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Hppletons’ home Reading Books

EDITED BY
WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A.M., LL.D.

UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

DIVISION I
NATURAL. HISTORY

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APPLETONS’ HOME Bs SATIONSL, MUSE

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SrORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

AND

PUB REIL

BY
JAMES NEWTON BASKETT

AUTHOR OF THE STORY OF THE FISHES
THE STORY OF THE BIRDS, ETC.
AND
RAYMOND L. DITMARS

CURATOR OF REPTILES AT THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1902

CoPpyYRIGHT, 1902
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

Published June, 1902

TO
MY SON
HOWARD GORDON BASKETT

A LOVER OF

THE HUMBLER CREATURES

INTRODUCTION TO THE HOME READING
BOOK SERIES BY THE EDITOR

Tre new education takes two important direc-
tions—one of these is toward original observation,
requiring the pupil to test and verity what is taught
him at school by his own experiments. The infor-
mation that he learns from books or hears from his
teacher’s lips must be assimilated by incorporating it
with his own experience.

The other direction pointed out by the new edu-
cation is systematic home reading. It forms a part of
school extension of all kinds. The so-called “ Univer-
sity Extension” that originated at Cambridge and Ox-
ford has as its chief feature the aid of home reading by
lectures and round-table discussions, led or conducted
by experts who also lay out the course of reading.
The Chautauquan movement in this country prescribes
a series of excellent books and furnishes for a goodly
number of its readers annual courses of lectures. The
teachers’ reading circles that exist in many States pre-
scribe the books to be read, and publish some analysis,
commentary, or catechism to aid the members.

Home reading, it seems, furnishes the essential
basis of this great movement to extend education

Vil

vill STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

beyond the school and to make self-culture a habit
of life. :

Looking more carefully at the difference between
the two directions of the new education we can see
what each accomplishes. There is first an effort to
train the original powers of the individual and make
him self-active, quick at observation, and free in his
thinking. Next, the new education endeavors, by the
reading of books and the study of the wisdom of the
race, to make the child or youth a participator in the
results of experience of all mankind.

These two movements may be made antagonistic
by poor teaching. The book knowledge, containing as
it does the precious lesson of human experience, may
be so taught as to bring with it only dead rules of
conduct, only dead scraps of information, and no
stimulant to original thinking. Its contents may be
memorized without being understood. On the other
hand, the self-activity of the child may be stimulated
at the expense of his social well-being—his originality
may be cultivated at the expense of his rationality.
If he is taught persistently to have his own way, to
trust only his own senses, to cling to his own opinions
heedless of the experience of his fellows, he is pre-
paring for an unsuccessful, misanthropic career, and
is likely enough to end his life in a madhouse.

It is admitted that a too exclusive study of the
knowledge found in books, the knowledge which is
ageregated from the experience and thought of other
people, may result in loading the mind of the pupil
with material which he can not use to advantage.

EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION 1x

Some minds are so full of lumber that there is no
space left to set up a workshop. The necessity of
uniting both of these directions of intellectual activity
in the schools is therefore obvious, but we must not,
in this place, fall into the error of supposing that it is
the oral instruction in school and the personal influ-
ence of the teacher alone that excites the pupil to ac-
tivity. Book instruction is not always dry and theo-
retical. The very persons who declaim against the
book, and praise in such strong terms the self-activity
of the pupil and original research, are mostly persons
who have received their practical impulse from read-
ing the writings of educational reformers. Very few
persons have received an impulse from personal con-
tact with inspiring teachers compared with the num-
ber that have been aroused by reading such books as
Herbert Spencer’s Treatise on Education, Rousseau’s
Emile, Pestalozzi’s Leonard and Gertrude, Francis
W. Parker’s Talks about Teaching, G. Stanley
Hall’s Pedagogical Seminary. Think in this connec-
tion, too, of the impulse to observation in natural sci-
ence produced by such books as those of Hugh Miller,
Faraday, Tyndall, Huxley, Agassiz, and Darwin.

The new scientific book is different from the old.
The old style book of science gave dead results where
the new one gives not only the results, but a minute
account of the method employed in reaching those re-
sults. An insight into the method employed in dis-
covery trains the reader into a naturalist, an historian,
a sociologist. The books of the writers above named
have done more to stimulate original research on the

Xx STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

part of their readers than all other influences com-
bined.

It is therefore much more a matter of importance
to get the right kind of book than to get a living
teacher. The book which teaches results, and at the
same time gives in an intelligible manner the steps of
discovery and the methods employed, is a book
which will stimulate the student to repeat the ex-
periments described and get beyond them into fields
of original research himself. Every one remem-
bers the published lectures of Faraday on chemistry,
which exercised a wide influence in changing the
style of books on natural science, causing them to
deal with method more than results, and thus train
the reader’s power of conducting original research.
Robinson Crusoe for nearly two hundred years has
aroused the spirit of adventure and prompted young
men to resort to the border lands of civilization. A
library of home reading should contain books that in-
cite to self-activity and arouse the spirit of inquiry.
The books should treat of methods of discovery and
evolution. All nature is unified by the discovery of
the law of evolution. Each and every being in the
world is now explained by the process of development
to which it belongs. Every fact now throws light on
all the others by illustrating the process of growth in
which each has its end and aim.

The Home Reading Books are to be classed as
follows : |

First Division. Natural history, including popular
scientific treatises on plants and animals, and also de-

EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION Xl

scriptions of geographical localities. The branch of
study in the district school course which corresponds
to this is geography. Travels and sojourns in distant
lands; special writings which treat of this or that
animal or plant, or family of animals or plants; any-
thing that relates to organic nature or to meteorol-
ogy, or descriptive astronomy may be placed in this
class. ;

Second Division. Whatever relates to physics or
natural philosophy, to the statics or dynamics of air or
water or light or electricity, or to the properties of
matter; whatever relates to chemistry, either organic
or inorganic—books on these subjects belong to the
class that relates to what is inorganic. Even the so-
called organic chemistry relates to the analysis of
organic bodies into their inorganic compounds.

Third Division. Wistory, biography, and ethnol-
ogy. Books relating to the lives of individuals; to
the social life of the nation; to the collisions of na-
tions in war, as well as to the aid that one nation
gives to another through commerce in times of peace;
books on ethnology relating to the modes of life of
savage or civilized peoples; on primitive manners
and customs—books on these subjects belong to the
third class, relating particularly to the human will,
not merely the individual will but the social will,
the will of the tribe or nation; and to this third
class belong also books on ethics and morals, and
on forms of government and laws, and what is in-
cluded under the term civics, or the duties of citi-
zenship.

xii STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

Fourth Division. The fourth class of books in-
cludes more especially literature and works that make
known the beautiful in such departments as sculpture,
painting, architecture and music. Literature and art
show human nature in the form of feelings, emotions,
and aspirations, and they show how these feelings
lead over to deeds and to clear thoughts. This de-
partment of books is perhaps more important than
any other in our home reading, inasmuch as it teaches
a knowledge of human nature and enables us to un-
derstand the motives that lead our fellow-men to
action.

PLAN FoR Use As SuPPLEMENTARY READING.

The first work of the child in the school is to
learn to recognize in a printed form the words that
are familiar to him by ear. These words constitute
what is called the colloquial vocabulary. They are
words that he has come to know from having heard
them used by the members of his family and by his
playmates. He uses these words himself with con-
siderable skill, but what he knows by ear he does not
yet know by sight. It will require many weeks,
many months even, of constant effort at reading the
printed page to bring him to the point where the
sight of the written word brings up as much to his
mind as the sound of the spoken word. But patience
and practice will by and by make the printed word
far more suggestive than the spoken word, as every
scholar may testify.

In order to bring about this familiarity with the

EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION Xlil

printed word it has been found necessary to re-en-
force the reading in the school by supplementary
reading at home. books of the same grade of difli-
culty with the reader used in school are to be pro-
vided for the pupil. They must be so interesting
to him that he will read them at home, using his time
before and after school, and even his holidays, for
this purpose.

But this matter of familiarizing the child with the
printed word is only one half of the object aimed at
by the supplementary home reading. He should
read that which interests him. He should read that
which will increase his power in making deeper
studies, and what he reads should tend to correct his
habits of observation. Step by step he should be
initiated into the scientific method. Too many ele-
mentary books fail to teach the scientific method be-
cause they point out in an unsystematic way only
those features of the object which the untutored
senses of the pupil would discover at first glance. It
is not useful to tell the child to observe a piece of
chalk and see that it is white, more or less friable,
and that it makes a mark on a fence or a wall. Sci-
entific observation goes immediately behind the facts
which lie obvious to a superficial investigation.
Above all, it directs attention to such features of the
object as relate it to its environment. It directs at-
tention to the features that have a causal influence in
inaking the object what it is and in extending its
effects to other objects. Science discovers the recip-
rocal action of objects one upon another.

XIV STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

After the child has learned how to observe what
is essential in one class of objects he is in a measure
fitted to observe for himself all objects that resemble
this class. After he has learned how to observe the
- seeds of the milkweed, he is partially prepared to’
observe the seeds of the dandelion, the burdock, and
the thistle. After he has learned how to study the
history of his native country, he has acquired some
ability to study the history of England and Scotland
or France or Germany. In the same way the daily
preparation of his reading lesson at school aids him
to read a story of Dickens or Walter Scott.

The teacher of a school will know how to obtain
a small sum to invest in supplementary reading. In
a graded school of four hundred pupils ten books of
each number are sufficient, one set of ten books to be
loaned the first week to the best pupils in one of the
rooms, the next week to the ten pupils next in ability.
On Monday afternoon a discussion should be held
over the topics of interest to the pupils who have
read the book. The pupils who have not yet read
the book will become interested, and await anxiously
their turn for the loan of the desired volume. Another
set of ten books of a higher grade may be used in the
same way in a room containing more advanced pupils.
The older pupils who have left school, and also the
parents, should avail themselves of the opportunity to
read the books brought home from school. Thus is
begun that continuous education by means of the pub-
lie library which is not limited to the school period,
but lasts through life. W. T. Harris.

Wasuineaton, D.C., Nov. 16, 1896.

PREFACE.

Tne average reader, old or young, does not usually
find himself so much interested in an amphibian or
reptile as he does in fishes, birds, or mammals, because
they are not often objects of pursuit for either “ sport”
or food. In fact, casually, they are abhorrent. But if
he should be one of those whose interest goes beyond
that of the mere amusement which satisfies the most
primitive of his instincts, he will nowhere in the
realm of animal life find objects more worthy of his
attention. Herein Nature, with the potter’s clay of
plastic things in her palms, seemed to have tarried in
delightful experiment before she shaped the higher
and better creatures; and in the amphibians especially
—eyen more so than the fishes—appears to have in-
dulged every passing caprice and suggestion.

To look in on her in some of her vagaries, and
note her as she seems to put, drop by drop, the al-
chemy of change into the fuming elements, is partly
the object of this little volume. The author indulges
the hope, also, that the humble, creeping things herein
described may not be longer despised, but that a more
intimate knowledge of them will help to arouse a
sympathetic interest in one of the ostracised families

of the animate world.
A ess Ba =

XV

CONTENTS

PART I.—AMPHIBIANS

CHAPTER PAGE
Epiror’s INTRODUCTION : : : ‘ : 5 A evel
PREFACE : : : : F ‘ : : gOS:

L—Waar AMPHIBIAN MEANS . : : : F 3 1

1I.—LimsBs, TOES, CLAWS, WEBS, FINS, AND TONGUES IN

AMPHIBIANS : ; : 3 : 2 : ‘ 7
II1].—TErErH, BEAKS, FOOD, FEEDING HABITS, FASTING, IM-
PRISONMENT, DRINKING, AND WATER RESERVOIRS IN

AMPHIBIANS : ’ ‘ : § : ‘ os lt
IV.—SPRING CALLS, VOCAL ORGANS, HAUNTS, HATCHING,
COURTSHIP, DRESS, COLORS, CHANGES, AND OTHER
ORNAMENTS ; WEAPONS, DEFENSE, SKIN SECRETIONS,

AND BLUFF, IN AMPHIBIANS. : ; : Sa
V.—EaGGs, SPAWNING PLACES, VIVIPAROUS FORMS, AND

PECULIAR CARE OF YOUNG IN:AMPHIBIANS . Saas
VI.—REsPIRATION, LUNGS, SKIN-BREATHING, CIRCULATION,

HEARTS AND LYMPH-HEARTS IN AMPHIBIANS . Ap me

VII.—SKIN, SMELL, HEARING, EYES, DIGESTIVE TRACT. 3 = ae
VIIL—SKELETON GENERALLY—BACK-BONE, RIBS, SKULL, MUS-
CLES, NERVES, REFLEX ACTION, TENACITY OF LIFE,

AND REPAIR IN AMPHIBIANS . : ‘ : 2 BU

EX —Possits, ‘KEYS, BITC. . < : ; : : j Ds

2 Xvli

XVill STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

PART II—REPTILES

CHAPTER
X.—INTRODUCTION ; DEFINITION; WHAT CAME IN WITH
THE REPTILES; ORDERS, LIMBS, TOES, CLAWS, TOE-
WALKING. ; ; : ; F : : :
XI.—T AILS, HEADS, JAWS, TEETH, AND TONGUES IN REP-
TEES: 60% : : neat: e ‘ : : ‘
XIJ.—F oop, MEANS OF DEFENSE, WEAPONS, BLUFF, ODOR,
ORNAMENTS, COLORS, COLOR-PROTECTION, AND
COLOR-CHANGING IN REPTILES : - : :
XIII.—Morion, HIDING-PLACES, HIBERNATION, HAUNTS, DIS-
TRIBUTION, MIGRATION, PLAY, BATTLE, ENEMIES,
DISEASE, AGE, AND SIZE OF REPTILES . : -
XIV.—DIGESTIVE TRACT, RESPIRATION, CIRCULATION,
LUNGS, HEART, COLD BLOOD, LYMPH-HEARTS,
SKELETON, SKULL, MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN,
WISDOM, SKIN, AND SCALES IN REPTILES. ;
XV.—SENSE-ORGANS, EGGS, HATCHING, CARE OF YOUNG,
GEOLOGY AND MODERN REPTILES, KINSHIPS, VA-
RIETIES OF FOSSIL FORMS, DIAGRAM OF KINSHIP,
COMMENTS ON TYPES OR ORDERS OF EXTINCT REP-
TILES, AND KEY . , : : : : ;
XVI.—OUTLINE OF MODERN REPTILES, WITH HELPFUL KEYS

PART III.—A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCE
WITH REPTILES

XVII.—SNAKES AS HOUSEHOLD PETS—PREVAILING PREJU-
DICE AGAINST REPTILES—T'HE USES OF REPTILES
—WuHY SNAKES ARE FRIENDS OF THE FARMER—
THE PLACE OF REPTILES IN NATURE . : :

PAGE

69

98

111

158
158

169

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
XVIIL—How REPTILES PRODUCE THEIR YOUNG—INCUBA-
TION OF EGGS BY THE PYTHONS—OVIPAROUS AND
OVOVIVIPAROUS SNAKES—THE NUMBER OF YOUNG
PRODUCED—How LONG REPTILES LIVE—THE BIOG-
RAPHY OF A RATTLESNAKE . s : , ’
XIX.—THE CARE OF REPTILES IN capriviTy—ECccEN-
TRICITY OF APPETITE—FASTING OF POISONOUS
SNAKES—How THE BIG. PYTHON WAS SAVED—
CANNIBAL SNAKES—NOVEL METHOD OF FEEDING
THE KING COBRA—MALADIES OF CAPTIVE REP-
PRES" : : q : : : .
XX.—PECULIARITIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES—J'HE ART OF
HANDLING VENOMOUS REPTILES—THE GILA MON-
STER—EXPERIMENTING WITH SNAKE POISON—
SHEDDING OF THE POISON FANGS—CONCERNING
THE HOSTILITY OF POISONOUS REPTILES—SURGI-
_ CAL OPERATION ON A COBRA—COMPOSITION OF
SNAKE POISON : ITS EFFECTS—ANTITOXIN
XXI.—CoLLECTING REPTILES—How WATER-SNAKES ARE
CAUGHYT—DIFFICULTIES IN CAPTURING LIZARDS—
HuntrING THE LOCAL REPTILES—WHERE_ REP-
TILES MAY BE FOUND—THE TIME TO COLLECT—
HuNTING AT NIGHT
XXIL—INrELLIGENCE OF REPTILES—TRAINING ALLIGATORS
—THE sToRY. OF SELIMA—DoO SNAKES SWALLOW
THEIR YOUNG ?—GIANT TORTOISES—THE LAST
SURVIVORS OF THE REPTILIAN AGE z 5 :

INDEX ‘ é : J : ; :

PAGE

179

189

196

205
213

List OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
Frog in action . : : : : : : ; : : 3
Giant salamander. ; ; : ; ; : ; ; 4
Slender cxecilia—W hite-bellied cecilia . “pees : : 5
Congo snake. ‘ - : - . - . : : 8
Spadefoot frog 9
Surinam toad and tadpole 10
Flying tree-frog tL
Head of frog 12
Tooth of ieee eae 15
Horned frog of South America 16
Common toad . 20
Green frog 20
Bullfrog 21
Tree-toad . 21
Crested newt, male and female : 27
Eggs of bird, toad, fish, butterfly, katydid, atte ; dl
Development of frog 30
Pouched frog 36
Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana ov

io)
(0 2)

Axolotl, tadpole state ‘ -
Axolotl, adult . ‘ : ‘ ; “ ; , : Pen ao
Obstetric frog . ? : ; : : : : : = at

Skeleton of frog. : : : : : ; ; Shee
Xxi

XXI1 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

PAGE
Skull of Rana esculenta . : : : : : ; om aude
Slab of sandstone, with amphibian footprints : ; - 09
Jaw of Dendrerpeton acadeanum . : A 5 : Aah
Section of hollow stump filled with sandstone . : 2 160
Archegosaurus . : : ; : ; ; ae a: < aoe
Ptyonius . ‘ - : : : : : E : 25 AOE
Limnerpeton laticeps —. . : : : ° ; ir ene
Mastodonsaurus Jaegeri . 3 ‘ ; 3 : : pete Oe
Trematosaurus : ; : : : d - - «< 68

Section of tooth of labyrinthodont : - : ; 2) Oe

Serpent 72
Lizard 72
Crocodiles ; : : : 2 : ; 73
Tuatera . , : : : : : F . ; mee)
Foot of a chameleon : 2 : : : ; : 2 sa
Glass-snake 4 é : : : j : : : eso)
Spine-tailed lizard. : : . : - : - Ada =
Sea-snake . : F : : ‘ : : ; : oe

Whip- or tree-snake : ; : , : ; 2. ets
Shield-tail snake —. ; : : : : - - oe
Pterodactyl . ; : : : ; : : : =) eae
Ramphorhynchus . : ; : é 5 : : eo

Action of crocodile’s jaw ‘ : , ; ; : : , oo
Dasypeltis-unicolor swallowing fowl’s egg. ; : 2 hel
Dicynodon lacerticeps . : ; : 3 : : : 2
Lycosaurus : : : : ‘ : ; : ; “oe
Rhynchosaurus : : : : : ; ‘ : o Meroe
Skull of rattlesnake . : : : : : : , «i= iy,
Anolis or American chameleon. : - : ; » ae
Horned toad. : : : : : : ; : - 102

Head of leguan " : . : : : . 5 2 LO:

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXill

PAGE
PME LISHIECL care) Pee ia wate salt? Siig ol Mee gee Te oh OD
Frilled lizard. ; ‘ ; : : ‘ ; ; Set OG
Flying lizard . 2 : : : ; ‘ : : oe hit

Gila monster . 3 ; : pagers : : : apes
Skeleton of lizard. ; . : : ; : : « (1350
Wall gecko : : : : : : ; ; Ao
Tortoise-shell turtle : : ; ‘ : : : . 182
Stegosaurus ungulatus . : ; ‘ : E ; . 135
Gavial. : : : : ; : a : 5; . 141
Circles showing kinship . : . : : : : . 147
Plesiosaurus dolichodirus : : j : : : =, 9848
Ichthyosaurus communis : . : : : ; pag be.
Kdestosaurus . : : 5 : ; , : : . 149
Triceratops prosus . é . : : : : : . 150
Brontosaurus excelsis 151
Restoration of Laosaurus 151
Diclonius mirabilis . 152
Hesperornis regalis . 153
Slab with tracks of several species of Brontozoum 154
Finback lizard . ; Si Dee : 155
Skeleton of Pterodactylus Sure ’ : : ; oS
The collector with some of his pets : : : : + bOS
Rattlesnake. : i : : : 3 : : a Lae
Forcing food down the throat of a reptile. : , 3-183
Blacksnake:"".°~. : : ; : : ‘ ¢ 318d

“ Big Mose,” the death 5 - : ; - : . 201
Giant tortoise . : : ; : : : : . nee

| ikl ni Brees

AMPHIBIANS

By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT

STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

CLA PTR A
WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS

Tue term Amphibians is used to designate that
great class of the backboned animals, which includes
the Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, Mudpuppies, ete.
Unfortunately there is no good English word for all
these, as there is for the fishes and for the birds, or no
good Anglicized word as those for the reptiles and for
the mammals.

We are a little apt to confuse amphibian with the
amphibious; but the latter term is used loosely to
define any creature capable of staying for indefinite
periods either in water or air—such as may have two
abiding-places. But an amphibian is a creature hay-
ing, usually and normally, as it grows, two forms of
life. Thus seals, otters, muskrats, and beavers are
often spoken of as amphibious, but they are really
mammals; while nearly all true amphibians, such as
frogs, salamanders, ete., have a tadpole state through
which they pass in their growth, and in which they
are entirely water-haunting; and later they have an
adult stage in which they may be either land-haunters

purely, water-haunters, or amphibious, like those mam-
1

2 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

mals mentioned. Having two lives is the original
meaning of amphibious (from the Greek, amphi,
two, and bzos, lite).

Some writers speak of this class of the vertebrates
as the Batrachians (from Greek batrachios, a frog),
but the author prefers to leave this term as the scien-
tific name of the tailless amphibians only.

There are a few fishes that, when young, have a
tadpole state, but these, when grown, are easily distin-
guished from any amphibian, either because they have
no true legs, or because they have very distinct fins.
But there are many tadpoles of the amphibians, which
outwardly resemble certain fishes, and close examina-
tion is required and technical terms must be used to
distinguish them.

In a general way, every tadpole is a low order of
fish, having gills and living a thoroughly aquatic life,
but later they all either acquire true limbs with toes, or
else they have better lungs than has any fish. There
are fishes with lungs, but no legs. At the same time
there are many amphibians with legs, that still retain
the gills of their tadpole state and have a very poor
sort of lungs indeed.

From the classes above them the tadpole condition
of the amphibians is the most characteristic distine-
tion, though some do not have this larval condition
outside of the egg. This egg is also quite different
from that of reptiles and birds, and in the process of
hatching, the tadpole is not enclosed in certain sacs or
membranes, which grow round the young of the other
two classes and nourish them.

WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS 3

Anatomically, the rule is that amphibians have no
such complete ribs as are found in the other classes.
Externally, it may be said in a general way of those
living now, that amphibians are naked-skinned, rep-
tiles are scaly, mammals have hair and birds have
feathers. Some reptiles, however, are not, and a few
mammals are scaly.

Fig. 1.—Frog ( Discogtossus pictus) in action, showing free develop-
ment of limbs as compared with other members of its class.

Likewise many extinct amphibians and reptiles
had paddle-shaped limbs. Their structure, however,
shows that these were not true fins, but were made
out of a true three-jointed leg. Likewise some of
each of these classes have no legs at all, but they are
readily distinguished by the other characters noted.

Amphibians were once classed with reptiles, be-

qd STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

cause both were cold-blooded creeping things; but
although a lizard and a salamander may look much
alike, mere resemblance is no longer a basis of classi-
fication. Kinship is a matter of structure.

While the fishes were the first creatures to have
a backbone, the amphibians were the first to take this
great weapon and go out to conquer the dry land.

ps We te rare |

|S %
Fic. 2.—Giant salamander (Megalobatrachus maximus).

They were thus the pioneers of all the reptiles and
mammals, which have since subdued the earth, and

WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS 5

of the birds which have invaded the air. With them
came in the three-jointed limb and the fingers and
the toes. The many fringes of the fins of the fishes

ive. Bh
Slender cecilia White-bellied ezecilia
(Cecilia gracilis). (Crecilia lentaculata).

rapidly decreased to five digits in this next class, and
then the human hand lay in its cradle among the
rushes—a giant which should rise and strike and
strangle.

With the jointed limb and toe came in the lung,
also, in its best development—permitting the excur-
sion away from the water.

There are now living three orders of amphibians,
easily distinguished from each other. First there are
the tailed forms, like the salamanders, always having
a tail and at least two limbs. Second there are the

6 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

tailless forms, such as frogs and toads, always having
four limbs. Third there are the legless forms, the
Ceecilians, which have no perfect limbs at all, though
stumps show in the very young. They are wormlike
in shape—are burrowing creatures and are practically
eyeless.

In the long-ago there lived many other kinds of
amphibians.

CHAR THR, tt

LIMBS, TOES, CLAWS, WEBS, FINS, AND TONGUES IN
AMPHIBIANS

Lives AND Tors

Tue typical form of each order is illustrated in
the last chapter. In place of a tail the frogs have
their hind limbs capable of stretching out directly in
line with the body. This gives them a great thrust
in leaping and swimming, and the long iegs thus trail-
ing act like a feather on an arrow in one case, and
like a rudder in the other. The fore legs of the tail-
less forms are weak, and are used mostly in alighting
and in propping up the forepart of the body. These
nearly all leap.

In the tailed forms, the legs are all usually rather
weak, and there is no great difference in the size of
the fore and hind pairs, as there is in the frogs. To
this order the forward pair seems the more important
since they serve to drag the creature slowly along, and
they are never lost, though the rear ones are gone in
the sirens. So, also, the fore limbs first develop in
their tadpoles, while in those of the frogs the rear
limbs show first. In one tailed form, known as the

Congo snake (though it is not a snake), all four of the

3 rs
7

8 STORY. OF THE AMPHIBIANS

limbs are small and useless. The creature moves by
wriggling. (See Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4.—Congo snake (Murenopsis tridactyla).

The Ceecilians have bands around the body, by
which they pull themselves through the ground.

In the legged forms the number of the toes varies.

lit the grasping hand of the frogs and tree-toads,
there is found the first thumb in nature. So perfect
is this that many tree-toads can suspend themselves
for some time by a single hand. These have soft
round pads on the ends of the digits, which enable
them to stick to smooth surfaces—the slipping being
prevented by moisture. The cricket-frog can, by the
mere adhesion of its moist underparts, climb up ver-
tical glass and remain there even when so turned that
its back is downward ; and one little salamander, hav-
ing neither pads nor claws, can so run on ceilings.

Claws are very poorly developed in the amphibi-

LIMBS AND TOES Ss

ans. Some of the tailed forms have horny tips on
their toes all the time; others have these at certain
seasons only, when they chase or grasp each other.
These latter are on the fore feet, and are shed later.
In Africa, there is a frog armed with spurlike claws
on three toes of the hind feet, and our own spade-
foot toad (Fig. 5) has a flat spur on its rear foot, which
is evidently used as a burrowing implement.

The feet of the so-called Surinam toad (Fig. 6)
(Pipa) are tipped with a starlike sprangle. The rule

Fic. 5.—Spadefoot frog (Scaphiopus holbrookii).

among frogs and toads is that the rear toes are webbed
and the front ones are not. The length of rear toes
and the extent of the webs vary much.

10 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

It is said that in one tree-toad of Borneo, the usual
disks are so large, and the membranes between them
so broad, that when the toes are spread, the creature

Fic. 6.—Surinam toad (Pipa Americana), tadpole on the left.

may sail from tree to tree on them, after the manner
of the flying squirrels. (See Fig. 7.)

In the European newt, a dry-land tailed form, the
males develop webs at that season only when all go
to the water; and these dry up and fall off when
they go back to the land.

TaAILs
Of course when in the water the tailed forms
swim largely by means of their tails, and in those
which remain there most of the time the tail is flat

TONGUES 19)

vertically, like that of a fish, and has a fringe on the
upper edge, like a fin. But in those which are almost
purely land-haunting, as the true salamanders, the tail
is round. But some amphibians, also, have a fringe
on the tail at that time only when they come to the
water. In none of these fins now are there any sup-
porting filaments or spines, as there are in those of
the fishes; and no amphibian has fins on its sides.

ToNGUES

In this class of vertebrates the tongue is an in-
teresting member, and here finds its first and best

Fic. 7.—F lying tree-frog (Rhacophorus reinhardtii).

development (Fig. 8). In some frogs it is entirely
absent, but in most of them it is large, and can be
thrust out very far as a capturing instrument—having

12 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

usually a sticky substance on its end. In the tailed
amphibians, the tongue is variable, and quite helpful
in describing groups. In some it is a mere wrinkling
of a membrane on the floor of the mouth. It is so in
the giant salamanders.
In no case is it ever
split, nor is it thread-
like and capable of
being thrust far out
while the mouth is
closed, as it is in some
reptiles. Legless am-
phibians may always
be thus known from
legless reptiles.

In the tailed am-

Fic. 8.— Head of frog, showing
tongue fixed in front but free res
hehaid: phibians, the tongue

is not free behind and

tied in front only, as in frogs, but in a few sala-
manders it is free all around and tied in the cen-
ter. This freedom may be so great that there is
left only a central stem (or pedestal), and the whole
becomes mushroom-shaped. In a few cases this ped-
estal is capable of stretching, so that the cap may
perhaps be thrust out of the mouth. But since above
this kind of tongues there is usually a quantity of
teeth on the roof of the mouth, it is not unlikely that
the tongue is used to grind the food against these.
In other salamanders, the tongue is free at the sides,
but only so in a limited degree behind. In the sirens,
which have no teeth, it is free in front to a slight ex-

TONGUES 13

tent. A peculiarity of one American genus (Ambly-
stoma) is that the tongue is pleated or wrinkled on
top, and the folds or creases run from some point
within outward, as the spokes of a wheel. This point
may be in the center or toward the rear ; and its posi-
tion aids in distinguishing species. Here as elsewhere
the tongue is helpful in “ diagnosing the case.”

In the Cecilians the tongue is like that of the
salamander forms—fixed to the floor of the mouth—
and can not be thrust out, as in legless reptiles.

CHAPTER III

TEETH, BEAKS, FOOD, FEEDING HABITS, FASTING, IM-
PRISONMENT, DRINKING, AND WATER RESERVOIRS
IN AMPHIBIANS

TEETH

Wirn the amphibians of to-day teeth seem to be
of less importance than in any other class of back-
boned creatures. Even fishes have developed them
much more terribly. But there were once fierce
amphibians which had great teeth; and because
these, when cut across their length, showed mark-
ings made by the folds, which resembled labyrinths,
these old monsters are called Labyrinthodonts (Fig.
9). The horned toad of Brazil, still has these in-
folded teeth, with grooves on the sides. In reptiles
having such grooved teeth there is always found a
poison ready to flow down them, and so it is said that
this wrinkled-toothed toad bites viciously, pursues its
enemies, and has poisonous teeth.

While the amphibians may have teeth elsewhere
than on the jaws, none have them on the tongue,
as do many fishes. The labyrinthodonts had great
tusks in the throat, but in many modern forms teeth
may be absent from either or both jaws. In the

United States common toads have no teeth on the
14

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS

jaws, but this is not true of toads everywhere. The
tree-toads (which are toads not frogs) have teeth on
the upper jaw, and some real tree-frogs ( Dendro-

batide) have no teeth on either jaw.

amphibians there are
usually teeth on both
jaws, but the siren
has a beak only, like
that of turtles and
some fishes. Tad-
poles of the frogs
and toads have simi-
lar beaks. In the
Ceecilians there are
teeth on both jaws—
especially the lower.

Foop AND FEEDING
Hapits

In the grown-up
state, when not con-
fined, all amphibians
appear to be either
flesh-eaters or insect-
eaters. In confine-
ment many _ tailed
forms will eat bread
and milk, or bread
alone, and other
cooked forms of vege-
table food. But their

Fic. 9.—Tooth of labyrinthodont,
natural size.

15

In the tailed

16 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

tadpoles are, to a large extent, vegetable eaters—liv-
ing on grass and reeds. The tadpoles of the spade-
foot toad are said to be especially fond of each other,
and many are otherwise carnivorous. Such creatures
as ducklings, goslings on the water, and even chickens
on the banks, may be gulped by immense bullfrogs.
One large frog of the Solomon Islands is recorded
as catching birds, and the poisonous horned frogs of
South America—already noted (Fig. 10)—catch small

Fic. 10.—Horned frog of South America (Ceratophrys cornuta).

mammals. Large frogs may sometimes turn the tables
on the snakes and swallow the smaller ones. A snake
eighteen inches long has been found in a frog’s
stomach. Fish and reptiles are sometimes eaten. In
confinement frogs eat each other.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS Nr

It is surprising what long fasts frogs are capable
of, if the numerous records are to be trusted. There
is no doubt that at certain seasons while they have
not yet gone into the winter sleep, some frogs cease
to eat—at least to any great extent—perhaps alto-
gether. Of course when torpid in winter they do not
eat. Dr. Abbott records that he kept a cricket-frog
without food for one hundred days. At the end of
seventy-five days it had lost only forty-four grains in
weight. The author kept a common tree-toad in a
bottle properly ventilated, one winter. It was al-
ways active when roused, but it could never be in-
duced to eat. It finally died after many weeks, from
what cause could not be seen, but no loss of flesh
seemed evident.

In this connection it is proper to notice the won-
derful stories we hear about amphibians being found
in the hearts of trees, crevices: of rocks, etc.—places
not having any opening large enough, at the time
of discovery, for the creature to crawl through. It
would seem that it had been there a long time, and
the query is double, How did it get there and what
has it lived on? Scientists are not much inclined to
believe that such things have happened. But it is
always best to see upon what such assertions are
based. It is recorded that a frog has lived a year
enclosed in a plaster cavity; and Semper—a great
naturalist —notes a definite instance of this kind
where a Triton (a tailed form) was found enclosed in
a cavity of rock from which an opening of one-twenty-
fifth of an inch only in diameter and one-sixth of an

18 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

inch in depth ran to the outer world. In this case
he thinks that the very young Triton crawled in
through this hole—not so large as a big broom-straw
—and grew so that it could not get out. It wasa
year or two old and two inches long when found, and
the naturalist thinks that sufficient food may have
strayed in there to support it. It is probable that in
some other cases an outer opening may have been
overlooked. At any rate the subject is an interesting
one in this connection.

It has been said that amphibians do not drink.
Just how this is proved in all cases the author does
not know. It is well known that the frogs can con-
dense water into their bodies by means of their skins,
or absorb it from green leaves by means of special
glands; that they have a reservoir of pure water
within the body that is filled quite likely in this way.
To say that the aquatic kinds never drink is a broad
assertion, but that they may have no need to do so
may be true, because in this case also the skin may
merely absorb a sufficient quantity.

CHAPTER IV

SPRING CALLS, VOCAL ORGANS, HAUNTS, HATCHING,
COURTSHIP, DRESS, COLORS, CHANGES, AND OTHER
ORNAMENTS ; WEAPONS, DEFENSE, SKIN-SECRETIONS
AND BLUFF, IN AMPHIBIANS

CaLts AND Music

In those warm days in February when, in our
middle latitude, the little male frog first awakes from
his winter sleep and puts his head forth, the first ery
is not for bread but for company to cheer his lonely
heart; and he never ceases the croak or squeak till
he finds it—or, at least, knows that the season is past
for finding it, and that bachelorhood for another year
stares him in the face.

Our ponds in the spring are thus made noisy by
toads as well as frogs. In fact many of the early trills
—especially those which are so prolonged—are from
the toads (Fig. 11). Those who have had experience
can tell what species is singing, as others can know
the songs of birds. Dr. Abbott says that the little
cricket-frog cries “ pee-ceet””’ repeatedly ; Dr. Jordan
notes that the swamp tree-toad’s call is like “‘ the scrap-
ing of a coarse-toothed comb,” and Professor Cope

says the same is “a rattle with a rising inflection at
19

20 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

the end.” The ery of our common tree-toad (14)
is described as “a clear loud-trilled rattle.’ The

Fig. 11.—Common toad.

common green frog (Fig. 12) is called Rana clamata
(“screaming frog”) because it has a sort of barytone

Fic. 12.—Green frog (Rana clamata).

CALLS AND MUSIC 21

which it uses very frequently, and has the habit alse
of “squeaking out” as it leaps into the water when

Fic. 13.—The bullfrog (Rana catesbiana).

disturbed. The spadefoot toad croaks fearfully in a
deep rasp—as if his vocal apparatus needed oiling;

and the voice of the
bullfrog (Fig. 18)—
especially when quiet
and reflective in the
later season—is de-
scribed as “ jug-er-
rum,” with a deep
really musical ring at
times. Again it may
be a series of very ex-
plosive ‘“ chee-ungs ’
very far apart; but

Fic. 14.—-Tree-toad (Hyla SS aihany

22 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

in the spring when in concert with others it takes on
various forms of squawks, croaks, ete., which may
“make night hideous.”

Frogs evidently sing in concert—even different
kinds chiming in with others, as any one may ob-
serve; and among the bullfrogs there are leaders of
the groups of singers, which seem to start first and
thus get the whole band into pulsations or throbs of
sound. In some tropical regions there is really a
musical harmony in these concerts, and they are
rather pleasant to human ears. It is known that
some birds sing in harmony—the one making a
good “second” to the other. but in many other
cases the noise of frogs in the Tropics is so great
that nervous persons sometimes have to leave the
region.

As a rule amphibians do not ery out in fright,
though our spring-frog (or green frog) is noted as
an exception. Rarely do they express any sound in
distress. A few groan under suffering, but usually
they go silently to their doom, even while being swal-
lowed alive by a snake. Neither do they as a rule
express rage by sound. Dr. Lydekker, however,
notes that the horned frog of South America (Fig.
10)—the one that has been noted as vicious and poi-
sonous—defies its foes with a sort of bark, but that
it has a clear bell-like tone for its friends. Perhaps
then here low down in the backboned folk the lan-
guage of rage is first separated from the language of
love. Some of the fishes, however, had been calling
for mates before this, for the heart is older than the

WATER-HAUNTING 23

head, and music older than speech. Perhaps the cat-
fish when bellowing is defying his foe.

We shall not go into the structure of the larynx
or special sound-apparatus in the frog-forms—further
than to say that many of the males have membranous
sacs on each side of the mouth which can be filled
with air; and these greatly aid in producing a loud
sound. In some they remain full so long as the pro-
longed sound prevails; in others the sacs go down
with the short call and are refilled before the next.
The females do not have these sacs, but many of
them call in a weak voice.

In the tailed forms there are calls also, especially
from the land-haunters, but they are not strong nor
striking. They are doubtless related to calling and
charming.

Something of cries in connection with the weather
will come up under “ Skin.”

W ater-HaAvuntTING

Among most amphibians that are land-haunters
there is, in connection with the voice, the habit of
forming bathing parties at the social seasons, when
better opportunities of being agreeable to each other
are afforded. Many of them hibernate at the bot-
toms of shallow ponds and awake there; but others
hibernate in holes on land and must awake, dig out
and make this excursion to the water-party. It is an
instinct in most animals below the mammals to at-
tempt to rear their young in the place where they
themselves were hatched. We see this very strikingly

4

24 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

in birds and fishes. So the amphibians, being origi-
nally from the water, go back to it usually to bring
up their babes.

In a general way water is necessary to the hatch-
ing of the amphibian egg and (since the young are
usually fishlike), to the rearing of the tadpoles. There
are a few exceptions to this now, though there was
doubtless a time when the whole class resorted to
water to lay eggs. In some cases, as on our dry
plains, frogs and salamanders depend upon little tem-
porary rain-pools in which to rear their young; so
that here is one reason why amphibians should re-
joice at the prospect of a storm.

OtTurrR CHARMING FEATURES

Having discussed the voice to call with and the
place to assemble at, let us notice other means of
charming or securing a mate among the amphibians.

Frogs are especially active in making themselves
agreeable, though they do not resort to all the cere-
monies of the “ best society.” But besides music and
a decent bath the amphibians seem to condense our
bowing, dancing, and posing into some very extrava-
gant antics at times; and on such occasions they sport
all the finery they can afford.

Many of them in every-day life are exposed to
great dangers and must dress so as not to be seen
easily, as is the case with the toad and many which
are dull-colored; but others that live among pretty
things can match their dresses (and their complex-
ions) to their surroundings, and yet remain pretty.

OTHER CHARMING FEATURES 25

Thus our wood-frog’s coat looks as if it were crossed
with twigs and plant stems and blotched with moss
and leaves; the tree-toads are greenish or gray like
leaves or lichens; and yet the pattern of these colors
is pretty. In some of these, their under parts only
may be beautifully orange or golden—often marbled,
ete. ; and as they swim above their mates these beauty
spots may be ravishingly displayed.

Still others, which are active or can escape their
foes in other ways, are gorgeously brilliant on the
back and upper sides of the legs. This does not al-
ways expose them, for in the Tropics the tree-toads
are said to be colored like the blossoms and fruits
on the trees. Some of the salamanders, which can
escape into the water or otherwise hide, are brightly
striped—even rivaling the snakes in green and gold.
Among many there is quite a tendency to be spotted
on the sides in the regular “ polka-dotted ” way.

In dangerous creatures which are not liable to be
attacked, there is often great brilliancy—perhaps be-
cause beauty is always desirable, and they can afford
it. But a great naturalist has supposed that this
beauty is a warning to the enemy—a warning which
is, however, purely for the warner’s benefit. Thus
in South America there is a little frog that is con-
spicuously colored, but it has a very acrid skin-secre-
tion, which keeps ducks and other things from eating
it. It hops abroad fearlessly in daylight, and flaunts
its gaudy colors defiantly. The horned frog (see Fig.
10) (not horned toad) is also brilliant with green and
gold, and it fights and poisons.

26 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

Cotor CHANGES

To return to color as a protection, many amphib-
ians have the ability to change their colors at will
to suit the surrounding—to dress for the emergency.
The common tree-toads all have it, and some terres-
trial frogs also.

One of our little tree-toads is nearly solid green
above, sometimes slightly spotted, but it is rare. The
only specimen the author ever saw was on a green
leaf, and the toad was solid green with no spots
noticeable.

At the season when amphibians desire a mate,
both sexes put on their brightest colors, and the males
are not so noticeably the more brillant here as they
are in the birds and fishes.

OTHER ORNAMENTS

We have noticed, under their respective heads, the
putting on of extra claws, webs, fins, and the enlarge-
ment of fingers and arms during the social time. In
this connection it is noticeable that many males, like
the birds, put special ornamentation and color on
these also. The English male newt or eft (Fig. 15)
has his vertical fin on the back much larger at this
time than is the female’s; and he has the edges of it
all beautifully scalloped, as are sometimes the edges
of collars, kerchiefs, ete., with the ladies. The end
of the tail is similarly scalloped. He seems to think
that his mate can appreciate beauty of form also. In
this fin there are no muscles to move it, and in later

WEAPONS 2'7

months it disappears. It was an ornament only—a
pretty thing—made out of an old implement that was
once useful otherwise.

Fic. 15.—Crested newt (Triton cristatus). Lower figure, male;
upper figure, female.

Sometimes the Axolotls (Figs. 16 and 17)—a
Mexican tailed form—are found albino or white—
from causes not understood.

W EAPONS

Besides the horns noted in the South American
poisonous frogs (and these may be mere ornaments)
the modern amphibians are scarcely endowed with spe-
cial weapons—aside from tongue and teeth for prey-
taking. Frogs have been recorded as fighting desper-
ately with each other, some having had their bodies
ripped open; but with what kind of weapons it is
not stated. The teeth on the margin of the jaws may

28 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

come into play. The spur-toed frogs noted as having
claws on hind feet can probably scratch severely.

Salamanders when teased turn themselves sud-
denly like caterpillars and snap their jaws at the dis-
turbing object. In general there is no such vicious-
ness found in the amphibians as prevails in the
reptiles, where the enemy is sometimes pursued and
a bulldog kind of grip is often taken.

This sudden bending of the body is a favorite
means of leaping by some tailed forms. _ |

SKIN-SECRETIONS

As means of defense skin-secretions prevail more
largely in amphibians than elsewhere, though some
low mammals, as the opossums, possess them. In no
case are such secretions agreeable to an enemy, but
snakes do not seem to care for that of the toad, though
it is nauseating toa dog. That of the brilliant little
South American frog has been mentioned. The skin-
secretion in the salamanders is very great. The an-
cients thought that it could resist fire—perhaps because
this quantity of ooze might protect it a little. They
thought the secretion deadly and blasting—even to
vegetation. They imagined that it produced all sorts
of spells even at long range. We now know that this
is a fallacy, but its slime is really poisonous to lizards
and small things which may get it in the mouth. So
there may be a grain of truth in many myths. The
impression prevails among many persons that the
secretion of toads produces warts. Its own back is
pointed out as a proof. But the wartlike lumps there

SKIN-SECRETIONS 29

are merely the glands from which the secretion flows.
On the neck behind the eye these glands are larger
and the fluid from these parts is usually more acrid.

A threatening attitude is a frequent means of
escape or defense among amphibians. ‘Toads nor-
mally have the sections of the breast-bones overlap-
ping, so that they can swell themselves enormously
when angry. frogs have their breast-bone pieces
meeting edge to edge, which prevents this power of
expansion.

CHAPTER: -V

EGGS, SPAWNING PLACES, VIVIPAROUS FORMS, AND
PECULIAR CARE OF YOUNG IN AMPHIBIANS

Eaags

Tue eggs of frogs and toads are, in general, like
those of the higher fishes. They consist of dark dots
that are yolks enclosed in a mass of jellylike matter,
which is the “white.” This “white” may be all in |
one great sheet or string; but in tailed forms, the
eggs may be separate, buttonlike masses of “ white”
—each with a yolk in the center. In the upland frogs
and toads, some of which do not lay their eggs in the
water, the eggs may be separate, and placed singly
here and there in crevices. These single eggs are apt
to be much larger than those which are laid in masses.
In the land-haunting tailed amphibians, the eggs are
laid in packets or flat bunches. There is no shell or
very tough membrane around the eggs of the amphib-
jans, as in the birds and reptiles or sharklike fishes.
In the ceecilians the eggs are also separated (Fig. 16).

The place where eggs of most amphibians are laid
is in the water, generally a shallow stagnant pool.
Usually they sink to the bottom or are twined around
the stems of plants. Among the newts the mother

30

EGGS ol

climbs the stem of a submerged plant and puts an egg
on each stem or leaf as she goes—one for each leaf ;
but the axolotl swims over and among the plants and
may put more than one of her flat, buttonlike eggs,

Via. 16.—Eggs of different animals, showing variety in external
appearance. a, egg of bird; b, eggs of toad; ¢, egg of fish ; d, egg
of butterfly ; e, eggs of katydid on leaf; f, egg-case of skate.

all in a row, upon the stem. The Congo snake (Am-
phiuma) lays its eggs in a string in the water, then
coils its long body about them and bunches them into
a circular mass. So also the spotted triton (or spotted
salamander) bunches its eggs. The more land-haunt-

32 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

ing tailed forms lay their packets under damp moss
or stones, etc. ; and here their young are hatched, and
in some cases they never go to the water. They
begin at once a terrestrial life, though the gills, which
they have at first, show their aquatic origin.

TADPOLES

Generally speaking, the eggs of amphibians (Fig.
17) are hatched by the sun’s heat. At first the little
amphibian in its egg shows as a bloody streak, and
appears to develop in its early stages much as a little
fish. Later, however, it absorbs all the yolk into the
stomach and does not have it suspended below the
body as have the little fishes. From the egg the tad-
pole breaks away to liberty, if in the water, as a small
plump beanlike body with a round sucking mouth and
a slim wiggling tail. At first no gills are seen, but
soon they grow as branches outside of the neck. Later
these are lost, a hole is formed in the neck for breath-
ing by gills that are developed zns¢de—as in the fishes
—a pretty strong hint that the amphibian did not get
its gills from the present kind of fishes. This con-
dition prevails only where the creature is going to be
a land-haunter to any extent, as in the frog-forms and
the salamanders. If it be destined to remain in the
water, as in the case of sirens, mud-puppies (‘ water-
dogs ’’), ete., these outside gills remain, and no inside
ones are formed. Finally in the adult frog-forms and
in the more upland tailed forms the holes on the side
of the neck close, and the creatures become lung-
breathers only. While no amphibian may wholly

Fic. 17.—Development of the frog. 1, eggs when first laid ; 2, eggs
at a later stage; 3, egg containing embryo; 4, newly hatched
larve or tadpoles; 5, 5,5, tadpoles with external gills; 6 to 11,
later stages in the development of the tadpole ; 12, perfect frog.

dv

b4 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

reject the use of the lung, yet in the more aquatic
kinds it has much degenerated or never developed,
and these creatures die when out of the water as
quickly as many fishes. Since these show a tendency
to have weak limbs they are likely degenerate forms
that have lost their high estate by laziness.

In all tadpoles which develop into land-haunters
the limbs begin to appear about the time the lungs
develop. It is remarkable that these limbs should be
almost complete in all their parts before they come
forth from under the skin, where for a time they
forma small stump. It is one of those “shortened
up” processes of Nature of which we shall find so
many from this on. In the tadpoles of the frog-
forms, modern demands have reached back so far as
to grow out the hind limbs first, but in all others it
is the fore limb that first shows. In frog-forms the
tail soon departs—is not lost—but is absorbed into the
body-—as the limbs grow. In all others it remains,
and has vertebre (joints of the back-bone) form in
it. There is never any vertebree in the tail of the
tadpole of the frogs, which have only horny jaws, and
are rather more vegetable-eating than the other forms.
It is said, however, that they have teeth before they
have the beaks. In all tadpoles the gape is small—
the mouth rather sucking. Those of toads, like the
eggs, are always much blacker than those of frogs.
It is impossible here to outline any further means of
recognizing the various kinds of tadpoles. But an
expert naturalist will know many if not ail of them
by some peculiarity. Those of frog-forms show only

VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS BD

two pairs of gills on each side; those of some tailed
forms (tritons, newts, etc.) have three pairs, while the
shape of the body, tail, limbs, and the number of these
last and their toes are all different in different species.
The body in the tadpoles of frogs and toads is much
shorter than that of the tailed forms, and in the former
only there are sucking disks under the head.

The cecilian tadpole shows a swimming tail, some
internal gills only, and in one kind the stump of a leg
—-all of which are lost later when the creature begins
to burrow.

Viviearous AMPHIBIANS

In many amphibians, as in fishes and reptiles, the
egos are hatched in the body before they are laid.
In some instances the eggs are laid but are hatched
immediately. In a few cases the entire tadpole-state
is run within the body of the parent, and the young
are born in the complete form. A remarkable in-
stance is that of the Alpine salamander. Many eggs
are formed in the mother but two only are hatched.
All the others then run together in a mass to feed the
two growing tadpoles. These have very long bushy
gills which they lose at birth. They have been taken
from the mother before they were born and put into
water, whereupon they lost their first gills at once,
but grew other new shorter ones—those by which they
breathed in the parent’s body, being quite likely too
large for the much better aerated water. This, Mr.
Mivart, a great naturalist, has cited as an instance
where at once a creature could adapt itself to its sur-

36 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

rounding, while young and plastic, without waiting
for generations of the survival of those best fitted to
it by mere accident.

Another species nearly akin, the nototrema, or
pouched frog, hatches ad/ of its many eggs within the
body (Fig. 18).

It is said that in some kinds of ceecilians the
young are born alive in the water, while another
species certainly lays rather large eggs in a burrow
near the water, and the mother coils above them and
hatches them out,
like ashen:=~ Eisee
this is probably the
first instance of real
incubation in na-
ture. Some others
which must have
water to hatch their
ego's, resort to queer
methods to get it.
One little West In-
dies tree-toad (Hy-
lodes) lays her eggs
at the point where
the leaf joins the
trunk in palms or

Fig. 18.—Pouched frog (Nototrema mar- gimilar trees. Here
supiatum). The brood-pouch opened little
to show the eggs. |

pockets of

water are found
after rains. Another of the same group takes the
matter more by faith still. At the time when she

VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS 37

lays there is usually a drought. So she places her
eggs on limbs of trees above dried-up pools. Here
they dry up also
and are preserved,
and when the rains
finally come they
are washed off and
hatch in the pool
below. Other spe-
cies deposit them
on the bottoms of
dried pools.

Some toads have
learned how to get
along without wa-
ter at any time. In

the island of Gua- Fic. 19.—Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana ( Hy-
delou pe, w here lodes liniatus), with tadpoles attached to
her back. They do not fall off even
when she leaps rapidly away.

marshes are not
found, a little toad
places its egos under damp leaves, and the whole tad-
pole-state is run within the egg, and the young come
forth perfect.

There are various stages of taking care of the tad-
poles when they form, without allowing them to re-
main in the water. It is well known that the female
Surinam toad has a pitted skin at the breeding season,
and that the male takes up the eggs and with his fore
paws presses them into these pits. Here they swell,
after the female enters the water, till each fills its cell,
when a covering grows over them and remains till they

38 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

hatch and come out again perfect frogs, having, how-
ever, been tadpoles a little while in the pits. Several
other frogs have sacs on the back in which the eggs
are hatched. A tree-frog of Dutch Guiana, and also
one of Trinidad, carry their tadpoles around on their
backs, where the tadpoles cling by their peculiar suck-
ing disks (Fig. 19).

The males of a great many frogs have a peculiar
habit. They take the strings of eggs and wind them
about their thighs. Some of these then go at once
into the water, while others sit in a burrow till the
egos are ready to hatch and then go. Our spadefoot

Fic. 20.—Axolotl (Amblystoma tigrinum), tadpole state.

toads are said sometimes to do this. A frog in the
Solomon Islands, which we have noted as laying its

VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS 39

egos in crevices, has its young hatched perfect—active
and leaping.

The Mexican axolotl (Figs. 20 and 21) shows a
peculiar form of suspended growth. If all the con-

Fig. 21.—Axolotl (Amblystoma tigrinum), adult.

ditions be not fair, it will cease to grow, and spend
the rest of its life in the tadpole state, reproducing its
young in this immature state while in the water, and
these young are capable of either becoming land-
haunters, by losing their gills, or remaining always :
aquatic. It is probable that other blunt-nosed sala-
manders do the same, or they may make the change
the second year and not the first.

In the obstetric frog (Fig. 22), which wraps the
string of eggs about his legs, the tadpoles are hatched
in water, but they have no gills.

There is a number. of nest builders among the
5

40 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

frogs. A Japanese frog makes a nest in the ground.
Another in Brazil makes circular nests in shallow
water, smoothing and shaping rings or atolls of mud,
and laying its eggs in these cup-like depressions.

Fig. 22.—Obstetric frog (Alytes obstetricans), with strings of eggs.

CHAPTER VI

RESPIRATION, LUNGS, SKIN-BREATHING, CIRCULATION,
HEARTS, AND LYMPH-HEARTS IN AMPHIBIANS

RESPIRATION

Since amphibians have no ribs to expand their
lungs, those which breathe air get their breath by
literally swallowing it, but they have muscles which
expel it. In the water-haunters with gills, the lungs
are mere sacs, without cells or pouches. In the ce-
cilians the left lung is small and nearly useless. All
the kinds which stay under the water long have cer-
tain places in the body where well aerated blood is
stored ; and a large blood supply runs to the skin
also. The skin aids the amphibians in breathing,
even where there are good lungs, as in the frogs.
To be thus useful it must be moist, like the gills of a
fish, so that frogs and toads especially have water
condensed into the body which they can cause to flow
out over the skin.

In the tailed forms, the body has a “ lateral line”
or series of pores along the side of the body, like that
of fishes, whence a secretion keeps the skin moist and
slick. They have many other mucus glands besides.

We can thus see that frogs may breathe better
41

42 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

in damp weather, and hence the tree-toads rejoice
at the prospect of rain.

CIRCULATION

Amphibians, as a rule, are above fishes in that
they have better hearts.

Although the heart is usually three-chambered, the
blood is piped away from it in such a way that only a
portion of it passes through the lungs or gills, the re-
mainder going the Saal of the body again without
reaching any aerating surface. They are not, there-
fore, warm-blooded. Before the lungs of tadpoles are
used, the heart has only two chambers, as in fishes,
while the blood runs from the heart through a pipe for
each of the three gills on each side; but when the frog
is grown, two of these tubes go to each lung and one
other is absorbed. This is a noticeable step upward,
since the warm-blooded creatures have only one of all
these six tubes left, while the earliest fishes had eight.

In the frog which may sit part of the time with
his rear parts in the water, and his foreparts in the
air, there is a beautiful arrangement of pipes, valves
and obstructing glands whereby Nature seems to com-
promise with him, and make the part of him in the
air warmer-blooded than that in the water. Only in
the crocodile (a reptile) elsewhere is there any such
arrangement, and that is not just like this.

Lympu CIRCULATION

The body of all creatures has a special fluid for
carrying material for repair to the muscles, ete., and

LYMPH CIRCULATION 43

for bringing away the waste. This is called lymph.
Nature always supplies a surplus of this liquid food ;
and yet not being wasteful, she carries this lymph
back and again pours it into the blood. To get this
back there is in the higher animals a very large system
of vessels, along which the fluid is pressed by the
action of small vessels—as a sponge absorbs water.
But in the amphibians and some other low forms,
this fluid may move in large spaces between muscles
or in long sacs (sinuses) under the skin or other mem-
branes; and since these easily expand under pressure
the spongelike action (capillarity) does not move the
fluid properly. So Nature has made these spaces and
sacs (sinuses) to pulsate and thus send their contents
onward. They are therefore called ‘ lymph-hearts.”

Now if we look closely at a frog, we can see
places on its sides “ beat” as if he had the “ heaves”
or “thumps,” to use a horseman’s words. There may
be one or more fluttering places on each side, and they
do not all throb at once or with any regularity with
each other. There is one on each side of the tail.
If you did not know how a frog breathed you might
think that this pulsing was his way of getting his
breath. In the amphibians these great lymph-canals
often surround the blood-vessels; but this is not the
case in man. There are two of these lymph-hearts in
some birds also, as the goose, at the root of the tail.
Unlike other hearts they degenerate as the creature
gets higher.

CHAPTER Vit
SKIN, SMELL, HEARING, EYES, DIGESTIVE TRACT

Skin SHEDDING

Tue skin of amphibians is shed frequently—some-
times at regular intervals; but the frequency depends
upon many conditions of growth, health, ete. In the
frog-forms some shed it once a week with great regu-
larity, at certain seasons in summer. Again this may
become quite irregular. In these, the skin tends to
come ‘off all in one piece, but there are instances
where it is torn off in strips. Toads appear to get
rather excited at this disrobing, and while the process
may be usually easy there are times when the skin
comes with great difficulty. They seem to call upon
that internal reservoir of water to moisten the dried
skin occasionally; and whether it come in strips
or as a seamless whole, they invariably swallow it
—sometimes rolling the mass into a ball with the
hands.

The dry-land forms are said to shed their skins in
strips, and these too are eaten at once. We should
remember that this is not really the skin proper that
is shed, but a thin, membranous—almost horny—out-

side covering called the epzdermis. In all creatures
44

SMELL 45

this must be got rid of in some way because it does
not grow as the true skin beneath does. In all above
the reptiles it is shed in little fragments, dropping off
all the time or going with some special bath.

The true skin of the amphibians stays and en-
larges with the body, as in other vertebrates. It is
this that has in it the glands for secretions, the arteries
for breathing, and which lies above the lymph-eavi-
ties, etc.—a great and important organ in every verte-
brate.

SMELL

Amphibians are better endowed for smelling than
are the fishes.

In the tadpoles the nostrils are mere depressions
in the snout, not connected with the mouth, and they
are then like those of most fishes. But in adult
forms the nostrils open into the mouth, whereby the
creature both breathes and smells by the air. The
positions of these openings differ in the frog-forms
and in the tailed forms. They differ in separate spe-
cies of each group also, and are sometimes used in
classification or description. There is much in the
arrangement of the mucous membrane of the frog’s
nose which implies that it smells well. If the strong
odors from the glands of the neck are used as charm-
ing perfumes (they are more likely for defense or de-
fiance) this would hint that there must be fairly good
smelling powers. but it does not take much nose to
smell some odors—especially that of garlic, which the
excretion of the toad resembles.

46 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

HEARING

All amphibians when adult have ears, but the
tailed forms and some frogs have very poor ones
which are devoid of any drum cavity. In most of
them, however, there is an internal ear of some sort
opening into the mouth—sometimes by one hole in
the roof—sometimes by two, always behind those of
the nostrils. The number and position of these holes
aid in describing groups. In the lowest forms and in
the tadpoles, the ear is a mere sac in a cavity of bone.
In this sac a sort of chalky body (or bodies) is found
as is the case in all higher ears. The cavity is simply
covered with skin. No amphibian has an outside
opening to the ear, but the higher frogs and toads
have a drum cavity and a tough drum-membrane
dver it, which is flush with the surface. The size
and shape of this membrane is very distinctive. In
the genus ana (bullfrog, green-frog, wood-frog,
etc.) it is set in a sort of gristly ring and is very
noticeable. Sometimes the drumhead seems itself to
be a gristly plate.

There can be no doubt about frogs hearing well.
While writing this book, the author stepped out to
listen to some frogs in a pond one-fourth mile away,
but he unfortunately let the door slam a little too
hard, whereat the concert ceased. Similar experi-
ences occur in trying to creep upon them.

There is much doubt, however, about their hear-
ing high-pitched tones, or distinguishing changes.
A frog “changes his tune” very slightly ; and while

EYES 47

certain students claim that there is some evidence of
that part of the ear (cochlea) which appreciates pitch
being found in frogs, it is, if there at all, very rudi-
mentary. This may be the reason why they croak in
such rasping quavers. Any one near a croaking frog
can feel his ear-drums fairly flutter in the coarse
vibrations.

As in fishes, it is not improbable that the sense-
glands of the lateral line also may aid the tailed
forms to appreciate jarring sounds.

EYES

In the frog-forms the eyes are very good, being
usually fairly large and projecting. The eye is not
so large anywhere as we should expect in creatures
so nocturnal as many amphibians are, but this is
probably accounted for in the great range of the size
of the pupil. Those which, when examined in day-
light, appear as slits are doubtless large and cireular
at night, as are those of the cat. Whether the pupil
be a horizontal or a vertical slit, whether triangular
or circular in daylight, these are very characteristic
marks of various species. It seems that the vertical
pupil implies more nocturnal habits than any other
shape.

Frogs have some muscles which aid them in pro-
jectihng the eye upward for observation. Those which
haunt the water have projecting eyes which, with the
nostrils, can be thrust above the water while the body
is beneath. There is no partition of bone between
the eye-sockets and the mouth, so that if the mouth

48 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

be inflated the eyes project more. All the frog-
forms have eyelids. The lower one tends to be trans-
parent (like glass), and hence it has been said that
they have a third lid or “ nictitating membrane.”
There are no tear glands. Immersed in the water,
the amphibian has no need for tears to wet the eye.
Many frogs, like some fishes, can roll the balls over
in the sockets and thus moisten them. The lids are
moist from other sources. Frogs floating on the water
are often seen to immerse the head suddenly and roll
the eyes backward as if to wet them.

In the tailed forms the eyes are much smaller and
less perfect. Some have eyelids, but in those which
always keep their gills, either external or internal, the
eye is usually much like that of some fishes, having
no lids, but the outer skin runs directly over them.
In Proteus, which lives in a cave in Austria, in 7y-
plotriton, found in a cave in Missouri, and in the
burrowing czecilians the eyes are covered by the thick
skin proper, and they: remain as mere dots. While
the lens is gone, enough of the nerve-matter of the
eye remains to enable the creature to tell light from
darkness. In one of the cecilians this sort of eye
has even sunk beneath the bones of the skull; but its
tadpoles have better eyes, along with a fan tail, and a
hint of a leg—all of which show how low these craw]l-
ing creatures have fallen.

The flying tree-toad only has large, owl-like eyes,
and needs to see at a distance, to make its tremen-
dous leaps. In our slow-going common toad, which
is also nocturnal, the eyes are small and dull.

DIGESTIVE TRACT, ETC. 49

Digestive TRACT, ETC.

In the grown-up amphibians, all of which avoid
vegetable food in the wild state—at least very largely
—the digestive tract is as simple as that of the fishes,
more so than that of some fishes. In many, the
stomach tends to be a mere swelled place in the long
tube, and there are very few kinks or bends anywhere.
There are no salivary glands, as in reptiles, and the
other organs, as liver, kidneys, ete., occur, but their
uses are much simpler than in the higher creatures.

The tadpoles, however, are so largely vegetable
feeders that the digestive tract is long and much
twisted, as it always is where tough matter is to be
digested. But while the gills are being lost, the
limbs growing, and the lungs forming, it shortens up
into a much simpler form and takes a sudden step
backward—an instance of another wonderful emer-
gency met almost in a moment.

CHAE Tin Vou

SKELETON GENERALLY—BACK-BONE, RIBS, SKULL, MUS-
CLES, NERVES, REFLEX ACTION, TENACITY OF LIFE,
AND REPAIR IN AMPHIBIANS

SKELETON

Tue skeleton of the amphibians is interesting for
both what it has and what it has not (Fig. 23). The
back-bone in the lower forms is much like that in the
lower fishes. In some fossil forms the original gristly
string around which the back-bone is built still re-
mains. In many others the ends of the vertebre (or
pieces of the back-bone) are flattish, or merely a little
cupped at both ends—a very primitive state, like that
of the sharks.

In the frog-forms, however, are found the most
interesting peculiarities of skeleton. The number
of vertebrae are very few—those of the tail being
gone as noted; and instead of many joints in the rear
part of the body there is one long, unjointed rod,
which runs from about the middle of the back to the
rear end of the body.

Note that the rear legs are attached far back, .
near the point where the tail should be, and not well

up on the back-bone as they are even in man, and that
50

SKELETON HI

behind the junction there are only two little vertebrae
to represent the tail bones. Note also that the for-
ward end of this bony rod (ealled the wrostyle) has on
each side a projection against which the bones to which
the legs are fastened join directly. This really makes
three stiff rods side by side in the back here to resist

Fia. 23.—Skeleton of frog.

the sudden thrust of the powerful hind legs. Many
creatures leap, but none have themselves hurled for-
ward by a stroke directly at the rear end of the spinal
column, as the frogs. These projecting pieces at the
forward end of the rod are called “ the transverse
processes of the sacral vertebra,’ and may or may
not be more or Jess expanded at their outer ends,

52 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

by which peculiarity frog-forms may be arranged into
groups or classitied.

You can see that there are no ribs—just mere
“transverse processes.” Only one family of frogs
has any hint of true ribs. In the skeleton of sala-
manders there are pieces of ribs which in cecilians
are longer.

If we turn the skeleton of our frog over, we shall
find that while there are no ribs to meet it, there is a
very respectable breast-bone (sternum) to which the
fore limbs are well anchored. This is the first real
breast-bone in Nature, though the fishes have hinted
at it. The tailed amphibians have it in gristle only.

SKULL

A noticeable amount of open space is seen in the
top view of the skull of our frog. Opposite is an en-
larged figure of the head (Fig. 24). Much of it in
life is gristly, and in the lowest tailed forms it is so
much more so that Professor Huxley has said that
here it is little better than that of the lamprey—a
low form of the fishes. In the long-ago, however,
the monsters of the class had more bones and more
bone in the roof of the head, as you. may see from
Figs. 31 and 82, page 63.

Nervous System
The amphibians — especially the frogs — show
many peculiarities of the nervous system not found.
so strikingly in the mammals. They retain in their
bodies hints of their low ancestry ; and indications

NERVOUS SYSTEM 53
toward a more intelligent condition are found in their
heads. We may glance at this briefly.

Pmx

Fic. 24.—Skull of Rana esculenta. A, from above; B, from below;
C, from the left side. «#, parasphenoid; y, girdle-bone; Z, the
‘*temporo-mastoid.”’

The lowest animal tissue, where no nerves are ap-
parent, seems to be able to feel, or to draw back or go
on when touched. In this case it is supposed that
feeling goes through any part in any direction, from
one cell to another, where there is more than one
cell. But as in time there came to be special cells for
digesting, breathing, ete., so there came to be special
cells for feeling and for stimulating other cells into
action. These arranged themselves in rows, so they
could communicate with each other, and these rows

54 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

were the beginnings of nerves. They can be recog-
nized as having distinct form and structure in those
creatures which are well up the scale but yet far below
the back-bone. In time the two duties of nerves, that
of feeling things and stimulating muscles into action,
were separated also, and separate rows of nerve-cells
were given to each duty, though the lines lay close
alongside. At the inner end of these two nerve-
threads there was a union, which swelled into a little
knot called a ganglion. It was simply a little crude
brain, which received the news from the outer edge of
the creature by one thread, and sent word back by the
other, telling the members out there what to do. It
was merely the rebounding place where the sensation
returned and became stimulation. For a long time
these little brains lay disconnected from one another
as the early nerve-cells did. They were the lords of
their own little realms. Each small margin or fila-
ment of the low creatures had its little brain to re-
port to and to obey, and literally the right side
(there were no hands then) knew not what the left
was doing.

But im time these little brains became connected
by nerve-threads, or else they massed themselves into
bunches; and soon these bunches took control of
larger areas of tissue; but we can not attempt to
follow this development, which doubtless continued
till a great confederacy was formed—which was
massed in the back-bone—and then much later a
seat of government arose at the forward end of this,
which we call the brain. But a// of these little brains

NERVOUS SYSTEM 55

did not come into the mass. Many were left out for
a kind of picket work, and they still acted according
to their own will, to some extent, and did not always
telegraph to headquarters (literally) for instructions
or orders. Nor can the central government always
control them wholly. Thus, if the sole of your foot is
tickled yow jerk it away, and your brain or will has
little to do with it; often can not prevent your foot
from jerking. This is because there is a lot of little
brains away down there which have very small con-
nection with the big brain proper; and before the
latter can have anything to say, the sensation has
come to these, and from them the stimulation has gone
back—reflected—to the foot. Hence this reflection
is called “ reflex action.”

In the movements of the heart and other inside
organs, and in the opening and closing of the pupil
of the eye, etc., the action is more independent still
in answer to outside stimulation.

The amphibians have a large arrangement of
nerve-matter for this purely reflex action—this kind
of unconscious work which is not controlled by the
brain.

If a frog’s head be cut off the body will still be
able to move and perform a great many acts which
seem intelligent though it will never move of its own
will. Something outside of itself must stimulate it.
If the skin be pricked here it will scratch the place
on this side; if there, it uses the foot on the other
side. If that foot be cut off it uses the opposite foot
and stretches it across the body. If the body be

6

56 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

turned over it will right itself. In some of the low
creatures (as starfish) if a limb be cut off and laid up-
side down, this lone limb will right itself by the nerve
matter in it. All this is the so-called reflex action.
Perhaps in the frog the stimulation goes to the spinal
cord, but it can not in the starfish.

Now if we hurt both sides of the frog-at once, but
make one side more painful than the other, the head-
less creature moves away from the worst pain. One
reflex action—the stronger—overcomes another, and
what appears to be an intelligent act may come in as
the combined result of many merely reflex actions.
Thus we may see how with a proper arrangement of
these, all under the guidance of one great ganglion—
even one so inferior as the frog’s spinal column—in-
telligence or mind may arise in a certain form.

The intelligence of the amphibians is not remark-
able, but toads and even salamanders become quite
tame, and, in their indolent way, make interesting
pets, coming to be fed at a call or whistle.

We have turned aside here to this little outline of
the nervous system because nowhere else in the verte-
brates are there so many interesting peculiarities all
in one group.

Repair

It is because, partly, of this peculiar nervous
arrangement that amphibians can so readily repair in-
juries or renew lost parts; and doubtless for the same
reason their sufferings are not so great under wounds
as are those of more conscious or less automatic be-
ings. Below the amphibians, below the fishes, there

HIBERNATION BY

are many creatures which not only grow new parts,
but can grow new individuals out of each old part ;
because their nerve-matter is so arranged that no
serious separations are made by the cutting. In more
advanced creatures—even in the high fishes—the con-
centration of the great nerve-centers is too complete
for the best repair work. A leg of an axolotl will be
reproduced in a month, and a tail, replacing one that
is lost, will soon grow out again with new vertebree or
bones forming in it. It is said that the bones do not
again form in the regrown tails of lizards—only gristle.
Fishes often eat off the gills of water-newts, and these
are readily regrown. But in all cases of legs and tails,
though they may be regrown repeatedly, the new ones
are rarely so perfect as the old ones.

HIBERNATION

All forms of amphibians hibernate in winter.

Some dive into the mud at the bottoms of pools,
some dig burrows, some crawl into crevices. Methods
differ in species clese akin. Some terrestrial tailed
forms hibernate on land. On the other hand, some
bury themselves in mud in summer and sleep away
months in the tropics—awaking again with the rainy
season, as is the case with some fishes (the lung-fishes)
which are in many respects quite like amphibians.

The common toad, the ccilians, the spadefoot
toad, the obstetric frogs, and some salamanders bur-
row and spend much time at any season in holes.
Some of the tailed forms are known to revive after
being frozen solid.

CHAPTER IX
FOSSILS, KEYS, ETC.

AMPHIBIANS OF THE Far Past

Except the cecilians, living amphibians are far
away from the old fossil forms which had such
peculiar teeth (usually), strong armors, and bony
skulls. Perhaps they became so stiff and awkward
that they could not escape from their enemies ; or they
may have become so inflexible in their structure that
they could not change, as the conditions of the air
and earth changed, and hence they perished.

The cecilians, as noted, have something of scales
and style of skull which was formerly fashionable.
Their burrowing habits may have saved them, and
the very humble habits of our little denizens of the
slime may have preserved them also. Many connect-
ing links between these and modern forms have per-
ished. There seems to be no form yet found that
stands between the frog-forms and the tailed forms
of to-day ; nor between either and the ceecilians. No
salamander leaps much; no frog has a vestige of a
tail outside of the body when grown. In their baby-

hood only the two groups come close together. As
08

AMPHIBIANS OF THE FAR PAST 59

far back as frogs are found in the rocks, they are all
Jrogs and their tadpoles can be recognized even as
differing from others. The fossils of all living am-
phibians are in rocks that are modern compared with
those in which rest the monsters of the class. Hence
there has been plenty of time for the fossil forms to
degenerate into the kinds now living.

Fig. 25.—Slab of sandstone with amphibian footprints, from coal-
measures of Pennsylvania, x 1/5.

But no fossil among those giants approached the
form of a frog. No reptile or amphibian which can be
recognized as such is found fossil away down where
fishes are so abundant. Just under the coal period
some amphibians show, and just above it some reptiles.

60 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

According to Professor Le Conte the first traces
of an amphibian ever found were some tracks in an
ancient mud-flat near Pottsville, Pa. It was the foot-
prints of one of the giant labyrinthodonts, breaking

Fig. 26.—Jaw of Dendrerpeton acadeanum, and section of tooth,
enlarged. (After DAwson.)

into the records as a creature with fully developed
limbs, whose ancestry had lived long enough to lose
one finger, as you may see by the cut (Fig. 25).
Then the next was found in a stump which was set,
petrified also, into a great table of rock (Fig. 27).
This one was quite reptilian in structure. Above is a
eut of its jaw (lig. 26). Figure 28 shows the Orche-
gosaurus which is quite fishlike. It was three
and one-half feet long. It
ras. Ganoid in scales and

had both lungs and gills as
S—= some (unord fishes yet have;
Fig. 27.—Section of hollow and it is about the best
Storia sump fied Yt Iznown eomneeting link be-

tween the old monsters, the

sturgeonlike fishes and the living amphibians. Re-
cently hosts of little labyrinthodonts have been found
in Ohio. They had sharp noses and snakelike, limb-
less bodies (Fig. 29). There were some of these old

|

i

(i

Fic. 29.—Ptyonius. (After Cope. )

Fic. 30.—Limnerpeton laticeps, natural size.

(After FRITSCH.)
61

62 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

forms, it is said, which did not have the skull so com-
pletely roofed with bone. Fig. 30 is also a cut of
a small salamanderlike form which is, however, still
a labyrinthodont, when its teeth are examined. Note
that it has shght ribs, and that the skull-roof is com-
plete. It is found in the more modern upper car-
boniferous, and it looks as though it was getting

Fic. 31.—Mastodonsaurus Jegeri.

near to the living kinds. But higher still and more
recent (in the Triassic) there lived a monster with a
head two feet wide and three feet long (see Fig.
31). It was called Mastodonsaurus, and Fig. 32 is a
cut of the head and jaws of Z7rematosaurus—though
neither were really saurians. But saurians (lizard-
like reptiles) and amphibians had not got so far

AMPHIBIANS OF THE FAR PAST 63

apart then as now. Fig. 33 is a cut of the true laby-
rinthodont tooth already noted.

WaAAnennansns innit thiss

In the Triassic age the frogs appear, and we won-
der what it was that made the amphibians lose their
wrinkled teeth, set in the bones of the jaw, and
allowed the reptile only to bring these on up to the
present time.

Professor Huxley remarks that since amphibians
seem to possess characters which belong to each of
the groups of vertebrates known as i, |
Ganoids, shark-forms and lung- :
fishes; and since these are .~
known to be well sepa- <
rated from each other 4
very far below the
place where any fos-
sils of amphibians
are found, it is
quite probable
that these latter
branched from
the parent back-
boned ancestor at about the same time that the others
did, and hence are very ancient. To the author it

C;

FIG. 33.—Section of tooth of a labyrinthodont.

64 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

seems highly probable that this is true, and that the
reptiles, which we shall discuss next, branched off
independently at about the same time or at least
very low down on the amphibian stem. Hence both
are very ancient.

CLASSIFICATION

This class of vertebrate animals is characterized
by two states of existence—one aquatic the other ter-
restrial—at least by a larval form in the egg or out
of it. Eggs are always formed and true limbs are
always indicated at some stage of life. The eggs are
small, the body (now) uncovered, and the skull joins
the back-bone by two ball-and-socket joints as in the
mammals; but the lower jaw is hinged to the skull
by special bones, which is not the case in mammals,
In these last only the lower jaw is hinged directly to
the floor of the skull. The following is a key to the
orders of the amphibians, both fossil and living; then
follows a key to the tailed forms, and finally there is
a key to our common frog-forms in the Eastern United
States.

ORDERS OF AMPHIBIANS 65

ORDERS OF AMPHIBIANS

Note.—If the specimen is not described at the single letter, say A,
go on to where the letter is doubled, as AA.

A. Skull roofed with bone—at least behind the eye. Teeth often

wrinkled. Fossil. STEGOCEPHALA.
AA, Skull not so roofed.
B. Legs absent. CACILIANS,
BB. Legs present two or four,
C. Tail present. Salamander-forms.
CC. Tail absent. Erog-forms.

D. Tongue present.
K. Gristles of breast-bones overlapping.
Suborder Toaps,
KE. Gristle of breast-bone not overlapping.
Suborder Frogs.
DD. Tongue absent.
Suborder Tongueless Frogs.
The salamander-forms are divided into families by various
modes of classifications, based on anatomical differences; but the
following simple artificial key will, by outside features purely,
lead to the families (as now divided):

TAILED FORMS

A. Outside gills gone in the adult.
B, Eyelids present, no gill-opening (the real salamander-forms).
C. Tail round—no fin. Salamanders.
CC. Tail flat—with a fin above. Newts.,
BB. Eyelids absent.
D. Toes two or three behind and three in front.

Congo Snake.
DD. Toes five behind, four in front.

Giant Salamander.
AA. Outside gills present in adult.

K. Limbs four. (Proteus), Mud-puppies.
EE. Limbs two. Sirens.

The frog-forms have their suborders scientifically divided
into many families, genera, and species. The discussion is too
great for our space and too technical for our plan.

66 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS

To know such as the reader is apt to meet in the Northeastern
United States the following may be helpful :

A. Teeth absent from upper jaw.
B. Skin warty, toes webbed. Common Toad.
BB. Skin smooth, toes free. (Toothless Frogs?)
AA. Teeth present in upper jaw.
C. Fingers and toes with slight dilatations or pads at tips.
(Hylidx, our) TREE-TOADs.
D. Webs absent on fingers; pads mere dots.
KE. Brownish above; head green. “Cricket Frog.”
EE. Grayish above; no green or brownish.
Swamp Tree-toad.
DD. Webs present on fingers; pads large, shotlike.
EK. Greenish above.
G. The green has a yellowish or olive cast; some
spots on back (as well as the sides),
Hyla squirrella.
GG. The green pure—pea green; no spots on back.
Green Tree-toad, Hyla andersonit.
EE. Not greenish above; yellowish drab or dusk-colored.
Pickering’s Tree-toad, Hyla pickeringit.
CC. Fingers and toes not dilated or padded at tips; they end in

sharp points. (Rana.)
H. Spots on the back squarish, their edges or outlines nearly
straight.
I. Back greenish; spots not in straight rows; thighs with
three broad bars. Leopard Frog.
II. Back brownish; spots rectangular, in rows; those on
thigh not forming broad bars. Pickerel Frog.

HH. Spots on back not squarish; either round dots or
irregular blotches.
Kk. Web of feet not reaching the tip of the fourth

toe. Green Frog or Spring Frog.
KK. Web of feet reaching tip of fourth toe.
Bullfrog.

Other frogs are found in our region, but they are not so com-
mon as these.

PAK Ee

PLORY OF “LAE REPTILES

By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT, M.A.

STORY OF THE REPTILES

CHAPTER X

INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION ; WHAT CAME IN WITH THE
REPTILES 5 ORDERS, LIMBS, TOES, CLAWS, TOE-WALK-
ING

Tur Reptiles are known from Amphibians, as we
have seen, by their scaly bodies, and by having no
gills at any time, and also by having the head joined
to the neck by only one ball-and-socket joint instead
of by two. The tongues also of the two classes differ.
Nearly all reptiles and some fishes are scaly, but the
scales of the two classes are usually very different.
Those of most fishes, when present, can be scraped off,
or are loose and outside of the skin; while those of
the reptiles are mere horny folds of the skin itself and
do not come away. A few reptiles and many fishes
are scaleless, however, but no reptile has gills or oill-
openings, while no fish is without both of these; they
are thus distinguished the one from the other.

As we go upward, the rule 1s, seales for reptiles,
feathers for birds, and hair for mammals. If we had
lived in one of the long-ago geological periods (J urassic
or lower), we should doubtless have seen creatures half-

bird half-reptile; and feathers and scales would have
69

70 STORY OF THE REPTILES

been mixed all over the body on at least one creature,
as we find them now mixed on the legs of birds. Then
also a little lower, perhaps, the mammals and reptiles
could not have been distinguished from each other by
their covering—or, indeed, by anything else; for all
classes were very much merged into each other at an
early date. Even now the pangolins, the armadillos,
and other mammals show scales and plates; so that
some reference to internal anatomy is necessary in
certain cases to distinguish reptiles and mammals.
Many distinguishing features might be mentioned,
but the presence of glands for nourishing the young
by milk is peculiar to no class but mammals. It gives
them their name, thus separating them from all others.
Outwardly, then, a reptile may be defined as a strictly
lung-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrate usually cov-
ered with scales or horny plates, while the young are
hatched from large eggs and are never nourished by
means of milk-glands, and never have a tadpole state.
Besides the complete abandonment of gill-breath-
ing there is found now with the reptiles the first
sternum or breast-bone having the ribs completely
reaching it. As noted, there is some evidence that
amphibians once had ribs nearly complete, but have
lost them. The fishes hinted at the breast-bone, but
it was useless; the amphibians had it to swing the
fore limbs to but not to jom the ribs to, but in the
reptiles it first becomes an implement of respiration,
whereby the lungs are made to open and shut. In
tortoiselike reptiles it is absent, and the ribs are stiff-
ened into the shell, but a muscle called the diaphragm

THE GREAT GROUPS OR “ORDERS” 71

—the muscle inside of us which hiccoughs—helps to
force the breath out; and the reptiles have the honor
of introducing this muscle also. In serpents there is
no breast-bone, but a great array of long ribs, that
almost encircle the body, help them to breathe. The
reptiles also, through the crocodiles only, brought in
the first four-chambered heart, and hinted first of hot
blood. Thus have all the creatures shown their prog-
ress by their breathing and circulation. We shall
see that some other things came in first with the rep-
tiles, but we shall note them later. This little pre-
view is given that we may know why we should be
interested in this class—a class which in its backward
ties and upward outlook has no equal.

THe GREAT GRovups oR “ ORDERS ”’

As we glance at the living (not extinct) reptiles
they seem, like the amphibians, to be divided by their
forms into three great groups: First, the tortoise-
forms; second, the lizard-forms; and third, the ser-
pent-forms. But this will not hold with the scientist
—except in the case of the tortoise-forms. He tells
us that the crocodiles, though lizardlike in shape are
far from being so in structure, and really a much
older family; that another lizard-shaped creature in
New Zealand (Sphenodon, Tuatera or [Hatteria) ac-
tually belongs to one of the old families further back
still, and that there is considerable doubt whether
lizards and serpents should be separated at all, since
some snakes have rudiments of legs and some lizards
have none at all. He would even hint that the

7

72 STORY OF THE REPTILES

chameleon should be separated from the lizards. We
have seen that outward form is not a safe guide,

Fia. 34.—A serpent.

since a lizard and
a salamander may
have the same gen-
eral shape with-
out being nearly
related.

For our pur-
poses we shall
speak of the rep-
tiles under ‘the

following orders, and we shall learn their peculiari-
ties later: tortoises, serpents, lizards, crocodiles, and
tuateras. The last three have legs and a tail like

those of lizards.

2

Fig. 35.—A lizard.

THE GREAT GROUPS OR “ORDERS” 73

The tortoises have shells over the body ; the croco-
dilians have plates placed edge to edge; the lizards
and serpents have overlapping scales; and on the

FiaG. 36.—Crocodiles.

tuatera the skin is warty. The serpents are practically
legless. We know enough now to begin to learn some-

Fic. 37.—Tuatera.

74 STORY OF THE REPTILES

thing further. Besides these there were once many
forms, now extinct, the peculiarities of some of which
will be referred to as we go along.

Liwes

The limbs of the reptiles are rather like those of
the amphibians in a general way, except that the
claws are well developed. The webs of the toes are
not so noticeable, though the tortoises, crocodiles,
and tuatera have swimming membranes. All rep-
tiles swim well, however, and the tortoise-forms,
crocodiles, and some snakes are especially aquatie.
Many fingers and toes, rather than few, prevail gen-
erally, though there are some remarkable exceptions.
The number of toes may run from one to five. Nor-
mally there are five before and five behind, but where
the limbs tend to be lost, the toes decrease also, till in
a certain skink-like lizard there is only one toe be-
hind, and in some greaved lizards there is only one
finger in front.

In the sea-tortoises the toes are all massed into
paddles which are often much like fins, except that
they have the three divisions of the leg, a characteris-
tic of all quadrupeds; and in some ancient forms (J/o-
sasaurs and Ichthyosaurs) the limbs were still more
fused and flattened. In the fossil /chthyosaurs, some
species were found which had six, possibly seven, rows
of bones inside the paddles. It seems probable, in
one case, that the two outside rows were merely extra
bones on each side of the original five fingers for they
are not joined to the hard bones properly ; but in an-

LIMBS 5

other case both feet had six good toes. If this state
of affairs had continued on down, or up, to man, we
should not be counting now by tens or decimals, but
by twelves or duodecimals—a really much more con-
venient system if we were only used to it; for while
ten has only two factors, twelve has four.

Whether these old swimming reptiles had gained
these toes extra or inherited them from the fishes,
and whether the others have lost all but five, can
not be determined. If they were once land-haunters
and went back to the water, Nature may have spread
the foot for them, as she has the paddle of the whale,
by putting in extra
bones. If they came
of ancestors which
were always aquatic
—having acquired
their good lungs and
good three - jointed
limbs while yet in or
near the water, as the
amphibians did, then
the five-toed land-
haunting animals
have lost a sixth toe. Fie. 38.—Foot of a chameleon, showing
It is said that there how the toes are bunched together,
eater ote eats each other, in grasp-
some frogs. Against
this last view lies the fact that a fin or flipper does
not need to be three-jointed to be used as such, while
a good walking limb certainly does—which facts

76 STORY OF THE REPTILES

argue slightly for a land origin for all three-jointed
limbs, whether legs or paddles.

As a rule, there is not any marked opposition of
the thumb or big toe in the reptiles. In the chame-
leon proper (not our little Florida lizard, so-called)
the toes are bunched wonderfully (for grasping) into
twos on one side of a twig and threes opposite
(Fig. 38).

But most reptiles with limbs climb by claws, or
claws and toe-pads combined, as in the geckos (see
Fig. 60). One order of fossil reptiles had the little
finger greatly lengthened, by which it doubtless flew
by means of a skin-membrane attached.

CLAWS

The claw, as such, came in fully with the toed rep-
tiles, and is now often sharp and clinging. In the
tortoises claws are present to aid the creature in
scrambling along, and in burrowing. In fact these
creatures walk almost exclusively by the claws, or push
by them rather. But the more aquatic turtles have
some missing usually. The pond-turtle omits one;
and those with flippers may have only two on each
limb. In the crocodilians, where the toes are four
behind and five in front, there are only three claws
to each foot.

Another thing which came in with the reptiles
more fully was the act of walking on the toes only,
leaving the heel high up. This is a practice found in
many mammals, such as dogs, horses, ete. Most rep-
tiles are flat-footed walkers, however, while some

CLAWS Th

others, such as the frilled lizard, like the mammalian
raccoon, are flat-footed when going slowly and _ toe-
walkers when in a hurry.

The number of joints in the toes of lizards is
especially interesting in that they have the same
order in number that occurs in the birds. The bird,
however, lacks the fifth toe. The first toe has two
joints; the second toe, three joints; the third toe,
four joints; the fourth toe, five joints; and the fifth
toe the same as the third, four joints. but in some
old paddle-limbed kinds of reptiles there were a great
many joints in the digits, as there are in the paddles
of the fringe-finned and other fishes now.

Besides the serpents, many lizards are limbless, as
are the Amphisbena (no English name), and the so-
called slow worms (Angus) of the Old World, the
glass-snake or joint-snake (Fig. 39) (which is a lizard
—Ophisaurus) of America, and many others found
in the families of skinks, greaved lizards, and other
groups. In some of these the rear pair of limbs
only may remain, and in others the fore pair only are
present.

It is well known that most serpents are limbless;
but the family of crushing or constricting snakes
(Borde), boas, pythons, and anacondas, and many of
their near-by kin, show rudiments or stumps of limbs
at the rear end of the body. In some other families
near to these, the stumps do not show, yet the little
bones to which the hind legs are usually attached—
the so-called pelvic girdle—are found beneath the
skin. But no vestige of a fore limb, or of the

78 STORY OF THE REPTILES

“shoulder girdle” even, is ever found in a serpent;
and no lizard—though appearing legless in front
or everywhere—has ever been found without these
shoulder-bones. Hence, by dissection a limbless liz-

I'ta, 39.—Glass-snake (Opheosaurus ventralis). The tail is twice the
length of the body, and breaks off at the slightest blow. When
broken off it grows again.

ard may be known from a snake; but we shall see
later that the tongue also will usually distinguish all
limbless forms.

By the walking on the toes only, the reptiles
brought in the first outlook for speed afoot which
finds such high development in the running birds
and the strictly toe-walking mammals, such as the
horse, the antelope, the greyhound, ete.

In keeping with this, one of the extinct reptiles
had its toes hoofed instead of clawed.

CHAPTER: XE

TAILS, HEADS, JAWS, TEETH, AND TONGUES IN
REPTILES

TT ATLS

In the reptiles the tail seems quite important, for
no reptile, except the Amphisbene, is without one ;
and even in this family some even show stumps.
These creatures run backward, and a tail would be
in the way here. In some sea-turtles it is very
short, as it is in some of the dry-land kinds. These
latter, when they close their shells, take great pains
to get the tail well boxed in.

In some extinct lizard-forms, known generally as
Dinosaurs, the tail acted as a fifth limb or prop as
they walked, stood, or sat erect on the two hind legs
only; and these tails:must have been terrible weapons,
as that of the crocodilian is yet.

Our smaller lizards retain the tail for various
uses, and doubtless for ornament also. Some of the
large monitors can strike serious blows with it. In
others, as the chameleon, flying lizard, and some tree-
lizards, it is prehensile and can be curled around a
limb to aid them in clinging and climbing. Doubt-

less the tail in lizards, as in the salamanders, is a
79

80 STORY OF THE REPTILES

means of expressing the emotions, and, since we find
it (alone) highly colored occasionally, it is probably
an ornament also. Some run with it curled over the
back like a scorpion’s, and such lizards have been
wrongly called “scorpions” because of this habit. In
this connection, some lizards have a peculiar use of
the tail which is found in other creatures as well, but
not frequently. It is that of making with it a sort of
unconscious prayer and sacrifice for the safety of the
body. In the European lizards, in our glass- or
jointed-snakes (see Fig. 39), and others, not only are
the bones of the tail loosely attached to each other, but
they have a sort of membrane, which runs between the
joints and extends outward through the muscles and
skin even. By this means the whole tail is ‘‘ jointed ”
and the parts may be separated, without loss of much
blood, as the parts of an orange come apart, without
any loss of the juice.

If a pursuing enemy grasp this tail, it breaks off
readily and may allow the body to escape, as if the
creature thought it better to go maimed into salvation
than to go whole into destruction—especially since the
part lost, in such’ cases, is soon regrown.

Seriously there is no thinking about it, by the
creature. In some instances the exertion even of
trying to escape may break off the tail of our glass-
snake, and leave it wriggling for a while to attract
the enemy’s attention; and so purely mechanical is
this action that sometimes the body itself has been
known to turn and swallow the squirming thing.
All stories about these parts reassembling are myths.

TAILS 81

The new tail simply grows again, and no part of the
body breaks.

On the contrary, one lizard has a tail set with
spines all around nearly as numerous as hairs (Fig.
40), and if this be left outside when escaping into a
burrow it is not a savory mouthful to the pursuer.

Fic. 40.—Spine-tailed lizard (Uromastic spinipes) and young.

The ancient forms of lizards often had great spines
on their tails which were very effective weapons.
Others had the tail flexible and flat for swimming
purposes, as it now is in erocodilians.

In snakes the tails taper with the body usually,
and thus complete the symmetry or beautiful shape,
put they are useful in many other respects. In the

82 STORY OF THE REPTILES

sea-snakes (Tig. 41) they are flat and fringed like those
of eels, and they are thus the means of swimming.
In the land-snakes, tails are helpful in springing and
running. Our “spreadhead ” (//eterodon) sometimes
makes great leaps down-hill by this means, and our

Fic. 41.—Sea-snake (Hydrophis cyanocineta).

common “ blue-racer” (blacksnake) can erect its body
half its length and run rather rapidly on what must
be mainly the tail. All the tree-haunting and the
constricting, or crushing snakes, use the tail to cling
with, and to aid them in climbing and anchoring
themselves while crushing or holding their prey.
The whip-snakes (Fig. 42) and other tree-snakes have
tails that are longer than the body, wherewith they

Fia. 42.—Whip- or tree-snake (Passarita myeterizans).
83

84 STORY OF THE REPTILES

tie themselves almost as if with a string while they
hurl their remaining length almost as a bolt upon
their prey below them.

In some burrowing snakes the tails are very short
and blunt; and in one family—the shield-tails (Fig.
43)—there is a shieldlike button at the end which
better enables them to push the body through the

Fig. 43.—Shield-tail snake (Silybura macrolepus). These remarkable
snakes look as though their tails had been cut short off. In some
species the body ends in a naked disk, in others with a rough
horny point, in others again, as in the species illustrated, the disk
is covered with keeled scales.

earth. Others have a sort of horny tip for the same
purpose, as our common pine snake, and in some cases
in the Old World kinds there are broad scales beneath
with sharp, backward-set spines on them which are
helpful in pushing the creature along or in.

TAILS 85

This horny shield reminds us that rattlesnakes
have a series of horny rings upon the end of the tail,
by vibrating which a buzzing sound is made that is a
warning or threat of anger or attack. Some harmless
snakes rapidly vibrate the tail against a dead leaf or
other object and thus produce a similar sound for
similar purposes—perhaps an imitation. Many others
vibrate the tail, but not necessarily against anything.

Among the extinct flying reptiles, the kind known
strictly as the Pterodactyls had no more tail than the

Bor
Cha
WAN: .

Ni
~ ‘J
ui

Fe

eS
v

a |

Fic. 44.—Pterodacty]l.

modern birds (Fig. 44), but another kind, called the
Rhamphorynchus, had a most preposterous racket-
shaped affair, like that of a windmill, which must
have been used as the tail of a kite to hold the crea-
ture against the wind, in which direction only could
they probably fly (Fig. 45).

86 STORY OF THE REPTILES

Heaps

The heads of the tortoise-forms are, in a rude way,
quite birdlike, ending as they do in a toothless horny
beak which often has on it a downward hook at the
tip. That of tuatera (or //atterca) is more turtlelike
than most others which are not turtles, though certain

Fic. 45.—Rhamphorhynchus.

lizards tend to have horny beaks. In all these, how-
ever, there are teeth. In a general way the heads of
snakes and lizards are much alike, though in some
snakes the neck is very much smaller than the head,
and the latter is then apt to be diamond-shaped. In
fact not till she got to the reptiles did Nature seem
much concerned about the neck, but at an early
date among the fossils some of these necks were ex-
tremely long and flexible. The heads of crocodilians
are long and flat, with a slight neck evident, which is
smaller than either head or body. But in lizards and
tortoises the neck is usually about as large as the head.

Perhaps in all modern reptiles the head extends

JAWS 87

in the same line as the neck, as it does in nearly all
fishes and amphibians; but in many extinct forms
of reptiles the head was placed at right angles to the _
neck, as it is in the horse and so many other mam-
mals. This doubtless resulted from the high eleva-
tion of the forepart of the body in these old mon-
sters. All modern forms are primarily crawlers, and
hence the low horizontal head and neck.

In perhaps all reptiles the size of the head is very
small in proportion to that of the body; and in some
fossil monsters it was so absurdly small as to make us
feel that the creatures to which they belonged had
just sense enough to feed themselves and to walk
around.

The heads of crocodilians have the skin tightly
drawn over the skull and the bones are much carved
or sculptured. The skin here is not covered with
horny plates or scales as it is in most lizard-forms.
Some lizards have beneath the skin a shield of loose
bones which are not a part of the skull or skeleton
proper.

JAWS

The jaws of the reptiles are very interesting to
the student. In all the vertebrates below the mam-
mals, the upper jaw has some slight movement upon
the skull, though it is in no sense hinged as the lower.
This is especially true of the beaked kinds. In the
crocodilians, the upper jaw appears hinged as they
lie flat with the mouth open, but it is really the
whole head that is lifted. It is true that the flat

8

88 STORY OF THE REPTILES

head is well fitted for this, but if you will lay your
lower jaw on the table and open your mouth the
lower will not move but the whole upper jaw will
lift the head up and back (Fig. 46). The lower jaws
of reptiles are peculiar in that each side is made up
of a great many
separate bones,
usually, though
notalways, grown
together. In the
higher animals
there are not so
many. As noted,
the reptiles and
all below them
hang the jaw to
the skull by one
or more bones
often by only
one, the so-called
‘* gq iadtaeas
Usually this is
hinged or loose,

Fia. 46.—A crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus)
lying with its mouth open, showing the as in snakes and

apparent movement of the upper jaw most lizards: but
instead of the lower one. :

in tortoise-forms,
tuatera, the crocodilians and the chameleon, it is fast
to the skull in various ways, of which the classifier
makes much. In the snakes the bone to which the
qguadrate hangs is itself loosely hung to the side of
the skull, so that the jaw can be pried well away

JAWS 89

from the head as their bulky prey passes into the
throat (Fig. 51). Here also the two halves of the jaw
never fuse together in front, but are tied together
merely by an elastic ligament which allows them to
spread apart in swallowing large objects. Again, this
and the double hinge at the skull allows the jaw to
be thrust forward, first that on one side then on the
other, so that the mouth is thus worked over the prey
by the backward-curved teeth—-one side holding what
is gained while the other advances. ‘The snake thus
literally gets over (or “ outside of”) its prey.

There was an old fossil monster called Mosasaurus
(which was a lizard, but quite serpentlike) that had
a better arrangement still. In the middle of each
side of the lower jaw was a joint bending downward
and outward. On:the front part were backward-set
teeth. Its jaws also were capable of moving first one
side then the other; but you can see that every time
it bit its prey the joints straightened like a nearly
open jack-knife and pushed the front part forward
by the pressure of the bite.

Something similar to this, though not just like it,
is found now in the upper jaws of those poisonous
serpents which have fangs that le down when the
mouth is closed but are erect when the mouth is
open. By means of a joint in the middle of the
upper jaw (which is pulled straight by the muscles
as the mouth opens), the bone lying across the upper
end of the mouth, to which the fangs are fastened, is
rolled downward and forward, thus letting down the
deadly fangs.

90 STORY OF THE REPTILES

By means of the separation of the lower jaw at
the chin, snakes are known from lizards, and it will be
observed that there is a marked difference otherwise.

The jaws of mammals all have an upward projec-
tion upon the jaw itself, which is formed purposely
to meet the skull, but in all other creatures the skull
itself sends down the bony projection—either loose
or securely set in such direction as to meet the jaw.

The jaws of serpents are rarely used for crushing
or killing, but largely for seizing, holding, and slipping
the throat over the food, and in the poisonous kinds,
for forcing in the fangs. Snakes are strictly swallow-
ers, and their whole head-skeleton is arranged for this
practice.

TEETH

In the reptiles Nature seems to have experimented
with all kinds of teeth. Here she seems to have made
useful the wrinkled or grooved sorts found in the
ganoid fishes and labyrinthodont amphibians. She
made the grooves the channel for poisons, and even
folded some of their edges in till they became tubular.
But more of that later. While many lizards and all
serpents, perhaps, have teeth somewhere on the roof
of the mouth (to speak generally) it was in the rep-
tiles that teeth first became confined to the jaws only;
yet, in a few cases, Nature has made the most pre-
posterous effort in this class by projecting the lower
spines of the back-bone through into the swallow tube
and putting enamel upon them, so that several species
of serpents which eat eggs may have them broken after

TEETH ot

they are partially swallowed, thereby losing none of
the liquid contents (Fig. 47).

Many of the fossil monsters were terribly armed
with teeth that grew in sockets or grooves directly out
of the jaw-bones. Some also had teeth set in several

Fic. 47.—Dasypeltis-unicolor, in act of swallowing a fowl’s egg.

rows or pavements, which were used evidently to
grind vegetable food, and some had beaklike, duck-
shaped jaws, like those of the spoonbill. Others had
rather turtlelike, or birdlike, beaks with a pair of
great tusks projecting, and others had mouths armed
with short sharp teeth, and in their midst were ter-
rible fangs, like those of dogs and tigers (Figs. 48,
49, and 50).

STORY OF THE REPTILES

92
These Professor Cope called “* Zheromorphs” or

beast-forms, because their teeth were so very much

Fig. 48.—Dicynodon lacerticeps.

like those of some modern mammals (or beasts). The

grinding teeth here first began also to show cusps or
more points than one. Le-

fi)

i i

Fig. 49.—Lycosaurus.
laps, a terribly clawed carnivorous fossil reptile, had

teeth that were serrate (saw-toothed).
In the crocodilians, the teeth grow much as in
They come up out of the

some of the old monsters.

TEETH 93

jaw-bone and are renewed by one pushing out the
hollowed and partially absorbed tip of the other;
but they have many sets, and the new teeth below
the gums are said to be “nested” into each other as

Fra. 50.—Rhynchosaurs-Hyperodapedon ; Trias (after Huxley).

are thimbles. As a rule, modern lizards have their
teeth grown down to or up from the jaw-bone, though
they are not set in it, but are fast to it. In the
Tuatera there are two front peculiar teeth which are
a little like those of rodents (rats, rabbits), but which
fuse together and form almost a beak above.

In lizards some teeth are conical, some serrate, as
in Zguana, and some are flat and merely crushing or
grinding—according to food. Nearly all lizards re-
new their teeth by having the new one form directly
beneath the old; but in the Anguide (slow worm)
the new grow between the old.

The teeth of serpents are usually recurved, sharp
conical points.

The erectile poison-fangs mentioned are always
found with other smaller ones (to the number of three
or four) concealed beneath the flesh behind them,

which are thus ready to rise up and take the place

94 STORY OF THE REPTILES

of the forward active one, should it be broken; so
that jerking the poison-fangs out of a rattlesnake
makes it harmless for a short time only. The new
ones do not have to grow much, but merely vise into
place (Fig. 51).

eee eter aaeess tracseereserere-ee Mastoid bone:
Cranium --.- BES which, to-

Nasal bone ee gether with

be tympanic

one, sus-

pends the

lower to the
upper jaw.

“~pympanic
bone.

Upper jaw
Poison-fangs --

Lower jaw -"4———

-- Muscles which
elevate the
lowerjawand
also serve to
compress the
poison-gland,
thus forcing
the venom
LNsOe ste
fangs.

Nostrils

Poison-gland connect- +++
ed by a passage with
the movable hollow
tube as here shown.

Two large movable
teeth orfangsthrough
which the poison
reaches a wound
made by them. 2

Salivary glands”
Poisons gland eer ere ter eee

Passage from the poi-
son-gland tothe fang.

: ee "Small aperture in end of
Se : fang ee which
- Re So 6 ee 5 :
Reserve fangs «----""\-""_- the poison escapes into
“a a wound.

Fic. 51.—1, skull of rattlesnake. showing the manner in which the
upper jaw is connected with the lower one ; 2, head of rattlesnake
dissected to show poison-glands, etc.; 3, poison-gland of rattle-
snake.

ToNGUES

The tongues of reptiles are various in shapes.
So far as known none are tied down in front only, or
are largely free behind, as in the amphibians. The

TONGUES 95

front is free if it be free anywhere, and two points
may project backward from the rear edge, as may be
seen in the tongues of birds. These points are aids
in swallowing. In one genus of lizards (Chalecs)
these forks are especially long.

In the tortoise-forms, the tongue is usually short,
flat, and cupped, rather fleshy and smooth, as if it
were a tasting organ. It is much like that of some
fishes, and, within small limits, very movable, though
it can not be thrust out. In the crocodilians it is
fast to the lower jaw all around and acts merely as a
floor to the mouth.

In the lizards it takes on two extreme forms gen-
erally, with many shapes between these. In most it
is flat and much the same thickness everywhere
(forked behind or (not), and is usually notched in
front. This kind of tongue rarely runs in any sheath
throughout. One type of this form is flattish and
runs in a sheath at the base only; and another sort
is thick at the base, thin and wide at the tip, which
latter runs under a sheath or strap.

The other form of tongue is long, slim, and deeply
forked at the tip. Sometimes it consists of only two
mere threads. This is the kind found in all snakes
and two or more large families of lizards. In the
snakes and many lizards (monitors, ete.) this slim
tongue is entirely sheathed when inside the mouth,
and is thrust forth very rapidly either for feeling or
threatening; but the tongue itself is perfectly harm-
less—even for securing prey.

In other lizards this slim, forked tongue is cov-

96 STORY OF THE REPTILES

e

ered with scales, or deep wrinkles, or rough, brushlike
points (like the tongue of a cat), and it must, there-
fore, be used to grasp small objects or assist in chew-

Fic. 52.—Anolis or American chameleon (Anolis principalis). Al-
though the general color of the animal beneath is white, the
upper parts may quickly assume hues varying from a vivid emer-
ald green to a dark iridescent bronze color.

ing them. This kind is noticeable in the greaved

lizards. In a few others, the tongue is said to be

spearlike at the tip, somewhat like those of wood
peckers, and it is evidently a capturing implement.

TONGUES 97

In all the true lizards of the Old World the
tongue is forked and smooth, but not sheathed. In
the family of the skinks, which includes our blue-
tailed and ground-lizards, the tongue is only slightly
notched, and is rough or scaly; but in the family of
the /guanide, which includes our so-called “ chame-
leon” (Fig. 52), the common little “swift lizard,”
and all the host of horned toads (Phrynosoma), the
tongue is smooth, short, and barely notched, and it
can be put out a slight distance only.

The chameleon proper has a tongue which it can
expand at the end at will, and thrust far out by
means of a long stretchy stem—thus easily capturing
insects.

CEA TEA, 2Ckt

FOOD, MEANS OF DEFENSE, WEAPONS, BLUFF, ODOR, OR-
NAMENTS, COLORS, COLOR-PROTECTION AND COLOR-
CHANGING IN REPTILES

Foop

Tue food of the Reptiles is various. The tortoise-
forms are largely flesh-eaters, catching fish, frogs,
floating water-birds—anything; but some are vege-
table feeders, such as the green turtle, renowned for
soups, and the case is the same to some extent with
the sea-turtles; but the “hawkbill” and “logger-
head” and leather turtle are carnivorous. The croco-
diles are known, of course, to be fearfully carnivorous
(flesh-eating). They may approach large prey near
the shore and strike it into the water with their tails
or grab it suddenly with their jaws and draw it under
water and drown it. They usually stow it away in
some cavern or safe place till it partially decays, when
they bring it to the surface later to eat it.

The chameleon’s diet is one of insects especially,
and not even a frog is more highly equipped for their
capture.

So far as the author knows no snake is at all in-

clined to feed on anything vegetable, though many
98

FOOD 99

eat worms and insects, and drink milk. In all cases
snakes do not chew their food, but gulp it, often while
it is yet alive. It is well known, however, that the
great crushing snakes suffocate anew prey before swal-
lowing it, and that the poisonous kinds kill it first with
their fangs, and then eat it some time after. Their
poison causes the flesh to tend rapidly to decay and
thus aids in digestion. All the reptiles, unlike the
amphibians, have salivary glands, and in the serpents
these are large. As snakes begin to swallow their
prey these glands are very active, but the snakes do
not slime their victims over with the tongue, as is
often reported. They doubtless pass it over their vic-
tims for the purpose of examination, for the tongue is
their best investigating organ. Perhaps the size of
objects swallowed even by the anaconda has been
much exaggerated. A sheep ora calf or other small
young cattle is about the limit of what they can do in
this respect.

We have noted the special arrangement of teeth
in serpents. It is said that some tree-snakes—not
poisonous—which capture birds, have an extra long
tooth, designed perhaps for penetrating through the
feathers.

As to a snake’s ability to charm a bird there is
much uncertainty and some strong assertions and
denials. But it is certain, at least, that the presence
of a snake is often so terrorizing to some small crea-
tures that they seem unable to move or escape, and
that birds do often approach a quiet serpent gradu-
ally nearer and nearer till they come within its reach.

100 STORY OF THE REPTILES

It may be a sort of madness of attack, and not any
special “charm.” The author once witnessed a sum-
mer yellow-bird so behaving, but he was prevented
from seeing the end by the noise of others approach-
ing. The testimony of many concerning actual cap-
ture having taken place in this manner is sufficiently
worthy of belief. But the And of attraction or para-
lyzing effect exerted is by no means settled.

Lizards are both carnivorous and vegetable eaters.
In a few eases, like the snakes, they eat each other,
though there is not anywhere now a “ lizard-of-prey”
(corresponding to the bird-of-prey or preying mam-
mals) which is adapted to devour its kind, as was the
old Lelups—a reptile of a past age.

Most lizards are fond of insects. Many found in
the Western States eat leaves, buds, and blossoms of
plants. One of these, the “chuck-walla,” is a large,
fat, lazy lizard, faring well on this weak diet. There
is a sea-lizard that haunts rocks by the ocean and
eats seaweed. Many of the giants among the fossils
had peculiar methods of feeding, as we may infer from
their teeth; but we will note these later when we
mention the families. The land-monsters were mostly
browsers, while the sea-monsters were carnivorous.

OrrENsE, DEFENSE, AND Escape

Nowhere are there more various offensive and de-
fensive methods, or means of being disagreeable, than
appear in the class of the Reptiles. While all are not
well endowed, some are armed and armored won-
drously. We have already spoken of the teeth,

HORNS 101

which are weapons not only against prey but against
enemies. The poison-fang and its sac or gland full
of deadly fluid is the most terrible of close-range
weapons. It is overcome only by means of superior
strength, armor, or activity.

In the large fossil forms there were many weapons
proper. Besides the terrible array of tusklike teeth,
some Dinosaurs had special spurs on the paws, and
others had their large tails armed with spines. An-
other still had many horns about the snout, and a
spiked collar of immense spines about the neck, and
others had these along the back. One, already noted
(Lelaps), had long, curved, tearing talons on the rear
feet, and walked erect, and was able to strike down
prey much larger than itself. In no modern form
do claws play a special part as weapons.

Horns

But several lizards and some snakes have appar-
ent horns, which may be weapons proper, not con-
nected with prey-taking. Quite likely they are often
useful in fighting or tantalizing a rival only. Among
a few lizards, as our so-called horned toad (Fig. 53),
battle consists in the turning of each other over on
the back. It is rather more of a wrestle than a fight,
and the one flipped topsy-turvy “gives up” at once.
While in these “toads” there is no special horn or
hook on the tip of the snout, yet in some other lizards
these are present, as may be seen in Fig. 54. Wher-
ever these are found, they are on the male often and
not on the female. This happens frequently in the

102 STORY OF THE REPTILES

chameleons, where in one case there are as many as
three horns. In another there is a peculiar forked
prolongation of the snout. |

Among the snakes some vipers have horns—some-
times one on the tip of the snout, sometimes two—
one over each eye. Their use can scarcely be under-

Fig. 53.—The horned toad.

stood. It is said to be the rule that snakes do not
fight as rivals; and it is fairly well known that the
bite of a poisonous snake is not harmless to his
brother, and often not injurious to other non-poisonous
kinds. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell states that he has re-
peatedly injected the poison of snakes into their own
bodies and seen no ill effects from it; and a corre-
spondent of the author (a scientific collector) states
that he has frequently boxed rattlesnakes and non-
poisonous sorts together and observed them bite one
another without ill effects. But more recently a Paris
experimenter claims that one snake is affected by the
venom of another in proportion as it is itself poison-
ous. This should cause innocent snakes to suffer. It

DEFENSIVE ARMOR, SPINES, ETC. 1038

is very certain and frequently observed that our black-
snake and others which are non-venomous will attack
and destroy the rattlesnake. The superiority in this
ease has usually been attributed to quickness and
strength preventing the rattler from striking; but
the safety may possibly consist in the scales acting
as an armor. Certain it is that the poison-fang is not
usually a weapon for fighting a rival, but it is said,
however, that non-poisonous snakes die of the bite
of sea-snakes. The question can scarcely be said to
be settled yet.

Derrenstve Armor, SPINEs, ETC.

The most striking armor now found in Nature is
that of so-called box-turtles where every part of the
body is protected. That of the armadillos is almost
as good, however. The shells of all tortoise-forms
are not so complete as these, and may consist (in a
low form) of a mere cap over the body and a mere
cross or strip of shell on the bottom. The. soft-
shelled or leathery sort of turtles have the outer
covering above skinny, leathery, or gristly. But in
all there is a layer of bones beneath which “ breaks
joints”? in a rough way with the usual array of horny
scutes outside. Likewise in many lizards there are
flat bones on the back beneath the skin.

While no ancient reptile had just any such armor
as this, we may see that many were rich in bony plates
and spines which were very effective. A hint of this
remains in the crocodilians. Here there are thick
horny plates placed edge to edge, so strong that they

9

104 STORY OF THE REPTILES

formerly turned balls of the old muzzle-loading
musket.

Of course the scales of lizards and snakes are
shields, but, as noticed, some lizards have bones in or
beneath the skin over the back and rear part of the
head. A few lizards, the chameleons, and one snake
are merely warty or tough-skinned.

Besides this, many modern lizards (as well as the
old fossils) are plentifully protected with spines.
These may run along
the back and upper
edge of the tail only,
as in the common igu-
ana, Z'watera, croco-
diles, the leguan (Fig.
54), the Galapagos
sea-lizard, and others ;
or they may be all
over the body, as in
our horned toad of
the Western plains
ee and the Moloch lizard

Fic. 54.—Head of leguan (Iguana of Australia (Fig. 55).

Fhaaleaia These spines all grow

from scutes that are

buried in the flesh or skin, but the tips of every scale
are slightly spinous in some lizards.

TERRIFYING MrEtHops

Besides actually hurting their foes, many reptiles
terrify or threaten when they are disturbed, and some

TERRIFYING METHODS 105

have special bluffing implements. To some extent
the spines of the horned toads are such, and the
creature swells the body so as to make these spines
more projecting and the body less easily swallowed.

Fia. 55.—Moloch lizard of Australia (Moloch horridus).

Others, however, swell their non-spinous bodies. In
others still—especially the frilled lizard—there are
frills, flaps, wattles, ete., which are erected threaten-
ingly—the one mentioned having a great frill around
the neck, “like a Queen Elizabeth collar,” which it
turns forward over its head at its foe, and walking
erect on two feet, with tail elevated and mouth wide
open, it makes a terrifying dash at an enemy (Fig. 56).

We can not notice all of these peculiarities, but a

106 STORY OF THE REPTILES

most striking example of what is perhaps pure bluff
is found in some species of the so-called ‘ horned
toad.” When irritated, they throw from the corner

Fic. 56.—Frilled lizard, standing at bay with frill erect. Running,
showing similarity to running pheasant. Foot, showing how a
three-toed track can be made with a five-toed foot. Running
erect, posterior view.

ODOR 107

of the eye a little jet of blood upon their disturber.
Members of the U.S. Biological Survey, and others,
have experimented with this curious habit, and have
found the fluid to be real blood, and that the jet can
be repeated from either eye.

It is hard to see the object of this, unless the
creature hopes to make the foe feel that it has
wounded him—perhaps by one of the spines—and
that he would better withdraw. Since the blood of
some animals injected into that of others is poison-
ous, it may be that it hopes to hit some place where
the skin is broken and thus poison its enemy. But
it is more probable that it is merely intended to
frighten. It is well known that grasshoppers and
other insects exude a harmless fluid when caught, and
that some caterpillars and beetles eject a very hurtful
acid at a disturber. It is well established that some
poisonous serpents can eject their venom many feet ;
but this seems to be the result of their attempt to
bite at the enemy, whereby the fluid is squeezed out
of the hollow fangs. The same muscle that closes the
jaws compresses the poison sac.

Opor

The Reptiles are, as a class, very bountifully sup-
plied with glands for secreting and pores for emitting
odorous fluids—not, however, for projecting to great
distances as in the skunks. While some of these
odors are for defense, most are likely for charming or
being agreeable, just as the beau or belle of to-day
uses the musk of an animal for the same purpose.

108 STORY OF THE REPTILES

But in a few instances, as in the musk-turtle, some
lizards, snakes, and others, it is used as a protection
against enemies, and is very successful so far as the
human foe is concerned. Odor is doubtless a means
that reptiles have of advertising their position to each
other at social times. The lizards, in some cases, are
distinguished from each other by the presence or
absence of pores on the thighs for emitting the odor-
ous secretion. Crocodilians have similar pores under
the throat as well. Some old fishermen have stated
that the odor from these forward pores of the alliga-
tor is attractive to fishes, and the musky creature
thereby gets a living by its perfume. This is not
confirmed, but is not very improbable. During the
battles of these monsters this odor can be detected
miles away, down wind.

ORNAMENTS

We have been compelled to say that certain
things that appear as weapons, etc., may be merely
ornaments; for weapons are frequently ornamented
in Nature. But there are among the reptiles many
appendages which are ornaments purely. To be
brief, these are mostly found in the males and con-
sist of frills, wattles, dewlaps, or great hanging folds
of skin, and even the spines, warts, and horns are
ornamentally located. These, when the social season
comes on, have much brighter colors than they have
in the winter, and some of them are erected, inflated,
or spread out by the proud possessor when his sweet-
heart or his rival comes around.

COLOR-PROTECTION 109

CoLor

As noted, color comes in as a charming feature.
Often the males are much the brighter. In the tor-
toise-forms the sexes are alike, but both are often
beautifully marked and tinted. We can see this in
tortoise-shell. Crocodiles are not especially charm-
ing in this respect, but many lizards are gorgeously
colored. This is apt to be the case with tree-haunting
forms, just as it is likewise among the arboreal snakes
also that the brilliant colors and remarkable patterns
are found. We can not even name the instances in
either group. The family known as the “lapide
genera /laps)—of which the little coral snake of the
Southern States is our only member, but which are
very abundant and very poisonous in South America
—take on in rings, spots, and blotches all the brilliant
reds, yellows, ete., of the most dazzling ribbon.

CoLOR-PROTECTION

In the tropics many of these brilliant colors are
protective, because the strong greens of the tree-
snakes may resemble leaves or grass, and the other
brilliant hues resemble flowers and fruit. In per-
haps a few instances the patterns may imitate some-
thing surrounding, as it is so well known to do
in many insects and some birds. One snake is
especially noted as having its scales colored in
groups of fives which are strung along the back
and resemble the petals of a flower; so that hang-
ing in a tree it may appear as a festoon of blos-

110 STORY OF THE REPTILES

soms. Our own little green snakes are hard to see
in the grass.

So likewise many small reptiles are sand-colored,
or resemble the dried dirt, dead leaves, etc., where
they hide. Many snakes and lizards also have the
ability to change their colors in the manner of some
frogs and the well-known chameleon. Our little
Florida lizard (Anolis) (see Fig. 52) is as good at
this as any of them, hence its spurious name. In this
ease the colors are doubly protective. In the chame-
leon proper a lot of little colored granules or cells
lie far beneath the skin, and certain ones of these can
be brought to the surface by special muscles, and
others depressed. This is to be done consciously by
the creature, which seems to know what color is
required—since it has been found that blind chame-
leons do not change colors, but remain at their dark-
est in all lights or on all hues.

COEPA Pale paky ot Th

MOTION, HIDING-PLACES, HIBERNATION, HAUNTS, DISTRI-
BUTION, MIGRATION, PLAY, BATTLE, ENEMIES, DIS-
EASE, AGE, AND SIZE OF REPTILES

Means or Morton

Nownere has Nature been more liberal in modes
of motion than in the Reptiles. Here she has run
the whole scale. Many swim; some wriggle only;
others burrow; most walk on four feet, a few on
two; one glides or sails on the air like a flying
squirrel; while another ancient form doubtless had
well-sustained flight, like that of a bat. As varia-
tions of these methods some have leaped on two legs
as a kangaroo, and others have waded in a sort of
upright, half-floating way in deep water. This record
can not be excelled in any class of creatures. Be-
sides mere wriggling, the snakes (having lost their
limbs by indulging too largely in that) seem to have
needed some means of slow, gradual motion ; where-
upon Nature loosed the hold of the ribs from
the breast-bone, caused the bone to absorb, brought
the tips of the ribs to the lowest surface, connected
them with the scales below, and strung to each a

separate active muscle. Along the back-bone she
111

112 STORY OF THE REPTILES

put ribs the entire length, and in the back-bone she
put extra vertebree (to the number of 300 in the
pythons) till the body was long and active. Each of
these joints she made of large balls and sockets, and
on the spines of the vertebree she made other unusu-
ally large joining (articulating) surfaces in addition
to those already in the centers; so that the back-bone
should not only be bent easily but stiffened quickly
and surely for good work. It is wonderful to see
what snakes can do with a back-bone only and a slight
movement of ribs and scales. They climb, leap, swim,
stand erect for half their length, and in a few cases
run swiftly. The author has seen the common gar-
ter-snake resting head downward on the rough bark
of a standing tree, the diameter of which was equal to
the length of the serpent; and he has noted the com-
mon blacksnake, not four feet long, run, as fast as a
man would walk, through standing timothy two feet
high, holding its head well up above the grass.

The movement of the tortoise-forms is often
merely a sliding one. Usually the breast is pushed
along by the claws. This is the case with many if
not all living lizards. But, while the slow progress
of the tortoise is proverbial, some of them can run
with the body clear of the ground and a few make
considerable speed in a dash for safety.

Those turtles with paddles swim rapidly and cap-
ture fishes even by dashing at them or pursuing them.

The running of some lizards is so rapid as to pro-
duce the effect of a mere streak, but it is not long
kept up. We have noted that one of the frilled liz-

MEANS OF MOTION 113

ards has become so strictly toe-walking as to make
only three toe-tracks, the two outer toes being so
much shorter than the others that they do not touch
the earth when the foot is stretched up (Fig. 56).

The flying-dragon (Fig. 57)—one of the tree-lizards
—has the most remarkable apparatus in Nature out-
side of the birds for gliding down on the air.

In the fossil flying lizard (Figs. 44 and 76) al-
ready noted, the flight was by a member attached to
the little finger. In fact, bats and even birds fly by
their fingers. Flying mammals glide on the air by
means of a fold of skin stretched along the body
which is attached to and spread out by the limbs.
But this modern flying lizard spreads a similar mem-
brane by means of ¢ts ribs, which project outside of
the body, another most remarkable use of these bones.
They can be folded down by the side when not in use.
There is no power of fluttering, however.

Crocodilians are able to make quite vigorous dashes
at an enemy on land, but since the projections on the
sides of the back-bone are long and close together,
they can not bend the neck or the body much, and
are therefore unable to turn quickly. They may be
dodged by a leap to one side. In the water they
swim well by means mostly of the flattened tail, but
they are said to roll over and over when they have
caught an animal, that they may confuse and more
quickly drown it.

Perhaps it may be worth while here to remark
that reports of a snake’s progress by means of taking
its tailin the mouth and rolling as a hoop is a myth,

114 STORY OF THE REPTILES

found in the minds mostly of Southern negroes. No
snake so rolls, and none has any such weapon on the
tail as the horn which is said always to be present
in such venomousness as to kill the tree in a few

Fic. 57.—Flying lizards (Draco volans). They do not really fly as
birds do, but glide through the air like flying squirrels.

minutes which, according to the story, these snakes
always strike. No snake known really has any sting-
ing or poisonous spear or horn on its tail—nothing
that is a weapon; though, as noted, there are points
and shields there which aid in progress. Our common
“ spread-head” (/eterodon) does sometimes throw it-
self into great vertical loops when escaping down-hill,
notwithstanding the frequent statements from scien-
tists that all snake-motion is a horizontal wriggle.

HIBERNATION 115

It may be possible that this occurrence is the basis
of the myth just noted. Usually a snake’s movements
are horizontal undulations. All snakes swim in this
manner, and the push of the finned and flattened tail
of the sea-snakes is very effective.

HiIpDING-PLACES

Perhaps as a way of escape hiding-places should
not be omitted. Nearly all reptiles have something
of the sort always near. Lizards run into crevices and
climb trees. A few snakes burrow to escape imme-
diate danger; others have holes of some other crea-
ture near by to slip into. The habit of the rattle-
snakes of the plains in living with the social burrow-
ing owl, in the homes of the prairie dogs, is so well
known as to scarcely deserve mention. On our more
Eastern prairies the gopher-holes are used by our
short thick rattlers. Brush-heaps are favorite places
for many innocent kinds. The land tortoises may
burrow—those known in the South as “ gophers”
very deeply. Mud-turtles fall off of logs into water,
and alligators drop all the body beneath the surface
except the nose, or else float along safe in their
protective resemblance to a half-rotted log. They
are said also to have caves dug in the banks, where

they hide.
HIBerNATION
Of course hibernation is another form of hiding

to escape both the winter and an enemy. Where the
cold is severe all reptiles may hibernate. The more

116 STORY OF THE REPTILES

aquatic tortoise-forms sink into the bottoms of ponds
and streains; the more terrestrial burrow—some only
to a very shallow depth. <A pet tortoise may get very
anxious about burying itself long before severe cold
comes on. Snakes seek deep crevices in rocks, and
all kinds, of different species, are said to ball them-
selves together—often in a mixed mass of various spe-
cies. Lizards hibernate in any crevice. Crocodiles
do not live generally far enough north to need a
winter sleep. But in South America and other ex-
tremely hot haunts—where long droughts occur—
these. crocodilians bury themselves in the mud and
lie incased in dried-up dirt, as is the case with some
fishes and amphibians, till the rains come again.

Haounts anp DistrisutTion

Perhaps enough has been said to indicate the
homes of the various reptiles. Their distribution
over the earth is peculiar, and so extensive that it
can not be discussed here. They are a so much older
race than the mammals and birds that the same
natural areas for these latter do not answer for the
reptiles, which doubtless populated a large area before
the others came in. Unlike the amphibians, they were
not so much confined by salt water, though they seem
to be largely fresh-water forms, now and in fossil times.

MIGRATION

Reptiles may be said to migrate only in the sense
that some, as the sea-turtles, are known to resort year

MIGRATION ila hyd

after year to the same island or sand-bank for the
purpose of laying their eggs. When the conditions
remain the same it is probable that all land-reptiles
spend their lives very close to one spot. Snakes are
noted in autumn as gathering toward their hibernating
places.

Turtles, however, migrate from pond to pond,
either on account of drought or to hunt new fields for
feeding, ete. They soon find out a new pond, if it be
suitable for a home. The author has seen directly
after a rain quite a “flock” of little mud-turtles
half a mile from any body of water.

With the exceptions of the groups of turtles often
seen sunning themselves on a log, and the bundling
of snakes in hibernating, reptiles are not known to
be very social or gregarious. However, sea-snakes
go in shoals, as do some fishes. Reptiles may cail to
each other at the social season in some faint way—
even the snakes having, perhaps, some little voice
besides their hiss. It is fairly certain that mother-
snakes signal in some manner to their-young. The
rattlesnake is said to use its rattle as a call to its mate,
as well as a threatening implement or a warning. It
is supposed by many students that this rattle is not
in any way intended for the benefit of the foe, but
for the snake’s own good; that while animals are
really warned of their danger in a way which they
will heed, the snake also is thereby saved from a
battle and the usual fatal consequences.

Though poisoned to the death, nearly anything
that attacks a rattlesnake kills it before the poison

118 STORY OF THE REPTILES

takes effect. The warning is similar in purpose to
that of bright warning colors seen in the briJliant
snakes, some stinging insects, and in Belt’s little frog
already noted. We have seen that many harmless
snakes imitate a rattle by vibrating an ordinary tail
against a leaf, whereby doubtless they hope to terrify
a foe. One serpent has rough serrations (or teeth-
like notches) on its side-scales; and by rubbing the
folds of the body together back and forth a sort of
mechanical hiss is made which is a threat—perhaps at
times a call. Any snake makes a husky rattling noise
as its coils rub past each other in its excitement.

Other reptiles have rude voices—there being, it
is said, some evidence of vocal cords in the geckos.
Crocodiles are well known to have voice, bellowing
being a very loud form of challenge by the males ;
and the mother and young each have a distinct ery.
The tortoise-forms hiss or breathe audibly when dis-
turbed, and they perhaps have a slight voice.

In this connection it may be noted that many
reptiles evidently play with each other, but it is
usually in their courting antics where this prevails.
Turtles have mock-fights between the sexes, and the
male alligator makes a silly exhibition of himself in
the presence of his mate by either turning round and
round on land or circling in the water, which he
churns threateningly with his tail, to show her how
he would treat a rival should one come near. Dr.
Merriam reports two snakes seen in the act of rear-
ing up and apparently playing with each other.

It is quite evident that lizards romp with each

MIGRATION Et9

other; and one raised a pet may show a disposition
to play with its master, like a pet squirrel. Play in
all animals is largely a mock fight or chase, though
this is not always the case.

While we have already noticed weapons, and thus
incidentally fighting methods, a few more words here
may be proper. Chameleons in their fights root each
other about and bite, though their teeth are too small
to inflict serious injury. The battle is long kept up.
Sometimes the tail of the vanquished is snatched off
and eaten by the victor. While this may be the case
among some lizards, others take a grip and hold on
with bulldog fierceness, as do most turtles. The fights
of the tortoise-forms are ridiculously clumsy and inef-
fective. One may seize another’s foot and hold on
for a long time—the boys say “till it thunders ”’—but
much of the battle consists in biting at each other’s
shells. Alligators dodge in front of each other head
to head, each trying to get past the side of the other,
so the tail may be used. When one has hit the other
a few thwacks, the beaten one retires. To make this
terrible stroke, the back-bone has the lateral spines
long, as noted, to which great muscles are attached.

As mentioned, snakes of the same species do not
seem to fight together, but one has been often known
(where the species differ) to swallow the other. This
has occurred where the victor was only two inches
longer and the head of the victim had probably to be
digested away before the rest could be taken in. In
some cases this has happened when two snakes seized
at once the same prey. Both held on and the larger

10

120 STORY OF THE REPTILES

swallowed prey and all. But in such cases as those
where the blacksnake and other nimble snakes attack
the rattlesnake, the victim is seized behind the head
and often enclosed in the folds of its captor. There is
also an effort always to drag the victim in some defi-
nite direction, progress and resistance being affected
by the tails of each curling about anything which can
be reached. It is a very exciting contest of skill,
strength, and peculiar tactics.

ENEMIES

Perhaps there is no better connection than this to
speak of the many enemies which the Reptiles have,
besides man. Tortoise-forms are so well protected
that natural foes do not so readily get at them. It
is said by Pliny, however, that a Grecian poet was.
killed by a tortoise which an eagle let drop from a
point high in the air—thus hoping perhaps to crush
its shell. Since it is well known that some crows—
especially the fish-ecrows of our Northwest coast—rise
thus with shell-fish and drop them to crush them on
the rocks, this story does not seem so improbable.
Vultures and other birds of prey are sometimes able
to kill and devour a poorly protected turtle far from
water.

Alligators when grown have few enemies except
man, but their eggs and their young are eaten not
only by nearly every creature in search of prey but
by the old male alligators. Lizards are eaten by
birds of prey, wading birds, and others. Snakes also
eat them when they can catch them, and the lizards

ENEMIES 121

sometimes devour each other. In many cases their
foes, like those of serpents, are legion. Cats, dogs,
and many small rodents—especially the celebrated
mongoos of India—all wading birds and birds of
prey, and that remarkable half-and-half bird between
these two groups, the secretary-bird of Africa—are
enemies of snakes. Our little kites hunt for them

Fic. 58.—Gila monster of Arizona (Heloderma suspectum). Another
species (H. horridum) inhabits Mexico.

and may be seen to eat them during flight. Man and
hogs, of course, are the great enemies in civilized
regions.

While all poisonous snakes should be killed, it
is better in many cases where field-mice, gophers,
ground-squirrels, ete., prevail too plentifully, to allow
the non-poisonous snakes to live, There is only one

122 STORY OF THE REPTILES

poisonous lizard, the so-called Gila monster (see Fig.
58). With these exceptions, the small reptiles are
not only innocent but useful, taking all things into
consideration. Leeches live on turtles, often suck-
ing blood even through the shell.

AGE AND SIZE

Reptiles, as a rule, are long-lived—especially the
larger kind. These last appear to grow for a long
time, but the small ones have a limit soon reached.
Doubtless the others have also, late in life. Turtles
have been found as long as six feet, and perhaps two
hundred years old, even greater age being recorded ;
and they are said to be from eleven to thirteen years
in maturing. The ordinary box-terrapin has been
known to live fifty years. Alligators and the large
snakes doubtless reach great age. Even the common
tortoises live through two or three generations of
man, since they have been kept that long as pets in
family after family.

CHAPTER “xXx TY

DIGESTIVE TRACT, RESPIRATION, CIRCULATION, LUNGS,
HEART, . COLD-BLOOD, LYMPH-HEARTS, SKELETON,
SKULL, MUSCLES, NERVES, BRAIN, WISDOM, SKIN, AND
SCALES IN REPTILES

Tue Digestive Tract

Iy connection with long life there is nothing like
good digestion. In the Reptiles the salivary glands
first make their appearance—another thing which
came in with them. Digestion therefore in them
begins in the mouth, and that of the serpents is not
excelled in all Nature so far as quickly dissolving
large masses of flesh is concerned. Other creatures
can excel them in digesting peculiar substances. Out
of these salivary glands the poison-glands are made,
which also, as noted, aid in digestion.

The digestive tract in all reptiles is rather sim-
ple—especially in serpents where it is very slightly
twisted. In tortoises, however, and some lizards—
and especially the vegetable-feeders—it is more com-
plex. The liver is, of course, always present.

RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION

It is by the blood, after receiving oxygen from
the lungs, that the elements of the food are car-
125

124 STORY OF THE REPTILES

ried into the system, thereby imparting energy and
strength to the various parts of the body. It is no
use to eat unless you can breathe, and no use to
breathe unless the blood can circulate. Hence the
grouping of these topics. Reptiles, as noted, breathe
by lungs mostly, never by gills. To some extent the
aquatic turtles breathe by the skin, though there is
no such arrangement for this in these as there is in
the amphibians. There are, however, near the skin
some places where arteries are massed and twisted or
meshed together, evidently to store aerated blood for
use under water, if not for getting it further oxi-
dized through the pores. This is the case, perhaps,
in water-haunting tortoise-forms only.

Lunes

The lungs in the average reptile are better than
those of the average amphibian, but in many cases
they still show a tendency to be mere sacs or pockets
at the rear ends. With such imperfect lungs and a
heart three-chambered only, we should still expect
cold blood, as is the case in all living reptiles. In the
old, very active Dinosaurs (of which more later) the
bones were hollow and connected with the lungs; and
there were, perhaps, other air sacs among the muscles,
to help a small poor Jung out in unusual work.

There can be no doubt that bones in birds and
other creatures are made hollow to make them light
and yet strong; but the air does not enter them to
make them buoyant—notwithstanding that you will
see such a statement made over and over even by fair

LUNGS 125

authorities. One has recently said that a certain
Dinosaur inflates its bones to make itself float better.
The bones would be lighter if no air were in the hol-
low space. <A balloon would soar better if no gas
were in it, provided it were stiff enough not to col-
lapse from pressure of the outside air. Nothing is
lighter than nothing. The only advantage in buoy-
aney which the bones would have in getting air from
the lungs is that it is warmer, generally, than that
which might be infused from the outside, but this
slight expansion from heat is not appreciable.

Lungs, when present, are paired in all creatures,
except in the higher fishes, but in the long, limbless
reptiles, whether snakes or lizards, the left is often
a mere rudiment, and nearly always, except in one
family, is noticeably smaller than the right. The
Amphisbenide are the only vertebrates in which the
right lung is a vestige and the left one larger.

This remaining lung is long and slim to suit its
space, and in serpents it runs far back. In the sea-
snakes it lies along the entire body-eavity, is large
and saclike at the rear, and stores such a quantity of
air that the creatures can remain long under the
water. In some reptiles the lungs are smooth sacs
inside—not pouched or cellular at all anywhere.

The rule is that reptiles breathe by means of
compressing and expanding the ribs only, but in the
tortoise-forms these are fast to the shell, so that they
breathe in about three different ways, hinting of
frogs, birds,and mammals. They are the first crea-
tures in the scale to have a muscle lie under the

126 STORY OF THE REPTILES

lungs and heart (called the diaphragm), by which the
lungs can be slightly compressed. In some of them
the lower shell and abdominal parts move generally
to compress the lungs; and besides this, they get air
into the lungs by swallowing it after the manner of
the frogs. In those where the lower shell is-fixed to
the upper, the bones inside of it which form the
shoulder are said to move in breathing. Their lungs
are short and have many air-cells. A lizard breathes
in the ordinary way, and so very rapidly that the
expression, “ Panting like a lizard,” is proverbial.
Snakes and lizards have no hint of a diaphragm.

Some lizards have expanded places in their wind-
pipes in which they store air; and our common
“spread-head” snake (//eterodon) has great lung-saes
that extend forward toward the head, to aid it, per-
haps, in blowing or hissing. In the crocodilians there
is such a large extra sac that there appear to be really
three lung-sacs. These are very cellular, and all com-
municate with each other. They hold great quantities
of air by which the creature can remain immersed for
a long time.

CIRCULATION AND THE HEART

While Reptiles are always spoken of as having
three-chambered hearts, some of the tortoise-forms
have the partition between the two receiving cham-
bers (auricles) not complete, and hence, since there
is only one ventricle (pumping-out chamber), these
hearts are really only two-chambered. In these, how-
ever, the old bulb below the heart in the vein, which

CIRCULATION AND THE HEART LOT

is found in the fishes and amphibians, pulsates, and
the one above the heart, situated in the artery, is like-
wise inclined to be active. The ventricle also tends
to be divided so as to give a good circulation.

While the lizards, higher up, may have better
hearts in some respects, they may have often poorer
lungs, and hence the matter is about balanced. Some
lizards show quite a tendency to have a partition in
the ventricle, and the crocodilians succeed in doing
so, and hence their hearts are four-chambered.

We recall in the low amphibians and the fishes
that there are three or four branches running up on
each side from the great tube which starts forward
from the heart where the bulb throbs—one to each
gill-arch. The frogs had three. Normally the Rep-
tiles retain only one of these on each side (a few keep
more), which seems to be a very symmetrical (well-
balanced) arrangement. To show the onward step,
we might mention that the mammals and birds keep
only one of these and that on one side, the mammals
retaining the left and the birds the right. This is the
case also in the monitor-lizards and the chameleon, an
onward hint, evidently, in this cold-blooded class.
In the limbless A mphishenide also there is only one.
But in the crocodilians, although the heart is perfect,
there remains two of these forward tubes; and after
leaving the heart, they cross each other, and there is
at the crossing an opening from one to the other.
The rule is, that in other reptiles the blood comes
from the system (through an auricle) into the single
pumping-chamber, from which three tubes run—the

128 STORY OF THE REPTILES

two already noted as going forward into the body
and the one running to the lungs. This latter soon
forks—one branch going to each lung. Usually—
especially in tortoise-forms—there is such an arrange-
ment of openings and valves that much of this blood
from the system is forced into the lungs, and this re-
turns in such a way as to be driven out into the sys-
tem anew and not back into the lungs again.

The description of these arrangements here is too
technical for our purpose. In the crocodilians, how-
ever, where there are two pumping-chambers, the
right has two tubes leaving it—one for the system
and one for the lungs. Into the lung-tube the already
used blood comes from the body. Here it will be
seen that the lungs get much of the blood to*aerate,
but not all of it, since some goes on into the remain-
ing artery which runs mainly to the lower part of the
body. When the blood returns from the lungs, red
and hotter, it reaches the other pumping-chamber and
can not mix here with the colder blood. From this,
only ore artery runs forward, and it goes largely to
the forepart of the body, or sends off many branches
that way, the rest of it running to the rear. Now it
it were not for the hole, where the two tubes cross
outside of the heart, the forepart of the body would
have well-aerated blood all the time and the rear part
some hot blood, but mostly cool blood—a condition
just suited to the position when the body is half out
and half in the water. We saw that the frog had
something like this; and it is quite probable that
by such similar arrangements—as fulness of tubes,

LYMPH-HEARTS 129

times of pumping of each ventricle, position of open-
ings, and position of membranes or valves in the
region—the crocodile, when breathing the air, is
really warm-blooded in the front part of the body
and cold-blooded everywhere else, but, by means of
this leak, he is wholly cold-blooded when he is under
the water holding his breath. At least some students
have so thought, and the purpose of this hole implies
something like it. If true, it is one of the most won-
derful cases of adaptation to variable conditions found
in Nature.

To be wholly hot-blooded the crocodilians would
have to do away with the artery running to the body
from the right ventricle, and then, of course, close the
hole in that running from the left. Then the condi-
tion would be similar to those in the birds and mam-
mals, and the four-chambered heart would mean more
than a mere prophecy. Had both arteries run from
the left ventricle, however, and the hole between
them remained, the animal would still have been
hot-blooded, if such lungs could have made it so.

The author trusts he may be pardoned for really
trying to show the different causes which may bring
about hot and cold blood, since most popular works
say little about it.

Lymrenu-HeEarts

In reptiles there are lymph-hearts at the root of
the tail as in amphibians and some birds; and in
all these low creatures and some mammals, there are
places—usually in the armpit—where the blood-veins

150 STORY OF THE REPTILES

pulsate independently as did those which first formed
the heart in the lowest Vertebrates. These show
readily in the wings of bats.

SKELETON GENERALLY

Much has been said already of the bones of the
reptiles as we have come along. This class is more

Fic. 59.—Skeleton of a lizard. sp, spinous processes, which in the
tortoise are flattened into plates; r, ribs; s, shoulder-bone; a,
upper arm; e, elbow; fa, forearm; h, hip-bone; th, thigh-bone ;
k, knee; 1, bones of the leg; g, quadrate bone between upper and
lower jaw.

bony than the amphibians, though some of the an-
cient forms had the old soft gristly string yet inside
of the rings of bones which made up their spinal
columns; and the gecko tribe (Fig. 60) has something
similar yet. In geckos the vertebre are cupped at
both ends; in most others they are,cupped back and
round in front. In the old Dinosaurs, however, the
vertebree were often cupped in front, which is a
higher form found frequently in the birds and largely
among the mammals.

Reptiles and birds usually make the shoulder junc-
tion out of three bones, while mammals have only

SKELETON GENERALLY el,

two. They omit the one that floats loosely back over
the side, called the Coracoid. While nearly all rep-
tiles have a collar-bone (or bones) the flying Ptero-
dactyl forms had none.

In the thigh-junction, the Reptiles have peculiari-
ties which the anatomist easily recognizes. In such

Fic. 60.—Wall gecko (Platydactylus muralis). A, foot of gecko, show-
ing suction slats by means of which it adheres to perpendicular
surfaces.

reptiles as walked on two legs these bones have quite

a birdlike arrangement. The Dinosaur and bird

have long projecting bones behind to support them

in an upright posture.
The Riss have been noted as many and long—

132 STORY OF THE REPTILES

usually reaching the breast-bone when that is pres-
ent. In many ancient forms the ribs appear short,
and there is no evidence of a breast-bone. In croco-
dilians and Zwatera the ribs have, near the middle,
projections or flat blunt spurs (uncinate processes)
which reach back and lap over the next rib, thus
strengthening the bony cage. The lower birds also
have this.

In tortoise-forms the ribs are usually fused into
the shell and are broad and flattened. In one case,

Fic. 61.—Tortoise-shell turtle (hawkbill) (Eretmochelys imbricata).

however, the sea-turtle (Sphargis), the ribs are free
from the shell but much flattened. It has been claimed
that the tortoise-forms have no true ribs, but that
those apparent are merely the spiny projections of the

MUSCLES 133

back-bone; but they, at least, take the place of ribs,
and in this sea-turtle noted their freedom hints that
they really are such. So likewise tortoise-forms have
no breast-bone, but their lower shell takes its place,
though the bones of this shell have their origin in the
skin. There are many peculiarities in the ribs of
reptiles which we can not even mention.

Those of the serpents and flying lizards have been
noted under Morton. In crocodilians the breast-bone
runs back to the thigh-junction, and peculiar ribs,
loose at their upper ends, are attached to it; and in
the Twatera there are ribs in the abdomen not found
connected with anything else. Perhaps the slightest
hint of the lower shell of the tortoises may lie in this.

The Sxutt of the reptile is more complete than
in the amphibians—that is, the box is more perfect
—better roofed-in. In all cases but one (which is not
normal) it joins the first vertebrae of the back-bone by
only one ball-and-socket joint—the ball being on the
skull. The skull is much like that of birds and some
very low mammals—as the opossums; but from these
last, it is sufficiently distinct, if we could specify with-
out being tedious and technical. The lower jaw’s con-
nections to the skull have been noticed.

Muvscies

Mvuscres of reptiles are especially interesting to
students because of what they hint of the origin of
peculiar muscles in birds and mammals; but the sub-
ject is too broad to discuss here. They all tend to be
redder than those of the amphibians—having a better

154 STORY OF THE REPTILES

blood supply and are thus more active; but they are
not so dark as those of the more agile, more red-
blooded birds and mammals.

We can see from the great surfaces on the bones
of the old monsters that there were some tremendous
muscles among reptiles in those days (Fig. 62). In
such as flew there was a great breast-muscle, like that
in birds, which worked the wings, and some had a
high ridge or keel on the breast-bone. In all cases
the ribs have more muscles in the reptiles than in the
mammals.

Tur NeErveEsS AND BRAIN

Many reptiles as well as the amphibians, as already
noted, have a great deal of their nervous system out-
side of the skull, and hence have small amount of cere-
bellum—that part of the brain which moves the mus-
cles. They therefore die hard after the head is cut off.
A turtle is one of these, and is said to be able to live
eighteen days after the brain is removed. Its move-
ments are then, of course, largely influenced by reflex
action. Serpents also are tenacious of life, and squirm
long after the brain is destroyed. One with its head
off will sometimes turn and strike at any disturbing
thing on the body. The author has a friend who
nearly had the wits scared ont of him by a headless
rattlesnake striking his hand as he attempted to pull
the rattles from the tail. In this connection it may
be well to notice that in some old Dinosaurs there
was a hollow expansion in the back-bone near the hips
that was much larger than the skull-cavity and held

THE NERVES AND BRAIN 135

.

many times more nerve-matter. It was a sort of sec-
ond or lower brain. Here is Professor Marsh’s resto-
‘ation of one of these—the Stegosaurus—with shell-
plates set on edge. Look at the small skull. The
brain was quite likely used only for the senses of

pes e
Q\ \) \ NS “ tT

FE ao Ww

Fic. 62.—Stegosaurus ungulatus (after Marsh), = #0, J urassic,
Wyoming.

sight, smell, etc., and it is not unlikely that it would
have been dangerous to come within reach of that
terrible spiny tail months after the head was cut off
(Fig. 62).

We can not note the parts of the brain except to
say that a certain little gland found on the top of that
of mammals is observed to be much larger in most
reptiles, and it was once, doubtless, in some, an active
third optic lobe corresponding to a useful third eye.

1a

156 STORY OF THE REPTILES

In 7watera there are parts of this eye yet remaining
—but they are not now useful.

Reptiles are more intelligent than amphibians,
and have a certain form of cunning in obtaining prey
and effecting escape from enemies; but so far as any
great amount of intellect is concerned they do not
compare with birds and mammals. The wisdom of
serpents—so far-famed in the minds of Eastern peo-
ples—is used in the Bible as a figure, not because it
was such a striking fact, but because it was a famil-
iar method of expressing that sort of cunning which
is devoid of any good attribute.

SKIN

Covering all these things that we have been notic-
ing is the Skin. We mention it here only in connec-
tion with the renewal of the outer part of it. No
creature changes its real skin any more than its other
tissues. In the lzards the transparent thin outer
membrane runs outside of the scales, and even out-
side of the eyes in the snakes. The former usually
shed this in strips; but some limbless lizards and all
snakes, except the sea-snakes, shed it in one piece,
which is a fine image of the creature. In many snakes
and some lizards a series of small hairs seems to
arise and push the epidermis loose. In some horned
toads (the spiny lizards out West) there arises be-
neath the outer skin small watery pimples (pustules)
which push it loose till it breaks off in little pieces ;
so that this homely creature has to have an attack
of chicken-pox every time it gets a new suit.

SKIN 137

In snakes the eyeballs can not be moved beneath
this outer skin. In rattlesnakes every time this skin
is shed there is left a ridge or rim of it at the
tail, which forms a rattle. The first remnant is
called a “button.” The skin may be shed more than
once a summer so that the number of rattles may
not tell the age in years, but they form a means of
rough comparison. As already noted, the folds of
the thick skin proper become horny and form the
scales; and thus the skin has built all the outer
coverings for the reptiles, and many bones that are
beneath it besides.

CHAPTER Xv

SENSE-ORGANS, EGGS, HATCHING, CARE OF YOUNG, .GEOL-
OGY AND MODERN REPTILES, KINSHIPS, VARIETIES
OF FOSSIL FORMS, DIAGRAM OF KINSHIP, COMMENTS
ON TYPES OR ORDERS OF EXTINCT REPTILES, AND KEY

SENSE-ORGANS

Att the senses are closely related primarily with
the skin and may be taken up next in order. Except
that of Tasrr, the senses of the Reptiles are quite
keen. Even where such a tongue as that in the
tortoise-forms prevails along with the habit of chew-
ing the food, taste may be considerable. But in such
reptiles as serpents, which gulp their food, there can
be little enjoyment of it except that of fulness and a
sense of good digestion.

Serpents and many lizards use the tongue as a
feeling organ. Jesides this, the reptiles are not
largely endowed with organs of Toucu. The tor-
toise-forms, however, know at once when their shells
are touched never so slightly, and scales may be
equally sensitive. One turtle—the J/atamata—has
a long fleshy snout, and above and below the neck
there are a series of filaments, but it is likely that

these latter are made to resemble seaweed, and are
138

SENSE-ORGANS 139

therefore intended more for concealing or protecting
than for feeling.

The Hrarina of reptiles is quite acute. Though
they have much better ears than any creature below
them these are far from being so complete as those of
the mammals or even those of the birds. The ears are
connected with the mouth by tubes—in the croco-
dilians by three openings. This forms the internal
ear. Besides this there is a middle ear of more or
less incompleteness. Except in crocodiles, where
there is an external fold or flap of skin, there is no
outside ear. Here there are some valves over an
opening to keep the water out, but in many reptiles
the drum-membrane les on the outside of the head,
as in the frogs, except that it may be protected by
special scales. In others, as the serpents and 7Z’wa-
tera, there is no drum-cavity ; and in the latter only,
it is said, are there any signs of that wonderfully
spiral arrangement called the coch/ea, which allows
us to appreciate the difference between high and low
tones in pitch.

All reptiles see, there being none known that
are perfectly blind, but some burrowing forms are
nearly so. Siaur in this class, however, has no such
keenness as in the birds. Reptiles usually have two
eyelids, and some have that third kind called a nicti-
tating membrane. The skinks have a transparent
window in the lower lid, so that while burrowing
slightly in deserts they may see out without getting
sand in the eye. Tear-glands here prevail for the
first time in vertebrates. As noted, snakes and some

140 STORY OF THE REPTILES

lizards have the eyelids covered by the outside skin
so that they can not be moved.

In the chameleons the eye-opening may be round
and is drawn up like an old-fashioned purse—as if a
draw-string were around it. One eye can be turned
forward while the other is rolled backward, so that
the creature can really look two ways at once. This
peculiarity is not known anywhere else, though birds
and many mammals see two ways at once because
one eye is on each side of the head. But both eyes
move forward or backward together.

We have noted that Zwatera has beneath its skull
the remnants of a third eye, which was once central
in the top of the head. Some other lizards show
hints of the same thing; and in the growth of the
young of all, there is in the roof of the skull a place
that is slow to close. This has been supposed by
some to be the vestige of the former opening of this
third eye.

The fact that reptiles are so odorous argues that
they Smett, if there were no other means of infer-
ring it. All breathe air through the nostrils which,
of course, unlike those of fishes, enter the mouth.
In the crocodilians these enter far back, and there is a
soft flap of the palate which drops down in front of
them so that the creature can keep its mouth open
under water and not get strangled; and at the ex-
treme end of the snout, where the nose opens outward,
are valves which can be closed to keep the water out.

In the water-snakes, also, the nostrils open near
the tip—really on the upper side of the snout—so

EGGS, HATCHING, AND CARE OF YOUNG 141

that they breathe easily when near the surface with-
out thrusting the head far up. In one of the croco-

Fic. 63.—Gavial (Gavialis gangetica).

dilians—the Gavial (Fig. 63)—the male has a great
warty bunch on the snout through which the nostrils
open.

Eeas, Hatcoine, AND CarE oF YouNnG

We have spoken of the eggs of reptiles as being
large and free from each other—like those of birds.
Those of the crocodilians and all tortoise-forms, ex-
cept the paddle-feet kinds, have limy hard shells, but
in all others a tough membrane only covers them.
They consist of a yolk and “white” as in hen eggs,
and in no case are they fertilized (or made so they
will hatch) after they have been laid, as is the case

142 STORY OF THE REPTILES

with most fishes and some amphibians. In shape
they are all longer than thick, with both ends equally
rounded, but a few turtles’ eggs are almost as globu-
lar as a boy’s marble. In no case are they pointed
more at one end than the other, and, so far as known,
they have never possessed such special colors as are
found in those of birds.

In nesting, tortoise-forms bury their eggs under
sand—scraping a place and covering them. The
rule is that the mother takes no further care of her
young. The sun’s heat alone hatches them.

In the crocodilians it is said that there is some
watching of the buried eggs; and the mother digs
her young out when hatched, leads them to the
water, fights the male away, who would eat them, it is
said, and in some cases she ejects food from her own
stomach to feed them. Some of this order dig deep
holes and put trash or litter of vegetable substances
in with their eggs and then cover all over. It is
claimed by some students that this procedure is for
the purpose of getting additional heat by the hot-bed
effect of the rotting litter; by others, that it is in-
tended merely to cushion or protect the eggs—per-
haps a sort of nest-building instinct. Certain it is
that some low birds bury their eggs in almost ex-
actly the same manner, and that others of the same
order heap up a great mass of brush, grass, ete., and
lay their eggs in this, where they are hatched either
by the heat of decay or by that of the sun.

One large poisonous snake of Asia is said to make
a nest of a heap of rubbish, and to defend it—even

EGGS, HATCHING, AND CARE OF YOUNG 143

pursuing the disturbing enemy. But the usual snake
either burrows under loose earth or into the rotted
roots of old stumps and other crevices, and there de-
posits her eggs. Sometimes they are not at all or
searcely hidden.

In all reptiles there are many eggs at a litter.
In the constricting families of snakes—especially the
pythons—the mother may coil herself about her eggs,
incubating them as a hen sits on hers to hatch them.
At such times it is found that the temperature of the
cold-blooded mother is raised very noticeably—a thing
which is well known to occur in brooding birds. In
some snakes the eggs are hatched within the body and
the young born perfect. |

That certain snakes care for their young there can
be little doubt; whether all do or not can not be as-
serted. The author is convinced from reliable wit-
nesses that mother snakes may take their young into
their mouths, gullets, and stomachs even, in time of
danger, and that they have some sort of call which
warns of approaching peril. It has been thought by
skeptics that since some snakes are viviparous. the
unscientific persons find the young before they are
born and are thus deceived; but such trustworthy
accounts state that the young are seen to enter, are
found in the stomach proper, and have been pushed
out of the mouth after death from snakes well known
to be egg-laying.

Lizards lay eggs in crannies and under the soil.
Some of these also bring forth their young alive.
There is little evidence that they care for their young.

144 STORY OF THE REPTILES

All reptiles are hatched or born perfect and ac-
tive (precocial). There is no imperfect form, as in
amphibians and some fishes—not even as much as
there is in many birds and mammals. Even if their
eggs are broken open a little prematurely (before be--
ing just ready) the young will often escape open-eyed
and active at once, and survive. Little snakes and
others have a tiny hard shell or “ pip” on their noses
—as in chickens—with which they cut the shells at
the proper time.

With this large egg of the reptiles and the per-
fection of the young within it (not out of it) there
came in two membranes which enclose the young,
called the amnion and the allantois, but these are
connected with the nourishing and the breathing of
the little creature in a manner too technical for our
study. They are not found in any degree of perfec-
tion below the reptiles and the birds.

In Harcurna, the very beginning of the little rep-
tile is much the same as that of the amphibian and
fish, but each order soon hints its peculiar shape.
The turtle quickly shows its short body and_ shell
with the ribs free at first; the lizard-forms show
the limbs, and the snake its peculiar lithe form. In
no stage does the snake show any more sign of
limbs than it does in the adult—a fact which implies
that it has been for a long time only a snake. The
study of these developments is the science of embry-
ology—a whole realm of thought all by itself, which
has made some wonderful suggestions at kinships and
ancestors in all classes.

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 145

ReEptiLEs IN GEOLOGY

Except the Zwatera all our modern reptiles be-
long to families that are comparatively recent. The
crocodilians, however, had ancient representatives.
If this order were not one of the families of the old
order of Dinosaurs, it was close to them. They
occur just above the coal—after the age in which the
Reptiles all came in. It is probable that they are
now (and were then) a slightly degraded form, and
got the hole between the two great heart arteries by
going back to the water after having been once
more terrestrial.

The torteise-forms are not found farther back
than the rocks which are just below man—the so-
called Tertiary times. They are evidently just lizards
with shells on the back. As noted, many lizards show
bones on the back under the skin, and other lizard-
forms have in the abdomen bones which are not
prt of the breast-bone; some have beaks quite like
those of the turtles, but the teeth are still present.
One turtle, however, shows a tooth or two in its very
young. Finally, a small fossil burrowing lizard has
been found by Professor Cope which had a shell on top
only. <A giant fossil turtle was found out West thir-
teen feet long and it had flippers which measured from
tip to tip about fifteen feet. Like the sea-turtle its
ribs were flattened but were not grown to the shell.

Snakes are found in the lowest Tertiary—perhaps
a little older than the tortoise-forms. They are but
lizards with the legs lost and the chin loose-jointed.

146 STORY OF THE REPTILES

Later, other lizards lost their legs also, but they did
not go in the snakeward direction in other respects.

Lizards themselves are the basic order, and they
had many different representatives in the long-ago.
Along with the Zwatera and its order, and the croco- |
diles of the old rocks, the lizards had some very
modern-shaped forms in ancient times; but the most
interesting kinds were such as were peculiar to those
ages—the giants of those days.

It is remarkable that in this group of great mon-
sters Nature ran nearly the entire scale of present
vertebrate shapes as though she were trying her hand
roughly, or as if the surroundings then were forcing
her soft and pliable materials into the type-forms
of the future. Here were fish-forms, serpent-forms,
the true or typical reptile-forms, the beast- or mam-
mal-forms and the bird-forms. This last took on
two manifestations—one in the fore limbs, the other
in the hind limbs. Roundly we may say these
monsters were sea-haunters, land-haunters, and _ air-
haunters.

If we draw circles to represent kinships we shall
see that the reptiles really touch all the other groups
and may cut into them a little way (Fig. 64).

We have already spoken of the Zheromorphs,
whose teeth at least were so much like those of mam-
mals. It does not follow that they were the ancestors
of our present carnivorous beasts, but the same con-
ditions produced these then which later made the
mammals. They were, however, among the earliest
reptiles, and had in them the possibilities of all

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 147

things. They had in them elements which are found
in all other groups modern and extinct.

The next three orders of these monsters were
aquatic purely—degenerates probably from a terres-

MAMMALS

Fia. 64.

trial form, and were something like the crocodilians,
though they are often thought to come up from the
fishes. They all had paddles for limbs, and had tails
adapted to swimming. Professor Cope makes three
very natural orders out of three forms of them.

The first, Sawropterygia, had whalelike bodies
with necks longer than the tails. The Plesiosaurus
(Fig. 65) is a type of these.

The next group of paddle-limbed kinds is called
Ichthyopterygia, because they had a sort of fishlike
body (Greek tchthyos—a fish) and a long pointed tail

148 STORY OF THE REPTILES

It is these also which had the most finlike
paddles. The neck was very short (Fig.
66). Excepting the paddles they re-
semble alligators in general shape quite
strikingly. Some later forms were

D ype! SSSA

Fia. 65.—Plesiosaurus dolichodirus, restored, * go.

toothless. It is in these that the six digits in the
feet and hands are found (Fig. 67).

Fic. 67.—Left hind-paddle of Baptanodon discus (after Marsh), seen
from below. One-eighth natural size. jf, femur; t, tibia; i, fib-
ula; J, first digit; V, fifth digit.

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY

The third one of these paddle-
limbed orders had bodies that were
snakelike with extremely long tails.
The type-form is the Mosasaurus,
found fossil in the Old World; but
America also is rich in them. Pro-
fessor Cope has called them Python-
omorpha. One of them—the Ldesto-
saurus—is here shown (Fig. 68). It
will be noted that their limbs, while
paddlelike, had the digits more like
those of land-haunters. It can be seen
by the lengthened spines on the tail
vertebrae that the tail had a crest and
was a swimming organ. They are
much lke serpents in some of their
parts. It was in these that the jaws
were doubly hinged for swallowing.
Many had more ribs than the one here
figured, and there was no breast-bone
meeting of ribs below.

The next division is the great land-
haunting group known collectively as
Dinosaurs. It is supposed (and prob-
able) that the crocodilians lay between
the Jchthyosaurus and these. Here
Nature seemed to have tried all things
and. hoped all things—holding fast to
nothing. We can note only a few
typical forms.

While some were four-footed in

EEC aaa

(
4
q

CY VW
LA AEE EA Scace eat

149

Fic. 68.—Edestosaurus.

150 STORY OF THE REPTILES

their motion, perhaps all were capable of rearing up,
many of sitting up permanently, and a large propor-
tion could move about on the hind feet with or with-
out touching the tail to the ground. In all, however,
the tail was an important member—the third leg
often of a three-cornered support. The Stegosaurus,
already described (see page 135, Fig. 62) as so well
protected and armed in the tail, and the 772ceratops—
which was three-horned (Fig. 69)—are examples of

pgaongnorrn

oh N\\ HN
Vag Vie

Fic. 69.—Triceratops prorsus (after Marsh), x go, Cretaceous,
Wyoming.
the four-footed walkers of this group. This last is
the one which had a collar of spines also. It had a
beak which was tortoiselike in some respects. The
next one, Brontosaurus, shows by its small fore limbs
(Fig. 70) that it arose on its hind legs; but a glance
at its neck bones and the set of its skull shows that its
head was held horizontal by the spines of the back-
bone. Observe that the elongation of rear limbs, the
slim neck vertebree, and the long head, set at an angle
with the neck, show that Zaosaurus (Fig. 71) walked
erect. All of these noted were herbivorous—brows-

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 151

ers on tall trees. Some were able to feed thirty and
forty feet up.
One was in the habit of wading on the bottom of

Fic. 70.—Brontosaurus excelsis, x yy (restored by Marsh).

deep pools and projecting its long neck above the
water and in all probability was quite helpless on

Fic. 71.—Restoration of Laosaurus by Marsh, 2s. 1, tooth of Lao-
saurus altus (after Marsh), front view; 2, the same, side view.
Both twice natural size.

12

152 STORY OF THE REPTILES

land, on account of its weight. Another, with ordi-
nary feet, had a bill like that of a spoonbill or
“shoveler” duck, and fed only on more tender
aquatic plants, as is shown by its teeth (Fig. 72).
Upon this the terrible Lwlaps—the talon-toed flesh-
eater—is supposed to have fed.

Fic. 72.—Diclonius mirabilis x #: (after Cope).

If we glance at Fig. 73, on page 153, we may
note how birdlike these reptiles were in shape, yet
the resemblance was stronger still in structure. It is
not necessary, however, to believe that birds came
from these monsters; but there were some strong
birdward tendencies at work then. On page 154 are
the cuts of some tracks made by these old three-toed
bipedal walkers (Fig. 74).

One of the most peculiar of these giants has been
ealled the fin-backed lizard. It was aquatic, swim-
ming by a long flattened tail. The spines on the
upper side of the back-bone grew up into a great
high arch like a fin; and these, quite likely, had
membranes over them or between them. On one of
these, found by Professor Cope, there were cross-arms
as on the mast of a ship. We can see no use for

*

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 153

these, unless there was a cross membrane also; and
the creature may have thereby actually sailed before
the breeze. Those that did not have the cross-arms

Fig. 73.—Hesperornis regalis, x zo (restored by Marsh).

may have tacked by means of the single spread of the
broad back-fin. This latter would be useful, how-
ever, as the dorsal fin of a fish is, in keeping the body
steady while the tail lashed (Fig. 75).

154 STORY OF THE REPTILES

The oldest real reptile known was found by Pro-
fessor Cope in Ohio, away below the level where rep-
tiles are usually found. It is quite like a salaman-
der in shape; and doubtless from something like

Fig. 74.—Portion of a slab with tracks of several species of Bronto-
zoum (after Hitchcock).

this all those monsters and our living forms have

been developed. Of course there is no space here

to go into all the curious forms of reptiles found

in the rocks, but the general types have been indi-

cated.

The last order is that of the flying lizards already
mentioned and illustrated (see page 114, Fig. 57).
On page 156 is a cut also of the skeleton (Fig. 76).
As noted, some others had very long tails. Some had
teeth in their beaks; some had none. While they

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 155

were so birdlike in appearance they show by their
structure that they are not the ancestors of our birds,

Fic. 75.—Finback lizard floating on the surface of the water, borne
SD ]
along by the wind.

but were just a thrust of soft material into the
birdward direction. In some way they were not
fitted to survive, and with the rest of the freaky ex-
periments of Nature they died out. We can scarcely
guess at the cause of their disappearance. Perhaps
their immense size finally made them too cumber-
some to procure food easily, especially if the climate
changed in their region—and those were changing
days.

Their extermination by the more active mammals
which followed them seems hardly probable, since so
many of the reptiles were aquatic and so few, if any,

156 STORY OF THE REPTILES

mammals had then taken to the water. Many may
have fallen before great numbers of small foes, just
as whales and sharks perish now; or some special
parasite or disease may have attacked them.

“A

Fic. 76.—The nearly entire skeleton of Pterodactylus spectabilis (Von
Meyer), as shown by the two halves of a split block of litho-
graphic slate. a, the left prepubic bone; on the right side this
bone is not shown, and the ilium is exposed.

REPTILES IN GEOLOGY 157

Here is a brief review in the form of a key which
will help to recall the orders only, of these old terrors
of the past.

A. Jaws either toothless or beaklike; or else with only a pair of
tusks or canine teeth evident. Theromorpha.
AA. Jaws not so. More teeth than two tusks always present.
B. Limbs paddle-shaped.
C, Body snakelike. (Tail longer than neck.)

Pythonomorpha.
CC. Body not snakelike.

D. Neck very short—much shorter than the tail; body

fishlike. Ichthyopterygia.
DD. Neck longer than tail; body whalelike.
Sauropterygia.

BB. Limbs not paddle-shaped.
K. Hind legs longest and largest—often fitted for
walking erect; outer finger not elongated.
Dinosauria,
EE. Hind legs not longest; outer finger elongated
—fitted for flight. Pterosauria.

CHAPTER XVI
OUTLINE OF MODERN REPTILES AND SOME HELPFUL KEYS

To help recall the peculiarities of the various
orders of living reptiles the following outline in the
form of a key is submitted, presenting apparent as
well as structural features :

Norre.—If one peculiarity is noted at a certain letter the oppo-
site will occur where the letter is found doubled.

A. Form tortoiselike; a distinct shell. Shell either leathery or
horny; mouth beaklike—no teeth; back-bone and ribs fast
to shell (one exception). Tortoise-forms.

AA. Form not tortoiselike; either lizardlike or snakelike; jaws

with evident teeth ; back-bone always movable everywhere.

B. Tail with a double crest near the body; skin covered with

plates placed edge to edge; heart four-chambered ; toes
four behind, five before. Crocodilians.

BB. Tail, toes, skin, ete., not as above; heart never four-cham-

bered.

C. Teeth in upper jaw appearing to be in two rows—the
lower teeth shutting between. Tuatera.

CC. Teeth in upper jaw not appearing to be in two rows,

though teeth may be present on palate.

D. Lower jaw solid at chin—not jointed or loose.
Limbs present or absent, but there is always a
shoulder-girdle. Lizards proper.

DD. Lower jaws held together at chin by a ligament

merely. No true limbs with toes. No shoulder-

girdle; eyelids never apparent. Tongue always

forked, slim, and sheathed. Serpents,
188

i OUTLINES AND KEYS 159

Legless lizards may be usually known from the
snakes by the tongue, which is not in their case
forked and threadlike, but flat and barely notched.
Where lizards have a threadlike forked tongue, limbs
are present. Eyelids and ear-drum membranes also
are usually apparent here and not in snakes.

TorTOISE-FORMS

The following little outline will enable any one to
know the families of tortoise-forms. It is based on
shells and toes and is not just the natural order of
kinships, but is very apparent as a means of
describing :

A. Shell soft, leathery outside.
B. Back ridged; limbs as flippers. Leather Sea Turtles.
BB. Back not ridged; limbs as legs. Soft-shelled Turtles.
AA. Shell hard, with horny scales outside.
C. Limbs as flippers or paddles. Loggerhead Turtles.
CC. Limbs as legs.
D. Tail long, crested, or saw-toothed on top; bottom
shell not a complete disk. = Snapping Turtles.
DD. Tail short, not crested; bottom shell broad.
E. Toes free or with webs only between.
F. Twelve divisions in lower shell.
Pond Turtles.
FF. Not twelve divisions in lower shell.
Box- Tortoises.
EE. Toes not free; all inside one mass of flesh;
claws only showing.
Land- Tortoises.

The hinging of the shell can not be used in sepa-
rating families. There are “ box-turtles” in both the
pond-turtle family and the box-turtle (Kinosternia)

160 STORY OF THE REPTILES

family proper, but the two groups have very different
structure. There is quite a tendency now to classify
the order by the peculiar jointing of the bones of
the neck—nusually shown in the manner by which the
creature tucks away its head in the shell, whether
by drawing it directly in or by bending it sidewise.
Perhaps this and other anatomical features—espe-
cially those connected with the head—may change
our groups any day according to the emphasis put
upon any one set of peculiarities.

Tue CrocopiLians
These may be roughly divided as follows :

A. Tusks of lower jaw bite into grooves of the upper.
(Crocodiles generally.)
B. Edges of jaw nearly straight; jaws long, thin, and narrow.
Gavial.
BB. Edges of jaw scalloped or wavy. |
Egyptian or True Crocodiles.
AA. Tusks of lower jaw bite into a prt in the upper.
(Alligators generally.)
C. Plates of back not hinged; simply connected by the
skin,
D. Bony plates on underside of body; front toes free.
Asiatic Alligator.
DD. Bony plates wanting below; front toes webbed.
North American Alligator.
CC. Plates of back hinged to each other.
Caiman or South American Alligator.

SERPENTS

Dr. Giinther has noted that in the popular mind
snakes are divided by habit into—

OUTLINES AND KEYS 16L

(1) Burrowing snakes, with short, round bodies,
blunt tails, defective eyes, scant teeth, and no neck.
They rarely appear on the surface, and are non-
poisonous.

(2) Ground-snakes, which have bodies not out of
the usual, with neck nearly always of different size
from the head. They are the snakes we know usu-
ally. Most poisonous snakes belong here, but many
are harmless.

(3) Lree-snakes, which usually live in trees in
warm countries and have slim, whiplike tails of great
length. The scales under the body often have keels
or ridges, to prevent slipping sidewise. Some of
these are very poisonous, as the various forms of
Elaps in South America.

(4) Hresh-water snakes, which live mostly in or
about the water, coming on land at times. They
have the nostrils closed by valves at the upper edge
of the tip of the snout. Tails round. Non-poi-
sonous.

(5) Salt-water or sea-snakes, which live in the
ocean—only one genus coming rarely on land. They
can not move well on it. Their tails are flat like an
eel’s, and the fin is supported with the spines of the
back-bone as were those of the old sea-serpents
(Pythonomorpha) already noted. The young are
born in the ocean. They are very deadly—feeding
on fish which they pursue and poison before swal-
lowing.

While this arrangement is good so far, it is not
based on structure or real kinship. In a crude group-

162 STORY OF THE REPTILES

ing the following may better represent Dr. Giinther’s
scientific views of snakes, and help us a little into
seeing their real structural peculiarities :

A. Teeth in one jaw only. Small burrowers; eyes rudimentary.

(1) Hopoterodonts.
AA. Teeth in both jaws.

B. None of the teeth toward the front grooved or perforated
into a poison-fang. (2) Won-poisonous Colubriforms.
BB. Some forward teeth so converted into poison-fangs.
C. Fang always erect, not capable of lying back in a groove

of the upper jaw. (8) Poisonous Colubriforms.
CC. Fang lying back when the mouth is closed, erected
when it is opened. (4) The Viper-forms.

The second group contains many very different
families. In it are the rough-tailed burrowers, the
fresh-water haunters, the egg-eaters, the tree-climb-
ers, the whip-snakes, and the sand-snakes. These
last begin by having rudiments of hind limbs to show
their probable close relationship to the great boa
family—the pythons, the boas, and the anaconda.
All have stumps of hind legs and differ in structure
mostly by the arrangement of the teeth.

The third group holds the H/apid@ (the beautiful
poisonous tree-snakes of South America) and the sea-
snakes just noted; also all the terrible serpents of
India, including the cobra. All these have fangs
which are always erect.

In the fourth group are all the vipers, rattle-
snakes, copperheads, and “ water moccasins ” or “ cot-
tonmouths.” Many are Old World or Australian,
but America only has the last three; and in the
Northeast United States these three are all the poi-

OUTLINES AND KEYS 163

sonous snakes—i. e., snakes with poison-fangs—which
we have.

The little coral-snake of the Southern States is a
poisonous snake, but its fangs are short and far back,
and serious results rarely follow its bite.

Since the saliva of any creature may prove to be
poisonous, especially if it be worried into a frenzy or
be diseased, it is simply folly to allow it to bite you.
Such assertions as those that ‘“ blacksnakes,” ‘ milk-
snakes,” “garter snakes,” “spread-heads,” ete., have
been known to kill, can only be believed upon the
same grounds that rat-bites are sometimes fatal.

LizaArps

We can not classify the lizards by habit either.
Thus, the legless bindworm of Europe is now known
to be rather near to the “ Gila monster” (//eloderma)
both in structure of body and the mutual possession
of grooved teeth. The following key, though not
practical without dissection, is a fair presentation of
many peculiarities of the families the world over:

A. Vertebr cupped at both ends.
B. Collar-bone expanded into a loop at one end.
(Gecko-forms.)
C. No eyelids. (1) True Geckos.
CC. Eyelids present. Another form of geckos.
(2) Eublepharide.
BB. Collar-bone not expanded, ete. (More geckos.)
(3) Uroplatede.
AA. Vertebrie not cupped at both ends.
D. Feet as merely projecting scales. |
(4) Seale-footed Lizards,
DD. Feet ordinary or none. May be either two or four.

164 STORY OF THE REPTILES

KE. Right lung largest or active. (12) Amphisbenide.
KE. Left lung largest or more active.
F. Skin distinctly warty—not scaly; teeth grooved.
(9) Helodermatide. Gila Monster.
FF. Skin not warty ; either scaly or smooth.
G. Fold of skin obvious along side of body.
(7) Girdled Lizards.
GG. Fold of skin not obvious or present.
H. Tongue distinctly forked or with two points

at tip.
I. Tongue sealy, rough, or wrinkled above.
Tetide or (11) Greaved Lizards.

II. Tongue not scaly or wrinkled; sometimes
merely brushlike.

Kk. Tongue sheathed at base. Varanide or

(10) Monitors.

KK. Tongue exposed everywhere.

(13) Lacertide.

HH. Tongue not distinctly forked, or double-
pointed; sometimes merely notched.

L. Seales of body underlaid, and roof
of skull behind overlaid, with flat
bones; scales not arranged in rows.

M. Tongue sheathed at the tip.
(8) Blindworm Tribe, Angwide.
MM. Tongue not sheathed at tip.
(14) Skink Tribe.
LL. Seales and skull devoid of the
bones noted; scales in rows, usu-
ally oblique.
N. Teeth on uvper edge of jaws.
(15) Agamide.
NN. Teeth on sides of jaws.
(16) Iguanide.

The numbers before the family name refer to the
order of Mr. Lydekker’s families.
The Agamide are a large Old World family in

OUTLINES AND KEYS 165

which are the beautiful tree-lizards, flying dragons,
Moloch Spring lizard, ete.

The /guanide@ have interesting Old World mem-
bers, but in South America there are the sea-lizards
around the Galapagos Islands which are large vegeta-
ble feeders and peculiarly interesting. Our so-called
chameleon (Anodzs), the frilled lizard, and our horned
toad are all in this family.

The family now known as Anguide—holding the
blindworms—was formerly put with the skinks. It
contains our so-called jointed-snakes.

The family known as Varanide contains the moni-
tors—the largest of true living lizards. They are
Asiatic, and some have extremely long tails which
with the body measure nearly eight feet. They use
the tail as a lash and strike a painful blow with it,
and they fight viciously otherwise. Some are aquatic.

The Zetidw are called greaved lizards because
the head is covered with scales arranged after the
manner of the old greaved armor. There are some
of these in the United States.

The Amphishenidw have been noted for their
burrowing habits, snakelike, limbless bodies, and their
ability to go backward as well as forward.

The Lacertidw hold the usual Old World lizards,
whose tails come off and regrows so easily.

The Scincida, or skinks proper, are widely spread
over all the continents. We have some. Our blue-
tailed lizard and ground lizard belong here. Some
in the Old World have only two legs and some
none.

166 STORY OF THE REPTILES

Of course chameleons proper form a family of
lizards, but they differ so much that they have been
put into a separate suborder by some students. There
are many different kinds ; but all may be known from
other lizards at a anes by their circular eyes and
the bunching of the five toes into two fingers or toes
opposing three others—there being no such eyes or
feet anywhere in Nature. :

The families of the lizards found in the North-
eastern United States may be quickly determined by
the following little key—if the specimen is in hand:

A. Limbs practically absent (in America). Tongue not snakelike.
Anguide, Glass-Snake family.
AA. Limbs present.
B. Tongue thick, not notched or scaly. Iguanide.
BB. Tongue thin, scaly, slightly notched.
Skinks or Seincide.
BBB. Tongue broad, wrinkled or scaly, but ending in two
sharp points. Tevide.

PAR Wt

A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCE
WITH REPTILES

By RAYMOND L. DITMARS

CURATOR OF REPTILES AT THE
NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK

ee

Fic. 77.— The collector with some of his pets.

168

A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

CHAPTER XVII

SNAKES AS HOUSEHOLD PETS—PREVAILING PREJUDICE

AGAINST REPTILES—THE USES OF REPTILES—WHY
SNAKES ARE FRIENDS OF THE FARMER—THE PLACE
OF REPTILES IN NATURE

THERE Is probably no class of creatures less known,
more hated, and unjustly persecuted than reptiles ;
but observation brings about a transformation of
ideas in the minds of their most persistent enemies.
One of the prevailing ideas is that reptiles are slimy,
and consequently loathsome. Yet among the several
thousand species of reptiles not one is slimy. In
habits they are far more cleanly than many house-
hold pets, and in the colors of their scaly bodies none
' but persons of narrow-minded prejudice can fail to
admire Nature’s lavish tints. The comparatively
small proportion of reptiles possessing poison-bear-
ing fangs are not provided with these instruments
for the purpose of slaying mankind ; the fangs of the
poisonous serpent are intended by Nature to be an
aid to the creature in procuring its prey.

Often is the question asked, “ Of what possible
use are reptiles?” A knowledge of the food of rep-

169

170 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

tiles explains their use in the economy of . Nature.
Many species of snakes, among them the larger
constrictors of the Southern States, are found more
abundantly in fields of growing corn or sugar-cane
than in any other location. During the spring, when
these fields are furrowed, these reptiles are cast from
their hiding-places by the plow, showing their aver-
sion against leaving the fields even for the period of
hibernation. Their presence there is easily explained.
Coming from the near-by woods are rodents and other
small creatures that collect in these fields to feed upon
the products of tilled soil. Unmolested, their ravages
would be disastrous; but Nature has carefully laid
her plans to check their multiplication. A single
blacksnake, during the summer months, will devour
dozens upon dozens of mice, will prowl through the
burrows of shrews and moles, devour the young, and
go in search of more. The appearance of a black-
snake in a field of grain guarantees the destruction
of many of the farmer’s most elusive enemies.

Although a great many reptiles play havoc among
the smaller mammals, there are other species which
confine their attention to the regulation in numbers
of their own class. These are cannibals, and feed
almost exclusively upon snakes and lizards. Many
of the cannibal snakes are gifted with an immunity
against the poison of the venomous species, which
they attack and devour.

Burrowing in the pulp of decaying trees and
searching in the bark of the living, are forms of rep-
tile life but seldom seen by the eyes of the uniniti-

REPTILIAN LIFE daria

ated into the wonders of natural history. Day by
day, in the pursuit of their sustenance, these crea-
tures, some of them exquisitely beautiful in their
coloring, are waging constant warfare against the
ereat army of insects which must be kept in check,
or life upon this earth, of both plant and animal kind,
would be menaced by a terrible scourge.

That every existing creature, every organism, no
matter how minute or lowly, has some duty to per-
form upon this earth is indisputable. Nature toler-
ates no useless creatures; a race of such must rapidly
degenerate and perish. Thus does reptilian life per-
form its duties; and cannibalism among its own mem-
bers, as well as its natural enemies of the wilds, keep
it within the bounds of Nature’s plans.

CHAPTER : XVIII

HOW REPTILES PRODUCE THEIR YOUNG—INCUBATION OF
EGGS BY THE PYTHONS — OVIPAROUS AND OVOVI-
VIPAROUS SNAKES—THE NUMBERS OF YOUNG PRO-
DUCED — HOW LONG . REPTILES LIVE— THE BIOG-
RAPHY OF A RATTLESNAKE

THe majority of reptiles lay eggs which are left
to hatch from the heat of the sun, or by the decom-
position of vegetable matter in which they are de-
posited. Among the snakes there are a few excep-
tions to the rule of leaving the eggs unprotected.
The species comprising the genus Python incubate
their eggs by coiling closely about them. During
this action on the part of the female snake a strange
thing happens. The body of the ordinarily cold-
blooded reptile assumes a much higher temperature
than the surrounding atmosphere; this rise in tem-
perature is often as great as twenty degrees. After
the period of ineubation, which varies from six to
eight weeks, has passed, the serpent’s body gradually
acquires the temperature of the surrounding air.
When the little pythons have once hatched they are
fully able to care for themselves, and the mother
pays no further attention to them.

a
(2

HOW REPTILES ARE BORN Lis

The female crocodilians frequently remain in the
vicinity of the eggs until they hatch, but their pres-
ence in no way appeals to the development of the
young. The eggs of the crocodilians are generally
deposited in heaps of decomposing vegetable matter
scraped together by the mother.

Among the snakes a number of species bring
forth the young alive. The poisonous snakes, except-
ing the cobras and allied species (the Hlapida@), pro-
duce the young alive. From the moment of their
birth the young snakes are provided with venom-
bearing fangs, and are, moreover, fully capable of
using them. The characteristic of bringing forth
the young alive belongs also to a large number of
the harmless snakes. Species that lay eggs are called
oviparous snakes; those that give birth to living
young are scientifically termed ovoviviparous species.
Although belonging to the same family, the Borda,
the pythons of the Old World, lay eggs, while the
boas, which inhabit the Western Hemisphere, pro-
duce fully developed young.

The number of young brought forth by different
species of snakes varies greatly. Our common gar-
ter-snake, an ovoviviparous species, produces on an
average about thirty-five young; the common water-
snake oceasionally gives birth to yet larger broods ;
on one occasion a specimen in the writer’s possession
gave birth to sixty thriving youngsters.

The majority of the highly poisonous snakes
bring forth comparatively small broods, their number
seldom exceeding fifteen. Some of the tropical

174 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

vipers, however, are exceptions to this rule. The
copperhead snake of this country gives birth to
about eight or nine young. Lighly prolitie among
the snakes are the giant boas and pythons, as two
illustrations from the writer’s personal observation
will show; in one instance a captive boa (Bow con-
strictor) gave birth to sixty-four fully developed
young; while a huge python deposited seventy-nine
egos, which she gathered in her coils and guarded
jealously from the kindly interest of her keeper.

Reptiles live much longer than warm-blooded
animals; some species have been observed to have
attained astonishing ages. Longest to subsist among
them are the tortoises; following in order are the
crocodilians, lizards, and snakes. A giant tortoise in
the Zoological Park is estimated to be over three hun-
dred and fifty years old. Many records are on hand
where tortoises have been known to live for more
than a century. It may be safely said that as long
as conditions remain satisfactory for the existence of
reptiles they go on living indefinitely; “old age”
comes to them when handicapped by some injury, or
when disease has permanently destroyed the vigor of
some part of their anatomy.

Among the tortoises and turtles old specimens
may be distinguished in many instances by the
smoothness of their shells. As some of these rep-
tiles possess shelly coverings which abound with
ridges and serrations, and specimens live many years
in captivity without showing marked signs of wear, it
is impossible to estimate the number of years required

AGE OF SNAKES 175

to produce the almost glassy smoothness of some
specimens when it is considered how sluggish and
inactive these creatures are.

Many snakes, received when fully adult, have
been in the writer’s possession for eight and ten
years, and show no signs of age. Full-grown py-
thons have been in captivity for fifteen years and
more, and finally succumbed to diseases unknown to
reptiles existing in their natural conditions. It is
difficult to determine the average lifetime of snakes,
as previous observations of these reptiles have been
so meager; but their age may be said to be consider-
ably shorter than chelonians and crocodilians, as their
growth is much more rapid.

In this connection, the writer takes some pride in
describing the growth of a particularly interesting
specimen. During the latter part of August a large
diamond-back rattlesnake gave birth to nine little
ones. On the day after their appearance in the
world the little snakes were discovered busily engaged
in shedding their skins. The operation is performed
by all young snakes within forty-eight hours after
their birth. None begins feeding until after it has
been accomplished.

Of this brood of tiny rattlers, one soon became a
favorite, owing to its especially pretty coloration. It
was this specimen which furnished the writer with
the notes which follow. At birth it measured eleven
inches; like all favorites, it was provided with a name,
and the name was “ Rattles.” Some three months
after birth Rattles’ eves grew pearly and he prepared

176 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

to shed his skin again. Prior to this time his future
rattle had been represented by a tiny black knob at
the tip of his tail. When Rattles was excited he
vigorously shook his tail, and the little button became
blurred in rapid motion, but produced no sound.
Then, as he prepared to shed his skin, a new joint
developed at the base of the button. When Rattles

Fic. 78.—Rattlesnake.

crawled out of his old clothes he uncovered this new
ring, which had been growing under the skin ; it soon
orew dry and brittle, and the “button,” fitting to it
loosely, produced a faint, buzzing sound when shaken.
From tiny mice, Rattles had graduated to mice of
good size, for which young rats were soon substituted.

BIOGRAPHY OF A RATTLESNAKE sey ee

When six and a half months old Rattles shed his third
skin, one having been shed shortly after birth, and
the other some three months hence, as described.
He now possessed “two rings and a button,’ which
buzzed quite noisily. The snake at this time meas-
ured thirty-eight inches, and easily swallowed, entire,
half-grown rats.

During all his observations of this snake, as well
as the others of the brood, the writer noted, without
exception, that the shedding of the skin, which took
place on an average of every three months, was at-
tended with the uncovering of a new joint of the rat-
tle. At nine months after its birth the snake’s rattle
consisted of three joints and the original button.

When Rattles celebrated his first birthday he meas-
ured four and a half feet, an increase of about three
and a half feet during the year. He now fed vora-
ciously upon full-grown rats, which died within a few
seconds of a stroke by his fangs; his rattle had at-
tained the dignity of four joints and a button.

After two years from his first birthday, let us again
examine Rattles. In a large, glass-fronted cage lies
a magnificent rattlesnake, its head nearly as broad as
a man’s hand, its colors a combination of olive, yel-
low, and black, forming a chain of diamond markings
down its back. From the center of the coil protrudes
a rattle consisting of twelve rings and a tiny button ;
each ring, from the tip of this appendage toward the
tail, is seen to be a little larger than the preceding
one, illustrating the growth of the snake; the rattle
is seldom used, for the snake is very tame, but when

178 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

it is sounded, there is a noise like escaping steam.
The length of the reptile may be estimated at six
feet, while the diameter of its thickest part is fully
three inches. And this is Rattles, now three years
old, his meals consisting of rabbits of fair size.

From the history of this snake, it, will be under-
stood that the practise of estimating the age of a
rattlesnake by counting each joint of its rattle as one
year is far from correct, as the number of joints ac-
quired annually by the captive reptile averaged four,
and would probably be one, possibly two less in the
case of a wild snake, owing to the time spent in
hibernation, when growth practically ceases. It must
be explained, however, that wild reptiles grow faster
than captive specimens, no matter how thorough may
be the care of the latter. By allowing three joints
of the rattle for a year, the age of a snake may be
gaged, af the rattle is pointed, and still retains the
“button.” When all of the joints of a rattle are of
uniform size, the owner of the same has ceased grow-
ing, and the rattles of its youth have been lost through
wear or injury at some indefinite time impossible to
discover. In such a case it can not be ascertained
how many rattles have been grown and lost, but of
course demonstrates the snake to have attained ma-
turity. When greatly angered, snakes with long rat-
tles will shake off a number of the joints in sounding
the instrument which warns the unwary of their deadly
powers.

CHAPTER XIX

THE CARE OF REPTILES IN CAPTIVITY—ECCENTRICITY
OF APPETITE—FASTING OF POISONOUS SNAKES—HOW
THE BIG PYTHON WAS SAVED—CANNIBAL SNAKES
—NOVEL METHOD OF FEEDING THE KING COBRA—
MALADIES OF CAPTIVE REPTILES

ComMPARED with warm-blooded creatures, the care
of reptiles is eccentric in the extreme. Most impor-
tant to be considered is temperature. All reptiles,
including the great tropical serpents, flourish in a
temperature of from 75° to 85° F. Species from
temperate climes live well in a temperature of 70°,
but none remains active or in “good feeding” in a
lesser degree of heat.

Among reptiles the most difficult forms to keep
in good health are the snakes. Possessed with appe-
tites which make them unique among cold-blooded
creatures, their care taxes the brain of the most ex-
perienced keeper as he strives frequently to keep
valuable specimens from deliberately starving in the
midst of plenty.

All snakes swallow their prey entire, aided by the
elastic mechanism of their jaws. Diiferent species

kill their prey in various ways. The constricting
179

180 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES

snakes coil tightly about the victim and quickly
squeeze it to death; the poisonous snakes kill by a
stroke from their deadly fangs; some species, pro-
vided with long, hooked teeth in the rear portion of
the mouth, seize the quarry in a never-failing hold
and swallow it alive, while others, for the most part
the large rat snakes of tropical countries, pin their
victim firmly to the ground under a portion of their
body, during the process of swallowing. These latter
snakes have also the habit of violently shaking their
prey in much the same manner as a dog treats a rat.
In a way, these different methods of feeding apply to
the classification of snakes.

In captivity many snakes evince a remarkable
reticence in feeding. Some species, especially the
viperine poisonous snakes, often prefer to starve
than to take the food offered them. Some of the
tropical vipers absolutely refuse to live in captivity,
and after exhibiting a remarkable vitality for six
months without food, slowly and stubbornly starve
themselves to death. The writer has observed in-
stances of rattlesnakes having lived seven and eight
months without other nourishment than water, yet
remaining active and hostile during all this time.

With captive snakes these starving inclinations are
seldom tolerated by their keepers. The food for the
reptile is killed and thrust down its throat by force.
Some snakes live under this treatment for years. The
writer has superintended many operations where badly
emaciated specimens were strengthened and finally
brought to prime condition through this stuffing pro-

A MONSTER PYTHON 181

cess. The majority of these obstinate specimens at
length cast aside their stubborn desire to starve, and
take food readily after a time; others positively de-
cline to help themselves.

As the reptile house in the Zoological Park neared
completion a giant snake arrived. Packed coil upon
coil in a crate not more than four feet square, the
monster had spent over three months without food or
water. Over twenty feet long, with a pattern like a
Persian rug, the big snake promised to be a most in-
teresting specimen ; as suiting her Oriental habitat
we named her “ Fatima,” and at once started to pre-
pare her quarters. The big cages not being ready,
she was given temporary quarters in the animal shed,
and provided with a tank, under which an oil stove
burned steadily. In the tepid water she coiled her
regal length and bathed for days.

About ten days after her arrival keeper Snyder
noticed a change in her temper. She lay coiled
closely in a corner, and hissed savagely when ap-
proached. It did not take long to discover that she
was coiled about a mass of eggs, and there was exulta-
tion among the keepers. Six weeks passed; the time
for the little pythons to appear had gone, and a sad
spirit of realization dawned upon us all. Owing to
the big snake having been chilled on her journey to
the park, the eggs were spoiled. Still Fatima waited
patiently for the appearance of her little family; she
furiously resented interference, and matters became
serious.

Eight weeks had passed since Fatima’s arrival at

182 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

the park. She had now been fasting five months,
and showed marked signs of emaciation. Moreover,
her eyes had grown pearly, like little bubbles filled
with smoke; her bright colors had faded, and the
time to shed her skin had passed; yet the devotion to
the eggs which would never hatch.

It had to be done at last. The big cages in the
reptile house were ready; with several keepers, the
writer covered Fatima with blankets, grasped her by
the neck, and carried her to her new quarters. The —
monster was weak and thin; five men did the job,
and it took little effort among them. Seventy-nine
egos were counted in the huge cluster which the
snake had been endeavoring to incubate; these were
of about the diameter of a hen’s egg, but longer.
But now another serious difficulty presented itself.
Having neglected to shed the skin, it had dried and
hardened, and speedy death threatened the proud
Fatima. Her cage was filled with steam and left so
for an hour or more, and after this Turkish bath the
keepers entered; then began the job of “ peeling”
the big reptile. It took hours to complete this task ;
but when it was completed Fatima appeared in gor-
geous apparel, her colors blending with the irides-
cence of the great constrictors. It now remained for
her to take her food, and she was saved.

Poultry was offered repeatedly. The choicest
feathered stock was introduced; but the glitter of
the yellow eyes followed the motions of the keepers,
who warily kept from within reach of the long, re-
curved teeth. Since her capture, six months before,

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De UTES GEE . -- eT TROT CET ORE BES ce

foie aie 3 4

184 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

Fatima had continually fasted, and it was decided to
take desperate measures to save her life.

Seven rabbits were killed and neatly fastened to-
gether with twine, making one long string. Fatima
was taken from her cage, held by six keepers, and
the rabbits foreed down her throat with a smooth
pole. When two feet of the ten-foot pole protruded
from her mouth the pole was withdrawn, leaving the
rabbits inside; then the snake was placed in the
cage again. This operation was repeated for eleven
months, at intervals of ten days, and from the begin-
ning Fatima grew rapidly stronger ; after some weeks
of the compulsory feeding the ‘* python squad” con-
sisted of twelve men instead of six, and all of these
had their hands full as they swayed and fought to re-
tain the mastery over twenty feet of reptilian muscle.

At last came victory. Ail through the time of
compulsory feeding the keepers had continued to
offer Fatima her regular food, hoping that she might
begin taking it voluntarily. One night at dusk, as
Snyder was feeding a large snake in Fatima’s cage,
which had been docile from the first, he was amazed
to see within a foct of his face the great head and
neck of the regal python, her yellow eyes scintil-
lating brightly in the light of his lantern. All her
attention seemed concentrated upon the black-tailed
python, which was calmly swallowing a_ chicken.
Seizing another fowl, Snyder threw it in front of the
reptile as she slid from the big tree in the cage, and
with wild excitement and joy beheld Fatima seize
and devour it. Such was Snyder’s exultation that he

A COBRA’S DIET 185

performed a wild dance on the spot, then rushed for
more chickens. That first voluntary meal in cap-
tivity consisted of eleven big fowl. Never afterward
did Fatima cause the slightest trouble in her feeding,
and thus the “ python squad” was disbanded.

In captivity the cannibal snakes frequently cause
embarrassment by exhibiting appetites which threaten
to cause a famine. This was illustrated in the case of
the big king cobra in the reptile house. Every week
this twelve-foot serpent received a five-foot black-
snake, but it showed signs of growing thin under the

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Fie. 80.—A blacksnake.

fare. It was clearly seen that unless more snakes
were given to the reptile it could not thrive. The
outlook was decidedly embarrassing; the cobra was
making serious inroads among the exhibition speci-

186 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

mens, and the blacksnake and coachwhip cage was
almost empty. It was decided one day, after a large
blacksnake had been killed, to stuff it to its utmost
capacity with half-grown rats and frogs, and present
the distended carcass to the cobra. When the black-
snake was fully prepared it more closely resembled a
generously filled Christmas stocking than a serpent,
and was equal to half a dozen snakes.

The cobra gravely inspected the unique morsel,
and finally engulfed it entire, although the process
was quite heroic. Since then the cobra has been fed
“stuffed” snakes, and presents a sleek and hearty
appearance.

But it is not only the cobra that has been deluded,
in a spirit prompted by economy. Rat snakes are
tempted to eat strips of beef by clipping a small
quantity of fur from a rat or rabbit and sprinkling it
over the meat. A small amount of fur will bait a
dozen strips of meat. In the same way the larger
snakes are induced to partake of meat by sprinkling
over it a few chicken feathers.

It is a mistake to suppose that captive snakes
must kill their prey or they will not eat. Of course,
in a natural condition this is necessarily the case.
The majority of captive specimens feed readily upon
freshly killed material, and such food is always pre-
ferred by their keepers. The poisonous snakes gen-
erally offer an exception to this rule, although the
cobra and its allies are not at all particular. If a live
rat be placed in a cage containing a dozen ravenous
snakes all rush for it at once, and a serious tangle

DISEASES OF SNAKES 187

ensues. The keepers feed the specimens individu-
ally, killing the food and offering quietly to each
specimen its share of the meal. If the food were
thrown at random into a cage of snakes the smaller
specimens, if persistent in their hold of choice mor-
sels, would be swallowed with them, and find a rest-
ing-place in the interior of their more powerful cage-
mates.

The maladies of snakes are few, but of these few
the consequences are often quick and fatal. Most
prevalent among captive snakes is “canker.” This
disease, generally attacking the mouth-parts, is the
cause of nine-tenths of the deaths among the big
snakes of the shows. It is most likely to occur
where conditions are not suited to the reptile, and
frequently results from chillmg. The big constric-
tors are particularly subject to canker; with them the
disease is generally incurable. The term “ canker ”
is purely a popular one, and is invariably used by the
animal dealers and show people. The first sign of
the disease is inflammation of the mouth-parts; sores
rapidly form, throwing off small white flakes; these
lesions become gangrenous and penetrate into the
jaw-bones, showing microbic characteristics, and in
fact resembling in a way diphtheria. The best meth-
od of treatment is the application of disinfecting or
antiseptic solutions of mild character. The writer
has cured many cases of “canker” by washing out
the reptile’s mouth twice daily with a saturated solu-
tion of boric acid.

It is not probable that snakes are troubled with

188 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

the malady when in a wild state. From the many
eases observed, the writer is led to believe that the
sores in the mouth are frequently brought about by
the fact of the reptile’s striking frequently, as wild
reptiles do, and the subsequent infection of these
lesions by the many forms of microbie life which
abound in the quarters of captive animals, especially
if these are not vigorously disinfected at frequent in-
tervals. Snakes being naturally delicate in captivity,
suffer from such infections, and, in the case of weak
specimens, the blood does not possess enough of its
sterilizing qualities to fight the invading germs, which
start their colonies and poison the surrounding tissue.

The care of reptiles is anything but a mechanical
process. Unlike the mammals and birds, their feed-
ing is eccentric and indefinite. The keepers must be
thoroughly versed in the peculiar characteristics of
their charges, and sympathetic in the extreme in the
filling of their many needs.

CHAPTER, XX

PECULIARITIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES—THE ART OF
HANDLING VENOMOUS REPTILES—GILA MONSTERS—
EXPERIMENTING WITH SNAKE POISON — SHEDDING
OF THE POISON-FANGS—CONCERNING THE HOSTILITY
OF POISONOUS REPTILES -— SURGICAL OPERATION ON

A COBRA—COMPOSITION OF SNAKE POISON: ITS EF-
FECTS —ANTITOXIN

In captivity, poisonous serpents seldom adapt
themselves so readily to their surroundings as do the
harmless reptiles. Venomous snakes generally re-
tain their wild disposition and can never be trusted.
While most harmless serpents submit to handling
after a few weeks in captivity, their poisonous rela-
tives resent the least attempt at familiarity by the use
of their formidable fangs. For the most part these
reptiles are high-strung and nervous; many feed
irregularly or refuse food altogether; with the excep-
tion of those species which resemble in form the
harmless serpents, like the cobras and closely related
snakes, the life of the captive poisonous reptile is
generally of short duration. Few of the viperine
snakes live more than two or, possibly, three years,
unless they be reared from an early age. In the

latter case many delicate species live indefinitely.
189

190 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

There is only one species of poisonous: lizard
known. This is the good-natured Gila “ monster,” a
hardy and attractive animal for exhibition. It in-
habits the burning wastes of Arizona, and delights to
bask in a temperature which would kill many of the
snakes. The poison of this creature, although re-
sembling in composition that of the snakes, is by no
means as powerful as with the latter. The Gila
“monster” is provided with a number of grooved
teeth in the lower jaw, and can bite with a power
that approaches the grip of a metal vise.

In the care of a great collection it frequently be-
comes necessary to handle the poisonous snakes, a
process as dangerous as it is simple. The reptile is
coaxed into a favorable position with a long stick,
when the latter is placed firmly across its head, pin-
ning that member to the ground. The operator
quickly grasps the reptile by the neck, immediately
behind the head, and victory is his. Held in this po-
sition the snake can not turn and bite, although its
jaws will often fly open and shut, disclosing the
poison-bearing fangs in a manner quite terrifying to
any one with weak nerves. Thus the poisonous snakes
are taken from their cages and helped out of old skins,
or relieved of a portion of their poison for the pur-
pose of study.

While experimenting with snake poisons the writer
had occasion to extract the venom from a number of
water-moccasins. The apparatus used was simple, but
very effective. Over the top of an ordinary gradu-
ating glass was tightly tied a piece of thin chamois.

POISONOUS SNAKES 191

The snake was caught by the neck, its jaws applied
to the chamois, and it immediately bit fiercely, sending
the fangs through the soft covering of the glass vessel.
As it closed its jaws on the apparatus the fangs dis-
charged their venom. From a snake four feet in
length fully half a teaspoonful was the amount usually
obtained, and the large diamond-back rattlesnakes of
our Southern States are able to eject a considerably
larger amount from their deadly weapons.

The entire amount of venom in the poison-sacs is
never expended in a single bite; a poisonous snake of
moderate dimensions is capable of dealing successively
half a dozen deadly wounds. The manufacture of
venom is rapid, and even though a snake’s glands be
entirely emptied of their contents through a mechan-
ical process, forty-eight hours affords ample time
for refilling the glands under the chemical action
exerted by the organs which manufacture the deadly
fluid.

That a poisonous snake may be rendered harmless
by the extraction of its fangs is a fallacious idea. The
venomous serpents are constantly shedding their fangs.
Strangely enough, the fangs which are shed are, in
the majority of instances, swallowed by the reptiles.
This is frequently illustrated in the cleaning of cages.
It may be explained, in a way, from the fact that a
loose fang may be left embedded in the body of an
animal struck by the snake for food, and subsequently
swallowed, but it is nevertheless remarkable that a
snake which has not eaten for months*regularly sheds
its fangs, and swallows them in the process.

192 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

Growing behind the two fangs in use are other
fangs, and still the embryos of others. Every six or
eight weeks the fangs are shed. By a wonderful pro-
vision of Nature, the serpent never loses an old fang
until the new member is strongly attached at its side,
and connected with the poison-gland; then the old
fang comes loose from its socket, and is left deeply
embedded in the body of the next animal struck for
food. In case the snake were artificially deprived of
its fangs, the openings of the poison-ducts would con-
tinue to discharge their secretions, and if, in such an
instance, the reptile should inflict a bite, the wounds
made by the small palatine teeth would form excellent
sources for the absorption of the poison.

Although much has been said concerning the
aggressive disposition of the venomous snakes, the
writer, after many years of experience, has failed to
note a single instance of the deliberate intention on
the part of a poisonous serpent to pursue.or exhibit
ageressiveness toward an enemy. ‘The defensive is
always the attitude assumed by the poisonous reptile,
and although a specimen will occasionally show the
temper of a fiend, it never advances to the attack, but
always keeps its corner. By no means cowardly, the
reptile simply wishes to be left alone. The viper-
ine snakes, comprising the rattlesnake, copperhead,
water-moccasin, and fer-de-lance of this hemisphere,
and the typical vipers of the Old World, coil them-
selves when assuming a fighting position, although
the coil is in no way necessary for the act of striking.
It merely forms an anchor, and aids the reptile in

A SURGICAL OPERATION 193

dealing a hard blow. Such snakes can strike one-
half their length, and a six-foot rattlesnake may
launch its terrible jaws three feet at the object of its
wrath. It happens oftener, however, that the strike
of a viperine snake is about a third of its length.
Stories of snakes casting themselves bodily in the
direction of their anger are entirely erroneous.
Owing to the great danger attending the handling
of the larger venomous snakes, interesting measures
are frequently called into play when it is necessary to
shift specimens or to treat them for disease or injury.
It was with great anxiety that we noticed a small
growth appearing on the king cobra’s upper jaw.
The lesion grew until it resembled a small abscess,
and but one thing was left to do. That was to re-
move the growth. As the cobra was very powerful,
and represented the most deadly known species of
reptile, the operation presented many difficulties.
But it was successfully performed. A: coachwhip
snake about six feet long was killed and thrown into
the cobra’s cage. Fortunately the cannibal still re-
tained a good appetite. In the meantime the instru-
ments, consisting of a pair of surgical scissors, a rub-
ber syringe, together with a bowl of disinfecting solu-
tion, were made ready. When the coachwhip was
half-way down the cobra’s throat it was grasped by
the tail and pulled toward the door of the cage,
bringing with it the cobra, which held on tenacious-
ly. By twisting the coachwhip’s body the cobra was
rolled over on one side and the abscess in the mouth
disclosed. The operation was necessarily a quick one.

194 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

There was scarcely time to cut away the diseased
tissue, flush out the wound with the syringe, and
quickly close the cage door when the cobra prepared
to disgorge the snake and fight. For a moment after
it was over, the big serpent looked surprised, then,
after due consideration, the coachwhip was swallowed,
The operator is not ashamed to acknowledge that
when the iron door rolled to and shut off the dan-
ger his pulse had quickened to a substantial degree.

Avoiding technicalities, the poison of all snakes
may be said to be composed of the same elements ;
but in different species these elements vary in their
proportions, and there are different symptoms after a
bite. The viperine snakes are provided with a venom
which is composed of about ninety per cent of a
product which acts upon the blood and ten per cent
of a nerve poison. The bite of these snakes pro-
duces great local effect. There is the destruction of
the blood itself and of its vessels, with great attend-
ant swelling of the bitten parts. In the cobras and
coral snakes these proportions are exactly reversed,
for the venom is a deadly nerve poison, and causes
but little local effect. This poison tends to paralyze
the nerves, the walls of the chest collapse, and there
is inability to breathe, followed by speedy death un-
less immediate and proper remedies be applied.

As all snake-poisons tend to paralyze the heart’s
action, a stimulant is necessary and beneficial; hence
the use of strychnine as a valuable alterative, owing
to its action as an excitant. Whisky is also a good
stimulant, but the practise of taking it in great quan-

TREATMENT OF SNAKE-BITES 195

tities after snake-bite is in no way to be recom-
mended.

The treatment of snake-bite has fallen into line
with the scientific administration of an antitoxin, as
in the case of many diseases, and probably most of
them at no far future time. The antitoxin or serum
employed is obtained by immunizing horses against
the action of the venom, and procuring from these
animals a product which has shown the same benefi-
cial results as those exhibited by the serum manufac-
tured at the laboratories of the New York City Board
of Health and used so extensively in the treatment of
diphtheria. This antivenomous serum is now being
employed in India, where the death-rate from the
bites of poisonous snakes has averaged 20,000 a year.

Constant association with the venomous snakes
renders their keepers entirely immune to fear, but
carelessness in a reptile house is considered a positive
crime, and caution is the watchword. <A trip through
the reptile house at night shows much activity among
the viperine snakes, while the slender cobras, which
delight to bask in the genial sunlight, lie quietly
sleeping. Glittering in the light of a lantern, the
rattlesnakes, copperheads, and tropical vipers may be
seen alert and gliding noiselessly about their cages.
It is at this time that these creatures prefer to take
their food.

CHAPTER XXI

COLLECTING REPTILES — HOW WATER-SNAKES ARE
CAUGHT — DIFFICULTIES IN CAPTURING LIZARDS—
HUNTING THE LOCAL REPTILES — WHERE REPTILES
MAY BE FOUND—THE TIME TO COLLECT—HUNTING
AT NIGHT

As the writer begins this chapter a flood of remi-
niscences comes to his mind, and he recalls the balmy,
humid air of the South Carolina coast in spring; the
graceful live-oaks, clad in the long, trailing moss;
a moonlit background with silhouettes of tall pal-
mettos, and many happy days which he has spent
among the savannas, for there reptilian life abounds.

To one thoroughly interested, the collecting of
reptiles is comparatively easy. The necessary appli-
ances are few, and they may be carried in a gripsack
or in the pockets of a canvas coat. It might be inei-
dentally explained that these remarks exclude the big
reptiles of the tropies, which will be considered later.

On a windy March day keeper Snyder, of the
reptile department of the Zoological Park, and the
writer left New York in a whir! of sleet, and arrived
three days later in a land where roses bloomed in pro-
fusion. Our collecting headquarters were on the Sa-

196

HOW REPTILES ARE CAPTURED 197

vannah River. The collecting outfit consisted of can-
vas bags, plenty of fine soft copper wire for noosing,
and—an abundance of quinine. On the return of the
expedition to New York we brought four hundred
and nine reptiles, comprising snakes and lizards.
Abounding in the Southern swamps and along the
waterways running parallel with unfrequented roads,
are water-snakes of many kinds, some of them ex-
ceedingly beautiful in brilliant shades of red and yel-
low, some sinister and ugly in coloration and equally
so in temper, others (the cottonmouths) possessing
highly dangerous fangs, but all primarily anxious to
seek their native element when disturbed. Of all the
shy creatures the writer has ever seen, these Southern
water-snakes deserve first mention. It is quite dis-
heartening to observe one moment a brilliant speci-
men coiled gracefully around a branch overhanging
the water, and to think of the interest which the
creature would cause in captivity, and an instant later
to see the prize glide sinuously into the water below,
leaving but a few bubbles as mementoes. This often
happens after one has stalked the animal in most can-
tious fashion with a long bamboo pole equipped with
a ready noose, while the persistent mosquitoes attack
the collector viciously, seemingly realizing that if he
moves a finger-tip the coveted specimen will vanish.
It is safe to say that at least half the water-
snakes stalked in this manner, escape. The wire of
the noose must be of about the thickness of a pin,
and it wé/d tremble as one reaches forward. A noose
of thick wire does not respond to a pull from the

198 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES

operator in time to prevent the active snake from
gliding through it as quickly as falling water. The
art is to pass the noose over the reptile’s head, then,
with a sharp tug on the pole, make it a prisoner.

The gyrations of a captured water-snake are be-
wildering. It coils into all sorts of fantastic knots,
and snaps at the pole, itself, and its shadow, and will
ultimately break the wire unless overpowered. A
few seconds’ maneuvering enables the operator to get
the reptile by the neck, unfasten the noose, and drop
it into a canvas bag. Never will the writer forget
one experience while noosing snakes in this manner.
He was attracted by the head of what appeared to be
a large turtle among some aquatic plants. As tur-
tles can also be taken by a noose properly manipu-
lated, he slipped a miniature lasso of wire over the
creature’s head and pulled; but instead of hauling in
a turtle, the body of an enormous water-moccasin
came thrashing ashore, its dark eyes sparkling wicked-
ly, and its widely distended jaws disclosing a pair of
fangs that sought for vengeance. The apparition
was so startling that for a moment the collector was
quite overcome with astonishment. This was his first
“cottonmouth,”’ and he presumes that the startled
feeling was practically identical with “buck fever.”
But there were other moccasins in that swamp, their
turtlelike heads just visible above the surface of the
weedy water. The catch that morning was eleven,
and .those same eleven snakes are thriving in cap-
tivity.

With the capture of most of the terrestrial snakes

HUNTING LIZARDS 199

the noose is out of the question. It is a question of
the one making the fastest time—the snake in rush-
ing to a place of security, or the collector in reaching
the snake. If the collector wins, a quick grab is in
order, which is usually followed by a burst of indig-
nant protest on the reptile’s part. To get the rep-
tile by the neck before receiving a bite requires some
skill; but in the case of a harmless snake little cau-
tion is necessary, and the prize is soon in a bag. In-
cidentally it may be said that poisonous snakes do
not run, and their capture involves pinning down the
head and grasping them by the neck. This sounds
easy, and in fact it 7s easy for one who understands
it, but the writer would entreat the novice to think
twice before coming within striking distance of a
poisonous snake.

Most elusive of capture are the lizards. In sum-
mer it is practically impossible to obtain many of the
species. The movements of many species are so rapid
that the eye can scarcely follow them. Fallen trees,
exposed to the morning sun, are the favorite congre-
gating places of many lizards, and here they perform
their antics until disturbed, when they disappear like
magic into crevices of the bark or into the surround-
ing vegetation, where their bright eyes watch care-
fully for succeeding events. By stealthily approach-
ing their haunts, and upon locating a specimen, stalk-
ing it with outstretched hand, it may be sometimes
seized, providing the movements of the collector are
lightninglike in character. Generally, however, the
collector is left ruefully examining a wriggling tail,

15

200 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES

the owner of which is scampering off with the speed
of the wind, never to stop until secure.

Spring is the proper time to collect lizards, as
during this season the vegetation is sparse, and the
reptiles, intent in their enjoyment of the sunshine,
are less cautious. In South Carolina, where several
species of showy lizards are abundant, the writer
collected many specimens during the early spring
months by stripping the bark from dead trees where
the reptiles, which were quite inactive, had passed
the winter. In the same district, a few weeks later,
many lizards representing the species collected were
seen, but they eluded capture in nearly every in-
stance.

Although ponderous and exceedingly powerful in
proportion to their size, alligators and crocodiles are
easily caught by baiting a powerful hook with flesh,
fastening it to a rope, and placing it in the lairs of
the saurians. Since they are exceedingly tenacious
of life and survive injuries which would immediately
prove fatal to warm-blooded animals, the superticial
wound made by the hook heals within a few days
and causes the reptile no inconvenience. better
than this, however, is the practise of stealthily ap-
proaching these reptiles as they lie sleeping, and
noosing them with a strong rope. In this fashion
the thirteen-foot alligator “ Big Mose,’ now in the
reptile house of the New York Zoological Park, was
taken. .

Many of our local reptiles, owing to their shy
and retiring habits, are difficult to discover. The

HAUNTS OF REPTILES 201

diminutive DelKay’s snake and the closely allied
Storer’s snake are generally found beneath flat
stones or strips of bark at the edges of woods.
These little reptiles are seldom seen abroad except
in spring or fall, when they delight to bask in the

Fic. 81.—“ Big Mose,” the alligator.

sunlight. Precisely the same are the habits of the
tiny and dainty ring-necked snake. These -reptiles
are most fr equently Hee by SLnppIng the bark from
decaying trees.

In collecting reptiles it is useful for the beginner
to know that snakes or lizards are seldom found in
thick woods; in such places the collector will seldom
find anything but a few batrachians, such as sala-
manders and newts. Snakes prefer the borders of
woods or small clearings. Several of our local spe-
cies frequent rocky places, and the borders of swamps
are the favorite lurking-places of others.

To the beginner a reptile hunt is generally most
discouraging. The anticipation is that careful search

202 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

will reveal many specimens. But such is not gener-
ally the case. In the northeastern United States a
collector may pass an entire day searching for rep-
tiles and see not a single specimen. It is usually by
accident that one meets the larger snakes. Often
the collector returns wearily from a tramp through
seemingly the most favorable country without the
sign of a specimen, unless it be a crushed and battered
one on the roadside. |

In spring the reptiles issue from their places of
hibernation, and, possessed with a spirit of sociability,
sun themselves in little colonies. As the season grows
older they scatter. Some glide into the long grass
of the meadows, others go searching through rocky
ground, and a locality previously teeming with rep-
tile life becomes depopulated, so that the collector
can expect little luck during the summer months.
Those first warm days, always heralded by a chorus
of frogs and toads, afford the reptile hunter’s most
favorable time. Along old stone walls and hedge-
rows the reptiles venture forth, and the sparse vege-
tation of the season makes their discovery and cap-
ture easy.

The poisonous snakes may be hunted during the
summer months along quiet roads, at dusk. When a
long spell of heat and drought has been broken by a
refreshing shower they also venture forth to hunt
their prey.

It is surprising to note the seeming rarity of the
local poisonous snakes compared with the harmless
species. Many times has the writer tramped through

NOCTURNAL EXCURSIONS 2038

miles of country said to contain rattlesnakes and
copperheads, and he has seen only an occasional dead
specimen by the roadside. In the extreme Southern
States, however, poisonous snakes are more numer-
ous, and rattlesnakes of several species may be
hunted at night. Well does the writer remember
the consternation among the colored folk created by
his companion and himself during their nocturnal
hunts. Nor can these simple people be blamed for
evincing astonishment at the apparition of two canvas-
clad figures entering the swamps at night, armed with
a powerful acetylene lamp, and emerging later with
eanvas bags which writhed and pulsated with strug-
gling serpents.

So difficult is it sometimes to discover specimens
in good “snakey” ground, that a friend of the writer
tried the novel plan of taking with him a pair of
opera-glasses and surveying the bushes and grass from
some elevated point. With the glasses he once dis-
covered a young copperhead snake swallowing a
wood-mouse, presumably some fifty feet from him,
among some bushes, but after taking the glasses from
his eyes and searching carefully for the snake he
failed to find it. This happened in the fall, when
the ground was well covered with dead leaves, and
the gentleman declared that if the snake had crawled
away he would have heard it rustling through the
leaves. Several times the writer has noted the sim-
ilarity of the copperhead snake to autumnal foliage,
and one of the finest specimens added to his collec-
tion was discovered coiled within a short distance of

204 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

his feet as he sat resting after a long walk through
the woods. The writer had been facing in the snake’s
direction for fully a quarter of an hour, but so closely
did the reptile resemble a little heap of fallen leaves
as it lay coiled that it failed to attract his attention,
and might have entirely escaped his notice had it not
vigorously vibrated its tail as a significant warning of
its presence.

CHAPTER XXII

INTELLIGENCE OF REPTILES—TRAINING ALLIGATORS—
THE STORY OF SELIMA—DO SNAKES SWALLOW
THEIR YOUNG ?—GIANT TORTOISES—THE LAST SUR-
VIVORS OF THE REPTILIAN AGE

Iy this final chapter the writer seeks to describe
odd phases of reptile life, the intelligence of these
creatures and how it is shown, and the peculiar char-
acteristics observed in the case of several particularly
interesting specimens.

As a rule, reptiles show no great amount of intel-
ligence. Devoid of affection, their interest in the
person who cares for them is prompted either by ap-
petite or hostility. With a view of experimenting
upon the intelligence of large saurians, and inciden-
tally devising more convenient feeding measures,
a collection of big alligators at the reptile house
was put through a course of training. Instead
of having their fish and meat thrown into the big
tank, where they could devour it at leisure, the
food was offered from the edge of the tank by the
keepers. The intention was to teach them to take
their food from the men. In this way the supply of

food could be regulated, and feeding-time would
205

206 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

be made more interesting to visitors. or days the
‘gators deliberately starved and their food went to
other animals. Time and time again the keepers pre-
sented tempting morsels from the edge of the tank ;
five pairs of yellow eyes gleamed hungrily, but ob-
stinacy still ruled. At last temptation proved too
strong. “ Big Mose” swam toward his keepers, and
his cavernous mouth yawned for only a second, but
long enough. A fowl was quickly cast between the
gaping jaws, and the spell was broken. From that
time on “ Big Mose” stood ready with open mouth
at feeding-time. His companions soon followed his
example, and some three weeks after the beginning
of the experiment the ’gators had all acquired the
habit of lining up for meals, with mouths wide open,
a practise which continues now.

The domestication of the ’gators was convincing
enough as to the possibilities of training reptiles,
but was exceeded in interest by an episode involving
a snake. The snake was a python, and the reader
can draw his inferences from its behavior. At a cir-
cus and menagerie visited by the writer there was
found in an annex a large case guarded by a young
woman. The case was enameled in white and elab-
orately decorated with brass, and across the front, in
shining letters, was the word SNAKES. Heralded
by a blare of brass and crash of drums, the Lady of
the Serpents drew forth yards upon yards of glitter-
ing, richly tinted pythons. One of these she coiled
about her neck and shoulders. The reptile was ex-
ceedingly beautiful in coloring and seemed especially

A PYTHON’S ECCENTRICITIES 207

docile. After the act of the “snake enchantress”
the writer made his way to her throne and inquired
about the beautiful python which had so attracted
him. He was informed that the snake was called
“Selima,” and had been in the show business for
some years. Selima was very fond of her mistress,
was the information imparted, and would not eat
unless fed by hand. The conversation concluded
by the purchase of Selima, and the reptile was taken
to the reptile house of the New York Zoological
Park.

The python seemed actually to miss its old life
and grow lonesome. When the keepers in their trips
down the line of cages came to her compartment and
rolled back the iron door, she would crawl over
their shoulders, and seemed to appreciate their atten-
tion. If placed back in the cage, she would imme-
diately crawl out again. She would never eat unless
the food were given her by hand. Having become
much interested in the snake, the writer took her
feeding entirely in hand. Day after day she was
taken from her cage for the benefit of privileged vis-
itors as an example of reptilian docility.

Some months after Selima’s installation, the writer
was seriously injured. Month after month went by,
but finally came recovery and a release from the sick-
room. After a three-months’ absence he returned to
the reptile house, there to discover that Selima’s cage
contained a huge rattlesnake, which glared with stony
and unfriendly eye at its observer. ‘“ Where is Se-
lima?” was the immediate question. The keepers

208 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

explained that she had deliberately starved herself to
death. Not fully appreciating the peculiar habits of
the snake, they had regularly placed the food in her
compartment, and gone “down the line” to look
after their other charges. Finding she did not eat,
the snake was subjected to the vigorous process of
having food run down her throat by force; but under
this treatment she did not thrive, and finally devel-
oped the dreaded * canker.”

In describing this incident, the writer does not
wish to argue that the snake deliberately starved itself
from grief, but simply desires to explain what actually
occurred. Aside from the daily inspection of the
cage, and the introduction of the customary food at
five-day intervals, Selima had received no special
attention during the writer’s absence. This followed
the time when his friends were so frequently intro-
duced to the reptile, which was taken from its cage
on each occasion; at such times, as has been ex-
plained, the snake seemed to appreciate being han-
dled. Although he realizes that the assertion is a bold
one, the writer contends that this snake, which had
been accustomed to being noticed and handled, missed
the many attentions previously received, and also
missed the practise of feeding it by hand, and, under
the changed conditions, worried and lost appetite ;
and its long fasting led to its death.

Following the story of Selima, it might be inter-
esting to bring up that familiar query: “ Do snakes
swallow their young to protect them, in time of dan-
ger?” Those who believe in this performance,

PREVALENT FALLACIES 209

which, if possible, would tend to demonstrate great
affection on the part of the parent for her offspring,
are generally persons who have paid little attention
to the scientific side of natural history. In all his
experience, both afield and with captive specimens,
the writer has failed to notice even an intimation of
such an occurrence, which is practically a physical
impossibility. ‘“ Observers” allege that the young
run quickly down the mother’s throat; just before
this happens she makes a whistling sound to call
them together. As snakes are deaf, this latter state-
ment is quite absurd; furthermore, it would nec-
essarily take some little time for a colony of young
snakes to make their way down the smooth throat
of the parent; and again, it can be stated that if
the young snakes ever reached the interior of the
parent, where gastric juices strong enough to dis-
solve bones and teeth are stored, they would soon be
killed by these chemicals. It is reasonable to say
that the observations of the alleged protecting of
young snakes by the mother in this manner are the
results of observers mistaking a cannibalistic reptile
devouring its prey, for a fond parent “ swallowing”
her offspring.

Before closing these remarks about his reptilian
friends, the writer desires to briefly describe a collec-
tion of creatures which can not fail to enlist the inter-
est of all. From a far-off group of desolate islands,
abounding in innumerable craters, their rocks and sand
bleaching under a tropical sun, came five representa-

210 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

tives of an age that has long passed. The islands
whence these creatures came are supposed to be one
of the rare portions of this earth left undisturbed
when, thousands upon thousands of years ago, territic
volcanic disturbances shook the globe, and the seas
rushed over whole continents while others were born
above the waters.

These five representatives of the age of reptiles
are giant tortoises from the Galapagos Islands. Of
the times when scaled and plated forms of gigantic
proportions—forms like the visions seen in troubled
dreams—stalked in abundance through an atmosphere
of humidity and heat in forests of equally gigantic
foliage, these great tortoises are the sole survivors.
Weighing three hundred and fifty pounds, the largest
specimen to arrive at the New York reptile house
makes an ordinary land tortoise appear in about the
same proportion as a musket-ball to the huge round
shot of an old-time cannon.

The largest specimen of the five which arrived
at the Zoological Park was appropriately named
“ Buster.” After due comparison with the few other
specimens in captivity, and records of the same, it
was decided that Buster was about three hundred and
seventy years old. During all this time he had slow-
ly shuftled about the sterile soil of a volcanic island,
devouring cactus leaves, and growing slowly—very
slowly, probably an inch or so every five years; then
he stopped growing, and his great shell began to wear
against the rocks. It is estimated that this wearing
must have taken a couple of centuries, as these crea-

A GIANT SPECIMEN 211

tures are not noted for activity. When captured,
Buster took matters easy, simply blinking hard and
puffing indignantly. It took twelve men some days

Fig. 82.—A giant tortoise.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.

to get him from voleanie ground down to the coast,
about fourteen miles away.

Without much difficulty, Buster can carry two
men on his back. His limbs resemble the extremities
of a small elephant, and are fitting illustrations of his
strength. During the summer, he and his four com-
panions—which cost the neat sum of one thousand dol-
lars—are fed upon watermelons. Buster’s share of

212 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES

these dainties is generally two of the largest, includ-
ing all portions from the rinds to the seeds.

Quite different are these tortoises from species
ordinarily seen. On crowded days, when the fence
about their enclosure is lined with visitors, they take
an active interest in the spectators and stalk about,
close to the fence, holding their heads erect to the
utmost limit. Frequently they have short combats,
snapping fiercely at each other ; and these elephantine
combats suggest scenes of the Age of Reptiles. At
such times they utter a shrill trumpeting sound,
which can be heard for some distance. But these
little quarrels are always of short duration, and never
result in injury. As sundown approaches they all
trudge slowly, one after another, to their favorite
corner, where their keeper provides bedding of hay ;
in this they turn slowly round and round, until par-
tially concealed. By sunset, all have sought the
same corner for the night—and thus we leave them,
sleeping.

|S BS chee.

Agamide, 164.

Age and size, 122.

Alligators, 119, 120, 122, 200.

Alpine salamanders, 35.

Amblystoma, 13.

Amphibians, 1.

Amphishena, 77, 79, 125, 127, 165.

Anaconda, 77.

Anguide, 93, 165.

Anquis, 77.

Anolis, or American chameleon
(Anolis principalis), 96, 110.

Archegosaurus, 61.

Armadillos, 70, 103.

Aquatic turtles, 76.

Axolotl, 27, 38, 57.

Baptanodon discus, 148.
Batrachians, 2.

Beavers, 1.

Beetles, 107.

Blacksnake, 82, 112, 120, 170, 185.
Blue-racer, 82.

Blue-tailed lizard, 165.
Blunt-nosed salamanders, 39.
Boas, 77, 174.

Boide, 77, 173.

Box-turtles, 103.

Brain, 134.

Brontosaurus excelsis, 151.
Brontozoum, 154.

Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana), 21, 46.

Burrowing ceecilians, 48, 58.
Burrowing snakes, 84, 103, 161.

Jecilia gracilis, 5.
Cecilia lentaculata, 5.
Cecilians, 6, 8, 13, 15, 36, 41, 57, 58.
Capture, 198.
Calls, 19.
Care of young, 141.
Caterpillars, 107.
Chatleis, 95.
Chameleon, 75, 76, 79, 88, 97, 98,
104, 119, 127, 140, 166.
Charming, 99.
Chuckwalla, 100.
Circulation, 42, 126.
Classification, 64.
Claws, 76.
Cobras, 173, 185, 193.
Cochlea, 139.
Color, 109.
Color changes, 26.
Color protection, 109.
Collecting reptiles, 196, 201.
Collectors’ experiences, 169.
Combats, 212.
Common pine snake, 84.
Common tree-toad, 20.
Congo snake, 7.
Copperheads, 162.
Coral-snake, 163.
Cottonmouth snake, 162.
213

214

Crawlers, 87.

Crested newt ( 77riton cristatus), 27.

Cricket-frog, 8, 19.

Crocodile, 42, 71, 73, 74, 76, 87, 98,
104, 109, 116, 118, 146, 200.

Crocodilians, 81, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95,
108, 108, 118, 127, 128, 129, 139,
139, 140, 141, 142, 178; key to, 160.

Dasypeltis-unicolor, 91.

Defense, 100.

Defensive armor, 103.

Dendrerpeton acadeanum, 60.

Dendrobatida, 15.

Development of the frog, 33.

Diaphragm, 126.

Diclonius mirabilis, 152.

Dicynodon lacerticeps, 92.

Digestive tracts, 49, 123.

Dinosaurs, 79, 101, 124, 130, 181,
134, 149.

Diseases of snakes, 187.

Ears, 47.

Edestosaurus, 149.

Eft, 26.

Eggs, 24, 80, 31, 36, 38, 40, 64, 141,
142, 148.

Elapide (genus Elaps), 109, 162,
173.

Enemies, 120.

Epidermis, 44.

Escape, 100.

European lizards, 80.

European newt, 10.

Extinct flying reptiles, 85.

Extinct lizard forms, 79.

Eyes, 47.

Fangs, 89, 91.
Feeding, 15.
Finback lizards, 155.
Fishes, 57.

INDEX

Flat-footed walkers, 76.

Flesh-eaters, 15, 98.

Florida lizards, 76, 110.

Flying-dragon, 113.

Flying lizard, 79, 113, 114.

Flying mammals, 113.

Flying tree-frog ( Rhacophorus rein-
hardtit), 11.

Flying tree-toad, 48.

Food, 15.

Footprints, 60.

Fossil forms, 50, 58.

Fresh-water snakes, 161.

Frilled lizard, 77, 105, 106.

Frog, 1, 3, 34, 38, 41, 48, 47, 58, 63.

Frog forms, 50, 52.

Ganoid, 60, 63.

Garter-snake, 112, 173.

Geckos, 118, 180.

Giant salamander ( Megalobatrachus
maximus), 4, 11.

Giant tortoises, 210, 211.

Gila monster (//eloderma suspec-
tum), 121, 122.

Gills, 39, 49, 69.

Glass-snake, 77, 78, 80.

Gophers, 115.

Grasshoppers, 107.

Greaved lizards, 74, 77, 96.

Green frog, 20, 22, 46.

Green turtle, 98.

Ground-lizards, 97.

Ground-snakes, 161.

Hatching, 141, 144.

FHatteria, 71, 86.

Haunts and distribution, 116.
Heads, 86.

Head of frog, 12.

Hearing, 46, 139.

Heart, 55.

Hesperornis regalis, 153.

INDEX

Tleterodon, 82, 114, 126.

Hibernation, 23, 57, 115.

Hiding-places, 115.

IToop-snake, 113.

Horned frog of South America
( Ceratophrys cornuta), 16, 22, 25.

Horned toads, 97, 101, 102, 136.

Horns, 101.

Ilylodes, 36.

Ichthyopterygia, 147.
Ichthyosaurs, 74, 148, 149.
Iguanide, 97, 165.
Insect-eaters, 15.
Intelligence of reptiles, 205.

Japanese frog, 40.
Jaws, 87.
Joint-snake, 77.
Jurassic period, 69.

Kinship, 4.

Labyrinthodonts, 14, 60, 63.
Lacertide, 165.
Lelaps, 92, 100, 101, 152.
Lamprey, 52.
Land-haunters, 2, 75.
Land-snakes, 82.
Land-tortoises, 115.
Laosaurus, 151.
Leguan, 104.
Limbs, 7, 74.
Limnerpeton laticeps, 61.
Lizards, 72, 77, 79, 80, 86, 87, 90, 98,
95, 100, 101, 112, 116, 118; key
to, 163.

Lung-fishes, 57, 63.
Lungs, 124, 125, 128.
Lung-sacs, 126.
Lycosaurus, 92.
Lymph circulation, 42, 43.
Lymph-hearts, 129.

16

bo
a
Or

od

Mammals, 3, 70, 90, 127.

Mastodonsaurus Jageri, 62.

Matamata, 138.

Means of motion, 111.

Mexican axolotl, 39.

Migration, 116.

Mock fights, 118.

Moloch lizard (Moloch horridus),
104, 105.

Monitors, 79, 95, 127.

Mosasaurs, 74, 89, 149.

Motion, 153.

Mudpuppies, 1.

Mud-turtles, 115, 117.

Muscles, 133.

Musie, 19.

Muskrats, 1.

Musk-turtle, 108..

Nerve-cells, 54.
Nerve-matter, 55.

Nerves, 134.

Nervous system, 52.
Newts, 26, 35.

Nototrema, 36.
Nourishing the young, 70.

Obstetric frog, 39, 57.
Odor, 107.

Offense, 100.
Ophisaurus, 7
Orchegosaurus, 60.

Orders of amphibians, 65. :
Ornaments, 26, 108.

Otters, 1.

Oviparous snakes, 173.

Pangolins, 70.

Perfumes, 45.

Phrynosoma, 97.
Plesiosaurus, 147, 148.
Poison-fangs, 93, 94, 169, 128.

Poisonous serpents, 102, 107.

216

Pond-turtles, 76.

Pouched frog, 36.
Prairie-dogs, 115.

Protective resemblance, 109.
Proteus, 48.
Pterodactylis-spectabilis, 156.
Pterodactyls, 85, 151.
Ptyonius, 61.
Pythonomorpha, 149, 161.

Raccoon, 77.

Rattlesnake, 85, 94, 102, 103, 115,
117, 120, 186, 162, 175, 176.

Rearing of young, 24.

Reflex action, 55.

Repairs, 56.

Reptiles, 69.

Reptiles, key to, 158,

Rhamphorhynchus, 85, 86.

Respiration, 41, 123.

Rhychosaurs-hyperodapedon, 93.

Rodents, 93.

Salamander, 1, 5, 12, 28, 56, 57, 72,
(6)

Salivary glands, 123.

Sauropterygia, 147.

Scincide, 165.

Seals, 1.

Sea-lizard, 104.

Sea-snakes, 103, 115, 136, 161.

Sea-tortoises, 74.

Sea-turtles (Sphargis),
132.

Sense-organs, 138.

Serpents, 72, 77, 139.

Serpents, key to, 160.

Shark-forms, 63.

Shield-tail snake (Silybura macro-
lepus), 84.

Sight, 139.

Siren, 15.

Skeletons, 50.

79, 116,

INDEX

Skeleton of frog, 51.

Skeleton of lizard, 1380,

Skin, 45, 136.

Skink, 77, 97, 139.

Skin-secretions, 28.

Skin-shedding, 44.

Skulls, 52, 133.

Skull of Rana esculenta, 53.

Slow-worm, 93.

Smell, 45, 140.

Snakes, 90, 99, 104; as pets, 169,
198.

Snake-poison, 190, 194.

Spadefoot toads, 9, 38, 57.

Sphenodon, 71.

Spines, 103, 104.

Spine-tailed lizard ( Uromastic spin-
ipes), 81.

Spotted triton, 31.

Spread-head, 114, 126.

Stegosaurus ungulatus, 135, 150.

Surinam toad, 9, 10, 37.

Swamp tree-toad, 19.

Swift lizard, 97.

Tadpoles, 2, 32, 34, 38, 45, 49.

Tailed amphibians, 52, 65.

Tailed forms, 5, 7.

Tailless forms, 6.

Tails, 10,79.

Taste, 138.

Tuatera, 71, 73, 74, 86, 87, 88, 93.
104, 132, 146, 187, 140, 180.

Tear-glands, 139.

Teeth, 14, 90.

Teiide, 165.

Terrifying methods, 104.

Toads, 1, 19, 84, 48, 56, 57.

Toes, 7.

Toe-walkers, 77.

Tongues, 11, 94.

Tooth of labyrinthodont, 15.

Tortoise, 72, 74, 140, 180,

INDEX

Tortoise forms, 86, 95, 109, 112, 116,
120, 145; key to, 159.

Tortoise-shell turtle, 132.

Touch, 138.

Tracks, 254.

Training reptiles, 206.

Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana (Hy/o-
des liniatus), 37.

Tree-haunters, 82, 109.

Tree-lizard, 79.

Tree-snakes, 99, 161.

Tree-toads, 8, 21, 36, 42.

Tree-toads of the tropics, 10, 25.

Trematosaurus, 63.

Triassic age, 63.

Triceratops, 150.

Tritons, 17, 35.

217

Turtles, 117.
Typlotriton, 48.

Varanide, 165.

Venomous snakes, 192.
Vipers, 162.

Viviparous amphibians, 35.

Wall gecko (Platydactylus mura-
lis), 181.

Water-haunters, 1, 23.

Water-moceasins, 162.

Water-newts, 57.

W ater-snakes, 140, 197.

Weapons, 27, 108.

Whip-snakes (Pussarita myeteri-
zans), 82, 83.

Wood-frog, 46.

(1)

THE END

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on)

INDEX 915

Hleterodon, 82, 114, 126.

Hibernation, 28, 57, 115.

Hiding-places, 115.

Ioop-snake, 113.

Horned frog of South America
( Ceratophrys cornuta), 16, 22, 25.

Horned toads, 97, 101, 102, 136.

Horns, 101.

Ilylodes, 36.

Ichthyoptery qa, 147.
Ichthyosaurs, 74, 148, 149.
Iguanide, 97, 165.
Insect-eaters, 15.
Intelligence of reptiles, 205.

Japanese frog, 40.
Jaws, 87.
Joint-snake, 77.
Jurassic period, 69.

Kinship, 4.

Labyrinthodonts, 14, 60, 63.
Lacertida, 165.
Lelaps, 92, 100, 101, 152.
Lamprey, 52.
Land-haunters, 2, 75.
Land-snakes, 82.
Land-tortoises, 115.
Laosaurus, 151.
Leguan, 104.
Limbs, 7, 74.
Limunerpeton laticeps, 61.
Lizards, 72, 77, 79, 80, 86, 87, 90, 93,
95, 100, 101, 112, 116, 118; key
to, 163.

Lung-fishes, 57, 63.
Lungs, 124, 125, 128.
Lung-saes, 126.
Lycosaurus, 92.
Lymph circulation, 42, 43.
Lymph-hearts, 129.

16

Mammals, 3, 70, 90, 127.

Mastodonsaurus Jageri, 62.

Matamata, 138.

Means of motion, 111.

Mexican axolotl, 39.

Migration, 116.

Mock fights, 118.

Moloch lizard (Moloch horridus),
104, 105.

Monitors, 79, 95, 127.

Mosasaurs, 74, 89, 149.

Motion, 153.

Mudpuppies, 1.

Mud-turtles, 115, 117.

Muscles, 133.

Music, 19.

Muskrats, 1.

Musk-turtle, 108.

Nerve-cells, 54.
Nerve-matter, 55.

Nerves, 134.

Nervous system, 52.
Newts, 26, 35.

Nototrema, 36.
Nourishing the young, 70.

Obstetric frog, 39, 57.
Odor, 107.

Offense, 100.

Ophisaurus, 77.
Orchegosaurus, 60.
Orders of amphibians, 65.
Ornaments, 26, 108.
Otters, 1.

Oviparous snakes, 173.

Pangolins, 70.

Perfumes, 45.

Phrynosoma, 97.
Plesiosaurus, 147, 148.
Poison-fangs, 93, 94, 169, 123.
Poisonous serpents, 102, 107.

216

Pond-turtles, 76.

Pouched frog, 36.
Prairie-dogs, 115.

Protective resemblance, 109.
Proteus, 48.
Pterodactylis-spectabilis, 156.
Pterodactyls, 85, 131.
Ptyonius, 61.
Pythonomorpha, 149, 161.

Raccoon, 77.

Rattlesnake, 85, 94, 102, 103, 115,
117, 120, 136, 162, 175, 176.

Rearing of young, 24.

Reflex action, 55.

Repairs, 56.

Reptiles, 69.

Reptiles, key to, 158.

Rhamphorhynchus, 85, 86.

Respiration, 41, 123.

Rhychosaurs-hyperodapedon, 93.

Rodents, 93.

Salamander, 1, 5, 12, 28, 56, 57, 72,
fies

Salivary glands, 123.

Sauropterygia, 147.

Scincide, 165.

Seals, 1.

Sea-lizard, 104.

Sea-snakes, 103, 115, 136, 161.

Sea-tortoises, 74.

Sea-turtles (Sphargis),
132.

Sense-organs, 138.

Serpents, 72, 77, 159.

Serpents, key to, 160.

Shark-forms, 63.

Shield-tail snake (S¢/ybura macro-
lepus), 84.

Sight, 139.

Siren, 15.

Skeletons, 50.

79, 116,

INDEX

Skeleton of frog, 51.

Skeleton of lizard, 180,

Skin, 45, 136.

Skink, 77, 97, 139.

Skin-secretions, 28.

Skin-shedding, 44.

Skulls, 52, 133.

Skull of Rana esculenta, 53.

Slow-worm, 93.

Smell, 45, 140.

Snakes, 90, 99, 104; as pets, 169,
198.

Snake-poison, 190, 194.

Spadefoot toads, 9, 38, 57.

Sphenodon, 71.

Spines, 103, 104.

Spine-tailed lizard ( Vromastic spin-
ipes), 81.

Spotted triton, 31.

Spread-head, 114, 126.

Stegosaurus ungulatus, 135, 150.

Surinam toad, 9, 10, 37.

Swamp tree-toad, 19.

Swift lizard, 97.

Tadpoles, 2, 32, 34, 38, 45, 49.

Tailed amphibians, 52, 65.

Tailed forms, 5, 7.

Tailless forms, 6.

Tails, 10, 79.

Taste, 138.

Tuatera, 71, 73, 74, 86, 87, 88, 93
104, 132, 146, 187, 140, 180.

Tear-glands, 139.

Teeth, 14, 90.

Teiide, 165.

Terrifying methods, 104.

Toads, 1, 19, 34, 48, 56, 57.

Toes, 7.

Toe-walkers, 77.

Tongues, 11, 94.

Tooth of labyrinthodont, 15.

Tortoise, 72, 74, 140, 180,

INDEX

Tortoise forms, 86, 95, 109, 112, 116,
120, 145; key to, 159.

Tortoise-shell turtle, 1382.

Touch, 138.

Tracks, 254.

Training reptiles, 206.

Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana (/Hylo-
des liniatus), 37.

Tree-haunters, 82, 109,

Tree-lizard, 79.

Tree-snakes, 99, 161.

Tree-toads, 8, 21, 36, 42.

Tree-toads of the tropics, 10, 25.

Trematosaurus, 63.

Triassic age, 63.

Triceratops, 150.

Tritons, 17, 35.

217

Turtles, 117.
Typlotriton, 48.

Varanide, 165.

Venomous snakes, 192.
Vipers, 162.

Viviparous amphibians, 35.

Wall gecko (Platydactylus mura-
tis), 181.

Water-haunters, 1, 23.

Water-moceasins, 162.

Water-newts, 57.

W ater-snakes, 140, 197.

Weapons, 27, 108.

Whip-snakes (Passarita myeteri-
zans), 82, 83.

Wood-frog, 46.

(1)

THE END

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