,; Afcidium pseudo-balsameum D. and H., on Abies
grandis; Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr., on Rosa gymnocarpa; Doas-
sansia alismatis (Nees) Cornu, on <Alisma plantago; Puccinia
curcece Pers., on Circea pacifica; Puccina densa D. and H., on
Viola glabella; Puccinia bistorte (Strauss) Wint., on Polygonum bis-
tortoides; Puccinia asari Link, on Asarwm caudatum,; Puccinia
gentiane (Strauss) Link, on Gentiana menziesii; Puccinia malva-
cearum Mont., on Althea rosea and Malva sp.; Puccima menthe
Pers., on Micromeria douglas and Monardella undulata; Puccinia
mesmerianad Thuem., on Rhamnus crocea; Puccinia nodosa Ell. &
Hark., on Brodiwa capitata; Puccinia melanconioides Ell. & Hark..,
on Dodecatheon cruciatum,; Puccinia mirabilissima Peck, on Berberis
nervosa; Puccima hieraci (Schum.) Mart., on Cardwus lanceolutus ;
Puccima plumbaria Peck, on Phlox gracilis; Puccinia symphoricarpt
Hark., on Symphoricarpus mollis; Puccinia pimpinelle (Strauss)

76 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

Link, on Osmorrhiza brevistylis; Puccinia wyethie Peck., on Wyethia
angustifolia; Phragmidium subcorticum (Schrank.) Wint., on Rosa
gymnocarpa; Phragmidium rubi-idei: (DC.) Karst., on Rubus
parviflorus; Spherotheca humuli (DC.) Burrill, on Collomia hetero-
phylla; Synchytrium pluriannulatum Farlow, on Sanicula menziesii;
Triphragmium echinatum Lev., on Selinum pacificum; Uromyces
aterrimus D. & H., on Allium unifolium; Uromyces hyperici (Sechw.)
Curt., on Hypericum anagalloides; Uredo arbuti D. & H., on Rhodo-
dendron californicum. :

PHYTOGRAPHIC NOTES.

The southern portion of the region under investigation is ineluded
by Dr. C. Hart Merriam in his Transition Zone. The Canadian Zone
covers a large part of Del Norte and northern Humboldt counties
and the Hudsonian Zone occupies the highest mountain summits.
Our general collections have not yet been completely worked up, so
that we can not give adequate lists of the plants by which each of
these zones is characterized.

In general features the flora over the largest portion of this region
differs little from that of the region immediately north of San Fran-
cisco Bay. Some species of the latterarea do not extend as far north
as the region under investigation, but in their stead oecur species
characteristic of a more northerly climate. Sequoia sempervirens is
the most characteristic tree, here reaching its greatest development
and occurring throughout the area. Immediately along the coast
occur other coniferous trees. In Mendocino County Pinus muricata
and P. contorta are the prevalent species, and a few specimens of
Abies grandis oceur. The pines were not observed along the coast
of Humboldt and Del Norte counties being replaced by Abies gran-
dis, Picea sitchensis, and Tsuga mertensiana.

The highest summits of the South Fork Mountains, which separate
Humboldt County from Trinity County, are characterized by a highly
interesting flora, showing a close connection with that of the Northern
Sierra Nevada, with which it is topegraphically connected by the
Salmon and Scott ranges and Mount Shasta. Our collections from
this portion of the region have not yet been completely worked over,
but they contain such interesting Sierran species as Arctostaphylos
nevadensis, Caltha biflora, Dicentra uniflora, Kalmia glauca micro-
phylla, Quercus chrysolepis vacciniifolia, Pentstemon newberryi, Ribes
cereum, Sarcodes sanguinea, Spraguea umbellata, Vaccinium arbus-
cula, and Viola blanda.

But little systematic work has been done on the flora of this region.
Coliections have been made by H. N. Bolander, C. G. Pringle, Volney
Rattan, C. C. Marshall, V. K. Chesnut, Elmer R. Drew, W. C. Blas-
dale, M. A. Howe, J. P. Tracy, H. P. Chandler, Miss Alice Eastwood,
and the writer. Bolander’s and some of Rattan’s notes are recorded

?

a

SUMMARY. 1
in the Botany of the State Geological Survey, and several of Mar-
shall’s novelties have been described in the writings of Prot. E. L.
Greene. The only publications dealing directly with the flora of the
region are those of Blasdale and Drew.

SUMMARY.

1. The principal industries of the region under consideration are
stock raising, dairying, lumbering, and barking.

2. Lumber and tanbark are practically confined to the redwood
belt, a narrow strip of country running nearly parallel with the
coast line.

3. Dairying is practically restricted to a few points along the
eoast, at Point Arena, and particularly the fertile flood plains near
Eureka and Crescent City. The mountain valleys at the headwaters
of the various branches of Eel River seem to be well adapted to
dairying where they are within accessible distance of a market or
shipping point.

4. The best grazing areas are (a) the coast bluffs, particularly near
Point Arena and in the Cape Mendocino country; (b) the mountain
valleys above referred to, and (c) the upland ridges of the plateau.
The plateau ridges furnish by far the largest grazing area. This
plateau country is not adapted to general agriculture.

Annual (seed growing) grasses seein to be better adapted to
the upland ranges than perennial (‘‘ root growing”) species. They
reproduce themselves from seed much more readily after trampling
out than the perennial species and furnish a large amount of early
winter feed.

6. Naturalized forage plants, introduced accidentally from foreign
countries, such as alfilerilla, bur clover, rat-tail fescue, barley grass,
and soft chess are proving better able to stand trampling and graz-
ing than the native species.

7. The maximum carrying capacity of the ranges has been reduced
from 5 acres per head of cattle to 10, 12, and, it is said, even 20 acres,
within comparatively few years, through exeessively high land val-
uations and consequent overstocking of the ranges. The result of
our investigations shows, and it has since been confirmed by practical
stockmen who have grazed some of these ranges for years, that not
less than 8 acres-of range (including the usual proportion of brush
and timber) should be allowed to each head of cattle. At this ratio
the range can be maintained, and even improved, with judicious
handling. This ratio should be made the basis of valuation in the
purchase of a range, the relative amount of open range and of wood-
a also being taken into account. |

3. The principal secret of successful stock raising in this region is
to cre abundance of grass to go to seed. Seeding grass knee-deep
is not wasted, as is usually supposed, but insures an abundance of

78 STOCK RANGES OF NORTHWESTERN CALIFORNIA.

feed for the following year, not only on account of the seed scattered, —
but because it provides a good seed bed. i

9. Sheep are no more injurious to a range, when properly handled,
than are cattle.

10. On account of the importance of the tan oak to Californian
industries, an investigation of the resources of the State in this direc-
tion is desirable. :

il. The protection of drinking holes preserves the water supply and
adds greatly to the value of the range; wherever possible proper
drinking troughs should be placed at a short distance from the spring
and the spring itself should be fenced. Small springs are often ruined
by tramphng.

12. The maintenance of springs and streams by preserving the tim-
ber and brush in their immediate vicinity is of the greatest importance
to the range; it not only conserves the water supply, but also affords
shelter to the stock in cold, wet weather.

13. The importance of maintaining good fences around a range
should not be overlooked, and wherever practicable if is found profit-
able to fence off a range into several pastures, giving each one a rest
from time to time.

INDEX.

[Common names are in roman; botanical names in italics. ]

Page.
VAOTESONAIVULS ee on ee ee oe ee eee eee 76
PN ROWUICH UOTE OUIO?, aE beets ACense oocebere See 57
VAICHCID LONGUOLUGSOPNOTRO seek jceewe eee 62
BANC EU CUS eet ae pe ae LEE ag tee Dt crave 32
PACCIANUACHODNY LUM ia ates ee see see eee 28
ANH HMRC H ays Sas SO LNs BN Se eee PN 21
AOC BIES GPFDD MND aoe bconce aouosocuseEOoneEEe 20
VACHE CRORMUO ee eae es eee ae eee Ah
AMG KOCHMIOM GOsen5 ooo As seco seoedowoauecee 29
Adenostonianposciculatunises. 5 so 2ces eee 31
PACSGULUSKEQLIORIIGO = eo ean eee ee ee 74
PAG OSC 1S ey ase SC dn) aye NaN cna Ne 21, 27
ZAG HOSCUSNOLLO Oa terete eyes haat ki ope EE a 18, 20, 70
FROUOM PAOD S seess Soceeecoeese 23, 66
UHI KOVR He ler avon try Gesu Say EO 51 |
CLARALO MUCKODIVY LUG, = =e sale see 20
FOO CHOU eae ep oar Aare eee Zoos oF
VAT ONCOL PI OLUCETGUS vert hres ay UME a ic OMAR LA Ce
CON OP TUY LLC Cyne ee Ai ee ese onl 20, 5
APNATPOCETS ICG Bla We ik Eee CE ea ee a a gi a eS 62
PAN DIZZUONUO PD LIVELY Ore Meese re een eee eee ae Xe
PAVE ae bw ine ss eerie ine MeN EOS ZA AE 9, 59, 64
aNUlitall@ weil cara eC ee See SOs 26, 36, 37, 38, "41, 17
FAL OPCCUTLWSINULCTUSTS ee hee ee ee ee 23, 68
PMISTIKE CLOVE ee IBD Fale esa 23, 24, 64, 72
Amelanchienny we ce i ek hoi eee 29
AD UNVO AU ZO RCIVOT meee ses eee ee oe 59, 64
ANUPCLOMESNILUS LENO a a ss en ae Way Nee 66
Andropogon sorghum halepensis ._-------- 67
PANO RULLUSEUCAUCUCS LIers) epeeton wa tap saya ae 18, 28
ZAR CLOSE OIG LOS Maa ote ae a a Dsl ava euch aS 29, 31
MEUDCEIUSUS Ae sean eee 76
NUMNVULATIG <_---2 2 === 52, 53, 54
COT AMHRSOS See eeu La 53, 04, 57
Arrhenatherum elatius _.....-..----- 23, 31, 52, 71
PAISCLEUASHCTLO GCC) Omen er es See neat 74
ALS DORAL) (COMA OPMOCRL BSAC b Le AA ee 63
ANSP UMLUMUMILUNVUCLEN Vex ae ea ee es onic lye 29, 63
AUEUDLCTINOUN ODES mem semen | ase sane 60
AIS tL AMMAN ERA AOPAGS esc eenmNnyn sung 49, 70
SANTIS Greta im Cth oe ee eR ea 62
Awnless brome-grass __.-__--- 23,24, 52, 60, 63, or
BANZ UVC ea Maven ea en ae ents cpder ey Mantes MIC nN ued te aaah
HESS EU Teel a a ete ey sat SoD ly HCE 27
BS enT le ye Nee yaisiaen chee ahaa 8, 22, 50, 51,50, oe
fOr EPR SNS SU Pe pe oe be a em aa ea 38,7
IBEAVOCIEIEN? & See a Sm a Os el Rete hale 62
IBCACHIO TASS mse Sines Sue Ue Wane aaa 59, 62, 64
d BYSPA NaS} eA ee UU a ore Chen Cie 50, !
IBC arxClOVie Tue tie oo Bere e ny a Renin bse ia 26,51, 73
BECKNUGIVIUG)CIALCOETONNUS 2225002 oe eee 2
TBAT kei AVEO Ihe Be ANN hs a ag Ot LS 51, 64
OPH ee ars ee eal Pee Ae ais ye tere a 28
IBlWeicanarye OR aSs seen ieee ing eee ae 20
CN CNT ASS Specie iin ne se ieee dul es MeN | T 21
UTE pear cesar feet A ed Tara HAL 49, 64
Deb Ot VS Sipe es a CA a ys ae Me 58, 61
OULCLOMONOLUG OSEAGIYY Camano an 64
BEOCH YP OC UUNY 4 CH) OVUCU TIM aoe nee 52
PB raC Keine sap iy Se As Rae gin ebaie a SBR 63
TEEOPICE TO OLO ON aes ics eeepc aera oN Snes ON 27
LEYROLOIKE NODA) 0 0) seas ey acs Se gt eee AMS 29
PS ONUALSICOUEUIL CLULUS ae apt eae me enn yeti 32
MOWCKACKCOUS BAe Ae AB oN ie a See at 20,25
hordeaceus glabrescens _...-..----- 19,25
EAU CTETIUUS | Retan yee Ducts ctl ace Red SACI 23, 52, 60, at
LOC ED eSpe Rake Wee eh See Sala goeeoss 2 29, 6
TALUNULS) OLUSSOILU A oe eee 20, 27, 38, 60
racemosus commutatus__......---- 19
STD Pees ee ae ape ede i ea Ia ah 58
ESTE GMOS oa ett ws NE Al ed 60
COWUCKMONOEG aso acu Secbeuodeeoe sae 23,52

Page.
IBvONCHOzETASS Vase eco oe eee ee anes 20, 27, 38, a
BCI e yee es UCU SR UN EN DEN WA

BUTEA OFS TAS Se Ws 2 eu i2r AU pee eH Aaa 49, 64, és
Bulbilis “dactyloides SC Sh ACen AA IH (UE i ties 69
{BADUN Corey eet, aM aes er aes SSN ra 20, 51, 60
Be RClO Vie Ieee Mine ine shane atacena amen 38, 49, 65,7 17
IBRONG MENGLOG O) CS Aa Ws ua SES Ae evan Mace Ml pee ey 21
Cai Dames ia Geman huey Aaa cia es aN Zale 50, 54
ColamagrostisiQlewliea aes a 50, 53, 54
DOUGIUD G11 epee 58, 54

CHOUSSTG LUN TUS ones on ee ena 53, 54

Cali Coxlo Us ln Ie yee alee tae LE 7
California fescue ries wee Duin eines 20, 22
OU US EEE ince se Re yk Ce ea tae 49,51, 66

MIETICTO RASS Bee aw AN WN 26, 37

Opibbrope ae, rayoliaayeyer we Sy ee 28
CETTE S HSA i one OG MIE Enrol uN a Ck SG 21
CULE OT ILO1; CARS 3 ie Marca ie MURA e ess oil 76
COMGSSTONESCLULCIVEO eae ae ee ee 21
Cantnannilayiniieed, Olid ase SEAS O4:
CATAUWUSS PP ed pee ea Sa Liou Ya 63
OopRAG GOH NCH CC et Ce 53. 54
ERT Eas AIS Shs RIN TE Ae ay pl ar at 53,54

LUEZ LULA Ses Oe iui es fe ne ILS 53

DUCA OCUIVETUSTS nae eee ope yl pean ter 53, 54

DOTY LUONUOUUCLC Oj ee se eee eae ene nea 58, 54

POW MUO OCs 2 Bee suo oe seek ee see lee 53
EXCH CCU GOV wes NU Bay Ro aa Ce 53, D4

SECT UTS tata Cate VAR NENTS ORM Kenp ay an ay 53

SOLUTE COU Cy Bea TAN AUST MU ISU atit nat AUN aS 53, 54
CARROTS spa a A Ses eat AU REN Ue 50, 55, 64
ECOSCOMARS UG RUG Oe ee 2 ees nye ice 29
Castanopsis chrysophylla__...---------- 28,52, 53
CACO GOS (COHIACHMUNS: Sas a on
AVUCOUUUS I aaa ey ray esr is mip Bonet 1 29
MCORP OMICS Sisk ES ee cn 29, 32

ACULCELIVAUS pss ations pinay esta es BUA 29
Centaurea nieliteivsiss ae eS OTR BR 4G
CCR COCO ISIS oe ita el ay sc ae ays 31
CO aes als fe MO Ps es OU i 24,51
(OU GTEE Naa ESL APB a OT eee aN ae IN SN 31

OIE oe cr 7H ee Re SE NC Sea etna hy aan 24, 8132
Chin quay ia sew yee MN ee als aide! 28, 29, 52, 54, 6

ClayEorvarpeiiOlic rae ss ea eS Oa ee

ClOVer Seis sa oe Reuter arene 20, 21, 36, oie 30
COAST SEI ao yep TS he RU ae eae ey 52, 62
COCKS UIs Ren eeRC iiees lish a eis Mapa si 27, 74
COUTTS COUN a eANCE Meas Roy eee RN dd Nag 21
OC US TOC OU UCL asa Nees ea an PE 58

COLD EOD TAL OKCUNMOH KOR SS ees Ne ee as de
Convolulwsisoldaivellc seas ee eae 58
Corethrogyne californica obovata____----- 58
(OOPS COMMOCK SSS Se Baer ee A eee es La 53, 54
DVO TE CULLG Ts A AERA soe ohailade ap aa pel cent 28°
ConglUsrostrato.californnicd =. i ie 29
COW PO US Ors ee PN A Naa Ry a 73
Creepinexbent en Tee yee eee 23, 24, 66
Grimsonicloy,ersaiye) oe ieee emg 64.
ORG DRAISOES GOUSOC CHOC ei aeee eco! Le Nae 52, 53
DAC VESIGLONUCT ULC ha a een emo 28, 31, 68
TD EWC y ers ence uk ay ayy aaa Pe 66
IDX OINMORICH = SaB A one SE 8545 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 36, 39, 50
COLA OF NVC ae apenas 19. 20, 26,50

De eraey Dynan ce Mae Se IN Te a SB Or Wane A 74
AD YeXeue 3h) ob eA KSI a rasan te eta Ye) CAM a 28, 29, 32
Delphiniun trolliifolium____-...----------- 73
TORR ACH ROONEY Oy Eo tie ie ee el ot eed a emer 68
IDOSOA KCI DSO) (COAFVOKOS) OBE Sk ee 20, 50
CLOWMG UC an ee REO Re 20, 68

RUC ROPIIUS 28 bossa loos yeeer 50

IDECOGARG! COORG GE SS EN 76

80 INDEX.
Page Page.
DSS HIGS J OOTY HRA SO SE So Se ra ee (30 Wemmon sp unch-orass seuss ees. ame 26, 37
SYS cleo Ba ee cpm Se pe ee eS 66: |) Libdocedrws decurrens. 111527. Ue 23°
DOW SIASTS TCS pe ee ee ea Re ete do) |) I EQUOUH EDS TIO CHTOUCMLH EOF oes oto Seon sae o ok 52,04
DF OSCHOMOUMIVAUIOUUC 40 eae ea os eo Soe |) JKONIOKNC OuCGUOD <u ke 23, 69
uUtbeh: clove ess sie te eee ea ee 5d NULL ORAL URE me een ote ee 70
PDCLCIVIVE 2a Dan pt ae eee ea 69
LY MAUL RUS EE OULLUS nee ere eee eee 26, 37 LCNIALC eee ne cor Le ieee 70
GRE OTIUS at ee ees See ee 58, 60 ECNTULETLLLLIT eae eee 74
ee SA a ae See eS oe AMA 29, 82 SPO ees oe ete ee ty aE 68
ey Net pete ee a em Oe eed pals ean D8) | eLOnvariarspecuiut. mse Natuarl
Engush } Nek ennial ray-grass _______/..---- 69 OUELES halter apne ly Dame Nay hetec ene ea a 2]
SHUG CONVO UCUUGUUS sees ee eer oe eee ae dl Bhooerenezhapis =~ as 51,66
HP LODUCEY OR COULOTIUUGTUN ee eee eee 3L TiORNTOSUSSUTIULLS Hae en 53,54
Hriogoniuny fasciculatiuny ..-. 2 2-2-2222 61 Glave ear i ey ee Ac anna tae al
EOD YULTS Dp Dae ee eee 29 LetiCOplicc iis enema ene eon 52
LH GOAUUNT: CUCULELORULUN a a ene ere 26, 38 AD EUTVCUELES meee ea ea a Sea oy etnene ae 21
HIVOS GHLCUUUTI US a eave alee epee Eee ZOSOS | SERVO CTUUS eee eit ee ae et ae Oe ee 212%
EU UERTOIVUUTIVA Se Soe ee See eae 32 ON0OTRUS SE Fa ona NEE aaa ne 58
IIS PAR Ce ELE eee acetone einem Ata tee ee eect 64 CHOMUSSONTS se ee 58
HS Palabouse Soar eee we meee ca bier enema eL 62 NUUCIVCIUCTUs eae ee Ee en ee gale 51
HE LETUCLIUAUS at sees SL tee ee rae as Zs) || YG CUNY SIO OTLULTI ao eee eee on 62
\
Hal Seu eo One mae ye et een cere ee CAs Ne IAGO TIS Seba Hee NA le yah atin ean 18, 28
Festuca arundinacea __-..-.--------. 23,31,52,70 | Mangel-wur -Zels Le) a ah eR ads Se 50, 55, 64
calijonnicuros (22 oe 2 Soe eee ce 20,29 | Many-flowered millet-grass__....__---- 28, 24,52
OMMPOUIS CONG seas Sucseese sasKeosacs BT TAVeSTASS eee ee eee
11D 0UO SICULUCLL Cy ee ee Usa) |) Wie NOVA GONE) Ase oe saeco 28, 29, 31,52, 63
SCULTGOULCS ee ee eee 2 Meadow barley-grass __.....-._--.-.-_---- 2
OULILC ey a aE eels (Meola BOD. <7 Hil MR ane oi AN ee on en Ae Se 23, 68
TUL Bay erst, Seen Se a 23;,20508,00) |sMedicago denticulata. nl cee ee ees 38, 65
Mie] Gap eas Tas as eee se pee 6 Gy Aes 50, 64, 66 (YAO OUK CEE e mem ee Spee es Obs es 51, 64
Mine alt oTrass = 32 cea Soe. i ee een ge ae 2h || MMECLiCONOLONTOUCES = ame manne eee 29; 63
DON ebayer sees ee Ae ae ssh eee eas 23 COM SOTICH Bios ee eee 26, 32, 37
ARMIES Grier AO Dg bi PR EAT OE Soi mre een er 17 ROTO AU A582 pea RO ee 32
lO XO] OMe aes ae Fe aan aan ae Se etna nege ms i SPECLUDULIS Stn se eee eee 32
Potent aes TROL aie ool aK Tae LS 36 | COREY CLUS Ee eae os ge ar 29
SER OUSCI CU ae Siam a tan Petey al et urge OL ae 32 | Mesembryanthemum cequilaterale____-.--. 51
LEU UGUATAUSTOTCG ON UChr ee ee 28) 5) IMICSO UIE: so io ect eae ee ee 20,71
Fungous parasites, host plants of____-__-- CDS Om eMGCTO COUIRIINUS Ve meneer yarns son eant yet Sle uranla a naneE 2
Milkweed) so seen si as DBR ieee 74
GORY OA ReNtOIULia = == sea a aren eee Sled MOG1ONG yt ae see eee eee ae ee 61
Gawlthentasnauloitesss esse 29, 52,53, 63 GECUITEOCIUS ease ee ee 61
GEUSEONSCOP OGL = 4 ae enn eel ee 62a eMiomterery ao lt ees esr ee ee ee ee 6%
GenieanOnnienZvesitn sansa eee eee 52,53 | Mountain Teeny. Se eee nee eis eee 28,31
OR CG CIV SES Sass mea a nna eer pes DE HORM AS eS eC POSE aye rere a a ies nate a ea cen made ae 29
Goldenoaks sass 2ek tesa aan aie. Sees ere 28 | Musky alfilerilia Bee perl Seana commen 38
Gowan Gy Ress ss 2ne Ste Yate es eee Dobe ee VLA AREC CUES sp ein Sere ey a ae ye ee 52
COLUONITUC Caren ae ae eee 52,53
Iai TAVAVie LC lm a8 Joie Se se nie UN eee 61, 67, 72 (LAH AO es See ae Lie ANS 62
FAT OGEESCUC sa syne ee een ee ae ae 49, 67
la Walks Diba ten en seem peer arte ak epi Ziposol INewsZealand spina ches sss. sssee= == =—eaer 61
1 WAS at ei ke TR Se a ieee 29
‘Helianthemiuney scoparcvuny. = 2 222-8 a PARE to PILE Cys Instat ee tie ee Aner Mee aS a 18, 22, 50, 5d, 64, 67
TELOUCUUSRUCLIVOREAUS sn ais aereees ae a 19, 20, 54, a Orchardlerass sss se see sae ee 23, 24) 31,51, 63,68
Fa (OV ORO ae ee Pera hike SEE Syd as Oregon ash 22.120 2oe soo ee ee cee 28
maritimum gussoneanune __...-- 20,95 Maple sss sees ast ee eee eee 28
AVURUIGLT CULT re tess ee pe eran OE Ors LOREMOCOIZD US hase se ee ee 21
MODOSWIN ae Sesame se eee eee ee 204 OT yZODSISINUEL CC Osos ee ee eee 23, 52
FIOSUCKIC ULSIION Case aan eee oe 6620 Gis OneO C1 soe sees sa = eee 63
Hostiplants fortungias sno. nesses ae 75,76
Hypericum anag galloides tS ad ke aa aE 5B b4 || SPOVCUlOni, fAULLA Sas secs == ae See eee 20
CONGCUUIUALN ae ae ae ee ene 52.53 Panicum wnciphyllum. .-.----------------- 52
FTA/9 O CMOLTUSNO UCDO epee aoe ee 212.38 | Parsnips. oo525-sssseee se so eae = ee eee. 64
PRUCKICNe Pin eee aes soe eee eee 29,52. 63 | (Paspalum distichwin esses anes eee 67
(PCAC (ees) et et eee 50, 54, 55, of
IM CenSercedarstacsa assent eee ee ee eee 28 | Pentsteniow mewbernyt-------= 2-2 -- 2 eee
Tris douglasiana ----- 2-222 -22----- <2 --s 29: Pepperw.00G 222 Aes cece escent eeeneme 98,29
PUNY Cree Sees ae eee en meres 99).) Perennial sray-orasso- sae ese bee ee ee 69
Italian ray-grass -_--- 23, 24,01, 00,00, 64,69: 70,%3) | IPhalanmis anvethysiives soo. a-se222 ee ee - 20
COCTULESCOR Saas ee eee 53, 54
Japanese wheat-@rass .2..-22----2-5----2-- 520 | Philewsa1 Obenses anaes aaa a eee 20, 23, 72
JONNSOMOLASSE ee See eee See eee eee Cie Ricca sitchenlstsm ase soe ae eee eee 76
BIN IVCUWSROOLOUCLCIZ0 ee eee ae ee ere 53'9|"Pigeon berry 2325-222 ase esse. Saeco 29
falcatus paniculatus RMT ocean 53 Pine NSCs tay Motta ae te Sl ROS RT ae eS see ees 17,62
SON O00} (OM OUS Sa Jacce cook ooSeoo SU bnSe Ho eO4ell OETIUIUS CUS TILL CLG Oe ee eee 62
5 oA ae NCR ed ies ane eee en ye ee 58 CONMLOTLO ae ee ee ee 52, 54, 62, Bs
= LOADER CUCU ee aa eae See
TOL ECG SOS SRE SE ee eee Re ences 32 VAN UELNUC tse ee e
PMNS POAC ROD MYO oo os caesSce 74,76 TUUTLG CLG 9 eee aoe ee 52, 54, 62, 76
Keelloge! Oakey ey Eee eee ae eee eye sans 28 WONG CTOSO = 22 ox Sets eae ee ean ee 17,28
KM OTE PASS S 258s Sebo Se ee eee ee see 67 PORIGED = 2 22a hea ea eee eee eee 62
TKOQMCTIGICTASUCLO Oe a2 ae nee eee ee eee 20 UGC ne ease SSS Nee el Ma eae = 62
SODUTVECIVG, 222 EU GS Sa eee a ee Selle
Mabrador teas sate. ete eee ee eee eee 52, 04 | SYULUCSERUS = Sa oe a a ee 62
anecowoxtalliz. cs 2s) as tone es ee 6S Ris CRVETISCs eee eee eee _ 66-
Wairoa ons chk ck Se ee eee ee Be era Kil elQAveEGG OW ICCOUG EC ee see ers re 21,27, 51
TECURYI RESIS Pisce ones Se eee Coe eee eee ROMO || LeHUURODOO(OND: Sasoee a sesenaocoo sss aaee= a8 2
UMC WCET USSU GEIUENLOT re oe eee eee BL RO ee Se BS Pe EUS Le eee ee 26, 37
HeagninvGlanvG wloswnisase sa eeeee eee 52,53, 54, 74 CRGGIUIVUSCNOs seaee eee Sennen ee eee &2

i
7
;
;

é INDEX. 2 toil
Page. : Page
SANGO: CDOKHOIGUE Se nosteb ed oadossasance daeacose ; DOMES DROUORCCORAUNUOCLUGUL Cheeta a yee any ter en 76
TOWCNCTHUOMU Davie agen seoaecudesseeos ee Sh SOME My NOW ss 66k sabes oe SUE oe see 63
TOMO OHOS Oe a ae es Ee Nk rs eee SI OSh | SOUT el= tell eames ees eres 20, 25, 36, 38, 42, 54
OHO OUGRRE ONS AEs Bee ei ecie Lee ees Re ey S| SOR UC MILO? Besos oOo oo oB ss ene Se eres 26, 32, 37
IPovicoin lneranlkoyeliee 4 os Stes Seeks cooese eee 73 | UCOK CUSSION hates noebones sebseaaesese 62
IROISONMORI Keren tne ete neato Ae ON SUL EL TAT LIN Capac aes ce ea ee cereal ees UN ue CUR a an 28
JANN GCC) CONG FOPWOCE = 55 bodoSenneceeaece DIOS OWVLOL CURE Io YN wae se ayia) ys espe yarn i ys ines NUS 63
LEONI TOMO Sab ASS es hee rn ce ea 21
TE YOST COLES es eat ey coe UR Cpa es Ga HR Aa Mar Calo Geran meray ie esa Rae eee Mateo Di pn 27,38, 47
IPCI ONTO OUMCOMOWO. = 0s sa8 oases beeeo ae 2555 Hseose ee allOait=OraSSen eye a eee 23, 24, 01, 52, 54. 63,71
IRON ET YE SASS Wye te cae area ane aeevaee ae ee ZO HOM ACCENT CONUD VOTO ULUN YE eam mem ee 58
IRTP NPG) dhe oso o Secced ade sosede sae PAD. i)" Abe wa copes My a I tee ao aS ON to}
IPENKCEXCOIMO OMG... 35 soe geoceowesacosdees ESP (ahead NG vere Sheiaelia ia eel ned es ee ee Ua etl Ula a 64
IEXOUICIOUSWOTOS UOHOOOUIG) eos GS e nso tomes Sooen= Wi CERO ONE CU RCAGD CL 1US Cle ae ea oe a 61
TETAS GC ORUIVONLGNUWOLIVOS yee ae ee eee 63 | Texas blue GEASS) 5 RL AU Steen eRe 52
Ul I ars) as ts ae i (SP IA ee 63
UIA SAO MASS eee ts apes eS ee Pi eeRicrra Oba yaa styh ised ore i ay at pa 18, 20, 23, 72
OWE CUNCOUUOTINUCH a2 es a eee ee re 733) i MPTREYS) ClO EAN OOG = sano eee Space beecooeeecoae 28
CHU SOLEUS ae ee eae a yn nena ZOE TPC OTM L] © Weta esto at a ALIS AUN Cees ns 61
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Be Pn ee

es

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

~The Bureau of Plant Todestyy, which was or -eanized July 1. 1901, eludes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Poranical Infcostoaoa: and
Experiments, Grass and Foragé Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations,
and Gardens and Grounds, all of which-were formerly separate divisions, and ~
also Seed and Plant Introduction, The Arlington Experiment Farm, Tea Investiga- —
w - tionsand Experiments, and the Congressional Seed Distribution. Beginning with —
_ the date of. the organization of the Bureau, the independent series of bulletins of
the Division of Agrostology, the last number of which was 25, and of the other
divisions, were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau.

The bulletins published in this series are—

“Nossal,

al.

The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Gr owth. 1901. 3

. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of a 1901.
. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. 5 7

. Range Improvement i in Arizona. 1901.

. Seeds and Plants Imported through the Section of Seed and Plant Intro-.

duction, etc., Inventory No. 9. 4851-5500. — 1902.

iN List of ee ‘ican. Varieties of Peppers. 1902.
—The. Algerian Durum Wheats: ‘A Classified List with Descriptions. 1902.
. A collection of Economic and other Fungi Prgpared for. Distribution.

ASO2.

. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902,
. Records of Seed Distribution and Core ative Experiments with Grasses

and Forage Plants. 1902. ;
Johnson Grass: Reports of Investigations made during the Season of
1901-— 1902;