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THE STORY OF

WILD FLOWERS

BY

Rev. Professor G. HENSLOW

M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.

WITH FIFTY-SIX FIGURES IN TEXT

LONDON
GEORGE NEWNES, LIMITED

SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND
1901

PREFACE.

In treating of wild flowers generally, the reader
may ask — How are you going to do it ? Now,
if we turn over the pages of any text-book on
Structural Botany, or of any " Flora," describing
all the plants of some country, little else than de-
scriptions of the actual structure of plants, that
is, of stems, leaves, flowers, etc., will be found.

In the present work I have tried to add some-
thing additional by putting life into those dry-
bones of mere structure.

We now know that all plants have arisen by
descent with variation. That is to say, every
plant has had a history, in that it has descended
from a long line of ancestry. This is why we
can arrange them like the branches of a tree, all
having sprung from a single stem. In other
words the great doctrine of evolution teaches us
that a plant, besides carrying a hereditary like-
ness, has the power within itself of varying, pro-
vided its external conditions of life are changed.

The living bond, therefore, which unites the
following chapters together is the principle of
evolution.

I should like my readers to keep this
steadily in view; for they will then see how
classification, the origin of forms of leaves and
flowers as well as of special plant-structures, are

iii

iv

PREFACE.

entirely based on adaptations to surrounding
conditions of life, using that phrase as includ-
ing everything with which plants come into
contact.

Secondly, to interpret the distribution of
species, this same power of "self-adaptation to
the environment " explains not only the peculiar
forms of plants on high mountains, in tropical
countries, dry or moist, as of deserts, in marshes
and in water; but also why it is that different
and not usually identical species of the same
kind of plant " represent " one another in similar
climates but of widely separated regions.

Here I must say a word about " Natural Selec-
tion ; " for Mr Grant Allen in his " Story of the
Plant" speaks of adaptations of flowers to
insects as "the result of two great underlying
principles, known as The Struggle for Life and
Natural Selection"

He follows Darwin in this remark ; but Darwin
has been proved to be wrong. He assumed with-
out any evidence, that when seeds are carried
away from their homes and grow up in a distant
and different kind of place, that the new external
influences caused the seedlings to vary in all sorts
of ways, or " indefinitely," as he called it. Then,
in the struggle between them and others, i.e. the
native plants, any one or more which happened
to have varied in harmony with its new sur-
roundings, survived, and all the rest of the seed-
lings are supposed to have died.

Unfortunately for his theory, no single
instance has ever been found of such indefinite
variation, since he wrote his book " On the Origin

PREFACE.

V

of Species by Means of Natural Selection," in
1859.

On the other hand there is abundance of evi-
dence that plants vary in direct adaptation to
new conditions of life. Darwin admitted that
this was sometimes the case, and said that if a
plant varied " definitely " in this way, a new
variety would arise without the aid of natural
selection, Now we know that this is an invari-
able law of nature.

Where then, does Natural Selection come in 1

Nowhere at all, as far as the Origin of Varieties
or Species is concerned; but it plays a most
important and universal part in the Distribution
of Plants. Wherever plants struggle together,
or with inhospitable, inorganic environments, the
many die out and the few survive, and that is
the province of Natural Selection.

As illustrations of the evolution of forms and
of their having become dominant species, I shall
describe some of the plants of our Colonial Floras
in the Southern Hemisphere ; but must postpone
them for a second volume.

With regard to our cultivated vegetables, the
reader will see how in these evolution has been
at work; and it is to this marvellous power of
self-adaptation, to the artificial conditions of
cultivation, that we possess our vastly ' 1 im-
proved " plants, so utterly different as they
often are from the original wild flowers from
which they have descended.

Lastly, to meet frequent inquiries about the
sources of our commoner garden flowers, I have
added an Appendix, in which is enumerated the

Vi

PREFACE.

majority of the better known flowers, giving the
country from which they came, and the ap-
proximate dates1 of arrival, when known, into
these islands.

Hothouse and conservatory plants, as well as
cultivated species of our own native wild flowers
are not given.

1 These are mostly taken from Paxton's "Botanical
Dictionary."

CONTENTS.

CHAP PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY 9

II. EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WILD

FLOWERS ...... 15

III. EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WILD

flowers — continued .... 28

IV. GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS . . 41

V. ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR

WAYS 54

VI. LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR

MODIFICATIONS 63

VII. STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR

USES * 72

VIII, VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION OF WILD

FLOWERS 81

IX. VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS . 89

X. MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS OF WILD

FLOWERS 98

XI. CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS . . . .110

XII. INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS . . .121

XIII. AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS .... 133

vij

viii

CONTENTS.

CHAP. PAGE

XIV. THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES OF

WILD FLOWERS . . . . 143

XV. ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION AMONG

WILD FLOWERS 161

XVI. FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS . . .183

XVII. ORIGIN AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF

BRITISH AND IRISH WILD FLOWERS . 193

XVIII. WILD FLOWERS IN THE KITCHEN GARDEN :

OR EVOLUTION OF OUR VEGETABLES . 209

APPENDIX— WILD FLOWERS IN THE GARDEN . 225

INDEX . . 245

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

Before proceeding to discuss Wild Flowers and
their ways, it is necessary to give some account
of the general structure of a Flowering Plant, in
order to explain their means of multiplication
and how new forms or " species " of plants arise,
as a result of their spreading into countries of
different characters, etc. For these results depend
upon the peculiar nature of their "organs,"
using this word to mean generally all parts of a
plant which have special functions assigned to
th'em to perform.

It is a matter of common observation that,
besides the production of offspring resembling
their parents in every way, they can, and often
do, vary more or less greatly in certain aspects
from them. How such variations arise has to be
accounted for.

As the late Mr Grant Allen has done a good
deal for my readers in his volume u The Story of
the Plant," I shall avoid going over the same
ground, by referring them to his work when

10 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

necessary for further details than I can give in
this book, beyond a general outline, which I will
here supply.

Any ordinary flowering plant, say, a butter-
cup, may be regarded as possessing two classes
of organs, "Vegetative" and " Reproductive."
The former embrace the Roots, Stems, and Branches
(subterranean and aerial), and, lastly, Leaves,
with or without Stipules.

The reproductive organs are Flowers with or
without Bracts, and the subsequent Fruit con-
taining the Seed.

The former group is concerned in maintaining
the life, and securing the development of the
plant ; while the latter is occupied in reproducing
and multiplying the individual. The vegetative
organs can, however, often act as additional
means of propagation; as a tulip bulb will pro-
duce bulbils, and a tuber of a potato develops
a plant which again bears many potatoes for
future multiplication. This subject will be
discussed in chapter viii.

The next point is to understand the uses or
functions of these organs. First, then, with re-
gard to the vegetative, there are two kinds o'f
roots; one consisting of simple or branching
fibres, which absorb water and whatever salts,
etc., may be dissolved in it; the others are
thickened or fleshy, their function being to store
up organised products as reserve food-materials
for future use, such as starch, sugar, oil, and
other matters. These two kinds of roots are
well seen together on a plant of the Lesser
Celandine (Fig. 3).

INTRODUCTORY.

11

The stem and branches convey the water to
the leaves, which "transpire" or " exhale" the
superabundance; so that the salts necessary for
the plant can be sufficiently concentrated.

The leaves absorb carbon-dioxide (carbonic
acid), composed of carbon and oxygen, from the
air; and, under the action of light, decompose it,
exspiring the oxygen, and " fixing " the carbon.
This, in combination with the elements of water
(hydrogen and oxygen), form the first visible
organic product or starch, the first important re-
sult of the process of "assimilation"; so that the
two great functions of leaves are transpiration and
assimilation. For further details of these functions
I will refer the reader to chapter iv., " How
Plants Eat," and chapter v., "How Plants
Drink," in Mr G. Allen's book.

Of the reproductive organs, Bracts are the
first to be noticed. These are rudimentary scale-
like leaves, generally green, but not infrequently
taking the colour of the flower ; when they may
be white or brilliantly coloured. They are
usually single, i.e. one below each flower, which
arises from its axil. In the blue-bell there are
two, and if the flowers are crowded together, as
are the "florets" of a daisy or dandelion, then
they form a dense mass underneath the " head "
of ''florets " and are called an involucre.

A typical flower consists of four series or
"whorls" of parts, the outermost, or Calyx, is
generally green, as in a rose, sometimes coloured
as in the marsh marigold (which has no corolla).
The individual parts are called Sepals. The
Corolla is usually white, or coloured other than

12

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

green, and is composed of Petals. The third
whorl consists of Stamens) each stamen having
a stalk or Filament with a two-celled Anther at
the summit. Each anther-cell contains the fer-
tilising powder called Pollen. The last and
central organ is the Pistil. This is composed of
one or more Carpels. Each carpel consists of a
bag-like structure below, called the Ovary, which
contains one or more Ovules. Above the ovary
rises the Style, terminating with one or more
'Stigmas at the summit.

These four sets of organs, Calyx, Corolla,
Stamens and Pistil, constitute the four Floral
Whorls.

The uses of these parts are briefly as follows : —
The calyx protects the interior parts when imma-
ture. The corolla attracts insects by being white
or coloured or scented. The stamens shed the
pollen, which must fall on to the stigmas of the
pistil either of the same flower or of some other
like it in order that seed may be borne by the
latter. The minute grains of pollen then send
down " pollen- tubes" through the style into the
ovary. They ultimately reach the ovules, one
entering a minute pore in each ovule called the
" micropyle." The fertilising matter, called a
"nucleus," passing out of the pollen-tube, unites
with a " germ-cell" or nucleus already prepared
within the "embryo-sac" within the ovule. These
two nuclei, i.e. the "germ-cell" and "sperm-
cell," now united, grow into an "embryo," or
young plant of the future, as is seen in the
almond, bean, or pea, when the skins are removed.

For further details of the process of " fertilisa-

INTRODUCTORY.

13

tion " and of the " crossing " of flowers, I will
again refer the reader to Mr Allen's book; for
he enters into particulars about "How Plants
Marry" in chapter vi., and on " Various Mar-
riage Customs" in chapters vii. and viii.

I shall have several occasions to refer to
" Marriage Customs " among plants in the course
of our travels over the world in search of wild
flowers ; so I shall assume my readers to quite
understand what I shall have to say on this
subject.

Now what does the term " Wild Flowers " em-
brace? Not only all flowering plants that are
wild, but such as have been introduced into cul-
tivation and remained unchanged.

In these days " forced marriages " between
different " species," or what is called "hybrid-
isation," has probably given rise to by far the
greater number of our garden plants, both in the
open border and in greenhouses and conserva-
tories ; so that the truly " wild " originals of
our garden rhododendrons, roses, fuchsias, pelar-
goniums, begonias, pansies, narcissus, etc., etc.,
are quite unknown to the general public. On the
other hand, the purple foxglove, snapdragon,
blue and white irises, Alpine plants, etc., are just
as they are found in their native homes.

Now, every country has, and if it be a con-
tinent, various parts of it have their own peculiar
wild flowers : and if we travelled to all our colon-
ies and if I were to try to enumerate all the wild
flowers of each, I should require many volumes ;
so that I shall be compelled to limit myself to a
selection, especially such as are better known, or

14 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

which are characterised by having some special
points of interest.

Another feature of importance is that in com-
paring the wild flowers of one country with those
of another, one notices that certain "families"
and groups called " genera " (which will be ex-
plained hereafter) often prevail. Thus the "scrub"
of Australian forests is largely composed of vari-
ous " species " of Acacia. Visitors to the Riviera
will be familiar with them, for they grow so well
there. The flowering branches are often sent
over to London under the name of " Mimosa."

Another feature is that when the "floras" of
two widely separated countries of like conditions,
say, hot, rocky and dry, are compared, at first
sight many plants of the one would be thought
to be the same as those of the other ; but a closer
inspection of the flowers reveals the fact that
while their general vegetative systems are closely
alike, their flowers betray totally different fami-
lies, genera or species as the case may be. Hence
botanists call them " representative " plants. I
shall have occasion to give several instances of
this remarkable fact, among foreign wild flowers.

The explanation is simple enough. It is that
like external conditions have induced the plants
to assume like forms, which are best adapted to
live under the conditions in question.

Such are the lines on which I propose to treat
of wild flowers ; and to add chapters dealing with
special peculiarities of certain plants such as have
acquired the habits of climbing, of parasitism, of
catching insect-prey, of going to sleep, etc.

In this way we shall be able to take a pretty

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 15

general survey of wild flowers and their ways and
$o compile their story.

As it will be quite impossible to deal with so
vast a subject as the wild flowers of the world in
one book, it is proposed to continue the subject
in a second, if the present one meets with appro-
val. As this will treat mainly with plants of
England and the European continent, the second
volume will be more concerned with tropical
regions and their peculiar plants, as well as the
floras of our colonies in the southern hemisphere
and elsewhere.

CHAPTER IT.

THE EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WILD
FLOWERS.1

In looking at any nosegay of wild flowers, the
eye rests upon a great variety of forms and col-
ours in the blossoms ; and it might be thought
what a difficult thing it must be to reduce the
mass of beauty one sees in nature to anything
like a simple system of classification. Yet, so it
is. All plants can be placed in two sections, con-
taining those which bear flowers and those which
do not. The former are called Phanerogams ;
a word signifying " visible marriages or unions,"
as the stamens and pistil are conspicuous. The
latter are called Cryptogams ; and as the unions
are produced by organs, representing stamens

1 " Wild Flowers " must be allowed to include all plants
growing wild, whether they bear flowers or not.

16 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

and pistils, which are microscopic in size, thi
word is invented to signify " concealed unions.'

At present we are only concerned with plant
which have flowers. These are grouped into tw<
classes, called Dicotyledons and Monocoty
ledons, according as the 6 ' embryos " of the seed;
have two or one cotyledon or seed-leaf, respectively.
There are almost always a few exceptions t(
every group, and so some of thi
former have only one, whih
some of the latter have at leas'
a rudimentary second cotyledon
We shall understand the signi
ficance of this hereafter.

The first class has two Sub
Classes. The first is callec
Angiosperms, as the "seeds'
are in " vessels," as the wore
implies. In other words, thej
are contained within a fruit o:
some kind, as peas are in a pod;
The second sub-class is calleq
Gymnosperms, for the " seeds !
are "naked."

This is a comparatively small

Fio. l.-<«Carpellary» f™"?' at, ^ I °m^Yed , ™ 1

scale of cycas, with ^ne two classes, but remarkable

n^edTeretDal(From f 0V having n0 " f™V Only seeds

the Gardener's chro- exposed to the air and borne on
mcle') the edges of altered leaves (Figj

1), or by the stems. We have but three in Great

1 The structure of seeds will be explained later on.
The two cotyledons are the ' ' halves" of an almond or
of i{ split" peas.

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 17

Britain — the Scotch Fir, the common Juniper, and
the Yew. They, however, represent a very ancient
" flora " ; for such plants once formed a large pro-
portion of the vegetation, which now constitutes
our coal.

The next classificatory terms are the Families
or Orders. These consist of Genera, and these
last, of Species, with or without Varieties.

How shall we attack this subject ? The best
way is by seeing how Nature herself has brought
about such " Diversity from Unity " ; for the
above classification has
been made by compar-
ing plants, and notic-
ing their points of
similarity, as well as of
difference. Thus, if,
e.g., we collect some
buttercups, one would
soon see that while
the flowers strike one
as being all alike, yet
one kind would have
runners like a straw-
berry plant; another Fig. 2.— Bulbous Buttercup (Ranun-
1 ' Jn i v • 1 culu$ bulbosus), showing corm,

has a globular, SOlld pe(al witn honey-gland at the
Stem, Called a uCOrm " ; tase> a stamen, and an achene.

a third in corn-fields is an annual, not a per-
ennial, as the former, and has prickly, and not
smooth fruit ; a fourth kind lives in water,
and has white, instead of yellow flowers.
Linnaeus, who gave latin names to them, called
the first Ranunculus repens ; the second, E. bul-
bosus (Fig. 2); the third, R arvensis ; and the

18

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

fourth, R. aquatilis. Why are they all called
Ranunculus! Because the structure of the flower
and fruit is essentially the same in all, viz,, con-
sisting of five free sepals, five free petals, many
free stamens, and many free carpels, each of
which when ripe, becomes a " seed-like" little
fruit, called an " achene." No child would hesi-
tate to gather the first three kinds, at least, as
buttercups ; so Linnaeus called them all, and a
great many more, by the "generic" name
Ranunculus. That is to say, this is the " genus,"
but each kind has its "specific" name, which
indicates the "species."

I have only alluded to one specific character,
taken from the stems, but the reader must clearly
understand that a species should always be known,
not by one only, but by a collection of constant
characters, taken from any or all parts .of the
plant. They may be supplied from the roots,
stems, leaves, flower-stalks, parts of the flowers
or fruits ; these may all form " specific " char-
acters; but they must be constant, year after
year, and therefore to be depended upon.

It often happens that some one or two char-
acters belong to two or more species. That is
why one, two, or even a few characters are often
insufficient to define a particular species ; but as
many as possible taken collectively are what one can
trust as indicating a species. Thus the sepals
are reflexed, both in R. bulbosus (Fig. 2) and R.
hirsutus, but spreading in R. repens and R. acris.

It is very desirable for the reader to clearly
understand what is meant by a " species," as this
lies at the whole basis of classification.

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 19

A certain difficulty comes in here, because
there is no hard and sharp line by which we
can always sever one species from another.
Often it is possible; but the differences may,
in the eye of one botanist, be sufficient to
separate two plants, to which he would give
two distinct specific names ; but to another
botanist the resemblances seem to overbalance
their differences, and he would call one a
"variety" of the other.

The greater the knowledge of plants the more
often does this happen, and " transitional" forms
are found connecting, sometimes by almost in-
sensible gradations, what would otherwise be
regarded as well-differentiated species. But not
only may species, but genera, that is groups
of "allied" species, are often linked to other
groups, called by a different generic name.

Thus the late Mr G. Bentham, one of our
greatest of systematic botanists, says, that of
ninety genera of the " Tribe 7; or larger group,
Asteroidece, of the great family of Compositce, he
could find no decided break between any of
them. That means, that nearly 1000 species
were linked together.

It is this almost universal feature in both
kingdoms, animal as well as vegetable, that
seemed to militate against the old idea of
every species being a distinct entity created
just as we see it now. How, then, has this, so
to say, intimate connection between species come
about ? It is a true alliance by relationship.

Although a species is known by its group of
characters, yet, as far as we know, no plant has

20 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

them so absolutely fixed that they can never
change. It was thought so once, but now we
find that although, when plants have grown
for long periods within any particular surround-
ings, great fixity becomes a characteristic feature ;
yet if the seeds be sown in a garden border, or be
transferred to a widely different locality, as by
birds, wind, etc., then the plants, as they grow
up, begin to change their features more or less,
so as to be in better harmony with their new
environment. Plants will often stand a consider-
able amount of external changes without much,
if any, appreciable alteration. Some are very
refractory under cultivation, and seem to resist
it; while others change very rapidly. Thus
bulbs of tulips, etc., imported from Asia Minor
and elsewhere, sometimes bear flowers and foli-
age very unlike that of their original parents
after three or four years' cultivation only. So,
too, the seed of the wild parsnip, common in
many places of England, when sown in a richly-
prepared soil, may become a good kitchen vege-
table in about four or five years. The root and
leaves become enormously enlarged. The latter
loses its dense hairiness and becomes smooth and
what is of prime importance, these " acquired ?
characters, as they have been called, become
hereditary, and the enlarged form of root is
perpetuated by seed. It was thus that the
" Student " parsnip was raised as an experi-
ment by Prof. James Buckman at the gardens
of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
between 1847 and 1852. It was "brought
out" by Messrs Sutton and Sons, and is still

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 21

the best in the trade at the nresent day
(1901).

Similarly is it in nature. Though we cannot
see nature's experiments as a rule, as we can our
own, yet we find that if a particular plant is
abundant in a certain locality, the further we
travel from that centre, the more do we find
it passing into other varietal forms; at first
differing but slightly, till we find quite different
species in districts widely separated. The reason
is simply that the further they travel from the
original home, the greater are the differences in
the environment or surroundings, which act upon
the plant and induce it to vary iu the right way ;
so as to render it suitable to its new conditions
of life, whatever they may be.1

As this is so important a subject, as explaining
the Origin of Species, I will take the following
illustration from Sir J. D. Hooker's Student's
Flora of the British Isles, to show how various
" forms," whether we choose to call them
"varieties," "subspecies," or "species," arise.
The common knotgrass is a familiar wild flower
by roadsides. He thus describes them : — First
there is the knotgrass "proper" or the type-
form ; secondly, a littoral form, being the
passage to a true, maritime one ; thirdly, a field
form ; fourthly, a sand loving form ; fifthly, a
small fruited form ; sixthly, the wayside form ;
seventhly, a second maritime form in sandy shores.

1 In giving some account of the wild flowers of our
Colonies, I shall draw attention to this fact ; pointing
out how genera and species are " represented " but not •
identical in different localities widely separated.

22 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

It is pretty evident that all these forms are
the result of living in the special soils where they
are found.

The reader will now understand how simple
is the process by which new species arise, i.e.
through varieties from old-established ones. It
all depends upon a certain power which resides
in the living "protoplasm" contained in the
cells of the plant. Any explanation of the pro-
cess is at present impossible. All we can say is
that the protoplasm, together with its still more
important "nucleus," can form two cells out of
one. The cells then assume definite forms ac-
cording to their positions in the plant. A cer-
tain number go to form an organ, such as a root,
a leaf, a petal, etc. ; and if the protoplasm be
unaffected by external agencies, it will go on per-
petually forming cells of the same kinds, in the
same places, and so build up organs of like kinds.
But, if it be affected by a new set of external
agencies, then cells build up a differently shaped
organ. Thus, if a leaf lies horizontally, the
protoplasm constructs a broad leaf-blade, with a
different structure on the upper from that of the
under side. If, however, it be erect, as a blade
of grass, or of a carnation or thrift, the form is
totally changed. The leaf is narrow, and has
both sides alike. How the trick is done, nature
keeps secret to herself, for she has never told us
what life is, how it acquired its properties, nor
whence she obtained it.

The individuals of a species, then, are actual
^entities but a genus is not ; for it means all the
species derived from some common ancestor and

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 23

taken collectively. Thus any buttercup one
gathers in the field is a species ; but the genus
Ranunculus is the collective name for all kinds
of buttercups and does not stand for any one in
particular alone. Sometimes it does when it in-
cludes only one species, then of course the species
and the genus are the same thing, as, e.g., the
British water-plant called the Horn-wort, or the
little Australian pitcher plant,1 a solitary species
of a solitary genus.

It may be added that when such a plant
occurs, it is now recognised as the lingering
relic of a long line of lost ancestors. Since,
having abandoned the idea of separate creations
and accepted evolution, we cannot look upon
it as having come into existence without a pre-
vious line of descent. But they have all dis-
appeared. There are many other " survivals "
as they are called, both in the animal as well as
the vegetable kingdom. Sometimes it is a single
genus with many species that stands all alone,
without any near allies, as the true pitcher
plants,2 and the horse-tails.3 Of this last we do
know something of its lost ancestry, as numerous
kinds are found among coal-plants. All but one
genus having died out. We do not know when
or where the different species of buttercup arose
one from another ; but the accumulative evidence
is so great, that no one now who has paid a little
attention to it, disputes the doctrine of evolu-
tion ; which asserts that all existing animals and
plants have arisen by " Descent with Modification"
from pre-existing ones.

3 Cephalotus follicular is. 2 Nepenthes. 3 Equisetum.

24 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Perhaps it will not be amiss to give another
illustration to show the line of argument adopted.
It is called " Inductive reasoning." That is, it is
based on an accumulation of a vast number of
coincidences ; so that the probability of the result
being as supposed becomes so great, that the
alternative is unthinkable.

Now it is in this way "certain" that the
water-crowfoot is descended from a land butter-
cup. Why do we believe this ? It has finely
divided submerged leaves. It is " certain " that
this feature has resulted from being under water;
because, not only is it so in this plant, but it
would be easy to mention a dozen others, of no
relationship between them, which have precisely
the same feature. In almost every case, as with
the buttercup, other species living on land have
not their leaves finely divided. This widely
spread coincidence of submerged leaves being
finely divided convinces us that it is a result of
the submergence.

Now this line of reasoning can be applied to
hundreds of particulars among plants.

Sometimes we can adopt an even more satis-
factory proof that our inferences are correct ; for
we can actually produce the anticipated result
by experiment, though the previous line of argu-
ing in a vast number of cases is quite sufficient.
Thus, the fleshiness of many seaside plants is a
general characteristic, as in the samphire. That
it is due to the presence of salt is an inference
based on coincidence. Now experiments have
been made with garden plants, watering them
with salt and water, which has induced them to

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 25

acquire a similar fleshiness. Conversely, when
maritime plants have been grown inland, they
have been known to lose it, and become thin-
leaved. All this " experimental " proof, there-
fore, corroborates our original "inductive
reasoning."

We thus see how species and varieties, which
last are but incipient species, have arisen in
nature, and that such are collectively grouped
under the term genus.

How did the group of species forming one
genus come to differ
from the group of
species constituting a
second genus of the
same family ?

Here we must
concentrate all our
attention almost en-
tirely upon the struc-
ture of the flowers,
and sometimes on the
fruits, and we have

to travel back in Fig. 3.— Lesser Celandine (R. Ficaria),
imam nation into thp showing tuberous and fibrous roots,
imagination llltO tne a petal with honey-gland, the pis-
past history of plant til of many carpeis, and a single

life.

As we have taken buttercups to illustrate
the origin of species, so I will take the Lesser
Celandine (Fig. 3) to illustrate the origin of a
new genus ; for this is also one of degree, and
botanists have differed as to whether it should
be called a Ranunculus or not.

As a rule, there is a greater difference between

26 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the forms of the parts of the flower of species of
different genera than between those of different
species of the same genus.

Thus, if a child were told to gather buttercups,
it would have no hesitation in collecting flowers
from R. acris, R. bulbosus, and R. repens ; but it
might hesitate to gather flowers of the earlier
flowering Lesser Celandine or R. Ficaria, or as
some have called it Ficaria ranunculoides.

The flower has 3 instead of 5 sepals. There
are 7 or 8 petals instead of the constant number
5. It has, however, numerous stamens and
carpels, which become achenes, exactly like those
of other species of ' Ranunculus, if they ripen at
all, which is not usually the case in the Lesser
Celandine, in England. Moreover, it flowers
much earlier than the true buttercups, and the
whole plant is smooth, and the leaves round and
not divided ; so that its general appearance does
not seem to associate it very closely with the
true buttercups.

How came these differences, and what is its
history ? The leaf resembles in shape that of
the Marsh Marigold, or that of the water-lily in
miniature, or even that of a monocotyledonous
plant called the Frog-bit, all the preceding being
dicotyledons.

If we cut the stem or leaf-stalk we find " air-
canals," characteristic of all water-plants. Again,
if we examine its leaves microscopically, we
should detect a predominance of " stomates " on
the upper surface as occurs in floating leaves,
which, however, have none on the under side, as
the Lesser Celandine has.

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 27

Again, if we let the seeds grow, we find that
they possess only one seed-leaf, not two coty-
ledons. What do these features indicate, but
that we must infer that the Celandine's ances-
tors were aquatic plants? Such had descended
from some lost ancestral buttercup which took
to the water, just as the Water-crowfoot did.
Many years ago it returned to the land again,
and readapted itself to terrestrial and aerial
conditions, though it could not throw off all its
" acquired aquatic characters."

The plant has thus retained so many of its
features originally adapted to an aquatic life,
and it has lost so much of the appearance of a
buttercup, that it is no wonder there should be
a doubt as to what it should be called. Sir J. D.
Hooker, however, still retains it as a Ranunculus.

Having thus obtained a new genus — for whether
we call it a species of Ranunculus or of Ficaria, it
is only a question of degree — the two genera need
a fresh common name, and that is "Natural
Order " or " Family."

At the present day families contain from one
to, it may be, hundreds of genera, all linked
together by some common characters taken from
their flowers or reproductive organs, generally.

They are believed to have descended from
some common ancestral stock. They contain
many "doubtful" forms, which systematists
arrange as genera in different families or species
in different genera, according to their ideas as to
how many and what sorts of different characters
go to make the genus or species respectively.

The greater number of genera and species,

28 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

however, are well defined, and one has no hesi-
tation in recognising a plant as belonging to a
particular genus and family.

As families and orders are now so many,
botanists have grouped them on the same prin-
ciples into "Cohorts," these again into " Divi-
sions," and the last into the two Classes already
mentioned.

I do not, however, propose to trouble the
reader much with descriptions of Cohorts and
Divisions ; but shall have a good deal to say
about the Classes ; but I prefer to point out their
characters by degrees, as I have to treat with the
natural causes which produced them.

CHAPTER III.

THE EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WILD

flowers — {continued).

If the classification of plants can be shown to
be simpler than one might expect from a general
survey of the immense variety in nature, the
next question is — Can the various structures
of flowers be also reduced to some simple! system,
dependent upon a few causes, or perhaps a single
cause, to which we can attribute their multi-
tudinous shapes and colours ?

I believe they can ; but here we cannot avoid
being somewhat speculative, as actual proofs by
experiment as to how flowers have been, and
perhaps are still being, made, is difficult to
obtain. Still we can depend upon much indue-

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 29

tive evidence, or the accumulation of coincidences
giving rise to probabilities of a very high order.

Of course we do not know what the first
flowers were like, but the G-ymnosperms appear
to supply a link between Cryptogams, such as
Ferns and their allies, and Dicotyledons. If,
therefore, that of a fir-tree is to be trusted, as
illustrating a primitive type of flower, we find
stamens, but no corolla or calyx; and ivith
regard to the female flower, for the two kinds
are distinct on these trees, if it be asked how or
when nature passed from constructing a simple
naked ovule, either on the margin of an open
scarcely modified leaf, as seen in the Cycads of
South Africa (Fig. 1), or at the base of a flat scale
as in pines, and began to fashion a pistil with an
ovary, in which to include the ovules, we are
still unable to reply.

That petals were formed out of stamens seems
an obvious fact, from water lilies, in which the
transition is retained ; but other links are unfor-
tunately lost, so that at present we must fill up
the gaps by our imagination.

In dealing, however, with existing flowers as
we find them, we observe that the simplest con-
dition is represented by an entire freedom among
all the parts, so that a buttercup may be taken
as representing a flower of this character, since it
has five free sepals, five free petals, numerous
free stamens, and many free carpels. The last
two whorls being arranged spirally, after the
manner of leaves.

The whorls, too, are all "regular," in that their
parts are of the same shape respectively

30 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

While considering how flowers are constructed,
I will here introduce some subsidiary classifica-
tion. Thus all plants of the Class Dicotyledons
which have both a calyx and a corolla, and their
petals free, come under the "Subclass" Dichla-
mydece1 and "Division" Polypetalce.2

The first advance in structure is seen in one or
more of the four floral whorls having the parts
coherent; as familiar examples are the sepals of
the calyx and the petals of the corolla forming
tubes, one within the other, in the primrose,
deadnettle, gentian, etc.

The ten stamens of the Laburnum and of the
Broom are united into a tube surrounding the

nine coherent, one free. Jn order to allow access to

the honey within the staminal tube (Fig. 4).

Lastly, a poppy-head is a pistil composed of
some ten or more carpels united together.3

All Dicotyledons which have their corollas
composed of coherent petals form the Division
Gamopetalce*

1 Literally l( two-cloaked," i.e., in reference to the pre-
sence of a calyx and a corolla.

2 Poly-petalce literally means * ' many-petalled " ; but
Poly here stands for ' ' free."

3 The reader should always make a point of examining
everything described in this book, in nature, himself,
whenever possible.

4 Gamos, literally signifying ' 1 wedded," means here
"coherent."

Fig. 4. — Stamens of Pea

pistil, but in most flowers of
the Pea family, or the Order
Leguminosce, to which these
belong, one (the uppermost)
. of the ten stamens is free,

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 31

Another kind of union among the parts of
flowers is called " Adhesion." As co-hesion
means "united together," and refers to the parts
of any one whorl without respect to others, so
ad-hesion always refers to the union between two
or more different whorls. Thus, when the petals
cohere to form what has been called a "gamo-
petalous" corolla, it is almost an invariable rule
that the stamens should be adherent to the
corolla-tube, as in a primrose, deadnettle, gentian,
etc. Two orders
or families supply
exceptions, they are
the Canterbury Bell
and the Heath
families.

Another curious
modification results
from a growth of the

flower-stalk. TheFlG> 6._Flower of Apricot (vert sec1

end Of this IS Usually p. petal; ov. ovary of the pistil of

somewhat enlarged Z^^^T f°rmed by

into a knob OrCOne,FlG- 6.— Flower of Rose (vert. sect.).

, . , , 7 ov. ovary of carpels, arising from the

and Occasionally inner surface of the receptacular-tube

takes on a great in- (re>; sty- styles of fred carPels-
crease, as in the fruiting stage of the strawberry,
the succulent, edible part being entirely flower-
stalk. It is called the Floral Receptacle. It some-
times happens that when a flower-bud begins to be
developed, the middle point, where the pistil is,
ceases to grow, while the circumference continues
to do so. The final result is that a cup is formed,
having the pistil at the bottom, while the sepals,
petals, and stamens now spring from the rim of

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

32

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the cup. This is well seen in the apricot (Fig. 5)
and cherry-blossom, which has only one carpel to
form the pistil. In a rose, however, there are
several free carpels within it, which can be easily
picked out if the swollen urn-shaped extremity
(which becomes the scarlet hip in autumn) be
cut down the middle (Fig. 6).

This "receptacular-tube 99 takes various shapes.
In some, as the raspberry, it forms more of an
expanded, dish-like structure, with a sort of little
trough running round the base of the pistil. The
use of it is to secrete honey, which fills the trough
in the raspberry. In the rose it appears to have
lost this function of secreting honey, the flowers
only supplying pollen for food to bees.

About one-half of the group Polypetalce are
without this receptacular-tube; while the other
half have it represented in some way or another ;
so that while the former constitute the sub-
division Thalamiflwce,1 the latter are included in
Calyciflorce.2

There is yet another modification to be men-
tioned with regard to the receptacular-tube. In
the apricot and cherry-blossom there is one carpel
only, constituting the pistil, and quite free within
the tube. When ripening the latter articulates at
the bottom and falls off, leaving the cherry at
the end of the stalk.

1 These are fanciful and somewhat misleading terms ;
for Thalamos is a Greek word signifying " chamber," but
here must be understood to mean the " corolla on the
thalamus," i.e. the floral receptacle.

2 Calyciflorce would mean " corolla on the calyx," for it
was invented when the now recognised ' ' receptacular-
tube " was thought to be a " calyx-tube."

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 33

In many cases, however, the receptacular-tube
becomes adherent to the ovary during growth.
In such flowers the pistil is usually composed of
two or more coherent carpels. In apples and
pears, however, there are five free carpels forming
the star-like core when the fruit is cut across.
But in such flowers as a currant (Fig. 7), fuchsia,
any flower of the umbelliferous family, as of the
carrot and parsnip, the swollen part below the
flower if cut across will reveal
the united ovary-cells.

The interpretation is that
the ovary is imbedded within
the receptacular-tube which
is adherent to it, and so
forms the superficial covering. _ _

mi . K , i . ,& Fig. 7.— Flower of Currant

I his is evidenced by the (vert, sec.), showing
sepals, petals, and stamens JJSS <g* ^

Standing On the top of the petals and stamens aris-
• • • / ,i ing from the expanded

ovary, i.e _ arising from the top of the receptacuiar-
elevated rim of the recepta- tube-
cular-tube, wThich is now adherent to the ovary.

Two words are used to signify these conditions,
and may be described as follows : — If the calyx or
perianth1 be apparently inserted upon an ad-
herent receptacular-tube (the old " calyx-tube "
of authors), it is called "superior" {i.e. above the
ovary), and the ovary is "inferior," i.e. not only
enclosed within, but adherent to the receptacular-
tube.

1 The " perianth" is the equivalent of the calyx and
corolla taken together, when they are both alike. It is the
usual condition with "bulbous" plants, e.g., of the crocus,
lily, narcissus, blue-bell, tulip, etc.

C

34 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

On the other hand if the ovary be free, and
above the calyx or perianth, it is called "superior,"
the calyx or perianth being " inferior." 1

It is only in a few families or orders of the
Calyciflom and a few of Corolliflorce which have
" inferior " ovaries. In Monocotyledons the two
divisions are based on these differences as the
words Epigynce " on the ovary," and Hypogynce,
" under the ovary," imply.

To make this a little plainer, suppose we take
an apple. First notice the tuft at the top com-
posed of sepals, withered stamens, &c. This often
indicates an "inferior" fruit, as on a goose-
berry and currant ; whereas a cherry, a peach, a
grape, and an orange have no such remains of the
flower and are " superior " fruits.

Sometimes the tuft articulates leaving a clean
scar ; so that one may be easily deceived, if the
flower had not been examined. Thus gourds,
cucumbers and melons are all true ' ' inferior"
fruits ; but shew no withered tuft at the top.

The structure of inferior fleshy fruits, as e.g. an
apple (Fig. 8) is as follows : — An ovary, if free
and superior as a peach, has three parts, viz., the
inner lining or skin (fibrous in a pea-pod, stoney
in a peach or plum), the middle and soft tissue,
and an outer skin or epidermis.

On the other hand a free receptacular-tube as
of a rose, reveals three similar layers.

Now, if the tube be adherent to the ovary,
then the inner skin of the tube and the outer skin

1 It is important to note that there must be adhesion
between the ovary and calyx or perianth for these to be
"inferior" and ' 4 superior" respectively.

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 35

of the ovary, are not developed at all ; so that the
two soft middle layers are fused into one mass.
While the leathery core of an apple, or stoney
covering to the seeds in a medlar and haw-
thorn, enclosing two pips or seeds, represents the
inner skin of the ovaries, the outer or "peel" be-
longs to the receptacular tube or flower-stalk; and
the thick fleshy edible part is a combination of
the two inner layers, half being
of the ovary, and half of the
receptacular-tube.

We thus see how flowers pass
from entire freedom to various
states of union ; and botanists
consider such differences repre-
sent the lines of evolution of
flowers, cohesions and adhesions

being of later introduction into

Fig. 8.— Apple (vert,
sec), showing fleshy
receptacular - tube,
with core and seeds ;
inner boundary
(double lines); and
withered stamens,
etc., on the summit.

the world than the earlier state
of freedom.

Similarly it may be added
that all irregularities in floral
whorls, which are special adaptations to insect
agency,1 are later additions to regularity which
marks a primitive condition.

A flower is said to be complete when it has
all four floral whorls ; but it often happens that
one or more are wanting. This may be either a
primitive condition as in Gymnosperms, which
have only stamens and ovules wherewith to repre-
sent flowers; or a flower may have become de-

1 How irregular corollas, &c, have come into existence
in consequence of insects visiting flowers for honey or
pollen as food, will be fully explained hereafter.

36 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

graded from a complete to an incomplete state;
and so lost one or more of its parts. A large num-
ber of plants are in this state among Dicotyledons;
and botanists have placed them together under
the term Incomplete as a " sub-class." It is doubt-
ful whether some few among them be not of a
primitive or very early type ; 1 but the prob-
ability is that the greater number are really
" degradations ; " for they often show points of
affinity with plants of orders which have complete
flowers.

Incompletes are mostly destitute of corollas, so
they are sometimes called apetalce, i.e. " without
petals " ; and the group has been divided into
two divisions according as a calyx is present,
Monochlamydece, i.e. " one-cloaked " or when there
is none, Achlamydece i.e. " cloakless." In this
latter case the flower consists of stamens alone
or a pistil alone as in the willow ; or they may
be together, to form a flower. Thus in the com-
mon spurges, a male flower is reduced to a
single stamen.

This sub-class Incomplete furnishes a good illus-
tration of what occurs under evolution ; for this
word not only includes " advances " with more
and more complicated structures as animals and
plants have risen in the scale of life ; as, e.g., in
passing from a buttercup to a daisy, or from a fish
to a mammal ; but accompanying progressive
complexity, there are always degradations in
some organ or other ; because they are no longer
required. Hence many an animal and plant is

1 Such as the Sweet Gale (Myrica) ; perhaps, too, willows
and poplars and the Australian Beefwoods (Casuarina).

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 37

far simpler in structure than its ancestor may
have been ; either in certain parts of its body or
wholly.1 We shall see this well illustrated in
such plants as have acquired parasitic habits.

Much degeneration is to be seen also in aquatic
plants ; for water has a very obviously degrading
influence upon vegetative structures, as compared
with those of allied plants growing on land ; as
will be more fully explained hereafter.

Similarly the structures of flowers, even when
highly complicated, having adaptations in correl-
ation with the visits of insects, are often coupled
with degenerations in certain parts. This is very
conspicuously so with orchids. Although these
plants have remarkable and highly differentiated
flowers, their seeds, the most important part of
all, are in an extraordinary arrested condition,
which renders them very difficult to germinate,
not one out of thousands of seeds ever giving rise
to a new plant.

Again, if flowers which have previously been
adapted to insects, such as orchids, come to be
self -fertilising and independent of insects' visits,
all the elaborate machinery may become de-
graded, and the flowers reduced in size, the
honey-secreting organs become honeyless, till
even the flower-buds cease to expand; but in
compensation fertility is greatly increased, and
an abundance of seed is made ; for the stamens
and pistil remain perfectly effective, the anthers
being applied directly to the stigmas, the pollen
often pours out its tubes into the latter while

1 The reader is referred to Prof. Ray Lankester's work on
u Degeneration " (Nature Series).

38 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

remaining within the anthers. Such fertile buds
are called "cleistogamous," i.e. " concealed unions,''
and may readily be seen on the violet. If the
leaves be uplifted in the summer, numerous buds
in all stages will be found on runners proceed-
ing from the root-stock. More will be said
about these hereafter.

We thus discover the clue wherewith to explain
the secret of the origin of the structures of flowers
upon which classification is based.

Hence the groups called Divisions stand in the
order of evolution, as from a buttercup with all
parts freely inserted upon the thalamus (Thalami-
florce) to a strawberry with its parts free but
inserted upon a receptacular tube (Calyciflorce).
We then reach a coherent corolla (Corollijlorce),
then finally degradation sets in, and we have the
Incomplete.

It is to be observed that one step is omitted,
namely, all flowers with " inferior " ovaries. These
are to be found in a certain number of orders of
both Calycifloroz and Corolliflorce, eight of the
former and seven of the latter among British
plants ; or out of all known plants, these numbers
must be raised to eighteen of the former, and ten
of the latter ; i.e. comparatively few out of the
163 orders of Dicotyledonous flowering plants
known.

Let us now have a few words on the classifica-
tion of Monocotyledons. This class, as I shall
endeavour to prove by collecting our evidence
at different stages of our progress in the study of
wild flowers, is derived from aquatic Dicoty-
ledons. The " proof " lies in the great accumula-

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION. 39

tion of coincidences, i.e. it is based on inductive
evidence ; for we cannot test it experimentally.

Now, Monocotyledons are readily divisible into
two sub-classes. One has a calyx and a corolla,
as in the Water Plantain, but it usually happens
that these two whorls are both alike and " petaloid,"
i.e. " petal-like." Hence botanists substitute the
word "perianth," as already observed, for the
two whorls collectively, and speak of the outer
and inner whorl (describing their parts as
" leaves ") as representing the calyx and corolla
of Dicotyledons. All such constitute the sub-
class Petaloide^e.

The other sub-class has no perianth, but the
stamens and pistil are included in dry boat-shaped
scales or " glumes " ; 1 such constituting the chaff
of threshed wheat. These make up the sub-class
Glumiferje, i.e. glume-bearers.2 Of British plants,
we only possess two families of this sub-class, viz.,
grasses (Graminece), and sedges (Cyperacece) ; but
there are three foreign orders in addition.

Looking at the adjoining table of Classification
the reader will observe that species, genera, and
orders are omitted. It has been already insisted
upon that any one of these three groups must be
known by "a collection of constant characters,"
and not by one, two, or very few. For we should
soon find ourselves in difficulties if we trusted to
one, two, or few characters, however important,
wherewith to recognise a group. Because, as

1 From the Latin word gluma, chaff. Mr G. Allen has
illustrated a sedge, fig. 13, p. 79 ; and the wheat, fig. 30,
p. 145 ; both being glumiferous.

2 See "The Story of the Plants," fig. 13, p. 79.

40

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

stated, it often happens that one or two out of
the " collection " belongs to two or more species
or genera, as the case may be.

Now, this explains the difference between what
has been called the "natural" system and an
" artificial" system of classification.

The latter depends upon one, two, or at most
a very few characters alone, as will now be seen
to be exemplified in the divisions of the sub-
classes. Hence, these must be regarded as purely
"artificial" and " unscientific." They are only
introduced for convenience to break up an enor-
mous number of orders into groups, i.e. the so-
called "divisions."

The classes, however, are based on a number
of characters, five being here given in the table
below; but there are others not mentioned,
because they are taken from the minute micro-
scopic anatomy of the interior tissues.

The general conclusion, therefore, is, that in
the present system of classification, nature made
the species, genera, orders, and classes ; but
botanists have, so to say, intercalated the divisions.

It will assist the reader to have the above
classificatory terms arranged in a tabular form,
as follows —

Classification of Phanerogams or
Flowering Plants.

class i. dicotyledons.

[Chars. — Embryo, with two cotyledons;
Axial root, present ; Stem, with wood in
annual cylinders ; Leaves, with reticulated

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 41

venation ; Floral whorls, in twos and fives,
or their multiples.]

SUB-CLASS I. ANGIOSPERMiE.
DIVISION I. POLYPETALjE.

sub-division 1. Thalawiflorce.

2. Calyciflorv { gy.P°gyn».
" * J \ Epigynae.

division ii. gamopetaljE I Hypogynse.

I Epigynse.

„ HI. INCOMPLETE.

sub-division 1. Monochlamydece.
,, 2. Achlamydece.

SUB-CLASS II. GYMNOSPERM^E.
CLASS II. MONOCOTYLEDONS.

[Chars. — Embryo, with one cotyledon ; Axial
root, arrested ; Stem, with woody bundles
scattered ; Leaves, with parallel venation ;
Floral whorls in threes.]

DIVISION I. PETALOIDEiE { Hypogyn®.

| Epigynae.

II. GLUMIFERiE.

CHAPTER IV.

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS.

The natural history of wild flowers ought to
begin at the beginning, so let us observe what
takes place when seeds germinate. But, first,
we must understand of what a seed consists, as
they are by no means all alike. If we strip off

42 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the brown skin of an almond, after having soaked
it in water, the white edible Embryo or young
plant remains. This is easily separable into two
halves united at one point. These are the first
two leaves modified to store up reserve food-
materials. Lying between them is a little bud
or Plumule, and at the lower end of this is a
tail-like body called the Radicle. The two leaves
are called Cotyledons. A similar embryo fills the
seed-skin in beans and peas. " Split peas " are
so-called because the two cotyledons have been
separated.

If, now, we examine a grain of wheat or of
Indian corn, we shall find that the embryo only
occupies a small space at one end, at the
wrinkled spot in the wheat. All the rest is
filled with a tissue of cells filled with starch or
oil, and a nitrogenous substance called aleurone.
In these cases, the embryo lives on these nutri-
tious matters outside itself until it has roots, and
leaves when it can assimilate mineral food.

In order to germinate there must be a fitting
temperature, according to the nature of the seeds ;
they must be well moistened throughout, and
have access to air ; for as long as they are per-
fectly dry they will not germinate. Wheat is
particularly short-lived, from four to twelve
years being the maximum period which may be
allowed ; but all stories of " Mummy wheat,"
extracted from the tombs of Egypt, and sup-
posed to be some thousands of years old, having
grown, are utterly false. As, however, this
impossibility is still accepted as a positive fact
by many persons, it may be advisable to give

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 43

more fully some details about it, and at the same
time explain the difference between "Mummy"
and " Egyptian " wheats, for a popular error of
confounding " Mummy wheat" with "Egyptian
wheat" has lasted for at least half a century,
and is not extinct yet ! Perhaps, therefore, a
brief resume' of the subject may not be uninter-
esting to my readers. In 1840, Mr M. Farquhar
Tupper received twelve grains from Sir G. Wil-
kinson, who, it was said, took them with his own
hands out of a vase in an Egyptian tomb. Of
these twelve Mr Tupper asserted that he raised
one plant, which bore two poor ears, one of
which was figured in the Gardeners' Chronicle
(1843, p. 787). Mr Tupper 's account was re-
ported in the Times (Sept. 1840). In the second
and third years the wheat was described as
having recovered its vigour, so that it bore ears
seven and a half inches long, and was so like a
good sample of Col. le Couteur's variety called
" Bellevue Talavera," that even the experienced
eye of that gentleman was unable to detect any
difference. The eminent botanist, Dr Lindley,
then editor of the Gardeners' Chronicle, in a
leading article expressed his belief in the truth of
the survival of the wheat after some 3000 years.

Suspicions, however, were raised ; and a writer,
signing himself " Este," suggested that there had
probably been some tampering by the Arabs
(Gardeners' Chronicle, p. 805).

In 1846, Sir W. Colebroke is said to have
raised several plants from " two grains of
mummy wheat, received in 1842 ;" but it is not
stated whether they were of the original sample,

44 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

or of the produce of those raised by Mr Tupper.
After cultivating them, Sir W. Colebroke re-
marks— " I cannot resist the impression that
this is a winter wheat) and if so, it cannot be
a production of the soil of Egypt; for whence
could the ancient Egyptians draw their supply
of this grain1?" In 1846 the late Professor J.
S. Henslow received six grains from Mr Tupper,
from the plant raised by him. He grew them
with several other varieties of wheat in an ex-
perimental border in his garden ; the following
are his observations — " This-variety was specially
remarkable for its exceeding length of straw and
for flowering much earlier than any of the other
varieties in my garden. In this and" in all other
particulars I could not observe the slightest dif-
ference between an ear of the Bellevue Talavera
and that of the supposed mummy wheat. Both
were also attacked more vigorously than others
by rust and mildew." Suspecting some flaw in
the testimony, application was made to Sir G.
Wilkinson himself for a genuine sample, that it
might be tried among a series of experiments on
the vitality of seeds, which were at that time in
progress under the superintendence of a com-
mittee of the British Association.

On receipt of the sample, great surprise was
felt at the discovery of fragments of grains of
maize (of American origin) intermixed with the
grains of mummy wheat ! This, of course, led
to further inquiry; and the conclusion arrived
at was that the sample had most certainly been
vitiated by the wheat having been placed in the
common corn jars of Cairo !

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 45

It may be added that whenever on other occa-
sions the actual grains of true mummy wheat
have been carefully sown, they have never ger-
minated. Thus, M. Denon, who accompanied
Buonaparte's expedition to Egypt, tried to raise
them in many ways, but he never succeeded. A
Dr Steele also utterly failed in 1857. In fact a
microscopic examination proves that the embryo
is always destroyed, a section crumbling to
powder under the microscope, though the starch
grains are not decomposed, and still colour violet
as usual with iodine.

The popular confusion between "Mummy
wheat" and "Egyptian wheat", is easily ex-
plained. There is a not very rare variety of
"Revets* wheat," which is "proliferous," that
is to say, it bears two or more additional smaller
ears at the base, in consequence of the lower
"spikelets" growing out and becoming supple-
mentary ears. This is supposed to resemble the
ears described in Genesis (xli. 5), and has con-
sequently received the popular name of " Egyp-
tian wheat." The reports of "Mummy wheat"
from Egypt having been grown in this country
has thus given rise to the idea that this variety
of Revets' was actually raised from the old grains
brought from the tombs of Egypt. But as
Professor Hen slow remarked, if Mr Tupper's
experiments were trustworthy, the old Egyptian
wheat must have been identical with the Belle-
vue Talavera, and not at all like our modern
" Egyptian " or the proliferous variety of Revets'.

Finally, it may be noticed that wheat, in this
country at least, is well known to agriculturalists

46

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

to be particularly short lived. " An old farmer,"
writing to the Gardeners' Chronicle (1848, p. 787),
remarks that, "We all know that the seed of the
year is always preferred for sowing; that the
seed of the year before would never be equally
productive ; and that if seed five or six years
old were sown, not half of it would come up."
And I can add, that of apparently sound grains
seventeen years old, not one germinated.

Lastly, it may be added that Arabs impose
upon tourists by taking fresh wheat, rolling it in
Nile mud to give it the same mouse-colour which
characterises mummy wheat, and then passing it
off as such ! So ends the story of Mummy wheat !

The materials stored up as food consist of
starch, sugar, oil, cellulose, and aleurone ; but as
long as they are such they are useless. They
must be converted into substances in a soluble
condition, and capable of being assimilated ; starch
and oil have to be changed into a particular
form of soluble sugar, and the aleurones into
"peptones," as they are called. Now, the way
this is done is exactly like the process in our own
bodies, for these substances stored up are the white
" endosperm/' as botanists call it, but everybody
else "flour," when ground, have to form our own
flesh and bones and nerves, etc. As starch, for
example, passes through the mouth a ferment is
secreted, which partly changes it into sugar ; and
when I say starch, I mean such familiar things
as sago, tapioca, corn-flour, arrowroot, etc., for
these are all precisely the same thing, and have
the same use to the plants from which they are
extracted.

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 47

Whatever the reserve food material may be,
nature supplies a ferment to convert it into
something which the embryo can take up and
utilize to make fresh cell-walls and renew its
-living substance, protoplasm. Water and the
oxygen of the air must enter the seed ; then
these, with a suitable temperature, incite the
embryo to breathe and to bring about the
chemical changes mentioned. Respiration is
as necessary for plant-life as for human beings,
and the effect is the same. It breaks up cer-
tain chemical compounds, as starch, causing
the oxygen of the air to unite with the carbon,
forming carbonic acid gas, which is expired ; but
in so doing force is liberated which can now con-
vert other things into assimilable substances for
growth. A very simple experiment will illustrate
this respiration. If some well-moistened peas be
put into a closed wide-mouthed glass jar, and
placed in a warm place in the dark ; after some
time, if sufficient carbonic acid gas has accumu-
lated, a lighted taper quickly thrust in goes out ;
or if a little lime-water be poured in and well
shaken, it acquires a milky appearance ; because
the carbonic acid has united with the lime and
made chalk-like carbonate of lime.

We will now follow the life-history of a ger-
minating acorn. This, like a bean or almond, has
no flour or endosperm, but the embryo lives
upon itself at first, having two massive coty-
ledons full of starch, etc.

If an acorn be suspended over water in a wide-
mouthed glass jar, the radicle will be seen to
protrude, and will at once grow downwards.

48 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

If the acorn be inverted, the radicle will curl
over, and again grow downwards. As seeds do
precisely the same thing at the antipodes, it is
presumably under the influence of gravity or the
attraction of the earth. It has been found by
Darwin and others that the influence of gravity
only directly affects the "growing point," imme-
diately behind the dead and protecting root-cap.
That is, for a distance of two to three hundredth
parts of an inch. If after the radicle has grown
to some length, the seed be placed horizontally,
then the end will curve downwards, but the bend
is at some distance behind the growing point.
This proves that the influence at the growing spot
near the tip is conveyed up the radicle to a more
or less distant point.

If the *02 to *03 of an inch be removed, gravity
then has no effect.

Besides the influence of gravity^ the radicle
will curve under that of pressure, vapour of
water and light as well ; moving away from light
and pressure; but towards moisture, as well as
the earth.

While growing in a vertical and downward
direction, the radicle " circumnutates," i.e. it
moves round, making, or trying to make, ellipses
or circles, resulting in a more or less zig-zag
motion. This enables the tip to find a place of
least resistance in entering the soil.

To penetrate the soil, the radicle must have
some purchase or means of overcoming the re-
sistance of the soil. Apart from being accidentally
covered with earth, it at once begins to throw out
root-hairs. These are simply epidermal cells

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 49

which elongate, and by a sort of gluey matter
fasten themselves to the particles of the soil.
They thus are like tent ropes, and hold the radicle
firmly while the apex grows. It is found that
only a space of half-a-line grows at a time, all
behind it soon ceases to elongate. The root now
penetrates by means of the forces due to the
longitudinal and transverse growths. Darwin
tried some experiments to ascertain this strength.
He cut a hole in a cleft stick, and allowed the
radicle of a bean to grow through it. After six
days the stick and bean were dug out of the
damp sand, and the fissure, which at first was
closed, now stood open. On removing the radicle
the fissure closed, and it was found necessary to
apply a weight of 8 lb. 8 ozs. to open it to the
same extent as when the radicle was in it. This
weight, however, does not express the really
much greater amount of force used; because
the bean had split the stick on the other side
of the hole to a distance of half-an-inch. So
that the force exerted must have been actually
greater.

If a minute radicle can do this, it is not sur-
prising to find roots of trees uplifting walls and
bursting masonry asunder. Sir J. D. Hooker
writes in his " Primer " on Botany that in shrubs
and trees "the root-fibres as well as the tap-root
thicken as they grow, become woody, and dis-
place the earth laterally as well as in front ;
moreover, with such force does growth go on that
stones of walls are frequently displaced by roots.
In tropical countries the destruction of buildings
is often caused by the power of growing roots ;
D

50

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

and neither conquering nations, nor earthquakes,
nor fires, nor tempests, nor rain, nor all put
together, have destroyed so many works of man
as have the roots of plants which have all
insidiously begun their work as tender fibres."

Darwin refers to Sachs' experiment on tap-
roots, that while they descend vertically, second-
ary roots are much less affected by gravity, for they
branch off at various angles from the main root ;
but if the end of the primary radicle be cut off,
one or more of the nearest secondary fibres now
grows perpendicularly downwards instead of it.
Darwin found that it was not necessary to ampu-
tate the tip ; it is sufficient that the flow of sap
into it should be checked, and consequently
directed into the adjoining secondary radicles.
He observes that this change in the nature of the
secondary radicles is clearly analogous to that
which occurs with the shoots of trees, when the
leading one is destroyed and is afterwards re-
placed by one or more of the lateral shoots ; for
these now grow upright instead of somewhat hori-
zontally. Darwin also notices that this power
must often be of great service to the plant, when
the primary radicle has been destroyed by the
larvae of insects, burrowing animals or any other
accident. He goes on to observe that from this
manner of growth of the various kinds of root-
fibres they are distributed, together with their
absorbent hairs, throughout the surrounding soil,
in the most advantag ous manner ; for the whole
soil is thus closely searched.

The next point to notice is the extreme sensi-
tiveness of the tips of roots to moisture. Sachs

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 51

invented a simple experiment to illustrate it
(Fig. 9). A trough is made of wire gauze filled
with wet moss, in which are some beans. It is
suspended not horizontally, but at a high angle.
As long as the radicles were within the wet moss
and moistened all round, they grew vertically
downwards and their tips protruded from the
meshes. Now, however, there was a contest be-
tween the attraction of the earth and the mois-
ture of the moss on one side of the radicles, as the
radicle made an acute
angle with the sloping
trough. The result
was that the tip turned
aside and re-entered
the trough. But now
finding itself again
surrounded by a moist
medium, the tip turned
downwards and made _ A _

, . mi* Fig. 9. — Diagram representing a wire
ltS Second exit. lniS giuze trough with germinating

process was repeated beans<

two or three times ; so that the radicle actually

threaded the wire guaze.

It is a popular belief of gardeners that roots of
trees, etc., go in search of water ; but the simple
interpretation is that the vapour, arising from, it
may be underground water at a considerable dis-
tance off, penetrates and reaches the tips of the
roots, which now being influenced grow in the
direction from which the moisture comes.

Eadicles and roots are also sensitive to mechani-
cal irritants, such as stones or other obstructions,
which cause the tip to bend away from them.

52

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Darwin made some interesting experiments by
fixing a small piece of card to one side of the tip
of a radicle suspended in mid-air. Instead of con-
tinuing to grow downwards it curved away in an
opposite direction to the side on which the card
was fixed, as if trying to get away from it. The
tip, thus, not only completed one circle but a
second, and actually passed through the loop,
thereby tying itself into a tight knot.1 A long
radish was once dug up and found to be thus tied.
It could not be accounted for until Darwin's ex-
periment gave the most probable explanation. A
remarkable difference appears to exist between
the sensitiveness of the apex, and that at a point
a little above it, viz., from *12 to *16 inch. For
when this part was touched, the radicle turned
towards the object, just as tendrils do. This
accounts for the fact that certain plants which
have aerial roots, as epiphytal orchids crawl
round their means of support. In a subterranean
root this curvature round an obstruction is some-
what abrupt, so that the root at once resumes its
downward direction.

We must now observe what takes place with
the plumule, which is destined to develop into
the stem above ground. It would seem that the
original determining cause was light; and as
illumination is from the sky the plumules rise
in response to it,2 and if the incident light comes
from a lateral source, the shoot bends and grows

1 See Darwin's "Movements of Plants," p. 179, fig. 69.

2 If the reader desire for the evidence in support of
this conclusion, I must refer him to my " Origin of Plant
Structures," ch. x. p. 197.

THE GERMINATION OF WILD FLOWERS. 53

towards it, as in an ill-lighted room. Plants
may, indeed, be induced to grow upside down.
An experiment has been made by growing seeds
on a perforated shelf near the bottom of an
inverted box, only lighted from below by a
mirror reflecting light upwards into the box.
Under these conditions the plumules grew
downwards.

There are two ways adopted by germinating
seeds. In the case of the acorn the cotyledons
remain below ground and the plumule rises at
once and grows up, but in the mustard and cress,
beech, etc., the cotyledons are elevated into the
air by the lengthening upwards of the radicle,
which now becomes a stem. The cotyledons
then turn green and perform the functions of
true leaves. The plumule remains dormant as a
bud between them ; and when it subsequently
develops in mustard, we consider it too old to
be edible.

Whether it be the plumule which first rises
out of the ground or the radicle, they always
commence in the form of an arch in preparation
for freeing themselves from the superincumbent
soil ; and the way they do this is well described
by Darwin in the following illustration. He
says — " We may suppose a man to be thrown
down on his hands and knees, and at the same
time to one side, by a load of hay falling on him.
He would first endeavour to get his arched back
upright, wriggling at the same time in all direc-
tions (i.e. in imitation of the circumnutating
plumule during its growth) to free himself a little
from the surrounding pressure ; still wriggling

54 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

he would then raise his arched back as high as
he could ; and this may represent the growth
and continued circumnutation of the arched
stem before it has reached the surface of the
ground. As soon as the man felt himself at all
free, he would raise the upper part of his body
while still on his knees and still wriggling ; and
this may represent the bowing backwards of the
basal leg of the arch, which in most cases aids
in the withdrawal of the cotyledons from the
buried and ruptured seed-coats, and the subse-
quent straightening of the whole stem — circum-
nutation still continuing." 1

We have thus traced the history of a wild
flower through its first stage from the embryo in
the seed to the period when it has developed
roots in the soil and has elevated its plumule
above ground, which we will suppose has now
produced its first year's leaves.

We must now proceed to consider what the
roots are about, to maintain the life of a plant.

CHAPTER V.

ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS.

Roots assume a great variety of forms accord-
ing to circumstances under which the plants
grow, and to their requirements ; and when we
see how they change their forms under cultiva-
tion, we can understand how they were acquired
in nature.

1 " The Movements of Plants," p. 106.

ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS. 55

Thus of our root-crops, radishes, turnips, par-
snips, carrots, etc., the wild flowers from which
they are derived have long, spindly or wir y and
tough roots utterly unsuited for food. Tie
ancients did not know much, if anything, of the
art of " selecting," now practised by all horticul-
turists, by which our vegetables are " ennobled ; ;;
but they used to bring the wild plants from the
fields and plant them in a rich soil ; so that they
became a little better in the second year; but
they complained that they could not get rid of
the "strong" flavour, as of the parsnip.

As I shall have an opportunity in the last
chapter to speak more at length of the origin of
garden " roots," I will not do so at present. The
obvious advantage to us is that the tap-root
becomes greatly enlarged under cultivation and
supplies us with valuable root-crops.

Conversely, the effect of growing in water, is
an arrest of the primary or tap-root ; so that it
may be feebly developed only, or even not at all.
This can be well seen if the seeds of our Water-
crowfoot be grown in a glass bowl of water
with earth at the bottom. As soon as they have
germinated, various conditions of arrest of the
roots will be found on the little plantlets. This
feature is elsewhere discussed, to show how the
permanent condition of an arrest of the primary
root is one of the numerous features of Mono-
cotyledons, that lead us to the inference that this
Class is descended from aquatic Dicotyledons.

Moisture, however, will often have an opposite
effect, namely, it stimulates, not only the axial
but secondary and other rootlets into vigorous

56 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

growth. I have, for instance, a turnip plant, the
primary root of which entered a field drain-pipe
and spent all its energy in elongating, being
stimulated to do so by the moisture, so that
when extracted it was upwards of six feet in
length. Sometimes such pipes get completely
choked up with a dense mass of fine root-fibres
of trees, etc., stimulated to multiply by the
constant presence of moisture.

Other illustrations of greatly elongated tap-
roots are seen in many plants of the deserts.
These only grow along the wadys or water-
courses, but they are dry for nine or ten months
of the year. The annuals and others, too, send
down very elongated slender roots to reach the
deep-seated water. Thus Dr Aitchison observed
in Beluchistan that several of the Astragali (the
genus, the gum of which is called Tragacanth),
have long whip-like roots, the bark of which is
employed as twine by the people. In the desert,
near Cairo, a plant of Monsonia nivea (allied to
Geranium), of one year's growth may be seen
between July and January to have a small
rosette of three or four leaves, while the roots
may be twenty inches in length. Again, the
Colocynth has an enormous length of root, in
order to maintain its existence. It stands singly,
has large herbaceous leaves, without any means
of preventing an excess of transpiration, as a cut
shoot fades within five minutes, and yet it
flourishes unshadowed through the whole summer.

The cause of the long tap-roots of so many
desert plants is, of course, the responsive power
of the apices to moisture, or hydrotropism.

ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS. 57

Another adaptation to the arid conditions of a
desert is the capability of storing water in all
parts of plants. In some cases this is done by
the roots, as in the cortical regions of grasses.
In three species of the Stork's-bill there are
tuberous enlargements on the roots, which are
water and not starch-bearing structures. Similar
structures occur on the lowest internodes of the
culms, or shoots of grasses, in other countries.
It is interesting to note that they only occur in
dry seasons, and not at all in wet ones. When
experiments were made in growing Poa bullosa
in moist soil, it almost lost its bulbous character,
clearly proving, therefore, that these productions
are the direct result of drought.

These tuberous swellings on the subterranean
stems are, therefore, clearly analogous with those
on the roots of Stork's-bill, some being potato-like
tubercles, others finger-shaped or spindle-like.
They all contain a storage tissue protected exter-
nally by a strong many-layered cortical coating.
Their position being between the absorbing root-
apices and the foliar transpiring surfaces, they act
as reservoirs, and regulate the supply of water.

Other reservoirs in the leaves and stems will
be described in speaking of tropical and other
plants in the next volume.

Many plants have what are called contractile
roots. These have for their function to draw the
plant into the soil. They are especially well seen
in tubers and corms, etc. For the depth at which
these thrive best is characteristic of its kind, and
so the tubers, etc., have to be taken down to the
proper level underground.

58 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

The shortening of the contractile root, by
means of which the process is effected, is seen
in the transverse wrinkling on the surface, say,
of a carrot. It begins on the oldest and upper-
most part of the root after elongation has ceased,
and follows the growth to the apex. It may
be readily observed in garden roots of parsnip,
etc. It is due to a change in the
forms of the cells of the surface-
tissues. They undergo a contraction
in a longitudinal direction, accom-
panied with radial extension. There
is a simultaneous absorption of
water. The root though now
shorter increases in bulk.

The amount of shortening may
vary from 5 to 40 per cent., the
result being that the whole plant
is more or less pulled down into
the ground.

If the corm of a crocus be ex-
amined they will be seen to have
two sorts, fine, absorbing roots, and
thicker contractile ones (Fig. 11).

A good illustration may be seen
in the tips of bramble stems, which
arching over a hedge, ultimately reach the ground.
They then strike root, and the roots pull the tip
of the shoot well into the soil.

It is not all plants that bear contractile roots,
for they are wanting in the colchicum ; but this
is compensated for, as we shall see presently.

If a seed of the Lords and Ladies be sown at
the surface, it develops a little globular tuber at

Fig. 11. — Fine,
absorbing, and
thick, contractile
root of Crocus.

ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS. 59

a depth of about one inch. Next year this is
carried down by contractile roots to a depth of
two inches. When full-grown, the tuber, in the
third year, will be at a level of four inches below
the surface.

If it be now raised and placed just under the
soil, new contractile roots are formed, which at
once begin to set to work to try to lower the
tuber to its proper depth.

In the case of the crocus, the new corms will
be found growing from the summit of the old
one, which decays after sending up the flower.
Each cormlet produces a large contractile root
which sometimes penetrates the old corm. By
its means the young corm is ultimately dragged
down to the level of the old and now flattened
and decayed parent corm.

The colchicum, however, as stated, has no con-
tractile roots. These are compensated for by a
curious provision of the stem. The depth to
which the corms attain in the colchicum is
somewhat considerable, after it has been grow-
ing for several years. The downward growth is
effected in the following manner. The new
corm always rises laterally at the base of the
old one ; but when a corm has not yet reached
its normal level of about 6 inches; as, e.g.
after germination, or if a full-grown corm be
planted too high in the soil, the portion of the
corm, which, of course, is stem-structure, from
which the new corm develops, does not project
horizontally, but points downwards, so that the
new corm is formed slightly below the level of
the old one. This procedure is continued year

60

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

after year, till the corm finds itself at its proper
subterranean level. In this plant, therefore,
roots have nothing to do with the descending
series of corms (Fig. 12).

Besides contractile roots on tubers, etc.^ many
other cases occur in which this phenomenon may
be observed, as, for example, on the runners of
strawberries ; these root at the joints where the
young plants are formed, and the roots will draw
the little tuft-like plants half-
an-inch below the soil.

Rock plants, again, as primu-
las, etc., with their roots in
crevices, are thus drawn into
them; for, if it were not so,
as the stem increases annually
in length, producing a fresh
tuft of leaves every year, in
fig. 12. —corm of Coi- ten years there would be at
chicum. a. with ieast f0Ur inches of stem pro-

descendmg bud ; b. . , . , r

with lateral bud jecting ; but the last years
(after Oliver). growth occupies the same place
as the first, because freshly-formed contractile
roots continually pull the year's portion of stem
into the same place occupied by the former, as
this decays away.

The elevation of roots and stems of trees out
of the ground may often be noticed. It is caused
by the continual increase in size of the woody
roots. The tap-root of the seedling tree soon
ceases to grow, for all the moisture as a rule
comes from above. Strong secondary roots run
under the surface of the soil, radiating in all
directions; as may be seen when a tree has

ROOTS OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS. 61

been torn up by the roots in a gale, and blown
down.

These roots increase annually in an exogenous
manner, layer after layer just as the stem does.
This growth exerts a lateral pressure on the soil
above, thrusting it upwards ; while the com-
pressed soil below the root prevents its sinking,
and acts as a means of resistance in raising the
superficial soil.

The thick woody root ultimately becomes
visible as the soil gets loosened and washed
away by the rain, till it is entirely stripped of
the earth from above.

Now, as all the roots grow alike, the stem of
the tree becomes raised, and thus is explained
the peculiar appearance of many old pines, oaks,
ashes, etc.

The elevation of the trees called " Mangroves "
in the tropical swamps at the mouths, etc., of
rivers, has often been noticed by travellers.
They are not, however, supported by secondary
roots arising from the primary or tap-root ; but by
means of " adventitious roots " issuing out of the
base of the stem, just as occurs in all monocoty-
ledons, though the mangroves are dicotyledonous
trees. As these roots lengthen and thicken, the
young trees are raised above the mud, and then
look as if supported on stilts.

It may be noted that the mangroves are trees of
two very distinct families of no affinities whatever.
One kind of the true, mangroves,1 as they might
be called, belong to the Division Calyciflorae. The
others to the Verbena family, belonging to the
1 Wiizophorece.

G2

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

GamopetalaB. In both, the characteristic feature
of the arrest of the primary root takes place, as
in other aquatic plants. Then, there are the screw-
pines, which are true monocotyledons, and sup-
ported in a precisely similar manner. Hence is
the justifiable inference, that growing under the
same conditions similar results have followed in
the structure and habit of those trees.

Another, but exceptional, function of roots is
the propagative. They do not, as a rule, produce

fig. is. -shoot arising washed away their horizontal
from horizontal root of roots become exposed. Then
Raspbeiry. a whole crop of elm-under-

wood springs up, and, in fact, not infrequently it
makes a complete elm-hedge. Plum trees and their
allies, as apricots and peaches, are very prone to be
exceedingly troublesome in sending up quantities
of shoots from their roots. While the raspberry
will spread to a considerable distance, not by
suckers, which are shoots from underground stems,
but by budding from the slender roots (Fig. 13.)

Of course, such shoots really represent Nature's
method of vegetative propagation, because any
shoot can grow into a new herb or tree as the
case may be.

leafy buds ; but there are
many exceptions. A rather
general one is, that when
roots of trees are exposed
to the air and light, they often
do so; and as it frequently
happens that elm-trees have
been planted in a hedge, as
the earth from the bank gets

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS. 63

Gardeners take advantage of the facilities
offered by peaches to propagate them by means of
their roots. They take off spare roots, and placing
them on a gentle bottom heat, they will start into
leafy growth, and then begin to form new roots,
thus together laying the foundation of a new plant.

In speaking of roots, we must not forget a use
to which Nature puts them, viz., as instruments
for climbing. The ivy is the most familiar ex-
ample with us. These roots naturally arise on
the shaded side of the stem, i.e., towards the wall
or tree against which the ivy may be growing.
When the roots reach the wall, the contact excites
the superficial cells — as also it does with the
aerial roots of epiphytal orchids — to secrete a
gummy matter which fixes them ver}r firmly, so
that they cannot be removed as a rule, at least
when young, without tearing them to pieces.

Foreign plants have far more elaborate methods
of utilising roots growing in the air; some of which
I shall consider in the second volume of "The
Story of Wild Flowers," which wrill be more especi-
ally concerned with plants of foreign countries.

CHAPTER VI.

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS, AND THEIR
MODIFICATIONS.

Like flowers, the forms of leaves seem to be
infinitely diverse ; but they too, are reducible
to a simple arrangement, based upon their evolu-
tionary history. Indeed, we can see, even now,

64 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

how many can change considerably, when the
environment is altered, both in external form
and internal anatomy. Thus, one of the most
powerful agents in effecting changes is the amount
of light received by leaves, coupled with their
positions in regard to it.

A leaf usually consists of two parts, the leaf-
stalk or petiole and the blade or lamina.

Many leaves have also appendages situated at
the insertion of the petiole, called stipules. These
are either entirely free from it as in the lime, in
which they form bud-scales and soon fall off in
spring-time ; or they may form wing-like append-
ages to the petiole, as on the leaf -stalks of the
rose, strawberry and clover. What is called the
skeleton of the leaf, when all else has decayed, is
the woody framework upon which the green tis-
sues are spread out to receive the light. It is a net-
work constructed of what has been foolishly called
" ribs," "veins," and " nerves," according to their
size, the leaf being said to have a reticulated
"venation " if it belong to a Dicotyledon, and a
parallel, at most a " curvinerved " venation, if it
be a Monocotyledon, allowing for exceptional
cases.

The fibro-vascular-bundles 1 of which the skele-
ton is composed are derived from the cylinder of
wood in the stem. This is really, at least in most
cases, composed of isolated cords, but close to-
gether, with only a single layer of cells called the
medullary rays, between them. One, three, five or
more of these cords, pass outwards through the
cortex or outermost tissue of the stem and enter
1 For shortness I will call these (< cords."

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS. 65

the leaf-stalk. They then run up it, parallel to one
another till they reach the blade, in which they
either form the mid-rib, which gives off lateral
branches, i.e. " pinnately - nerved, " or diverge,
to form a " palmately-nerved " blade ; the finer
branchlets " anastomose" i.e. unite together, leav-
ing ultimately very small interstitial places. It
thus forms a stiff framework, in order to make
the large surface for exposure to light. They also
carry the fluids up and down which are concerned
in the processes of " transpiration " and " assimi-
lation."

The reader will find it an interesting subject
to pursue, to notice how the mechanical diffi-
culties of supporting heavy leaves are overcome.
In many, the lower end of the petiole widens
into a triangular broad and thickened base of
attachment called the "pulvinus." The leaf usu-
ally articulates at the bottom of the pulvinus
when it is time to fall, as may be seen in the
Horse-chestnut. As the whole weight of the blade
and petiole has to be supported at this point, the
strain is, of course, entirely felt there, and the
longer the petiole and the greater the blade, the
stronger must be the base of the petiole so that
the leverage may overcome the weight due to
^gravity. If a young growing leaf be found cap-
able of breaking with a certain additional weight
suspended from the petiole, and a slightly less
weight be attached to a petiole of a similar size,
i.e. just insufficient to snap it off ; after some
days, it will be discovered that this petiole will
be able to bear a much greater strain than if it
had not been subjected to an artificial weight at

E

66 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

all. In other words, just as an athlete's muscles
increase by use, so do plants respond by making
efforts to meet strains of all sorts put upon them.
This effort is seen in the increase of the so-called
mechanical tissues, such as woody-fibre, liber-
fibre, hardened cellular tissue called " scleren-
chyma," and " collenchyma," etc. But, besides
this, the arrangement of the cords is strictly
adapted to gain this end. When the leaf is very
large, the base of attachment increases and gradu-
ally, so to say, spreads and clasps the stem more
or less all round it as a sheath. In some plants
the two ends of the horse-shoe-like base almost
meet. In others they do so entirely and so make
a complete sheath. The former is common in
"Umbellifers," the latter is usual in palms. More-
over the sheath is, in palms, provided with
additional means of strength m having a double
set of fibres interlacing one another diagonally.
They thus form a powerful aid to the enormous
petiole which often has to carry at its end a
gigantic blade.

The petiole will be often observed to be grooved
on the upper side, as in large leaves of umbel-
lifers, the ash, etc., a section giving a horse-shoe
shape or that of a U thickened at the bottom.
Now, the use of these upper edges is precisely the
same as flanges to a girder, they resist a trans-
verse fracture ; for a round, horizontal rod will
be found easier to break with a weight than
one provided with these flanges. It will be re-
membered that Fox's umbrella-stays are made on
this principle.

The usual distribution of cords in a petiole is

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS. 67

to have the two " lateral " ones taking a rather
higher position in a grooved petiole than the
central and larger one, below. The reader will
now see the significance of this arrangement, the
flanges being extra growths over these cords.
The interpretation of this arrangement is to
acquire strength so as to resist the tendency of the
petiole to break under the weight of the leaf itself.

Some petioles are
quite round like a stem.
When this is the case
the cords are arranged
in a complete circle, i.e.
precisely as in a stem,
nature having found that
arrangement to be the
best under the circum-
stances. This occurs in
the Sycamore Maple.

As a readily observ-
able instance of change, it Fig. 14. — Climbing flower-stalk of
may be noticed that When Uncaria, thickened after catch-

J . , - ~, mg a support.

a petiole of a Clematis,

etc. (Fig. 14), has caught hold of a neighbouring
shoot, it coils round it and then begins to thicken
and strengthen itself, as it has now to bear a portion
of the weight of the plant. To do this the space
between the isolated cords is filled up by others
until a complete cylinder of wood is made.

The general law, therefore, is that in propor-
tion as the weight of a leaf increases, so does the
mechanical machinery develop itself to meet the
strain, and even more tissue than is actually
required for safety ; and nature can always

68 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

adopt various contrivances to meet individual
cases.

Now, let us consider the origin of the various
kinds of leaf-blades among wild flowers.

The simplest form of leaf has a single cord
running up the middle of the blade, called the
"mid-rib," with an uninterrupted or "entire"
margin. An ivy leaf arising from the free shoot
from the top of a wall or high up a tree-trunk
will illustrate this ; but not only may the margin
be "toothed" or "serrated" like the leaflets of
a rose-leaf, but it may be deeply indented so to
become " lobed," as is the ivy leaf of the stem
when adherent to a wall, etc., by means of ad-
hesive roots.

The indentation producing the projecting lobes
may be of various depths in different leaves, till
the mid-rib is reached.1 But as long as the
parts are united at all at their bases along the
mid-rib, the blade still remains "simple." If,
however, they are completely separated, then the
leaf is called " compound/7 and the separate
parts are now called leaflets. Such is very charac-
teristic of the Pea-family ; thus clover and melilot
have three leaflets, and are called "trifoliate,"
hence the name "trefoil " is a synonym for clover.
The garden acacia has two rows of leaflets, and is
then said to be "pinnate.'*

That all compound leaves have been evolved
from simple ones is obvious from the existence of
numerous transitional conditions to be found in
many plants. Thus a good search on blackberry
bushes will reveal simple leaves situated near the

1 All sorts of degrees may be seen in oak-leaves.

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS. 69

flowers, then leaves with three leaflets and also
with five may be found ; as well as leaves in which
the lower pair are lobed, foreshadowing the
separation of the basal portions into distinct
leaflets. In the common cinque-foil all states
from a single, simple blade to three, five, and
even seven, leaflets can readily be found.

If the leaflets radiate from the top of the leaf-
stalk as in the last-mentioned, or as in a Lupin
or Horse-chestnut, the origin is precisely the same,
only instead of the original simple leaf having a
strong mid-rib, several of equal strength radiate
from the top of the petiole at the base of the
blade. Then each of these supply mid-ribs to as
many leaflets, when it forms a compound " pal-
mate " leaf. Such is due to an arrested condition
of the mid-rib, supplemented, however, by several
ribs instead, as in a geranium leaf.

Compound leaves, therefore, of both types are
referable to simple leaves of corresponding forms.

A good illustration of the origin of the primary
lobing process may be seen in a long, vigorous,
annual shoot of the common snowberry of our
shrubberies. At first, when vigour is only in its
initial stage, the shoot bears small oval and entire
leaves. When it arrives at its maximum degree
of strength the leaves are large and lobed. But
at the end of growth the leaves are once more
small, oval and entire.

This shows that lobing is correlated with the
most vigorous condition, when the struggle be-
tween vigour in developing the stem, and " assimi-
lation " to supply material for development of
the leaves as well, are not equal. The result

70 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

being that the entire outline of the leaf, i.e. by
joining all the apices of the lobes, cannot be fully
completed.

Now, everything, as it has been said, tends to
become hereditary. Whatever was the primary
cause of "lobing," it has become a " fixed" char-
acter in all plants in which it is at present a
characteristic feature.

We cannot always trace the hidden causes of
outward forms, but we may reasonably speculate.
Thus, the difference between the large mostly
five-lobed leaves of the ivy when climbing and
the small oval leaves on freely growing branches
of the same, seem to be correlated with the energy
displayed in making the stems. In those stems
which are supported by adhesive roots, more pith
and less wood is found than in those which have
to support themselves in the air, in which the
woody cylinder is relatively thicker in stems of
the same diameter as in the former condition.
It would seem, therefore, that as materials are
required to strengthen the stem, leaf-producing
energy is lessened, and it only produces the more
primitive type of foliage.

Let us now trace the causes of some other
types of foliage. It is readily seen that when
leaves can place their blades horizontally, so as to
be well illuminated from above, they have a more
or less considerable amount of breadth.
v When they stand erect from the habit of living
crowded, as of grasses and sedges, pinks and carna-
tions, thrift, stitchwort, and many others, the
leaves are more or less of a narrow or " linear "
form, as has been already observed ; and experi-

THE LEAVES OF WILD FLOWERS.

71

ments show that plants can be more or less
actually induced to make variations in the breadth
of their leaves, according as they are made to
grow more or less illuminated. Hence we obtain
a clue to, at least, a general cause to account for
differences in breadth. This also explains the
ribbon-like form of
leaf of so many sub-
merged leaves, especi-
ally of Monocotyle-
dons, as water cuts
off a very consider-
able amount of light,
especially laterally,
the chief and only i
source, of course,
being from above ; so
the leaves, or rather
"phyllodes," ue. flat-
tened petioles, con-
tinue to grow upwards
till they reach the
surface of the water ;

d., . ..-ii ,i Fig. 15. — Potamogeton heteropliyllus.

it is not till then

that a horizontal and broad blade is made, as
of a Pond-weed, which possesses linear leaves
below the surface, and broad elliptical blades
floating upon it (Fig. 15.)

It is not in the outward form only that the
difference is observable, but it lies in the anato-
mical structure as well. As a rule, e.g. the breath-
ing pores or stomata are mainly or entirely on
the underside of aerial and horizontal blades.
In a vertically growing blade, however, they are

72 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

equally distributed on both sides, while the ad-
jacent cells of the epidermis may take on the
same characteristic shapes in plants of widely
different families, as of thrift, a Dicotyledon, and
a grass, a Monocotyledon.

All the details, which I need not further specify
now, show how readily structures will change, as
soon as external conditions are altered. The
changes, be it observed, are always for the benefit
of the plant, by putting them in better adaptation
with their environment.

CHAPTER VII.

STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR USES.

Many families, as those of the Rose and Pea, as
well as of the Lime, Elm and Oak, are regularly
provided with stipules, as the two appendages at
the base of the leaves are called. They assume
a great variety of forms, and may all be regarded
as basal portions of the leaf itself. For just as
the usual lowermost pair of leaflets of any pinnate
leaf are provided with a petiole and mid-rib, the
woody cords of which issue from the main petiole
of the leaf ; so, too, the fibro-vascular cords w^hich
enter the stipules always arise from the lateral
cords which enter the petiole of the leaf. Since,
however, they issue out of the stem itself, before
the petiole is entirely external to the stem, the
two stipules often appear to have nothing to do
with the leaf, other than always taking their rise
close to the base of it, one on either side.

STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR USES. 73

Still there are so many cases in which the
stipules form a sort of wing to the petiole itself,
as in the rose, that the origin, in such cases,
seems to be clearly appendicular to the petiole,
and issuing out of it.

The stem of a Dicotyledon has, of course, a
cylinder of wood composed of numerous distinct
cords only separated by single layers of cells,
called the medullary rays. One, three, or more of
these enter the petiole of the leaf. They do not
pass from the cylinder in contiguity ; but while
the central cord goes directly into the petiole, a
pair issue at a little distance from it ; and, it may
be, another still further off, till, in some cases,
a whole series pass into it. When that is the
case, the petiole is seen to widen out at the base,
and make a sheath, more or less grasping the
stem.

Now, when there are stipules, the cords which
enter them invariably branch off from the lateral
cords which belong to the petiole of the leaf, and never
issue directly out of the cylinder of the stem
itself.

This is easily observable in some soft-wooded
stem, as of a geranium. If it be cut across at a
node, and a few thin sections be made through
the base of the stipule and below it, and then
held up to the light, the origin of the stipular
cords can be traced without much difficulty.

If there be two, i.e. opposite leaves at a node,
then a horizontal cord runs completely round the
stem, external to the cylinder joining the outer-
most cords of the petiole. This is called the
stipular zone, because the stipular cords — usually

74

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

four in number, as there are two stipules to each
leaf — issue out of it.

This zone is easily seen in the common cleavers ;
for if a thin section be made just above and
below the whorl of so-called leaves, and held up
to the light, it will be readily seen that true
stem-cords only enter two of them (Fig. 16.)
One of these can usually be recognised as a true
leaf by the bud in its axil; the
other true leaf will be situated
exactly opposite to it. All the
rest, though assuming the exact
form, and, of course, the functions
as well, of leaves, have their cords,
which make the mid-ribs, issuing
from the zone, and never from the
stem-cylinder itself. Hence all but
two of the " leaves " are really
stipules.

Having thus made the stipular
zone to supply stipules with cords,
Nature sometimes takes advantage
of it, and increases the number of
stipules. Thus while the dwarf species found
commonly in heaths has the right number of two
to each leaf, the Lady's Bedstraw or Yellow
Galium has from eight to twelve in a whorl.

The family to which the galiums belong contains
the coffee and cinchona trees. These have only
two stipules ; but our four genera, the woodruff,
madder, blue sherardia, and galium, have at
least four, so that, as they are all leaf-like, they
look like a radiating leafy star. Hence botanists
make a tribe of them, which they call Stellatce.

Fig. 16. — Trans-
verse section of
node of Galium,
showing three
lateral cords for
each leaf ; and
four for four
stipules arising
from the stipular
zone. The in-
ternal semi-
circles form the
stem -cylinder of
cords.

STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR USES. 75

Botanists place the Valerian family as immedi-
ately following the Madder family. Now this
never has stipules, yet if the stem of the Eed
Valerian (which grows abundantly on walls and
rocks, and is in fact quite naturalised, though
really being an escape from cultivation) be ex-
amined as explained with the cleavers, a stipular
zone will be found, and four or five short cords
radiating from it, but they do not reach the
surface, and there are no stipules at all. This
means that the plant's ancestors had stipules, but
they have disappeared and nothing but rudi-
mentary cords which formerly entered them
are retained. Other rudiments are common in
plants, and are always interesting as pointing
to former structures which are now no longer
of use. Analogous cases occur in the animal
kingdom ; thus serpents, the slow-worm — which
is really a kind of lizard and not a snake at all —
and, again, whales have rudiments of hind legs
beneath the skin but not visible externally ;
showing that all those animals have been de-
scended from quadrupeds. Having, however,
become adapted to a different method of pro-
gression, either one pair, of both pairs of limbs
have atrophied and all but disappeared.

In some of the pea family the stipules are
large and leaf-like, or foliaceous, as it is said, as
of the garden pea. The two stipules are when
young pressed together in a vertical direction,
forming a sheath for protecting the bud be-
tween them. Subsequently they acquire all leaf
functions in compensation for the loss of some
of the leaflets which are turned into tendrils

76 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

for climbing purposes. In our Yellow Vetchling,1
the whole of the leaf has become a fine thread-
like tendril; so the large triangular-shaped
stipules have to do the entire work of the
leaves.

Stipules are also foliaceous in the pansy and
hawthorn tree.

In the oak, beech, lime, elm, etc., the stipules
acquire a totally different function, for they are
employed as bud-scales. Being formed in the
autumn for protecting the delicate parts of the
next year's shoots ; so as soon as the buds
expand in spring, the brown stipular scales
fall off.

In many cases — perhaps it may be regarded
as their chief function — stipules protect the bud
in the axil of the leaf. In severai species of
plants in the deserts they are almost rudimentary,
being like a thin white, membranous, nearly
dry scale ; and as the internodes are very short,
they seem to clothe the whole plant with silvery
scales. They shield the plant's buds from the
intense heat and glare by reflecting them. We
have allied plants in England called the Sandwort-
Spurreys. In these stipules the converse to the
Valerian has taken place; because although the
stipule has remained in a very degraded form,
it has no mid-rib at all. The same remark is
applicable to the rudimentary stipules of the
common Dog's Mercury.

In some trees and shrubs, the stipules have
assumed a spinescent form, and often of a very
formidable character; so that when they are
1 Lathyrus Aphaca.

STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR USES. 77

used as hedges they are very effective as protec-
tions. There are two species of Acacia used for
this purpose in S. Africa, the Kaffir bush and
the "Wait-a-bit" thorn bush (Fig. 16.)

One of the most curious uses to which these
stipular thorns have
been put, is by ants
as a domicile. Mr
Belt, in his work
"The Naturalist
in Nicaragua, ;? thus
writes: — " There is
a species of Acacia
with bi-pinnate
leaves, growing to a
height of fifteen to
twenty feet. The
branches and trunk
are covered with
strong curved
spines, set in pairs,
from which it re-
ceives the name of
the bulPs-horn
thorn, they having
a very strong re-
semblance to the
horns of that

quadruped. These Fig.IT. — Acacia with spinescent stipules.

thorns are hollow, and are tenanted by ants,
that make a small hole for their entrance and
exit near one end of the thorn, and also burrow
through the partition that separates the two
horns ; so that the one entrance serves for

78 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

both. Here they rear their young, and in the
wet season every one of the thorns is tenanted ;
and hundreds of ants are to be seen running
about, especially over the young leaves. If one
of these be touched, or a branch shaken, the
little ants swarm out from the hollow thorns
and attack the aggressor with jaws and sting.
They sting severely, raising a little white lump
that does not disappear in less than twenty-four
hours.

" These ants form a most efficient standing
army for the plant, which prevents not only the
mammalia from browsing on the leaves, but de-
livers it from the attacks of a much more danger-
ous enemy — the leaf-catting ants. For these
services the ants are not only securely housed
by the plant, but are provided with a bountiful
supply of food ; and to secure their attendance
at the right time and place, this food is so
arranged and distributed as to effect that object
with wonderful perfection. The leaves are bi-
pinnate. At the base of each pair of leaflets, in
the mid-rib, is a crater-formed gland, which,
when the leaves are young, secrets a honey-like
liquid. Of this the ants are very fond ; and
they are constantly running about from one
gland to another to sip the honey as it is secreted.
But this is not all ; there is a still more wonder-
ful provision of more solid food. At the end of
each of the small divisions or leaflets there is,
when the leaf first unfolds, a little yellow fruit-
like body united by a point at its base to the end
of the pinnule. Examined through a micro
scope, this little appendage looks like a golden

STIPULES OF WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR USES. 79

pear. When the leaf first unfolds, the little pears
are not quite ripe, and the ants are continually
employed going
from one to an-
other, examining
them. When an
ant finds one
sufficiently ad-
vanced, it bites
the small point of
attachment ; then,
bending down the
fruit-like body, it
breaks it off and
bears it away in
triumph to the
nest. All the
fruit -like bodies
do not ripen at
once, but succes-
sively, so that the
ants are kept
about the young
leaf for some time
after it unfolds.
Thus the young
leaf is always
guarded by the
ants, and no cater-
pillar or larger
animal could attempt to injure them without
being attacked by the little warriors. The fruit-
like bodies are about one-twelfth of an inch long,
and are about one-third of the size of the ant, so

Fig. 18. — Acacia cornigera. (Photo, of
leaf 5 nat. size.) The honey-gland
is situated just above the horn-like
stipules. The fruit-like bodies appear
as terminal points to the leaflets.

80

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

that the ant bearing one away is as heavily laden
as a man bearing a large branch of plantains"
(Fig. 18).

Stipules, as well as petioles, may be nectari-
ferous, as for example is the case with our common
tares which secrete honey in sunny weather from
glands on the stipules.

The " Crown of Thorns " was probably made
of the flexible shoots of a plant common in the
east, known to botanists as Paliurus, and allied
to our buckthorns. The " thorns " are stipules. In
another species the stipular thorns are all curved
downwards like those of brambles, and for the
same purpose, that of scrambling over the
hedges, etc.

The tendrils of the bryony have been regarded
as stipules, since they issue from the stem close
to a leaf ; but the origin is a little anomalous. If
a section be made, it will be found that the cords
do not form a perfect cylinder, but are some-
what scattered, as occurs in the leaf-stalk of the
rhubarb, and in all Monocotyledonous stems.
In these, transverse cords are formed at the
nodes uniting them together, and forming a
sort of network from which cords enter the
leaf, and also the tendril in the case of the
bryony ; so that it may be really called ' ' stipular,"
though its origin is a little anomalous.

I have alluded to the rhubarb, and the stipules
of this plant, as of all its allies of the same family,
viz., that containing the docks, knotgrass, &c,
are united so as to form a complete sheath round
the stem. This encloses the petiole, and so, as
it were, binds it to the main stem, and gives it

VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION.

81

great support. This support in the case of palms
is secured in a similar way, only it is in these
the sheathing base of the petiole itself, which
completely wraps round the trunk of the tree.

It may be noticed how remarkably weak the
leaf-stalk of the rhubarb is, in that a slight pres-
sure causes it to snap in two. This is due to the
fact that the cords are not arranged as in most
leaves, but scattered throughout the petiole, just
as in all Monocotyledonous stems. There is no
union between them to impart strength. A walk-
ing-stick made of coconut wood, or other palm,
though much stronger, often breaks with com-
parative ease, for the same reason ; as the wood
consists of isolated cords penetrating pith, which
last, though harder than in the soft tissue of a
leaf-stalk of the rhubarb, is in reality the same
thing, and therefore of a treacherous material for
a staff.

CHAPTER VIII.

VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION OF WILD FLOWERS.

Besides the propagation of plants by seeds,
the various methods adopted by the vegetative
system of plants for multiplication is very curious.
I propose to discuss some of them in this chapter.

Buds, in the form of bulbils or cormlets, are
sometimes formed, and readily detached from the
aerial parts of plants. Thus in the so-called
bulbiferous lily and coral-wort, little bulbs are
produced in the axils of the leaves, and fall off

F

82 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

as the stem is swayed by the wind, and so get
scattered to some distance.

Species of polygonum and onion produce bulbils
instead of flowers, and these can be easily separ-
ated in a similar way.

In every case there must be a sufficiency of
nutritive matter stored up for the little plant to
live upon until it has made roots and leaves of
itself. It is sometimes in the form of a corm or
solid axis. This is the case with the viviparous
polygonum and the lesser celandine, when grow-
ing in shady places, where it produces no flowers.
After falling off these little buds, rest during the
winter and at the next period of growth, send
out little roots at the expense of the starch, etc.
stored up, when green leaves soon follow, and it
develops into a new plant.

Similarly viviparous grasses, as they are called,
are very common in Arctic and Alpine regions
The sprouting leaf-buds of these, issuing from
the place of florets in the panicle, may be thrown
off, or the weight may be sufficient to bring the
whole inflorescence down to the ground, when
they strike root and become independent plants.

Rock-plants of the genus of house-leeks furnish
another peculiar method of multiplication. The
plant consists of a rosette of thick fleshy leaves.
New small rosettes are formed in the axils, from
these thread-like runners grow to some distance,
and terminate with another little ball-like rosette.
When the runner decays the little plant is freed
from the parent, and the wind rolls it along the
slopes of the rocks, when it may fall over to
another resting-place, and as soon as it finds a

VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION.

83

suitable spot, roots are formed, and it becomes
fixed in the soil of the crevice.

There is a rare British stone-crop, which, besides
bearing viviparous buds in place of flowers, propa-
gates by aid of its leaves. It has three ways, or
rather three stages of development, each of which
can give rise to an independent plant. Minute
buds arise in the axils of the uppermost
leaves of the stem, which become em-
bedded in the base of the fleshy leaf. In

Fig. 19.—Sedum dasyphyllum. Leaves with buds detached from the
plant for natural propagation ( x 4 times, after Kerner).

lower leaves the bud has grown to a tiny rosette,
while in the lowest it develops a footstalk.

On the withering of the stem, the leaves fall
off carrying the buds with them, and being nearly
hemispherical in shape they roll away. When
come to rest the buds strike root, while the
fleshy leaf to which they adhere, supplies the
little plant with water and nourishing material
until it has its own roots in the soil (Fig. 19).

Subterranean bulbs give rise to numerous bul-
bils, which are in time separated from the parent
bulbs, and so form new plants. These are par-
ticularly common in Monocotyledons, but com-

84 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

paratively rare in Dicotyledons. A British species
of saxifrage, called Saxifraga granulata, from the
numerous little bulbils it produces at the base of
the stem, propagates itself by means of them. A
double-flowered form of this plant is in cultiva-
tion. Species of South African woodsorrels, or
Oxalis, multiply in this way. A few bulbs of
0. cernua, so called from the tall umbel of droop-
ing yellow flowers, were sent to Malta in 1806.
It never bears seeds, but since that date it has
spread not only over Malta and Gozo, but through
the traSic in orange plants and by other goods,
it has established itself from Egypt to Morocco,
and from Gibraltar to the Greek Islands ; being
found in the Riviera, Naples, etc.

Many water-plants propagate themselves in
various ways by their vegetative systems. Thus,
the duckweeds, which cover ponds, etc., in sum-
mer, form little expansions or a " thallus," as
botanists call it ; for there is no distinction be-
tween stem and leaf. These in autumn become
detached, and having their cells full of starch
grains, they sink to the bottom, and there rest.
When warm weather arrives the plants begin to
grow. The starch grains* are used up and air fills
the cells, so the plant rises to the surface and floats.

A similar change takes place in the frog-bit
(Fig. 20). Its long roots hang down in the water
but do not reach the bottom. It throws out
numerous runners on the surface, which bear little
plants, like a strawberry plant. The surface of
the water is soon covered with them, sometimes
as many as twenty offsprings are strung together
by the horizontal runner.

VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION.

85

Though the frog-bit bears flowers, these sel-
dom seed. Autumn buds are subsequently pro-
duced on shorter stems. These buds remain
wrapped up in close fitting scale-leaves. As soon
as it has laid up a sufficient amount of starch,
etc., the bud becomes
detached and sinks
to the bottom ; when
the floating plants all
die.

These winter rest-
ing buds rise to the
surface on the ap-
proach of spring, just
as the duckweed
does on becoming
filled with air.

In the bladder-
wort, a ^rather differ-
ent procedure takes
place. The leaves
are always sub-
merged, and, as is so
often the case with
dicotyledonous aqua-
tic plants, finely dis-
sected. The stem develops special buds for
winter use, consisting of the abbreviated axes
or ends of the shoots, with the leaves so crowded
and folded together that they form a little com-
pact green ball. This then sinks to the bottom to
rise again in the following summer. This method
of making a new plant out of the ends of the
branches explains why this plant has no roots.

Fig. 20. — Frog-bit. Floating male and
female plants, with dependent roots
and horizontal runners (cut off
short). A male flower on left, and
a single stamen on right ; female
flower in middle.

86 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

The pond weeds differ in that the buds detached
in autumn sink to the bottom, but then strike
root in the mud ; so that they grow up into well-
rooted plants which can produce a stem long
enough to reach the surface of the water. They
also extend themselves by means of stolons, which
creep along the bottom.

Besides complete buds consisting of axis and bud-
scales, single leaves can multiply plants. Many
habitually do so. Thus there is a fleshy leaved
plant of warm eastern countries, off which the
leaves fall before decay, and if it be damp soil,
roots soon appear at all the indentations on the
margin. Then follow leaves and a complete new
plant, so that a single leaf may be surrounded
by a ring of plantlets.

Several kinds of ferns habitually produce little
plants on their surface or at the tips of the
fronds.

Gardeners take advantage of this property
and so propagate plants, such as begonias and
gloxinias, which readily lend themselves to this
method of multiplication.

There is one species of fern which grows on
the bark of trees, the long tips of which avoid
light and creep along the surface till they find
a fissure in the bark, in which they become fixed.
Every tip thus situated at once develops a bud at
the point of contact. This bud gives rise to
fronds, one of which develops vigorously and in
turn searches for a new suitable crevice in which
to insert itself ; and so the process is repeated
indefinitely.

Some British plants have acquired this habit

VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION.

87

of developing buds on the leaves, as the lady's
smock, and the little bog-orchis, the watercress,
celandine, cabbages, etc.

Buds can also be formed on the scale-leaves of
bulbs. This is the usual method of propagating
hyacinths in Holland. The base of the bulb is
scooped out or the bulb is slashed crosswise ; it is
then stimulated by heat, and little bulbils soon
appear along the cut edges of the scales. When
large enough they are detached and grown.
More than a hundred bulbils have thus been
taken from a single bulb.

These methods of multiplication by the vegeta-
tive system are often in compensation for the want
of propagation by seeds; or it would be more cor-
rect to say that flowers surrender their function
of reproduction to the vegetative system when
this has been perpetually resorted to. It often
happens .that this occurs not only in the wild
state, but also under cultivation. Thus the lesser
celandine, which habitually multiplies itself by
means of its root-tubers underground, as well as
by axillary corms, rarely sets seed. In fact, the
pollen is not formed, but remains in an arrested
condition. We have seen how Oxalis cernua has
propagated itself all round the Mediterranean ;
and is never known to set seed there. Similarly
the frog-bit, which multiplies extensively by
runners, also fails in this respect.

The horse-radish which spreads largely under-
ground, often blossoms, but no seed is ever
made. The saffron crocus, formerly exten-
sively cultivated, as at Saffron Walden in Essex,
and possibly on Saffron Hill in London, failed

88 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

to seed, being always multiplied by fresh
corms.

The production of bulbs and corms at the
expense of flowers, as in lilies and onions, crocus
and horse-radish, is of course compensatory for
the loss of the reproduction by the legitimate
means of the flowers. Eut some interesting
experiments with potatoes show that the power
to produce them is a general one pervading the
whole plant. For when potato-tubers are never
allowed to be formed, being removed as soon as
they begin to appear, then the " tuber-bearing
energy," if we may so call this habitual ten-
dency, finds vent above ground in developing
tubers instead of elongated branches in the axils
of the leaves. Of course an ordinary tuber is
only an arrested subterranean branch, and swollen
in diameter to store up reserve food-material for
next season's growth.

There yet remains another method, by means
of which some plants can be multiplied, viz., by
swollen internodes of the branches, when they
have stored up sufficient food-stuffs. They then
become disarticulated and fall to the ground,
readily striking root, and so giving rise to new
plants. There is, e.g., a fleshy stemmed ground-
sell called Kleinia, of hot countries, and a vine
which multiplies itself in this way.

CHAPTER IX.

VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS.

Changes in structure are sometimes compara-
tively slow and slight when plants adapt them-
selves to new environments, at others marked
adaptations occur at once. They then resemble
" sports," which appear suddenly, with no trace-
able cause ; as can be seen, if a shoot of the
water-crowfoot is crowded out of the water;
when all the tissues in the air are at once
adapted for living in it; while all below the
surface are very different, but equally fitted for
living submerged.

We shall hereafter see how freaks occur in
flowers, but they also are to be found among the
vegetative organs of plants.

Thus among branches there is the so-called
" fastigiate " form, as of the erect-growing Lom-
bardy poplar, the Irish yew, the common cypress,
etc., in which, instead of being spread out hori-
zontally, which is the normal or typical condition
of their branches, these all run up vertically.
When this is the case, a different disposition
of- the leaves sometimes occurs. Thus, in the
common yew, though the leaves are " inserted"
on an imaginary spiral line, which can be drawn
through their " points of insertion " successively
round the stem, the leaves are all twisted at the
base so as to make them lie in one and a hori-
zontal plane.

In the Irish yew (all plants of which have

89

90 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

been derived from one plant still growing in
Ireland), as well as on the short vertical shoots
of the common yew, the leaves are not twisted,
so that they bristle all round the shoot.

In the common laurel, however, the leaves on
the horizontally growing branches are actually
inserted in two parallel ranks on opposite sides ;
but on a vertically growing shoot, which may
issue from the top of the bush, the leaves are in
jive vertical ranks.

Another sport among branches consists in their
"weeping." It is not usually hereditary, but can
be propagated by cuttings. Thus, all the weeping
ashes in the kingdom are said to have been de-
rived from one tree, but the seedlings show no
tendency to weep. The weeping willow, if grow-
ing away from water, often ceases to bear pen-
dulous branches. The deodar cedar, a native of
the Himalayas, does not bear drooping ends to
its branches, but resembles the cedar of Lebanon
in its native home. This habit of the former
species has been acquired in the climate of
England.

With regard to leaves, one of the commonest
forms of sports is the so-called cut-leaved type
of foliage. Several trees have sported in this
way, the branch being removed and struck can
establish the sport. This type has been thus
perpetuated in the beech, birch, maple, elder,
blackberry, and many others.

A curious result happened in grafting a sport
of the cut-leaved beech upon a tree of the
ordinary kind, in that all the shoots which
subsequently appeared above the graft on the

VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS. 91

same side of the tree were affected by it, and
bore this "laciniated" form of leaf (Fig. 21).

Fig. 23. — Beech. Lowest branch on left, the original
graft. All subsequent branches on left bore cut-
leaved foliage (after Carrie're).

A cut-leaved tree will not infrequently revert
and bear a branch with the ordinary form of
leaf.

92 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Thus two sorts of leaves are sometimes borne
normally by a plant. E.g., the musk-mallow
has both almost completely formed leaves, and
much divided ones as well. There is a cultivated
variety of this plant with white flowers, on
which the leaves are much more deeply dis-
sected. This comes true from seed.

Under cultivation other changes may be
hereditary. Thus, savoy cabbages and other
plants, through excessive nutriment, develop
too much tissue between the ribs or veins of
the leaf, so that it will not lie flat but bulges
upwards. On the other hand, the " dissections "
of parsley have become so fine that it looks more
like fennel.

Reversions sometimes give the appearance of
sports. Thus, acacias of Australia are usually
devoid of the compound blade at the end of the
flat phyllode. But now and then they suddenly
reproduce them, giving a quite different appear-
ance to the tree.

Veronica cupressoides, a small Alpine plant of
New Zealand, so-called because its minute, ad-
pressed leaves resemble those of a cypress, under
cultivation produces dissected leaves, which were
undoubtedly an ancestral form (Fig. 22). A
juniper will often bear two kinds of leaves, one
like the cypress, another long and sharp-pointed.
The latter is the ancestral form, and appears as
the younger on a bush.

Another cause of sporting is the dissociation
of hybrid characters. Thus, when a Barberry
was crossed with the genus Mahonia, the oval
leaves, with a toothed margin of the former,

VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS. 93

appeared on the same shoot, with the spiny,
holly-like leaves of the latter.

A similar dissociation often occurs in flowers.
Thus, a chrysanthemum not infrequently has

Fig. 22. — Veronica cupressoides, illustrating different forms
of foliage on the same plant (fr. Gard. Chroji.).

the flowers sharply divided into two colours.
Petunias are frequently striped white and pur-
ple. This is because the two parents of all our
garden petunias bore purple and white flowers
respectively.

94

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Lastly, in fruits sports and dissociations occur.
Thus the peach is a sport from the almond, and
a nectary from the peach. A fruit of these
two may be shared between them, one-half or
other portion being of one kind, the rest of the
other. And if the seeds be sown of either, it
cannot be foretold what kind of fruit the tree will
subsequently bear.

This power of sporting, which is only a sudden
and striking condition of variation, leads us to
consider how one organ can not only change its
form, but put on all the appearance, and assume
the functions as well, of another. We may call
this power of adaptation the " mutual accommoda-
tion among plant organs " ; it also illustrates the
meaning of the words "homology" and "analogy,"
which have been applied to plants.

I will now give some account of this, and sum-
marise instances in illustration of this curious
practice among wild flowers.

First, let us remember that plants are entirely
composed of cells. These contain the so-called
living matter or protoplasm, and though it is
thus apparently isolated in each cell from its
neighbours yet protoplasmic threads keep up a
communication through the cell walls, which them-
selves also probably contain it ; so that a plant
is not quite built up of entirely independent cells,
as was once supposed to be the case ; but is one
whole living thing, of which any part can, how-
ever, be separated and become an independent
organism. Hence as this is true of those plants
which are regarded as the highest of the vegetable
kingdom, this as a whole stands no higher in the

VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS. 95

scale of life than, or is on a par with, corals and
sponges in the animal kingdom.

Besides this general power of a fragment re-
producing the whole, as a necessary consequence
almost any part or " organ " can, if required, take
on the functions of some other organ, with or
without undergoing much alteration of structure.
This is what I have called " mutual accommoda-
tion " among plant organs.

All plant organs may be classified under the
terms axes and appendages ; the former bring stem
and root structures^ the latter, leaf structures,
being appendages to stem structures.

Homology asserts, first, that root and stem-
axes are fundamentally the same ; and secondly,
that all leaf -appendages are fundamentally the
same thing. So that organs may be homologous
though their forms and functions may be very
diverse.

Analogy is applied to organs of normally
different natures, which, however, perform the
same functions. Thus regarding a leaf as an
appendage, it can become a tendril in the pea ;
whereas the tendril of the vine is an axis, being
homologous with a flowering stalk.

I will now collect together some cases of inter-
change of functions between roots and stems.
As a rule roots being subterranean do not bear
leaf-buds; i.e. a means of propagating the plant;
but the raspberry, as we have seen, produces
them in abundance. That stems can produce
roots is familiar to everyone. Hence gardeners
can propagate by cuttings, etc. Roots may be
produced from the branches of trees, descend to

96 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the earth, and then act as supernumerary trunks,
as in the banyan or Indian fig. One form of
root is to be tuberous in order to store nutri-
ment as in the peony and dahlia; tubers also
appear on subterranean stems, as the potato.
Stems often acquire the power of climbing as the
hop, by twisting round some support. A species
of Dissochceta utilises its aerial roots in the form of
tendrils ; while the ivy has both subterranean
and aerial roots, the latter being adapted for
climbing only.

Stems can imitate leaves, the use of the latter
being to assimilate the carbonic acid gas absorbed
from the atmosphere. Thus many plants have
some of their branches flattened out imitating
the blade of a leaf, as in the butcher's broom and
other species of that genus. Some have no leaves
at all, the stem being flattened, thick and fleshy,
the green tissue of which is the sole assimilative
structure of the plant as of the prickly-pear.

Stipules which are basilar adjuncts to a leaf
and really beloug to it, assume various forms
and functions. They may be leaf-like as in the
pea ; spinescent as in acacias ; as a tendril in
Smilax ) or as bud-scales in the lime, elm, oak, etc.

Regarding a leaf as the type of all appendages,
we may recognise the following modifications of
the two parts — stalk or petiole, and the blade or
lamina.

The leafstalk or petiole may assume any of the
following characters : — It may be foliaceous and
therefore assimilative as in the phyllodes of
acacias; it may be spinescent as in Astragalus;
it may be sheathing and thereby mechanically

VEGETATIVE SPORTS IN WILD FLOWERS. 97

strengthening the petiole, while protecting the
bud in the axil. It may become a climbing
structure and sensitive to touch as of a Clematis,
or a store-house of nutriment as the scales of
bulbs of lilies, etc.

The blade may be altered, as seen in the ten-
drils of the pea ; in the insectivorous structures
of pitcher plants ; in the development of buds
for propagative purposes, as in the lady's smock,
etc.

Bracts form a transition from vegetative organs
to the reproductive, being assimilated to leaves
when they are green and to the flowers when
they are coloured or "petaloid" in character.

The homology of bracts is various. They may
be stipular as in Magnolias, more generally are
they petiolar as in Hellebore, which affords a com-
pletely graduated series from the true pedate leaf
to an oval acute bract, by the gradual suppression
of the segments, and a dilatation coupled with
a shortening of the petiole.

In buttercups and geraniums, bracts are
homologous with the blade, the petiole being
suppressed.

Petaloid bracts may be grouped conveniently
under three heads. (1) Assisting in the colori-
sation of the inflorescence. (2) A number of
bracts may together mimic a flower, the true floral
perianth being insignificant. Lastly (3) bracts
may pass by insensible graduation into the true
floral whorls, there being no break between true
bracts and true petals. Euphorbias are good ex-
amples of the first; Danvinia, Cornus,1 and " Ever*
1 See Index for illustrations.
G

98

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

lastings" well illustrate the second class; while
Cactuses are types of the third.

Inflorescences consist of the flower stalks or
Peduncle, with smaller branches carrying the
flowers, called the Pedicels. These may undergo
changes of form and assume other functions than
carrying flowers. Thus they may become climb-
ing organs, as the tendrils of the vine, passion
flower, and Virginia creeper; they may become
" hook-climbers" as in Uncaria (Fig. 14), in
which the peduncle curls round after flowering.
They may be reservoirs of nutriment to nourish
the fruit and seeds. Such are the thick recep-
tacles of some composites, as of the artichoke,
the pseudocarp of the strawberry, apple, etc.

All the above mentioned instances and many
more might be given would have been called
sports, "imitative sports," perhaps, had they
occurred suddenly. But since they are now con-
stant features in the plants possessing them, they
cannot be classified as such, though possibly
originating in the same way.

CHAPTER X.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS OF WILD
FLOWERS.

The old distinction between plants and animals,
that the latter can move and the former cannot,
has long since been abandoned as untrue to
nature ; but that all plants, even when perman-

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 99

ently fixed to the soil, have their stems, leaves,
flower-stalks, etc., in almost perpetual motion, is
a discovery of recent times, and notably due to
the investigations of Darwin.

The majority of the movements can be embraced
under the single term circumnutation, and its
modifications ; it signifies " bowing around." The
stem or other organ bends to all points of the
compass successively with a sort of rolling action,
so that the side which is uppermost in any direc-
tion becomes the lowermost when it points in the
opposite one. The circles or ellipses thus de-
scribed by the apex of the moving organ are
most perfectly seen in the stems of climbers ;
other organs for the most part move more irre-
gularly ; consequently when they are represented
by diagrams they show most complicated figures.
Darwin illustrated a great many of these "pro-
jections." 1

We have already had occasion to discuss the
peculiar movements of radicles and plumules of
germinating seeds ; and we saw how Darwin
proved that the former will turn away from
mechanical obstructions which irritate the tip
by pressure. He also discovered that stolons
and runners, which consist of much elongated
flexible branches, which run along the surface
of the ground and form roots at the joints, are
similarly able to pass over obstacles by circum-
nutation, and so manage to wind about between
the stems of surrounding plants. Erect stems
continually circumnutate. In the case of climbers

1 See his work entitled "The Power of Movement in
Plants."

100 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

or stem-twiners, to be described in the next
chapter, the circumnutation is most perfect,
so that if any erect object stands within the
circle the twiner on touching it must necessarily
twine up it ; as can be readily seen by using a
piece of string fixed below, and imitating the

a be

Fig. 23. — Subterranean clover; a. flowerhead after having been buried
and ripened its seeds (one in each pod) ; b. abortive flowers, closely
adpressed, before penetrating the soil ; c. abortive flower with claw-
like sepals spread out for raising the soil.

bowing stem by moving the upper end in a
circular manner. Flower stems form no excep-
tion to axial structures circumnutating ; but the
effect is curiously modified by gravity in the case
of the " subterranean clover," and by turning
away from light in the cyclamen. In both
plants the object in view is to bury the unripe
pods beneath the soil.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 101

The flower-buds of the first-named (Fig. 23)
produce but two or few perfect flowers at the
base of the head, all the others consisting only of
cylindrical calyces with stiff spreading lobes,
forming claw-like projections. As soon as the
perfect flowers wither, they bend back upon the
peduncles. While these are thus moving the
whole peduncle curves downwards and increases
in length, even from 6 to 9 inches if necessary,
until the flower-head reaches the ground. At
this period the younger, imperfect central flowers
are still pressed closely together (6), and form a
rather rigid conical projection. It then buries
itself to a depth of *25 inch. After the
heads are buried, the central aborted flowrers
increase considerably in length and rigidity.
They gradually curve, one after another, upwards
or towards the peduncle. In thus moving, the
long claws on their summits carry with them
some earth ; hence a flower-head which has been
buried for a sufficient time forms a rather large
ball, the aborted flowers, having caught up the
earth with the claw-like sepal-lobes (c), act some-
what like the claws of a mole, which force the
earth backwards and the body forwards.

The calyces of the perfect flowers are provided
with hairs, which, on absorbing carbonate of
ammonia presented to them, exhibited all the
evidences of being thereby nourished ; hence
this seems to be Nature's use for the hairs ; as
Darwin found that only those pods which bury
themselves, produce a full complement of seeds.

Movements in flowers may be slow or rapid ;
an illustration of the latter may be seen in the

102

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

petals of the genista, a pea-like blossom which,
when an insect alights on the front petals in
which are concealed the stamens and pistil, the

flower explodes in con-
sequence of the " claws"
or stalks of the petals
being in a state of
tension ; so that they
suddenly drop down
while the stamens rise
up (Fig. 24).

In the species of
medick, such as the
common lucerne, the
flower explodes, ap-
parently in a similar
manner to that of the
genista. But the ex-
plosion is effected by
means of the stamens
and not the corolla. They
are at first horizontal,
being concealed within
the keel petals (Fig. 25,
a9 front view). When
an insect has aliehted in

ing curvature at the base and r , f^ ™»tal«s rlrnr*
contraction higher up where ironD, me peLdlS urop
the petals cohere, causing them down by their OWn

t0dl0p' weight front view);

while the staminal tube curves upwards with
great force (c, side view, petals removed) and
cannot be replaced without fracture.

In several flowers of different species the fila-
ments retire slowly after the anthers have shed

Fig. 24. — Genista, a. flower ex-
panded, side view; b. front
view after "explosion"; c.
'claws" of keel petals show

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 103

the pollen, or fallen off, when the pistil comes
forward, and occupies the same position. This
may be noticed in the lemon-scented or oak-
leaved pelargoniums, and in our wild wood-sage
and bugloss.

Enough has now been said to show how ex-
tensive and varied are the movements effected
by the different organs
of plants, and the advan-
tages accruing to them
by possessing such
powers of motion.

In the preceding cases
the movements are more
or less perceptible after
the organ has been
fully constructed. But
growth under external
influences gives very
similar results. Thus FlG- 257Lucerne <for description

see text;.

roots, as we have seen

in the case of radicles of germinating seeds, are
very sensitive to moisture, which explains many
curious instances of root growth.

Roots of trees have been found growing to great
distances to reach water, even diving under a hard
road to a ditch on the opposite side.

The attraction of warmth has a peculiar influ-
ence on stems and leaves.

If the temperature of the ground be higher
than that of the air above it, shoots will grow
flat upon the ground and become creeping stems.
This accounts for so many high Alpine plants
being prostrate, and never tall and erect. The

104 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

creeping willows, so common there, illustrate
this fact.

Similarly leaves of blue-bells in early spring, as
well as of plantains and daisies on lawns, lie flat on
the ground, but they grow erect among long grass
by road sides.

It may be noticed how even usually tall plants,
like the common mallow, which grows erect when
in the midst of other plants, if the seed happens
to fall by the roadside, will give rise to a prostrate
plant.

Plants grow upwards under the influence of
light, and if the source of illumination be lateral,
they grow and bend in the direction of it.

Roots, on the other hand, grow away from
light, or towards the darker side. This may
easily be seen, as stated elsewhere, in the climb-
ing roots of ivy, etc. But other organs may do
so, if necessary, thus the tendrils of the Virginia
creeper being adapted to climb a rough wall, turn
towards it, being, of course, away from the illumin-
ated side.

The sleeping movements of leaves take place
when they are quite full-grown, but when buds
expand in spring, the leaves grow in various
directions to secure the same end as in sleep ;
namely, the avoidance of injury by radiation of
heat, as long as they are young and unformed.
Subsequently they assume a permanent hori-
zontal position when mature.

If leaves grow in pairs they stand erect and
face one another, having their upper surfaces in
contact. This may be seen in veronicas, St
John's Wort, and periwinkle.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 105

If leaves be alternate, as of the Portugal
laurel, they may be erect, but now each leaf
is folded like a sheet of notepaper
or " conduplicate " (i.e. " folded to-
gether ") (Fig. 26). If it be pendu-
lous a more complicated process may
take place. In the case of the lime,
as soon as the bud expands and
escapes from the winter (stipular)
scales, the inner stipules develop
considerably; those on the upper side FlG> 2c— Portu-
are concave and ovoid, aod cover the gj| teu^
upturned edges of the leaves, which duplicate m
at once take a position in a vertical blld-
plane ; the stipules at the sides elongate much
more than the former, furnishing some lateral
protection to the whole bud, which now curves
rapidly downwards. As the bud continues to de-

W

a b c

Fig. 27. — Lime ; buds unfolding.

velop, the branch becomes more and more strongly
curved downwards, so that the leaves are held
vertically ; but as the lower and older ones in-
crease in size, they assume a horizontal position,
and undertake to protect the younger ones which
are concealed beneath them. Thus the protecting
care is handed on to each leaf as it arrives at
maturity, until the whole series are developed,

106

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

and the branch and leaves become horizontal
(Fig. 27, a, b, c).

Compound leaves behave in a similar manner.
Thus in a rose or laburnum leaf the leaflets are
at first both pendulous and conduplicate, as well
as tightly pressed together ; they then expand in
order from below upwards. In the
walnut (Fig. 28), the petiole curves
strongly downwards at a very early
stage, thus placing the pairs of con-
duplicate leaflets in a vertical plane.
As they increase in size the basal
pair is the first to become spread out, then the
others in succession as the petiole rises into a
horizontal position. In the ash leaf, which some-
what resembles the walnut, the petiole curves
upwards instead of downwards, but the leaflets
are in a vertical plane all the same.

The horse-chesnut has a " digitate" leaf of
several radiating leaflets (Fig. 29). As soon as
it issues from a bud all the leaflets curve down-
wards, exactly in the same manner
in which some lupins go to sleep. ,
They subsequently rise up and be-
come horizontal. The Virginia
creeper when growing close to a
wall develops the leaflets like a
vertical star, as other species of lupin fig. 29. -Horse-
when asleep ; but if it grow over a chesnut leaf-
trellis, it not only climbs like a vine with its
tendrils (no longer in adaptation to a wall with
adhesive disks), but its young leaflets all drop
vertically as in the horse-chesnut, resembling a
shuttlecock.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 107

A clover leaf has its petiole at first arched,
with the three conduplicate leaflets closely ad-
pressed together, so that they hang vertically.
This arrangement is exactly the same in the
wood-sorrel when very young (Fig. 30, a) ; but in
these plants the position of the

leaflets in sleep is very different.

I have spoken of the move-
ments undergone during the growth
of leaves in spring, in order to

avoid the chance of injury from a b
frost and radiation ; but this is Fig. 30.— wood-
also effected in many plants by soire-
the process of sleep, as it is called, of leaves
when full grown. It is particularly well seen
in the compound leaves of the Leguminous or
Pea family ; though it is by no means confined
to it. Darwin has written an elaborate treatise
on the subject of Nyctitropism, i.e. the "night-
turning " of leaves in sleep, to which the reader
is referred should he desire to study the
peculiarities of the process in detail.1

I propose giving a few instances of plants
which are easily observed. If a clover plant or
one of the common medicks be observed on any
fine day, all the leaves will be seen having their
•three leaflets spread out horizontally. At sun-
down, it will be noticed that they are closely
packed together. In order to acquire this position
the two basal leaflets rotate on their short stalks
till they stand in a vertical plane. They then
swing round till their upper surfaces come into
contact. Lastly, the terminal leaflet rotates
1 " The Movements of Plants."

108 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

upwards, passes through an entire semicircle,
and comes down like a sloping roof over the
upper edges of the lower pair of leaflets (Fig. 31,6).
This position, it will be noticed, is a very
different one from that in which the conduplicate
leaflets were all pressed to-
gether in the earliest condition,
ity like that of the wood-sorrel
II (Fig. 30,a).

& The object is to protect the

ver- upper surfaces, which in the
clover are entirely concealed, as well as to place
the surfaces of the leaflets in a vertical position,
if possible.

The trifoliate leaf of the wood-sorrel resembles
that of a clover, but it prepares itself for sleep
in a different manner ; for the three leaflets
drop down and slightly fold the two halves,
so that the mid-ribs touch the petiole. The
upper surfaces are not protected at all, but
now stand in a vertical position (Fig. 30 J, trans,
sect.).

The melilot agrees with the clover in having
three leaflets, but it sleeps in yet another way.
The three leaflets twist through an angle of 90°,
so that they all stand vertically at night. The
two basal leaflets then move towards the terminal
one. This, in turn, bends towards one side, and
invariably to the side towards which its upper
surface lies, until it presses against its neighbour
on that side.

The seat of the movements resides in the swollen
base of the petiole called the " pulvinus." This
retains its tissue in an elementary condition, and

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ORGANS. 109

so remains pliable and not rigid, as it would be
if the woody tissue were fully developed.

Lupins have " digitate " leaves, being composed
of several radiating leaflets, like those of the
horse-chesnut. After having been spread out
horizontally by day, they go to sleep in at least
three different ways in as many species.
In one the leaflets all drop vertically
down like a shuttlecock, the leaves partly
covering one another (Fig. 32). In
another they are reversed, like a shuttle- fig. 32.—
cock standing on the cork head. In a LnPin-
third, while the lower leaflets fall down the
upper become erect, so the whole leaf stands like
a vertical star, all the leaflets being in the same
plane.

There are many kinds of leguminous plants
which have pinnate leaves of two rows of leaflets.
In some they all drop down, and each pair has
the leaflets pressed together ; in others they are
all elevated ; the same result, of course, is gained
either way. In the logwood tree, the leaflets,
while placing themselves vertically, lie with their
mid-ribs parallel to the main petiole. Yet another
plan is adopted in Cassias which also has pinnate
leaves. It is the little leaflets of certain species
which is senna. In this, the petiole rises up and
stands at an acute angle with the stem. Thus
by the leaf dropping vertically, all its leaflets
more or less overlap one another, the terminal
being the larger envelope the lower ones, the
whole forming a sort of bunch.

Darwin records an interesting fact about the
sleeping of the common garden nasturtium. This

110 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

has peltate leaves, and usually makes them stand
as nearly as possible at right angles to incident
light. At night the circular blade is placed
vertically ; but, if any leaves have not been well
illuminated by day they do not sleep at night.
He says he observed no case, so well marked as
this, of the influence of previous illumination on
subsequent sleep.

It is hoped that the reader will take every
opportunity of noticing the various methods by
which plants go to sleep ; but in every case the
object is to place the blades in a vertical plane
and protect, if possible, the upper surfaces
especially.

CHAPTER XI.

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS.

One of the most interesting books of Darwin's
is his ' 1 Climbing Plants," in which he describes
a great number of instances, to which I will refer
the reader for details. The feature I now wish
to dwell upon is the admirable way in which this
power of climbing illustrates the diversity of
methods adopted for one and the same end,
whenever it is preferable to use one means rather
than another for the purpose.

Climbing plants may be grouped as follows : —
(1) Those which climb by their stems or twiners,
as they are called. (2) Leaf-climbers, and these
may climb by their petioles or leaf-stalks ; by
their leaf-apices running out into a sensitive

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS. Ill

tendril ; or by the mid-ribs modified as tendrils
without any true blade being developed at all.
(3) By peduncles or flower-stalks. (4) By means
of hooks ; these being a reduced form of a branch,
spiny or not, or as superficial thorns, as of the
bramble and Eattan-cane palms. Lastly (5),
the climbing process may be effected by adhesive
roots, as in tropical epiphytal orchids and our
own ivy.

As an illustration of a stem-climber I will take
Darwin's description of the hop. He says that
when the shoot rises from the ground, the two or
three first-formed internodes are straight, and re-
main stationary ; but the next formed, while very
young, may be seen to bend to one side, and to
travel slowly round towards all points of the com-
pass, moving, like the hands of a watch, with the
sun. The average rate was 2 h. 8 m. for each re-
volution. Each separate internode, as it grows
old, ceases to revolve, becoming upright and rigid
generally. These internodes revolve simultane-
ously ; with all the plants which he observed, if in
full health, two internodes revolved ; so that by
the time one had ceased, that above it was in full
action, with a terminal internode first commenc-
ing to revolve. The purpose of this spontaneous
revolving motion or circumnutation, i.e. a continu-
ous bending movement successively to all points
of the compass, is obviously in part to favour the
shoot in finding a support ; but when this is
gained, the motion at the point of contact is
arrested ; while the free part projecting above
continues to revolve, and by the very motion
cannot fail to twine itself round the support.

112 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Darwin tells us that of thirty-nine plants ex-
amined by him, twenty-five revolved in a course
opposed to, and twelve, with the sun ; two revolved
both with and against the sun. No instance is
known of two species of the same genus twining
in opposite directions.

The average rate at which the first circle of
revolution is described, is about 6 h. 10 m., com-
puted from thirty-five different plants ; the longest
period being 26 h. 15 m., while the most rapid
was 1 h. 17 m. The average rate of twining
plants is 5 h. 45 m., for five revolutions. It must
be borne in mind that young shoots commence
slowly, and do not arrive at a maximum time of
rotation until they have accomplished several
circles or ellipses, as the case may be.

Light has a remarkable power in hastening the
revolutions. Thus, Ipomcea jucunda performed
its first circle in 5 h. 30 m. ; the semi-circle from
light, in 4 h. 30 min., and that to light in 1 h.
30 m. ; the difference being 3 h. 30 m. It must
be observed, however, that the rate of revolution,
in all plants was nearly uniform during night as
well as day ; hence Darwin iufers the action of
the light to be confined to retarding one semi-
circle and accelerating the other; so that the
whole rate is not greatly modified.

Heat likewise affects the rapidity of revolution,
by increasing it ; thus, e.g., a plant of a species
of Loasa, which moved against the sun, completed
its first circle in 2 h. 37 m. Another plant which
followed the sun completed its circle in 1 h. 51 m.
and its fourth circle in 1 h. 48 m., that being a
very hot day in July; whereas its fifth circle, on

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS.

113

the cool morning of July 12th was finished in
2 h. 35 m.

Darwin describes a peculiar instance of a nat-
ural reversal of movement in Hibbertia dentata.
He found that, although its long flexible shoots
were evidently well fitted for twining, yet they
would make a whole, or half, or quarter circle in
one direction, and three in the opposite one. He
could not at first discover for what purpose was
this adaptation, until after offering the plant
various arrangements of sticks and twigs, etc., he
surrounded it with several thin upright sticks ;
and now the Hibbertia, he says, had got what it
liked, for it twined up the parallel sticks, some-
times winding round one and sometimes round
several. Though the revolving movement was
sometimes in one direction and sometimes in
another, the twining was invariably from left to
right. It would appear that this Hibbertia is
adapted to ascend by twining and rambling later-
ally over the thick Australian scrub.

We will now theorise a little as to the original
cause of the twining of stems.

As the evolutionary history of wild flowers and
their organs, is what I wish to keep in view
throughout this book, let us try to discover first,
how stems, such as of our bindweeds, hop and
honeysuckle have acquired this property of
twining.

It is a well known fact that plants growing in
shade get " drawn," because the stems are not in-
fluenced by the retarding effect of light, which
acts especially upon the superficial tissues. The
interior tissues on the contrary tend to elongate,
H

114 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

consequently there is a constant struggle between
the outer, " cortical " layers and the " central
cylinder" of a stem. To illustrate this fact, if
a ring of the outer layers be cut off from a
herbaceous stem or thick leaf-stalk as of rhubarb,
the interior column at once begins to elongate as
soon as the tension is removed.

Now, if seeds of plants accustomed to grow in
full sunshine find themselves in deep shade, they
germinate and grow up with long, weak stems ;
the majority very possibly die. Some, however,
may be able to resist the want of full light. The
stems are "drawn" towards the light, some may
reach it, blossom and set seed. These seeds re-
produce the adaptations of their parents by living
in the same conditions. " Circumnutation " or
"bowing around," a common property of all
shoots, adds another adaptation, for it increases
with- the length of the internodes. The stem thus
coils round any support it may happen to touch.

In support of the probability of this theory
being true, is the fact that many species of plants
which normally live in full sun-light and do
not climb at all, have allied species in adjacent
forests which do so. Thus Fuchsia integrifolia
occurs in the mountain forests of Brazil, where it
climbs to a height of 10 feet, the stem acquires a
thickness of one's arm. Outside the forests of
the same region, there are plants of this species
on rocky places which form bushes of a man's
height. So too, all the species of fuchsia with
which we are familiar in cultivation,' are bushes
and never climb.

It is the same with Convolvulus. In the desert of

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS. 115

Africa the species of this genus form low, woody,
gnarled-stemmed little plants ; but in our cornfields
the lesser bind-weed climbs up the wheat-stalks,
Conversely, when growing on a sunny bank, it at
once assumes the habit of a creeping plant.

Climbing plants may hold the power in abey-
ance. Thus the dwarf French bean and garden
nasturtium, as a rule, make no attempt at climb-
ing ; yet one or more plants in a row will revert
to the habit. A remarkable instance of this is a
large bush or small tree known to botanists as
Hijptage Metablota, of tropical Asia. There sud-
denly appears a long slender shoot out of a thick
branch which climbs up any neighbouring plant,
as a bamboo, etc. This tree belongs to a family
which is characterised by containing many climb-
ing plants ; so that it had abandoned its climbing
property for its main stem, but still retains it
"potentially" in the boughs. Darwin, in con-
cluding his remarks upon twiners adds a few
peculiar cases somewhat like those I have here
given. Thus, Combretum argenteum produces two
kinds of shoots, several of the first-formed showed
no tendency to climb until one appeared from the
lower part of one of the main branches, five or
six feet in length, differing greatly in appearance,
from its leaves being little developed, it revolved
vigorously and twined. The genus is mostly
a climbing one ; so this particular species, like
the Hiptage, retained it partially in abeyance.
Lastly, Darwin gives a still more remarkable in-
stance of Ipomcea argyrceoides, which in S. Africa,
almost always grows erect and compact, from
twelve to eighteen inches; whereas seedlings

116 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

raised at Dublin, twined up sticks eight feet high.
These facts, says Darwin, are highly remarkable,
for there can hardly be a doubt that in the dryer
and sunnier provinces of S. Africa, these plants
must have propagated themselves for thousands
of generations in an erect condition; and yet
during this whole period they have retained the
innate power of spontaneously revolving and
twining, whenever their shoots elongated under
proper conditions of life required for climbing.

That shade has been the primary cause is sug-
gested by the fact that if a shoot, as of a potato
in the dark, elongate, the leaves are undeveloped
and more or less reduced to scales. So is it
with tropical climbers called Lianes, and as was
the case with the twining shoots of the Combretum
observed by Darwin, mentioned above.

Further remarks on the peculiarities of woody
tropical climbers will be reserved for the second
volume of "The Story of Wild Flowers."

That shade has been the primary cause of the
origin of stem-climbers or twining plants has been
proved experimentally ; for when plants of buck-
wheat were grown in the dark from seed, their
stems showed similar torsions to those of ordin-
ary climbers, and twisted round neighbouring
objects.

I will now give one of Darwin's careful descrip-
tions of a leaf -climber ; as it well illustrates the
power of putting on extra woody tissue, to meet
the strain felt as soon as it begins to help to sup-
port the plant. The plant referred to, is Solarium
jasminoides, not infrequently grown in conserva-
tories, etc. Some members of the genus are

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS. 117

stem-twiners, but this one is a true leaf-climber.
The potato and many other species of Solarium
show no tendency to climb.

A long shoot made four revolutions against the
sun, very regularly at an average rate of 3 h.
26 m. In no other leaf-climber was a leaf
grown to its full size capable of clasping a stick,
though it took several weeks to do it. When
a petiole of a half-grown leaf had clasped a
support, in three or four days it increased in
thickness, and after several weeks became hard
and rigid. On comparing a thin, transverse slice
of this petiole with one from the older leaf be-
neath, which had not clasped anything, its dia-
meter was found to be doubled, and its structure
greatly changed ; for in the petiole, in its ordinary
state, there is seen a semilunar band of cellular
tissue, slightly different from that outside it,
and including three closely approximate groups
of dark vessels. Near the upper surface of the
petioles, beneath the two ridges, there are two
other small circular groups of vessels. But in the
section of the petiole, which had during several
weeks clasped a stick, the two upper ridges be-
came much less prominent, and the two groups
of woody vessels beneath them much increased in
diameter. The semilunar band was converted
into a complete ring of very hard, white, woody
tissue, with lines radiating from the centre. The
three groups of vessels, which, though closely
approximate, were before distinct, where now
completely blended together. The part of the new
ring of woody vessels formed by the prolonga-
tion of the horns of the original semilunar band

118 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

was thinner than the lower part, and slightly
different in appearance, from being less compact.
The clasped petiole had actually become thicker
than the stem close beneath it; and this was
chiefly due to the greater thickness of the ring of
wood, which presented, both in transverse and
longitudinal sections, a closely similar structure
in the petiole and axis.

As a more familiar instance of a leaf-climber,
and one which can readily be observed in many
parts of England, is the traveller's joy.1 The
leaf consists of two pairs and one terminal leaflet.
The petioles are all very sensitive to touch, and
are easily excited to bend in response to a very
slight pressure ; so that they will even coil round
a blade of grass. If they catch hold of a twig in
growing over a hedge, they soon coil firmly round
it. Had they not done so the leaves would fall off
in winter ; but if the petioles have coiled round
a shoot, they remain permanently attached to it.

An allied genus of S. Asia and the Indian
Archipelago 2 differs from the clematis in having
leaves and perfect tendrils ; but a British wild
flower, the climbing corydal3 also shows us
how one is derived from the other ; for the first
formed leaves of this plant are not modified at
all. The next has the terminal leaflets smaller.
The leaves contain several groups of leaflets, vary-
ing from five to three in a group; but now the
end ones are very much diminished in size, till
there is nothing left but the mid-rib, which then
forms a true tendril.

1 Clematis Vitalba.
3 Corydalis claviculata

2 Naravelia.

\

CLIMBING WILD FLOWERS. 119

We will now consider a case where the tendril
is composed, not of a leaf, but of a metamor-
phosed flowering branch. The American Virginian
creeper 1 is admirably described by Darwin, and it
is so common that everyone must be familiar with
its tendrils adhering by adhesive disks to a wall.
But it will be noticed that if a plant climbs up a
wire-work trellis, it climbs like other tendrils by
twisting round the wire ; so that it can adopt
both methods according to circumstances. The
tendrils end at first with little hooks, and it
is not until these have caught the irregularities
of a wall that the disks are developed.

In the Japanese species,2 however, it will be
seen that the disks appear on the tendrils before
any contact has taken place, showing that the
disks, though originally the result of a merely
mechanical pressure, have become hereditary in
this species. This is not a sole instance, for
similar disks are formed on contact,3 or are
hereditary 4 in plants of quite different orders.

The vine, being so easily observable, may be
also described. Like the tendrils of the Vir-
ginia creeper and passion flower, that of the vine
is a metamorphosed flowering branch. It is of
great size and thickness, bearing two branches,
which diverge equally from it like the letter Y.
One branch has a scale at the base, and is the longer
and often forked. After a tendril has clasped
any object it contracts spirally. The two branches
of the tendril can readilv be compared with the

1 Ampelopsis hederacea. 2 A. Veitchii.

3 See Darwin's "Climbing Plants," p. 102, Note.

4 Op. cit., p. 146, Note.

120 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

flowering shoot, one branch still remaining as a
tendril, the other now branches again, and carries
the flower buds.

The peduncle increases in length, and loses its
sensitiveness in an inverse degree to the number of
flower-buds. Thus the fewer there are the greater
the length of the peduncle, and the more nearly
does it assume the character of a tendril.

Similarly the "flower-tendril" occasionally
bears flowers, and then in this state it retains its
characteristic qualities of sensitiveness and spon-
taneous movement, but in a somewhat lessened
degree. In fact, a perfect gradation may be
seen from the ordinary state of a " flower-
peduncle " to that of a true tendril.

The reader should search over a vine plant,
and he will soon find all sorts of intermediate
conditions between tendrils and flowering
branches.

In the passion flower the tendril assumes a
totally different form, precisely imitating that of
our common bryony. The special feature in
both is the curious adaptation to resist a break-
ing strain. As the tropical woody climbers, or
lianas, exhibit various methods to secure the
same end, I will reserve any remarks till I have
to treat of tropical plants in the next volume on
"The Story of Wild Flowers."

CHATTER XII.

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS.

There are many plants of very different families
which have acquired the property of catching
insects and digesting the nitrogenous matters of
their bodies. According to Dr F. Darwin's ex-
periments with the sundew, it would appear that
the chief advantage to such plants is to enhance
the reproductive process, and to increase the
quantity of seed.

We shall see that this "end" is identical with
that of parasitism ; for parasitic plants, by graft-
ing themselves on " hosts," are enabled to absorb
nutritious fluids and already prepared food ; so
that requiring no expenditure of "vegetative"
energy, they at once proceed to make flowers and
fruit with a prodigious quantity of seed.

British insectivorous plants consist of three
species of sundew, representing one family ; four
species of butterwort, together with five of bladder-
wort, which make another family. There is also
a continental plant, to which I wish to refer on
the present occasion, as it involves features from
both these two families. I shall reserve some
very remarkabla instances of foreign insec-
tivorous plants for the second volume.

The family to which the sundew belongs con-
tains six genera, all being insectivorous, but in
remarkably different ways. The sundew itself
has 100 species scattered pretty well all over the
globe, being most frequent in Australia.

121

122 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Three genera have but one species each. One,
to which I shall refer, occurs in middle and South
Europe, and extends as far as India, and is also
found in Queensland. It is called Aldrovandra.
There is one in South Africa ; one in Florida, the
so-called Venus' fly-trap,
which I propose describ-
ing; a fourth is found in
Spain, and the fifth in
Australia, where the sun-
dew, or Drosera, has its
chief home.

Our sundews (Fig. 33)
are little plants growing in
wet places among bog-moss.
They have very imperfect
roots, bat the failure to
secure much nourishment
by them, is compensated
for by the facility with
which they can catch
nutritive insects.
fig. 33.— sundew; with com- ln the round-leaved sun

plete flower on right : sta- n . ■•

mens and pistil on left; dew, the commonest species,
pistil, above. tne bla(Je is circular, and

provided with " tentacles," as Darwin called them.
These consist of cellular structures, being short
on the middle of the leaf, but .they get longer
and longer towards the circumference, where they
spread out horizontally. Each carries a club-
shaped or globular extremity. The inner tentacles
are green but the outer purple, the cells being
filled with a coloured fluid ; the terminal glands
of the tentacles constantly secrete a large drop

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS. 123

of gummy fluid, which has given the name
sundew to the plant.

Whether insects are attracted, or accidentally
come in contact with the gum and stick there, is
not quite clear ; but as many as thirteen dead
insects, more especially flies, have been found on
a single leaf. Even a dragon-fly has been seen,
caught between two leaves.

With regard to the action of the tentacles, I
cannot do better than give Darwin's own words.
He tells us that if a small organic or inorganic
object be placed on the glands in the centre of a
leaf, these transmit a motor impulse to the
marginal tentacles. The nearer ones are affected
and slowly bend towards the centre, and then
those farther off, until at last all become closely
inflected over the object. This takes place in
from one hour to four or five or more hours. The
difference in the time required depends on many
circumstances ; namely, on the size of the object
and on its nature ; that is, whether it contains
soluble matter of the proper kind ; on the vigour
and age of the leaf ; whether it has lately been in
action ; and on the temperature of the day. A
living insect is a more efficient object than a dead
one, as in struggling it presses against the glands
of many tentacles. An insect, such as a fly,
with thin integuments, through which animal
matter in solution can readily pass into the sur-
rounding dense secretion, is more efficient in caus-
ing prolonged inflection than an insect with a
thick coat, such as a beetle. The inflection of
the tentacles takes place indifferently in the
light and darkness, and the plant is not sub-

124 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

ject to any nocturnal movement of so-called
sleep.

If the glands on the disc are repeatedly touched
or brushed, although no object is left on them,
the marginal tentacles curve inwards. So again,
if drops of various fluids, as of a solution of any
salt of ammonia, are placed on the central glands,
the same result quickly follows, sometimes within
half-an-hour.

The longer and outermost tentacles curve in-
wards by bending at a point about one-third from
the base. If it be simply touched three or four
times, or a prolonged contact with organic or
inorganic objects and various fluids, it will
incurve itself even within one minute. If an
object, such as a bit of meat or an insect, is
placed on the central part of a leaf, the surround-
ing tentacles will become inflected, and their
glands will pour forth an increased amount of
secretion. In fact, the central glands, when
strongly excited, transmit some influence to
those of the marginal tentacles, causing them
to secrete more copiously.

The next point to note is, that the secretion
from unexcited leaves, though extremely viscid,
is not acid, or only slightly so; but that it
becomes acid, or much more strongly so, after
the tentacles have begun to bend over any inor-
ganic or organic object ; and still more strongly
acid after the tentacles have remained for some
time closely clasped over any object. The secre-
tion also appears to be to a certain extent anti-
septic, as it checks the appearance of mould, thus
preventing for a time the discolouration and decay

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS. 125

of such substances as the white of an egg, etc.
It therefore acts like the gastric juice of the
higher animals, and the nature of the secretion
appears to be allied to pepsin.

Venus' fly-trap (Fig. 34) is a native of Caro-

Fig. 34. — Venus' Fly-trap.

lina and Florida. It has a broad-winged petiole,
the blade forming the trap. The peculiar feature
about this, is that the margin of the two halves
are provided with long teeth, while the surface
has three bristles on each, and the instant one or
more is touched, the two halves close like a rat-
trap. They are so sensitive that if a piece of
cotton be made to touch one of them by dangling
it over the bristle, the two halves of the leaf

126 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

immediately close. The motion of the tentacles
of sundew is slow, because the insect is retained
by gum. Here, there is no secretion ; so, in com-
pensation, the trap closes rapidly.

The upper surface of the lobes is thickly covered
with small purplish, almost sessile glands. These
have the power both of secretion and absorp-
tion. They do not secrete until excited by the
absorption of nitrogenous matter. The secretion
is almost colourless, slightly mucilaginous, and,
judging by the manner in which it colours litmus
paper, Darwin thought it was more strongly acid
than that of the sundew.

Besides the sudden closing of the two lobes of
the leaf when the bristles are touched, Darwin
discovered that if bits of meat or albumen, if at
all damp, were placed on the leaf, they would not
only excite the glands to secrete but the lobes to
close.

With regard to the digestive power of the
secretion, Darwin observes that when a leaf
closes over any object, it may be said to form
itself into a temporary stomach ; and if the
object yields ever so little animal matter, this
serves as a " peptogene," and the glands on the
surface now pour forth their acid secretion,
which acts like the gastric juice of animals.

Darwin makes some further interesting remarks
upon the transmission of the motor impulse of
the bristles. It is sufficient, he says, to touch
any one of the six filaments to cause both lobes
to close, these becoming at the same time in-
curved throughout their whole breadth. The
stimulus must therefore radiate in all directions

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS. 127

from any one filament. It must also be trans-
mitted with much rapidity across the leaf; for
in all ordinary cases both lobes close simultan-
eously, as far as the eye can judge. Most physi-
ologists believe that in irritable plants the excite-
ment is transmitted along, or in close connection
with the fibro-vascular bundles ; but the presence
of vessels is not necessary for the transmission of
the motor impulse, for it is transmitted from the
tips of the sensitive bristles or filaments (these
being about the one-twentieth of an inch in
length) into which no vessels enter ; moreover,
experiments showed that there was no necessity
for a direct line of communication from the
filament which is touched, towards the mid-
rib and opposite lobe. By making longitu-
dinal slits in the leaves between the filaments
and the mid-rib, the lobes still closed when the
former were irritated. The motor impulse,
therefore, travels in all directions through the
cellular tissue. The lobes whilst closing become
slightly incurved throughout their whole breadth.
This movement appears, Darwin suggests, to be
due to the contraction of the superficial layers of
cells over the whole upper surface. On the other
hand, the several layers of cells forming the lower
surface of the leaf are always in a state of tension ;
and it is owing to this mechanical state, aided
probably by fresh fluid being attracted into the
cells, that the lobes begin to separate or expand
as soon as the contraction of the upper surface
diminishes. Space will not allow me to quote more
upon these interesting plants ; but I must refer
the reader to Darwin's exhaustive work on Insec-

128 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

tivorous Plants, in which he also attempts to discuss
the possible, if not probable, evolution of the
Sundew Family.

The Bladderwort (Fig. 35) has a totally differ-
ent method of seizing its prey. In the first place
it is a submerged plant
with finely divided leaves,
as is so commonly the
case with aquatic Dicoty-
ledons ; upon these are
little bladder-like struc-
tures ; they are trans-
lucent and green. Their
walls are of two layers
of cells. They are filled
with water and bubbles
of air.

From three to seven
bristles form a sort of
hollow cone round the
mouth. There is a valve-
like lid to the bladder,
sloping upwards, and is

one, enlarged with trap; a attnohef] rm all <?iflp<?
flower, two stamens and pistil aLiacneu. Oil ail blUUb

together, on left; separate, except the Upper Or
on right. . * . .A * i • i

posterior margin, which
is sharp, thin and smooth, resting on a collar of
the lower or anterior margin which is rigid.

Now for the uses of the several parts in catching
small aquatic animals. The interior of the bladder
has what might be called bifid and quadrifid
processes. These consist of two or four spindle-
shaped cells radiating freely from a point.
When an animal has been caught — and what

Fig. 35. — Bladder-wort ; shewing
submerged dissected leaves;

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS. 129

induces them to lift up the lid, enter, ana so get
imprisoned, it is difficult to suggest — after more
or less prolonged struggle, it dies; and when
decomposition has set in, the absorbable parts
become taken up by these processes. Darwin
concluded — from whose observations the preced-
ing is taken — that
nitrogen is absorbed
by the glands situated
near the orifice, as well
as by the quadrifid||||
processes.

Unlike the Sundew,
the bladderwort only
absorbs nourishment
from decayed animals.
It, in fact, frequents
impure water.

Butterworts, the
other genus of the same
family (Fig. 36), are FlG.
common in moist 011 lisht ; f ruit. on lef t.
places, especially on the west side of England and
Scotland. One species is Alpine, and like our
other high mountainous plants is found in X.
Europe, N. Asia, etc., and even in Fuegia and
Greenland. Though belonging to the same
family as the bladderworts they catch insects
in a totally different way. . The leaves are
arranged in a rosette, and are in our British
species spoon-shaped, with slightly in-turned
margins, the whole surface is covered with
button-shaped glands consisting of sixteen cells
supported on elongated, unicellular pedicels;
I

36. — Butter-wort; with flower,

130 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

together with smaller glands of eight cells on
shorter pedicels.

The glands secrete a colourless and very viscid
fluid. It has been drawn out to a length of
18 inches after excitement.

In an experiment to test the insectivorous
properties, a row of flies was placed along one
edge ; after fifteen hours it was inrolled by the
margin, and all the glands in contact with the
flies was secreting copiously.

When a fly was placed in the median line of
the leaf, near the apex, both the lateral surfaces
grasped it in 4 hrs. 20 mins.

Six cabbage seeds caused the margin to infold
in 2 hrs. 25 min. They yielded soluble matter
fro the leaf. Inorganic matters, however, have little
or no effect on the secretive powers ; but induce
the infolding of the margins. The shortest time
taken to infold the margins completely was
two hours seventeen minutes when nitrogenous
substances or fluids were given to the leaves.

The average time for unfolding the margins
was twenty-four hours.

The advantage of this inrolling movement
is to bring the glands near the edge vertically
downwards upon the object, so that while it
rests on glands below, those above it can add
their secretion. Moreover, larger prey that
cannot be infolded are pushed to the middle of
the leaf where glands abound. The incurved
edges also collect, as in a spoon, the superabun-
dant secretion. It is only nitrogenous substances
or fluids which cause the secretion to be acid and
therefore capable of digesting such food.

INSECTIVOROUS WILD FLOWERS.

131

Aldrovandra vesiculosa (Fig. 37) of the Con-
tinent, a genus of the same family as the Sundew,
is an aquatic plant having its leaves in whorls
and the blade bi-lobed like that of Venus' Fly-
trap, and more or less closed like a half-opened
pea-pod, Like the bladderwort
it is destitute of roots, but floats
freely in water. The lobes of
the leaf are formed of very delicate
tissue. They open only to a slight
degree.

Each lobe rather exceeds a semi-
circle in shape, and consists of
two very different portions; the
inner and lesser, or that next
the mid-rib, is slightly concave. FlG- ^--AWrovan-
Its upper surface is studded ,a' Cd '
with colourless glands. The outer and broader
portion of the lobe is flat and very thin. It
bears small quadrifid processes, which curiously
resemble those of the Bladderwort, though, as
stated, these two plants belong to widely dif-
ferent families (Fig. 38).

The rim is provided with a row of conical,
flattened, transparent points, with broad bases,
like the prickles of a bramble ; but they are com-
posed of very delicate and highly flexible mem-
brane. They somewhat resemble, but are really
totally distinct from, the teeth of Venus' Fly-trap.

On the concave gland-bearing portion of the
lobes, and especially on the mid-rib, there are
numerous long, finely pointed hairs, which,
without doubt, are sensitive to touch, and cause
the leaf to close.

132 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Darwin was unable to carry out sufficient
experiments with this plant; but says, that if
we may trust to analogy, the concave and inner
portions of the two lobes probably close together
by a slow movement, as soon as the glands have

absorbed a slight
amount of already
, soluble animal matter.
\ He discovered that
» both the points on
j • the margins, as well
/ as the quadrifids, had
' absorbed a nitrogenous
solution in the course
of twenty-four hours.

Fig. 38.— Aldrovandra ; leaf pressed He Came to the COI1-
flat open (after Darwin). elusion that the glands

secrete a true digestive fluid, and afterwards
absorb the digested matter.

The interesting feature about this plant is
that the form of the trap resembles the leaf of
the Venus' Fly-trap, together with its sensitive
bristles and glands ; but that of a totally dis-
tinct plant in the quadrifid processes.

Lastly, there is a species of marsh marigold
in the Falkland Islands, off Cape Horn, which
has trap-like leaf-blades, with toothed margins,
and half-closed, very like those of Venus' Fly-
trap ; but nothing is known of its capabilities
of catching insects.

The chief point of interest, from an evolu-
tionary point of view, is seen in the fact that
plants of no affinities whatever put on similar
structures to gain the same end, when necessary ;

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS. 133

and not only may this be with identically the
same organ, as, e.g., the leaf-blades in the above
cases ; but different organs may assume the same
form, as we shall see in the case of pitcher
plants of Australia, when we come to consider
the peculiar flora of that country in the next
volume.

CHAPTER XIII.

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS.

There are certain peculiar features characteristic
of the structures of all aquatic flowering plants,
which are, by their universal coincidence, ob-
viously adaptations to a life in water. For, when
we observe such to be identically the same in
a great number of plants of widely different
families, and therefore of no affinity, the con-
clusion is inevitable that it is the water which
has been the prime cause of their existence.

Commencing with roots, we find that when
the seeds of aquatic plants germinate, the pri-
mary or tap-root is very often soon arrested.
This occurs, e.g., in the water-crowfoot and the
spear-wort, in the water-chesnut, in the man-
groves,1 trees growing in the swamps near the
mouths of tropical rivers (Fig. 39). After a time

1 These belong to two widely different families, Rhizo-
phorecc and Verbenacece, showing how the same habit of
growth iias been acquired under similar external con-
ditions.

134 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the stems of such trees, like those of the screw-
pines,1 among Monocotyledons of a similar habit,
terminate below abruptly, often above the level
of the ground, but are supported, as already
stated, on numerous "adventitious" roots, ex-

Fig. 39. — Mangroves ; supported by adventitious roots.

tending like tent-ropes. These roots are con-
tinually being formed in ascending series by
their issuing out of the stem, being also often
branched. Similar roots are readily observable
in a germinating maize plant.

Submerged stems are always characterised by
1 Pandanus.

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS.

135

Laving long channels or air-chambers, separated
by transverse diaphragms ; whereas, the woody
tissues necessary for supporting stems growing
in the air are almost entirely absent, for the
water without, and the air within the stems,
keep them erect. Simi-
larly the cortical tissue
of aerial stems is compact,
but that of submerged
stems is lax, and full of
air - passages or lacunce,
caused by the separation
of the cells from one
another in places.

The thick rhizomes of

Water-lilies, which Creep Fig. 40.— Water Ciwfootjshew-
, 1 *n 1 . me submerged and floating

along the mild, illustrate leaves; also a petal with the

another feature of im- notary at base,
portance, for the fibro-vascular bundles or cords
of woody tissue, instead of being arranged in
definite concentric cylinders, as seen in any cross
section of a piece of timber, showing zones of
annual growth, these are greatly dislocated and
scattered through the fundamental or pith-like
cellular tissue. Hence the rhizome of a water-
lily has often been compared with and likened
to the stem of a Monocotyledon, such as of aspar-
agus or a palm.

With regard to the leaves of aquatic plants,
the submerged leaves of Dicotyledons are mostly
finely divided, nothing being left of the inter-
sticial tissue between the fibro-vascular bundles
or " veins" of the leaf, as in the water-crowfoot
(Fig. 40).

136

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Since terrestrial plants, allied to aquatic ones
with divided leaves, have theirs of the ordinary
or complete type, we may safely credit the water
as being the inciting cause of the dissected char-
acter of submerged leaves.1 The reader may
compare in his mind the water-crowfoot and a
field buttercup, the water-violet and a primrose,
the bladderwort with the butterwort.

A less number of plants of the class Dicoty-
ledons have ribbon-like leaves when submerged.
Such occur in our aquatic species of lobelia,
not uncommon in the Welsh Lakes ; the only
other species in England, to be found in Dorset
and Cornwall, has net-veined leaves with a
toothed margin. The marestail and water-star-
wort are other common examples.

The number of plants belonging to the class
Monocotyledons, which are aquatic, is far more
numerous. In fact, the percentage of Natural
Orders or Families, containing aquatic plants, is
thirty-three, whereas it is only four in Dicoty-
ledons.

In the enumeration of the most obvious char-
acters distinguishing these two classes, given in
Chapter III., it will be seen that the first men-
tioned refers to the non-existence (as in ger-
minating wheat or barley), or, if it be de-
veloped, the early arrest (as in Indian corn

1 As examples taken from different families, there are
the water-crowfoot {Ranunculus family), a watercress
(Nasturtium amphibium, of Crucifers), a kind of celery
(Apium inundatum, of Umbellifers), the water milfoil
(of ffaloragea^), the water violet (of the Primrose family),
the Bladderwort and Hornwort. The above are selected
from widely distinct families.

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS.

137

or the date) of the primary or axial root in
Monocotyledons.

The plant is subsequently supported, as already
stated, and nourished by adventitious roots,
arising in ascending order from the base of the
stem. Now, this is universal among Monocoty-
ledons, but it is also far from uncommon among
aquatic Dicotyledons.

The stem of a Monocotyledon, as of a palm-tree,
or shoot of asparagus, was long ago seen to afford
a sharp contrast to that of a Dicotyledon ; and
since the annual cylinders of wood are formed
outside the previous years, as in all our British
timber trees ; such was called " exogenous 71 and
Dicotyledons were also called exogens, i.e. "be-
gotten without." In Monocotyledons, however,
no such cylinders of wood are formed, the fibre-
vascular bundles, which represent it, pass down
the stem from the leaves and outwards again at
their lower ends, terminating in the circumfer-
ence. Through a misconception the younger
bundles or woody cords were thought to be
always within the others. Hence the term
"endogens," i.e. " begotten within," was framed
as a synonym for Monocotyledons; but it was
a faulty expression. It is only mentioned as it
still occurs in our text-books, and in Sir J. D.
Hooker's " Student's Flora of the British Isles."

The word " endogenous " is still useful as de-
scriptive of the origin of roots ; for these take
their rise from a deep-seated active layer of tissue,
and issue out of the " mother " root by dissolving
out a passage through to the surface of the cor-
tical layers. I say,4' dissolves," because the apex

138 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

of the secondary root is provided with a sort of
cap which secretes a " ferment." This causes the
dissolution of the cortical tissue upon which the
young root feeds until it has escaped from the
mother-root and penetrates the soil.

The layer of tissue from which the root takes
its rise is a very important one, it forms a thin
cylinder beneath the cortical tissue over the
woody cylinder of roots and stems. It supplies
all the secondary and subsequent rootlets.

In the stems of Monocotyledons which have no
" cambium " layer beneath the cork, wherewith
to form annual layers of wood and bark, as in our
dicotyledonous timber trees, this "pericycle " is
a substitute, and by its means the stems of Mono-
cotyledons can increase in diameter to a certain
extent.

In the flowering stems of herbaceous Monocoty-
ledons, as of the Lily of the Valley and Ixias, it
assumes the role of supplying mechanical tissues ;
as a " stiffening. " The reader will perhaps re-
call the " wiry " character of such flower-stalks.
In Dicotyledons it makes the fibres so useful in
hemp, flax and many other stems.

Contrary to the nature of roots ; branches, how-
ever, are continuous with the trunk and are there-
fore spoken of as " exogenous " in development.

A similarity between the two classes may often
be seen in flower-stalks. In these herbaceous
stems the fibro-vascular cords are arranged in one
or two circles, but isolated from each other. The
flower-stalk of an anemone will be found thus
to exactly resemble that of a daffodil ; but the
former is a Dicotyledon while the latter is a

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS.

139

Monocotyledon. Such resemblances point to an
original and common origin of the two classes.

We have already seen that there are some strong
resemblances between the leaves of Monocoty-
ledons and the leaves of certain aquatic Dicoty-
ledons. Let us consider them more in detail.

The almost universal character of submerged
leaves of Monocotyledons is to be long and
ribbon-like. The reader will recall those of
bullrushes, the sweet flag, the flowering rush,
and of true rushes, etc. The "insertion" of
the leaf in the stem is by a broad and more or
less sheathing base, which encircles the stem to a
less or greater degree. The fibro-vascular bundles
pass out of them and run in parallel courses from
end to end, generally united by cross-bars, thereby
making square or oblong interstices. Such is the
origin of the " parallel venation," regarded as
one of the most characteristic features of mono-
cotyledonous leaves.

We have seen that the effect of living sub-
merged causes an arrest of the intersticial parts
of the leaves of the majority of aquatic Dicoty-
ledons, reducing them to a finely divided state. A
similar effect is often seen in our pond-weeds, in
which some of the square interstices are not de-
veloped, so the leaf appears to be perforated.
In the latticed-leaf plant of Madagascar, all the
interstices are thus arrested.1

1 Ouvirandra fenestralis. This genus and Aponogcton
are the only two of the same family. A. distachyus is
hardy in England, and is occasionally grown in ponds.
It has a forking flowering-stem ; each branch bearing
two rows of white bracts and small flowers in their axils.
The leaf resembles that of the Lattice-leaved plant, but
has no perforations.

140 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Now there are some members of the Aroidece,
now terrestrial, but having large perforations
in their leaves, which are hereditary; and it
is difficult to account for them otherwise than
having been acquired when their ancestors were
aquatic plants ; and so
they retained this feature
when they finally became
terrestrial.

Another type of foliage
found among Mono-
cotyledons is that of
the African aloe and the
"American aloe," really
jj of a different genus and
]|j family. These plants
now grow in very arid
districts where rainrarely
falls; so that the leaves
have acquired a massive
character in order to
store up great quantities
of water in their internal
cellular tissue.

Fig. 41.— Water-soldier ; showing Our British Water-
stolons; male flower and single soldfer Would Seem to
stamen (left) ; female flower, . . c xl

stigmas (right); and fruit with give us an idea oi the

2-leaved spathe (middle). origin of this type of

foliage ; for it bears a tuft of rigid and brittle
radical leaves with a toothed margin, recalling
the marginal teeth of the aloes (Fig. 41).

It may thus, perhaps, represent the original
aquatic type of foliage from which the aloes
have descended and become terrestrial.

AQUATIC WILD FLOWERS.

141

A better parallel is perhaps to be seen, between
the development of leaves of an aquatic Dicotyle-
don and of Monocotyledons in the evolution of
those of the arrow-head. As long as the leaves
of the latter are well submerged, they are long
and ribbon-like. As the tips come near to the
surface of the water, they begin to form an oval
blade, and two basal appendages then appear on
it, thus forming a spear-shaped blade. The three
points elongate and now rise out of the water and
take on the permanent form of an arrow-head,
giving the name to the plant.

An interesting proof of the effect of water in
causing the linear ribbon-like form, is seen in the
fact that if a leaf has just commenced to widen
out at the top to form a blade, if the water be
suddenly deepened, so as to completely submerge
it, then the apex sets to work to grow out again
into a strap-shaped prolongation.

Sometimes the leaf has already acquired the
spear-head form with its two basal points. Then
the effect may be that all three points are induced
to run out into straps or with ribbon-like ex-
tensions.

A large number of Monocotyledons, especially
of the family Aroidece, have this arrow-headed
form of leaf-blade, as in our common lords and
ladies or cuckoo-pint. This plant bears small
oval blades at first — just like the first blades of
the arrow-head's leaf — then, subsequently, the
complete form.

Turning to the water-lily family of Dicoty-
ledons, a similar progression is seen, as, e.g., in
the germination of the Great Water-lily of the

142 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Amazon, known as Victoria regia. The seedlings
of this plant, which is an annual, first throw out
nothing but flat petioles, then follows the arrow-
headed form, and finally the orbicular leaf.

In some plants the basal halves of the lower
part of the arrow-headed leaf are united, so that
the " peltate" leaf, which it now becomes, is
somewhat triangular in shape ; 1 but, as a rule, it
is the orbicular or horse-shoe shaped leaf which has
the lower edges united, thus forming a circular
blade, with the petiole attached to the centre, as
in the lotus and the garden nasturtium. This
suggests the name " peltate" or shield-like.

We thus see how the foliage of Monocotyle-
dons can be traced to forms assumed by aquatic
Dicotyledons ; and when the final result is a
genuinely reticulated " venation " in the blade,
as in the leaf of the cuckoo-pint, black bryony,
Paris, Trillium, etc., we seem to recall the ancestral
type of Dicotyledons generally.

In describing plants one often has occasion to
speak of their degeneracy, and as water is one
of the most active agents in causing it, it may
be as well to observe that it really means the
putting a terrestrial plant in adaptation to, and in
harmony with, a watery existence. The stems
" degenerate" in the sense of non-development of
wood, simply because it is not wanted. It sup-
presses the stomates on the submerged leaves,
because they would be of no use. But the plant
is simply in perfect adjustment to its condition
of life.

1 This occurs in the genus Caladium

CHAPTEE XIV.

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES OF WILD
FLOWERS.

We have learnt that the typical structure of a
flower consists of a calyx, corolla, stamens, and
pistil ; and we want to know why the parts of
these whorls vary in number. Thus dicotyle-
donous flowers are generally in fours or fives and
monocotyledonous in threes.

Then, again, we have seen that a typical
flower has the whorls " regular," i.e. with all the
members exactly alike, as are the petals of a
buttercup. But in many flowers the petals are
of different shapes as of a violet and pea-blossom.
How has this irregularity come about, since all
primitive flowers possessing a corolla are assumed
to have been regular ?

We will consider these two kinds of differences
in flowers in the present chapter.

As all flowers are referable to a leaf -bud, as
will be more fully explained in a subsequent
chapter, we shall find our clue to the number five,
which is by far the commonest among sepals,
petals, and stamens, in a very simple way. Take
a leafy shoot of a rose-tree or hawthorn, call
any leaf No. 1 ; then, it will be observed that if
a line were drawn round the stem through the
base of each leaf-stalk in succession, it will be a
spiral one, and coil twice round the stem before
it arrives at a leaf (the sixth) exactly over
No. 1.

143

144 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

The five leaves (No. 1 to No. 5) make a so-
called " cycle." Similarly, No. 6 to No. 10 form
a second cycle, and so on. Now, suppose the
internodes or distances between the leaves to be
suppressed, and the leaves of four cycles to be
brought down to one level, we
should have what exactly cor-
responds to four floral whorls
of five parts each, except in
one particular ; and that is,
to avoid crowding, Nature
shifts each whorl so as to make
fig. 42.-Diagram cf a {t alternate with the next,
complete pentamerous Consequently, the leaves, Nos.

flower of Geranium. n -t i i /? 01 „~ ~ *. j.1

6, 11, 16, 21 are not exactly
over each other, but now lie between those of the
whorls above and below (Fig. 42).

This is so general a law in flowers, that if any
whorl of a flower is found to be exactly over
another, botanists at once know that an inter-
mediate whorl has been suppressed. This occurs
in the primrose and pimpernel (Fig. 43), in
which the five stamens stand in front
of the petals and not between them. A
genus known as brookweed, of the
same family, has stump-like rudiments
of stamens between the petals, as well
as five perfect stamens in front of
them (Fig. 44); so it illustrates an Fl^3-^
ancestral condition when two com- stamen of
plete whorls of stamens were pre- PimPernel-
sent in alternate positions, the innermost being
only present in the primrose. Several of the
Incomplete have stamens in front of the sepals ;

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 145

because in this group the corolla is generally
wanting.

Now let us try to account for flowers which have
their parts in twos and fours, as in the enchanters
night-shade, lilac, and fuchsia. If we look at
the leaves of these plants we shall
find that they are arranged in pairs,
each pair being in a position at
right angles to those above and
below it. If we suppress the in- Fig. 44. — Brook,
ternodes, we get either whorls of S>roiiL andsta-
twos; or if nature takes two mens laid open,
pairs to make a whorl, the flower is in fours.

In Monocotyledons we find i ' threes" to pre-
vail, as in lilies, hyacinth, crocus, etc.

In these plants, it will generally be found that
the leaves are so arranged that the fourth leaf
stands on the spiral line over the first, so that
three leaves only now make a cycle. Hence the
whorls are in threes.

Sometimes the number of parts is so great
(more than twelve) that it is called " indefinite."
This occurs in the stamens and carpels of a butter-
cup. A close inspection shows that they are
spirally distributed, so that they are referable
to the prevailing type of arrangement of leaves.
Thus, then, we can account generally for the
various numbers of the parts of floral whorls.
Exceptional cases occur, when one or more parts
are wanting, as in Labiates, though the sepals
and petals are five each, there are in nearly all
cases only four stamens, because the posterior or
fifth stamen is suppressed.

Of the two kinds of arrangement of leaves in
K

146 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

plants, viz., the one with " opposite " pairs of
leaves, and the other, when there is only a
single leaf at a node or " alternate," the question
arises, how does the latter issue from the former ?
Because, if we go back to seeds of Dicotyledons,
we find they all (allowing for rare exceptions)
start with a pair of opposite leaves or coty-
ledons, as seen in germinating mustard and cress.
But, it often happens that a shoot will have op-
posite leaves below and alternate above, as on the
stem of a willow-herb, and, as especially worthy
of study, is that of the Jerusalem Artichoke.

It will be found that the first step in the
change is a separation of the pair of leaves by a
very short joint or internode; and as the stem elon-
gates, the leaves of the successive pairs become
further apart and at the same time, so to say,
shift their positions, they are no longer opposite
to one another. This process will be illustrated
by the following scheme, in which, however, the
leaves are placed, as if remaining opposite in pairs,
viz., 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, etc., constituting
the original opposite pairs.

The arrows indicate the order in which they
will occur up the stem, when they have become
alternate and stand singly on a spiral line as
already explained.

^2
5

10 ^
3 8 11 12 7 4

4> 9
6

1 ->

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 147

The sixth leaf is then over the first

The next point to consider is how irregularities
have come into existence in flowers.

To answer this question, first, and then to prove
it, I might say that they are the actual result of
the habitual visits of certain insects, which come
to them for honey.

In other words, the living protoplasm of the
flower responds to the irritations, pressures, etc.,
set up by the insect alighting on the flower ; so
that it gradually (i.e. through successive gener-
ations) assumed the irregular form now existing,
in special adaptation to its visitor.

This is, of course, a theoretical explanation,
because, we cannot induce a regular flower to
become irregular; but the theory is based on
innumerable coincidences, which render it highly
probable. Space will not permit of much illus-
tration but the following examples will show the
line of argument.

The calyx of the furze and sage will be ob-
served to be two-lobed, 2 sepals forming the pos-
terior, and 3 the anterior half in the former while
in labiates, to which the sage belong, the numbers
are reversed. In sages the calyx is tubular and
often possesses a number of stout ribs. Suppose
we represent them as follows : — d (dorsal) stands
for the original mid-ribs of the 5 coherent sepa-
line-leaves. m (marginal) occurs where the se-
pals are united by their edges, s (supernumerary
rib) in front.

148 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

d

m

m

d

d

m

m

m

m

d

d

m

m

s

What is the interpretation of this arrangement 1
The weight of the hee is all on the front part of
the flower ; as she alights on the enlarged front
petal or lip of the corolla. The tube of the
latter is sheathed by the calyx-tube ; so that the
pressure is all on the front part of the calyx-
tube. This tends to tear the calyx across, and
accounts for two-lobed form. To resist this, strong
cords are run up in the weakest places ; only one
(m) occurs between each sepal at the back, as the
strain is least there ; but two (m, m) are at the
sides, two more together with an extra cord (s)
are in the front, just where the strain is greatest.

The whole structure of the calyx with its dis-
tribution of cords is seen to correspond exactly
with the mechanical pressures and strains brought
to bear upon it.

In Salvia or sage, we see how extra ribs are
added to the anterior or front half of the calyx-
tube ; but if we examine the flower of the wood-
sage in which there is no posterior hood to the
corolla, we shall find that the corolla lip hangs
vertically, and in a cultivated species (which shows
the details somewhat better, called Tencrium
[Teucris] orientale, Fig. 45) the corolla is split at
the back and hangs in a vertical direction, the

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 149

stamens and pistil being erect. The insect hangs
upon the corolla, so that the whole weight of the
insect is so much to the front, that the leverage
will be at a considerable disadvantage, much more

so than when the insect stands
more directly over the tube of the
corolla. To meet this difficulty
the pedicel is curved over at the
top, as may be readily seen in our
common wood-sage, and forms a
spring ; while hypertrophy has
attacked the posterior side of the

calyx, so that it now carries two fig. 45.— Teu-
extra marginal ribs, one on either cHum.
side of the posterior dorsal one, as shewn in the
accompanying diagram. This is exactly the
reverse of what occurs in Salvia and others which
d

m m
d d
d d

are much more strengthened on the anterior
side, when the insect stands more directly over
the centre of the flower.

Irregularities occur most frequently in corollas,
so that " lips " are very common ; as in the violet
or pansy, the labiates, many of the snapdragon
order, most orchids, etc., and as they are always
in front, where an insect alights, the coincidence
strengthens the theory, that here too, there
has been a direct cause and effect in their pro-
duction.

In many orchids the flower has become in-
verted, either by the twisting of the pedicel as,

150 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

in twayblade ; or of the ovary, if sessile, as of
Orchis ; 1 or again, the flower may bend over to
the opposite side of the stem, without any twisting
at all, as in the "Bee-ophrys." In all cases, how-
ever, it is really the posterior petal which forms the
lip in front, instead of being a true anterior one.
So that these very exceptions add additional
reasons for accepting the theory. There is yet
another coincidence with regard to irregular
flowers. They are almost invariably situated close
to the stem in the form of a spike ; so that an in-
sect has no alternative in coming from the front.
On the other hand, regular flowers are either ter-
minal as a tulip, or if on a raceme as the currant
and lily of the valley, there is nothing to prevent
an insect resting on any part of it when alighting
from any direction. It is not at all uncommon
to find the terminal flower on a spike of aconite,
larkspur, or horse-chesnut to be quite regular.
M. Vilmorin has succeeded in fixing this pecu-
liarity in the foxglove ; which, besides its row of
flowers of the usual form, is surmounted by a
large bell-shaped one at the summit. It not in-
frequently happens that the flowers of labiates, as of
the salvia, are accidentally quite regular (Fig. 46).
The fifth stamen is sometimes also restored.

Now let us note a fact about stamens. In the
majority of flowers the corolla forms the landing
place. Sometimes, however, there is no strictly
anterior petal, so that the insect visitor cannot
alight on a single enlarged petal, but stands on

1 The twisted inferior ovary, which causes the reversed
position of the flower of Orchis, can be seen in the figure
No. 22, in Grant Allen's book, p. 126.

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 151

the stamens instead. When this is the case, they
all, together with the style, bend down, forming a
sort of horizontal and elongated S, thus ^\ This
gives them sufficient strength to carry the bee.
It occurs in the horse-chesnut, rhododendron,
some lilies, amaryllis, etc. The
stamens are said to be " decimate."

Sometimes there is a petal below
the stamens, but the insect has
found it more convenient to stand
on the latter, and as ncurishment
now seems to be withdrawn from

Fig. 46. — Regular Salvia ; a. complete flower ; b. corolla laid open,
showing/owr perfect stamens (the fifth, not developed).

below to strengthen the filaments, the anterior
petal becomes dwarfed and reduced in size, as in
Amaryllis and Speedwell, or vanishes altogether,
as in the blossom of the horse-chesnut.
In some flowers the bee hangs on to the stamens,

152

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

as in Rosebay, and the side petals being, so
to say, in the way, have got dislocated, and
look as if they were pushed aside.

This occurs in many flowers, besides the rose-
bay, as Dictamnus (Fig. 47), and Clerodendron.

Now it may be asked, what evidence have we
that flowers can respond to mechanical irritations,

and so build up
floral structures in
adaptation to in-
sects. Well, it is
not altogether a
speculation. First,
we have seen how
leaves and stems
respond to strains,
and put on mechani-
cal tissues to meet
them. Thus tendrils
completely alter
their forms and
structures under

Fig. 47.— Dictamnus : showing declinate tensions, as of the
stamens and "dislocated" petals. T7. • . A,

Virginia creeper. At
first it consists of slender branching threads, but as
soon as it has its hooked tips in contact with the
roughnesses on the surface of a wall, the tips develop
adhesive pads or discs, while the branches of the ten-
dril become corkscrew-like, and greatly thickened.

Irritability of protoplasm, with responsive
action, are general phenomena in the vegetable
kingdom, so that one can draw conclusions based
on numerous probabilities, which is practically
equivalent to a demonstration.

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 153

Moreover, we must remember that the correla-
tions between the flower and the insect are not
confined to one particular only, for they run
through all parts of it. Thus, we have seen how
the calyx and corolla of sage are in agreement ;
and the stamens are so
placed and constructed
as to strike the bee
with the anthers in a
certain place. Then,
again, the stigmas are
so situated, that they
must hit the bee pre-
cisely where the pollen
had been previously
deposited.

Lastly, the position
of the honey-gland is
exactly where it should
be for the bee to have
ready access to it.

I will here illustrate two cases of "close-
fitting" adaptations, if I may so call it. First
let us take the sage or salvia. There are only
two stamens, supported on very short filaments
(Fig. 48), but the "connective," which unites
the anther-cells, is extraordinarily developed into
a curved rod, which moves up and down as on a
pivot. The uppermost anther has pollen, but the
lower one has none. When a bee enters the
flower her head strikes the spoon-shaped empty
anther-cell, so that she sets the connective
moving, which, then, brings the polleniferous
anther down upon her back (Fig. 49).

Fig. 48.— Salvia. Hood of Corolla
removed, to show stamens and
their action.

154 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

The other flower is called Duvernoia, and the
accompanying figure No. 50, will explain matters.
Looking at the left hand figure, a, one might ask,
For what use is this great irregularity of the
corolla; and why and how has it come into

existence ? And no
answer is forthcom-
ing. Now, turning
to the right hand
figure, b, we see one
use at least. The
weight of the bee
must be very great;

Fig. 49.— Salvia. Bee within Corolla, and the CUHOUS shape

and connectives depressed. - . , ,. ... , *

oi the lip, with its
lateral ridges, is evidently not only an excellent
landing-place, but is so constructed as to bear
that weight. Moreover, the two wTalls slope off,
and are gripped by the legs of the bee, so that
it evidently can secure an excellent purchase,
and can thus rifle the flower of its treasure at
its ease.

There yet remains to be briefly considered the
converse of the preceding facts. If the adapta-
tions to insects in a flowTer have been brought
about by the insects themselves, then, if the
irritations be not kept up, in consequence of
insects ceasing to visit them, it would be not
unreasonable to suppose that they would revert
to some less complicated form. And this is pre-
cisely what appears to be the case. Innumerable
flowers are now very inconspicuous, but they
still retain a corolla, which was formerly the
attractive organ, as in such weeds as shepherd's

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 155

purse, hedge-mustard, chickweed, etc. These have
become more or less adapted to pollinate them-
selves. Consequently they have no fear of not
setting seed, as is the case with most orchids,
which are absolutely dependent upon visitors.
Their degrada-
tions are seen
in the minute
size of the
flowers, and in
a number of
peculiarities,
which will be
summarised in
another chap-
ter.

Lastly, being
independent of
insects, they are more widely dispersed than are
insect-fertilised plants. Many of our common
weeds have become cosmopolitan, being scattered
over the southern hemisphere as well as the
northern.1

The theory advanced in this chapter may be
applied in explanation of " mimetic " flowers.
These are of many different families, but imitate
one another in their general appearance, though
the structure, when examined in detail, is very
different. A few of the following have been
referred to in another connection, but may be

1 If the reader desires to read more of the subject of this
chapter, he will find it in the author's "Making of
Flowers" (S. P. C. K., 2s. 6d.), and also "The Origin of
Floral Structures " (K. Paul k Co., 5s.).

Duvernoia.

156 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

here quoted in illustration of the peculiarity of
mimicry.

First, with regard to bracts as imitating petals
and collectively a corolla. They are often coloured
as in the winter flowering, familiar decorative
plant, Poinsettia, in which the true flowers are
very minute and quite inconspicuous were it not
for the brilliant scarlet leaves or bracts. The
Everlastings supply another instance in which
the coloured bracts of the involucre are often
mistaken for a corolla. In the cornel, there are
four white bracts in some species surrounding
numerous minute flowers, rendering the inflores-
cence exactly like a white flowered clematis. A
species of greenhouse spurge, known as Euphorbia
jacquiniwflww, has a little cup with five scarlet
projections on the rim exactly like a bright little
scarlet-petalled flower. But the cup is of the
nature of an involucre like that of the French
marigold, and contains both male and female
flowers within it.

The familiar pea-blossom is imitated by several
plants of no relationship whatever. Thus the
milkwort has been called "falsely papilionaceous;"
the latter term means "like a butterfly," and
has been applied to the corollas of the Legu-
minous family.

If we turn to the Labiates, and examine the
common white dead-nettle, the four stamens will
be found erect under the posterior hood ; but in
some foreign genera, as in the genus plectranthus,
grown in greenhouses, either for its ccerulean
blue flowers or coloured foliage, the stamens lie
horizontally, concealed in a boat-like lip; but of

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES 157

course the corolla is really gamopetalous, and not
polypetalous as in the pea.

There is also a genus in the Fox-glove family,
often grown in gardens as an annual, called
Collinsia Mcolor, which has a flower precisely con-
structed as the last mentioned of the Labiates.
It thus closely mimics a pea-flower. Some kinds
of S. African Pelargoniums also are not at all
unlike blossoms of the Pea family.

There is an orchid of S. Africa known as
Disa Cooperi with upturned spurs, so that the
spike of flowers might easily be mistaken for one
of larkspurs.

Among Monocotyledons, the familiar form of a
flower of the crocus is imitated in other families
than that to which it belongs ; as, e.g., the Col-
chicum, which is actually called, though wrongly,
the autumn crocus. In a third family is a plant
with a yellow flower looking like a crocus grow-
ing in the east of the Mediterranean regions called
Sternbergia lutea.

When we compare the structures of flowers of
plants belonging to the Labiate family with
many of the Fox-glove family, there are very
close resemblances. Thus, for example, the four
erect stamens of the dead-nettle standing up
under the posterior hood is paralleled by the
stamens in the snap-dragon, fox-glove, toad-flax,
etc. In both is the landing-place or lip present,
and the honey-gland in front just where the
insect will find it.

Yet the structure of the pistil is so totally
different, yet uniform in each family respectively,
that the conclusion is inevitable that all the genera

158 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

have differentiated from two distinct stocks since
the pistils characteristic of each family had been
evolved.

I have already called attention to the great
number of plants of many distinct families in
which the stamens are decimate. Now all these
facts conspire to prove that they have come
about because more or less similar insects have
repeatedly visited widely distinct plants of many
orders. Then the flowers presumably responded,
and within the limits permissible by their struc-
tures, have acquired certain resemblances which
render them imitative of one another.

It may be here added that mimetic flowers are
only one instance of this peculiarity in the vege-
table kingdom. I shall have occasion to show
that it occurs abundantly in leaves and other
organs of plants, but in every case the principle
is the same, that the resemblances of structure have
been brought about by the plants having lived
for many generations under the same external
conditions, to which their living protoplasm has
responded, and so built up structures best suited
for them under the circumstances.

I have alluded to the fact that when flowers
are habitually visited on one side, then such
flowers are always irregular; but that if they
come from all points of the compass then the
flower is regular. I have also called attention to
the fact that terminal flowers of spikes bearing
normally irregular ones are sometimes regular.

Now we cannot make an irregular flower out
of a regular one. Nature probably required
many generations of the same in sect- visitors to

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 159

effect this change ; but flowers normally irregular
in nature not infrequently have re-acquired
regularity under cultivation. In other words, in
the absence of the native insects of the country
from which the flowers have come, they have re-
verted to the ancestral form. This is, of course,
only of the nature of negative evidence, but of
importance as far as it goes.

Dr Masters observes, in his work on "Ter-
atology" (i.e. on the monstrous changes under-
gone by flowers, about which I propose to add a
chapter), that in cultivated pelargoniums, the
central flower of the truss .frequently retains its
regularity of proportion, so as closely to approxi-
mate to the normal condition of the allied genus
geranium. This resemblance is rendered greater
by the fact that, under such circumstances, the
patches of darker colour characteristic of the
ordinary flower are completely wanting, the
flower being as uniform in colour as in shape.
Even the nectary, which is adherent to the
upper surface of the pedicel in the normal flower
of pelargoniums, disappears, sometimes com-
pletely, at other times partially. The direction
of the stamens and style, and even that of the
whole flower, becomes altered from the inclined
to the vertical position. In addition to these
changes, which are those most commonly met
with, the number of the parts of the flower is
sometimes augmented, and a tendency to pass
from the verticillate, or whorled to the spiral
arrangement is manifested.

All the differentiations in an ordinary lateral
blossom of pelargonium brought about by insect

160 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

agency are, in the above instances, reversed, in
consequence of the flower assuming a terminal
position.

A more complete illustration of the effect of
manner of growth and the distribution of
nutrition could not well be given, showing how
all the features of irregularity acquired by the
ordinary form must have been induced or im-
pressed upon the flower when growing laterally
and easily visited, but from the front only ; but
that they are readily lost, as soon as the sap
can be distributed radially, and so cause the
parts to grow symmetrically round the now
vertical axis.

Besides the occasional appearance of one or
more terminal and regular flowers among a truss
of irregular ones, it is the object of florists to
induce all the blossoms of many irregular flowers
to become regular. Thus cultivated pelargo-
niums, gloxinias, azaleas, pansies, etc., which are
normally irregular, tend to become regular and
quite circular in outline under cultivation, and
so lose all their characteristic features.

In all these cases, I am inclined to recognise
negative evidence in favour of the theory advanced;
in that, presuming the characteristic irregularities
to have been brought about by the agency of
insects, and through the crossing of distinct
flowers by these creatures, and that the irregu-
larities have arisen under the various pressures,
etc. ; then, under cultivation, though they may
be repeatedly crossed by man — the process, how-
ever, not being effected in the same way as by
insects, and consequently the causes of irregu-

THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES. 161

larity being wanting — the flowers now revert
to their ancestral forms, while ample supplies of
nutriment doubtless play an important part in
the process.

A good illustration of this reversion is seen in
the cultivated gloxinias. These have pendalous
tubes, with an irregular border to the corolla,
and four stamens; but in 1842, one flower ap-
peared with an erect tube, symmetrical border,
and five stamens, a perfect reversion to regu-
larity. This has now become a constitutional
affection ; for when the flowers of a drooping
blossom are fertilized with their own pollen, a
large number of the seedlings will bear the
erect, regular form of flower.

As a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness
of the living protoplasm to external mechanical
irritation, the following case in which regularity
was reacquired may interest the reader. Clero-
dendron is a plant often cultivated in which
certain caterpillars take up their abode within
the tubes of the corolla. The irritation induced
by their presence brings about a hypertrophy of
the corolla, which now assumes a regular form,
while the filaments and style are likewise
affected, becoming thicker than in the normal,
irregular flower.

An irregular flower may become regular, not
by reversion, but by increasing the irregularity,
which belongs, it may be to one petal only, till
all the petals are alike ; so that regularity is
restored, but not the primitive form of the
flower. This peculiarity is particularly common
in the calceolaria, toad-flax, and snapdragon, as
L

162 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

well as other plants. Linnaeus, who observed
it, called it "Peloria," a word signifying
"monstrous."

We have seen how terminal blossoms are often
regular; and it will be found that when snap-
dragons assume this pelorian form, they occur
as the middle flowers of three-flowered groups
instead of a raceme, of which the central one
is regular, while the lateral ones are normal and
irregular. Though often sterile, Darwin suc-
ceeded in raising sixteen plants of a pelorian
variety of snapdragon, artificially fertilised by
its own pollen, all of which were as perfectly
pelorian as the parent plant.

That peloria is due to hypertrophy is also
seen in the fact that it always arises by multi-
plication of the normally enlarged organ. Thus,
in toad-flax and snapdragon, all the petals are
spurred or pouched; in pelorian larkspurs and
aconites, it is the spurred and hooded sepals
which are repeated ; and in papilionaceous
flowers of the Leguminous family, it is the
standard which is multiplied five times, etc.
Moreover, an abnormal increase in the number
of petals and stamens often occurs in pelorian
pelargoniums, horse-chesnut, etcx

CHAPTER XV.

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION OF WILD
FLOWERS.

The ancients knew of the necessity of pollin-
ating the date-palm and some other trees of
which the sexes are separated ; for Pliny thus
wrote in the first century, A.D., copying from
Theophrastus of the 4th, B.C. — 1 'The more intelli-
gent inquirers into the operations of nature state
that all trees, or rather all plants belong to either
one sex or the other ; and this manifests itself in
no tree more than in the Palm." The Persians
also fertilised the Turpentine tree. But they often
called two varieties or species of a plant male or
female, without any reference to the structure
of the flowers, whatever; so that in the case of
Mercury the real male plant was called female
and vice versa !

The knowledge of the true functions of the
stamens and pistil appears to have been lost or at
least unknown in the middle ages ; though Bacon
being familiar with Greek and Roman literature
quotes the above suspicion that all plants were
sexual. It was recorded of Sir T. Millington, Pro-
fessor of Botany in Oxford, that he was the first
since Bacon's time to point out the true functions
of the stamens and pistil. Even cross-fertilisation
had been previously suspected, as Perdita in " The
Winter's Tale" speaks of i i streaked gilliflowers,
which some call Nature's Bastards." Prof. Bradley
of Cambridge, in 1725, describes varieties which

163

164 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

were fertile when crossed, but he thought hybrids
between two species, like mules, were always in-
fertile. He describes the inflorescences of the
hazel, which he rightly thought was pollinated
by the wind ; while bi-sexual flowers he regarded
as being always self-fertilised. Insect agency in
pollinating was not perceived until Sprengel pub-
lished his work full of interesting illustrations in
1793. The pursuit of this subject was not followed
until Darwin took it up and published his work
on "The Fertilisation of Orchids," in 1862; and
subsequently, his "Cross and Self -Fertilisation
of Plants," in 1876.

Here, unfortunately, he was led to misinterpret
certain facts. Self-fertilisation was formerly
thought to be universal ; but Darwin drew a pre-
cisely opposite conclusion and said that " Nature
abhors perpetual self-fertilisation." Mr Grant
Allen, following Darwin, says in his " Story of the
Plants," of plants which fertilise themselves: —
" Such flowers are almost always poor and degen-
erate kinds, the unsuccessful in the race, the out-
casts and street arabs of plant civilization." 1
This is really so misleading that I must try to
explain the true state of the case; I will then
illustrate the disadvantages to flowers in having
to depend upon the capricious visits of insects,
and the great advantages in being independent of
them ; for all idea of " injuriousness " arising from
self-fertilisation, as Darwin imagined, is without
any basis of fact.

1 P. 91. For various methods of pollination of flowers,
I must here refer the reader to his chapters on ' ' Marriage
Customs."

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 165

The first thing to be noticed is that flowers
specially adapted to be crossed are conspicuous or
scented or attractive in some way or other to
these insect visitors. On the other hand regularly
self-fertilised flowers are quite unattractive, being
minute and devoid of scent and honey. We often
call them "weeds," as groundsell, shepherd's-
purse, chickweed, black solanum, etc., etc. As to
the relative abundance, these latter far surpass
the former : and if such weeds be allowed to grow
in a garden, they soon prove to be masters of the
situation and smother the others. They are often
annuals and small, and of no beauty ; but as a
healthy life and to bear plenty of seed is all that
concerns plants themselves ; it is very easy to see
that they are by far the best off.

Crossing acts as a temporary stimulus ; conse-
quently it is an invaluable aid to florists, who
raise " finer " plants, more beautiful and variously
coloured flowers, etc., thereby rendering them
more marketable : but they cannot hold their
own in a severe struggle for life with the self-
fertilising weeds. Common experiences have
shown that Darwin was quite wrong in this
respect. Moreover, Darwin's experiments, carried
on in a few cases for some years, proved that the
stimulus of crossing might enhance the size and
fertility for a time ; but it gradually lessened till
the self-fertilised plant (i.e. artificially so pol-
linated) beat the " intercrossed " in every way.
Thus, for example, with Ipomcea purpurea (called
Convolvulus major by gardeners), taking 100 to
represent the heights of the "crossed plants,"1

1 I.e. plants raised from the seeds of crossed plants.

166 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

they were in the second year as 100 : 76 for the
self-fertilised, and in the third year the proportion
was as 100 : 68. But when we take the nine
years in groups of three each, and get triennial
averages; the result was as follows: — 100:74;
100 : 78 ; 100 : 82. Hence the average ratio was
becoming approximately equal to unity as the
generations went on.

Similarly with fertility. The first two genera-
tions were as 100 : 93 ; the next two as 100 : 94 ;
the fifth gives 100 : 107, and the eighth as 100 to
114. Hence self-fertilisation is better than inter-
crossing in the long run. We shall see that there
are other features corroborating this.

Now for a few words on the inconveniences
connected with specialized flowers. Flowers well
expanded and visible to insects, with the honey
exposed, as might be anticipated, receive most
visitors. But the aconite, with a very irregular
flower, is visited by humble-bees only ; whereas
the buttercup is visited by more than sixty species
of insects. Moreover, while the former cannot
fertilise itself, for the stamens have shed their
pollen before the stigmas are ready, the latter
can do so. Again, most orchids are so constructed
that the pollen-masses cannot reach the stigma
spontaneously at all; and they set no seed if
un visited. A Dendrobium, growing wild in
Australia, bore 40,000 blossoms, but only one
pod was produced. Yet those orchids which are
adapted to fertilise themselves, as our own Bee-
ophrys, set seed abundantly.

The ordinary flowers of the violet do not set
seed : but numerous " buds " which never open

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 167

are formed on runners concealed beneath the
leaves. These set an abundance of seed, and are
therefore called " cleistogamous," a word signify-
ing " concealed unions." They have stamens and
a pistil, but no corolla.

Lastly, tracing the distribution of plants over
the world, the regularly insect-visited plants of
Great Britain and Europe are more or less re-
stricted in range through the northern hemi-
sphere ; whereas numerous weeds are well nigh
cosmopolitan, even throughout the southern
hemisphere.

Now Darwin admitted that he had neglected to
study these insignificant looking weed-like plants,
so that we must reverse his dictum, and look
upon them with a more favourable eye, and not
be misled by what may seem to us to be " fine "
and "beautiful," and therefore necessarily must
be the best thing for plants to be.

Mr G. Allen has given so many examples of
"marriage customs " among flowers that I do not
wish to trespass on his grounds, but rather to fill
up one or two gaps. One is to show how, in
making flowers adaptable to insects, Nature has
brought into play ordinary mechanical forces ;
the other point is to give a few instances of
special adaptations to secure self-fertilisation, as
these are often as interesting as those for crossing.

As one of the many examples of "springs"
we may take the stamens of the Lucerne.1
The little pea-like flower offers, as usual, the
keel-petals and wings, which are firmly locked

1 Any other species of Medicago to which this belongs
will do.

168 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

together, as a landing-place, as they project
horizontally forwards ; but the moment a bee
alights the tension of the spring is overcome,
and the petals drop ; at the same time the
included stamens rise up forcibly and dash the
pollen on to the bee.

In a tropical genus of orchids known as Cata-
setum the pollen-mass has a curved stalk held in
position till a bee comes. She liberates it, when
it immediately flies out and is fixed by a gummy
disk at the base on her back. If released arti-
ficially it will fly off to a distance of two or three
feet. It might be called "the catapult action."1

Levers occur frequently. The "third" kind,
as it is called, is seen in decimate stamens of
the horse-chesnut and rhododendron, as described
in the last chapter. The weight of the bee on
the projecting ends of the filaments is similar to a
weight held out at arm's length in the hand.
This is by far the commonest arrangement.

The " first" kind of lever is best illustrated by
the stamens of the sage,2 described in the last
chapter ; and some species of Calceolaria ; 3 in
which there are only two stamens ; the filament
is very short; but the "connective" between
the anther cells is drawn out into a short rod,
the upper end carrying one cell, and the lower
end, the other. This connective oscillates in a
vertical plane. The two connectives thus form

1 This is described and figured in Darwin's work, "The
Fertilisation of Orchids."

2 Any species of Salvia to which the sage belongs will
show it.

3 Calceolaria Pavonii.

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 169

two levers. When a bee alights on the " slipper,"
her head depresses the lower arm; the upper
arm then swings forward and brings the polleni-
ferous anther down upon her back, where the
stigma will first strike it, and so receive the
pollen from a previously visited flower.

In the scarlet-runner we find a lever and a
screw combined. The keel petals instead of
being straight, have a rectangular bend, and their
extremities twisted spirally. The pistil, which is
included within them, has its style coiled in a
corresponding manner. Just below the stigma
is a tuft of hair upon the style. On looking at
an expanded flower from the front, it will be
noticed that the wing petal on the left is smaller
than the right one, and that the orifice of the
spirally coiled keel projects over the left or
smaller of the two wings. The bee alights upon
the smaller, her weight depresses the keel, thus
acting like a lever, the spirally-twisted style
passes up the screw, sweeps out the pollen, and
deposits it on the bee. The reader must take an
early opportunity of examining a flower; the
process is easily imitated if he raise and depress
the left petal with his finger and thumb, when
the stigma will protrude and retire as he depresses
and raises the wing petal.

With regard to special adaptations to secure
self-fertilisation, this is best seen in cleisto-
gamous buds, as of the violet balsam, and wood-
sorrel ; but many flowers become self-fertilising
in inclement weather, as the chickweed, which then
often fails to open its buds, though in fine weather
the little white flowers are fully expanded.

170 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Self-fertilisation is often secured by an inflection
of the style, so as to bring the stigma into actual
contact with the anthers. Buttercups illustrate
one of the many cases of flowers being both
capable of being crossed, but equally able to
fertilise themselves on the other hand.

The stamens may at first spread away from the
pistil; but afterwards bend over it) so that if it
have not been crossed the flower can be assured
of self-fertilisation, as with the hawthorn, etc.

A very common result in conspicuous flowers
usually visited and crossed by insects, is that
the stamens are stimulated more rapidly into
maturity than the pistil. The consequence is
that the pollen is mostly or entirely shed before
the stigma is ready to receive it as in Aconite.
Such flowers are called " protandrous " (i.e. males
first). This is obviously another great disad-
vantage to such flowers, in case the insects fail
to come.

Now various causes may reduce the time be-
tween the maturation of the anthers and the
stigmas. When this occurs, the flower at once
becomes perfectly self-fertile. In some cases, in-
deed, the pistil matures first, and so is in readi-
ness to receive it, as soon as the pollen escapes.
Such a flower is called " protogynous " (i.e.
female first). Another hindrance to a ready ferti-
lisation in the absence of insects is a dimorphic
condition ; the plant having two kinds of flowers,
as has the primrose, the blossoms on different
plants being called ' ' thrum-eyed " and "pin-eyed."
In the former the five anthers protrude from the
corolla-tube, in the latter the globular stigma is

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 171

only seen at the orifice. In the former the style is
very short, and so are the stamens in the latter.1
If an insect visit either kind, the pollen is
caught at a particular spot on the proboscis,
which is touched by the stigma of the other
kind.

Under cultivation, and sometimes when wild,
the flowers become " bomomorphic," i.e. of the
same form ; the anthers now standing at the level
of the stigma. The difficulty of pollination is
overcome and self-fertility ensues.

In the species of wood-sorrel which was sent
to Malta in 1806, the flowers are trimorphic ;
but only one of the three forms arrived. It has
never been known to set seed in the northern
hemisphere at all ; but has overcome the diffi-
culty by propagating itself by little bulbs. By
this means it has spread all round the Mediter-
ranean Sea as already observed.

Our purple loosestrife is another instance of
trimorphism. The stamens and styles are of
three lengths in as many flowers, and always on
separate plants, respectively. Each pistil has
two sets of stamens to match it. Darwin found
that the " mid-styled " form was the most fertile,
but when the tallest pistil (long-styled form) was
artificially fertilised by pollen from the shortest
stamens or vice versa, little or no seed was pro-
duced.

Though this common species of Lythrum is
trimorphic, another is dimorphic, and a third is
homomorphic and self-fertile.

1 For further details, see Grant Allen's 41 Story of the
Plant," p. 107.

172 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

In a species of Dead-nettle,1 the flower in
summer is usually completely expanded ; but it
often happens in early spring that the corolla
does not open. When this is the case the
forked stigma is curled back and lies between
the anthers and is readily self-fertilised. The
same thing occurs in some species of sage.

In the deserts near Cairo, insects are exceed-
ingly rare. The consequence is that the flowers
of such plants as grow in the dry watercourses
are all self-fertilising; though belonging to fami-
lies, which, in other countries have conspicuous
flowers and plenty of insects to visit them.

Thus the genus Cassia, the leaves of some
species of which constitute the drug, Senna,
belongs to the Pea-family and usually has large
yellow flowers adapted to receive the visits of
insects ; but there is a species, C. obovata, the
flowers of which are very inconspicuous, greenish
and rarely open. There is a long style which is
doubled back upon the ovary, the stigma lying
among the anthers. The flower is, in fact, al-
most cleistogamous.

The general conclusion arrived at by a study
of the plants of the desert, is, that flowers which
have been adapted to insects, and therefore en-
dowed with conspicuous and brightly coloured,
often irregular corollas, honey and other details,
have to a great degree lost these features by a
degenerating process. For if those structures
which are correlated with insects were originally
brought into existence by these visitors them-
selves, as I have endeavoured to prove, and if
1 Lamium amplexicaule.

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 173

they be not " kept up " by the constantly applied
stimulus of their visits, then the protandry, so
general in conspicuous flowers, gives way, homo-
gamy follows, and self-fertilisation is the final
result, coupled with numerous degradations in
all the floral organs.

I must now add a few remarks upon honey
glands which attract insects.

Bees and other insects visit flowers for tne sake
of the honey or pollen or both ; the pollen being
made into " bee-bread " for the grubs to live upon,
as it is a highly nutritious substance ; but with
regard to honey the question might be asked why
is it formed at all 1 It has been suggested that
it is an excretion of superfluous matter; but
it is a purely carbonaceous substance being only
a mixture of glucose or non-crystallizable sugar,
and of the crystallizable cane sugar. Now sugar
is the material into which starch, when made in
the leaves, is converted to render it transmissible
over the plant. As soon as it arrives at the grow-
ing parts it is converted into cellulose of which
the cell-walls are constructed ; so instead of honey
being a waste product, it is really a valuable
building material.

I have already observed that the honey-glands
in a flower are always situated just where an in-
sect can best reach them. If the flower be regular
then the glands are situated regularly round the
flower ; e.g. one on each petal of the butter-
cup, five glands on the receptacle of geranium ; a
regular circular honey-trough in the raspberry,
etc. But in irregular flowers it has particular
sites only, usually on the anterior side, if a flower

174 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

is visited from the front, as may be easily seen in
the dead-nettle or other labiate, Orchids, etc.

Secondly, when a flower reverts to self-fertil-
isation, the honey may be no longer secreted at
all. The honey-secreting buckwheat may be
compared with its ally the honey less knotgrass.

The conclusion is, that the honey-glands have
resulted from the irritation of the proboscis of
insects ; for they still probe flowers for juices
even when they do not secrete honey, as in the
spurs of our common orchids ; and flowers which
produce no honey in England, may do so in
other countries. Thus we are told that the
laburnum has produced a honey-gland outside
the closed staminal tube in Germany, and that
they are developed on the sides of the carpels of
the marsh marigold. Here, however, there is
nothing of the sort, these flowers not being
visited by bees as they are on the continent.

Honey-glands, or nectaries as they are called
if on floral organs, may be situated anywhere.
Thus, each sepal of the lime blossom forms a
little boat-shaped structure, which becomes full
of honey. In the buttercup family, it is the
petals which are more or less modified to form
nectaries, as the spurred petals of larkspur, and
" crosiers" in the aconite, little tubular honey-
pots in hellebores, etc. In violets, the honey-
secreting organs are two appendages to the front
stamens only. In rhododendrons it is the base
of the ovary which secretes it. In the majority
of instances it is the floral receptacle which
bears the glands. If the ovary be inferior, as
in umbellifers, then the summit of the ovary

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 175

becomes the honey-secreting organ. Such is also
the case in Canterbury bell, in which the broad
bases of the filaments form a dome over it.

It may be mentioned here that honey is not
confined to organs in flowers, for it may be
secreted by leaf-stalks and stipules. Bees and
flies may be seen very actively engaged in
sucking honey from two glands at the base of
the leaf-stalks of the common laurel ; while
beans, vetches, and species of begonia secrete it
by their stipules.

That they may have been caused by irritation
is countenanced by the fact that insects have
been seen to probe between the sepals and
stamens of the wood anemone, which secretes
no honey, for the sake of the juices wherewith
to moisten the pollen for which they come, so
that it is feasible to think that this procedure
was the actual cause of the origin of nectaries,
the result of a wound constantly repeated and
kept up, being a flow of a sweet secretion, which
has thus attracted insects, and induced them tg
repeat and perpetuate the process.

Several facts indirectly support the above
conception ; thus the little adhesive discs at the
ends of the tendrils of the Virginia creeper are
not formed till contact has taken place with a
wall, when the secretion is made to fix them.
But the tendency to secrete at these spots is
hereditary.

In the other species from Japan of this same
genus, the discs are actually formed before con-
tact. In the case of a mutilation, when it has
been once made, the place heals over, and there

176 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

is an end of all special vital action at the place.
If, however, the same place be induced to secrete
by constantly repeated irritations, as the same
flower is repeatedly visited over and over again
before it fades, and the flowers of its offspring
have to undergo the same process, year after
year, generation after generation, it is at least a
reasonable surmise that there will at last be caused
a permanent flow of fluid to the place, with a
corresponding modification of structure, and so the
nectary becomes established and an hereditary
feature.

If, however, from any cause the flowers be-
come neglected, then the nectaries and glands
degenerate, and cease to secrete honey, and it
may be ultimately disappear.

One of the important adaptations to insects
resides in the colours of wild flowers.

When we notice the immense variety and
shades of colours in wild, and still more in cul-
tivated, flowers, the questions arise — How did
they get them? what was the most primitive
colour ? and if they have been evolved, what was
the order of their evolution ?

When we remember that the spore-cases and
spores of the Club-mosses are yellow — and it was
from members of some of these higher types
of Cryptogams that Gymnosperms were evolved
— and that the anther-cells of Cypress, and the
whole anther scale of pines, as well as all the
pollen-grains of Gymnosperms, are yellow ; again,
when we come to Dicotyledons, and find the
prevailing tint of stamens is the same, we seem
to gather probabilities in support of the view

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 177

that, after green, yellow was the primitive
colour.

Nature next, it is believed, introduced reds,
and only lately, so to say, succeeded in manu-
facturing first, purples, and lastly blues, if we
may judge from the comparative rarity of that
colour. Moreover, when flowers individually
change from red to blue, as many of the Borage
family do, such as the lungwort and some species
of forget-me-nots, etc., it is always in that order.
It may even start with yellow, as in the case of
Myosotis versicolor.

Conversely flowers may revert; and when
that is the case, yellow is the usual colour
adopted, as in Chrysanthemums. This is the
original colour of the wild chrysanthemum of
Japan or China, a small flower about an inch in
diameter.

Pale tints, or a total absence of colour, may
seemingly occur as a variety of any plant. It
is often a concomitant of habitual self-fertilisation,
in cases where the variety or species is a degra-
dation from some conspicuous and brightly
coloured insect-visited form. White-flowered
individuals often appear as " sports" among
seedlings, and have a peculiar importance to cul-
tivators. For it has been found that it is useful
as a starting-point when great variation in the
colours of flowers is required. Thus, the late
M. Vilmorin says, that "in ten examples of
variegation, which were produced under my own
observation, the course was always the same.
The original plant, with flowers whole-coloured,
gave in the first instance a variety of flowers
M

178 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS*

entirely white ; afterwards variegations were
produced from this white variety on its return-
ing towards the coloured type. By careful
selection the pure white type can be fixed. It
is only among the white varieties not completely
fixed that the variegations make their appear-
ance ; at first they exhibit narrow pencillings,
the coloured portion being only one-tenth, and
sometimes only one-twentieth of the whole
surface ; but then, in the following generation,
the coloured portions begin to predominate,
variegation never coming direct from the coloured
original."

The value of a white variety is seen in another
way, in that it seems to induce variations of
colour by crossing. Thus no hybrids were raised
from the old bronze-red and striped flowers of
Abutilon until a white variety appeared, when,
by crossing it with this, pale and dark pink, pale
orange, bright carmine, salmon, orange red colours,
etc., appeared among the flowers of seedlings.

An analogous feature occurred with Mr Veitch
in treating his Rhododendrons from the East
Indies. R. Javanicum has orange coloured flowers,
but those of the species called B. jasminiflorum,
from the long, tubular jasmine-like corolla, are
pure white. When the former was crossed with
the pollen of the latter, the offspring bore rose-
coloured flowers. On another occasion, by crossing
an orange-coloured hybrid with a white flowered
one, a pure yellow flowered offspring was obtained.
Hence, one effect of crossing a mixed colour, as
orange with white, is to exterminate one of the
colours.

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION

179

But many other forms have been raised of all
sorts of shades of red and yellow, as well as
salmon, etc.

Starting from a primitive yellow, subsequent
colourations, especially under cultivation, appear
to be a matter of nutrition, though we cannot yet
explain how they arise, and we may infer that
the prevalence of brighter colours in conspicuous
flowers, which are regularly visited by insects,
is due to the stimulating effects which they have
produced, thereby causing more nutritious fluids
to pour into the attractive organs.

Besides, however, this general result of brilliant
colouring, there are those peculiar and special
displays of bright tints distributed in spots and
streaks in certain and definite places only. In
regular flowers they are symmetrically distributed
on every petal alike, especially at the base, so
that, as in the Forget-me-not, while the limb of
the corolla is blue the throat is bright yellow ;
but in irregular flowers these markings have been
especially called " guides," for they are invariably
over and in the direction of the honey-glands,
being located on one side of the flower only. Thus
spots commonly occur on the lip, if present,
but in rhododendrons they are on the opposite
side, where the insect must thrust its proboscis.

So that if my theory be true, all these effects
are simply the direct results of the insects them-
selves. The guides are always exactly where the
irritation would be set up; and they would,
therefore, seem to be a result of a more localised
flow of nutriment to the positions in question.

With regard to certain correlations which exist

180 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

between colours and insect visitors, it has been
observed that beetles affect yellows, as, for ex-
ample, the meadow-rue, the ladies-bedstraw, and
the yellow stamens of the rose ; wasps and carrion
insects appear to prefer the dull reddish-brown
flowers of Comarum of the Kose family, and the
Helleborines and Figworts ; while the more in-
telligent bees, etc., delight in purples and blues ;
and it has been thought that their selective
agency has determined the survival of such special
colours as they prefer. This has been probably
the case, but we still want to know what«is the
immediate cause which induces one colour to
change or give place to another.

As an illustration of the relative effects of cross-
ing and self-fertilisation respectively on the pro-
duction of colours, Darwin tells us that the flowers
produced by self-fertilised plants of the fourth
generation of carnations were as uniform in tint
as those of a wild species, being of a pale pink
or rose colour. Analogous cases occurred with
the monkey-flower and convolvulus major of
gardeners. On the other hand, the flowers of
plants raised from a cross with a fresh stock
which bore dark crimson flowers varied exceed-
ingly in colour. The great majority had their
petals longitudinally and variously striped with
two colours. The reader will recall Perdita's
observations on " striped gilliflowers," quoted
above.

Uniformity and paleness are thus correlated
with self-fertilisation ; and since, whenever the
latter process is persevered with, an increase of
fertility follows, it is not surprising to find that

ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION. 181

such tints are usually accompanied by an increased
power of seed-bearing. Thus Darwin found that
the proportional number of seeds per capsule pro-
duced by the plants of carnations of crossed
origin to those by the plants of self-fertilised
origin was as 100:125. Again, of snapdragon,
the relative self-fertility of red and white varieties
was as 9*8 : 20; of the yellow and pale varieties
of monkey-flower, the same comparison gave
the ratio of 100 : 147. Lastly, pale flowered
varieties of the scarlet geranium (Pelargonium)
are notoriously great seeders.

Enough has now been said, it is hoped, to
convince the reader that self-fertilisation is after
all the most serviceable process to plants. If it be
asked why have flowers become so wonderfully
adapted to insects, the answer is that they cannot
help themselves. The living protoplasm acts
automatically and is compelled by its innate powers
of adaptation to respond to the insect visitors,
and the best result possible follows.

Man derives the benefit, for it has opened out
an unlimited source of joy to him in vastly en-
hancing the beauties of nature ; but, as we have
seen, the "ends" of plant-life have been some-
what sacrificed for the result.

The adaptations to secure self-pollination are
quite as curious as those for intercrossing, though
they are often the results of degradation, as
the process can be traced from intercrossed and
showy flowers. I will here enumerate their
principal features of degradation : —

1, The inconspicuousness of the flowers, even
when fully expanded.

182 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

2. The calyx and corolla are often only partially
expanded, or not at all.

3. The white or pale colours of the corollas,
while specially coloured streaks, specks, "guides,"
and "path-finders" peculiar to intercrossed flowers
are more or less reduced, if not absent.

4. The partial or total arrest of the corolla.

5. The mature stamens of the expanded flower
retain in many cases the incurved, i.e. an arrested
position which they had in bud ; the anthers
thus remaining in contact with the stigmas.

6. The stamens are often reduced in size and
number, and the pollen in quantity.

7. The pollen-tubes may often be seen to be
penetrating the stigmas, either from grains within
the anther-cells or evidently derived from those
of the same flower.

8. The partial arrest of the corolla and stamens
in their rates of development, allows the pistil to
mature with comparative rapidity.

9. The consequent early maturation of the
stigma, so as to be ready before or simultaneously
with the dehiscence of the anthers.

10. Little or no scent.

11. Decrease in the size or total absence
of honey-glands, with consequent little or no
secretion of honey.

CHAPTER XVI.

FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS,

I HAD occasion to speak of the origin of petals
out of stamens, as shown by water-lilies, in which
a perfect transition always occurs from one to
the other.

Our garden plants and sometimes wild flowers
are what is called " double,'' that is to say the
stamens and carpels or both may be all replaced
by petals, and in addition it is usual for them to
be multiplied. Thus the wild stock has four petals,
six stamens and a pistil of two carpels ; but in
a double flower of this plant, I have counted
fifty-two petals and others which were still unde-
veloped in the middle. The flower, in fact, had
tried to change from a " flower-bud w to a " leaf-
bud," but consisting of petals instead of leaves.
However, flower-buds can take on a further stage
backwards and actually have all their members
green. In such flowers the corolla may remain
of exactly the same shape as when normally
coloured, but quite green. It is then called
" virescent." Such is not infrequently the case
with blossoms of the honeysuckle which come out
late in the season, when the weather is cold. A
greater change occurs when the various organs,
carpels, stamens, petals and sepals become actu-
ally replaced by true green leaves, though small
in size. This is the case with the " green rose,"
sometimes cultivated as a curiosity, for it cannot

183

184 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

boast of any beauty. The alpine strawberry has
the same metamorphosis.

It often happens that the change is not com-
pleted, so that a stamen for example, may be re-
placed by a narrow green leaf still carrying a
yellow anther along one side of it ; or a carpel
may be leaf-like above, but resembling an open
pea-pod below, etc.

These abnormal cases indicate attempts at a
reversion to primeval conditions ; for it is an
accepted doctrine that sepals, petals, stamens
and carpels are really " homologous " with true
leaves. That is to say, they and leaves are
fundamentally the same thing, only each has
grown up into the special organ required where
it issues from the stem.

Now, among the freaks of flowers, any organ
can, we might almost say, try to assume the form
and function of any other. They do not always
do it successfully, especially when sepals and
petals make an abortive effort to turn themselves
into stamens and carpels, for all they can effect
is the production of abortive pollen and ovules.

Thus, to give a few examples, the calyx, being
the outermost whorl of a flower, and the pistil the
innermost, it would seem to be a difficult thing for
the former to imitate the latter and bear ovules.
A few instances have been met with, however,
as in a certain garden pea, the five points on the
top of the coherent calyx-tube grew out into
styles and stigmas, while the lower part bore rudi-
mentary ovules on the open edges ; there being
no attempt to close it up like a pod (Fig. 51).

The corolla coming next to the calyx seems an

FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS. 185

easier organ to imitate. Indeed some such freaks
are cultivated. Thus in campanulas, the so-called
"cup and saucer " variety is one in which, while
the cup is the usual corolla,
the saucer is a " petaloid " 1
calyx.

The monkey-flower, prim-
rose and a form of Azalea
are others which bear, what
the gardeners call " hose-
in-hose " flowers. They
apparently have two per-
fect corollas one within the
other ; but in reality the
outer is the calyx assuming
all the characters, colour and Fl%a51^~PpSetanoid Calyx of
shape, of a second corolla.

We have seen that petals were originally
formed out of stamens ; because the first flowers
had only stamens and pistils, and no corolla at all.
In some freaks the corolla tries to turn itself
back into stamens. Thus a fox-glove instead of
having its usual tubular corolla, this was split up
into ribbon-like pieces, all united below, each
piece bearing an anther at the top (Fig. 52).
Another case occured in a Campanula ; while the
tubular honey-bearing spurs of a columbine have
been known to produce pollen. •

A still stranger attempt at metamorphosis
occurs when stamens actually become carpels.
Thus, where wallflowers are extensively grown
for the London market, there is always a number
of " rogues " in the fields. These are useless for
1 That is " petal-like."

186 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

sale, as they bear no corollas and remain like un-
opened buds ; but there is a curious malformation,
in that the six stamens are all changed into carpels,
being mostly more or less united together and
bearing rudimentary ovules ; these, however,
never appear to ripen into
seeds. It is very doubtful if
they could ever be fertilised;
so too, poppies which have
numerous stamens and a gobular
pistil in their midst not infre-
quently bear a ring of abortive,
miniature carpels round the
central pistil. They are really
metamorphosed stamens.
Lastly, all sorts of abortive
attempts can be found in
* I%rous~OT<5iainof Begonias. Sometimes the an-
Foxgiove. thers are partially converted

into stigmas ; or petals will bear anthers or
ovules ; sometimes both on the same petal, which
may still retain its normal colour, etc.

Pistils which are composed of one or more
carpels, can be sometimes replaced by other
structures, as petals or leaves, as stated above ;
but even the ovules can put on strange altera-
tions ; thus, those of a passion-flower have been
known to contain pollen instead of an embryo ;
or anthers may replace them ; as occurs in
willows, etc. (Fig. 53) or a complete flower-
bud, which, on expansion, splits the ovary, and a
tuft of petals emerge. This occurs occasionally
in the lady's smock (Fig. 54).

These freaks cannot be explained ; we can

FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS. 187

Fig. 53. — Unclosed ovaries with
anthers instead of ovules, a.
Willows ; b. lesser Celandine.

attempt to express it without in the least under-
standing the " how," by saying that the life of
a plant expends its energy normally, in different
ways, as in making
roots, leaves, and
flowers. Of these last,
some energy is deputed
to make sepals, other to
make petals, stamens or
carpels, respectively.
But, by some inexplic-
able cause, the " special
energy " required for,
say, petal-making gets
confused with that re-
quired for making som e-
thing else, and the two
seem to clash and so
spoil the work between
them ! Thus, in double-
flowers, the petal-
making energy over-
powers that for making
stamens, invades its
territory and makes the
initial protuberances

grOW Up into petals Fig. 54.— Petals replacing Ovules.

instead of stamens. dend^on.8 Sm°ck; Rh°d°"

An interesting case
occurred in the production of double rhodo-
dendrons. Mr Heal, Mr Veitch's assistant, who
raised a large number of double forms, observed
a single flower in a certain truss on a plant to
have one anther only slightly petaloid. He im-

188 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

pregnated the pistil of the flower with pollen
from the other anthers of the same flower, this
process being strict self-fertilisation. About
fifteen seedings were raised, which bore quite
or partially double blossoms.

Sometimes the " colouring-energy," as we may
call it for want of a better expressiom, which as
a rule undertakes the enhancement of the con-
spicuousness of the corolla, spreads to the calyx
and so we get the ' ' hose-in-hose" flowers. It may
go further and influence the bracts below the
flower. Hence in some scarlet-flowering salvias,
corolla, calyx and bracts are all scarlet. In the
cactus family (as in epiphyllum) there are numer-
ous small coloured bracts outside, tracing them
inwards, they seem to get larger and larger till the
true petals are reached. There is no break be-
tween the series until we arrive at the stamens
which introduce a sudden change of form. In
several members of the buttercup family, there is
no corolla at all, the calyx assuming its rdle is
large and brilliantly coloured. Such is the case
in clematis, anemone, winter aconite, and the
marsh marigold.

In all these instances it will be observed that
the transference of colours (of course, other
than green) is a normal condition of things ; but
it is a freak in the case of the ' ' hose-in-hose "
varieties, and the " cup and saucer " campanulas.

In some plants the flowers are very minute,
and would, both individually and collectively,
supply little or no attraction to insects. Nature
has often massed them together into a "head"
and then rendered it more conspicuous by en-

FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS. 189

larging the outermost or " ray " florets. This
is the common method ia the great family of
Composites, as seen in the daisy, with its white
"ray" florets and small yellow "disk" florets.1

In some instances of aggregation of minute
flowers the outside bracts
or "involucre" answers
the purpose. Thus in the
familiar "everlastings," it
is the dry or "scarious"
bracts surrounding the
heads of florets which are
white or coloured, and so
supply the attractive organ.

There are species of
cornel which have very
small flowers in a dense
cluster, but are only dis-
coverable by means of four
large white petal-like bracts
(Fig. 55). Again, Darwinia
tulijpifera (Fig. 56), a plant of the Myrtle family
grown in conservatories, is so called, because it
might be thought to bear tulips by the appear-
ance of the flowers. These, however, consist
of many striped-coloured bracts, yellow and
red, within which are about a dozen very minute
flowers.

A not uncommon freak is to find the characters
of bracts carried down into the leaves. Thus,
the large, single, white bract, called a " spathe,"
of the familiar " Trumpet-lily " is occasionally

1 Mr Grant Allen has described "How plants club
together," in "The Story of the Plants," chapter x.

Fig. 55. — Species of Cornel
with white bracts and
minute central flowers.

190 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

accompanied by a second. The fact is that a
second leaf has assumed this form.

So too, the actual coloration proper to a corolla
may go down to the leaves. Thus a pelargonium
happened to bear brilliantly
coloured leaves, partly
normally green but partly
scarlet.

Bracts, being really
arrested leaves, may re-
assume a true-leaf char-
acter.

This is often attempted
in the common plantains,
and occasionally in the
umbellifers, etc. What is
called the Green Dahlia
is a " head n composed
entirely of enlarged green bracts, the " florets "
being all suppressed.

Similarly the " wheat-eared " carnation con-
sists of the flower-stalks on which the bracts,
usually consisting of two pairs at the base of the
calyx, are multiplied to excess, the true flower
being entirely wanting.

Another peculiar change occurs when an ir-
regular flower becomes regular. One of the com-
monest plants to effect this alteration is the
toad-flax. If now all the five petals become
spurred, then the upper part of the flower
vanishes, and the "lip" is repeated all round,
forming a circular rim. Linnaeus called this form
" Peloria," a word meaning " monstrous. "

This abnormal condition is exactly like the

Fig. 56. — Inflorescence of
Darwinia.

FREAKS OF WILD FLOWERS. 191

normal state of Columbine, all five petals of which
are spurred.

But this flower can go backwards, and revert
to its primitive condition by abolishng all the
spurs ; when the petals take the form of an
ordinary leaf-like shape. Thus there is a culti-
vated form of Columbine in which this occurs.

The terminal flower of a spike of larkspur,
aconite, snapdragon, horse-chesnut, etc., as has
been already observed, not infrequently thus
reverts to the primitive form. Sometimes, as in
fox-gloves, two or more flowers become fused
together and produce a regular bell-shaped struc-
ture. The late M. Vilmorin, by selecting seeds
from this curious " monster, " succeeded in " fix-
ing" it; so that 90 per cent, of the seed came
true, with the large " synanthic " 1 flower.

Another instance of a monstrous condition,
perpetuated by seed, occurs in a forget-me-not,
which has now been cultivated for some years.
It was known as " Victoria " and by other names.
The petals were more than the usual five, in a
whorl, but not "double." So too, the old-
fashioned tomato consisted of two or more fruits
blended into one, having resulted from a synan-
thic flower. This was the cause of the fruit
being lobed with deep indentations.

Fasciation is the result of the multiplication
and branching of the fibro-vascular cords of the
flowering-stem or peduncle ; but instead of giving
rise to external free-growing branches, they are
all included within a common cortical and epi-
dermal tissue. Though excessively common,
1 Grk. syn, " together," and anthos, "a flower."

192 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

especially in asparagus, it is not usually heredi-
tary ; but is perpetuated by seed in the common
coxcomb.

Another freak occurs when a normally gamo-
petalous corolla, as of the Canterbury Bell, or
Convolvulus, reverts to freedom by developing
the petals separate. A variety of the Hare-bell
of our heaths was, and perhaps is still cultivated
with a polypetalous corolla. On the other hand
a poppy has been known to have its four, usually
free, petals all coherent into a tube.

Another peculiarity of corollas, which has
lately afforded an addition to floriculture, is to
be "crested." It occurs in cyclamen, begonia,
daffodil and primula. It results from a branch-
ing of the fibro-vascular cords, which, unlike
fasciation, are external to the surface ; and being
clothed with tissue produce fringes upon it.
Cabbage-leaves, not infrequently have similar
excrescences, issuing from the ribs; sometimes
they run out into long stalks carrying funnel-
shaped structures at the end of them.

These fringes are abnormal, but the " cup " or
"crown" in a daffodil and jonquil, partakes of
the same nature and is normal. The daffodil
has all its parts complete, the tube being an
extra growth. Indeed, the majority of the
plants belonging to the same family, such as
the snowdrop and the snowflake, have not got
one at all.

The lesson to be learnt from these freaks is,
that no hard and fast line can be drawn between
"varieties" and "monsters." Both may or may
not be hereditary, they may be transient or be-

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 193

come fixed, and so constitute a new variety, or
if it be preferred a new species.

If it be asked how or why they occur, at present
no answer can be given to either question.

CHAPTER XVII

THE ORIGIN AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF
BRITISH AND IRISH WILD FLOWERS

Having now considered certain peculiarities of
the structure of our wild flowers, the reader may
like to know something of their history, and to
understand why some are only found in certain
places, being often very restricted in their areas.
The question is — What is it that determines the
local distribution of plants ?

Although climate is the most essential element
to be taken into account when the distribution of
the plants of any flora is to be considered ; yet as
that of our own country at the present time is so
well known, it will be superfluous to describe it
in detail.1 All that will be necessary is to com-
pare it, or rather contrast it generally, as being
insular and maritime, with that of the Continent ;

1 The word climate must be taken to represent the aggre-
gate environment of plants included under : — 1. Latitude ;
2. Elevation above the sea ; 3. Maritime or insular or con-
tinental position ; 4. Inclination of land ; 5. Mountainous
country or otherwise ; 6. Character of soil ; 7. Condition
of soil, wet or dry, etc. ; 8. Degree of cultivation ; 9. Pre-
valent winds ; 10. Rainfall; 11. Mean summer and mean
winter temperatures, etc.

N

194 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

and then to see what differences may be expected
to exist between the flora of Great Britain and
that of Europe.

The chief difference between all maritime or
insular and continental climates lies in the pre-
dominance of moisture1 in the air of the former
and in the greater degree of dryness in that of
the latter. The immediate effect of watery
vapour is to moderate the heat in summer by
arresting its passage from the sun, and simi-
larly to arrest its radiation at night and in
winter. The consequence is that maritime and
insular climates are far less subject to extremes
of temperature, diurnal or annual, than are places
situate away from a sea-board and many miles in
the interior of a continent. Another very im-
portant agent in affecting the climate is the pre-
valence of aerial and ocean currents; warm in
ameliorating, cold in deteriorating it, as far as
the magnitude an I vitality of any flora may be
concerned. This is particularly the case with
the British Isles ; for, were it not for the warm
currents both of air and water sweeping past us
in a north-easterly direction across the Atlantic
Ocean, our climate would very likely become as
inhospitable as is that between the same latitudes
of North America.

1 As an illustration of the effect of moisture upon the
distribution of plants, may be mentioned the fact that
tropical forms extend into subtropical regions, if damp ;
as in South America*, e.g., tree-ferns, epiphytal orchids,
Myrtacece, etc. Similarly the laurel, fig, and bamboo ascend
the humid extra-tropical mountains of Bengal and Sikkhim
to 9000 feet ; while on the other hand, a temperate flora,
consisting of oak, willow, rose, plum, blackberry, pine, etc.,
descends to the sea in lat. 25° in India. — J. D. Hooker.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 195

Perhaps few places could be better chosen to
illustrate the above statements than Edinburgh
and Moscow, both these places being on the same
parallel of latitude. Thus, while the difference
between the hottest and coldest months of the
year is under 30° for Edinburgh, it amounts to
60° for Moscow; and, it may be added, for Nain,
on the coast of Labrador, it is 50°, and for Cape
Churchill, on the west coast of Hudson's Bay, the
difference is even 80°. All the above places are
very nearly on the same parallel of latitude.
Again, if we take winter and summer tempera-
tures, we find that for July the mean at London
is over 62° ; at Berlin, 66° \ at St Petersburgh, 64°;
and at Astrakhan, 77°. While for January at
London it is 37° ; at Berlin, 28° ; at St Peters-
burgh, 16° ; and at Astrakhan it is 13°.

Now, the most obvious effect that such differ-
ences of temperature have on plants is that a
continental climate is favourable to annuals and
a maritime to perennials ; for in places where a
summer temperature rises high, plants, whose
whole life-history is comprised in a few months
or even weeks, may easily, therefore, survive ;
while the intensely cold winters of the same
place would annihilate many perennials that
would flourish in a less rigorous climate. Hence
evergreen shrubs of South Europe, such as the
laurustinus and bay laurel, will survive our
winters, which are rarely excessive, yet the
climate in summer and autumn is quite insuffi-
cient in its degree of heat to ripen efficiently
the grape or Indian corn • for the summers are
as equally tempered as the winters.

196

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

The British flora, as might, therefore, be ex-
pected, contains a large amount of perennials,
especially, perhaps, herbaceous ones. Many-
annuals, being weeds of cultivation only, would
be probably more or less exterminated if our
arable land should cease to be cultivated.

In reviewing our flora, as a whole, in some
respects it may be regarded as insular in character,1
though in most others it is continental ; that is to
say, there is no plant which is peculiar to it or
" endemic " ; and with rare exceptions, every
member of it belongs to the neighbouring
continent of Europe.

Although our British plants are almost all
European, yet they are not equally or at all
uniformly distributed over our territory. They
have, consequently, been divided into sub-floras
or florulce, each being more or less restricted in
area. We are indebted mainly to the labours of the
late Professor Edward Forbes and Mr H. C. Watson
for tracing out these districts. The following is a
comparative table of the respective results of these
eminent botanists, with their nomenclatures : —

Watson's. Forbes'.

1. British corresponds with \

2. English „ > Germanic.

3. Scottish „ j

4. Highland „ Alpine.

5. Germanic (in part) „ Kentish.

n Axl f Asturian.

6. Atlantic „ { A

" ( Armoncan.

7. Local or doubtful.

1 The peculiarities of oceanic insular floras will be con-
sidered in the second volume.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 197

That entitled Germanic by Forbes is so called be-
cause it is identical with the German flora,
though the latter contains many plants wanting
in England. This is subdivided by Watson into
(1) the British, which includes plants found in all
his eighteen " provinces " ; (2) the English, which
includes plants found chiefly in England and not
in Scotland ; and (3) the Scottish, embracing
plants found chiefly in Scotland and the North
of England only. The Alpine of Forbes or the
Highland of Watson includes a group of arctic
plants found on the Scandinavian mountains and
on alpine localities, but not in the intermediate
temperate lowlands. Watson's Germanic takes
in plants found in the east and south-east of
England bordering the German Ocean, from
whence he derives the name, and includes those
plants called Kentish by Forbes, but which do
not seem to be deserving of a special name, as
they are chiefly, if not always, plants affecting a
limestone or chalky soil, and which, in part,
occur elsewhere. The Atlantic types of Watson
embrace plants found in the west and south-west
of England and in Ireland. In these are included
the Armorican of Forbes, which is characterised
by a group of plants found in Normandy, the
Channel Islands, the S. and S.W. of England, ex-
tending (in part) some distance along the west
coast, and in the south-east of Ireland. The
number of peculiar species continually decreases
in passing in a north-westerly direction from
South Europe through Normandy ; so that while
several which are in the Channel Islands are
wanting in the south-west of England, others

198 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

which reach that corner failed to cross over to Ire-
land ; such as the Tamarix, one species of Kock-
rose ; 1 though another has arrived as far as the
south and west ; 2 a little Hares'-ear ; 3 the Strap-
wort4 and the tiny Polycarpon.

A portion of this Atlantic type was separated
by Forbes as " Asturian," because the nearest
locality on the Continent whence it was pre-
sumed by him these plants had come was the
Asturian mountains of north Spain. They con-
sist of six species of saxifrage, including our
London Pride ; two heaths, the strawberry tree,
St Dabeoc's Heath and a rock-cress.5

Such is an epitome of our present flora with
regard to its distribution within our own islands.
The next thing is to consider its extension
throughout the world. We have already seen
that the great bulk of our plants included in
Watson's British and English types (containing
about three-fifths of the whole flora) is identical
with the flora of Germany ; hence Forbes' name
of Germanic ; while the Atlantic type of Watson
corresponds more especially with the Norman
flora and that of the Channel Islands, really a
fragment of the South European or Mediterranean
flora ; and if we take note of Forbes' Asturian,
we find that small and fragmentary sub-flora on
thl* Asturian Mountains of Spain. There re-
mains, then, the Highland, Alpine or Arctic type.
The nearest localities where plants of this group
are to be found are the Alps, Pyrenees, Scan-

1 Helianthemum polifolium. 2 IT. gutlatum.

3 Bupleurum aristatum. 4 Corrigiola litloralis.

5 Arabis hirsuta, Sub-sp. ciliata.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 199

dinavian mountains, and arctic regions generally;
though they are mostly or entirely absent from
the warmer lowlands which separate such widely-
severed districts.

If, however, we now have Europe, and endea-
vour to find any British plants elsewhere, we
shall discover small groups of this last type ap-
pearing here and there in many parts of the
world. The following numbers wTill indicate how
many British plants have been hitherto found in
the several localities, and will also illustrate the
fact that the plants of Britain, like His Majesty's
dominions and subjects, are world-wide in their
dispersion. Travelling eastwards from the Ural
Mountains, Siberia contains about 750 British
plants, and within the area included between the
River Obi and Behring's Straits, and bounded
southwards by the Arctic Circle (lat. 66|°), there
are 111. Kamtskatka contains 140. In North-
cast Asia, including the area from Behring's
Straits to South Japan, there are 325, of which
Japan has 156 British species.

Next, regarding the extension of our plants
eastwards along the southern line of mountains,
Hooker and Thomson give a list of 222 British
plants which reach India.1 These appear to have
travelled eastwards from Europe, finding means
of transit along the Taurus, Caucasus, and
western hilly or mountainous regions ; and the
above authois remark that "the key-stone to
the whole system of distribution in Western

1 "Flora Indica," p. 109 (1855). Though others may
have been discovered since ; the relative proportions
probably remain much the same.

200 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Asia does not rest so much upon a number of
' representative ' species as upon the fact that
not only are a large proportion of annual and
herbaceous species of each common to Western
India and Europe, but of shrubs and trees also.
Those of Northern Europe inhabit the loftier
levels of the Himalayas, where they blend with
the Siberian types." The following British trees
and shrubs occur in India : — Barberry, bird cherry,
gean, blackberry, alpine blackberry, hawthorn,
cotoneaster, white beam, gooseberry, black currant,
ivy, box, elm, two species of willow, the yew and
juniper. It may be added that European types
disappear eastwards gradually at first, but rapidly
after reaching Kumaon. Few species enter Nepal,
and still fewer reach Sikkhim. Of the plants which
cross the Indian mountains and appear in Tropical
Asia (i.e. India south of the Himalayas, the Khasia
mountains of Eastern Bengal, together with the
mountains of both peninsulas of India, Ceylon,
and Java), the number, as might be expected, is
much reduced, only 23 species being found there.

The next distributions to be considered are
along the three greatest lines of extension of
land into the southern hemisphere — Australia,
Tasmania, New Zealand, and the islands to the
south ; secondly, from Europe, through Africa
and the islands near the coast to the Cape;
thirdly, from Greenland and arctic America to
Cape Horn; lastly, the isolated spots in Poly-
nesia, which can boast of a few representatives
of the British flora.

I. Of the first of these extensions South Aus-
tralia contains 100 indigenous plants common to

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 201

Great Britain, in addition to which a large number
have become naturalised ; Tasmania contains
56, New Zealand has 92, and Kerguelen's Land,
8 ; while Auckland and Campbell Islands possess
6. A curious fact worth notice is that in South-
eastern Australia, European species form ^rth
nearly of the whole flora ; but in South-western
Australia they constitute xoo^1 only \ while in
Tasmania they amount to i^th. In Tasmania the
following British plants occur, which are not found
in Australia : Water-Crowfoot, Blinks and Holy
Grass. On the other hand, the Victoria Alps of
Australia contain fifteen European species not
found in Tasmania, and all but one are British
plants.

II. With regard to the extension of British
plants from Europe to the Cape, commencing with
Morocco we find 344 present there, while in
northern Africa generally, which is largely "Medi-
terranean" in character, there are 420 British
plants. North-east Africa and Abyssinia appear
to yield about 90 British species. On the west
coast of Africa, the little island of Fernando Po
in the Gulf of Guinea was found to contain, on
"Clarence Peak," at above 5000 feet elevation,
76 species of plants, of which number 56 species
of 45 genera belong to a temperate flora. Their
affinity is curiously much more with the plants of
Abyssinia and of the Mauritius than with those
of the adjacent west coast of Africa ! Of the
temperate flora a large proportion are European,
and the following seven are British : — A yellow
flowered wood-sorrell, wood sanicle, cleavers,
mudwort, tufted aira, wood-rush, and slender

202 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

false-brome grass. Of the South African flora,
including the portion of land from the Tropic of
Capricorn to the Cape, 27 species are British.

III. In the third great extension of land, Green-
land contains 210 (Iceland has 335), while British
plants abound in arctic British America, as in
Siberia, even Parry's Island (76° North latitude)
containing 32. The number decreases as the
warmer regions are reached ; thus Mr Drummond1
records only 40 British plants in the Western
States. In tropical America (including the tem-
perate and alpine regions of the Cordillera from
Mexico to Peru) there are 35 British plants, of
which the following eight are common with
tropical Asia : — hairy bittercress, wood starwort,
chickweed, ceratophyll, persicaria, polygonum,
toad-rush, lake scirpus, and common reed. In
extra-tropical South America, however, there are
no less than 64 British species, while in Fuegia
and the Falkland Islands there are 24. Of the
British plants common to these three greatest
extensions of land there are common to Australia,
etc., and Africa, 17^ common to Australia and
South America, 35 ; common to South Africa and
South America, 19; common to all three exten-
sions, 15. Lastly there have been found a few
British plants in islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Thus, the Society Islands contain 3 ; the Sand-
wich, 5 ; and Fiji, 16 species.

If now we attempt to find an explanation 10
the fact of so many plants thoroughly establishing
themselves in foreign countries, there are two
features which strike us as worthy of observance.
1 Hooker's " Journal of Botany," vol. i, p. 185,

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 203

•

One peculiarity is that plants do not always
flourish best where Nature has, so to say, made
their home, but in consequence of the struggle
for existence they hold their position as long as
other plants will let them grow, so that the flora
of any locality under normal and existing circum-
stances has, so to say, long ago arrived at a con-
dition of equilibrium of mutual adjustment. If,
however, plants be suddenly transported to other
countries, they sometimes at once assume astonish-
ing vigour, and for a long time at least gain great
ascendency over the native vegetable population.
This was conspicuously so in New Zealand, where
the English water-cress grows to twelve feet in
length, and three-quarters of an inch in thick-
ness ; while a single plant of Knotgrass will cover
several square feet, and the little Dutch clover is
driving the huge " New Zealand flax " before it !
Similarly does the Canadian Elodea flourish in Eng-
land, though we possess the female plant only. It
would seem, therefore, that the change of climate
has somehow introduced new and invigorating
elements into their constitution, which the native
flora cannot acquire, having been so long adapted
to it. This appears to be one cause of introduced
plants so readily establishing themselves. Another
is that these sporadic plants, being generally in-
conspicuous annuals and self -fertilising, are inde-
pendent of insects ; so that they survive in the
struggle for existence over their more showy
brethren, which cannot propagate fully by seed
unless habitually visited.

In a previous chapter on the " Fertilisation of
Plants " I have shown how this is the case ■ but

204 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

would just illustrate it by mentioning a few of
the most widely dispersed of our British plants.
The hairy Bittercress is found in north-east Asia,
tropical Asia, Hong-Kong, Kamtskatka, Chili,
South Australia, Auckland and Campbell's Islands,
Falkland and Fuegia, Tasmania, South Africa,
New Zealand, Madeira, etc. Similarly is the
Mouse-Ear Chick weed dispersed over the same
area. The black Solanum is also found in Cali-
fornia, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand,
Society Islands, Andaman Isles, North China,
Japan, Galapagos Islands, etc.

Having now considered the present distri-
bution of the British Flora, we have to account
for it as far as possible ; and here theory must
supplement facts. In looking back to discover a
historical or rather geological origin of our
present flora, we soon find that there have been
very remarkable changes in the characters of
successive floras that peopled our country.
Going no farther back than the Eocene period —
for attempts at deductions as to climatal con-
ditions become more and more uncertain in pro-
portion as the faunae and florae are more remote
in time from and unlike their living represent-
atives— we find tolerably certain evidence that
the climate of England at that time was tropical,
at least so far as palms, Mimosce, Nipadites, on
the one hand, and turtles, crocodiles, and large
water snakes on the other, justify us in drawing
such a conclusion. This period, then, could not
have seen the origin of our present temperate
and arctic floras. The next epoch, the Miocene,
likewise fails to furnish any members of it. The

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 205

flora of this period was subtropical, but probably
became less and less so as the next — the Pliocene
epoch — drew near. The Miocene flora is remark-
able for its great extent. Not only are remains
of plants to be found in England, as at Bovey
Tracey in Devonshire, but at many places on the
Continent ; and what is still more remarkable, it
is found to have extended all over the Arctic
regions — as at Disco Island, Greenland, arctic
North America, etc. In all these places such
plants as vines, custard apples, figs, cinnamons,
the lotus of the East, water-lilies, and the
ubiquitous " Wellingtonia " 1 are to be found.
This shows, therefore, that there must have been
a very different state of things in the Northern
hemisphere then from what obtains now. The
preceding flora had its day, flourished, and then
passed away for ever, A colder period drew
on. This is signalized in our country by the
celebrated Cromer Forest, and the peat or lignite
beds on the north coast of Norfolk.2 These are
overlaid by a steep cliff of "glacial deposits."
The flora of these beds is identical with the
existing one ; that is to say, the Scotch fir,
accompanied by the Norway spruce (now extinct,
but re-introduced), both our water-lilies, the
buckbean, alder, etc., then flourished, but with

1 This genus is better known to botanists as Sequoia, and
the species S. Couttsice is found at Bovey Tracey ; two
species only now exist, S. sempervirens (red- wood) and S.
gigantea, both being confined to California.

2 Whether the temperate period indicated by these plant-
beds preceded the ** Glacial" epoch, or represent inter-
glacial milder periods, is perhaps at present undecided by
geologists.

206 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the strange companions of Elephas meridionalis,
many Cervi, the Rhinoceros, the great Bos primi-
genius, the Irish elk, and other extinct animals.

The reduction of temperature (for the forest-
beds indicate as temperate a climate as our own),
seen by comparing it with that of the preceding
Miocene period, was the antecedent condition
to an arctic or glacial state of things shortly to
follow, or "the Great Ice Age." The evidence
of this, as derived from plants, is seen in the
presence of an arctic willow, Salix polaris, found
in a deposit over-lying the subtropical Miocene
beds at Bovey Tracey.

Now, as England is at present temperate, and
an arctic flora reigns over high latitudes simul-
taneously with it, so does it seem probable that
such was the state of things, if not before, at
least soon after the close of the Glacial Epoch ;
that when the Cromer Forest flourished, an arctic
flora prevailed simultaneously with it in high
latitudes. As however, the ice continued to
increase southwards, and the land in all latitudes
was encroached upon and rendered unfit for such
plants to inhabit, they were driven southwards
down every meridian, from the arctic regions.
The long line of mountains in America, forming
an unbroken bridge of transport, enabled many
to cross the tropics and so reach the extra-tropical
regions of South America. Mr Belt discovered
signs of " glaciation " in Nicaragua down to 2000
feet above the sea, apparently showing that there
was a "cooling" going on at least locally in the
tropical regions, which would seem to dispose of
the difficulty of arctic plants crossing the torrid

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF WILD FLOWERS. 207

zone. Similarly in the eastern hemisphere,
assuming the land to have been continuous, and
there are solid reasons for believing it to have
been so, the arctic flora would have been able to
find a passage from the Himalayas, through eastern
China and the Celebes, to Australia, New Zealand,
and Tasmania.

Another suggestion is that the Australian forms
came from South America to New Zealand, then
Tasmania, and finally Australia; for the New
Zealand flora is strangely like that of South
America in some respects, and it has been shown
above that Tasmania has more British types than
Australia. 1

Thus is it supposed that the arctic flora has been
driven over all the world, and on the close of the
Glacial Epoch the plants situated on what are
now tropical plains perished, or else retired up
the mountains where we now find them, as on
Clarence Peak in the island of Fernando Po;
while in the northern hemisphere many retreated
back again into arctic regions perhaps accompanied

1 Hooker thus sums up his observations on this dispersion,
in his Introductory Essay to the "Flora of Tasmania,"
p. 103 : — ' ' When I take a comprehensive view of the vege-
tation of the Old World, 1 am struck with the appearance it
presents of there being a current of vegetation (if I may so
fancifully express myself) from Scandinavia to Tasmania ;
along, in short, the whole extent of that arc of the
terrestrial sphere, which presents the greatest continuity
of land. In the first place, Scandinavian genera, and even
species, reappear everywhere from Lapland and Iceland to
the tops of the Tasmanian Alps, in rapidly diminishing
numbers, it is true, but in vigorous development through-
out. They abound on the Alps and Pyrenees, pass on to
the Caucasus and Himalaya, thence they extend along the

208 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

by other plants of the countries they had pre-
viously invaded.

With reference to our own islands, there is
reason to believe that the Atlantic type of Watson,
or the groups including the Asturian and Norman
or Armorican of Forbes, are very ancient. This
is inferred, first, from their fragmentary character;
secondly, from their isolation ; and thirdly, from
the fact that boulders have been found stranded
on the south coast of England, implying that
these islands were severed from the Continent, at
least on the west, and south-west, during the
Glacial Epoch, and that, therefore, these plants
owe their origin to a much earlier connexion with
the Continent; for, as already remarked, the
nearest continental site of the Asturian plants is
to be found in Spain; while the Armorican
doubtless came from Normandy. With regard
to the Arctic and common English and Scottish
types, many of which are to be found in the
arctic regions, they appear to have travelled from
the north, or from the Scandinavian regions across

Khasia Mountains, and those of the peninsulas of India
to those of Ceylon and the Malayan Archipelago (Java
and Borneo), and after a hiatus of 30°, they reappear on
the Alps of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, and
beyond. Then, again, on those of New Zealand and the
Antarctic Islands, many of the species remaining un-
changed throughout. It matters not what the vegetation
of the bases and flanks of the mountains may be ; the
northern species may be associated with Alpine forms of
Germanic, Siberian, Oriental, Chinese, American, Malayan,
and finally Australian Antarctic types ; but whereas these
are all more or less local assemblages, the Scandinavian
asserts his prerogative of ubiquity from Great Britain to
the Antipodes."

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

209

the plain of the German Ocean : 1 but on the
subsequent depression of the land below the sea,
and with the elevation of temperature to its
present state, the more arctic types would be
confined to the tops of our mountains, while the
rest would people the plains, and the floras would
thus be gradually established in our islands in
the conditions in which we now find them.

CHAPTER XVIII

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS ; 2 OR THE EVOLUTION
OF OUR VEGETABLES

In treating of wild flowers, we must not forget
to tell the story of our garden vegetables; for
they are all domesticated wild plants, which have
been "improved" by the cultivator's skill.
Several are natives of the British Isles, and
the rest come from various parts of the world.

Let us begin with those which provide us with
roots ; and then proceed to consider others which
supply us with edible stems, leaves, flower-buds and
fruits.

1 There appear to have been four well-marked periods
at least in the Glacial Epoch : (1) a period of elevation at
the time of Cromer Forest ; (2) one of great depression, so
that Great Britain became an archipelago ; then (3) re-
elevation, when the German Ocean was land ; and finally
a last depression to its present condition.

2 The following brief account of our common garden
vegetables is partly taken from my article in the " Journal
of the Rl. Hor. Soc," vol. xvii.

O

210 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Turnip — This and the rape as well as cabbage
are all members of the genus Brassica, of the
order Cruciferce. Authors are not all agreed upon
the differences between the first two being
"specific." Pliny writing in the first century,
A.D., said "the turnip is pretty nearly of the same
nature as the rape." Gerarde in his " Herball,"
1597, united the two and the late Prof. Jas. Buck-
man considered them as identical. The difference
between them probably arises, as stated in Chap-
ter V. from the object and method of cultivation.
For if the seed be selected for its oil, then, by the
law of compensation the root will not assume the
enlarged form. If the turnip-root be the object,
then the oil is deficient.

With regard to the geographical distribution
of the wild turnip and its kindred, they are all
of European and Siberian origin ; and are still to
be seen wild or half-wild in some form or other.

The turnip was well known to the ancients.
Pliny described several sorts ; but some may refer
to the radish. In the fifteenth century it was
known to, and much grown by, the Flemings.
The first turnips that were grown in England are
believed to have come from Holland in 1550.

Radish. — This also is of the order Cruciferce
M. Carriere raised a variety of forms from our
wild radish, which is distributed over N. Europe,
N. Africa, N. and W. Asia to India. The radish
has been grown from the earliest historic times,
from Europe to China and Japan, Herodotus,
writing in the fifth century, B.C., speaks of the
radish as being eaten by the builders of the Great
Pyramid, built probably between 3,000 and

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

211

4,000 years B.C. The radish is also figured on
the walls of the temple of Karnak in Egypt.
The present indigenous variety in Egypt is a
large white sort with long tapering leaves.
Gerarde, 1597, figures two varieties which he
calls the " round " and the " pear-fashioned."
It is noticeable that both these are represented
as having only two-seeded pods. This feature
agrees better with that of the seaside species of
radish, a plant found from the Clyde southwards,
and is commoner on the continent ; so that it is
pretty certain that this and not the so-called
"wild radish" was the true origin of the
cultivated one.

With regard to the forms of the roots, M.
Carriere found that when seed was sown in a
loose soil, a greater proportion of long-rooted
forms were produced ; while the round or turnip-
rooted forms prevailed in a stiff soil. Pliny
records a very similar fact, for he says of the
rape: — 4 4 The Greeks have distinguished two
principal species of rape, the male (turnip-rooted)
and the female (long-rooted) ; and they have dis-
covered a method of obtaining both from the
same seed, for when it is sown in a hard, cloggy
soil, the produce will be male." Again, he
writes: " Some authors have mentioned a plan
of making a hole with a dibble and covering it
at the bottom with chaff, six fingers in depth.
Upon this the seed is put, and then covered over
with manure and earth. The result of which is
that radishes are obtained fully as large as the
hole is made." Prize parsnips are made to-day
in much the same fashion.

212 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Parsnip. — Of the order Umbelliferce. It
occurs wild from Durham and Lancaster south-
wards. It is common on the limestone of
Gloucestershire and on the chalk of Dorset, etc.
It ranges from Europe to Siberia.

The Greeks and Eomans cultivated parsnips
and carrots, which the former confounded under
the name Staphylinos. It appears from Pliny
that "the wild parsnip was eaten after having
been transplanted, or from seed ; but it preserved
its strong, pungent flavour, which it is found
quite impossible to get rid of." This seems to
imply that the ancients did not know how to
improve wild plants by gradual and prolonged
selection.

As an example of modern, experimental
" ennoblement by selection " of the parsnip, that
of the late Professor Jas. Buckman may be
mentioned. He sowed seeds of the wild plant
in the botanic garden of the Cirencester Agricul-
tural College in 1847 ; and raised a garden
form by selection, which he called " The
Student." Giving it to Messrs Sutton & Sons
in 1851, that firm improved it, and finally issued
it. It still remains after half a century, the best
parsnip in the trade.

Carrot. — Also of the order Umbelliferce.
This plant is found wild from Europe and N.
Africa to N. and W. Asia and India. It is very
common in England.

That the cultivated form is derived from our
wild annual species has been proved by M.
Vilmorin and others. M. Vilmorin sowed seed
of wild plants, and found that they flowered

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

213

successively through the summer. Collecting the
seed from the latest to flower and sowing this
again late in the following season, he encouraged
the enlargement of the root. By this means the
carrot was induced to flower permanently in the
second year of growth. Hence the garden form
is now a biennial, this acquired habit having be-
come hereditary.

The long and short " horn " forms of carrots
have the same origin as the radishes mentioned
above.

The carrot is supposed to have been introduced
into England as a vegetable by the Dutch, about
1558. It is said to be first grown about Sandwich.

Beetroot. — Of the order Chenopodiacece. It
is a common perennial wild flower round our
coasts and a native of Europe, N. Africa, W.
Asia and India. The garden-beet, sugar-beet,
white-beet or chard and mangel-wurzel are all
derived from the same plant. The earliest culti-
vation would seem to have been from 300-400
B.C. The sugar-beet first began to be cultivated
for sugar in 1747.

Chard, or the central, blanched leaves, especi-
ally the mid-ribs was the edible part with the
ancients. Thus red chard is noticed by Aris-
totle, 350 B.C. Theophrastus (fourth century
B.c), knew of two kinds the ' 6 white " and " black,"
Pliny also describes them, and says that they
were eaten with lentils and beans ; but the root
was only used for its supposed medical virtues.
Beet-root was introduced into England in 1570.

Of plants yielding stems which are edible, the
most important is the —

214

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Potato. — Of the order Solanacece. It is a Dative
of the higher ground of Peru. It was first in-
troduced into Spain and Italy by the Spaniards
at the close of the fifteenth century, who found
it already cultivated in S. America. It was then
called "Battata," from which the word Potato is
derived. Gerarde received it from Virginia in
1584, and called it Battata virginiana and Papus
hyspanicus.1

Jerusalem Artichoke— This plant is a native
of the N. United States of America. It was culti-
vated by the Indians of Huron and New England
at an early date, and was introduced into England
in 1617 as "Battatas de Canada." It is allied to
the Sunflower, an annual plant of Mexico. The
word "Jerusalem" is a corruption of the Italian
word " Girasola " meaning " turn to the sun." The
word " Artichoke" is derived primarily from the
Arabic "Kharchouf," which appears as "Alca-
chofa" in Spanish, corrupted into "Articocco"
in Italian, and hence our word "Artichoke."

Asparagus. — This occurs wild on the coasts
of Wales, Cornwall, Dorset and the Channel
Islands. In the southern parts of Russia and
Poland the waste steppes are covered with it,
and it is there eaten by horses and cattle as grass.
It was highly esteemed by the ancient Greeks and
Romans, 200 B.C. It has long been cultivated in
England. Gerarde, 1597, figures five kinds, one
only, however, being the true garden asparagus.
It is one of the few vegetables which have re-

1 In the portrait, given as a frontispiece to his " Herbal,"
Gerarde is represented as holding a flowering branch of
the potato in his hand.

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

215

mained true to the wild form for upwards of two
thousand years of cultivation.

The next to be considered are plants grown
for their foliage as food.

Cabbage. — This is a native of the coasts of
England and Wales, of the Channel Islands, and
of W. and S. Europe. Theophrastus (300 B.C.)
knew of three kinds only — the loose broad-leaved,
the closely-packed, and the crisped leaved. Pliny
in the first century A.D. mentions several varieties,
and says that they were the most highly esteemed
of all garden vegetables. Eighty-seven remedies
were credited to the Cabbage. He tells us that
" small shoots throw out from the main stem, of
a more delicate and tender quality than the
Cabbage itself, were cut in spring." Pliny also,
alluding to the " Arcinian Cabbage," says : " Be-
neath nearly of all the leaves there were small
shoots peculiar to this variety." It would seem
from the description that this form corresponded
with the kind described and figured by Gerarde,
viz., No 7, Brassica prolifera, " the double Cole-
wort." He says : " Double Colewoort hath many
and large leaues whereupon do grow heere and
there other small iagged leaues, as it were made
of ragged shreds and iaggs set vpon the smooth
leafe, which giueth shewe of a plume or faune
of feathers." It somewhat resembles the "crested "
Primroses and Cyclamen flowers, and appears tc
be due to hypertrophy coupled with a multipli-
cation of the fibro- vascular cords of the mid-ribs,
etc. In one kind of this prolification the excres-
cences take the form of funnels at the extremities
of the ribs. A few years ago nearly every

216 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

plant in a bed in the garden of Sir J. B. Lawes
at Rothampstead was characterised by this
peculiarity.

The following are varieties of the Cabbage.

Kohl-rabi. — This is remarkable for its swollen
stem. It appears to have been introduced into
Germany from Italy about 1558, and into Tripoli
about 1574. It was known to Gerarde (1597),
but it is not clear whether it was known to Pliny.
His description of the " Corinthian " Turnip seems
to agree with it, of which he says: "The root
is all but out of the ground : indeed this is the
only kind that, in growing, shoots upwards, and
not as the others do, downwards into the ground."
It is a common food in Malta.

The Brussels Sprouts. — These were commonly
grown in Belgium in 1820, and also in French
gardens, but not generally known in England
before 1850.

The Broccoli. — The earliest notice of this variety
appears to be in Miller's Dictionary, 1724, where
it is called the "Sprout Colliflower." It seems
to have originated in Italy. Being sown in
September there, as in Malta, it is cut in April
or May.

The Cauliflower was earlier known, being men-
tioned by Dodonseus 1553 or 1559, and figured
by Gerarde, 1597, though it was rare in Parkin-
son's time 1629. The form is due to a partial
suppression of the floral organs, accompanied
by a great development of the pedicels, similar
to the Feather Hyacinth, Bellevalia comosa.. The
following description of its origin is by M.
Vilmorin : —

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

217

"The Sprouting or Asparagus Broccoli1 repre-
sents the first form exhibited by the new vegetable
when it ceased to be the earliest Cabbage, and
was grown with an especial view to its shoots.
After this, by continued selection and successive
improvements, varieties were obtained which pro-
duced a compact white head, and some of these
varieties were still further improved into kinds
which are sufficiently early to commence and
complete their rustic growth in the course of the
same year. These last named kinds are now
known by the name of Cauliflower."

As illustrating the origin of the many varieties
of Cabbage by cultivation, Prof. Buckman raised
varieties from the seed of wild plants collected
at Llandudno, "some having short petioles and
the close-hearting condition of Cabbages, both
green and red, the tendency [to vary] being much
increased by repeated transplanting. Others,
with longer petioles and lyrate leaves, seem to
take on the looser method of growth of Kales,
&c." With reference to persistency of form,
Prof. Buckman adds : " It may be remarked, as
throwing some light on the nature of the changes
by which the cultivated varieties of this genus
have been attained, that experiments with seeds
of plants showing any particular tendency, and
especially if repeatedly grown in the same soil,
will ever result in an increase of the peculiarity. "

Sea-Kale. — This is a native of various parts
of the English coast. It was well known to the

1 "The small shoots," referred to by Pliny called Cymcc
or " Sprouts," were probably the loose form of the flower-
ing head ; as commonly seen now in Malta.

218 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Eomans, who collected it wild, and preserved it
in barrels for use during long voyages. " It was
called Halmyridia from its growing on the sea-
shore only. Pliny's description of the method
of pickling it with oil and salt is very suggestive
of an origin of sauerkraut of the Germans.

Unlike the cabbage, which is prone to vary
greatly, the Sea-Kale, like asparagus, illustrates
"persistence of type." The present cultivated
form being that of the originally wild one. It
was not cultivated until the eighteenth century,
1767.

Spinach. — This plant does not appear to be
known wild ; but it may be a cultivated form
of a native species of Persia. It was unknown to
the ancient Greeks and Romans, being new to
Europe in the sixteenth century. The name is de-
rived from the Arabic " Esbnach," which indicates
its Eastern origin. Its cultivation is said to have
been common in Nineveh and Babylon. A Spinach
figured by Gerarde would seem to be some in-
determinable form of Goose-foot or Orache. It
is noticed in Turner's " Herbal," 1568, as "an herb
lately found and not much in use."

Onions. — These species of the genus Allium
which are more or less in general cultivation are
the following : — The common Onion, Garlic,
Shallot, Chives, Rocambole or Sand-Leek and
the Leek.

The common Onion is one of the earliest of
the cultivated species. It was used as a spell in
Chaldea, possibly 5000 B.C. One variety was
worshipped in Egypt, and Garlic and Onions
were invoked by them when taking an oath.

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS

219

Pliny says "There are no such things as wild
Onions," but they have been discovered truly
wild in Beluchistan and neighbouring countries.

The Spring or Welsh Onion, or Rock Onion of
Russia, is a native of Siberia and Russia. It has
been grown in England since 1629. Like the
Leek, it does not form a bulb.

Garlic is wild in the desert of the Kirghis of
Sungari. It is very ancient and widespread in
cultivation. Herodotus mentions it as grown in
Egypt, upwards of 3000 B.C.

The Shallot, is believed to be the same as the
Ascalonian Onion of Pliny, who says "it is so
called from Ascalon, a city of Judaea." Theo-
phrastus, however, as also A. de Candolle regards
it as a form of the Onion. It is not known wild.
It was introduced into England in 1548.

The Chive occupies an extensive area in the
northern hemisphere, both in the old and new
worlds. It is found wild in some of the northern
and western counties of England and Wales. A
variety to be met with in the Alps appears to be
nearest to the cultivated form.

The Rocambole, or Sand Leek, occurs wild
from Yorkshire and Lancashire to Fife and Perth-
shire, as well as in Ireland. It is not of ancient
cultivation, though of European origin, as it is
not mentioned by Greek and Latin authors.

The Leek is commonly wild in the East and
Mediterranean regions, and especially Algeria.
It is naturalised in England. It was well known
to the ancients. Pliny observed that the Emperor
Nero used to eat Leeks and oil to improve his
voice, and that the best came from Egypt. It is

220 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

usually a non-bulbous form under cultivation;
but the ancients used to make it produce bulbs
by transplanting and cutting off the green tops,
as described by Pliny. Gerarde's figure of the
Leek shows a decided tendency to produce a bulb.
I have found it wild and always bulbous in Malta.

Khubarb. — The leaf-stalks of species of Rheum,
natives of N.E. Asia and China.

Lettuce. — This salad-plant is a native of S.
Europe and occurs from the Canary Islands to E.
Asia. The wild form is to be found in many
counties of England but it is a rare plant. It
was cultivated by the ancients as a salad-plant
and was also used as a sedative. Lettuce appears
to have been the " opium " of the physician Galen,
who lived about 200 A.D.

Endive. — This is probably a Mediterranean
plant. It is described by Pliny more especially
for its supposed medicinal qualities, and he speaks
of two kinds, the cultivated and the wild, known
as Cichorium or " Spreading Endive." He refers
to its growth in Egypt, where the true Endive
still occurs wild in the fields and is sometimes
cultivated. There are two forms in present
cultivation — the curled-leaved, which was un-
known to the ancients, and the broad-leaved
or Batavian. The " curled " appears to be first
alluded to by Camerarius in 1586.

Pliny makes the remark that "the general
opinion is that those only will admit of being
blanched which are produced from white seed
. . . care being taken to tie up the leaves as
soon as ever they begin to come to any size."

Chicory. — This differs from the endive in

EDIBLE WILD FLO WEES.

221

being perennial. There are two kinds in culti-
vation, the " Barbe de Capucin " and the
"Witloof " or Brussels Chicory. It occurs wild
throughout England, bearing flowers like those
of the Dandelion, but of a bright blue colour, on
a tall wiry stem. It is cultivated for the sake of
the root near York. This is roasted and ground
to powder.

Celery. — This is not uncommon in ditches
and especially near our coasts ; remarkable for
its strong smell, and is dangerous to eat raw in
the wild form. In Italy, Malta, etc., it is not
blanched, but the green leaves are used for soup,
etc. Gerarde descr ibed it as " water parsley *
or "smallage." Indeed, the word " celery" is a
corruption of Selimon the Greek word for parsley.
In Gerarde's time, 1597, it was the custom to
transplant it from the ditches into gardens just
as Pliny says the parsnip was in his day.

Parsley. — This is allied to celery and a native
of S. Europe and the Levant. English gardeners
received it in 1548, but it was used in medicine
in the fourteenth century and doubtless earlier.
It has naturalized itself in England, and delights
in rocks (petros being the Greek for "a stone
and petro-selimon being the scientific name), as e.g.,
over the Avon at Clifton, where it is wild.
Parsley was used by the ancients for garlands, as
it retained its colour. It was also eaten as an
antidote to the effects of wine.

Of fruits used as vegetables, the most im-
portant are the following.

Haricot or Kidney Bean. — This plant was
for a long time supposed to be of Indian origin ;

222 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

but the discovery of beans of dwarf haricots in
certain tombs of Peru in 1880 countenances the
view that it is of S. American origin.

On the other hand, it is said to have been cul-
tivated in France in the time of Charlemagne,
800 A.D.1

Bean. — Varieties of the broad bean have been
found in the ruins of Troy, and in the Swiss
lake dwellings of a prehistoric period. Herodotus
speaks of the bean as never being cultivated in
Egypt," and if it grows they do not eat it. The
priests cannot even endure the sight of it ; they
imagine that this vegetable is unclean." It was
early known in Italy, as it was an ancient Roman
rite to put beans in the sacrifices to the goddess
Carna. Beans are mentioned with lentils in
2 Sam. xvii. 28, as being brought to David. It
is believed to have been found wild south of the
Caspian Sea and in Algeria. M. de Candolle,
however, doubts the statement.

Of leguminous plants " the honour," says
Pliny, " must be given to the Bean." In speaking
of it as food, he says that it was mixed with flour
and made into bread. It was also use 1 for feed-
ing cattle. Bean pottage occupied a place in
religious services. Pythagoras believed that the
souls of the dead are enclosed in the bean, hence
they were used in funeral banquets. A remark-

1 Gerarde, 1597, figures twelve sorts of beans called
Phaseoli Brasiliani, or ' ' kidney beanes of Brasile." This,
therefore, seems as if ne had been aware of a S. American
origin. He also calls the " English kidney beane, French
beane." The scarlet runner is probably a variety of this
species.

EDIBLE WILD FLOWERS.

223

able statement of Pliny's is that "it fertilises the
ground in which it has been sown as well as any
manure." We now know the cause of this fact,
that certain kinds of microbes invade the roots,
giving rise to tubercles, and that by some un-
known method they can obtain nitrogen from the
air. Consequently leguminous crops, as a rule,
do not require nitrogenous manures, and the
haulms of peas and beans should be always
chopped up and dug in the ground while still
green if possible, as the decay is more rapid
then.

Pea.— This plant is not known wild. Some
botanists have thought it may be a cultivated form
of the Field Pea wild in Italy. It was cultivated
in the time of Theophrastus, and it has been
found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland. It
was not known in ancient Egypt nor in India,
the so-called Mummy Pea 1 having nothing to do
with Egypt. The pea was probably cultivated
in England early in the sixteenth century, as
Gerarde figures and describes it.

Cucumber. — The origin of this plant is now
thought to be C. Hardwickii. This is wild from
Kumaon to Sikkim. It has been cultivated in
India for 3000 years, and introduced into China,
200 B.C. The ancient Greeks cultivated it under

1 The Mummy Pea was "sent out " by Mr Grimstone as
a new pea about 1840, accompanied with the story that it
had been found in a mummy case. It is a "fasciated"
form, and as there is both a white and a purple-grey
variety, it is suggestive of having been a cross between
Pisum arvense and P. sativum. The reader will find it
described in the Gardeners Chronicle, 1849, p. 115 ; and
1873, p. 44.

224 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

the name of Sikuos. The " cucumber " mentioned
in Numbers xi. 5, appears by the name in
Hebrews to have been some other plant; no
trace has yet been found of the cucumber in
ancient Egyptian literature.

Vegetable Marrow.— This is believed to be
a cultivated variety of the pumpkin. This
species has been supposed to be indigenous to
S. Asia and America. The nearest approach to
it seems to be a kind found growing on the edges
of thickets by the Guadaloupe, and apparently
an indigenous plant. Gerarde's figure of Cucumis
ex Hisjpanico semine natus or Spanish cucumber
might very well represent the vegetable marrow.

Tomato. — This was first brought from Santo
Domingo to Philadelphia in 1798. It was . at
first cultivated as an ornamental plant ; and not
used as food in New Orleans till 1812. It
appears to have been introduced into England in
1596. The name is derived from the Mexican
word " Tomatl." Of the numerous forms of the
fruit in cultivation, the small species cerasiforme
or cherry-like form is probably the nearest to the
original type.

APPENDIX

FOREIGN WILD FLOWERS IN THE GARDEN

When wild flowers are introduced into gardens
where they find a much better soil with more
abundant nutriment, etc., than in their natural
conditions, they often begin to change in many
respects. Thus spiny plants lose their spines as
the sloe changed into the plum, and the wild
pear into the garden pear-tree. In such, the
sharp-pointed aborted shoots develop into leafy
branches. Much hairiness vanishes and the cul-
tivated descendants may become quite hairless ;
as the smooth-leaved garden parsnip, which was
raised from the wild hairy species. Flowers be-
come much larger and varied in their colouring,
as in wallflowers, sweet peas and snap-dragons,
and they often become " double" by the multi-
plication of their petals.

Many wild flowers, however, resist all or most
efforts to induce them to change ; so that they
are still after many years of cultivation almost if
not quite like their wild ancestors from which
the present plants were descended.

Besides many of our own native wild flowers
which have been " improved " by cultivation, as
the old forms of garden pansies, daisies, etc., the
Continent and especially South Europe has sup-
plied a large number of our old favourites, some

226 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

of which were introduced in the middle ages, as
the wallflower ; but more especially from the
sixteenth century and onwards. But the whole
world has helped to furnish our gardens and
greenhouses.

Florists, however, have not been content to let
plants change at their own sweet will, by merely
providing them with various soils, etc., thereby
inducing them to vary their colours, etc. ; for
they have, during this present century, adopted
the practice of hybridizing flowers, so that per-
haps the majority of our present cultivated
flowers were never wild at all ; for they are the
progeny of two or more species combined. This
subject, however, would require to be treated by
itself. At present we are only concerned with
" cultivated wild flowers.''

As people interested in garden flowers often
wish to know from what country some particular
plant comes, I have drawn up the following list
of the more familiar garden plants, giving the
native country and the dates as far as is approxi-
mately known when they were first introduced.

They are alphabetically arranged so that any
plant can be referred to at once. The dates are
supplied from Paxton's " Botanical Dictionary."

A

Abies — Some twenty species of Fir are in cultivation.
The Norway or Spruce was once indigenous but
is extinct now. The White Spruce, Canada ; the
Black Spruce, N. America ; the Douglas Fir, N. W.
America ; the Hemlock Spruce, N. America ; the com-
mon Silver Fir, Central Europe ; the Cephalonian,

APPENDIX.

227

Greece ; the Balsam or Balm of Gilead Fir, N.
America ; these are some of the most familiar.
Mostly imported during the eighteenth and last
centuries.

Abronia — Two species, California (1823), allied to the

Marvel-of-Peru.
Acanthus — A. mollis, S. Europe (1548).
Acer — The False Sycamore from C. Europe and W.

Asia ; the Curled (1656), the Sugar (1735), and the

Snake Maples (1755), N. America. A. polymorphum,

with variously dissected leaves, Japan (1860).
Aconitum — The Aconite, Monkshood or Wolf's-bane,

{A. Napellus), C. Europe (1596).
Adam's Needle-and- Thread — Yucca Jilamentosa, from

Virginia (1675).
^Esculus — The Horse-chesnut (JS. Hippocastaneum),

reached Europe from Asia in 1530. It was rare in

England in 1597.
Agapanthus — African Lily (A. umbellatus) , C. G. H.

(1692).

Agave — The American Aloe, S. Amer. (1640).
Ageratum — A. Mexicanum, Mexico, (1822).
Ailanthus — A. glandulosa, Japan, China (1751).
Allium— A. Moly (1604) and A. roseum (1752), S.

Europe. Numerous other species are cultivated.
Almond — See Amygdalus.

Aloysia — The Lemon-scented Verbena (A, citriodora),
Chili (1794).

Alstrcemeria— A. aurantiaca, Valparaiso (1831).

Altjlea — The Holy hock (A. rosea), Levant (1573).

Amaranthus — Love-lies-bleeding (A. caudatus), E.
Ind. (1596) ; Prince's Feather (A. hypochondriacus),
Virginia (1684) ; the Cockscomb (A. cristata), Asia
(1570).

Amaryllis — A, Belladonna, S. Africa (early in 17th
century). This is the only species ; but the
name is given to florists' hybrids of the genus
Hippeastrum.

Amelanchier — A. vulgaris, S. Europe (1596).

Ampelopsis — The Virginian Creeper {A. hederacea), N.
America (1729), and A. tricuspidaia (Veitchii),
Japan (1868).

228 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Amygdalus — Almond (A, communis), Barbary (1548),
Peach and Nectrine are " Sports."

Anagallis — Pimpernel (A. Indica), Nepal (1824) ; A.
Monelli, Italy (1648).

Anemone — Hepatica (A. Hepatica), C. and S. Europe
(1573). Poppy Anemone (^4. Coronaria), S. Europe
(1596); Star Anemone (A. hortensis), Pyrenees
(1596) ; A. Japoiiica, Japan (1844).

Antirrhinum — Snapdragon (A. majus), S. Europe (pro-
bably in Middle Ages).

Anthericum — A. ramosum, etc., S. Europe (1570).

Apocynum — Dogbane (A. androsaimifolium), N. America
(1688).

Aquilegia — Columbine (native) ; A. Canadensis (1640) ;

A. alpina, Switzerland (173 i). Other species from

Siberia, S. Europe, etc.
Araucaria — Puzzle-monkey, Chili (1796). A. Bidwillii,

Morton Bay (1840).
Aristolochia - Birthwort {A. Clematitis), Europe

(16th century?); Dutchman's Pipe (A. Sipho),

N. America (1763).
Ash, Flowering — See Fraxinus.

Asphodelus — Asphodel (A. fistidosus and A. ramosus,
S. Europe (1550).

Aster — Michaelmas Daisy (A. Tripolium and A.
Tradescanti), N. America (1633). Numerous other
species are grown, chiefly North American.

Astilbe (Spiraea Japonica) — Japan (1830).

Astrantia — A. major, occurs wild near old Roman
quarries, in Stokewood (Shropshire) and the Mal-
verns. Possibly introduced accidentally by them.

Aubrietia — A. deltoidea, S. Europe (1710).

Aucuba — A. Japonica, Japan (1783).

Auricula — See Primula.

Azalea— A. Pontica, Turkey (1793). A. Indica (1808)
and A. Sinensis (A. mollis), China (1823).

B

Balsam— See Impatiens.
Balsam Fir — See Abies.
Barberry — See Berberis and Mahonia.

APPENDIX.

229

Bastard Balm — Melittis.

Berberis — B. Darwinii, S. Chiloe (1847).

B. aristata, Nepal. (1820), B. ilicifolia, Terra del Fuego

(1719).

Biota — B. (Thuya) orientalis, Japan (1860).

Birth-root — See Trillium.

Bladder -nut — See Staph ylea.

Blessed Thistle — See Carduus.

Blue Daisy— See Catananche.

Borago — Borage (B. officinalis), S. Europe.

Box— See Buxus.

Box-Thorn— See Lycium.

Broom, Spanish — See Spartium.

Buck-eye, red — Pavia.

Buddleia — B. globosa, Chili (1774).

Bulbocodium — B. vernum, C. Europe (1629).

Buxus — Box [B. sempervirens) ; Native on Box-hill, etc.

C

Calceolaria — G. corymbosa and C. integrifolia (1822) ;

C. purpurea and C. arachnoides (1827) ; and C. crenati-

flora (1831), all S. American. Modern garden forms
are hybrids.

Calendula — Marigold (C. officinalis), S. Europe (1573).
Callistephus — China Aster (G. hortensis), China (1731).
Calochortus — Several species, California (1826-1836).
Calycanthus— Carolina Allspice (C. floridus), Carolina
(1726).

Campanula — Canterbury Bells (C. Medium), C. Europe
(1597); C. persicifolia, Europe (1596); G. Carpa-
tica, Carpathian Alps (1774) ; G. pyramidalis,
Carniola (1594).

Candy -tuft — See Iberis.

Canna — Indian Shot (C. Indica), India (1570).
Canterbury Bells — See Campanula.
Cape Gooseberry — See Physalis.
Caper-Spurge — See Euphorbia.

Carduus — Blessed Thistle (C. Marianus), S. Europe.
Carnation — See Dianthus.

Castanea — Sweet or Spanish Chesnut (G. vesca), was
introduced into Europe from Asia Minor.

230

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Catalpa — Indian Bean (G, bignonioides), S. States of

America (1726).
Catananche — Blue Daisy (C. cozrulea), S. Europe

(1596).

Gastor Oil Plant — See Ricinus.

Ceanothus— G. Americana, N. America (1713).

Cedar, Japanese — See Cryptomeria.

Cedrus — Cedars; C. Libani, Lebanon (1683); C.

Atlantica, Atlas Mts. ; G. Deodara, Nepal

(1822).

Centaurea — C. montana, Austria (1596).

Centranthus — Red Valerian (naturalized).

Cercis — Judas Tree (G. Siliquastrum), S. Europe and

W. Asia (1596).
Cephalotaxus -G. Fortunei, China and Japan (1848).
Cerastium — G. tomentosum, S. Europe.
Chaste-Tree — See Vitex.

Cheiranthus — Wallflower (C.Cheiri), S. Europe (Middle
Ages).

Cherry, Winter — See Physalis.
Ghesnut, Sweet — See Castanea.
Ghesnut, Horse — See iEscuLUS.
China Aster — See Callistephus.
Chinese Pink — See Dianthus.
Christmas Rose — See Helleborus.

Chrysanthemum — C. Sinense and Indicum, China(1790);

G. coronarium, S. Europe (1629) ; G. carinatum,

Barbary (1796).
Cistus — G. ladaniferus, Portugal and Spain (1629) ;

G. Cyprius, Greece (1800), and others.
Clarkia — G. elegans, California (1832) ; G. pulchella,

N. America (1826).
Clematis — Virgin's Bower (G. Viorna), N. America

(1730) ; G. azurea, C. cozrxdea, Japan; C. Fortuneiy

G. lanuginosa, China (1851).
CoBiEA — G. scandens, Mexico (1792).
Cockscomb — See Amaranthus.
Collinsia — C, bicolor, California (1851).
Colutea — C. arborescens, France (1548).
Columbine — See Aquilegia.

Convolvulus — G. tricolor (minor), S. Europe (1629) ;
C. altho&oides, S. Europe (1597) ; C. mutabilis (major,

APPENDIX.

231

or Ipomcea purpurea), the American "Morning
Glory," S. America (1629).

Coreopsis — G. tinctoria, N. America (1820).

Cornus — Cornelian Cherry (0. mas.), Austria (1596) ;
G. alba, Siberia (1741) ; C. florida, N. Am. (1731) ;
C. (Benthamia) fragifera, Nepal 1825 ; G. Cana-
densis, Canada (1774).

Corydalis — G, lutea (naturalized).

Cowslip, American — See Dodecatheon.

Crab — See Pyrus.

Crataegus — C.Pyracantha, S. Europe (1629) ; G. coccinea,
N. America (1683) ; C. Crus-galli, N. Am. (1691).

Crocus — C. vernus, Europe (16th century?) ; Saffron C.
(C. sativus, naturalized) ; G. luteus, Turkey (1629) ;
C. variegatus, Levant (1829), etc.

Crown Imperial — See Fritillaria.

Cryptomeria — Japanese Cedar {G. Japonica), Japan
(1846).

Cupressus — Cypress (C. sempervirens), Candia (1548);

C. Lawsoniana, S. Francisco (1852), etc.
Cyclamen — C. Persicum, Cyprus(1731) ; C. hederazfolium,

C. and S. Europe, naturalized in Kent and Sussex.
Cypress — See Cupressus.

Cytisus — C. Laburnum, C. Europe (1596) ; C. Adami,
Graft-hybrid (C. L. x G. purpureus), C. alpinus,
Europe (1596).

D

Dahlia — D. variabilis, Mexico (1789).
Dame's Violet — See Hesperis.

Dammara — Kauri pine {D. australis), New Zealand
(1821).

Daphne — D. Pontica, Asia Minor (1759) ; D. Cneorum,

Austria (1752), etc.
Datura — Thorn-apple (Z>. Stramonium), naturalized ;

and Purple var., Tatula, N. America (1629).
Day-Lily — See Hemerocallis.

Delphinium— Larkspur, Rocket {D. Ajacis), Switzer-
land (1573); Bee Larkspur (/>. elatum), Siberia
(1597); D. Consolida9 S. Europe, naturalized, D.
grandiflorum, Siberia (1816).

232 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Devil-in-a-bush — See Nigella.

Dianthus — Clovepink (D. Caryophylhis), S. Europe,
naturalized on old walls, etc ; Pirk (D. plumarius),
S. Europe (1629) ; Sweet William (D. barbattis), C.
and W. Pyrenees (1573) ; Spanish Pink (D. His-
panicus), var. of Sweet William ; Chinese Pink or
Indian Pink (D. Chinensis), China (1713), and
hybrids.

Dicentra [Misspelt Dielytra] — D. spectabilis, Siberia

(1810) ; D. eximia (1812) and D. chrysantha, both

from N. America.
Dictamnus — Fraxinella or Dittany {D. albiis), C. and

S. Europe (1596).
Dier villa ( Weigela) — D. rosea, China (1845) ; D. ama-

bilis, China (1855).
Dodecatheon — American Cowslip [D. Meadia), Virginia

(1744).

Dogbane — See Apocynum.
Dog's-tooth Violet — See Erythronium.
Doronicum — Leopard's bane (D. Pardalianches), Europe,
naturalized.

Dracocephalium — D. peregrinum, Siberia (1759) ; D.
Argunense, Siberia (1822).

E

Eccremocarpus — E. longiflorus, Peru (1825).
Echinops — E. sphwrocephalas, Austria (1596); E.

Euthenicus, Germany (1816).
Eglantine — See Rosa.

Er an this — Winter Aconite {E. hy emails), Italy
(1596).

Erica — E. carnea, S. Europe (1763); Bruyere {E.

arborea), S. Europe (1658).
Eryngium — E. alpinum, Switzerland (1597) ; E.

amethystinum, Styria (1648).
Erythronium — Dog's-tooth Violet (E. Dens-canis),

Europe (1596) ; Yellow Adder's-tongue {E. Ameri-

canum), N. America (1665).
Escallonia — E. macrantha, etc., Chili (1827 to 1847).
Eschscholtzia — E. Califomica (1826).

APPENDIX.

233

Euphorbia — Caper Spurge {E. Lathyris), S. Europe,

naturalized.
Evening Primrose — See Oenothera.
Everlastings— See Helichrysum.

F

Fair Maids of France— See Ranunculus.
Feather grass — See Stipa.
Fennel, Giant — See Ferula.

Ferula — Giant Fennel (F. communis), S. Europe (1597).
Fir — See Abies.
Flax— See Llnum.

Flax, New Zealand — See Phormium.
Flowering Ash—See Fraxinus.
Fraxinella—See Dictamnus
Fraxinus— Flowering Ash {F. Ornus), (1730).
Fritillaria — Crown Imperial {F. imperialis), Persia
(1596).

Funckia — Several species, Japan (1790-1840).

G

Gaillardia — G. bicolor, N. America (1787).

Galega— G. officinalis, Spain (1568).

Genista — Portugal Broom (G. alba) (1596) ; G. sagitlalisy

Germany (1570).
Gentiana — Gentianella (G. acaulis), and other species of

the Swiss Alps ; G. Andrewsii, N. America.
Geranium — Pencilled Geranium (G. striatum), Italy

(1629) ; G. phaium, C. Europe, naturalized.
Geum — G. chiloense (coccineum), Chiloe (1826).
Giant Fennel — See Ferula.
Gilia— Sp. from California (1826-1851).
Gladiolus— communis, S. Europe (1596); G. car-

dinalis, C. G. H. (1789) ; G. cuspidatus, C. G. H.

(1795); G. floribundus, C. G. H. (1788), etc., and

many hybrids.
Godetia — See (Enothera.
Goose-herry, Cape — See Physalis.

Grevillea — G. robusta, Port Jackson, Australia (1829).

234 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Grindelia — G. grandiflora, Texas (1840).
Gunnera — G. scabra, Chili.

Gynerium — Pampas Grass (G. argenteum), S. America.
Gypsophila — G. paniculata, Siberia (1759).

H

Hare's-foot Grass — See Lagurus.

Hedysarum — Sulla or Maltese clover (H. coronarium),

S. Europe (1596).
Helianthemum — H. Algarvense, Portugal (1800) ; H.

ocymoides, Spain (1800).
Helianthus — Sun-flower (H. annuus), Mexico (1596);

H. multiflorus, N. America (1597).
Helichrysum — Everlastings, Immortelles {H. Stcechas),

S. Europe (1629) ; H. bracteatum and H. apiculatam,

Tasmania (1799).
Heliotropium — Heliotrope, Cherry-pie (H, Peruvi-

anum), Peru (1757).
Hellebore — See Helleborus.

Helleborus — Black Hellebore, or Christmas Rose (H
niger), Austria (1596) ; H. olympicus, Asia Minor
(1840) ; H. purpurascens, Hungary (1817).

Hemerocallis — Day-lily (H.jlava), S. France, and H.
fulva, Levant (1596).

Heracleum — H. Auslriacum (H. giganteum), Europe.

Hesperis— Dame's- Violet or Rocket (H. matronalis), S.
Europe (1597).

Hollyhock— See Alth^a.

Honesty — See Lunaria.

Honeysuckle — See Lonicera.

Horse-chesnut — See ^Esculus.

Hyacinthus — Hyacinth (H. orientale)f Levant (1596).
Hydrangea — H. Hortensia, Japan (1790).
Hypericum — Rose of Sharon, or Aaron's Beard (H.
calycinu?n)y S. Europe (1680).

I

Iberis — Candytuft (/. amara, I. umbellataf etc.), S.
Europe (16th century).

APPENDIX.

235

Ice-plant — See Mesembryanthemum.

Impatiens — Balsam (/. Balsamina), Asia (1808) ; /.

fulva, N. America.
Indian Bean— Catalpa.
Ipom&a—See Convolvulus.

Iris — Flags (I. Germanica), Germany (1573) ; Orris (/.

Florentina), S. Europe (1596) ; /. Susiana, Persia

(1596); /. Xiphium, Spain, (1596).
Ixia — Many species, S. Africa (from 1757).

J

Jasminum — Jessamine (/. officinale), N. India and China

(1548) ; J. nudiflorum, China (1844).
Jonquil — See Narcissus.
Judas-tree — See Cercis.

Juglans — Walnut-tree (J. regia), Persia (1562).
Juniperus — Common Juniper (J. communis), J.

chinensis (1804), and J. Japonica, China and Japan ;

Red Cedar (/. Virginiana), N. America (1664) ; J.

Bermudiana, Bermudas (1683) ; Savin (J. Sabina),

S. Europe (1548) ; J. Oxycedrus, S. Europe (1739).

K

Kalmia — K. angustifolia, N. America (1736).
Kerria — K. Japonica, Japan (1700).
Kniphofia {Tritoma) — K. uraria, S. Africa (1707).
Koslreuteria — K. paniculata, China (1763).

L

Laburnum — See Cytisus.
Lady's Bouer — See Clematis.

Lagurus — Hare's-foot Grass (L. ovatus), S. Europe.
Larix — Larch (L. Europrea), Germany (1629).
Lathyrus — Sweet Pea {L. odoratus), Sicily (1700).
Laurel, Common — See Prunus.
Laurel, Common Bay — See Laurus.
Laurus — Common Bay Laurel {L. nobilis), S. Europe
(1561).

236

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS,

Lavandula — Lavender (L. vera), S. Europe (1568) ; L.

Stcechas, S. Europe (1568).
Ledum— L. latifolium, N. America (1763).
Lemon- scented Verbena — See Aloysia.
Leopard' s-bane — See Doronicum.
Leycesteria — L. formosa, Nepal (1824).
Libocedrus — L. decurrens (Thuya gigantea) California ;

L. chilensis, Andes (1849) ; L. tetragona, S. America

(1849).
Lilac — See Syringa.

Lilium — Lilies ; L. bulbiferum, Italy (1596) ; L. candi-

dum, Levant (1596) ; L. Martagon, Germany (1596) ;

L. pyrenaicum, Pyrenees (1596); L. Chalcedonicun,

Levant (1796); L. lancifolium, Nepal (1824); L.

speciosum, Japan (1833) ; L. Thunbergianum, Japan

(1835) ; L. tigrinum, China (1804) ; L. auratum,

Japan, (1860) etc.
Lily — See Lilium.
Lily, A frican — See Agapanthus.
Lily, Guernsey — See Nerine.
Lily, Lent — See Narcissus.
Limnanthes — L. Douglasii, California (1833).
Linaria — L. Dalmatica, Levant (1731) ; L. purpurea,

S. Europe (1648), etc.
Linum — L. grandiflorum, N. Africa (1820) : L. flavum,

Austria (1793) ; L. campanulatum, S. Europe (1795) ;

L. alpinum, Austria (1739).
Liquid ambar — L. styrociflua, N. America (1683).
Liriodendron — Tulip-tree (L. tidipifera), N. America

(1663).

Loasa — L. aurantiaca, Chili.

Lobelia — L. Erinus, C. G. H. (1752) ; L. cardi-
nalis, Mexico (1629) ; L. fulgens, Mexico (1809),
etc.

Lonicera — Honeysuckle (L. Periclymenum (Dative) and
L. Caprifolium, S. Europe (naturalized). Trumpet
H. ( L. sempervirens), N. America.

Love-in-a-mist — See Nigella.

Love-lies-bleeding — See Amaranthus.

Lunari a— Honesty (L. Biennis), S. Europe (1570).

Lupinus — Lupin ; L. polyphyllus, Columbia (1826) ; Tj.
mutabilis, Bogota (1819) ; L. tomentosus, Peru (1825)

APPENDIX.

237

L. litteus, Sicily (1596) ; L. varius, S. Europe
(1596).

Lycium — Box Thorn or Tea-tree (L. Barbamt?n), Barbary
(1696).

M

Magnolia — M. grandiflora, Carolina (1734) ; M.
purpurea, Japan (1790); M. conspicua {Yulan),
China; (1789) Umbrella tree {M. tripetala), N.
America (1752).

Mahonia — M. {Berberis) aquifolium, N. America (1824).

Maidenhair Tree— See Salisburia.

Malcolmia — Virginian Stock (M, maritima), S. Europe
(1713).

Malope — M. grandiflora {trifida), S. Europe (1808).

Maple — See Acer.

Marigold— See Calendula.

Marigold, A frican and French — See Tagetes.

Marvel of Peru — See Mirabilts.

Matthiola — Stocks, Brompton and Queen (M. incana),
W. and S. Europe (indigenous) ; Ten- week S. (M.
annua) S. Europe (1731).

May-apple — See Podophyllum.

Melittis — Bastard Balm, M. Melissophyllum (grandi-

flora), indigenous.
Mesembyanthemum — Ice - plant {M. crystallinum)

Greece (1775).
Michaelmas Daisy — See Aster.
Mignonette — See Reseda.

Mimulus — Musk plant {M. moschatus), Columbia (1826) ;
Monkey-flower {M. variegatus), Chili (1S31), and
M. luteus, Chili and California (naturalized since
1826).

Mirabilis — Marvel of Peru (M. Jalapa)y W. Indies
(1596).

Monkey -flower — See Mimulus.
Monkshood — See Aconitum.
Montbretia — M. aurea, S. Africa.

Morus— Black Mulberry (M. nigra) (1548); White M.

(M. alba), China (1596).
Mulberry — See Morus.

238 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Muscari — Feathered Hyacinth (M. comosum var.
monstrosum), S. Europe (1596) ; M. botryoides, Italy
(1596) ; M. racemosum, Europe (1780).

Mush-plant — See Mimulus.

Myrtus— Myrtle {M. communis), S. Europe (1597).
N

Narcissus — Jonquil (N. Jonquilla), Spain (1596) ; Hoop
Petticoat, N. Bulbocodium. Portugal (1629) ;
Daffodil or Lent lily (N. Pseudo- Narcissus (indi-
genous), N. incomparabiliS) S. Europe (Hybrid)
1629 ; N. odorus, S. Europe (1629) ; Polyanthus N.
(N. Tazetta) from S. Europe to Japan (1759) ; N.
poeticus, S. Europe (sixteenth century ? )

Nectarine — See Amygdalus.

Negundo — N. fraxinifolmm, N. America (1688).

Nemophila — N. insignis and N. maculata, California
(1833-1848).

Nerine — Guernsey lily (N. Sarniensis), S. Africa (J659);

N. pulchella, etc., C. G. H. (1820).
Nicotiana — N. affinis, S. America.
Nigella — Devil-in-a-bush, or Love-in-a-mist (N.

Damascena), S. Europe (1570) ; N. Hispanica,

Spain (1629).

0

Oak— See Quercus.

CEnothera — Evening Primrose (CE. biennis, N. America
(1629); CE. speciosa, N. America (1821); CE. (Godetia)
rubicundaf California (1835); CE. (G.) grandiflora,
Columbia R. (1841).

Opium Poppy — See Pap aver.

Ornithogalum — 0. pyramidale, Spain (1752) ; 0.
arabicum, S. Europe (1629) ; 0. narbonense, S.
Europe (1810) ; Star of Bethlehem (0. umbellatus),
indigenous.

Oxalis — 0. rosea, Brazil (1826); 0. violacea, N.
America (1772); 0. Bowiei, C. G. H. (1823); 0.
Deppei, Mexico (1827).

APPENDIX.

239

P

P^sonia — Peony : P. corallina (officinalis), S. Europe ;

Tree-peony (P. Moutan), China (1789) ; P. albijiora,

Siberia (1548).
Pampas Grass— See Gynerium.

Pancratium — P. maritimum, S. Europe (1597); P.

Illyricum, S. Europe (1615).
Papaver — Poppy ; Opium P. (P. somniferum), S.

Europe (origin, P. setigerum ?) ; P. orientate, W.

and C. Asia (1714) ; P. alpinum, Alps to Lapland

(1759); P. nudicaule, Siberia (1730).
Passiflora — Passion Flower [P. cozrulea), Brazil (1699).
Paulownia — P. imperialis, Japan (J 840).
Pavia (jEscuIus) — Red Buckeye (P. rubra), N. America

(1711).

Pea, Sweet — See Lathyrus.
Peach— See Amygdalus.

Pelargonium — Scarlet P. (P. inquinans) (1714) ; Zonal
P. (P. zonale) (1710) ; Ivy-leaved P. [P. peltatum)
(1701), all from C. G. H. " Show" and ' < Fancy"
Ps. are all hybrids for indoor use.

Pentstemon — P. acuminatum and P. speciosum, N.
America (1827), etc.

Petunia — P. nyctaginijlora (1823) and P. violacea (1831),
both S. American. All now hybrids between these
two species.

Philadelphus — Syringa, or Mock Orange(P. coronarius),
S. Europe (1596) ; P. grandiflorus, Carolina (1811).

Phillyrea — P. angustifolia, P. latifolia, and P. media,
S. Europe (1597).

Phlomis — Jerusalem Sage (P. fruticosa), S. Europe
(1596).

Phlox — P. paniculata, N. America (1732) ; P. Drum-

mondi, Texas (1835).
Phormium— New Zealand Flax (P. tenax), N.Z. (1798).
Physalis— Winter Cherry (P. Alkekengi), S. Europe

(1548) ; Cape Gooseberry (P. edidis, or Peruvianum),

S. America (1772).
Pinus — P. Austriaca, Austria (1835); P. Laricio, Corsica

(1814) ; P. Pinaster, S. Europe (1596) ; P. Pinea, S.

Europe (1548); P. insignis, Oregon (1833) ; P. ex-

240 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

celsa, Bhotan (1823); P. Strobus, E. America (1705);

P. Cembra, Liberia (1746).
Platanus — Plane : P. occidentalism N. America (1636) ;

P. orientalis, Levant (1548).
Podophyllum — May-apple (P. peltatum), N. America

(1664).

Polygala — P. Chamcebuxus, Switzerland and Austria
(1658).

Polygonum — P. cuspidatum (Sieboldii), Japan ; P.

orientate, N. India, China (1707).
Populus — Lombardy Poplar (P. pyramidalis, fas-

tigiata, or clilatata), Italy (1758).
Portulaca — P. grandiflora, S. America (1827).
Pote ntill A — P. atrosanguinea, Nepal (1822), and

numerous species, &c.
Primula — Chinese Primrose (P. Sinensis), China (1820);

P. Auricida, Switzerland (1596) ; P. Japonica,

Japan, &c.

Prunus — Common or Cherry Laurel (P. Laurocerasus),
Levant (1629) ; Portugal Laurel (P. Lusitanica)
(1648).

Pyrus— Siberian Crab (P. prunifolia) (1758) ; American
Crab (P. coronaria), Virginia (1724) ; P. Japonica
(1815).

Q

Quercus — Turkey Oak (Q. Cerris), S. Europe (1735) ;
Scarlet Oak (Q. coccinea), N. America (1691) ;
Evergreen Oak (Q. Ilex), S. Europe (1581); Cork
Oak (Q. Suber), S. Europe (1581).

R

Ranunculus — E. asiaticus, Levant (1596) ; White
Bachelor's Buttons, or, Fair Maids of France {P.
aconitifolins), Alps (1596).

Reseda — Mignonette (E. odorata), Asia Minor (?) (1752) ;
E. alba, S. Europe (1596).

Retinospora — E. pisifera, etc., Japan (1864).

Rhamnus — E. Alaternus, S. Europe (1629).

Rhodanthe — E. Manglesii, Swan R. (1832).

APPENDIX.

241

Rhododendron— Rose of the Alps {R. ferrugineum and

R. hirsutum) (1656-1752); R. Gaucasicum (1803);

R. Ponticum, Asia Mirur (1763); R. Catawbiense,

N. America (1809); R. Dahuricum, Siberia (1780),

etc. and numerous hybrids.
Rhus — Wig-tree or Venetian Sumach {R. Cotinus), S.

Europe (1656) ; Stag's horn Sumach (R. typhina),

N. America (1629).
Ribes — R. sanguineum, N. America (1826) ; R. aureum,

Missouri (1812) ; R. speciosum, California (1829).
Ricinus — Castor-oil Plant {R. communis), Asia (?) (1548).
Robinia— False Acacia (R. Pseud- Acacia), N. America

(1640).

Rosa — Provence or Cabbage Rose (R. Centifolia) Cau-
casus (1596) ; vars. Musk and Crested, France.
R. Gallica, S. Europe (1596) ; R. Damascena, Syria
(1573); Eglantine {R. lutea), Germany (1596); R.
Indica, China (1589) ; R. Banksiai, China (1807).

Rock-rose — See Helianthemum.

Rocket — See Hesperis.

Rocket Larkspur — See Delphinium.

Rose of Sharon — See Hypericum.

Rosmarinus — Rosemary (R. officinalis), S. Europe
(1548).

Rudbeckia — R. purpurea, etc., R. Drummondii, N.

America (1 (-40-1832).
Ruscus — R. androgynus, Canaries (1731) ; 7?. hypo-

glossum, Italy (1596).

S

Salisburia — Maiden-hair tree (S. adiantifolia), China
and Japan (1754).

Salvia — S. patens, Mexico (1838); S. verticillata, Ger-
many (1628); S. splendens, Mexico (1822), etc.,
Sage {S. officinalis), S. Europe (1597).

Saponaria— Soapwort (S. officinalis), naturalized.

Savin — See Juniperus.

Saxifraga — S. crassifolia, Siberia (1765).

Soabiosa— S. atropurf>urea, E. Indies (1629).

Scilla — S. Sibirica, Siberia (1796) ; S. amana, Levant
(1596); £. campanulata, S. Europe, Spain (1683);

Q

242

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

S. Peruviana, S.W. Europe (1607) ; S. Italica,
Switzerland (1605).
Sedum — S. Sieboldii, Japan (1836) ; S. Fabaria, Japan
(1836).

Sequoia — Mammoth Tree (S. gigantea), California

(1853) ; Red- wood (S. Taxodium or semper vir ens,

California (1796).
Silene — S. compacta, Caucasus (1823) ; S. pendula,

Sicily (1731) ; S.fimbriata, Caucasus (1803).
Sisyrinchium— S. Bermudianum , Bermuda (1730) ; S.

grandiflorum, N. America (1826).
Skimmia — S. Japonica, Japan (1845).
Snapdragon — See Antirrhinum.
Snowberry — See Symphoricarpus.
Soapwort — See Saponaria.
Solanum — S. giganteum, C. G. H. (1792), etc.
Sparaxis — S. tricolor, etc., C. G. H., 1789.
Spartium — Spanish Broom (S. junceum), S. Europe

(1548).

Specularia — Venus' Looking-Glass (S. Specidum),

Europe (1596).
Spider -wort — See Tradescantia.

Spiraea— Goats'-Beard {S. Aruncus), Siberia (1633);
Qaeeu of the Prairies (S. lobata), N. America
(1765) ; S. salicifolia, Arctic Europe (naturalized).

Spruce— See Abies.

Staphylea — Bladder-nut (S. pinnata), C. Europe.
Statice — S. elata, Siberia (1820).
Sternbergia — S. lutea, S. Europe (1596).
Stipa — Feather grass (S. pennata).
Sweet Bay—See Laurus.
Sweet William— See Dianthus.

Symphoricarpus — Snowberry (S. vulgaris), N. America
(1730).

Syringa — Lilac (S. vidgaris), Persia (1597).

T

Tagetes— French Marigold {T. patula) (1573); and
African Marigold (T. erecta) (1596); both from
Mexico.

Tamarix — Tamarix (T. Gallica), naturalized.

APPENDIX.

243

Taxodium — Deciduous or Bald Cypress (T. distichum).,

N. America (1640).
Tea-tree — See Lycium.

Tecoma — Trumpet Flower (T. radicans), N. America
(1640).

Thorn-apple — See Datura.

Thuja — T. Lobbii (gigantea), N.W. America; T.

occidentalism N.W. America (1595).
Tigridia — T. Pavonia, Mexico (1796).
Tradescantia — Spiderwort {T. virginica) N. America

(1629).

Trillium — T. grandiflorum (1799) and T. pendulum

(1805) ; both N. American.
Tritoma — See Kniphofia.

Trollics — T. asiaticus, Siberia (1759) ; T. caucasicus,

Caucasus (1817).
Trop,eolum — Indian Cress {T. majus), Peru (1686).
Tulipa — Ttdips, T. Gesneriana, W. Siberia (1577);

T. suaveolens, S. Europe (1603) ; T. Turcica,

Levant ; T. Oculus-solis, Italy (1816) ; T. precox,

Italy (1825).

U

Uvularia — U. grandiflora, N. America (1802).
V

Venetian Sumach — See Rhus.

Venus1 Looking Glass — See Specularla.

Veratrum— White Hellebore ( V. album), Black H.

{V. nigrun), both C. Europe (1548-1596).
Verbena — V. Aubletia and V. Chammdrifolia, Buenos

Ayres (1827).

Veronica — V. longifolia, C. Europe (1731) ; V. speciosa,
V. salicifolia, V. macrocarpa, etc., New Zealand.

Viburnum — Laurustinus (V. Tinus), S. Europe (1596).

Viola — V. Rothomagensis, France ; V. grandiflora, Switz-
erland (1781) ; V. calcarata, Switzerland (1790) ; V.
cornuta, Pyrenees.

Violet, Dog's-tooth — See Erythronium

Violet, Dame's — See Hesperis.

Virginia Creeper — See Ampelopsis.

Q*

244

THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Virginia stock — See Malcolmia.
Virgin' s-bower — See Clematis.

Vitex— Chaste- tree (V. Agnus-Castus), Sicily (1570).
W

Wallflower — See Cheiranthus.
Walnut — J uglans.

WEIGELA — DlERVILL A .

Wig-tree — See Rhus.
Winter Aconite — See Eranthis.
Winter Cherry — See Physalis.
Wistaria — W. Sinensis, China (1818).
Wolf's-bane — See Aconitum.

Y

Yucca — Y. gloHosa, America (1596); Adam's Needle-
and-Thread (Y. filamentosa), Virginia (1675), etc.

Z

Zinnia — Z. elegans, Mexico (1796).

INDEX.

A

Acacia, 14, 77 ff.
Achene, 18.
Achlamydece, 36.
Adaptations for pollination,
163/. m

Adaptations for self -fertilisa-
tion, 169 J.

Adhesion, explained, 31,

Aldrovandra, 131, 132.

Allium, species cultivated,
218.

Aloe, 140.

Alternate leaves, origin of,
146.

Ampelopsis Veitchii, 119.
Analogy, 95
Angiosperms, 16.
Antheriferous ovaries, 187.
Apple, structure of, 35.
Aquatic wild flowers, 133 ff.
Artificial classification, 40.
Asparagus, 214.
Assimilation, 11.

B

Bean, 222.
Beetroot, 213.
Bladderwort, 128.
Bracts, 11, 156.
British sub-floras, distribution
of, 201

British sub-floras, origin of,
196 ff.

British wild flowers, origin of,
193.

Broccoli, sprouting, 217.
Brussels sprouts, 216.
Brookweed, flower of, 145.
Bryony, tendrils of, 80,
Buds, developing, 104 ff.
Bull's-horn thorn, 77 ff.
Butterwort, 129.

G

Cabbage, and varieties of,

215/.
Calycijioi°<e, 32.
Cambium, 138.
Carnation, wheat-eared, 190.
Carrot, 212.

Cassia obovata, self -fertilising.
172.

Cassia, sleep of leaves, 109.
Cauliflower, 216.
Celery, 221.
Chard, 213.
Chicory, 220.
Circumnutation, 99.
Classification, 15, 40.
Cleistogamous, 38.
Climate, 193 {note).
Climbing plants, 110 ff.
Clover, leaves sleeping, 107 ff.
Cohesion, explained, 31.
Colchicun, propagation of, 60,
Colours of flowers, 176 ff.
Combretum, climbing of, 115.
Conduplicate leaves, 105.

245

246 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Convolvulus, climbing, 114.
Cornel, petaloid bracts of,
189.

Corollifiorce or Gamopetalce. 30,
34.

Cotyledons, 16, 42.
Crested flowers, 192.
Crossing and self -fertilisation,

165, 180.
Crown of Thorns, 80.
Cryptogams, 15.
Cucumber, 223.
Cut-leaved forms, 90 ff.

D

Darwinia, petaloid bracts

of, 190.
Dahlia green, 190.
Declinate stamens, 151.
Degeneration or degradation,

37.

Degeneration and self-fer-
tilisation, 181, 182.

Dichlamydece, 30.

Dicotyledons, characters of,
16, 40.

Dictamnus, dislocated petals

of, 152.
Dislocation of petals, 152.
Distribution of wild flowers,

causes and effects of, 202.
Drosera or Sundew, 122 ff.
Duckweed, propagation of,

84.

Duvernoia and bees, 155.
E

Edible wild flowers, 209 /.
Egyptian wheat, 45.
Embryo, 42.
Endive, 220.
Endogenous, 137.
Endosperm, 46.
Ejrigynce, 34.

Evolution of wild flowers

19/.
Exogenous, 137.

F

Family, 17.
Fasciation, 191.
Fastigiate, 89.

Ferns, vegetative propagation

of, 86.
Floral receptacle, 31 ff.
Flowers, fertilisation of, 167 ff.
Flowers, complete, 35 ff.
Flowers, names of parts of,

11.

Foliage of Monocotyledons,
139/.

Food materials in reserve, 46.
Freaks of wild flowers, 183 ff.
Frog-bit, propagation of, 85.

G

Gamopetalce or Corollifloraz,
30, 34.

Garden vegetables, history of,
209 ff.

Garden, wild flowers in the,
225/.

Genus and species, 17 ff.
Geranium, floral diagram of,
144.

Germination, process of, 47 ff.
Genista, movements in flower

of, 102.
Glumifer^, 39.
Gymnosperms, 16.

H

Haricot bean, 221.
Hibbertia, peculiar climbing
of, 113.

Hiptage, peculiar climbing of,
115.

INDEX.

247

Homology, 95.

Homomorphic, 171 •

Honey - glands, origin of,

173 /.
Honey-guides, 179.
Honey, nature of, 173.
Hop, method of climbing,

111.

Horse-chesnut, buds of, 106.
Hose-in-hose flowers, 188.
Hypogynce, 34.

I

Incomplete?, 36.
Inductive reasoning, 24.
Insects and wild flowers, 121.
Involucre, 11.

Ipomcea argyrceoides, climb-
ing, 115.

Irregular flowers, 35, 147.

Irregular flowers reverting to
regularity, 151.

J

Jerusalem Artichoke, 214.
Juniper, common, 17.

K '

Kaffir-bush, 77.
Kidney-bean, 221.
Kleinia, propagation by inter-
nodes, 88.
Knotgrass, forms of, 21.
Kohl-rabi, 216.

L

Lamina, 64.

Leaves and their modifica-
tions, 63/.

Leaves, simple and compound,
64#.

Leaves, venation of, 64.
Leek, 219.

Lesser Celandine, origin of,

25^.
Lettuce, 220.

Lime, buds of, unfolding,
105.

Loasa, climbing, 112.
Lucerne, movements in floral

organs of, 103.
Lupin, sleep of leaves of,

109.

M

Mangrove, 134.
Marrow, vegetable, 224.
Mechanical forces in plants,

98/, 167 ff.
Mimetic flowers, 155 ff.
Monochlamydecv, 36.
Monocotyledons, characters

of, 16, 41.
Monocotyledons described,

39.

Monsters, 190.

Movements of organs, 98/

Mummy wheat, 42 /.

O

Onions, sorts cultivated, 218.
Opposite leaves, 146.
Orchids, inversion of flower

of, 149.
Order, 17.

Organs of flowers, &c. , 10 /.
Organs, functions of, 10 /.
Origin of floral structures,

143/
Ovary, inferior, 33 /.
Ovary, superior, 33 /.

248 THE STORY OF WILD FLOWERS.

Ovules, petaloid, 187.

Oxalis cemua, spreading of, 84.

P

Parsley, 221.
Parsnip, 212.
Pea 223.

Peloria, 151, 162, 190.
Perianth, 39.
Pericycle, 137 /.
Petaloid bracts, 189/.
Petaloid ovules, 187.
Petaloide^:, 39.
Petiole, 64.
Phanerogams, 15.
Phyllode, 71.
Pimpernel, flower of, 144.
Pistil replaced, 186.
Plumule, 42.

Plumule, growth of, 52 ff.
Polypetalce, 30.
Pondweed, 71, 86.
Potamogeton, 71, 86.
Potato, 214.

Propagation, by vegetative

organs, 81/.
Protandrous, 170.
Protogynous, 170.
Protoplasm, properties of, 22.
Pulvinus, 65.

R

Radicle, 42.

Radicle, growth of, 48 /.
Radish, 210.

Ranunculus, species of, 17.
Receptacular tube, 31 ff.
Regular flower, 29, 150.
Regularity in terminal flowers,
159.

Representative plants, 14.
Respiration of germinating
seeds, 47.

Rhubarb, 220.
Roots, 54 /.
Roots, adventitious, 61.
Roots, contractile, 58/.
Roots, mechanical force of,
60.

Roots, propagation by, 62.

S

Salvia, action of stamens,
153/.

Salvia, structure of calyx of,
148.

Saxifraga granidata, bulbs of,
84.

Scarlet runner, flower of, 169.
Scotch fir, 17.
Sea-kale, 217.

Sedum, propagated by leaf-
buds, 83.

Seed, structure of, 42.

Self - fertilisation, Darwin's
mistake on, 164/.

Self - fertilisation compared
with intercrossing, 164 ff.

Self-fertilisation, methods of,
169/

Self-fertilising plants, char-
acter of, 181.

Solanum Jasminoides, climb-
ing, 116/

Species, meaning of, 17 ff.

Spinach, 218.

Sports, vegetative, 89 /.

Stameniferous corolla, 186.

Stamens, declinate, 151.

Stipular zone, 74.

Stipules, origin of, 64, 72.

Sub-classes, 30.

Subterranean clover, 100 ff.

Sundew, 122.

Survivals, 23.

Synanthic flowers, 191.

INDEX.

249

T

Teucrium) structure of flower,
149.

Thalamijlorce, 32.
Tissues, mechanical, 66.
Tomato, 224.
Turnip, 210.

U

Uncaria, climbing flower-
stalk of, 67.
Uses of floral organs, 10.

V

Varieties, 19, 178.
Vegetative multiplication,

81/, 88.
Venation of leaves, 64.

Venus fly-trap, 125.
Veronica citpressoides, 92 ff.
Victoria regia, 142.
Vine, tendrils of, 119.
Virginian creeper, tendrils of
119.

W.

Walnut, leaf of, 106.
Water-crowfoot, 135.
Water-lily, 142.
Water-soldier, 140.
Weeping trees, 90.
Whorls, floral, 11 ff.
Whorls, floral, origin of, 143 ff.
Wood-sorrel, 107 ff.

Y.

Yew, 17, 89.

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